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AN

ENCYCLOPEDIA

GARDENING;

COHPRISING THE

THEORY AND PRACTICE

OF

HORTICULTURE, FLORICULTURE,
ARBORICULTURE,

AND

LANDSCAPE-GARDENING,

INCLUDING

an tht latent 3Improtjetmnt0 ;

A GENERAL HISTORY OF GARDENING IN ALL COUNTRIES;

AND A STATISTICAL VIEW OF ITS PRESENT STATE,

WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS FUTURE PROGRESS, IN THE
BRITISH ISLES.

By J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S. H.S. &c.

ILLUSTRATED WITH

MANY HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD BY BRANSTON.

JFif^ OBXiition*

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR

LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN,

PATERNOSTER-BOW.

LoKDON •.

Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,
New-Street- Square.

PREFACE.

The term Encyclopaedia, applied to a single art, is meant to convey
the idea of as complete a treatise on that art as can be composed at
the time of its publication. No art has been more extended in its
objects, or improved in its practices within the last fifty years than
Gardening. During that period numerous books have been written
in various departments of the subject ; but in no work has the whole
Art of Gardening been included. The only books which have any
pretensions to completeness are the Gardener's Dictionaries : but
though some of these are copious on the culture of plants, and
others, in botanical description ; yet in none is the subject of design,
taste, and the arrangement of gardens, adequately treated of; and
scarcely any thing is contained in these books, either on the History
or Statistics of Gardening. In the voluminous edition of Miller's Dic-
tionary, by Professor Martyn, though the title announces " the addi-
tion of all the modern improvements of landscape-gardening," there is
not an article bearing that title throughout the work ; nor a single
quotation or abridgement from the writings of Wheatley, G. Mason,
Price, Repton, or any modern author, on the art of laying out
grounds.

The Encyclopaedia of Gardening now submitted to the public
treats of every branch of the Art, and includes every modern im-
provement to the present year.

Though this work, like every other of the kind, can only be consi-
dered as a compilation from books, yet, on various subjects, especially
in what relates to Gardening History and Statistics, it was found ad-
visable to correspond with a number of persons both at home and
abroad. The favours of these Correspondents are here thankfully
acknowledged ; and their farther assistance, as well as that of every
Reader willing to correct an error or supply a deficiency, is earnestly
entreated, in order to render any future edition of the work as per-
fect as possible.

Besides modern books, it became necessary to consult some com-
paratively ancient and scarce works only to be met with in par-
ticular collections. Our respectful acknowledgments are, on this

A 2

w PREFACE.

account, due to the Council and Secretary of the Linnaean Society ;
to the Council and Secretary of the Horticultural Society ; to Robert
Brown, Esq. the possessor of the Banksian library ; and to William
Forsyth, Esq., whose collection of British works on Gardening is more
than usually complete.

It remains only to mention, as a key to this work, that to save
room, the prenoms and other additions to names of persons are not
inserted ; only contracted titles of the books referred to are given ;
and the names of gardens or country residences are mentioned, with-
out, in many cases, designating their local situation. By turning to
the General Index, the names of persons will be found, with the
addition of their prenoms and other titles, where known, at length ;
and there the abridged titles of books are also given complete, and
the names of residences, accompanied by that of the county or
country in which they are situated. The botanical nomenclature
which has been followed is that of Sweet's Hortus Suburbanus Lon-
dinensis, with only one or two exceptions ; the reasons for which are
given where they occur. The systematic names of insects, or other
animals, or of minerals, are generally those of Linnaeus : some ex-
ceptions are also noted. In various parts of the work etymological
and other explanations will be found, which, to one class of readers,
may be unnecessary. But it is to be considered that we address
\ ourselves to Practical Gardeners as well as to the Patrons of Gar-
dening ; and our opinion is, that to enlighten, and generally to raise
the intellectual character of the former, will ultimately be found the/
most efficient mode of improving them in their profession, and thus
rendering them more truly valuable to the latter.

By referring to the Kalendarial Index, those parts of this work
which treat of Garden Culture and Management may be consulted
monthly, as the operations require to be performed ; and by recourse
to the General Index, the whole may be consulted in detached por-
tions, as in a Dictionary of Gardening.

Although this second edition forms a less bulky volume than the
first, yet it contains considerably more printed matter ; besides above
a hundred new engravings. These important additions we have been
enabled to make by printing all those parts of the work which may be
considered as of secondary importance, in a smaller type than that of
the general text.

J C. L.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

GARDENING CONSIDERED IN RESPECT TO ITS ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT
STATE AMONG DIFFERENT NATIONS, GOVERNMENTS, AND CLIMATES.

- ib.

BOOK I.

HISTORY OF GARDENING AMONG ANCIENT
AND MODERN NATIONS.

Chap. I. Page

Of the Origin and Progress of Gardening in the
earliest ages of Antiquity, or from the 10th
century before the vulgar sera to the found-
ation of the Roman Empire - - 3

I. Of the fabulous Gardens of Antiquity - ib.

II. Jewish Gardens. B.C. 1500. - - 4

III. Phaeacian Gardens. B.C. 900. - - ib.

IV. Babylonian or Assyrian Gardens. B.C.

2000. - - - - 5

V. Persian Gardens. B. C. 500.

VI. Grecian Gardens. B. C. 300.

VII. Gardening in the ages of Antiquity, as

to Fruits, Culinary Productions, and
Flowers - - - 7

Chap. II.

Chronological History of Gardening, from the
time of the Roman Kings, in the sixth cen.
tury B. C. to the Decline and Fall of the
Empire in the fifth century of our sera - 9

I. Roman Gardening as an Art of Design and

Taste - . - - ib.

II. Roman Gardening considered as to the Cul-

ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 13

III. Roman Gardening in respect to its Pro-

ducts for the Kitchen and the Dessert ib.

IV. Roman Gardening considered in respect

to the Propagation and Planting of Tim-
ber-trees and Hedges - - - 14

V. Roman Gardening as a Science, and as to

the Authors it produced - - 15

Chap. III.
Chronological History of Gardening, in conti-
nental Europe from the Time of the Romans
to the present Day, or from A. D. 500 to A. D.
1823. - - - - 16

I. Of the Revival, Progress, and present State

of Gardening in Italy - • ib.

1. Italian Gardening, in respect to Design

and Taste - - - ib.

2. Italian Gardening in respect to the Cul-

ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 21

3. Italian Gardening in respect to its Products

for the Kitchen and the Dessert - 23

4. Italian Gardening, in respect to the plant-

ing of Timber-trees and Hedges - 24

5. Italian Gardening, as empirically practised 25

6. Italian Gardening, as a Science, and as to

the Authors it has produced - - ib.

II. Of the Revival, Progress, and present State

of Gardening in Holland and Flanders - 26

1. Dutch Gardening, as an Art of Design and

Taste - - - ib.

2. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the Cul-

ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 29

3. Dutch Gardening in respect to the Cul-

ture of Fruits and Culinary Vegetables - 31

Page

4. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the plant-

ing of Timber-trees and Hedges - 31

5. Dutch Gardening, as empirically practised 32

6. Dutch Gardening, as a Science, and in re-

spect to the Authors it has produced - 33

III. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of

Gardening in France . - ib.

1. French Gardening, as an Art of Design

and Taste - - - ib.

2. French Gardening, in respect to the Cul-

ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 39

3. French Gardening, in respect to its horti-

cultural Productions - - 40

4. French Gardening, in respect to the planU

ing of Timber-trees and Hedges - 41

5. French Gardening, as empirically prac-

tised - . - 42

6. French Gardening, as a Science, and as to

the Authors it has produced - - 43

IV. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of

Gardening in Germany - - ib.

1. German Gardening, as an Art of Design

and Taste - - . ib.

2. German Gardening, in respect to the Cul-

ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 47

3. German Gardening, in respect to horticul-

tural Productions - . 49

4. German Gardening, as to planting Umber-

trees and Hedges - . - 50

5. German Gardening, as empirically prac-

tised - - - - id.

6. German Gardening, as a Science, and as to

the Authors it has produced - - 51

V. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of

Gardening in Switzerland - - 52

VI. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of

Gardening in Sweden and Norway - 53

VII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of

Gardening in Russia - - 55

1. Russian Gardening, as an Art of Design

and Taste - . -

2. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Cul-

ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 59

3. Russian Gardening, in respect to its horti-

cultural Productions - - ib.

4. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Cul-

ture of Timber-trees and Hedges - 60

5. Russian Gardening, as empirically prac-

tised - - . ib.

6. Rassian Gardening, as a Science, and as

to the Authors it has produced - 61

VIII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State

of Gardening in Poland - - ib.

IX. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of

Gardening in Spain and Portugal - fiS

1. Spanish Gardening, as an Art of Design

and Taste - - - 64

2. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in re-

spect to the Culture of Flowers and
Plants of Ornament - - 65

3. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in re-

spect to its horticultural Productions and
Planting . . .Go

X. Of the Rise, Progress, and present state of

Gardening in European IXirkey . - ib.
A 3

▼1

CONTENTS.

Chap. IV, Page

Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of
Gardening in the British Isles ^ - 68

I. British Gardening, as an Art of Design and

Taste - - - - 69

1. Gardening in Ikigland, as ah Art of De-

sign and Taste - - - ib.

2. Gardening in Scotland, as an Art of Design

and Taste - . - - 80

3. Gardening in Ireland, as an Art of Design

and Taste - - - 82

II. British Gardening, in respect to the Cul-

ture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament 83

1. Gardening in England, in respect to the

Culture of Flowers and the Establishment
of Botanic Gardens - - 84

2- Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the
Culture of Flowers and the Establish-
ment of Botanic Gardens - - 86

3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to Flori-
culture and Botany - - - - 87

III. British Gardening, in respect to its horti-

cultural Pt-oductions - - - - 88
I 1, Gardening in England, in respect to its

horticultural Productions - - ib.

2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to its

horticultural Productions - - 91

3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to its hor-

ticultural Productions - - 92

IV. British Gardening, in respect to the plant-

ing of Timber-trees and Hedges - ■ ib.

1, Gardening in England, in respect to the

planting of Timber-trees and Hedges - ib.

2, Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the

planting of Timber-trees and Hedges - 93

3, Gardening in Ireland, in respect to the

planting of Timber-trees and Hedges - 94

V. British Gardening, as empirically practised ib.

VI. British Gardening, as a Science, and as to

the Authors it has produced - - 96

Chaf. V. Page

Of the present State of Gardening in Ultra-
European Countries - - - 97

I. Syrian, Persian, Indian, and African Gar-

dens of modem limes - - 98

II. Chinese Gardening - - 101

III. Gardening in Anglo-North America, or

the United States and British Provinces 10#

IV. Gardening in Spanish North America, or

Mexico ^ . - 106

V. Gardening in South America - - 107

VI. Gardening in the British Colonies, and in

other Foreign Settlements of European
Nations - - - ib.

BOOK II.

GARDENING CONSIDERED AS TO ITS PRO-
GRESS AND PRESENT STATE UNDER DIF-
FERENT POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAI.
CIRCUMSTANCES.

Chap. I. Page

Gardening as affected by different Forms of
Government, Religions, and States of Society 110

I. Gardening as affected by different Forms of

Government and Religions - - 111

II. Gardening as affected by different States of

Society - - - ib.

Chap. II.
Gardening as affected by different Climates,
Habits of Life, and Manners - - 112

I. Influence of Climate, in respect to Fruits,

culinary Plants, Flowers, Timber-trees,
and horticultural Skill - - 113

II. Influence of Climate and Manners on Gar-

dening, as an Art of Design and Taste - 114

III. Of the Climate and Circumstances of Bri-

tain, in respect to Gardening - . 118

PART II.

GARDENING CONSIDERED AS A SCIENCE.

BOOK I.

THE STUDY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

Chap. I. Page

Origin, Progress, and present State of the Study
of Plants - - - 120

Chap. II.
Glossology, or the Names of the Parts of Plants 122

Chap. III.
Phytography, or the Nomenclature and De-
scription of Plants - - -123

I. Names of Classes and Orders - - ib.

II. Names of Genera - - - ib.

III. Names of Species - - - 124

IV. Names of Varieties and Subvarieties - 125

V. Descriptions of Plants - - - 126

VI. Of forming and preserving Herbariums - 127

VII. Of Methods of Study - - -126

Cbap. IV.

Taxonomy, or the Classifications of Plants - ib-

I. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according

to the Linnaean System - - 130

II. The Hortus Britannicus arranged according

to the Jussieuean System - - 135

Chap. V.
Vegetable Organology, or the external Struc-
ture of Plants . - 138

I. Perfect Plants . . . ib.
. 1. Conservative Organs - . ib.
■^ 2. Conservative Appendages - - ib,

3. Reproductive Organs . . 139

4. Reproductive Appendages . . ib.

I I. Imperfect Plants ... 140

1. Filices, EquisetacejB, and Lycopodineae - ib

2. Musci . . . /5

3. Hepaticae . - - . 141

4. Algae and Lichencs - . ib
B. Fungi - . . 142

Chap. VI. Page

Vegetable Anatomy, or the internal Structure
of Plants - . . 14£

I. Decomposite Organs ■. . ib.

II. Composite Organs - . . 144

III. Elementary or Vascular Organs - 146

Chap. VII.
Vegetable Chemistry, or primary Principles of
Plants - - . - 147

I. Compound Products - . n,

II. Simple Products . . .157

Chap. VIII.
Functions of Vegetables . - l ib.

I. Germination of the Seed _ . 153

II. Food of the vegetating Plant - .160

III. Process of Vegetable Nutrition . .165

IV. Process of Vegetable Developement - 172

V. Anomalies of Vegetable Developement .177

VI. Of the Sexuality of Vegetables . .181

VII. Impregnation of the Seed - .182
yj^^riJ"^^"^^^ consequent upon Impregnation 183

IX. The propagation of the Species . -184

X. Causes limiting the Propagation of the Spe.

cies . . . .185

XI. Evidence and Character of Vegetable Vi-

tality - . .187

Chap. IX.
Vegetable Pathology, or the Diseases and Casu-
alties of Vegetable Life . . 191

I. Wounds and Accidents . . ^

II. Diseases ... ig2

III. Natural Decay . . '- 195

Chap. X.
Vegetable Geography and History, or the Dis-
tribution of Vegetables relatively to the Earth
and to Man ... jgf^

I. Geographical Distribution of Vegetables . 197

I I. Physical Distribution of Vegetables - ib

III. Civil Causes affecting the Distribution of

Plants - - . 202

CONTENTS.

217

- ib.

Page

IV. Characteristic or Picturesque Distribution

of Vegetables - - - 203

V. Systematic Distribution of Vegetables . 205

VI. Economical Distribution of Vegetables - 206

VII. Arithmetical Distribution of Vegetables - ib.
VIIL Distribution of the British Flora, indige.

nous and exotic - - ib.

Chap. XI.
Origin of Culture, as derived from the Study of
Vegetables - - . - 214

BOOK II.

OF THE NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE
GROWTH AND CULTURE.

Chip. I.

Of Earths and Soils

I. Of the Geological Structure of the Globe and

the Formation of Earths and Soils • -

II. Classification and Nomenclature of Soils -

III. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils
. I. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by

means of the Plants which grow on

them ....

. 2. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by

chemical Analysis . - .

; 3. Of discovering the Qualities of a Soil

mechanically and empirically

IV. Of the Uses of the Soil to Vegetables

V. Of the Improvement of Soils
" 1. Pulverisation
( 2. Of the Improvement of Soils by Compres-
sion - - - • - 228

3. Of the Improvement of Soils by Aeration

or Fallowing . . - ib.

4. Alteration of the constituent Parts of Soils 229
, 5. Changing the Condition of Lands, in re-
spect to Water - . .231

6. Changing the Condition of Lands, in re-

spect to Atmospherical Influence - 232

7. RoUtion of Crops - - 233

Chap. II.

Of Manures - - - 234

I. Of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin 235
, 1. The Theory of the Operation of Manures •

of Animal and Vegetable Origin - ib.

', 2. Of the different Species of Manures of

Animal and Vegetable Origin - 236

^' 3. Of the fermenting, preserving, and apply- •

ing of Manures of Animal and Vegetable

Origin - - - 241

II. Of Manures of Mineral Origin - -243

1. Theory of the Operation bf Mineral Ma-

nures • - - - ib.

2. Of the different Species of Mineral Ma-

nures . - - . - - 244

Chap. Ill,

Of the Agency of Heat, Light, Electricity,

and Water, in Vegetable Culture - - 249

I. Of Heat and Light - - - ib.

I L Of Electricity - - - - 253

IIL Of Water - - - - ib.

Chap. IV.
Of the Agency of the Atmosphere in Vegeta-
tion - - - - 254
I. Of the Elements of the Atmosphere - - **.
li OfiheMeansofprognosticatingthe Weather 264

III. Of the Climate of Britain - -266

BOOK III.

MECHANICAL AGENTS EMPLOYED IN GAR-
DENING.

Chap. I.

Implements of Gardening

I. Tools ...

II. Instruments

1- Instruments of Operation

2. Instruments of Direction

3. Instruments of Designation

III. Utensils

, 1 . Utensils of Preparation and Deportation

- 272
. ib.

- 278
. 280

- 282
. ib.

2. Utensils of Culture - - . 283

3. Utensils of Protection - .286

4. Utensils for entrapping Vermin . 287

IV, Machines - - . ib.

1. Machines of Labor • - -^

2. Machines for Vermin, and Defence against

the enemies of Gardens - - 292

3. Meteorological Machines - - 293

V. Various Articles used in Gardening Oper-

ations - • - - - 2S5

1. Articles of Adaptation - - ib.

2. Articles of Manufacture - - 2Sri

3. Articles of Preparation - - ib.

Chap. IL

Structtures used in Gardening - .298

I. Temporary or Moveable Structures - ib.

1. Structures Portable, or entirely Moveable ib.

2. Structures partly Moveable - ' - 300

II. Fixed Structures - - - 303

III. Permanent Horticultural Structures - 310

1. Of the Principles of Design in Hot-houses 311

2. Forms of Hot-house Roofs - - 314

3. Details of the Construction of Roofs, or

the glazed part of Hot-houses - - 318

4. Glazing of Hot-house Roofs - - 319

5. Walls and Sheds of HoUhouses - - 322

6. Furnaces and Flues : - - - 323

7. Steam Boilers and Tubes " - - ^

8. Trellises . - - , • - - ^

9. Paths, Pits, Stages, Shelves, Doors, &c. - 329

10. Details for Water, Wind, and Renewal of

Air - - - 33.1

IV. Mushroom-houses - - - 332

V. Cold Plant-habitations - - 334

Chap. III.
Edifices used in Gardening - - ib.

I. Economical Buildings - - - ib.

II. Anomalous Buildings - - ^9

1. Of the Ice-house an Jits Mahagement - ib.

2. Of the Apiary and the Management of

Bees - - - 341

3. Of the Aviary, and of Menageries, Pisci-

naries, &c. - - - 346

III: Decorative Buildings - - 318

1. Useful Decorative Buildings - - ib.

2. Convenient Decorations - - 355

3. Characteristic Decorations - - 360

Chap. IV.
Of the Improvement of the Mechanical Agents
of Gardening - - - - 361

BOOK ly.

OF THE OPERATIONS OF GARDENING.

Chap. L

Operations of Gardening, in which Strength is

chiefly-required in the Operator - - 363

I. Mechanical Operations common to all Arts

of Manual Labor - - - ib.

II. Garden-labors on the Soil - - 364

III. Garden-labors with Plants - - 367

Chap. II.

Operations of Gardening in which Skill is more

required than Strength ... 369

I. Of transferring Designs from Ground to

Paper or Memory - - - ib.

IL Of transferring Designs from Paper or

Memorv to Ground . - - 373

1. Transferrmg Figures and Designs to plane

Surfaces - - - - - ib.

2. Tranferring Figures and Designs to irregu-

lar Surfaces - - - - 375

3. -Of the Arrangement of Quantities - 377
III. Of carrying Designs into Execution - 373

Chap. IIL

Scientific Processes and Operations - - S84

1. Preparation of fermenting Sulwtances for

Hot-beds, Manures, and Composts - ib.

II. Operations of Propagation - - 387

1. Propagation by natural Methods - - ib.

2. Propagation by Layering - - 388

3. Propagation by Inarching - - 390

4. Propagation by Grafting - - S91

5. Propagation by Budding - ; • 537

6. Propagation by Cuttings - - 399

CONTENTS.

III. Operations of Rearing and Culture
1, Sowing, Planting, and Watering

. 2. Transplanting . . -

3. Pruning - - -

4. Training . . -

5. Blanching

IV. Operations for inducing a State of Fruit-

fulness in barren and unblossoming Trees
and Plants

V. Operations for retarding or accelerating

Vegetation - - -

1. Operations for retarding Vegetation

2. Operations for accelerating Vegetation

VI. Operations.to imitate warm Climates

VII. Operations of Protection from Atmospher-

ical Injuries . . .

VIII. Operations relative to Vermin, Diseases,

and other Casualties of Plants and
• Gardens

- ib.

Page

1. Of the Kinds of Vermin most injurious '

> to Gardens - - - 426

2. Operations for subduing Vermin - 436

3. Operations relative to Diseases and other

Casualties ... 487

IX. Operations of Gathering, Preserving, and

Keeping - - - 438

Chap. IV.
Operations relative to the final Products de-
sired of Gardens, and Garden-scenery - 442

I. Of the Vegetable Products desired of Gar.

dens - - - 444

II. Of the Superintendence and Management

of Gardens - - - 445

III. Of the Beauty and Order of Garden-

scenery - - - - 451

PART III.

GARDENING AS PRACTISED IN BRITAIN.

BOOK I.

HORTICULTURE.

Chap. I. Page

The Formation of a Kitchen-garden - - 455

I. Situation - - - - ib.

II. Exposure and Aspect ... 456

III. Extent 457

IV. Shelter and Shade - - - 458

V. Soil - - - - - 460

VI. Water - - ... 463

VII. Form - - ... 464

VIII. Walls 465

IX. Ring-fence and Slip - . - 472

X. Placing the Culinary Hot-houses and

Melonry - - - . ib.

XI. Laying out the Area - - - 473

Chap. II.
Of the Distribution of Fruit-trees in a Kitchen-
garden ..... 476

I. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Wall

Fruit-trees ... _ 477

II. Of the Selection and Arrangement of

Espaliers and Dwarf-standards - - 479

III. Of tall Standard Fruit-trees in a Kitchen.

garden - - - - - 480

I v.. Fruit-shrubs - - - ,481

Chap. III.
Of the Formation and Planting of an Orchard,
, subsidiary to the Kitchen-garden . - 482

Chap. IV.
Of the general Cultivation and Management

of a Kitchen-garden . - - 485

T. Culture and Management of the Soil - ib.

II. Manure - - . - . 486

III. Cropping - . . .487

IV. Thinning - - . .489

V. Pruning and Training . . 490

VI. Weeding, Stirring the Soil, Protecting,

Supporting, and Shading - - 493

VII. Watering - . . . ib.

VIII. Vermin, Insects, Diseases, and Accidents 494

IX. Gathering and Preserving Vegetables and

Fruits, and sending them to a Distance 495

X. Miscellaneous Operations of Culture and

Management ... if,.

Chap. V.
Of the general Management of Orchards . 496

I. General Culture . _ . ^

II. Pruning Orchard-trees . ' 497
?v*i'?/^^^l'?""R^"u^^*°""8 Orchard-fruits - 499
IV. Of packmg Orchard and other Fruits for

Carriage - . . _ ^qj

Chap. VI.
Construction of the Culinary Forcing Struc-
i. tares and Hot-houses . . .502

Page

I. Of the Construction of the Pinery - -502

II. Of the Construction of the Vinery - 506

III. Construction of the Peach-house - 508

IV. Construction of the Cherry-house and Fig-

house . . - 510

V. Of Constructing Hot-houses in Rangear ,- ib.

VI. Construction of Culinary Pits, Frames, and

Mushroom-houses - . ib.

VII. Details in the Construction of Culinary

Hot-houses - - - 512

Chap. VI I.

Of the general Culture of Forcing Structures
and Culinary Hot-houses - - 513

I. Culture of the Pinery - -514

1. Varieties of the Pine and General Mode of

Culture - - . ib.

2. Soil .... ib.

3. Artificial Heat - - - 515

4. Propagation of the Pine-apple - 516

5. Of rearing the Pine-apple in the Nursing

Department - - .517

6. Succession Department - - 521

7. Fruiting Department - - 525

8. General Directions common to the Three

Departments of Pine-apple Culture - 531

9. Compendium of a Course of Culture - 537

10. Recent Improvements in the Culture of

the Pine-apple - - 538

II. Of the Culture of the Vinery . -541

1. Of the General Culture of the Grape in

. Vineries - . . ib.

2. Of particular Modes of cultivating the

Grape, adapted to particular Situations 553

3. Of Gathering and Keeping forced Grapes 556

4. Of the Insects and Diseases attendant on

forced or Hot-house Grapes - - 557

III. Culture of the Peach-house - -558

IV. Of the Culture of the Cherry-house - 563

V. Of the Culture of the Fig-house - . 566

VI. Of the Culture and Forcing of the Cucum-

ber - .. . .. 569

VII. Of the Culture of the Melon . .580

VIII. Forcing the Strawberry in Hot-houses,

Pits, and Hot-beds - - .588

IX. Forcing Asparagus in Pits and Hot-beds 590

X. Forcing JCidneybeans .. . . 592

XI. Forcing Potatoes - . .593

XII. Forcing Peas . . .595

XIII. Forcing Salads, Pot-herbs, &c. - - 596

XIV. Culture of the Mushroom - - ib.

Chap. VIII.
Horticultural Catalogue. — Hardy Herbaceous

'' "■ - - - 606

- 607

- ib.

- 610

- ib.
-611
. ib.
. 612
-614

Culinary Vegetables
. The Cabbage Tribe

1. White Cabbage

2. Red Cabbage

3. Savoy

4. Brussels Sprouts

5. Borecole

6. Cauliflower

7. Broccoli

CONTENTS.

Page
8. Of Insects which infest the Cabbage Tribe 617

II. Leguminous Plants - - 618

1. Pea - - - - ib.

2. Garden-bean ... 620

3. Kidneybean - - - 621

III. Esculent Roots - - 623

1. Potatoe - - - ib.

2. Jerusalem Artichoke - - 628

3. Turnip - - . . ib.

4. Carrot - - - - 630

5. Parsnep - - - - 631
b-. Red Beet - - - - 632

7. Skirret - - - - »*•

8. Scorzonera, or Viper's Grass - - 633

9. Salsafv.or Purple Goat's Beard - . ib.

10. Radish - - . - 634

IV. Spinaceous Plants - - 635

1. Spinage - - - - ib.

2. White Beet - - - 636

3. Orache, or Mountain l^inage - - 637

4. Wild Spinage - - - ib.

5. New Zealand Spinage - - i*.

6. Sorrel - - - - -638

7. Herb-patience, or Patience^Dock

V. Alliaceous Plants
;. 1. Onion . . -
i 2. Leek

3. Chive

4. Garlic

5. Shallot

6. Rocambole

VI. Asparaginous Plants

1. Asparagus

2. Sea-kale

3. Artichoke - -

4. Cardoon, or Chardoon

5. Rampion

6. Hop

7. Alisander, or Alexanders

8. Bladder-Campion

9. Thistle
VI I. ■ Acetarious Plants

1. Lettuce

2. Endive

3. Succory, or Wild Endive

4. Dandelion

5. Celery

6. Mustard . - -

7. Rape

8. Com-Salad, or Lamb-Lettuce

9. Garden-Cress

10. American Cress

11. Winter Cress

12. Water-Cress

13. Brook-lime

14. Garden -rocket
. 15. Scurvy-grass

16. Burnet

17. Wood-Sorrel

18. Small Salads

VIII. PoUherbs and Garnishings

1. Parsley

2. Purslane

3. Tarragon

4. Fennel

5. Dill

6. Cher^'U

7. Horse-radish

8. Indian Cress, or Nasturtium

9. Marigold, or Pot-marigold

10. Borage

IX. Sweet Herbs
1. Thyme

- ib.

- ib,
. 641

- 642

- ib.
. ib.
. 643

- ib.

. 650

- 651

- 652

- ib.
. 653

- ib.

- ib.
. 654

- ib.
- 65.5

. 656

- 657

- ib.

ib.
663

ib.

ib.

ib.
664

ib.

ib.

ib.

. ib.

2.

3. Clary

4. Mint -

5. Marjoram

6. Savory

7. Basil

8. Rosemary

9. Lavender

10. Tansy

11. Costmary, or Alecost
X. Plants used in Tarts, Confectionary, and

Domestic Medicine - - .»*

1. Rhubarb - - - ^•

2. Pompion and Gourd - - o/*

3. Angelica - - - ^^

4. Anise - - - '.*•

5. Coriander

6. Caraway

7. Rue

- ib.
. 670

- ib.
. 671

- ib.
. 672

- ib.

- ib.
. 673

. ib.

- 677

- ib.
. ib.

- 678

8. Hyssop - - •

9. Chamomile

10. Elecampane

11. Liquorice

12. W^ormwood

13. Blessed Thistle

14. Balm

XI. Plants used as Preserves and Pickles
1 LoTe.Apple

2. Egg-Plant

3. Capsicum - - - tiBU

4. Samphire, three Species of different Orders

and Genera - - - ib.

XII. Edible Wild Plants, neglected, or not in

Cultivation - - - 681

1. Greens and Pot-herbs from Wild Plants - ib.

2. Roots of Wild Plants edible - - 682

3. Leguminous Wild Plants edible - - 683

4. Salads from Wild Plants - - ib.

5. Substitutes for Chinese Teas from Wild

Plants - - - ~ ib.

6. Wild Plants applied to various Domestic

Purposes - - - ib.

7. Poisonous Native Plants to be avoided in

searching for edible Wild Plants - 684

XIII. Foreign hardy herbaceous Culinary Ve-

getables, little used as such in Britain - 684

XIV. Edible Fungi - - - 685

1. Cultivated Mushroom - - ib.

2. Morel - - - 686

3. Truffle, or SubterraneoJis Puff-ball - ib.

XV. Edible Fuel - . - id.

- ib.

- ib.

- ff79
• ib.

- ib.

Chap. IX.

Horticultural Catalogue, — Hardy Fruit-trees,

Shrubs, and Plants

- 687

I. Kernel-Fruits

- 688

1. Apple

- ib.

2. Pear ....

-703

3. Quince ...

-710

4. Medlar

- ib.

5. True-Service

-711

II. Stone-Fruits

- ib.

1. Peach

- ib.

2. Nectarine - .

-718

3. Apricot - . -

- 719

4. Almond

-721

5. Plum ...

-722

6. Cherry

-725

III. Berries

-728

1. Black, or Garden Mulberry

- ib.

2. Barberry

-730

3. Elder

-731

4. Gooseberry

- ib.

5. Black Currant

. 735

6. Red Currant

-736

7. Raspberry ...

-737

8. Cranberry ...

-738

9. Strawberry
IV. Nuts - - - -

-739
-742

1. Walnut - - -

- ib.

2. Chestnut

. 743

3. Filbert

. 744

V. Native, or neglected Fruits, deserving Cul-

tivation . - -

- 745

Chap. X.

Horticultural Catalogue. — Exotic Fruits - 746

I. Exotic Fruits in general Cultivation - 747

1. Pine-apple - - - • ib.

2. Grape- Vine - - - 748

3. Fig . - - - 759

4. Melon - - - - 763

5. Cucumber _ . - 764

II. Exotic Fruits, well known, but neglected ^

as such - - - - 765

1. Orange Tribe - - - - ib.

2. Pomegranate - - - 777

3. OUve .... r*

4. Indian Fig, or Prickly Pear - - /78

III. Exotic Fruits little known, some of which

merit Cultivation for their Excellen_3
or Rarity - - - 779

IV. Exotic Esculents, not hitherto cultivated ^

as such - . • , . 785

Chap. XI.

Horticultural Productions which may be ex-
pected from a first-rate Kitchen-garden ma-
naged in the best Style - - 787

I. January - " . " '**

CONTENTS.

Page

11. February

. -

.

-787

III. March

.

.

- ib.

IV. April

.

-

- 788

V. May

.

.

- ib.

VI. June

■

.

- ib.

VII July

-

.

- ib.

VI 11. August

-

_

. ib.

IX. September

■ .

.

. ib.

X. October

. .

.

- ib.

XI. November

_

.

- 789

XII. December

-

-

- ib.

BOOK

IT.

FLORICULTURE.

Chap.

[.

Of the Formation of the Flower-garden

-789

Chap. II.
Of Planting the Flower-garden - - 797

Chap; III.
Of Forming the Shrubbery - - 802

Chap. IV. ;

Of PlanUng the Shrubbery . - - 804

Chap. V.
Of the Hot-houses used in Ornamental Horti-
culture - - - 811

Chap. VI.
Of the General Culture and Management of the
Flower-garden and Shrubbery - - 820

Chap. VII.
General Culture and Management of the Orna-
mental or Botanic Hot-houses - - 824

Chap. VIII.
Floricultural Catalogue. — Herbaceous Plants 828

I. Florists', or Select Flowers - - ib.
' 1. Hyacinth - - - 828

2. Tulip - - . - 831

S. Ranunculus - - - 834

4. Anemone - • -- - 836

5. Crocus . - - - 838

6. Narcissus - - - 839

7. Iris . - - 840
• 8. FritiUary - - - 841

9. Lily - . - - 842

{ 10. AmaryUideae - - - ib.

11. Ixiae and Gladioli - . 843

12. Tuberose - - - ib.

13. Pjeony - - . 844

14. Dahlia - . - ib.

15. Auricula - - _ 846
' 16. Primula, or Primrose Family - 853

17. Carnation - • . . 855

18. Pink - . .860

19. Double Rocket . . 861
£0. Cardinal Flower - . 862
£1. Pyramidal Bellflower - - 863

22. Chrysanthemum - • ib.

23. Hydrangea . - - 864

24. Balsam - . . 865

25. Mignonette - - - 866

II. Border-Flowers . _ _ n,^
. 1. Species and Varieties of Perennial fi-
brous, ramose, tuberous, and creeping ^
rooted Herbaceous Border Flowers, ar-
ranged as to their Time of Flowering,
Height, and Color - - 867

2. Species and Varieties of bulbous-rooted

Border-Flowers - _ 874

3. Species and Varieties of Biennial Border-

Flowers . _ _ 877

4. Species and Varieties of Hardy Annual ■.

Border-Flowers. - - - ' 878

5. Species and Varieties of Half-hardy

Annual Border-Flowers - - 881

III- Flowers for particular Purposes _ id

J, 1. Flowers which reach from five to seven
feet m height, for covering naked Walls,
or other upright Deformities, and for
shuttmg out distant Objects which it is
desirable to exclude . .882

2. Flowers for concealing Defects on hori-
zontal Surfaces: as naked sub-barren
Spots, unsightly Banks, &c. . . ib

Page

3. Flowers which will grow under the Shade

and Drip of Trees . - 882

4. Flowers for ornamenting Pieces of Water,

or planting Aquariums - - ib.

5. Flowers for ornamenting Rocks, or Ag-

gregations of Stones, Flints, Scoriae
formed in imitation of Rocky Surfaces,
&c. - - - - 884

6. Evergreen-leaved Flowers, or such as are

adapted for preserving an Appearance
of Vegetation on Beds and Borders
during the Winter Months - - ib.

7. -Flowers- for Edgings to Beds or Borders - 885

8. Highly odoriferous Flowers . - ib.
9 Other selections of Flowers - - ib.
10. Botanical and other Assemblages of

Plants. — Dial- Plants, Parasites, Ferns
and Mosses, Alpines, and a Selection
for a small Garden - - ib.

Chap. IX.
Catalogue of Hardy Trees, with showy Flowers 887

I. Deciduous Trees with showy Flowers - 888

II. Evergreen Trees - - - 889

Chap. X.

Ornamental- Shrubs - - - ib.

I. Select Shrubs - - - ib.

1. Rose - - - - ib.

2. Select American and other- Peat-Earth

Shrubs, viz. of Magnoliaceae, Mag-
t' nolia; of Rhodoraceoe, Khodendron,
Azalea, Kalmia ; of the genera Cistus,
Arbutus, Vaccinium, Andromeda,
Erica, Daphne, and various others - 893

II. General Catalogue of Shrubs - - 895

1. Deciduous Shrubs, arranged as to their
• Time of Flowering, Height, and Color

■ of the Flower - - - ib.

2. Evergreen Shrubs "- - 898

3. Climbing and Twining Shrubs - 900

III. Selections of Shrubs for particular Pur-

poses • - - - 901

1. Shrubs for concealing vertical and hori-

zontal Deformities - - ib.

2. Shrubs of rapid and bulky Growth - ib.

3. Shrubs which thrive under the Shade and

Drip of Trees - - - • ib.

4. Shrubs forplanting by the Sides of Pieces

of Water, or in Marshy Grounds, and
among Rocks - - - 902

5. Shrubs for forming Edgings and Hedges

in Gardens - - - ib.

6. Shrubs whose Flowers or Leaves have vo-

latile Odors, and diffuse them in the
surrounding Air - . ib.

7. Shrubs ornamental by their Fruit as well

as Flowers - - - - ib.

8. Selections of Shrubs for botanical or

economical Purposes, parasitic Trees,

and Shrubs for a small Shrubbery _ ib, '

,Chap. XI.
Frame Exotics - . gog

I. Frame Woody Plants - ib.

II. Frame Succulents - . 904

III. Frame Herbaceous Plants . _ n,

IV. Frame Bulbs - . . . ji,\

V. Frame Biennials - _ . ji,[

VI. Frame Annuals - - • ib

Chap. XIL

Green-house Plants - ' - . 905

I. Select Green-house Plants " - . n,.

1. Geranium . - - - - ' ib.

2. Exotic Heaths ' . - " . ' S06

3. Camellia - ' " - . 999

4. Various Genera which may be considered

. as select Green-house "Plants, showy,
fragrant, and of easy culture . 911

II. Woody Greeij-house Plants . n,.

III. Climbing Green-house Plants - . 917

IV. Succulent Green-house Plants - _ gig

V. Bulbous Green-house Plants - . if,,

VI. Herbaceous . and stemless Green-house

. Plants . - - - - 919

VII. Of Selections of Green-house Plants for

. particular Purposes - . . qjg

Chap. :^III.

Dry-stove Plants

CONTENTS.

Page
J. Woody Dry-stove Plants - - 920

II. Climbing Dry-store Plants - - ib.

III. Succulent Dry-stove Plants - - ib.

IV. Bulbous Dry-stove Plants - - . ib.

V. Herbaceous Dry-stove Plants - - 921

Chajp. XIV.

Hot-house, or Bark-stove Plants - - ib.

I. "Woody Bark-stove Plants - - ib.

II. Climbing Bark-stove Plants - - 928

III. Bulbous-rooted Bark-stove Plants - ib.

IV. Perennial Herbaceous Bark-stove Plants - ib.

V. AnnualHerbaceous Bark-stove Plants - 929

VI. Aquatic Stove Plants - - ib.

VII. SciUminous, or Reedy Stove Plants - 930

VIII. Selections of Bark-stove Plants for par-
ticular Purposes - - ib.

IX. Selection of Dry and Bark-stove Plants,

for such as have only one Hot-house to
contain them . - -933

Chap, XV,

M(Nithly Catalogue of the leading Productions
of Ornamental Horticulture - - ib.

BOOK III.

arboriculture, or planting.

Chap. L

Of the Uses oF Trees and Plantations, and the
Profits attending their Culture - - 935

I. Of the Uses of Trees individually, as Objects

of Consumption - - . ib.

II. Of the Uses of Trees collectively as Plant-

ations - ... 937

III. Of the Profits of Planting - - -940

Chap. II.

Of the different kinds of Trees and Plantations ib.

I. Of the Classification of Trees relatively to

their use and effect in Landscape - ib.

II. Of the Classification of Plantations, or

Assemblages of Trees - - 942

Chap. III.
Of the Formation of Plantations, in which

Utility is the principal Object - - 943

Chap. IV.
On forming Plantations, in which Ornament
or Effect is the leading Consideration - 950

Chap. V.
Of the Culture and Management of Plantations 958

Chap. VI.
Of appropriating the Products of Trees, pre.
paring them for Use or Sale, and estimating
their Value - - .967

Chap. VII.
Of the Formation of a Nursery.Garden for the
Propagation and Rearing of Trees and
Shrubs - - - 973

Chap. VIII.
Of the Culture and Management of a Nursery

for Trees and Shruba

974

Page

I. Coniferous Trees and Shrubs, their Seeds,

Sowing, and Rearing - . 975

II. Trees and Shrufcs bearing Nuts, Acorns,

Masts, Keys, &c. their Sowing and
Rearing - ... 977

III. Trees and Shrubs with berried Stones,

their Sowing and Rearing . . 978

IV. Trees and Shrubs bearing Berries and

Capsules with small Seeds . . 979

V. Trees and Shrubs bearing leguminous

Seeds, their Sowing and Rearing . ib.

VI. Trees and Shrubs bearing small soft Seeds,

their Sowing and Rearing . - f-S)

VII. Culture common to all the Classes of

Tree-seeds . - - ib.

VIII. Of propagating Trees by Layers, Cut-
tings, Suckers, Grafting, &c. ' - . 98i

Chap. IX.

Arbor icultural Catalogue - - - . 982

I. Resinous or Coniferous Trees . - 983

II. Hard-wooded non-resinous Trees - 987

III. Soft. wooded Trees - . 992

BOOK IV.

LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.

Chap. I.
Of the Principles of Landscape. Gardening - 995

I. Of the Beauties of Landscape- Gardening,

as an inventive and mixed Art, and of the
Principles of their Production - - 996

II. Of the Beauties of Landscape- Gardening,

considered as an imitative Art, and of
the Principles of their Production . 998

Chap, IL

Of the Materials of Landscape-Gardening - 1002

I. Of operating on Ground - • ib.

I I. Of operating with Wood - . 1005
II L Of operating with Water - -1009

IV. Rocks . . . 1013

V. Buildings - - - 1014

VI. Of the Accidental Accompaniments to

the Materials of Landscape - - 1016

Chap. IIL
Of the Union of the Materials of Landscape-
Gardening, in forming the constituent Parts
of a Coimtry-Residence - - 1018

Chap. IV.
Of the Union of the constituent Scenes in
forming Gardens or Residences of particular
Characters ; and of laying out Public Gar-
dens .... lOSl

I. On laying out Private Gardens, or Resi-

dences - - - 1022

II. Public Gardens - - 1028

1. Public Gardens for Recreation - ib.

2. Public Gardens of Instruction - 1030

3. Commercial Gardens . - 1033

Chap. V.
Of the Practitioners of Landscape-Grardening 1036

I. Of the Study of the given Situations and

Circumstances, and the Formation of a
Plan of Improvement - - 1037

II. Of carrying a Plan into Execution . 1038

PART IV.

STATISTICS OF BRITISH GARDENING.

BOOK I.

OF THE PRESENT STATE OF GARDENING IN
THE BRITISH ISLES.

Chap. I. Page

Of the diffferent Conditions of Men engaged in

the Practice or Pursuit of Gardening - 1040

I. Of Operators, or Serving Gardeners - ib.

Page

II. Tradesmen. Gardeners - . 1041

III. Garden Counsellers, Artists, or Professors 1042

IV. Patrons of Gardening - - - ib.

Chap. II.

Of the different Kinds of Gardens in Britain,
relatively to the different Classes of
Society, and the different Impedes of
Gardeners . . _ . 1043

I. Private British Gardens - . . A,

CONTENTS.

II. Commercial Gardens

III. Public Gardens

Page

- 1052

- 1057

Chap. III.

Topographical Survey of the British Isles

in respect to Gardening - - 1060

I. Gardens and Country. Residences of Eng-

„ „ 'fnd 1061

II. Wales - . . . 1084

III. Scotland ... . io86
IV Ireland - - . . . 1093

Chap. IV.

I. Of the Literature of Gardening - - 1097
1. British Works on Gardening - - 1099

II. Of the Literature of Gardening in Foreign

Countries - - _ II15

. 1. Works on Gardening published in France,

exclusive of Translations - . if,,

. 2. Works on Gardening published in Ger.
many, including Denmark and Swit-
zerland, exclusive of Translations - 1122

3. Works on Gardening published in Italy,

exclusive of Translations - . 1128

4. Works on Gardening originated and

published in Holland, exclusive of
Translations _ . . 1129

5. Works on Gardening, published in Sweden,

Norway, and Iceland, exclusive of
Translations . _ . «J.

6. Works on Gardening, published in Po-

land and Russia - - 1131

7. Works on Gardening, published in Por-

tugal and Spain - - ib.

& Works on Gardening, published in North

America . . ~ ib. 1

CHAP. V. '''''

Of the Professional Police, and Public Laws
relative to Gardeners and Gardening - 1131

BOOK 11.

OF THE FUTURE PftOGRESS OF GARDENING
IN BRITAIN.

Chap. I. page

Of the Improvement of the Taste of the
Patrons of Gardening . - -1133

Chap. II.
Of the Education of Gardeners - '- 1135

I. On the degree of Knowledge which may be

attained by Practical Men, and on the ge-
neral Powers of the human Mind, as to
Attainments - - - ib.

II. Of the Professional Education of Gar-

deners . - - 1136

IIL Of the Intellectual Education which a
Gardener may give himself, independ-
ently of acquiring his Profession - 1138

IV. Moral, Religious, and Physical Education

of Gardeners _ - . 1141

V. Of Economical Education, or the general

Conduct and Economy of a Gardener's
Life - . . 1143

KALENDARIAL INDEX . - II47

GENERAL INDEX - 1165

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

OF

GARDENING

THE earth, Herder observes, is a star among other stars, and man, an improving
animal acclimated in every zone of its diversified surface. The great mass of this
star is composed of inorganic matters called minerals, from the decomi>osing surface of
which proceed fixed organic bodies called vegetables, and moving organic bodies called
animals. IMinerals are said to grow, or undergo change only ; vegetables to grow and
live ; and animals to grow, live, and move. Life and growth imply nourishment ;
and primitively, vegetables seem to have lived on minerals ; and animals, with some
exceptions, on vegetables. Man, supereminent, lives on botli ; and, in consequence
of his faculty of improving himself and other beings, has contrived means of increasing
the number, and ameliorating the quality of those he prefers. This constitutes the
chief business of private life in the country, and includes the occupations of housewifery,
or domestic economy, agriculture, and gardening.

Gardening, the branch to wliich we here confine ourselves, as compared with agri-
culture, is the cultivation of a limited spot, by manual labor, for culinary and orna-
mental products ; but relative to the present improved state of the art, may be defined
the formation and culture, by manual labor, of a scene more or less extended, for
various purposes of utility, ornament and recreation.

Thus gardening, like most other arts, has had its origin in the supply of a primitive
want; and, as wants became desires, and desires increased, and became more luxurious
and refined, its objects and its province became extended ; till from an enclosure of a few
square yards, containing, as Lord Walpole has said, " a gooseberrj'-bush and a cab-
bage," such as may be seen before the door of a hut on tlie borders of a common, it has
expanded to a park of several miles in circuit, its boundaries lost in forest scenery, —
a palace bosomed in wood near its centre ; the intermediate space varied by artificial
lakes or rivers, plantations, pleasure-grounds, flower-gardens, hot-houses, orchards, and
potageries : — producing for the table of the owner and his guests, the fruits, flowers,
and culinary vegetables, of every climate of the world ! — displaying the finest verdant
landscapes to invite him to exercise and recreation, by gliding over velvet turf, or po-
lished gravel walks, sheltered, shady, or open in near scenes ; or with horses and chariots
along rides and drives " of various view" in distant ones.

From such a variety of products and objects, and so extended a scene of operations,
have arisen the diflferent branches of gardening as an art ; and from the general use
of gardens, and of their products by all ranks, have originated their various kinds, and
the different forms which this art has assumed as a trade or business of life. Gardening
is practised for private use and enjojTnent, in cottage, villa, and mansion gardens ; —
for public recreation, in umbrageous and verdant promenades, parks, and other scenes,
in and near to large towns; — for public instruction, in botanic and experimental
gardens ; — for public example, in national or royal gardens ; — and for the purpose of
commerce, in market, orchard, seed, physic, florists', and nursery gardens.

To aid in what relates to designing and laying out gardens, artists or professors have
arisen ; and the performance of the operative part is the only source of living of a nu-
merous class of serving gardeners, who acquire their art by the regular routine of ap-
prenticeship, and probationary labor for some years as journeymen.

B

2

The products of the kitchen-garden form important articles of human food for all
ranks of society ; and furnish the cliief luxuries of the tables of the rich, and a main
support of the families of tlie poor. One of the first objects of a colonist on arriving
at a new settlement is to plant a garden, as at once a proof of possession, and a pledge
of immediate enjoyment ; and indeed the history of the civilisation of mankind bears
evidence, that there are few benefits which a cultivated people can bestow on savage
tribes, greater than that of distributing among them the seeds of good fruits and oler-
aceous herbs, and teaching them their culture.

The pleasure attending the pursuit of gardening is conducive to health and repose
of mind ; and a taste for the enjoyment of gardens is so natural to man, as almost to be
universal. Our first most endearing and most sacred associations, Mrs. Hofland ob-
serves, are connected with gardens ; our most simple and most refined perceptions of
beauty are combined with them ; and the veiy condition of our being compels us to the
cares, and rewards us with the pleasures attached to them. Gardening has been the
inclination of kings and the choice of philosophers. Sir William Temple has observed ;
and the Prince de Ligne, after sixty years' experience, affirms, that the love of gardens is
the only passion which augments with age : " Je voudrois," he says, " ^chauffer tout
I'univers de mon g6ut pour les jardins. II me semble qu'il est impossible, qu'un m^-
chant puisse I'avoir. II n'est point de vertus que je ne suppose a celui qui aime a
parler et a faire des jardins. Peres de famille, inspirez la jardinomanie a vos enfans."
(Me moires et Lettres, torn, i.)

Tliat which makes the cares of gardening more necessary, or at least more excusable,
the former author adds, is, that all men eat fruit that can get it ; so that the choice is
only, whether one will eat good or ill ; and for all things produced in a garden, whether
of salads or fruits, a poor man will eat better that has one of his own, than a rich man
that has none.

To add to the value and extend the variety of garden productions, new vegetables
have been introduced from every quarter of the globe ; to diffuse instruction on the sub-
ject, numerous books have been written, societies have been established, and premiums
held out for rewarding individual merit ; and where professorships of rural economy
exist, gardening may be said to form a part of public instruction.

A varied and voluminous mass of knowledge has thus accumulated on the subject
of gardening, which must be more or less necessary for every one who would practise
the art with success, or understand when it is well practised for him by others. To
combine as far as practicable the whole of this knowledge, and arrange it in a syste-
matic form, adapted both for study and reference, is the object of the present work.
The sources from which we have selected, are the modern British authors of decided
reputation and merit ; sometimes recurring to ancient or continental authors, and occa-
sionally, though rarely, to our own observation and experience ; — observatioti in all
the departments of gardening, chiefly in Britain, but partly also on the Continent j and
edqicrience during nearly twenty years' practice as an architect of gardens.
With this purpose in view. Gardening is here considered, in

Part

. . . _ Among the different nations of the world,

present state, \_ 2. Under different political and geographical circumstances.

r 1. The study of the vegetable kingdom.
II As a science founded on . ^ ^- "^^^ ^'"^y ^^ ^^^ natural agents of vegetable growth and culture.
11. AS a science lounaea on . ^3 ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ mechanical agents employed in gardening.

C 4. The study of the operations of gardening.

rl. The practice of horticulture.

III. A. an a«, comprehending ) | ^1 ffioe 5f?b'SSe.

C 4. The practice of landscape gardening.

IV. Statistic^Uy in Britain - {\ As to its P-ent^stat. ^

A iCatendarial Index to those parts of the work which treat of culture and manage-
ment, points out the operations as they are to be performed in the order of time and of
the season : and

A General Index explains the technical terms of gardening ; gives an outline of the
culture of every genus of plants, native or introduced in British gardens ; and presents
an analysis of the whole work in alphabetical order.

PART I.

GARDENING CONSIDERED IN RESPECT TO ITS ORIGIN, PRO-
GRESS, AND PRESENT STATE AMONG DIFFERENT NATIONS.
GOVERNMENTS, AND CLI3IATES.

1 . The history of gardening may be considered chronologicaUy, or in connection with
that of the different nations who have successively flourished in different parts of the
world ; jwliticaUy, as influenced by the different forms of government which have pre-
vailed ; and geographically, as affected by the different clunates and natural situations of
the globe. The first kind of history is useful as showing what has been done ; and what
is the relative situation of different countries as to gardens and gardening ; and the
political and geograpliical history of this art affords interesting matter of instruction as
to its past and future progress.

BOOK I.

HISTORY OF GARDEKIXG AMOKG ANCIEKT AND MODERN NATIONS.

2. The chronological history of gardening may be divided into three periods ; the ages
of antiquity, commencing witli the earliest accounts and terminating with the foundation
of the Roman empire ; the ancient ages, including the rise and fall of tlie Roman empire ;
and the modern times, continued from thence to the present day.

Chap. I.

Of llie Origin and Progress of Gardening in the earliest ages of Antiqidty, or from the
lOth century before the vulgar cera to the foundation of the Roman Empire.

3. All ancient history begins ivith fable and tradition ; no authentic relation can reach
farther back than the organisation of the people who followed tlie last grand revolution
sustained by our globe. Every thing which pretends to go farther must be fabulous,
and it is only the primeval arts of war and husbandry which can by any means go so far.
The traditions collected by Herodotus, Diodorus, Hesiod, and some other authors, wlien
freed from the mytliological and mysterious terms in which they are enveloped, seem to
carry us back to that general deluge, or derangement of the surface strata of our globe,
of which all countries, as well as most traditions, bear evidence. As to gardening, these
traditions, like all rude histories, touch cliiefly on particulars calculated to excite
wonder or surprise in ignorant or rude minds, and accordingly the earliest notices of
gardens are confined to fabulous creations of fancy, or tlie alleged productions of princes
and warriors. To the first may be referred the gardens of Paradise and the Hcsperides ;
and to the others the gardens of the Jews, Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks-

Sect. I. Of the fabulous Gardens of Antiquity,

4. The fabulous gardens of antiquity are connected with the religions of those times.
These religions have been arranged by philosophers {De Patv's Dissert. ) in three divisions ;
Barbarism, Scythlsm, and Helenism. To the latter belong the Hebrew, Greek, and
Mahomedan species. Each of these has its system of creation, its heaven and its hell,
and, what chiefly concerns us, each system has its garden. Tiie garden of the Jewish
mythology is for tlie use of man ; that of the Grecian polytheism is appropriated to the
Gods ; and the Mahomedan paradise is the reward held out to the good in a future
state.

5. Gan-eden, or the Jewish Paradise, is supposed to have been situated in Persia,
though the inhabitants of Ceylon say it was placed in their country-, and according to the
Rev. Dr. Buchanan (Researclies in India, &c.), still point out Adam'sHjridge and Abel's
tomb. Its description may be considered as exhibiting the ideas of a poet, whose object
was to bring together every sort of excellence of which he deemed a garden susceptible ;
and it is remarkable that in so remote an age (B. C. 1600) his picture should display so
much of general nature. Of great extent, watered by a river, and abounding in timber
and woodiness, paradise seems to have borne some resemblance to a park and pleasure-
grounds in the modem taste ; to which indeed its amplified picture by Milton has been
thought by Walpole and otiiers to have given rise. When Adam began to transgress in

4 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Parp 1.

the garden he was turned out to till the ground, and paradise was afterwards guarded by
a. miraculous sword, which turned every way to meet trespassers. (See Genesis ii. 3. ;
Bishop Huet on the Situation of Paradise, 1691, 12mo. ; Burnet's Theory of the Earth,
book ii. chap. 2. ; Sicklers Geschichte der obst cultur, &c. 1801. 1 Band.)

6. The gardens of Hesperides were situated in Africa, near Mount Atlas, or, accord-
ing to some, near Cyrenaica. They are described by Scylax, a geographer of the sixth
century, B. C, as lying in a place eighteen fathoms deep, steep on all sides, and two
stadia in diameter, covered with trees of various kinds, planted very close together, and
interwoven with one another. Among the fruit-trees were golden apples (supposed to be
oranges), pomegranates, mulberries, vines, olives, almonds, and walnuts ; and the orna-
mental trees included the arbutus, myrtle, bay, ivy, and wild olive. This garden con-
tained the golden apples which Juno gave to Jupiter on the day of their nuptials. They
were occupied by three celebrated nymphs, daughters of Hesperus, and guarded by a
dreadful dragon which never slept. Hercules carried off the apples by stratagem, but
they were afterwards returned by Minerva. What finally became of the nymphs of the
garden, or of the apples, we are as ignorant as we are of the fate of paradise, or the tree
" in the midst thereof," which contained the forbidden fruit, and of wliich, as Lord
Walpole observes, " not a slip or a sucker has been left behind,"

7. The promised garden of Mahomet, or the heaven of his religion, is said to abound
in umbrageous groves, fountains, and Houri, or black-eyed girls : and the enjoyments,
which in such scenes on earth last but for a moment, are to be there prolonged for a
thousand years.

8. Dr. Sicklers opinion of these gardens is, that Eden and Hesperides allude to, or are
derived from, one original tradition. Paradise, he considers as a sort of figurative
description of the finest district of Persia ; and he traces various resemblances between
the apples of Eve and of Juno ; the dragon which never slept, and the flaming sword
which turned every way. Some very learned and curious speculations on this subject are
to be found in the introduction to his Geschichte der obst cultur. With respect to the
paradise of Mahomet, it is but of modern date, and may probably have been suggested
by the gardens described in " Solomon's Song," and other poems ; though some allege
that the rural coffee-houses which abound in the suburbs of Constantinople gave the first
idea to the prophet.

Sect. II. Jewish Gardens. B. C. 1500.

9. JKn^ Solomon's garden is the principal one on record ; though many others belong-
ing both to Jewish princes and subjects are mentioned in the Bible. Solomon was at
once a botanist, a man of learning, of pleasure, and a king. The area of his garden
was quadrangular, and surrounded by a high wall ; it contained a variety of plants,
curious as objects of natural history, as the hyssop, (a moss, as Hasselquist thinks,)
" which springeth out of the wall ;" odoriferous and showy flowers, as the rose, and the
lily of the valley, the calamus, camphire, spikenard, saflTron, and cinnamon ; timber-trees,
as the cedar, the pine, and the fir ; and the richest fruits, as the fig, grape, apple, palm,
and pomegranate. {Curtii Sprengel Historia Rei herbarue, lib. i. c. 1.) It contained water
in wells, and in living streams, and, agreeably to eastern practices, aviaries and a seraglio.
The seraglio Parkhurst supposes was at once a temple of worship and of pleasure, and he
quotes the words of Ezekiel (xiii. 20.) in their literal translation: " lam against, saith
the Lord, your luxurious cushions, wherewith ye ensnare souls in the flower-gardens."
Ashue or Venus was the deity who was worshipped by a company of naked females : Dr.
Brown {^Antiq. of the Jews,) describes the mode of worship ; and concludes by lamenting
that depravity in man, which converts the beauties of nature into instruments of sin.
The situation of Solomon's garden was in all probability near to tlie palace, as were those
of his successors, Ahasuerus and Ahab. (Esther vii. 8.)

10. We know little of the horticulture of the Jews; but like that of the eastern nations
in general, it was probably then as it still is in Canaan, directed to the growing of
cooling fruits, to allay thirst and moderate heat ; aromatic herbs to give a tone to the
stomach, and wine to refresh and invigorate the spirits. Hence, while their agricultural
produce was wheat, barley, rye, millet, vetches, lentils, and beans, their gardens produced
cucumbers, melons, gourds, onions, garlic, anise, cummin, coriander, mustard, and various
spices. Their vineyards were sometimes extensive : Solomon had one at Baalhamon
which he let out at 1000 pieces of silver per annum. {Cant. viii. 11, 12.)

Sect. III. Phceacian Gardens. B. C. 900.

11. The garden of Aldnous, the Phaeacian king, was situated in an island of that
name, by some considered Corfu, in the Ionian sea, and by others, and with more reason,
an Asiatic island. It is minutely described by Homer in the Odyssey, and may be
compared to the garden of an ordinary farm-house in point of extent and form ; but in
respect to the variety of fruits, vegetables, and flowers cultivated, was far inferior. It

Book I. GARDENS OF ANTIQUITY. 5

embraced the front of the palace ; contained something less than four acres, surrounded
by a hedge, (the first, as Harte remarks, which we read of in history,) and interspersed
with three or four sorts of fruit-trees, some beds of culinary vegetables, and some borders
of flowers ; it contained two fountains or wells, tlie one for the use of the garden, and the
other for tlie palace.

12. The gardens of Laertes, described in the same work, appear to have been similar to
the above in character and extent, use being more studied than beauty ; and vicinity to the
house or palace, for the immediate access of the queen or housewife, being a greater
desideratum than extent, variety of products, or prolonged recreation.

13. The reality of the existence of these gardens is very doubtful. They are by many
ranked with those of Adonis ( Virg. Georg. ii. 87.), Paradise, Hesperides ( Virg. ^ru
iv. 484.), and Venus [Ali Beys Travels, vol. i.), and considered with them a& mere
creations of the fancy. Sir W. Temple is of opinion that the principal gardens of Ionia
may have had some resemblance to those described by Homer, as lying in the barren
island of Phaeacia ; but that the particular instance stated as belonging to Alcinous is
wholly poetical. (Temple's Works. Essay on Gardens.) Gouget rejects altogether the
idea of Phaeacia being an European isle, and considers the Phseacians as a Greek colony
in one of the islands of Asia, {Origine de Loix, &c. torn. iii. 174.)

Sect. IV. Babylonian or Assyrian Gardens. B. C. 2000.

14. The gardens of Cyrus at Babylon (Plin. xix. 4.), or of the kings of Assyria,
or, according to Bryant (Anal, of Ancient Mythology, vol. iii. p. 100.), of the chiefs of
the ancient people called Semarim, were distinguished by their romantic situations, great
extent, and diversity of uses and products, and were reckoned in their days among the
wonders of the world.

1 5. Tlie form of these gardens was square, and, according to Diodorus and Strabo, each
side was four hundred feet in length, so that the area of the base was nearly four acres.
They were made to rise with terraces constructed in a curious manner above one another,
in the form of steps, somewhat like those of the Isola Bella in the Logo Maggiore in Italy,
and supported by stone pillars to the height of more than three hundred feet, gradually
diminishing upwards till the area of the superior surface, which was flat, was reduced
considerably below that of the base. This building was constructed by vast stone beams
placed on pillars of stone, (arches not being then invented,) which were again covered
with reeds, cemented with bitumen, and next were laid a double row of bricks united
by cement. Over these were laid plates of lead, which effectually prevented the moisture
from penetrating downwards. Above all was laid a coat of earth, of depth sufficient for
plants to grow in it, and the trees here planted were of various kinds, and were ranged
in rows on tlie side of the ascent, as well as on the top, so that at a distance it appeared
as an immense pyramid covered with wood. The situation of this extraordinary eflfort
was adjoining or upon the river Euphrates, from which water was supplied by machinery
for the fountains and other sources for cooling the air and watering the garden. (Dr.
Falconer s Historical View of the Gardens of Antiquity, &c. p. 17.)

16. 2'he prospect from these elevated gardens was grand and delightful. From the upper
area was obtained a view not only of the whole city, and the windings of the Euphrates,
which washed the base of the superstructure three hundred feet below ; but of the cul-
tivated environs of the city and surrounding desert, extending as far as the eye could
reach. Tlie different terraces and groves contained fountains, parterres, seats and
banquetting-rooms, and combined the minute beauties of flowers and foliage, with
masses of shade and extensive prospects ; — the retirement of the grove in the midst of
civic mirth and din ; — and all the splendor and luxury of eastern magnificence in art,
with the simple pleasures of verdant and beautiful nature. " This surprising and la-
borious experiment," G. Mason observes, '* was a strain of complaisance in King
Nebuchadnezzar to his Median queen, w^ho could never be reconciled to the flat and
naked appearance of tlie province of Babylon, but frequently regretted each rising hill
and scattered forest she had formerly delighted in, with all the charms tliey had presented
to her youthful imagination. The King, who thought nothing impossible for his power
to execute, nothing to be unattempted for tlie gratification of his beloved consort, de-
termined to raise woods and terraces even witliin tlie precincts of the city, equal to those
by which her native country was diversified." (Essay on Design, &c. p. 9.)

17. An elevated situation seems in these countries to have been an essential re-
quisite to a royal garden ; probably because the air in such regions is more cool and
salubrious, — the security from hostile attack of any sort more certain, — and the
prospect always sublime. " When Semiramis came to Chanon, a city of Media," ob-
serves Diodorus Siculus (lib. ii. cap. 13. , "she discovered on an elevated plain, a
rock of stupendous height, and of considerable extent. Here she formed another para-
dise, exceeding large, enclosing a rock in the midst of it, on which she erected sumptuous
buildings for pleasure, commanding a view both of the plantations and the encampment."

B 3

6 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Pari I.

1 . The existence of these gardens, however, is very problematical. Bryant (Ancient
Mytitylogy) gives his reasons for disbelieving the very existence of Queen Semiramis, who.
Dr. Sickler says, was not a queen, but a {beyschldferinn) concubine. Bryant acknowledges,
however, that paradises of great extent, and placed in elevated situations, were with great
probability ascribed to the ancient people called Semarim. Quintus Curtius (lib. xv.
cap. 5.) calls these gardens " fabulous wonders of the Greeks:" and Herodotus, who
describes Babylon, is silent as to their existence. Many consider their description as
representing a hill cut into terraces, and planted : and some modern travellers have fan-
cied that they could discover traces of such a work. The value of such conjectures is
left to be estimated by the antiquarian ; we consider the description of this Babylonian
garden as worth preserving for its grandeur and suitableness to the country and climate.

Sect. V. Persian Gardens. B. C. 500.

19. The Persian Kings were very fond of gardens, which, Xenophon says, were
cultivated for the sake of beauty as well as fruit. " Wherever the Persian king,
Cyrus, resides, or whatever place he visits in his dominions, he takes care that the
Paradises, shall be filled with every thing, both beautiful and useful, the soil can
produce." {Xen. Memorah. lib. v. p. 829.) The younger Cyrus was found by Ly-
sander, as Plutarch informs us, in his garden or paradise at Sardis, and on its being
praised by the Spartan general, he avowed that he had conceived, disposed and adjusted
the whole himself, and planted a considerable number of trees with his own hands.
Cyrus had another paradise at Celenas, which was very extensive, and abounded in wild
beasts ; and we are informed that the same prince '* there mustered the Grecian forces
to the number of thirteen thousand." {De Cyri Ex])ed. lib. i.)

20. A paradise in the Island of Panchcea, near the coast of Arabia, is described by
Diodorus Siculus, as having been in a flourishing state in the time of Alexander's
immediate successors, or about B. C. 300. It belonged to a temple of Jupiter Try-
philius, and had a copious fountain, which burst at once into a river, was cased with
stone near half a mile, and was afterwards used for irrigation. It had the usual accom-
paniments of groves, fruit-trees, thickets, and flowers.

21. The grove of Orontes in Syria, is mentioned by Strabo (lib. xvi.) as being in his'
time nine miles in circumference. It is described by Gibbon as " composed of laurels
and cypress, which formed in the most sultry summers a cool and impenetrable shade.
A thousand streams of the purest water issuing from every hill preserved the verdure of
the earth, and the temperature of the air ; the senses were gratified with harmonious
sounds, and aromatic odours ; and the peaceful grove was consecrated to health and joy,
to luxury and love." (Decline and Fall of the Roman Enijnre, chap, xiii.)

22. In Persian gardens of a more limited description, according to Pliny and other Ro-
man authors, the trees were arranged in straight lines and regular figures ; and the margins
of the walks covered with tufts of roses, violets, and other odoriferous flowering plants.
Among the trees, the terebinthinate sorts, the oriental plane, and, what may appear to
us remarkable, the narrow-leaved elm, (now called English, but originally, as Dr.
Walker and others consider, from the Holy Land), held conspicuous places. Buildings
for repose, banqueting, voluptuous love ;' fountains for cooling the air, aviaries for
choice birds, and towers for the sake of distant prospect, were introduced in the best
examples.

Sect. VI. Grecian Gardens. B. C. 300.

23. The Greeks copied the gardening of the Persians, as they did their manners and
architecture, as far as the difference of climate and state of society would admit.
Xenophon, a Greek philosopher of the fourth century before Christ, admired the gardens
of the Persian prince Cyrus, at Sardis ; and Diogenes Laertius informs us that Epicurus
delighted in the pleasures of the garden, and made choice of one as the spot where he
taught his philosophy. Plato also lays the scene of his dialogue of beauty on tlie
umbrageous banks of the river Ilissus. In the first eclogue of Theocritus, the scene
is laid under the shade of a pine-tree, and the beauty of Helen is compared to that of a
cypress in a garden. It would appear from this and other circumstances, that the love
of terebinthinate trees, so general in Persia, and the other eastern countries, was also
prevalent in Greece ; and the same flowers (made choice of for their brilliant colors
and odoriferous perfumes) appear to have been common to both countries. Among
these may be enumerated the narcissus, violet, ivy, and rose. (Historical View, &c.
p. 30. etseq.) There are many curious observations on this subject in Stackhouse's edition of
Theophrastus. Lord Bacon, in his Essay on Gardens, and G. Mason, already quoted,
concur in considering gardening as rather a neglected art in Greece, notwithstanding the
progress of the sister art of architecture, which gave rise to the remark of the former,
" that when ages grow to civility and elegancy, men come to build stately sooner than
to garden finely, as if gardening were the greater perfection."

Book I. GARDENS OF ANTIQUITY. 7

24. The vale of Tevipe, however, as described in the third book of Elian's vari-
ous historj', and the public gardens of Athens according to Plutarch, prove that their phi-
losophers and great men were alive to the beauties of verdant scenery. The academus
or public garden of Athens, Plutarch informs us, w^as originally a rough uncultivated
spot, till planted by the general Cimon, who conveyed streams of water to it, and laid it
out in shady groves, with gymnasia, or places of exercise, and philosophic walks.
Among the trees were the olive, plane, and elm ; and the two last sorts had attained to
such extraordinary size, that at the siege of Athens by Sylla, m the war with IMithridates,
they were selected to be cut down, to supply warlike engines. In the account of these
gardens by Pausanias we learn, that they were highly elegant, and decorated with temples,
altars, tombs, statues, monuments, and towers ; that among the tombs were those of
Pirithous, Theseus, CEdipus, and Adrastes; and at the entrance was the first altar
dedicated to love.

25. Tlie jxissages of the Greek writers which relate to gardens have been amply illustrated
by the learned German antiquarian Baettinger (Racemazionen zur Gartenkwnst der
Alt^n) ; on which it may be remarked, that the qualities chiefly enlarged on are, shade,
coolness, freshness, breezes, fragrance, and repose — effects of gardening which are felt
and relished at an earlier period of human civilisation than picturesque beauty, or other
poetical and comparatively artificial associations with external scenery ; for though
gardening as a merely useful art may claim priority to every other, yet as an art of
imagination, it is one of the last which has been brought to perfection. In fact, its
existence as such an art, depends on the previous existence of pastoral poetry and
mental cultivation ; for what is nature to an uncultivated mind ?

Sect. VII. Gardening in the ages of Antiquity, as to Fruits, Culinary Productions, and

Flowers.

26. The first vegetable ffroduclioji ivhich attracted mans attention as an article of food,
is supposed to have been the fruit of some tree ; and the idea of removing such a tree to a
spot, and enclosing and cultivating it near his habitation, is thought to be abundantly
natural to man, and to have first given rise to gardens. All tlie writers of antiquity agree
in putting the fig at the head of the fruit-trees that were first cultivated. The vine is the
next in order, the fruit of which serves not only for food, like that of the fig, but also for
drink. Noah the Jewish Bacchus, and Osiris the Bacchus of the Egyptians and Greeks,
are alike placed in the verj- first age of the postdiluvian world. The almond and pome-
granate were early cultivated in Canaan {Gen. xliii. 5. 11. and Numb. xx. 5.), and it
appears by tlie complaints of the Israelites in the wilderness, that tlie fig, grape, pomegra-
nate, and melon, were known in Egypt from time immemorial.

27. The first herbage made use of by man, would be the most succulent leaves or stalks
which the surface around him afforded ; of these every country has some plants which are
succulent even in a wild state, as the chenopodeEB. Sea cale, and asparagus, were known to
the Greeks from the earliest ages, and still abound in Greece, tlie former on the sandy plains,
and the latter on the sea shores. One of the laws of Solon prohibits women from eating
crambe in child-bed. Of the green seeds of herbage plants, the bean and other legu-
minoseoe were evidently the first in use, and it is singular that Pytliagoras should have
forbidden the use of beans to his pupils because they were so much of the nature of flesh ;
or, in the language of modern chemistry, because they contained so much vcgeto-animal
matter.

28. The first roots, or rootlike parts of plants made use of, must have been some of the
surface bulbs, as the onion, {Xutnb. xi. 5.) and the edible crocus (C aureus, Fl. Grtsc.) of
Syria. Underground bulbs and tubers, as the orchis, potatoe, and earthnut, would be
next discovered : and ramose roots, as those of the lucerne in Persia, and arracacha (Ligus-
ticum sp.F) in :Mexico, would be eagerly gnawed wherever they could be got at. Bulbs of
culture, as the turnip, would be of much later discovery, and must at first have been found
only in temperate climates.

29. The use of plants for preternatural, religious, funereal, medical, and scientific pur~
poses, like every other use, is of the remotest antiquity. Rachel demanded from her
sister the mandrakes {Mandragoi-a officinalis, W.) {fig. 1. from the Flora Grceca), whose
roots are thought to resemble Uie human forni, which Reuben had brought from the fields ;
impressed, as she no doubt was, with the idea of the efficacy of that plant against sterility.
Bundles of flowers covered the tables of the Greeks, and were worn during repasts, be-
cause the plants, of which they consisted, were supposed to possess the virtue of preserving
tlie wearer from the fumes of wine, of refreshing the thinking faculty, preservnig the
purity of ideas, and the gaiety of the spirits. Altars were strewed with flowers both
by Jews and Greeks ; tliey were placed on high places, and under trees, as old clothes
are still sacrificed on the trunks of tlie Plalanus in Georgia and Persia. God appearetl
to Moses in a bush. Jacob was embalmed, in all probability, witli aromatic herbs.

B 4

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part (.

Aristotle's materia medica was chiefly plants.
Solomon wrote on botany as a philosopher, and
appears to have cultivated a general collection,
independently of his plants of ornament.

30. Flowers, os decorations, must have been
very soon used on account of tlieir brilliant colors
and smell. The Greeks, Theophrastus informs
us, {Hist. Plant, lib. vi. c. 5. ) cultivated roses,
gilly-flowers, violets, narcissi, and the iris ; and
we read in Aristophanes {Acham. v. 212.), that
a market for flowers was held at Athens, where
the baskets were very quickly disposed of. From
the writings of other authors, we learn that a con-
tinual use was made of flowers throughout all
Greece. Not only were they then, as now, the
ornament of beauty, and of the altars of the gods,
but youth crowned themselves with them in the
f(&tes : priests in religious ceremonies ; and guests
in convivial meetings. Garlapds of flowers were
suspended from the gates in times of rejoicing;
and, what is still more remarkable, and more
remote from our manners, the philosophers them-
selves wore crowns of flowers, and the warriors
ornamented their foreheads with them in days of
triumpli. These customs existed in every part
of the East. There were at Athens, as after-
wards at Rome, florists, whose business it was to
weave crowns {coronnrice) and wreaths of flowers.
Some of these crowns and garlands were of one species of flower ; others of diflferent
species ; or of branches of peculiar plants, relating to some symbolical or mythological
idea. Hence the term, coronarus, was applied to such plants as were consecrated to those
uses, and of which some were cultivated, and others gathered in the fields ; but the name
was applied to all such as were distinguished by the beauty or fragrance of their flowers.
(Curt. Spreng. Hist. R. Herb. lib. i. & ii. ; Paschalis de Corotiis, lib. x. j Sabina by
BcBttinger, in N. Mon. Mag. Jan. and Feb. 1819. ; Theophrastus by Stackhouse, &c.)

31. The first implement used in cidtivating the soil, all antiquarians agree, must have been
of the pick kind. A medal of the greatest antiquity, dug up in the island of Syracuse,
contained the impression of such an implement {fig. 2, a). Some of the oldest Egyptian

hieroglyphics liave similar representations (6) ; and Eckeberg has figured what may be
considered as the primitive spade of China (c). In the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, when Peru was discovered by the Spaniards, the gardeners of that country had no
other spade than a pointed stick, of which the more industrious made use of two at a time.
(rfj The Chinese implement bears the highest marks of civilisation, since it has a hilt or
cross handle, and a tread for the foot ; and consequently supposes the use of shoes or
sandals by the operator, and an erect position of his body. Tlie Roman spade (/?>o),
those of Italy {zappa), and of France {beche), are either flattened or two-clawed picks,*
which are worked entirely by the arms, and keep the operator constantly bent almost to
the ground; or long-handled wooden spatula also worked solely by the arms, but with
the body in a more erect position. Both kinds equally suppose a bare-footed operator,
hke the Grecian and Peruvian gardeners, and those of France and Italy at the present day.

Book I. GARDENS OF THE ROMANS. 9

32. It is said that the browsing of a goat gave the first idea ofjrruning the vine, as chance^
which had set fire to a rose-tree, according to Acosta {Histoire Nat. des Indes), gave
the first idea of pruning the rose. Theophrastus informs us that fire was applied to the
rose-trees in Greece to enrich them, and that without that precaution they would bear no
flowers.

33. The origin of the art of grafting has been very unsatisfactorily accounted for by
Pliny and Lucretius. The crossing, rubbing, and subsequent growing together of
two branches of a crowded tree or thicket, are more likely to have originated the
idea; but when this was first noticed, and how grafting came to be used for the
amelioration of fruits, will probably ever remain a secret. Macrobius, a Roman author
of the fifth century, according to the taste of his time, says, Saturn taught the art to the
inhabitants of Latium. It does not appear to have been known to the Persians, or the
Greeks, in the time of Homer, or Hesiod ; nor, according to Chardin, is it known to the
Persians at this day. Grafting was not known in China till very lately ; it was shown
to a few gardeners by the Missionaries, as it was to the natives of Peru and South
America, by the Spaniards. Some, however, infer from a passage in Manlius, that
it may have been mentioned in some of Hesiod's writings, which are lost.

34. The culture of fniits and culinary plants must have been preceded by a considerable
degree of civilisation. Moses gave some useful directions to his people on the culture of the
vine and olive. For the first three years, they are not to be allowed to ripen any fruit ; the
produce of the fourth year is for the Lord or his priests ; and it is not till the fifth year
that it may be eaten by the planter. This must have contributed materially to Uieir
strength and establishment in the soil. The fruit-trees in the gardens of Alcinous were
planted in quincunx ; there were hedges for shelter and security, and the pot-herbs and
flowers were planted in beds ; the whole so contrived as to be irrigated. Melons in Persia
were manured with pigeon's dung, as they are to this day in that country. After being
sown, the melon tribe produce a bulk of food sooner than any other plant; hence
the value of this plant in seasons of scarcity, and the high price of doves' dung during
tlie famine in Samaria (2 Kings, vi. 25.), when a cab, not quite three pints of corn mea-
sure, cost five pieces of silver.

Chap. II.

Chronological History of Gardening, from the time of the Roman Kings, in the sixth century
B. C, to the Decline and Fall of the Empire in the fifth century of our tsra.

35. Gardening among the Romans we shall consider, 1. As an art of design or taste :
2. In respect to the culture of flowers and plants of ornament : 3. As to its products
for the kitchen and the dessert : 4. As to the propagation of timber-trees and hedges : and
5. As a science, and as to the authors it has produced. In general it will be found
that the Romans copied their gardening from the Greeks, as the latter did from the
Persians^ and that gardening like every other art extended with civilisation from east to

SK(*r. I. Roman Gardening as an Art of Design and Taste.

36. The first mention of a garden in the Roman History is that of Tarquinius Super-
bus, B. C. 534, h^ Livy and Dionysius Halicarnassus. From what they state, it can
only be gathered that it was adjoining to the royal palace, and abounded with flowers,
chiefly roses and poppies. The next in the order of time are those of Lucullus, situated
near Baiae, in the bay of Naples. They were of a magnificence and expense rivalling
that of the eastern monarchs ; and procured to this general, the epithet of the Roman
Xerxes. They consisted of vast edifices projecting into the sea ; of immense artificial
elevations ; of plains formed where mountains formerly stood ; and of vast pieces of
water, which it was the fashion of that time to dignify with the pompous titles of NUus
and Eiiri]ms. Lucullus had made several expeditions to the eastern part of Asia, and
it is probable, he had there contracted a taste for this sort of magnificence. Varro
ridicules these works for their amazing sumptuosity ; and Cicero makes his friend Atticus
hold cheap those magnificent waters, in comparison with the natural stream of the river
Fibrenus, where a small island accidentally divided it. {De Legibus, lib. ii. ) Lucullus,
however, had the merit of introducing the cherry, the peach, and the apricot from the
East, a benefit which still remains to mankind. (Plutarch in vita Lucuili ; Sallust ; and
Var^o de Re Rustica.)

37. Of the gardens of the Augustan age of Virgil and Horace, generally thought to be
that in which taste and elegance were eminently conspicuous, we know but little. In a
garden described by the former poet in his Georgics (lib. iv. 121.), he places only

10 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

chicory, cucumbers, ivy, acanthus, myrtle, narcissus, and roses. — Both Virgil and Pro-
pertius mention the culture of the pine-tree as beloved by Pan, the tutelar deity of
gardens ; and that the shade of the plane, from the thickness of its foliage, was particu-
larly agreeable, and well adapted for convivial meetings. The myrtle and the bay they
describe as in high esteem for their odor ; and to such a degree of nicety had they
arrived in this particular, that the composition or mixture of odoriferous trees became a
point of study ; and those trees were planted adjoining each other, whose odors assimi-
lated together. Open groves in hot countries are particularly desirable for their shade,
and they seem to have been the only sort of plantation of forest-trees then in use. From
Cicero and the elder Pliny, we learn that the quincunx manner of planting them was
very generally adopted ; and from Martial, that the manner of clipping trees was first
introduced by Cneus Matius, a friend of Augustus. Statues and. fountains, according to
Propertius, came into vogue about the same time, some of them casting out water in the
way of jets-cVeau, to occasion surprise, as was afterwards much practised in Italy in the
dawn of gardening in the sixteenth century.

38. The gardens and pleasure-grounds of Pliny the consul are described at length
in his Letters, and delineations of their ichnography have been published by Felibien
in 1699, and by Castell in 1728. Some things, which could only be supplied by the
imagination, are to be found in both these authors ; but on the whole their plans,
especially those of Castell, may be considered as conveying a tolerably correct idea of
a first-rate Roman villa, as in the Laurentinum, and of an extensive country-residence,
as in the Thuscum.

39. The Villa Laurentinum was a winter residence on the Tiber, between Rome
and the sea ; the situation is near Paterno, seventeen miles from Rome, and is now
called San Lorenzo. The garden was small, and is but slightly described. It was
surrounded by hedges of box, and where that had failed, by rosemary. There were
platforms and terraces ; and figs, vines, and mulberries were the fruit-trees. Pliny
seems to have valued this retreat chiefly from its situation relatively to Rome and the
surrounding country, which no walls, fortresses, or belt of wood, hid from his view. On
this region he expatiates with delight, pointing out all " the beauty of liis woods, his rich
meadows covered with cattle, the bay of Ostia, the scattered villas upon its shore, and
the blue distance of the mountains ; his porticoes and seats for different views, and his
favorite little cabinet in which they were all united. So great was Pliny's attention in
this particular, that he not only contrived to see some part of this luxurious landscape
from every room in his house, but even while he was bathing, and when he reposed him-
self! for he tells us of a couch which had one view at the head, another at the feet, and
another at the back." {Preface to Malthus's Introduction to Girardins Essay, &c. p. 20.)
We may add with Eustace and other modern travellers, that the same general appear-
ance of woods and meadows exists there to this day.

40. Pliny^s Thuscum, or Tuscidan Villa {fig. 3. ), now Frascati, was situated in a
natural amphitheatre of the Apennines, wfiose lofty summits were then, as now, crowned
with forests of oak, and their fertile sides richly covered with corn-fields, vineyards,
copses, and villas. Pliny's description of this retreat, though well known, is of import-
ance, as sliowing what was esteemed good taste in the gardens and grounds of a. highly
accomplished Roman nobleman and philosopher, towards the end of the first century,
under the reign of Trajan, when Rome was still in all her glory, and the mistress of the
world in arts and in arms.

41. A general tour of the Tusculan Gardens is given by Malthus and Dr. Fal-
coner. Tlieir extent, Malthus thinks, may have been from three to four acres, and
their situation round the house.

Begmntng there, the xystus or terrace (5), says the author of the Historical Essay, is described as in
the front of the portico, and near to the house ; from this descended a lawn covered with acanthus or
moss (13), and adorned with figures of animals cut out in box-trees, answering alternately to one another.
This lawn was again surrounded by a walk enclosed with tonsil evergreens sheared into a variety of forms.
Beyond this was a place of exercise (2), of a circular form, ornamented in the middle with box-trees
sheared as before into numberless different figures, together with a plantation of shrubs kept low by chp-
ping. The whole was fenced in by a wall covered by box rising in difFerent ranges to the top.

Proceeding from another quarter of the house, there was a small space of ground, shaded by four
plane-trees (7), with a fountain in the centre, which, overflowing a marble basin, watered the trees and
the verdure beneath them. Opposite to another part of the building was a plantation of trees, in form of
a hippodrome (6), formed of box and plane trees alternately planted, and connected together by ivy. Be-
hind these were placed bay-trees, and the ends of the hippodrome, which were semicircular, were formed
of cypress (8). The internal walks were bordered with rose-trees, and were in a winding direction, which
however terminated in a straight path, winch again branched into a variety of others, separated from one
another by box-hedges ; and these, to the great satisfaction of the owner, were sheared into a variety of
shapes and letters (10), some expressing the name of the master, others that of the artificer, while here and
there small obelisks were placed, intermixed with fruit-trees.

Further on was another walk, ornamented with trees sheared as above described, at the upper end of
•which was an alcove of white marble shaded by vines, and supported by marble pillars, from the scat of
which recess issued several streams of water, intended to appear as if pressed out by the weight of those
which reposed upon it, which water was again received in a basin, that was so contrived as to seem al.
ways full without overflowing. Corresponding to this was a fountain, or jet tfeau, that threw out water
to a considerable height, and which ran off as fast as it was thrown out. An elegant marble summer-

Book I.

GARDENS OF THE ROMANS.

11

house opening into a green enclosure, and furnished with a fountain similar to that last described, fronted
the above. Throughout the walks were scattered marble seats, near to each of which was a little fountain •
and throughout the whole small rills of water were artificially conducted among the walks, that served to
entertain the ear with their murmurs as well as to water the garden. {Historical View.&c. p 53 ■ PUnv's
Epistles, b. v. letter 6. ; Felibien, Plans et Descr. y CasteWs Villas of Vie Ancients.) ^ > j

42. Tlie details of the Tusoulan Villa are thus given by Castell. (Fig. 3. )

( 1 ) Villa, or house.

( 2 ) Gestatio, or place of exercise for chariots.

j 3 ) Ambulatio, or walk surrounding the terraces.

i 4 I The slope, with the fonns of beasts cut in box.

( 5 ) The systus, or terrace, before the porticus, and on the
sides of the house.

( 6 > The hippodrome, or plain so called, on the north side of
the Iwuse.

( 7 ) Plane trees on the straight bounds of the hippodrome.

{ 8 ) Cynress trees on the semicircular bounds of the hippo-
drome.

( 9 ) The stibadium and other buildings in the garden.

jlO) Box cut into names and other forms.

Ill) The pratulum, or little meadow in the garden,

(12) The imitation of the natural fece of some coi

garden.

(13) The walk, covered with acanthus or

; country in the

(14) The meadows before the gestatio.

(15) The tops of the hills, covered with aged trees.

(16) The underwood on the declivities ofthe lulls.

(17) Vineyards below the underwood.

(18) Corn-fields.

(19) The river Tiber.

(20) The temple of Ceres, built by MusUus.

(21) The farmery.

(22) Vivarium, or park.

(23) Kitchen-garden.

(24) Orchard.

(25) Apiary.

(26) Cochlearium, or snailery.

(27) Glirarium, or place for dormice.

(29) Aque

Ua* of ike Ancit^Un, p. 51., and Plate Tluiscujti.

43. That the style of Pliny's villas gave the tone to the European taste in gardening up
to the end of the 17th century is sufficiently obvious. It is almost superfluous to remark,

12 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

observes the author of the Historical View, the striking resemblance which Pliny's
gardens bear to the French or Dutch taste. The terraces adjoining to the house ; the
lawn declining from thence ; the little flower-garden, with the fountain in the centre ;
the walks bordered with box, and the trees sheared into whimsical artificial forms ; toge-
ther with the fountains, alcoves, and summer-houses, form a resemblance too striking to
bear dispute. " In an age," observes Lord Walpole, " when architecture displayed all its
grandeur, all its purity, and all its taste ; when arose Vespasian's amphitheatre, the
temple of Peace, Trajan's forum, Domitian's bath, and Adrian's villa, the ruins and
vestiges of which still excite our astonishment and curiosity; a Roman consul, a polished
emperor's friend, and a man of elegant literature and taste, delighted in what the mob
now scarcely admire in a college-garden. All the ingredients of Pliny's garden corre-
spond exactly with those laid out by London and Wise on Dutch principles ; so that
nothing is wanting but a parterre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for the
description of one in the reign of King William." — The open country round * villa was
managed, as the Roman agricultural writers inform us, in the common field system lately
prevalent in Britain ; there were few or no hedges, or other fences, or rows of trees, but
what was not under forest was in waste, with patches of fallow or corn. Thus it appears
that the country residence of an ancient Roman, not only as to his garden, as Lord Wal-
pole has observed, but even as to the views and prospects from his house, as Eustace
and Malthus hint, bore a very near resemblance to the chateau of a French or German
nobleman in the 18th century, and to not a few in France and Italy at the present day.
— The same taste as that displayed by Pliny appears to have prevailed till the fall of the
Roman empire ; and by existing in a faint degree in the gardens of religious houses
during tlie dark ages, as well as in Pliny's writings, has thus been handed down to
modern times.

44. Thejrrogress of gardening among the Romans was much less than that of architecture.
Professor Hirschfield remarks (^T/ieorie des Jardins, tom. i. p. 25.), that as the descriptions
of the ancient Roman authors make us better acquainted with their country-houses than
with their gardens, and as the former appear more readily submitted to certain rules than
the latter, we are apt to bestow on the gardens the reputation which really belongs to the
country-houses, and give the one a value which does not belong to tiie other. The
different manner in whicli the ancients speak of country-houses and of gardens, may
lead us to judge which of the two objects had attained the highest degree of perfection.
Tlie descriptions of the first are not only more numerous but more detailed. Gardens are
only 'mentioned in a general manner; and the writer rests satisfied with bestowing appro-
bation on their fertility and charms. Every country-house had its gardens in the days
of Pliny ; and it is not too much, taking this circumstance in connection with the re-
marks of Columella, to hazard a conjecture that even the Romans themselves considered
their gardens less perfect than their houses. Doubtless the Roman authors, so attentive
to elevate the glory of their age in every thing concerning the fine arts, would have en-
larged more on this subject, if they had been able to produce any thing of importance.
To decide as to the perfection which a nation has attained in one of the arts, by their
perfection in another, is too hazardous a judgment ; the error has been already committed
in regard to the music of the ancients, and must not be repeated in judging of their gardens.
The Romans appear in general to have turned their attention to every thing which
bore the impression of grandeur and magnificence ; hence their passion for building
baths, circuses, colonnades, statues, reservoirs, and other objects which strike the eye.
Besides, this taste was more easily satisfied, and more promptly, than a taste for plant-
ations, which required time and patience. In all probability the greater number contented
themselves with the useful products of the soil, and the natural beauty of the views,
bestowing the utmost attention to the selection of an elevated site commanding distant
scenery. — Cicero (De Legg. iii. 15.) informs us that it was in their country-villas that
the Romans chiefly delighted in displaying their magnificence ; and in this respect, the
coincidence in habits between ourselves and that great people is a proud circumstance.

45. The Roman taste in gardens has been condemned as unnatural ; but such criticism
we consider as proceeding from much too limited a view of the subject. Because the
Roman gardens were considered as scenes of art, and treated as such, it does not follow
that the possessors were without a just feeling for natural scenery. Where all around
is nature, artificial scenes even of the most formal description will please, and may be
approved of by the justest taste, from their novelty, contrast, and other associations.
If all England were a scattered forest like ancient Italy, and cultivation were to take
place only in the open glades or plains, where would be the beauty of our parks and
picturesque grounds ? The relative or temporary beauties of art should therefore not be
entirely rejected in our admiration of the more permanent and absolute beauties of nature.
That the ancient Romans admired natural scenery with as great enthusiasm as the
moderns, is evident from the writings of their eminent poets and philosophers ; scarcely
one of whom has not in some part of his works left us the most beautiful description's

Book I. GARDENS OF THE ROMANS. 13

of natural scenery, and the most enthusiastic strains of admiration of all that is grand,
pleasing, or romantic in landscape ; and some of them, as Cicero and Juvenal, have
deprecated tlie efforts of art in attempting to improve nature. " Whoever," says
G. Mason, " would properly estimate the attachment to rural picturesque among the
heathen nations of old, should not confine their researches to the domains of men, but
extend them to the temples and altars, the caves and fountains dedicated to their deities.
These, with their concomitant groves, were generally favorite objects of visual pleasure,
as well as of veneration." (^Essay on Design, p. 24.)

Sect. II. Roman Gardening considered as to tJie Culture of Flowers and Plants of

Ornament.

46. Flowers loere rare in Roman gardens under the kings, and during the first ages of
the republic. But as luxury began to be introduced, and finally prevailed to a great de-
gree, the passion for flowers became so great that it was found necessary to suppress it by
sumptuary laws. Tlie use of crowns of flowers was forbid to such as had not received
the right to use them, either by the eminence of their situation, or by the particular per-
mission of the magistrates. Some acts of rigor towards offenders did not hinder their
laws from being first eluded, and at last forgotten, till that which was originally a distinc-
tion became at last a general ornament. Men the most elevated in dignity did not hesitate
to set up that elegance of dress and of ornament which is repugnant to the idea of a war-
like people ; and Cicero, in his third harangue against Verres, reproaches this proconsul
with having made the tour of Sicily in a litter, seated on roses, having a crown of flowers
on his head, and a garland at his back.

47. The Floralia, or Jtower feasts, were observed on the last four days of April ; they
were attended with great indecency, but they show that the common people also carried
a taste for flowers to excess. (Plini/, xiii. 29.; Tertullian. Opera.)

48. The luxury of Jiowers under Augustus was carried to the extreme of folly. Helio-
gabalus caused his beds, his apartments, and tlie porticoes of his palace to be strewed with
flowers. Among these, roses were the sort chiefly employed, the taste for that flower
being supposed to be introduced from Egypt, where, as Athenaeus informs us, Cleopatra
paid a talent for the roses expended at one supper ; the floor of the apartment in which
the entertainment was given, being strewed with them to the depth of a cubit. This, how-
ever, is nothing to what Suetonius relates of Nero, who spent upwards of four millions of
sesterces, or above thirty thousand pounds, at one supper, on these flowers. From Horace
it appears that roses were cultivated in beds ; and from Martial, who mentions roses out
of season as one of the greatest luxuries of his time, it would appear that it was then the
caprice, as at present, to procure them prematurely, or by retardation. Columella enume-
rates the rose, the lily, the hyacinth, and the gilly-flower, as flowers which may embellish
the kitchen-rjarden ; and he mentions, in particular, a place set apart for the production
of late rosea. Pliny says, the method by which roses were produced prematurely was,
by watering them with warm water when the bud began to appear. From Seneca and
Martial it appears probable they were also forwarded by means of specularia, like certain
culinary proaucUons to be afterwards mentioned.

49- Scientific assemblages of plants, or botanic gardens, appear to have been unknown to
the Romans, who had formed no regular system of nomenclature for the vegetable king-
dom. Pliny informs us tliat Anthony Castor, one of the first physicians at Rome, had
assembled a number of medical plants in his garden, but they were, in all probability, for
the purposes of his profession. Between 200 and 300 plants are mentioned in Pliny's
History, as used in agriculture, gardens, medicine, for garlands, or other purposes, and
these appear to be all that were known or had names in general use. (Fliny, Nat. Hist.
lib. xii. — xxvi. inclusive.)

Sect. III. Roman Gardening in respect to its Products for the Kitchen and the Dessert.

50. The term Hortus in the laws of the Decemviri, which are supposed to be as old as
the establishment of the Romans as a people, is used to signify both a garden and a
country-house, but afterwards the kitchen-garden was distinguished by the appellation
Hortus Pinguis. Pliny informs us, that a husbandman called a kitchen-garden a second
dessert, or a flitch of bacon, which was always ready to be cut ; or a sallad, easy to be
cooked and light of digestion, and judged there must be a bad housewife (the garden
being her charge) in that house where the garden was in bad order.

51. The principal fruUs introduced to Italy by the Romans, according to Hirschfield
(Theorie des Jardins, vol. i. p. 27.) and Sickler (Geschichte, 1 Band.), are the fig
from Syria, the citron from Media, the peach from Persia, the pomegranate from Africa,
the apricot from Epirus, apples, pears, and plums from Armenia, and cherries from
Pontus. The rarity and beauty of these trees, he observes (Theorie des Jardins t
vol.i. p. 27.), joined to the delicious taste of their fruits, must have enchanted
the Romans, especially on their first introduction, and rendered ravisliing to tlie sight,

14 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

gardens which became insensibly embellished with the many productions which were
poured into them from Greece, Asia, and Africa.

52. The fruits cultivated by the Romans, in the summit of their power, are described by
Pliny (lib. xv.), and with the exception of the orange and pine-apple, gooseberry, cur-
rant, and raspberry, include almost all those now in culture in Europe.

Of Aeni«/ fruits they had, apples, twenty-two sorts at least : They had round berried and long-berried sorts, one so long that

sweet apples (nulimala) for eatmg, and others for cookery. They it was called dadyluks, the grapes being like the fingers on the

had one sort without kernels. Of pears, they had thirty-six hand. Martial speaks favorably of the hard-skinned grape for

kinds, both summer and winter fruit, melting and h.ird ; some eating. Of Jigs, they had many sorts, black and white, large

were- called libraiia : we have our pound uear. Of quinces, and small ; one as large as a pear, another no larger than an

they had three sorts, one was called chrysomda, from its yellow oUve. Of mulberries, they hzid two kinds of the black sort, a

flesh ; they boiled them with honey, as we make meirmalade. larger and smaller. Pliny speaks also of a mulberry growing

Oi services, they had the apple-shaped, the pear-shaped, and a on a briar; but whether this means the raspberry, or the

small kind, probably the same as we gather wild. Oi medlars, common brambleberry, does not appear. S^ramAerrie* they had,

two sorts, larger and smaller. • but do not appear to have prized : the climate is too warm to

Of stone fruits, they had peaches, four sorts, including nee- produce this fruit in perfection, unless on the hills,
tarines, apricots, almonds. Of plums, they had a multiplicity Of 7iuts they had hazel-nuts and hlberds, which they roasted ;

" sorts, black, white, and variegated; one sort was called beech, mast, pistacia, &c. Of walnuts they had soft-shelled

tiia, from its cheapness ; another damascena, which had and hard-shelled, as we have. In the golden age, when men

astnia

much stone and little flesh : we may conclude it was what we lived upon acorns, the gods lived upon walnuts ; hence the

now call prunes. Of cherries, they liad eight kinds, a red one, name Juglatis, Jovis Glans. Of chestnuts, they had six sorts,

a black one, a kind so tender as scarcely to bear any carriage, some more easily separated from the skin than others, and one

a hard-fleshed one {duracina), like our Bigarreau, a small one with a red skin ; they roasted them as we do.

with bitterish flavor (laurea), like our Uttle wild black, "also a Of leguminous fruits, the carob bean, ceratonia siliqua.

dwarf one not exceeding three feet high. Of the olive, several Of resinous or terebinlhinate fruits they used the kernels rf

sorts. four sorts of pine, including, as is still the case in Tuscany, the

Of berries they had grapes. They had a multiplicity of these, seeds of the Scotch pine,

both thick-skiimed (duracina) and thin-skimied : one vine f)! cucurbHaceotts fruits, they had the gourd, cucumier, and

growing at Rome produced 12 amphoraj of juice, 84 gallons. »/ (/..„, in great variety.

53. The grape and the olive were cultivated as agricultural jn'oducts with the greatest at-
tention, for which ample instructions are to be found in all the Roman writers on
Geoponics. Some plantations mentioned by Pliny are supposed still to exist, as of olives
at Terni and of vines at Fiesoli. Both these bear marks of the greatest age.

54. The culinary vegetables cultivated by the Romans were chiefly tlie following :

Of the brassica tril>e, several varieties. Cabbages, Columella Of the aUiaceoua tribe, the onion, and garlick of several sorts,

says, were esteemed both by slaves and kings. Of sallads, endive, lettuce, and chicory, mustard and others.

Of leguminous plants, the pea, bean, and kidney-bean. Of pot and sweet herbs, parsley, orache, alisanders, dittander.

Of esculent roots, the turnip, carrot, parsnip, beet, skirret, elecampane, fennel, and chervil, and a variety of others,
and radish. Mushrooms, and fuci were used ; and bees, snails, dormice.

Of spinaceoiis plants, they appear to have had at least sorrel. &c. were cultivated in or near to tbeii kitchen gardens, in ap-

Ot asparaginous plants, asparagus. propriate places.

53, The luxury of forcing vegetable productions it would appear had even been at-
tempted by the Romans. Specularia, or plates of the lapis specularis, we are informed by
Seneca and Pliny, could be split into thin plates, in length not exceeding five feet (a
remarkable circumstance, since few pieces larger than a fifth of these dimensions are now
any where to be met with); and we learn from Columella (lib. xii. cap. 3.), Martial
(lib. viii. 14. & 68.), and Pliny (lib. xix. 23.), that by means of these specularia, Tiberius,
who was fond of cucumbers, had them in his garden throughout the year. They were
grown in boxes or baskets of dung and earth, placed under these plates, and removed to
the open air in fine days, and replaced at night. Sir Joseph Banks (Hort. Tr. i. 148.)
conjectures, from the epigrams of Martial referred to, that both grapes and peaches were
forced ; and Daines Barrington supposes that the Romans may not only have had hot-
houses, but hot-walls to forward early productions. Flues, Sir Joseph Banks observes
{Hort. Tr. i. 147), the Romans were well acquainted with; they did n6t use open fires in
their ^artments, as we do, but in the colder countries at least, they always had flues under
the floors of their apartments. Lysons found the flues, and the fire-place from whence
they received heat, in the Roman villa he has described in Gloucestershire. Similar flues
and fire-places were also found in the extensive villa lately discovered on the Blenheim
estate in Oxfordshire. In Italy the Romans used flues chiefly for baths or sudatories,
and in some of these which we have seen in the disinterred Greek city of Pompeii, tlie
walls round the apartment are fined, or hollow, for the circulation of hot air and smoke.

56. The luxury of ice in cooling liquors was discovered by the Romans at the time
when they began to force fruits. Daines Barrington notices tliis as a remarkable circum-
stance, and adds, as a singular coincidence, the coeval invention of these arts in England.

Sect. IV. Roman Gardening considered in resjiect to the Propagation and Planting of
Timber-trees and Hedges.

57. The Roinans jyropagated trees by the methods noio in common use in our nurseries.
Fruit-trees were generally grafted and inoculated; vines, figs, and olives raised by cuttings,
layers, or suckers ; and forest-trees generally propagated by seeds and suckers.

58. Though forest-lrees were reared with great care round houses in the city {Hor. Ep,
i. 10. 22.), yet it does not appear clear that they were planted in masses or strips expressly
for useful purposes. They were planted in rows in vineyards on which to train tlie vine ;
and the sorts generally preferred were the poplar and the elm. Natural forests and
copses, then, as now, supplied timber and fuel. Trees which do not stole {arbores cceduce),
were distinguished from such as being cut over spring up again {succisce repullulant) : of
the former class was the larch, which was most in use as timber. Pliny mentions a beam
120 feet long and 2 feet thick.

Book I. GARDENS OF THE ROMANS.

15

59. Willows were cultivated for binding the vines to the trees that supported them ;
for hedges ; and for making baskets ( Virg. G. ii. 4. 36.) : moist ground was preferred for
growing them, Udum salictum.

60. Hedges were of various sorts, but we are not informed what were the plants
grown in those used for defence. They surrounded chiefly vineyards and gardens j for
agriculture was then, as now, carried on in the common or open field manner.

Sect. V. Roman Gardening as a Science, and as to the Authors it produced.

61. The gardening of the Romans was entirely emjnrical, and carried on with all
the superstitious observations dictated by a religion founded on polytheism. Almost
everj' operation had its god, who was to be invoked or propitiated on all occasions. " I
will write for your instruction," says Varro to Fundasius, " tliree books on husbandry,
first invoking the twelve dU consentes." After enumerating the gods which preside over
household matters, and the common field operations, he adds, " adoring Venus as the
patroness of the garden, and offering my entreaties to LjTnpha, because culture is
drought and misery without water." The elements of agriculture, he says, are the same
as those of the world — ivater, earth, air, :wid the sun. Agriculture is a necessary and
great art, and it is a science which teaches what is to be planted and done in every
ground, and what lands yield tlie greatest profit. It should aim at utility and pleasure,
by producing things profitable and agreeable, &c.

62. Lunar days were observed, and also lucky and unlucky days, as described by
Hesiod. Some things, Varro observes, are to be done in the fields while the moon is
increasing ; others on the contrary when she is decreasing, as the cutting of corn and
underwood. At the change of the moon pull your beans before daylight ; to prevent
rats and mice from preying on a vineyard, prune the vines in the night-time : sow vetches
before the twenty-fifth day of the moon, &c. " I observe these things," says Agrasius,
(one of fifty authors who Varro says had written on husbandry, but whose writings are
now lost,) " not only in shearing my sheep, but in cutting my hair, for I might become
bald if I did not do this in the wane of tlie moon."

63. Religion and magic were also called in to the aid of the cultivator. Columella says
that husbandmen who are more religious than ordinary, when tliey sow turnips, pray
that they may grow both for themselves and for their neighbours. If caterpillars attack
them, Democritus aflirms that a woman going with her hair loose, and bare-footed,
three times round each bed will kill them. Women must be rarely admitted where
cucumbers or gourds are planted, for commonly green things languish and are checked
in their growth by their handling of them.

64. Of vegetable physiology they seem to have been very ignorant. It was a doctrine
held by Virgil, Columella, and Pliny, that any scion may be grafted on any stock ; and
that the scion partaking of the nature of the stock, had its fruit changed in flavor accord-
ingly. Pliny mentions tlie effect of grafting the vine on the elm, and of drawing a vine
shoot through the trunk of a chestnut ; but modern experience proves that no faith is to be
given to such doctrines, even though some of these authors affirm to have seen what
they describe.

65. Equivocal generation was believed in. Some barren trees and shrubs, as the
poplar, willow, osier, and broom, were thought to grow spontaneously ; others by
fortuitous seeds, as tlie chestnut and oak ; some from the roots of otlier sorts of trees, as
the cherry, elm, bay, &c. Notwithstanding the ignorance and inaccuracy which their
statements betray, the Romans were aware of all our common, and some of our uncom-
mon practices : they propagated plants as we do ; pruned and thinned, watered, forced,
and retarded fruits and blossoms, and even made incisions and ringed trees to induce
fruitfulness.

66. There is no Roman author exclusively on gardening, but the subject is treated, more
or less, by Cato, Varro, Virgil, Pliny, and Columella.

Cato and Varro lived, the former B. C. 150, and the latter B. C. 28 : both wrote treatises on rural affairs,
De lie Rustica ; but, excepting what relates to the vine and the fig, have littie on the subject of gardens.

Virgil's Georgics appeared in the century preceding the commencement of our aera. Virgil was bom in
Mantua about B. C. 70 ; but Uved much at Rome and Naples. He appears to have taken most of his
ideas from Cato and Varro.

Plinv's Natural History was written in the first century of our sra. Pliny was bom at or near Rome,
and lived much at court. The.twelfth to the twenty-sixth book inclusive are chiefly on husbandry, gardens,
trees, and medical plants.

The Rural (Economy of Columella is in twelve books, of which the eleventh, on Gardening, is in verse.
He was bom at Gades, now Cadiz, in Spain, but passed most of his time in luly.

16

HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I

Chap. III.

Chronological History of Gardening, in continental Europe from the Time of the Romans
to the present Day, or from A. D. 500 to A. D. 1823.

67. The decline of the Roman Empire commenced with the reign of the emperors.
The ages, Hirschfield observes, which followed the fall of the republic, the violence
committed by several of the emperors, the invasion of the barbarians, and the ferocity
introduced by the troubles of the times, extinguished a taste for a country life, in pro-
portion as they destroyed the means of enjoying it. So many injuries falling on the
best provinces of the Roman empire, one after another, soon destroyed the country-
houses and gardens. Barbarism triumphed over man and the arts, arms again became
the reigning occupation, superstition allied itself to warlike inclinations, and spread
over Europe a manner of thinking far removed from the noble simplicity of nature.
The mixture of so many different nations in Italy did not a little contribute to corrupt
the taste ; the possessions of the nobles remaining without defence, were soon pillaged
and razed, and the earth was only cultivated from necessity. Soon afterwards the first
countries were considered those where one convent raised itself beside another. Archi-
tecture was only employed in chapels and churches, or on warlike forts and castles.
From the establishment of the ecclesiastical government of the Popes in the eighth to the
end of the twelfth century, the monks were almost the only class in Europe who occu-
pied themselves in agriculture ; many of these, carried away by their zeal, fled from the
corruption of the age, and striving to overcome their passions, or indulge their gloomy
humor, or, as Herder observes, to substitute one passion for another, retired into
solitary deserts, unhealthy valleys, forests, and mountains ; there they labored with
their own hands, and rendered fertile, lands till then barren from neglect, or in a state of
natural rudeness.

68. Thus the arts of culture were preserved by the monks during the dark ages- Tlie
sovereigns, in procuring pardon of their sins by bestowing on the monks extensive tracts
of country and slaves, recompensed their activity as rural improvers. The monks
of St. Basil and St. Benedict, Harte informs us, rendered many tracts fertile in Italy,
Spain, and the south of France, which had lain neglected ever since the first incursions of
the Goths and Saracens. Others were equally active in Britain in ameliorating the soil.
Walker (Essays') informs us that even in the remote island of lona, an extensive estab-
lishment of monks was formed in the sixth century, and that the remains of a corn-mill
and mill-dam built by them still exist ; and indeed it is not too much to affirm, that
without the architectural and rural labors of this class of men, many provinces of Europe
which at present nourish thousands of inhabitants would have remained deserts or
marshes, the resorts only of wild beasts, and the seminaries of disease ; and architecture
and gardening, as arts of design, instead of being very generally diffused, would have
been lost to the greater part of Europe.

69. At length the dawn of light appeared with the art of printing, Luther, and Hen. VIII.
Commerce began to flourish in Italy and Holland, arts of peace began to prevail, and
the European part of what was formerly the Roman empire gradually assumed these
political divisions which it for the greater part still retains. We shall take a cursory
view of the progress of gardening in each of these states, from the dark ages to the present
day.

Sect. I. Of tlie Revival, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Italy.
' 70. The blessings of peace and of commerce, the remains of ancient grandeur still
existing, and the liberty which some cities had acquired through the generosity and splen-
dor of some popes and princes, united with other causes in the revival of the arts in Italy
rather than in any otlier country.

SuBSECT. 1. Italian Gardening, in respect to Design and Taste.

71. Tlie earliest notice of Italian gardening is in the work of Pierre de Crescent, a
senator of Bologna. He composed in the beginning of the fourteenth century a work
on agriculture, which he dedicated to Charles II. king of Naples and Sicily. In the
eighth book of this work the author treats of gardens of pleasure. These he divides
into three classes ; those of persons of small fortune : those of persons in easy circum-
stances ; and those of princes and kings. He teaches the mode of constructing
and ornamenting each ; and of the royal gardens observes, that they ought to have
a menagerie and an aviary ; the latter placed among thickets, arbors, and vines. Each
of the three classes ought to be decorated with turf, shrubs, and aromatic flowers.

72. Gardening, with the otlier arts, was revived and patronised by the Medici family in the
beginning of the sixteenth century, and the most celebrated gardens of these times, as
Roscoe informs us, were those of Lorenzo de Medici, and of the wealthy Bernard Ru-

Book I. GARDENING IN ITALY. 17

cellai. Tliey were in the geometric and architectural taste of those of Pliny, and served
as models or precedents for other famous gardens which succeeded them till within the
last sixty years, when, as Eustace observes, a mixture of the modem or natural-like
manner was generally admitted.

73. The taate Jbr distributing statues and urns in gardens is said to have been revived
about the beginning of the sixteenth century by Cardinal D'Este, from the accidental
circumstance of his having formed a villa on the site of that of the emperor Adrian,
near Rome, where finding a number of antiquities, he distributed them over the newly
arranged surface. This mode was soon imitated by Francis I. of France, and afterwards
by the other countries of Europe. Gardens of plants in pots and vases, began to be
introduced about the same time, and were used to decorate apartments, balconies, and
roofs of houses as at present.

74. About the end of the sixteenth century^ the celebrated Montaigne travelled in Italy,
and has left us some accounts of the principal gardens of that age. He chiefly enlarges
on their curious hydraulic devices, for which the garden of the Cardinal de Ferrara at
TivoU was remarkable. {Jour, en Ital. torn, ii.)

75. About the beginnitig of the seventeenth century, U Adamo, a poem, was written and
published at Milan in 1617, by G. B. Andreini, a Florentine. The prints, Warton
observes, (Essay on Pope,) that are to represent paradise are full of dipt hedges, square
parterres, straight walks, trees uniformly lopt, regular knots and carpets of flowers, groves
nodding at groves, marble fountains, and water-works. Tliis may be considered as a poetic
assemblage of the component parts of a fine Italian garden in the seventeenth century.

76. Afier the middle of the seventeenth century^ the celebrated Evelyn, the author of
Sylva, visited Italy, and has described a number of its principal gardens.

At Genoa he saw the palace of Hieronymo del Negro, " on the terrace or hilly garden, there is a grove of
stately trees, among which are sheep, shepherds, and wild beasts, cut very artificially in a grey stone ;
fountains, rocks, and fish-ponds. Casting your eyes one way, you would imagine yourself in a wilder-
ness and silent country j sidewajs, in the heart of a great city."

At and near Florence, he says, there are more than a thousand palaces, and country-houses of note.
He particularises those of Boboli at the ducal residence (now the palace Pitti), in the town, which still
exist and are kept in tolerable order.

In and near RoTne, he mentions those of the Borghese family, and of Cardinal Aldobrandini at Frascati,
" surpassing, in my opinion, the most delicious places I ever beheld for its sifuation, elegance, plentiful
waters, groves, ascents, and prospects." He admires several hydraulic conceits, some of which still exist,
and also that " of a copper ball, supported by a jet of air issuing from the floor, and continuaUy
dancing about."

At TivoU he visited the palace and gardens of Este, which are mentioned with similar encomiums.

Of the palaces and gardens of Lombardy, he observes, " No disgrace in this country to be some gener-
ations in finishing their palaces, that, without exhausting themselves by a vast expence at once, they may
at last erect a sumptuous pile." " An Italian nobleman," Forsyth remarks, " will live on a crown a day,
but spend millions for the benefit of posterity, and the ornament of his country."

At VUmarini, near Vicenza, he found an orangery, " eleven score paces long, full of fruit and blossoms.
In the centre of the garden, a magnificent wire cupola, supported by slender brick piers, and richly covered
with ivy. — A most inextricable labyrinth." {Memoirs by Bray, vol. i. 75 — ^207.)

77. In the beginning of the eighteenth century Italy was visited by Volkman, a German
traveller, whom Hirschfield considers as deserving credit, and a good judge. He repre-
sents the Italian gardens as inferior to those of France in point of superb alleys, lofty clipt
hedges, and cabinets of verdure ; but, he adds, that they please the greater part of tra-
vellers from the north of Europe, more than the French gardens, from the greater variety
of plants which they contain, and their almost perpetual luxuriance and verdure.
Among the fine gardens, he includes those of Venerie, Stupigni, and Vigne de la Heine,
near Turin, which do not appear to have been visited by Evelyn. The beauties of most
of the gardens near Rome, he considers as depending more on their situations, distant
views, classic remains and associations, luxuriant vegetation, and fine climate, than on
their design, which, he says, exhibits " all the puerilities of the French taste, without its
formal grandeur." [Nachrichten von Italien, 1 ster band.)

78. About the middle of the eighteenth century the English style of gardening began to
attract attention in Italy, though partly from the general stagnation of mind, and partly
from the abundance of natural beauty already existing, it has never made much progress
in that country. " Unfortunately," observes Eustace {Tour, i. 426.), a traveller abun-
dantly partial to Italy, " the modern Romans, like the continental nations in general, are
not partial to country residence. They may enjoy the description or commend the
representation of rural scenes and occupations in books and pictures ; but they feel not
the beauties of nature, and cannot relish the calm, the solitary charms of a country life."
The Italians in general, he elsewhere adds (i. 98.), have very little taste in furnishing a
house, or in laying out grounds to advantage. — Notwithstanding these remarks, and the
known paucity of specimens of landscape gardening in Italy, an Italian author of
eminence. Professor Malacarne of Padua, has lately claimed for Charles Imanuel, first
Duke of Savoy, the honor of having invented and first displayed an English garden or
park in the neighbourhood of Turin ; and which park he proves by a letter of Tasso,
that poet wished to immortalise " as much as he could," in the well-known stanza of his
Jerusalem, which Chaucer copied, and which Warton and Eustace suggest as more

C

18 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

likely to have given the first idea of an English garden, than Milton's description of
Paradise. {Netu Man. Mag. for July 1820. ; Pindemonte su i Giardini Inglese, Verona j
1817.)

79. Of the present state of gardening in Italy , as an art of design, we shall submit a
slio-ht sketch, partly from writers of the present century, and partly from our own inspec-
tion in 1819. The grand object of an Italian nobleman is to produce a huge pile of
architecture, externally splendid, and to collect a gallery of pictures and statues. The
furnishing of this pile for domestic use, or even the internal finishing of great part of it,
he cares little about ; and the park or gardens are inferior objects of attention. The
Romans, when at the highest point of power, seem to have had exactly the same taste, as
may be gathered from their writings, and seen in the existing ruins of the Villa Adriana,
near Tivoli, and many others.

80. Near Turin, the palace and gardens of Venerie still exist, but are only remarkable
for extent, and for an old orangery nearly six hundred feet in length. The surface of the
park is irregular, and the trees distributed in avenues, alleys, and geometrical figures ;
the grounds of some of the numerous white villas near the city are romantic, and
command extensive prospects ; but very few aspire to the character of fine gardens.

81. Jt Genoa the best garden is that of Sig. di Negro, situated within the city. It
is elevated, irregular, and singularly varied ; rich in views of the town, the sea, and the
mountains ; abounds in fruits, botanical riches, shady and open walks, turrets, and
caves. There is one large cave in which dinner-parties are frequently given by the pro-
prietor ; and once a year, we believe on his birth-day, this grotto is decorated with
some hundreds of religious puppets in gilt dresses, accompanied with pictures of saints,
sculls, crucifixes, relics, tapers, and lamps. This forms a part of the gardener's business,
who preserves these paraphernalia through the rest of the year in a sort of museum.
We mention the circumstance as characteristic of the Italian taste for spectacle, so different
from that of the English. The gardens of Hipolito Durazo, and of Grimaldi, are
more extensive, but less select than those of S. di Negro. Like them they are singularly
varied in surface, and rich in marine views. The whole coast from Savonna to Genoa,
and from Genoa to Nervi, is naturally very irregular, and abounds in beautiful gardens,
abundantly stocked with orange trees, partly in pots, and in the warmest situations trained
against walls, or planted as standards. We visited many of these gardens, and the only
general fault seemed to be the want of order and keeping ; properties which are essential
to the full effect of every style in every country.

82. The gardens of Lombardy are the most luxuriant in vegetation, not only in Italy,
but perhaps in Europe. The climate is not so favorable for the perfection of the grape
and the orange as that of Naples, nor for the production of large turnips and succulent
cabbages as that of Holland ; but it possesses a medium of temperature and humidity
between the two climates which is perhaps favorable to a greater number of vegetable
productions, than any one climate on the face of our globe. There are few princely
gardens in this kingdom, but many of moderate size well stocked with trees and plants
of ornament, and sometimes neatly kept.

The gardens of the Brenta still retain marks of their ancient celebrity.

The extent and beauty of those of the Isola Bella (figA.), have been greatly exaggerated by Eustace,
and other travellers. The justest description appears to us to be that of Wilson. " Nothing," he says,
" can be so noble as the conversion of a barren rock, without an inch of earth on its surface, into a
paradise of fertility and luxury. This rock, in 1640, produced nothing but mosses and lichens, when
Vitaliano Boromeo conceived the idea of turning it into a garden of fruits and flowers. For this purpose,
he brought earth from the banks of the lake, and built ten terraces on arches, one above the other, to the
top of the island on which the palace is posted. This labor has produced a most singular pyramid of
exotics and other plants, which make a fine show, and constitute the chief ornament of this miracle of
artificial beauty. The orange and lemon trees are in great luxuriance, and the grove of laurels {t. ?iobilis)
is hardly to be equalled any where in Europe ; two of them in particular are said to be the largest
known in existence." {Wilson's Tours, vol. iii. p. 449.)

At Monza, the royal residence, near Milan, is the finest garden scenery in Italy. The park contains
upwards of 3000 acres, of a gently varied fertile surface. It is chiefly laid out in the regular style ; but
contams also an English garden of considerable extent and beauty. It is well watered, and the walks are
not so numerous as to disturb the unity and repose of the scenes. The culinary, flower, botanic, and

Book I. GARDENING IN IT/LY. ' 19

fruit gardens, orangeries, and hot-houses, are all good, and as well managed as the penuriousness of the
present vice-kmg will admit. Very fine avenues lead from this residence to Milan. The whole was begun
m Beauharnois' tune, under the direction of Sig. Vilbresi, one of the most scientific gardeners in Italy
and IS still managed under his direction, but with greatly diminished resources.

There are various g,irdens pointed out to strangers as English, verameiite Inglcsc, near ^Slilan, and also
at \ erona, \ icenza, Brescia, Porta, &c. ; and Buonaparte caused a small public garden to be made in
Venice. " In many of the villas on the lake of Como," Wilson obser\-es, " it is most delightful to behold
the lotty crags frowning over the highly cultivated gardens, with hot-houses of exotic planU, neat terraces
and ornamental summer-houses, subduing xhe natural wildness of the situation." Slost of those which
we visited were too much ornamented, and too full of walks, seats, arbors, and other ornaments, for that
repose and s:.nplicity which, according to our ideas, is essential to an English garden. Art, in most of
these gardens, is as much avowed as in the French style; whereas, in the true English garden, though art
IS empioyeu, yet it is not avowed and ostentatiously displaved ; on the contrary, the grand object is to fol-
low the directions of the Italians thems^ves, and study that the art " che tuttofa, ntUlo fi scopre."

83. At Florence, the ducal gardens of Boboli are the most remarkable. Tliey oc-
cupy two sides of a conical hill, and part of a bottom, and consist of three parts ; a
botanic and exotic garden close to the palace Pitti and the celebrated museum ; a kitchen-
garden, near the hill top ; and, a geometric garden which occupies tlie greater part of
the hill. Tlie scene abounds in almost every ingredient of the stjle in which it is
Jaid out. Tlie ground being very steep, almost all the walks slope considerably ; but a
few, conducted horizontally, are level, and serve, if the expression be admissible, as rest-
ing walks. Tliere are abundance of seats, arbors, vases, planted with agaves and
orange-trees ; and a prospect tower on the summit, from which, as well as from many
other points, are obtained fine views of Florence and the environs. In the lower part or
bottom is a handsome basin of water, with an island and fountains in the centre, verged
with a marble parapet ornamented with vases of orange-trees, and surrounded by
shorn hedges and statues. On the whole, nothing has been spared to render these gardens
complete of their kind, and the effect is perhaps as perfect as the situation, from its irre-
gularity and steepness, admits of. The public promenade to the Cassino, deserves notice
as among the best in Italy. It consists of shady avenues, extending for several miles on
a flat surface near the Arno, varied by occasional views of villas and distant scenerj-.
The trees are chiefly elms and chestnuts. Tliere are numerous private gardens round
Florence, but none of them remarkable. The fortuitous scenerj' of Vallombrosa and
other romantic situatiorjs, are the grand attractions for strangers. On mount Fiesole
and thence to Bologna, are some country-seats with lodges, and winding approaches,
which, considering the arid soil, are highly beautiful, and come the nearest to those
of England of any in the warmer regions of Italy. The Tuscans, Sigismondi ob-
serves (Agr. Tosc.}, are the more to be condemned for having neglected gardening, since
their countrjman, Proposto Lastri, has rendered De Lille's poem in Italian in a style
equal to the original. But the gens a. lenr aise, and the nobles, he says, have no love of
rural nature, and only come into the country after vintage to shoot for a few days, and
indulge in feasting. They come in large parties with their ladies, and in a few weeks
expend what they have been niggardly laying aside during the rest of the year. He men-
tions tlie Chevalier Forti at Chian, and Sig. Falconcini at Ceretto, as having delightful
gardens ; adding that the country-seats of tlie Luquois are in the best taste of any in Italy.

84. The villas of Rome, Forsyth observes, are to this day the " ocelli Italia;." Their
cassinos generally stand to advantage in the park, light, gay, airy, and fanciful. In the
ancient villas the buildings were low, lax, diffused, and detached. In the modem, they
are more compact, more commodious, and rise into several stories. In both, the gardens
betray the same taste for the unnatural, the same symmetry of plan, architectural groves,
devices cut in box, and tricks performed by the hydraulic organ. {Rem. on Italy, 173.)
A few cardinals, he elsewhere observes, created all the great villas of Rome. Their riches,
their taste, their learning, tlieir leisure, their frugality, — all conspired in this single
object, ^^^lile the eminent founder was squandering thousands on a statue, he would
allot but one crown for his own dinner. He had no children, no stud, no dogs to keep ; he
built indeed for his own pleasure, or for the admiration of others ; but he embellished
his countr}', he promoted the resort of rich foreigners, and he afforded them a high intel-
lectual treat for a few pauls, which never entered into his pocket. This taste generally
descends to his heirs, who mark their little reigns by successive additions to the stock.
How seldom are great fortunes spent so elegantly in England ! How many are absorbed
in the table, the field, or the turf ! Expenses which centre and end in the rich egotist
himself ! \\Tiat English villa is open like the Borghese, as a common drive to the whole
metropolis? {Rem. on Italy, 216.)

The Villa Borghese is the most noted in the neighbourhood of Rome. It has a variety of surface
formed by two hills and a dell, and a variety of embellishments, cassinos, temples, grottoes, aviaries,
modem ruins, sculptured fountains, a crowd of statues, a lake, an aqueduct, a circus ; but it wants the
more beautiful variety of an English garden ; for here you must walk in right lines, and turn, at right
angles, fatigued with the monotony of eternal ilex. [Remarks, &c. 216.) Eustace says these gardens are
laid out with some regard both for the new and the old system, because winding walks are to be found
intersecting the long alleys. This is true ; but the whole is so frittered down by roads, walks, paths, and
alleys, and so studded with statues and objects of art, as to want that repose, simplicity, and massive
appearance, essential, at least, to an Englishman's idea of an English garden. Simplicity, however, is
a beauty less relished among the nations of the continent than in this country, and lessrelished by the
Italians than by any other continental nation.

C 2

oo HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

The Villa Panfili displays the most architectural gardens of any about Rome. Here, as Forsyth ob-
serves, laurel porticoes of ilex, green scutcheons, and dipt coronets, are seen vegetating over half an acre;
theatres of jets d'eau, geometrical terraces, built rocks, and measured cascades.

A nuniher of other villas might be enumerated ; but as far as respects gardens, the description, if faithful,
might be tiresome and monotonous. Even Eustace allows, tliat " liowsoever Italian gardens may differ in
extent and magnificence, their principal features are nearly the same ; the same with regard to artificial
as well as natural graces. Some ancient remains are to be found in all, and several in most of them. They
are all adorned with the same evergreens, and present, upon a greater or less scale, the same Italian and
ancient scenery. They are in general much neglected, but for that reason the more rural." {Classical
Tour, vol. i. chap. 18.)

85. At Frascati, Belvidere, a villa of Prince Borghese, commands most glorious pros-
pects, and is itself a fine object, from the scenic effect of its front and approaches. Be-
hind the palace is an aquatic stream, \Yhich flows from Mount Algidus, dashes pre-
cipitately down a succession of terraces, and is tormented below into a variety of tricks.
The whole court seems alive at the turning of a cock. Water attacks you on every side ;
it is squirted in your face from invisible holes ; it darts up in a constellation oi jets (Veau;
it returns in misty showers, which present against the sun a beautiful Iris. Water is made
to blow the trumpet of a centaur, and the pipe of a cyclops ; water plays two organs ;
makes the birds warble, and the muses tune their reeds ; sets Pegasus neighing, and all
Parnassus on music. *'.I remark," says Forsyth, " this magnificent toy as a speci-
men of Italian hydraulics. Its sole object is to surprise strangers, for all the pleasure
that its repetitions can impart to the owners is but a faint reflection from the pleasure of
others."

86. At Naples the gardens possess the same general character as those of Rome, though,
with the exception of Caserta, they are less magnificent.

TTie royal gardens at Portici are chiefly walled cultivated enclosures, abounding in oranges, figs, and
grapes, with straight alleys and wooded quarters entirely for shade. There is one small department, of a
few perches, devoted to the English taste; but it is too small to give any idea of that style. There is also
a spot called La Favorita, in which, says Starke {Letters, ii. IS.'j.), the present king has placed swings
and wooden horses, or hurly-burlies, (such as are to be seen at our fairs), for his own particular amusement,
and that of his nobility. The approach to this garden is through the palace court, great part of which is
occupietl as a barrack "by troops. The filth and stench of this court is incredible; and yet it is overlooked
by the windows of the king's dining-room, wlio sat down to dinner, on his return from the chace, as we
passed through the palace on the 2d of August, 1819. We know no scene to which it could be compared,
but that of the court of some of the large Russian inns in the suburbs of Petersburgh.

TTie gardens of Prince Leopold at Villa Franca almost adjoin those of the king. They are less extensive,
but kept in much better order by a very intelligent German. The orange-groves and trellises in both
gardens are particularly fine ; and in that of Prince Leopold, there is a tolerable collection of plants.
There is in Naples a royal garden, in the geometric style, combining botany and some specimens of the
English manner, which is now enlarging, and h^s the advantage of an elevated situation and fine marine
views.

The Chiaja is a public garden on the quay, used as a promenade. The outline is a parallelogram, the
area arranged in three alleys, with intermediate winding walks, fountains, rock-works, basins, statues,
parterres with and without turf, and oranges, flowers, &c. in pots. It is surrounded by a parapet sur-
mounted by an iron fence, and contains cassinos for gambling, cafes, baths, taverns, &c. The view to the
bay, and the breezes thence arising, are delightful. It is justly reckoned one of the finest walking prome-
nades in Italy.

Extensive gardens of pots and boxes are common on the roofs of the palaces, and other houses in Naples.
Viewed from the streets they have a singular eflf'ect, and from their beauty and fragrance, from the fresh
breezes in these elevated regions, and the comparative absence of that stench with which the lower atmo-
sphere of Naples is almost continually charged, they are very agreeable to the possessors.

87. The royal residence of Caserta is about seventeen miles from Naples. The palace,
in which, as Forsyth observes, the late king sought grandeur from every dimension, is
situated in an immense plain, and is a quadrangle, the front of which is upwards of seven
hundred feet long. It was begun in 1752, roofed in 1757, but is not yet, and probably
never will bie finished. The park extends from the palace to a range of mountains at two
miles distance, some of which it includes. It may be said to consist of four parts ; open
pasture, almost without trees, near the palace ; m oody scenery, or thick groves and copses,
partly near to, but chiefly at a considerable distance from, the palace ; mountainous scenery
devoted to game and the chace, at the extreme distance ; and an English garden on one
side, skirting the mountains. Tliere are besides, St, Lucio a large village, a silk-manu-
factory, a farm, &c. ; all of which are described by different tourists ; minutely by Vasi,
in his Guide to JVoj^les and its Environs, — and plans of the whole are given by L. Van-
vitelli, in his Disegni del Reale Palazzo di Caserta.

The cascade and canal of Caserta constitute its most remarkable feature, and that which renders this
park, in our opinion, the most extraordinary in Europe. The water is begun to be collected above thirty
miles' distance among the mountains, and after being conducted to a valley about five miles from Caserta
is carried over it by an aqueduct consisting of three tiers of arches, nearly two hundred feet high and
two thousand feet long. The volume of water is four feet wide by three and a half feet deep, and moves
as near as we could estimate, at the rate of one foot in two seconds. Arrived at the back of the mountain
Gazzano, a tunnel is cut through it, and the stream bursting from a cave about halfway between the base
and the summit, forms a cascade of fifty feet directly in front of the palace. The waters are now in a large
basin, from which, under ground, tunnels and pipes proceed on two sides, for the punwses of supplying
the lakes or rivers in the English garden, the fish-ponds, various jV/s d'eau, and for irrigation to maintain
the verdure of the turf. From the centre of this basin proceeds a series of alternate canals and cascades of
uniform breadth, and in a direct line down the slope of the hill, and along the plain to within a furlong or
little more of the palace. Here it terminates abruptly, the waters being conveyed away under ground for
other purposes. The effect of this series of canals and cascades, viewed from the garden-front of the palace
or from the middle entrance-arch, through tliat " long obscure portico or arcade which pierces the whole
depth of the quadrangle, and acte hkethe tube of a telescope to the waters," is that of one continued sheet

lioOK

GARDENING IN ITALY

21

if smooth or stagnant r.-ater resting on a slope; or of a fountain which had suddenly burst forth and
threatened to inundate the plain ; but for this idea the course of the water is too tame, tranquil, and regu-
lar, and it looks more like some artificial imitation of water than water itself. In short the effect is still
more unnatural than it is extraordinary ; for though jets and fountains are also unnatural, yet they pre-
sent nothing repugnant to our ideas of the nature of things ; but a body of water seemingly reposing on a
slope, and accommodating itself to the inclination of the surface, is a sight at variance with the laws of
gravity. Unquestionably the cascade at th^ extremity is a grand object of itself; but the other cascades
are so trifling, and so numerous, as in perspective, and viewed at a distance, to prodnce this strange eflfect
of continuity of surface. As a proof that our opinion is correct we refer to the views of Caserta, which are
got up by the Ncapohtan artists for sale ; had these artists been able to avoid the appearance in question,
even by some departures from truth, there can be no doubt they would not have hesitated to do so A
bird's-eye view of this canal, in Vanvitelli's work {fig. 5.}, gives but a verj- imperfect idea of the reality, as
seen from the surface of the ground, and especially from the palace and lower parts of the park.

Forsyth seems to have paid little attention to this water, having been chiefly struck with the palace.
Eustace says, " The palace is one of the noblest edifices of the kind in Europe ; the gardens extensive, re-
gular, but except a part in the English style, uninteresting. From a reservoir on the mountain (Jaezano,
the water is precipitated down the declivity to the plain, where, collected in a long straight canal, it loses
its rapidity and beauty, and assumes the "appearance of an old fashioned stagnant pool." (Tour in Italy^
vol. i. p. 602.) Wilson says, the ca.scade of Caserta might have been made the finest of its kind in the
world ; but it has been .-spoiled by a love of formality, which has led the copious stream drizzling over regu-
lar gradations of steps into a long stagnant canal. [Tours, &c. vol. ii. p. 217.)

The English garden of Caserta was formed by Grjeffer, a German, author of a Catalogue of Herba-
ceous Plants, who had been some time in England. He was sent to the king of Naples about 1760, by
Sir Joseph Banks, and has formed and preserved as perfect a specimen of English pleasure-ground as any
we have seen on the continent. The verdure of the turf is maintained in summer by a partially concealed
system of irrigation ; and part of the walks were originally laid with Kensington gravel. Every exotic,
which at that time could be furnished by the Hammersmith nursery, was planted, and many of them form
now very fine specimens. Among these the Camellias, Banksias, Proteas, Magnolias, Pines, &c. have attained
a large size, and ripen their seeds. There is a good kitchen and botanic garden, and extensive hot-houses,
chiefly in the English form ; but now much out of repair. Indeed this remark will apply to the whole
place, excepting the palace. Grjeflfer laid out the gardens of the Duke de San Gallo, at Naples, and various
others. He was not liked by the peasants of St. Lucio, who, taking the advantage of him, when thrown
from a cabriolet, stabbed him mortally before he could recover himself, in 1816.

88. In Sicily are some gardens of great extent. A few are mentioned by Swinburne ;
and an account of one belonging to a Sicilian prince, remarkable for its collection of
monsters, is given in Brydone's Tour.

SuBSECT. 2. Ilcdian Gardening in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of

Ornament.

89. Flowers appear to have been little cultivated by the Italians previously to the 10th
century. The introduction of the Christian religion as a national worship, though at
present favorable, was at first adverse to the use of flowers. TertuUian and Clement of
Alexandria, in the second century, inveighed against their use with all their eloquence :
and the rites of religion, then carried on in gloomy vaults, were not, as now, accom-
panied by bands of music, statues, pictures, and enriched altars decorated with flowers.
P. de Crescent in the beginning of the fourteenth century, mentions only the violet, lily,
rose, gilly-flower, and iris. Commerce began to flourish in the century which succeeded,
and 'various plants were introduced from the Eastern countries, by the wealthy of Vem'ce
and Genoa.

C 3

22 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

90. The earliest private botanic gardeii was formed at Padua, by Gaspar de Gabriel,
a wealthy Tuscan noble, at considerable expense. It was accomplished in 1525; and
though not a public institution, it was open to all the curious. To this garden suc-
ceeded, that of Corner at Venice, and Simonetta, at Milan ; those of some convents at
Rome, and of Pinella, at Naples, with others enumerated by botanical historians.
(C. Spreiig. Hist. lib. iii. ; Holier s Bib. Bot. 21.; Tiraboschi's Stor. del Lit t. Ital.; Ges?ier,
Hort. German. ; Stcphanus de Be Hortense. )

9 1 . Thejirst jmblic botanic garden established in Europe was that of Pisa, begun, accord-
ing to Deleuze, in 1543, by Cosmo de Medici ; and of which Ghini, and Cesalpin, cele-
brated botanists, were successively the directors. Belon, a French naturalist, who was
at Pisa in 1555, was astonished at the beauty of the garden, the quantity of plants it con-
tained, and the care taken to make them prosper. In 1591 the number of new plants
was found so far accumulated as to render a larger garden necessary, and that space of
ground was fixed on which is the present botanic garden ; two borders were destined for
ornamental flowers, and a green-house was formed for such as were too tender for the
open air. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, a great accession was obtained to
the garden by the double flowers of Holland, then introduced in Italy for the first time.
(Calvio, Hist. Pisani.) The example of Pisa vvas soon imitated by other cities and univer-
sities in Italy and Germany. In 1545, (not 1533, as stated by Adamson-see Deleuze,)
the public botanic garden of Padua was agreed on by the senate of Venice. It contained
in 1581 four hundred plants cultivated in the open air, besides a number kept in pots to
be taken into houses or sheds during winter. The garden of Bologna was next estab-
lished by Pope Pius the Vth ; then that of Florence by the Grand Duke ; and afterwards
tliat of Rome. From Uiat time to the present day, the numbers of botanic gardens have
been continually iijcreasing, so that there is now one belonging to almost every principal
city in Italy ; an exertion the more remarkable, as botanic gardens in that country are
proportionably more expensive than in England, fi-om the necessity of conveying a stream
of water to them, and forming a regular system of irrigation.

92. A taste for Jlowers and ornamental plants has thus become general in Baly ; and at the
same time the means of gratification afforded, by the superabundant plants and seeds of
these gardens being given away, or sold at very moderate prices to the curious. About
this time also the Dutch made regular exchanges of their bulbous roots for the orange-
trees of Genoa and Leghorn ; and the double night-smelling jessamine was introduced
at Pisa from Spain, and so highly prized as to have a centinel placed over it by the
governor. {Evelyn.) The use of flowers, it is probable, was never entirely laid aside in
Italy as ornaments to female dress ; but in the progress of refinement their application in
this way became more general, and more select sorts were chosen ; they became in de-
mand, both gathered in bouquets, and with the entire plants in pots ; they were used as
household ornaments both internal and external ; and the church, thinking that what
pleased man must be pleasing to the gods ; or conforming to the taste of the times, and
desirous of rendering religion as attractive as possible to the multitude, introduced flowers
as decorations of altars and statues, and more especially in their fetes and processions.
Pots and boxes of orange trees, pomegranates, bays, oleanders, myrtles, and other plants,
are now let out by the day, for decorating the steps and approaches to altars, or sold for
ornamenting roofs, balconies, virandas, courts, yards, passages, halls, staircases, and even
shops and warehouses in most of the large towns of Italy. Notwithstanding this there is
a recent instance on record of a lady residing in Rome, commencing a law-suit against
her neighbour, for filling her court-yard with orange-trees, the smell of the flowers of
which was by the other considered as a nuisance.

For the church the white hly {Lilium candidmn) is in great demand, with which theMadona, or
Madre di Dio, is decorated as an emblem of her virginity. The tvi>ha ( T. latifoHa) is much used when
III seed to put into the hands of statues of Christ, being considered as the reed with which the soldiers
handed him a sponge of vinegar. In Poland, whore the tvpha has not been easily procured, we have seen
leeks in the flower-state used as a substitute. The rose," tlie stock-gilly-flowcr, the jessamine, &c. are
next ni demand, and are used in common with such others as are presented gratis, or offered for sale, as
decorations indiscriminately to the crowd of statues and pictures of saints which decorate the churches
to private houses, and as ornaments of female dress.

On occasions of public rejoicing flowers are also much used in Italy. Favorite princes and generals are
received into towns and even villages through triumjihal arches decorated with flowers, and the ground is
also sometimes strewed witli them. The lives of IJuonaparte, Murat, and Beauharnois, afford many
examples. The Emperor of Austria made a tour of Italy in 1819, and though every where disliked every
where walking on a mine ready to explode, he was in many places so received ; and at the famous cascade
ot Marmora, near Terni, a slight arcade, 300 yards in length, was formeil to guide the steps of tlie imperial
visitor to liie best point of view. It was covered with intersecting wreatlis of flowers and foliage, and the
.sKlcs ornamented with festoons of box, myrtle, and bay. At IMilan, a very gay citv, flowers are greatly
prized, and in the wmter season are procured from the peculiarly warm and ever verdant gardens between
(jcnoa and Nervi. A Iou:s-d'or, we were informed, is sometimes p.iid for a single noseeay. During the
carnival tlie demand is great throughout Italy. fc e J s "'c

93. Floiists' foioers, especially the bulbous kinds, do not succeed well in the dry warm
climate of Italy. Fine vaiieties cf the hy&cinth, tulip, ranunculus, auricula, polyanthus,
&c. are soon lost there, and obliged to be renewed from more temperate countries.
'J'hey excel, however, in the culture of the tuberose, which forms an article of commerce

iiooK I. GARDENING IN ITALY. 23

at Genoa, as does the paper narcissus (N'. orientalis) at Naples. In roses, jessamines,
oleanders, oranges, tliey also excel ; and also in most single flowers not natives of cold
climates. Sig. Villaresi, already mentioned, has raised from seeds of the Bengal rose
{Rosa indica), impregnated promiscuously with other roses, upwards of fifty distinct
varieties, many of which are of great beauty, and very fragrant. In general, flowers
and ornamental plants are most in demand, and cultivated to the greatest degree of
perfection in Lombardy, of which the flower-markets of Milan and Venice afford most
gratifying proofs. Many of tlie Chinese, New Holland, and some of the Cape trees
and shrubs, thrive well, and blossom luxuriantly in the open air in the warmer regions,
as in S. di Negro's garden, at Genoa, and those of Pisa and Caserta. Evelyn says,
he saw at Florence, in 1664, a rose grafted on an orange-tree ; the same tricks are still
passed oflT with the rose, jessamine, oleander, myrtle, &c. at Genoa, and even in some
parts of Lombardy.

94. The taste forjloivers and plants of ornament is rather on the decline than othencise in
Italy. Much depends on the taste of the princes in this as in every other matter, and
unfortunately those of Italy are at present mere ciphers. The king of Naples knows
no pleasures but those of the table, the seraglio, and the chace. For the latter enjoy-
ment, the Pope has kindly given him a dispensation to hunt on Sundays. The Pope is
debarred from pleasure by his office ; the grand Duke of Tuscany has some taste for
plants, but more for a heavy purse ; his relation, the vice-king of Lombardy, is more a
priest than a prince ; though he has some fondness for succulent exotics, of ie common
sorts of which, he has a large collection. The king of Sardinia is an old man, and a mere
king Dei gratia.

SuBSECT. 3. Italian Gardening in req)ect to its Products for the Kitchen and the

Dessert.

95. The Italian fruits are nearly those of the Romans, to which they have made but few
additions, if we except the orange and tlie pine-apple. The orange is supposed to have
been introduced between the time of Pliny and Palladius ; it is the fruit in which they
excel, more from climate and soil than science. There are supposed to be nearly a hun-
dred varieties of this fruit in Italy ; but in the orange-nurseries at Nervi, it is not easy
to make out more than forty or fifty distinct sorts. These have mostly been obtained
from seeds. They have not the Mandarine orange, nor some varieties of shaddock (C.
decumana), which we possess. The most regular and systematic orange-orchards are at
Nervi ; and the largest trees around Naples, at Sorenta, Amalphi, &c. The more rare
sorts are kept in conservatories at Rome, and the largest house, and best collection,
is that of the Borghese. At Florence and Milan, all the sorts required to be housed
during winter, but at Hieres and Nice in France, and at Genoa and Nervi, they stand
the common winters in the open air.

96. The stone fruits in which they excel are the peach and cherry. There are above twenty varieties of
peaches cultivated in the neighbourhood of Rome and Naples ; and these fruits, grown on standard trees,
as apples and pears are in this country, arrive at a very high degree of perfection. They have few sorts of
apricots and nectarines, and not many plums ; but their Reghia Claudia, or gages, are excellent. Cherries
are every where excellent in Italy, especially in Tuscany. The Milan or Morella cherry, is noted for its
prolific qualities, and for having a consistency and flavor somewhat resembling the Morchella esculenta, or
morel.

97. The chief berry of Italy is the grape : their varieties are not so numerous as in France or
Spain ; and are, for the most part, the result of long growth on one soil and situation. Vineyard grajies
are indifferent to eat in most parts of Lombardy, and in the best districts are equalled if not excelled by
muscats, sweet- waters, muscadines, and other 'sorts grown in hot-houses in this country. The grape is
the only berry that thrives in Italy. It is not kept low as in France; but elevated on trellises near
houses and in gardens (fig. 6.), and trained

to long poles or trees in the fields. Collec-
tions of gooseberries from Lancashire have
been introduced at Leghorn, Genoa, and
Monza; and, grown in the shade, they thrive
moderately at the gardens of the latter
place. The currant, the raspberry, and the
strawberry, though natives of the Alps
and Apennines, do not thrive in the gar-
dens, but are brought to market from the
woods ; and so is theblack mulberry, which
is there cultivated for the leaves, as hardier
than the white, and which Sigismondiat
at one time considered as a fruit elsewhere
unknown.

98. Kernel-fruits in general, especially
pears, are excellent in the north of Italy j
but indifferent in the warmer regions.
Services in considerable variety abound in
Piedmont, and part of Lombardy.

99. The pine-apjyle is cultivated in a few
places in Italy, but with little success, exceptitig at Florence and Milan. There are a few in the Royal
gardens at Portici, but weak, yellow-leaved, and coverett with insects. The few grown in the Pope's
garden, and in one or two other villas near Rome, are little better. By far the best and greatest quantity
arc in the vice-royal gardens of Monza. The last king of Sardinia sent his gardener, Brochieri, to England

C 4

24

HISTORY OF GARDENING. Tart I.

to study their culture. He returned, and in 1777 published a tract on them, with a i)lan of a pit for their
reception; and in this way they are universally grown in Italy. Such, however, is the exhalation pro-
duced in this dry climate from leaves so full of pores, as are those of the pine, and such the want of
attention to supplying large pots and plenty of water, that the plants are generally of a pale sickly hue,
and the fruit of very small size. , . ,. ^..

100. Of the Melon tribe, the variety in Italy is endless, of every degree of flavor, from the richness of the
cantaloupe, to the cool, icy, sub-acid taste of the citrouille or water-melon. Too little care is bestowed in
selecting good fruits for seeds, and in preventing hybridism from the promiscuous intercourse with sur-
rounding sorts of cucumisi and, hence, seeds sent from Italy to this country are little to be depended on,
and generally produce varieties inferior to those of British growth. There are a few sorts of cucumbers,
and though there are a great number of gourds and pompions cultivated, the sorts, or conspicuous
varieties of both, are less numerous than in this country. Italian cucumbers are never so succulent as
those grown in our humid frames by dung-heat.

The love-apple, egg-plant, and capsicum, are extensively cultivated near Roma and Naples for the
kitchen ; the fruit of the first attaining a large size, and exhibiting the most grotesque forms. It is
singular, that in Sicily this fruit, when ripe, becomes sour, and so unfit for use, that the inhabitants are
supplied with it fromNaples.

101. Want of demand for the fruits of the northern climates precludes their production. Were it other-
wise, there can be no doubt means would soon be resorted to, to produce them in as greai perfection as we
do their fruits here ; all that is necessary, is to imitate our climate by abstracting or excluding heat, . vid
supplying moisture ; but luxury in Italy has not yet arrived to the degree adequate to prod«ce this eftect.

102. Cy' culinary vegetables, the Italians began with those left them by the Romans, and thcj' 'addt<l the
potatoe to their number as soon as, or before, we did. They now possess all the sorts known in ihfs iJounti^,
and use some plants as salads, as the chiccory, ox-eye daisy, ruccola, or rocket {Brassica erucn, L.), which
are little used here. The turnip and carrot tribe, and the cabbage, savoy, lettuce, and radish, thrive best
in the northern parts; but the potatoe grows well every where, and the Italian autumn is favorable to tha
growth of the cauliflowers, and broccolis, which are found of large size at Rome, Florence, and Bologna,
in the months of September and October ; and very large at Milan, all the summer and autumn. The le-
guminous tribe thrive every where ; but in some places the entire pod of the kidney- bean is so dry and
hard, as to prevent its use as a substitute for peas. In short, though the Italians have the advantage over
the rest of Europe in fruits, that good is greatly counterbalanced by the inferiority of their culinary vege-
tables. Much to remedy the defect might be done by judicious irrigation, which in the south of Italy, and
even in Lombardy, is so far necessary as to enter into the arrangement of every kitchen-garden. Shading,
blanching, and change of seed will effect much ; but the value of good culinary vegetables is not known
to the greater part of the wealthy Italians.

103. Horlicidture has made little progress in Italy. It is not in Italy, Sigisraondi observes,
that horticulture is to be studied ; though nowhere is more produced from the soil by
culture, manure, and water ; but forcing or prolonging crops is unknown ; every thing
is sown at a certain season, and grows up, ripens, and perishes together. The variety is
not great ; they have only three or four sorts of cabbage, not more of kidney-beans, and
one of pea ; the red and white beet, salsify, scorzonera, chervile, sorrel, onion, schallot,
Jerusalem artichoke, are in many parts unknown : but they have the cocomera, or water-
melon, everywhere. In Tuscany and Lombardy, it is raised on dung, and then transplanted
in the fields, and its sugary icy pulp forms the delight of the Italians during the whole
month of August. Though they have walls round some gardens, they are ignorant of
tlie mode of training trees on them. {Agr. Tosc.)

SuBSECT. 4. Italian Gardenings in respect to the planti7ig of Timber-trees and Hedges.

104. The self-soiV7i forests of the Alps and Apennines are
the chief resources of the Italians for timber ; and timber-
trees are chiefly propagated for parks, public walks, and
lining the great roads. The vine is still, in many places,
trained on the poplar and elm {fg. 7. ) ; but in Tuscany
and Lombardy, where the culture is deemed superior, the
common maple (A. campestre) and flowering ash (Ormcs
europcea') are preferred. {Sigismondi, Agr. Toscan. ; Chatcau-
viev^, Leltres, &c. 1812.) The most common tree for
every other purpose is the narrow-leaved elm, which lines
the road from Rome to Naples, for upwards of twenty miles
together. Near Milan, the Lombardy poplar is a great deal

used; but a late author, Gautieri (Delia Iriflusso del Bosc/ii, &c. 1817,) argues in favor
of cutting down, rather than planting in the Milanese plains. The finest avenues and
public equestrian promenades in Italy are those around Milan and at Monza ; the trees
are of various sorts, as the tulip-tree, platanus, lime, acacia, melia zederach, various oaks,
chestnuts, beeches, &c. ; they were planted in Beauharnois' time ; and such is the rapidity
of vegetation in this climate, that already the tulip-trees produce blossoms, and in seven
years more the effect will be complete. The sorts are every where mixed, in order that
the failure or defective growth of one species may have a chance of being compensated
by the growth of that, or of those adjoining ; or that if a malady were to attack one sort
of tree, it might not lead to continuous defalcation. Most of those trees were planted
by Villaresi, who, before the late political changes, had constantly under his direction not
fewer than three thousand men for public and royal improvements.

1 05. The timber^trees of the nativeforests of Italy are chiefly oak, chestnut, and beech ; the
undergrowths are of numerous species, including the arbutus, ilex, and myrtle. This
class of forests skirts the Alpine mountains, and covers, in many places, Uie Apennine
hills. In higher regions the larch abounds, and in sheltered dells the silver fir. The

Book I. GARDENING IN ITALY.

25

stone and cluster pne are confined to the lower regions, as tlie hills of Tuscany, the
vales of Arno, Tiber, &c.

106. Hedges are in general use in Italy, but are very imperfectly formed and mana<yed.
In Lombardy tlie hawthorn is a good deal used ; but in Tuscany, the States of tlie
Church, and those parts of the Neapolitan territory which are hedged, the rhammis jxili-
urus is tlie prevailing plant, mixed, however, with the pyracantha, pomegranate, myrtle,
asparagus retrofractus, and with wild roses, brambles, hazels, reeds, &c. seldom without
gaps and holes, open or filled up with dead bushes or reeds. Tlie willow alone often
forms a hedge in Lombardy, where the shoots are valuable for'tying up the vine.

SuBSECT. 5. Italian Gardening, as empirically jyractised.

107. Gardens in Italy are common to the rural class of citizens. It is a general remark of
travellers, and of acknowledged truth, that the state of cottage gardens indicates tlie state
of the cottagers ; and those of Italy confirm the justness of the observation. Almost
the only plants grown in them are gourds and Indian corn. In Tuscany and Lombardy
some of the cabbage tribe, the kidney-bean, and occasionally the potatoe are to be seen, but
rarely any thing else. The gardens of the farmers are somewhat better, especially in the
northern districts, where tliey often contain patches of hemp, potatoes, parsnips, lettuce,
and some flowers and fruit-trees. The gardens of small proprietors are still better
stocked ; those of wealthy bankers and merchants are generally the best in Italy. The
gardens of tlie more wealthy nobles are only superior by their extent, and are dis-
tinguished as such, by having more or less of an accompanying park. The gardens of
the convents are, in general, well cultivated, and rich in fruits and culinary vegetables,
with some flowers and evergreens for church decorations. The priests assist in tlieir
cultivation, and some of these men are much attached to gardening.

108. For commercial pur])oses gardening is chiefly practised by market-gardeners, who also
grow flowers, act as orchardists, and often make wine. 'Jliere are hardly any nurseries
for trees and shrubs in Italy, if we except those for orange-trees at Nervi, and two small
ones for general purposes at Milan. Those who form new gardens are chiefly supplied
from France, or from their friends, or from private gardens ; most of which last sell
whatever they have got to spare.

109. The operative part of gardening in Italy is performed more by labourers than by regu-
lar apprentices and journeymen ; and thus good practical gardeners are more the result
of accident than of design. The great defect of both is tlie want of a taste for order and
neatness. The Italians are particularly unskilful in the management of plants in pots,
and especially exotics, which require protection by glass. These are put into houses
with upright or slightly declining glass fronts, and opaque roofs ; there they remain
during a winter of from three to five months ; want of light and air renders their leaves
yellow and cadaverous ; and when they are taken out they are placed in the most exp>osed
parts of the garden, often on parapets, benches, or stages. Here the sudden excess of
light soon causes them to lose their leaves, which they have hardly time to regain before
the period arrives for replacing them in the conservatory or hot-house. We know of few
exceptions to this censure, excepting at Monza, and Caserta, where they are kept in
winter, in glass-roofed houses, as in England, and placed out in summer under the shade
of poplars or high walls. Dr. Oct. Tazetti, professor of rural economy at Florence,
who lectures in a garden in which specimens are displayed of the leading sorts of Italian
field and garden culture, acknowledged the justness of this remark.

1 10. The artists or professors are of two classes. First, The architects, who adopt the rural
branch of their art, {archiletti nistici,) and who give plans for parks, chiefly or almost
entirely in tlie geometric style, to be executed under their direction, and that of the head
gardener. Secondly, The artist-gardeners, [artisti giardinieri,) who are generally the
gardeners, or directors of gardens, of some great establishment, public or private, and
who give plans for gardens, chiefly in what is tliere considered the English manner, and
for kitchen-gardens ; and as in England, either direct, by occasional visits, or undertake
bv contract, their execution and future occasional inspection.

SuBSECT. 6. Italian Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has jwoduced.

111. By the establishment of jn-ofessorships of botany and botanic gardens, in tlie sixteenth
centurj', the Italians have materially contributed to the study of the vegetable kingdom,
witliout some knowledge of the physiologj- of which, the practice of gardening must
be entirely empirical. Malpighi is considered the fatlier of vegetable physiology in Italy.
It must be confessed, however, that die scientific knowledge of the Italians is chiefly
confined to their professors and learned men : the practical gardener is yet too ignorant
either to study or understand the subject ; too much prejudiced to old opinions to re-
ceive new ideas ; and, partly from climate, but cliiefly from political and religious slavery,
too indifferent to wish to be informed. Some exceptions must be made in favor of such
gardeners as have been apprenticed in botanic and eminent gardens, or under intelligent
Germans, who are lure and tliere to be found superintending the gardens of tlie nobles.

26 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

The bastardising of the cucumis tribe, by proximity, and the striking phenomena of the
male and female hemp, have introduced some vague ideas of the sexuality of vegetables ;
but the use of leaves, by far the most important knovv'ledge which a gardener can possess,
seems no where understood by ordinary master-gardeners. Grafting and layering are
practised without any knowledge of the efFepts of the returning sap, or of the exclusion
of air and light. Nothing can be worse than the practice of budding orange-trees at
Nervi ; to be convinced of which, it is only necessary to compare the plants imported
from thence, with those brought from Malta or Paris. The culture of the vine, the olive,
and the fig, belongs to the rural economy of the country ; that of the vine is abundantly
careless, and the practice of the caprification of the fig, though laughed at by the pro-
fessors, is still followed in various places near Rome and Naples.

112. Religiozis and lunar observances are still followed by the gardeners in most parts of
Italy. With the Romans it was customary before any grand operation of agriculture
was undertaken, to consult or invoke the god of that department, as of Flora, Pomona,
&c. and to pay attention to the age of the moon and other signs. A good deal of this
description of ceremony is still carried on in general economy, by the priests and
farmers, and gardening has not yet entirely thrown off the same badge of ignorance
and religjious slavery. Many gardeners regulate their sowings of kitchen-crops by the
moon, others call the priests to invoke a blessing on large breadths of any main crop ;
some, on minor occasions, officiate for themselves, and we have seen a poor market-
gardener at Savonna muttering a sort of grace to the virgin over a bed of new-sown
onions. Father Clarici, a priest who published Istoiia e Culture delle Fiante, &c. so
late as 1726, countenances most of these practices, and describes many absurd and foolish
ceremonies used for procuring good crops, and destroying insects.

113. 0( the Italian authors on gardening, ioMV or none are original. Filippo Re has
written a great many books, and may be compared to our Bradley. Silvo Sigismondi,
of Milan, has written a work on English gardening, resembling that of Hirschfield, of
which it is, in great part, a translation. Clarici is a very copious writer on culinary
gardening, and the culture of flowers ; and the most approved writer on the orange
tribe is Gallesio of Savonna.

Sect. II. Of the Revival, Progress, and ]n'ese7it State of Gardening in Holland and

Flanders.

114. Gardening was first broxight to a high degree irf jyerfiectioii in Holland and the
Netherlands. The crusades, in the twelfth century, are generally supposed to have
excited a taste for building and gardening jn the north of Europe. But from Ste-
phanus and Gesner, it appears that a taste for plants existed among the Dutch, even
previously to this period. It is to be regretted that scarcely any mf<teiials are to be
found from which to compose such a history as this interesting circumstance requires.
Harte {^Essays on AgriciiUure^ conjectures that the necessities arising from the original
barrenness of the soil (that of Flanders having been formerly like what Arthur Young de-
scribes Norfolk to have been nearly a century ago), together with a certain degree of
liberty, the result of the remoteness of the situation from kings and priests, may have
contributed to improve their agriculture ; and that the wealth acquired by the coinmercial
men of Holland, then the most eminent in the world, enabled them to indulge in
country-houses and gardens, and to import foreign plants. To this we may add,
that the climate and soil are singularly favorable for horticultui'e and floriculture, the
two departments in which the Dutch are most eminent.

SuBsECT. 1. Dutch Gardening, as an Art if Design and Taste.

115. The Dutch are generally considered as having a particular taste in gardening, yet
their gardens, Hirschfield observes, appear to diflPer little in design from those of the
French. The characteristics of both are symmetry and abundance of ornaments. The
only difference to be remarked is, that the gardens of Holland are more confined, more
covered with frivolous ornaments, and intersected with still, and often muddy pieces of
water. The gardens of Ryswick, Houslaerdyk, and Sorgvliet were, in the beginning
of the last century, the most remarkable for geometrical beauty of form, richness in trees
and plants, and careful preservation. It is singular, our author observes, that the Dutch
are so fond of intersecting their gardens with canals and ditches of stagnant water,
which, so far from being agreeable, are muddy and ugly, and fill the air with unwhole-
some vapours. Yet they carry this taste, which has no doubt originated in tlie nature
of their country, to the East Indies; and the numerous country houses belonging to
the Dutch settlement in Batavia are all furnished with gardens and canals like those
in the neighbourhood of Amsterdam ; as if to render the unwholesome air of that
country still more dangerous. Every field is there crossed by a canal ; and houses on
eminences are surrounded at great expense by moats and draw-bridges like those of the
Hague. Such is the influence of habit, and the love of countrv ; and, therefore, how-

IJOOK 1.

GARDENING IN HOLLAND.

27

ever at variance with local circumstances, and sometimes even with utility, it cannot be
altogether condemned.

116. Grassj/ slopes and green terraces and walks are more common in Holland than in any
other country of the continent, because the climate and soil are favorable for turf; and
these verdant slopes and mounds may be said to form, with their oblong canals, tlie
characteristics of the Dutch style of laying out grounds.

1 17. Hague, the Versailles and Kensington of Holland, and in fact the most magnificent village in Europe,
contains two royal palaces with their gardens in the ancient style. Evelyn, in 1641, describes them as
•' full of ornament, close walks, statues, marbles, grottoes, fountains, and artificial music ;" and of the
village he says, " beautifullime-trees are set in rows before every man's house." Sir J. E. Smith {Tour
on the Continent, vol. i.) described them in 17S3, the one garden as full of serpentine and the other as full
of straight lines. In 1814, these gardens had lost much of their former beauty, partly from age and decay,
but princii)ally from neglect. Jacob {Travels in Germany), in the same year, found them formal and
crowded with higli trees. Ncijl, in 1817, found in them nothing becoming royalty.

118. At Broerk and Alkmaar tlie ancient style is still maintained
in its purity in the villa gardens M. Seterveldt's garden near Utrecht
is also a carefully preserve<l specimen. Here the grand divisions of the
garden are made by tall thicK hedges of beech, hornbeam, arid oak,
and the lesser by yew and box. There are avenue walks, and berceau
walks, with openiiigs in the shape of windows in the sides, verdant
houses, rustic seats {Jig. 8.\ canals, ponds, grottoes, fountains, statues,
and other devices ;" and," adds the horticultural tourist, "we were
struck with this circumstance, that every thing in this garden has its
most exact counterpart : if there be a poi*d, or walk, or statues, or a
group of evergreens, on one side ; the same may, with confidence,
be predicted on the other side of the garden ; so that the often quoted
couplet of Pope, ' Grove nods at grove, &c.' can no where be better
exemplified." {Hort. Tour, 249.)

119. At fir«5St7s, among other curiosities, Evelyn mentions a hedge
of jetsfTeau, Iczenge-fashion, surrounding a parterre ; and " the park
within the walls of the city farnishctl with whatever may render it
agreeable, melancholy, and country-like." It contained " a stately
heronry, divers springs of water, artificial cascades, walks, grottoes,
statuesj and root-houses." This park was considerably enlarged some
years ago ; the then decayetl root-houses, grottoes, and more curious water-works removed, and the
whole divided by broad sanded paths, and decorated with good statues, seats, fountains, and cajes for
refreshment

120. The modern, or English style of gardening. Sir
J. E. Smith informs us, was " quite the fashion" in
Holland, in 1783; but neither the surface of the
ground, the confined limits of territorial property, nor
the general attention to frugality and economy, are
favorable to this style. Some attempts, on a small
scale, may be seen from the canals, but we know
of no extensive parks and pleasure-grounds in tliis
manner.

121. An example of a Flemish garden in theEnglish
style {fig. 9.) is given by Krafl; it is of small size,
but varied by the disposition of the trees, rustic
seats, and raised surfaces ; and surrounded, as Dutch
and Flemish gardens usually are, by a canal. It was
laid out by Charpentier, gardener to the senate of
France, in the time of Napoleon.

122. The vUla of M. Bertrand of Bruges is thus noticed in the Caledonian Horticullnral
Tour .• -—

It has extensive grounds, and is flat, but ivell varied by art. Where the straight w-alks cross ca^h
other at right angles, the centre of the point of intersection is shaped into an oblong parterre, re.sem-
bling a basket of flowers, and containing showy geraniums in pots, and gaudy flowers of a more hardy

""'ZfflhtgsS-ttntry br.d taste. At every resting-place, some ^ind of conceit is provixled for sur-
prising the 4itant : if he sit down, it is ten to one but the seat is so contrived as to Miik ""^J h^^j
f he enter the grotto, or approach the summer-house, water is squirted from com:ealed or di.sguiswl
fcuntatns, and ife does not find it easy to escape a wetting. .Jhe dial is provided wi J several pn^
calculated to show the corresponding hour at the chief capial cities of turope; and also w^^^
placed, that during sunshine, the priming of a small cannon falls under its focus just as the sun reacl.es

the meridian, when of course the cannon is discharged. ^_ _ _^ .^^ ^ , _^._,^^ .^ thrown; at one

one peeping

The principal orn-ttnent of the place consists in a piece of water, over which a bridge is thn
d of the bridge is an arliticial cave fitted up like a lion's den, the head of a lio" cut in s.

the entrance. Above the cave is a pagoda, which forms a ^"'",'^^•■-^'0"^'^..^*^'^.%? w^f.^l^S
p is a cistern which is filled by means of a forcing-pump, and which supplies the mischie^ ous toui

At
fountains

end of the bridge is an arlitic

from

the top

^^'ThflZefa^^'near the mansion-house are decorated witli many small plan^^ of the double pome-
granate sweet bav, laurustinus, and double myrtle, planted in large ornamented flower-pots and in tubs^
•TSplants are all trained with a stem three or four feet high, and wiUi ^o""^ bushy heads after the
manner of pollard willows in English meadows. The appear.iinco produced by a collection of such plants
™ inconceivably stiff, to an eve accustomed to a more natural mode of training. Eight Amercari aloes
4av^A»>ericlna),'also in huge Dutch flower-pots, hnish the decoration of •!'« »^«'"' ^"'l' , "^ of
(•onfessetl harmonize very well with the formaK-vergreens just described. A very good collection of
oranS-Uees iTtubs was disposed along the sides of the walks in the flower-garden : two of the myrtle-
?eTv|i varfet^ were excellent specimens. All of these were H arded in the «tye of the evergreen plant.

• soil of the place, ueing a mixture oi ime y^^^^^u,^ ".«...«, resembling surface peat-earth, with a
'.crabk pn^waon of wl j.c sand, seems naturally congenial to the growth ot American shrubs ; and.

28

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part 1.

indeed, rhododendrons, magnolias, and azaleas thrive exceedingly. In the open border of the flower-
garden we saw dahlias in great vigour and beauty.

Several kinds of tender plants were plunged in the open border for summer, particularly the Peruvian
heliotrope {Heliotropium Peruvianum), the specimens of which were uncommonly luxuriant, and, being
now in full flower, spread their rich fragrance all around. The European heliotrope {U. Europtsum) is
likewise not uncommon in the flower-borders.

In the fruit-garden we first saw pear and apple trees trained en pyramide or en quenouille i, e. pre-
serving only an upright leader, and cutting in the lateral branches every year.

The hot-houses cover the north side of the fniit-garden. In the centre is a stove or hot-house for the
most tender plants ; on each side of this is a green-house for sheltering more hardy exotics during
winter ; and at each extremity is a liouse partly occupied with peach-trees, and partly with grape vines.
In the space of ground before the houses are ranges of pine pits and melon frames. One frame is dedi-
cated to a collection of cockscombs {Celosia critata), and these certainly form the boast of M. Bertrand's
garden ; they are of the dwarfish variety, but large or strong of their kind, and in brilliancy and variety
of colour, they can scarcely be excelled.

123. The villa of M. Meulemeester and the place of Marieleerne, in the neighbourhood of Ghent, are
described, but they were both in very bad order, though tolerably laid out, and having a good many liot-
houses.

124. The villa ofM. Hopsomcre is remarkable for three acres covered with groups of American plants of
great size and in the highest degree of luxuriance. An irregular piece of water expands itself among the
groups, and forms numerous bays, islets, sinuosities, &c. The surface is generally of turf, but in some
places in earth, with edgings of heath to the walks ; the walks are without gravel ; and the gardener, as in the
other places visited, was wretchedly habited, without shoes or stockings, and could not read. {Hort.
Tour, 74.)

125. The seat of Madanie Vilaifi Quatorze (Jig. 10.), like most of the others mentioned,
and villas in general in this country, is interspersed with water, and the boundary of the
demesne, instead of being a wall, hedge, or belt of plantation, is a broad canal, over
which of course is seen the adjacent country. The grounds are of considerable extent,
and include a farm, pleasure-ground, kitchen and flower garden. A plan of a part of
the grounds round the house has been given in the horticultural tour, in which the fol-
lowing objects are indicated : —

A hot-house for exotic plants, (a)

An aviary with shrubs for the birds to perch upon. (6)

Gardener's room, (c)

Green-house. Entrance by flight of wooden steps. {</)

Stove for exotic plants, (e)

Dry stove. (/)

Picture-gallery of a considerable height. It has an arched
roof, and is lighted from the top. {g)

Dwelling-house. (A)

A large mirror is placed at the end of the passage. Lamps
are su^>ended from the ceilings of the house, gallery, green-
house, and stoves, at different places (-f). When lighted,
the whole line, from the one extremity to the other, must be
reflected by the mirror. («)

Grape and peach' houses. Peach trees are planted at the
back wall of each, and vines at the front, [k. k)

Pits for green-house and stove plants. (/, /, I, I)

Pits for melons, cucumbers, and other tender plants, (m m)

Large bam. (n)

Stable and cow-houses, (o)

Part of the kitchen-garden, {p)

Part of the pine-apple stoves, (y)

Com fields, and a crop of Indian com, wheat, hemp, &c. (r)

The nrincipal floor of the house and the picture gallery are
upon the same level, but there is a rise of a few steps to the
floors of the stove and green-house, which cire elevated above
the ground more than nine feet.

126. pie place of M. Smetz is the finest near Antwerp. It was laid out in 1752 partly in the ]
partly m the English taste, and contains at present, scenes of tonsile evergreens vistas car

Dutch and

secret water-works, caves, tombs, alawn with'a flock of stonV sheepr a ' Vhe^herd aiiTdogs," dw^^^
drunkard, and other paltry contrivances. There are, however, good span-roofed hot-houses, rultic

S' l"ti^^^^^i''t?''fP^^'^"y^*'^P"''P'^^^^*^^('^h''=^ ^^^^ seeds freely, and comes purple from the
seed), catalpa and liquidambar, fine collections of dahlias, asclepias tuberosa, and lilium superbum

!.«.,^.ir'inH ;f=?"L'' ^"r °"^^^^ "^^""^^ .".?' ™^"y "^^"'■^l beauties as can be expected in a flat
raT'oVpoit"S5tion.'?''?/S*^ management more than counterbafanced by those

Jli'cJ'tt "m " "-^ ^ Caters de Wolfe near Antwerp is remarkable for t^vo elegant curvilinear hot-houses,
nf fh^ wL Tfh ^^'^''- of London, a..d glazed with plate glass. Their effect surpasses any thing
The Hackney nSrsco' *'""*'"^"^- ^ ""'' collection of the choicest exotics has lately blen procured from

Book I GARDENING IN HOLLAND. 29

128. The gardens round Rotterdam are generally many feet below the level of the canal. On the
Cingle, a public road which surVounds the city, and a continued series of garden-houses nearly a mile in
extent ; these miniature villas [lust hofs) being separated from each other only by wooden partitions which
are generally neatly painted. To these the citizens with their wives retire on" Sunday to smoke and take
coffee. {Hort. Tour, &c. 127.)

129. T/te pa/ace-gardttiat Haerleiii formerly occupied by King Louis, and originally the proi)erty of the
celebrated banker, Hope, is in no respect remarkable as to design ; but pines are grown there better
than in most gardens in Holland, and strawberries are successfully forced.

130. The Due d'Aremberg'sseat iiearEnghien, like many others in Flanders and Holland, was ruined during
the excesses of the French revolution ; but the Duke is now restoring it, and has begun with the gardens
rather than with the house. Extensive hot-houses are erected and many new fruit-trees planted. The finest
part of the park was not injured, and the horticultural tourists visited the celebrated temple of the grande
ttoile. " This temple is of a heptangular shape, and at the angles on every side are two parallel columns
placed about a foot a]>art. From the seven large sides proceed as many broad, straight, and long avenues
of noble trees, affording rich prospects of the distant country in all these directions ; and from the seven
angles, and seen between the columns, proceed an equal number of small and narrow alleys, each ter-
minated by some statue, vuse, bust, or other ornament. The temple is surrounded by a moat lined with
l)olished marble. The old orange-grove is situated at the end of the avenue. It is one hundred and
seventy feet long, and twenty-seven feet wide, and contains one hundred and eight orange-trees in tubs,
many of them, as is the case in different old family-seats of the NelJierlands, presents from the kings of
Spain 200, 300, and 400 years ago. The trees show straight stems of six or eight feet, and globular
heads, from which, according to continental practice, protruding shoots and blossoms are pinched off as
soon as they appear, for culinary and perfumery purposes. {Hort. Tour, 324. 372.)

SuBSECT. 2. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of

Ornament.

131. The taste for Jlowers so prevalent in Holland, is thought to have originated with
their industry early in tlie twelfth century, the study of flowers being in some degree
necessary, as affording patterns for the ornamental linen and lace manufacturers. Lobel,
in the preface to his Histoiredes Plantes, 1756, states, that the taste for plants existed among
the Flemings during the crusades, and under the dukes of Burgundy ; that they brought
home plants from the Levant, and the two Indies ; that exotics were more cultivated
there than any where else ; and that their gardens contained more rare plants than
all the rest of Europe besides, till, during the civil wars which desolated this country
in the sixteenth century, many of their finest gardens were abandoned or destroyed.
Holland, Deleuze observes, had at the end of the seventeenth century, a crowd of dis-
tinguished botanists : and was then, as during the century preceding, the country the
most devoted to gardening. {Discours sur Vetat ancien et modeme de V Agriculture et
de la Botanique dans les Pays Bas. Par Van Hxdthem, 1817; Extrait du Discours pro-
nonce, ^-c, a Gand, par M. Comelissen, 1817.)

132. The botanic garden of Leyden was begun in 1577, thirty-one years after that of Pa-
dua. It was confided to Cluyt, a celebrated botanist, aflerwards to Bontius, and in 1592,
L'Ecluse, from Frankfort, was appointed professor of botany. In 1599 tliey constructed
a green-house, and, in 1633, the catalogue of the garden contained 1104 species. At
this time the magistrates, the learned men, and the wealthy citizens were occupied in fa-
cilitating the progress of botany, and the introduction of new plants. A ship never left
the port of Holland, Deleuze observes, the captain of which was not desired to procure,
wherever he put into harbour, seeds and plants. The most distinguished citizens, Be-
veming, Favel, Simon de Beaumont, and Rheede, filled their gardens with foreign plants,
at great expense, and had a pleasure in communicating those plants to the garden of
Leyden. This garden, in Boerhaave's time, who, when professor of botany there, neg-
lected nothing to augment its riches and reputation, contained {Index alter Plant. 1720.)
upwards of 6000 plants, species and varieties. Boerhaave here exemplified a principle,
which he laid down (Elementa Cliemia) for adjusting the slope of the glass of hot-houses,
so as to admit the greatest number of the sun's rays, according to the latitude of the
place, &c. These principles were afterwards adopted by Linnjeus at Upsal, and by most
of the directors of botanic gardens in Europe. It was in this garden, about the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century, that the geraniae and ficoidias, and other ornamental
exotics were first introduced from the Cape. The garden of Leyden was visited by Sir
J. E. Smith in 1786 {Tour, &c. vol. i. p. 11.), who observes, that it had been much en-
larged within the last forty years, and was now about as large as the Chelsea garden.
In 1814 it appeared rather neglected; many blanks existed in the general collection of
hardy plants, and the hot-houses were much out of repair. It contains, however, some
curious old specimens of exotics, as Clusius's palm (Chamerops humilis), twenty feet
high, and upwards of 225 years old ; a curious ash, and various other trees and shrubs,
planted by Clusius. A new garden, in addition to the old one, and a menagerie, are
in progress. In this new garden the walks are laid with a mixture of peat-moss and
tanners' bark reduced to powder. Leyden, Deleuze informs us, was, for more than fifty
years, the only city in Holland where there was a botanic garden ; but before the middle
of the seventeenth century, they were established in all the provinces.

133. The botanic gardens of Amsterdam and Groningen merit particular notice The former was under
the direction of the two Commehns, John and Caspar, and was the first garden in Europe that procured
a specimen of the coffeetree. A seedling of this tree was sent to Paris in 1714. Two seedlings from this
plant were sent to Martinique in 1726, and these the Abbe Raynal observes [Hist, de Commerce^ tome xvi.
ch. 20.) produced all the coffee-trees now cultivated in the French colonies. This garden still contains
m-iny remarkable specimens of Cane and Japan jjlant--. 'Uort. 'Tnur, 218.)

so HISTORY OF GARDENING. Fart I.

134. The garden of Groningen was begun by Henry Munting, a zealous botanist and learned man, who
had spent eight years travelling in the different countries of Europe, establishing correspondences between
botanists and cultivators. He spent the greatest part of his fortune upon his garden; but, in 1641, the
states of Groningen, thinking so useful an establishment ought to be under the protection of the republic,
purchased it, and appointed him professor. The catalogue of this garden, published in 1646, contains
about 1500 i>lants, without comprehending more than GUO varieties ; 100 of pinks, and 150 of tulips.
Henry Munting was succeeded by his son, Abraliam, esteemed for his posthumous work, Phytographia
Curiosa. Both these gardens are still kept up, but without that enthusiastic ardor which distinguished
the citizens of Holland, when under more ausnicious political circumstances than they are at the present
time.

135. The Antwerp garden was formerly one of considerable repute in the Low Countries. In 1579 a cata-
logue of this garden was given by Dodoens {Florutn et Cofonariuni arb. Hist.) whiqh contained a consider-
able number of plants, including a great variety of tulips and hyacinths.

136. The garden of Clifford, near Haerlem, of which Linnasus published the history, was the most cele-
brated in 1737. Clifford got all the new plants from England, and corresponded with the botanists of every
country. Boerhaave gave him the plants of the Leyden garden ; Siegesbeck sent him those of Russia ; Haller,
those of the Alps; and Barman, Roell, Gronovius, and Miller, sent him portions of the seeds which they
received from different parts of the world. This garden had four magnificent hot-houses; one for the
plants of the Levant and the south of Europe, one for Africa, one for India, and one for America.

137. The botanic garden of Utrecht was founded in 1630, and contains several palms and other exotics,
brought there at that time. It is still kept in tolerable order, but displays no kind of scientific arrange-
ment. {Hort. Tour, 244.)

138. 2'he botanic garden of Ghent, established by Buonaparte in 1797, is, in the present day, the richest
and best garden of the Netherlands. The area is about three acres : it has a considerable collection of
hardy herbaceous plants, arranged after the Linnjean method ; a pleasure-ground, in which the trees and
shrubs are distributed in natural famihes, and'so as to combine picturesque efffect ; an excellent rosary,
chiefly trained in the tree manner; and a range of hot-houses, in part with glass roofs. In the pleasure-
ground the busts of eminent botanists are distributed with good effect ; and on the large boxes of palms,
and other exotics, are marked the name of the donor, or the year in which the plant or tree was originated,
or introduced to the garden. On the whole, it is more complete than any garden we have seen south of
the Rhine, excepting that of Paris.

139. The royal botanic garden of Brussels has a good collection of orange-trees ; but in all other respects
is of a very inferior description.

140. The private botanic gardens of Van Schenen and Dr. Daaler, at Antwerp, are mentioned with ap-
probation in the Horticultural Tour. (p. 121.)

141. The botanic garden of M.Parmentier, mayor of Enghien, is not only the richest in the low countries,
but, perhaps, in Europe. In 1817, Neill and his companions considered it as only exceeded in exotics by
the collection at Kew, or at Messrs. Loddiges.

142. Festivals of Flora are held twice a year, at midsummer and midwinter, by the
Agricultural Society of Ghent, and others. Tlie plants are exhibited for three days. '' By
a pleasing fiction, the plants alone are said to be competitors, and the successful plant is
said to be crowned." The reward is an honorary medal. {Hort. Tour, &c. p. 521.)

143. Florists^ Jlowers began to be objects of commerce in Holland, about the beginning of
the seventeenth century. Double flowers were then first noticed, or brought into repute,
which may be said to have created a new aera in gardening, and certainly laid the found-
ation in Holland of a considerable commerce : — the more valuable, as it is totally inde-
pendent of political or civil changes, and founded on the peculiar qualities of the soil and
climate for growing bulbous roots. The florimania, as it is termed by the French, ex-
isted in the highest degree among the Dutch, from the beginning to the middle of the
seventeenth century. Many noted instances are on record, of the extravagant sums given
for flowers possessing certain qualities agreed on by florists as desiderata, and established
about this time as canons of beauty. Hirschfield states, that in the register of the city of
Alkmaar, in the year 1637, they sold publicly, for the benefit of the Orphan Hospital,
120 tulips, with their offsets, for 9000 florins ; and that one of those flowers, named the
Viceroy, was sold for 4203 florins. When we consider the value of money at this remote
period, these sums appear enormous, a florin at that tiine in Holland {Anderson s His-
tory of Commerce) being the representative of nearly an English bushel of wheat.

144. The commercial foiver-gardens or bloemesteries of Haerlem have long been the most
celebrated for bulbous-rooted flowers. The name of Van Eden has been noted for upwards
of a century ; and there are now four gardens occupied by different members of this
family, celebrated florists. That of Voorhelm is of equal antiquity and celebrity. Of
the gardens of both families, and of several others, accounts will be found in the Horti-
cultural Tour. The most extensive and best managed is said to be that of Schneevoght,
lately a partner with Voorhelm.

145. The flonmanists, Bosc observes, were much more numerous towards the middle
of the last century than at this moment (1809). " One does not now hear of twenty
thousand francs being given for a tulip ; of a florist depriving himself of his food, in order
to increase the number and variety of his anemonies, or passing entire days in admirino-
the colours of a ranunculus, the grandeur of a hyacinth, or trembling, lest the breath o*f
an over-curious admirer should hurt the bloom of an auricula." The general price of
choice bulbs now, it is observed in the Horticultural Tour, varies from three to ten
guilders (a guild. = I5. M.) ; a few kinds are valued at from ten to twenty guilders ;
and tlie most select, new, and consequently rare, varieties, seldom fetch more than from
twenty to 50 guilders. Among the most precious at this time are, the Universal Con-
queror, Pompe Funebre, and Charbonier Noir, with yellow grounds; Louis XVI. and
Toilette Sup^rieure, with white grounds, and the price of them is one hundred guilders
{£S 2s. 6d.) a bulb. {Hort. Tour. p. 195.)

Book I. GARDENING IN HOLLAND. 31

SuBSECT. 3. Dutch Gardening in respect to the Culture of Fruits and Culinary Vegetables.

146. The Dutch and Flemings are eminent as fruit-gardeners, but, as Harte observes,
they are better operators than writers, and having at the same time a good deal of the
spirit of gens de metier, we have almost nothing to offer in the way of historical inform-
ation. Those gardens, which Gesner and Stephanus inform us were so richly stocked
with flowers early in the sixteenth century, would, no doubt, be equally so with fruits
and legumes. One of the earliest books on the horticulture of the Low Countries, is
tliat of Van Osten, published about the end of the seventeenth century. They appear at
tliat time to have had all the fruits, now in common cultivation, in considerable variety,
excepting the pine-apple, which Miller informs us was introduced about that time by Le
Cour, of Leyden, from the West Indies, although not mentioned by Van Osten or Com-
melin. It is generally said, tliat about the same period all the courts in Europe were supplied
witli early fruits from Holland. Benard admits (quoted in Repertory of Arts, 1802,) that
tliis was the case with the court of France, so late as the reign of Louis the Fourteenth.
Miller informs us that Le Cour paid great attention to gardening, and especially to the
culture of wall-fruits, and that he tried the effects of different kinds of walls and modes
of training. Speeqhly, early in the eighteenth century, made a tour in that country,
cliiefly to observe the Dutch mode of cultivating the pine and the grape ; they forced, he
informs us {Tr. on tlie Vine), chiefly in pits and low houses, and produced ripe grapes
of the sweet-ivater kind in March and April. The Low Countries are celebrated for
good varieties of the apple and pear. The supplies of these articles sent to the markets
of Brussels, Antwerp, and Amsterdam, are equal, if not beyond anything of the kind to
be met with elsewhere in Europe. The climate of Flanders suits these fruits ; tliat of
Holland is rather adverse to flavor, from its moisture ; but peaches, pines, and melons
attain a larger size than in France. Tournay is so much celebrated for its pears, tliat the
Ghent Society, in 1816, offered a prize for " the best explanation of the causes of the
superiority in size, beauty, and flavor, of the pears grown at Tournay." {Hort. Tour, 333.)
Forcing in pits and frames, is carried to great perfection in Holland, and melons and
pines are, at the present time, sent to the London and Paris markets, and sold for very
moderate prices.

147. The culinary vegetables of Holland are brought to great perfection. All the plants
of culture, and especially the cabbage tribe, turnip, onion, carrot, &c. are grown to
a large size, and very succulent. Of plants edible in their natural state, as tlie parsley
and other herbs, and the fungi, they have excellent varieties. For leguminous crops the
climate is sometimes too moist. Brussels is noted for the greens or sprouts, which bear
the name of that town ; and Van Mons informs us {^Hort. Trans, iii. 197.) that they are
mentioned in the market regulations of that city so early as 1213. The Caledonian
Tourists, in 1817, found the markets of Ghent and Amsterdam better supplied with
culinary vegetables than any in Holland. The cauliflower was excellent. The Dutch
also excel in asparagus, carrots, and purslane.

148. Forcing- houses have been long in use in Holland, but the date of their introduc-
tion we have not been able to learn. It is singular that they are not once mentioned in
the early editions of Van Osten, published from 1689 to 1750 ; but Adanson {Families
des Plarites, Preface,) writing about the latter period, speaks of the hot-houses of the
Dutch in terms which evidently refer to forcing-houses. Orangeries, and botanic houses,
we have seen, (133. ) were in use so early as 1599. Within the last twenty years the demand
for forced productions has greatly diminished in Holland. Summer, or what are called
main crops, are now chiefly attempted, both in public and private gardens ; but after the
annexation of Holland to France, and since its subsequent union with Flanders, the
spirit for enjoyments of even this sort, has declined with the means of procuring them.

SuBSECT. 4. Dutch Gardening, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and Hedges.

149. Planting is not very general in Holland. In a country so thickly peopled, and
so conveniently situated in respect to marine commerce, it is not likely that much
ground would be devoted to merely useful plantations. In the more inland parts of
Flanders, there are natural forests and extensive copses ; tliese have been, and continue
to be kept up, and in some cases increased in extent by planting land too poor for culti-
vation. In Radcliff 's Agricultural Survey of that country, some account will be found
of their management. We observed, in 1819, some belts and clumps forming, in the
English manner, on some waste lands near Cambray, and that the Duke of Wellington was
planting on his estate at Waterloo. Between Aranagoen and Rhenen, a tract of land,
several miles in extent, and no better in quality than Bagsh9t-heath, is planted witli
Scotch firs, Weymouth pines, beech, and birch; and many hundred acres adjoining
have been sown with acorns for copse, and enclosed with thorn hedges.

150. Avenues, hedge-rows, and ozier-holts, are the principal plantations of the Dutch.
In these they excel, and the country in consequence resembles a series of gardens.

32 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

Avenue trees, chiefly elms and oaks, are trained for eight or ten years in the nursery ;
repeatedly removed so as to become furnished with numerous fibrous roots, and pruned
so as to have clean smooth stems from ten to fifteen feet high. Avenues, being public
property, are under the care of proper officers. Judging from the vigorous growth
of the trees, and the manner in which they are pruned, these officers seem to under-
stand their business, and to do their duty. In Rotterdam, on the quays, are perhaps the
finest trees in Holland : they are narrow-leaved elms, upwards of fifty feet high, with
clear stems of twenty-five feet, and upwards, of a century old. At the Hague are re-
markably fine limes in the Mall, on the road to Scheveling ; and oaks, elms, and beeches,
round the palace called the House in the Wood. The hornbeam is a very common
plant for the garden-hedges. Every plant in the row or hedge is trained with an
upright stem, and the side shoots are shorn so closely, that we often find hedges of six
or eight feet high, not more than eighteen inches wide at base, contracted to six
inches wide at top. These hedges receive their summer shearing in July, by which time
scarlet runners are ready to shoot up from the garden side of their base, which in the
course of two months, cover the hedge with their fresh verdure and brilliant blossoms,
and present a good crop in October and the beginning of November. The Dutch have
also very excellent field-hedges of birch and willow, as well as of all the usual hedge-
plants, and the gardeners are particularly dexterous at cutting, training, and shearing them.
The deep moist grounds on the banks of their estuaries are particularly favorable for
the growth of the willow, and the hoops of two years' growth from the Dutch willow (a
variety of Salix alba, with a brownish bark,) are in great esteem in commerce. Their
common basket willows {S. viminialis) are also excellent.

SuBSECT. 5. Dutch Gardening, as empincally ■practised.

151. Happili/ the use of gardens is universal in the Netherlands j and of the Dutch and
Flemings it may be truly said in the words of Lord Temple, " that gardening has been

the common favorite of public and private men ; a pleasure of the greatest, and a care of
the meanest, and indeed an employment and a possession, for which no man there is
too high nor too low." The gardens of the cottagers in these countries are undoubtedly
better managed and more productive than those of any other country ; no man who has
a cottage is without a garden attached ; often small, but rendered useful to a poor family
by the high degree of culture given to it. Every available particle of matter capable of act-
ing as manure is assiduously collected, and thrown into a neat ridge, cone, or bed, which
is turned over frequently ; and when suflSciently fermented and ameliorated, applied to
the soil. The plants in general cultivation in the cottage-gardens are the cabbage tribe,
including Brussels sprouts, the white beet for the leaves and stalks, the parsnip, carrot,
yellow and white turnip, potatoe, the pea, bean, and kidney-bean ; the apple, pear, and
currant, and in some places, the vine trained over the cottage, are the fruits ; and double
stocks, rockets, wall-flowers, pinks, violets, roses, and honey-suckles, the leading flowers
and plants of ornament. It is almost unnecessary to add, that the gardens of the trades-
men, farmers, citizens, private gentlemen, and princes, rise in gradation, in extent, riches,
and high keeping.

152. The principal nurseries, Jlorists' gardens, and market-gardens are in the neigh-
bourhood of Amsterdam, Haerlem, and Antwerp. These gardens formerly supplied
trained trees, vines, and all the most valuable plants to Britain, and other parts of
Europe ; and the florists still continue to monopolise the commerce of bulbous roots.
Great part of the fruit-trees sent by London and Wise from their nursery at Brompton
Park, in the beginning of the 18th century, were previously imported from Holland;
many of them reared in large wicker-baskets, were sent over in that state, and produced
fruit the first year after final planting. Justice {Brit. Gard. Dir.) gives credit to the
Dutch nurserymen for accuracy and punctuality ; he mentions Voerhelms and Van
Zompel as tradesmen which he could recommend ; and it is remarkable, that the same
establishment (Voorhelm and Schneevooght) is the most eminent at this day. Garden-
seeds, for which Holland has long been celebrated, are chiefly grown by the market-
gardeners and small farmers round Haerlem. Roses are extensively grown at Noord-
wyck, between Leyden and Haerlem, for the apothecaries, and the dried leaves are sent
to Amsterdam and Constantinople. The sorts are, the Dutch 100-leaved and the com-
mon cabbage rose. A striking characteristic of Dutch fruit and forest tree nurseries is
the length of time the trees are trained in the nursery. They are so often removed there,
as to have a large fasciculus of fibrous roots, and the fruit-trees commonly bear for a year
or two before they are sold, at least for local planting. Ready-grown hedges and shrubs,
of various sizes and shapes, may be purchased; and as they have been transplanted every
third year, like the trees, there is little risk of their not succeeding. At Brussels, pro-
fessor Van Mons has established a fruit-tree nursery, which he calls Pepiniere de la Fide-
lite, in which are grown upwards of 800 new varieties of pear, raised by himself and M.
Duquesne of Mons, since 1803, besides new varieties of the other hardy fruit-trees.

Book I. GARDENING IN FRANCE. 3.^

153. The operative gardeners in Holland are for the most part apprenticed, and serve
as journeymen before they are employed to undertake the care of gardens where several
hands are employed ; but so general is horticultural knowledge, tliat every labourer is
considered as capable of cropping and dressing an ordinary tradesman or farmer's garden.

154. ITiere are few or no artist-gardeners in Holland. Eminent practical gardeners are
employed to lay out walled kitchen-gardens ; and artists from Paris, generally called in
to lay out parks or pleasure-grounds of more tlian ordinary extent.

SuBSECT. 6. Dutch Gardenings as a Science, and in respect to the Authors it has '

j}roduced.

155. Horticulture as a science, has been less cultivated in the Netherlands than in
Italy or France. The botanists of the country were not among the first to advance the
study of pliysiology, nor has any of their practical men appeared with the science of a
Quintiney or a Miller. " The patience and riches," Bosc observes, " which produced
so high a degree of florimania in Holland, might have been usefully employed in ad-
vancing vegetable physiology; but science owes nbthing to the Dutch in tliis branch."
At the present time, when science is so rapidly and so universally spread, tlie learned
in the Netherlands are unquestionably on a footing with those of other countries ; a proof
of which may be derived from the remarks of Van JNIons, Van Marum, and other Dutch
and Flemish correspondents of our Horticultural and Linnaean Societies. The ma-
jority of working gardeners may be considered as nearly on a par with those of this
country in point of science, and before them in various points of practice.

156. The Duich and Flemijigs have Jew authors on gardening, and the reason may be,
the universality of practical knowledge in that country. Commelin and Van Osten are
their principal authors. Tlie former published the Hortus Amstelodamus, in 2 vols,
folio, in 1697, and subsequently a small work on orange-trees; and Van Osten, who
was gardener at Leyden, published his Dutch Gardener about 1710. Various French
works on gardening have been printed at the Hague, and other parts of Holland.

Sect. III. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in France.

157. Three ceras mark the gardening of Fraiice ; that of Charlemagne, in the eighth ;
of Louis XIV., in the middle of the seventeenth ; and tliat of the Revolution, at the
end of the eighteenth centuries. The first introduced the best fruits, and spread the use
of vineyards and orchards ; the second was marked by splendor in design ; and the third
by increased botanical and scientific knowledge.

SuBSECT. 1. French Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste.

158. Though the gardening of Charlemagne in the eighth century was chiefly of the useful
kind, yet he is said (see Nigellius) to have had a noble palace at Ingleheim, on the Rhine,
supported by a hundred columns of Italian marble. This could hardly be erected,
without an accompanying and decorative garden, though the frugal habits of that prince
might prevent an extravagant display of design. From the Hortulus of Walafrid, pub-
lished in the beginning of the ninth century, it appears that gardens were in these times
made only within the walls of castles and monasteries.

159. Previously to the sixteenth century, any notices of gardening in France chiefly
relate to other branches than that under consideration. At the end of this century,
Francis the First built the palace of Fontainbleau, and introduced there some traits of
the gardening of Italy. Stephens and Liebault published their Maison Rustique
about this time ; the early editions contain little on the subject of design, farther than
directions for forming avenues, arbors, and flower-gardens.

160. la the beginning of the seventeenth century, Hirschfield observes, the gardens of
France consisted only of a few trees and flowers, some plots of turf, and pieces of
water ; the whole, he adds, according to their own accounts, " totally deprived of taste,
and completely wild and neglected."

161. About the middle of the seventeenth century, and in the second year of Louis the
Fourteenth's reign, France was visited by Evelyn, who makes the following remarks on
the gardens in and near Paris: —

The garden of the Tuillerics " is rarely contrived for privacy, shade, or company, by groves, plantations
of tali trees, esi^ecially that in the middle, being of elms, and another of mulberries. There is a labyrmth
of cypress, noble hedges of pomegranates, fountains, fish-ponds, and an aviary. 1 here is an artiftc.al echo,
redoubling the words distinctly, and it is never without some fair nj-mph singing to it. Standing at one
of the focuses, which is under a tree, or little cabinet of hedges, the voice seems to descend trom the
clouds ; at another, as if it were under ground. This being at the bottom of the garden, we were let into
another, which, being kent with all imaginable accurateness as to the orangery, precious shrubs, and rare
fruits, seemed a Paradise." , ..

St. Gemiains en Lay. " By the way I alighted at St. Goes, wliere, on an eminence near the river, tne
archbishop of Paris has a garden, for the house is not very considerable, newly watered, and furnished
with statues, fountains, and groves ; the walks are very fine ; the fountain of Laocoon is m a large square
poolthrowingthewatcr near forty feet high, and having about it a multitude of sUtues and basins, and
is a surprising object ; but nothing is more esteemed than the cascade, faUing from the great steps into

34 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

the lowest and longest walk from the Mount Parnassus, which consists of a grotto, or shell house, on the
summit of the hill, wherein are divers water- works, and contrivances to wet the spectators."

Cardinal Richelieu's villa at Ruell. " The house is small, but fairly built in form of a castle, moated
round. The offices are towards the road, and over-against them are large vineyards walled in. Though
the house is not of the greatest size, the gardens about it are so magnificent, that I doubt whether Italy
has any exceeding it for varieties of pleasure. The garden nearest the pavilion is a parterre, having in
the midst divers brass statues, perpetually spouting water into an ample basin, with other figures of the
same metal ; but what is most admirable is the vast enclosure, and a variety of ground in the large garden
containing vineyards, corn-fields, meadows, groves, (whereof one is of perennial greens), and walks of vast
lengths, so accurately kept and cultivated, that nothing can be more agreeable. On one of these walks,
within a square of tall trees, is a basilisk of copper, which, managed by the fountaineer, casts water near
sixty feet high, and will, of itself, move T-ound so swiftly, that one can hardly escape wetting. This leads
to the Citroni^re where is a noble conserve of all those rarities ; and at the end of it is the arch of Con-
stantine, painted on a wall in oil, as large as the real one at Rome, so well done, that even a man skilled in
painting may mistake it for stone and sculpture. The sky and hills, which seem to be between the arches,
are so natural, that swallows and other birds, thinking to fly through, have dashed themselves against the
wall. At the farther part of this walk is that plentiful, though artificial, cascade, which rolls down a very steep
declivity, and over the marble steps and basins, with an astonishing noise and fury; each basin hatha
jette in it, flowing like sheets of transparent glass, especially that which rises over the great shell of lead,
from whence it glides silently down a channel, through the middle of a spacious gravel- walk, terminating in
a grotto. Here are also fountains that cast water to a great height, and large ponds, two of which have islands
for harbour of fowls, of which there is store. One of these islands has a receptacle for them, built of vast
pieces of rock, near fifty feet high, grown over with moss, ivy, &c. shaded, at a competent distance, with
tall trees ; in this the fowls lay eggs and breed. "We then saw a large and very rare grotto of shell-work,
in the shape of satyrs, and other wild fancies ; in the middle stands a marble table, on which a fountain
plays in forms of glasses, cups, crosses, fans, crowns, &c. Then the fountaineers represent a shower of
rain, from the top, met by small jets from below. At going out, two extravagant musketeers shot us with
a stream of water from their musket-barrels. Before this grotto is a long pool, into which ran divers
spouts of water from leaden escallop basins. The viewing this Paradise made us late at St. Germains."

St. Germains. " The first building of this palace is of Charles V. called the Sage ; but Francis I. (that
true virtuoso) made it complete. Speaking as to the style of magnificence then in fashion, which was with
too great a mixture of the Gothic, as may be seen of what there is remaining of his in the old castle, an
irregular piece as built on the old foundation, and having a moat about it. It has yet some spacious and
handsome rooms of state, and a chapel neatly painted. The new castle is at some distance, divided from
this by a court, of a lower but more modern design, built by Henry IV. To this belong six terraces, built
of brick and stone, descending in cascades, towards the river, cut out of the natural hill, having under
them grandly vaulted galleries ; of these, four have subterraneous grots and rocks, where are represented
several objects, in the manner of scenes, and other motions by force of water, shown by the light of torches
only; amongst these is Orpheus, with his music, and the animals which dance after his harp; in the
second, is the king and dolphin (dauphin) ; in the third is Neptune sounding his Trumpet, his chariot
drawn by sea-horses ; in the fourth, Perseus, and Andromeda ; mills, hermitages, men fishing, birds
chirping, and many other devices. There is also a dry grot to refresh in, all having a fine prospect towards
the river, and the goodly country about it, especially the forest. At the bottom is a parterre ; the upper
terrace near half a mile in length, with double declivities, arched and balustered with stone of vast and
royal cost. In the pavilion of the new castle are many fair rooms well painted, and leading into a very
noble garden and park, where there is a pall-mall, in the midst of which, on one of the sides, is a chapel
with a stone cupola, though small, yet of a handsome order of architecture. Out of the park you go
into the forest, which, being very large, is stored with deer, wild boars, wolves, and other wild game.
The Tennis-court, and Cavalerizzo for the maneged horses, are also very observable."

The Count de LiancourVs palace, in the rue de Seine, " is well-built. Towards his study and bed-
chamber joins a little garden, which, though very narrow, by the addition of a well-painted perspective,
is to appearance greatly enlarged ; to this there is another part, supported by arches, in which runs a
stream of water, rising in the aviary, out of a statue, and seeming to flow for some miles, by being arti-
ficially continued in the painting, where it sinks down at the wall. It is a very agreeable deception. At
the end of this garden is a little theatre, made to change with divers pretty scenes, and the stage so ordered
that figures of men and women, painted on light boards, and cut out, are by a person who stands under-
neath, made to act as if they were speaking, by guiding them, and reciting words, in different tones, as the
parts require, &c."

A pretty garden at Caen, " planted with hedges of alaternus, having at the entrance a screen of an ex-
ceeding height, accurately cut in topiary work."

The gardens of the Luxe?nbourg are near an English mile in circumference. " The parterre is, indeed,
of box, but so rarely designed and accurately kept cut, that the embroidery makes a wonderful effect to
the lodgings which front it. The walks are exactly fair, long, and variously descending, and so justly
planted witn limes, elms, and other trees, that nothing can be more delicious, especially that of the horn-
beam hedge ; which, being high and stately, buts full on the fountain." {Memoirs, vol. i. 40—52.)

President Maison's palace and gardens, " between St. Germains and Paris. The palace is environed by
a dry moat; the offices underground; the gardens are very excellent, with extraordinary long walks, set
with elms, and a noble prospect towards the forest, and on the Seine towards Paris. Take it altogether, the
meadows, walks, river, forest, corn-ground, and vineyards, I hardly saw any thing in Italy to exceed it.
The iron gates are very magnificent." {Memoirs, p. 239.)

162. The French taste in laying out gardens may be considered as having been settled
and confirmed by Le Notre during the reign of Louis XIV. Le Notre's taste and style,
Daines Barrington observes, continued in full repute for upwards of a century ; and
appears to have been in general vogue so late as 1771, fifty years after the introduction
of the modern style in England. However remarkable this may appear, it is a fact which
does not admit of a doubt ; for Millin, the editor of the Journal Enajdopedique, in a
critique on the translation of Wheatley's Observations on Modern Gardening, published
that year, after the most liberal encomiums on the work, expresses his doubts as to how
the modern style would be received in France, where he adds, " Le Notre's school is
still followed, and every rich proprietor is anxious that his garden, if it does not resemble,
shall at least recall to his mind those of the court, at Versailles, Trianon, Meudon,
Sceaux, or Clugny."

163. Le Notre ivas the most celebrated gardener that probabli/ ever existed. It Le Notre,
observes Hirschfield, had been born under any other monarch than Louis the XIV., his
taste would, in all probability, never have spread, or his name been known to posterity.
But that age, in which a feeling for the fine arts had begun to awake in men's minds.

Book I. GARDENING IN FRANCE. S5

together with the personal character of this monarch, was favorable to pomp and
brilliancy. 'Die nation and the court wished to be dazzled and enchanted by novelty and
singularity ; and thougli there certainly was nothing in Le Notre's manner that had not
before been displayed in France and Italy, and with the exception of parterres, even by
the Romans, yet the grand scale and sumptuous expense of the plans surpassed every
thing before seen in France, and produced precisely the desired end. His long dipt
alleys, triumphal arches, richly decorated and highly wrought parterres ; his fountains
and cascades, with their grotesque and strange ornaments ; liis groves, full of architecture
and gilt trellises ; his profusion of statues and therms ; all these wonders springing up
in a desert-looking open country, dazzled and enchanted every class of observers. Le
Notre was educated an architect, and had attained his fortieth year before he finished his
first work in the rpral department of his profession, the garden of Vaux le Vicomptef
afterwards F. le VUlars, and now (1828) Vaux Praslin. The king, enchanted with
this decoration, made Le Notre his controller-general of buildings and director of gardens,
loaded him with presents, gave him a patent of nobility, and made him Knight of the order
of Saint Michael. His principal works are Versailles, which cost nearly 200 millions
of francs ; Trianon, Meudon, Saint Cloud, Sceaux, Chantilly, and the celebrated terrace
of Saint Germains. The gardens of the Tuilleries, the Champs Elys^es, and many others
were either formed by him or improved from his designs. In 1678 he went to Italy,
where he furnished the plans of several gardens, particularly those of the villas Pamphili
and Ludovisi. England, Sweden, and all Europe adopted his manner. He died in
1700. {Hirschjield, torn. \. 298.)

164. The gardens of Versailles^ the grand eflfort of Le Notre, have been so frequently
described, and are so generally known, that we shall only quote one or two opinions
concerning them. JHirschfield considers them not as models of taste, but as models of
a particular class or character of gardens. Gray the poet was struck with their splendor
when filled with company, and when the water-works were in full action. Lord
Kaimes says they would tempt one to believe that nature was below the notice of a
great monarch, and therefore monsters must be created for him as being more astonish-
ing productions. Bradley says, " Versailles is the sum of every thing that has been done
in gardening." Agricola, a Dutch author, declares (P/«7. Treat, on Agr. Trans, by
Bradley,) that the sight of Versailles gave him a foretaste of Paradise. Our opinion
coincides with Gray's : " Such symmetry," as Lord Byron observes, " is not for soli-
tude." During the Revolution, it was proposed that the palace and gardens should be
sold as national property ; but M. Le Roy, the architect, greatly to his honor, stepped
forward and represented that the palace might be usefully employed for public purposes,
and the garden rendered productive of food for the people. " This satisfied the citizens :
a military school was established in the palace ; and by planting some of the parterres
with apple-trees, and others with potatoes, the garden was saved." Niell was in-
formed, that by calculation the water-works of Versailles, which are not played off
oftener'than eight or ten times a-year, cost 200/. j;er hour. There is an orange-tree
here " seme in 1421," and thirty feet high. (^Hort. Tour, 409. et seq.)

165. Le Notre's successor was Dufresnoy, controller of buildings ; his taste, diflered
considerably from that of his predecessor, and he is said to have determined on inventing a
style different and more picturesque. He preferred unequal surfaces, and sometimes at-
tempted these by art. His style had something of the modern English manner, but
his projects were rarely carried into execution. He was accused of being two ex-
pensive ; but it is more probable that the chief objection to his taste was the continued
prevalence of that of his predecessor. However, he constructed, in a style superior to
that of Le Notre, the gardens of the Abb6 Pajot, near Vincennes, and in the Faubourg
Saint Antoine, two other gardens of his own, now known under the names of Moulin, and
of Chemincreux. Marly has been erroneously attributed to Dufresnoy, but it was
constructed from the plans of the architect Drus^, controller of the works at St. Ger-
mains. The garden of Bagnolet is the principal work of Desgodetz, a relation of Le
Notre! Chapelle d'Isle and Uie brothers Mansard, and other architects, at that time
constructed several gardens in France, but on the general plan of that of Le Notre.
Millin considers Dufresnoy as an artist of much greater genius than Le Notre, and
more attached to natural beauties, though less known by his talent for designing gardens
than by his comedies. . t- r- l £■

166. The English style of gardening began to pass into France, after the peace of
1762 and was soon afterwards pursued with the utmost enthusiasm. Hirschfield af-
firms' that they set about destroying the ancient gardens, and replanting them ih the
Enelish manner, with a warmth more common to the mania of imitation than the gemus
of invention. Even a part of the gardens of Versailles were removed, as De Lille la-
ments (Les Jardins, 4th edit. p. 40.), to make way for a young plantation a lAngloue.
Dufresnoy, as we have already stated, had been bold enough to depart from the fomier
style, and Gabriel Thouin, in the preface to his Plans Baisonnh des Jardtns, &c. (1818)

LJ 2

36

HISTORY OF GARDENING

Part I.

says, this artist gave the model of natural gardens on a piece of ground which belonged
to him in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, already alluded to, and thus hxed the prmciples
of natural (that is, Englishj gardening in France about the commencement of the last
century Laugier is the first French author who espoused the English style of garden-
ing in his Essai sur l' Architecture, published in 1753 ; and next in order Prev6t, in his
Homme du Gout, published in 1770. About the same time, the first notable example
was preparing at Ermenonville, the seat of Viscount Girardin, about ten leagues
from Paris. An account of this place was written by Girardin himself in 1775, and
published in 1777. It was soon after translated into English by D. Malthus, Esq.
and is well known for its eloquent descriptions of romantic and picturesque scenes.
Morel observes, in his Theorie des Jardins, published in 1766, that very little had been
done previously to 1766: he mentions Ermenonville, as to which he had been con-
sulted, and the Due d'Aumont's park at Guiscard, and a seat near Chateau
Thiery, chiefly laid out by him. Soon after Morel's work, Delille's celebrated poem,
(Les Jardins,) made its appearance, and is perhaps a more unexceptionable performance
than The English Garden of Mason. The French, indeed, have written much better
on gardening and agriculture than they have practised, — a circumstance which may be
accounted for, from the general concentration of wealth and talent in the capital, where
books are more frequent than examples ; and of professional reputation in that country,
depending more on what a man has written, than on what he has done. It does not ap-
pear that English gardening was ever at all noticed by the court of France.

167 Ermenonville {fig.ll.), still in the Girardin family, but now rather neglected, appears to have been
laid out in a chaste and picturesque style, and in this respect to have been somewhat different and superior

to contemporary English places. The chateau (a) was placed on an island in the lake, near the village (h).
Among other objects in the grounds were Rousseau's cottage (c) ; his tomb in the Island of Poplars (d) ;
that of the landscape-painter Mahier, who had assisted Girardin in designing the improvements in an
adjoining island {e) ; a garden in ruins (/), and the grand cascade {g). Useless buildings were in a great
degree avoided, and the picturesque effect of every object carefully considered, not in exclusion of, but in
connection with their utility. There is hardly an exceptionable principle, or even direction referring to
landscape-gardening laid down in the course of Girardin's Essay ; and in all that relates to the pictu-
resque, it is remarkable how exactly it corresponds with the ideas of Price. Girardin, high in military
rank, had previously visited every part of Europe, and paid particular attention to England, and before
publishing his work, he had the advantage of consulting those of Wheatley, Shenstone, G. Mason, ami
Chambers, from the first of which he has occasionally borrowed. He professes, however, that his object
is neither to create English gardens, nor Chinese gardens, and less to divide his grounds into pleasure-
grounds, parks, or ridings, than to produce interesting landscapes, " vaysages interessans" &c. He re-
ceived the professional aid of J. M. Morel, the Kent of France, who' afterwards published Theorie des
Jardins, and probably that of his guest Rousseau, who seems to have composed the advertisement to
his book. Magellan, in the Gazette Litteraire de P Europe for 1778, in giving some account of the last
days of Rousseau, who died at Ermenonville, and was buried in the Island of Poplars {d) there, informs us,
that Girardin kept a band of musicians, who constantly perambulated the grounds making concerts some-
times in the woods, and at other times on the waters, and in scenes calculated for particular seasons, so
as to draw the attention of visitors to them at the proper time. At night they returned to the house,
a»nd performed in a room adjoining the hall of company. Madame Girardin and her daughters were
clothed in common brown stuff", en amazones, with black hats, while the young men wore " kabitlements
le plus simple et le plus propres d les fairc confondre avec les enfans du campagnards,^'' &c.

Book I. GARDENING IN FRANCE.

37

16S. JVate/et s garden, the Moulin jolt, the next example of the English style in France, is of a verv
different description from ErmenonviUe. Watelet is the author of an Essai sur les Jardins which axi
peared ui h/4. His garden was situated in the suburbs of Paris, on the Seine, and contained about four
acres, varied by buildings, grottoes, temples, and inscriptions, and was, on the whole, more in the Chinese
style, than m that of Kent or Shenstone. The author, who professes to take utility for the basis of his
art, seems to have felt something wanting, in this particular,, to his temples and altars, and is ridiculed
by UiTschHel^ {Theone des Jardins, tom. i. p. I(i8.) for proposing occasionally " de faire paroitre aupres
US temples, et les autels, les arcs de triomphe, ^c. unetnmpe de pantomimes, vetues suivant le costume nices
sa;re, ttmtant des ceremonies, faisant dcs sacrificei, allant porter des offrandes," &c. ITie Prince de Ligne
admired Watelet 's garden almost as much as that of Girardin, though in so different a style After de-

scribing it, he says, " Allez-y, incredules Meditezsur les inscriptions que legdut y a dictees M6dit£x

avec le sage, soupirez avcc Pamant, et benissez Watelet." (Mem. et Lettres, &c. 230.) The object of such
as attempt English gardening in France on a small scale is still more to imitate the garden of Watelet
than the " paysages interessans" of Girardin. *

169. Of other English or mixed gardens which existed before the Revolution, the garden
of Mouceau, the property of the Duke of Orleans, was laid out by Blaikey, a British
landscape-gardener resident in France, in a romantic and irregular style. Blaikey also
formed some scenes in tlie Petit Trianon, especially in the lower part of the grounds, now
occupied by ruins, water, and a cottage, and in their kind very picturesque. It was here
that the queen of Louis XVI, used to entertain her guests habited as a sliepherdess ;
that tlie citizens used to hold fetes champetres during the Revolution ; and that Napoleon
made a residence for Maria Louisa. Having reverted to the Bourbons, it is now com-
paratively neglected and dilapidated. (Hort. Tour, 406.) Bagatelle, in the Bois de
Bologne, formerly the retreat of Count d'Artois, and the Duke of Orleans's park at
Raincy, were laid out, in 1779, in the same taste, and by the same artist. Tlie Jardin
de 3/ar6a?z//'was planted by the Chevalier Jansin, an Englishman. [Ed. Encyc. xii. 543.)
De Lille cites tlie gardens of Beloeil, the chateau of the Prince de Ligne. Montreuil, a
garden of the Princess Gremen^ ; Maupertuis, a garden of the Marquis de Montes-
quieu, with a beautifully varied surface, abundance of wood and water, and a desert
after the manner of Mereville. He mentions several others, all of which are figured in
Eecueil des Jardins, 16 cahiers, folio, and most of them described by Hirschfield (torn. i.
& v.), who considers Mereville and Ermenonvillff, as the two best specimens of English
gardening in France.

Mereville, the seat of M. La Borde, was one of the most considerable in France, and was laid out im.
mediately before the Revolution under the guidance of Robert, a famous landscape-painter. The chateau
stood on a terrace, and commanded a distant prospect over a marsh originally of little interest. But the
wall of this terrace was covered with artificial rock-work, a river formetl in the marsh with a bridge and
cascade. The general surface was raised by earth, and on the right and left of the view from the house
were raised considerable hills of earth, the one surmounted by a column 1520 feet high, serving as a prospect-
tower, and the other by a Doric temple of 17 columns. At the base of one hill was a magnificent grotto
and rocks, and near the other stables in the character of Gothic ruins. Various buildings were erected in
other parts of the grounds ; one to the memory of Captain Cook, and another to that of M. Laborde's two
sons, who perished in the voyage of La Peyrouse. Every hardy exotic tree was planted, and many of them,
as the tulip-tree, ailanthus, sophora, &c. grew with great vigor and flowered luxuriantly. Many millions
of francs were expended on this place, which for some years past has been falling into decay and has been
lately sold in lots.

One of the Ji nest modern parks in France is that of D'Argenson near Vienne. Mathews {Diary
of an Invalid) considered it superior to any thing of the kind he had seen in France or Italy, and says it re-
minded him of his native Wye, and its picturesque banks.

170. English gardening during the consulate was little attended to. Malmaison, the
residence of Josephine, was laid out avowedly in the English style by Morel, and greatly
altered arfd improved by Blaikie and the English resident gardener, Hudson ; and richly
stocked with trees and shrubs from London. Since that time little has been done on an
extended plan ; and one may travel from one extremity of the kingdom to the other,
without seeing any scene having the general external appearance of an English p^k.
The works of this kind which are executed, are on a very limited scale, and crowded
w^itli walks and ornaments. Most of them may be called fanciful, ingenious, and pretty,
but few are simple and grand. (Dulaure Desc. des Env. de Paris, and Hort. Tour, 357.
etseq.) All that a Frenchman considers necessary to form a Jardin Anglois, Blaikie
states to us, is crooked walks. Blaikie went to France in 1776, remained there during
the Revolution, and has been employed by all parties. The directory employed him to
plant the Tuilleries witli potatoes, and never paid him for the sets ; and tlie national
assembly in 1792, appointed him commissioner for the establishment of a botanic garden
at Versailles, but he declined the employment. This venerable artist is still employed in
all the eminent cases in France, Holkind, and the south of Germany.

171. The French revolution, however favorable to the progress of society, by the
emancipation of energies and intellects, and by the general subdivision and distribution
of property, has, as was to be expected, been injurious to gardening as an art of design ;
but if once the nation were politically content, a few years of quiet and prosperity, by en-
riching some and impoverishing others, would end in grouping property in more unequal
masses ; and tlie superfluous wealth of the opulent would be employed as before, under
the advantages of much more skill to display, and taste to approve what is beautiful or
excellent.

D 3

38

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part 1.

172. With regard to the irresent state of landscaj)e- gardening in France, the royal gar-
dens, the Tuilleries, Versailles, St. Cloud, and the Trianons, are still kept up in a
respectable style. Ermenonville is in possession of the son of its creator, who, being
friendly to the Buonaparte family, was made a president during the reign of a hundred
days, and is consequently at present not in favor at court. The grounds are still shown
to strangers, but their effect, and the order in which they are kept, are far inferior to what
one is led to expect from the description in the Essai sur la Comjwsition des Pai/sages,
&c. and from what, as we were informed (in 1815, and again in 1819), actually was the
case half a century ago. We saw no reason to admire the turf, which Sir J. E. Smith
informs us {Tour, &c.) had been, in 1786, about two years under the care of an intelli-
gent Scotch gardener, and who, he says, " assured us, and indeed what we saw con-
firmed it, that the superior beauty of our British grass-plots to those of other countries is
principally owing to management, and not to soil and climate." The lawns of Girardin,
and of the king in the grounds we have enumerated, are, we fear, sad proofs of the fallacy
of this gardener's opinion, and of the unsuitableness of dry arenaceous soils and warm
climates for those " velvet lawns" which are at once the greatest beauty and the charac-
teristic of English gardening in England. The finest lawns in and around Paris are
watered every summer evening, when it has not rained
during the day, e. g. that of the Palais Royal. 12

173. In the neighbourhood of Paris are various Chinese and Eng-
lish gardens which might be mentioned; what they call Chinese
gardens differ from their English or (as G-. Thouin calls them,)
natural gardens, in being still more frittered down by walks, and
ornamented by Chinese-looking ornaments. One of the prettiest
town-gardens in France, and which it is but justice to say, is un-
equalled by any of the kind in Britain, is that of Boursault, in
Paris, {Rue Mont Blanc,) about an acre in extent. It is described at
length in the Horticultural Tour.

174. Near Lyons is Hermitage, a villa of Guilliard St. Etienne,
much spoken of in the guides, and by French tourists. It is of small
extent, on the rocky umbrageous banks of the Saone, and thickly set
with statues, busts, rustic seats {fig. 12.), and every sort of garden or-
nament, with a museum. It is much too theatrical for a garden, and
gives more the idea of whim in the proprietor than of any thing else.
A situation of so much natural beauty, required at the utmost, only
as much art as was sufficient to mark its appropriation by man.

175. Around Montpelier and Marseilles, there is nothing in the
way of landscape gardening worth mentioning.

176. The plan of the residence of General Lomet at Agen {fig. 13.) is given by Kraft. {Plans des plus beaut
jardtns, &c. pi. 17.) It is situated on a hilly spot bordering the river, and contains in a very small space a dwell-
ing-house (a), poultry.yard (6), in the pavilions of which (c, d) are the coach-houses, stables, rooms above for
the coachman and stable-boys, and the gardener. There is a green-house {e), cart-shed, and warehouse, let
off to townsmen (/), a flower-garden {g), principal entrance and avenue {h, i), temple of Flora (/t.), Roman
temple and bath {I), terrace covered with an arbour {m), a vine plantation trained on an arcade trellis in the
Italian manner (n), a terrace for orange-trees with a green-house underneath (o), parterre (/>), miniature
fields of barley, wheat, beans, &c. {q), kitchen-garden (r), numerous monuments and statues {s, s), an
orchard (t), and a lake (m). Kraft says, it contains the greatest variety of picturesque views, but has

Book I.

GARDENING IN FRANCE.

S9

rather too many winding walks. It was laid out by
the architect, 'Kleber, who afterwards became the
celebrated general of that name, and was murdered
by a raamekike in Egj'pt. Kleber seems to have been
fond of rustic buildings, with which this garden
abounds in the greatest variety of form and dimen-
sions, from the gardener's house, to that of the
bees, and the shelter for peacocks.

177. There is a very pleasing English garden at
Vitry, the property of Citizen Wenner, in which as
much is made of a small spot as can well be done. It
was laid out by Charpentier already mentioned.

178. The garden qf the postmaster at Altkirch {fig.
14.), in Alsatia, is described by Kraft as a singularly
beautiful spot. Beyond the basin of water is an am-
phitheatre of shrubs and trees which is intersected
by shady walks leading to a mount containing the
grandest prospects of the Rhine and the Alps.

179. Public gardens or promenades are numerous
and well arranged in France as in most countries on
the continent : the demand for these arises from the
social habits of the people and the mildness of the
climate ; and their growth, even in the middle of
the cities, as in the Tuilleries and Boulevards of
Paris, and the street avenues of Bourdeaux, Lyons,
Marseilles, Montpelier, &c. is not impeded by the
smoke of cdal. What can be a greater luxury in a
city than such a garden as that of the Tuilleries
situated in its centre, — its open scenes of gaiety
and bustle, the distant hum of men heard in the
stillness of ifcs thick and shady groves, its length-
ened perspectives of trees, vistas, statues, fountains,
its coffee and refreshments, its music and dancing
on certain occasions, — and finally, that sprinkling
of mind thrown over the whole by the scattered
stations of those who hire out chairs and periodical
literature ?

SuBSECT. 2. French Gardening, in resjKCt to the Culture of Flowers and Plants qf

Ornament.

180. A taste for flowers was introduced to France from Holland, after that country had
established commercial relations with the Levant and the south of Europe. {Deleuze,
Recherches, &c.) Charlemagne loved gardens, and was most particular in giving directions
to his gardeners. In his Capilularium de Villis et Curtis, he enumerates the sorts of plants
which he desires may be grown in all his gardens. This list, however, excepting the
rose and the lily, is entirely medicinal ; and these too, were probably used as drugs ; for
tlie greatest beauty, in barbarous times, is utility.

181. It was in the thirteenth century that ornamental plants began to be introduced to
France as such. The crusades had brought to notice the gardens of the infidels in Egypt
and Syria ; the Christian invaders could not avoid being struck with their beauty, imitated
their plans, and imported their productions into Europe.

182. The sixteenth century, however, had arrived before the culture of flowers was attempted.
Botany now began to become ai science, independent of medicine. Gardens were con-
structed, destined for curious and beautiful plants ; and the discovery of America, and
the passage to the Indies, augmented their number. Travellers collected seeds, which
they sent home to their respective countries ; great care was bestowed on such as appeared
the most ornamental ; of some flowers, double varieties were produced, and the colors
and size of otliers, varied by culture, till advancing, by degrees, they at lenglii became
an object of luxury, and trade and caprice, fashion and variety, gave incredible prices for
some of these productions ; for in what, observes Deleuze, will extravagance not inter-
mingle. Henry IV. had a taste for flowers : his gardener, Jean Robin, published a ca-
talogue of plants in 1610, in which the passion-flower and crown imperial are mentioned,
the former as newly imported, and the latter as rare. In 1635, the varieties of tulips,
ranunculuses, and anemones, in tlie Jardin des Plantes, exceeded that of the species in
1800. Evelyn mentions, in 1644, (^Memoirs, i. 52.) a M. Morine, who from an ordinary
gardener had become one of the most skilful persons in France, who had a rare collection
of shells and flowers, and above 10,000 sorts of tulips alone. This florimania seems to
have declined and given way to a taste for exotics, during the reigns of Louis the Fifteenth
and Sixteenth, which has ever since continued to prevail.

183. The study of botany began to be cultivated in France at an early period, and has
since attained great consideration in that countiy from the labors of Tournefort, Adanson,
the Jussieus, Richard, Mirbel, Kunth, and Decandolle. The first botanic garden was
formed in 1597, at Montpelier, in Henry the Fifth's reign, through the representation of
Belon. In the following year it contained 1300 distinct species, the greater part
gatliered in the neighbourhood.

The garden of Paris {Jardin des Plantes) was founded by Louis the Thirteenth, in 1626, and finished in
16W, after, as La Brossc the first director remarks, " eighteen years of prosecution, and six of culture."

D 4

40

HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

The subsequent history and description of this garden, at different epochs, are given by Adanson, Jussieu,
and Thouin. It was visited by Sir J. E. Smith, in 1786, who observes that, " it used, in summer, to be the
evening walk of literary people, and even of persons of fashion j and was, besides, frequented all day long
by students of both sexes. Here ladies might be seen at close study dissecting flowers, and reading their
descriptions ; nor is it at all unusual, at Paris, for the fair sex to attend scientific lectures in considerable
numbers. The collection of plants is generally reckoned inferior to that of Kew ; it contains, however,
many plants not in England, mostly from Peru and the Levant." The garden has been greatly enlarged
and much improved since 1786, and now includes departments which may be considered, as far as vegetables
are concerned, schools of horticulture, planting, agriculture, medicine, and general economy. It contains
some fine old exotics, sugar-canes from which a loaf of sugar was made and presented to the Empress
Josephine, a munificent patroness of gardens, and a few palms which belonged to Francis I. In different
volumes of the Annates duMuseummay be seen plans and descriptions of the garden, with the modes of
instruction pursued by Professor Thouin. There can be no question of its being the most scientific and
best kept garden in Europe, and an admirable horticultural and botanical school ; and in our opinion,
the Chevalier Thouin, its director, and the professor of rural economy, has an equal claim to superiority
as a scientific gardener.

Tfte botanic garden of the Trianon, according to Dcleuzc, was established by Louis XV. at the suggestion
of the Duke de Noailles, for the display of exotic trees, and a general collection of plants, for the amusement
of the royal family. Here B. de Jussieu disposed, for the first time, the plants in the order of natural
families. The botanic department of this garden is at present in a state of neglect.

The flower-garden of Mahriaison in the time of Josephine was among the richest in Europe. Various
botanical collectors were patronised, some jointly with Lee of Hammersmith. The seeds brought home
by the navigator, Baudin, were here first raised and described by Ventenat in the Jardin de la Mal-
maison, in 1803. In 1813 Bonpland published the first volume of Plantes rares cuUivees a Mahnaison,
which ruined him, and compelled him to seek an asylum in America. This garden, though comparatively
neglected, contains some fine exotic trees as standards in the open ground, and protected in winter by
moveable houses. Among these are Magnolia grand/flora and an orange-tree as large as they grow in
&)ain. In the hot-houses are many fine exotics, and the original bulb of that splendid plant, Brunsvigia
Josephincey which in 1817 measured two feet and a half in circumference, and produced a head of flowers
three feet and a half diameter. The hot-house here contains a rack-work covered with exotics and
watered by a concealed pipe. {Hort. Tour, 403.)

There are various botanic gardens established in the provinces of France, which maintain a regular corre-
spondence with that of Paris as the common centre. Each of these gardens, has, as it were, the care of the
botany and horticulture (for these are not separated) of a certain district, and when any new or valuable
plant is increased in the Paris garden, it is immediately distributed among the provincial gardens, to be by
them cultivated and increased, and distributed among the nurserymen and practical gardeners. Since
1813, those provincial gardens have suffered for want of funds; and most of them are but indifferently
kept up. We could not help being struck with this in viewing the very well contrived new garden at
Marseilles, almost without plants. The richest provincial garden for its size, and the best in order, after
that of Paris, appeared to us (in 1819) to be that of Toulon That of Rouen contains the original plant of
the hybrid lilac {Syringa Rothomagensis), named Varin, after the gardener who, about 1787, raised it
from seed.

Herb or physic gardens are more common in France than in Britain. Plants form a much more important
part of the Materia Medica of the hospitals and French physicians, than in this country, and their use is
very popular among the lower orders. The herbarists of Paris occupy a particular lane, where they offer
great variety of dried plants for f ale.

SuBSECT. 3. French Gardening, in respect to iis horticultural Productions.

1 84. The hardy fruits of France only exceed those of Britain by the olive, the fig, the
jujube, pomegranate, and a few others little cultivated. Nature, Professor Thouin ob-
serves, {Essai sur I' Ejq)osition, ^c. de VSconomierurale, p. 55.) has only given to France,
the acorn, the chestnut, the pear, the wild apple, and some other inferior fruits. Every
thing else which we have, agreeable or useful, is the product of foreign climates, and we
owe them in great part to tlie Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans and Saracens.
The less ancient acquisitions are those of the crusades, or of accidental travellers. The
vine, the peach, the fig, the mulberry, the cherry, and the olive, were doubtless intro-
duced to France by the Romans ; the orange by the Italians ; and the pine-apple by the
Dutch. Apples, pears, and plums, are the fruits recommended for cultivation by
Charlemagne, in his Cajnt. de VUlis et Curtis, &c. prepared about the end of the eighth
century, and referred to by Montesquieu, as a chef-d'oeuvre of prudence, good adminis-
tration, and economy. The Abb(5 Schmidt informs us, {Mag. Encxjc.) that this
monarch, who had domains in every part of France, gave the greatest encouragement to
the eradication of forests, and the substitution of orchards and vineyards. He was on
terms of intimate friendship with the Saracenic prince, Haroun al Raschid, and by that
means procured for France the best sorts of pulse, melons, peaches, figs, and other fruits,
He desires that fennel, rosemary, sage, rue, wormwood, and above sixty other pot-herbs
and medicinal plants, should be cultivated : one of these which he calls anthyllis (thought
to be the house leek) was to be planted before the gardener's house, probably as being
vulnerary.

185. Early in the sixteenth century, it would appear they had at that time all the
fruits now in use, excepting the pine-apple. {Olio, de Serres, and Steph. and Lieb.) Some
remarks on the state of horticulture at the end of this century are given by B^nard
{Mem. de la Soc. Agr. du Seine et Oise, 1801,) and L. Deslongchamps. {Bon Jard.
1817-18.) Blaikie (169, 170.) informs us, that about 1779 only three sorts of melons
were grown in France, the netted or Maraiche, and two large sorts of poor flavor.
Blaikie introduced the cantaloupes, which are now the prevailing sorts. The pine-apple
has never been successfully cultivated in France, it becomes sickly from exhalaUon,
and produces small fruit as in Italy. (99.) But France excels all other countries in
pears and plums, and produces excellent peaches.

186. The culinary vegetables nf France have not been increased from the earliest

Book I. GARDENING IN FRANCE. 4]

period cf horticultural history, with the exception of the sea cale and the potatoe. In
salading and legumes they far excel most countries ; but in the cabbage tribe, turnips,
and potatoes, they are inferior to tlie moister climates of Holland and Britain.

187. A sort oi forcing seems to have commenced in France towards the end of the
sixteenth century. Benard informs us, that arcades open to the south were first erected
in Henry I Vth's time, for accelerating the growth of pease at St. Germains en Laye ;
and that, in the end of the reign of Louis XIV., Fagon, at the Jardin des Plantes^
constructed some hot houses with glass roofs, which he warmed with stoves and furnaces
for the preservation of tender plants; and which gave rise to all the hand-glasses, frames,
and hot-houses subsequently erected in France. Melons and early cucumbers had been
hitherto grown on beds of dung, and covered at night with loose straw ; early salading
was raised in pots and boxes exposed to the sun during day, and placed in sheds or
arbors during night. But Richard Senior, observing what Fagon had done, built for
himself at St. Germains, and afterwards for Louis XV. at Trianon, hot-houses, in which
were seen, for the first time in France, peaches, cherries, plums, strawberries, bearing
fruit in the depth of winter. In tlie Ecole Potagere, written by Combles about the year
1750, are the details relative to these buildings. There is still, however, very little
forcing in France, and almost none in tlie market-gardens. Pease, potatoes, asparagus,
kidney-beans, salads, &c., are seldom or never forwarded by other means than by plant-
ing in warm situations under south walls, and grapes or peaches are never covered with
glass. Melons and seedling plants of different sorts are forwarded by beds of dung,
generally without the addition of sashes and frames.

188. French horticulture received a grand accession of theoretical and practical know-
ledge from the writings of Quintinye. Jean de Quintinye was bom at Poictiersin 1626,
put to school among the Jesuits, took lessons in law, and afterwards travelled to Italy
with Tambonneau. Here his taste for agriculture began, or greatly increased. He
applied to its study as a science, and, on his return, Tambonneau committed his gardens
to his care. He attracted the attention of the court soon afterwards, and was made
director of several of the royal gardens during the reign of Louis XIV. He laid out a

jardin potager of tliirty aci es at Versailles ; the inhabitants of which, Neill observes,
seem to have imbibed from him a taste for horticulture and botany, the " Confreres
de St. Fiacre," (the tutelar saint of horticulturists,) or gardener's lodge, held here,
being the oldest in France. (Hui't. Tour, 414.) Among other works, Quintinye wrote
The complete Gardener, translated by Evelyn, and abridged by London and Wise. He
died in 1701. After his death the king always spoke of him with regret, and Switzer
says, assured his widow, that the king and she were equally sufiferers. Quintinye, in
his work on fruit-trees, has developed a system of pruning, which has ^not yet been
surpassed by that of any other author. Before his time the culture of wall, or espalier
trees, was little attended to ; gardens had been generally surrounded by high hedges, but
for these were now substituted walls of masonry, or of earth e7i pise. The pruning of
peach and pear trees is now well understood in France, and horticulture on the whole is
making rapid advances.

SuBSECT. 4. Freiich Gardening, in respect to the plaiiting of Timber-trees and Hedges.

189. Planting for profit has never been extensively jrractised in France, owing to the
abundance of natural forests in every part of the kingdom. These forests were much
neglected till within the last thirty years ; but they are now (being mostly national pro-
perty ) under a more regular course of management ; their limits defined by fences, and
the blanks filled up from the national nurseries. The roads of France being also kept
up by government, much attention is paid to lining them with rows of trees. In
some places, as in Alsatia, the walnut, cherry, apple, pear, and other fruit-trees are used ;
in other districts the elm, oak, or poplar, are employed ; and in the south, we frequently
find the mulberry, and sometimes the olive. The resinous tribe are rarely planted but
for ornament ; the oak, elm, beech, and Spanish chestnut, are the chief sorts used to fill
up blanks in the natural forests.

190. The idea of cultivating and ?iaturalising foreign trees in France was first pro-
jected by Du Hamel in the time of Louis XV. He procured many seeds from
America, raised them in the royal nurseries, and distributed tliem among his friends.
A vast plantation of exotic trees was then made at St. Germains en Laye by the
Mareschal de Noailles. Lamoignon naturalised on his estate at Malsherbes a great
number of these trees, and at the age of eighty-fotu-, Deleuze observes, saw every where
in France plants of his own introduction.

191. Hedges are not in general ufe in France; the plants employed in field-hedges,
in the northern parts, are the haw'.hom, birch, or a mixture of native shrubs, as
hazel, briar, laburnum, &c. In Larguedoc the most common plant is the wild pome-
granate. In ornamental hedges tl ey have attained great perfection ; for these the

42 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Tart I.

favorite plants are the yew, the hornbeam, and the box ; and for tall hedges, the lime
and elm.

SuBSECT. 5. French Gardenings as emjnrically practised.

192. The use of gardens is very general in France. Few cottagers are without them,
and in the northern districts, they commonly display a considerable degree of neatness,
and some fruit-trees and flowers. The southern parts of the country are the least civi-
lised ; there the gardens of the laboring class are less attended to, and gourds or melons,
and Indian corn, as in Italy, are the chief articles grown. The gardens of the or-
dinary citizens and private gentlemen in France, are greatly inferior to those of the
same class in Holland or Britain ; they are seldom walled round, and rarely contain
any arrangements for foreign or tender exotics. A green-house, indeed, is a rare
sight, and there does not seem to exist the slightest desire for enjoying any vegetable
production either earlier or later than their natural seasons. There are few wealthy
men in France at present, and consequently few first-rate gardens ; the best are in the
northern districts, and belong to princes of the blood, bankers, and other opulent citi-
zens. Those of the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, of Perigord, Laffite, and De-
laborde, may be included in this class ; though they are far inferior to many citizens'
seats and gardens in England.

193. There are excellent market-gardens in the neighbourhood of Paris, where, by
force of manure and daily waterings, the oleraceous tribe are brought to a large size
and very succulent quality. Figs, for the market, are grown by a particular class of
fruit-growers at Argenteuil ; grapes at Fontainbleau, peaches at Montreuil, and cherries
at various villages to the east of Paris. There are numerous florists who devote
themselves exclusively to the culture of flowers, and supply the market with roses,
lilies, stocks, and the more common greenhouse plants and orange-trees. The latter are
very neatly grafted, and otherwise well managed. In the winter time forced flowers
are exposed for sale, and also summer flowers which have been dried in stoves, and
preserve their color perfectly. The same thing is done with aromatic herbs, and some
pot-herbs, as parsley, chervil, &c.

194. There are feut nurseries in France ; the best are at Paris, and are chiefly occupied
with the culture of fruit-trees and ornamental shrubs. They excel in the culture of the
rose, of which they have upwards of 1 200 sorts, which form, to a small extent, articles of
foreign commerce. The two best provincial nurseries are those of Audibert at Tonelle,
in Languedoc, and Sedi at Lyons. Vallet's at Rouen is celebrated for orange-trees,
and Calvert and Co.'s (Englishmen) at Bonne Nouvelle, near the same place, equally so
for roses ; Vilmorin is the agricultural seedsman, Noisette the Lee, and Cels of Mont
Rouge the Loddiges of Paris. France long supplied a great part of Europe with
fruit-trees, from the celebrated nursery of the fathers of the Chartreux, near the
Luxembourg, established in the time of Louis XIV. and including eighty acres. That
establishment does not now exist ; but Ville Ilerv6, the son of its former manager, has
the care of the collection of fruit-trees and vines in the national garden of the Luxem-
bourg. The extensive collection of grapes in this garden was formed by Chaptal, tlie
celebrated chemist, when minister of the interior, with a view to ascertain the best sorts,
and distribute them in the provinces, and the fruit-trees were brought by the elder Herv6
from the Chartreux. (Preface to the Catalogue of the Luxembourg Garden, 1814 ; Cours
d^ Agriculture, &c. art. Vigne.) When Blaikie went to France in 1776, there was not a
nursery for trees and shrubs in the kingdom. About Vitry only a few of such foresfc-trees
were cultivated as were used in avenues, and so few fruit-trees that the sorts were not
tallied; the cultivators like the orange nurserymen at Nervi (95.) recognising the few
sorts by the leaves and bark.

1 95. The oj>erative gardeners in France are, in general, very ignorant. Few of them,
have learned their art by regular application, or the customary engagement of apprentice-
ship. At Paris they are poorly paid, and work much harder than the same class in
England. Evelyn, in 1644, informs us, that the work of the royal gardens was all done
in the night-time, and finished by six or seven in the morning, in order, no doubt, tliat
nothing offensive might meet the eyes of the great of these times. Happily such a chasm
does not now exist between the rich and the poor ; but still, partly for the same reason,
but principally to avoid the mid-day sun, the great part of the work, in most private
gardens, is performed from three to nine o'clock in the morning, and again from six to
nine in the evening. The great recommendation of a French gardener is, to be able to
conduct a garden a ban marche ; and the greatest to prune trees a la Montreuil.

196. Of artists in gardening (artistes jardiniers,architectes desjardins,) there are a num-
ber in France, chiefly resident in Paris. Blaikie, already mentioned, and Gab. Thouin,
brother to the professor, and author of Plans Raisonnes des Jardins, &c. (1818) may be
reckoned the most eminent. Girardin, Morel, and De Lille may be considered as hav-

Book I. GARDENING IN GERMANY. 43

ing eitablished the principles of gardening in France, as an art of design and taste ; but
it does not appear clear that the artists in general have caught their principles.

SuBSECT. 6. French Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced.

1 97. The science of gardening is well understood in France among the eminent gar-
deners and professors ; perhaps better than in any other country. Quintinye and Du Hamel
applied all the physiological knowledge of their day to tlie treatment of fruit and forest
trees ; and tlie theory of grafting, of healing wounds, and of artificial excitements to
fruitfulness, was explained in their works. BufFon, Magnal, Parent, and Rosier, Aubert
du Petit Thouars, Bosc, and above all Professor Thouin, have brought the whole science
of chemistry and of botany to bear on the various parts of gardening and rural economv,
which they have treated in various works, but especially in the Nouveau Cours d^ Agriculture,
(14 vols. 8vo.) published in 1810.

198. The court and national gardeners have, for the last thirty years, been men eminent
for scientific and practical knowledge ; who have received a regular education, and rank
with other crown officers. It is not there as in England, where the royal sitiiations have
always been occupied by mere empirical practitioners, recommended by some court
favorite, or succeeding by the common chances of life.

1 99. The great mass of oj>erative gardeners in France, both as masters and labourers, are
incomparably more ignorant both of gardening, as a science, and of knowledge in general,
than the gardeners of this country ; few of tliem can read : and the reason of this ignorance
is, that there is no demand for good master-gardeners. The pupils and apprentices of the
Jardin des Plant es are mostly sent to manage the provincial botanic gardens, or to the few
proprietors who have first-rate gardens. Tlie chief of tliem are foreigners, who return to
Germany or Italy. Indeed, where there is no forcing, and few plants in pots, scientific
gardeners are less necessary j the management of fruit-trees in France being reduced to
mere routine.

200. The French authors on gardening are very numerous, but Quintinye is their most
original and meritorious writer on horticulture, Du Hamel on planting, and Girardin and
D'Argenville on landscape-gardening. Their works on flowers are chiefly translations
from the Dutch.

Sect. IV. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Germany.

201. T/ie Germanic confederation, as arranged in 1815, includes the empire of Austria,
the kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemburg, and Denmark, be-
sides various dukedoms and free towns. The materials which we have been able to collect
for so extensive a field, are exceedingly scanty ; and, indeed, it appears from Hirschfield,
that gardening made little progress in Germany till the seventeenth century. At present,
the taste for our art there is very considerable, and seems to have received a new stimulus
from the recent peace. *' Gardens," Madame de Stael observes, " are almost as beauti-
ful in some parts of Germany as in England ; the luxury of gardens always implies a
love of the country. In England, simple mansions are often built in the middle of the
most magnificent parks ; the proprietor neglects his dwelling to attend to the ornaments
of nature. This magnificence and simplicity united do not, it is true, exist in tlie same
degree in Germany ; yet in spite of the want of wealth, and the pride of feudal dignity,
there is every where to be remarked a certain love of the beautiful, which sooner or later
must be followed by taste and elegance, of which it is the only real source. Often, in the
midst of the superb gardens of the German princes, are placed -.Eolian harps, close by
grottoes, encircled with flowers, that the wind may waft the sound and the perfume to-
gether. The imagination of the northern people thus endeavours to create for itself a
sort of Italy ; and during the brilliant days of a short-lived summer, it sometimes attains
the deception it seeks." {Germant/, chap, i.)

SuBSECT. 1. German Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste.

202. The French style of gardening has prevailed in Germany from the earliest period
of history or tradition. The German architects, observes Hirschfield in 1777, in making
themselves masters of the gardens, as well as of the houses, tended to spread and per-
petuate the prejudice. " A singular and deplorable Gallomania pervaded Germany from
the prince to tlie peasant, which neither irony, patriotism, nor productions which show
the force of our natural genius could destroy ; * ainsi font les Franqois ; voila ce que jai
vu en France ;' these words were sufficient to reduce the German to a mere copyist, and
in consequence we had French gardens, as we had Parisian fashions. Our nobles gave
the first example of imitation, and executed on their estates little miniatures of Versailles,
Marly, and Trianon. But now (1777)," he adds, "the Aurora of judgmentand good taste
begins to arise in our country, and the recitals of the happy changes made in England in
the gardens, has prepared the way for the same revolution in Germany. However, we

44 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

cannot complain of the suddenness of that revolution, and that the imitation of the English
taste spreads too rapidly ; it appears, on the contrary, that we begin to think for ourselves,
and reflection proceeds much slovv'er than mere imitation. We may meet perhaps here
and there several copies of the British manner, perhaps even of the Chinese style ; but
we expect to see the Germans inventing and combining for themselves, and producing
gardens stamped with the impression of national genius." (Theorie des Jardins, torn. i. 83.)

203. The cUinate and circumstances of Germajiy are less favorable to landscape-garden-
in" than Britain. Meyer, a scientific practical gardener and author, who studied his art
in" the royal gardens at Paris, and afterwards spent some time in England, viewing the
principal country-seats, is of this opinion. {Pom. Franc. 1776.) He considers grounds
laid out in the ancient style, as " insipid and monotonous, from their regularity, and only
calculated to produce sadness and ennui. If their aspect strikes at the first glance, it fa-
tigues and tires at the second, and certainly is revolting and disgusting at the third."
He admires English gardens in England, but states three objections to their introduction
in Germany. The inferiority of the pasturage, the expense and want of space, and the
necessity and advantage of attending to the culture of legumes and fruits. A mixed
style is what he prefers, and what he adopted in the episcopal gardens which he laid out
and managed at Wurzburg.

204. The first example of an Engliih garden in Germany, according to Reichard (Reise
durch Deutschland, &c.), was the? Garteii der Schwobber, in Westphalia, in the neighbour-
hood of Pyrmont. It was laid out about the year 1750, with winding walks and clumps,
and a rich collection of rare trees and plants. Hinuber's English garden at Hanover,
and that of Marienwerder in its neighbourhood, were begun about the same time ; and
soon after was commenced the splendid example exhibited by field -marshal Lacy, at
Dornbach, near Vienna, and which, it is said, originated in the family connections of tb.at
warrior with England. It was finished in part by an English gardener, in 1770, at an
expence of half a million of florins. Its picturesque views and distant prospects are much
and deservedly admired ; but on the whole, as an English garden, it owes much more to
nature than to art. After this, the new taste, as Hirschfield remarks, became general in
tlie empire. The most noble example of a garden in the ancient style in Germany, is
that of Schoenbrunn, at Vienna ; and of an English garden, according to our idea of
what that ought to be, at Dronningard, near Copenhagen. Having given a general idea
of the history of this branch of gardening in Germany, we shall now submit some slight
notices of the art under the different governm<?nts of the empire.

205. Austria. Francis the First, about the middle of tlie seventeenth century, laid out or
greatly enlarged the gardens of Schoenbrunn, after the plans of Steckhoven, a Dutch artist.
These gardens occupy a plain and a long ridge or hill near the capital, and are much ad-
mired for their extent and simple, though formal grandeur. They are inferior to those
of Peterhoff' and Versailles in respect to fountains, and to those of Sans Souci and Lodo-
visi for statues and antiques ; but for simple massive grandeur, for shade and verdure,
and all the more simple beauties of the ancient style, they are, we believe, superior to
any gardens now existing in Europe.

The Augarten (eye-garden, or garden of pleasure) is a public promenade in the suburbs of '\'^ienna. It
is a square spot of ten acres, surrounded by an elevated broad terrace-walk, commanding extensive views ;
and the area is planted and subdivided by walks. At the entrance is a magnilicent coffee-house. It was
formed during the reign of the benevolent emperor Joseph, whose particular wish it was, that it should be
open to every class of citizens.

The Prater, or meadow, is an extensive public promenade of a different description, and suited both for
promenades en cheval and au pied. It forms part of an island in the Danube, and consists of an artificial
grove used as a tea-garden ; an avenue as a course for carriages, but chiefly the scattered remains of an
ancient forest of oaks and thorns used for walking, and for exhibiting all manner of fetes. We consider it
the most agreeable scene of the kind on the continent. Here, in the summer evenings, all Vienna is as-
sembled ; the imperial family mix familiarly with the people, and Francis the Third, unattended, and in
the plainest garb, selects his table and rush-bottomed chair, and calls for his coffee and segar, like any
other citizen. Economical in his administratioir, frugal in his personal expenses, and exemplary in his
morals, he has nothing to fear from a personal familiarity with his subjects. Both the Prater and the gar-
den were planted with full-grown trees j for Joseph II. as Pezzel, his biographer, informs us, wished to see
the effect of all his improvements.

The imperial gardens of Luxembourg are extensive, avowedly iCnglish, and display a good deal of our
manner ; but more, as we have elsewhere observed {Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape G.), in the taste of Brown
than of Kent.

206. In Hungary, Hirschfield, in 1783, says there are only the gardens of Esterhaz, a
seat, of Prince Esterhazy, worthy of notice, and that they were chiefly indebted to the
beauty of the palace for their attractions. Dr. Townson, in 1793, mentions Count Vetzy
as laying out his grounds in the English style, aided by a gardener who had been some
time in England. The gardens of Coimt Esterhazy of Galantha, at Dotis, he considers
very fine ; and those of the Bishop of Eslau, at Felcho-Tarkan, as romantic. Dr.
Bright {Travels, 1815) mentions Kbrmond, the property of Prince Balhyani, as "con-
taining a very handsome garden in the French taste, with considerable liot-houses and
conservatories." Graaf Brunswick of Marton Vassar, had passed some time in Eng-
land, and his garden was laid out in the English style. The favorite mansion of Prince

DooK I. GARDENING IN GERMANY. 45

Esterhazy is Eisenstadt ; the palace has lately been improved, and the gardens, which
were laid out in 1754 in tlie French taste, were, in 1814, transforming in the English
manner. (Travels in Hungary, 346.)

207. At Dresden, the royal and principal private gardens exhibit nothing remarkable
in the way of art. They were formed chiefly during the electorate of Frederick Augus-
tus, King of Poland, and are remarkably confined, and by no means interesting in
detail. The situation and environs of Dresden every one feels to be delightful ; but
there is perhaps no city of the same rank on the continent equally deficient both in
ancient and modern gardens. (Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape Gard.)

208. Prussia. Almost all the geometric gardens of Prussia were formed during the
propitious reign of Frederick II.

The Thiergarten at Berlin is the most extensive. It is a sort of public park or promenade, on a flat
surface, and loose arenaceous soil, intersected by avenues and alleys, pierced by stars and pates d'oye,
varied by obelisks and statues, and accommodated with public coffee-houses, sheds for music and rural
f^tes, and open areas for exercising troops.

The ancient gardens of Sans Souci at Potsdam are in the mixed style of Switzer, with every appendage
and ornament of the French, Italian, and Dutch taste. Various artists, but chiefly Manger, a German
architect, and Salzmann, the royal gardener, (each of whom has published a voluminous description of his
works there,) were employed in their design and execution ; and a detailed topographical history of the
whole, accompanied by plans, elevations, and views, has been published by the late celebrated Nicholai
of Berlin, at once an author, printer, bookbinder, and bookseller. The gardens consist of, 1. The hill, on
the summit of which Sans Souci is placed. The slope in front of this palace is laid out in six terraces,
each ten feet high, and its supporting wall covered with glass, for peaches and vines. 2. A hill to the
east, devoted to hot-houses, culinary vegetables, and slopes or terraces for fruit-trees. 3. A plain at the
bottom of the slope, laid out in Switzer's manner, leading to the new palace ; and 4. A reserve of hot-
houses, and chiefly large orangeries, and pits for pines to the west, and near the celebrated windmill, of
which Frederick could not get possession.

The Sans Souci scenery is more curious and varied, than simple and grand. The hill of glazed terraces
crowned by Sans Souci has indeed a singular appearance ; but the woods, cabinets, and innumerable
statues in the grounds below, are on too small a scale for the eflect intended to be produced ; and on the
whole distract and divide the attention on the first view. Potsdam, with its environs, forms a crowded
scene of architectural and gardening efforts ; a sort of royal magazine, in which an immense number of
expensive articles, pillared scenery, screens of columns, empty palaces, churches, and public buildings, as
Eustace and Wilson observe, crowd on our eyes, and distract our attention. Hirschfield, who does not
appear to have been a great admirer of Frederick, and who, as the Prince de Ligne has remarked, was
touched with the Anglomania in gardening, says, in 1785, " according to the last news from Prussia,
the taste for gardens is not yet perfect in that country. A recent author vaunts a palace champetre,
which presents as many windows as there are days in the year : he praises the high hedges, mountains
of periwinkle, regular parterres of flowers, ponds, artificial grottoes, ^rt* d'eau, and designs traced on a
plain." {Thiorie, &c. tom. v. ^m.)

209. The jmncipal examples of the English style in Prussia are the royal gardens at
the summer residence of Charlottenburg, near Berlin, begun by Frederick the Great,
but chiefly laid out during the reign of Frederick William II. They are not extensive,
and are situated on a dull sandy flat, washed by the Spree ; under which unfavorable
circumstances, it would be wonderful if they were very attractive. In one part of these
gardens, a Doric mausoleum of great beauty contains the ashes of the much-lamented
queen. A dark avenue of Scotch firs leads to a ch-cle of the same tree, 150 feet in
diameter. Interior circles are formed of cypresses and weeping-willows ; and within
these, is a border of white roses and white lilies (^Lilium candiduni). Tlie form of the
mausoleum is oblong, and its end projects from this interior circle, directly opposite the
covered avenue. A few steps descend from the entrance to a platform, in which, on a
sarcophagus, is a reclining figure of the queen : a stair at one side leads to the door of a
vault containing her remains.

210. The garden of the j)alace of the Heiligense (Jig. 15.) is avowedly English, and is
in much better taste than that at Charlottenburg. The palace is cased externally with

15

46 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

marble ; it is in a chaste style of Grecian architecture, and praised by Wilson ( Tours on the
Coiilinenty 1820), as one of the best pieces of architecture in Prussia. It is built close to
the lake, and the kitchen is placed in an island, disguised as a temple, and connected by
a subaquarian passage. Those sumptuous works were the joint productions of the coun-
sellor Langhans, professor Hirschfield, and the architect Gontard, during Frederick
William II. 's reign.

211. Count Schulenburg's garden, near Freyenwalde, was laid out when Harris, author of Hermes, was
envoy at Berlin, and that philosopher is said, by Hirschfield, to have rendered the count some assistance ;
but so transient are these things, that we were unable (in 1813) to find out its site.

212. Denmark. The gardens of Marienlust, near Elsineur, which occupy the same
space as those in which Hamlet's fatlier was murdered, and those of the Prince Frede-
rick, near the city, may be considered the Greenwich and Hyde Parks of Copenhagen.
Hirschfield mentions Ashberg, on the lake Pleon, as one of the finest residences in
Denmark in his time, and enumerates nearly a dozen others as seats of great beauty.

Dronningard may be considered as one of the best examples of the English style. It is an extensive
park, the late residence of an eminent Danish banker, De Conninck, about sixteen miles from Copenhagen.
The grounds are situated on a declivity, which descends to a natural lake of great extent,whose circuitous
shores are verged with rich woody scenery, and country-houses. The soil here approaches more to a
clayey loam than is general on the continent ; and the climate being cold, the turf is happily of a deep tone of
green, and close texture. The oak and beech abound in these grounds, as well as firs, and a number of
exotics. Buildings are not too frequent ; but there are several, and among them a hermitage, to which
one of the family actually retired, on occasion of a matrimonial disappointment, and lived there for several
years, till roused and restored to active life by the dangers of his country. There are numbers of small -
spots round Copenhagen, of considerable beauty, in which something of the English style has been imi-
tated ; but in none of the gardens of the court has it been avowedly introduced.

213. There are viany celebrated gardens in so extensive a couyitry as Germany, that we can-
not find room to particularise. The royal gardens of Munich, Stuttgard, and Hanover,
the gardens of Baden, Hesse Cassel, Hesse Darmstadt, Saxe Gotha, Weimar, Worlitz,
Schweitzingen, and other places, are well deserving notice. Most of them will be
found described in Hirschfield's work, or noticed in the Lettres et Pensees of the Prince
de Ligne ; and the most modem are described in the Almanack du Jardinage, a periodical
work, published at Leipsic ; or, in the Gardener s Magazine, a quarterly periodical work
in the German language. Indeed, there are specimens of English gardening, more or
less extensive, in or near the capital towns of every state in Germany ; but, by far the
greater number are of a very inferior description. From the arid soil and limited ex-
tent result bad turf and an air of constraint ; and from too many buildings and walks.
a distracting bustle and confusion. They are crowded with winding sanded paths con-
tinually intersecting each other, little clumps, and useless seats or temples, and very fre-
quently resemble more the attempts of mimics or caricaturists, than imitators of our taste.
On the continent, indeed, the defects of the English style are more frequently copied
than the beauties ; which, we presume, arises from the circumstances of few of those who
lay out such gardens, having had a proper idea of the end in view in forming them, viz.
a painter-like effect in every case, where it does not interfere with utility, or some other
preferable beauty ; and, in many cases, an entire allusion to natural scenery. It is dif-
ficult for a person of limited education and travel to form a distinct idea of what English
gardens really are. Tlie foreigner can seldom divest himself of the idea of a very limited
and compact space as requisite for this purpose ; the reverse of which is the case with all
our best scenes of picturesque beauty. The English gardens in the vicinity of Dresden,
Brunswick, Hamburgh, Prague, Toplitz, Leipsic, and other places, have given rise to
those remarks, in which even those professedly English in Prussia might be included.
There are some exceptions wliich might be pointed out at Cassel, Stutgard, (for views of
these gardens, see r Almanack du Jardinage,) Weimar, not unlike Kensington gardens,
(see Description du Parade Weimar, et duJardinde Tieffurtk, Erfurt, 1797,) the park of
Fiirstenstein near Breslaw, Mergentheim, Worlitz, praised by the Prince de Ligne, and
the walk at Munich, laid out by Count Rumford. \Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape Gard.)

214. The Duke of Baden's gardens at Schweitzingen {Jig. 16.), between the Rhine and the Mayne, are
considered by Kraft as the most delightful in Germany. They cover a surface of about 300 acres, and con-
tain the ancient castle of the Marquises of Baden (1). " The marquisate of Baden," says Kraft, " having
progressively and considerably increased by means of a numerous family, wings were obliged to be built on
each side, divided into apartments. The hot-houses, which form the wings (2, 2), have been much in-
creased. In front and more advanced, is the garden, in the French style, executed on a circular plan.
In the middle of the avenue are four grass plots, bordered and enamelled with flowers. In the middle are
little basins with fountains, one of which (3) throws the water sixty-seven feet high. On the right and
left are plantations of odoriferous shrubs, orange-trees, embellished with statues and vases of the finest
marble. Farther on are discovered the gardens, called the groves, situated on the right and left, laid out
/?N '^•^'^'^^"* forms, and embellished with a number of figures, vases, statues, the temple of Minerva
(4), the great rock surmounted by a figure of Pan (5), and Venus bathing (6). Higher up is the garden of
the large grove, ornamented with numerous figures (7,7,7,7), altars, tombs, urns, &c. Shady walks
lead to the great basin (8), the gates leading to which have groups of figures on the pedestals (9, 9). The
Grand Duke reserves the grand basin for the amusement of his family, par des petites navigations. A
very magnificent Turkish mosque (10) is erected on the left Here begins the picturesque garden, with
airtificial hjUs, vales, and slopes ; many different sorts of trees ; a temple of Mercury in ruins (11); and va-

Book I.

GARDENING IN GERMANY.

47

rious walks, leading through shrubberies to the right, till you arrive at the nursery-garden (12). From
thence, crossing the canal, you arrive at the temple of Apollo (13), built of costly mait>le. In the garden
behind, are rocks with allegorical figures, subterraneous caves and caverns ; at one side a family bath of

duct (22) ; the offices for the administration of the garden, with its appurtenances (23)'; a large theatre
(24) ; residence of the director-general (25) ; of the inspectors of the garden (26) ; of the inspectors of the
forest (27) ; of the huntsmen (28) ; of the foresters (29). Besides all these things and many more, there is
a fruit-garden (30) ; kitchen-garden (31) ; private orangery (32) j area for greenhouse plants in summer (S3);
and lofty water-engine for conveying water to the castle (34).

16

The Ducal gardens of Saxegotha are remarkable for their fine la-^ns, and for a ruined castle, which was
first built complete, and then ruined expres, by firing cannon against it.

SuBSECT. 2. German Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of

Ornament.

215. Floriculture was but little attended to in Germany, previously to the intro-
duction of botanic gardens ; but on the establishment of these, plants of ornament were
eagerly sought after in most of them : that of Altorf was famous for orange-trees, and
that of Copenhagen for bulbous roots.

216. The earliest private botanic garden in Europe, next to those of Italy, is said (^ITeith's
Botany, p. 18.) to have been one formed by William, Landgrave of Hesse, early in the
sixteenth century. Since that period more private botanic gardens have been formed in
Germany than in any other continental country. At Carlsrouhe, the Prince of Baden
Dourlach formed a botanic garden in 1715, in which, in 1737, there were 154 varieties
of oranges and lemons. Many might be named from that period to the present : the
latest is that of the Prince of Salm-Dyck. It was laid out in 1820, by Blaikie, of
St. Germains ; and is calculated to contain all the hardy plants which can be procured,
arranged in groups, according to the system of Jussieu. The prince is advantageously
known, by his works on succulent plants.

217. The first public botanic garden in Germany, according to Deleuze {Annates du
Jl/wsewm torn. 8.),was established by the Elector of Saxony, at Leipzic, in 1580; this
magistrate ha\-ing undertaken the reform of public instruction throughout his dominions.

Those of Giessen, Altorf, Rintel,RaUsbon,Ulm, and Jena, soon followed. In 1605, Jungerman, a cele-
brated botanist, obtained one for the university, which the landgrave had just founded at Giessen. After
having disposed of it, he went to Altorf, and solicited the same favor for this city. The senate of Nuremberg
agreed to nis wishes in 1620, although the country was then a prey to the disasters of war. Jangerman,

48 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part J.

named Professor, gloried in the prosperity of a university which he looked upon as his work, and in 1635,
he published the catalogue of the plants he had collected. Ten years afterwards they constructed a green-
house, and the garden of Altorf (Pre/, to the Nuremberg Hespotides) was then the most beautiful of Ger-
many. That which Ernest, Count of Shawenbourg, established in 1621, at Rintel, in Westphalia, also ac-
quired much celebrity. Those of Ratisbon and Ulm are of the same epoch. From 1555, when the univer-
sity of Jena was founded, the professors of botany, during the summer season, took the students to the
country to herbalise. They soon found it would be much more advantageous to collect in one place the
plants they wished them to be acquainted with, and the government constructed a garden in 1629. The
direction of it was given to Rolfine, who has left a curious work on plants, containing a history of the
principal gardens of Euroj)e of his time.

At Leipsic, towards the end of the seventeenth century, the garden of Gaspard Bose was celebrated.
He introduced many handsome plants, and among others the dwarf almond.

218. At Vienna and Frankfort, L'Ecluse prosecuted the study of botany, and enriched the gardens at
the.se places with an immense number of plants. Maximilian II., who occupied the imperial throne from
1564 to 1576, seconded his views, and caused a magnificent garden to be constructed at Vienna for the
plants which he collected, charging his ambassadors at Constantinople and other countries, to procure new
plants ; and giving the care of the garden to L'Ecluse. Rodolph II., who succeeded Maximilian, also en-
riched this garden, of which Sweert published a catalogue {Florilemuvi) in 1612.

The Schoenbrunn botanic garden was begun with the palace, in 1753, by the Emperor Francis I. He de-
sired that that establishment should be worthy of the imperial magnificence, and that it should extend the
domain of botany, in bringing together vegetables then unknown in Europe. By the advice of Van
Swieten, he procured two celebrated florists, the one from Leyden and the other from Delft. The first,
Adrian Steckhoven, directed the construction of the hot-houses; and the second Van der Schott, brought
all the plants whicli he could collect in the gardens and nurseries of Holland. Thus the first year they
were in possession of many curious species ; but this was only a step towards the end they had in view.
The Emperor proposed to the celebrated Jacquin to go to the Antilles. This botanist departed in 1754, ac-
companied by Van der Schott, and two Italian zoologists, employed to procure animals for the menagerie
and the museum. These travellers visited Martinique, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Eustace, St. Christopher,
Jamaica, Cuba, Curasao, and other places. In 1755 they sent home their first packages, and in 1756, Van
der Schott arrived with a collection of trees and shrubs almost all in good coiidition. The trees were five
or six feet high, and many had already borne fruit ; they were taken up with balls, and the earth enveloped
with leaves of bananas, tied by cords of Hibiscus tiliaceus. Thus packed, one with another, they weighed
100 lbs. These vegetables, and the water necessary to water them, formed the greater part of the cargo of
a vessel which had been forwarded from Martinique for Leghorn. From Leghorn the plants were trans-
ported on the backs of mules, and placed in the plain ground in the hot-houses built to receive them. The
third and the fourth quantities came in the same manner. The fifth and sixth arrived from Caraccas, by
Amsterdam. At last Jacquin left Havannah, and conducted to Schoenbrunn the last collection in 1759.
During this time presents and purchases were received from other countries, and in proportion as the
plants increased, they built hot-houses and orangeries, of a grandeur suitable to the plants destined to grow
in them. One range is 270 feet long, and 30 feet high within ; another above 300 feet long, and about the
same height ; and there are three more ranges, each about 240 feet long.

An accidad in 1780 caused the loss of most of the plants of the great hot-house. Van der Schott being
sick, the gardener who supplied his place, forgot, during a very cold night, to light the stoves. Perceiving
it in the morning, he thought to remedy the evil in making a very brisk fire. This sudden change of tem-
perature caused many of the trees to perish, whose trunks were of the tliickness of the arm. To repair
this loss, Joseph II. engaged the naturalists to undertake a new vojage. Professor "Masster was named
chief of the expedition, with Dr. Stupiez, for a companion ; the gardeners Bose and Bredemeyer and the
draftsman Moll. They went direct to Philadelphia, visited the United States, Florida, and New Provi-
dence, sent home a large collection, and Bose afterwards got charge of the garden of Schoenbrunn.

The hot-houses of Schoenbrunn, To wnson observes {Voyage in Hungary), are the most spacious that
have yet been constructed in Europe; the trees of the tropics there develope their branches in full
liberty, and bear flowers and fruits. The most rare palms, the Cocos nucifcra, the Caryota urens, the
Elais guineensls grow there with vigor. The Corypha uinbraculifera extends its large leaves for twelve
feet round, and birds of Africa and America there fly from branch to branch among the trees of their
country. Jacquin published successively three great works, illustrating the plants of these gardens, viz.
Hortus Schoen., Icones plant, variorum, and Fragmenta Botanica. We found these gardens in 1814 in
suitable order ; but the edifices requiring renovation. It is difficult for a mere European traveller to
form any idea of the grandeur of the palms sending out their immense leaves from the capitals of their
column-like trunks.

There are at Vienna two other public bjtanic gardens ; the one formed in what was a large gravel-pit
exclusively devoted to the plants of Austria; and the other of smaller extent, attached to the university,
and devoted to a small general collection. Considerable compartments in the gardens of Princes
Lichtenstein, and Schwartzenberg, in Leopoldstaut, are devoted to the culture of ornamental plants
systematically arranged.

The botanic garden of Pesth was established in 1812, and enlarged in 1815 ; it was placed under the
direction of the professor Kitaibel, known in the scientific world as the author of Plantte rariores
Hungariee.

219 The botanic garden of Dresden is sm.all ; but is rich in exotics lately procured from England, and
carefully managed by Traugott Seidel.

The botanic garden of Berlin was established in the time of Frederick II. and is one of the few gardens
in which the arrangement of the plants is according to their native habitations. It has lately been greatly
enriched by Link and Otto ; as have those of Munich, Stuttgard, Baden, Hesse, and most others in
Germany, by their respective directors and gardeners.

The botanic garden of Konigsberg, was enlarged and re-arranged in 1812, and deserves notice for its
singidarly varied surface, and agreeable recluse walks.

The botanic garden of Copenhagen was established before 1640. It was rich in hardy plants and trees,
about the en I of the last century, but is at present rather neglected. Spedin in 1642, and Pauli in 1653,
published catalogues of this garden.

220. The taste for plants in Germany is very considerable among the higher classes ; and
not only public bodies but private gentlemen, and princes of every degree, spend a much
greater proportion of their income, in the encouragement of this branch of gardening,
than is done by the wealthy of England. Since the restoration of tranquillity, this taste
has received a new stimulus by the opportunity afforded of procuring plants from
England. Among the lower classes, however, a taste for flowers is less popular in
Germany than in Italy, Holland, and France ; probably owing to their frugal habits,
and comparatively sober enjoyments.

UooK I. GARDENING IN GERMANY.

49

SuBSECT. 3. German Gardening, in respect to horticultural Productions.

221. In all probability horticulture xms Jtrst introduced to Germanij by the Romans^
and afterwards revived by the religious houses. The native fruits and culinary plants
of Germany are the same as those of France, already enumerated. In the museum of the
arsenal in Dresden, are still preserved, and shown to strangers, the gardening tools with
which Augustus the Second, Elector of Saxony, worked with his own hands. ITiis
magistrate died in 1566. He is said to have planted tlie first vineyard in Saxony, and
to have greatly increased the varieties of the hardy fruits.

222. The more common fruits of Germany, the cherry, tlie pear, the plum, and the
apple, are natives, or naturalised in the woods. Good varieties would no doubt be
brought from Italy by the monks, who established themselves in Germany in the dark
ages, and from tlie convents be introduced to the gardens of the nobles, as the latter
became somewhat civilised. This would more especially be the case with those pro-
vinces situated on the Rhine, where the genial soil and climate would bring them to
greater perfection, and, in time, render them more common than in the northern districts.
Dr. Diel, however, a native of the best part of tliis tract of country {Nassau JDietz),
complains {Obst. Orangerie in Scherben, \st band.), so late as 1804, that apples, pears, and
cherries, were most commonly raised from seeds, and planted in orchards, without being
grafted.

223. The finer fruits only thrive in the south of Germany, the apricot appears to have
been some time introduced in Austria and Hungary, and produces well as a standard in
the neighbourhood of Vienna. The peach is most commonly grown against walls. The
mulberry produces leaves for tlie silk-worm as far north as Frankfort on the Oder, but
ripens its fruit with difficulty, unless planted against walls. The vine is cultivated as far
north as the fifty-second degree of latitude, in vineyards, and somewhat fartlier in gardens.
The fig, to nearly the same extent, against walls, its branches being every where protected
in winter ; it is, however, a rare fruit in Germany. At Vienna it is kept in large tubs
and boxes, and housed during winter in the wine-cellars.

224. The jrine-apple, Beckman informs us, was first brought to maturity by Baron
Munchausen, at Schwobber, near Hamelin. The large buildings erected by the baron for
this fruit, are described in the Nuremberg Hesperides for 1714. It was ripened
also by Dr. Kaltschmidt at Breslaw, in 1702, who sent some fruit to the imperial
court. At present there are very few pineries to be found throughout the whole empire.

In Austria the best varieties of hardy fruit-trees are said {Brighfi Travels) to have been introduced
from Holland, by Van der Schott, about the middle of the seventeenth century ; but many of them must have
been in the imperial gardens long before this period, trom the connection tff Austria with the Netherlands ;
yet Meyer, in 1116, speaking of fruits, says, that " the age of Schoenbrunn will be for Franconia what that
of Louis the Fourteenth was for France" The Rev. J. V. Sickler, in Saxegotha, Counsellor Diel, at Nassau
Dietz, and Counsellor Ransleben, at Berlin, have established, within the last fitly years, fruit-tree nurse-
ries, where all the best Dutch, French, and English varieties may be purchased. Diel and Ransleben
prove the sorts, by fruiting the original specimens in pots in a green-house. Sickler has fruited an
immense number of sorts ni the open air, and published descriptions of them in Der Teutsche Obst.
Gartner ; a work of which 48 volumes have already appeared.

In Hanover George II., after establishing an agricultural society, is said to have introduced the best
English fruits about 1751.

In Saxony the Earl of Findlater resided many years, and planted a vineyard at his country-seat in the
neighbourhood of Dresden, said to be the most northerly in Germany. He introduced flued walls, and
trained the best sorts of English peaches and apricots on them. The whole of his horticultural efforts
and his chateau were destroyed by the French army in 1813, for no other reason than his being an Eng-
lishman. A public walk and seat at Carlsbad remain to commemorate his taste and public spirit.

At Potsdam the best fruits were introduced by Frederick II., who was passionately fond of them,
and cultivated all the best Dutch varieties on walls, espaliers, under glass, and in the open garden. He
was particularly fond of pine-apples, of which he grew a great number in pits ; and is censured by an
English traveller (Burnett), because, on his death-bed, he made enquiries after the ripening of one of them,
of which he expected to make a last bonne bouche. Potsdam and Schwobber are the only parts of Germany
where forcing has ever been practised to any extent. There are now in the royal gardens of Prussia,
excellent pine-apples reared under the care of the director Lenne, who has visited England.

At Weimar, the chief proprietor of the Landes Industrie comtoir, and author of a work on potatoes, has
an excellent garden and extensive hot-houses where he raises the finest fruits. The whole, Jacobs ob-
serves {Travels, 1819, 332.), is kept in excellent order.

In Hungary horticulture has been much neglected, but fruit-tree nurseries were established there by
government in 1808, and subsequently by private gentlemen. Plums, Dr. Bright informs us, are culti-
vated in order to make damson brandy. The Tokay wine is made from the variety of grape figured and
described by Sickler, in his Garden Magazine of 1804, as the Hungarian blue. The soil of the Tokay vine-
yards is a red brown clay, mixed with sand, incumbent on a clayey slate rock ; and it is observed by a
Hungarian writer quoted by Dr. Bright, that " in proportion as the soil is poor and stony, and the vine
feeble, the fruit and wine, though small in quantity, become more excellent in their quality." Tokay
wine is made in the submontane district which extends over a space about twenty miles round the town
of that name. The grapes are left on the plants till they become dry and sweet, they are then gathered
one by one, put in a cask with a perforated bottom, and allowed to remain till that portion of the juice
escape, which will run from them without any pressure. This, which is called Tokay essence, is generally
in very small quantity. The grapes are then put into a vat and trampled with the bare foet ; to the
squeezed mass is next added an equal quantity of good wine, which is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours,
and is then strained. This juice, without farther preparation, becomes the far-famed wine of Tokay,
which is difficult to be obtained, and sells in Vienna at the rate of 121. per dozen. The Tokay vineyards
are chiefly the property of the emperor. -

E

50 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

In Denmark, notwithstanding the severity of the climate, they succeed in bringing to a tolerable degree
of perfection most of the best sorts of fruits. Glass frames, portable canvass covers, and mats, are used to
protect the blossom of the more tender trees against walls ; and the hardier sorts, as the apple and cherry
lire, in spring, before the blossom expands, watered every night, in order at once to protect and retard it
by an envelope of ice. This ice is again thawed off before sunrise by copious waterings.

225. The culinary vegetables of Germany are the same as those of Britain ; .but they
are without the greater part of our best varieties. The Brassica tribe and edible roots
arrive at greater perfection there than in France. The popular sorts are the field-cabbage and
the borecoles ; they are used newly gathered, and boiled and eaten with meat, in broths
or soups, and pickled in the form of sour kraut for winter use. The potatoc, kidney-
bean, onion, and lettuce,, are also in general use ; and the first gardens possess all the
oleraceous and acetaceous vegetables grown in France and Holland.

SuBSECT. 4. German Gardeningy as to planting Timber-trees and Hedges.

226. Planting as a matter ofj)7'qfit has been little attended to in Germany from the num-
ber and extent of the native forests. In some districts, however, Pomerania for example,
barren sandy tracts are sown with acorns and Scotch pine-seeds, chiefly for the sake of
fuel and common husbandry timber. Much attention, as Emmerich informs us {Cultxire
of Forests), and as appears by the number of German works on Forstivissenschaf, is in
general paid to the management of forests already existing ; as far as we have been able
to observe, this extends to filling up vacancies by sowing, and occasionally draining and
enclosing ; thinning and pruning are little attended to in most districts. The oak, the
beech, and the Scotch pine, are the prevailing native trees of Germany.

227. Rows of trees along the public roads are formed and preserved with great care,
especially in Prussia. The mulberry is the tree used in some of the warmer districts,
and in other places the lime and the elm ; the Lombardy poplar is also common near
most towns of Germany, especially Berlin, Dresden, and Leipzic. Some attention is
every where paid to public avenues ; and the highways being, as in France, generally
kept up by the government, improvements can be executed promptly and with eflfect.
There being, in general, no accompanying hedges, and the trees being trained with naked
stems to ten or fifteen feet high, according to the lowness or exposure of the situation,
little injury is done to the materials of the road in wet weather. The breeze passes
freely between the stems of the trees. The traveller and his horses or cattle are shaded
during sunshine, and sheltered during storms ; and the man of taste is furnished with a
continued frame and foreground to the lateral landscapes.

228. Hedges, though not general in Germany, are used on the Rhine and in Holstein,
the plants generally hawthorn, but sometimes hornbeam or a mixture of native shrubs.
Hungary is tlie most backward province in respect to planting and hedges, as well as to
every thing else. A hedge there is rare ; and there are scarcely any public avenues be-
yond Presburg. Existing woods are subjected to a sort of management for the sake of
the fuel they aflford, and for their produce in timber and charcoal for the mines.

SuBSECT. 5. German Gardening, as empirically practised.

229. The use of gardens is as general in the best districts of Germany as in England ;
but in Hungary and some parts of Bohemia, Gallicia, and Prussia, many of the lower
orders are without them, or if permitted to enclose a few yards of ground near their
wooden hovels, they seem too indolent and indifferent, or too much oppressed by the
exactions of their landlords, to do so. The cabbage tribe, and chiefly red greens, and
the potatoe, are the universal plants of the cottage-gardens of Germany; lettuce, pease,
onions, and turnips, with some other sorts, and the common fruit-trees, are introduced in
some districts. Flowers are not very general, but the rose, thyme, and mint, are to be
seen in many places, and a variety of ornamental plants in the better sort of cottage-
gardens.

230. Farmer s gardens, as in most countries, are a little larger than tliose of the
lowest class of cottagers ; but inferior in point of order and neatness to that of the man
who lives in his own cottage.

231. TJie gardens of the hereditary families are not, in general, much attended to ; their
appearance is too frequently that of neglect and disorder. Cabbage, potatoes, apples,
and pears, and perhaps a few onions, are the produce expected from them ; these are cul-
tivated by a servant, not always a gardener, and who has generally domestic occupations
to perform for the family. It will readily be imagined that, in such an extensive country,
there are innumerable exceptions ; in these, the gardens are better arranged, and the pro-
duce of a more varied description. Next to the gardens of the princes or rulers, the best
are those of the wealthy bankers and citizens. These are richly stocked with fruit-trees,
generally contain hot-houses, and are liberally kept up. Some of them contain collections
of exotics. Tlie best private gardens in Denmark belong to this class, and the remark
will apply in the vicinity of all towns and cities in proportion to their rank as com-
mercial places.

Book I. GARDENING IN GERMANY.

51

232. There are very few good gardens in Hungary; that of Prince Esteriiazy, the greatest
proprietor of that country, is extensive, abounds in hot-houses, and contains a very full
collection of plants. Tne prince has an English gardener, whom he sends frequently to
this country to collect whatever is new.

233. The German princes and rulers are in general attached to gardens, and have very
considerable ones at their principal residences ; some of these have been mentioned, and
various others might be added. These gardens are under the direction of intelligent men
who, in general, have spent part of their time in botanic gardens ; and, in many cases
have studied or practised in Holland, or in the Paris gardens.

234. Tliere are market-gardens near most large towns, but nurseries are much less com-
mon. Tliere are extensive gardens of both sorts at Hamburg ; but the best fruit-tree
nurseries are supposed to be those of Sickler and Diel already mentioned. There is a
good nursery at Wurtzburg, in Franconia, established by IMeyer ; one at Frankfort on the
Oder, and three at Vienna. In most places, tlie principal market-gardeners propagate a
few fruit-trees for sale.

235. The operative part of gardening, in the better classes of gardens, is performed by
men, who have, agreeably to the general custom in Germany, not only served an appren-
ticeship, but travelled and worked for a certain time in different parts of the country, or
of other countries.

Tfie term of apprenticeship is three years and a half, and for travel three years, unless the apprentice is
the son of a master-gardener ; in which case, the term for travel is reduced to one year. AU apprentices
must be able at least to rend and write, and are taught to draw, and furnished with written secrets in
gardening by their master, during the term of apprenticeship. When that is completed, the youth is initi-
ated into what may be called the free-masonry of gardening, and, being furnished with a pass- word, he pro-
ceeds from one town to another, till he can get work. Till this happens, his pass-word, and also a passportfrom
the gardeners' society of the place where he was initiated, procures for him, at every Gartner herberge or
gardeners' lodging-house, lodging and food, and as much money as will supply his wants till he arrives at
the next inn of a similar description. In this way he may walk over the whole of the German empire
Denmark, and a part of Holland, at the general expense ; the numerous ramifications of the society ex-
tending over the whole of this immense tract. Such institutions exist for every trade in Germany, but being
disliked by the governments, and being politically considered of an arbitrary and injurious nature, are now
on the decline. On his return from probation, the travelled journeyman is entitled to take a master's
place ; and very commonly he continues travelling till he hears of one. The regular German gardener is
a careful, neat-handed, and skilful workman ; and, if allowed sufficient time, or assistance, will keep a
garden in good order, and produce all the crops required of him in their proper seasons. •

236. The artists or architects of gardens, in Germany, are generally the Land baumeister,
or those architects who have directed their attention chiefly to countrj'-buildings. Where
only a kitchen or flower-garden is to be formed, an approved practical gardener is com-
monly reckoned sufficient. It occasionally happens, tliat a nobleman, who wishes to lay
out an extensive garden, after fixing on what he considers a good gardener of some edu-
cation, and capable of taking plans, sends him for a year or two to visit the best gardens
of England, Holland, or France. On his return, he is deemed qualified to lay out the
garden reqiured j which he does, and afterwards attends to its culture, and acts as a
garden-architect (Garte?i baumeister) to the minor gentry of his neighbourhood.

SuBSECT. 6. German Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has jrroduced.

237. The Germans are a scientific people : they are a reading people, and in conse-
quenc'e the science of every art, in so far as developed in books, is more generally known
there than in any other countr}'. Some may wish to except Scotland ; but, though the
Scotch artisan reads a great deal, his local situation and linuted intercourse with other
nations, subject him to the influence of the particular opinions in which he has been edu-
cated : he takes up prejudices at an early period, and with difficulty admits new ideas
from books. On the otlier hand, the Germans of every rank are remarkable for liberality
of opinion : all of them travel ; and, in the course of seeing other states, they find a
variety of practices and opinions, different from those to which they have been accustomed ;
prejudice gives way ; the man is neutralised ; becomes moderate in estimating what
belongs to himself, and willing to hear and to learn from others.

238. There are horticultural societies and professorships of r%iral economy in many of the
universities ; one or two gardeners' magazines, and almanacks of gardening ; and some
eminent vegetable physiologists are Germans. Even in Hungarv-, it appears (Bright' s
Travels), a Georgicon, or college of rural economy, has been established by Graff Festetits
at Keszthely, in which gardening, including the culture and management of woods and
copses, forms a distinct professorship. The science of France may be, and we believe is,
greater than that of Germany in this art, but it is accumulated in the capital ; whereas,
here it emanates from a great number of points distributed over the country, and is conse-
quently rendered more available by practical men. The minds of the gardeners of France
are, from general ignorance, less fitted to receive instruction than those of Germany ;
their personal habits admit of less time for reading ; their climate and soil require less
artificial agency. The German gardener is generally a thinking, steady person ; the
climate, in most places, requires his vigilant attention to culture, and his travels have en-

E 2

52

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part I.

larged liis views. Hence he becomes a more scientific artisan than the Frenchman, and is
in more general demand in other countries. Some of the best gardens in Poland, Russia,
and Italy, are under the care of Germans.

239. The Germans have produced feio original authors on gardening, and none that can
lj€ compared to Quintinye or Miller. They have translations of all the best European
books : and so vigilant are they in this respect, that even a recent and most useful work on
exotic gardening, by Gushing, hardly known in England, has not escaped the Leipsic
book-makers. Hirschfield has compiled a number of works, chiefly on landscape-gar-
dening ; J. V. Sickler and Counsellor Diel have written extensively on most departments
of horticulture, especially on the hardy fruits. {Sulzers Theory of the Fine Arts ;
Ersches Handbuchy&iC. 2 Band. \ Abth.)

Sect. V. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Switzerland.

240. Extensive gardens are not to be expected in a country of comparative equalisation
of property, like Switzerland ; but no where are gardens more profitably managed or more
neatly kept, than in that country. " Nature," Hirschfield observes, " has been liberal to
the inhabitants of Switzerland, and they have wisely profited from it. Almost all the
gardens are theatres of true beauty, without vain ornaments or artificial decorations.
Convenience, not magnificence, reigns in the country-houses ; and the villas are distin-
guished more by their romantic and picturesque situations, than by their architecture."
He mentions several gardens near Geneva and Lausanne ; Delices is chiefly remarkable
because it was inhabited by Voltaire before he purchased Ferney, and La Grange and
La Boissier are to this day well known places. Ferney is still eagerly visited by every
stranger, but with the chateau of the Neckar family, that of the Empress Josephine, of
Beauharnois, and others, eulogised in the local guides, pre-
sent nothing in the way of our art particularly deserving of
notice ; though their situations, looking down on so mag-
nificent a lake, the simplicity of their architecture, and the
romantic scenery by which they are surrounded, render
them delightful retirements, and such as but few countries
can boast. The villa-gardens excel in rustic buildings
{fg. 17.) and arbors ; and are, for the most part, a mixture
of orchards on hilly surfaces, cultivated spots, and rocks.
However insignificant such grounds may look on paper

{fig. 18.), in the reality they are pleasing and romantic. The public promenades at
Berne are most beautiful, and kept with all (he care of an English flower-garden. Swit-

18 zerland has the pecu-

liar advantage of pro-
ducing a close turf,
which in most places,
and particularly at
Lausanne and Berne,
is as verdant as in
England. Harte

says great part of the
Fays de Vaud is like
the best part of Berk-
shire ; and indeed
every one feels that
this is the country
most congenial to an
Englishman's taste
and feelings.

241. The first botanic garden which appeared in Switzerland was that of the celebrated
Conrad Gesner, at Zurich, founded before the middle of the sixteenth century. He had
not, Deleuze observes, sufficient fortune to obtain much ground, or to maintain many
gardeners ; but his activity supplied every thing, and he assembled in a small spot what
he had been able to procure by his numerous travels and extensive correspondence. Public
ganlens were, in the end of this century, established at Geneva, Basil, and Berne, and
subsequently in most of the cantons. The first of these gardens at present is that of
Geneva, lately enlarged and newly arranged under the direction of that active and highly
valued botanist, Decandolle. The garden of Basil is rich in the plants of all the moun-
temous regions which lie around it, including the Tyrol and Piedmont. A taste for
flowers IS perhaps more popular in Switzerland than in Germany ; for though frugality is
not less an object in every branch of rural economy, yet real independence is more gene-

Book I. GARDENING IN SWEDEN AND NORWAY

55

ral ; a poor man here, as Burns used to say, has generally some other estate than that of
sin and misery ; some little spot that he can call his own, and which he delights to cultivate
and ornament. Speaking of Zurich, Simond observes {Tour, &c. 1819, p. 404.), " Haer-
lem excepted, there is not a town where more attention was ever paid to fine flowers :
many new plants, as the Hortensia, Volkameria, &c., are here grown in perfection. The
taste for flowers is particularly displayed on the occasion of the birth of a child. When the
news is carried about to all the relations and friends of the family ; the maid is dressed
in her best attire, and carries a huge nosegay of the finest flowers the season affords.

242. Horticulture is carefully jrractised in Switzerland; vineyards are formed as far
north as Lausanne ; and the apple, pear, plum, cherry, and wal-
nut are common on every farm ; the three first are in every cottage-
garden. The filbert, gooseberrj'-, currant, raspberry, and strawberry
are natives ; but only the filbert, raspberry, and strawberry are com-
mon in the woods and copses. In the sheltered valleys of this country, ^,^;;^^^^;;>^
the apple and the pear are most proKfic. Stewed pears is a common ^■'^^^ ■JTov'^ '
dish among the cottagers in autumn ; the fruit is also dried, and in
winter forms an excellent soup ingredient. The cabbage, the potatoe,
the white beet grown for the leaves as spinach, and their foot-stalks
as chard, and the kidney -bean for haricots and soups, are the popular
vegetables. Particular attention is paid to bees, which are kept in
neat rustic sheds {Jig. 19.}, or the hives carefully diatched with bark
or moss.

243. There is little or no forest planting in Switzerland, but hedges of hawthorn are not
uncommon. The walnut is there a very common high-road tree in the autumnal months,
and furnishes the pauper traveller with the principal part of his food. Poor Italians have
been known to travel from Naples and Venice to Geneva on this sort of fare. They
begin with Indian com and grapes, which they steal from the fields, till they arrive at
Milan, and the rest of the road they depend on walnuts, filberts, and apples.

Sect. VI. Of the Rise, Progress, ajid presejit State of Gardening in Sweden and Norway.

244. Gardening is patronised by the higher classes, and jrractised round the jrrincipal
towns of Sweden and Norway. " All the Swedes with whom I have ever met," observes
Hirschfield, •' whether elevated by birth, or enlightened by education, were estimable
friends of beautiful nature and of gardens." Sir J. E. Smith {Lin. Trans., vol. i.) ex-
presses an equally high opinion of this people. Mediocrity of circumstances, a poor court,
political liberty, and a varied and comparatively unproductive country, seem to have
contributed to give a more tliinking turn to the Swedish nobles, than in countries natu-
rally prolific. Their immense public works, canals, harbors, and excellent roads, careful
agriculture, extensively worked mines, botanic gardens, literary institutions, and scientific
authors are proofs of what we assert.

245. The ancient style of gardening appears to have been introduced to Sweden, at least
previously to 1671 ; for Hermand, who published his Regnum Suecia in that year, men-
tions the gardens of the palace as well as th6 Vivarium, or park. The gardens, he says,
were used for delight and recreation. They lay between the Palatium and Vivoriumj
and the latter contained some wooden buildings, in which were kept lions, leopards, and
bears. Tliis garden and park appear to have been formed by Gustavus Adolphus, about
1620. Charles the Twelfth procured plans from Le Notre, and had the trees and plants
sent from Paris. It is remarked by Dr. Walker, as a curious fact, that though the yew-
tree is a native of Sweden, those plants of this species sent from Paris, to plant Le Notre's
designs, died at Stockholm the first winter.

246. The mixed style is exemplified in Haga, formed on a rocky situation, about the
middle of the eighteenth century, by Gustavus III., with the assistance of Masretier. It
is the Trianon of Sweden. The approach is a winding walk through rocks and luxuriant
verdure. Drottningholm is a royal palace, formed by the same prince on the island of
that name. The gardens are in a sort of Anglo-Chinois manner, but as far as art is con-
cerned, in no respect remarkable. Both these gardens are surrounded or intermingled
with water, rocks, Scotch pine, spruce fir, and buildings, forming a picturesque assem-
blage of saxatile and verdant beauty. There are some confined spots laid out in the
English taste, chiefly by British merchants in the neighbourhood of Gottenburg, as there
are also near Christiana and Tronijem, in Norway ; but it may be remarked, that this
style is not likely to be generally adopted in either country, because they already possess
much greater beauties of the same kind, which it is our aim to create, and with which
those created would not bear a comparison.

247. A taste for flowers is not popular in Sueden ; if a farmer or cottager has any spare
room in his garden, he prefers rearing a few plants of tobacco. But the study of every
branch of natural history is in repute among the higher classes and literati j and the ce-

E 3

54

HISTORY OF gardening;

Part I.

lebrity of the Swedish botanists, and of the Upsal garden, is universal. It was difficult,
Deleuze observes, to form vegetable collections in the northern countries ; but industry
can conquer obstacles, and the more precautions necessary to secure the plants from the
vigor of the climate, the more will culture be perfected.

248. The botanic garden of Upsal was founded in 1657, under the auspices of King
Charles Gustavus, and by the attention of Olaus Rudbeck. Tliis learned man, seconded
by the credit of the Count of Gardie, chancellor of the academy of Upsal, and who had
himself a fine botanic garden at Jacobsdahl, obtained funds necessary for the construction
of a garden and green-house, and to collect foreign plants ; and he augmented its riches
by the gift he made of his own garden in 1662. The progress of this establishment
may be seen by comparing the three catalogues given by Rudbeck in 1658, 1666, 1685.
Tlie latter enumerates 1870 plants, among which are 630 distinct species of exotics.
{Bib. Banksiana. ) In 1 702, the fire whicli consumed the half of the city of Upsal, re-
duced the green-house to ashes, and the garden was in a deplorable condition till 1740,
when its walls were rebuilt. Two years afterwards the botanical chair and tlie direction
of the garden were given to Linnaeus ; and the university, undoubtedly excited by that
reformer of natural history, took charge of all the necessary expenses for the acquisition
and preservation of plants. Linnaeus, feeling how essential it was to be assisted in all the
details of culture, obtained Diderich Nutzel, a clever gardener, who had visited attentively
the gardens of Germany, Holland, and England, and who had then the charge of that of
ClifFort, in Holland. He there constructed new green- houses, intended for plants of
different climates ; and he solicited successfully the principal botanic gardens of
Europe for specimens. Soon after, several of his pupils, whom he had excited with enthu-
siasm for botany, went across the seas to collect seeds and specimens ; and many tropical
plants, first grown at Upsal, were sent from thence to the southern countries of Europe.

The description and plan of the garden of Upsal may be seen in the Amcenitates Academicts. (Dissert 7.
t. i. p. 172.) Linnaeus, in 1748 and 1/53, published the catalogue of the plants cultivated there, and since his
time, others have appeared, containing the additions which have been made by his successors. In 1804,
the large orangery, built by Linnsus, was found to be considerably out of repair, and was taken down and
rebuilt. A magnificent lecture-room and museum was at the same time added. The ceilings of these
rooms are supported by columns, which being hollow, are used as flues, and thus afford an elegant and
effectual means of heating the air. On the whole, the garden is respectably kept up ; and many hardy
plants, natives of North America in particular, are found here in greater luxuriance than in France or
Germany.

249. In horticulture the Swedes are considered as successful operators ; but their short
summers are adverse to the culture of many sorts of fruits and culinary vegetables in the
open air ; and there is not yet suflScient wealth to admit of forcing, or forming artificial
climates to any extent. The apple, pear, and plum ripen their fruits in the best districts,
especially in warm situations ; but where the better varieties are grown, they are always
planted against walls, and protected, as in Denmark. The Rubus chamcemorus, or cloud-
berry (Jig. 20.), is very common in
Lapland ; its fruit is delicious, and
sent in immense quantities, in autumn,
from all the north of the Gulf of
Bothnia, to Stockholm, where it is
used for sauces, in soups, and in mak-
ing vinegar. Dr. Clarke was cured of
a bilious fever, chiefly from eating
this fruit. There are a few forcing-
houses near Gottenburg and Stockholm
for peaches and vines ; and one or two
instances of pines being attempted in
pits near the capital and in East Goth-
land. ' The borecoles, red and green, the
rutabaga and potatoe are the popular
vegetables ; but the best gardens have most of the Dutch and English varieties of the
culinary tribe.

250. The ioivns and cities of Norway, Dr. Clarke informs us (Scandinavia, ch. 17. 1806),
were formerly supplied with culinary herbs from England and Holland ; but gardenino-
became more general after the publication by Christian Gartner of a manual adapted to
Sweden. Now all sorts of vegetables are common round Tronijem. The gardens of the
citizens are laid out in the Dutch taste, and full of fruits and flowers. Of these are enu-
merated, apples, pears, plums, cherries, strawberries, cabbages, cauliflowers, turnips, cu-
cumbers, potatoes, artichokes, lupines, stocks, carnations, pinks, lilies, roses, and many
other garden-flowers. In the garden of the minister of Enontekis (f^. 21.), a village
situated 287 miles north of Tornea, and perhaps the best garden in Lapland, Dr. Clarke
found pease, carrots, spinach, potatoes, turnips, parsley, and a few lettuces. Tiie tops of
the potatoes were used boiled^ and considered a delicate vegetable.

Book I. GARDENING JN RUSSIA.

5b

251. Planting is little wanted in Sweden, for seedling Scotch pines, spruce firs, and
birch, rise up in abundance wherever old ones have been cut down. Enclosures in Swe-
den, as in Switzerland, are most frequently made of stone or of wood. Trees are planted
along the roads in several places, an(l especially near Stockholm. The lime, the birch
and tlie ash, or trembling poplar, are the species used.

Sect. VII. Of the Rise, Progress, and jrreserU State of Gardening in Russia.

252. The history of gardening in Russia is very different from that of any of those
countries which have yet come under review. Peter the Great sought, by one giant stride,
to raise the character of his nation to a level with that of other countries ; and, by extra-
ordinary efforts, introduced excessive refinement amidst excessive barbarism ; assembled
magnificent piles of architecture in a marsh, and created the most sumptuous palaces and
extensive parks and gardens, in the bleak pine and birch forests which surrounded it. As
a man of Cronstadt rhymes,

" Built a city in a bog,

And made a Christian of a hog."
Nothing can be more extraordinary in the way of gardening, tlian these well-known
facts, that a century ago there was scarcely such a thing, in any part of Russia, as a
garden ; and, for the last fifty years, there have been more pine-apples grown in the neigh-
bourhood of Petersburg than in all the other countries of the continent put together.

ScBSECT. 1. Russia7i Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste,

253. Russian gardening, as an art of design, began, like every other art, with Peter
the Great. This emperor's first effort was made in 1714, when the garden of the sum-
mer-palace, on the banks of the Neva, in Petersburg, was laid out in the Dutch taste.
But the grandest and most superb garden, in the geometric manner, is that which he con-
structed soon afterwards, about thirty wersts from the city, on the shores of the gulf.
This imperial residence, as far as respects the gardens, has been justly called the Versailles
of Russia ; and the Prince de Ligne, an excellent judge, gives the preference to its water-
works. The whole was originally designed and laid out by Le Blond, a pupil of Le Notre,
and for some time court arcliitect of St. Petersburg. This, with the other suburban
palaces and gardens, have been minutely described by Georgi, and more generally by
Storch, from whom we select the following outline : —

25t. Peterhoff, in respect to situation, is perhaps unrivalled. About five hundred fathoms from the sea-
shore this region has a second cliff, almost perpendicular, near twelve fathoms high. Bordering on this
precipice sUnds the palace, thereby acquiring a certain peculiar prospect over the gardens and the gulf, to
the shores of Carelia and St Petersburg, and to Cronstadt. It was built in the reign of Peter the Great,
by the architect Le Blond, but has received, under the succeeding monarchs, such a variety of improve,
ments, that it has become a sort of specimen of the several tastes that prevailed in each of these jeras, the
influence whereof is visible in the numerous architectural ornaments, which are all highly gilt. The inside is
correspondent with the destination of this palace; throughout are perceptible the remains of antiquated
splendor, to which is contrasted the better taste of modem times. The gardens are more interesting by
their peculiar beauties. The upper parts of them, before the land-side of the palace, are disposed into
walks, plantations, and parterres, which acquire additional elegance by a large basin and canal, plentifully
furnished with fountains of various designs and forms. The declivity before the back-front of the palace
towards the sea has two magnificent cascades, rolling their streams over the terraces into large basins, and
beneath which vast sheets of water, we walk as under a vault, without receiving wet, into a beautiful grotto.
The whole space in front of this declivity, down to the sea-shorc, is one large stately garden in tne old-
fashioned style, and famous for \Xs jets-cTeau, and artificial water, works. Some of them throw up columns of
water, a foot and a half in diameter, to a height of two and a half or three fathoms. A pellucid canal, lined
with stone, ten fathoms wide, running from the centre of the pala :e.fa<;ade into the gulph of Finland, divides
these gardens in two. In a solitary wood stands the summer-he use, called Monplaisir, which among other
things is remarKable for its elegant kitchen, wherein the Empress Elizabeth occasionally amused herself
in dressing her own dinner. In another portion of the gardens, close to the shore of the guJf, stands a
neat wooden building, formerly a favorite retreat of Peter the Great, as he could here have a view of

E 4

56 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

Cronstadt and the deet. The bath is likewise worthy of observation, situated in the midst of a thicket
We enter a large oval space, enclosed by a wooden wall, without a covering at top, but open to the sky,
and shaded by the surrounding trees. In this wall are chambers and recesses furnished with all that con-
venience or luxury can require to that end. In the centre of this area is a large basin, surrounded by a
gallery and provided with steps, rafts, and gondolas : the water is conducted hither by pipes, which fill the
basin only to a certain height." — These gardens still exist, and the water-works are kept in tolerable re-
pair. There is adjoining a small specimen of English gardening, laid out by Header, once gardener at
Alnwick castle in Northumberland, and who is author of The Planter^ Guide.

255. jit Petrowka, near Moscow, is the principal private ancient garden in Russia.
The hedges and alleys are chiefly formed of spruce fir, which are shorn, and seem to
flourish under the shears. It contains also a labyrinth, and a turf amphitheatre, on which
tlie proprietor, Comte llazumowski, had operas performed by his domestic slaves.

Sophiowski, in Podolia, is a magnificent residence of the Countess Potocki, laid out by a Polish archi-
tect, Metzel, in the manner of Switzer. It has a magnificent terrace or promenade, and extensive ave-
nues, conservatories, and gardens.

256. Thejirst attempt at the modern style of gardening in Russia was made by Catherine,
about 1778, at Zarskoje-selo, at that time enlarged and re-laid out. The gardener
employed was Busch, a German, and fatiier of their present superintendant. The gor-
geous magnificence of this residence is well known. " A natural birch forest, on ground
somewhat varied, forms the ground-work of the park and gardens. The gate by
which they are approached, is an immense arch of artificial rock-work, over wliich is
a lofty Chinese watch-tower. The first group of objects is a Chinese town, through
which the approach leads to the palace ; a building, which, with its enclosed entrance,
court, offices, baths, conservatories, church, theatre, and other appendages, it would seem
like exaggeration to describe. The rest of the garden-scenery consists of walks, numer-
ous garden-buildings, columns, statues, &c. with bridges of marble and wood, a large
lake, and extensive kitchen-gardens and hot-houses." The following more detailed
description is from the pen of Storch already mentioned.

257. Zarskoje-selo, the famous summer- residence of Catherine the Second, is situated in an open plea-
sant region, diversified by little hills, meads, and woodlands. The space of the whole domain contains
four hundred and twenty thousand square fathoms. This princely seat owes its origin to Catherine the
First, and its enlargement and embellishment to Elizabeth ; but it is indebted for its completion in ele-

fance and taste, and the greater part of its present magnificence, to the creative reign of Catherine the
econd. We are now in a small wood within sight of the palace. On the left we have the park wall, and
before us the entrance on the Petersburg side. It consists of two portals, compose<l of blocks of sand-
stone, in the form of rocky fragments, over one of which is a Chinese watch-house. Bv this passage we
enter the foregrounds of the palace, having the gardens to the right, and a Chinese village to the left,
through which the way leads over a Chinese bridge to the park. Before us lies tlie road to the little
neighbouring town Sophia, which goes through a colossal gate of cast-iron. The court of thepalace forma
an amphitheatre of buildings opposite the grand parade, closed on each side by an iron palisade.

The gardens are laid out in the English manner : among their curiosities that admit of a description, the
following objects may principally be recorded. A small tem|)le containing a collection of antique and modern
statues J a solitude for dinner-parties like that in the hermitage ; amagnificent bath ; a coach. hill, similar to
that at Oranienbaum ; picturesque ruins ; a small town to commemorate the taking of Taurida, &c. Two
artificial lakes are connected by a running stream, crossed by an arched bridge, covered at the top by a
roof resting on two rows of marble columns, on the model of the bridge at Stowe. On one of the islands on
these lakes stands a Turkish mosque, on another a spacious hall for musical entertainments. In a thick
shrubbery we come upon a pyramid in the Egyptian form, in the vicinity whereof are two obelisks.

This majestic sanctuary of art and nature, conimues Storch, is at the same time a magnificent temple of
merit. Formed of the rocky foundations of the earth, here the monuments of great achieveinents tower
towards the skies, fearless of the destructive vicissitudes of time. A marble obelisk reminds us of the
victory near Kagul, and of the victor RomanzofF Zudunaisky. To the Dey of Tschcsmi, and the hero
Orlof Tschesmenskoy, a marble column on a pedestal of granite is devoted. A grand triumphal arch
proclaims the patriotic ardor of Prince Orlof, with which he faced rebellion and the plague in the
capiUl, and quelled them both. The victory in the Morea and the name of Feodor Orlof are handed
down to posterity by a rostral column.— Plain and gigantic as the sentiments of the heroes whose memories
are perpetuated in these masses of rocks, they stand surrounded by the charms of Nature, who softens
her majesty through the veil of artless graces.

258. Paulowsky presents the best specimen of the English style, in the neighbourhood
of the Russian capital, or indeed in the empire. It was begun during the reign of
Catherine, in 1780, from a design said to have been furnished by the celebrated Brown,
from a description sent him by Gould, an Englishman, the gardener of Potemkin, and
finished afterwards during the reign of Paul. This place possesses considerable variety
oi; surface, and a varied clothing of wood, the Scotch i)ine and aspen being natural to these
grounds, as well as the birch. Near tlie palace, there is a profusion of exotics of every
description, including a numerotis collection of standard roses, which, with some of the
American shrubs, require to be protected with straw and mats during winter. The
Chevalier Storch has given a verj- interesting description of these gardens, in his Briefe
iiber Paulowsky, &c. 1802.

259. The gardeiis^ of Potemkin, a man whose mind, as the Prince de Ligne has ob-
served, contained mines of gold and steppes, and one of the most extravagant encouragers
of our art that modern times can boast, were of various kinds, and situated in diflferent
parts of the empire. The most extensive gardens of this prince were in the Ukraine ;
but the most celebrated were those belonging to the palace of Taurida, now an imperial
residence in St. Petersburg. The grounds are level, with several winding and straight

^^oox I.

GARDENING IN RUSSIA.

57

canals, and walks, adorned with numerous buildings, a rich collection of exotics, and most
extensive hot-houses of every description. Their grand feature, in Potemkin's time, was
the conservatory, or winter-garden (^Jig, 22.), attached to the palace. The plan of this

part of tiie building is that of a semicircle, embracing tne end of a saloon, nearly SOO feet
long. It is lighted by immense windows, between columns, has an opaque ceiling,
and is at present heated by common German stoves. It is too gloomy for tlie growth
of plants, but those grown in the glass sheds of the kitchen-garden are carried there, sunk
in tlie ground, and gravel-walks, turf, and every article added, to render an illusion to a
romantic scene in tlie open air as complete as possible. The effect was, after all, it is
said, never satisfactory but when illuminated. This palace, the original exterior of
which was in a very simple style, and the interior most magnificent, is said to have been
tiie design of Potemkin, but it was entirely re- modelled at his death by Catherine, used
as barracks by Paul, and is now very imperfectly restored. (Ed. JEnc^c. art. Landscape
Gardening.)

This winter-garden or conservator;/, so much spoken of, is thus described by Storch : " Along one
side of the vestibule is the winter-garden, an enormous structure, disposed into a garden, only separated
from the grand hall by a colonnade. As, from the size of the roof, it could not be supported without
pillars, they are disguised under the form of palm-trees. The heat is maintained by concealed flues placed
in the walls and pillars, and even under the earth leaden-pipes are arranged, incessantly filled with boil-
ing water. The walks of this garden meander amidst flowery hedges, and fruit-bearing shrubs, winding
over little hills, and producing, at every step, fresh occasions for surprise. ITie eye of the beholder, when
weary of the luxuriant variety of the vegetable world, finds recreation in contemplating some exquisite
production of art : here a head, from the chisel of a Grecian sculptor, invites to admiration ; there a
motley collection of curious fish, in crystal vases, suddenly fixes our attention. We presently quit these
objecfs, in order to go into a grotto of looking-glass, which gives a multiplied reflection of all these won-
ders, or to indulge our astonishment at the most extraordinary mixture of colors in the faces of an
obelisk of mirrors. The genial warmth, the fragrance and briUiant colors of the nobler plants, the volup-
tuous stillness that prevails in this enchanted spot, lull the fancy into sweet romantic dreams ; we imagine
ourselves in the blooming groves of Italy ; while nature, sunk into a death-like torpor, announces the
severity of a northern winter through the windows of the pavilion. In the centre of this bold creation,
on a lofty pedestal, stood the statue of Catherine II., surrounded by the emblems of legislature, cut in
Carrara marble. It has been thrown out of the building on its being made into barracks."

The gardens at Potemkin's other residences, as well as many imperial and private gardens in Russia,
were laid out by Gould, a pupil of Brown. Sir John Carr relates an anecdote on Gould's authority, which
was confirmed to us, in 1813, by the present gardener. Call, his successor, and deser\'es a place here. In
one of the prince's journeys to the Ukraine, Gould attended him with several hundred assistants, destined
for operators, in laying out the grounds of Potemkin's residence in the Crimea. Wherever the prince
halted, if only for a day, his travelling pavilion was erected, and surrounded by a garden in the English
taste, composed of trees and shrubs, divided by gravel-walks, and ornamented with seats and statues, all
carriid forward with the cavalcade." On another occasion, " having accidently discovered the ruins ol
a ca^tle of Charles XII. of Sweden, he immediately not only caused it to be repaired, but surrounded by
gardens in the English taste." {Carr's Baltic, &c.)

260. The most extensive seats laid out in the modern style, in the neighbourhood of
Moscow, are those of Gorenki, a seat of Count Alexy Razumowsky {Jig. 23.), and
Petrowka, a seat of Petrowsky Razumowsky. The former is remarkable for its botanical
riches, and an immense extent of glass. The grounds are of great extent, but the sur-
face flat, and the soil a dry sand. A natural forest of birch and wild cherry clothes the
park, and harmonises the artificial scenes. The mansion, built by an English artisan, is
highly elegant ; and the attached conservatories and stoves, and decorated lawn, form
a splendid and delightful scene, unequalled in Russia.

23

58

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part I.

261. Petrowka contains both an ancient garden, already referred to, and a large extent of
ground, laid out in the modern style, and adorned with buildings, from designs by Signor
Camporezi. ITiere is some variety of surface, abundance of birch and fir woods, with
some oaks and aspens interspersed, and a large piece of water. Among the ornamental
buildings is a cotton-manufactory, in actual use as such,
manufactories as garden-buildings, is very general ■'" " —
country.

The practice of introducing
Russia, and almost peculiar to that

062. Amona other gardens near Moscow may be mentioned those of Count Alexy
Ra*zumowsky, and of Paschow, in Moscow ; of Zuritzina (fg. 24.), a singular Turkisli
palace built by Potemkin for Catlierine ; of Astankina Count Cher^metow, Peckni,
Prince Galitzin, and various others, which would well bear description. In general, ex-
tent, exotics, and magnificent artificial decorations are more the object of the modern style

in Russia, than scenes merely of picturesque beauty. We think this may be accounted
for, partly from the general want of refinement of taste in that country, and partly from
its inaptitude for that style. Tlie nobles of Russia, suddenly rendered aware of being
distanced in point of civilisation by those of most other European countries, are resolved
not merely to imitate, but even to surpass them in the display of wealth. The most
obvious marks of distinction, in refined countries, are necessarily first singled out by
rude and ambitious minds, and large magnificent houses and gardens are desired, rather
than comfortable and elegant apartments, and beautiful or picturesque scenes ; since, as
every one knows, it is much more easy to display riches than to possess taste ; to strike
by what is grand, than to charm by what is beautiful.

263. Around Petersburg and Moscow are several public gardens and various private ones,
which their owners, with great liberality, convert into places of public entertainment, to
which all the people of decent appearance are at liberty to come. The country-seats of
the two brothers Nariskin deserve our particular notice, as being frequented on Sundays
by great numbers of the higher classes. A friendly invitation, in four different lan-
guages, inscribed over the entrance to the grounds, authorises every one, of decent
appearance and behaviour, to amuse himself there in whatever way he pleases, without fear
of molestation. In several pavilions are musicians, for the benefit of those who choose
to dance ; in others are chairs and sofas, ready for the reception of any party who wish
to recreate themselves by sedate conversation, after roaming about with the great throng ;
some parties take to the swings, the bowling-green, and other diversions ; on the canals
and lakes are gondolas, some constructed for rowing, others for sailing ; and if this be
not enough, refreshments are spread on tables, in particular alcoves, and are handed
about by persons in livery. This noble hospitality is by no means unenjoyed ; the con-
course of persons of all descriptions, from the star and riband, to the plain well-dressed
burgher, forms such a party-colored collection, and sometimes groups so humorously
contrasted, that for this reason alone it is well worth the pains of partaking once in the
amusement. (Starch's Petersburgh, p. 441.)

264. In the country parts of Russia, hundreds or even thousands of miles may be
gone over without meeting with any country-seat worth mentioning. The nearest to
Moscow, southwards, which we have seen, is tliat of Sophiowski, in Podob'a, 1000 wersts
distant.

I

GARDENING IN RUSSIA.

UBSECT. 2. Russian Gardeningy in resj^ect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants

of Ornament.

265. Dutch Jlower-roots, would doubtless be introduced in the imperial gardens with
tlie Dutch taste in design ; and soon after copied by such of the nobility as could afford
to copy in matters of this kind. It was reserved, however, for Catherine the Second to
give the first impulse to this taste, by establishing at Petersburg, the first public botanic
garden in 1785, for the use of the academy of sciences. Another was soon after formed
for the medical college.

266. The botanic garden of the univerdty of Moscow was founded by the present
emperor, in 1801, but was unfortunately destroyed by the French in 1812; at which
time the university was burned down. Both, however, are now restored to tlieir original
splendor.

267. The Jirst private botanic garden formed in Russia was that of Count Demidow,
begun during Peter the Great's reign. It was chiefly devoted to native plants ; but
still the hot-houses for exotics occupied more than one acre of ground. Two botanists
were sent to travel over the whole of Asiatic Russia. In 1 786 a catalogue was pub-
lished, when the collection amounted to 4363 species or varieties, exclusive of 572
varieties of fruit-trees, 600 varieties of florists* flowers, and 2000 species which had not
flowered. " Une seule anecdote" says Deleuze, " will prove how eager Demidow was to
enrich his garden. Being at Rome, in 1773, he found in the garden of the Petits Au~
gustins del corso, the handsomest orange-tree he had ever seen. The monks did not wish
to part with it, and he was obliged to employ a good deal of money and influence to over-
come their scruples. Having succeeded, he caused the tree, which was planted in the
open air, to be taken up with an immense ball, put in a large box, set on a carriage made
on purpose, and transported to Moscow." (^Annales, &c. torn. ix. 174.)

268. The botanic garden of GorenJci, already mentioned, presents tlie most extensive
private establishment not only in Russia but perhaps in the world. The great extent of
glass has been already mentioned. When we saw these hot-houses, in 1814, they were
much injured by the French ; but tlie whole garden is now, we understand, completely
reinstated. Dr. Fischer, its director, is a well known botanist, and corresponds with
most botanical cultivators in Europe. A catalogue of this garden was published by Dr.
Redowsky, in 1804. {Bib. Banks.) Its proprietor having lately died, this garden will
probably share the fate of many others.

There are other private botanic ga}dens near Petersburg and Moscow ; and good collections of orna-
mental plants at Pawlowskyand Gatschina, both imperial residences. The Baron Rahl has an extensive
range of hot-houses, devoted chiefly to orange-trees and tender plants; and many of the Dutch and
German merchants cultivate flowers in the gardens of their summer-residences, on the Strelna road, at
Petersburg. Excepting however among the first of the nobility, and the wealthy foreign merchants,
ornamental culture of every description is quite unknown in Russia. The taste of the ordinary nobleman
is too gross ; the peasant is out of the question, and there is no middle class in the empire of the Tzars.

269. The climate of Russia is adverse to floriculture. Dr. Howison remarks {Caled.
Mem. iii.), " that there is scarcely any plant, or flowering shrub, which can resist the
intense frost and cold of the winter in Britain, to be found out of doors in Russia ; and,
at times, even the hardy whin-bush is destroyed." He says, the gardener, in the
Tauridon palace, Call, showed him " lilac-trees, laburnums, different varieties of thorn,
whin-bushes, &c. growing in large wooden tubs, filled with earth, and which were
preserved there all winter, with the intention of being sunk in the borders of the garden, as
soon as the weather should grow warm enough to admit of it. In the gardens of the
villas and country-houses of the liigher classes of Russians and foreigners settled in the
country, in the short period of a week from the disappearance of the winter, a beautiful
and rich display of shrubs and flowers in full blow, consisting of hydrangea, various
species of geranium and myrtle, wall-flower, carnation, &c. become visible. All these
are, in like manner, reared in hot-houses. As their bloom fades, fresh plants are brought
from the conservatory to replace them, thus keeping up an artificial garden, as it may be
called, during the whole warm season ; and when the cold weather begins again, the
whole are removed and replaced in the green-house."

S UBSECT. 3. Russian Gardening, in resjiect to its horticultural Productions.

270. Dutch and German fruits were introduced to Russia with the Dutch and French
taste in gardening, by Peter the Great. With the English style, Catherine introduced
English gardeners and English fruits. Before this period, tlie wild pear, the wild cherry,
the black currant, the cranberry, and the strawberry must have been almost the only
fruits seen in aboriginal Russia ; all these may be gathered in the woods. The apple is
abundant in the Ukraine, and a century ago, as at present, may have been sent to
Moscow for the use of the higher classes. At present, the imperial family, and a few,
perhaps six or eight of the first nobility, enjoy almost all the European fruits in tolerable
perfection, chiefly by the influence of glass and fire heat. The quantity of pines and
grapes grown in the neighbourhood of Petersburg, is indeed an astonishing feature in its

60 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

horticulture. Pines, grapes, and peaches, being grown so as to ripen in August and
September, enjoy, in these months, abundance of sun, and nearly equal in flavor
those grown in England or Holland ; but tlie apple, pear, cherry, and plum, being in
that part of the empire considered as only half hardy fruits, rarely ripen in the open
air so as to be fit for the dessert ; and are generally planted in houses, or against walls,
and brought forward by glass. About Petersburg the branches of the cherry-tree are
protected by burying in the soil, as the French do those of the fig-tree, in the fruit-gardens
of Argenteuil. The climate being less severe about Moscow, the hardier fruits ripen
somewhat better in the open air, but still far inferior to what they do at Edinburgh, which
is in the same parallel of latitude. We have seen apples, pears, cherries, &c. fit to eat,
in the hot-houses of the imperial gardens at Tzaritzina, in April, but without flavor.

271. Almost all the horticulture of Russia is contahud in Moscow and around Peters-
burg ; elsewhere scarcely any sort of fruit-tree is to be found but the wild pear. Kitchen-
gardens are rare, even in Podolia, a very fine Polish province in the Ukraine, with a
deep rich soil, level surface, and favorable climate. The only fruits a Russian peasant
or minor Russian nobleman can taste are the wild pear (groutchki/), dried or green, the
strawberry, and the cranberry. Of the last, a cooling acid beverage is made by infusion
in water.

272. If any culinary vegetables were known in Russia, before the beginning of the
last century, it could only have been the dwarf, ragged-leaved brown kale and the mush-
room ; the potatoe is but lately introduced, and that only in a few places. Many of
the peasants refuse to eat or cultivate this root, from mere prejudice, and from an idea
very natural to a people in a state of slavery, that any thing proposed by their lords must
be for the lord's advantage, and not for theirs ; thus the first handful of food thrown to
untamed animals operates as a scare.

The example of the court, and the number of foreigners employed in the Russian service, civil and military,
in their literary institutions, and established as medical or commercial men in the towns, will, no doubt,
gradually introduce a variety of culinary plants. The late war may also have had some influence, by giving
the, till then, untravelled noble a taste for the comforts of Germany and France ; but, unfortunately, the
Russians are averse to a country life, and will continue to be sotill they acquire a taste for domestic
enjoyments and rural recreations. Dr. Howison (Mem. of Caled. Hort. Soc. vol.iii. 77.) has given "an
account of the most important culinary vegetables cultivated in the interior of the Russian empire." Of
these, the cucumber, melon, yellow turnip, radish, and bulbous celery, were introduced from Germany,
and are known but to a few. The remaining sorts mentioned are, the variegated cabbage, introduced
from the South Sea Islands; mustard, from Sarepta, near the Chinese wall ; and an onion from Chinese
Tartary. These were introduced by Hasenkampf, of the late Russian embassy to China. The English and
German court-gardeners grow abundance of all our best vegetables, and contrive to prolong the season of
some of them, as cauliflowers, celery, cabbage, &c. by earthing them in cellars. A succession of salad-
ing is kept up in hot-houses, during winter, and even the first crops of all the common oleraceous and
acetaceous plants are reared under glass and by fire heat in some of the best gardens. In Storch's
Petersburg (chap, iv.), the dependence of Russia on foreign countries for her culinary vegetables and
fruits is amply detailed. In the Crimea, according to Mary Holderness, horse-radish, asparagus, carrot,
dock, sorrel, nettles, capers, and mustard, are gathered wild, and used as pot-herbs. Cabbages are culti.
vated, and they attain a great size : onions, pompions, water-melons, and capsicum, are also grown,
{Notes, &c. 125.)

SuBSECT. 4. Russian Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Timber-trees and Hedges.

273. Forest or hedge planting is scarcely known in Russia. There are yet abundance
of natural forests for timber and fuel, and in the northern parts where no system of pas-
turage can take place, enclosures are not now, and probably never will be, of any use.
Hedges are in use in the gardens of the capital, and of the city of residence. The' time
Is not yet come for planting the sides of the high-roads, though that would be a grand
feature of improvement. In some governments, towards the south, this has been partially
done in a few places, by stakes of the silvery-leaved, or Huntingdon willow {Salix alba),
but the trembling poplar, birch, and lime, are the proper trees for the northern parts, and
the cherry, alder, sycamore, oak, elm, walnut, &c. may be introduced in advancing
southwards.

SuBSECT. 5. Russian Gardening, as empiricallt/ practised.

274. The very limited use of gardens in this country has been already noticed. Few are
to be seen attached to the isbas, or log-houses of the boors, and not many to the rich
privileged slaves, or the native freedmen of the towns. There is no such thing as a Rus-
sian farmer ; every proprietor farms the whole of his own estate by means of his slaves
and an agent. The greater part of these proprietors have no gardens, or if they have,
they are wretched spots, containing a few borecoles, and but rarely potatoes or
legumes. The use of gardens is, therefore, almost entirely confined to the imperial
family, the highest class of nobles, and a few foreigners, who have settled in the principal
cities.

275. There are nurseries established in different districts by government, especially in
Courland and the Ukraine. In the Nitika nursery, in the Crimea, apple, pear, peach,
almond, vine, fig, olive, and pomegranate plants are propagated under Stevens, a Ger-
man, and sold at low prices.

Book I. GARDENING IN POLAND.

CI

276. The fiead operative gardeners of Russia are almost all foreigners or sons of
foreigners. Sometimes a nobleman sends a slave as an apprentice to a gardener, for his
own future use ; but generally the assistant labourers are mere Russian boors, slaves of
the lord ; or other slaves who have obtained permission to travel and work on their own
account for a few years. These boors make verj' tractable labourers ; for the Russian is
imitative and docile, to a high degree. They require, however, to be excited by interest
or fear, llie freed slaves on the government estates in the Ukraine, Mary Holdemess
informs us {Xutes on the Crimea, &c. 1821.), dig sitting and smoking.

277. The garden-artists of Russia are the English or German head-gardeners attached
to the establishment of the emperor, or of some eminent noble. Gould, Potemkin's
gardener, was the Brown of Russia in Catherine's time. This man had a character in
some degree analogous to that of his master ; he lived in splendor, kept horses and women,
and gave occasionally entertainments to the nobility. A few years ago he returned to
England, and died at an advanced age in 1816, at Ormskirk in Lancashire, his native town.

A foreigner once established as head -gardener to the emperor, or any of the first nobility in Russia,
becomes in some degree a despot, like his master, and unless he commits very gross errors indeed, bis
conduct is never enquired into, nor docs he lose his place but with life, or return home. He is not very
liberally paid, but he enjoys every comfort the state of society there affords ; lives in a house that would
be reckoned a considerable mansion in England, and has abundance of servants, and a carriage and
horses, at his command. His country, and its broad cloth, procure him the respect of the nobles, and the
dread of the slaves ; the former he may render tributary by presents of seeds, and the latter he may kick
and beat at pleasure. If at any time he goes too far, a few radishes to the police-bailiffs, or a few peache*,
or a melon, to the chevaliers their masters, will restore every thing to harmony.

SuBSECT. 6. Russian Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced.

278. Science of every kind stagnates in Russia. However adroit the foreign gar-
deners may be, in adapting practices to the climate, it can hardly be expected, in the
circumstances in which they are placed, that they should increase the knowledge brought
with them. Sepai-ated from tlieir friends, surrounded by strangers using a language
with which they never become familiar, without the means of procuring new books, and
rarely coming in contact witli intelligent gardeners or naturalists; macn of the know-
ledge they carried with tliem, is unavoidably forgotten or neglected. We regret to add,
that it has been remarked by various travellers, that even the moral sense of Englishmen,
who settle in Russia, becomes in time contaminated by the baneful influence of Russian
manners. The want of common honor and honesty which pervades all ranks of the
natives in Russia, from the first minister to the meanest slave, is incredible. One won-
ders at first, how such an immoral state of society can exist; but the refined moral habits
of civilised nations, like their refinements in cookery and dress, may all be traced to the
simple principle of self-preservation : and as a savage can put up with a homely fare
and a coarse garb, so it would appear a barbarous people may hang together by a sort of
tattered moral principle.

279. ffe hioiv of no original Russian author on gardening. There is a poem. On
Gardens, by Samboursky, translated into the French language by Masson de Blamont :
tliere is also a poem on glass, by the Russian poet Lomanosow, which, as containing a
eulogium on hot-houses, may be considered as belonging to this subject. Some transla-
tions have been published in German ; and various papers on botanical, physiological,
and agricultural subjects, appear from time to time, in the Transactions of the Imperial
(Economical Society.

Sect. VIII. Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in Poland.

280. Gardening, as an art of design, was introduced into Poland by the electoral kings
about the end of tlie seventeenth century, and especially by Stanislaus Augustus, tlie third
elector.

281. In resjKCt to gardens in the geometric style of design, the most ancient royal ex-
ample is the Jardin Electoral de Saxe. It was never completed, and is now a public
garden. Le Jardiri ITraszinski is another public garden ; but by far the most remarkable
is that of Lazienki, or the Bath, formed by the last king, on the site of an ancient park,
at Ujasdow, within the suburbs of the city. At the beginning of the reign of Stanislaus,
in 1764, it was a marshy wood, planted with alders, with some canals and other stagnated
pieces of water, near whick was a grotesque edifice, called the Bath, and from which this
park takes its name.

The palace of Laxienlt (Jig. 25.), a beautiful piece of Roman architecture, from the designs of Camsiticr,
a German artist, is placed on an island in a considerable piece of water. It consists of a centre and two
wings. The centre is placed in the middle of a narrow part of the lake, and the wings are on opposite
shores, and joined to the centre by arches with orangeries over. The entrance is by a carriage -portico, in
one of the wings, to which you arrive without seeing the lake ; and on entering the orangery, its first effect
is surprising and delightful. On the north shore of this lake is an open amphitheatre of stone with its
orchestra on the brink of the water ; and near the margin an island of trees, which served as the prosce-
nium. This theatre was at all times open to the public; and in addition to the ordinary exhibitions, ships and
naval engagements were occasionally exhibited. The gaiety which reigned here during the first years of
the reign of Stanislaus, the singular efiftet of tbe illuminations, the ships, and the resounding of the music

62

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part I.

in the woods, are still recollected by some of the oldest inhabitants of Warsaw, and spoken of with feelings
of regret. The grounds were not extensive, nor, excepting near the palace, much ornamented : they con-
sisted of a number of broad green alleys, crossing each other at right angles ; of smaller covered paths,
leadin<^ to open circles of turf for dances and music, and for tents and booths on extraordinary occasions.
In several places coffee-rooms and ice-cellars were established, and still remain ; and there are two pavilions
for the king's mistresses ; and another, which served as a seraglio, for strangers or visitors of tlie king: the
three being connected with the palace by arbor-like paths, or arcades of trellis work, covered by creepers.

One thing deserves to be remarked as to these gardens, which is, perhaps, not to be found in any others
in Europe. Pedestals, as if for placing statues, were ranged in different parts of the grounds, particularly
along the broad walk leading from the palace to the amphitheatre. On these pedestals, on extraordinary
occasions, selected living figures, male and female, dressed in character, were placed, and taught to main-
tain certain attitudes, after the manner of the representations called Tableaux, and which are sometimes,
though rarely, produced in private circles at Paris and Vienna on days when theatrical amusements are
forbidden. It is not to be wondered at that so luxurious a king should have wantetl decision of character,
lost his honor, kingdom, and, in short, every thing worth having. In 1813 this seat was nearly in the
state in which it was left by Stanislaus j but we understand it has since undergone several changes.

282. The principal private garden in the ancient style was that of Villaneuve, the
property of Count Stanislaus Potocky, a few miles from the capital, but now modernised.
Judging from the excellent views of these gardens, painted by B. Cannaletti, and now in
the zamosk, or castle, in Warsaw, they must have been elegant of the kind. At Cracovie
there are the remains of a geometric garden, of a few acres, laid out by Marshal Loudon,
when Austrian governor of that city ; one of a convent of some extent, and a small public
garden. But in the south of Poland, and especially in Gallicia, the only thing remark-
able as to design in gardens, is the powerfully walled enclosures of the convents and
religious houses, in some of which are venerable orchards, broad grass-walks, mossy trees,,
and curious sun-dials. 26

283. English gardening was introduced into Poland hy the Princess
Isabella Czartoryska, at Pulhawa. This lady, highly accomplished, of
great taste, and much good sense, had been a considerable time in
England. She carried to Poland a gardener, Savage, and with his
assistance, and that of Vogel and Frey, artists of Warsaw, she laid out
Pulhawa, between 1780 and 1784, and published in Polish {Mysli
Rozne o Sposobie Zakladania Ogrodow) a work with plates, on English
gardening, in 1801. The situation of Pulhawa, like almost every other
with which wc are acquainted in Poland or Russia, is flat and sandy ;
but is somewhat relieved by the Vistula. On the brink of this river, on
a wooded bank, stands the house, a plain Grecian building, which with
the grounds are described by Burnet, in his view of Poland, (chap, xi.)
There are several decorative buildings, and statues {Jig. 26.); de-
tached clumps of shrubs are more frequent in these gardens than
would be admitted by a good taste in England ; but all Poland is a
natural forest ; and as the grand object of improvement in every country, is to obtain
applause by the employment of art and expense, artificial forms, from their rarity, are
better calculated for this purpose than such as are more universally beautiful, but so
common locally as to want the charm of novelty, — or whose beauties are too refined to
be generally understood. Thus clumps in Poland may be as much esteemed as groups
are in England, on the same principle, that, in a wild country, butcher-meat is more
esteemed than game, because the latter is the common food.

Zamoyst the seat of Count Zamoski, and Villaneuve the residence of Count Potocky are also examples of
the modern style. The first are of limited extent, but the latter, near Warsaw, are' very extensive and
were laid out chiefly from the designs of Princess Czartoryska. '

The gardens of General Benningsen, near Wilna, were in a mixed style, surrounded bv oak and nine
forests. They were destroyed during the retreat of the French army in 1812. ^

Those of Colonel Lachanitzki, at Poniemenia, on the banks of the Niemen, at Grodno, are not extensive
but contain more romantic and picturesque scenery than any garden we have seen in Poland. '

284. The oldest botanic garden in Poland is that of Wilna, founded by Catherine, soon
after the dismemberment of that country ; the most tliriving is that of Cracovie, placed in
1812 under the direction of Professor Oestricher, a zealous botanist. A garden was also
begun about 1810, in Warsaw, on the steep banks of the Vistula. Of the original

^^%O01

I. GARDENING IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. C3

Warsaw garden, of which a catalogue was published towards the middle of the last cen-
tury, we could, in 1813, procure no account. Count Benningsen had an excellent
botanic garden at his seat near Wilna, which, as already observed, was destroyed and the
chateau burned down in 1812. It was rich in hardy plants. At Pulhawa the Princess
Isabella Czartoryska has a considerable collection, and used frequently to send her
gardener (Savage), lately deceased, to England to procure the newest exotics.

285. Afexo fiowers are cultivated in some of the wealthier citizens' gardens, around War-
saw, and a few in gardens of the conventual institutions ; but in a general point of view,
they are as uncommon in Poland as in Russia. In both countries a few may occasionally
be seen on market-days, which have been gathered in the fields, and brought in by the
peasants ; these are purchased by the minor nobles to decorate their rooms, by the monks
to display on their altars, or by devotees to present to the virgin or the image of their
patron saint. The floors of the higher classes, in Poland, are often strewed with the
leaves of the Acorus calamus, which abounds in the marshes of that country. In some
districts, towards Courland, the spray of the spruce fir is used for this purpose ; a practice,
as Mary Woolstonecraft has remarked, common in Sweden and Norway.

286. The horticulture of Poland is at a very low ebb : excepting in a few of the noble-
men's gardens and those of the richest monasteries, there was till lately no vegetable but the
kohl rabi, and no fruit but the apple, pear, and cherry. Towards the sea-coast, and on
the borders of Austria, there is greater variety. The potatoe is now in more general use
in Poland than in Russia, though a slight prejudice still exists against it, from its having
been introduced by the Germans. The cucumber is cultivated in many places for salting,
or preserving by barrelling and sinking the barrel in their wells. In some places, the
common carnation poppy is grown for the seed, which taken when beginning to ripen,
and strewed on a sort of milk-porridge, or milk-paste, made from the meal of buck-wheat,
or Polish millet {Digilaria sanguinalis)iis reckoned a delicacy. Bees are kept by some of
the freed men or minor nobles. The Polish hives and mode of taking the honey, to be
afterwards described, are exceedingly simple, and never requiring the death of the insects,
seem preferable to any mode of bee-culture yet devised by the bee-masters of other coun-
tries. Hirschfield mentions, that the gardens of Prince Casimir Poniatowski, elder
brother of the last king, contained at one time 5000 annanas, in a range of hot-houses 600
feet long. In 1813, the only pines grown in Poland, were a few at Pulhawa, and some
grown by a German, who rented the hot-houses belonging to the late king's establishment
at Warsaw. Only one or two instances then existed of vines and peaches being grown
near the capital, but there were abundance of these and other fruits at Pulhawa and
Zamoyst, and some few at Villaneuve, The Polish noblemen have gained in every kind of
knowledge from having been so long a period in the French service ; and since the re-
establishment of peace, they have set about agricultural and gardening improvements,
with a considerable degree of energy.

287. Planting in Poland is but little required for purposes of utility. Some public
avenues have been formed near Warsaw and Posen ; and the elm, one of the best avenue
trees, thrives at both places. There are scarcely any hedges in the country, excepting in
gardens and near towns.

288. Original Polish authors on gardening are not to be expected : but translations of
various works on rural economy were pointed out to us in the library of the Dominicans,
at Grodno ; but the only Polish work on gardening, which may be considered as original,
we believe to be' J/i/5/i Rozne o Sposobie Zakladania Ogrodow, &c. 1808; or, " Various
Thoughts on the Manner of planting Gardens," by Princess Isabella Czartoryska.

Sect. IX. Of the Rise, Progress, and jiresent State of Gardening in Sjmin and

Portugal.

289. The love of gardens, or of rural life, it is alleged by Hirschfield, is far from being
general in Spain : not however from lightness of character or bad taste, but from a kind
of supineness which cannot be better described than by calling it Spanish. Tliis supine-
ness is the more incomprehensible, as the country, though desert and uncultivated in
many places, is yet full of natural charms in others, thus indicating as it were a field of
exertions for the hand of man. In many provinces, Puente informs us, one may travel
several leagues without seeing a tree, and according to the same author, the environs of
Madrid neither present pavilions nor country-houses, and it was not till towards the end
of the eighteenth century that they began to repair the roads around the capital, and
border them witli trees.

290. The Arabs of Spain attended to agriculture, translated and commented on the
ancient authors, and though they occupied themselves more particularly in the study of
medicine and botany, they did not neglect the culture of gardens. Many of them
travelled to their brethren in Asia, to pursue natural history, and bring plants to Europe.
Ebn-Alwan has left us a list of plants in the garden of Seville, in the eleventh century,

64 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

which are more numerous than those which were cultivated by the Greeks and Romans.
The present disturbed state of the country is adverse to the advancement of our art,
in common with every other.

SuBSECT. 1. Spanish Gardeniiig, as an Art of Design and Taste.

291. The oldest garden in Spain is said to be that of the Moorish palace of Alcazar,
near Seville ; the greater part of tliis palace was constructed by Peter the Cruel, between
the years 1353 and 1364, who exactly copied the Arabian style of the ancient part of the
edifice ; and the remainder was erected by Charles V. The outside of the Alcazar is
miserable in its appearance, but the first court after entering the gate has a very grand
effect ; the part looking into that court is purely Arabic in its style, though ascertained
to have been constructed since the conquest by the Christians. The courts are orna-
mented with marble fountains, and are well shaded with corridors, supported by marble
pillars. The garden of the Alcazar is said to have been laid out by the Moors, and is
preserved in its original state. It contains walks paved with marble, parterres laid out
with evergreens, and shaded with orange-trees. In many parts of it there are baths,
supplied by marble fountains from an aqueduct, and they have a contrivance for ren-
dering the walks one continued fountain by forcing up small streams of water from
minute pipes in the joinings of the slabs, which in this climate produces a most grateful
effect. As a specimen of an Arabian garden in its original state, tiiis is an interesting
object, and we naturally associate with it recollections gathered from the Eastern
writers ; especially from the Song of Solomon, in which the descriptions very well agree
with this garden ; for, in addition to the other circumstances, it is coinpletely walled
round, and is secluded from every one, except the inhabitants of one part of the palace.
[Jacob's Travels in the South of Sjmin.)

292. The remains of a reputed Moorish garden still exists at Grenada, another residence
of the Arabian kings. It is situated on the Serra del sol, or mountain of the sun, occu-
pies above twenty acres, is covered with wood cut into quarters by straight and winding
walks, and interspersed with fountains ; the latter sometimes ostentatiously displayed,
and at other times secreted so as t9 escape notice till they are brought to play on the
spectator, and raise a laugh at his expense. Sir John Carr mentions that they take a
particular delight in playing off these reversed showers which rise from the principal
walks and places of repose, against the ladies. Several of these fountains, and many of
the walks were formed by Charles V., so that excepting certain venerable cypresses, and
the old palace, no other part can with certainty be traced to the days of the Moorish
kings.

293. In the beginning of the fifteenth century, soon after the union of Spain under one
monarch, Charles V. made considerable improvements, and formed gardens and foun-
tains at different palaces, of which little now remain.

294. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, under the reign of Philip IV. were
laid out the finest gardens in Spain. These are the gardens of the Escurial in Madrid,
of Ildephonso in its neighbourhood, and of Aranjuez near Toledo. Evelyn in 1667,
being anxious to receive some account of them, writes to the Earl of Sandwich, then the
English ambassador at Madrid, who answers him in such a way that Evelyn was *' ex-
ceedingly affected with the descriptions, and greatly instructed in many particulars."

7%e gardens of the Escurial adjoin the palace from which you descend to them by vast terraces and stair*
of marble varied by fountains. The garden, or rather park below, is of great extent, and the compart-
ments formed by the intersection of the alleys, are filled with different sorts of fruit-trees. This is the gene-
ral outline, and for the details of the statues, fountains, trellis-work, basins, &c. we must refer the reader
to Thompson's Description of the Escurial ; or the art. Escurial, in the Encyc. Brit.

The garden of Ildephonso is situated around a summer-house, or Chateau de plaisance of that name;
and here nature and art, says P. Caimo {Lettres d'un vago Italiano, Sec), combine to spread their respec-
tive beauties, and render this garden as magnificent as agreeable. Fountains, jets-d''eau, canals, temples,
covered seats, cabinets, bowers, grottoes, labyrinths, pastures, hedges of myrtle and laurel, are so distributed
as to produce the best effect. The water is collected in streams from the surrounding mountains, and
made to unite in a torrent which precipitates itself into an immense reservoir. Hence, from this abundant
source, the fountains are as powerful as numerous, and no species of artificial ornament is omitted that
can embellish a garden. The alleys are very long, some of them three fourths of a league. Most of them
are kept shorn on the sides forming a thick close surface from the ground to the summits of the trees, and
statues are placed at regular distances.

The garden of Ildephonso occupies a ridge, rising to the south, and falling both to the east and to the
west. Near the palace it is laid out in the old taste, with clipped hedges and straight walks, highly adorned
and refreshed with numerous fountains; but in proportion to the distance it becomes more wild, till it ter-
minates in the uncultivated and pathless forest, where the craggy rocks appearing among oaks and pines, pre-
sent a striking contrast with the works of art. This garden, Townsend observes, is delightful for its walks,
which although shady, are neither damp nor gloomy ; and if it be true that beauty is founded on utility, this
place will always deserve to be admired. In the present day, it is not uncommon to build the mansion in the
middle of a field, open and exposed to every wind, without shelter, without a fence, wholly unconnected
wiih the garden. Near the habitation all is wild ; and art, if any where, appears only at a distance. In all
this we can trace no utility, nor will succeeding generations discover beauty. On the contrary in the gar.
den of St. Ildephonso, we find every thing, which in a sultry season is desirable ; a free circulation of air,
a deep shade, and refreshing vapors to absorb the heat ; whilst from its contiguity to the mansion the
access to it is easy, and at any time these comforts may be instantly enjoyed ; yet without their numeroiw

Book T. GARDENING IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 65

fountains, the clippo<l hedges, and the narrow walks, the circulation would be less rapid, the shade less
deep, and the refreshing vapor would l)e wanting. {Townscnd's Travels in Spain, I 360.)

Of t/ie palace and gardens of Aranjuez, Baretti observes {Tour in 1776, vol. ii.), " that a poet would
say, that Venus and Love had here consulted with Catullus and Petrarch, in order to construct a country-
residence worthy of Psyche, of Lesbia, f>f Laura, or of some Infanta of Spain." The park, which is several
leagues in circumference, is intersected by alleys, three, and even four miles in length ; these alleys are
formed of double rows of elms, and are sufficiently wide for four carriages to drive abreast. On each side
between the rows of trees, is a canal kept clear by a continual stream which passes through it This water
has contributed to render the trees of an enormous size and thick verdure from top to bottom. T})e com-
partments, or islands, formed by the alleys and the canals, are covered with copse, and occupied with deer,
wild boars, hares, rabbits, pheasants, partridges, and other wild animals and birds, which are regularly fed
by certain shepherds or attendants, and have incredibly multiplied. This park, like the garden of Eden,
is divided by a river ^the Tagus), and what is remarkable and prince-like, it is without surrounding walls*
but verges into an open hilly countrj'. The palace is near the centre of the park, on the marjrin of the
river, and both banks are united by a bridge of five arches. In front of the i>alace is an immense cir-
cular level lawn, ornamented with four trees in its centre. On the whole, according to Baretti's description,
this must have been the finest park in the old style in the world.

295. Of private gardens, a few are mentioned by Townsend, and Sir John Carr, some
as belonging to British merchants, and situated round the principal sea-ports, and a few
to Spanish nobles in the interior. At the Retiro, near Malaga, a seat of Count Villacasa,
and fonnerly a royal residence, are gardens in the Moorish style, witli straight cypress
walks, and excellent water-works. Tlie archbishop of Valencia has a country-house and
beautiful gardens at Puzol, near the city. The hermitages of Montserrat, near 'Tarra-
gona, abound in oak, olives, ash, elm, box, myrtle, eglantine, jessamine, rosemary,
lavender, thyme, and other aromatic shrubs and plants, tastefully disposed among tlie
rocks and declivities, by the hand of nature, with verj' little assistance from man.

Granjas, the seat of Don Ramon Fortuny, near Tarragona, appears to be in good taste, combining the
ancient style with the cultivation of the orange, fig, vine, olive, and other fruits, and with an accidental
mixture of rocks and picturesque scenery. A very interesting engraving of this jjeculiar and beautiful
residence is given by Sir John Carr, in his travels in Spain ; the doors of tiie dining-room, he informs us,
open into a small garden, tlie walls of which are covered with myrtles, jessamines, and roses, and the view
is over an orchard of olives, oranges, and pomegranates. In the centre of the garden are grotesque water-
works. We are not aware Of any attempt to introduce the modern style of landscape-gardening in this
country.

296. Gardening in Portugal is very little attended to as an art of taste. Travellers
mention a few villas belonging to merchants in the neighbourhood of Lisbon ; and, as
usual, there are some avenues or public walks near the town. Montserrat, near Cintra,
a seat of the late eminent merchant, Beckford, was formed at immense expense by a na-
tive of Cornwall for M. de Vismes, and further improved by the former gentleman. It
is laid out in the geometric style ; abounds in inequalities, stairs, terraces, statues, and
orange- trees. Of late, we are informed, it has been much neglected. Repton {Frag, on
Lands. Gard. 1815,) gives an engraving of a plan which he had sent out to Lisbon, for
laying out a small garden in the modern style.

SuBSECT. 2. Spanish and Portuguese Gardening, in resiyect to tlie Culture of Flowers
and Plants of Ornament.

297. The study of plants is of great antiquity in Spain. This study was introduced
by the Arabs ; there v.as a considerable collection of plants at .Seville early in the
eleventh century ; and half the common plants of the countr)-, Harte informs us, have
names derived from the Arabic. The succeeding seven centuries present a blank in this
branch of gardening history. According to Deleuze, the taste shown for botany in Spain
and Portugal, at the beginning of the sixteenth centurv', declined with the sciences ;
and that country where they had been cultivated wlien the rest of Europe was in a state
of barbarism, appeared to sink into apathy, after having shone with the greatest ecl4t
under Charles the Fifth and Emanuel of Portugal.

298. The public garden of Madrid was established in 1753. Ferdinand the Sixth gave
its direction to his first physician, Don Joseph Sagnol. He bought the private garden of
Don Joseph Quer, who cultivated at home a great number of foreign plants : he named
this botanist professor, and added Don Jean Minuart. At the same time, he arranged
instructions for travellers going to America, and ordered them to bring home seeds,- and
to add the indication of the climate, and the nature of the soil where they collected them.
They also sent travellers with particular orders to make collections of vegetables. It ia
from these treasures that the royal garden of JNIadrid has become the nursery of tlie plants
of Peru, Mexico, and Chili ; and from thence they have been sent to other gardens of
Europe. The same king, Sir J. E. Smith informs us (Suppt. Encyc. Brit, art, Batany),
invited Linnaeus, with the offer of a large pension, to superintend a college formed for the
purpose of making new enquiries into the history of nature and the art of agriculture.
Linnseus, Ab appears L) liis ceiTespcndence, recommended Loefling.

299. A taste for foivers and jdants of ornament is not very general in Spain, tliough
odoriferous flowers, as the jessamine, tiie orange, &c. are said to be in repute with the
ladies ; and various sorts are grown in the conventual gardens of the priests, for official
decorations in churches and oratories.

300. The botanic garden of Coimbra in Portugal was founded in 1773,

F

66

HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part L

SuBSECT. 3. Sjmnish and Portuguese Gardening, in respect to its horticultural
Productions and Planting.

301. Horticultrire has made but little progress in Spain. The earliest of tlie few
Spanish authors who have written on gardens, is Herrera, whose book on rural economy
appeared early in the seventeenth century. It contains a treatise on gardens (De las
Huertas), in which he distinguishes only two sorts; one for " delight and provision for
the house," and the other for supplying the public market. Private gardens, he says,
need not be extensive ; those for selling vegetables and fruits should be near a town or
village, and well supplied with water. He gives directions for cultivating the vine, fig,
olive, apple, pear, and the common culinary plants. Of these, the soil and climate are
peculiarly favorable to the alliaceous and cucurbitaceous tribes, some sorts of which, as the
onion and winter-melon, form articles of foreign commerce.

.302. The fruits of Spain are more numerous than those of any other European country.
Besides all those of Italy, native or acclimated, Spain possesses the date, tamarind, and
various fruits of the West Indies. The varieties of the grape, fig, melon, and orange
are numerous, and many of them excellent. The pine-apple is little cultivated in
Spain ; but is grown in a few places, in the southern provinces (Jacob), in the open air.

303. Culinary herbs and roots are not much attended to in Spain. Onions and garlic
are in imiversal use ; and the sweet potatoe (Convolrultis batatas) is cultivated in various
places. The British residents import their potatoes from their native country.

304. Forcing is unknown in Spain, but there are hot-houses for plants at Madrid, and
at Coimbra and Montserrat in Portugal .

305. Planting timber- trees or hedges is scarcely known in either Spain or Portugal.

Sect. X. Of the Rise, Progress, andjvresent State of Gardening in European Turkey.

306. Of Turkish gardening, when tlie country was under tlie Romans, nothing is
known. Tlie Roman taste would pass to Byzantium when the seat of empire
was removed there in the fourtcentli century by Constantine ; but as to its history when
the rest of Europe was enveloped in ignorance and superstition, very little is known.
The numerous Greek authors on rural matters (Geoponici), who wrote between the
foui-tli and fourteenth centuries, do little more than copy Columella and other Latin
georgical writers ; they mention very few plants as ornamental, and treat chiefly of
agriculture, vineyards, and poultry.

307. The modem taste for gardens in Turkey is materially influenced by their national
character, and tlie nature of the climate. Gardens of taste are considered places of shade,
repose, and luxurious enjoyment ; not of active recreation, or a varied display of verdant
scenery. " For some miles round Adrianople," Lady M. W. Montague observes, in 1717,
" one sees nothing but gardens. The rivers are bordered with fruit-trees, imder which
the citizens divert themselves in the evenings ; not in walking, which is not a Turkish
pleasure, but in seating themselves on a carpet spread on the turf, under the thick shade
of a tree ; there they take coffee, and smoke amidst vocal or instrumental music, groups
of dancing females, and other sports."

308. The gaj-dens of the sultan at Constantinople acquired a degree of celebrity through
the letters of Lady M. W. Montague, to which , it appears from subsequent authors who
have examined them, they are by no means entitled. These gardens were visited by Dr.
Pouqueville in 1798, and it is generally allowed that he has described them witli as little
imagination and as much accuracy as any writer. The grand seignior's gardener was then
a German, a native of Rastadt, by name Jaques, whose salary was 6000 piastres a-year.
He conducted Dr. Pouqueville and his companion between the first a'nd second ram-
parts of the town, which form the natural fortifications of the seraglio on the side to the
sea.

The palace is, properly speaking, a town within itself, having its walls crowned with battlements, and
its bastions and its gates, like an old fortified place. Dr. Clarke says, that the seraglio occupies the whole
site of the ancient Byzantium ; and Pouqueville, that the present ynantge is placed where there was a hippo-
drome at the time of" the lower empire ; so that the destination of the place has not been much altered for
the last fifteen hundred years. The first garden they saw was a place enclosetl on three sides, with a
palisade, the fourth side being formed by the rampart. It was filled with shrubs ; such as early roses,
heliotropes, and others, distributed in clumps, with several beams, and a great deal of rubbish lying about.
At last they arrived at the entrance of the sultan's garden.

The gateway to the garden is of white marble, about fifteen feet high, bv four wide, decorated with
columns, in a very bad taste. A treillagc, twenty-five feet high and fifteen wide, extremely massy, forms
a cross, running each way, from one side to the other of the garden, dividing it into four equal divisions.
In the centre of the cross, it forms a dome over a small twsin of white marble, in which isa^V-rTf-att
Jaques ordered some of the men to make it plav, but the water did not rise above six feet It was, indeed,
an exhibition much below metliocritv The four squares formed by this cross, are planted with flowers, and
in the middle of each are basins again, with jets-tfeau quite in miniature That to the left, as we entered,
appealed the most singular of them. After the water has risen to the height of about four feet, it divides
like a parasol, and each stream falls upon a shell, upon the circuit of the basin, which again divides it
Into an infinite number of still smaller streams, scarcely bigger than threads. We contemplated this chef,
trontvrc for some minutes, and thought it very pretty for amusing children.

13ooK I.

GARDENING IN EUROPEAN TURKEY.

67

The trciilage, a work truly German, sceras, from its solidity, calculated to brave the injuries of time for
a long series of years. It is covered with jessamine, which perfumes the whole garden ; and, to say the
truth, it has no difficult task to perform, for the enclosure is so small, that there can hardly be said to be
sufficient space for the air to circulate freely. To the right, which is the side towards the sea, the treiU
lage leads to the kiosgue of the grand seignior, called Jeni-kiosque, the new pavilion. Tliree circular steps
lead up to it, which occupy, in the semicircle they form, the portion of the kiosque that projects into the
garden.

A number of cages, uiith canary-birds, were hanging about ; these little creatures sung charmingly, and
had been taught to draw water. About fifteen paces from this kiosque, running along the same rampart,
is a terrace of about fifty feet in length, and twelve in breadth, adorned with flowers, which has lately
been turned into a conservatory.

The largest garden, to which they descended from the terrace, is a hundred and twenty paces long, and
fifty broad. At the eastern extremity is a liot -house, where Jaques was cultivating a number of foreign
plants and flowers with great care. The hot-house was little belter than a shed ; under it were a numt)er
of benches, rising in a stage one above the other, with the flowcr.j)ots ranged upon them. Among the
plants, some from .Abyssinia and the Cape held a distinguished rank for their superior fragrance. An-
other garden, or rather a terrace, raised five-and-twenty feet high, which looks down upon the garden
just quitted, contained nothing but a retl and parched soil, with a few withered plants.

An aviary had been marie by order of the Sultnia Valide ; and this, according to the ideas of the Turks,
is the most curious thing upon the terrace. " I quitted this dismal garden," says Dr. Pouqueville, " this
kiosque of Hassan Paslia, perfectly free from the chimeras .vith which my imagination had been pre-
viously filled. I had formerly read the letters of Lady Montague, and I seriously believed that I
was to find walls incrusted with emeralds and sapphires ; parterres enamelled with flowers ; in short, the
voluptuous palace of Armida; but her account is drawn from the sources furnished by her own brilliant
imagination." — We quitted the burning garden to visit the haram. The haram of the sultan — the
promised paradise. Lady Montague was now about to triumph.

The garden of the haram is a square very ill kejit ; it is divided from east to west by a terrace. It was
here that the feast of tulips was formerly held ; but this has been long abolished. According to all ap-
pearance it must have been a very poor thing ; but the pens of romance-writers can embellish objects the
most ordinary, and make them appear of prodigious importance. Some clumps of lilacs and jessamine,
some weeping willows hanging over a basin, and some silk-trees, are the only ornaments of this imaginary
Men ; and these the women take a pleasure in destroying as soon as the flowers appear, by which their
curiosity is excited.

A flan qf these gardens is given by Kraaft (fig. 27.), from which little can be gatheretl but that they
ab< wild in trees and buildings, and are surrounded by a formidable wall.

309. Various ojnnions have existed as to the sultari^s garden. Thornton, author of a late
work on Turkey, arraigns Dr. Pouqueville for not being more dazzled with the magni-
ficence of the haram, and for thinking that Lady Mary Wortley Montague has ratlier, in
her descriptions of eastern luxury and splendor, painted from a model formed by her
own brilliant imagination, than from reality. But it is certain, H. M. Williams observes,
that Dr. Clarke's testimony is a strong confirmation of Dr. Pouqueville's. Indeed, there
is so striking a similarity in the accounts given by the two doctors, that each strongly
supports the truth of the other, and both lessen extremely the ideas we have hitherto

F 2

68 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

been led to entertain of the luxury and magnificence that reigns in the grand seignior's
seraglio. {PouquevUle s Travels, translated by H. M. Williams.)

310. Floiver-gardening. " When the Turks," observes Deleuze, " by the taking of Con-
stantinople, had given stability to their empire, they devoted themselves particularly to
the culture of flowers." Belon, in 1558, speaks with admiration of the gardens which he
saw among them. " There are no people," he says, " who delight more to ornament
themselves with beautiful flowers, nor who praise them more, than the Turks. They
think little of their smell, but delight most in their appearance. They wear several sorts
singly in the folds of their turban ; and the artisans have often several flowers of different
colors before them, in vessels of water. Hence gardening is in as great repute with them
as with us; and they grudge no expense in procuring foreign trees and plants, especially
such as have fine flowers." Busby, ambassador at Constantinople in 1550, has the same
remarks, and adds, that they frequently give flowers in presents ; and that, though very
avaricious in other things, they do not hesitate to pay dear for tliem.

311. Of the horticulture of Turkey little is known, or how far the use of gardens is
general. " The capital of the Turkish empire," T. Tliornton observes (Present State of
Turkey, 22.), "though the soil in its immediate vicinity is barren and ungrateful,
receives from the neighbouring villages, and from the surrounding coasts of both the seas
which it commands, all the culinary herbs and fruits of exquisite flavor which the most
fastidious appetite can require. On the shores on both sides of the Bosphorus the
ground forms a chain of schistous hills, covered with vineyards and gardens, and
beautiful trees and shrubs ; and the valleys, which are exceedingly fertile, are in the highest
state of cultivation. "

Of the botany and gardening of the Morea some account is given by Dr. Pouqueville, {Travels in 1798.)
" This country, formerly a part of Greece, is rich in vegetable productions, but at present proportionably
poor in cultivation. There is no great variety cultivated in the gardens ; the ground in general is ill
prepared ; the Greeks are unacquainted with the spade, and only use a mattock for turning it. Spinach
and artichokes, which will even grow naturally without cultivation, are among the best culinary veget-
ables. Cabbages and cauliflowers grow to a prodigious size ; they have also very good carrots. Beans
and French beans are produced in such abundance, that they might become an object of exportation ; but
the seeds of both are much smaller than ours in France. The lettuces are small ; and the celery never
will be good while, as at present, they do not earth it up. The tomatoes are very fine, as is the fruit
yielded by the melongena. The melons, water-melons, and gourds, are not to be exceeded in any part of
the world. Mint, balm, fennel, parsley, and other herbs, abound in the gardens. The orchards are well
furnished with almonds, oranges, lemons, citrons, peaches, pears, apricots, quinces, cherries, pomegranates,
medlars; they have also the arbutus, the service-tree, and the carob-tree; all these might be improved, if
more pains were taken in cultivating them." (p. 204.) The account which this author, and also Dr. Hol-
land {Albania and Greece, &c. 1812 and 1815), gives of the plants, the timber, and the fruit-trees, natives
of the Morea, is highly interesting; he regrets that he could not occupy himself more with the subject,
adding, that a botanist might compose a work worthy of the age in which we live, in undertaking a
complete Flora Peloponnesica.

Chap. IV.

Of the Rise, Progress, and present State of Gardening in the British Isles.

312. That gardening was introduced to Britain by the Romans, there can be but little
doubt. According to Strabo, writing in the fourth century, « The people of Britain
are generally ignorant of the art of cultivating gardens, as well as of other parts of agri-
culture" (lib. iii. p. 200.) ; but Tacitus, half a century afterwards (A. D. 79), informs
us, that « the soil and climate were very fit for all kinds of fruit-trees, except the vine and
the olive ; and for all plants and edible vegetables, except a few, which were peculiar to
hotter countries," (Vita Agric. cap. xiv.) Afterwards they found different parts of the
country not unfit for the vine ; and wine was made in England towards the end of the
third century, under the Emperor Probus. The remains of Roman villas discovered in
different parts of the country may be considered as existing evidence that Roman gardening
•was established, both as an art of taste, and of vegetable culture, by the generals and other
members of the government. Pliny expressly states, that cherries were introduced into
Britain about the middle of the first century : they had been brought to Italy by Lucullus
only a century before.

313. Modem British gardening seems to have received its first stimulus during the
reign of Henry VIII. ; a second powerful impulse in the time of Charles II., with the
splendid style of Le Notre ; again, with the introduction of the modern style during the
?5'g" o^ CJeo. II. ; next, in the early part of the reign of Geo. III. with the plants of
North America, and finally through the establishment of the Horticultural Society durine
the regency. °

314. The outline of gardening history here submitted will be found amply illustrated
by the literature and topography of British gardening in Part IV., and indeed by all
the other chapters on the statistics of British gardening.

Ujok r. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 69

Sect. I. Brilish Gardening as an Art of Design and Taste.

315. Of British gardening, as an art of taste, nothing is known for the first thousand
years of our aera. With the eleventh century commences some notices as to England ;
with the fifteenth, a few indications as to Scotland ; and with the seventeenth century,
some hints as to the state of our art in Ireland.

SuBSECT. 1. Gardening in England, as an Art of Design and Taste.

316. Roman landscape-gardening was lost in England when that people abandoned
Britain to the Saxons in the beginning of the fifth century ; but as it had revived in
France under Charlemagne, it would probably be re-introduced into England with the
Norman Conqueror, in the end of the eleventh century.

317. Henri/ I. (1100), the third king after William the Conqueror, had, according to
Henry of Huntingdon {History, lib. 7.), a park {habitat ione m, ferarum) at Woodstock;
and it may not be too much to conjecture, that tliis park was the same which had sur-
rounded the magnificent Roman villa, whose extensfve ruins, occupying nearly six acres,
have been recently dug up on the Duke of Marlborough's estates in that neighbourhood.
Blenheim, the first residence in Britain, or perhaps in Europe, in respect to general grandeur,
may in this view be considered as the most interesting in point of its relation to antiquity.

318. In the time of Henry II. (1154), Fitzsteven, it is observed by Daines Barrington,
states, that the citizens of London had gardens to their villas, " large, beautiful, and
planted with trees." In De Cerceau's Architecture, published in the time of Henry III.
there is scarcely a ground-plot not laid out as a parterre or a labyrintli.

319. During Henry V.^s. reign, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, King James L
of Scotland was a prisoner in Windsor castle for several years. In the poem written by
that monarch he gives tlie following account of a royal garden there : —

"Now was there maide fast by the touris wall " So thick the bewis and the leves grene
A garden faire, and in the comeris set Beschudit all the alleyes that there were,

Ane herbere grene, with wandis long and small And myddis every herbere might be sene
Railit about, and so with treeis set The scharp grene swete jenepere.

Was all the place, and hawthorn hedges knet. Growing so fair with branches here and there.

That lyfe was non, walkyng there for bye That as it semj-t to a lyfe without.

That myght within scarce any wight espye. The l)ewis spred the herbere all aboiit"

The Quair, by King James I. off Scotland, published by Lord Woodhouselee.

320. Towards the end of the Jifieenlh century, Leland, in his Itinerary, states, that at
** Wresehill Castelle, in Yorkshire, the gardeins within the mote, and the orchardes
without, were exceeding fair. And yn the orchardes, were mountes, opere tojnarii,
writhen about with degrees like cokil slielles, to com to the top without payn." {Itinerary,
Sec. p. 60.) Such a mount still exists at the castle inn at Marlborough, not ascended
by steps or degrees, but by a winding path. It is covered witli ancient yew-trees, no
longer opere tojiiarii. Leland also mentions the gardens at Morli, in Derbyshire, and
some others of less note in tlie northern counties.

321. During the reign of Henry VII., Holingshed informs us, that large parks or
circumscribed forests of several miles in circumference were common. Their number in
Kent and Essex alone amounted to upwards of a hundred, (p. 204.) The Earl of Nor-
thumberland had in Northumberland, Cumberland, and Yorkshire, twenty-one parks, and
5771 head of red and fallow deer. He had also parks in Sussex, and otlier southern
counties. These parks were formed more from necessity than luxury ; tenants for land
being then not so readily obtained as in later times.

322. During the reign of Henry VIII. the royal gardens of Nonsuch were laid out
and planted. " At Nonsuche," says Hentzner, " tliere were groves ornamented with trellis-
work, cabinets of verdure, and walks embowered with trees, with columns and pyramids
of marble. Two fountains that do spout water, the one round the other like a pjrramid,
on which are perched all over, small birds that spout water out of their bills." These
gardens are stated, in a survey taken in the year 1650, above a century after Henry's
deatli, to have been cut and divided into several alleys, compartments, and rounds, set about
with thorn -hedges. On the north side was a kitchen-garden, very commodious, and
surrounded with a wall fourteen feet high. On the west was a wilderness severed from
the little park by a hedge, the whole containing ten acres. In the privy-gardens were

were seventy-two fruit-trees and one lime-tree. Lastly, before the palace, was a neat
handsome bowling-green, surrounded with a balustrade of freestone. « In this garden,"
obsenes Daines Barrington, «' we find many such ornaments of old English gardening,
as prevailed till tlie modem taste was introduced by Kent."

F 3

TO HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

Hampton-court was laid out about the middle of this reign, by Cardinal Wolsey. The labyrinth, one
of the best which remains in England, occupies only a quarter of an acre, and contains nearly half a mile
of winding walks. There is an adjacent stand, on which the gardener places himself, to extricate the
adventuring stranger by his directions. Switzer condemns this labyrinth for having only four stops, and
gives a plan for one with twenty. Daines Barrington says {Archceolog.), that he got out by keeping close
to the hedge.

323. During Elizabeth's reign, Hatfield, Lord Treasurer Burleigh's, Holland-house,
and some other old seats vv^ere laid out. Of Hatfield, Hentzner says, tlie " gardens are
surrounded by a piece of water, with boats rowing through alleys of well cut trees, and
labyrinths made with great labor ; there are jels-d'eau and a summer-house, with many
pleasant and fair fish-ponds. Statues were very abundant. The Gardener s Labr/rinth,
published during this reign, contains plates of " knotts and mazes cunningly handled
for the beautifying of gardens. "

324. During the reign of James I. the gardens of Theobalds and Greenwich were
formed or improved. The garden at Theobalds, Mandelso, a traveller who visited
England about 1640, describes as " a large square, having all its walls covered with
fillery (trellis-work), and a beautiful jet-d'eau in the centre. The parterre hatli many
pleasant walks, part of which are planted on the sides with espaliers, and others arched
over. Some of the trees are limes and elms, and at the end is a small mount, called
the Mount of Venus, which is placed in the midst of a labyrinth, and is upon the whole
one of the most beautiful spots in the world." ( Voyages de Mandelso, tom. i. p. 598.)
Lord Bacon attempted to reform the national taste during this reign, but apparently
with little immediate success. He wished still to retain shorn trees and hedges ; but
proposed winter, or evergreen gardens, and rude or neglected spots, as specimens of wild
nature. " As for the making of knots or figures," says he, " with divers colored earths
— they be but toys. I do not like images cut out in juniper or other garden-stuff — they
are for children." {Essay on Gardens^} Sir Henry Wotton says, <' the garden at Lord
Verulam's was one of the best he had seen, either at home or abroad." Lawson's New
Orchard was published in 1626; he gives directions also for parterres and labyrinths.
A curious idea is given of the taste of these times in what he says of the latter. " Mazes
well framed a man's height may, perhaps, make your friend wander in gathering berries,
till he cannot recover himself without your help."

325. During the commonwealth a Janua Trilinguis was published at Oxford, in which
we are informed, that " gardening is practised for food's sake in a kitchen-garden and
orchard, or for pleasure's sake in a green grass-plot and an arbor." As to the formation
of the latter, the author adds, " the pleacher (topiarius) prepares a green plat of the more
choice flowers and rarer plants, and adorns the garden with pleach-work ; that is, with
pleasant walks and bowers, &c. to conclude with purling fountains, and water- works."
(chap. 32.) We learn also from this comprehensive author (Commenius) the ancient use
of parks. We are told, " the huntsman hunteth wild beasts, wliilst he either allureth
them into pitfalls, and killeth them, or forceth them into toils ; and what he gets alive
he puts into a park." (chap. 37.)

326. During the reign of Charles II. , landscape-gardening received a grand impulse.
This monarch, we are informed by Daines Barrington, sent for Perault and Le Notre ;
the former declined coming to England, but the latter planted Greenwich and St.'
Janies's Parks. Charles planted the semicircle of Hampton Gourt ; the beginning, as
Switzer informs us, of a grand design never completed. Lord Capel and tlie Earl of
Essex are mentioned by Switzer as eminent encouragers of gardening during this reign.
The latter sent his gardener. Rose, to study the much celebrated beauties of Versailles ;
and on his return he was appointed royal gardener.

Chatsworth {fig 28.), the magnificent seat of the Duke of Devonshire, was laid out in this reien • and

iii'3 ^^"'^h'h*^'"™ ^Z'^''^" f'"^™ *^^ '"™« ^^"^t- (^^'^"^^^ «/ England and Jf a/eTijerS Je.f ^^^^^
the poet formed his residence at Beaconsfield about the same time. The grounds there beine verv irre
fe^^ir'^loneSf^'r'if"''^'''"-'?^'" !" >-educing the parts near the houTSd banqSSg!ro^m^^^^^
regular slopes and levels, harmonising with an oblong basin or canal. It is but justice to the memorv of
this amateur, who was undoubtedly a man of taste in his day, that, in the more remote scenS noTppIa?
ance of art is discernible, or seems ever to have been intended. Their dry, ragged-edged path! conducted
through the natural woods, form a fine contrast to the artifioial scenes at PrKpark i^^"^^' '^""'^^'^t^^
Jr^^^ (^iT J"^' ?fi"^^ Barrington conjectures, were first erected in England during this reign bv

A,?^L .f'"'^' 1'%"<^''.-l'nown author of Sylva and other gardening books, flourished

onTigtdis E:ig,t:d:re:;inr^f it^^^^i^' -^ "^'^^^ — *^

Book I.

GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

71

yards of the house :" this his brother " succeeded in doing, by digging down the mountain, and flinging it
into a rapid stream, which carried away the sand, fiUed up the moat, and leveUed that noble area where
now the garden and fountain is."

Groom's-britfge near Tunbridge, " a pretty melancholy place. ^ ■, ^ ^ ^ -^ , . „

1G54 Lady Brook's garden at Hackney, " one of the neatest and most celebrated m England.

CowersAawi, Lord Craven's, Berkshire. " Goodly woods fellmg by rebels.' . _, _ ^^ ^..

Cashiobury {fig. 29. ), Lord Essex, Hertfordshire. " No man has been more mdustrnus than this noUe

29

F 4

72

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part I.

lord (Essex) in planting about his seat, adorned with walks, ponds, and other rural elegancies."—" The
gardens are very rare, and cannot be otherwise, having so skilful an artist to govern them as Cooke, who
is, as to the meclianical part, not ignorant in mathematics, and pretends to astrology. There is an excellent
collection of the choicest fruit. My lord not illiterate beyond the rate of most noblemen of this age."

Wilton, Lord Pembroke's, Wiltshire. " The garden, heretofore esteemed the noblest in England, is a
large handsome plain, with a grotto and water- works, which might be made much more pleasant were
the river that passes through cleansed and raised ; for all is effected by mere force," &c.

Hampton Park, Middlesex, " formerly a flat naked piece of ground, now planted with sweet rows of lime-
trees, and the canal for water now near perfected j also the hare-park. In the garden is a rich and noble
fountain, with syrens, statues, &c. cast in copner by Fanelli, but no plenty of water. The cradle-walk of
hornbeam in the garden is, for the perplexed twining of the trees, very observable. There is a parterre
which they call Paradise, in which is a pretty banquetting-house set over a cave or cellar."

1662. A citizen's garden. " One Loader, an anchorsmitli in Greenwich, grew so rich as to build a house
in the street, with gardens, orangeries, canals, and other magnificence, on a lease. His father was of the
same trade, and an anabaptist."

BasliuelVs IVells at Enstone. " This Bushnell had been secretary to Lord Verulam. It is an extraor-
dinary solitude. Tliere he had two mummies, and a grot, where he lay in a hammoc like an Indian.
Hence we went to Ditchley, an ancient seat of the Lees," &c. — Bushnell's gardens and water-works
still exist, and are shown as curiosities to strangers.

Ham House, and garden of the Duke of Lauderdale, Middlesex, "inferior to few of the best villas of
Italy itself, the house furnished like a great prince's ; the parterres, flower-gardens, orangeries, groves,
avenues, courts, statues, perspectives, fountains, aviaries, and all this at the banks of the sweetest river
in the world, must needs be admirable."

Wansted House, Essex, {fig. 30.) " Sir Josiah Child's prodigious cost in planting walnut-trees about his
seat, and making fish-ponds some miles in circuit in Epping-forest, in a barren spot, as oftentimes thest

30

suddenly monied men for the most part seat themselves." — In 1828 this magnificent seat was reduced to a
mere mass of materials, through the improvidence of Wellesley Long Pole, who became possessed of it by
marriage. The house was sold in lots, and the ground let in small portions on building leases.

Sir Henry Capell's orangery and myrtitleinn at Kew, " most beautiful and perfectly well kept. He was
contriving very high palisadoes of reeds to shade his oranges during the summer, and painting these reeds
in oil "

Althorp, Lord Northampton's, Northamptonshire. " The iron gate opening into the park of very good
work, wrought in flowers, painted in blue, and gilded."

Beddington, the seat of tiie Carews, Surrey, now decaying, " heretofore adorned with ample gardens, and
the first orange-trees tliat had been seen in England, planted in the open ground, and secured in winter
only by a tabernacle of boards and stoves, &c. standing a hundred and twenty years. Large and goodly
trees, and laden with fruit, now in decay, as well as the grotto and fountains. The cabinets and other
curiosities in the house and abroad being now fallen to a child under age, and only kept by a servant or
two from further dilapidation. The estate and park about it also in decay."

Marsden, Surrey. " Originally a barren warren, bought by Sir Robert Clayton, who built there a pretty
house, and made such alteration by planting, not only an infinite store of the best fruit, but so chai>ged the
natural situation of the hills, valleys, and solitary mountains about it, that it rather represented some
foreign country which could produce spontaneously pines, firs, cypress, yew, holly, and juniper j they were
come to their perfect growth, with walks, &c. among them."

Alhurie Howards, Surrey. " Found the garden exactly done to the design and plot I had made, with the
crypt through the mountain in the park, 3() perches in length. Such a Pausilippe (alluding to the grot of
Pausilippo at Naples) is no where in England besides. The canal was now digging, and the vineyard
planted." — This cryirt v/as in part remaining in 1816, but stopped up at the further end.

Swalloufield, Lady Clarendon, Berkshire. " Lady C. skilled in the flowery part, my lord in diligence of
planting. Water flagged with calamus, all that can render a country-seat delightful, and a well furnished
library in the house." {Mem. by Bray, i. 432.)

328, During the same reign (Charles II.) notes were made on some of the gardens round
London by J. Gibson, which have been subsequently published in the ArchcBologia.
(vol. xii.) Many of those mentioned by Evelyn are included, and spoken of in nearly the
same terms by Gibson. Terrace-walks, hedges of evergreens, shorn shrubs in boxes, and
orange and myrtle trees are mentioned as their chief excellencies. Tlie parterre at Hampton
Court is said to resemble a set of lace patterns. Evelyn himself is said to have a " pleasant

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 73

villa at Deptford, a fine garden for walks and hedges, and a pretty little green-house with
an indifferent stock in it. He has four large round philareas, smooth-clipped, raised on a
single stalk from the ground, a fashion now much used. Part of his garden is very
woody and shady for walking ; but not being walled, he has little of the best fruits."

329. During the reign of irUli/im and Mary, gardening, Switzer says, arrived at its
highest perfection. King William, Daines Harrington informs us, gave vogue to dipt
yews, with magnificent gates and rails of iron, not unfrequent in Holland, and about
this time (see Huetiana) introduced into France, and, in reference to the opaque stone-
walls which they supplanted, called there clairs-voyees. The most extensive iron screens
of this sort in England, next to those of Hampton Court, were formed by Switzer, at
Leeswold, in Flintshire, laid out by that artist in a mixed style, or what is called
Bridgeman's first manner. Hampton Court being at this time the actual residence of
tlie royal family, the gardens underwent considerable improvement. An elegant alcove
and arched trellis were added at the end of one of the alleys, and four urns placed before
tlie principal part of the house, supposed by Daines Barrington {ArdnBologixi) to be the
first that were thus used in England. Towards the end of this century, vegetable sculp-
tures, and embroidered parterres, were probably in their highest vogue, a conjecture
confirmed by the works of Le Blond, James, Switzer, &c. published during this and the
following reign. Sir William Temple's Essay on the Gardens of Epicurus appeared
about the same time. His picture of a perfect garden, is tliat of a flat, or gentle de-
clivity of an oblong shape, lying in front of the house, with a descent of steps from a
terrace, extending the whole length of the house. Tliis enclosure is to be cultivated as a
kitchen-garden and orchard. Such a garden he found at Moor Park, Hertfordshire,
laid out by the Countess of Bedford, celebrated by Dr. Donne, " the sweetest place, I
think, that I have seen in my life, before or since, at home or abroad." Lord Walpole,
in his enthusiasm for the modern style, observes on this description, that any man might
form as sweet a garden, who had never been out of Holborn. — It has long since been
destroyed, and its place occupied by lawn and trees.

330. During Queen Anne's reign the principal alteration mentioned by Daines Bar-
rington, as having taken place in the royal gardens, was that of covering the parterre
before the great terrace at Windsor with turf. Switzer mentions, that her Majesty finished
the old gardens at Kensington, begun by King William. Wise, who had been apprentice
to Rose, and succeeded him as royal -gardener, turned the gravel-pits into a shrubbery,
with winding walks, with which Addison was so struck, that he compares him to an epic
poet, and these improved pits as episodes to the general effect of the garden. Wise and
London afterwards turned nurserymen, and designers of gardens, in which last capacity
they were nearly in as great demand as was afterwards the celebrated Brown. To
London and Wise, as designers, succeeded Bridgeman, who appears to have been a more
chaste artist tlian any of his predecessors. He banished vegetable sculpture, and intro-
duced wild scenes and cultivated fields in Richmond park ; but he still dipt his alleys,
though he left to their natural growth the central parts of tlie masses through which they
were pierced. Blenheim, Castle Howard, Cranboume, Bushy Park, Edger, Althorpe,
New Park, Bowden, Hackwood, Wrest, and indeed almost all tlie principal noblemen's
seats in the ancient style, were laid out during this, the preceding, and part of the latter
reigns, or between the years 1660 and 1713. Blenheim was laid out by Wise in three
years ; Wansted and Edger were the last of London's designs. (Switzer.)

331. During the reign of George I. nothing of consequence appears to have been done
to the royal gardens ; though, near tlie end of it Vanbrugh was appointed surveyor of
the waters and gardens of the crown, but continued only a year or two in office.

332. During the reign of George II. Queen Caroline enlarged and planted Kensington
Gardens, and formed what is now called the Serpentine River, by uniting a string of
detached ponds. Tliis was a bold step, and led the way to subsequent changes of taste.
Lord Batliurst informed Daines Barrington, that he was the first who deviated from the
straight line in pieces of made water, by following the natural lines of a valley, in widen-
ing a brook at Ryskins, near Colebrook ; and tliat Lord Strafford tliinking that it was
done from poverty or economy, asked him to own fairly, how little more it would have
cost him to have made it straight. From Lord Walpole's correspondence (published
1819) we learn that Queen Caroline proposed to shut up St. James's Park, and convert
it into a noble garden for the palace of that name. When her Majesty asked Lord
Walpole's father what it might probably cost, he answered " only three crowns."

Cannons, the tnagnificent seat of the Duke qf Chandos, is one of the principal places laid out in the
ancient style during this reign. We are ignorant of the name of the French artist who gave the design,
but the execution was superintended by Dr. Blackwell, a physician and agriculturist of some note. The
Duke is mentioned by Miller, as one of the principal cncouragers of gardening. As far as we have been
able to learn, the last extensive residence laid out in the ancient stvle, in England, was Exton Park, in
Rutlandshire, tlien the property of the Earl of Gainsborough, the Maecenas of his age. It was finished
about the year 1130. Kent had already returned from Italy, and been employed as a painter and architect,
and he began to display his genius a few years afterwards as a landscape-gardener.

14 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

333. In this brief outline of the progress of the ancient style in England, we have not
had room to notice numerous fine gardens formed by private individuals, preferring rather
to notice what had been done in the gardens of the court, which, as they generally lead
the fashion in every country, may be considered as a tolerably exact index of the state of
a nation's taste. The reader who is desirous of tracing more minutely the progress of
this branch of gardening among the landed proprietors of England, will find himself
amply gratified by consulting The Beauties of England and Wales; a work in which is
exhausted every source of antiquarian and topographical research, up nearly to the present
time. The histories of gardening, by Lord Walpole and Daines Barrington, and the
prefaces to the gardening works of Miller and Switzer, may also be referred to.

334. The modem style of landscape-gardening was introduced during the early part of
the eighteenth century. The origin of this style, and by whom and where it was first
exhibited, have given rise to much discussion, and various opinions and assertions.

The continental nations in general assert that we borrowed it from the Chinese ; or with Gabriel Thouin
and Malacarne, deny us the merit of being the first either to borrow or invent it, by presenting claims of
originality (166. and 78.) for their respective countries. Gabriel Thouin asserts {Plans Raisonnes, preface,
&c.) that the first example was given by Dufresnoy (166.), a Parisian architect, in the Faubourg Saint
Antoine, in the beginning of the eighteenth century. The claims of Malacarne of Padua, in behalf of
Charles I. Duke of Savoy, about the end of the sixteenth century, have been already adverted to. In as
far as literature is concerned, we think that Tasso's claim to priority is indisputable. (See Dissertazione su
i Giardini Inglese, by Hippolyto Pindemonte, Verona, 1817, or a translation of part of it by us in the
New Monthly Magazine, Feb. 182G.) Deleuze, the historian of botany and ornamental plants, {Annates du
Museuinytom. viii. 1806,) endeavours, at some length, to prove that the new style of gardening arose from
the necessity of finding room for the great number of ornamental shrubs and trees introduced from Ame-
rica, during the first half of the eighteenth century. Boettinger, in his Racemazionem zur Gartenkunst
der Alien, &c. carries us back to the descriptions of the grotto of Calypso by Homer, the vale of Tempe
by JElian, and of Vaucluse by Petrarch.

335. British authors are of various opinions as to the origin of tlie modem style.

The poet Gray {Life and Letters, &c. Letter to Mr. How, dated 1763) is of opinion, that " our skill in
gardening, or rather laying out grounds, is the only taste we can call our own ; the only proof of original
talent in matters of pleasure. This is no small honor to us j since neither France nor Italy have ever
had the least notion of it."

Warton and Lord Walpole, the former in his Essay on Pope, and the latter in his History of Modern
Gardening, agree in referring the first ideas to Milton ; and Warton adds, that the Seasons of Thomson
may have had a very considerable influence.

George Mason, the author of an Essay on Design in Gardening, which appeared in 1768, and is one of the
earliest prose works on the modem style, states, that " were only classical authorities consulted, it would
hardly be supposed that even from the earliest ages any considerable variation in taste had ever prevailed."
(Essay on Design, &c. p. 27.) Speaking of the Chinese style he says, " little did Sir William Temple
imagine, that in not much more than half a century, the Chinese would become the nominal taste of his
country ; or that so many adventurers in it would do great justice to his observation, and prove by their
works, how dilficult it is to succeed in the undertaking. Yet to this whimsical exercise of caprice, the
modem improvements in gardening may chiefly be attributed." {Essay on Design, &c. p. 50.) No man
could be a more enthusiastic admirer of the classics, a warmer patriot, or a more rigid critic, than this
author ; and it appears from another part of his work {Discussion on Kent, p. 105.) that he was well aware,
when he wrote the above passage, that the origin of the modern style was generally traced to Kent. That
he should derive it from our attempt at the Chinese manner, we consider as a proof of candor and

Mason the poet states, in a note to the English Garden, that " Bacon was the prophet, Milton the herald,
of modern gardening ; and Addison, Pope, and Kent, the champions of true taste." The efficacy of
Bacon's ideas, G. Mason considers to have been " the introduction of classical landscapes," though this
does not very clearly appear from his essay, the object of which seems to be, to banish certain littlenesses
and puerilities, and to create more variety, by introducing enclosures of wild scenery, as well as of culti-
vation. The title of champion, applied to Addison, alludes to his excellent paper in the Spectator, No. 414.
" On the causes of the pleasures of the imagination arising from the works of nature, and their superiority
over those of art," published in 1712 ; and when applied to Pope, it refers to his celebrated Guardian,
No. 173. pubhshed the following year. Boettinger, however, affirms that the bishop of Avranches had
thrown out similar ideas, previously to the appearance of the Spectator. (See Huetiana, Pensee 51.
" Beautes naturelles pr^erables au.r beautcs de I'art , " and p. 72. " Desjardins d la 7?iode.")

The liev. Dr. Alison, author of the Analysis of Beauty, seems to consider the modern style as derived
from our taste for the classic descriptions of the poets of antiquity. " In this view," (alluding to the pro-
gress of art from the expression of design to the expression of variety and natural beautv,) he observes,
" I cannot help thinking that the modern taste in gardening (or what Walpole very justly, and very em-
phatically, calls the art of creating landscape,) owes its origin to two circumstances, which may, at first,
appear paradoxical, viz. to the accidental circumstances of our taste in natural beauty being founded upon
foreign models ; and to the difference or inferiority of the scenery of our own country to that which we
were accustomed peculiarly to admire."

Eustace, the Italian tourist, considers Tasso's garden of Armida as more likely to have given rise to the
English style than any classical work, or even the Paradise of Milton.

Our own opinion inclines to that of. G. Mason, without doubting that examples of wild scenery, with
walks, may have been exhibited long before both in Italy and this country. The general progress of ideas
in matters of taste and refinement, required the creation of such a style ; and the highly-cultivated state
of the country, the accounts of Chinese gardens, and the descriptions of the poets, would all conspire to
its production.

336. The principles of modem, landscape-gardening were unquestionably first laid down
by English writers. It is allowed on all sides, that Addison and Pope " prepared for
the new art of gardening the firm basis of philosophical principles." Addison's paper on
Imagination, was published so early as 1712; and Pope's celebrated Guardian on Ver-
dant Sculpture, an 1713. Pope attacked the verdant sculpture, and formal groves of the
ancient style, with the keenest shafts of ridicule ; and in his epistle to Lord Burlington,
laid down the justest principles of art ; the study of nature, of the genius of the place,
and never to lose sight of good sense.

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 75

337. The H.rst examjyles of modem landscape-gardening were given by Pope and Addi-
son. In so far as was practicable on a spot of little more than two acres. Pope practised
what he wrote; and his well-known garden at Twickenham contained, so early as 1716,
some highly picturesque and natural-like scenery ; accurately described by various con-
temporary writers. Only the soil of Pope's garden now remains. fSee Beauties of
England and Wales. ) Addison had a small retirement at Bilton, near Rugby, laid out
in what may be called a rural style, and which still exists, with very little alteration be-
sides that of time.

338. The Jirst artists who jn-actised in the modem style, were Bridgeman and Kent.
Bridgeman was the fashionable designer of gardens in the beginning of the 18th century,
and may be considered as having succeeded to London and Wise, London having died
in 1713. Lord Walpole conjectures Bridgeman to have been " struck and reformed"
by the Guardian, No. 173. He banished verdant sculpture, and introduced morsels of
a forest appearance in the gardens at Richmond ; " but not till other innovators had
broke loose from rigid symmetry." But it was reserved for Kent, the friend of Lord
Burlington, says Daines Barrington, to carry Pope's ideas more extensively into execu-
tion. It was reserved for him " to realise the beautiful descriptions of the poets, for
which he was peculiarly adapted by being a painter ; as the true test of perfection in
modern gardening is, that a landscape-painter would choose it for a composition." Kent,
according to Lord Walpole, appeared immediately after Bridgeman began to make in-
novations on the old style. Among these innovations the capital stroke was the destruc-
tion of walls for boundaries, and the introduction of ha-has; — the harmony of the lawn
with the park followed. Kent appeared at this moment, and saw that all nature was a
garden ; " painter enough to taste the charms of landscape, bold and opinionative enough
to dare and to dictate, and bom with a genius to strike out a great system ; from the
twilight of imperfect essays, he realised the compositions of the greatest masters in paint-
ing." *' Kent," continues his lordship, " was neither without assistance nor without
faults. Pope contributed to form his taste ; and the gardens at Carleton House were
probably borrowed from the poet's at Twickenham."

339. The origin and establishment of the modem style of landscape gardening in England
appears thus to have been effected by Addison, Pope, Bridgeman, and Kent.

The various deviations from rigid uniformity, or more correctly, the various attempts to succeed in the
Chinese manner, appear to have taken a new and decisive character under the guidance of Kent, a circum-
stance, in our opinion, entirely owing to his having the ideas of a painter ; for no mere gardener, occupied
in imitating the Chinese, or even Italian manner, would ever have thought of studying to produce pictu-
resque effect Picturesque beauty, indeed, we consider to have been but little recognised in this country,
excepting by painters, previously to the time of Pope, who was both a painter and a poet. The continued
approbation of the modern style,' as purified from the Chinese absurdities, originally more or less introduced
with it, and continued in many places long after Kent's time, we consider to be chiefly owing to the cir-
cumstance of the study of drawing and landscape-painting having become a part of the general system of
education ; and thus, as Alison observes, our taste for natural beauty was awakened ; " the power of
simple nature was felt and acknowledged, and the removal of the articles of acquired expression, led men
only more strongly to attend to the natural expression of scenery, and to study the means by which it
might be maintained or improved."

340. The adoption and extension of the modem style in England may next be con-
sidered. The means which led to its popularity in Britain, and indeed over the whole of
Europe, were the examples of artists and authors, to which it gave rise.

341. The country-seats in which the modem style was first ew/j/oj^ed are described by
Shenstone, G. Mason, and Wheatley, in their works on gardening, and incidentally by
some other authors.

Stowe appears to have been the first extensive residence in which the modem style was adopted.

Lord Cobham seems to have been occupied in re-modelling the grounds at Stowe, about the same time
that Pope was laying out his gardens at Twickenham. His lordship began these improvements in 1714,
employing Bridgeman, whose plans and views for altering old Stowe from the most rigid character of the
ancient style to a more open and irregular design, are still.in existence. Kent was employed a few years
afterwards, first to paint the hall, and afterwards in the double capacity of architect and landscape-gar-
dener ; and the finest buildings and scenes there are his creation. The character of Stowe is well known :
nature has done little ; but art has created a number of magnificent buildings, by which it has been at-
tempted to give a sort of emblematic character to scenes of little or no natural expression. The result
is unique ; but more, as expressed by Pope, " a work to wonder at," than one to charm the imagination.
The friends of Lord Cobham seem "to have considered him as the first who exhibited the new style to his
countrv, if we may judge from the concluding lines of an epitaph to his memory, placed in the garden, —

ET ELEGANTIORI HOaTORlM CLLTU HIS PRIMUM IN AGRIS ILLl STRATO PATRIAM ORXAVIT, 1747.

Woburn Farm, near Weybridge, in Surrey, is supposed to have been one of the first small places where
the new system struck out by Kent was adopted. Southcote, says G. Mason, possessed a genius in many
respects well suited to the purpose, but was rather too lavish of his flowery decorations. The extent
of the grounds was one hundred and fifty acres, thirty-five of which were ornamented to the highest
degree, two-thirds of the "remainder were in pasture on rising grounds, and the rest in tillage. The
decorations consisted in having a broad margin of shrubbery and gravel-walk to almost every fence,
but varied bv difference of stvle, views, buildings, &c It is minutely described in "VN'heatley's Observations^
as an example of an ornamented farm. G. Mason thinks the decorated strip often too narrow, and some-
times offensive, from the impossibilitv of concealing the fence. To this bordering walk, he thinks, may
probably be attributed the introductio'n of the belt. His remarks refer to. the year 1768. In 1803, it had
repeatedly changed proprietors, and scarcely a vestige remained to distinguish it from a common farm.

Paitis Hill, the creation of the Hon. Charles Hamilton, ninth son of James, sixth earl of Abercom, is

pposed to have been one of the next specimens exhibited of the modem style. Hamilton is said to have
adied pictures, with a view to the improvement of grounds. Pains Hill is a small park, surrounded on

76 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

three sides by garden and picturesque scenery. Excepting from the house, there is no distant prospect ;
but the surface being considerably undulated, the views from the walks across the park have some variety,
and are always agreeable. This place is one of the few, described by Wheatley, which is stiU in perfect
preservation. t i, • «• • u- i. t j

Hagley seems to have been improved about the same time as Pains Hill, m effecting which. Lord
Lj-ttelton might probably receive some hints from the poet Thomson, who was then his guest. The
grounds are much varied, and the distant prospects picturesque. A very small rill, which passed through
the grounds in a sort of dell, was surroqnded with shrubbery and walks, from which the park-scenery
formed a sort of foreground, and sometimes a middle distance to the offscape ; thus, in the language of
Wheatley, " blending the excellencies of the park and the garden." The tine trees, the distant prospects,
and the principal buildings, still remain ; but the garden-scenery has been long since choked by the
growth of the forest-trees; and some years ago the fence was removed, and the whole thrown into

South Lodge comes next in order. Soon after the improvements of Hamilton and Lyttelton, " the great
Pitt," G. Mason informs us, " turned his mind to the embellishment of rural nature," and exercised his
talent at the South Ixidge upon Enfield Chace. " The first ground surrounding the enclosure was then
wild and woody, and is diversified with hill and dale. He entertained the idea (and admirably realised
it) of making the interior correspond with the exterior scenery. His temple of Pan is mentioned in Observ-
ations. But the .singular effbrt of his genius was a successful imitation of the picturesque appearance of a
by-lane, on the very principles Price supposes it might be practicable."

The Leasowes were improved about the same time. It was literally a grazing-farm, with a walk, in
imitation of a common field, conducted through the several enclosures. Much taste and ingenuity was dis-
played in forming so many points of view in so confined an extent, and with so few advantages in point of
distance. But root-houses, seats, urns, and inscriptions, were too frequent for the whole to be classed with
a common, or even an improved or ornamented English farm. It was, in fact, intended as an emblematical
scene in which constant allusion was made to pastoral poetry ; and if we consider it in this light, in that of
a sentimental farm, it was just what it ought to have been. We regret to find that Repton should attack
the taste of this amiable man, from a misconception, as we presume, of his intentions, by blaming him for
not " surrounding his house with such a quantity of ornamental lawn or park only, as might be consistent
with the size of the mansion or the extent of the property." We fear that if Shenstone had adopted this
mode of improvement, the leasowes had never been distinguished from places got up by the common rou-
tine of professorship. Shenstone broke his heart through the infamous conduct of a Birmingham attorney,
in whose hands he had placed the title-deeds of his estate. The farm is now much neglected, though the
paths, and many of the seats and root-houses, still remain.

Claremont and Esher are well known. Both were laid out by Kent and Claremont, afterwards enlarged,
and the house and kitchen-gardens added by Brown. Walpole and Wheatley have celebrated both, and
also Garth. Esher is praised by Warton, in his poem " The Enthusiast or Lover of Nature" 1740. Esher
no longer exists ; but Claremont is kept up in tolerable style by Prince Leopold.

Persfield was laid out so late as 1750. It is a small park, with an interesting walk, carried along the brow
of a romantic rocky bank of the river Wye, perhaps as faultless as the nature of the place admits of. " I
cannot recollect," says G. Mason, writing of this place in 1768, " that any of the scenes on the Wye are
the least adulterated by the introduction of any puerile appendage whatever."

342. The artists or professors who established the modern style were, Bridgeman, Kent,
Wright, Brown, and Eames.

Of Bridgeman we have been able to procure no information.

Kent was born in Yorkshire, and apprenticed to a coach-painter in 1719. He soon afterwards came to
London, discovered a genius for painting, was sent to Italy, patronised there by Lord Burlington, returned
with his lordship, and lived with him in Burlington House till 1748, when he died at the age of 63 years.
On his first return, he was chiefly em.ployed to paint historical subjects and ceilings ; and the hall at Stowe
is from his pencil. Soon afterwards he was employed as an architect ; and, lastly, as a landscape-gardener.
It is not known where he first exercised his genius as a layer-out of grounds ; probably at Claremont and
Esher, two of his designs, both minutely described by Wheatley, and, judging from the age of the trees,
laid out some time between 1725 and 1735. Kent was also employed at Kensington Gardens, where he is
said to have introduce.l parts of dead trees to heighten the allusion to natural woods. Mason, the poet,
mentions Kent's Elysian scenes in the highest style of panegyric, and observes in a note, that he prided
himself in shading with evergreens in his more finished pieces, in the manner described in the 14th and
15th sections of Wheatley's Observations. " According to my own idea," adds G. Mason, " all that has
since been done by the most deservedly admired designers, by Southcote, Hamilton, Lyttelton, Pitt, Shen-
stone, Morris, for themselves, and by Wright for others, all that has been written on the subject, even the
Gardening Didactic Poem and the Didactic Essay on the Picturesque, have proceeded from Kent. Had
Kent never exterminated the bounds of regularity, never actually traversed the way to freedom of man-
ner, would any of these celebrated artists have found it of themselves? Theoretical hints from the
highest authorities had evidently long existed without sufficient eflect. And had not these great masters
actually executed what Kent's example first inspired them with the design of executing, would the subse-
quent writers on gardening have been enabled to collect materials for precepts, or stores for their ima-
ginations ?" {Essay, &c. p. 112.)

Wright seems to have been in some repute at the time of Kent's death. " His birth and education,"
G. Mason informs us, " were above plebeian ; he understood drawing, and sketched plans of his designs ; but
never contracted for work, which might occasion his not being applied to by those who consider nothing so
much as having trouble taken off their hands." At Becket, the seat of Lord Barrington, he produced an
admired effect on a lawn ; and at Stoke, near Bristol, he is supposed to have decorated a copse-wood with
roses, in the manner advised in the fourth book of the English Garden, and extensively displayed at
Fonthill Abbey. He also designed the terrace-walk and river at Catlands, both deservedly admired : the
latter being not unfrequently mistaken for the Thames itself.

Brown is the next professor, in the order of time. He was a native of Northumberland, filled the situation
of kitchen-gardener at a small place near Woodstock, in Oxfordshire ; and was afterwards head-gardener at
Stowe till 1750. He was confined (see Beauties qf E. and W. Bucks) to the kitchen-garden, by Lord Cobham,
who, however, afterwards recommended him to the Duke of Grafton, at Wakefield Lodge, Northampton-
shire, where he directed the formation of a large lake, which laid the foundation of his fame and fortune.
Lord Cobham afterwards procured for him the situation of royal gardener at Hampton Court and Windsor.
He was now consulted by the nobility, and among other places at Blenheim. There he threw a dam across
the vale, and the first artificial lake in the world was completed in a week. By this he attained the summit
of his popularity. The fashion of employing him continued, says G. Mason, not only to 1768, but to the
time of his death, many years afterwards. Kepton has given a list of his principal works, among which
Croome and Fisherwicke are the two largest new places which he formed, including at Croome the man-
sion and offices, as well as the grounds. The places he altered are beyond all reckoning. Improvement
was the passion of the day ; and there was scarcely a country-gentleman who did not, on some occasion
or other, consult the royal gardener. Mason, the poet, praises this artist, and Lord Walpole apologises
for not praising him. Dames Barrington says, " Kent hath been succeeded by Brown, who hath un-
doubtedly great merit m laying out pleasure-grounds ; but I conceive that, in some of his plans, I see
rather traces of the kitchen-gardener of old Stowe, than of Poussin or Claude Lorrain. I could wish, there-

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 77

fore, that Gainsborough gave the design, and that Brown executed." The works and memory of Brown
have been severely attacked by Knight and Price, and strenuously defended by Repton, who styles him " his
great self-taught predecessor." " Brown," observes G. Mason, " always appeared to myself in the light
of an egregious mannerist ; who, from having acquired a facility in shaping surfaces, grew fond of exhi-
biting that talent, without due regard to nature, and left marks of his intrusion wherever he went His
new plantations were generally void of genius, taste, and propriety ; but I have seen instances of his ma-
naging old ones much better. He made a view to Cheney's church, from Latimer (Bucks\ as natural
and picturesque as can weU be imagined. Yet at the same place he had stuffed a very narrow vale, by the
side of an artificial river, with those crowded circular clumps of firs alone, that Price attributes to him.
The incongruity of this plan struck most of the neighbouring gentlemen, but was defended by the artist
himself, under shelter of the epithet • playful,' totally misapplied." {Essay on Design, p. 130. 2d edit. 1795.)

That Brown must have possessed considerable talenis, the extent of his reputation abundantly proves ;
but that he was imbued with much of that teste for picturesque beauty which distinguished the works of
Kent, Hamilton, and Shenstonc, we think will hardly be asserted by any one who has observed atten-
tively such places as are known to be his creations. Whatever be the extent or character of the surface,
they are all surrounded by a narrow belt, and the space within is distinguished by numbers of round or
oval clumps, and a reach or two of a teme river on different levels. This description, in short, will apply to
almost every place in Britain laid out from the time (about 17-10) when the passion commenced for new-
modelling country-seats, to about 1785 or 1790, when it in a great measure ceased. The leading outline of
this plan of improvement was easily recollected and easily applied; the great demand produced abundance
of artists; and the general appearance of the country so rapidly changed under their operations, that in
1772, Sir William Chambers declared, that if the mania were not checked, in a few years longer there
would not be found three trees in a line from the Land's-end to the Tweed. Brown, it is said, never went
out of England, but he sent pupils and plans to Scotland and Ireland ; and Paulowsky, a seat of the late
emperor Paul, near Petersburg, is said to be from his design. Brown, as far as we have learned, could not
draw, but had assistants, who made out plans of what he intended. He generally contracted for the
execution of the work. He amassed a handsome fortune, and his son Launcelot has sat in several
parliaments.

The immediate successor of Brown was his nephew, Holland, who was more emploved as an architect
than as a landscape-gardener, though he generally directed the disposition of the grounds when he was
employed in the former capacity. Holland, we believe, retired from business some years ago.

Eames is the next artist that deserves to be mentioned ; of him, however, we know little more than that
he is mentioned in terms of respect by G. Mason.

343. The authors who established the modern style are, Addison, Pope, Shenstone,
G. Mason, Wheatley, and Mason, the poet.

Addison's Spectators have been already referred to.

Pope's Epistle to Lord Burlington has also been noticed, as well as

Shenstone's Unconnected Thoughts ; the former published in 1716, the latter in 1764.

G. Mason's Essay on Design in Gardening, from which we have so frequently quoted, was first published
in 1768, and afterwards greatly enlarged in 1195. It is more a historical and critical work than a didactic
performance. Mason was an excellent classical scholar : he lived much alone, and almost always in London,
being connected with the Sun Fire Office.

JVheatley's Observations on Modern Gardening, published in 1//0, is the grand fundamentel and standard
work on English gardening. It is entirely anatytical ; treating, first, of the materials, then of the scenes,
and lastly, of the subjects of gardening. Its style has been pronounced by Ensor inimiteble ; and the
descriptions with which his investigations are accompanied, have been largely copied and amply praised
by Alison, in his work on teste. The book was soon translated into the continentel languages, and is
judiciously praised in the Mercure de France, Journal Encyclopedique, and Wieland's Journal. G. Ma-
son alone dissents from the general opinion, enlarging on the very few faults or peculiarities which
are to be found in the book. Wheatley, or Whateley, (for so little is known of this eminent man, that we
have never been able to ascertain satisfactorily the orthography of his name,) was proprietor of Nonsuch
Park, in Surrey, and was secretary to the Earl of Sufiblk. He published only this work, soon after which
he died. After his death, some remarks on Shakspeare, from his pen, were published in a small 12mo.
volume.

The English_Garden, a poem by W. Mason, was published in four different books, the first of which
appeared in 1//2. With the exception of the fourth book, it was received with very great applause. The
precepts for planting are particularly instructive. On the whole, the work maybe classed with the Observ-
ations of Wheatley ; and these two books may be said to exhibit a clear view of the modem style, as first
introduced and followed by liberal and cultivated minds ; whilst the Dissertation on Oriental Gardenings
by Sir William Chambers, published in 1772, holds up to ridicule the absurd imitetions of uncultivated
amateurs and professors, who have no other qualifications than those acquired in laboring with the spade
under some celebrated artist. Mason was a clergj-man, resident in Yorkshire, and died in 1797.

344. The partial corruption of the modern style took place as soon as it became fashion-
able ; though it may be true, that " in all liberal arts, the merit of transcendent
genius, not the herd of pretenders, characterises an aera," yet in an art like that of
laying out grounds, whose productions necessarily have such an influence on the general
face of a country, it is impossible to judge otherwise of the actual state of the art, than
from the effect which is produced. This effect, about forty years ago, when clumps and
belts blotted every horizon, could never be mistaken for that intended by such pro-
fessors as Kent, or such authors as WTieatley and IVIason. The truth is, such was the rage
for improvement, that the demand for artists of genuine taste exceeded the regular supply ;
and, as is usual in such cases, a false article was brought to market, and imposed on the
public. A liberal was thus for a time reduced to a mechanic art, and a new character given
to modern improvements, which, from consisting in a display of ease, elegance, and
nature, according to the situation, became a system of set forms, indiscriminately applied
in every case. This system was i^ fact more formal, and less varied, than the ancient
style to which it succeeded, because it had fewer parts. An ancient garden had avenues,
alleys, stars, pates-d'oye, pelotons or platoons (square clumps), circular masses, rows,
double and single, and strips, all from one material, wood; but the modem stjle, as
now degraded, had only three forms, a clump, a belt, and a single tree. Place the belt
in the circumference, and distribute the clumps and single trees within, and all that re-
spects wood in one of these places is finished. The professor required no furtlier exa-
mination of the ground than what was necessary to take the levels for forming a piece of

78 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

wftter, which water uniformly assumed one shape and character, and differed no more
in different situations, than did the belt or the clump. So entirely mechanical had the
art become, that any one might have guessed what would be the plan given by the pro-
fessor before he was called in ; and Price actually gives an instance in which this was
done. The activity of this false taste was abated in England before our time ; but we
have seen in Scotland, between the years 1795 and 1805, we believe, above a hundred
of such plans, in part formed by local artists, but chiefly by an English professor, who
was in the habit of making annual journeys in the nortii, taking orders for plans, which
he got drawn on his return home, not one of which differed from the rest in any thing
but magnitude. These plans were, in general, mounted on linen, which he regularly
purchased in pieces of some hundreds of yards at a time, from a celebrated bleachfield
adjoining Perth.

345. The monotonous productions of this mechanical style soon brought it into disrepute ;
and proprietors were ridiculed for expending immense sums in destroying old avenues
and woods, and planting in their room young clumps, for no other reason than that it
was the fashion to do so.

The first symptoms of disapprobation that were ventured to be uttered against the degradation of the new
taste, appear to be contained in an epistolary novel, entitled Village Memoirs, published in 1775, in
which the professors of gardening are satirised under the name of Layout. A better taste, however, than
that of Layout is acknowledged to exist, which the author states, " Shenstone and nature to have brought
us acquainted with." Most of the large gardens are said to be laid out by some general undertaker, " who
introduces the same objects at the same distances in all." (p. 143.) The translation of Girardin Dela Com-
position des Paysages, ou des Moyens d'emltellir la Nature autour des Habitations, enjoignant Vagreable ct
Vutile, &c. accompanied with an excellent historical preface by Daniel Malthus, Esq. in 178.3, must have
had considerable influence in purifying the taste of its readers. A poem in Dodsley's collection, entitled.
Some Thoughts on Building and Planting, addressed to Sir James Lowther, Bart, published in the same
year, and in which the poet recommends, that

" Fashion will not the works direct.
But reason be the architect."

must have had some effect. But the Essay on Prints, and the various picturesque tours of Gilpin, pub.
lished at different intervals from 1768 to 1790, had the principal influence on persons of taste. The beauties
of light and shade, outline, grouping, and other ingredients of picturesque beauty, were never before ex-
hibited to the English public in popular writings. These works were eagerly read, and brought about
that general study of drawing and sketching landscape among the then rising generation, which has ever
since prevailed ; and will do more, perhaps, than any other class of studies, towards forming a taste for the
harmony and connection of natural scenery, the only secure antidote to the revival of the distinctness and
monotony which characterise that which we have been condemning.

346. The monotonous style has been ably exposed by Price and Knight. The Essays on
the Picturesque, of the former, and the poem of the latter, though verging on the opposite
extreme of the evil they wished to remove, have greatly improved the taste of proprietors
and patrons. Tlie object of The Landscape, a didactic poem, is to teach the art of cre-
ating scenery more congruous and picturesque than what is met with in that " tiresome
and monotonous scene called Pleasure-ground." Price's Essays on the Picturesque, and
on the use of studying Pictures, with a view to the imj^rovement of real Landscape, are
written with the same intention ; but, as might be expected from a prose work, enter on
the subject much more at length. In order to discover " whether the present system of
improving is founded on any just principles of taste," Price begins by enquiring,
** whether there is any standard, to which, in point of grouping and of general compo-
sition, works of this sort can be referred ; any authority higher tlian that of the persons
who have gained the most general and popular reputation by their works, and whose
method of conducting them has had the most extensive influence on the general taste."
This standard (which, it will be recollected by the candid reader, is desired only for what
relates to grouping and composition, not to utility and convenience, as some have unfairly
asserted) Price finds in the productions " of those great artists, who have most diligently
studied the beauties of nature, both in their grandest and most general effects, and in their
minutest detail ; who have observed every variety of form and of color ; have been able
to select and combine ; and then, by the magic of their art, to fix upon the canvass
all these various beauties." Price recommends the study of the principles of painting,
*' not to the exclusion of nature, but as an assistant in the study of her works." He
points out and illustrates two kinds of beauty in landscape ; the one the picturesque,
characterised by roughness, abruptness, and sudden variation ; the other beauty in the
more general acceptation, characterised by smoothness, undulations, intermixed with a
certain degree of roughness and variation, producing intricacy and variety. Such beauty
was made choice of by Claude in his landscapes, and such, he thinks, particularly adapted
to the embellishment of artificial scenery. These principles are applied by Price, in a
very masterly manner, to wood, water, and buildings.

347. Tlie reformation in taste contended for by Price and Knight was, like all other pro-
posals for reform, keenly opposed by professors, by a numerous class of mankind who hate
innovation, and with whom " whatever is is right," including perhaps some men of taste,
who had no feeling for the picturesque, or had mistaken the object of the book. The
first answer to Price's work, was a letter by Repton, in which candor obliges us to state,

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 7f

Uiat tlie latter has misrepresented liis antagonist's meaning, by confounding the study of
pictures with that of the study of the principles of painting. Price published an able
answer to this production, which, he informs us, was even more read than the original
essays. Two anonymous poems of no merit made their appearance, as satires on The
Landscape, and indirectly on the Essays o7i the Picturesque. The Review of the Land-
scape, and of a 71 Essay on the Picturesque, &c. by Marshall, was published in 1795.
There can scarcely be any thing more violent than this publication. The periodical
critics brought forward all sorts of reasons against the use of the study of pictures, and
deny (widi truth perhaps as to themselves) the distinct character of the picturesque. Mr.
Price they treat as " a mere visionary amateur," and Knight as " a Grub-street poet,
who has probably no other garden than the pot of mint before his windows."

The vague opinion of a great mass of country-gentlemen, tourists, and temporary authors, may be also in-
cluded; these taking the word picturesque in its extreme sense, and supposing it intended to regulate what
was useful, as well as wliat was ornamental, concluded that Price's object was to destroy all comfort and
neatness in country-seats, and reduce them to mere portions of dingle or jungle scenery. Such opinions we
have frequently heard expressed by men in other respects of good sense. Even continental authors have
imbibed and disseminated similar exaggerations. " Egares par Gilpin, qui a cherche par ses voyages en
diverses parties de I'Angleferre et de VEcosse, d donner des regies, pour y assujeter le genre pittoresque et
romantique, its ont pris Fo^casion pour demander que Part fut totalement banni des jardins. lis adoptent
le pittoresque d'un Salvatc ■■ Rosa dans les pay sages, comme le vrai nature dans Vart defaire des jardins, et
on rejette comme un asserilssement d ce meme art, toutes les regies qu'un Bridgcwater (Bridgeman) et un
Brown avoient publiees dans ce genre.'" (Description Pittoresque des Jardins, du gout le plus modeme.
Leipsig, 1802. See also Tubinger's Taschenbuch,fur nature und Gartenfreunde, 1798, p. 194.)

Of enlightened and liberal minds, who have in some degree opposed Price's principles, we can only in-
stance the late W. Wyndliam, who in a letter to Repton, (Repton was at one period secretary to Wyndham,
when that gentleman was in office,} written after the publication of his defence, combats, not the works of
Price, but the popular objections to the supposed desire of subjecting every thing to the picturesque.
" The writers of this school," he observes, " show evidently that they do not trace with any success the
causes of their pleasure. Does the pleasure that we receive from the view of parks and gardens, result
from their affording in their several parts, subjects that would appear to advantage in a picture ? What
is most beautiful in nature, is not always capable of being represented in a painting ; as prospects, moving
flocks of deer. Many are of a sort which have nothing to do with the purposes of habitation ; as the sut>.
jects of Salvator Rosa. Are we therefore to live in caves ? Gainsborough's Country Girl is more pictu-
resque than a child neatly dressed. Are our children to go in rags ? No one will stand bv this doctrine ;
nor do they exhibit it in any distinct shape at all, but only take credit for their attachment to general
principles, to which every one is attached as well as they. Is it contended, that in laving out a place, -
whatever is most picturesque is most conformable to true taste ? If they say so, they must be led to conse-
quences which they can never venture to avow. If they do not say so, the whole is a question of how
much or how little, which, without the instances t)efore you, can never be decided." " Places are not to
be laid out with a view to their appearance in a picture, but to their use, and the enjoyment of them in
real life ; and their conformity to these purposes is that which constitutes their true beauty. With this
view, gravel walks, and neat mown lawns, and, in some situations, straight alleys, fountains, terraces,
and, for aught I know, parterres and cut hedges, are in perfect good taste, and infinitely more conform-
able to the principles which form the basis of our pleasure in those instances, than the docks and thistles,
and litter and disorder, that may make a much better figure in a picture." {Letter from Wyndham^
published by Repton, in a note to his Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening.)

The opinion of Professor Dugald Stewart, as given incidentally in his Philosophical Disquisitions on the
Beautiful, {Essays, p. 285. 1810. 4to. edit.) is of great value. He says, " As to the application of the know-
ledge thus acquired from the study of paintings, to the improvement of natural landscape, I have no doubt,
that to a superior understanding and taste, like those of Price, it may often suggest very useful hints ; but
if recognised as the standard to which the ultimate appeal is to be made, it would infallibly cover the face
of the country with a new and systematical species of affectation, not less remote than that of Brown from
the style of gardening which he wishes to recommend ; let painting be allowed its due praise in quicken,
ing our attention to the beauties of nature ; in multiplying our resources for their farther embellishment ;
and in holding up a standard, from age to age, to correct the caprices of fashionable innovations ; but" let
our taste for these beauties be chiefly formed on the study of nature herself; nor let us ever forget so far
what is due to her indisjmtable and salutary prerogative, as to attempt an encroachment upon it by laws,
which derive the whole of their validity from her own sanction." (p. 287.)

348. To draw a fair conclusion from these different opinions, it is necessary to lake the
whole of them, and the general scope of tlie authors into view. From the vein of excel-
lent sense which pervades Wyndham's letter, and particularly the latter part of it, which
we have extracted entire, it is impossible to avoid suspecting, either that tliere is a cul-
pable obscurity in the works referred to, or that Wyndham had not sufficiently, if at all,
perused them. We are inclined to believe that there is some truth in both suppositions.
We have no hesitation, however, both from a mature study of all the writings of these
gentlemen, relating to this subject, as well as a careful inspection of their own residences,
in saying, that there is not an opinion in the above extract, to which Price and Knight would
not at once assent. Knight's directions, in regard to congruity and utility, are as distinct as
can well be expected in a poem. Price never entered on the subject of utility. His
works say, " ifour object is to produce beautiful landscapes ; at least this is one great
object of your exertions. But you produce very indifferent ones. The beauty of your
scenes is not of so liigh a kind as that of nature. Examine her productions. To aid
you in this examination, consult the opinions of those who have gone before you in the
same study. Consult the works of painters, and learn the principles which guided them
in their combinations of natural and artificial objects. Group your trees on the principles
they do. Connect your masses as they do. In short, apply their principles of painting
whenever you intend any imitation of nature, for the principles of nature and of painting
are the same." " Are we to apply them in every case? Are we to neglect regular
beauty and utility ? Certainly not, that would be inconsistent with common sense."

80 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

349. The taste of the present day in lamlscnpe-gardening may be considered as com-
paratively chastened and refined by so mucii discussion, so many errors and corrections,
and a great many fine examples. It is also more liberal than it was half a century ago ;
admitting the use of the beauties of every style, even the geometric, as occasion requires ;
in short, considering beauty as always relative to the state of society ; and in gardening,
even to the state of the surrounding country. The principal artist of the present period,
or that which has intervened since the death of Brown and Eames, was the late H. Ilepton,
Esq. This gentleman, from being an amateur, began his career as professor of landscape-
gardening about thirty years ago (1788) ; and till a sort of decline or inactivity of taste
took place ten or twelve years since, he was extensively consulted. Though at first an
avowed defender and follower of Brown, he has gradually veered round with the change
effected in public opinion by the Essays on the Picturesque, so that now, comparing his
earlier works of 1795 and 1805, with his Fragments on Landscape Gardening, published
in 1817, he appears much more a disciple of Price than a defender of his " great self-
taught predecessor." Repton was a beautiful draftsman, and gave, besides plans and
views, his written opinion in a regular form, generally combining the whole in a manu-
script volume, which he called the red book of the place. He never, we believe, undertook
the execution of his plans ; nor has, as far as we are aware, been employed out of Eng-
land, but Valleyfield, in Perthshire, v/as visited by his two sons, and arranged from their
father's designs. The character of this artist's talent seems to be cultivation rather than
genius, and he seems more anxious to follow than to lead, and to gratify the preconceived
wishes of his employers, and improve on the fashion of the day, than to strike out grand
and original beauties. This, indeed, is perhaps the most useful description of talent both
for the professor and his employers. Repton's taste in Gothic architecture, and in ter-
races, and architectural appendages to mansions, is particularly elegant. His published
Observations on this subject are valuable, though we think otherwise of his remarks on
landscape-gardening, which we look upon as puerile, wanting depth, often at variance
with each other, and abounding too much in affectation and arrogance. On the whole,
however, we have no hesitation in asserting, that both by his splendid volumes, and ex-
tensive practice among the first classes, he has supported the credit of this country for
taste in laying out grounds. Repton was born near Felbrig, in Norfolk, and died at
Hare-street, in Essex, in 1817.

350. The principal country-seats which display the modem taste of laying out grounds,
will be found arranged in the order of the counties in Part IV. of this work. Book I.
and Chapter II.

SuBSECT. 2. Gardening in Scotland, as an Art of Design and Taste.

351. Gardening was introduced into Scotland by the Romans, and revived by the reli-
gious establishments of the dark ages.

352. In the slvth century, is supposed to have been formed, the garden of the abbey
of Icolmkill, in the Hebrides. It is thus noticed by Dr. Walker (Essays, vol. ii. p. 5.),
from its remains as they appeared in the end of the eighteenth century. *' On a plain
adjoining the gardens of the abbey, and surrounded by small hills, there are vestiges of a
large piece of artificial water, which has consisted of several acres, and been contrived both
for pleasure and utility. Its banks have been formed by art into walks, and though now
a bog, you may perceive the remains of a broad green terrace passing through the middle
of it, which has been raised considerably above the water. At the place where it had
been dammed up, and where there are the marks of a sluice, the ruins of a mill are still
to be seen, which served the inhabitants of the abbey for grinding the corn. Pleasure-
grounds of this kind," adds Dr. Walker, " and a method of dressing grain still un-
practised in these remote islands, must, no doubt, have been considered in early times,
as matters of very high refinement."

353. In the twelfth century, Chalmers informs us (Caledonia depicta, vol. i. p, 801.),
" David I. had a garden at the base of Edinburgh castle. This king," he adds,
" had an opportunity of observing the gardens of England under Henry I. when Norman
gardening would, no doubt, be prevalent;" and we may reasonably suppose that he was
prompted by his genius to profit from the useful, and to adopt the elegant, in that agree-
able art.

354. During the greater jmrt of the fourteenth century, Scotland was in a state of intes-
tine war ; but in that succeeding, it is generally believed architecture and gardening
were encouraged by the Jameses. James I., as we have seen (319.) admired the gar-
dens of Windsor, in 1420, and having been in love there, and married an English woman,
would in all probability imitate them. He is described in the Chronicles of Scotland as
** an excellent man, and an accomplished scholar. At his leisure hours he not only in-
dulged himself in music, in reading and writing, in drawing and painting ; but when
the circumstances of time and place, and the taste and mannei-s of those about him made
it proper, he would sometimes instruct them in the art of cultivating kitchen and pleasure

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

81

gardens, and of planting and engrafting different kinds of fruit-trcer.. " {Scoticron. lib. xvi.
cap. 30.)

355. In the middle of the fifteenth century, James III. is described by Pitscottie, as
" delighting more in music and policie (probably from the French ;;o//r, to remove, level,
or improve; or from a corruption of sepolir, to improve one's self, — levelling and smooth-
ing the grounds about a house, being naturally the first step after it is built), and build-
ing, than he did in the government of his realm." The general residence of this mo-
narch was Stirling Castle ; and a piece of waste surface in the vale below is said to have
been the site of the royal gardens. Enough remains to justify a conjecture, that at this
early period they displayed as much skill as those of any other country. We allude
to a platfonn of earth resembling a table, surrounded by turf seats, or steps rising in gra-
dation, the scene, no doubt, of rural festivities.

356. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the Regent Murray had a garden in the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh, which still exists. It contains some venerable pear-trees,
a magnificent weeping tliorn-tree of great age, and the remains of elm-bowers, which
have doubtless in their time sheltered the fair queen of Scots, but the interwoven boughs
of which now appear in the shape of fantastically bent trunks, thin of spray and leaves.
{Hort. Tour, &c. p. 226.)

357. There are various remains of gardens of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Scotland.
At the palace of Falkland is a large square enclosure, on a dull flat, in which there
exist only a few stunted ash-trees, though the boundary stone wall is still a formidable
fence. The gardens of Holyrood House appear to have been exceedingly confined ; the
boundary wall only remains, and there are some indications of the rows of trees which
stood in the park, which seems to have extended to the base of the adjoining hill, Arthur's
Seat. The palace of Scone, we learn from Adanson, a poet of the seventeenth century,
was surrounded by " gardens and orchards, flowers and fruits ;" and the park, in which
are still some ancient trees, " abounded in the hart and fallow deer." Generally a few
old trees in rows adjoin the other royal residences, and oldest baronial castles ; but they
give no indications of the extent to wliich art was carried in their disposition.

358. During the seventeeyith century, a few gardens must have been formed in Scot-
land. About the end of this century, the grounds of the Duke of Hamilton vrere
planted, in all probability by a French artist. Tlie design of Chatelherault, an orna-
mental appendage to the palace of Hamilton, is named after, and formed in imitation of,
the residence of that illustrious family in France, laid out by Le Notre.

359. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Earl of Lauderdale is said to
have sent plans, sections, and sacks of earth from his domain at Hatton, to London and
Wise, in London ; and these artists, it is added, formed a plan, and sent down a gardener
to superintend its execution. Hatton is still a fine old place ; but has long changed its
possessor.

360. English artists ivere called into Scotland during this century. Switzer, Laurence, and Langley
mention in their works, that they were frequently called into Scotland to give plans of improvement.
Switzer appears to have resided a considerable time in Edinburgh, as he there published, in 1717, a tract
on draining, and other useful and agricultural improvements. The Earls of Stair and Haddington (who
wrote on trees), both great planters, about this time, probably consulted them ; as would, perhaps, Fletcher
of Saltoun, the proprietors of Dundas Castle, Barnton, Saughton HaU, Gogar, and particularly Cragie
Hall, a residence laid out with much art and taste, and next in rank, in these respects, to Hatton. New
Liston, Dalkeith House, Hopeton House, and various other places near Edinburgh, are also in Switzer'a
style. New Liston and Hopeton House, planted, we believe, from 1735 to 1740, were probably the last
considerable seats laid out in the ancient style in Scotland.

361. The modern style was first introduced into Scotland by the celebrated Lord KaimeSf
who, some time between 1740 and 1750, displayed it on bis own residence at Blair
Drummond. An irregular ridge, leading from the house, was laid out in walks, com-
manding a view, over the shrubs on the declivity, of portions of distant prospect. One
part of this scene was composed entirely of evergreens, and formed an agreeable winter-
garden. Lord Kames did not entirely reject the ancient style, either at Blair Drum-
mond, or in his Essay on Gardening and Architecture, published in the Elements (f
Criticism, In that short but comprehensive essay, he shows an acquaintance with the
Chinese style, and the practice of Kent ; admits both of absolute and relative beauty
as the objects of gardening and architecture, and from this complex destination, accounts
for that difference and wavering of taste in these arts, " greater than in any art that has
but a single destination." (Vol. ii. p. 431. 4th edit. 1769.)

Lord Karnes's example in Scotland may be compared to that of Hamilton or Shenstone in England ; it
was not generally followed, because it was not generally understood. That the Elements of Criticismy
though long since obsolete as such, tended much to purify the taste of the reading class, there can be no
doubt Every person also admired Blair Drummond ; but as every country-gentleman could not bestow
sufficient time and attention to gardening to be able to lay out his own place, it became necessary to have
recourse to artists ; and, as it happened, those who were employed had acquired only that habit of me-
chanical imitation which copies the most obvious forms, without understanding the true merits of the
original. In short, thev were itinerant pupils of Brown, or professors in his school, who resided in Scot-
land ; and thus it is, that after commencing in the best taste, Scotland continued, till within the last
twenty years, to patronise the very worst

362. The grounds of Duddingston House may be referred to as a contrast to the style of

G

82 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

Blair Brummond, and a proof of what we have asserted in regard to the kind of modern
landscape-gardening introduced to Scotland. This seat was laid out about the year 1 750.
The architect of the house was Sir William Chambers ; the name of the rural artist,
whose original plans we have examined, was Robertson, nephew to the king's gardener
of that name, sent down from London. We know of no example in any country of so
perfect a specimen of Brown's manner, nor of one in which the effect of the whole, and
the details of every particular part, are so consistent, and co-operate so well together in
producing a sort of tame, spiritless beauty, of which we cannot give a distinct idea. It
does not resemble avowed art, nor yet natural scenery ; it seems, indeed, as if nature
had commenced the work and changed her plan, determining no longer to add to her
productions those luxuriant and seemingly superfluous appendages wliich produce
variety and grace. The trees here, all planted at the same time, and of the same age,
seem to grow by rule. The clumps remind us of regularly tufted perukes. The waters
of the tame river neither dare to sink within, nor to overflow its banks ; the clumps keep
at a respectful distance ; and the serpentine turns of the roads and walks, seem to hint
that every movement to be made here, must correspond.

The extent of Duddingston, we suppose, may exceed 200 acres. The house is placed on an eminence in
the centre, from which the grounds descend on three sides, and on the remaining side continue on a level
till they reach the boundary belt This belt completely encircles the whole ; it is from 50 to 200 feet wide,
with a turf drive in the middle. One part near the house is richly varied by shrubs and flowers, and kept
as garden-scenery ; in the rest the turf is mown, but the ground untouched. A string of wavy canals, on
different levels, joined by cascades, enter at one side of the grounds, and taking a circuitous sweep tlirough
the park, pass off at the other. This water creates occasion for Chinese bridges, islands, and cascades.
The kitchen-garden and offices are placed behind the house, and concealed by a mass of plantation.
Over the rest of the grounds are distributed numerous oval unconnected clumps, and some single trees.
In the drive are several temples and covered seats, placed in situations where are caught views of the
house, sometimes seen between two clumps, and at other time's between so many as to form a perspective
or avenue. There is also a temple on the top of a hill, partly artificial, which forms the object from
several of these seats, and from other open glades or vistas left in the inside of the belt. The outer margin
of this plantation is every where kept perfectly entire, so that there is not a single view but what is
wholly the property of the owner ; unless in one "instance, where the summit of Arthur's Seat, an adjoining
hill, is caught by the eye from one part of the belt, over the tops of the trees in its opposite periphery.
That this place has, or had in 1790, great beauties, we do not deny; but they are beauties of a peculiar
kind, not of general nature — not the beauties of Blair Drummond, or such as a liberal and enlightened
mind would desire to render general ; but in great part such as Sir William Chambers holds up to ridicule
in his Dissertation on Oriental Gardening (see his Introduction^ p. 6 — 11.), and Price, in his Essays on
the Picturesque. Yet Duddingston may be reckoned the model of all future improvements in Scotland, till
within the last twenty years. The same artist laid out Livingston, effected some improvements at Hope-
ton House, Dalkeith, Dalhousie, Niddry, the Whim, Moredun, various other places near Edinburgh, and
some in Ayrshire.

363. No artist of note had hitherto arisen in Scotland in this department of gardenings
if we except James Ramsay. This person was employed by Robertson, in Ayrshire, as
a mason, but soon displayed a taste for disposing of verdant scenery, and afterwards
became a landscape-gardener of considerable repute. He gave ground-plans and draw-
ings in perspective, both of the buildings and verdant scenery. Leith Head, a small
place near Edinburgh, is entirely his creation. His style was that of Brown, in his
waters and new plantations near the house ; but he was less attached to the belt, his
clumps were not always regular, and he endeavoured to introduce a portion of third
distance into all his views. Ramsay died at Edinburgh in 1794, and this record of his
taste is due to his memory.

364. English professors of the modern style have occasionally visited Scotland, and some
regularly. From nearly the first introduction of the new style to the present time,
annual journeys have been made into Scotland from the county of Durham by the late
White, and subsequently by his son. White, senior, we believe, was a pupil of Brown,
of much information on country-matters, and generally respected in Scotland. Of his
professional talents we have said enough, when we have mentioned their source. Air-
thrie, near Stirling, and Bargany, in Ayrshire, are the principal productions of this
family. In what respects the talents of White, junior, differ from those of his father, or
whether they diflTer at all, we are not aware ; though we think it highly probable they
will partake of the general improvement of the age. We have already mentioned that
none of the eminent English artists had ever been in Scotland ; but that Valleyfield
was laid out from Repton's designs. Nasmyth, an eminent landscape-painter in Edin-
burgh, and G. Parkyns, author of Monastic Remains, have occasionally given designs
for laying out grounds in Scotland, both in excellent taste.

The country-seats of Scotland are elsewhere described. (Part IV. Book I. Chap. III.)

SuBSECT. 3. Gardening in Ireland, as an Art of Design and Taste.

365. Of the ancient state of gardening in Ireland very little is known. A short Essay
on tlie Rise and Progress of Gardening in Ireland, by J. C. Walker, is given in the
Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy (yol. xiv. parts.) from which we shall glean
what IS available for our purpose.

366. In the time of Queen Elizabeth^ Fynnes Morrison, "a minute observer," travelled

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

83

tlirough that kingdom. He does not once mention a garden as appertaining either to a
castle or to a monastery ; he only observes, " that the best sorts of flowers and fruits are
much rarer in Ireland than in England ; which, notwithstanding, is more to be attri-
buted to the inhabitants than to the ayre." In an inedited account of a Tour in 1634,
also quoted by Walker {Traiis. R. I. A.), Bishop Usher's palace is said to have a " pretty
neat garden."

367. Of remains of ancient gardens in Ireland we may quote a few examples. Some
of the largest sculptured evergreens are at Bangor, in the county of Down ; and at
Thomas-town, in the county of Tipperary, are the remains of a hanging garden, formed
on the side of a hill, in one corner of which is a verdant amphitheatre, once the scene of
occasional dramatic exhibitions. Blessington gardens, if tradition may be relied on,
were laid out during the reign of James II. by an English gentleman, who had leff his
estate at Byfleet in Sussex, to escape the persecution of Cromwell. In King William's
time, knots of flowers, curious edgings of box, topiary works, grassy slopes, and other
characteristics of the Dutch style, came into notice. Rowe and Bullein, Englishmen,
who had successively nurseries at Dublin, were in these days the principal rural artists
of Ireland; though Switzer and Laurence, as well as Batty Langley, occasionally
visited that country.

368. The first attempts to introduce the modem style into Ireland are supposed to have
been made by Dr. Delany at Delville near Glassnevin, about the year 1720. Swift has
left a poetical description of these scenes. Dr. Delany, Walker says, impressed a vast
deal of beauty on a very small spot of ground ; softened the obdurate straight line of
the Dutch into a curve, melted the terrace into a sloping bank, and opened the walk to
catch the vicinal country. Walsh {History of Dublin, 1820) says, these grounds retain
all the stiffness of the old garden. As there existed an intimacy between Pope and
Delany, it is supposed the former may have assisted his Irish friend. This example
appears to have had the same sort of influence in Ireland, that the gardening of Lord
Kames had in Scotland. It gave rise to a demand for artists of the new school ; and the
market was supplied by such as came in the way. Much less, however, was done in that
country, partly from the abundance of picturesque scenery in many districts, and partly
from other obvious causes. Mount Shannon, near Limerick, the seat of the late Chan-
cellor Clare, is said to have been laid out from his lordship's designs, and the recent
improvements at Charleville forest, where one of the most comfortable and magnificent
castles in Ireland has been executed by Johnson of Dublin, were the joint productions
of Lord and Lady Charleville. Walker mentions Marino, Castle-town, Carton,
Curraghmore, the retreat of St. Woolstans, and Moyra, as exhibiting the finest garden-
scenery in Ireland. Powerscourt, and

iMucross, near the lakes, are reckoned the
most romantic residences, and are little in-
debted to art. St. Valori, Walker's own
seat, is a beautiful little spot near the well-
known village of Bray. Miss Plumtree
mentions Blarney Castle {fig. 31.), as one
of the most enchanting spots in the world.
There have been delightful shrubberies,
which might easily be restored. The cas-
tle stands on a rock not veiy high, and
below are fine meadows, with an ample
stream flowing through them ; there is
plenty of wood, and a considerable lake at
a short distance from the house, which furnishes excellent traat : in short, nature has left
little for art to supply; and yet this charming spot is deserted, abandoned, looking
wholly neglected and forlorn. {Residence in Ireland, 1817, 240.)

369. English artists jrrofessing the modem style have been but little employed in Ireland,
the common practice being to engage a good kitchen-gardener from England, and leave
every thing to him. Sutherland was, in 1810, the local artist of greatest repute. A.
M'Leish has since settled in this country, and, from what we know of this artist, we
have little doubt he will contribute, in an eminent degree, -to establish and extend a
better taste than has yet appeared there. W. T. Mackay, curator of the Trinity-college
garden, is said to excel in laying out grounds. Though landscape-gardeners from the
metropolis have not been called to Ireland, yet it has happily become not an unfrequent
practice to employ eminent English architects, — a practice, as far as taste is concerned,
certain of being attended with the most salutary effects.

Sect. 1 1. British Gardening, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and Plants of Ornament,

, 370. Flowers are more or less cultivated wherever gardening is practised ; but a parti-
cular attention to this department of the art can only take place under circumstances of

G 2

84 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

ease, and a certain degree of refinement. A taste for fine flowers has existed in Holland
and the Netherlands from a very remote period, and was early introduced into England ;
but when that taste found its way to Scotland and Ireland, is much less certain.

SuBSECT. 1. Gardening in England, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and the
Establishment of Botanic Gardens.

371. The taste for florists' flowers, in England, is generally supposed to have been
brought over from Flanders-with our worsted manufactures, during the persecutions of
Philip II. ; and the cruelties of the Duke of Alva, in 1567, was the occasion of our re-
ceiving, through the Flemish weavers, gillyflowers, carnations, and provins roses. But
flowers and flowering shrubs were known and prized even in Chaucer's time, as appears
from a well-known passage of that poet. An Italian poet published, in 1586, a volume
of poems, one of which is On the Royal Garden ; from this poem it would appear that
Queen EHzabeth was attached to the culture of flowers, but few are named either in these
poems, or in the description of Theobald's. Parterres seem to have been introduced in
the beginning of Q,ueen Elizabeth's reign, and also the tulip, and damask and musk
roses. Gerrard, who published his herbal three years before, mentions James Garnet,
** a London apothecary, a principal collector and propagator of tulips, for twenty years
bringing forth every season new plants of sundry colors not before seen, all which to de-
scribe particularly were to roll Sisyphus's stone, or number the sands."

372. One of the earliest notices which we have of a botanic garden in England is that of
the Duke of Somerset, at Sion House, in the beginning of this century. It was placed
under the superintendence of Dr. Turner, whom Dr. Pulteney considers as the father of
English botany. Turner had studied at Bologna and at Pisa, where, as we have already
seen (91.), botanic gardens were first formed. After being some years with the Duke
of Somerset, he retired from Sion House to Wells, where he had a rich garden, and died
there in 1560. About this time existed the botanic gardens of Edward Saintloo, ii
Somersetshire, James Coel, at Highgate, J. Nasmyth, surgeon to James I., and John
de Franqueville, merchant in London. From the care of the latter, Parkinson observes,
** is sprung the greatest store that is now flourishing in this kingdom." Gerrard had a
fine garden in Holborn, in the middle of the sixteenth century, of which there is a cata-
logue in the British Museum, dated 1590. This garden was eulogised by Dr. Boleyn
and others his contemporaries. Gerrard mentions Nicholas Lete, a merchant in London,
" greatly in love with rare and fair flowers, for which he doth carefully send into Syria,
having a servant there, at Aleppo, and in many other countries; for which myself, and
the whole land are much bound unto him." The same author also gives due honor to
Sir Walter Raleigh, Lord Edward Zouch, the patron of Lobel, who brought plants and
seeds from Constantinople, and to Lord Hudson, Lord High Chamberlain of England,
who, he says, " is worthy of triple honor for his care in getting, as also for his keeping
such rare and curious things from the farthest parts of the world. " {Pulteney s Sketches, 1 25.)

373. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, flowers and curious plants appear to
have been very generally cultivated. Piatt's Paradise of Flora, which is the first book
that treats expressly on flowers, appeared in 1600. Parkinson published his Paradis2is
in 1629. " A modern florist," observes Dr. Pulteney, " wholly unacquainted with the
state of the art at the time Parkinson wrote, would perhaps be surprised to find that his
predecessors could enumerate, besides 16 described as distinct species, 120 varieties of
the tulip, 60 anemones, more than 90 of the narcissus tribe, 50 hyacinths, 50 carnations,
20 pinks, 30 crocuses, and above 40 of the Iris genus." {Sketches, &c. vol. ii. 123.) The
laurel, or bay-cherry, was then very rare, and considered as a tender plant, being de-
fended " from the bitterness of the winter by casting a blanket over the top thereof," and
the larch-tree was only reared up as a curiosity. Greenhouse-plants were placed in
cellars, where they lost their leaves, but those of such as survived shot out again in spring
when removed to the open air.

Flowers were much cultivated in Norwich, ftom the time of the Flemish weavers settling there Sir J
E. Smith {Linn. Trans, vol ii. p. 296;) mentions a play called Rhodon and Iris, which was acted at the
florists' feast at Norwich, in 1637 ; a proof that the culture of flowers was in great estimation there at that
time ; and m 1671 Evelyn mentions Sir 1 homas Brown's garden there, as containing a paradise of rarities
and the gardens of all the inhabitants as fuU of excellent flowers. From Norwich the love of flowers
seems to have spread to other manufacturing establishments ; and the taste still continues popular, not
only there, but among the weavers in Spitalflelds, Manchester, Bolton, and most of the commercial towns
'J^tii^r.foH •^^' ^^"'^^'"^"y i" Cheshire, Derbyshire, and other adjoining counties. A florists' society is
f «^„ T iL^ ""TIt ^''^''l t«w V"^ ^\"''S^ '" ^^^ northern district. These societies have annual shows.
^L?.^^^ ^""^ ^"/"^^'^u '• ^"'^ ^ ^°'^''' ^^"^'^ '^^^ ^'^'"^^'' ^'^«*' is published annuaUy in Manchester!
hav^been or"gtnated. transactions, the prizes which have been given, and the new flowers which

CaS'h^d a veS fiS'™^^"'^^''^^^^'!'-,,^^'^ ^^?^' parterres and orangeries at this time. Sir Henry
SweUskfuedTnffow/rff 7^"*^ myrtiUeum at Kew; and Lady Clarendon, who, Evelyn informs us,

L,t !i ^ j?^,^^^' ^^^ ^" ^™Pi^ collection at Swallowfield in Berkshire.
I^nglStd^T^bllfmTpTaSf^^ °^ ^*"^^^''' *" ^''^''' ^^^ y"^"^ blossomed in 1604, for the first time in

The Tpiace of Royal Herbalist was created by Charles I. j and Parkinson was appointed to fill it. Queen

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 85

Mary appointed Plukenet to be his successor, " a man distinguished for botanical knowledge." Under
this botanist's directions, collectors were despatched to the Indies in search of plants.

Tradescatit's botanic garden at Lambeth was established previously to 1629. Tradescant was a Dutch-
man, and gardener to Charles I. In 1656, his son published a catalogue of this garden, and of the museum,
which both of them had collected. Weston observes {Catalogue of Authors on Gardening, 30.) that the
garden having for some years Iain waste, on the 1st of May, 1749, WiUiam Watson, ¥. R. S., having
visited its site, found many of the exotics remaining, having endured two great frosts in 1729 and 1740. A
curious account of the garden is given by Sir W. W^atson, in the Philosophical Transactions. (voL xl.)
Tradescant left his museum to E. Ashmole, who lodged in his house. Mrs-. Tradescant contested tlie will,
and on losing the cause drowned herself.

The Chelsea botanic garden seems to have existed about the middle of this century. In 1685, Evelyn
visited Watts, their head gardener. " W'hat was verj' ingenious, was the subterranean heat conveyed by
means of a stove under the conservatory, all vaulted with brick, so that he has the door and windows open
in the hardest frosts, excluding only the snow." {Memoirs, &c. vol. i. 606.) In Watts's garden was a tulip-
tree, and in the hot-house a tea-shrub. {Ray.) The ground occupied by this garden was rented from Sir
Hans Sloane ; who afterwards, in 1722, when applied to for its renewal, granted it in perpetuity at 51. a
year, and fifty new plants to be presented annually to the Royal Society, till their number amounted to
two thousand.

furious private botanic gardens existed at the end of this centurj'. That of the celebrated naturalist
Ray, in Essex, Dr. Uvedale's, at Enfield, and especially that of the Duchess of Beaufort, at Badmington,
were rich in plants ; but that of Sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, surpassed them alL

374. A public botanic garden in England was first founded at Oxford, in 1632, nearly
a century after that at Padua. This honor was reserved for Henry, Earl of Danby, who
gave for this purpose five acres of ground, built green-houses and stoves, and a house
for the accommodation of the gardener, endowed the establishment, and placed in it, as
a supervisor, Jacob Bobart, a German, from Brunswick, who lived, as Wood tells us, in
the garden-house, and died there in 1697. The garden contained at his death above
1600 species. Bobart's descendants are still in Oxford, and known as coach-proprietors.

375. Green-houses and plant-stoves seem to have been introduced or invented about
the middle of the seventeenth century. They were formed in the Altorf garden in 1645.
Evelyn mentions Loader's orangery in 1662, and the green-house and hot-house at
Chelsea are mentioned both by that author and Ray in 1685.

376. During the whole of the eighteenth century, botany was in a flourisliing state in
England. Previously to this period the number of exotics in tlie country pro-
bably did not exceed 1000 species : during this century above 5000 new species were
introduced from foreign countries, besides the discovery of a number of new native
plants. Some idea may be formed of the progress of gardening, in respect to ornamental
trees and shrubs, from the difl'erent editions of Miller's dictionary. In the first edition
in 1724, the catalogue of evergreens amounts only to twelve. The Christmas-flower
and aconite were then rare, and only to be obtained at Fairchild's at Hoxton : only
seven species of geraniums were then known. Every edition of this work contained
fresh additions to the botany of the country. In the^preface to tlie eighth and last edition,
published in 1 768, the number of plants cultivated in England is stated to be more than
double those which were known in 1731. Miller was born iii 1691 ; his father wjis
gardener to the Company of Apothecaries, and he succeeded his father in tliat office in
1722, upon Sir Hans Sloane's liberal donation of near four acres to tlie Company. He
resigned his office a short time before his decease, which took place in 1771, and was
succeeded by Forsyth, who was succeeded by Fairbairn, and the last by Anderson the
present curator.

377. As great encouragers of botany dunng this century, Miller mentions in 1724,
die Duke of Chandos, Corapton Speaker of the House of Commons, Dubois of Mitcham,
Compton Bishop of London, Dr. Uvedale of Enfield, Dr. Lloyd of Sheen. Dr. James
Sherard, apothecary, had one of tlie richest gardens England ever possessed at Eltham.
His gardener, Knowlton, was a zealous botanist, and afterwards, when in the service of
tlie Earl of Burlington, at Londesborough, discovered the globe conferva. Dr.
Sherard's brotlier was consul at Smyrna, and had a fine garden at Sedokio, near that
town, where he collected tlie plants of Greece and many otliers. The consul died in
1728, and the apothecary in 1737. Fairchild, Gordon, Lee, and Gray of Fulham,
eminent nurserymen, introduced many plants during the first half of the centurj'. The
first three corresponded with Linnceus. Collinson, a great promoter of gardening and
botany, had a fine garden at Mill-hill. Richard Warner had a good botanic garden at
Wamford Green. The Duke of Argyle, styled a tree-monger by Lord Walpole, had
early in this century a garden at Hounslow, richly stocked with exotic trees. A num-
ber of other names of patrons, gardeners, and authors, equally deserving mention, are
necessarily omitted. Dr., afterwards Sir John Hill, liad a botanic garden at Bayswater ;
he began to publish in 1751, and produced numerous works on plants and flowers,
which had considerable influence in rendering popular the system of Linnaeus, and
spreading the science of horticulture, and a taste for ornamental plants. In 1775 Drs.
Fothergitl and Pitcairn sent out Thomas Blaikie (170.) to collect plants in Switzer-
land, and tliis indefatigable botanist sent home all those plants mentioned in the Hortus
Kewensis, as introduced by the two Doctors.

378. During the latter jxtrt of the eighteenth century, Hibbert, of Chalfont, and

G 3

«6 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

Tliornton, of Clapham, opulent commercial men, may be mentioned as great encouragers
of exotic botany. The collection of Heaths, Banksias, and other Cape and Botany Bay
plants, in the Clapham garden, was most extensive ; and the flower-garden, one of the
best round the metropolis. The Duke of Marlborough, while Marquis of Blandford,
formed a collection of exotics at White Knights, surpassed by none in the kingdom.
{Historical Accozint of White Knights, &c. 1820, quarto.) R. A. Salisbury, one of our
first botanists, and a real lover of gardening, had a fine garden and rich collection
at Chapel Allerton, in Yorkshire. Subsequently, he possessed the garden formed by
Collinson at Mill Hill. Choice collections of plants were formed at the Earl of Tan-
kerville's at Walton, the Duke of Northumberland's at Sion House, at the Comte
de Vandes' at Bayswater, Vere's at Knightsbridge, and many other places, Lee, Lod-
diges, Knight, Colvill, and several other nurserymen, might be named as greatly
promoting a taste for plants and flowers by their well-stocked nurseries and publications.
Of these the Hcathei-y, the Botanical Cabinet, and the Genus Protea, are well known
and esteemed works. A grand stimulus to the culture of ornamental plants, was given
by the publication of Curtis's Botanical Magazine, begun in 1787, and still continued
in monthly numbers. Here the most beautiful hardy and tender plants were figured
and described, and useful hints as to their culture added. Other works by Sowerby,
Edwards, Andrews, &c. of a similar nature, contributed to render very general a know-
ledge of, and taste for plants, and a desire of gardens and green -houses, to possess these
plants in a living state. Maddocks's Florists^ Directory, which appeared in 1792, re-
vived a taste for florists' flowers, which has since been on the increase.

379. The royal gardens at JTew were begun about the middle of this century,
under the auspices of Frederick, Prince of Wales, the father of George III. The exotic
department of that garden was established chiefly through the influence of the Marquis
of Bute, a great encourager of botany and gardening, who placed it under the care of
W. Alton, who had long been assistant to Miller, of the Chelsea garden. Sir John
Hill published the first Hortus Kewensis in 1768, but subsequent editions have been
published under the direction of Alton, the father and son ; the last, in five volumes,
the joint production of Dr. Dryander and R. Brown, is reckoned a standard work. A
compendium in a pocket-volume has been published, which enumerates about 10,000
species. Sir Joseph Banks gave the immense collections of plants and seeds obtained in
his voyages to this garden, and this example has been followed by most travellers, so that
it is now the richest in England, as far as respects its catalogue, though it is generally
believed a greater, or at least, an equal numJjer of species is actually cultivated in the
botanic garden of Liverpool.

380. The Cambridge botanic garden was founded about the middle of the eighteenth
century by Dr. Walker. It has chiefly become celebrated for the useful catalogue of
plants (Hortus Cantabrigiensis) published by Donn, its late curator. The garden is
small, and never at any one time could contain all the plants, to the number of 9000,
enumerated in that work. But if ever introduced there, that circumstance is supposed
to justify their insertion in the catalogue.

381. The nineteenth century has commenced with the most promising appearances
as to floriculture and botany. Tlie Linnaean and Horticultural Societies of London
have been established ; and florists' societies are increasing ; and some other gardening
and botanical associations forming in the counties. The number of plant-collectors sent
out is greatly increased ; and not only do societies and public bodies go to this expense,
but even private persons and nursery-men. The botanic gardens of Liverpool and Hull
have been established, and others are in contemplation.

382. The Livei^pool garden owes its origin to the celebrated W. Roscoe. It was begun
in 1803, and a catalogue published in 1808 by Shepherd, the curator, containing above
6000 species.

SuBSECT. 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the Culture of Flowers and the
Establishment of Botanic Gardens.

383. A taste for f ovists' flowers, it is conjectured, was first introduced into Scotland
by the French weavers, who took refuge in that country in the seventeenth century, and
were established in a row of houses, called Picardy-row, in the suburbs of Edinburgh.
It seems to have spread with the apprentices of these men to Dunfermline, Glasgow,
Paisley, and other places ; for in Scotland, as in England, it may be remarked, that
wherever the silk, linen, or cotton manufactures, are carried on by manual labor, the
operators are found to possess a taste for, and to occupy part of their leisure time in the
culture of flowers.

384. The original botanic garden of Edinburgh took its rise about the year 1680, from
the followmg circumstances : « Patrick Murray, Baron of Livingston, a pupil of Dr ,
afterwards Sir Andrew Balfour, in natural history, formed a collection of 1000 plante
at Livingston j but soon afterwards dying abroad. Dr. Balfour had his collection trans-

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 87

ferred to Edinburgh, and there uniting it with his own, founded the botanic garden.
It had no fixed support for some time ; but at length tlie city of Edinburgh allotted a
piece of ground near the College-church, for a public garden, and appointed a salary for
its support out of the revenues of the University." {Walker's Essays, 358.) In 1767,
the garden was removed to a more eligible situation, considerably enlarged, and a very
magnificent range of hot-houses erected under the direction of Dr. John Hope, who first
taught the Linnaean system in Scotland. This garden, in general arrangement, and in the
order in which it is kept, is inferior to none in the kingdom, though at Kew and Liver-
pool, the collection of plants is necessarily much greater. The collection in 1812,
amounted to upwards of 4000 species, among which are some rare acclimatized exotic
trees, which have attained a great size. This garden was again removed, in 1822, to a
situation including sixteen acres, where it is established with extensive hot-houses, and
other desiderata, in a very superior style.

385. In the early part of the eighteenth century, this taste was introduced to the liigher
classes by James Justice, F. R. S., who had travelled on tlie continent, and spared no
expense in procuring all the best sorts of florists' flowers from Holland, and many-
curious plants from London. Such was his passion for gardening, that he spent the
greater part of his fortune at Crichton, near Edinburgh, where he had the finest garden,
and tlie only pine-stove in Scotland, and the largest collection of auriculag, as he informs
us, in Europe. In 1755, he published The Scots Gardener s Director, esteemed an ori-
ginal work, and containing full directions, from his own experience, for the culture of
choice flowers. About the end of this century, florists' societies which had existed
before, but declined vnth the decline of gardeners' lodges, were revived in Edinburgh ;
and tliere are now several in Glasgow, Paisley, and other parts of the country. Those
at Paisley are considered remarkable for the skill and intelligence of their members, and
the fine pinks and other flowers produced at their shows. [Gen. Rep. of Scot. App. to
chap. 2.) The Edinburgli Florists' Society gave rise to the Caledonian Horticultural
Society, which was established in 1809, and has greatly promoted this and other branches
of gardening in Scotland.

386. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the iVfarquis of Bute had a rich botanic
garden in the island from which he takes his title. Towards the end, a sale botanic gar-
den was formed at Forfar, by Mr. George Don, a well-known botanist ; and another at
Monkwood, in Ayrshire, by INIr. James Smith, which contains about 3500 species,
chiefly indigenous. At Dalbeth, near Glasgow, T. Hopkirk, a wealthy commercialist,
also maintained a respectable assemblage of natives.

387. The nineteenth century will probably witness a great degree of progress in botany
nd floriculture in Scotland. Notwithstanding the example of Justice in 1750, and the

opening of the new botanic garden, with a tolerable collection in 1782, a taste for col-
lections of plants can hardly be said to have existed among the higher classes in Scotland,
previously to tlie present century. Flowers, either gathered, or in pots, were rarely pur-
chased by the inhabitants of the capital, and not at all by those of any of the provincial
towns. One, 6r at most, two green-houses might be said to have supplied all the wants
of Edinburgh, till within the last twenty years, and the demand, though increased, is
still of a very limited description among the middling classes. A very complete botanic
garden has been lately formed at Glasgow, and W. J. Hooker, F. R. S., a distinguished
botanist, appointed professor. A new stimulus to the introduction and culture of rare
plants will be given by a periodical work, commenced by Dr. Hooker, and devoted to
the description of such new plants as flower in Scotland ; for variety is useful in many
things. Such flowers and exotics as were cultivated in the gardens of country-gentlemen
were, till within the last thirty years, grown in the borders of the kitchen-garden, or in
the forcing-houses ; but it has now become customarj' to have flower-gardens and hot-
houses expressly for plants, as in England. (See Part IV. Book I. Chap. III.)

SuBSECT. 3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to Floriculture and Botany.

388. Botany and Jiower-gardening have been much neglected in Ireland. Parterres, it
would appear, {J. C. Walker s Hist. ) came into notice during the reign of King William.
Dr. Caleb Threlkeld was among the first of the few who formed private botanic gardens
for their own use, and Sir Arthur Rawdon almost the only individual who displayed
wealth and taste in collecting exotics. Upon visiting the splendid collection of Sir Hans
Sloane, at Chelsea, Sir Arthur, delighted with the exotics there, sent James Harlow, a
skilful gardener, to Jamaica, who returned with a ship almost laden with plants, in a
vegetating state. For these a hot-house was built at Moyra, in the beginning of Charles
the Second's reign, supposed to be the first erection of that kind in Ireland.

389. Z^M 1712, a small collection of plants was cultivated in the garden of the Dublin
Medical College.

390. The botanic garden of Trinity College was established in 1786, and tiiough small,
yet, as Neill observes, cont^'ns a richer and more varied collection than perhaps is to be
found any where else within the same compass. There is also a botanic garden at Cork.

G 4

5?8

HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

391. The botanic garden of the Dublin Society was established in 1^90, chiefly througi
the exertions of Dr. Walter Wade. It contains upwards of thirty acre& delightful!;^
situated, and very ingeniously arranged.

392. There are a few private collections in Ireland ; and one of the best flower-gardens
is that of Lord Downes, at Merville, near Dublin ; but, in general, it may be stated, that
ornamental culture of every kind is in its infancy in that country. Something will pro-
bably be effected by the Dublin Horticultural Society, established in 1816.

, . : : Sect. III. British Gardening, in respect to its horticultural Productions
"^ 393. The knowledge of culinary vegetables and cultivated fruits was first introduced to
this country by the Romans ; and it is highly probable that the more useful sorts of the
former, as the brassica, and onion tribe, always remained in use among the civilised parts
of the inhabitants, since kale and leeks are mentioned in some of the oldest records, and
the Saxon month April was called Sprout Kale.

'■ 394. The native fruits of the British isles, and which, till the 13th or 14th century, must
have been the only sorts known to the common people, are the following : small purple
plums, sloes, wild currants, brambles and raspberries, wood strawberries, cranberries,
black^berries, red-berries, heather-berries, elder-berries, roan-berries, haws, holly-berries,
hips, hazel-nuts, acorns, and beech-mast. The wild apple or crab, and wild cherry,
though now naturalised, would probably not be found wild, or be very rare in the early
times of which we now speak. The native roots and leaves would be earth-nut, and any
other roots not remarkably acrid and bitter ; and chenopodium, sorrel, dock, and such
leaves as are naturally rather succulent and mild in flavor.

395. The more delicate fruits and legumes, introduced by the Romans, would, in all
probability, be lost after their retirement from the island, and we may trace with more
certainty the origin of what we now possess to the ecclesiastical establishments of the
dark ages, and during the reign in England of the Norman line, and the Flantagenets.
It may in general be asserted, that most of our best fruits, particularly apples and pears,
were brought into the island by ecclesiastics in the days of monastic splendor and luxury,
during the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. Gardens and orchards {horti et pomaria)
are frequently mentioned in the earliest chartularies extant ; and of the orchards many
traces still remain in different parts of the country, in the form, not only of enclosure-
walls and prepared fruit-tree borders, but of venerable pear-trees, some of them still
abundantly fruitful, and others in the last stage of decay. Of the state of horticulture
previous to the beginning of the 16th century, however, no distinct record exists. About
that time it began to be cultivated in England, and at more recent periods in Scotland
and Ireland.

SuBSECT. 1. Gardening in England, in respect to its hortictdtural Productions.

396. The earliest notice of English horticidture which we have met with, is in Gale's
History of Ely, and William of Malmsbury, and belongs to the twelfth century. Brithnod,
the first abbot of Ely, in 1107, is celebrated for his skill in gardening, and for the ex-
cellent gardens and orchards which he made near that monastery. <' He laid out very
extensive gardens and orchards, which he filled with a great variety of herbs, shrubs, and
fruit-trees. In a few years the trees which he planted and ingrafted, appeared at a dis-
tance like a wood, loaded with the most excellent fruits in great abundance, and added
much to the commodiousness and beauty of the place." {Gale's Hist, of Ely, 2. c. ii.)
William of Malmsbury speaks of the abundance of vineyards and orchards in the vale of
Gloucester. At Edmondsbury, a vineyard was planted for the use of the monki of that
place, in 1140.

397. Inthe thirteenth century (A. D. 1294), the monks of Dunstable were at much ex-
pense in repairing the walls about the garden and herbary of their priory; and the her-
bary mentioned in Chaucer's iVowne's Priest's Tale, appears to have been well stored witli
medical herbs, shrubs, &c. Paris, in describing the backwardness of the seasons in
1257, says, that " apples were scarce, pears still scarcer; but that cherries, plums, figs,
and all kinds of fruits included in shells, were almost quite destroyed." (Henry's Hist.
b. iv. chap. 5. sect. 1.)

398. Previously to the sixteenth century, it is generally said, that some of our most com-
mon pot-herbs, such as cabbages, were chiefly imported from the Netherlands, their cul-
ture not being properly understood in this country. " It was not," says Hume, "till the
end of the reign of Henry VIII. that any salads, carrots, turnips, or other edible roots,
were produced in England. The little of these vegetables that was used, was formerly
imported from Holland and Flanders. Queen Catherine, when she wanted a salad, was
obliged to despatch a messenger thither on purjiose." (Hist, of Eng. anno 1547.) Fuller,
in 1660, speaking of the gardens of Surrey, says, " Gardening was first brought into Eng-
land for profit about seventy years ago ; before which we fetched most of our cherries
from Holland, apples from France, and hardly had a mess of r£eth-ripe peas, but from
Holland, which were dainties for ladies ; they came so far and cost so dear. Since gar-

I

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 89

dening hath crept out of Holland to Sandwich, Kent, and thence to Surrey, where
though they have given £6 an acre and upwards, they have made their rent, lived com-
fortable, and set many people to work." {IForthieSy partiii. p. 77.)

599. During the reign of Henry VIII., rapid steps were made in horticulture. Ac-
cording to some authors, apricots, musk-melons, and Corinth grapes from Zante, were in-
troduced by that monarch's gardener ; and different kinds of salad, herbs, and esculent roots
were, about the same time first brought into the country from Flanders. Salads, how-
ever, according to Holingshed, are mentioned during Edward IV.'s reign. Henry had
a*fine garden at his favorite palace of Nonsuch, in the parish of Cheam, in 'Surrey.
Here Kentish cherries were first cultivated in England. The garden wall was fourteen
feet high, and there were 212 fruit-trees. Leland, who wrote during this reign, informs
us {Itinerary, &c.), that at Morle in Derbyshire, " there is as much pleasure of orchards
of great variety of fruit, as in any place of Lancashire. The castle of Thornbury, in
Gloucestershire, had an orchard of four acres, and there were others at Wresehill on
the Ouse."

400. Books on horticulture appeared towards the middle of the sixteenth century. The
first treatise of husbandry was a translation from the French, by Bishop Grosshead, in
1500. In 1521, appeared Arnold's Chronicles, in which is a chapter on "The crafte of
graffynge, and plantynge, and alterynge of fruits, as well in colours as in taste." The
first author who treats expressly on gardening is Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of
good Husbandrie, S^c. with divers apjn-oved Lessons on Hopps and Gardenings &c. was
first published in 1517.

Thomas Tusser, (Sir J. Banks in Hori. Trans, i. 150.) who had received a liberal education at Eton
school, and at Trinity- Hall, Cambridge, lived many years as a farmer in Suffolk and Norfolk ; he after-
wards removed to London, where he published the first edition of his work, and died in 1580. In his
fourth edition, in Id/8, he first introduced the subject of gardening, and has given us not only a list of the
fruits, but also of all the plants then cultivated in our gardens, either for pleasure or profit, under the fol-
lowing heads : —

Seedes and herhes for the kychen, herbes and rootes for sallets and sawce, herbes and roots to boyle or to
butter, strewing herbs of all sorts, herbes, branches, and flowers for windowes and pots, herbs to still in
summer, necessarie herbs to grow in the gardens for physick, not reherst before. — This list consists of
more than 150 species.

Of fruits he enumerates, apple-trees of all sorts, apricoches, bar-berries, bollese black and white, cherries
red and black, chestnuts, cornet plums (probably the Cornelian cherry) ; damisens white and black,
filberts red and white, gooseberries, grapes white and red ; grene or grass-plums, hurtil-berries {vaccinium
vitis-idtBa), medlars or merles, mulberries ; peaches white, red, and yellow fleshed (called also the orange-
peach) ; peres of all sorts, peer plums, black and yellow, quince trees ; raspes, reisons (probably currants),
small nuts; strawberries red and white ; service trees, wardens white and red; wallnuts, wheat plums.

Other fruits perhaps might have been added, as the fig ; that fruit having been introduced previous to
1534, by Cardinal Pole. The orange and pomegranate, which Evelj-n, in 1700, says, had stood at Bedding,
ton 120 years ; and the melon, whicli, according to Lobel, was introduced before 1570, so that on the whole,
we had all the fundamental varieties of our present fruits in the middle of the sixteenth century. The pine-
apple is the only exception, which was not introduced till 1690.

401. The fertility of the soU of England was depreciated by some in Tusser's time,
probably from seeing the superior productions brought from Holland and France.
Dr. Boleyn, a contemporary, defends it, saying, " we had apples, pears, plums, cherries,
and hops of our own growth, before tlie importation of these articles into England by
tlie London and Kentish gardeners, but that the cultivation of them had been greatly
neglected. He refers as a proof of the natural fertility of the land to the great crop of
sea-pease [Pisum maritimum), which grew on the beach between Orford and Aldbo-
rough, and which saved the poor in the dearth of 1555. Oldys soon afterwards, speaking
of Gerrard's fine garden and alluding to the alleged depreciation of our soil and climate,
says ♦' from whence it would appear, that our ground could produce other fruits besides
hips and haws, acorns and pig-nuts." At this time, observes Dr. Pulteney (Sketches,
&c. 118.), "kitchen garden wares were imported from Holland, and fruits from
France."

402. During the reign of Elizabeth, horticulture appears to have been in a state of
progress. Various works on this branch then appeared, by Didymus Mountain, Hyll,
Mascal, Scott, Googe, &c. ; these, for the most part, are translations from the Roman
and modern continental authors. Mascal is said to have introduced some good varieties
of the apple.

403. Charles I. seems to have patronised gardening. His kitchen-gardener was
Tradescant, a Dutchman, and he appointed the celebrated Parkinson his herbalist. In
1 629, appeared the first edition of this man's great work, in folio, entitled, " Parodist
in sole Paradisus terreslris ; or, a Garden of all sortes of pleasant Flowers, with a Kitcnen
Garden of all manner of Herbs and Roots, and an Orchard of all sort of Fruit-bearing
Trees, &c." This, as Neill observes {Ed. Encyc art. Hurt.), may be considered as the
first general book of English gardening possessing the character of originality. For the
culture of melons, he recommends an open hot-bed on a sloping bank, covering the
melons occasionally with straw, — the method practised in the north of France at this
day. Cauliflowers, celery, and finochio, were then great rarities. Virginia potatoes
(our conimon sort) were then rare ; but Canada potatoes (our Jerusalem artichoke) were

90 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

in common use. Tlie variety of fruits described, or at least mentioned, appears very
great. Of apples there are 58 sorts; of pears, 64; plums, 61 ; peaches, 21 ; nectarines,
5 ; apricots, 6 ; cherries, no fewer than 36 ; grape-vines, 23 ; figs, 3 ; with quinces,
medlars, almonds, walnuts, filberds, and the common small fruits.

404. Cromwell was a great promoter of agriculture and the useful branches of gar-
dening, and his soldiers introduced all the best improvements wherever they went. He
gave a pension of 100/. a-year to Hartlib, a Lithuanian, who had studied husbandry in
Flanders, and published A Letter to Dr. Beati, concerning the Defects and Remedies
of English Husbandry, and the Legacy, both useful works. He was an author, says
Harte, who preferred the faulty sul^lime, to the faulty mediocrity. He recommended
the adoption in England of the two secrets of Flemish husbandry, that of letting farms
on improving leases, and cultivating green crops.

405. Charles IL being restored to the throne, introduced French gardening, and his
gardener. Rose, Daines Barrington informs us, " planted such famous dwarfs at Hamp-
ton Court, Carlton, and Marlborough gardens, that London, who was Rose's apprentice,
in his Retired Gardener, published 1667, challenges all Europe to produce the like."
Waller, the poet, in allusion to the two last gardens, describes the mall of St. James's
park, as :

" All with a border of rich fruit-trees crown'd."

When Quintinye came to England to visit Evelyn, Charles II. offered him a pension to
stay and superintend theroyal gardens here; but this, says Switzer (Pref. to Ichnographia
rustica), he declined, and returned to serve his own master. Daines Barrington conjec-
tures that Charles II. had the first hot and ice houses ever built in this country, as at tlie
installation dinner given at Windsor, on the 23d of April, 1667, there were cherries,
strawberries, and ice-creams. These fruits, however, had been long, as Switzer states,
raised by dung-heat by the London gardeners, and the use of ices must have long before
been introduced from the continent.

406. Evelyn was a distinguished patron of horticulture. On returning from his
travels, in 1658 he published his French Gardener, and from that time to his death in
1706 continued one of the greatest promoters of our art. In 1664, he published his
Pomona, and Calendariiim Hortense ; the latter, the first work of the kind which had
appeared in this country. In 1658, his translation of Quintinye's work on orange-trees,
and his Complete Gardener appeared; a.n6.h\% Acetaria, in 1669, was his last work on
this branch of gardening. Evelyn is universally allowed to have been one of the warmest
friends to improvements in gardening and planting that has ever appeared. He is
eulogised by Wotton, in his Reflections on Ancient and Modern Learning, as having
done more than all former ages, and by Switzer, in his historical preface to Ichnographia
rustica, as being the first that taught gardening to speak proper English. In his Memoirs
by Bray, are the following horticultural notices.

1661. Lady Brook's at Hackney ; " vines planted in strawberry borders, staked at ten feet distance. I
saw the famous queen-pine brought from Barbadoes, and presented to his majesty." Evelyn had seen one
four years before, and he afterwards saw the first king-pine presented at the Banquelting-liouse, and tasted
of it. At Kensington Palace is a picture, in which Charles II. is receiving a pine-apple from his gardener.
Rose, who is presenting it on his knees.

1666. At Sir WiUiam Temple's at East Sheen, the most remarkable things " are his orangery and gar-
dens, where the wall fruit-trees are most exquisitely nailed and trained, far better than I have noted any
where else." Sir William has some judicious remarks on the soils and situations of gardens, in his Essay
written in 1668. He was long ambassador at the Hague, and had the honor, as he informs us, and as
Switzer confirms, of introducing some of our best peaches, apricots, cherries, and grapes.

1678. At Kew Garden, {Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 17.) " Sir Henry Capel has the choicest plantation of fruit in
England, as he is the most industrious and most understanding in it." Daines Barrington {Archceologia,
viii. 122.) considers Lord Capel to have been the first person of consequence in England, who was at much
expense in his gardens, having brought over with him many new fruits from France.

407. During the eighteenth century, the progress of horticulture, as of every other de-
partment of gardening was rapid. This will appear from tlie great number of excellent
authors who appeared during this period, as Millar, Lawrence, Bradley, Switzer, in the
first half; and Hitt, Abercrombie, Marshal, M'Phail, and others in the latter part of the
period. Switzer was an artist-gardener and a seedsman, and laid out many excellent
kitchen and fruit gardens, and built some hot-walls and forcing-houses.

408. Forcing-houses and jnne-stoves appear to have been introduced in the early part
of the eighteenth century : but forcing by hot beds and dung placed behind walls of
boards were, according to Switzer ( Fruit Gardener) and Lord Bacon, in use for an un-
known length of time.

409. The pine-apple was first successfully cultivated by Sir Matthew Decker, at Rich-
mond, in 1719. Warner, of Rotherhithe, excelled in the culture of the vine, and raised
from seed the red, or Warner's Hamburgh, a variety which still continues to be much
esteemed.

410. In the last year of the seventeenth century, appeared a curious work, entitled,
Fruit-tvalls improved by inclining them to the Horizon^ by N. Facio de Doulicr, F. R. S.

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 91

This ^^ork incurred tlie censure of the practical authors of the day .; but founded on
correct mathematical principles, it attracted the attention of the learned, and of some
noblemen. Among the latter was the Duke of Rutland, and the failure of the trial of
one of these walls, led to the earliest example which we have been able to discover of forc-
ing grapes in England. This, Lawrence and Switzer agree, was successfully accom-
plished at Belvoir Castle, in 1705. Switzer published the first plans of forcing-houses,
with directions for forcing generally, in his Fruit Gardener, in 1717.

411. The nineteenth century has commenced by extraordinary efforts in horticulture.
The culture of exotic fruits and forcing has been greatly extended, and while in the
middle of the eighteenth century scarcely a forcing-house was met with, excepting near
the metropolis ; there is now hardly a garden in the most remote county, or a citizen's
potagery, without one or more of them. The public markets, especially those of the
metropolis, are amply supplied with forced productions, and far better pines, grapes, and
melons are grown in Britain than in any other part of the world.

412. The London Horticultural Society, established in 1805, has made astonisliing
exertions in procuring and disseminating fruits, culinary vegetables, and horticultural
knowledge, and has succeeded in rendering the subject popular among the higher classes,
and in stimulating to powerful exertion the commercial and serving gardeners. A great
and lasting benefit conferred on gardening by this society is the publicity and illustra-
tion which they have given by their transactions to the physiological discoveries of
Knight, who has unquestionably thrown more light on the nature of vegetation than
any otlier man, at least in tliis country.

SuBSECT. 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to its horticultural Productions.

413. The earliest Scottish horticulturists, Chalmers remarks, were the abbots ; and their
orchards are still apparent to the eyes of antiquaries, while their gardens can now be
traced only in the chartularies. A number of examples of gardens and orchards are
mentioned in writings of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries : and even at this day, Mr.
Neill observes, " several excellent kinds of fruits, chiefly apples and pears, are to be
found existing in gardens, near old abbies and monasteries. That such fruits were
introduced by ecclesiastics cannot admit of a doubt. The Arbroath oslin, which seems
nearly allied to the burr knot apple of England, may be taken as an instance ; that apple
having been long known all round the abbey of Aberbrothwick, in Forfarshire ; and
tradition uniformly ascribing its introduction to the monks. — The great care bestowed
on the culture of fruits, and of some culinary herbs, by the clergy and nobility, could
not fail to excite, in some degree, the curiosity and the attention of the inhabitants in
general ; and it may, perhaps, be said that the first impulse has scarcely spent its force ;
for it is thus but comparatively a short time (four or five centuries) since the cultivation
of apples, pears, cherries, gooseberries, and currants, and many of tlie common kitchen-
vegetables, were introduced into this countrj." {On Scottish Gardens and Orchards in
Gen. Rep. of Scot. p. 3.)

414. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, the best garden m Scotland was
that of J. Justice, at Crichton, near Edinburgh. From the year 1760 to 1785, that of
Moredun claimed the priority. Moredun garden was managed by William Kyle, author
of a work on forcing peaches and vines ; and Dr. Duncan informs us, that the late Baron
Moncrieff, its proprietor, " used to boast, that from his own garden, witliin a few miles ef
Edinburgh, he could, by the aid of glass, coals, and a good gardener, match any country
in Europe, in peaches, grapes, pines, and every other fine fruit, excepting apples and
pears ;" these he acknowledged were grown better in the open air in England, and the
north of France. {Discourse to Caled. Hort. Soc. 18140 It is observed, in another of
Dr. Duncan's discourses to this society, that in 1817, on the 10th of June, a bunch of
Hamburgh grapes was presented, weighing four pounds, the berries beautiful and large.
« In June, it is added, such grapes could not be obtained at any price, either in France,
Spain, or Italy." Tliese facts are decisive proofs of the perfection to which horticulture
has attained in Scotland, in spite of many disadvantages of soil, climate, and pecuniary
circumstances.

415. The Scotch authors on this department of gardening are not numerous, llie
first was Reid in the beginning, and the best, Justice, about the middle of the eighteenth
century. In the nineteenth century, Nicol's works appeared, and a variety of other writers
in the memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society.

416. The nineteenth century promises greatly to increase the reputation of Scotland
for gardeners and gardening, not only from the general improvement in consequence of
the increase of wealth and refinement among the employers and patrons of the art ; but
from the stimulus of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, which, by well devised com-
petitory exhibitions and premiums, has excited a most laudable emulation among
practical gardeners of every class.

32

HISTORY OF GARDENING. ^^^"^ ^•

SuBSECT. 3. Gardening in Ireland, in respect to its horticultural Productions.

417. As far as respects hardT/ fruits ayid culinary vegetables, the gardens of the prin-
cipal proprietors in Ireland may be considered as approaching to those of Scotland or Eng-
.and, as they are generally managed by gardeners of these countries ; but, in respect to
exotic productions, Irish gardens are far behind those of the sister kingdoms. Indeed, it
is only within the last fifteen years that it has become the practice to build hot-houses of
any description in that country ; and the number of these is still very limited. The first
forcing-house was erected in the Blessington gardens. The gardens of the minor nobi-
iity and gentry of Ireland are poor in horticultural productions ; many content them-
selves with cabbages and potatoes, and perhaps a few pears, onions, and apples.

Sect. IV. British Gardening, in resjyect to the 2)lanting of Timber-trees and Hedges.

418. . The British Isles were ivell stocked with timber when comparatively unpeopled with
men. As population increased, culture extended itself, and forests were encroached on or
eradicated, to make room for the plough or the scythe. History, as far as it goes, bears
witness to this state of things in England, Scotland, and Ireland.

SuBSECT. 1. Gardening in England, in resjtect to the jtlanting of Timber-trees and

Hedges.

419. The woods of England were so numerous and extensive when Domesday -book
was compiled, as to be valued, not by the quantity of timber, but by the number of
swine which the acorns and mast could maintain. Four hundred years after this, in the
time pf Edward IV., an eminent writer says, that England was then a well timbered
country.

420. Till the beginning of the seventeenth century, the subject of planting for timber and
fuel, seems not to have attracted much attention as an important part of the rural eco-
nomy of England. Sir John Norden, in his Surveyors Dialogue, published in 1607,
notices the subject; as had been done before by Benose., in 1538, and Fitzherbert, in 1539.
In 1612 was published, Of planting and presermig of Timber and Fuel, an old Thrift
newly revived, by R. C. ; and in tlie following year. Directions for planting of Timber
and Eire Wood, by Arthur Standish. Planting for timber and copse is noticed in
Googe's Husbandry, published in 1614, and is the express subject of Manwood's Treatise
on Forests, and their Original and Beginning, published in 1615 ; and of Rathbone's Sur-
veyor, in 1616. It is singular that so many books on this subject should have been pub-
lished so near together at so early a period. The reason seems to be, as professor Mar-
tyn has observed, that a material attack was made on the forest-trees in the 27th year of
the reign of Henry VIII., when that monarch seized on the church-lands; and from
this time the consumption of oak-timber was continually increasing, not only in conse-
quence of the extension of commerce, and of great additions to the royal navy, but be-
cause it was made more use of in building houses. This alarmed both government and
individuals. Holinshead, who lived in the reign of Elizabeth, says, that in times past
men were contented to. live in houses built of sallow, willow, &c. ; so that the use of oak
was, in a manner, dedicated wholly unto churches, religious houses, princes' palaces,
navigation, &c. ; but now nothing but oak is any where regarded.

In the reign of James I., it appears that there was great store of timber, more than proportioned to the
demand, lor on a survey of the royal forests, &c. in 1608, we find that a great part of what was then in-
tended to be sold, remained a considerable time undisposed of.

During the civil war, in the time of Charles I., and all the time of the interregnum, the royal forests, as
well as the woods of the nobility and gentry, suffered so much, that many extensive forests had, in a few
years, hardly any memorial left of their existence but their names. This loss would not have operated so
severely, had the principal nobility and gentry been as solicitous to plant with judgment, as to cut down
their woods.

The publication qf Evelyn's Sylva, in 1664, raised a great spirit of planting, and created a new sera in this
as in other branches of gardening. In his dedication to Charles II., in 1678, he observes, that he need not
acquaint the king how many millions of timber-trees have been planted in his dominions, at the instiga-
tion, and by the sole direction of that work. The government at that time, alarmed by the devastation
which had been committed during the civil war, gave great attention to the increase and preservation of
timber in the royal forests.

421. Tree-nurseries were established during the seventeenth century. Young trees, the
early authors inform us, were procured from the natural forests and copses, where tliey
were self-sown ; but about the beginning of the seventeenth century, public nursery-
gardens were formed, originally for fruit-trees ; but towards the end, nurseiymen, as we
learn from Switzer and Cooke, began to raise forest-trees and hedge-plants from seeds.
The first nursery we hear of was that of Corbett, at Twickenham, mentioned by Ben
Jonson, and the next of consequence that of London and Wise, at Brompton Park,
already mentioned, and still continued as a nursery.

422. During the eighteenth century, especially in the latter part, planting proceeded
rapidly. The Society of Arts, &c. established in 1753, have greatly contributed, by
their honorary and pecuniary rewards, to restore the spirit for planting. The republi-
cation of Evelyn's Sylva, in a splendid manner, by Dr. Hunter, and subsequently of

I

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 93

different works by Kennedy, Young, the Bishop of Llandaff, Marshall, Pontey, and
others, has doubtless contributed to that desirable end ; and the result is, that many
thousand acres of waste lands have been planted with timber-trees, independently of
demesne-plantations, and such as have been made for shelter or effect.

423. The nineteenth century has commenced with a much more scientific mode of
planting and managing trees than formerly existed. Excellent modes of pruning have
been pointed out and practised by Pontey, which will render future plantations much
more valuable tlian where this operation and thinning have been so generally neglected
as hitherto.

424. At what tim£ hedges were introdtcced into England is uncertain. They would proba-
bly be first exhibited in the gardens of the Roman governors, and afterwards re-appear in
those of the monks. From these examples, from the Roman authors on husbandry, or more
probably from the suggestion of travellers who had seen them abroad, they would be in-
troduced in rural economy. Marshal conjectures, that clearing out patches in the woods
for aration, and leaving strips of bushes between them, may have given the first idea of
a hedge, and this supposition is rendered more plausible, from the circumstance of some of
the oldest hedges occupying so much space, and consisting of a variety of plants. However
originated, they did not come into general use in laying out farms till after the Flemish
husbandry was introduced in Norfolk about the end of the seventeenth century. (A'ent's
Hints, &c.) So rapidly liave they increased since that period, that at the end of the
eighteenth century they had entirely changed the face of the country. In the time of
George I. almost every tract of country in England might have been said to consist
of four distinct parts or kinds of scenery : 1. The houses of the proprietors, and their
parks and gardens, and the adjoining village, containing their farmers and labourers ;
2. The common field or intercommonable lands in aration ; 3. Tlie common pasture,
or waste untouched by the plough; and, 4, The scattered or circumscribing forest
containing a mass of timber or copse. But at present these fundamental features are
mixed and variously grouped, and the general face of the country presents one continual
scene of garden-like woodiness, interspersed with buildings and cultivated fields, un-
equalled in the world.

The oldest ericlosures in England are in Kent and Essex, and seem to have been formed of hawthorn,
sloe, crab, hazel, dogwood, &c. taken from the copses, and planted promiscuously ; but now almost all
field or fence-hedges are formed of single or double rows of hawthorn, with or without trees, planted
at regular distances to shoot up for timber.

SuBSECT. 2. Gardening in Scotland, in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and

Hedges.

425. Scotland in ancient times was clothed with extensive tracts of wood. ( Graham,
in Gen. Rejy. of Scot. vol. ii.) By various operations carried on by the hand of Nature
and of man, this clothing has been in a great measure destroyed. Tlie attempts to re^
store it by planting timber, however, appear to be of recent origin. Dr. Walker seems to
be of opinion, that the elder [Sambucus nigra) was the first barren tree planted in Scotland ;
and that the plane or sycamore was the next. The wood of the former was in much re-
quest for making arrows. " A few chestnuts and beeches," he adds, " were first planted
in gardens, not long before the middle of the seventeenth century, some of which have
remained to our times." Notwithstanding this high authority, however, there seems to be
good reason to conclude, that some trees which still exist were planted before the Re-
formation ; they appear to have been introduced by the monks, being found for the most
part in ecclesiastical establishments. Such are the Spanish chestnuts, the most of which
are still in a thriving condition in the island of Inchmahoma, in the lake of Monteith, in
Perthshire, where there was a priory built by David I. Some of these chestnut- trees
measure within a few inches of eighteen feet in circumference, at six feet from the ground.
They are probably three hundred years old, or upwards. There are planted oaks at
Buchanan, which are apparently of the same age.

426. The father of planting in Scotland, according to Dr. Walker, was Thomas, Earl
of Haddington, having begun to plant Binning-wood, which is now of great extent and
value, in 1705. But it is stated on an authority almost approaching to certainty, that
the fine timber in the lawn at Callender House, in Stirlingshire, was planted by the Earl
of Linlithgow and Callender, who had accompanied Charles II. in his exile, upon his
return from the continent after the Restoration. Tliis timber is remarkable, not only
for its size, but for its quantity. Planting for timber became very general in Scotland
between the years 1730 and 1760, by the exertions and example of Archibald, Duke of
Argyle, the Duke of Athol, the Earls of Bute, Loudon, Hyndford, and Panmure, Sir
James Nasmyth, Sir Archibald Grant, Fletcher of Saltoun, and others. It is well ascer-
tained that Sir Archibald Grant began to plant in 1719.

427. A great stimidiis to planting in Scotland was given by the Essays of Dr. Anderson,
published in 1784, in which the value of the larch-tree and the progress it had made
at Dunkeld, since planted there in 1741. were pointed out. Tlie examples and

94 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

writings of Lord Karnes also contributed to bring this, and every description of rural
improvement into repute ; but the high price of timber during the war produced tlie
most sensible effect as to planting.

428. The two Jtrst tree-nurseries in Scotland were established at Edinburgh, about the
beginning of the eighteenth century, by Malcolm, at the Water Gate, and Gordon, at
the Fountain Bridge. To these succeeded a considerable one by Anderson and
Leslie, about 1770. Leslie contributed to render the larch popular, and was the first
nurseryman who ventured to erect a greenhouse. Since this period, tree -nurseries are
nearly as "ommon in Scotland as in England.

429. Hedges were introduced to Scotland by some offitfers in Cromwell's army about
the middle of the seventeenth century. The first were planted at Inch Buckling Brae,
in East Lothian, and at the head of Loch Tay, in Perthshire. The former hedge was
in existence in 1804, and then consisted of a single row of old hawtliorns. They are
now general in all the low and tolerably fertile and sheltered parts of the country ;
contributing with the plantations to ameliorate the climate, and greatly to improve the
scenery.

SuBSECT. 3. Gardening in Ireland^ in respect to the planting of Timber-trees and

Hedges.

430. Trees appear to have covered Ireland in former times. " Tliough in every part
of Ireland, in which I have been," observes A. Young, in 1777, (Tour, vol. ii. 2d edit.)
*' one hundred contiguous acres are not to be found without evident signs that they
were once wood, at least very well wooded ; yet now the greatest part of the kingdom
exhibits a naked, bleak, dreary view, for want of wood, which has been destroyed for a
century past with the inost careless prodigality, and still continues to be cut and wasted.
The woods yet remaining are what in England would be called copses. The gentlemen
in that country are much too apt to think they have got timber, when in fact they have
got nothing but fine large copse- wood." Shaw Mason, in a Statistical Survey of
Ireland, lately published, says there were natural woods in some places in James II.'s
time ; but he produces very few instances of artificial plantations of full growth, and
none of older date than the middle of the seventeenth century, when it appears, that
through the instigation of Blythe and otlier officers in Cromwell's army, some gentlemen
began to plant and improve. The late Lord Chief Baron Foster was the greatest"
planter when A. Young visited Ireland, and his lordship informed the tourist that
the great spirit for this sort of improvement began about 1749 and 1750.

431. Hedges, as fences, were probably, as in Scotland, introduced by the officers of
Cromwell's army.

Sect. V. British Gardening, as empirically pi'actised.

432. The use of gardens, is perhaps more general in England and Scotland than in
any other country, if we except Holland. The laborious journeyman-mechanic, whose
residence, in large cities, is often in the air, rather than on the earth, decorates his garret-
window with a garden of pots. The debtor deprived of personal liberty, and the pauper
in the work-house, divested of all property in external things, and without any fixed
object on which to place their affections, sometimes resort to this symbol of territorial
appropriation and enjoyment. So natural it is for all to fancy they have an inherent
right in the soil ; and so necessary to happiness to exercise the affections, by having some
object on which to place them.

433. Almost every cottage in England has its appendant garden, larger or smaller, and
slovenly or neatly managed, according to circumstances. In the best districts of
England, the principal oleraceous vegetables, some salads, herbs, flowers, and fruits are
cultivated ; and in the remote parts of Scotland, at least potatoes and borecoles are
planted. Tradesmen and operative manufacturers, who have a permanent interest in
their cottages, have generally the best cottage-gardens ; and many of them, especially at
Norwich, Manchester, and Paisley, excel in the culture of florists' flowers.

434. The gardens of farmers are larger, but seldom better managed than those of the
common cottagers, and not often so well as those of the operative manufacturers in
England. They are best managed in Kent and in East Lothian,

435. The gardens and grounds of citizens, who have country-houses, may be, in size,
from an eighth of an acre to a hundred acres or upwards. Such a latitude, it may
easily be conceived, admits of great variety of kitchen-gardens, hot-houses, flower-gar-
dens, and pleasure-grounds. They are, in general, the best managed gardens in Britain,
and constitute the principal scenery, and the greatest ornament of the neighbourhood
of every large town. Those round the Metropolis, Liverpool, and Edinburgh are
pre-eminent.

436.' Tlie gardens of independent gentlemen of middling fortune vary considerably in
dimension. Few of the lutchen-gardens are ixnder an acre, the flower-garden may
contain a fourth or a third of an acre, and the pleasure-ground from three to ten or

Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 95

twelve acres. Tlie lawn or imrk varies from thirty or forty to three or four hundred
acres. The whole is in general respectably kept up, though there are many exceptions
arising from want of taste, of income, or engagements in other pursuits on the part of
the proprietor ; or restricted means, slovenliness, and want of taste and skill in the
head gardener. These gardens abound in every part of every district of Britain, in
proportion to the agricultural population.

437. The first-rate gardens of Britain belong chiefly to the extensive land-holders ; but
in part also to wealtliy commercial men. The kitchen-gardens of this class may
include from three to twelve acres, the flower-garden from two to ten acres, the pleasure-
ground from twenty to one hundred acres, and the park from five hundred to five
thousand acres. Excepting in the cases of minority, absence of the family, or pecu-
niary embarrassments, these gardens are kept up in good style. Tliey are managed
by intelligent head gardeners, with assistants for the diflTerent departments, and appren-
tices and journeymen as operatives. A few of such residences are to be found in
almost every county of England, in most of those in Scotland, and occasionally in
Ireland.

?38. The royal gardens of England cannot be greatly commended ; they are in no
respect adequate to the dignity of the kingly oflSce. That at Kew has been already
mentioned as containing a good collection of plants ; but neither this nor any of the
other royal gardens are at all kept in order as they ought to be, not on account of want
of skill in the royal gardeners, but for want of support from their employers.

439. Gardens for public recreation are not very common in Britain ; but of late a con-
siderable specimen has been formed at London in the Regent's Park, an extensive
equestrian promenade, and one at Edinburgh on the Calton Hill, of singular
variety of prospect. Tliere are also squares and other walks, and equestrian promenades,
in the metropolis, and other large towns ; but in respect to this class of gardens, they
are much less in use in Britain than on the continent, for Britons are comparatively
domestic and solitary animals.

440. Of gardens for public instruction, there are botanic gardens attached to the princi-
pal universities and experimental gardens beloiaging to tlie London and Edinburgh hor-
ticultural societies.

441. Commercial gardens are very numerous in Britain, arising from the number,
magnitude, and wealth of her cities being much greater in proportion to the territorial
extent of the country than in any other kingdom. In general, they have been origi-
nated by head gardeners, who have given up private servitude.

442. Market-gardens and orchards axe numerous, especially round the metropolis, and
their productions are unequalled, or at least not surpassed by any gardens in the
world, public of private. Forcing is carried on extensively in these gardens, and the
pine cultivated in abundance, and to great perfection. Their produce is daily exposed
in different markets and shops ; so that every citizen of London may, throughout the
year, purchase the same luxuries as the^ king or as the most wealthy proprietors have
furnished from their own gardens, and obtain for a few shillings what the wealth of
Crcesus could not procure in any other country ! a striking proof of what commerce will
effect for the industrious. Some gardens are devoted to tlie raising of garden-seeds for
the seed-merchants, and others, to the growing of herbs and flowers for the chemist or
distiller.

443. There are forists* gardens, where plants are forced so as to furnish roses and
other flowers of summer in mid-winter. The tradesman's wife may thus at pleasure
procure a drawing-room garden equal to that of her sovereign, and superior to that of
all the kings and nobles on the rest of the globe.

444. Of nursery-gardens for stocking and forming new gardens and plantations, and
repairing or increasing the stock of old ones, there are a number in which a very con-
siderable capital is embarked. These have greatly increased with the increasing spirit
for planting, and other branches of gardening. The principal are near the metropolis ;
but they are to be found in most districts, originated in almost every case by head gar-
deners, whose capital consists of the savings made during their servitude.

445. The operative paH of gardening is carried on by labourers, apprentices, journey-
men, and masters.

The labourers are women for weeding, gathering some descriptions of crops, and other light works : and
men for assisting in the heavier operations in extraordinary seasons. The permanent sub-operatives arc?
the apprentices and journeymen ; the former are indentured generally for three years, at the expiration
of which they become journevmen, and after a few years' practice in that capacity, in different gardens,
they are considered qualified 'for being masters, or taking the charge of villa, private, or first-rate gardens
according to their capacity, education, and assiduity, and the class of gardens in which they have studied
and practised Formerly 'there were lodges, or societies of gardeners, and a sort of mystic institution and
pass- word kept up, like those of the German gardeners and masons ; but within the last fifty years this ha^
been in most places given up. The use of books, and the general progress of society, render such institu-
tions useless in point of knowledge and hospitality, and injurious politically, or in respect to the market-
value of labor. {Preston's History of Masonry.)

96 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

The head gardeners of this country are universally allowed to be the most intelligent and trust-worthy
part of the operatives of any branch of rural economy, and the most faithful and ingenious of those who
constitute the serving establishment of a country-residence. Those of Scotland are by many preferred,
chiefly, perhaps, from their having been better educated in their youth, and more accustomed to frugality
and labor. Scotland, Neill observes, " has long been famous for producing professional gardeners ; per-
haps more so than any other country, unless we except Holland, about a century ago. At present, not
only Great Britain, but Poland and Russia are supplied from Scotland ; and the numbers of an inferior
class to be found in every part of England and Ireland, is quite astonishing." {Gen. Rep. &c. chap, ii.) Lord
Gardenstone {Travelling Memorandum, 1790) says, that in every country in Europe, he found gardeners
more sober, industrious, and intelligent than other men of a like condition in Society.

446. The use of gardens in Ireland is of a very limited description, and the gardens
there, of all the classes, are greatly inferior to the corresponding classes in Britain. A
few exceptions may be made rn favor of the Dublin botanic gardens, and those of one or
two wealthy citizens and extensive proprietors ; but the cottage-gardens, in many districts,
contain nothing besides potatoes ; and potatoes are the chief ingredients in the gardens
of private gentlemen. Parnel, Wakefield, and Curwen, have ably shown that till wheaten
bread and meat take place of these roots, no great improvement can be expected among
the lower classes of Ireland.

447. Tlie artists or architects of gardens, in Britain, are of three classes. First, head
gardeners who have laid out the whole, or part of a residence, under some professor, and
who commence artist or ground workmen, as this class is generally denominated, as a
source of independence. Such was Hitt, Brown, &c. Secondly, architects who have
devoted themselves chiefly to country-buildings, and thus acquiring some knowledge of
country-matters, and the effects of scenery, combine with building, the laying out of
grounds, depending for the execution of their ideas on the practical knowledge of the
gardener, pro tempore. This class are commonly called ground-architects. Such was
Kent. Thirdly, artists who have been educated and apprenticed, or otherwise brought
up entirely, or chiefly for that profession. These are often called landscape-gardeners,
but the term is obviously of too limited application, as it refers only to one branch of the
art. Such was Bridgeman, Eamcs, &c.

Sect. VI. British Gardening, as a Science, and as to the Authors it has produced.

448. Those superstitious obsenances attendant on a rude state of society, retained their
ground in British gardening till the end of the seventeenth century. Meager, Mascal,
"Worlidge, and the authors who preceded them, regulate the performance of horticultural
operations by the age of the moon. Turnips or onions, according to these authors, sown
when the moon is full, will not bulb but send up flower stalks ; and fruit-trees, planted
or grafted at that season, will have their period of bearing greatly retarded. A weak tree
is to be pruned in the increase, and a strong tree in the wane of the moon. Quintinye
seems to have been the first to oppose this doctrine in France, and through Evelyn's
translation of his Complete Gardener, he seems to have overturned it also in England.
" I solemnly declare," he says, " that after a diligent observation of the moon's changes
for tliirty years together, and an enquiry whether they had any influence in gardening,
the affirmative of which has been so long established among us, I perceived that it was
no weightier than old wives' tales, and that it had been advanced by unexperienced gar-
deners. I have, therefore, followed what appeared most reasonable, and rejected what
was otherwise ; in short, graft in what time of the moon you please, if your graft be good,
and grafted on a proper stock, provided you do it like an artist, you will be sure to suc-
ceed. In the same manner sow what sorts of grain you please, and plant as you please,
in any quarter of the moon, I'll answer for your success, the first and last day of the
moon being equally favorable."

Quintinye not only removed ancient prejudices, but introduced more rational principles of pruning than
had before been ofFercd. Switzer says, he first made it known that a transplanted tree could not grow till
it made fresh fibres, and that therefore the old ones, when dried up, might be cut off.

449. The influence of Bacoiis writings produced the decline and fall of astrology, in
the beginning of the eighteenth century. A different mode of studying the sciences was
adopted. Vegetable physiology and chemistry, the first a new science, and the latter
degraded under the name of alchemy, began to be studied, and the influence of this
dawn of intellectual day was felt even in agriculture and gardening.

450. The practice of forcing fruits and flowers, which became general about the middle
of the century, led gardeners to reflect on the science of their art, by bringing more
effectually into notice the specific influence of light, heat, air, water, and other agents of
vegetation. Tlie elementary botanical works published about the same time, by dif-
fusing the doctrines of Linnasus, co-operated ; as did the various horticultural writers of
this century, especially Miller, Bradley, and Hill, and subsequently Home, Anderson,
and others.

451. The increasing culture of exotics. Doctor Pulteney observes, " from the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century, and the greater diffusion of taste for the elegancies and
luxuries of the stove and green-house, naturally tended to raise up a spirit of improve-

Book I. GARDENING IN ULTRA-EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 97

ment and real science in the art of culture. To preserve far-fetched varieties, it became
necessary to scrutinise into the true principles of the art, whidi ultimately must depend
on the knowledge of the climate of such plant, and the soil in which it flourishes in that
climate. Under Uie influence of such men as Sloane, the Sherrards, and other great en-
couragers of science, gardeners acquired botanical knowledge, and were excited to
greater exertion in tlieir art. "

452. The increased zeal for planting., and more careful attendance to the pruning of
trees, tended to throw light on the subject of vegetable wounds, and their analogy with
those of animals, as to tlie modes of healing, though the French laugh at our ignorance
on this subject {Cours (VAgr, art. Plaie,) at the close of the eighteenth century.

453. But the science of horticulture received its greatest imjrrovement from Knight,
the enlightened president of tlie Horticultural Society. The first of this philosopher's
writings will be found in the Philosophical Transactions for 1 795, entitled Observations on
the Grafting of Trees. In the same T'ransactions for 1801 and 1803, are contained his
ingenious papers on the fecundation of fruits, and on the sap of trees. Subsequent
volumes contain other important papers ; and a great number in which science and art
are combined, in a manner tending directly to enlighten and instruct the practical gar-
dener, will be found in the Transactions of the Horticvltural Society. Through the
influence of this author and that society, over which he is so worthy to preside, we see
commenced an important aera in tlie horticulture of this country, an aera rendered pecu-
liarly valuable, as transferring the discoveries of science immediately to art, and rendering
them available by practitioners. How great may be its influence, on the comforts and
luxuries of the table, it is impossible to foresee. The introduction and distribution of
better sorts of the common hardy fruits and culinary plants, will tend immediately to the
benefit of the humbler classes of society ; and by increasing a little the size, and encou-
raging the culture, both ornamental and useful, of cottage-gardens, the attachment of
tliis class to their homes, and consequently their interest in the country, will be increased.
Even agriculture will derive advantages, of which, as an example, may be adduced the
result of pinching oflf the blossoms of the potatoe, which, by leaving more nourishment for
the root, will increase the produce (according to Knight's estimate) at least one ton per
acre. {Hort. Tr. i. ] 90. Treatise on the Apple and Pear*)

454. Gardening, as an art of design and taste, may be said to have been conducted
mechanically, and copied from precedents, like civil architecture, till the middle of the
eighteenth century ; but at tliis time the writings of Addison, Pope, Shenstone, and
G. Mason appeared ; and in these, and especially in the Observations on Modem Gar-
dening, by Wheatley, are laid down unalterable principles for the imitation of nature in
the arrangement of gardening scenery. The science of this department of the art may
tlierefore be considered as completely ascertained ; but it will probably be long before it
be appropriated by gardeners, and applied in the exercise of the art as a trade. A some-
what better education in youth, and more leisure for reading in the periods usually de-
voted to constant bodily labor, will eflfect this change ; and its influence on the beauty of
the scenery of country-residences, and on the face of the country at large, would be such
as cannot be contemplated without a feeling of enthusiastic admiration. If this taste were
once duly valued and paid for by those whose wealth enables them to employ first-rate
gardeners, it would soon be produced. But the taste of our^ nobility does not, in gene-
ral, take this turn, otherwise many of them would display a very different style of scenery
around their mansions.

455. Britain has produced more original authors on gardening than any other couviry.
It may be suflScient here to mention, in the horticultural department. Justice, Miller,
and Abercrombie. In ornamental gardening, Parkinson and INIadocks ; in planting,
Evelyn and Nicol ; and in landscape-gardening, G. Mason and Wheatley.

Chaf. V.

Of the present State of Gardening in Ultra- European Countries.

456. The gardens of the old continents are either original, or borrowed from modern
Europe. With the exception of China, the gardens of every other country in Asia,
Africa, and America, may be comprised under two heads. The aboriginal gardens
displaying little design or culture, excepting in the gardens of rulers or chiefs ; and
the gardens of European settlers displaying something of the design and culture of their
respective countries. Thus the gardening of the interior of Asia, like the manners of
the inhabitants, is the same, or nearly the same, now, that it was 3000 years ago ; that of
North America is British ; and that of almost all the commercial cities in the world, ex-

H

9S

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part I.

cepting those of China, is European, and generally either Dutch, French, or English.
We shall notice slightly, 1st, The aboriginal gardening of modern Persia and India ; 2d,
Of Cliina ; 3d, The state of gardening in North America ; and 4th, In the British
colonies and other settlements abroad.

Sect. I. Syrian, Persian, Indian, and African Gardens of modern Times.

457. The outlines of a Jewish garden, nearly 3000 years ago, coincide with the gardens
formed in the same countries at the present day. Maundrel in the fourteenth century,
Russel in the seventeenth, Chardin in the eighteenth, and Morier in the nineteenth cen-
turies, enumerate the same trees and plants mentioned by Moses, Diodorus, and Hero-
dotus, without any additions. The same elevation of site for the palace (^g. 33.); the same
terraces in front of it; and the same walls and towers surrounding the whole for security,
still prevail as in the time of Solomon and his successors. Maundrel describes the gar-
den of the Emir Facardine, at Beroot, as a large quadrangular spot of ground divided
into sixteen lesser squares, four in a row, with walks between them, and planted with
citron-trees. Each of the lesser squares was bordered with stone, and in the stone-work
were troughs, very artificially contrived for conveying the water all over the garden,
there being little outlets cut at every tree, for the stream as it passed by to flow out and
water it. On the east side were two terrace-walks, rising one above the other, each
having an ascent to it of twelve steps. At the north end they led into booths and
summer-houses, and other apartments very delightful. ( Travels from Alejypo to Jerw-
salem, p. 40.)

458. The gardens of Damascus are described by Egraont and Heyman as perfect
paradises, being watered with copious streams from Lebanon ; and in the Account of the
Ruins of Balbeck, the streams are said to be derived from Lebanus and Anti-LebanuSf
and the shades of the palms and elms are described as exquisite in that burning climate.
The time of the singing of birds is mentioned in Solomon s Song as a season of great
pleasure, and tlien as now, they no doubt constituted a material article in fine gardens.
Russel observes, that " in Syria there are abundance of nightingales, which not only
afford much pleasure by their songs in the gardens, but are also kept tame in the houses,
and let out at a small rate to divert such as choose it in the spring, so that no entertain-
ments are made in this season without a concert of these birds. " (Natural Hist, of Aleppo^
p. 71.)

459. The gardens of the Persians, observes Sir John Chardin, in 1732, " consist
commonly of a grand alley or straight avenue in the centre planted witli planes (the
zinzar, or chenar of the east), which divides the garden into two parts. There is a
basin of water in the middle, proportionate to the garden, and two other lesser ones on
the two sides. The space between them is sown with a mixture of flowers in natural
confusion, and planted with fruit-trees and roses, and this is the whole of the plan and
execution. They know nothing of parterres and cabinets of verdure, labyrinths, ter-
races, and such other ornaments of our gardens. The reason of which is, that the
Persians do not walk in their gardens as we do, but content themselves with having
the view of them, and breathing the fresh air. For this purpose they seat themselves
in some part of the garden as soon as they come into it, and remain there till they go
out." According to the same author, the most eastern part of Persia, Hyrcania, is one
entire and continued parterre from September to the end of April. " All the country
is covered with flowers, and this is also the best season for fruits, since in the other
months they cannot support the heat and unhealthy state of the air. Towards Media
and the northern frontiers of Arabia, the fields produce of themselves tulips, anemones,
single ranunculuses of \he most beautiful red, and crown imperials. In other places, as
around Ispahan, jonquils are wild and flower all the winter. In the season of narcissus,

Book I.

GARDENING IN SYRIA, PERSIA, &c.

3f

seven or eight sorts spring up among lilies (LUium)^ IHy of the" valley, violets of alt
colors, gilly-flowers, and jessamines, all of an odor and beauty far surpassing those
of Europe. But nothing can be more beautiful than the peach-trees, so completely
covered with flowers as to obstruct the view tlirough their branches." Morier mentions
the garden of Azar Gerib, in Ispahan, as extending a mile in length, and being formed
on a declivity divided into twelve terraces, supported by walls, each terrace divided into
a great number of squares. This garden is devoted to the culture of the most esteemed
Persian fruits. The neighbourhood of Bushire was formerly famous for its gardens ;
but INIorier informs us, « that in the whole territory of Bushire at this day, there are only
a few cotton-bushes (Acacia Julibrissin) ; here and there date-trees ; now and then a
konar-tree (a palm), with water-melons, beringauts (gourds), and cucumbers." These
date-trees, the towers, and the presence of camel-drivers, gave this town, when Morier
saw it, a truly Persian appearance. {Fig. 32.)

460. The gardens of Kerim Khan are thus described by Morier : « An inunense wall
of the neatest construction encloses a square tract of land, which is laid out into walks
shaded by cypress and chenar {Platanus), and watered by a variety of marble canals,
and small artificial cascades. Over the entrance, which is a lofty and arched passage, is
built a pleasure-house. In the centre of the garden is another of the principal pleasure-
houses. Tliere is a basin in the middle of the principal room, where a fountain plays
and refreshes the air, &c. The whole soil of this garden is artificial, having been exca-
vated from the area below, and raised into a high terrace. The garden is now falling
into decay ; but those who saw it in the reign of Kerim Khan, delight to describe its
splendor, and do not cease to give the most ravishing pictures of the beauty of all the
environs of his capital." {Journey to Persia^ 1812, p. 206. Johnsons Journey from
India, 1817, chap, v.)

461. Tlie gardens of the chiefs of India, now or lately existing, are of tlie same general
cliaracter as those of Persia. " In the gardens belonging to the Mahomedan princes,
which in some parts of India were made at a very great expense, a separate piece of
ground was usually allotted for each kind of plant, the whole being divided into square
plots, separated by walks. Thus one plot was filled with rose-trees, another with pome-
granates, &c. The gardens of tliis sort, most celebrated in India, were those of Ben-
galore and Delhi. The former, belonging to Tippoo, were made by him and his father,
Hyder AH. As Bengalore is very much elevated above the sea, it enjoys a temperate
climate ; and in the royal gardens there were seen not only the trees of the countrj', but
also the cypress, vine, apple, pear, and peach ; both the latter produced fruit. Straw-
berries were likewise raised, and oaks and pine-trees, brought from the Cape of Good
Hope, flourished. Some magnificent palaces and walled gardens {fg. 33.) are mentioned
by Morier and other oriental traveUers ; but all agree in representing their interior in
a state of neglect.

33

ii:£OTtti]KKTOs 4

462. The gardens of Kalimar, near Delhi, which were made in the beginning of the
seventeenth century by the Emperor Shaw Jehan, are said to have cost 1,000,000/!.
sterling, and were about a mile in circumference. Tliey were surrounded by a high
brick wall ; but the whole are now in ruins." {Edin. Encyc. art. India, p. 87.)

463. Of the royal gardens of Shaw Leemar, near Lahore, a city of Hindostan, some
account is given in the Journal of the Royal Institution for July, 1820. " They
diflfer," says the writer, " from the indigenous royal gardens generally found in India, in
belonging to the class of hanging-gardens." Their length is about 500 yards, and their
breadth about 140. They consist of three terraces watered by a stream brought upwards
of sixty miles, and irrigating the country through which it passes. The only thing
worthy of notice is the use of this water in cascades for cooling the air. There are large
trees, including the apple, pear, and mango, a border and island of flowers, among

H 2

100

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part I.

which the narcissus abounds. Captain Benj. Blake, who describes these gardens, in
making excursions in the neighbourhood, " stumbled, as it were, upon a most magnifi-
cent mausoleum, round which was a walled garden of orange and pomegranate trees."

464. The gardens of the islands of Japa7i partake of the same general character as those
of Persia and Hindostan. According to Kaempfer, they display little of taste in design,
but are full of the finest flowers and fruits. " Such," he says, " is the beauty of the
flowers which ornament the hills, the fields, and the forests, that the country may even
dispute the preference in this point with Persia. They transplant the most beautiful of
their wild flowers into the gardens, where they improve them by culture. Colors are the
grand beauties desired both in plants and trees. Chestnut-trees, lemons, oranges, citrons
and peaches, apricots and plums, abound. The sloe, or wild plum, is cultivated on
account of its flowers, which by culture acquire the size of a double rose, and are so
abundant that they cover the whole tree with a snowy surface speckled with blood.
These trees are the finest of their ornaments, they are planted in preference around their
temples : and they are also cultivated in pots or boxes for private houses, as oranges are
in Europe. They plant the summits of the mountains, and both sides of the public
roads, with long rows of fir-trees and cypress, which are common in the country. ITiey
even ornament sandy places and deserts by plantations ; and there exists a law in this
island, that no one can cut down a tree without permission of the magistrate of the place,
and even when he obtains permission, must replace it immediately by another."

465. The gardens of the different African seaports on the Mediterranean, such as
Tangier, Algier, Tunis, Tripoli, &c. have the same general character as those of Persia ;
but inferior in proportion to the degraded state of society in these comparatively barba-
rous places. The author of a Ten Years' residence in Tripoli confirms the remarks
of Chardin and Kaempfer, as to the carelessness with which art lends her aid to nature.
*' In their gardens the Moors form no walks ; only an irregular path is left, which
you trace by the side of white marble channels for irrigation. Their form is gene-
rally square, and they are enclosed by a wall, within which is planted a corresponding
line of palm-trees. The whole is a mixture of beauty and desolation." (Narrative, &c.
p. 52.)

466. The aboriginal horticulture of these countries consists chiefly in the culture of the
native fruits, the variety of which is greater than that indigenous to any other country.
The peach, the mango, all the palm tribe, and, in short, every fruit-tree cultivated in
Persia and India by the natives, is raised from seed, the art of grafting or laying being
unknown. Water is the grand desideratum of every description of culture in this coun-
try. Without it nothing can be done either in agri-
culture or gardening. It is brought from immense
distances at great expense, and by very curious con-
trivances. One mode practised in Persia consists in
forming subterraneous channels at a considerable depth
from the surface, by means of circular openings at cer-
tain distances, through which the excavated material is
drawn up {fig. 34.) ; and the channels so formed, are
known only to those who are acquainted with the country. These conduits are described
by Polybius, a Greek author, who wrote in the second century before Christ ; and Morier
{Jourriey to Persia) found the description perfectly applicable in 1814. Doves' dung is
in great request in Persia and Syria, for the culture of melons. Large pigeon-houses
(/g. 35.) are built in many places, expressly to collect it. The melon is now, as it was

2500 years ago, one of the necessaries of life, and when the prophet Isaiah meant
to convey an idea of the miseries of a famine, he foretold that a cab of doves' dune
wou d be sold for a shekel of silver. The whole province of Syria was formerly famous
tor Its horticultural productions, of which the bunch of grapes brought to Moses by his

Book I. GARDENING IN CHINA. 101

spies {I^umb. xiii. 23.) is a proof; but it has been in a constant state of neglect since it
came into the hands of the Turks, " who, of all nations," as Montesquieu observes, "are
the most proper to enjoy large tracts of land with insignificance."

467. Trees and bushes appear to have been held in superstitious veneration in these
countries as early as the time of Moses, of which the story of the burning bush may be
adduced as a proof There are many other instances mentioned in the Jewish writings,
of attachment to trees, and especially to the oak and plane. Morier, Johnson, and Sir
William Ouseley {Embassy, &c. vol. i.), describe the Persians as often worshipping under
old trees in preference to their religious buildings. The chenar, or p^/ie, is greatly pre-
ferred. On these trees the devotees sacrifice their old clothes by hanging them to their
branches, and the trunks of favorite trees are commonly found studded with rusty nails
and tatters. {Sir WUliam Ousley, App. 1819.) Groves of trees are equally revered in
India, and are commonly found near the native temples and burial-places of the
princes.

Sect. II. Chinese Gardeniiig.

468. We know little of the gardening of China, notwithstanding all that has been written
and asserted on the subject. It does not appear perfectly clear to us, that the difference
between the gardens of Persia and India, and those of China, is so great as has been very
generally asserted and believed. It is evident, that the Cliinese study irregularity and
imitate nature, in attempting to form rocks ; but whether this imitation is carried to
that extent in wood, water, and ground, and conducted on principles so refined as
those given as Chinese by Sir William Chambers, appears very doubtful. With all this,
it must be confessed, there is a distinctive difference between the Chinese style and
every other, though to trace the line of demarcation does not appear practicable in the
present state of our information on the subject.

469. One of the earliest accounts of Chinese gardens was given by Pere le Comte, who,
as well as Du Halde, had resided in the country as a missionary. " The Chinese,"
observes Le Comte {Lettre vi.), " appear still more to neglect their gardens than their
houses. They would consider it as a want of sense to occupy their grounds only in
parterres, in cultivating flowers, and in forming alleys and thickets. The Chinese, who
value order so little in their gardens, still consider them as sources of pleasure, and
bestow some expense in their formation. Tliey form grottoes, raise little hills, procure
pieces of rocks, which they join together with the intention of imitating nature. If they
can, besides these things, find enough of water to water their cabbages and legumes,
they consider, that as to that material they have nothing more to desire, and content
tliemselves with a well or a pond." Olof Toreen, a Swede, who visited China early in
the eighteenth century, and has published an account of his travels, states, " that in the
Chinese gardens are neither seen trees artificially cultivated, nor alleys, nor figured par-
terres of flowers ; but a general confusion of the productions of verdant nature." ( Voyage
if Osbeck to the East Indies and China, 8vo. 1761.)

470. The imperial gardens of China are described in the Lettres Edifiantes et Curieuses,
&c. in a letter dated Pekin, 1743. It was translated by Spence, under the fictitious title
of Sir Harry Beaumont, whom Lord Walpole describes as having " both taste and zeal
for the present style ;" and was published in Dodsley's collection in 1761. These gar-
dens are described to be of vast extent, containing 200 palaces, besides garden-buildings,
mock towns, villages, all painted and varnished, artificial hills, valleys, lakes, and canals ;
serpentine bridges, covered by colonnades and resting-places, with a farm and fields,
where his imperial majesty is accustomed to patronise rural industry, by putting his hand
to the plough, or, as it has been otherwise expressed, " by playing at agriculture once a-
year." Views of these gardens, taken by native artists for the Chinese missionaries, were
sent to Paris about the middle of the eighteenth century, and engravings from them were
published by permission of the court in 1788, in a work entitled Recueils des Plans des
Jardins Chinois. We have examined the plan of the imperial gardens {fg. 36.) with the
utmost care, but confess we can see nothing but a mass of buildings generally forming
squares or courts, backed by peaked hills, and interspersed with pieces of water, sometimes
evidently artificial, and at other times seemingly natural. The first jet-d'eau ever seen
in China was formed in the imperial gardens by Pere Benoit, who went to Pekin as
astronomer. The emperor was transported with it, and instead of astronomer, made the
reverend fatlier the fountaineer.

471. But the national taste of the Chinese in gardening must have had sometliing
characteristic in it, even to general observers; and this character seems. to have been
obscurely known in Europe from the verbal accounts of Chinese merchants or travellers,
in the beginning of the seventeenth century. A proof of this is to be found in Sir
William Temple's Essay, written about the middle of the seventeenth century. He
informs us, that though he recommends regularity in gardens, yet, for any thing he

H 3

102

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part I.

S6

|iiiiiijiiiiy|iii^^c^^.gT:BcJo

ICZ3:

n^^DDQi

knows, there may be moi*e beauty in such as are wholly irregular. " Something of this
sort," he says, " I hare seen in some places, but heard more of it from others, who have
lived much among the Chinese." Referring to their studied irregularity, he adds,
** When they find this sort of beauty in perfection, so as to hit the eye, they say it is
sharawadgi, an expression signifying fine or admirable." It appears from this passage,
that the Chinese style had not only been known, but imitated in England, nearly a cen-
tury previous to the publication of the Jesuit's Letters, and, at least, sixty years
before Kent's time. Sir William Temple retired to East Sheen in 1680, and died in
the year 1700.

472. Sir William Chambers's account of the Chinese style has given rise to much dis-
cussion. This author, afterwards surveyor-general, resided some time at Canton, and
after returning to England, gave a detailed account of Chinese gardening ; first in the
appendix to his Designs of Chinese Buildings, &c. in 1757, and subsequently at greater
length in his Dissertation on Oriental Gardening, in 1772, and commended, as G. Mason
observes, by so good a judge as Gray. Sir William Chambers avows that his
information is not derived entirely from personal examination, but chiefly from the con-
versation of a Chinese painter ; and it has been very reasonably conjectured, that he has
drawn, in some cases, on his own imagination, in order to enhance the reader's opinion
of Chinese taste, with the laudable end of improving that of his own country. In his
essay of 1757, which was published in French as well as English, and was soon trans-
lated, as Hirschfield informs us, into German, he says, " the Chinese taste in laying out
gardens is good, and what we have for some time past been aiming at in England."
With the exception of their formal and continual display of garden-buildings, and their
attempts of raising characters, not only picturesque and pleasing, but also of horror,
surprise, and enchantment. Sir William's directions, especially in his second work, will
apply to the most improved conceptions of planting, and forming pieces of water, in the
modern style ; or, in other words, for creating scenery such as will always resemble, and
often might be mistaken for that of nature. But whatever may be the merits of the
Chinese in this art, it may reasonably be conjectured, that their taste for picturesque
beauty is not so exactly conformable to European ideas on that subject as Sir William
would lead us to believe. Their decorative scenes are carried to such an extreme, so
encumbered with deceptions, and what we would not hesitate to consider puerilities, and
there appears throughout so little reference to utility, that the more mature and chastened
taste of Europeans cannot sympathise with them. Chinese taste is, indeed, altogether
peculiar; it is undoubtedly perfectly natural to that people, and therefore not to be
subjected to European criticism.

473. Lord Walpole's ojnnuni of the Chinese gardens is that they " are as whimsically
irregular as European gardens were formerly uniform and unvaried ; nature in them is
as much avoided as in those of our ancestors." In allusion to those of the emperor's
palace, described in the Lettres Edifantes, he says, «' this pretty gaudy scene is the work

Book I.

GARDENING IN CHINA.

103

of caprice and whim ; and when we reflect on their buildings, presents no image but
that of unsubstantial tawdriness."

474. Lord Macartney* s remarks on these gardens show, that at least picturesque
scenes are seen from thera. " The view," he says, *' from one of the imperial gardens
might be compared to that from the terrace at Lowther Castle." Tliis view is
altogether wild and romantic, and bounded by high uncultivated mountains, with no
other buildings than one or two native cottages. In what degree of estimation such a
view is there held does not, however, appear ; it would be too much to conclude tliat,
because it existed in that situation, it had been created or left on purpose, or was con-
sidered as eminently beautiful or desirable. " It is our excellence," observes his
lordship, " to improve nature ; that of a Chinese gardener to conquer her : his aim is to
change every thing from what he found it. A waste he adorns with trees ; a desert he
waters with a river or a lake ; and on a smooth flat are raised hills, hollowed out valleys,
and placed all sorts of buildings."

475. The description of the gardens of IFoo-yuen in Ellis's Journal of the late
Embassy to China, 1818, is as follows : " We stopped opposite the gardens of Woo-yuen,
which, after a little hesitation on the part of the mandarins, we were allowed to visit.
Although now much neglected, they were interesting as a specimen of Chinese garden-
ing. The Chinese are certainly good imitators of nature, and their piles of rocks are
not liable to the same ridicule as some modern Gothic ruins in England ; indeed they
are works of art on so great a scale, that they may well bear a rivalship with the original :
the buildings are spread over the ground without any attention to effect being produced
by their exterior, unconnected with the scenery ; the object seems to be to furnish pre-
texts for excursions within the enclosure, which is so disposed as to appear more
extensive than it really is. Much labor has been expended upon the walks, which, in
places, resemble mosaic work. These gardens were a favorite resort of Kien-long,
whose dining-room and study were shown to us ; in the latter was a black marble slab,
with a poem inscribed upon it, composed by his majesty, in praise of the garden. The
characters were particularly well executed. The trees in the garden were chiefly the
olea fragrans and some planes." ^.^
(Vol. i. p. 433. )

476. T?ie villa ofPuanke-qua, belonging
to one of the principal hong merchants
of Canton, is interesting as a specimen
of Chinese taste in laying out grounds ;
the great object is to produce as much
variety as possible within a small
space." (Vol. ii. p. 186.)

477. The Fatee gardens at Canton, be-
longing to rich individuals, and the resort
of the fashionables, " consist of straight
walks lined with flower-pots, contain,
ing the curious and beautiful plants of
the country." (VoL ii. p. 186.)

478. A plan of a Chinese gar-
den and dwelling, executed at
forty-five leagues from tlie city
of Pekin, was taken by Stom-
berg, a gardener, who was se-
veral years in that country, and
is given by Kraft in his Plans,
(Plans, &c., partie 2. pi. 95.)
If this plan (fg. 37.) is really
correct, it seems to counte-
nance the idea of the modem
style being taken from that of
the Chinese. The house of the
mandarin, its proprietor, con-
tains an entrance under a tri-
umphal arch (a), barracks or
offices (6), fountains (c), en-
trance-gate for dignified persons
(d), vases of odors (e), oflBcers'
dwellings (f), residences of those
in waiting (g\ fountains (h),
residence of the proprietor (i),
?ipartments for mandarin ladies
{k), triumphal arch (/}, bagnio
and room for sports (m), a pa-

H 4

104

HISTORY OF GARDENING.

Part I.

vilion on a rock (n), building for the practice of archery (o), green-house (p), pleasure-
house (q), and a rock under which the river passes and forms a waterfall (r). {^Kraft,
p. 70.)

479. Horticulhire in China is generally considered to be in an advanced state ; but
we have no evidence that the Chinese are acquainted with its scientific principles, and
especially with the physiology of plants. The climate and soil of so immense a
tract as China, are necessarily various ; and equally so, in consequence, the vegetable pro-
ductions. Besides the fruits peculiar to the country, many of which are unknown to the
rest of the world, it produces the greater part of those of Europe ; but, excepting the
oranges and pomegranates, they are much inferior. The orange was introduced to Eu-
rope from China, and the pine-apple to China from South America, by the Portuguese in
the sixteenth century.

The Chinese are supposed to have a number of culinary vegetables peculiar to themselves. They are said
to cultivate edible plants, even in the beds of their rivers and lakes, and among others, the pi-tsi or vr&iex
chestnut {Scirpus tuberosus, Kox.), which yields tubers of a farinaceous quality and agreeable taste. The,
convolvulus reptans {Lour.) grown in ditches, amaranthus polygamus, and tristis, Sinapis Pekinensis, and
some others used as pot-herbs. They have also a particular variety of brassica, used both as a salad and
in a boiled state. {Abel's Journal.) Le Comte, Du Halde, Eckeberg, and others, praise the manner in
which the Chinese cultivate culinary vegetables, which, they say, are abundant in their gardens, and form
the chief part of the nourishment of the lower orders. They add, however, that the greater part of their
fruits do not equal ours ; either becauite the Chinese are ignorant of the art of improving them, or because
they do not give themselves the trouble. Their grand object is to cultivate corn and rice ; and they are
ignorant of botany. One of the authors of these remarks. Captain Eckeberg, has published, in the
transactions of the academy of sciences of Stockholm, a treatise on the rural economy of this people ; and
Count Lasteyrie has collected what is known on the same subject. The British works, published after
different embassies, contain accounts of their modes of propagation, by inarching and local radication ;
of their dwarfing forest-trees, producing double-fiowers, monstrous unions, and various other exertions,
in the way of conquering nature. It is a singular fact, that with all this practical skill, the Chinese do
not appear to be acquainted with the art of grafting, otherwise than by approach, nor with inoculation.
John Livingston, a corresponding member of the horticultural society at Macao, considers the Chinese
as entirely ignorant of the science both of horticulture and agriculture. They make no attempts to im-
prove on old practices, or spread newly introduced plants, proofs of which are given by referring to the
Fekin Gazette, " an official publication in which all notices relative to any variation or change in
their practices are made public," and to the circumstance of " potatoes and cabbages having been
cultivated in the neighbourhood of Macao for upwards of half a century, and although highly profitable
and productive, yet the method of growing them has not reached Canton, perhaps has not even ex-
tended five miles." It is impossible, this writer observes, to establish any distinction between the
agriculture and horticulture of the Chinese merely from the plan of cultivation, the same ground being
alternately cropped with grain and culinary esculents.

The culture of flowers and plants of o)-natnent seems very general in China. The beautiful varieties
of camellia, azalea, rosa, chrysanthemum, and of various other genera, are well known natives of that
country.

480. Hot-houses- are not unknown in China. Wathen [Journal of a voyage to China, &c.
1814.) describes the villa {fig. 38.) of Pon-qua-qua, a retired merchant and mandarin,
as containing a green-house (a), an aviary (6), a banquetting room open on one side ; a

38

) a tZ

garden with the walks bordered with porcelain pots of orange-trees and camellias • and
an immense Banyan-tree {Ficus Benglmlensis). camellias , ana

Sect. III. Gardming in Anglo-North America, or the United Slates ami BrUUh

Provinces.
^Sl. The use of gardensin North America is very general, though chiefly confined to
horticultural or useful productions. B. M'Mahon, in his\^„.e5can iriXsays^
it^T^ T^ ^'' T-^u ^^^V^^P'^ P^'^gr^^^ in gardening, ornamental planting, and
\^A^.rf T"' which might naturally be expected from an intelligenl happy, and
independent people, possessed so umversally of landed property, unoppressed by taxation
or tithes, and blest with consequent comfort and affluence." (p,.^)^^ ^ ^°"

turTat^"hl^t1cS^r^fColV^S|^^^^^^^

and includes every department to be foundTn our kalendarf ^JT- ^^^^..''^^ appeared in America,

the pine, vine, melon; and other delS fruits anS^^^^^^ growing

ha.e be.„ ab^e .0 glean, .. .„X''£.r,t'r[Se%^„S|a^S^^^^^^^^

I

Book I. GARDENING IN ANGLO-NORTH AMEPTCA. 105

482. Horticulture. — William Coxe of Burlington in New Jersey, in his Vieiu of the
Cultivation of Fruit-trees (Philad. 1817), is of opinion, " that the numerous varieties of
American apples have proceeded from seeds brought there by their European ancestors ;
and that none of the Indian orchards which have been discovered in America, are more
ancient than the first settlement of the Europeans on this continent."

The middle states of America, he says, " possess a climate eminently favorable to the production of the
finer liquor and table apples ; and the limits of that district of country which produces apples of the due
degree of richness and flavor for both purposes are the Mohawk river in New York, and the James river in
Virginia. Apples grow well in other places, but that exquisite flavor for which the Newton pippin and
Esopus Spitzenberg are so much admired, and which has given such high reputation to the cyder from the
Hewe'scrab, the white cAib, the grey-house, winesop, and Harrison, can only be found within the limits
here described. Cold and heat, are equally necessary to the production of a line apple, and neither must
predominate in too great a degree. Some European cyder fruits have recovered their reputation by being
transplanted to the more genial climate of America, where the growth of trees compared with Europe is as
five to three."

The peach, in North Amenjca, Coxe says, is subject to a malady, which no remedy can cure, nor
cultivation avert This is a worm which destroys the roots and trunk of the tree. The only paUiative
is fresh soil {Pr^ace, p. 11."

Plums and cherries are cultivated in the United States, and wood-cuts are given in Coxe's work of the
principal sorts of these fruits, which are chiefly those well known in Britain.

The vine. Dr. Dean observes {New England Georgical Dictionary, in loco Massachusetts, 1797), " mav,
without doubt, be cultivated in every latitude of the North American states. There are wild grapes
[ntis vulpinu) in the neighbourhood of Boston." He has known a good wine made from their juice;
and seen excellent eating grapes produced in the American gardens, without any extraordinary culture.

The melon grows to a large size in the southern states, and ripens even in New England in the common
way of planting, but is not so large nor so early as when raised on dung.

Culinary vegetables. Kingdom states {America, &c. 1820), grow in the same perfection as in England, ex-
cepting the cauliflower and some species of beans. Water-melons, musk-melons, squashes, sweet potatoes,
cucumbers, &c. arrive at great perfection.

Those who wish to grow sugar must go south of 291° j cotton, south of 36° ; and for com the best latitude i«
fixim Sff" to 41°.

The first work after a settlement is to plant a peach and apple orchard, placing the trees alternately. The
peach, being short-lived, is soon removed, and its place covered bv the branches of the apple-trees. {King-
dom, 5.) The seeds of pumpkins are scattered in the field, when planting the com, and no further trouble is
necessary than throwing them into the waggon when ripe. They weigh from thirty to forty pounds each •
and cattle and hogs are fond of them. In Marjland, Virginia, and the neighbouring provinces of the United
States, peaches are propagated invariably from the stone. The fruit is used for feeding hogs, and distilled for
brandy. In Virginia, the prickly pear abounds in the woods, and is reckoned a cooling, grateful fruit
{Braddick in Hort. Trans, vol. ii.)

In Lower Canada, the fruit is neither remarkable for goodness nor cheapness, except strawberries and
raspberries, which are very abundant Apples and pears are sent from Montreal to Quebec, and sell for
about the same price as in England. Oranges and lemons are imported from England, and are sometimes
very scarce. Gooseberries, plums, and melons are plentiful j but currants, cherries, walnuts, and filberts
are scarce. {Kingdom, 97.).

Upper Canada is very fertile. At Montreal are extensive orchards. Here the sugar-maple is abundant,
and pierced for sugar when the sap begins to rise. A tree twenty inches in diameter wiU yield five pounds
of sugar annually, sometimes for thirty years. Pot and pearl ashes are made from the felled trees. Beech
yields at the rate of 2191bs. for lOOOlbs. of ashes, and most other trees less. Sun-flowers are abundant, but
oil is not extracted from them as in the United States. {Kingdom, 92.) A great variety of fruit-trees may be
had at the nursery-gardens at Montreal. The apples from thence are considered superior to any other. The
peach-trees are introduced into the orchards from York to Amherstburgh. Cherries, walnuts, chestnuts,
hickery, hazel, and filbert nuts grow wild j as do gooseberries, strawberries, blueberries, cranberries, and
black currants.

483. Botanic gardening. — America is rich in botany, especially in trees. Dr. Hosack,
in the preface to his Hortus Elginensis, observes, " that, although much has been done by
tlie governments of Great Britain, France, Spain, Sweden, and Germany, in the investi-
gation of the vegetable productions of America ; although much has been accomplished
by the labors of Catesby, Kalm, Wangenheim, Schoepf, Walter, and the Michaux ;
and by our countrjTnen, Clayton, the Bartrams, Golden, Muhlenburg, Marshall, Cutler,
and the learned P. Barton of Pennsylvania, much yet remains to be done in this western
part of the globe." There were in America, at an early period, men who recommended
the necessity of instituting botanic gardens, as Lieutenant-Governor Colden and Dr.
JVIiddleton of New York^ in 1769; and, upon the revival of the medical school in
Columbia college, in 1792, a professor of botany was appointed, and Dr. Milchel was
appointed professor. Dr. Hosack succeeded Dr. Mitchel, and the result was, first, the
latter professor's establishing a botanical garden at his own expense, and afterwards
government purchasing it of him for the benefit of the medical schools of New York, and
it is now known as the New York Botanic Garden.

484. The botanic garden of New York contains twenty acres ; the first catalogue was
published in 1806, and the second, in 1811, containing nearly 4000 species. (Statement
&c. as to the Elgin Botanical Garden, hy Dr. Hosack, New York, 1811.)

485. The first American Flora appeared in 1816, by F. Pursh, a German botanist,
who spent nearly twelve years beyond the Atlantic in botanic travel, and in the manage-
ment of two botanic gardens, the last that of Elgin. From the preface to this work we
are enabled to give the names of the principal botanic gardens in the United States. In
British America there are none. Tlie first gardens Pursh saw were the old established
gardens of M. Marshall, author of a small treatise on the forest-trees of North America.
These were rather on the decline. The botanic garden of J. and W. Bartram on the
banks of the Delaware, near Philadelphia, was founded by their father under the patron-
age of Dr. Fothergill. W. Bartram is author of travels in North and South Carolina,

106 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

and of an introduction to botany. The garden of W. Hamilton, Esq. of Woodlands, is
one of the best in America ; that of Elgin has been already mentioned.

486. Forest-trees. — Michaux's work on the trees of America is the fruit of two voyages,
in 1802 and 1806. The number of trees which in America grow above thirty feet high,
which he has seen and describes, is one hundred and thirty-seven, of which eighty-five
are employed in the arts. In France there are only thirty-seven which rise to that height,
of which eighteen serve to form timber-plantations, and of these seven only are employed
in civil and marine constructions. Michaux acknowledges his obligations to W. Hamil-
ton, " an enlightened amateur of the sciences and arts," who pleases himself in uniting
at his magnificent residence at Woodlands, near Philadelphia, not only all the useful
vegetables of the United States, but those of every country of the world, which may offer
any interest in the arts or in medicine. (Introduction, 10.) From the Transactions of
the Society of Agriculture of New York, we learn, that hawthorn hedges and other live
fences are generally adopted in the cultivated districts ; but the time is not yet arrived
for forming timber-plantations.

Sect. IV. Gardening in Spanish North Ai}j.erica, or Mexico.

487. The gardening of the Mexicans is described by the Abb6 Clavigero, in his History of
Mexico. According to this author, when the Mexicans were brought into subjection to the
Calhuan and Tepanecan nations, and confined to the miserable little islands on the lake,
they ceased for some years to cultivate the land, because they had none until necessity and
industry together taught them to form moveable fields and gardens, which floated on the
waters of the lake. The mode of forming these of wicker-work, water-plants, and mud,
may be easily conceived. The boat or basis is commonly eight perches long by three
broad. They first cultivated the maize and useful plants only, but afterwards " there
were among them gardens of flowers and odoriferous plants, which were employed in
the worship of the gods, and served for the recreation of the nobles." At present they
cultivate flowers, and every sort of garden-herbs upon them, all of which thrive sur-
prisingly. In the largest gardens there is commonly a little tree, and even a little hut
to shelter the cultivator, and defend him from rain or the sun. When the owner of a
garden wishes to change his situation, to remove from a disagreeable neighbour, or come
nearer to his own family, he gets into his little vessel, and by his own strength alone, if
the garden is small, or with aid, if it be large, he tows it after him, and conducts it where
he pleases with the little tree and hut on it. That part of the lake where the gardens
are, is a place of infinite recreation, where the senses receive the highest possible grati-
fication. The Mexicans were extremely well skilled in the cultivation of kitchen and
other gardens, in which they planted, witli great regularity and taste, fruit-trees, and
medicinal plants and flowers. The last of these were much in demand, bunches of
flowers being presented to persons of rank, kings, lords, and ambassadors, and also used
in temples and private oratories.

488. The royal gardens of Mexico and Tezcuco, and those of the Lords of Iztapalapan and
Huantepec, have been much celebrated. One, belonging to the Lord of Iztapalapan was
laid out in four squares, and planted with great variety of trees, through which a number
of roads and paths led, some formed by fruit-bearing trees, and others by espaliers of
flowering shrubs and aromatic plants. It was watered by canals, and had in the centre
a fish-pond four hundred yards in diameter, where innumerable water-fowl resorted.
Hernandez says, this garden contained many foreign trees. The garden of Huantepec
was six miles in circumference, watered by a river, planted with numerous species of trees
and plants beautifully disposed, along with pleasure-houses. Many foreign plants were
cultivated, and every kind of medicinal plant belonging to that clime, for the use of the
hospital which they founded there. Cortez, in a letter to Charles V. in 1522, told him
that this garden was the most extensive, the most beautiful, and most delightful which
Jiad ever been beheld. Bernard Dias and other authors concur in the same opinion.
The Mexicans paid great attention to the preservation of woods, which supplied them
with timber and fuel. {History of Mexico, i. 379.)

489. A conventual garde?i at Mexico is described by Humboldt ( Voyage, &c. liv. iii.
chap. 8.), in 1803, as one of the finest he had ever seen. The convent was a very pic-
turesque building, and in the garden were immense groves of orange-trees, peaches,
apples, cherries, and other fruit-trees of Europe.

490. The royal botanic garden, in the promenade {cours) of the vice-king's palace, Hum-
boldt describes as small, but extremely rich in vegetables, rare, or interesting for industry
and commerce.

491. The floating gardens, or chinampas, mentioned by the Abb^ Clavigero, he says still
€xist. They are of two sorts ; the one mobile and blown here and there by the winds, and
the others fixed and united to the sliore. The former alone merit the appellation of floating,
and they are diminishing day by day. He assigns to them the same origin as the Abb6
Clavigero ; but thinks it probable that nature also may have suggested the first idea.

Book X. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH COLONIES, &c. I07

and gives instances of small pieces of surface netted with roots and covered with plants being
detached from the marshy shores of other American lakes, and floating about in the water.
The bean, pea, apple, artichoke, cauliflowers, and a great variety of other culinary plants
are cultivated on them. In tlie ninth chapter of Humboldt's work wiU be found an
ample account of the useful plants of Mexico. It is singular, that the potatoe, which
one would have imagined should have been introduced from the southern continent to
Mexico, should have been first carried there from Old Spain. It is not, Humboldt
says, a native of Peru, nor to be found between latitudes 12^ and 50°. In Chili it has
been cultivated for a long series of ages, where there is a wild sort with bitter roots.

Sect. V. Gardening in South America,

492. Gardening appears to be little known in South America, excepting in the Euro-
pean colonies. It is the country, however, of some of our most valuable culinary pro-
ductions, as the potatoe ; of the most exquisite fruits, as the pine-apple and Cherimoyer;
and of many of our most beautiful flowers, as the dahlia. There is a species of Chili
pine (Araucaria), which is considered the largest tree in the world : it has an erect stem,
and the seeds are a farinaceous food, and as large as chestnuts. This tree, it is thought,
may yet be acclimated, and clothe our northern mountains. The whole of South
America is rich in vegetable productions, many of which are unknown in Europe ; but
there are now a number of collectors in that country, for the purposes of botany and
horticulture.

Sect. VI. Gardening in the British Colonies, and in other Foreign Settlements of
European Nations.

493. Gardening cannot be displayed to much advantage in distant and precarious ter-
ritorial ajrpendages, where the object is most frequently to acquire the means of return-
ing to garden at home. In permanent settlements, however, such as the Cape of Good
Hope, Van Diemen's Land, &c. gardening will be resorted to as an art of necessity.

494. The gardening of any colony 7i'ill always resemble that of the parent country. It
is evident, that wherever a people establish themselves, they will also establish, in part,
their arts or manners. All colonists carry with them the seeds of the useful vegetables,
which they have been accustomed to cultivate ; and subsequently they attempt to intro-
duce the more delicate or luxurious fruits and flowers.

495. The JBuropean governments have established colonial botanic gardens wherever their
utility has been made apparent ; and in this, as well as in the ornamental part of garden-
ing, it is but fair to state, that the French and Dutch have been before England in point of
time, as well as in point of excellence. The Dutch had a fine government garden at the
Cape of Good Hope, and another at Batavia in the middle of the seventeentli century.
The French had a garden in Cayenne, in 1630. The first colonial botanic garden esta-
blished by the English, was that of Jamaica, about 1 780. It must also be confessed,
that our botanic gardens have hitherto been less useful to horticulture than the govern-
ment or residence-gardens, and the botanical gardens of the Dutch ; because in these
last, useful plants are the principal objects ; whereas in ours, number of species is, or
seems to be, most attended to. Horticulture, in civilised countries, may be deemed suf-
ficiently protected and encouraged by its own immediate contributions to the wants and
desires of mankind ; but in barbarous countries every art requires protection at the first
establishment of a colony. Perhaps there is no way in which man in a civilised state
can promote the progress of rude society more, than by introducing new and useful fruits
and herbs. The numerous vegetables now used in the domestic economy of civilised
society have been collected from various and opposite parts of the globe. Where would
be the enjoyments of a European table, if they depended on our native herbs and fruits ?
Europe in this respect is under great obligations to Persia and Egypt ; and tliese coun-
tries, and many others of Asia, Africa, and America, are now in their turn receiving
great benefits from the colonies of Europeans who settle on them.

496. As examples of the use of gardening in colonisation, we may refer to the Cape of
Good Hope, which possesses at present all the best culinary productions and fruits of
Europe and Asia. Till 1660, that the Dutch established a colony there, it had no
other fruits than the chestnut, a nut like the wild almond, and what is called the wild
plum ; and no culinary plants but a sort of vetch. The first shipment of convicts was
landed at Sydney Cove in 1789, and since tliat period, every horticultural product of
Britain has been introduced there, and cultivated, with one or two exceptions, in the
greatest perfection.

497. The influence of gardening comforts, together vAxh instruction, on uncivilised
countries, both as to society and climate, and finally on the whole globe itself, cannot be
foreseen. The now trackless deserts of arid sand in Africa, may be destined at some future
age to be watered and cultivated by the superfluous population of the other quarters of
the world. The evj^ration and coolness produced by a surface cultivated chiefly by irri-

108 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Pari I.

gation, may effect a material diange in the climate, and millions of human beings may
live and exert their energies where civilised man at present scarcely dares to tread.

498. Examples of British, Dutch, and French gardening, in different colonies, will be
found in the West Indies, East Indies, Ceylon, Cape of Good Hope, New South
Wales, Van Diemen's Land, Cayenne, and Malta.

499. IVest India Islands. The native products of these islands are various and ex-
cellent, and they have been greatly increased by fruits and spices, introduced from the
East Indies and other places. Among these it may be sufficient to mention the pine-
apple, bread-fruit, mangostan, durion and cinnamon. There is a large botanic garden
at St. Vincents, and others at Trinidad and Martinique, supported by their respective go-
vernments. There was formerly one of seventy acres in Jamaica, of which some particulars
deserve here to be recorded. " The botanic garden of Jamaica was originally begun by
J. Hinton, Esq., and afterwards bought by government, and enlarged so as to contain
seventy acres. One of the objects of its establishment was to preserve, without artificial
means, the production of various climates. Such a project could only be executed in a
tropical latitude, where the variojis elevations of the ground would regulate the required
temperature. The site chosen for this purpose is about seven miles from Kingston,
on the side of the Liguanea mountain, the summit of which is 3600 feet above the level
of tlie sea. Here, ascending from the base, are found the productions of the various
countries of tlie earth ; every change of situation represents a change of latitude, and the
whole surface of the mountain may be clothed with the appropriate vegetations of every
cliinate, from the pole to the equator. By means of this noble and useful establishment,
the vegetable productions of various climes have been naturalised to tlie soil, and the
plantations of Jamaica have been enriched with many valuable trees, shrubs, and plants,
which were heretofore unknown in the island ; of these may be mentioned cinnamon,
mangostan, mangoes, sago, bread-fruit, star-apple, camphor, gum-arabic, sassafras, &c.
introduced from a French ship captured in 1782." {Edivards's Jamaica, 188.) In tlie
year 1812, the whole was sold by the House of Assembly, for the small sum of
4000/. to an apothecary in Kingston. It is impossible to avoid regretting such a cir-
cumstance. Some account of the garden of St. Vincents will be found in the Trans-
actions of the Society of Arts. Pine-apple plants, and also ripe fruits, are frequently sent
from the West Indies to Europe, and arrive commonly in a fit state for planting and the
dessert.

500. East Indies. Bengal, the province longest under British subjection, resembles
Egypt, in consisting of one immense plain of fertile soil, watered by the Ganges, which
overflows it annually. Calcutta, the capital, has been subject to the English since
1 765, but it does not appear that much has been yet done by the East India Company,
in the way of gardening.

" In the park at Barrackpoor, about sixteen miles from the capital, are the unfinished arches of a house
begun by the Marquis of Wellesley, but discontinued by the frugality of the Court of Directors. There is
also a menagerie, and not far distant the botanic garden. Very picturesque villas and cottages have
been formed by the British in most of the East Indian settlements. We may cite, as an example. Dr.
M'Kinnon's cottage {fig. 39.), in the neighbourhood
of Madras. It is thatched with palm-leaves.
Town-houses and large country-houses are com-
monly flat-roofed; and the roof shaded by an
awning, serves as a banquetting-place.

jThe botanic garden of Calcutta was founded in
1790, it is beautifully situated on the west bank of
the river, and gives to one of its bendings, the
name of Garden-reach. Above the garden there
is an extensive plantation of teak, a tree not a
native of this part of India, but which thrives well
here. This garden was under the direction of Dr.
Roxburgh, well known as the author of a work on
the plants of Coromandel. Maria Graham {Let-
ters from India) describes it as ricli in palms, mi-
mosas, and parasitic plants, and as neatly kept.
Seeds from this garden are sent annually to Kew
and other European gardens ; as weU as to various
British settlements in the East, as Ceylon, &c.

The orchard of Bengal is what chiefly contributes
to attach the peasant to his native soil. He feels a
superstitious veneration for the trees planted by his ancestors, and derives comfort and profit from their
fruit. Orchards of mango-trees diversify every part of this immense country ; the palmira abounds in
Bahar. The cocoa-nut thrives in those parts which are not remote from the tropic. The date-tree
grows every where, but especially in Bahar. Plantations of the areca, or Betfel-palm, are common in the
central parts of the country.

The culinary vegetables of Europe have all been introduced into India. Potatoes grown there are deemed
equal in quality to those of England. Asparagus, cauliflower, pease, and other esculent plants, are raised,
but they are comparatively tasteless.

The dessert of Europeans in Calcutta, is distinguished by a vast profusion of most beautiful fruits, pro-
cured at a very moderate expense, such as pine-apples, plantains, mangoes, pomeloes or shadocks, melons
of all sorts, oranges, custard-apples, guavas, peaches, and an endless variety of other orchard-fruits.

Forest-trees do not naturally abound in Bengal ; the teak-tree {Tectona grandis) is the oak of the East,
and grows in abundance in the hilly kingdoms of Birman and Begum, whence Calcutta is supplied for
the purposes of naval architecture. Whether it shaU be found worth while to cultivate this tree in
Bengal, appears very doubtful. The bamboo is the timber used in the general economy of the country.

Hedges of native armed plants are occasionally used round gardens, orchards, and small enclosures.

•Book I. GARDENING IN THE BRITISH COLONIES, &c. 109

501. Ceylon. All the productions of Hindostan are said to thrive here. General
Macdowal, with the assistance of Dr. Roxburgh of Calcutta, made a valuable collec-
tion of exotics, which he left at Columbo in 1804. He introduced peaches, grafted
and trained on espaliers, which bore at three years old. Gardeners, in hot climates,
Cordiner obs«»rves {Account of Ceylon, vol. ii. p. 387.), are much perplexed by the trees
which are deciduous in Europe, retaining their leaves all the year. Apples and aspara-
gus succeeded well in this climate. The country is rich in botany, and abounds in
palm-trees and plantains. Cordiner describes the cinnamon-groves as delightful.
*' Notliing can exceed the luxury of riding through them in the cool hours of the morn-
ing, when the air is cool and the sweetness of the spring blended with the glow of
summer. Every plant in the garden is at all times clothed with fresh and lively green,
and when the cinnamon laurels put forth their flame-colored leaves and delicate blossoms
the scenery is exquisitely beautiful. The fragrance, however, is not so powerful as
strangers are apt to imagine. The cinnamon-bark affords no scent when the trees are
growing in tranquillity, and it is only in a few places that the air is perfumed with the
delicious odor of other shrubs, the greater proportion of the flowers and blossoms of
India being entirely destitute of that quality. Gentle undulations in the ground, and
clumps of majestic trees, add to the picturesque appearance of the scene ; and a person
cannot move twenty yards into a grove without meeting a hundred species of beautiful
plants and flowers springing up spontaneously. Several roads for carriages make vrind-
ing circuits in the woods, and numerous intersecting foot-paths penetrate the deepest
thickets. In sauntering amidst these groves, a botanist or a simple lover of nature may
experience the most supreme delight which the vegetable creation is capable of affording,
and the zoologist will not be less gratified by the variety, the number, and the strange-
ness of many of the animal kingdom." The Cingalese, as we have noticed (5.), lay
claim to the situation of paradise, and one of the animals peculiar to the country, the
Loris Ceylonicus, Fischeri (Jig. 40.), has been con-
sidered by some philosophers as aboriginal man.
(Cordiner s Ceylon, vol. ii. p. 421.) The agricul-
ture and gardening of the native Cingalese may be
considered as one art, the objects of culture being
edible roots, as the yam and grains, and spices, as
the rice and pepper. Ample details are given by
Dr. Davy in his Account, ^-c. of Ceylon.

502. Cai^e of Good Hope. A very fine garden
was formed here by the Dutch about the middle of
the seventeenth century, which is described in
Lachman's Travels of the Jesuits (vol. i. let. 37.),
and thus noticed by Sir William Temple. " It
contained nineteen acres, was of an oblong figure,
very large extent, and divided into four quarters, by
long and cross walks, ranged with all sorts of
orange-trees, lemons, limes, and citrons ; each of
these four quarters is planted with the trees, fruits,
flowers, and plants, that are native and proper to each of the four parts of the world ;
so as in this one inclosure are to be found the several gardens of Europe, Asia, Africa,
and America. There could not be, in my mind, a greater thought of a gardener, nor a
nobler idea of a garden, nor better suited or chosen for the climate." Father de Premare
says, " it is one of the most beautiful spectacles in the world ;" and indeed it is not easy
for a mere European traveller to conceive the magnificence of palm-trees and plantains
in their native climates. Whether this garden still exists, we have not been able to learn,
but as it doubtless contributed to introduce the horticultural productions of Europe to
this part of the globe, it deserves to be remembered with gratitude to its founders.

7%(? oniu indi<renous fruits of the Cape are ihk Cissus capensis and a species of Euclea. Those that have
been introduced into the colony are the grape, apple, cherr\', plum, peach, nectarine, apncot, fig,
orange, lemon, citron, pomegranate, almond, mulberry, guava, melon, and in short all the fruits esteemed
by Europeans. No grapes of Europe are considered preferable to those of this colony. The colony of
Capetown consists chiefly of vine-growers. They are of French extraction, possess farms of about ISi)
English acres, and the culture of the grape, with an elegant garden, generally occupies the whole. The
lands are surrounded and divided by oak and quince hedges ; and the vines, cultivated as in France and
Germany, have the appearance of plantations of raspberries. The Cape-market is nchly supplied from
these gardens. Between Table Bay and False Bay, are the two farms producing the Constantia wine^
Here most of the above fruits thirive ; but gooseberries, currants, plums, and cherries do not succeed

Tfie ornamental plants of the Cape are well known ; to them we are indebt-ed for almost all our heaths,
ixias, diosmas, pelargoniums, and many other genera. {Kingdom's British Colonies, p. 81.)

503. New South Wales. There are two colonies established in this extensive territory
and its adjoining islands; the one at Sydney, in 1788, and the other at Van Diemen's
Land some years afterwards. The botanical riches of New South Wales, and the singu-
lar aspect of the native plants, are well known. There are gardeners and botanists esta-

no HISTORY OF GARDENING. Pakt I.

blished in and near Sydney, who collect seeds for England, and other parts of Europe ;
and it is in contemplation to establish a government botanic garden there, which will
doubtless be of essential service in collecting and preserving native plants. The climate
and soil of both settlements are favorable for horticulture. Potatoes, cabbages, carrots,
parsnips, turnips, and every species of vegetable known in England, are produced
in this colony. The cauliflower and broccoli, and the pea, arrive to greater perfection
than in Europe ; but the bean and potatoe degenerate. The climate is too hot for the
bean, and the potatoe is only grown to advantage on new lands.

New South Wales is famed for the variety of its introduced fruits ; peaches, apricots, nectarines,
oranges, grapes, pears, plums, figs, pomegranates, raspberries, strawberries, and melons of all sorts, attain
the highest degree of maturity in the open air ; and even the pine-apple may be produced merely by the
aid of the common glass frame. The climate of Port Jackson, however, is not altogether congenial to the
growth of the apple, currant, and gooseberry, although the whole of these fruits are produced there, and
the apple in particular m very great abundance ; but it is decidedly inferior to the apple of Britain. In
Van Diemen's Land these fruits arrive at the greatest perfection ; and as the climate of the country to
the westward of the Blue Mountains is equally cold, they will, without doubt, attain there an equal
degree of excellence. Of all the fruits which are thus enumerated, as being produced in the colony, the
peach is the most abundant and the most useful. The different varieties which have been already intro-
duced succeed one another in uninterrupted succession from the middle of November to the latter end of
March, thus filling up an interval of more than four months, and affording a wholesome and nutritious
article of food during one-third of the year. The tree thrives in all soils and situations, and its growth is
80 rapid, that if you plant a stone, it will, in three years afterwards, bear an abundant crop. The fruit is
the food of hogs, and when thrown into heaps, and allowed to undergo a proper degree of fermentation,
is found to fatten them very rapidly. Cyder is also made from itj and the lees also fatten hogs.
{Kingdom's British Colonies, p. 264.)

504. Van Diemen's Land. This settlement does not contain either such a variety or
abundance of fruit as the parent colony. The greater coldness of the climate
sufficiently accounts for the former deficiency, and the recency of its establishment
for the latter. The orange, citron, guava, loquat, pomegranate, and other fruits, which
attain the greatest perfection at Port Jackson, cannot be produced here without having
recourse to artifical means ; while others, as the peach, nectarine, grape, &c. only arrive
at a very inferior degree of maturity. On the other hand, the apple, currant, and goose-
berry, and indeed all those fruits for which the climate of New South Wales is too
warm, are raised here without difficulty. {Kingdom's British Colonies, p. 300. )

505. Cayenne. The French have a botanic garden, and several fine private gardens in
the fertile colony of Cayenne. A very interesting account of this colony and its pro-
ductions, natural and artificial, will be found in the Maison Rmtique de Cauenne,
published by Prefontaine in 1763.

506. Malta. There is a small botanic garden on tliis island, supported by the govern-
ment; and a late governor, Sir A. Balls, is said {Letters from Malta, 1817) to have
established public gardens at every village for the employment of the poor, and the
dissemination of useful seeds and plants among the farmers. No success attended this
measure, from mismanagement, as it is said, in the curators. Great part of Malta was
originally little better than a bare limestone-rock ; but this rock is full of cracks or
vertical fissures, which are filled with calcareous soil washed down from the surface.
This is dug up by the inhabitants, and re-spread over the surface ; and by means of
irngation and careful culture, the cotton-plant is grown as an article of general economy.
In the more fertile part of the island, the orange-tribe are grown, and the Maltese, or
red-fleshed orange, being a variety in much esteem, there is some demand for young
trees as articles of foreign commerce. These trees are more scientifically trained and
inoculated than those of Genoa.

BOOK II.

GARDENING CONSIDERED AS TO ITS PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE UNDER DIFFERENT
POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CIRCUMSTANCES.

507. Every art must he affected ly the government under ivhich it is exercised, either
directly by its laws and institutions, or indirectly by the state of society as modified by
their influence. Gardening and agriculture differ from other arts in being still more
affected by climates than by governments ; the influence of the latter is temporary or
accidental, while that of the former is absolute and unchangeable.

Chap. I.
Gardening as affected by dfferent Forms of Government, Religions, and States of Society.

508. All governments may be reduced to two classes; the primitive, or those where the
people are governed by the will or laws of one or a few persons independently of the

[Book II. GARDENING UNDER DIFFERENT GOVEJRNMENXa 111

people ; and the rational, or those where they are governed by laws formed by a congre-
gated assemblage of their own body. The former are calculated for rude and ignorant
ages, when man, in a state of infancy, is governed by a king, as children are ruled by
tlieir parents; the latter, for more enlightened times, when a people, like children
arrived at manhood, are capable of tliinking for themselves and acting in concert.

509. Societ!/ is either fxed or free. In a fixed state, pro})erty is hereditary, and one
part of the people are perfectly independent, and the other dependent ; in a frcQ state,
men may belong to either class, according to their talents and the chances of life. In
the former case, a man's condition in society depends on chance; in the latter on chance
and skill combined.

Sect. I. Gardening as affected by different Fonns of Gova-nmenl and Religiitn.

510. Gardening as an art furnishing a part of the necessaries oflfe, may be practised
under any form of government ; and wherever there is some liberty and security of
property, its productions of necessity and comfort will ensure its use. Wherever
civilised man has a house, he will always have an accompanying spot for roots and
legumes; and wherever he enjoys a farm, he will desire orchards or vineyards for
fruits or wine, and copse-woods and forest-trees for fuel and timber: shelter, shade,
and ornament will follow in due time. Under paternal forms of government, tlie taste
of the monarch will generally be indiscriminately followed by such of his subjects as
can indulge in it; and thus fashion will assume the province of reason. Such a
government must be favorable or unfavorable to the arts, according to the taste of its
chief. Monarchs generally love splendor more than elegance or use ; and in gardening
are less likely to render its useful productions common among their subjects, than to
increase the luxurious enjoyments of a few wealtliy courtiers. This was exemplified in
Louis XIV., who set the fashion not only in France but in Europe ; but never, in all
probability, added a foot of ground to the garden of a single cottager, or placed an
additional cabbage or potatoe on his table. Under republican governments , the first
tendency of public feeling is to economy, and consequently to discourage those arts, or
branches of arts, which minister to luxurj'. Gardening, under such circumstances,
will be practised as a useful art, rather than one of design and taste ; and more for its
substantial benefits and scientific objects, than for its extraordinary productions and
peculiar gratifications. In the beginning of the French revolution, we find the com-
pilers of the Encyclopaedia (see the vol. sur VAratoire et Jardinage) holding light the
productions of forcing-houses, and the taste for double flowers. In America, the same
simplicity of taste prevails, and also in Switzerland.

511. Gardening in all its branches will be most advantageously displayed where the
people are free. The final tendency of every free government or society is to conglome-
rate property in irregular masses, as nature has distributed all her properties ; and this
irregularity is the most favorable for gardening both as a necessary, convenient, and
elegant art. A republican or representative government and a commercial people may-
be reckoned a case highly favorable to the arts, of which Holland, Genoa, and Venice,
formerly, and this country, at present, may be adduced as examples. Under mixed
governments, where there is a representative body, and a first or executive magistrate, his
taste will naturally have considerable influence on that of the people, as in Charles the
Second's time in England; unless, as sometimes happens, the king or executive oflScer's
taste is behind that of the people, in which case if the people be free and enlightened, the
arts of design and taste will, as they ought, become a republic, governed by its own
laws. Tliis last state has in some degree taken place in England since the accession of
the Brunswick line, a fine illustration of which is given by Eustace {Tour, i. 608.), in
comparing the taste exhibited in the royal palaces built or altered by this race, with that
displayed in the residences of private English gentlemen since the revolution.

512. The religion of a people is calculated to have some effect on their gardening. Those
religions whose offices are accompanied by splendor and show, and which have numerous
fetes and spectacles, will be favorable to the culture of flowers and plants of ornament;
and those which forbid, at certain seasons, the use of animal food, will in some degree
encourage the production of fruits and culinary vegetables. Where those alternating
days of rest, of such antiquity in society and so conducive to the comfort of the
laboring classes, {Graham's Sabbath, Fref) are to be spent wholly or partly in recreative
enjoyments, encouragement will be given to public gardens of different kinds ; but
where they are to be spent in a devotion founded in fear, and consequently gloomy and
austere jn its offices, such a religion cannot be said to encourage gardening. The
religions of Italy and Scotland afford examples of each of these cases.

Sect. II. Gardening as affected by different States of Society.

513. In mixed states of society, where ]iroperty is in few hands, and the population
consists chiefly of lords of the soil and of slaves, the immensely rich may accomplish

U2 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

great designs, which shall astonish by their magnificence ; but taste among such a people
is not likely to be refined ; works of art are only prized as marks of wealth ; their merit
is not understood, and therefore, declining in interest after the first burst of surprise, they
are soon viewed with indifference, and afterwards neglected or destroyed. Gardening,
in such circumstances, is not likely to be improved in any of its branches, nor the use of
gardens rendered general among any part of the population. Russia and Poland may
be referred to as examples.

514. In free states of society, where commerce is a leading pursuit, and property is irregu-
larly distributed among all classes ; where there are wealthy, rich, and thriving citizens,
and where the comforts of life are known and relished by every class, gardening is likely
to prosper in all its branches. The first-rate gardens of the wealthy will be an example
to the rich, act as a premium to operative gardeners and artists, and encourage commer-
cial gardens. The fine gardens displayed by the wealthy commercialist will act as a
stimulus to the independent gentleman, too apt to be stationary in his improvements.
The retiring tradesman will aspire to the same excellence as the merchant, and stimulate
him in his turn. Cottage-gardens will be found real ornaments to the country, and
supply useful food and agreeable fruits to the laboring class of society, who, as they
become more enlightened, will prefer employing their leisure hours in this way, rather
than in grosser pleasures or habits. This was formerly the state of Holland, and is, in
some degree, at present, that of Britain.

515. In free states of society, where agriculture is chiefly followed, where property con-
tinues much divided, and mankind, as will always be the case under such circumstances,
are sober and rational, the useful branches of gardening will be generally practised
and much improved. Wholesome culinary vegetables will be enjoyed by all classes,
and agreeable fruits by most of the inhabitants. Switzerland may be referred to as an
example.

516. Times of peace and commercial jrrosperity, under any government or state of society,
will be more favorable than their opposites. The long and flourishing peace of the two first
empires. Sir W. Temple observes, gave earlier rise and growth to learning and civilisation,
and all the consequences of them, in magnificence and elegancy of building and gardening ;
whereas Greece and Rome were almost perpetually engaged in quarrels and wars, either
abroad or at home, and so were busy in actions done under the sun, rather than those under
the shade.

517. In mixed states of society, where a part of the population are privileged orders or
hereditary projmetors, and the rest partly free and partly dependent, gardening is likely
to be encouraged, more especially as an art of design. The proprietor of an entailed
territory may be said to enjoy a sort of tangible immortality ; for by establishing in his
person and estate a sort of local and corporeal connection between his ancestry and pos-
terity, he sees neither beginning nor ending to his life and property. Such a being is
anxious to distinguish his little reign by some permanent improvement ; and those which
are most likely to answer his purpose will be building or gardening. However distant
the expected benefits of his efforts, they are sure to be enjoyed ; and even if he exceeds
his income, and contracts debts which he cannot pay, he knows that the labor and pro-
perty of others, which he has embodied on his estate, will remain for its benefit, and that
posterity will give him credit for zeal and ambition. But partial rights of this sort are
much more injurious than beneficial to society, by giving the privileged party a legal
title to contract debts which he is not able to pay. They are remains of those feudal
or primitive institutions which, as mankind become enlightened, will be swept away,
with various other antiquated customs and absurdities, till man at last, whatever may be
the circumstances of fortune or family under which he may be ushered into society, will
be left to sink or rise in wealth and respect, according to his personal merits. Though
the nobility of Britain have fewer exclusive privileges than those on the continent, yet
there are not wanting instances of these privileges being abused ; and as an example of
a man creating sumptuous gardens and forming fine collections of plants, without being
able to pay for them, or liable to be put to personal inconvenience on that account, we
may refer to George, the third duke of Marlborough.

Chap. XL
Gardening as affected by different Climates, Habits of Life, and Manners.

518. All gardening is relative to climate a7id purpose. It is obvious that gardening, in
so far as respects the culture of plants, must differ in different climates, some of which
will be found favorable for fruits, others for flowers, for culinary vegetables, and for
timber-trees. Considered as an art of design, and as furnishing agreeable views, and

Book II. IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES. 11$

scenes for exercise or recreation, it will be found to vary, not only with the climate, but
with the surface of the country, and the habits and manners of society.

Sect. I. Influence of Climate^ in respect to Fruits, culinary Plants, Flowers, Timber-trees,
and horticultural Skill.

519. The gardening of every country must vary according to the climate; and the
practice of the art in one country cannot be applied to any other, unless that other greatly
resemble the former in climate. " Useful hints," Neill observes, '* may no doubt be
occasionally drawn from observing the modes in other countries. But it is scarcely
necessary to remark, that in warm climates tlie practice must differ very widely from that
which obtains in the temperate or the cold. In the former, the plants which require to
be fostered in our stoves, either grow spontaneously, or are cultivated in tlie open fields,
while the greater part of our common pot-herbs refuse to flourish in sultry regions.
Again, the far northern countries of Europe, Sweden, Norway, and Russia, possess
peculiarities of climate : snow covers the soil tliroughout the winter, and the summers are
uninterruptedly bright and warm. Even in Britain, such is the difference of climate
between the favored countries of tlie south-west of England, and that part of the island
which lies to the north of the Cheviot Hills, that the same rules cannot be applied to both,
without very considerable modification. The horticulture of the north of France, of
Belgium, Holland, and Denmark, may, in general, be considered as approaching to
that of South Britain ; and these countries may frequently afford mutual lessons to each
other, each availing itself of the other's discoveries, and adopting its improvements."

520. The finest climate for fruits, according to Sir William Temple, is that of Assyria,
Media, and Persia. " Those noble fruits, the citron, the orange, and the lemon, are
the native product of those noble regions, and though they have been from tlience trans-
planted and propagated in many parts of Europe, yet they have not arrived at such per-
fection in beauty, taste, or virtue, as in tlieir native soil and climate." " The reason of
it can be no other than that of an excellent and proper soil being there extended under
the best climate for the production of all sorts of the best fruits ; which seems to be from
about twenty-five to about thirty-five degrees of latitude. Now the regions under this
climate in the present Persian empire (which comprehends most of tlie other two, called
anciently Assyria and Media,) are composed of many provinces, full of great and fertile
plains, bounded by high mountains, especially to the north ; watered naturally with many
rivers, and those, by art and labor, divided into many more and smaller streams, which
all conspire to form a country, in all circumstances, the most proper and agreeable for
the production of the best and noblest fruits. Whereas, if we survey the regions of the
western world, lying in the same latitude, between twenty-five and thirtj'-five degrees,
we shall find them extend either over the Mediterranean sea, the ocean, or the sandy
barren countries of Africa ; and that no part of the continent of Europe lies so southward
as thirty-five degrees ; which may serve to discover the true reason why the fruits of the
east have been always observed, and agreed to transcend those of the west." " Persia,"
Chardin observes, *' is the first country of the world for beautiful and superb flowers,
properly so called." The same observation will apply to the whole of India ; but it is to
be observed, that the flowers of these and other hot and dry countries are less odoriferous
than in such as are temperate, and have a comparatively moist atmosphere. Moisture is
favorable for conveying all odors, or, at least, for strengthening their impression on the
olfactory nerves.

521. The Tnost suitable climate for culinary or herbaceous vegetables is one temperate and
moist ; and in this respect Holland, England, and the more temperate parts of France
and Flanders are before the rest of Europe. Sir William Temple, who lived much in
Holland and the adjoining countries, says gardening, in his time, was there in the greatest
perfection. The second country in Europe for culinary gardening and flowers, appears
to us to he Lombardy ; and considering that it is highly favorable for fruits, it may, as
already observed, be considered the most propitious country in Europe for horticulture
and ornamental gardening. There appear to be also corresponding situations in America,
China, and New Holland, especially in the latter country which may one day become a
second America. Wherever the fruit of the gooseberry and strawberry, and the bulb of
the turnip and the head of the cabbage attain a good size, there the climate may be con-
sidered highly favorable to the growth of kitchen-crops, most kernel-fruits of Europe,
and florist*' flowers ; but a warmer and drier climate is required for the richer stone-
fruits, and most of those of the torrid zone.

522. The most suitable climate for timber-trees, when durability is an object, is a dry
and rather elevated region. The resinous tribe produces the best timber in cold moun-
tainous regions in every part of the globe. The oak, the chestnut, and the mahogany,
delight in strong soils and moderate temperatures, such as skirt the bottoms of mountains.
In general, no species of timber is found to be durable which has been produced in low,
moist, warm situations.^

114 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

523. Climates highly favorable for the jyTodttcttons of gardening, are often U7 favorable
to the jrrogress of the art. In Persia and some parts of America, where the finest peaches
are produced, the art of grafting is unknown or not practised ; and, in general, in the
hot countries, where melons, gourds, and other rapid-growing annuals so readily produce
their fruit, the culture of culinary leaves and legumes is neglected. In the West India
islands and great part of America, the gourd serves the purposes of the cabbage, turnip,
lettuce, and spinach, and with garlic, onions, and yams, constitutes tlieir principal culi-
nary crops. Chardin, after enumerating the natural products of Persia, says, " we are
not to conclude from thence that they have the finest gardens in the world ; on the
contrary, by a very general rule, there, where nature has been most abundant and liberal
in her productions, art is proportionably rude and unknown ; for, nature having gardened
so well, almost nothing is left for art."

524. Climates and soils comparatively unfavorable for fruits and plants, are naturally
conducive to skill in gardening. A very variable and unsettled climate, Neill observes
(Gen. Report of Scotland, ch. ix.), tends to call into action all the powers of the mind,
and to produce habits of increasing attention ; and where a gardener is able to raise
tolerable crops, both of the more tender fruits and vegetables, in climates and situations
adverse to the production of either, be has doubtless more real merit in accomplishing
his object, even though the articles should be somewhat inferior in quality, than he who,
in a propitious soil and climate, raises them to the utmost perfection. Yet the merits of
puch a gardener are often overlooked, and the master, through ignorance or indifference,
or a niggardly penuriousness of approbation, receives tliat as an effort of mechanical
routine, which is due to a rare union of science, skill, and indefatigable attention.

525. The climate and couiitry of England, Sir W. Temple considers as highly favor-
able for gardening. " Perhaps few countries," he says, " are before us in the uMmber
of our plants, and I believe none equals us in a variety of fruits, which may be justly
called good, and from the earliest cherry and strawberry to the last apples and pears,
may furnish every day of the circling year. For the taste and perfection of what we
esteem the best, I may truly say that the French, who have eaten my peaches and grapes
at Shene, in no very ill year, have generally concluded, that the last are as good as any
they have eaten in France on this side Fontainbleau : and the first as good as any they
have ate in Gascony ; I mean those which come from the stone, and are properly called
peaches, not those which are hard, and are termed pavies ; for these cannot grow in too
warm a climate, nor ever be good in a cold, and are better at Madrid than in Gascony
itself. Italians have agreed, my white tigs to be as good as any of that sort in Italy,
which is the earlier kind of white fig there ; for in the latter kind and the blue, we cannot
come near the warm climates, no more than in the Frontignan or Muscat grape. My
orange-trees are as large as any I saw when I was young in France, except those of
Fontainbleau, or what I have since seen in the Low Countries, except some very old
ones of the Prince of Orange's ; as laden with flowers as can well be, as full of fruit as
I suffer or desire them, and as well tasted as are commonly brought over, except the
best sorts of Seville and Portugal. And thus much I could not but say in defence of
our climate, which is so much and so generally decried abroad. — Tlie truth is, our
climate wants no heat to produce excellent fruits ; and the default of it is only the short
season of our heats and summers, by which many of the latter are left behind, and im-
perfect with us. But all such as are ripe before the end of August are, for aught I know,
as good with us as any where else. This makes me esteem the true regions of gardens
in England to be the compass of ten miles about London ; where the incidental warmth
of air, from the fires and steams of so vast a town, makes fruits, as well as corn, a great
deal forwarder than in Hampshire or Wiltshire, though more southward by a full degree."

Sect. II. Influence of Climate and Manners on Gardening, as an Art of Design and Taste.

526. Taste in gardening depends jointly on the state of society, and on climate. Since
the introduction of the modern or natural style of gardening into Britain, it has been a
common practice to condemn indiscriminately every other taste as unnatural and
absurd. If by unnatural, an allusion is made to the verdant scenery of uncultivated
nature, we allow that this is the case ; but we would ask, if for that reason, it follows
that ancient gardens were not as natural and reasonable in their day, as any of the man-
ners and customs of those times ? Gardening, as a liberal art, is destined to create
scenes, in which both beauty and use are combined ; admitting, therefore, that both
styles are alike convenient, to say that the modern only is beautiful, is to say that there
is only one sort of beauty adapted to gardening ; or that there is no beauty but that of
the picturesque ; or that all former ages, and every country, excepting Britain, is in a
state of barbarism with respect to this art. If we take the term natural in a more exten-
sive sense, and apply it to the climate, situation, condition, and manners of a people ;
and if we allow these to be natural, why may not their gardening be natural, as well as
their particular customs and dress ? The gardening we now condemn so unreserwdly.

Book II. IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES. IIS

has subsisted, as we have seen," from the earliest ages in warm climates ; ^nd still pre-
rails there, as well as in more temperate counti-ies, whose inhabitants are not altogether
ignorant of the modern style. It may, therefore, be said to have grown up with man-
kind, and at all events must be perfectly suited to the wants and wishes of the inhabit-
ants of such countries,

527. The Jitness and beauty of any style must depend on the purposes to which it is
applied, and the kind of rural beauty already prevalent in the country of its adoption.

The eardens of the east, we have every reason to believe, were used more as arbors or conservatories
are in tnis country, than as places of exercise and active enjojonent. The object was repose, indolent re-
creation, sedentary or luxurious enjoyment. To breathe the" fresh air, shaded from a tropical sun ; to
inhale the odor of flowers ; to listen to the murmur of breezes or fountains ; to the singing of birds ; or to
ot>serve the minute beauties of the surrounding foliage, were, and still continue to be, the ordinary class
of beauties desired in an eastern garden. A higher and more voluptuous kind, consisted in using it as a
banqueting-place, bath, or seraglio, as is still the case in Turkey and Persia ; in feasting the eyes with the
sight of dancing beauties ; in ravishing the ears with concerts of vocal or instrumental music, and in firing
every sense with wine. Exercise was incompatible with that languor of body, which is attendant on a
warm climate and a distant prospect ; inconsistent with security from wild beasts, and that privacy which
selfishness or jealousy might dictate. " The Persians," Chardin obser\'es, " do not walk in gardens so
much as we do, but content themselves with a bare prospect, and breathing the fresh air. For this reason,
they set themselves do\vn in some part of the garden at their first coming in, and never move from their
seats till they are going out of it." {Travels, ch. vi.) " Nothing surprises the people of the East Indies so
much as to see Europeans take pleasure in exercise. They are astonished to see people walk who might
sit still." {Kinderley's Letters from the East Indies, p. 182.) Add to this, that the natural surface of warm
countries is generally so parched with heat, as to be far less agreeable to look on than the verdure of a
limited space, kept luxuriant by water. "Before the end of May," Russel remarks, " the whole country
round Aleppo puts on so parched and barren an aspect, that one would scarcely think it capable of produc-
ing any thing but the very few plants which still have vigour enough to resist the extreme heats."
{Russers Aleppo, p. 13.) If to these we subjoin the use of fruit, and, what is common to every exertion of
man, a desire of obtaining applause for the employment of wealth and skill, we shall include every object
sought in an eastern garden. An eastern garden, therefore, appears to have been a collection of all those
beauties found scattered about in general nature, in order to adapt them to the use and enjoyment of
man.

528. The plan of an eastern garden was well calculated to attain the ends in view*
Moderate extent and immediate connection with the house, are necessaiy and obvious
ingredients in their design. The square form was adapted for the enclosure as the sim-
plest ; the trees ranged in rows, to afford continuity of shade ; and the walks laid out
parallel between them, to admit uninterrupted progress ; that walk parallel to, and close
under the house, as a raised platform or terrace, to give elevation and dignity to the
house, to give the master a commanding view of the garden, and to serve as a connecting
link between art and comparative nature. By leaving open plots or squares of turf in
the areas, formed by intersecting rows of trees, a free circulation of air would be faci-
litated ; and the same object, as Pliny informs us, is promoted by the quincunx, which
admits the breeze from every quarter of the compass more readily than any other dis-
position. A picturesque or natural arrangement would have stagnated the air, and
defeated one of the grand purposes in view. Tiie same reasons would guide them in
their choice of spreading broad-leaved trees ; and to thicken their boughs, or deprive
them of such branches as were too low, or tended to destroy the balance of the tree, the
pruning-knife would be occasionally applied. Water in every form suggests the idea
of coolness ; but agitated in cascades, fountains, or jefs-d'eau, it is used to the best ad-
vantage, and the heat of the atmosphere is moderated in proportion to the evaporation
which takes place. In still ponds or basins it has another property, that of reflecting the
objects around it. Buildings, as arbors, aviaries, covered seats, banqueting-houses, baths,
and grottoes, would become requisite for their respective uses, and would abound in pro-
portion to the wealth or rank of the owner. Fruit-trees would be introduced in ap-
propriate situations for the sake of their fruit, and a choice of odoriferous flowers and
shrubs would fringe the margin of the walks, to admit of a more easy inspection of their
beauties, and nearer contact of their odors with the olfactory nerves ; they would also
be disposed in greater profusion, in curious knots or parterres near to the house, or in
front of the resting-places or banqueting-rooms. In time, even artificial objects of
value, as dials, statues, vases, and urns, would be added, in order to create as much
•variety and interest in a small spot as was consistent with its utility. Such we have
found to be the general arrangement of eastern gardens ; and as there seems no more
obvious way of attaining the wants of those to whom they belonged, we may pronounce
it to be perfectly reasonable and natural.

529. As to the more extensive paradises or parks in which wild beasts were admitted, and
even whole regiments exercised, we have but few authentic particulars respecting them.
Those of Assyria must be regarded as royal extravagancies, calculated to excite astonish-
ment and admiration at their magnitude, and the art and expense employed in their
construction ; and if any reliance is to be placed in the account given by ancient authors
of the hanging gardens of Babylon, their design will be found singularly to unite this
object with the minor beauties of the confined garden ; to combine the splendor of mag-
nificence with the delights of the justest feelings of nature. They were situated oyer,
or according to some, adjoining to King Nebuchadnezzar's palace, or on a platform raised

I 2

116 HISTORY OF GARDENING. Part I.

by lofty pillars, on the banks of the Euphrates, in the middle of the city of Babylon,
lliey are said to have contained groves, fountains, and, in short, every object which we
have mentioned, as appertaining to the more ordinary description of eastern gardens.
Tlieir object was to gratify his Median queen, by that sort of verdant scenery and distant
prospect, to which she had been accustomed in tloe more romantic country of her birth.
The height, then, would give that commanding prospect of the water and shipping of
the Euphrates, and the city, as well as the gardens within and without its walls, which
she particularly desired. The air in that elevated region would be more cool than below ;
the noise and bustle of the city would cease to be offensive ; the whole would be more
exposed to breezes and winds ; and the mind, deriving so much enjoyment in so singu-
lar and elevated a situation, must have experienced emotions at once sublime and roman-
tic. But a faint idea of these gardens will be excited, by imagining the quadrangle of
Somerset House crowned with a portion of Kensington gardens ; or of the summer
garden of Petersburgh placed over the Kremlin in Moscow.

530. How and with what proprieti/ the eastern style came afterwards to be adopted
in Greece, Italy, France, and finally in England, is our next enquiry. The principle or
instinct of imitation, would be the first cause why the more distant nations, whether
colonies from the east, or returning travellers or conquerors, adopted this parent style.
This is so obvious, as to require no comment beyond what will be furnished by individual
enquiry into our earliest tastes, habits, and predilections in dress, amusements, furniture,
and other matters of common life. The next principle is that of use or fitness, which
would vary in application, proportionably to the distance and different circumstances of
the imitating country. Thus it would not exactly apply in Greece or Italy, where the
climate was more temperate, active exercise more congenial, and the habits of the
wealthy, for a long time at least, comparatively frugal. Add to this, that verdant land-
scapes, shade, breezes, rills, waterfalls, and lakes, with their accompaniments of odors,
murmurs, singing birds, reflections of objects, were more liberally distributed over the
face of general nature. The more active character of man in such countries would, in
time, also appropriate to tlieir use from this natural abundance, a greater variety of
fruits and legumes.

531. The eastern style assumed a variation in its character under the Rovians. The
necessarily different culture required for perfecting fruits and culinary vegetables in a
different climate, would give rise to the orchard and kitchen- garden. Tliis would
simplify the objects of the ornamental garden, which would thus exhibit less a collection
of natural beauties, than the display of art, the convenience of taking exercise, here a
pleasure rather than a fatigue, and the gratifications of shade, cool breezes, and aromatic
odors. A prospect of the surrounding country was desired, because it was beautiful ;
and where, from various circumstances, it was interrupted by the garden or its boundary
fence, mounds or hills of earth were raised, and, in time, prospect-towers appended to
the houses. Greater extent would be required for more athktic recreations, and WQuld
be indulged in also by the wealth and pride of the owner for obvious reasons. Abridg-
ment of labor would suggest the use of the sheers, rather than the more tardy pruning
knife in thickening a row of trees. A row of low trees so tliickened, would suggest the
idea of a row of dipt shrubs. Hence at first hedges ; and subsequently, when art and
expense had exhausted every beauty, and when the taste had become tired of repetition,
verdant sculpture would be invented, as aflTording novel, curious, and fantastic beauty*
bordering, as do all extremes, upon absurdity. A more extended and absolute appropril
ation of territory, than Avhat we may suppose to have taken place in the comparatively
rude countries of the east, would lead to agricultural pursuits, and these again would
give rise to the various arrangements of a Roman country-residence which we know to
have existed, and which it would be superfluous to describe. Various other circumstances
might be added ; but enough has been stated to show that the gardening of the Romans
was perfectly natural to them, under the circumstances in which tliey were placed ; it
suited their wants, and produced scenes which they found to be beautiful, and was there-
fore in the justest taste. To have imitated the scenery of nature, or studied picturesque
beauty in a garden, would have been merely adding a drop to the ocean of beauties
which surrounded them. Expense incurred for this purpose could never have pro-
cured applause to the owner, since the more like nature the production, the less would
It excite notice. All that was left for man to do, therefore, was to create those beauties
of art, convenience, and magnificence, which mark out his dwelling-place, and gratify
his pride and taste by their contrast with surrounding nature.

532. The gardening of the Romans was copied in Fratice and Britain, with little vari-
ation beyond those dictated by necessity and the difference of climate. It was found to be
perfectly beautiful and agreeable ; and would have continued to prevail, had Britain con-
tinued in similar circumstances to those in which she was at the time of its introduction
iJut such has been the progress of improvement in this country, that the general face of
nature became as it were an ancient garden, and every estate was laid out, bounded, and

Book II.

IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES.

117

subdivided, by stripes of wood, rows of trees, canals, ponds, walls, and hedges. The
credit or distinction to be obtained here, by continuing to employ the ancient style, could
be no greater than what the Romans would have obtained by imitating nature. In their
case all the country was one scene of uncultivated, in ours it was one scene of cultivated,
beauty. In this state of things the modem style was adopted, not solely from a wish to
imitate the gardening of the Chinese, or a high degree of refinement in taste, but from
the steady operation of the same motives which produced and continued the ancient style,
— a desire of distinction.

533. The modern style of gardening is unsuitable to countries not genei'aUy under cul-
tivation. The English style cannot long please in such countries as Sweden, Poland,
and America, otherwise than from its novelty, or as giving rise to certain associations
with the people, whose name it bears. What delight or distinction can be produced by
the English style in Poland, for example, where the whole country is one forest, and
tlie cultivated spots only so many open glades, with the most irregular and picturesque
sylvan boundaries ? But let a proprietor there dispose of the scenery around his resi-
dence in the Roman or French manner ; let him display a fruit or kitchen garden
bounded by high stone walls ; a farm subdivided by clipped hedges and ditches ; and a
pleasure-ground of avenues, stars, circles, fountains, statues, temples, and prospect-
towers, and he will gratify every spectator. The view of so much art, industry, and
magnificence, amid so much wild and rude scenery, awake so many social ideas of com-
fort and happiness, and so much admiration at the wealth and skill employed, that a
mind of the greatest refinement and the justest taste would feel the highest sensation of
pleasure, and approve as much of such a country -residence in the wilds of Poland or
America, as he would of the most natural and picturesque residence of England, amid
its highly artificial scenerj'. Such is the dreariness of the public roads in Poland,
Sweden, and Lapland, that the stran-
ger-traveller hails as marks of civili-
sation {Jig. 41.) what in cultivated
countries would fill his mind with
horror.

534. The modem style is not an
imjrrovement on the ancient mannevy
but tlie substitute of one style for
another. Part of the prevailing an-
tipathy to the ancient style proceeds
from a generally entertained idea,
that the modern is an improvement
on it, in the same way as a modern plough is an improvement on the clumsy implements
of our ancestors ; but the truth is, the two styles are as essentially and entirely different
in principle, as painting and architecture, the one being an imitative, and the other an
inventive art. The more the ancient style is improved and perfected, the more it will
differ from the modern style ; and neither improvement nor neglect of the modern style
will ever bring it a step nearer the ancient manner.

Landscape-gardening agrees with ancient gardening in no other circumstance than as employing the same
materials. It is an imitative art, like painting or poetry, and is governed by the same laws. The ancient
style is an inventive and mixed art, like architecture, and governed by the same principles. The beauties
which architecture and geometric gardening aimed at, were those of art and utility, in which art was every
where avowed. The modem style of gardening, and the arts of poetry and painting, imitate nature ; and,
in doing so, the art employed is studiously concealed. Those arts, therefore, can never be compared,
whose means are so ditferent ; and to say that landscape-gardening is an iriiprovement on geometric
gardening, is a similar misapplication of language, as to say that a lawn is an improvement of a corn-field,
because it is substituted in its place. It is absurd, therefore, to despise the ancient style, because it has
not the same beauties as the modem, to which it never aspired. It has beauties of a diftierent kind, equally
perfect in their manner as those of the modem style, and equally desirable under certain circumstances. The
question therefore is not, whether we shall admit occasional specimens of obsolete gardening, for the sake
of antiquity, but whether we shall admit specimens of a different style, from that in general use, but equally
perfect in its kind. {Ed. Encyc. art. Landscape Gardening.)

535. An enlightened mind tvill derive pleasure from, every style. " When I perceive a
man," observes Sir W. Bridges, " incapable of deriving pleasure from more than one
style of composition, and dogmatising on its exclusive merit, I pity his weakness and de-
spise his presumption. When he narrows his curiosity, either to what is old or what is new ;
w hen he confines his praise, either to the dead or to the living, though in both cases he is
ridiculous, perhaps his folly is more evinced in the last." (Censura l.iteruria, vol. viii.
p. 214.) It is the privilege of the man, who has opened to his mind by observation and
study all the springs of pleasant association, to delight by turns in the rudeness of solitary
woods, in the cheerfulness of spreading plains, in the decorations of refined art, in the
magnificence of luxuriant wealth, in the activity of crowded ports, the industry of cities,
the pomp of spectacles, the pageantry of festivals. {Ed. Rev. 1806.)

536. IVe may therefore conclude that gardening, as an art of design, must be considered
relatively to the climate and situation of the country, and habits and manners of the

I 3

118 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

people, wlKjre it is employed ; and that the ancient and modern styles, viewed in this
light, are each perfectly natural, and equally meriting adoption, according to relative
circumstances ; less than from any positive beauty or advantages of either manner. We
are consequently of opinion, that the ancient style, divested of some ingredients which
relate to warm climates, and purified from the extravagances of extremes in decoration,
would be in much better taste in some situations in the Highlands of Scotland, and the
south of Ireland, than the modern style ; and that this style cannot, for a long series of
years, afford any other satisfaction in many parts of other countries than what arises from
the temporary interest of novelty and accidental association. It may never be altogether lost
sight of in subsequent arrangements ; but whenever the influence of fashion has subsided,
the beauties of the ancient style will be desired, as fulfilling better the objects in view, till
landed property, in these countries, becomes enclosed, subdivided, and cultivated, as it is
in England.

Sect. III. Of the Climate of Britain, in respect to Gardening.

537. Britain, France, Holland, and the north of Italy, are ujiquestionably the best coun-
tries of Europe for European gardening ; and of these, the best parts are such as combin6
hills and plains, rocks, rivers, and prospects.

538. The preference of Britain, as to government and civilisation, and its equality at
least as to soil and surface, will not be disputed. As to climate, Charles II. in reply to
some who were reviling it, said, he thought " that was the best climate where he could be
abroad in the air with pleasure, or at least without trouble and inconvenience, the most
days of the year, and the most hours of the day ;" and this he thought could be done
in England more than in any other country he knew of in Europe.

539. Gravel and turf There are, says Sir William Temple, " besides the temper of our
climate, two things particular to us, that contribute much to the beauty and elegance of our
gardens which are, the gravel of our walks, and the fineness and almost perpetual greenness
of our turf. The first is not known any where else, which leaves all their dry walks, in
other countries, very unpleasant and uneasy. The other cannot be found in France or
in Holland as we have it, the soil not admitting that fineness of blade in Holland, nor
the sun that greenness in France, during most of the summer ; nor indeed is it to be
found but in the fi.nest of our soils."

540. Neatness and greenth, says Lord Walpole, " are so essential in my opinion to the
country, that in France, where I see nothing but chalk and dirty peasants, I seem in a
terrestrial purgatory, that is neither in town nor country. The face of England is so
beautiful that I do not believe Tempe or Arcadia were half so rural ; for both lying in
hot climates, must have wanted the moss of our lawns." {Letters, ccli. 1796.)

541. 21iat which jrrevents the gardening of Bntainfrom attaining to a much higher degree
of perfection as an art of taste, is not any natural deficiencies^H* our climate or soil, nor
the want of meani to make tlie most of them, but the want of taste in the proprietors ;
for after all that has been done and written, there appear to be few who have a just
relish for that sort of beauty in pleasure-grounds which is properly called picturesque,
or such as a painter might introduce in a picture. We do not allude to any objects or
arrangements which would interfere with utility ; but to such a disposition of forms as
painters call grouping, connection, harmony, and, above all, to that general result which,
is called unity of expression or character.

PART II.

GARDENING CONSIDERED AS A SCIENCE.

542. Juiowledge, in the infancy of every art, is necessarily confined to particulars, but
after long observation and experience, the mind begins to generalise facts, and this is the
first step towards the foundation of theory, or science ; which is nothing more than the
substitution of rational principles of action, for habits founded on custom or prejudice.
A number of generalised facts accumulated, the next process of the mind is to classify
or systematise them ; this is the highest effort in the progress of knowledge ; and that
art will be the most perfectly understood as a science, in which the greatest number of
facts, or in other words, the most extensive range of experience and observation, is gene-
ralised and arranged in a connected system.

543. Unfortified by the light of science, the practical man lias no other assurance for the
success of the future, than the expenence of the past, and no resource for unforeseen
events but ordinary expedients ; he resorts to general rules and precepts, which direct
what is to be done every where, and on every occasion, instead of applying to principles

m-

IK I. THE STUDY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 119

for particular instructions, adapted to peculiar cases, or singular purposes. Industry
may be baffled, and hope defeated, by a thousand contingencies from causes incident
to every process of art or operation of nature. By these the mere routine-practitioner
is deranged, or thrown off his guard ; whilst the man of science refers events to their
true causes, suggests the adaptation of measures to meet every case ; and knowing the
laws of nature to be immutable, he operates on her materials with confidence in the
result. Science alone, however, without practical experience, will not ensure success,
and may at first end in disappointment. But " where theoretical knowledge and practi-
cal skill," as D. Stewart observes, " are happily combined in the same person, the intel-
lectual power of man appears in its full perfection, and fits him equally to conduct with
a masterly hand the details of ordinary business, and to contend successfully with the
untried diflficulties of new and hazardous situations." (Elements of the P/iiloso])hi/ of the
Human Mind, p. 232. 2d. edit.)

544. The science of every art must necessarilt/ depend on the end or object for which that
art is practised ; on the nature of the materials employed to procure or attain those ends ;
and on the nature of the agents made use of by human skill to operate on those mate-
rials. The object of the art of gardening is twofold : that of cultivating vegetables for
use or ornament in domestic or general economy ; and that of forming arrangements
of external scenery, beautiful as such, and suitable for personal recreation. The first
object, therefore, to be ascertained on this subject, should be the wants, desires, and taste
of that society for which the gardening is intended ; the 2d, the study of the vegetable
kingdom ; the 3d, the study of the natural agents of garden-culture ; the 4tli, that of
the artificial agents of garden-culture ; and the 5th, that of the operations of garden-cul-
ture. All the operations of territorial cultivation are either mechanical or chemical ;
and must therefore depend on the laws which govern the common materials of our globe.
Those laws, or the manner and circumstances in which these materials operate on each

'other, constitute the limit of human science ; for any attempt to go farther and discover
first causes, inevitably ends in disappointment.

The first branch of the science of gardening, or the study of society and taste, may be considered as
ascertained by every individual, from his own observation and experience ; that is, from the circumstance
of his being himself a specimen of the society for the time being. This branch, therefore, does not require
farther consideration in a work like the present.

The second and third branches, in which gardening is considered as a science of chemical agencies, are
important subjects of study, and admit of much improvement ; though unquestionably considerable pro-
gress has been made within the last fifty years, since the study of vegetable physiology and chemistry have
become more general ; and since these arts have been enriched by the discoveries of Mirbel, Keiser,
Knight, Lavoisier, Chaptal, and Davy ; and applied to agriculture arid horticulture by Davy and Knight,
in England, and Du Hamel, Thouin, and others, in France.

The fourth and fifth branches, in which gardening is considered as a science of mechanical operations, may
be said to have partaken of the general progress of the age, and to have adopted various improvements
made in architecture and engineering, in so far as they were found applicable to either its useful or agree-
able destinations. Here, however, there is still great room for advancement, especially in the construction
of hot-houses, and the formation of walled gardens.

The last branch, in which gardening is considered as a science of design and taste, is founded on principles
common to other arts, as to architecture and landscape-painting, whose ends are similar ; and here, though
its science has long been as much neglected as in the other branches, yet now it may be considered to be
fully ascertained and fixed by Alison, Wheatley, and Price j and applied by Wheatley and Price, in £ng.
land, and Girardin and De Lisle, in France.

545. To hioiv the science of any one art perfectly, would require a knowledge of all the
others which bear relatioii to it, or serve in any way to explain the nature and influence of
its operations and arrangements. But this is more than can be expected from men in
general (Aubert, in his Cours de Phytologie, Paris,' 181 6, gives a table of twenty sciences
as related to Botany alone) ; what cannot be hoped for from practical men ; and what
would require in a systematic view of gardening like the present, treatises on most of the
other arts. It is preferable, in our opinion, to draw from other branches of know-
ledge, the explanations which they afford of particular operations or phenomena, that
come into notice in discussing what we have laid down as leading principles of garden-
ing. Thus, in place of treating of chemistry, we have merely drawn from that science
what belongs^ to the study of vegetables, soils, and manures, &c. ; instead of a treatise
on the mechanical powers, we have merely given an explanation of the principles on
which each class of implements and machines operates ; and in place of treating of archi-
tecture and painting, we have merely discussed the subject of design and composition in
these arts ; the first as applicable to buildings and artificial dispositions of ground, and
the second as directing tJie formation of real scenery.

BOOK I.

THE STUDT OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

546. Organised bodies are divided into two orders ; those endowed wi'th sentiment, or
a consciousnesss of their existence, and those deprived of that sensibility. Tlie study of
• I 4

120 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Pabt II.

the former is designated zoology ; that of the latter, botany or phytology. In the latter
science, modern botanists have introduced the following subdivisions ■ — 1- Systematic
botany ; in which plants are studied apart, as distinct beings, and considered in respect
to their resemblances, differences, nomenclature, and classification. 2. Vegetable ana-
tomy and physiology ; or the study of plants as living beings, in which is considered
tlie form of their organs, and their mode of nourishment and of multiplying themselves.
3. Botanical geography ; in which plants are considered relatively to climate, surface,
soil, country, habitation, &c. 4. Applied botany ; in which vegetables are considered
with respect to the wants of man and other animals; and which includes the study
of the medical and economical properties of plants ; the means by which man procures
such as he wants, either by searching for them in a wild state or by cultivation.
This last department of the science may be considered as including agriculture and
gardening ; but these are parts of it so vast and important as to form separate branches
of study. Conformably to this view of the subject, we have here considered the study of
plants as to history, glossology, phytography, taxonomy, organology, anatomy, chemis-
. try, physiology, pathology, geography, and culture.

Chap. I.
Origin, Progress, and present Stale of the Study of Plants*

547. The study of plants may be regarded as coeval voith the creation of man, because they
are in a great measure indispensable to the support of animal life. The first stage in the
progress of this study would be that in which the attention of the human mind was di-
rected to the discrimination of spontaneous vegetables, as fit for food. A second stage,
that in which men began to direct their attention to useful vegetables, as capable of
furnishing, by means of cultivation, an increased supply proportioned to the wants of
population. Then it was that agriculture, in the proper sense of the word, would com-
mence in society. A third stage was that in which plants began to be regarded as fur-
nishing not only necessaries, but comforts ; and from this period, whenever it happened,
may be dated the origin of horticulture. A fourth stage was that in which plants began
to be considered as furnisliing, not merely comforts, but luxuries. Odors and beautiful
flowers would be prized ; and hence the origin of floriculture.

In taking a rapid view of the progress of the study of plants among the ancients and ?noderns, we pass
over the fabulous history of the Greeks, and commence with Solomon, who appears to have written a trea-
tise on vegetables somewhere about the year B. C. 1004. This work is lost ; and the next name in order is
Thales, in B. C. 604. To him succeeded the celebrated Pythagoras, about B. C. 550, who is believed to
have prohibited his disciples the use of beans, on account of a supposed identity of origin between beans and
human flesh. He is also said to have written a treatise on onions. Anaxagoras, another Greek philoso-
pher of this period, maintained that the seeds of all vegetables are lodged in the atmosphere ; from whence
they descend, along with the rain and dews into the earth, where they mingle with the soil, and spring up
into plants. Empedocles is said to have attributed sexes, desires, and passions to plants ; and Democritus
wrote a treatise on their smells. Hippocrates, about the year B. C. 409, introduced a new and enlightened
system of medical study, a subject intimately connected with that of plants ; and his contemporary,
Cratejas, wrote a book on botany, of which some fragments lately existed in the imperial library at
Vienna. Aristotle, about B. C. 350, wrote a scientific work on plants, which, though also lost, is quoted
by contemporaries, and has thus obtained for its author the title of father of natural history, as well as
prince of metaphysicians. His disciple, Theophrastus, about B. C. 300, wrote on plants j he described 500
species, and endeavours to account for the phenomena of vegetation.

Soon after Theophrastus, the Greek empire iKgan to decline, and with it the study of plants. Botany,
with the other arts and sciences, migrated to Italy, in which it made some progress, as we may see by the
writings of Pliny, Virgil, and other georgical authors of the Augustan age. Those Roman writers, how-
ever, that can be considered strictly botanical, are only Dioscorides and Pliny. The work of the forruer,
is a body of materia medica; that of the latter, Rousseau considers as a body of receipts. Little is
known of the state of botany during the dark ages.

On the revival of the arts in the beginning of the fifteenth century, one of the first fruits it produced was
the introduction of figures from wooden cuts, by Brunsfelsius of Mayence, in Germany. His Historta
Plantarum, published in the beginning of the sixteenth century, excited the emulation of other botanists ;
and soon after followed his countrymen. Bock, Cordus, Fuchius, Dodonaus, and Clusius. Matthiolus
was the first Italian, Dalechamp and Bauhin the first Frenchmen, and Turner and Gerarde the first
Englishmen who caught the flame.

But though prints had been introduced, method was wanting, without which all study of natural history
must be ot the most imperfect and limited kind. Gesner, a native of Zurich, in Switzerland, made the
first attempt at arranging plants into classes, orders, and genera, about the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury. Cffisalpinus, a native of Tuscany, presented a similar arrangement at the same time, without know-
mg any thing of that of Gesner : a common occurrence in the history of inventions, and a proof that the
general state of botanical science rendered such an invention necessary. After this period the study of
botany proceeded with rapid strides; and herbariums and copper-plates of plants were invented by
Columna of Naples. ri- t- r i

tr^^"'"^'^ S^i^dens were established about the middle of the sixteenth century, first in Italy (90.), in
1533, and afterwards in France (183.), Germany' (210.), and England (372.\ before the completion of the
sixteenth century. This circumstance contributed, in an astonishing degree, to the progress of the study
ot plants, and procured the patronage of the wealthy.

•f ""/^"y declined or was stationary, for the greatest part of the sixteenth century ; but revived, owing, as
It IS thought, to a new direction given to the spirit of philosophical enquiry, by the illustrious Bacon. This
wondertul philosopher explored and developed the true foundations of human knowledge, with a sagacity
and penetration unparalleled in the history of mankind. He dared to disengage himself from the fetters
oi academical authority, condemned the visionary speculations of the schools, and recommended the sub-
stitution of analytical and inductive investigation, proclaiming truth to be but the image of nature.

Book I. THE STUDY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

121

The structure qf plants, and the phenomena qf vegetable life, began to attract attention in the seventeenth
century, 2000 years after it had been first attempted by Theophrastus. Malpighi, an Italian, and Grew
an Englishman, carried on this study at the same time, unknown to each other ; the result of their inves!
tigations was communicated to the scientific world, towards the end of the seventeenth centurv, remov-
ing in great part the veil which had hitherto enveloped the phenomena of vegetation. The plan which
these philosophers pursued, was that of experiment recommended by Bac(xi j the result may be men-
tioned as the first fruits of his philosophy.

548. About the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth century, different
methods or systems for arranging and naming plants were produced by Hermann and
Boerhaave, of Leyden ; Rivinus and others, in Germany; Toumefort and Magnoi, in
France ; and Morison and Ray, in England. Of these systems and nomenclatures,
that of Toumefort was the most generally followed, of which we may give, as an instance,
the first six editions of Miller's Gardener s and Botanist's Dictionary. Tournefort's
system depended chiefly on the corolla; but, when the knowledge of plants became
more extensive, it was found impracticable in its application. All the other methods
were in different degrees defective, and it was not till the appearance of Linnaeus that
this perplexity was removed.

549. Linnceus foiaided what is called the sexual system, deducing his rules of method
from incontrovertible principles ; establishing, in his Philosophica Botanica, laws oi
generic and specific distinction, and rules of legitimate definition. This simplicity of
system, perspicuity of arrangement, and precision of language, has elevated botany to
the high rank it now holds in the scale of human science ; allured to the study of plants
men of the most distinguished abilities ; and excited that ardor for botanical investigation
which characterises tlie present age. This new system, as founded on the sexes of plants,
naturally led LinnjEus to the study of the structure and phenomena of vegetables, and
this effected at last a close and intimate union between systematic and physiological
botany. 'Die propriety and advantage of this union are evident, since a thorough know-
ledge of plants involves both studies. The doctrines of Linnaeus soon procured fol-
lowers in every country ; but the most distinguished of his immediate disciples, were
Kalm, Hasselquist, Lsefling, and Koenig, all of whom travelled in pursuit of new plants,
under the auspices of their great master. Of his more remote disciples, may be named
as most distinguished, Gmelin, Oeder, Hedwig, Gaertner, Lamarck, and Sir James
Edward Smith, the founder and president of the Linnaean Society of London, and pro-
prietor of tlie whole of the Linnasan Herbarium ; from whose meritorious labors, botany
has derived and is still deriving important advantages.

The study qf physiological botany, however, was less attended to than that of methodical arrangement
by Linna?us and his immediate disciples ; and indeed, it would have been too much to have expected au
equal progress in both, by him who had made so astonishing an improvement in the one department. To
the names of Grew and Malpighi, in physiological botany, may be added, in addition to that of Linnaeus,
Hales, Bonnet, Du Hamel, Hedwig, Spallanzani, and especially Priestley. This philosopher first brought
the aid of pneumatic chemistry to this study, which, under the direction of such men as Ingenhouz,
Senebier, andSaussure,has done more to illustrate the phenomena of vegetation, than all the other means
of investigation put together. If we add to these the ingenious hints and speculations of Darwin, in his
Botanic Garden, and in Phytologia ; the masterly experiments of Knight, given in the Philosophical
Transactions ; the vegetable physiology of Mirbel and Reiser ; with the systematic view of the whole sul)-
ject by Keith, in his Introduction to' I'egetable Physiology ; we may assert with the latter writer,
" that our knowledge of the physiology of vegetables, may now be regarded as resting upon the foundation
of a body of the most incontrovertible facts, and assuming a degree of importance inferior only to that of
the physiology of animals." Such may be considered the present state of physiological botany.

550. The chief improvement which has been made in the systematic dejmrtment since the
days of LinncBUs, consists in the approximations that have been made to a method of ar-
rangement, founded on a more extended view of the relations of plants than is taken
in the Linnaean, or artificial system. By this system, which is designated natural, as
founded on the whole of the natural properties of the plant, the vegetable kingdom is thrown
into groups, and whoever knows any one plant in tliat group, will have some general idea
of the appearance and qualities of the whole. The use of such a classification for such as
already know plants individually, is therefore obviously great, though for discovering the
names of particular species, it is in its present state less convenient than the Linnaean sys-
tem, for owing to the small number of plants which are yet known to botanists, the groups
or classes of the natural method are far from being perfect.

551 . The first scheme for a natural method of arranging plants was communicated to the
public by Linnaeus in his Fragments of a Natural Method, published in 1738. The next
person who successfully traced the affinities of plants, was B. Jussieu, of Paris. In 1759,
he displayed his method in the arrangement of the plants in the royal gardens of Trianon,
near Paris. Afterwards, Michael Adanson, a pupil of Jussieu, who had travelled through
part of Africa, examined all the published systems, and paid the greatest attention to the
natural aflSnities of vegetables, published a very learned and useful work. Families des
Plantes, in 1763. But it is to A. L. Jussieu, of the National Institute, nephew of the
elder Jussieu, that the science of natural aflSnities owes most ; and his Genera Plantarumy
published in 1789, is considered "the most learned botanical work that has appeared since
the Species Planiarum of Linnaeus, and the most useful to those who study the philosophy

122 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part XL

of botanical arrangement." Ventenat has lately published a commentary on the writings
of A. L. Jussieu ; and this author himself is now publishing a Species Ptantarum, arranged
according to his method. Professor DecandoUe, of Geneva, considered one of the first
French botanists, is also a follower of this system, in which he has made some improve-
ments {Theorie de la Botanique, 1817), and he also is occupied with a Species Plantarum,
arranged according to his own improvements.

552. Botanical geography, or the knowledge of the places where plants grow (habita-
tiones plantaru?)i), and the causes which influence their distribution over the globe, was
totally neglected by the ancients. Clusius is the only botanist who before the eighteenth
century took any pains to indicate the native countries of plants. Bauhin and Tournefort
often neglected it. Linnseus is tlie first who gave the idea of indicating it in general
works on botany, and his Floras of Sweden and Lapland are models of their kind in this
respect. Since this period many excellent Floras have appeared, among which the Flora
Britannica, by Sir J. E. Smith, and the Flore Franqaise, by Professor DecandoUe, may
be mentioned as examples. The first grand etfort at generalising the subject, was made
by Humboldt, in his Essai sur la Geographie des Plants, &c. 1811. This essay is rich in
facts, and filled, like all the works of this philosopher, with new and ingenious views of
nature. In a subsequent work, De Distributione Plantarum, 1815, he has more especially
examined the influence of elevation of surface on vegetation. Professor DecandoUe, has
also given some views relatively to the subject, in his Flore Franqaise, and R. Brown,
one of the first botanists in this country, in Remarks 07i the Botany of Terra Australis, and
on the Plajits of Congo. On the whole, however, this branch of botany, the most import-
ant for agriculture and gardening, and without some knowledge of which, naturalisation,
and even culture, must go on by mere hazard, may be regarded as still in its infancy.

553. With respect to applied botany, its history would involve that of medicine, agricul-
ture, gardening, and other mixed and mechanical arts. Plants, it may be observed, have in
every age but the present, formed the chief articles of the materia medicn of all countries.
At present the mineral kingdom is chiefly resorted to by the practitioners of the healing
art in Europe ; but plants retain tlieir ground in other countries ; and fashion, which en-
ters into every thing, may change, after exercising a certain degree of influence. The
universal use of the vegetable kingdom in the dietetics of every country ; in the arts of
clothing, architecture, and, in short, in almost every branch of industry, need not be en-
larged on.

554. Fossil botany, as studied from the impressions of plants found in the secondary
strata of the earth, has only lately begun to attract attention ; but the essays of Schlot-
heim, Knorr, Martius, Faujas de St. Fond, and Parkinson's Essay on Organic Bemains,
deserve to be mentioned.

Chap. II.
Glossology, or the Names of the Parts of Plants.

555. All the arts and sciences require to express, with brevity and perspicuity, a crowd of
ideas unused in common language, and unknown to the greater part of men. Whence that
multitude of terms, or technical turns, given to ordinary words which the public turn
often into ridicule, because they do not feel the use of them, but which all those are
obliged to niake use of, who apply themselves to any study whatever. Botany having to
describe an immense number of beings, and each of these beings having a great variety of
organs, requires a great variety of terms. Nearly all botanists are agreed as to these
terms ; and in order that they may be universally understood and remain unchanged in
meaning, they are taken from a dead or fixed language.

556. A plant infiower, surveyed externally, may be perceived to be composed of a variety
of obvious parts, such as the root, the stem, the branch, the leaf, the flower, the fruit, and
perhaps the seed ; and^ther parts less obvious, as buds, prickles, tendrils, hairs, glands,
&c. These, with their modifications, and all the relative circumstances which enter into
the botanical description of a plant, form the subject of glossology, the details of which,
involving the definition of some hundreds of terms, are here omitted ; because to those
conversant with tliem it would be of little use, and those who have them still to learn will
find It more convenient to have recourse to some elementary work, where most of them
are illustrated by figures. (See SmUh's Introduction to Botany, Granmar of Botany,
and similar works.) ./ ^'

Book I. NAMES OF CLASSES, ORDERS, AND GENERA. J'i3

Chaf. III.

Phytogi^aphy, or the Nomenclature and Description of Plants.

557. The whole vegetable kingdom is divided into classes, orders, generOy species^ and
varieties. A class is distinguished by some character which is common to many plants ;
an order is distinguished by having some character limited to a few plants belonging to a
class ; a still more limited coincidence constitutes a genus ; and each individual of a
genus, which continues unchanged when raised from seed, is called a species. A variety
is formed by an accidental deviation from the specific character, and easily returns by seed
to the particular species from which it arose.

558. Before botany became a regular science, plants were named as individual beings,
without regard to any relation which tliey had to one another. But from the great num-
ber of names to be retained on the memorj', and the obvious affinities existing among
certain individuals or natural families, some metljod was soon found necessary, and it
was then deemed requisite to give such composite names as might recall to mind somer
thing of the individuals to which they were applied. Thus we have Anagallisjlore ceenUeo.
Mespilus acideata pyrifolia, &c. But in the end the length of these phrases became in-
convenient ; and Linnaeus, struck with this inconvenience, proposed that the names of
plants should henceforth consist of two words only, the one the generic or family name,
and the other the specific or individual name.

559. Tlie names of classes and orders were originally primitive, or without meaning, as
the Grasses of Tragus, Poppies of Bauhin, &c. ; and afterwards so compounded as to be
long and complex, as tlie Polloplostemono])etalce, Eleutheroniacrostemones, &c. of Wachen-
dorf. Linnaeus decided, that the names of classes and orders should consist of a single
word, and that word not simple or primitive, but expressive of a certain character or
characters, found in all the plants which compose it.

560. In applying the names to plants, three rules are laid down by botanists : 1st, That the
languages chosen should be fixed and universal, as the Greek and Latin ; 2d, That these
languages should be used according to the general laws of grammar, and compound
words always composed from the same language, and not of entire words, &c. ; 3d, Tliat
the first who discovers a being, and enregisters it in the catalogue of nature, has the right
of giving it a name ; and that that name ought to be received and admitted by naturalists,
unless it belong to a being already existing, or transgress the rules of nomenclature.
Ever)' one that discovers a new plant may not be able to enregister it according to these
laws, and in that case has no right to give it his name ; but the botanist who enregisters
it, and who is in truth the discoverer, may give it the name of the finder, if he chooses.
We shall notice this subject in the order of names of classes and orders, of genera, of
species, of varieties and subvarieties, descriptions of plants, dried plants or herbariums,
and methods of study.

Sect. I. Names of Classes and Orders.

561. The names of the classes and orders of Lin jiteus and Jiissieu, being exclusively
used at the present time, we shall pass over those of the earlier botanists.

562. The names of the Linneenn classes and orders are, as far as practicable, expressive
of some common character belonging to all the plants which compose them, and consist
only of one word for the class, and another for the order, both compounded from the
Greek. There are exceptions, however, to the first rule in several of the classes
of the sexual system, as in Icosandria, Moneecia, Dicecia, wliich' contain plants that
have not the circumstances expressed in the title. Richard (^Konv. Elem. de JSot.
1819) has given some new names, which he proposes to substitute for the least perfect of
those fixed on by Linnaeus, but they are not likely to be generally received, at least in
tliis country.

563. The names of natural arders may be taken from such genera as may serve to re-
call the general relations of each tribe or order. The name of the order and generic
name, however, are at no time to be precisely the same ; from the manifest impropriety
and confusion of arranging a thing under itself. Thus in the natural method of Linnaeus,
the order Palmae has no genus of that name. In the method of Jussieu, the name of an
order is composed from the name of one of the most characteristic, genera of that order,
as Rosacece, a natural order of dicotyledonous plants, containing the well known genus
Rosa, &c. ; and while the name of an order is terminated by two syllables, that of a sub-
order is terminated by one only ; as Rosacece, Rosce ; Ranunculacea, Ranunculi.

Sect. II. Names of Genera.

564. Names from the Greek or Latin are exclusively admitted by modern botanists, all
others b^ing esteemed barbarous. Without this rule we should be overwhelmed, not only

124 SCIENCE Olf GARDENING. Part II.

with a torrent of uncoutli and unmanageable words, but we should be puzzled where to
fix our choice, as the same plant may have fifty different original denominations in differ-
ent parts of the world, and we might happen to choose one by which it is least known.
There are however some exceptions, such as Acacia, Alisma, which are of Celtic origin,
and jErua, Alchemilla, derived from the Arabic.

565. Such names as indicate some striking peculiariti/ in the genus are to be preferred ;
as Glycyrrhiza, a sweet root, for the liquorice ; Amaranthus, without decay, for an evep
lasting flower ; Helianthus, a sun-flower ; Lithosper7num, a stony seed ; Eriocalia, a
flower with a singularly woolly base or cup ; Origanum, an ornamental mountain plant ;
Hemerocallis, beauty of a day ; Arenaria, a plant that inhabits sandy places ; and Gypso-
phila, one that loves a chalky soil. Such as mark the botanical character of the genus,
when they can be obtained for a nondescript plant, are peculiarly desirable ; as Cerato-
petalum, from the branched horn -like petals ; Lasiopetalum, from the very singularly
woolly corolla ; Calceolaria, from the shoe-like figure of the same part ; Conchium, from
the exact resemblance of its fruit to a bivalve shell.

566. To dedicate certain plants to the honor of distinguished persons has been customary
in all ages. Tlius Euphorbia commemorates the physician of Juba a Moorish prince,
and Gejitiana immortalises a king of Illyria. The scientific botanists of modern times
have adopted the same mo»le of preserving the memory of benefactors to their science ;
and though the honor may have been sometimes extended too far, that is no argument
for its total abrogation. Some uncouth names thus unavoidably deform our botanical
books ; but this is often effaced by the merits of their owners, and it is allowable to model
them into grace as much as possible. Thus the elegant Tournefort made Gundelia, from
Gundelscheimer ; which induced Sir J. E. Smith to choose Goodenia, for his friend Dr.
Goodenough, though it has, when too late, been suggested that Goodenovia might have
been preferable. Some difficulty has arisen respecting French botanists on account of
the additional names by which their grandeur, or at least their vanity, was displayed
during the existence of the monarchy. Hence Pittonia was applied to the plant conse-
crated to Pitton de Tournefort; but Linnaeus preferred the name by which alone he was
known out of his country, or in learned language, and called the same genus Tourne-
forlia.

561. A fanciful analogy between botanists and the plants named after them has been
made by Linnaeus in the Crilica Botanica. Thus Bauhinia, after the two distinguished
brothers John and Gaspard Bauhin, has a two-lobed or twin leaf. Scheuchzeria, a grassy
alpine plant, commemorates the two Scheuchzers, one of whom excelled in the knowledge
of alpine productions, the other in that of grasses. Dorstenia, with its obsolete flowers,
devoid of all beauty, alludes to the antiquated and uncouth book of Dorstenius. Her-
nandia, an American plant, the most beautiful of all trees in its foliage, but furnished
with trifling blossoms, bears the name of a botanist higlily favored by fortune, and al-
lowed an ample salary for the purpose of investigating the natural history of the Western
world, but whose labors have not answered the expense. On the contrary. Magnolia^
with its noble leaves and flowers, and Dillenia, with its beautiful blossoms and fruit,
serve to immortalise two of the most meritorious among botanists. Linneea, a de-
pressed abject Lapland plant, long overlooked, flowering at an early age, was named by
Gronovius after its prototype Linnaeus. "^

Sect. III. Names of Species.
568. Specific names should be formed on similar principles to the generic ones ; but some
exceptions are allowed, not only without inconvenience, but with great advantage.
Such as express the essential specific character are unexceptionable, as Banksia serrata,
integrifolia, dentata, &c. ; but perhaps those which express something equally certain,
but not comprehended in that character, are still more useful, as conveying additional
information, like Ixora alba and coccinea, Scleranthus annuus and perennis, Alctris fra-
grans, Saxifraga cernua, &c. ; for which reason it is often useful, that vernacular names
should not be mere translations of the Latin ones. Comparative appellations are very
good, as Banksia ericifolia, Andromeda salicifolia, Saxifraga bryoides, Milium cimicinum,
Elymus Hystrix, Pedicularis Sceptrum. Names which express the local situations of
different species are excellent, such as Melampyrum arvense, j)ratense, nemorosum and
sylvalicum, Carex arenaria, uliginosa and sylvatica, as well as aquatica, maritima,
rupestris, alpina, nivalis, used for many plants. But names derived from particular
countries or districts are liable to much exception, few plants being suflficiently local to
justify their use. Thus Ligusticum comubiense is found not only in Cornwall, but in
Portugal, Italy, and Greece ; Schwenkia americana grows in Guinea as well as in
South America. Such therefore, though suffered to remain on the authority of
Linnaeus, will seldom or never be imitated by any judicious writer, unless Trolliiis
europceus and asiaticus may justify our naming the third species of that genus, lately
brought from America, americanus. The use of a plant is often commodiously ex

Book I. NAMES OF SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 125

pressed in its specific name, as Brassica oleracea, Papaver somniferunij Inocarjms edulis j
so is likewise its time of flowering, as Piimula verisy Leucqjum vernum, eestivum, and
autumnale, and Helleborus hyemalis.

569. fHien a pla?it has been oroneousli/ made a distinct genus, the name so applied to it
viay be retairwd for a specific apjyeUatioii, as Lathrcea Phelypa:a, and Burtsia Gymnan-
dra ; which may also be practised when a plant has been celebrated, either in botanical,
medical, or any other historj', by a particular name, as Origanum Dictamnus, Artetnisia
Draciinculus, Laurus Cinnamomum, Setinum Carvifolia, Carica Papaya. In either case
the specific name stands as a substantive, retaining its own gender and termination, and
roust begin with a capital letter.

570. A specific name is occasionally adapted to sojne historical Jact belonging to the phtnts
or to tlie person whose name it bears, as Linneea borealis, from tlie great botanist of
the north ; Murrcea exotica, after one of his favorite pupils, a foreigner ; Browallia
demissa and elata, from a botanist of humble origin and character, who afterwards became
a lofty bishop. In like manner Bufonia tenuifolia, is well known to be a satire on the
sfcm/er botanical pretensions of the great French zoologist.

571. Names sanctioned by general use are for the must part held sacrsd among botanists.
The study of natural history is, from the multitude of objects with which it is conver-
sant, necessarily so encumbered with names, that students require every possible assist-
ance to facilitate the attainment of those names, and have a just right to complain of
every needless impediment. The names established throughout the works of Linnseus,
are become current coin, nor can they be altered witliout great inconvenience. Those
who alter names, often for the worse, according to arbitrary rules of their own, or in
order to aim at consequence, which they cannot otherwise attain, are best treated with
silent neglect. When, however, solid discoveries and improvements are made in the
science ; when species or genera have been confounded by Linnseus himself, and new
ones require to be separated from them, the latter must necessarily receive appropriate
appellations; as also when a totally wrong and absurd name has by mistake been given,
as Begonia cajyensis. In such cases names must give place to things, and alterations
proceeding from such causes must be submitted to. (Smith's Introduction, ch. 22.)

Sect. IV. Names of Varieties and Subvarieties.

572. The names which botanists give to varieties are of the simplest description ; they
always convey an idea of the variation which has taken place, and are used in addition
to the specific name. Thus we have Caltha palustris, the species, and palustris Jlore
j)leno, the double-flowered caltlia, &c. As a series of species are commonly numbered
1, 2, 3, &c. so the varieties of a species, are generally, for distinction sake, designated
by the letters of the Greek alphabet, thus : Brassica oleracea, the species ; o. CapitatUy
the first species; j8. Rubra, the second species ; 7. Sctbauda ; S. Sabellica, &c.

573. Subvarieties of plants are accidental modifications of varieties of a very temporary
and fluctuating nature. They are generally produced by culture, and are more espe-
cially known in garden-fruits, culinary vegetables, and what are called florists' flowers.
The differences among subvarieties are generally so slight, or so difficult to define, as
not to admit of the application of scientific names. Botanists, therefore, pay no
attention to them ; but gardeners, to whom tliey are of considerable importance, have
found it necessary in some way or other to distinguish them, and they generally apply
the name of the person or place, by whom or where, they were originated. Tims Pyrus
malus is the crab or apple, P. malus var. domestica, the cultivated apple. Pyrus
malus var. domestica subvar. Downton pippin, apple raised from seed at Downton.
P. m. V. d. subvar. Kirk's fame, &c. Brassica oleracea var. capitata, common white
cabbage. B. o. var. c. subvar. Battersea early common cabbage, an early variety
raised at Battersea. Dianthus carj'ophyllus is the clove pink. U. c. var. flore pleno
is the carnation. Dian. car)', var. ti. pi. subvar. Hogg's seedling, a variety of carnation
raised by Hogg. D. c. fl. pi. subvar. Lady Jane Grey, a variety of carnation named
after Lady Jane Grey. A refinement on this sort of nomenclature consists in adding
the name of tlie person who originated tlie subvariety, to the name of the person or
place after whom or which it was named ; thus, Hogg's Lady Jane Grey, Duncan's
Cheshire hero, &c. " To raise a fine new variety of any florist's flower, to name it after
some great personage, and with tliat name to couple your own, is the greatest honor,
says Emmerton {Treatise on the Auricxda), which a florist can aspire to."

574. Names of subvarieties which indicate something of their properties are to be preferred,
as Black July-grape, June-eating -apple, &c. ; or such as indicate the place or time where
or when they were originated or abound, as Deptford onion, Claremont nuptials primrose,
or tlie Afflicted queen carnation. Such names convey ideas which may prove useful
as to the qualities of the variety : thus the first and second names convey some idea of
tlie time of ripening ; the third, some idea of the soil and climate in which tlie plant
thrives j the fourth and fifth, the date, and consequently the age of the variety.

1S6

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

42

Dxidumia tree.

Evergreen tree.

Deaduous spiry-topt tree.

Evergr.ipiry.topt tree.
Palm.

s

Deciduoui shrub.

i

1

Evergreen thrub
Trvimng shrub.

Climbing thrub.

»SB*.

TraUing thrub.

imff

Creepittg thrub.

XSOl

Vtuler-ihrub.

t
1

I

Perennial gratt.

Twining perennial.

aimbing perennial.

^

TraUing perennial.

^

Creeping perennial.

S

Bulbout perennial.

^

Tuberout perennial.

f

Fusiform perennial.

•^

Annual.

it

Biennial.

Annualgrasi.

1

ScUaminmu plant.

^

Aquatic.

yf

Parasite.

"a*

Fern.

V

Succulent.

D

Bark-stove.

C

Dry-ttove.

L

Green-houte.

L- i^'rame.

(H

Bark slave deciduous tree.

IE

Drfj-ttove deciduous shrub.

BH G«en-ftou« aquatic.

1&. Frame thrub.

Sect. V. Descriptions of Plants.

573. Plants are described by the use of laiiguage alone, or
by language and figures, models, or dried plants conjoined. Tlie
description of plants may be either abridged or complete. Tlie
shortest mode of abridgment is that employed in botanical
catalogues, as in those of Donn or of Sweet. A complete
description, according to DecandoUe, ought to proceed in the
following order : —

1. The admitted name.

2. The characteristic phrase.

3. The synonyms.

4. The description, comprehending the
organs, banning with the root.

5. The history, that is, the country, du-

ration, station, habitual time of foliation and
exfoliation, of flowering, and of ripening the
seed.

6. Application, which includes the cul-
ture and uses.

7. Critical or incidental observations.

576. Descriptions are, in general, written in Latin, the names
in the nominative, and followed by epithets which mark their
modifications, and which are not united by a verb, unless that
becomes necessary to explain any circumstance which is not
provided for in the ordinary form of the terms. Doubts as
to the received ideas on the plant described, or any other mis-
cellaneous matters, are to be placed under the last article.

577. Collections of botanical descriptions may be of different
sorts, as

1. Monographs, or descriptions of one
genus, tribe, or class, as Lmdley's Mono-
graphia Rosanon.

2. Floras, or an enumeration of the plants
of any one district or country, as Smith's
Flora Britannica.

?>. Gardens, or an enumeration, descrip-
tive or nominal, of the plants cultivated
in any one garden, as Aitun's Hortus
Ketvensis.

4. General tvorks, in which all known

plants are described, as Willdenow's Specie*
Platiiarum, and Persoon's Sijnopsit Plant-
arum.

All these classes of books may be with or
without plates or figures; and these again,
may be of part or of the whole plant, and
colored or plain, &c. Some botanists have
substituted dried specimens for figures, M-hich
is approved of in cases of dilficult tribes or
genera ; as in the grasses, ferns, geraniums,
ericas, &c.

578. Collectio7is of descriptions of plants in what are called
gardens or catalogues, form one of tlie most useful kinds of
botanical books for the practical gardener. The most complete
of these hitherto published is the Hortus Suburbanus Londinensis
of R. Sweet ; but this, as well as all other works of the kind,
admit of being rendered much more descriptive by a more ex-
tensive use of abbreviated terms, and even by the use of picto-
rial signs, {fig. 42.) Sweet's Hortus gives the Linnajan and
natural class and order, systematic and English name, authority,
habitation in the garden, time of flowering, year, of introduction,
and reference to engraved figures ; but there might be added
on the same page, the height of the plant, color of the flower,
time of ripening the seed or fruit, soil, mode of propagation,
and the natural habitation of such as are natives. Instead
of the usual mark ( f^ ) for a ligneous plant, pictorial types
might be introduced to indicate whether it was a tree or shrub,
deciduous or ever-green, spiry topt, a palm, climbing, twining
or trailing, &c. ; and instead of the common sign for a per-
ennial (4), biennial ( c? ), or annual (O), something of
the natural character of the plant might be similarly indi-
cated. A single line of a catalogue formed on this principle
would expand into a long paragraph of ideas in the mind of the
botanist or gardener, and might easily be rendered a Species
Plantarum, by introducing short specific characters in single
lines on the page opposite the catalogue lines, as in Gal pine's
Compendium of the British Flora. It might farther, by sub-
joining notes to all the useful or remarkable species at the
bottom of every page, be rendered a history of plants, includ-
ing their uses in the arts and manufactures, and their culture
in agriculture or gardening. Such an Encycloj^cedia of Plants,
with other improvements, we, with competent assistance, have
sometime since commenced, and hope soon to submit to the
public.

DooK 1. FORMATION OF HERBARIUMS. 127

Sect. VI. Of forming and preserving Herbariums,

579. Dried phmtsjar siirj)ass either dratinngs or descriptions in giving complete ideas of
their appearance. When plants are well dried, the original forms and positions of even
their minutest parts, though not their colors, may at any time be restored by immersion
in hot water. By this means the productions of the most distant and various countries,
such as no garden could possibly supply, are brought together at once under our eyes,
at any season of the year.

580. IVie mode or state iji which plants are preserved, is generally desiccation, accom-
panied by pressing. Some persons, Sir J. E. Smith observes, recommend the preservation
of specimens in weak spirits of wine, and this mode is by far tlie most eligible for such as
are very juicy ; but it totally destroys their colors, and often renders their parts less fit
for examination, than by the process of drj-ing. It is, besides, incommodious for frequent
study, and a very expensive and bulky way of making an herbarium.

581. The greater part of plants dry with Jaciliti/ between the leaves of books, or other paper,
the smoother the better. If there be plenty of paper, they often dry best without
shifting ; but if the specimens are crowded, they must be taken out frequently, and the
paper dried before they are replaced. The great point to be attended to is, that the
process should meet with no check. Several vegetables are so tenacious of their vital
principle, that they will grow between papers ; the consequence of which is, a destruc-
tion of their proper habit and colors. It is necessary to destroy the life of such, either
by immersion in boiling water, or by the application of a hot iron, such as is used for
linen, after which they are easily dried. The practice of applying such an iron, as some
jiersons do, ^^ith great labor and perseverance, till tlie plants are quite dry, and all
their parts incorporated into a smooth flat mass is not approved of. 'Iliis renders them
imfit for subsequent examination, and destroys their natural habit, the most important
thing to be preserved. Even in spreading plants between papers, we should refrain
from that precise and artificial disposition of their branches, leaves, and other parts,
which takes away from their natural aspect, except for the purpose of displaying the
internal parts of some one or two of their flowers, for ready observation. The most
approved method of pressing is by a box or frame, with a bottom of cloth or leather,
like a square sieve. In this, coarse sand or small shot may be placed, in any quantity.
Very little pressing is required in drying specimens ; what is found necessary should
be applied equally to every part of the bundle under the operation, and this can only be
done by the use of an equalising press of granulated matter, of compressed airj or of a
bag of water.

Dried specimens are kept in herbariums in various ivays : sometimes loose between leaves of paper ; at
other times wholly gummed or glued to paper, but most generally attached by one or more transverse slip«
of paper, glued on one end and pinned at the other, so that such specimens can readily be taken out,
examined, and replaced. On account of the aptitude of the leaves and other parts of dried plants to drop
olT, many glue them cntireh', and such seems to be the method adopted by Linnarus, and recommended
by Sir J. E. Smith. " Dried specimens," the professor observes, " are best preserved by being fastened,
with weak carpenter's glue, to paper, so that they may be turned over without damage. Thick and heavy
stalks require the additional support of a few traiisverse strips of paper, to bind them more firmly down.
A half sheet, of a convenient folio size, should be allotted to eaph species, and all the species of a genias
may be placed in one or more whole sheets or folios. On the oytside of the latter should be written the
name of the genus, while the name of every species, with its place of growth, time of gathering, the finder's
name, or any other concise piece of information, may be inscribed on its appropriate paper. This is the
plan of the Linna?an herbarium."

In arranging dried specimens, the most simple and obvious guide is that of the order of their flowering,
cr that in which they are gathered, and this may be adopted during the summer season ; but afterwards
they ought to be put into some scientific method, either natural or artificial. They may be kept in a
cabinet, consisting of a collection of drawers for each order ; and the relative as well as absolute size of
these drawers, will depend on the proposed extent of the collection, as whether of British plants only, of
hardy plants only, or of all plants introduced to this country. In the chapter on vegetable geography will
be found data for the size of the drawers under everj- case.

The fungi cannot in general Ix dried so as to retain the habit and character of the vegetating plant ;
but this defect is supplied by models, of which excellent collections are prepared for sale by the Sowerby
family, well known for their botanical works.

The perfect preservation of an herbarium is much impeded from the attacks of insects. A little beetle,
called Piinusfur, is more esi)ecially the pest of collectors, laying its eggs in the germens or receptacles of
flowers, as well as on the more solid parts, which are speedily devoured by the maggots when hatched, and
by their devastations, paper and plants are alike involved in ruin. The most bitter and acrid tribes, as
euphorbia, gentiana, prunus, the s-^-ngenesious class, and especially willows, are preferred by these vermin.
The last-mentioned family can scarcely be thoroughly dried before it is devoured. Ferns are scarcely ever
attacked, and grasses but seldom. To remedy this inconvenience, a solution of corrosive sublimate of
mercury in rectified spirits of wine, about two drams to a pint, with a little camphor, will be found per-
fectly eificacious. It is easily applied with a camel-hair pencil when the specimens are perfectly dry, not
before ; and if they are not too tender, it is Ijest done before they are pasted, as the spirit extracts a yellow
dye from many plants, and stains the paper. A few drops of this solution should be mixed with the glue
used for pasting. This application not only destroys or keeps off aU vermin, but it greatly revives the colors
of most plants, giving the collection a most pleasing air of freshness and neatness. After several years'
experience, no inconvenience has been found from it whatever, nor can any dried plants be long preserved
without it. ^ ^. ,, ^ ^.„. ,..

JTie herbarium is best kept in a dry room without a constant fire. lannafus had a stone buildmg for his
museimi, remote from his dwelling-house, into which neither fire nor candle was ever admitted, yet
nothing was more free than his collection from the injiu-ies of dampness, or other causes of decay.
{Smith's Introduction, eh. 24.)

128 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

Sect. VII. Of Methods of Study.
582. Tliere are two methods of acquiring botanical knowledge, analogous to those by which
langxiages are acquired. The first is the natural method, which begins with the great and
obvious classes of vegetables, and distinguishes trees, grasses, &c. ; next individuals among
these ; and afterwards their parts or organs. This knowledge is acquired insensibly, as
one acquires lis mother-tongue. The second is the artificial method, and begins with
the parts of plants, as the leaves, roots, &c., ascending to nomenclature and classification,
and is acquired by particular study, aided by books or instructors, as one acquires a dead
or foreign language. This method is the fittest for such as wish to attain a thorough
knowledge of plants, so as to be able to describe them ; the other mode is easier, and the
best suited for cultivators, whose object does not go beyond that of understanding their
descriptions, and studying their physiology, history, and application.

An easy and expeditious mode for gardeners to know plants and study the vegetable kingdom is as
follows : —

Begin by acquiring the names of a great number of individuals. Supposing the plants growing in a
named collection, or that you have any person to tell you their names : then take any old book, and begin
at any point (in preference the beginning) of the collection, border, or field, and taking a leaf from the
plant whose name you wish to know, put it between the two first leaves of the book, writing the name
with a pencil, if you are gathering from a named collection, or if not, merely write a number, and get the
name inserted by your instructor afterwards. Gather, say a dozen the first day, carry the book in your
pocket, and fix these names in your memory, associated with the form and color of the leaves, by
repeatedly turning to them during the moments of leisure of one day. Then, the second day, proceed to
the plants, and endeavour to apply the names to the entire plant. To assist you, take them in the order
in which you gathered them, and refer to the book when your memory fails. To aid in recollecting the
botanic names, endeavour, after you have gathered the leaves, either by books or your instructor, to learn
the etymology of the name, and something of the history of the plant, &c. Attach the leaves by two
transverse cuts in the paper, or by any simple process, so as the first set may not fall out when you are
collecting a second. Having fixed the first fasciculus in your memory, form a second, which you may in-
crease according to your capacity of remembering. Proceed as before during the second day ; and the
beginning of the third day, begin at your first station, and recall to memory the names acquired during
both the first and second day. In this way go on till you have acquired the names of the great majority
of the plants in the garden or neighbourhood where you are situated. Nothing is more easily remembered
than a word when it is associated with some visible object, such as a leaf or a plant ; and the more names
of plants we know, the more easy does it become to add to our stock of them. A person who knows only
ten plants will require a greater efTort of memory to recollect two more, than one who knows a thousand
will to remember an additional two hundred. That gardener must have little desire to learn who cannot,
in two or three weeks, acquire the names of a thousand plants, if already arranged. If to be collected in
the fields, it is not easy getting a thousand leaves or specimens together ; but, in general, every gardener
requires to charge his memory with the names and ideas or images, of between five hundred and one
thousand plants ; as being those in general cultivation as agricultural plants, forest-trees, and field-shrubs,
horticultural plants, plants of ornament, and those requiring eradication as weeds.

To acquire the glossology, cut a leaf or other part from the plants indicated in any elementary work
on botany which you may possess, as affording examples of each term. You will not be able to get at all
the examples ; but if you get at one tenth of them, it will prepare you for the next step, which is —

To acquire a knowledge of the classes and orders. This is easily done by selecting the blossoms of
plants, whose class, &c. is designated in a catalogue. Begin with class 1, order 1. On looking at any pro-
per catalogue, such as Sweet's or Donn's, you will find that there are but few plants in this class, and only
one British example which flowers in May. Unless you take that month, therefore, or enjoy the advan-
tages of inspecting hot-house plants, you can do nothing with this class. Proceed to the next order, and so
on, examining as many flowers as possible in each class and order, in connection with the descriptions, as
given in your elementary guide, in order that you may be perfectly familiarised with all the classes, and
the whole or the greater number of the orders.

Study the descriptions of plants, with the plants before you. For this purpose, procure any good Species
Plantarum or Flora, in Latin, if you know a little of that language, as the Hurtus Kewensis, Smith's Flora
Britannica ; or in English, as Withering's Arrangement of British Plants, Murray's British Flora, or
Miller's Dictionary, in which last are short descriptions both in English and Latin. Persevere in this
practice, collecting an herbarium, and writing the complete description of each specimen under it, till all
the parts of plants are familiar to you. When that is the case, you will be able, on a plant's being presented
to you which you never saw before, to discover (that is, if it be in flower) first its class and order, and next,
by the aid of proper books, its generic and specific name ; and this, as far as respects the names of plants,
is to attain the object in view.

But to know the name of an object is not to know its nature ; therefore having stored up a great many
names in your memory, and become familiarised with the plants by which you are surrounded, and with
the art of discovering the names of such as may be brought to you, by the Linneean method ; the next
thing is to study plants according to their natural affinities, by referring them to their natural orders, and
observing the properties common to each order. Then proceed to study their anatomy, chemistry, and
physiology ; and lastly, their history and application. For these purposes Smith's Introduction to Botany,
Keith's Vegetable Physiology, and Willdenow's Species Plantarum, may be reckoned standard works.
Books of figures, such as Sowerby's Exotic and English Botany, or Curtis's Magazine, are eminently useful
for the first department, but they can only come into the hands of a few. Those who understand French
will find the elementary works of Decandolle, Richard, and Girardin, of a superior description. The
Elements of Decandolle and Sprengel, lately translated, is also a valuable work.

Chap. IV

Taxonomy, or the Classification of Plants.

583. Without some arrangement, the mind of man would be unequal to the task of ac-
quiring even an imperfect knowledge of the various objects of nature. Accordingly, in
every science, attempts have been made to classify the different objects that it embraces,
and these attempts have been founded on various principles. Some have adopted arti-

Book I.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

129

ficial characters ; othei-s have endeavoured to detect the natural relations of the beings
to be arranged, and thus to ascertain a connection by which the whole may be asso-
ciated. In the progress of zoology and phytology, the fundamental organs on which
to found an artificial arrangement have been finally agreed on. In both, those which
are essential, and which discover the greatest variety, form the basis of classification.
Animals are found to differ most from each other in the organs of nutrition, and plants
in the organs of reproduction.

584. Two kinds of methods liave been adopted in arranging vegetables ; the natural and
the artificial. A natural method is that which, in its distribution, retains all the classes
or groups obviously alike ; that is, such into which no plants enter that are not connected
by numerous relations, or that can be disjoined without doing a manifest violence to
nature. An artificial method is that whose classes are not natural, because they collect
together several genera of plants which are not connected by numerous relations, although
they agree in the characteristic mark or marks, assigned to that particular class or assem-
blage to which they belong. An artificial method is easier than the natural, as in the
latter it is nature, in the former the writer, who prescribes the rules and orders to be ob-
served in distribution. Hence, likewise, as nature is ever uniform, there can be only
one natural method : whereas artificial methods may be multiplied almost ad infinitum,
according to the several different relations under which bodies are viewed.

585. The object of both methods is to promote our knowledge of the vegetable kingdom :
the natural method, by generalising facts and ideas j and the artificial method, by faci-
litating the knowledge of plants as individual objects. The merits of the former method
consist in the perfection with which plants are grouped together in natural families or
orders, and these families grouped among themselves ; the merits of the latter consist in
the perfection with which plants are arranged according to certain marks by which their
names may be discovered. Plants arranged according to the natural method may be com-
pared to words arranged according to their roots or derivations ; arranged according to
an artificial method, they may be compared to words in a dictionary. Linnaeus has given
the most beautiful artificial system tliat has ever been bestowed by genius on mankind ;
and Jussieu has, with unrivalled ability, exhibited the natural affinities of the vegetable
kingdom. The following Tables exhibit an outline of both methods : —

586. According to the Linn^an Method all Vegetables are furnished vnth Flowers, which

are either

Visible,
Stamina and pointal in the same flower,
'Male and female organs distinct,
f Stamina not united either above or t)elow,
f Generally of equal length.

Is Number. Classes.

One, - - - 1. Manamlria.

Two, - - .2. Diandria,

Three, - - - 3. Triandria,

Four, . . . t. Tetrandria,

Five.

5. Peniandria,

Six,

Seven, - -

Eight,

Nine, - -

Ten,

Twelve,

Many, frequently twenty,"?

attached to the calyx, -3
Many, generally upwards of T

twenty, not attached to>- 13.

the calyx, - - 3

.Of unequal length,
f Two long, and two short, -

C Four long, and two short, -
Stamina united,
"by the filaments, into one body,
into two bodies,
into many Ixxiies,
by the anthers or tops, into a")
L cylinder, . . -3

Male organs (stamina) attached T

to, and standing upon the fe->- 20.
. male (pistillum"), - -3

_Stamina and pointal in different flowers,
Ton the same plant, - - 21.

on different plants, - - 22.

«! on the same or different plants'!
I along with hermaphrodite f 23.
L flowers, - - -J

Or lie concealed from view, and cannot"?
. be distinctly described, - -3

24.

Hexandria,

Heptandria,

Octandria,

Enneandria,

Decandria,

Dodecandria,

Icosandria,
Polyandria,

Didynamia, -

Tetradynamia,

Monadelphia, -
Diadelphia,
Polyaaelphia, -

Syngenesia, -
Gynandria,

MoTuecia,
Dicecia,

Polygamia,
Cryptogamia,

K

Examples.

Ginger, turmeric.

Jessamine, privet, olive.

Valerian, iris, grasses.

Scabious, teazel, holly.
CBell-flower, bind-weed, mullein, thom-
\_ apple.

Snowdrop, tulip, aloe.

Horse-chestnut.

Indian-cress, heath.

Bay, rhubarb.

Fraxinella, rue, lychnis.

Purslane, house-leek.

Peach, medlar, apple, rose, cinquefoil.

CHerb-christopher, poppy, larkspur, co-
\_ lumbine.

C Savory, hyssop, ground-ivy, balm, fox-
J_ glove.

CScurvy-grass, candy-tuft, water-cress,
t stock, woad.

Geranium, mallow tribe.

Fumitory, milk-wort.

Orange, chocolate-nut.
CCompound flowers, as dandelion, thistle,
(_ tansey.

Orchis, ladies'-slipper, birth-wort

Mulberry, nettle, oak, fir.
Willow, hop, juniper.

White hellebore, pellitory, orach, fig.
Ferns, mosses, mushrooms, flags.

130

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Tart II.

587. According to the Method o/ Jussieu, improved and altered by Be CandoUe and others,
all Vegetables are furnished with Seeds, %vhich are either

Classes.

Dicotyleclo-
nete ; furnish-
ed with two _
or more coty-"
ledons, or
seed-lobes, -

Monocotyle- n
doneffi ; fur-
nished with I
only one co-
tyledon, or I
seed-lobe, - ^

Acotyledo-
nese; vege-
table beings
composed of
a cellular tis-
sue unprovid-
ed with ves-
sels, and of
which the
embryo is
without coty-
ledons, - .

"Thaiami-
florae
v/ith dis-
tinct i»e-
tals in-
serted in

there- Ovary solitary

ceptacle, placenta cen
rCalyx and tral,

corolla < Fruit distinct

distinct, but joined

the same
. base
Petals free, or more or lessT
adhering together, always h
inserted in the calyx, - - 3
Corolla roonopetalous
pogynous, not inserted
the calyx.

Calyx and corolla forming only a singlej
. envelope, - - ... -J

f8.

istinct, T
ined on (
nc C

lessT
vaysh

hy-7

:l inP

L2.

Calyciflora?, S8.

fi. Corollifiorc-c, 2-i.

In which the fructification is visible,"?

and regular, J

"In which the fructification is concealed,")

unknown, or irregular, . . .J

With leafy expansions, and known 7
sexes, i

Without leafy expansions, and not ofj
known sexes, . . . . -j

Monochla-"?
myde e, 3

8. Phanerogamea;, 22.

9. Cryptogamea?, 5.

10. Foliacea?, &c.

11. Aphylle^E, - 3

Orders.

Ranunculaceae,
Magnoliaceae,
&c.

Pai>avcracca»,
(^rucifera?, &c.

{Caryopliyllcse,
Linca\ Ike.

C Simaroubea?,
i. Ochnaceae.

'JVrcbintacc.T?,,
L ^guminosj?,
&■••

f Oloin;r, Jasmi-

{_ ncaE;, is.c.

C Pluml)aj"ine.x',
1 Plantaginea?, &c.

{Aniaryllideas, Gra-
minezE,Palma;, SiC.
Crilices, Lycoixxii-
\ neac, &c.

c C Musci, Hepa-
" (_ ticae

Lichcnos, Fungi,
Algx'.

The names of the classes are of very little consequence in this method, and the number of orders is not
to be considered as fixed. That part of a system sn new and so comprehensive necessarily admits of much
improvement by perfecting the groups, the jvrogiess to which will more frequently be attained by subdi-
vitling than;iby uniting. The names of tJje orders indicate at the same time examples of each, as
Uanunculus of Ranunculaceas, &c.

Sect. I. The Hortus Brilannicus arranged according to the Linneean System.

588. The plants grown in Britain, whether native or exotic, are thus arranged according
to the Linneean system. The genera, of which there are species natives of the country, are
here marked (*), for tlie sake of those w^ho may wish to arrange a herbarium or growing
collection of indigenous plants according to this method. > The authorities followed are,
Sweet's Hort. Suburb. Land. 1818, and Smith's Comp. Fierce Brit. 1816.

Class I. Monandria. Stamen 1. Containing only two Orders.

1. Monogynia. Style 1. Containing of the natural order of
Jussieu, Cannae, the genera Canna, Maranta, Thalia, Phry-
nium ; of the beautiful order Scitamineas, Hedychium, Al-
pinia, Hellenia, Zingiber, Elettaria, Costus, Kaempferia,
Amomum, Curcuma, Globba; of Junceie, Philydrum ; of
Onagrarue, Lopezia ; of Nyctaginece, Boerhaavia ; of Cheno-
vodete, PoUichia; *Salicomia; of Naiades, *Hippuris.
20 Gen. 66 Sp.

2. Digyma. Styles 2. Containing of Chenopmlece, Corisper-
mum, BUtum ; of iVaiai/es, *CaUitriche. 3 Gen. 5 Sp.

Class II. Dian/lria. Stamens 2. Orders 3.

1. Monogynia. This, the most natural and numerous order,
comprehends the elegant and fragrant Jasminece, the Jas-
mine, Lilac, O ive, &c. ; also Veronica, and a few labiate
flowers with naked seeds, as Salvia, Rosemary, &c. natural
allies of the fourteenth class ; but having only two stamens,
they are necessarily ranged here in the artificial system. — It
contains of Jarminew, Nyctanthes, Jasminium ; of Oleitue,

♦ Ligustrum, Olea, Notetea, Chionanthus, Linociera,
Omus, Syriiiga; of Bignoniacea:, Catalpa; of Thymelew,
Pimelea ; of Onagrariw, Fontanesia, * Circaea ; of Scrophu-
larinte, * Veionica, Gra>iola, Schwenkia, Calceolaria ;
Acanlhacea, Elytraria, Justicia, Eranthemum ; of Lenli-
bulana, * Pinguicula, * Utricularia ; of Verhcnacex, Galipea ;
(jhinia, Stachytarpheta ; ofLabialce, • Lycopus, Amethystea,
Cunila, Ziziphora, Hedeoma, ]\Ionarda, Rosmaiinus,

* Salvia, Colhnsonia ; of Dipsaceae, Morina : of Rosacea,
Acsena. 36 Gen. 276 Sp.

2. nigyiua, consiste only of Graminem, *-inthoxanthum, a grass

which, having but two stamens, is separated from its natural
family in the third class. 1 Gen. 2 Sp.
3. Trigynia. It contains of Piperacae, Piper. 1 Gen. "58 Sp.

Class III. Triandria. Stamens 3. Orders 3.

1. Monogynia. Valeriana is placed here because most of its
species have three stamens. Here also we find the sword-
leaved plants. Iris, Gladiolus, Ixia, &c., also Crocus, and
numerous grass-like plants, Schanus, Cyperus, Scirpus, &c —
It contains of Dipsacea^ * Valeriana, Fedia; of Nydaginete,
Oxybaphus ; of Terelnniacete, Cneorum, Comocladia ; of
Cucurbitacea, Melothria ; of Caryophyllece, Ortegia, Loeflin-
gia ; of Chenopodea;, Polycnemum ; of' Acerine, Hippocratea ;
of Iriik(P, *Crocus, Trfchonema, GeLssorhiza, Hesperantha,
Sparaxii, *Ixia, Anomatheca, Tritonia, Watsonia, (Jladio-
lus, Melasphffirula, Antholyza, Babiana, Aristea, Witsenia,
Lapeyrousia, Monea, *Iris, Marica, Pardanthus ; of Cotn-
melinea, Commelina, Aneilema, Callisia ; of Pontederece,
Leptanthus ; of Htsmodoracett, AVachendorfia, Xiphidium,
Dilatris, Ha?modorum ; of Resfiacea, Xyiis ; of CyperOceir,
Mariscus, Kyllinga, *Cj-perus, Isolepis, *Scirpus, Efeocharis,
Rhynchospora, "SchoEnus, Cladium, Trichophorum, *Eri-
ophorum ; of Graminea:, *Nardus, Lygeum, Cornucopia
Cenchrus, *Sesleria, LimnetLs. 5G Gen. 346 Sp.

2. Digyma. This important order consists of the true Grasses.
Their habit is more easily perceived than defined ; their
value, as fumisMng herbage for cattle, and grain for man, is
sufliiciently obvious. No poisonous plant is found among
them, excej>t the I,o/i«m <*mH/en/um, said to be intoxicating
and pernicious in bread. Their genera are not easily defined.
Linnaeus, Jussieu, and most botanists, pay regard to the

Book I.

LINNiKAN HORTUS BRITANNICUS.

13J

number of florets In each spikelct; but In Arundo this is of
no moment. Magnificent and valuable works on this family
have been published in Germany by the celebrated Schreber
and by Vi. Host. The Ft. Gra-'ca also is rich in tliis depart-
ment, to wluch the late Mr. Sibthorp paid p-eat attention.
Much is to be expected from scientific agriculturists; but

to overcome their habits, iniomuch that few grasses can be
generally cultivated at pleasure. — It contains of Grami'nriF,
Trichod'iuni, Sporobolus, *Agrostis, * Knappia, Tcrotis,
♦Polypo^n, *!5tipa, Trisetum, * A vena, *llromus, *Fe;-
tuca, «Triticum, *SecaIe, *Hordcum, *Elymus, *Lolium,
Koeleria, Glyceria, *Poa, Triixlia, Calama^rostis, *Arur.do,

. Jigitaria, *Panicum, Ortho-
pogon, Pennisetum, Saccharura, llotbollia, Miclirochloa,
L^rsia. 5<J Gen. 314 Sp.
3. Trigynia Ls chiefly composed of little pink-like plants, or,
Carytfjiliyllea, as Hulosieum. — Tillcca mmcosa has the number
proper to this order, but the rest of the genus bears every
part of the fructification in fours. This, in Linna^an lan-
guage, is expressed by saying the flower of TitUea is qiiadri-
*iJu6, four cleft, and T. muacosa excludes, or lays aside one
fourth of the fructiiication. — It contains of Res'tiacetr, *Eri-
ocnulon ; of Pnrtiilaeat, *Montia ; of I'olyf^nea, Koenigia ;
of Caryoyhyltciz, *Holosteura, *Polycarpon, Mollugo, Minu-
artia, ^ueria, Lechea. 'J Gen. 12 Sp.

Class IV. Teirandria. Stamens 4. Orders 3.

1. tlonogynia. A very numerous and various order, of which
the Pruteactce make a conspicuous part ; Plantugo, remark-
able for its captula cirntnucUsa, a membranous capsule,
sejiarating by a complete circular fissure into two parts, as
in CeniHiiculut, Rubia, and others of its natural order, whose
stipulation is remarkable, and the curious Ejiinwdium, are
found here — It contains of Proieaccac, Petrophila, Isopogon,
Protea, Leucospermum, Mimetes, Scrruria, Nivenia, Soro-
eephalus, S]iatalla, Persoonia, (Jrevillea, Hakea, I^mbertia,
Xylomelum, Telopea, Iximatia, Uhopala, Banksia, Dry-
andra; of GluOularue, Globularia, Adina; of Rubiacttr,
Cephalanthus ; of Dipsacecc, •Bipsacus, •Scabiosa, Knautia ;
of Nyctaginar, Allionia, Opercularia, Cryptospermum ; of
Rtdaacete, Spennacoce. •Snerardia, •^sperula, Houstonia,
•Galium, Crucianella, *Kubia, Catesbsea, Ixora, Pavetta,
B.->uTardia, Siderodendrum, Chomelia, Mitchella, Coccocvp-
silum, Alanettia, Oldenlandia ; of Rutacea, Zieria ; of alii-

itacett, Witheringia ; of Jasminece, Fenaea ; of

Curtisia ; of Loraiitluict-3', Chloranthus ; of Verbmacete,
^giphila, Callicarpa; of Ericete, Blseria; of Scrojihulariiup,
Buddlea, Scoparia ; of Gentianex, Exacum, Sebaea, Frasera ;
of PlaiUaginete, *Plantago ; of PrimuUuac, Centuncalus ; of
Rosacea!, •Sanguisorba, •Alcherailla ; of l^ites, Cissus ; of
Berberidet, Epimedium ; of Cayrrfo/ite, •Comus ; of Terelnn-
tatxtr, Fagara, Ftelea ; of Onagrarur, Ludwigia, Isnardia;
of Salicariti, Animannia; of Hydrucliaridta; *Trapa; of
Urficfor, Dorstenia ; of Armdea; Pothos; of f.laa:;ni, Eloe-
agnus ; of Santaiaceir, isantaluui ; of Thyinetea, Stru-
thiola ; of Chenopodea, Rivina, Cainphorosma. 78 Gen.
420 Sp.

2. Digynia. It contains of Caryophyllea, Buffonia ; of ... .
.... Hamamelis ; of Papaveracae, Hvpec^;m. 3 Gen.
5Sp.

3. Tetrasynia, It contains of Rhamni, Alyginda, *Ilex, some-
times furnished with a few barren flowers ; of Doracinea,
Coldenia ; of AlUmacta, *Potamogeton ; of Xaindet, «Kup-
pia ; of Caryo^hylUa, *Sagina, Moenchia ; of Semperviice,
"Tillaea ; of Linete, *Kadiola. 9 Gen. 35 Sp.

Class V. PerUandria. A verv large class. Stamens 5.
Orders 6.

1. Monogyma. 1 Style. One of the largest and most important

orders of the whole system It contains of Boraginece, He-

liotropium, *Myosotis, Lappula, *Lithospermum, Batschia,
Onosmodium, *Anchusa, * Cynoglossum, *Pulmonaria,
♦Symphytum, Cerinthe, Onosma, *Borago, Trichodesma,
♦Asperugo, *Lycopsis, *Echium, Toumefortia, Cordia,
Bourreria, Ehretia, Hydrophyllum, Ellisia ; Nolana ? of
Primulacea, Aretia, Aiidrosace, *Primula, Cortusa, Solda-
nella, Dodecatheon, •Cyclamen, *Hottonia, *Lysimachia,
♦Anagallis, *Samolus,' Coris, Diapensia, Pyxidanthera ;
of Ence,T, Cyrilla, Brossa^a; of Rhodoracea, * Azalea; of
Epacridai, Sprengelia, Andersonia, Lysinema, Epacris, SIo-
notoca, Leucopogon, Stenanthera, Astrolotna, Styphelia ; of
Plumhaginect, Plumbaeo ; of Conixtli-vlacea, *Convolvulus,
Calystegia, Ipomoea, Ketzia ; of Bignoniacets, Coboea ; of
Polcnuyniaceo!, *Polemonium, Phlox, Ipomopsis, Calda!sia ;

of Buttiieriacea, Lasiopetalum ; of Galax; of

rf ThymeUa, Scopolia ; of Campamdacea, Lightfootia,
♦Campanula, Koella, Phyteuma, Trachelium, Jasione,
♦Lobelia, Cyphia ; of Goodenovia, Goodenia, Euthales,
Scaevola, Dampiera ; of Rubiacea;, Cinchona, Pinckneya,
Musssnda, Portlandia, Genipa, Gardenia, Oxyanthiis,
Kandia, 'W'ebera, Erithalis, Morinda, Nauclea, Cephaelis,
Hamellia, Rondeletia, ]Macrocnemum, Vanguiera, Dentella,
Serissa, Psychotria, Coftea, Chiococca, I'cederia, Plocama ;
of Canrifolur, *Ix)nicera, Syraphoria, Diervilla, Triosteum,
♦Hedera; of Ctmdyretacece, Conocarpus; of^ SanUilaceai,
Theiium ; of tiydaginea, Mirabilis ; of Solanea, Ramonda,
♦Verbascum, *Datura, Brugmansia, *Hvoscyainus, Nico-
tiana, Mandragora, *Atropa, Solandra, Physalis, Nicandra,
Solanum, Capsicum, Cestrum, Vestia, Lycium ; of Myr-
sinar, Ardisia ; of Sapotae, Jacquinla, Achras, Chryso-
pbyllum, Sideroxylon, Sersalisia, Bumelia ; of Verbenacece,
Tectona; of RJiamm, Elaeodendrum, *Rhamnus, Zizvphus,
Cdastrus, Senacia,*Euonymus, Hovenia, Ceanothus, Poma-
derris, Phylica ? Brunia, Staavia, Plectronia ; of Diosmecr,
Adenandra, Barosma, Diosma, Agathosma; of Pitiosporc(e,
Calodendrum, Bursaria, Billardiera, Pittosporum, Ilea; of

Cucurbiiaceff, Gronovia; of Geramat *Impatiens; of L"
beUiftra, Lagoecla; of Portulacea; Claytonia; Of Violar,
♦Viola, lonidium ; of Mutaceje, Heliconia, Strelitzia ; of
Amaranthacejc, Gomphrena, Philoxcrus, Achyranthes, Pu-

paUa, Deerinela, Cclosla,Lestibudesia, Alternanthera, Xruat
iUecebrum, Paronychia, Anychia, MoUia ; of C/ieiutpcdeeef
Chenolea ; of Salicarive, *Glaux; of Gentianea, *Menyan-
thes, *Villarsia, Logania, SpigeUa, Lisianthus, ♦Chironia,
Sabbatia, Erythra;a, Eustoma; of JUalvacecr, Buttneria,
Ayenia; of Afocynetr, Strj'chnos, Gclsemium, Rauwolfia,
Carissa, Arduma, Cerbera, Allamanda, *Vinca, Nerimn,
M'righiia, Echitcs, Iclmocarpus, Plumeria, Cjuneraria, Ta-
bemu;montana, Anisonia. 209 Gen. 1080 Sp.

2. Digynia. 2 Styles. — It contains of Avccynea, Apocynum,
Melodinus; Atdepiadat, Periploca, Beniidesmus, Seca-
mone, Microloma, Sarcostemma, Dsemia, Cynanchum,
Oxystelma, Gymnema, Calotropis, Xysmalobium, Gompho-
carpus, *A«clepias, Gonolobus, Pergularia, Marsdenia,
Hoyai Stapt'lia, Piaranthus, Huemia, Caralluma ; of Ama-
ran//iacetf, Hcmiaria; of Cheimpodea:, *Cl)tBopodium, *Beta,
♦Salsola, Kochia, Anabasis, Bosea; of ^n;«itece<r, *Ulmus ;
of Saxifrage-T, Hwchersi ; of CaryophyUe<r,Velejiia; of Gen-
iianea-, * Swertia, ♦Gentiana ; rf 'Ccnvolvulacea, Falkia,
Dichondra, Evolvulus, Hydrolea, ♦Cuscuta; of Rtdnacea,
Phyllis ; of Araliir, Cuisonia.

Umbellifinr. These are mostly herbaceous ; the qualities
of such as grow on dry ground are aromatic, while the aqua-
tic sj>ecies are among tlie most deadiv poisons ; according to
the remark of Linnseus, who detected the cause of a dreadful
disorder among homctl cattle in Lapland, in their eating
ycung leaves of dnfa rirom, under water. — It contains
♦ErjTigium, *Hydrocotyle, Spananthe, ♦Sanicula, ♦Astran-
tia, ♦Bupleurum, *Echinophora, Hasselquistia, *Tordyiiuni,
♦Caucalis, Artedia, Uaucus, Visnaga, *Animi, ♦Bu'nium,
♦Conium, *Selinum, ♦Athamanta, Peuccdanum, *Crith-
mura, Cachrys, Ferula, Laserpitium, ♦Heracleum, ♦Ligus-
ticum, ♦Angelica, ♦Sium, «Sison, Bubon, *Cuminum,
♦lEnanthe, *Phellandrium, *Cicuta, ♦^Ethusa, Meum,
♦Coriandrum, Mvrrhis, ♦ Scandix, Oliveria, Anthriscus,
♦ChaerophyUum, *Imji«-atcria, Seseli, Thapsia, ♦Pastinaca,
♦Smymium, ♦Anethum, *Caruin, ♦Pimpinclla, ♦Apimn,
*M^pod\\im. 93 Gen. 487 Sp.

3. TngTjyia. It_ contains of TfreWn/cff<p, Rhus, Spathelia ; of
CapnjUice, ♦A'ilmmum, *Sambucus; of Rhamni, Cassine,
Staphylea ; of PoHulucar, ♦Taniarix, Tumera, Telephiura,
Corrigiola, Portulacaiia; of Buhhorbio-, Xylophylla; of fa-
ryonhylka, Phamaccuni, Drypis; of CheiiojHMlete, Basella.

4. Tetragynia. It contains of Capparidet t ♦Pamassia. 1 Gen.
3Sp.

5. Pcniagynia. It contains of Aralia, Aralia ; of Plumljaginea.
♦Armeria, ♦Staiice, a beautiful maritime genus, with a kind
of everlasting calyx ; of Caruophylletc f ♦Linum ; of Cappa-
ridet t *Drosera ; of Poriulacea; Gisekia ; of Sempervji-ea,
Larochea, Crassula, a numerous succulent genus ; of Tilia
ceo; Mahemia ; of Meliacete, Commersonia ; of Rosacea:,
♦Sibbaldia. 11 Gen. 131 Sp.

G. Polygynia. It contains of Rcnuncvlacto!, *Myosurus, a
remarkable instance of few stamens (though they often ex-
ceed five) to a multitude of pistils ; also Ceratocephalus,
Zantborhiza. 3 Gen. 3 Sp.

Class VI. Hexandria. Stamens C. Orders 4.

1. Monogynia. This, as usual, is the most numerous. The
Liliaceous family, with or without a sptiiha, called by Lin-
naeus the nobles of the vegetable kingdom, constitute its
most splendid ornament. The btauiifiil White Lily is

. commonly chosen by popular w^iiters to exemplify the'sta.
mens and pistils. It contains of Poniedcrttr, Pontedera ;
(^Mmacea, Musa, Urania; of Brometue, Bromelia, Pitcaimia',
Tillandsia, Agave, Furcroea; of Commelinece, Tradcscanlia ;
of AtphodeUtc, Eucomis, Aphyllanthes, Sowerbsea, ♦Allium,
Albuca, Xanthorrhoca, Thysanotus, Eriospermum, Gagea,
♦Omithogalum, ♦Scilla, Massonia, ♦Asphodelus, ♦Anthe-
ricum, Arthropodium, Phalangium, Chlorophytum, Cffisia,
♦Narthecium, Dianella, Eustrephus, ♦Asparagus, Drimia,
L'ropetalon, ♦ Hyacinthus, Muscari, Lachenalia, Dracaena,
Phylloma, Phomiium, Hypoxis, Curculigo, Cyanella ; ot
Amaryllidece, Haemanthus, *Galanthus, ♦I^ucojum, Stru-
maria, Crinum, Cyrtanthus, Brunsvigia, Amaryllis, ♦Nar-
cissus, Pancratium, Eucrosia, Dorjanthes, Gethyllis; of
Hemerocallidc/r, Blandfordia, Agapanthus, *Hfcmerocallis,
Aletris, Tritoma, Veltheimia, Polianthes, Sanseviera,
Tulbagia, Brodiaea ? Aloe ; of Lilia, ♦Fritillaria, ♦Lilium,
♦Tulipa, Alstroemeria, Gloriosa, Yucca, Erythronium,
Uvularia ; of Mdanlhacea, Bulbocodium ; of BTomeliacecc,
Buonapartea; of Berberidue, Eiphylleia, Nandina; of Smila-
eete, Streptopus, ♦Convallaria, Smilacina, ♦Polygonatum,
Ophiopogon ; of Biemodoracat, Lophiola, Lanaria, Anigo-
zanthos ; of Berberidete, I,eontice, Caulophyllum, ♦Berberis ;
of Aroidetr, ♦Acorus, Orontium, '1 uiiistra, Peliosanthes ;
Tacca ? of Pclnue, CoTy\>l\a, I.icuala, 1 hrinax. Calamus ; of
Junceff, ♦Juncus, ♦Luzula ; of iiAaifou, Prinos ; of Rubiacea,
HUlia, Richardia ; of Campanvlccea, Canarina ; of Caryo-
vliyllea, Frankenia; of Salicaria, ♦Peplis; of Graminea,
B^nbusa, Ehrharta. 106 Gen. 730 Sp.

2. Digynia has but few genera. — It contains of Graminea,
Oryza, the Rice, of which there now seems to be more than
one, species ; of Convu/culacea, Falkia ; of Pdygonen, Atra-
phaxi$. 3 Gen. 4 Sp.

3. Trigmia. It contains of Poly gonctt, *Jixiinex ; of Junceirt
Flagefiaria ; of AUtmacect, ♦Scheuchzeria, ♦Triglochin ; of
Melanthacctr, ♦Tofieldia, Melanthium, ♦Colchicum, Hdo-
nias, Noljna: of Smilaceaf Myrsiphyllum, Medeola, Tril-
hum; of Naiades, Aponogeton ; of Pulma, Sabal. 14 Gen.
175 Sp.

4. Polygynia. It contains of ilemspepneit, Wendlandia ; of
Hydrocharideee, Damosonium ; of Atismaceci, ♦Actinocarpus,
♦Alisma. 4 Gen. 9 Sp.

Class VII. Heptandria. Stamens 7. Orders 4.

1. Monogyma. It contains of Primtilacetr, ♦Trientalis ; of
Pedicularcs, Dkaiidra ; of yyciaginea, Pisonia ; of Chenofiodea,

♦Petiveria; of Accra, ,£sculus; of Jonesia; of

Aroidea, Dracontium, Calla. 8 Gen. 21 Sp.

i. Digynia. It contains of Portu/ace<r, Limeum. 1 Gen. 1 Sp.

3. Tei'ragyr.ia. It contains of Naiades, ♦Saururu*. 1 Gen.

4. Heptagyma. It contains of Scmperviia, Scptas. 1 Gen.
3Sp.

K2

133

SCIENCE or GARDENING.

Pa ax ir.

Class VIII. Octamlria. Stamens 8. Orders 4.

1 . Manogfinia. A very various and rich order", consisting of
the well known Trinxtnl.nn, or Nasturtium, whose original

. Latin name, given trom the flavor of tlie plant, like garden -
cresse<, is now become its Knplish one in every body's mouth.
The elegant and fanciful Ijiuicean appellation, equivalent to
a trophy plant, alludes to its use for decorating bowers, and
the resemblance of its peltate leaves to shields, as well as
of its liowers to golden helmets, pierced through and
through, and stained with blood. EpilMum, with its allies,
makes a beautiful part of this order ; but above all are con-
spicuous tlye favorite Fuchsia, the American genus Vacci-
nium: the immense and most elegant genus Erica, so
abundant in southern Africa, but not known in America;
and the fragrant Dan/iije, of wliich last the levant possesses
many charming species. — It contains of Gerania f Tropoeo-
lum; of MeUutomacea; Osbeckia, Rhexia; of Oimgrarix,
♦ffinothera, Gaura, *Epilobiura; of SalicaritF, Gri.,lea,
. Lawsonia; of Melatithacea, Roxburghia; of Trenuiiulrea,
. Tetratheca; of Myrtacax, Jambolifera ; of Diosniea;,
Corrica, Boronia ; of Soiwteit, Mimusops ; of Samndi,
Omitrophe, Dimocarpus, Melicocca, Blighia, Ephielis, Koel-
reuteria? of Meli(e, Guarea; of Terelnniacea, Amyris; Do-
dontea? of Anranfue, Ximenia; of SaiUalacetr, Fuchsia,
Memecylon ; ofJUyrtacece, Bseckia; of Ge7rfia»je<e, *Chlora ; of
Campanulacae, Miehauxia ; of PapaveracOB, Jeffersonia ; of
Ericae, *Oxycoccus, Calluna, *Enca ; of Rhodoracar, *Men-
^iesia; of Thymelete, Lagetta, *Daphne, Dirca, Gnidia, Stel-
lera, Passerina, Lachnoea. 41 Gen. 163 Sp.

2. Digtjnia has a tew plants, but little known ; among them
are Galena africana, and Mochrinaia muscosa. The former
belongs to Chenopodea, and the latter to CarijopliylUie.

2 Gen. 2 Sp. ^ . j.<r •

3. Trigyida. Polygonum n a genus whose species differ in
. the numb?r of their stamens and styles, and yet none can

be more natural. Here therefore the Linnajan system claims
our indulgence. Paullinia and Cardiospermum are more con-
stant. — It contains of Polyt^onecc, *Polygonum, Coccoloba ;
of Sapindi, Paullinia, Seriana, Cardiospermum, Sapindus.

6 Gen. 50 Sp. , . „ • j . ,

4. Tetraf^nia. Here we find the curious Pans and Adoxa. —
It contains of Semoervivie, Calanehoe, Bryophyllum ; of
Srrulaceas, * Paris ; of Saxifrageie,* Adoxa; of Ciiryophyllete,
Klatine ; of Onagrarioe, Haloragis ; of Urticae, Forskohlea.

7 Gen. 10 Sp.

Class IX. Enneandria. Stamens 9. Orders 3.

1. Monogynia. Here we find the precious genus Lauras, in-
cluding the Cinnamon, Bay, Sassafras, Camphor, and many
other noble plants.— It contains of Lauriiue, Laurus ; of
TerddntacM!, Anacardium ; of Polygonae, Eriogonum.

3 Gen. 20 Sp.

2. Trigyma. It contains of Polygonae, Rheum. 1 Gen.
7 Sp.

3. Hexagyma. Confining of Butomae, * Butomus. 1 Gen.
I Sp.

Class X. Decandria. Stamens 10. Orders 5.

I. Monogynia. A numerous and fine assemblage, beginning
with a tribe of flowers more or less correctly papilionaceous
and leguminous. — It contains of Legumiiwsoe, Edwardsia,

sonia, Viminaria, Sphcerolobium, Aotus, Dillwynia, Eutaxia,
Sclerothamiius, Gastrolobium, Euchilus, Pultenaea, Davie-
sia, Mirbelia, Cercis, Bauhinia, Hymensea, Cynometra,
Cassia, Cathartocarpus, Parkinsonia, Poinciana, Caesalpinia,
Guilandina, Hyperanthera, Hoffmanseggia, Adenanthera,
Cadia, Prosopis, Htematoxylon, Copaifera, Scholia ; of liu-
iaceee, Guaiacum, Zygophyllum, Fagonia, Tribulus, Dictam-
nus, Ruta ; of Diosmeee Crowea ; of Solanacae, Codon ; of

Ericete, Monotropa ; of Droseracea, Dionaea ; of

Garuga ; of Samydae, Samyda ; of Guttifera, Gomphia ; of
Magtiolia t Quaissia ; of Auranlite, Limonia, Murraya, Cookia ;
of Malpighiacete, Gaertnera ; of Melias, Trichilia, Ekebergia,
Heynea, Melia, Swietenia; of 0)iagrar?>, Jussieua; of Cow-
hretacea, Getonia, Quisqualis ; of Thymcleos, Dais ; of Mela-
«<u»iace{e, Melastoma ; of Sa/icariif, Acisanthera; of Rhodora-
COS, Kalmia, Ledum, Rhodora, * Rhododendron, Epigsea;
of Ericete, *Vaccinium, *Andromeda, Enkianthus, Gaul-
theria, *Arbutus, Clethra, Mylocaryum, *Pyrola, Chima-
phila ; of Santataceoe, Bucida ; of Sapotete f Inocarpus ; of
Ebenacea, Styrax. 92 Gen. 443 Sp.

2. Digynia. Here we find Saxifraga, remarkable for having
the germen inferior, half inferior, and superior, in different

species It contains of Ebenacece, Royena ; of PorttUacea,

Trianthema, Scleranthus; of Cunoniace^p, Cunonia; of S'aj^i-
fragece. Hydrangea, * Chrysosplenium, * Saxifraga, Tiarclla,

Mitella ; of Canjophylleas, Gypsophila, * Saponaria, * Ui-
anthus. 12 Gen." 160 Sp.

3. Trigynia. Cont2ii;is of Caryophyllea , * Cucubalus, * Silene,

♦ Stellaria, *Arenaria, *Cherleria; of Poltjgonece, Brun-
nichia ; of Ranunculaceoe, Garidella ; of Malpighiacets, Mal-
pighia, Banisteria? 9 Gen. 158 Sp.

4. Pentagynia. Containing of Tertbiniacea; f Averrhoa; Spon-
dias ; of Sempervivoe, * Cotyledon, * Sedum, Penthorum ;
of Gerania f Grielum, * Oxalis ; of Caryophyllea;,

* Agrostemma, * Lychnis, * Cerastium, * Spergula. 1 Gen.
6Sp.

5. Dea^yma, Containing of CAenopocftw, Phytolacca. 11 Gen.

Class XI. Dodccandria. Stamens 12 to 19. Orders 6.

1. Monogynia. A rather numerous and very various order,
with scarcely any natural affinity between the genera. Some
of them have twelve, others fifteen or more stamens, which
should be mentioned in their characters — It contains of
^m<ofoc/ii(B, * Asarum ; of Papaveracete, Bocconia; of Sa-
potete, Bassia ; of Melasfomaceas, Blakea ; of RImioracece, Be-
jaria; of Guttiferce, Garcinia ; of Ebenacece, Halesia ; of
Myrtacae, Decumaria ; of Rhamnea, Aristotelia ; of Melia,
CaneUa ; of Capparidece, Cratreva ; of Tiliacea:, Triumfetta ;
of Ridacece, Planum ; of Ericeoe t Hudsonia ; of Ficoidett,
Xitraria; of Portulactce, Portulaca, Talinum, Anacamp-
seros ; of Salicarice, * Lythnim, Cuphea ; of Malvaceae,
Kleinhofia. 22 Gen. 64 Sp.

2. nigynia. Containing of Cunoniacea:, Callicoma ; of TW. .tete,
Ileliocarpus ; of Rosaceit, * Agrimonia. 3 Gen. 8 Sp.

3. Trif^yma. Containing of Cujiparidea: f * Reseda; of Eu-
phurbue, * Euphorbia; of Ebenacea;, Visnea. 3 Gen.
13'J Sp.

4. I'ttragynia. Containing of Po/^g^oneir, Calligonum. 1 Gen.
1 Sp.

5. Pittiagynia. Containing of Ficoidcoe, Glinus. 1 Gen. 1 Sp.

6. Dodeaigynia. Containing of Hemperviva, *Sempervivuin.
1 Gen. 17 Sp.

Class XII. Icosandria. Stamens 20 or more, inserted mto
the Calyx. Orders 3.

1. Monogynia consists of fine trees, bearing for the most part
stone-fruits, as the Peach, Plum, Cherry, &c. though the
leaves and other parts are bitter, acrid, and sometimes very
dangerous, owing to a peculiar essential oil, known by its
bitter-almond flavor. The Myrtle tribe, so plentiful in New
Holland, is another natural order, comprehended chiefly
under Icosandria Moivngijtiia, abounding in a fra^ant and
■« holesome aromatic oil. — It contains of Cadt, Cactus,
Rhipsalis ; of Loasete, Bartonia ; of Myrtacetg, I'hiladelphus,
Leptoipermum, Fabricia, Metrosideros, I'sidium, Eugenia,
Caryophyllus, Jlyrtus, Calyptranthes, Eucalyptus, Punica ;
of Rosaceue, Amygdalus, * Prunus, Armeniaca, Cliryso-
balanus. 18 Gen. 178 Sp.

2. IH-Pentagynia. In this order it is most convenient to in-
clude such plants as have from two to five styles, and
occasionally, from accidental luxuriance only, one or two
more. Pyrus is an example of it. Spiraa stands here,
most of its species having live styles, though some have a
much greater number. Ilere is Mesembrijanthemum, a vast
and brilliant exotic genus, of a succulent habit, abound-
ing in alkaline salt. — It contains of Rosace w, Waldsteinia,

* Mespilus, * Pyrus, * Cydonia, * Spiraea ; of Ficvidea;
Sesuvium, Tetragonia, Mesembryanthemum, Ai/.oon. 9
Gen. 303 Sp.

3. Poljigynia. An entirely natural order of genuine Rosaceous
flowers. Here we find Rosa, Ridtus, Fragaria, Pulentillu,
Tormentilla, Getim, Dryas, and Cnmarum, all elegant plants,
agreeing in the astringent qualities of their roots, bark and
foliage, and in their generally eatable, always innocent fVuit.
The v^etable kingdom does not afford a more satisfactory
example of a natural order, composed of natural genera,
than this ; and LinniEUS has well illustrated it in the Flora

Lapponicu It contains of Rosacea, *Rosa, *Rubus, Dali-

oarda, *Fragaria, *Comarum, *PotentiIla, *Tormentilla,
*Geum, *Dryas, Calycanthus. 10 Gen. 240 Sp.

Class XIII. Polyandria. Stamens numerous, inserted into
the Receptacle. Orders 5.

1. Monogynia. The genera of this order form a numerous
and various assemblage of handsome plants, but many are
of a suspected quality. Among them are the Poppv, the
Caper-shrub, the Sanguinaria canadensis, remarkable for its
orange juice, like our Celandine; also the beautiftil genus
Cisius, with its copious but short-lived flowers, some of
which have irritable stamens; and the sjilendid aquatic

tribe of Nyntphxa It contains of Capparidea, Capparis ;

Marcgravia ? of Ranunculacete, *ActaEa ; of Papaveraceas,
Sanguinaria, Podophyllum, *Chelidomum, *Glaucium,

*Papaver, Argemone ; of^ Sarracenia ; of

Nytnphaacex, «Nymph8ea, Nuphar, Euryale ; of Tiliacea,
Bixa, Sloanea, Aubletia, Sparmannia, Muntingia, Grewia,
*Tilia, Cmchorus; of Gatizferx, Grias, Calophyllum, Mam-
mea, Ochna, Elaeocarjius ; of Myrtacea, Alangium ; of Lo ■
asea;, Mentzelia; of Sulicaria, Lagerstroemia ; of Auraniiae,
jEjjle; of CisH, Cistus, *HeUantheinum. 32 Gen. IGl Sp.

2. Digyjua. Containing of liunoniacea, Bauera ; of Amentaceae,
Fothergilla ; of Magnolia: f Curatella ; of Ranunculacea,
Paeonia. 4 Gen. 21 Sp.

3. Trigynia. Containing of Cj7/enJacOT, Hibbertia ; of Ranun-
culaceoe, *Delphinium, Aconitum. 3 Gen. 36 Sp.

4. Peniagynia. Containing of Raniinculacea, Cimicifuga,
*Aquilegia, Nigella; of 7^icoi'</c<p, Reaumuria. 4 Gen. 18 Sp.

5. Potugynia, An order for the most part natural, compre-
bending some fine exotic trees, as IJillcnia, Liriodendron, the
Tulip-tree, the noble Magnolia, &o. To these succeed a
family of plants, either herbaceous or climbing, of great
elegance, but of acrid and dangerous qualities, as Anemone,
in a single state the most lovely, in a double one the most
splendid ornament of our parterres in the spring ; Atrngene
and Clematis, so graceful for bowers; Thalictrum, Adorns,
Ranunculus, TrolUus, Hetleborus and Callha, all conspicuous
in our gardens or meadows, which, with a few less fimiliar,
close this class. — It contains of Nymphueaceae, Nelumbium ;
of Dilleniaceas, Dillenia; Magnoliacece, Liriodendron, Mag-
nolia, Michelia; of Annoiue, Uvaria, Illicium, Annona,
Porcelia, Xylopia ; of TJanuncu/aceiB, *Hepatica, *Anemone,

♦Pulsatilla, Atragene, *Clematis, *Thalictrum, *Adoni3,
Knowltonia, *Ficaria, *RanuncuIus, *Trollius, Isopyrum,
Eranthis, *Helleborus, Coptis, *Caltha, Hydropeltis, Hy-
diastis. 28 Gen. 185 Sp.

Class XIV. Didynamia. Stamens 2 long and 2 short. Or-
ders 2, each on the whole very natural.

1. Gymnospemiia. Seeds naked, in the bottom of the calyx,
four, except in Phryma, which has a solitary seed. Corolla
monopetalous and irregular, a little inflated at the base, and
holding honey, without any particular nectary. Stamens in
two pairs, incurved, with the stvle between them, so that
the impregnation rarely fails. The plants of this order are
mostly aromatic, and none, we believe, poisonous. The
calyx is either in live nearly equal segments, or two-lipped.
Most of the genera afford excellent essential characters,
taken frequently from the corolla, or from some other part.
— It contains of Labiatoe, *Ajuga, Anisomeles, *Teucrium,
Westringia, Satureja, Thymbra, Hyssopus, Pycnanthemum,

♦ Nepeta, Elsholtzia, Lavandula, Sideritis, Bystropogon,
*Mentha, Perilla, Hyptis, Lepechinia, *Glechoma, *La-
mium, *Galeopsis, *Galeobdolon, * Betonica, * Stachys,
*Ballota, *Mamibium, *Leonurus, Phlomis, Leucas, Le-
onotis, Moluccella, *Clinopodium, *Origanum, *Thymus,
Acynos, Calamintha, Melissa, Dracocephalum, *MeIittis,
Ocymum, Plectranthus, Trichostema, Prostanthera, ♦Scu-
tellaria, *Prunella, Cleonia, Prasiura, Plujma; of Verb*-
beruueoe, Selago. 48 Gen. 279 Sp.

^Bi«^,

LINNiEAN HORTUS BRITANNICUS.

133

inermia. Seeds in a capsule, and eenerally Tery nume-
rous. The plants of this onier have the greatest (lossible
affinity with some families in PerUandria ilowgynut. Some
species even vary from one class to the other,' as ^ignoida
radictins, and AntirrlUnum Linaria, in which the irregular
corolla becomes regular, and the four unequal stamens are
changed to five equal ones ; nor does this depend, as has been
asserted, on the action of any extraneous pollen u)>on the
stigmas of the parent plant," neither are the seeds always
abortive. No method of arrangement, natural or artificial,
could provide against such anomalies as these, and therefore
imperfections must be expected in every system It con-
tains of Verbenacta, Hebenstretia, Clerodendrum, V'olka-
moria, Holmskioldia, Vitex, Comutia, Hosta, Graelina,
Petraea, Citharexylum, Duranta, Lantana, Spielmannia,
Zapania, Priva, Alovsia, *\'erbena ; of iluonoritm, Myopo-
nim, Stenochilus, Bontia, Avicemiia ; of Pedalirur, Peda-
lium ; of Bignoniacea, Bignonia, Sesaraum, Tourrettia, Jlar-
tinia ; of Gtsnerea, Gloxinia, Gesneria ; of Orobanchect, *La-
thraea, *Orobanche ; of Acanihacae, Acanthus, Thunbergia,
Barleria, Kudlia, Blechum, Aphelandra, Crossandra ; of
Scrophularinx, Limosella, BrowalUa, Stemodia, Mazus, Lin-
demia, Heipestis, Capraria, Teedia, Besleria, Trevirana,
Colunuiea, Kusselia, Dodartia, Ilalleria, Mimulus, Home-
mannia, *DigitaIis, *Scrophularia, Penstemon, Chelone,
Celsia, Alonsoa, Maurandia, Cymbaria, Neraesia, Anarrhi-
num, *Antirrhinum, *Linaria ; of Pedicularta, *Gerardia,
♦Pedicularis, Melampyrum, *Khinanthus, Bartsia, Cas-
tilleja, *Euphrasia, Buchnera, Manulea, Erinus, *Sibthorpi ;
of Solanat t Bruuiielsia, Crescentia, Anthocercis ; of Capri-
folia, *Lmnaea; of Rutacea, Melianlhus. 81 Gen. 346 Sp.

Class XV. Tetradi/namia. Stamens 4 long jmd 2 short.
Orders 2, perfectly natural. Flowers cruciform

Fruit a roundish pod, or pouch. In some
_ is entire, as Draba ; in others notched, as Thiaspi,

and Iberii — It contains of Crucifera, *Cakile, *Crambe,
♦Myagrum, Euclidium, Rapistrum, Bunias, *Coror.opus,
Biscutella, Peltaria, Clypeola, *Isatis, Succowia, Vella;
Anastatica, ^thioneraa'^ *Thlaspi, *Hutchinsia, *Tees-
dalia, *Iberis, *Lepidium, *Cochlearia, *Subularia, *Draba,
Petrocallis, Camelina, *Alvssum, Farsetia, Vesicaria, Lu-
naria, Ricotia. 30 Gen. 120 Sp.

2. SUiquoia. Fruit a very long pod. Some gaiera have a
calyjc daiuat, its leaves slightly cohering by their sides, as
Raphantu, and Cheiranthiu. Others have a spreading or
gaping calyx, as Cardamine, and Sisymbrium.

Cliome is a very insular genus, allied in habit, and even
in the number of stamens ot several species, to the Potyan-
dria ilonfigyma. Its fruit, moreover, is a capsule of one
cell, not the real two-celled pod of this order. Most of its
species are foetid and very poisonous, whereas scarcely any
plants properly belonging to this class are remarkably noxious.
Sir J. E. Smitli has great doubts concerning the disease
called Raphnnia, attributed by Linnaeus to the seeds of Ra-
phaniu Raphaittiirum.

The cruciform plants are vulgarly called antiscorbutic, and
supposed to be of an alkalescent nature. Their essential oil,
which is generally obtainable in very small quantities by dis-
tillation, smells like volatile alkali, and is of a very acrid
quality. Hence the fostid scent of water in which cabbages,
or other plants of this tribe, have been boiled.

It contains of Crucifera, Heliophila, *Cardamine, *Ara-
bis, Macropodium, *Tunitis, *Baibarea, *Xasturtium,
*Sisymbrium, *Erysimum, Notoceras, *Cheiranthus, *Ma-
thiola, Malcomia, *Hesperis, Erucaria, *Brassica, *Sinapis,
♦ Haphanus, Chorispennum ; of Ca/)parwie<r,Cleome. 20 Gen.

Class XV'I. Monadelphia. Stamens united by their filaments
into one tube. Orders 8, distinguished by the number of
their stamens.

1. Triandria. This order contains the singular Cape plant
Aphyteia, consisting of a large flower and succulent firuit,
springing immediately from the root, without stem or leaves.
— It contains of Leguminota, Tamarindus ; of Iridexe, Pa-
tersonia, Ferraria, Tigridia, Galaxia. 5 Gen. 11 Sp.

2. Pentandria. Containing of TUiacea, W'altheria, Her-
mannia ; of Malvactte, jfelochia, Melhania, Ochroma ; of
Patsijiorat, Passiflora ; of Geraixiacag, *Erodium. 7 Gen.
92 Sp.

3. Heptandria. Contains of G,.-ramacae, Pelargonium. 1 Gen.
175 Sp.

4. Octaadria. Contains of Mdia, Aitonia. 1 Gen. 1 Sp.

5. Decaitdria. Contains of Gtraniacat, *Geranium ; of Legumi-
nota, Brownea. 2 Gen. 41 Sp.

6. Dodecandria. Contains of GeranicuXiX, Monsonia ; otSlalvacea,
Helicteres, Dombeya, Pentapetes, Pterospermum. 5 Gen.
13 Sp.

7. Polyandria, a very numerous and magnificent order, com-
prising, of Malraair, CaroUnea, Adansonia, Bombai, La-
gunea, Napaea, Sida, Cristaria, Palavia, Malachra, *A1-
Uia>a, * Malva, * Lavatera, Ruizia, Malope, Kitaibelia,
Urena, Gossvpium, Hibiscus, Pavonia, Achania, Mvrodia,
Gordonia ; of Ti/iacf«, Stuartia ; of -4 uranft>. Camellia; of

Myriacett, Baxringtonia, Gustavia ; of Careya. 27 Gen.

ifo Sp.

Class XVII. Diaddphia. Stamens united by their filaments
into two parcels, both sometimes cohering at the base.
Orders 4, distinguished by the number of their stamens.
Flowers almost uhiversally papilionaceous.

1. Pentatuiria. Containing of Scrophulariiue, Monnieria ; of
Ltguminosit, Pctalostemum. 2 Gen. 5 Sp.

2. Huamlria. Containing of PajMveracea, Corydalis, Cysti-
capnos, *Fumari<». 3 Gen. 19 hp.

3. Odandria. Containing of Pofi/gole*, *Polygala, Securidaca.
2Gen.2 9 Sp.

4. Dnandria is bv far the most numerous, as well as natural
order of this class, consequently the genera are difficult to
clvvracterise.

The genera are arranged in secUons, variously charac-
terised.

(it) Stamem all united, that is, all in one set ; as Sparhum.

{b) Siigma downy, without the character of the preceding
section ; as Pitum.

U) Legume imperftcUy divided into tnv cells, always, as in all

the following, without the character of the preceding sec-
tions ; as Astragalus.

(</) Legwne nnth scarcely more than one seed ; as Psoralea.

(«) Legume composed qfringU-valved joints, tchick are rarHv
solitary ; as Hedysarum. ^

(/) Legume of one cell, rvitk several seeds ,- as ilelilotus.

Leguminous plants Jire rarely noxious to the larger tribes
of animals, though some species of Galega intoxicate fish.
The seeds of Cytisus Laburnum have of late been found
violently emetic, and those of La-'hyrus sativus have been
supposed at Florence to soften the bones, and cause death ;
we know of no other similar instances in this class, which is
one of the most abundant in valuable e^culent plants. Th«
negroes have a notion that the beautiful little scarlet and-
black seeds of Abrus precatorius, so frequently used for neck- '
laces, are extremely poisonous, insomuch that half of one is
sufficient to kill a man. This is totallv incredible. Linnaeus
however asserts. Sir J. E. Smith thinks, rather too abso-
lutely, that " among all the leguminous or papilionaceous
tribe, there is no deleterious plant to be found."

It contains of Legwrdnosa, Nissolia, Dalbergia, Pongamia,
Pterocarpus, Amerimnum, Dipterii, Abrus, Er\thrina,
Butea, Piscidia,.Borbonia, *Ppartium, *Genista, Ltbeckja,
Rafiiia, Aspalathus, Sarcophyllum, Stauracanthus, *L'Iex,,
Amorpha, Platylobium, Bossiiea, Scottia, Templetonia,
Goodia, Loddigesia, Wiborgia, Crotalaria, Hovea, *Ononis,
♦Anthyllis, Arachis, Lupinus, Carpopogon, Phaseolus, Dc-
lichos, Stizolobium, Glycine, Apios, Kennedia, Cvlista, CU-
toria, Galactia, *Pisum, Ochrus, *Orobus, Lathynis, *\'icia,
*Ervum, *Cicer, Liparia, Cytisus, Mullera, Geoffroya, Ro-
binia, Colutea, Swainsona, Sutherlandia, Lessertia, Gly-
cyrrhiza, Sesbana, Coronilla, *Omrthopvis, *Hippocrepis,
Scorpiurus, Smitlua, ^schvnomene, Hallia, Le;]>edfcza,'
♦Hedysarum, Zomia, Flemmgia, Indigofera, Tejihrosia,
Galega, Phaca, Qxytropis, *Astragalus, Bistmla, Dales,
Psoralea, Melilotus, Lupinaster, *Tri&lium, *Lotus, Do-
rycnium, Trigonella, *Medicago. 88 Gen. 800 Sp.

Class XVIII. Polyadelphia. Stamens united by their fila-
ments into more than two parcels. Orders 3, distinguished
by the number or insertion of their stamens, which last
particular Linnaeus here overlooked.

1. Decandria. Ten stamens. Contains of ATo/rccftf, the Theo-
broma, or Chocolate-nut-tree. 1 Gen. 2 Sp.

2. Dodecandria. Stamens, or rather anthers, from twelve to'
twenty, or twenty five, their filaments unconnected with the
calyx. _ It contains oi Malvactce, Bubroma, Abroma. 2 Gen.
3Sp.

3. Icosandria. Stamens numerous, their filaments inserted

(in several parc^) into the calyx It contains of Myrlaceie,

Melaleuca, Tristania, Calothainnus, Beaufortia. 4 Gen.
32 Sp.

4. Polyandria. Stamens very numerous, tmconnected with the
calyx. — It contains of Ebenacea, Hopea ; ot Auronteie, Ci
trus; of Guttifirtr, Xanthochvmus ; of Bypericina, *Hy '
perictun, Ascynun. 5 Gei. 65 Sp.

Class XIX. Syngtnesia. Anthers united into a tube. Flowers
compour.d. Orders 5.
This being truly a natural class, its orders are most of them
equally so, though some are liable to exceptions.

1 . Pobfgamia (t^uahs. In this each floret, taken separatel v, is
perfect or united, being furnished with its own perfect stamens
and pistil, and capable of bringing its seed to maturity with-
out the assistance of any other floret- The order consists of
three sections.

(a) Florets all ligulate, or strap shaped, called by Toumefort
semijlosculout. These flowers are generally yellow, sometimes
blue, very rarely reddish. They expand 'in a morning, and.
close towards noon or in cloudy weather. Their herbage is
commonly milky and bitter; as in Leontodon, Tragopogon,
Hieracium, and Cichorium.

{b) Fluners globose, generally uniform and regular, their
florets all tulndar,five-cC-fl, and spreading ; as Carduus.

(c) Florvers discoid, their florets all tubular, regular, crowded,
and jiarallel, forming a surface nearly fat, or exactly conical.
Their color is most generally yellow, in some cases pink.
Santolina and Bidens are examples of this section.

It contains otCiiharacea, Geropogon, * Tragopogon, Troxi-
mon, Amopogon, Scorzonera, Picridium, * Sonchus, * Lac-
tuca, Chondi-illa, *Prenanthes, * Leontodon, *Apargia,
* Thrincia, * Picris, * Hieracium, * Crepis, * Helminthia,
Tolpis, Andryala, Rothia, Ivrigia, Hyoseris, Hedypnois,
Senola, * Hipochaeris, * Lapsana, Zacintha, Rhagadiolus,
Catananche, * Cichorium, Scolymus ; of Cynarocephala
♦Arctium, *Serratula, ♦Carduus, ♦Cnicus, «Onopordum,
Berardia, Cynara, Carlina, Atractylis, Acama, (<tokesia
Stobaea, Carthamus, Staehelina, Pteronia ; of Corymbiferce ■
Vemonia, Liatris, Mikania, ♦Eupatorium, Ageratum, Stevia,
Cephalophora, Hymenopappus, Melananthera, Marshallia,
Spilanthes, *Bidens, Lagasca, Lavenia, Cacalia, Kleinia,
Ethulia, Piqueria, ♦Chrysocoma, Tarchonanthus, Cales,
Humea, Bassinia, Caesulia', Ixodia, ♦Santolina, Anthanasia,
Balsamita, Pentzia. 74 Gen. 274 Sp.

2. Polygamia superfiua. Florets of the disk perfect or united ; .
those of the margin furnished with pistils only ; but sH pro-
ducing perfect seed.

(a) Discoid, the florets of the margin being obsolete or in-
conspicuous, from the smaUness or peculiar form of the
corolla; as Artemisia.

(b) Ligulate, trvo-lipped, of which Prrdiciym, a rare exotic
genus, is the only instance.

(c) Radiant, the marginal florets li^Iate, forming spreading,
conspicuous rays ; as in Bellis. Tlus seems an approach of
the third section of the former order towards what is equi-
valent to becoming double in other tribes. Accordingly,
the Anthemis nobilts, with Chrysanthemum, Leucanthemum,
and some others, occasionally have their whole disk changed
to ligulate florets, destitute of stamens, and consequently
abortive. Such are actually called double flowers in this
class, and very properly. Many exotic species so circum-
stanced are met with in gardens. A verv few strange anoma-
lies occur in this section ; one, SigesbecJcia, having but three
stamens, instead of five, the otherwise universal number h\
the class ; and Tussilago hybrida, as well as Paradosa of Rc*-
zius, having distinct anthers. N.iture therefore, even in tliis
most natural class, is not quite without exci^ptions

K 3

134

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

„ ^ It contains of Co-

"tmthijeri~MineTia, Flaveria, Baltimora, Silphium, Alcina,
'olymnia, Melampodium, ChaptaUa, Calendula, Arctotis,

It contains oif CormiA^era, *Tan<tcetum, *Artemkta,
♦Gnaiihaliuni, Xeraiitlieumm, Elii;hrjsiim,Carpciiuui, liac-
Charis, *Conyza, MatUa, *EriKeroii, *Tu.sbil.igo, *!seiiecio,
•Aster, *SoIidaso, *Cineraria, *Inula, (irJndelia,Todolepis,
Arnica, Doronicum, I'erdicium, Tetragonotheca, Ximenesia,
Helenium, *Bems, tBelUum, Dahlia, Tasetes Heterosper-
mum, Schkuhria, Pectis, Leysera, Relhania, Zinnia, *Chrj--
santhemum, *Pyrethruin,*3VIatricaria, lioltonia, Lidosckia,
Cenia, Cotula, Grangea, Anacyclus, *Anthenus, banvitalia,
♦Achillea, Balbisia, Amellus, Starkea, Eclipta, Chryban-
thellum, Siegesbeckia, Verbesina, Synedrella, Galinsogea,
Acmella, Zaluzania, PascaUa, HeUopsis, BuphUialmuin.
60 Gen. 673 Sp. , . . ,

3. Polusamia frutianea. Florets of the disk, as in the preceding,
l>ertect or united ; those of the margin neuter, or destitute of
pistils as well as of stamens ; only some few genera having the
rudiments of pistiU in their radiant (lorets. This order is,
sUU more evidently than the last, analogous to double flowers
of other classes. —It contains of Corymbifirce, Helianthus,
(Jalardia, Rudbcckia, Cosmea, Coreopsis, Osraites, Pallasia,
Sclerocarpus, CuUumia, Berckheya, Didelta, Gorteria, Ga-
zania, Crvptostemma, Arctotheca, Sphenogvne; otCynaro-
ctphala, J{<jegea, *Centaurea, Galactites. 19 Gen. 177 Sp.

4. Polueamia necessaria. Florets of the disk furnished with
stamens only; those of the margin or radius, only with pistik ;
so that both'are necessary to each other. "

Osieosperiiiuiii, v/niuiin.i, i^^.i-.u, vjj.....-^.j.^-, ----, ■

Erioceulialus, Filago, Micropus, Parthemum, Iva. 20(jen.

100 Sp.

6. Polugarma segregata. Several flowers, either simple or com-
pound, but with united tubular anthers, and with a partial
calvx, all included in one general calyx. — It contams of Co-
rumbifene, Elephantopus, (Edera, Stoebe, Nauenbur^a ; of
Cmiarocephatte t !spha!ranthus, Eehinops, Rolandra, Brotera,
Gundelia. 10 Gen. 17 Sp.

Clam XX. Gynandria. Stamens inserted either upon the
style or germen. Orders 3.

1. Monandrin. Stamen, or sessile anther, one only — It con-
tains of Orchideie, *(Jrchis, Gymnadenia, * Aceras, *Hermi-
nium, Habenaria, Bartholina, Serapias, *Ophrys, *Satyrium,
Disa, Pter>godium, Disperis, Goodyera, Neottia, Ponthieva,
Diurus, Tiielymitra, *Listera, Epipactis, Pogonia, Caladenia,
Glossodia, PterostyUs, Caleya, Calopogon, Arethusa, Bletia,
Geodorum, Calypso, Malaxis, Corallorrliiza, Isochilus, Or-
nithidium, Stelis, PleurothaUis, Octomeria, Aerides, Crj-ptar-
rhena, Dendrobium, Gomesa, Cymbidium, Brassia, Onci-
dium, Cyrtopodium, Brassavola, Broughtonla, Epidendrum,
Vanilla. 48 Gen. 12^ Sp. , ..

2. Diandria. Containing of OrcAidetf, *Cypripedium ; of Styli-
</«r, Stylidium ; of Urticexf Gunnera. 3 Gen. 10 Sp.

3. Hexandria. Containing of Ariatolochice, * Aristolochia.
IGen. 19 Sp.

Class XXI. Monacia. Stamens and pistils in separate flowers,
but both growing on the same individual plant. Orders 9.

1. Moiuindria. Contains of Naiades, Zannichellia, *Chara; of
CAeno/x)(Zeff, Ceratocarpus ; of l/rticeo;, Artocarpus ; of Casua-
WneiB, Casuarina. 5 Gen. 16 Sp.

2. Diandria. Contains of Cucurbitacece, Anguria; of Naiades,
♦Lemna. 2 Gen. 5 Sp.

3. Triandria. Contains of Typkina, *Typha, *Sparganium ;
of Graminea, Zea, Tripsacum, Coix, Ohra; of Cyperacea,
*Carex; of Amentaceie, Coinptonia; of thenopodea, Axyris;
of Euphorbiaceco, Tragia; of Laurina, Hemandia. 11 Gen.

101 Sp.

4. Tciratidria. Contains of nhamnit Aucuba; of Diosmete,
Empleurum; of Ona^rartVe, Serpicula; ofPlaiitagine(ie,*Lit-
torella; of Amcntacete, *Alnns; of Euvhorbiacea, Cicca,
*Buxus, Pachysandra; of Cftenopodav, Diotis; of Urtlceoe,
*Urtica, Boehmeria, Morus. 12 Gen. 41 Sp.

5. Pentandria. Contains of Menitpermea t , Schisandra; of Corym-
hijercef Nephelium,Xantliium, Ambrosia, Franseria; Cucur-
6i<ace(B, Lutfa; ^»M»raH</i«€etf, Amaranthus. 7 Gen. 4&Sp.

6. Htxandria. Contains of Gramine<E, Zizania.Pharus; of iiu-
biacecB, Guettarda ; of Pahnie, Cocos, Bactris, Elate, Sagus.
7 Gen. 11 Sp.

7. Polyandria. Stamens more than seven. Contains of Naiades,
*Ceratophyllum, *MyriophyUum ; of .•l/i>»n«car, *Sjigittaria ;
of Begonia'cca:, B^oiiia ; of Euphorbiaceas, Acidoton ; of Co-
tiifirce, Salisburia; of Graminea, Pariana; of Urticex, The-
Ijj^num; of HoiUfetc, *Poterium ; of Terebintaceoe, Juglans;
ofAmentaceee, *9.uercus, ♦Fagus, *Castanea, *Betula, *Car-
pinus, Ostrya, *Corvlus, Platanus, Liquidambar ; of Ariodtte,
*Arum, Caladium ;' of Palmte, Caryota. 22 Gen. 189 Sjp.

8. lHonadelphia. Contains of Palnve, Areca; of Conijirae,
* Pinus, Thuja, Cupressus, Podocarpus ; of Buphorbmcece,
Plukenetia, Dalechampia, Acalypha, Croton, Jatrojiha, Rici-
nus, Omphalea, Hipporaane, Sapium, Phyllanthus, Stillingia,
Aleurites, Hura; ot Stercuiiacea;, Sterculia; of Malpighiacece,
Heretiera ; of Cucurbitacta, Trichosanthes, Momordica, Cu-
curbita, Cucumis, *Br,onia, Sicyos. 26 Gen. 158 Sp.

9 Gynandria, Contains of Euphorbiacea, Andrachne. IGen.

Class XXII. Diacin. Stamens and pistils in separate flowers,
situated on two separate plants. Orders 13.

1. Monandria. Contains of Pandanece, Pandanus. 1 Gen.
4 Sp.

2. Diandria. Contains of Urticea, Cecropia; of Amentacea:,
*Salix; of Euphorbiaceae, Boiya.. 3 Gen. 87 Sp.

3. Triandria. Contains of Ericeir f *Empetrum; of Terebirda-
ceff, Stilago ; of Sa7i<«/«ce(B f Osyris ; of i£ra<i«caF, Willdenovia,
R«stio, Elegia; of Pa/wwr, Phoenix. 7 Gen. 12 Sp.

A. Tetrandia. Contains of iiuWaccic, Anthospermum ; of

Trophis, Scha;ttcria, Picramnia ; of Terebtntacea, Antidesma ;

of Onagr aria, Montinia; of LoratUhaceir, *Viscum; of Tere-

Wn/ace(F, Brucea; of fr/icea", Broussonetia ; of £teagiii, Hip-

pophae; of ^mentoced, *Myrica; of Pruttticea, Aulax, Leuco-

dendron. 13 Gen. 46 Sp.
6. Pentandria. Contains of Terebiniacea, Pistacia, Zanthoxy-

lum; of£:upAorZ<t(jce<r, Securinega; of^mara»rfAace(B, Iresine;

of Chenopodea, *Spinacia, Acnida; of Uriicete, *Cannabis,

♦Humufus. 8 Gen. 18 Sp.
6. Hcxandria. Contains of Smilaccie, Sinilax; *Tamus? of

Dioscorhttt, Rajanla, Dioscorca; ofEltTtacar,yiahii; ofPahthc,

Elais, CIiamKdorea, Borassus. 8 Gen. 36 Sp.
7. Odaitdria. Stamens 8. Contains of yl»»ien<a<re<r, *Populus ;

of Sc/npcriJDa', *Khodiola. 2 Gen. lo Sp.
S. Enneaiidria. SUmens 9. Contains of fupAocWacea-, *Mer

curialis; of H^JrocAanVfeif , *Hydrocharis. 2 Gen. 6 Sp.

9. Decandria. Stamens 10. Contains of Cucurbitacece f Carica ;
of /.e"ijminw«, Gvmnocladus; of Euphorbiacea, Kiggclaria;
ofTerfWiiteccaf,Sclunus; of Coriaria. .5 Gen. 9Sp.

10. Dmiecandria. Stamens 11. Contains of Hydrocltaritlek,
♦Stratiotes; of Biiphorbiacea;, Hysenanche; of Tcrebiniacea,
Euclea, Datisca ; of Menispemuee, Menispermum, Cocculus,

11. Icosandria. Stamens 12. Contains of TiVutcex, Flacoiurtia ;
of Gelonium, Rottlera. 3 Gen. 6 Sp.

12. Polyandria. Stamens numerous. Contains of

Trewia; of Ebenacea, Embryouteris ; of Rosacew, Cliffortia;
of Cycadea, Cycas, Zamia. 5 Gen. 26 Sp.

13. JUonadelphui. Stamens united. Contains of Coniferte,
Araucaria, *Juniiierus, *Taxus, *Ephedra ; of Meidspennea,

Cissampelos ; of Euphorbiacae, Excoecaria, Adelia ; of

Lourelra, Nepenthes ; of J/i/rMiireif, Myristica ; of Smilacece f
♦Ruscus ; of^Pa/»/KB, Latania. 12 Gen. 40 Sp.

14. Gynandria. Stamens inserted in the style. Contains of
Eupliorbiacex, Cluytia. 1 Gen. 8 Sp.

Class XXIII. Polygamia. Stamens and pistils separate in
some flowers, unitea in others, either on the same plant or on
two or three distinct ones ; such difference in the essential
organs being moreover accompanied with a diversity in the
accessory parts of the flowers. Orders 2.

1. Moniccia. United flowers accompanied with barren or fer-
tile, or both, all on one plant. — It contains of Slusacea;, Musa ;
of.tf(/«»*/Aa<-etf',Veratrum ; of Graminea, Andropogon, Chloris,
Penicillaria, Sorghum, *Holcus, Ischsemum, ^^gilops, Mani-
suris; of Rtdnaceir, Valantia; of Uriiceic, *Parietaria; of
Chenopodea;, *Atriplex, Rhagodia; of ComArrfacea;, Termina-
11a ; of Sar.talacea; Fusanu:. ; of Proteacecr, Brabejum ; of

Feronia ; of Terebintacex, Ailanthus ; of Gutiiferae,

Clusia; of j^pocyitea-, Ophioxylon ; of ^cerf;«p, *Acer; of
Ameniacea, Celtis; of Hhamnit Gouania; of Umbel lijkra,
Hermas ; of Legnminosce, Inga, Mimosa, Schrankia, Uesman-
thus. Acacia; of Faltiue, Ilhapis. 31 Gen. 201 Sp.

2. Diwcia. The different flowers on two different plants.
Contains of Legtimitwus, (ileditschia, Ceratonia; of Oleinie,

♦Fraxinus ; of Brosimum ; of Terebintacea; Hamil-

tonia ; of Laurophyllus ; of Ebenacete, Diospyros ;

of ^7yr*JH«e, 31yrsine; of Santalacea t Nyssa; of Terebintacea,
Bursera; of Umbelliferat Arctopus; of Araliw, Panax; of
Vrticew, FicTis; of Po/»>ur, Chaniaerops. 14 Gen. 76 Sp.

Class XXIV. Cryptogamia. Stamens and pistils either not
well ascertained, or not to be numbered with any certainty.
Orders 10.

1. Gonopteridcs. Fructification in a terminal catkin. Contains
of Equisetaceee, *Emiisetam. 1 Gen. 7 Sp.

2. Stachyopterides. Fructification in a spike. Contains of Ly-
copodineoe, *Lycopodiuin, Psilotum ; of Filices, *Ophioglo»-
sum, *Botrychium. 4 Gen. IS Sp.

3. Poropterides. Capsules opening by a pore. Contains ofFj-
tices, Marattia. 1 Gen. 1 Sp.

4. Filices. Fructification on the back, summit, or near the
base of the frond — This order contains of Filices, Acrosti-
chum, Ilemionitis, Meniscium, Grammitis, *Polypodium,
♦VV'oodsia, Nephrodium, Allaiitodia, *Aspidium, *Asple-
nium, *Scolopendrium, Diplarium, *Pteris, Vittaria, Ono-
clea,*Blechnum, Woodwardia, Doodia, *Adiantum, Cheil-
anthes, Lonchitis, Davallia, Dicksonia, Cyathea, *Tricho-
manes, *IIymenophyllum. 26 Gen. 130 Sp.

5. Hydropterides. Fructification nearly radical. Contains of
Martileacea, *Is«ptes, *Pilularia. 2 Gen. 2 Sp.

6. Schismatopteridcs. Fructification in branched spikes. Con-
tains of Filices, Lygodium, Anemia, *Osniunda. 3 Gen. 9 Sp.

7. JUusci. Mosses. These are reaUy herbs with distinct leaves,
and frequently as distinct a stem — It contains of the natural
order of the same name, and described in Smith's Flora liri-
tannica, *AndriEa, *Bartramia, *Bryum, *Buxbaumia,
*Encalvpta, *Fontinalis, *Funaria, *Gfimmia, *Gymnosto-
mum, «Hookeria, *Hypnuin, *Mnium, *Neckera, *OrthO"
trichum, *Phascum, *Polytrichum, *l'terogonium. Sphag-
num, *Splachnum, *Tetraphis, *Tortula, *Trichosto-
mum, and numerous others, amounting by estimateto 460 Sp.

(See Turner's Historia Muscorum.)

8. Hepatica. Liverworts. Of these the herbage is commonly
frondose, the fructification originating from what is at the
same time both leaf and stem. This character, however,
proves less absolute than one founded on their capsules, which
differ essentially from those of the preceding order in having
nothing like a lid or operculum. The corolla, or veil, of some
of the genera is like that of Mosses, but usually bursts at the
top. The barren flowers in some are similar to the stamens
of the last-mentioned plants, as in Jungcrmannia (see Hooker's
Monograph of this genus) ; in others they are of some peculiar
conformation, as in Marchantia, where they are imbedded in
a disk like the seeds of lichens, in a manner so contrary to all
analogy, that botanists can scarcely agree which are the barreu
and which the fertile flowers of this genus. Linnicus com-
prehended this order under the following one, to wliich,
says Sur J. E. Smith, it is most assuredlv far less akin than to
the foregoing. British species estimated at 85.

9. Alga. Flags. In this order the herbage is &ondos«, some-
times a mere crust, sometimes of a leathery or gelatinous tex-
ture. The seeds are imbedded, either in the frond itself, or in
some peculiar receptacle. The barren flowers are but im-
perfectly known. The aquatic or submersed Algce form a dis-
tinct and peculiar tribe. Some of these abound in fi-esh water,
otliers in the sea, whence the latter are commonly denomin-
ated sea- weeds. British species 18.

10. Lichenes. Herbage frondose and leathery ; seeds generally
in the frond. This order was included by Linnseus under the
former one. Estimated number of British species 373.

11. Fungi. IMushrooms. These cannot properly be said to
have any herbage. Their substance is fleshy, generally of
quick growth and short duration, differing in firmness, from
a watery pulp to a leathery or even woody texture. By some
naturalists they have been thought of an animal nature, chiefly
because of their foetid sceat iii decay, aiid bccau^ie Utile wl4ie

I.

JUSSIEUEAN HORTUS BRITANNICUS.

135

like eggs are found In them at that period. But these
are truly the i^ of flies, laid there by the parent insect, and
destined to produce a brood of niamoU, to feed on the dccav-
Inn fungus, as on a dead carcase, tllis's beautiful disooverie,
relative to corals and their inliabiting polypes, led to the
strange analojjical hyiwthesis that these in^xts formetl the
fitnf^ti, -which Munchausen and others have asserted. Some
have thought fungi were composed of the sap of corrupted
wood, transmuted into a new sort of beini; ; an idea as unphilo-
sophical as the former, and unsupported by any semblance of
truth. Drjander, Schonffer, and Hedwig have, on much better
grounds, asserted their vegetable nature, detected their seeds,
sind in many cases explained tlieir parts of fructification. In
tact they propagate their species as regularly as any other or-

ganijed beings, though, like others, subject to varieties. Their
sequestered and obscure habitations, their short duration,
their mutability of form and substance, render them indeed
more ditiicult of in vestigation than common plants, but there
is no reason to suppose them less i)erftct, or less accurately
defined. Splendid aad accurate works, illustrative of this
order, have been given to the world by Scho^Her, Bulliard,
and .Sowerby, which are the more useful, as the generality of
fungi cannot well be preserved. The most lUslinguished
writer upon them,' indeed tlie only good svstematic one, is
Persoon, who has moreover supplied us with soine exquisite
figures. See his Htjiiopsii JHelfiotlica Fungorum. Estimated
number of species, nauves of Britain, 800.

Sect. II. The Hortus Britamucus arranged according to the Jussieuean System.
589. The plants grown in Britain, tvhether native or exotic, are thus arranged according
to the system of Jiissieu. The genera, of which there are species natives of the country,
are" marked thus (*), for the sake of those who may wish to arrange a herbarium or grow-
ing collection of indigenous plants according to this method. The authorities followed
are, Sweet's Hortus. Sub. Lond. 1818, and Smith's Comj). Flora Brit. 1816.

2. MagruUmceee, contains Decand. Munogynia. Oxxassia,? of Po-
luaiul. Digfj. Curatella ? of Polijatul. Tng. Hibbertia ? of Po-
iyaiul, PMjg. Dillenia ? Illicimn, Magnolia, Michelia. 8 Gen.

Class I. Dicotylkdoxk.*. Thalamijlorir, sect. 1. with nu-
merous pistils, and stamens opposite to the petals. Five
Orders.

Order 1. RanunctUaccee, contains of Pent. Polyg. *Myosurus,
Ceratocei)halus, Zantliorhiza ; of Decand. Tngj/. Garidella ;
of Poiyand. Monog. *Act«ea ; of Polijand. Digi/Z*Posom!X ; of
Poli/auH. Trig. Delphinium, Aconitum ; ofpol;/and. Pentag.
Ciraiciftiga, «Aquilegia Nigella ; of Pulyaiul. Polup Hepatica,
♦Anemone, Pulsatilla, Atragene, *Clematis, * rhalictrum,
♦Adonis, Knowltonia, *Ficaria, *Ranunculus, *Trollius,
Isopvrum, Eranthis, *Helleborus, Coptis, *Caltha, Hvdro-
peltis, Hvdrastis. 29 Gen. 214 Sp.
. Magtu<luiceit, contaia'- '^ ^ "

riul. ^/^. Curatella !
., ■

3. Aiinuiuo', or Anonactte, contains of Polyand. Polyg. Uvaria,
Annona, Porcelia, Xylopia. 4 Gen. IGSn.

4. Afwiijprnneee, contains of fl^e/)<. Po/y^. Wendlandia ; of 3Io-
turria Pent. Schiiandra ; of Diac. Dodccan. Menispermum,
Cocculus; of Diarc. 3Ii»taJ. Cissampelos. 5 (ien. 11 Sp.

5. Berberides, or Berberidax, contains of Telrand. Monog. *Ej>i-
medium ; of Tetraiul. Digy. HamameUs ; of HexanJ. Slomg.
Leontice, CauUopbyllum, *Berberis. 5 Gen. 11 Sp.

Class II. Dicotylkdonbje. Thalamijiora, sect. 2. with
pistils solitary, or adhering together, placentas equal. Sir

Order 1. Pa^xn-aracae*, contains of Trfranrf. Digy, Hvpecoum ;
of Octand. ilunog. Jetfersonia ; of Dodecand. Monog. Bocconia ;
of Polyand. Monog. Sanguinaria, Podophyllum, *Chelido-
nium, *(ilaucium, * Papaver, Argemotie ; of DiaJelph.
Hexaiul. CorydaUs, Cvstycapnos, «Fumaria. 12 Gen. 46
Sp.

2. N t)mphaacca, of Polyand. Motiogyn. *Xympli£Pa, *Nmjhar,
Kuryalc; Polyand. Pvli/gyn. Xelumbium. 4 Gen. 20 Sp.

3. Criicifrce, contains of Td radyiuimia, Siliculosa, *CakiIe,
*Crambe, Mvagrum, Euclidium, *KapLstrum, *Bunias,
♦Coronopus, BLscutella, Peltaria, Ch-pcola, Isatis, Succowia,

♦ V'ella, Anastatica, .^thionema, *rhlaspi, *Hutchinsia,

♦ Teesdalia, Ibsris, I^pidium, *Cochlearia, *Subularia,
*Draba, Petrocallis, *Camellna, Alyssuin, Farsetia, Vesi-
caria, Lunaria, Ricotia; of TrtriK/t/. iiVmH. Heliophila, *Car-
damine, *Arabis, Macropodium, *lurritis, *Barbarea,
*X.-vsturtium,*Sisymbrium,*Erysimum,Notoceras,*Cheir-
anthus, *JIathiola, Malcomia, *Hesperis, Eruc.iria, *Bni.s-
sica, *Sinapis, llaphanus, Chorisiiemmm. 49 Gen. 281 Sp.

4. Cupparidei, or Capparidete, contains of Peiiiand. Tetragy.
♦Pamassia .-' of Peniand. Pentagji. * Drosera ; of Ikx'rcand.
Moitogy. Cratfeva ; of Dodccaiul. Trig. *Reseda ; of Polyatul.
Mottog. Capparis, Marcgravia ? of Tetradya. Silijuusa, Cleome.
7 (Jen. 61 Sp.

5. Passijlorex, contains of Motuiddph. Peiitand. Passiflora.
1 (Jen. 24 Sp.

6. Vialej;, ox Violaaa, contains of Peniaiul. Monngy. *Viola,
lonidium. 2 Gen. 41 Sp.

7. Citii, or Ciitimr, contains of Polyand. iloncgyn. Cistus, *Kc-
lianthemum. 2 Gen. 66 Sp.

CI.ASS III. DicoTVLEnoxE.T:. Thalamijlorir, sect. 3. with

ovarr solitary, placenta central. Sixteen Orders.
Order 1. Caryoahyllc(e,cor\tsAns of Triand. Monugyn. Ortegia,

Loetlingia ;

rriand. Trigyn. *Holosteum, Polycarpon,

r^:

Mollugo, Minuartia, Queria, lycchea; of Tttrand. Digyn.
Bulibnia; of Tetraiid. Tetragy. *Sagina, Mocnchia; of Pen-
land. Digyn. V'elezia, Phamaceum ; of Penfaiul. Trigyn.
Dr\-pis ; ot" Pentand. Pentagi/n. *Linum ; of Hexand. Mono-
pvn- *Frankenia ? Odniu/. J/onogi/!i. Moehringia; of Octand.
tetrasyn. *Elatine; of Decand. Digjjn. Gypsophila, *Sapo-
nariar*Dfanthus; of Decand. Trigyii. *Cucubalus, *Silene,
♦Stellaria, *Arenaria, *Cherleria; of Decand. Penlt
♦Agrostemma, *Lychnis, *Cerastiuni, *Si)erguU
2S9 Sp.

2. Malvacea, contains of Perdand. Monogy. Bnttneria, Ayenia;
of Decand. Monogyn. Kleinhofia; of Monadelph. Petdand.
Melhania, Ochroma ; of Motuiddph. Dodecand. Helicteros,
Ilombeva, Pentai>etes, Pteros-permum ; of Monadelph. Poly.
Adanso'nia, Bombax, Lagunoa, Napaea, Sida, Cristaria, Pa-
lavia, :\Ialachra, *Altha?a,*^Ialva, *Lavatera, lluizia. Ma-
lope, Kitaibelia, L'rena, Gossynium, Hibiscus, Pavonla,
Achania, Myrodia, Gordonia ; of Polyadeiph. Decand. Bu-
broma, Abroma. 55 Gen. 217 Sp.

3. Sterculiacett, contains of Monacia. Monadelph, Sterculia.
1 Gen. 5 Sp.

4. Tiliacete, contains of Peidand. Pentagjj. Mahemia ; of Dode-
cand. Mon(}gy. Triumfetta ; of Dodecand. Digyn. Heliocarpus ;
of Polyandr. Muiu>gi/n. Bixa, Sloania, Aubletia, Sparmannia,
Muntingia, (Jrewia, Tilia, Corchorus; of Monadelph. Pen-
tandr. Waltheria? Hermannia ? of Monadelph. PolyaiuL
Stuartia; of Dia-c. losandr. Flacourtia. 15 Gen. 80 Sp. _

SapiiuU, or Sapindacae, contains of Octand. Monogy. Orni-

trophe, Dimocarpus, Melicocca, Blighia, Epluells? Koel-
reuteria; of Octand. • Trigy. Paulluua, Seriana, Cardio-
spermum, Sapindus. 10 (Jen. 20 Sp.

6. Acerete, contains of Triandr. Monogyn. Hippocratea ; of
Heptand. Monogyn. ^sculus; of Polygam. Moiuec. *Acer.
3 Gen. 24 Sp.

7. Matpighiacete, contains of Decandr. Monogyn. Gaertnera ; of
Decamtr. Tri^n. Malpighia, Bannisteria. 3 Gen. 27 Sp.

8. Pittotperete, contains of Petdand. Moiwgyn. Bursaria, Bil-
lardiera, Piitosporum. 3 Gen. 10 Sp.

9. Hypericins, contains of Polyadeiph. Polyand. *Hypericuni,
Ascyrum. 2 Gen. 54 Sp.

10. Guttiferte, contains of Decandr. Monogyn. Gomphia; of Do-
decatidr. Monogyn. Garcinia; of Polyandr. Monogvn. Grias,
Calophyllum, Mammea, Ochna? Elococarpus ? of Pvlygam.
Monac, Clusia. 8 Gen. 15 Sp.

U. Vites, contains of Trfninrfr. Monogyn. Clssus; ot Petdand.
Monogyn. Vitis. 2 Gen. 21 Sp.

12. Gerania:, or Geraniacea, contains of Pentand. Monogyn.
♦Impatiens ? of Ociandr. Monogy. Trcpoeolum ? of Decandr.
Petdagy. *Oxalis ; of Monadelph. Pentand. *Erodium ; of
Monadelph. Heptand. Pelargonrnm; of Monadelph. Decandr.
*(jeraniuin; of Monadelph. Dodecand. Monsonia. 7 Gtn.
314 Sp.

13. Metio!, or Mdiacetr, contains of iVn/anrf. Monogyn. Cedrella ?
Leea ; of Octandr. Monogy. Gaurea ; of Decand. Monogyn.
Trichilia, Ekebergia, Heynea, Melia, Swietenia ; of Dvdt-
catul. Monogy. C^ella; of Monaddph. Octandr. Aitonia.
lOGen. 16 Sp.

H.Aurantia, or Hesperidea, contains of Odandr. Monogj/n.
Ximenia ; of Decaiid. Moiu>g. Limonia, Alurraya, Cookja ;
of Polyand. Mmwgyn. »5igle; of Monaddph. Polyavd. Ca-
mellia'; of Polyadd'ph. Polyand. Citrus. 7 Gen. 21 Sp.

15. Huiacea, contains of Decandr. Monogij. Guiaicum, Zygo-
phyllum, F.Tgonia, Tribulus, Dictaninus, Iluta, of Dode-
caiulr. Monogii. Peranum; of Didynam. Augioip. Melian-
thus ? 8 Gen. 28 Sp.

1 6. Dionntix, contains of Peidandr. Monogy. Adenandra, Ba-
rosma, Diosma, Agathosma ; of Odandr. Motmgy. Corraea ;
of Monac. Tdrundr. Empleurum. 6 Gen. 32 Sp.

Class IV. DIC0TYI.KD0^•B.«. Thalamijlorig, sect. 4. with
fruit in scattered cells, but joined on the same base. Two
Orders, but no examples in British Gardens-

Class V. Dicotvi.kdoneje. Culyriflone, with petals fi-ee, or
more or less adhering together, alwavs inserted in the calyx.
Thirty-two Orders.

Order 1. Terebintacctr, contains of Triandr. Motiogy. Cneorum,
Comocladia; of Trtranrf. J/o«o^. Fagara, Monet ia ; ofPcii-
farul. Monogy. Mangifera ; of Peutandr. Trigyn. Hhos,
Spathelia; of Odandr. Monogy. Amyris, Dodonrca ? of En-
neandr. Moiwgy. Anacardium ; of Decandr. Pentagyn. A ver-
rhoa, Spondias ; of Monac. Polyaiulr. Juglans ; of Eicec.
Tdrandr. Brucea ; of Dia!C. Pentandr. Pistacia ; Zanlhoxy-
lum ; of Dicec. Decandr. Schinus ; of Polygam. Monac
Ailanthus; of Po(y^«»i. Cure. Bursera. 19 Gen. 75 Sp.

2. llhanwi, or Rhamiutt, contains of Tdrandr. Tdragiin. My-
ginda, *llex; of Pentand. Jl/(>n<?;n^». Elseodendrum, i'Kham-
nus, Zizyphus, Celastrus, Senacia, *Euonvmus, Kovenia,
Ceanothiis, Pomaderris, Phylica, Brunia ? Staavia, Plectro-
nia ; of Peidatutr. Trigy. Cassine, Staphylea; of Hexandr.
Monogyn. Vnaos; of Monaec. Trfra/ii/r. Aucuba ; of Polygam.
Moncec. Gouania. 20 Gen. 126 Sp.

3. Leguminoste, contahis of Decandr. Mcticpyn. Edwardsia,
Sojmora, Ormosia, Anagyris, Thermopsis, Virgilia, Cyclopia,
Baptisia, Podalyria, Chorizema, Podolobium, Oxylobium,
Ctdlistachys, Brachysema, Gompholobium, Burtonia, Jack-
sonia, Mniinaria, Sphoerolobium, Aotus, Dillwynia, Eutaxia,
Sclerothamnus, Gastrolobium, Euchilus, Pultenia, Daviesia,
Wirbelia, Cercis, Bauhinia, llymenaea, Cynometra, Ca^^ia,
Cathartocarpus, Parkinsonia, Poinciana, Caesalpinia, Guilan-
dina, Hyperanthera, Iloflmansef^a, Adenanthera, Cadia,

Is," Ha ■ "

Ijematoxylon, Copaifera, Schotia ; of Monaddph.
Triandr. Tamarindus; of Diaddph. Petdandr. Petaloste-

Prosopls,

mum ; of Diaddph. Odandr. Securidaca ; of Diaddph. De-
candr. Nissolia, Dalbergia, Pongamia, I'terocarpus, Ame-
rimnum, Dipterix, Aorus, Erythrina, Butea, Piscidia,
Borbonia, *Spartium, *<Jenista, l^beckia, Kaiinia, Asiia-
lathus, Sarcophyllum, Stauracanthus, *Ulex, Amorpha,
Platvlobium, Bossiaea, Scottia, Templetonia, (joodia, Lod-
dig^ia, M'iborgia, Crotalaria, Hovea, *Ononis, *-4.nthyllis,
Arachis, Lupinus, CarpApogon, Fhaseolus, Dclichos, Stizolo-
bium. Glycine, Apio*, Kennedia, Cylista, Clitoria, Galactia,
*Pisum,'Ochrus, *()robus, *Lath}TUS, *\'icia, *Ervum,
Cicer, Linaria, Cylisus, Mullera, Geoffroya, Robinia, Colu-
tea, Swamsonia, "Sutherlar.dia, I.essertia", Glycyrhiza, Ses-
l)ana, Coronilla, *Ornithopus, *Hippocrepis, Scorpiurus,
Smithia, ^schynomene, Hallia, Lespedeza, *Hedysaruin,
Zomia, Flemingia, Galega, Indigofera, Tej)hrosia, Phaca,
*OxyUopliis, *Astragalns, Biserrula, Ualca, I'soralia, *Mea-

K 4

136

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

■ lotus, Lupinaster, *TritbUum , Lotus, Dorycniuns, Trigonella,
Medicago ; of Dio'c. Decamlr. Gymnocladus ; of Pntt/^'am.
JUonac. Inga, Mimosa, Schrankia, Desnianthus, Acacia ; of
Polygam. Diasc. Gleditschia, Ceratonla. 146 Gen. 1085 Sp.

4. Roaacae, contains of Diandr. Monoey. Acoena i of Tetrand.
Monoey. *Sanguisorba, *AlchemiIla; of PerUand. Muno/^y.
Hirtella ; of Pentand. PeiUagyn, *Sibbaldia j of Dodecandr.
Dieyn. *Agrimonia; of iMandr. Memory. Amygdalus;
♦Prunus, Armenlaca, Chrysobalanus, Waldsteinia, «Al«pi-
lus, *P¥rus, Cydonia, *Spir8ea ; of Icotaiidr. Polygam.
*Rosa, «Rubus, Dalibarda, *FraKaria, *Comarum, *P6ten-
tilla, *Tormentilla, *Geum, *Dryas, Calycanthus ? of
Moiwc. Poluandr, *Poterium ; of Dusc. Potyatidr. Cliffortia.
27 Gen. 316 Sp.

5. Salicarice, contains of Tetrand. Monogy, Ammannia; of
Petilandr. MotlOgy.^'^Jla^x^L•, oi Hexand. ^onogi/. *Peplis ; of
Odaml. MoTiogy. Grislea, Lawsonia : of Dec'atid. Jttotiogy.
Acisanthera; of Dodecand. Monogy. *Lythrum, Cupheea; of
Poll/and. Monogy. Lagerstra:mia. 9 Gen. 23 Sp.

6. Melattonue, or Melaatomacea, contains of Octandr. Monogy.
Osbeckia, Hhexia ; of Decand. Monogy. Melastoma ; of Lo-
decaiul. Monogy. Blakea. 4 Gen. 24 Sp.

7. Myrii, or Myrtacea, contains of Octandr. Monogyn. Beeckia ;
of 'liodecand. Monogy. Decumaria ; of Icosaixdr. Monogyn.
Philadelphus, Leptuspermum, Fabricia, Metrosideros, Psi-
dium, Eugenia, Caryophyllus, Myrtus, Calyptranthes, Eu-
calyptus, Punica ; of Polyattdr. Monogyn, Alangium ; of
Monaddph. Polyandr. Barringtonia, Gustavia ; of Polyadelph.
Icosandr. Melaleuca, Tristania, Calothamnus, Beaufortia.
20 Gen. 121 Sp.

8. Combretacea, contains of Peniandr. Moru^. Conocarpus ; of
Decandr. Monogjj. Combretum, Getonia, Quisqualis ; of Poly-
gam. Moncec. Terminalia. 5 Gen. 10 Sp.

9. Cucurbitacea, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Melothria ; of
Pentand. Monof^n. Gronovia ; of Monac' Diand. Aneuria;
of Moru£cia PelUand. Luffa; of Monacia Motiadelph. Tricho-
santhes, Momordica, Cucurbita, Cucumis, *Bryonia, bicyos ;
of Diacia Decand. Carica. 11 Gen. 48 Sp.

10. tofiweir, contains of Icosand. Monogyn. Bartonia; of Poly-
and. Monogyn. Mentzelia. 2 (Jen. 4 Sp.

11. Onagraria, contains of Monand. Monogyn. T,opezia ; of
Diand Monogyn. CircBea ; of Tetradyn. Monogy. Ludwif^a,
Isnardia; of' Octand. Monog. *ffinothera, Gaura, *Epilo-
bium ; of Octand. Tetragy. Hcdora^is ; of Decand. Monogyn.
Jussieua; of Dicecia Tetrand. Montinia. 10 Gen. 54 Sp.

12. FJcotJe*, contains of Dodecandr. Monog. Nitraria; of Do-
decandr, Pentagyn. (51inus; of Icosandr. Pentagyn. Sesuvium,
Tetragonia, Mesembryanthemum, Aizoon ; oiPulyand, Pat-
iagyn. Reaumuria. 7 Gen. 229 Sp.

13. Sempervivas, contains of Tetrandr, Tdrasyn. Tilleea ; of
Pentandr. Peniagyn. Larochea, Crassula ; of Heptatid. Hep-
tag. Septas; of Odandr. Tdragyn. Calanchoe, Bryophyllum ;
of Decand. Pentag. *Cotyledon, *Sedum, Penthorum ; of
Decand. Decagyn, *Sempervivuni ; of Diiicia Pentandr.
♦Rhodiola. 11 Gen. 126 Sp.

14. Porttdacete, contains of Tdrand, Tetragxjn, *Montia; of
Pentandr. Monogy. Claytonia ; of Peniandr. Trigyn. *Ta-

. marix, Tumera, Telephlum, *Corrigiola, Portulacaria ; of
Pentaiulr. Pentagyn. (iisekia ; of Heptand. Digyn. Limeum ;
of Decandr. Digyn. Trianthema, *Sclerantluis ; of Dodecand,
Monogyn, Portulaca, Talinum, Anacampseros. 14 Gen.
39 Sp.

15. Cacti, contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Ribes ; of Icosandr.
Monogyn. Cactus, Rhipsalis. 3 Gen. 81 Sp.

16. Saxtfragece, contains of Pentand. Monogjjn. Itea ; of Pen-
tand. Digyn. Heuchera ; of Octandr. Tdrugy, *Adoxa ; of
Decandr. Digyn. Hydrangea ; *Chrysospleniuni, *Saxifi-aga,
Tiarella, Mitella. 8 Gen. 94 Sp.

17. Cunoniacece, contains of Decandr. Digyn. Cunonia ; of Do-
decan. Digyn. Callicoma, Bauera. 2 Gen. 3 Sp.

18. Arali(B, or Araliacece, contains of PeiUandr. Digyn. Cusso-
nia; of Pentandr. Pentagyn. Aralia; of Polygam, Diasc.
Panax. 3 Gen. 12 Sp.

19. CaprifoUce, contains of Tdrandr. Monogyn. *Comus; of
Peniand. Monogy. Lonicera, Syraphorea, Diervilla, Trios-
teum, *Hedera; of Pentand. Trigyn. *Vibumuni, *Sam-
bucus ; of Didynam. Angiosp. '*Linneea ; of Dicecia Tdran.
*Viscum. 10 Gen. 60 Sp.

20. Vmbdliferx, contains of Pentandr. Monog. Lagoecia ; of
Pentand. Digyn. *ErTngium, *Hydroctyle, Spananthe, *Sa-
nicula, Astrantia, *Bupleurum, *Echinoi>hora, Hasselquis-
tia, Tordylium, *Caucalis, Artedia, *I)aucus, Visnaga,
Ammi, *Buniuni, *Conium, *Selinuni, *Athamanta, *Peu-
cedanum, *Crithmum, Cachrys, Ferula, Laserpitium, *He-
racleum, *Ligiisticum, *Angelica, *Siuni, *Sison, Bubon,
Cuminum, *(Enanthe, *Phellandrium, *Cicuta, *iEthusa,
*Meum, *Coriandrum, *MyTrhis, *Scandix, Oliveria, *An-
thriscus, *Chaerophyllura, *ImperatorJa, Seseli, Thapsia,
*Pastinaca, *Smymium, *Anethuni, *Caruin, *Pimpi-
nella, *Apium, *^Eeopodium ; of Polygam. Monarcia, Her-
mas ; of Polygam. Diescia, Arctopus ? 54 Gen. 282 Sp.

21. Corymbiferoe, contains of Syngenes, Polygam. ^qualis,
Vemonia, Liatris, Mikania, *Eupatorium, Ageratum,
Steria, Cephalophora, Hymenopappus, Melananthera, Mar-
shallia, Spilanthes, *Bidens, Lagasca, Lavenia, Cacalia,
Kleinia, Ethulia, Piqueria, *Chrysocoraa, Tarchonanthus,
Calea, Humia, Cffisulea, Ixodia, *Santolina, Athanasia,
Balsamita, Pentzia ; of sygenes. Polygam, Superjlua, *Ta-
nacetum, *Arteniesia, *Gnaphalium, Xeranthemum, Heli-
chrysum, Carpesum, Baccharis, *Conyj:a, Madia, *Erigeron,
*Tussilago, *Senecio,* Aster, *Solidago,*Cinerarla, *Inula,
Grindelia, Po<tolepis, Arnica, *Doronicum, Perdicium, Te-
tragonotheca, Ximensia, Helenium, *Bellis, Bellium, Dahlia,
Tagetes, Heterospermum, Schkuluria, Pectis, Leysera, Rel-
hania, Zinnia, *Chrysantheuium, *Pyrethrum, *Matricaria,
Boltonia, Lidbeckia, Cenia, Cotula, Grangea, Anacyclus,
♦Anthemls, Sanvitalia, *AchilIea, Balbisia, A melius, Star-
kia, Eclipta, ChrysantheUum, Siegesbeckia.SyndreUa, Gal-
mgsoga, Acmella, Zaluzania, PascaUa, Heliopsis, Buphthal-
mum ; of Syngenes. Polygam. Frustan. Helianthus, (ialardia,
Rudbeckia, Cosmea, Coreopsis, Osmitra, Pallasia, Sclerocar-
pus, Cullumia, Berckheya, Didelta, Gorteria, Gazania,
Cryptostemma, Arctotheca, Sphenogyne; of Syngen. Pohi-
gam, Netessar, Milleria, Flaveria, Baltimora, Svlphium,
Alcma, Polymnia, Melampoilium, Chaptalia, *Calendula,
Arctotis, Osteosiiermum, (Ithonna, Hippia, Oymnostvles.
l,nocephalus, *Filago, Micropus, Parthcniun), Iva; of

Syngenes. Polygam. Segregata, Elephantopus, (Edera, Staibe,
Nauenbergia ; of Jl/onofc. Peniandr, Nepheleum, Xanthium,
Ambrosia, Franseria. 131 (Jen. 998 Sp.

22. RidnacecE, contains of Tdrandr, Monogy. Cephalanthus,
Spermacoce, *Sherardia, *Asperula, Houstonia, *Gallium,
Crucianella, Catesbeea, Ixora, Pavetta, Bouvardia, Sidero-
dendron, Chomelia, Mitchella, Coccocypsilum, Manettia; of
PeiUandr. Monogy. Cinchona, Pinckneya, Musscenda, Port-
landia, Genipa, (jardenia, Oxyanthus, Randea, Webera,
Erithalis, Morinda, Nauclea, Cephaelis, Hamellia, Ronde-
letia, Macronemum, Vanguiera, Dentella, Serissa, Psycho-
tria, CotTea, Chiococca, Paederia, Plocama ; of Pentandr.
Digyn. Phyllis ; of Hexand. Monogyn. Hillia, Richardia ; of
Monac. Hexandr. Guettarda; of Diac, Tdrandr, Antho-
speripum ; of Polygam, Monac, *Valtintia. 47 Gen.
145 Sp.

23. Cynarocephalce, contains of Syngenes, Polyg, uEqvalis,
♦Arctium, *Serratula, *Carduus, *Cnicus, *Onopordum,
Berardia, Cynara, *Carlina, Atractylis, Acama, Stokesia,
Stobcea, Carthamus, Stoehelina, Pteronia ; of Syngenes,
Polygam. Frustan, Zoegea, *Centaurea, Galactites , of Syn-

foies, Polygam. Segrega, Sphseranthus, Echinops, Rolandra,
Irotera, Gundelia. 23 Gen. 2^1 Sp.

24. Dipsacece, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. Morina ; of Triand.
Monogy. *Valeriana, Fedia ; of Tdrand. Monog. *Dipsacus,
*Scabiosa, Knautia. 6 Gen. 70 Sp.

25. Gentianea, contains of Tdrandr, Monogy. *Exacum, Se-
baea, Frasera ; of Pentandr. Monogyn. *Menyanthcs, *Vil-
larsia, Logania, Spigelia, Lisianthtis, *Chironia, Sabbatia,
*Erythraea, Eustoma ; of Pentandr. Digyn. *SweTtia,*iien.
liana ; of Odandr. Monogy. *Chlora. 15 Gen. 21 Sp.

26. Cichoraceas, contains of Syngen. Polygam. Mmiatis, Gero-
pogon, *Tragopogon, Troxlinon, Arnopogon, *Scorzoncra,
PiCridium, «Sonchus, *Lactuca, Chonarilla, *Prenanthes,
*I.eontodon, *Apargia, *Thrincia, *Picris, *Hieracium,
*Crej)is, Helminthia, Tolpis, Andirala, Rothia, Krigia,
♦HyoserLs, *Hedypnois, Seriola, *Hypochaeris, *Lapsana,
Zacintha, Rhagadiolus, Catananche, *C!ichoriuin, Scolymus.
31 Gen. 214 Sp.

27. Campanulaceoe , contains of Pentandr. Jlfonfl/sji/. Liriitfootia,
♦Campanula, Roella, *Phyteuma, *Trachelium, *Jasione,

*I/obelia; of Hexand. Monogyn. Canarina; of Octandr'.
JtfemofiT/n. Michauxia. 9 Gen. 118 Sp.

28. Styltdeae, contains of Gynandr. Diand. Stylidium. 1 Gen.
3Sp.

29. Rhodoracea, contains cf Pentandr. Monogyn. *Azalea,
♦Menziesia; of Decandr. Monogyn. Kalmia, Ledum, Rho-
dora,Rhododendron, Epicaea ; at Dodecand, Monogyn. Beiaria.
8 Gen. 40 Sp. «.» J

30. Goodenorrice, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Goodenia, Eu-
thales, Scaevola, Dampiera. 4 Gen. 8 Sp.

31. Ericea, contains of Tdrand. Monogy. Bloeria ; of Pen
tand. Monogyn. Cyrilla, Brosssea ; of Odand. Monog, *Oxy.
coccus, *Cailuna, * Erica; of Decandr. Monog. *VsLCcmium,
♦Andromeda, Enkianthus, Gaultheria, *Arbutus, Clethra,
Mylocarium, ♦Pyrola, Chimaphila; of Dodecand. Monogyn.
Hudsonia; of Diac. Triandr, ♦Empetrum. 19 Gen.
410 Sp.

32. Epacrideee, contains of Pentandr. Monogy. Sprengelia, An
dersonia, Lysinema, Epacris, Monotoca, I^ucopogon, Stenan-
thera, Astroloma, Styphelia. 9 Gen. 20 Sp.

Class VI. Dicotti.edonf.^. Cordijlora, with stamens ad-
hering to a corolla, which is not attached to the calyx.
Twenty-two Orders.

Order 1. Myrsinete, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Ardisia; of
Polygam. Dicec. Myrsine. 2 Gen. 11 Sp.

2. Sapotece, contains of Peniandr. Monogyn. Jacquinia, Achrai,
Chrysophillum, Sideroxylon, Sersalisi'a, Bumelia ; of Odand.
Monogyn. Mimusops; of Decandr. Monogyn. Inocarpus: of
Dodecandr. Monog. Bassia. 9 Gen. 22 Sp.'

3. Ebenaceoe, of Decandr. Digyn. Royena; of Dodecandr.
Monogy. Halesia ; of Dodecandr. Trigyn. Visnea ; of Poly,
addph. Polyandr. Hopea ; of Diac Hexand. Maba ; of Diac.
Poi^an. Embryopteris ; of Po/i/^'awi. Cia-c. Diospyros. 8 Gen.

4. Oletna, conteiins of Diandr. Monogjjn. ♦Ligustrum, Olea, No-
telaea, Chionanthus, Linociera, Omus, ♦Syringa : of Poly-
gam. Diac. ♦Fraxinus. 8 Gen. 40 Sp.

5. Jasminea, contains of Diand, Monogyn. Nyctanthes, Jasml-
num. 2 Gen. 14. Sp.

6. Verbetiacea, contains of Diandr. Monog. Ghinia, Stachvtar
pheta; of Tetrand. Monogyn. iEgiphila, CalUcaipa ; of Pen
tand. Monogyn. Tectona ; of Didynam.Gymnosperm. Selago ; of
Dtdynavi. Angiosrerm. Hebenstretia, Clerodendrum, Volka
mena, Holmskioldia, Vitex, Comutia, Hosta, Gmelina, Pe
traea, Citharexylum, Duranta, Lantana, Spielmannia, Zapa
nia, Priva, Aloysia, ♦Verbena. 23 Gen. 96 Sp.

7. Asclepiadea, contains of Pentand, Digyn. Periploca, Hemldes
mus, Secamone, Microloma, Sarcostemma, Daeniia, Cynan
chum, Oxystelma, Gymnema, Calotropis, Xismalobium,
Oomphocarpus, Asclepias, Gonolobus, Pergularia, Marsdenia,
Hoya, Stapelia, Piaranthus, Huemia, Caralluma. 21 Gen
126 Sp.

8. Aponjnea, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. Stnchnos, Geles-
mium, Rauwolfia, Carissa, Arduina, Cerbera, AUamanda,
Vinca, Nerium, Wrightia, Echites, Ichnocarpus, Plumeria,
Cameraria, TaberniEmonta, Amsonia; of Pentand. DigAin
Apocynum, Melodinus; of Polygam. Monac. Ophioxyion.
19 Gen. 61 Sp.

9. Bignoniacea, contains of Diandr, Monogyn, Catalpa; of Pen.
tandr, Monogvn. Cobcea; of Didynam. Aingiospcrm. Bignonia,
Sesamum ? Pentstemon, Chelone, Tourrettia ? Martvnia »
Gloxinia? Gesneria? 10 Gen. 49 Sp.

10. Pedalina, contains of Didynam. Angios. Pedalium. 1 Gen.
1 Sp.

11. Polemcniacea, contains of Pentandr. Monog, *'Pdletnonium
Phlox, Ipomopsis. 3 Gen. 22 Sp.

12. Convolvulacea, conxaxnsof Pentandr, Monogy. ♦Convolvulus
♦ Calystegia, Ipomaea, Retzia; of Pen'md. Digy. Falkia, Di-
chondra, Evolvulus, Hydrolea, ♦Cuscuta. 9 Gen. 91 Sp.

13. Boraginea, contains of Pentezuf. Jl/oriot-yn. Coldenia, Ilelio-
tropium, ♦Myosotis, ♦Lappula, ♦Lithospermium, Batschia,
Onosmodium, ♦ Anchusa, ♦Cynoglossum, ♦Pulmonaria, Sym-
phytum, Cerinthe, Onosma, ♦Borago, Trichodesma, ♦Aspe-
nigo, ♦Lvcopsis, ♦Echium, Toumefortia, Cordia, Bourreria,
thretia, Hydrophyllum, Elisia, Nolana. 25 Gen. 143 Sp.

Book I.

JUSSIEUEAN HORTUS FRITANNICUS.

137

14. Solanete, contains otPentandr. Monogy. Ramondia, *Verbas-
cum, *l)atura, Brugniansia, *Hyo»cyanius, Nicotiana, Man-
dragora, *Atropa, Solandra, Fhysalis, Nicandra, *SoIa-
num, Capsicwm, Cestrum, *Lycium, \'estra ; of Didynam.
Aiigiotperm. Bnindfelsia ? Crescentia, Anthocercis. I'J Gen.

16. Scrophularina, contains of Diand. Monogyn. *Veronica,
♦Uratiola, Schwenkia, Calceolaria ; of Tetraml. Atotwgyn.
Buddlea, Soparia ; of Didynam. Aneioaptrm. * Ijmosella,
BrowalUa, Stemodia, IVIazus, Lindeniia, Herpestis, Capraria,
Teedia, Besleria, Trevirana, Columnea, Kusselia, Dodartia,
Halleria, Jlimulus, Homemannia,*Digitalis, *Scropliularia,
Celbia, Alonsoa, Maurandia, Cymbaria, Nemesia, Anar-
rhinum, *Antirrhinum, *Linaria, Gerardia, *l'edicularis,
♦Melampyruin, *Hhinanthus, *Bartsia, Castilleja, *Eu-
plirasia, Buchnera, Manulea, Erinus, SibthorjJia, l)isandra.

43 Gen. 242 Sp.

16. Orutianchete, contains of Dulytutm. Angi03perm. *h!ithTwa,
♦Orobanche. 2 Gen. 7 Sp.

17. Labiakc, contains at Diund. Monogvn, *Lycopuf;, Amethy-
stea, Cunjla, Ziziphora, Hedeoma/ jSlonarda, Kosmarinus,
Salvia, Collinsonia ; of Didynam. Cymnotperm.* A'jaf[,a, Awi-
soraeles, *Teucriuni, Westringia, Satur^a, Thymbra, Hys-
sopus, Pycnanthemum, *Nepeta, ELsholtzia, Lavandula,
Sideritis, Bystropogon, *Mentha, Perilla, Hyptis, Lepechinia,
*Glechoma, *J-amium, *Galeopsi.s, *(ialeobdolon, *Betc-
nica, *Stachys, *Ballota, *Marrubiuni, *Leonurus, Phlomis,
Leucas, Leonotis, Aloluccella, *Clinopodiura, *Ori{;anum,
♦Thymus, *Acynos, *Calamintha, Melissa, Dracocephaluin,
Melittis, Ocymum, Plectrantlms, I'rostanthera, *ScuteUaria,
♦Prunella, Cleonia, Prasium, Phryma. 57 Gen. 493 Sp.

18. Myoporiiue, contains of Didyiiam. An^iosji. Wyoponim,
Stenocnllus, Bontia, Avicennia. 4 Gen. 11 Sp.

19. Acanihacca, conXaixii of Diandr.Morutgyn. Klytraria, Justi-
cia, Kranthemum ; of Didynam. An^iosperm. Acanthus,
Thunbergia, Barleria, Ruellia, Blechum, ApheliuJdra, Cros-
sandra. 10 Gen. 61 Sp.

20. LeiUibiUuria, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. *Pinguicula,
*Utricularia. 2 Gen. 8 Sp.

21. Primulacea, contains of Tetrand. Monogy. *Centunculus ;
of Peniand. Monogyn. Aretia, Androsace, *rriniula, Cortusa,
Soldanella, Dodecatheon, *Cyclamen, *Hottonia, *Lysin:a-
chia, *Anagallis, *Samolus, Coris ; of Hepiantl. Motiogyn,
♦Trientalis, Diapensia, Pyxidanthera. 16 C/en. 6S Sp.

22. Globularia.comedasofTetrand.Munogyn, Globularia, Adina.
2 Gen. 7 Sp.

Class VII. Dicotyledone^. Monochlamydetr, in which the
Calyx and the Corolla form only a single envelope. Seventeen
Orders.

Order 1. Plumbaginae, contains of Pentand. Monogyn. Plum-
bago ; of Pentdndr. Penlagy. *Armeria, *Statice. 3 Gen.

44 Sp.

5. Plarttaginex, contains of Pentand. Monogy, *PIantago ; of
Mmac.Teirand. *LittoreUa. 2 Gen. 38 Sp.

3. Nyctagineee, contains of Monand. Monogy. Boerhavia ; of
Triiimf. Jtfono^. Oxybaphus ; of TrfrcTw/. ji/on<j^"T/n. Alllonia,
Opercularia, CryptosiJermum ; of Pentand. Monogy, Mirabilis ;
ot Hepiandr. Monogyn. Pisonia. 7 Gen. 18 Sp.

4. AmaranihacecB, contains of Pentand. Monogy. Gomphrena,
Philoxerus, Achyranthes, Pupalia, Dieringia, Celosia, Lesti-
budesia, Altemanthera, iErua, *lUecebrum, Paronychia,
Anychia, Mollia; of Pentawl . Digyn. *Hemiaria; of Monac.
Pcn/ond. *Amaranthus ; ofDicec.Hexandr.lieiine. 16 Gen.
78 Sp.

6. Chenopodeie, contains of Diandr. Monogy. *Salicomia ; of
Trinnil. Digyn. Corispermuni, *Blitum ; of Triand. Monogyn.
I'olycnemum ; of Telrandr.Tetrag. Ilivina, Camphorosma;
of J'elaiulr. Monogyn. Chenolea ; of Pcntandr. Digyn. *Cheno-
podium, *Beta, *Salsola, Kochia, Anaba-sis, Bosea; of Pen-
taiulr. Tetragon. Basella ; of Heptandr. Monogyn. Petiveria ;
of Octandr. liigyn. Galenia ; of Dccandr. Decagyn. Phytolacca ;
of Jfonarc. AfojiiiTuir. Ceratocarpus ; of Monac. Triandr. Axy-
ris; of Mon<EC. Ciotis; of Dice. Pciiton</r. Spinacia ; of Poiy-
gam. Monac. *AtripIex, Rhagodia. 23 Gen. 100 t<i>.

6. PUygonea, contains of Triand. Trigyn, Kcenigia; of
Hexandr, Digyn. Atraphaxis, of Hexand. Trigyn. Ruraex ;
of Octand. Trigyn. *Polygonum, Coccoloba; of Enneand.
Monogyn. Eriogonum ; of Enneand. Trigyn. Rheum ; of
Dccandr. Tngyn. Brunnichia; of Dodecandr. Tetragyn. Calli-
gonum. 9 Gen. 80 Sp.

7. LauriiuB, contains of Enneandr. Monogyn. Laurus; of
MoiKKC. Tetrand. Hemandia ? 2 Gen. 18 Sp.

8. Myritticiiia, contains of Diac. Monadelph. MjTistica. 1 Gen.
2 Sp.

9. Proteacea, contains of Tetrand. Monogyn. Petrophila, Isc-
pogcn, Protca, Leucospermuni, Mimetes, Serruria, Nivenia,
Sorocephalus, Spalalla, Persoonia, GreviUea, Hakea, Lain-
bertia, Xylomelum, Telopca, Lomatia, Rhopala, Banksia,
Dryandra ; of Diac. Tetrandr. Aulax, I,eucadendron ; of
PiAygam. Monac. Brabejum. 22 Gen. 191 Sp.

10. Thymelea, contains of Diandr. Monogyn. Pimelea ; of
Tetrandr. i.onogyn. Struthiola; of Octandr. Monogyn. La-
getta, *Daphne, Dirca, Gnidia, Stellera, Passerina, Lachnea ;
of Decandr. Monogyn. Dais. 10 Gen. 47 Sp.

11. SantiUacete, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Santalum ; of
PetUandr, Monogyn. *Thesium ; of Octandr . Monogyn.
Fuchsia, Rfemecvlon; of Decandr. Monogyn. Bucida ; of
Diac. Triandr. Osyris ; of Pclygam. Monac. Fusanus, Nyssa.
8 Gen. 17 Sp.

12. Eleaguetp, contains of Tetrand. Monogyn. Eleagnus; of
Diac. Tct.-uiid. Ilippcphae. 2 Gen. 6 Sp.

13. Arittolochia, contains of Dodecandr. Monogyn. *Asarum ; of
Gynandr. Herandr. *Aristolochia. 2 Gen. 22 Sp.

14. £upAor6jacc<P, contains of Poifaiuir. Trigyn. Xylophila ; of
Dodecand. Trigyn. *Euphorbia; of Monac. Triandr. Tragia;
of Monac. Tetrandr. Cicca, *Buxus, Pachysandra; of Manac.
Monadelph. Plukenetia, Palechampia, Acalypha, Croton, Ja-
tropha, Ric-inus, Omjihalea, Hippomane, Sapium, Phyllan-
thus, Stillingia, Aleurites, Hura ; of Diorc. Diandr. Borya ; of
Diac. Peidaml. Securinega ; of Diac. Enneandr. *M<

rurialis ; of Diac. Decandr. lOggelaria ; of Diac. Monadelph.

lac. Gyna
220 Sp.

Eccaria, Adelia; of Diac. Cynand. Cluytia. 26 Gen.

15. l/rttcwe, contains of Diandr. Trigy. Piper ; of Tetrandr.
Monogy. Dorstenia ; of Octandr. Taragyn. Forskohlea ; of
Cynam. Driand. Gunnera; of Monac. Monand. Artocarjius;

of Monac. Tetrand. * Urtica, Boehmeria, Moms ; of Monac.
Polyandr. Thelygonuni ; of Diac. Diandr. Cecropia ; of
Diac. Pentandr. Cannabis, *Humulus ; of Polygam. Monac.
*Parietaria; of Po/.vs'. DioEcia, Ficus. 14 Gen. 103 Sp.

16. Amentacea, contains of Pentand. Digyn. Ulmus; of Po-
lyandr. Digv)i. Fothergilla ; of Monac. Triandr. Comptonia ;
of Monac. Tttrand. * A Inus ; of Monac. Poly and. *Quercus,
*Fagus, Castanea, *Betula, *Carpinus, Ostrya, *Corylus,
Platanus, Liquidambar; of Diac. Diandr. *Ha\ix ; of Diac.
Octand. *Popultis; of Polygam, Mmtac. Celtis. 16 Gen.
191 Sp.

17. C'o»ii/era', contains of Jlfon/rc. JITona/uf. Casuarina, *Pintis,
Thuja, Cupressus, Podocarpus ; of Diac. Monodelj)h. Arau-
caria, *Juniperus, *Taxus, Ephedra. 9 Gen. 74 Sp.

Ci-Ass VIII. JHoKocoTYi-EDONBJB. PAanenwamoF, or Plants,
■with one Seed-lobe, in which the fructification is visible.
Twenty-five (hrders.

Order 1. Cycadea, contains of Diac. Polyand. Cycas, Zamia.
2 Gen. 15 Sp.

2. Hydrocltaridea, contains of Tetrand. Monogyn. Trapa; of
Heptandr. Monogyn. Damasonium ; of Llac. Enneandr.

* Hydrocharis ; of Diac, Dodecand. * Stratiotes. 4 Gen.
4Sp.

3. Butomea, of Enneand. Hexaeyn. *Butomus. 1 Gea.
1 Sp. ^^

4. Aiismacea, contains of Pentandr. Monogyn. *Potamogeton ;
of Hexand. Trigyn. *Scheuchzeria, *Tnglochin ; of Hexandr.
Poiyg. Actinocarpus, *Alisma; of Monac. Polyandr. *Sa-
gittaria. 6 Gen. 30 Sp.

5. Orchidea, contains of Gynand. Monandr. *Orchis, *Gymna-
denia, *Aceras, *Herminiura, *Habenaria, Bartholina, *Se-
rapias, *Ophrys, *Satyrium, Disa, Pteryeodium, Dkperis,

♦ Goodyera, *5.'eottia, Ponthieva, Diurus, Thelymitra, «Lis-
tera, *Epipactis, Pogonia, Caledonia, Giossodia, Pterostylis,
Cale)-a, Calopogon, .Arethusa, Bletia, Geodorum, Calypso,
*Malaxis, *Corallhorrhiza, Isochilus, Omithodiuni, Stelis,
I'leurothallis, Octomeria, Aerides, Cryptarrhena, Dendro-
biuiii,Goniesa,Cymbidiuni, Brassia,Oncidiuin, Cyrtopodium,
Brassavola, Broughtonia, Epidendrum, \'ariilla; of Gynand.
Diandr. *Cyprii)cdium. 49 Gen. 128 Sp.

6. Miuacea, contains of Peidandr. Monogyn. Heliconia, Stre-
^litzia; of Hexand. A/ono^n. Musa, Urania. 4 Gen. 14 Sp.

7. Iridea, contains of Triandr. Monogyn. *Crocus, *Tricl:o-
nema, Geissorhiza, Hesperantha, Sparaxis, Ixia, Anoma-
theca, Tritonia, AV'atfonia, (jladiolu;, Melaspha;nila, An-
tholyza, Babiana, Aristea, Witsenia, Lapeyrousia, Moraea,
*lris, Marica, Pardanthus; of Monadelph. Triandr. Pater-
sonia, Ferraria, Tigridia, Galaxia. 24 Gen. 224 Sp.

8. Hetmodoracea, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Wachendorfia,
Xiphidium, Dilatiis, Haemodorum; of Hexandr, Monogyn.
I-ophiola, Lanaria, Anigozanthus. 7 Gen. 13 Sp.

9. Amaryllidea, contains of Hexand. Monogyn, Hsemanthus,
♦Galanthus, Leucojum, Strumaria, Crinuin, f'yrtanthus,
Brunsvigia, AmarslUs, *Nai-cissus, Pancratium, Eucrosia,
Doryanthes, Gethyllis. 13 Gen. 170 Sp.

10. Hemerocallidea, contains of Hexandr. Monogyn. Blandfordia,
HemerocalUs, Aletris, Tritoma, Veltheimia, I'olianthes,
Sanseviera, Tulbagia, Brodcea,Aloe. 11 Gen. 110 Sp.

11. Diotcorina, contains of Diac. Hexand. Bajaiiia, Eioscoria.
2Gen. 9Sp.

12. Smilacea, contains of Hexand. Monogyn. Streptopns, *Con
vallaria, Smilacina, *Polygona;um, Ophiopogon ; of Hexandr.
Trigyn. Myrsiphyllum ? Medeola, Trillium; of Octand.
Tetragyn, *Paris; of Diac, Hexandr, Smilax, *Tamus; of
Montrc. Monadelph, *Ruscus. 12 Gen. 59 Sp.

13. Lilia, or l.iliacea, contains of Hexandr. Monogyn. *Fri-
tillaria, Lilium, *Tulipa, Erjthronium, Gloriosa, Alstroc-
meria, Uvularia, Yucca. 8 Gen. 57 Sp.

14. Bromclea, contains of Hexandr. Monogyn. Eromelia, Pi!-
caimia, Tilland.sia, Agave, Furcrosa, Buonapaitea. 6 Gen.
39 Sp.

15. Asphodclea, contains of Hexandr. Monogyn. Pontcderia ?
Eucomt, Aphyllanlhes, Sowerbaea, *Allium, Albuca, Xan-
thorrhaea, Thy^anotus, Eriospermum, *Gagta, *Orniihoga-
lum, *Scilla;" Massonia, Asphcdelus, Antkericum, Arthio-
podium, Phalangiuin, Chlorophytum, Caesia, *Nartliecium,
Dianella, Enstrcphus, Afparagus, Drimia, Uuropctalun,
♦Hyacinthus, *l\Iu«cari, l.achenalia, Draccena, phylloma,
Phorniium, Hypoxis, Curculigo, Cvanella. 35 Gen.
273 Sp.

16. Melatdhaceo!, contains of i/ftranrfr. Monogyn. Bulbocodium,
of Hexand. Trigyn. *Tofieldia, Melanthium, *Colchicum,
Helonias, Nolina ; of Polygam. Monac. Veratrum. 7 Gen.
31 Sp.

17. Juncea, contains of Diandr. Monogyn, Philydrum ; of
Hexand. Monogyn. * Juncus, *Luzula ; "of Hexand. Trigyn.
Flagellaria ? 4 Gen. 30 S\>.

18. Werfiacwp, contains of Triand. Monogyn. Xyris; of Triandr,
Trigyn, *Eriocaulon; of Cto-c. TrtanJK M'illdenovia, ResUo,
Elqna. 5 Gen. 7 Sp.

19. Commdinea, contains of Triandr. Monogyn. Commelina,
Aneilema, Callisia; of Hexandr. Monogy. Tradescantia.
4 Gen. 22 Sp.

20. Palmit, contains of Hexandr. Monogyn. Corypha, Lic-
ruala, Thrinax, Calamus; of Hexandr. Trigyn. Sabal ; of
Monac. Hexandr. Cocus, Bactris, Elate, Sagus ; of Monac.
Polyandr. Caryota; of Monac. Monaddnh. Areca; of Diac
Tnandr. Phoenix; of Diac. Hexandr. Elais, Chamsedorea,
Borassus ; of Diac. Monadelph. Latania , of Polygam, Rha-
phis ; of Polygam. Diac. Chameerops. 18 Gen. 29 Sp.

21. Camua, contains of Monand. Monogyn. Canna, Maranta,
Thalia, Phrynium. 4 Gen. 15 Sp.

22. Pandana, contains of Diac. Monand. Pandanus. 1 Gen.
4Sp.

23. Scilaminea, contains of Monandr. Monogyn. Hedychium,
Alpinia, Hellenia, Zinziber, Elettaria, Costus, Ksemiiferia,
Amomum, Ctircuma, Globba. 10 Gen. 35 Sp.

24. Cyneracea, contains of Triandr. Monogyn. *IMariscus,
Kyliingia, *Cyperus, Isolenis, *Scirpus, Eieocharis, *Ryn-
chospora, *Schoenus, *Claaium, *Tncliophonim, *Eriopho-
rum; of Monac. Triar dr. Caxen. 12 Gen. 135 Sp.

25. Aroidea, contains of Tdrand. Monogyn, Pothos ; of Hexand.
Monogyn. *A corns, Orontium, Tupistra, Tacca; of Hej.land.
Monogyn. Dracontium, Calla; of Monac. Triandr. *Typha,
♦Sparganium; of Monac. Polyatid. * Arum, Caladiuni.
11 Gen. 61 Sp.

138

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

26. Gramtneie, contalnE of Di.indr Dlfxvv- *Antlioxanthum ;
of Triand. Mmioifi/u. *Narclus, LyK^""'. Comucoi>ia>, Cen-
chrus, *Sesleria,'Limnetis; of Iriundr Trigyn. *Tricho-
dium^ Sporabolus, *Agrostis, ^Knappla, Pterotis, *Poly-
iiogon, *Stiiia, Trisetum, *Avena, *Bromus, *Fcstuca,*Tri-
licum, *Secale, *Hordeum, *Elyinus, *I.oliuin, Kseloria,
*(ilyceria, *Poa, *Tri(xiia, *Calaiiiagrostls, *Arundo, *Aira,
*Mflioa, Echinaria, I^apjiago, Eleu'sine, Chrysunis, *Cyno-
sunis, Beckmannia, *Dactylis, Uniola, *Brixa, *Cynodon,

. *Miliuin, *Lagurus, *Alopecurus, *PWeum, CiTpsis, *Pha-
laris, Torrettia, Pa.si>aIium,DiKitaria, Panicuiii,Orlhoix)f;oii,
♦Pennisetum, Saccharum, *RottlK)llia, Michrochloa, I.eer-
sia ; ofHexaiulr. lUiniOfrj/n. Bambiisa, Ehrharta; of Hexamlr.
Digyn. Ory/a; of Moiiiec. Tnandr. Zea, Trip>acum, Coix,
Olyi-a; of Moiuec. Hexamlr. Zizania, Pliarus; of Putygarn.
Mimac. Andropogcjn, Chloris, Penicillaria, Sorghum, *Hol-
cus, Ischa-'mum, ^gilops, Maiiisuris. 74 Gen. 377 Sp.

Cr.Ass IX. MoNOCOTYi.EDONK^. Cryptugameig, in which the
fructification is concealed, unknown, or irregular. Five
Orders.

Order 1. iVrtiViJe*, contains of Jtfo7!(7)irfr. Munogyn. *Hipi>uris ;
of Diatulr. Ui/'i/ii. *Calitriche ; of Tdraml. Tetriif.njn.*Ru\y-
pia; of Hexaiutr. Trigyn. Aponogeton; of Ilejiiand. Te-
trairyn. Saururus; of Ittoiuxc. Mutiamlr. * Zannichelia,
♦Cliara; of Mmurc. Diand. *I.emna; of Moiitrc. Polyaiid.
*CeratophyUuin,*Myriophyllum. 10 Gen. 23 Sj;.

2. Egmselucete, contains of Cryptog. Gonoptcnd. *Equisetum.
1 Gen. 7 Sp.

3. Marriliaeeir, contains of Cryptogam. Uydroptertd. *Isoetes,
*Pilularia. 2 Gen. 2 Sp.

4. LycitpwIUKic, contains Of Cnjptngam. Stachyoptcnd. *Lycoi)0
diiim, Psilotuin. 2 Gen. 12 Sp.

" " " "'7/JninTi/v, „„ - »^j,,,,„^.^„„ J

[arattia; of Crypiug.

5. FiVicM, contains of Cryjrfog^am. S/acft.vop'f "''• *OphioKlossum
*Botrychium; of Crypto. Poropterid. Marattia; of Cryptog
SchUmatopterid. Lycodium, Anemia, *Osmunda ; of Crt/n/oi;'
Filic. AcAsticum, Hemionitis, Meniscium, Grammitis, *Po
Ivpodiuni, AUantodia, *Aspidum, *Asplenium, *Scolopen-
drium, Diplazium, *Pteris, Vittaria, Onoclea, *Blechnum,
AVoodwardia, Doodia, *Adiantum, Cheilanthes, Lonchitis,
Davallia, Dicksonia, Cyathea, *Trichomanes, *Hymeno.
phyllum. 32 Gen. 139 Sp.

Chap. V.
Vegetable Organology, or the external Structure of Plants.

590. Vegetables are reducible to classes, according as they are distinguished by a structttre,
or organisation, more complicated or more simple ; or, according as they are found to be
formed with or without certain parts or organs entering into the general idea of the plant.
The former constitute wliat may be denominated perfect plants, and form a class compre-
hending the principal mass of the vegetable kingdom. The latter constitute what may be
denominated impei-fect plants, and form a class comprehending all such vegetables as are
not included in the foregoing class. Such is the arrangement of Keith, from whose
work, as by far the best for general purposes, we have chiefly extracted this and the
three following chapters.

ECT. I. Perfect Plants.

591. The parts of perfect plants may be distributed into conservative and reproductive, as
corresponding to their respective functions in the economy of vegetation.

SuBSECT. 1. Conservative Organs.

592. The conservative organs are such as are absolutely necessary to the growth and
preservation of the plant, including the root, trunk, branch, leaf, and frond.

The root is the principal organ of nutrition.

The trunk constitutes the princijial bulk of the individual.

The branches are the divisions of the truiik, originating generally in the upper extremity, but often also
along the sides.

The leaf is a temporary part of the plant, issuing generally from numerous points towards the extremi-
ties of the branches, but sometimes also immediately from the stem or root, and distinguishable by the
sight or touch into an upper and under surface, a base and an apex, with a midrib and lateral nerves.

The frond is to be regarded as a compound of several of the parts already described ; it consists of a
union or incorporation of the leaf, leaf-stalk, and branch or stem, forming as it were but one organ, of
which the constituent parts do not separate spontaneously from one another by means of the fracture of
any natural joint, as in the case of plants in general, but adhere together even in their decay.

593.

SuBSECT. 2. Conservative Appendages.
The co?iservative apjyendages are accessory or supernumerary parts found to accom-

pany the conservative organs occasionally, but not invariably.

Gems, or buds, are organised substances issuing from the surface of the plant, and containing the rudi-
ments of new and additional parts which they protrude ; or the rudiments of new individuals which they
constitute by detaching themselves ultimately from the parent plant, and fixing themselves in the soil.

Glands are small and minute substances of various different forms, found chiefly on the surface of the
leaf and petiole, but often also on the other parts of the plant, and supjwsed to be organs of secretion.

The tendril is a thread-shaped and generally spiral process issuing from tlie stem, branch, or petiole, and
sometimes even from the expansion of the leaf itself, being an organ by which plants of weak and climb-
ing stems attach themselves to other plants, or other substances for support ; for which purpose it seems
to be well fitted by nature, the tendril being much stronger than a branch of the same size.

The stipula; are small and foliaceous appendages accompanying the real leaves, and assuming the ap-
pearance of leaves in miniature.

Ramenta are thin, oblong, and strajj-shaped appendages of a brownish color, issuing from the surface
of the plant, and somewhat resembling the stipula;, but not necessarily accompanying the leaves. The
term, which literally signifies bits of c\\\\>& or shavings, seems to have been employed by Linnaius to de-
note the small and scattered scales that are frequently found on the stems of vegetables, originating in the
bark, and giving it a rough or chopped appearance. Hence a branch or stem that is covered with thin and
dry scales or flaps is said to be ramentaceous, as in the case of tamarix gallica.

The armature consists of such accessory and auxiliary parts as seem to have been mtended by nature to
defend the jrfant against the attacks of animals.

The pubescence is a general term, including under it all sorts of vegetable down or hairiness, with which
the surface of the plant may be covered, finer or less fonuidable than the armature.

Anomalies. There are several other appendages i)roper to conservative organs, which are so totally dif-
.forent from all tJie foregoing, that they cannot be classed with any of them ; and so very circumscribed in
their occurrence, that they do not yet seem to have been designated by any peculiar ai)i)cilation. The

i

K I. STRUCTURE OF PERFECT PLANTS.

t anomaly, as affects

139

the conservative ap|)cn-
tLiges, occurs in dionoea
iiiuscipula, or Venus's fly-
trap :Jig.43. a). A sccond'is
tl»at which occurs in sarra-
cenia purpurea, or purple /^'^
s-dcsaddle-flower (A). A
third, which is still'moro
singular, occurs in nc-
j>cii{hes distillatoria (c).
The last anomaly is that
of a Mnall globular and
membranaceous bag, at-
tached as an apj)endage
to the roots and leaves of
some of the aquatics. It
is confinetl only to a few
genera, but is to be seen
in great abundance on the
roots or leaves of the seve-
ral species of utricularia
inhabiting the ponds and
ditches of this country ;

and on the leaves of aldrovanda vesiculosa, an inhabitant of the marshes of Italy. In utricularte vulgaris
t lis api»endage is pear-shaped, compressed, with an open border at the small end furnished with several
slender fibres ongmating in the margin, and containing a transparent and waterv fluid, and a small bubble
ot air, by means of which it seems to acquire a buoyancy that susjiends it in the" water.

SuBSECT. 3. Rejrroductive Organs.

594. The rejrroductive organs are such parts of the plant as are essential to its jrrojmga-
iion, corresponding in extent to the fructification of Linn^us, which lie has elegantly-
defined to be a temporary part of the vegetable, whose object is the reproduction of the
species, terminating the old individual, and beginning the new. It includes tlie flower
witli its immediate accompaniments or peculiarities, the flower-stalk, receptacle, and
inflorescence, together with the ovary or fruit.

Tfie flower, like the leaf, is a temporary- part of the plant, issuing generally from the extremitv of the
branches, but sometimes also from the root, stem, and even leaf, being the apparatus destined by nature
for the production of the fruit, and being also distinguishable, for the most part, by the brilliancy of its
coloring or the sweetness of its smell. It has been happily styled by Pliny, the joy of plants, " flos
gaudium arborum ;" of which the lily, the tulip, and the rose, are magnificent examples.

Thefloivcr-stalk is a partial trunk or stem, supjxjrting one or more flowers, if the flowers are not sessile,
and issuing from the root, stem, branch, or ix?ticle, and sometimes even from the leaf. It is considered by
botanists as comprehending two different si^ecies, the scape and peduncle.

The receptacle is the seat of the flower, and point of union between the diffbrent parts of the flower, or
between the flower and the plant, whether immediate and sessile, or mediate and supported upon a
flower-stalk. Some botanists have considered it as a part of the flower itself, though this view of the sub-
ject IS not entirely correct ; but it is at any rate a part of the fnc.ctification, and cannct possibly be wanting
in the case of any flower whatever. Like the flower-stalk, it has been discriminated by botanists into two
different species, which are not indeetl designated by proper names, but characterised by the api)ellations
of the proper receptacle, and the common receptacle.

The inflorescence is the peculiar mode of aggregation in which flowers are arranged or distributed upon
the i)lant, whence it is called sometimes also the motle of flowering.

Tlic/rtiit. In the progress of fructification, when the several organs of the flower have dischargetl their
respective functions, the petals, the stamens, the style, and often the calyx, wither and fall. The ovary
alone remains attached to the plant, and swells and expands till it reaches maturity. It is then denominatcil
the fruit. But at the i^eriod of its complete developement it also detaches itself from the plant and droijs
into the bosom of the earth, containing and protecting the embr>o of the future vegetable. The fruit then
is the ripened ovary and the parts which it contains. In iwpular language the term is confinetl chiefly to
8uch fruits as are esculent, as the apple, the peach, and the cherry, or jx^rhaps to the esculent part only ;
but with the botanist the matured ovary of every flower, with the parts contained, constitutes the fruit.

SuBSECT. 4. Reproductive Ajjjyendagcs.

595. Various additional and supernumerary parts, not at all essential to their consti-
tution, because not always present, are often found attending the reproductive organs.
Many of them are precisely of the same character with that of the conservative appen-
dages, except that they are of a finer and more delicate texture. Such are the glands,
down, pubescence, hairs, thorns, or prickles, with one or other of which the parts of the
fructification are occasionally furnished. But others are altogether peculiar to the repro-
ductive organs, and are to be regarded as constituting, in the strict acceptation of the
tcnn, true reproductive appendages. Some of them are found to be proper to the flower,
and others to the fruit.

The appendages proper to the flower are the involucre, spathe, and bracte, generally designate<l by the
apj)ellation of floral leaves, as being leaf-like substances situated near the flower, though different in their
color, form, or substance, from the real leaves of the plant ; together with the nectary, and several other
minute organs presumed to be nectaries, though not certainly known to be so.

Appendages of the frtdt. When the flower with its appendages has fallen, the ovary, which is still
immature, is left atta'chcd to the plant, to complete the object of the fructification in the rliwning of the
contained seed. If it is lefl without any extraneous or suiwmumerary appendage, which is a case that
often otxurs, as in the cherry, apricot, and currant, the fruit is said to l)e naked. The naked fruit, how-
ever, is not to be confounded with the naked seed, from which it is altogether distinct. For it is the want
of a consi)icuous pericarp that constitutes the naked seed ; but it is the want of an additional integument
enveloping the i«ricarp, that constitutes the naked fruit. But all parts of the flower are not always deci-

140

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Taut 1 1.

duous, and it often happens that one or other of them still continues to accompany the pericarp or seed
both in its ripening and ripened state, constituting its appendage, and covering it cither wholly or in part,
or adhering to it in one shape or other.

Sect. II. Imperfect Plants.

596. Plants apparently defective in one or other of the more conspicuous parts or
organs, whether conservative or reproductive, are denominated imperfect. Lin-
naeus characterised them by the appellation of cryptogamous plants, because their
organs of fructification are not yet detected, or are so very minute as to require the aid of
the microscope to render them visible ; and in the system of Jussieu they are included
in the monocotyledonea; and acotyledonea;, composing the cryptogameae of the former,
and the whole of the latter division. As in the perfect plants, so in tlie imperfect plants,
the eye readily recognises traces of a similitude or dissimilitude of external habit and
deportment characterising the different individuals of which they consist, and suggesting
also the idea of distinct tribes or families. And upon this principle different botanists
have instituted different divisions, more or less extensive, according to their own peculiar
views of the subject. But one of the most generally adopted divisions of imperfect
plants is that by which they are distributed into the natural orders of Alices, equisetaccoe,
lycopodinea;, musci, hepiktica;, alga*, lichenes, and fungi. Dillenius, Micheli,
Bulliard, Hedwig, and Acharius, have rendered themselves illustrious by the study of
these tribes.

SuBSECT. 1. Pilices, E'/iiLielacecr, and Li/copodinea:.

597. The Jtlices, eguisetace^, and li/copodinece, are for the 7nost part herbaceous, and
die down to the ground in the winter, but they are furnished with a perennial root, from
which there annually issues a frond bearing the fructification. The favorite habitations of
many of them are heaths and uncultivated grounds, where they are found intermixed with
furze and brambles ; but the habitations of such as are the most luxuriant in their groM'th,
are moist and fertile spots, in shady and retired situations, as on mossy dripping rocks, or
by fountains and rills of water. Some of them will thrive even on the dry and barren
rock, or in the chinks and fissures of walls ; and others only in wet and marsljy situations
where they are half immersed in water.

SuBSECT. 2. Musci.

598. The mosses are a tribe cf imperfect plants of a small and diminutive size, consisting
often merely of a root, surmounted with a tuft of minute leaves, from the centre of which
the fructification springs, but furnished for the most part with a stem and branches, on
which the leaves are closely imbricated, and the fructification terminal or lateral, llieyare
perennials and herbaceous, approaching to shrubby ; or annuals, though rarely so, and
wholly herbaceous, the perennials being also evergreens. Their most favorite habit-
ations are bleak and barren soils, such as mountains, heaths, woods, where they are
found, not only rooted in the earth, but attached also to the roots and trunks of trees,
and even to the flinty rock ; or immersed in bogs and ditches, or floating, though fixed by
Uie roots, in streams of running water. As they affect the most barren soils, so they
thrive best also in the coldest and wettest seasons. In the drought of summer they
wither and languish ; but in the more moderate temperature of autumn they begin to
recruit, so tliat even the chilling cold of winter that deprives other plants of their verdure
and foliage, and threatens destruction to the greater part of vegetables, tends but to refresh
and revive the family of the mosses, [fg. 44.) Hence their capacity of retaining moisture
for a great length of time without discovering any tendency to putrefaction, and of recover-
ing their verdure when moistened with water, even after having been completely dried, and
kept in a dried state for many years. From the extreme minuteness of their parts, they
are apt to be overlooked by the superficial observer, or disregarded by the novice in

Book

STRUCTURE OF IMPERFECT PLANTS.

141

botany, who is attracted pcrliaps only by what is specious in the plant or flower, but who,
when the desire of botanical knowledge shall have inspired him with a relish for micro-
scopical observation, will find the study of tlie mosses to be no less interesting than that
of the more perfect plants, and the form and texture of their parts to be no less beautiful
and elegant than that of the most gaudy flowers. (Ji^. 44.)

SuBSECT. 3, Hepaticce. (Jig. 44. o,j

599. The hepaticce are a tribe of small and herbaceous plants resembling the mosses, but
chiefly constituting fronds, and producing their fruit in a capsule tliat splits into longi-
tudinal valves. I'he name is derived from a Greek word signifying the liver, because
perhaps some of them were formerly employed as a remedy iu diseases of the liver ; or
because some of them exhibit, in their general aspect, a slight resemblance to the lobes
of the liver. In their habitations, they aftect for the most part tlie same sort of situations
as the mosses, being found chiefly in wet and shady spots, by the sides of springs and
ditches, or on the shelving brinks of rivulets, or on the trunks of trees. Like the mosses,
tliey thrive best also in cold and damp weather, and recover their verdure, though dried,
if moistened again with water. The hepaticae and tlie mosses are indeed so nearly al-
lied, that they have generally been regarded as constituting but one family, and classed
togetlier accordingly ; the latter under the title of musci frondosi, and the former under
that of musci hepatici. Such was the division even of Hedwig ; but later botanists have
found it to be more consonant to the principles of sound and scientific arrangement,
to separate the hepaticae from the mosses altogetlier, and to convert them into a distinct
tribe.

SuBSECT. 4. Algce and Lichenes.

600. The term algce, or sea-weeds, among modern botanists, includes not merely marine
and many other immersed plants, but also a great variety of plants that are not even
aquatics. All the algae, however, agree in the common character of having their herb-
age frondose, or but rarely admitting of the distinction of root, stem, and leaf, and
their fructification imbedded either in the substance of the frond itself, or in some pe-
culiar and generally sessile receptacle. The algae were formerly divided into the six
following genera, lichen, tremella, fucus, ulva, conferva, byssus ; but now the genus
lichen forms an order of itself.

601. The utility of the algce is obviously very considerable, whetlier we regard them as
furnishing an article of animal food, or as applicable to medicine and the arts. The
fucus edulis, and several other fuci, are eaten and much relished by many people, whether
raw or dressed, and it is likely that some of them are fed upon by various species of fish.
The fucus lichenoides ( Turner, c. 118.) is now believed to be the chief material of the
edible nests of the East India swallows, which are so much esteemed for soups, that they
sell in China for their weight in gold. When disengaged from their place of growth and
thrown upon the sea-shore, the European algae are often collected by the farmer and used
as manure. They are often also employed in the preparation of dyes, as well as in the
lucrative manufacture of kelp, a commodity of the most indispensable utility in the im-
portant arts of making soap and glass.

602. The utility of the lichenes is also worthy
of notice. The lichen rangiferinus {fig' 45.)
fonns the principal nourishment of the rein-deer
during the cold montlis of winter, when all other
herbage fails. The lichen islandicus is eaten
by the Icelanders instead of bread, or used in
the preparation of broths, and like the lichen
pulmonarius, has been lately found to be bene-
ficial in consumptive affections. Many of them
are also employed in the preparation of some of
our finest dyes, or pigments ; and it is from the
lichen parellus that the chemical analysist ob-
tains his litmus. The lichens and the mosses
seem instituted by nature to provide for the imi-
vcrsal diffusion of vegetable life over the whole
surface of the ten-estrial globe. The powdery
and tuberculous lichens attach themselves even
to the bare and solid rock. Having reached
the maturity of their species, they die and are converted into a fine earth, which forms a
soil for the leathery lichens. These again decay and moulder into dust in their turn ;
and the depth of soil, which is thus augmented, is now capable of nourishing and support-
ing other tribes of vegetables. The seeds of the mosses lodge in it, and spring up into

142

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

plants, augmenting also bv their decay Uie quantity of soil, and prcparnig it for Uie sup-
port of plants of a more luxuriant growth, so that in the revolution of ages even the sur
face of the barren rock is covered with a soil capable of supporting the lottiest trees.

SuBSECT. 5. Fungi.

603. Thefunn are a tribe of plants 2vhose herbage is a frond of a fleshy or pvZpy texture,
«uick in its growth, and fugacious in its duration, and bearing seeds or gems in an appro-
priate and exposed membrane, or containing them interspersed throughout its mass. But
this rule is not without its exceptions ; for many of the fungi are converted, during the
process of vegetation, or rather when their vegetation is over, into a tough, leathery, and
«ven woody substance, which gives them a permanency beyond that of their congeners,
and a trait of character that is not included in the above definition. They are also a tribe
of plants that may be regarded as
the lowest in the vegetable scale,
exhibiting a considerable resem-
blance to the tribe of zoophytes, and
thus forming the connecting link
between the vegetable and animal
kingdoms. The habitations they
affect are very various, many of them
vegetating only on the surface of the
earth {fig. 46. a), and some of them
even buried under it ; others on
stumps and trunks of rotten trees(6);
others on decayed fruit ; others on
damp and wet walls ; and others on
animal ordure.

Conservatiue organs. Many of the fungi are altogether destitute of any conspicuous root, being attached
to some appropriate basis of supjwrt merely by means of a large and flattened surface. The frond is often
merely a thin, flat, and leathery sort of substance, adhering to a basis of support by means of the whole of
.its under-surface, as in the boleti. In others it is globular and sitting, as in lycoperdon ; and in others, it
is bell-shaped and sitting, as in nidularia.

Reproductive organs. In fungi furnished with gills and a curtain, if the inner surface of the curtain is
carefully examined with a good magnifier, before the time of its natural detachment from the stipe or
pileus, there will be found adhering to it a number of fine and delicate threads supporting small globules ;
and in such as have no curtain the same sort of substances may be found adhering to the edge of the
pileus. These Hedwig regards as stamens. If the gills are next examined in the same manner and about
the same time, there will be found sitting on their edge or surface a multitude of small, tender, and cylin-
drical substances, some of which are surmounted with a small globule, and others not. These he regards
as being probably the styles and summits. Similar substances may be detected on the other genera of
fungi also. But from the extreme minuteness of their parts, and from their strong similitude to the down
with which the finer organs of vegetables are generally covered, it is easy to perceive how very ditlicult it
must be to decide upon their true character.

604. Uses of the fungi. The powder of the lycoperdons is said to be an excellent
styptic ; and is remarkable also for its property of strongly repelling moisture. If a basin
is filled with water, and a little of the powder strewed upon the surface so as to cover it
thinly, the hand may be plunged into it and thrust down to the bottom without being
wetted witli a single drop of water. Several of the boleti, when dried, afford a very use-
ful tinder ; and several of the agarics and tubers are used as articles of food, or as ingre-
dients in the preparation of seasoning. The truffle is much esteemed for the rich and
delicate flavor which it imparts to soups and sauces ; and the mushroom for its esculent
property, and utility in the preparation of ketchup.

Chap. VI.

Vegetable Anatomy , or the internal Structure of Plants.

605. The organs of jylants discoverable by external examination, are themselves reducible
to component organs, which are again resolvable into constituent and primary organs.
These are called the decomposite, the composite, and the elementary.

Sect. I. Decomposite Organs.

606. The decomposite organs constitute the vegetable individual, and are distinguishable
by external examination ; to the dissection of which we wall now proceed, taking them in
the retrograde order of the seed, pericarp, flower, leaf, gem, and caudex, or branch, stem,
and root, with their decomposite appendages.

G07. The seed. The mass of the seed consists of two principal parts, distinguishable without much difficulty;
namely> the integuments and nucleus, or embryo and its euvelt^es. The integuments proper to the seed

Book I. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. 143

are two in number, an exterior integument and an interior integument ; which are sometimes, however,
eiivclc4>ed by the additional intcfjument constituting an appendage of the seed, under the title of the
pellicle or seminal epidermis. The exterior integutrienf, or fcsta, is the original cuticle of tlie nucleus, not
detachable in the early stages of its growth, but detachable at the period of the maturity of the IVuit
when it is generally of a membranaceous or leathery texture ; though sometimes soft and fleshy, and
sometimes crustaceous and bony. It may be very easily distinguished in tlie transverse or longitudinal
section of the garden-bean or any other large seed, and may be also easily detached by the aid of a little
manipulation. The interior integument, m sub-testa, lines the exterior integument, or testa, and immedi-
ately envelopes the nucleus, deriving its origin from the interior portion of the umbilical cord, which, after
perforating the testa, disperses into a multiplicity of ramifications connected by a fine membrane, and
forms the interior integument. Like the testa, to which indeed it adheres, it may be easily distinguished
in the garden-bean (Jig. 47.}, or in a ripe walnut j in which last it is a fine transparent and net-like mem-
brane.

fiUS. The nucleus is that part of the seed which is ^^•-=^=^:5-~— _ 4^

contained within the jjroper integuments, consisting ' ^~

of the albumen with the vitellus, when present, and
embryo. The albuttien is an organ resembling in its
consistence the whit3 of an egg, and forming, in most
cases, the exterior portion of the nucleus, but always
separable from the interior or remaining portion.
Tlie vitellus is an organ of a flesliy but firm contex-
ture, situated, when present, between the albumen
and embrj'o ; to the former of which it is attached
only by adhesion, but to the latter by incorporation
of sutetance, so as to be inseparable from it, except
by force. The embryo [fig. 47. a) wliich is the Lnst and
most essential part of the seed and final object of the
fructification, as being the germ of the future plant,
is a small and often very minute organ, enclosed
within the albumen and occupying the centre of the seed. The cotyledon or seed-lobe {b\ is that portion
of the embryo, that encloses and protects the plantlet, and springs up during the process of germination
into what is usually denominated the seminal leaf, if the lobe is solitary ; or seminal leaves, if there are
more lobes than one. In the former case the seed is said to be monocotyledonous ; in the latter case, it
is said to be dicotyledonous. Dicotyledonous seeds, which constitute by far the majority of seeds, arc
well exemplified in the garden-bean. Aj there are some seeds whose cotyledon consist* of one lobe onl}\
falling short of the general number, so there are also a few whose cotyledon is divisible into several Icbes,
exceeding the general number. They have been denominated polvcotjledonous seeds, and are exempli-
fied in the case of lepidium sativum or common garden-cress, m which the lobes are six in number; as in
that also of the ditt'erent species of the genus pinus, in which they varv from three to twelve. Cut
although by far the greater number of seeds are furnished with two cotyledons, or with a cotyledon divi-
sible or not divisible into several lobes, there is als^o a considerable proportion in which the cotyledon is
altogether wanting, or at least believed to be wanting by botanists in general These, according to
Ga?rtncr, are exemplified in the fuci, ferns, and fungi, the embrjo being merely a germinating cicatrix
imbedded in the surface of a vitellus which forms the mass of the seed. But Hedwig, to whose opinions
on this subject much deference is also due, maintains that the seeds of the plants in question are furnished
with cotyledons as well as those of other plants, and that no seed whatever is without them. This is a
ca.«e, however, in which the general opinion of botanists is against him, as may be seen from the many
systems founded upon the presence, or absence, or number of the cotyledons, and exemplified, as we have
seen, in that of the great and justly celebrated Jussieu, whose primary divisions are those of acotyledonous,
monocotyledonous, and dicotyledonous plants, the polycotyledonous being thought to be too few in num-
ber to constitute a separate division. It should be recollected, however, that the above divisions were
instituted at a time when the subject had not yet undergone any thing like a rigorous scrutiny, that
already many changes have been found necessary, and that future investigations will in all probability
point out the necessity of more. In watching the germination of fem-secd, Mirbel observed some sulv
stances which he regards as cotyledons, and so far supports the position of Hedwig. The plantlet, or future
plant in miniature, is the interior and essential portion of the embryo, and seat of vegetable life. In some
seeds it is so minute as to be scarcely perceptible ; while in others it is so large as to be divisible into dis-
tinct parts, as in the garden-bean.

609. The pericarp, which in diflerent species of fruit assumes so many varieties of contexture, acquires its
several aspects, not so much from a diversity of substance as of modification. The valves of the capsule,
but particularly the partitions by which it is divided into cells, are composed of a thin and skinny mem.
brane, or of an epidermis covering a pulp more or less indurated, and interspersed with longitudinal fibres.
The capsule of the mosses is composed of a double and net-like membrane, enclosed within a fine epider-
mis. The pome is composed of a fine but double epidermis, or, according to Knight, of two skins, enclosing
a soft and fleshy pulp, with bundles of longitudinal fibres passing through it, contiguous to, and in the
direction of, its longitudinal axis. The valves of the legume are composed of an epidermis enclosing a
firm but fleshy pulp, lined for the most part with a skinny membrane, and of bundles of longitudinal fibres,
forming the seam. The nutshell, whether hard or bony, or flexible and leather^', is composed of a pulp
more or less highly indurated, interspersed with longitudinal fibres, and covered with an epidermis. The
drupe is composed of an epidermis enclosing a fleshy pulp, which is sometimes so interwoven with a mul-
tiplicity of longitudinal fibres as to seem to consist wholly of threads, as in the cocoa-nut The berry is
composed of a very fine epidermis enclosing a soft and juicy pulp. The scales of the strobile are composed
of a tough and leathery epidermis, enclosing a spongy but often highly indurated pulp interspersed with
longitudinal fibres that pervade also the axis.

610. The flower-stalk, or peduncle supporting the flower, which is a prolongation of the stem or branch, or
rather a partial stem attached to it, if carefully dissected with the assistance of a good glass, will be found
to consist of the following several parts: — 1st, An epidermis, or external envelope ; 2dly, A parenchyma,
or soft and pulpy mass ; Sdly, Bundles of longitudinal threads or fibres, originating in the stem or branch,
and passing throughout the'whole extent of the parenchyma. The several organs of the flower are merely
prolongations of the component parts of the flower-stalk, though each organ does not always contain the
%vhole of such component parts, or at least not under the same modifications. The epidermis, however,
and parenchyma are common to them all ; but the longitudinal threads or fibres are seldom if ever to be
found except in the calj-x or corolla.

611. The leafstalk, or petiole supporting the leaf, which is a prolongation of the branch or stem, or rather
a partial stem attached to it, exhibits upon dissection the same sort of structure as the peduncle, namely, an
epidermis, a pulp or parenchyma, and bundles of longitudinal threads or fibres.

61'2. Gems. There exist among the different tribes of vegetables four distinct species of gems, two peculiar
to perfect plants, the bud and bulb, and two peculiar to imperfect plants, the propago and gongylus ; the
latter being denominated simple gems, because furnished with a single envelope only ; and the former being
denominated compound gems, because furnished with more than a single envelope.

144

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part H.

Buds are composed externally of a number of spoon-shajied
scales overlapping one another, and converging to>varda a jioint
in the apex, and often cemented together by means of a gluti-
nous or mucilaginous substance exuding from their surface. 1 f
these scales are stripped otfand dissected under the microscope,
they will be found to consist, like the leaves or divisions of the
calyx, of an epidermis enclosing a pulp interspersed with a not-
work of fibres, but unaccompanied with longitudinal threads.
If the scales of a leaf-bud are taken and stripped olf, and the
rem.iiningpart carefully opened up, it will be found to consist
of the rudiments of a young branch terminated bv a bunch of
incipient leaves imbedded in a white and cottony down, being
minute but complete in all their parts and proportions, and
folded or rolled up in the bud in a peculiar and determinate
manner.

Bulbt, which are either radical or caulinary, exhibit in their
external structure, or in a part of their internal structure tliat
U easily detectetl, several distinct varieties, some being solid,
some coated, and some scaly ; but all protruding in the process
of vegetation the stem, leaf, and Dower, peculiar to their
sptries.

The propago, which is a simple gem, peculiar to some genera
of imjierfect plants, and exemplified by Gtertner in the lichens,
consists of a small and pulpy mass forming a granule of no regu-
lar shape, sometimes naked, and sometimes coveretl wiih an
envelope, which is a fine epidermis.

Tlie gongylus, which is also a simple pern peculiar to some
genera of imperfect plants, and exenijilified by Gartner in the
fuci, consists of a slightly indurated pulp moulded into a small
and globular granule of a firm and solid contexture, and invested
with an epidermis.

613. The term caudex, in its present application, is to be understood as including the whole mass or body
both of the trunk and root, as distinct from the temporary parts of the plant, or parts already investi-
gated ; and as comprehending botli the caudex ascendens, and caudex dcscendens of Linna?us, or the
trunk and its divisions, with the root and its divisions. In opening up and dissecting the caudex, whether
ascending or descending, the dissector will soon discover that its internal structure, like its external aspect
or habit, is materially different in different tribes of plants.

G14. The first general mode of the internal structure of the caudex is that
in which an epidermis encloses merely a homogeneous mass of pulp or
slender ffbre,which forms the principal body of the caudex, and becomes some-
what indurated with age, though not woody, without discovering any further
variety of component parts. This, Mirbel observes, is the simplest mode of
internal structure existing among vegetables ; it is exemplified in the lower
orders of frondose and imperfect plants, particularly the algas and fungi.

G15. 2"he second general mode of internal structure of the caudex is that in
which an epidermis encloses two or more substances, or assemblages of
substances, totally heterogeneous in their character. A very common va-
riety of this mode is that in which an epidermis or bark encloses a soft and
pulpy mass, interspersetl with a number of longitudinal nerves or fibres, or
bundles of fibres, extending from the base to the apex, and disposed in a
peculiarity of manner characteristic of a tribe or genus. This mode pre-
vails chiefly in herbaceous and annual or biennial plar.ts. {fig. 48.) The
pulp being solid, as in apsidium filix-mas, and tubular, as in the garden
parsnep or common hemlock. A second variety of this mode is that in which
a strong and often thick bark encloses a circular layer of longitudinal fibres,
or several such circular and concentric layers, interwoven with thin transverse and
divergent layers of pulp, so as to form a firvi and compact cylinder, in the centre of
which is lodged a pulp or pith. This mode is best exemplified in trees and shrubs
{fig- 49.), thougli it is also applicable to many plants whose texture is chiefly or
almost wholly lierbaceous, forming as it were the connecting link between sucli
plants as are purely herbaceous on the one hand, and such as are purely woody on
the other. In the latter case the wood is perfect ; in the former case it is imperfect.
The wood being imperfect in the root of the beet, the common bramble, and burdock j
and perfect in the oak or alder.

61(). The appendages of the plant, whether conservative or reproductive, exhibit
nothing in their internal structure that is at all essentially diffferent from that of the
organs that have been already described.

Sect. II. Composite Organs.

617. From the preceding analysis, it appears the decomposite organs are reducible to
one or other of the several follow^ing substances, namely, epidermis, pulp, pith, cortical
layers, ligneous layers, and vegetable fibre. These now remain to be further analysed, under
the title of composite organs, as bemg still compound, with a view to reach the ultin»ate
and elementary organs of the vegetable subject.

618. Structure of the vegetable epidermis. The epidermis of tlie vegetable, which, from its resemblance
to that of the animal, has been designated by the same name, is the external envelope or integument of
the plant, extending over the whole surface, and covering the root, stem, branches, leaves, flower, and
fruit, with their appendages ; the summit of the pistil only excepted. But although it is extended over
the whole surface of the plant, it is not of equal consistence throughout. In the root and trunk it is a
tough and leathery membrane, or it is a crust of considerable thickness, forming a notable portion of the
bark, and assuming some peculiar shade of color ; while in the leaves, flowers, and tender shoots, it is a
fine, colorless, and transparent film, when detached; and when adherent, it is always tinged with some
peculiar shade, which it borrows from the parts immediately beneath it. Du Hamel, Saussure, Hedwig,
Comparetti, Bauer, and others, have examined the epidermis, and, according to their descriptions, it is
represented as consisting of at least two if not more layers, which in the stem of many plants, are very
easily distinguished, particularly in that of the paper-birch, the bark of which may, perhaps, be regarded
as a succession of individual cuticles.

619. The pulp is a soft and juicy substance, constituting the principal mass of succulent plants, and a notable
proportion of many parts even of woody plants. It constitutes the principal mass of many of the fungi and
fuci, and of herbaceous plants in general. Of those phytologists who have described the pulp, Mirbel is con-
sidered the most accurate. He compares it to clusters of small and hexagonal cells or bladders, con-
taining for the most part a colored juice, and formed apparently of the foldings and doublings of a f ne
and delicate membrane, in which no traces of organisation are to be distinguished. In the trunk of what
are called dicotyledonous plants, he regards the pulp, or cellular tissue, as consisting of two distinct
portions, which he designates by the respective appellations of-the herbaceous tissue, and the parenchyma.
The former is the exterior portion of the cellular tissue, of which the cells always contain a resinous and
colored juice, that communicates its peculiar tinge to the epidermis. The latter is the interior portion of the
tissue, composed also of cells, but difFering from those of the herbaceous tissue in containing only a
watery juice without color, because it has not been exposed to the action of the light, though in the calyx
and fruit this watery juice is said to be also often colored. But in the description of the vegetable pulp,
the only distinction necessary to be made is that by which it is divided into two parts, namely, an
aiyaratus of hexagonal cells or vesicles, and a contained juice, whether colorless or colored, the union of
which substances forms a true pulp.

Book I.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.

145

620. The pUh, as has been already shown, is a soft and spongy, but often succulent
gtrbstance, occupying the centre of the root, stem, and branches, and extending in
the direction of their longitudinal axis, in which it is enclosed as in a tube. The
structure of the pith is precisely similar to that of the pulp, being composed of an
assemblage of hexagonal cells containing a watery and colorless juice, or of cellular
tissue and a parenchyma.

621. The cortical layers, or interior and concentric layers, constituting the mass
of the bark, are situated immediately under the cellular integument, where such
integument exists, and where not, immediately under the epidermis ; or they are
themselves external. They are distinguishable chiefly in the bark of woody plants,
but particularly in that of the lime-tree. They are composed of two elementary
parts — bundles of longitudinal fibres constituting a network {Jig. 50.), and a mass
of pulp more or less indurated, filling up the meshes. The innermost of the
layers is denominated the liber, and was used by the ancients to write on
before the invention of paper. It is the finest and most delicate of them all.

and often most beautifully reticulated (Jig. 51. a), and varied by bimdles of
longitudinal fibre (*). But the liber of daphne lagetto is remarkable

51

ah ah a h

beyond that of all other plants for the beauty and delicacy of its network,
which is not inferior to that of the finest lace, and at the same time so
very soft and flexible that in countries of which the tree is a native the
lace of the liber is often made to supply the place of a neckcloth. If the
cortical layers are injured or destroyed by accident, the part destroyed is
again regenerated, and the wound healed "up without a scar. But if the
wound penetrates beyond the liber, the part destroyed is no longer rege-
nerated. Or if a tree is bent so as to break part of the cortical fibres, and
then propped up in its former position, the fractured fibres will again unite.
Or if a portion of the stem is entirely decorticated and covered with a piece
of bark, even from another tree, the two different barks will unite. Hence
the practicability of ascertaining how far the liber extends. And hence also the
origin of grafting, which is always effected by a union oT the liber of the
graft and stock.

622. The ligneous layers, or layers constituting the wood, occupy the
intermediate portion of the stem between the bark and pith 5 and are
distinguishable into two different sorts — concentric layers and divergent
layers, (jig. 50.)

62a The concentric layers, which constitute by far the greater part of the mass of the wood, are suffi.
ciently conspicuous for the purpose of exemplification on the surface of a horizontal section of most trunks
or branches, as on that of the oak and elm. But though they are generally described as being con-
centric, they are not always strictly so. For they are often found to extend more on the one side of
the axis of the stem or branch, than on the other. Some authors say the excess is on the north side, but
others say it is on the south side. The former account for it by telling us it is because the north side is
sheltered from the sun ; and the latter by telling us it is because the south side is sheltered from the cold ;
and thus from the operation of contrary causes alleging the same effect, which has been also thought to
be sufficiently striking and uniform to serve as a sort of compass, by which the bewildered traveller
might safely steer his course, even in the recesses of the most extensive forest But Du Hamel
has exposed the futility of this notion, by showing that the excess is sometimes on the one side of the
axis, and sometimes on the other, according to the accidental situation of the great roots and branches ;
a thick root or branch producing a proportionably thick layer of wood on the side of the stem from which
it issues. The layers are indeed sometimes more in number on the one side than on the other, as well
as thicker. But this is the exception, and not the rule. They are thickest, however, on the side on
which they are fewest, though not of the same thickness throughout Du Hamel, after coimting twenty
layers on the one side of the transverse section of the trunk of an oak, found only fourteen on the other.
But the fourteen exceeded the twenty in thickness by one fourth part. But the layers thus discoverable
on the horizontal section of the trunk are not all of an equal consistency throughout, there being an
evident diminution in their degree of solidity from the centre, where they are hardest, to the circum-
ference, where they are softest. The outermost layer, which is the softest of all, is denominated the
alburnum, perhaps from its being of a brighter white than any of the other layers, either of wood or bark;
from which character, as well as from its softer texture, it is also easily distinguished, though in the
case of some plants, as in that of the poplar and lime-tree, this peculiarity of character is not very ap-
parent From the peculiarity of external character, however, which it possesses in general, it was at one
time thought to be a substance essentially different from that of the layers which it invests. The ancients,
whose phytological opinions were often very whimsical, supposed it to be something analogous to the fat
of animal, and intended perhaps to serve as a sort of nutriment to the plant in winter. But it is now
known to be merely wood in a less condensed state, being yet lighter and softer than the interior layers,
but acquiring strength and solidity with age. It does not, however, acquire its utmost degree of solidity
till after a number of years, as is plain from the regular gradation observable in the solidity of the different
layers. But if a tree is barked a year before it is cut down, then the alburnum is converted into wood
in the course of that year.

624. The divergent layers which intersect the concentric layers in a transverse direction, constitute also a
considerable proportion of the wood, as may be seen in a horizontal section of the fir or birch, or of
almost any woody plant, on the surface of which they present an appearance like that of the radii of a
circle.

625. The structure of the concentric layers wiU be found to consist of several smaller and component
layers, which are themselves composed of layers smaller still, till at last they are incapable of farther
division. The concentric layers are composed of longitudinal fibres, generally forming a network ; and
the divergent layers, of parallel threads or fibres of cellular tissue, extending in a transverse direction,
and filling up the interstices of the network ; the two sets of fibres being interwoven and interlaced
together, so as to form a firm and compact body in the matured layers ; and thus corresponding exactly
to the description given of them by Grew and Malpighi, in which the longitudinal fibres are compared to
the warp, and the transverse fibres to the woof of a web.

626. The structure of the stem in plants that are purely herbaceous, and in the herbaceous parts of
woody plants, is distinguished by a number of notable and often insulated fibres passing longitudinally
throughout its whole extent, as in the stipe of aspidium filix-mas, or leaf-stalk of the alder. These
fibres, when viewed superficially, appear to be merely individuals, but when inspected minutely, and
under the microscope, they prove to be groups or bundles of fibres smaller and minuter still, firmly
cemented together, and fonning in the aggregate a strong and elastic thread ; but capable of being split
into a number of component fibres, till at last you can divide them no longer. If the fibres of the bajrk
are separated by the destruction of a part, the part is again regenerated, and the fibres are again united,
without leaving behind them any traces of a wound. But if the fibres of the wood are separated by the
destruction of a part, the part is never regenerated, and the fibres are never united.

146

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

Sect. III. Elementary or Vascular Organs.
62'7. From the previous analysis of the composite organs it appears they are all ulti-
mately reducible to fibres, cellular tissue with or without jmrenchyma, and reticulated mem-
brane, which we must consequently regard as being, under one modification or other, the
ultimate and elementary organs of which the whole mass of the plant is composed. If it
is asked of what the elementary organs are themselves composed, the reply is, they are
composed, as appears from the same analysis, of a fine, colorless, and transparent mem-
brane, in wliich the eye, aided by the assistance even of the best glasses, can discover no
traces whatever of organisation ; which membrane we must also regard as constituting
the ultimate and fundamental fabric of the elementary organs themselves, and by conse-
quence of the whole of the vegetable body. It has been asked by some phytologists
whether or not plants are furnished with vessels analogous to the blood-vessels of the
animal system. But if it is admitted that plants contain fluids in motion, which cannot
possibly be denied, it will follow, as an unavoidable consequence, that they are furnished
witli vessels conducting or containing such fluids. If the stem of a plant of marigold is
divided by means of a transverse section, the divided extremities of the longitudinal fibres,
arranged in a circular row immediately within the bark, will be distinctly perceived, and
their tubular structure demonstrated by means of the orifices which they present, particu-
larly when the stem has begun to wither. The same sort of structure may be observed
in the stem of cucurbitaceous plants also, particularly in that of the gourd, in which there
are besides discoverable several sets of longitudinal tubes situated near the centre, and
of considerable diameter. Regarding it, therefore, as certain that plants are furnished with
longitudinal tubes, as well as with cells or utricles for the purpose of conveying or contain-
ing their alimentary juices, we proceed to the specific illustration of both, together with
their peculiarities and appendages.

628. The utricles are the fine and membranous vessels constituting the cellular tissue of the pith and pulp
already described, whether of the plant, flower, or fruit. Individually they resemble oblong bladders in-
flated in the middle, as in the case of some plants ; or circular or hexagonal cells, as in the case of
others. Collectively they have been compared to an assemblage of threads of contiguous bladders or
vesicles, or to the bubbles that are found on the surface of liquor in a state of fermentation.

629. The tubes are the vessels formed by the cavities of the longitudinal fibres, whether as occurring in the
stem of herbaceous plants, or in the foot-stalk of the leaf and flower, or in the composition of the cortical
and ligneous layers, or by longitudinal openings pervading the pulp itself, as in the case of the vine. They
have generally been characterised under the denominations of proper vessels, lymphatics, and trachese.
But as this is rather a premature reference to their different uses, which is besides not altogether correct,
we shall adopt, with a little alteration, the denominations introduced by Mirbel, as arising from fheir
form or structure. The first and primary division founded upon this principle is that by which they are
distributed into large tubes and small tubes.

630. The large tubes are tubes distinguishable by the superior width of the diameter which they present on
the horizontal section of the several parts of the plant

SimpU tuba {fg: 52.) are the largest of all the large
tubes, and are formed of a thin and entire membrane,
without any perceptible disruption of continuity, and
are found chiefly in the bark, though not confined to
it, as they are to be met with also m the alburnum
and matured wood, as well as in the fibres of herb-
aceous plants.

Porous tithes resemble the simple tubes in their
general aspect ; but ditfer from them in being pierced
■with small holes or pores, which are often distributed
in regular and parallel rows. They are found in
most ai,iindance in woody plants, and particularly in
wood that is firm and compact, like that of the oak ;
but they do not, like the simple tubes, seem destined
to contain any oily or resinous juice.

Spiral tubes are fine, transparent, and thread-

like stiDstances, occasionally interspersed with the
other tubesof the plant, but distingmshed from them
b/ being twisted from right to left, or from left to
right, in the form of a corkscrew. They occur in
most abundance in herbaceous plants, particularly
m aquatics. f -> i- j

Fal'e spiral tubes are tubes apparently spiral on a
slight inspection, but which, upon minute examine
ation,are found to derive their appearance merely
irom their being cut transversely by parallel fissures.

Mired tubes are tubes combining in one individual
twoor moreof the foregoing varieUes. Mirbel exem-
pUhes themin the case of the butomus umbellatus,
m which the porous tubes, spiral tubes, and false
spiral tubes, are often to be met with united hi one.

631. The small tubes are tubes composed of a succession of elongated cells united
like those of the cellular tissue. Individually they may be compared to the stem of the
grasses, which is formed of several internodia, separated by transverse diaphragms • and
collectively to a united assemblage of parallel and collateral reeds. '

632. Pores are small and minute openings of various shapes and dimensions, that seem to be destined to the
absorption, transmission, or exhalation of fluids. They are distinguishable into the following two sorts!
perceptible pores and unperceptible pores. Tlie percepHble pores are either external or internal and are
the apertures described by Hedwig as discoverable in the network constituting the epideS ' The fm.
perceptible pores are pores that are not distinguishable by the eye, unless assLsted wi h the best glassed-

t"r^^%^'■l^^"'^"J°^''''*^5^1*?S^^'^^"*^^°^^'^P^""^^"^ ^"'^ have lately been ably delineaSind del
scribed by A. T. Thomson, in his Lectures on Botamj. (Vol. i. p 609 ) tnueaieu ana ce-

f«S^;.9T' f'^o^^'ngto Mirbel, are empty, but often regular and symmetrical spaces formed in the in-
Tnth.. ^ plant by means of a partial disruption of the membrane constituting the tub™ or utricles
nor{?onof7h!.llinfi''r"' Pl^.»t« t^f gaps are often interrupted by transverse diaphragms formed of a
Fea^es of uSL ?n?mVnvnfh«J''f f '" '^^'"' ^"*''"^' ^' ^^^-^^ ^^^" '" ^^e transparent structure of the
pllnts, tSgh ve,^3y ^ Transverse gaps are said to be observable also in the bark of some

PuSce^cr&r-TpTtff^'^"-"^'''T'''^*f'^ "^11^ ^^^ elementary organs, such as internal glands, internal
puoescence, &c. . the latter occurs m dissecting the leaf or flower-stalk of nymphaa lutea.

Book I. PRIMARY PRINCIPLES OF PLANTS.

147

Chap. VII.

Vegetable Cliemistry, or irrimary Princijdes of Plants.

635. As plants are not merely organised beings, but beings endoiued with a sjyecies of
life, absorbing nourishment from the soil in which they grow, and assimilating it to thair
own substance by means of the functions and operations of their different organs, it is
plain that no progress can be made in the explication of the phenomena of vegetable
life, and no distinct conception formed of the rationale of vegetation, without some
specific knowledge of the primary principles of vegetables, and of their mutual action
upon one another. The latter requisite presupposes a competent acquaintance with the
elements of chemistry ; and the former points out the necessity of a strict and scrupu-
lous analysis of the several compound ingredients constituting the fabric of the plant,
or contained within it.

636. If the object of the experimenter is merely that of extracting such compound
ingredients as may be known to exist in the plant, the necessary apparatus is simple,
and the process easy. But if it is that of ascertaining the primary and radical principles
of which the compound ingredients are themselves composed, the apparatus is then com-
plicated, and the process extremely difficult, requiring much time and labor, and much
previous practice in analytical research. But whatever may be the object of analysis, or
particular view of the experimenter, the processes which he employs are either mechanical
or chemical.

637. The mechanical processes are such as are effected by the agency of mechanical
powers, and are often indeed the operation of natural causes ; hence the origin of gums
and other spontaneous exudations. But the substances thus obtained do not always
flow sufficiently fast to satisfy the wants or necessities of man. And men have conse-
quently contrived to accelerate the operations of nature by means of artificial aid in the
application of the wimble or axe, widening the passages which the extravasated fluid has
forced, or opening up new ones. But it more frequently happens that tlie process
employed is wholly artificial, and altogether effected without the operation of natural
causes. When the juices are enclosed in vesicles lodged in parts that are isolated, or
may easily be isolated, the vesicles may be opened by means of rasps or graters, and the
juices expressed by the hand, or by some other fit instrument. Thus the volatile oil may
be obtained that is lodged in the rind of the lemon. When the substance to be ex-
tracted lies more deeply concealed in the plant, or in parts which cannot be easily de-
tached from the rest, it may then become necessary to pound or bruise the whole, or a
great part of the plant, and to subject it, thus modified, to the action of the press. Thus
seeds are sometimes treated to express their essential oils. And if by the action of bruis-
ing or pressing heterogeneous ingredients have been mixed together, they may generally
be separated with considerable accuracy by means of decantation, when the substances
held in suspension have been precipitated. Thus the acid of lemons, oranges, goose-
berries, and other fruits, may be obtained in considerable purity, when the mucilage that
was mixed with them has subsided.

638. The chemical processes are such as are effected by the agency of chemical powers,
and may be reduced to the following : distillation, combustion, the action of water, the
action of acids and alkalies, the action of oils and alcohols, and lastly fermentation. They
are much more intricate in their nature than the mechanical processes, as well as more
difficult in their application.

639. Of the jrroducts of vegetable analysis, as obtained by the foregoing processes,
some consist of several heretogeneous substances, and are consequently compound, as
being capable of further decomposition ; and some consist of one individual substance
only, and are consequently simple, as being incapable of further decomposition.

Sect. I. Compoujid Products.

640. The compound jn'oducts of analysis are very numerous in themselves, and much
diversified in their qualities. They are gum, sugar, starch, gluten, albumen, fibrine,
extract, tannin, coloring matter, bitter principle, narcotic principle, acids, oils, wax,
resins, gum resins, balsams, camphor, caoutchouc, cork, woody fibre, sap, proper juice,
charcoal, ashes, alkalies, earths, metallic oxides.

641. Gum is an exudation that issues spontaneously from the surface of a variety of plants, in the state of a
clear, viscid, and tasteless fluid, that gradually hardens upon being exposed to the action of the atmosphere,
and condenses into a solid mass. It issues copiously from many fruit-trees, but especially from such as
produce stone-fruit, as the plum and cherry-tree. From plants or parts of plants containing it, but not dis-
charging it by spontaneous exudation, it may be obtained by the process of maceration in water. It has
lieen found by chemists to consist of several varieties, known'by the names of gum arabic, gum tragacanth,
cherry-tree gum, and mucilage. Gum arabic, which is the most plentiful of all the gums, is the produce
of the mimosa nilotica, a native of the interior of Africa and of Arabia ; whence its name. When pure, it
is colorless and transparent, though sometimes it is tinged with yellow, varying in its specific gravity
from 1300 to 1490. {Davy's Agric. Chem., lect. iii.) It is insoluble in alcohol ; but is readily soluble in

L 2

148 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Paut II.

tlie produce of the astragalus tragacantha. a thorny shrub that grows ,n the inlands f tl^^^if Y""*;^ Jf J*
less transparent than gum arabic, and not so easily dissolved i" ^'^t^^" ^^f "y-^'ff ,f^^!^ with stone

TArM^SSrarfcoSerable. In all its varieties it is capable of being used as an article of food,
and is hfrhlySitlve, though not very palatable. It is also employed in the arts, particularly in calico^
Sing in which the printed makes choice of it to give consistency to his colors and to prevent them
KTp^reading. The^otanist often uses it to fix his specimens upon paper for which purpose it is ve^r
well adapted. It forms likewise an ingredient in ink ; and in raedicme it forms the basis of many mix-
tures, in which its influence is sedative and emollient. / -? ro ^

642. Sugar is the produce of the saccharum ofticmarum. (.Jig-°^-)
The canes or stems of the plant, when ripe, are bruised between the
rollers of a mill, and the expressed juice is collected and put into large
boilers, in which it is mixed with a small quantity of quickhme, or
strong ley of ashes, to neutralise its acid, and is then made to lx)il.
The scum which gathers on the top during the process of boiling is
carefully cleared away ; and when the juice has been boiled down to
the consistence of a syrup, it is drawn off and allowed to cool in vessels
which are placed above a cistern, and perforated with small holes,
through which the impure and liquid part, known by the name of mo-
lasses, escapes ; while the remaining part is converted mto a mass of
small and hard granules of a brownish or whitish color, known by the
designation of raw sugar, which, when imported into Europe, is further
purified by an additional process, and converted by filtration or crystal-
lisation into what is called loaf sugar, or refined sugar, or candied
sugar. Sugar thus obtained has a sweet and luscious taste, but is
without smell. According to.Dr. Thomson its specific caloric is 1 086, its
specific gravity 1'4045; and its constituent elements are oxygen Si'l ;
carbon 27-5 ; hydrogen 7 '8 ; total lOO". The juice of the acer sacchari-
num, or American maple, yields sugar in such considerable abundance
as to make it an object with the North American farmer to manufac-
ture it for his own use. A hole is bored in the trunk of the vegetating
tree early in the spring, for the purpose of extracting the sap ; of
which a tree of ordinary size, that is, of from two to three feet in dia-
meter, will yield from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pints and upwarcfe, in a good season. The
sap, when thus obtained and neutralised by lime, deposits, by evaporation, crystals of sugar in the pro-
portion of about a pound of sugar to forty pints of sap. It is not materially different in its properties
from that of the sugar-cane. The juice of the grape, when ripe, yields also a sugar by evaporation and
the action of pot-ashes, which is known by the appellation of the sugar of grapes, and has been lately
employed in France as a substitute for colonial sugar, though it is not so sweet or agreeable to the taste.
The root of beta vulgaris, or common beet, yields also, by boiling and evaporation, a sugar which is dis-
tinguished by a peculiar and slightly bitter taste, owing perhaps to the presence of a bitter extractive
matter which has been found to be one of the constituents of the beet. Sugar has been extracted from
the following vegetables also, or from their productions : from the sap of the birch, sycamore, bamboo,
maize, parsnep, cow-parsnep, American aloe, dulse, walnut-tree, and cocoa-nut-tree ; from the fruit of
the common arbutus, and other sweet-tasted fruits ; from tlie roots of the turnip, carrot, and parsley j
from the flower of the euxine rhododendron ; and from the nectary of most other flowers.

643. T/ie %itility of sugar, as an aliment is well known ; and it is as much relished by many animals as
by man. By bees it is sipped from the flowers of plants, under the modification of nectar, and converted
into honey ; and also seems to be relished by many insects, even in its concrete state ; as it is also by many
birds. By man it is now regarded as being altogether indispensable, and though used chiefly to give a
relish or seasoning to food, is itself highly nutritive. It is also of much utility in medicine, and cele-
brated for its anodyne and antiseptic qualities, as well as thought to be peculiarly efficacious in preventing
diseases by worms.

644. Starch. If a quantity of wheaten flower is made into a paste 'with water, and kneaded and
washed under the action of a jet, till the water runs off colorless, part of it will be found to have been
taken up and to be still held in suspension by the water, which will, by-and-ty, deposit a sediment that
may be separated by dccantation. This sediment is starch, which may be obtained also immediately from
the grain itself, by means of a process well known to the manufacturer, who renders it finally fit for the
market by washing and edulcorating it with water, and afterwards drying it by a moderate heat. Starch,
when thrown upon red-hot iron, burns with a kind of explosion, and leaves scarcely any residuum behind.
It has been found by the analysis of Gay Lussac and Thenard, to be composed of carbon 4355 ; oxygen
49"68 ; hydrogen 6*77 ; total 100". This result is not very widely different from that of the analysis of
sugar, into which, it seems, starch may be converted by diminishing the proportion of its carbon, and
increasing that of its oxygen and hydrogen. This change is exemplified in the case of the malting of
barley, which contains a great proportion of starch, and which absorbs during the process a quantity of
oxygen, and evolves a quantity of carbonic acid ; and accordingly part of it is converted into sugar.
Perhaps it is exemplified also in th6 case of the freezing of iwtatoes, which acquire in consequence a sweet
and sugary taste, and are known to contain a great deal of starch, which may be obtained as follows : let
the potatoes be taken and grated down to a pulp, and the pulp placed upon a fine sieve, and water made
to pass through it : the water will be found to have carried off with it an infinite number of particles,
which it will afterwards deposit in the form of a fine powder, separable by decantation ; which powder is
starch, possessing all the essential properties of wheaten starch. It may be obtained from the pith of
several species of palms growing in the Moluccas and several other East Indian islands, by the following
process : the stem, being first cut into pieces of five or six feet in length, is split longitudinally so as to
expose the pith, which is now taken out and pounded, and mixed with cold water, which after being
well stirred up, deposits at length a sediment that is separated by decantation, and is the starch which
the pith contained, or the sago of the shops.

645. Salop is also a species qf starch that is prepared, in the coimtries of the East, from the root of the
orchis mono, mascula, bifolia, and pyramidalis, and in the isle of Portland, from the arum maculatum.
So also is cassava, which is prepared from the root of jatropha manihot, a native of America, the ex-
pressed juice of which is a deadly poison, used by the Indians to poison their arrows; but the sediment
which It deposits is a starch that is manufactured into bread, retaining nothing of the deleterious property
of the juice ; and so also is sowans, which is prepared from the husk of oats, as obtained in the process
oigrindmg.

Book I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 149

&iG. According to Parmentier, starch may be extracted from a number qf plants ; as arctium lappa,
atropa belladonna, polygonum bistorta, brjonia alba, colchicum autumnalc, spiraa filipendula, ranunculus
buHx)sus, scrophularia nodosa, sambucus ebulus and nigra, orchis morio and mascula, imperatoria ostru-
thium, liyoscyamus niger, rumex obtusifolius, acutus, and aquaticus, arum maculatum, iris pseudacorus
and fcetidissima, orobus tuberosus, bunium bulbocastanum. It is found also in the followmg seeds :
wheat, barley, oats, rice, maize, millet-seed, chestnut, horse-chestnut, peas, beans, acorns.

647. Starch is an extremely nutritive substance, and forms one of the principal ingredients in almost all
articles of vegetable food used, whether by man or the inferior animals. The latter feed upon it in the
state in which nature presents it ; but man prepares and purifies it so as to render it pleasing to his taste,
and uses it under the various modifications of bread, pastry, or confectionary. Its utility is also consider-
able in medicine and in the arts ; in the preparation of anodyne and strengthening medicaments, and in
the composition of cements ; in the clearing and stiflening of linen j and in the manufacture of hair-
powder.

G48. Gluten is that part of the paste formed from the flour of wheat that remains unaffected by the
water after all the starch contained in it has been washed off It is a tough and elastic substance, of a
dull white color, without taste, but of a very peculiar smell. It is soluble in the acids and alkalies, but
insoluble in water and in alcohol. Gluten has been detected, under one modification or other, in a very
considerable number of vegetables or vegetable substances, as well as in the flour of wheat. KoueUe, the
younger, showed that it exists in the green fecula of plants ; and Proust found it in the following grains
and fruits ; peas, beans, barley, rye, acorns, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, apples, quinces, alder-berries,
grapes. He found it also in the leaves of rue, cabbage, cresses, hemlock, borage, and saflron, and in the
petals of the ros^.

649. Gluten is one of the most important of all vegetable substances, as being the principle that renders
the flour of wheat so lit for forming bread, by its occasioning the panary fermentation, and making the
bread light and porous. It is used also as a cement, and capable of being used as a varnish, and a ground
for paint

GM. Albumen, which is a thick, glairy, and tasteless fluid, resembling the white of an unboiled egg, is a
substance that has been but lately proved to exist in the vegetable kingdom. Its existence was first an-
nounced by Fourcroy, and finally tiemonstrated by the experiments of Vauquelin on the dried juice of the
papaw-tree. It is nearly related to animal gluten, and the elements of its composition are, carbon 52-883 ;
oxygen 23-872; hydrogen 7-540; nitrogen 15.705; toUil 100. Albumen has not been found in such
abundance in any other plant, as in the plant above specified. But it has been found to exist in mush-
rooms, and some other of the fungi. And the juice of the fruit of hibiscus esculentus, a West Indian plant,
is said to contain such a proiX)rtion of it as to render it fit to be employed as a substitute for the white of
eggs, in clarifymg the juice of the sugar-cane. Almonds also, and other kernels from which emulsions are
made, have been found to contain a substance possessing the properties of curd, which resembles albumen
very closelv.

651. ribrine is a peculiar substance which chemists extract from the blood and muscles of animals. This
substance constitutes the fibrous part of the muscles, and resembles gluten in its appearance and elasticity.
A substance possessing the same properties has been detected by Vauquelin in the juice of the papaw-tree,
which is called vegetable fibrine.

652. Extract. vVhen vegetable substances are macerated in water, a considerable portion of them is
dissolved ; and if the water is again evaporated, the substance held in solution may be obtained in a sepa-
rate state. This substance is denominated extract But it is evident that extract thus obtained will not
be precisely the same principle in every difterent plant, but will vary in its character according to the
species producing it, or the soil in which the plant has grown, or some other accidental cause. Its dis-
tinguishing properties are the following : it is soluble in water as it is obtained from the vegetable, but
becomes afterwards insoluble in consequence of the absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere. It is solu-
ble in alcohol ; and it unites with alkalies, and forms compounds which are soluble in water. When
distilled it yields an acid fluid impregnated with ammonia, and seems to be composed principally of hydro-
gen, oxygen, carbon, and a little ntrogen. Extract, or the extractive principle, is found in a greater
or less proportion in almost all plants whatever, and is very generally an ingredient of the sap and bark,
particularly in barks of an astringent taste. But stiU it is not exactly the same in all individual plants,
even when separated as much as possible from extraneous substmces. It may, therefore, be regarded as
constituting several different species, of which the following are the most remarkable : —

Extract of catechu. This extract U obtained from an irA- Exirad of quinqmna. This extract was obtained by Four-

sion of the wood or powder of catechu in cold watCT. Its croT, by evaporating a decocUon of the bark of the qiunquina

color is a pale brown : and its taste sli^htlv astringent. It is of St. Donungo in water, and again dissolving it in alrohol,

precipitated from its solution bv nitrite hi lead, and yields which finally depoated by evaporation the peculiar extractive.

6y diitiUation carbonic and carbilretted hydrogen gas, leaving It is insoluble in cold water, but very so uble m boihng water ;

a porous charcoal. '*« '^^'o'' i^ brown, and its ta^te bitter. It is precipitated from

Extract of senna. This extract is obtained from an infu- its solution by lime-water, in the form of a red powder ; and

sion of the dried leaves of cassia senna in alcohol. The color when dry it is black and britUe, breaking with a polished

of the infusion is brownish, the taste slightly bitter, and the fracture. ..j. ,,.

«neU aromatic. It U precipitated from*it.s solution by the Exirad <tf snffron. Th^ extract ^obtamed m peat abun-

muriatic and oxvmuriatic acids ; and when thrown on burning dance from the summite of the piitits of crocus saUvus, which

coals consumes, with a thick smoke and aromatic odor, leaving are almost wboUy soluble m water,
behind a spongj- charcoal.

653 Extracts were formerly much employed in medicine; though their efficacy seems to have been
overrated. But a circumstance of much more importance to society is that of their utibty m the art of
dveing Bv far the greater part of colors used in dyeing are obtained from vegetable extracts, which
have a strong attinity to the fibres of cotton or linen, with which they enter into a combination that is
rendered still stronger by the intervention of mordants. . ,,, vi. • .^ u -i j *

6>i Coloring matter. The beautv and variety of the coloring of vegetables, themists have ascribed to
the modifications of a peculiar substance which they denominate the coloring principle, and which they
have accordingly endeared to isolate and extract ; first, by means of maceration or boiling m water,
and then by precipitating it from its solution. The chemical properties of coloring matter seem to be as
yet but imperfectlv known, though they have been considerably elucidated by the investigation, of Ber-
ffoulet, Ch^ptal, and others. Ite affinities to oxygen, alkalies, earths, metallic oxides, and cloths fabri-
cated whether of animal or vegetable substances, such as wool or flax, seem to be among its most stnkmg
chaVacSistics But its affinity to animal substances is stronger than its attmity to vegetable substances ;
and hence w^l and silk assume a deeper dye, and retain it longer than cotton or bnen. Coloring matter
exhibft" a CTeat variety of different tints, is it occurs in difterent species of plants; and as it combines
w^th oxvgen, which it absorbs from the atmosphere, it assumes a deeper shade ; but it loses at the same
Time a portTon^f its hydrogen, and becomes insoluble in water ; and thus it indicates its relation to ex-
tract Fourc?ov reduced colors to the four following sorts ; extractive colors, oxygenated coiors, carbo-
nated colorJ In^ hvdrogenated colors ; the first being soluble in water, and requiring the aid of salme or
me^hc Saants to fix them upon cloth ; the second being insoluble m water, as altered by the absorp-
Srif oxv Jen. and requiring no mordant to fix them upon cloth ; the third containing m their compo-
sitL aSeftproix.rtion of carbon, but soluble in alkalies; and the fourth containing a great proportion
of r^^n mit s^luTe in oils and alcohol. But the simplest mode of arrangement is that by which the dif-
ferent snedefof coloring matter are classed according to their etiect lu the art ot dyeing, llic principal
anrfund^mcntal colorsin this art are the blue, the red, the yeUow, and the brown.

I. 3

150

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

PaktIL

655. The finest oftUl veeetoMe bhtes Is that which is known by
the name of indigo. It is the produce of tlie indigofera tlnctoria,
Lin., a shrub wliich is cultivated for the sake of the dye it
attbrds, in Mexico and the East Indies. The plant reachra
maturity in about six months, when its leaves are gathered
and immersed in vessels filled with water till fermentation
takes place. The water then becomes opaque and green, ex-
haling an odor like that of volatile alkali, and evolving bubbles
of carbonic acid gas. When the fermentation has been con-
tinued long enough, the liquid is decanted and put into other
vessels, where it is agitated till blue flakes begin to appear.
Water is now poured in, and the flakes are precipitated m the
form of a blue powdery sediment, wliich is obtained by de-
cantation ; and which, after being made up into small lumps
and dried in the shade, is the indigo of the shoi>s. It is insolu-
bfe in water, though slightly soluble in alcohol. But its true
solvent is sulphuric acid, with wliich it forms a fine blue dye,
known by the name of liquid blue. It affords by distillation
carbonic acid gas, water, ammonia, some oily and acid matter,
and much charcoal ; whence its constituent princiiiles are
most probably carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrcgen.
Indigo may be procured also firom several other plants besides
indigofera tinctoria, and particularly from isatis tinctoria or
-woziu, a plant indigenous to Britain, and thought to be the
plant with the juice of which the ancient Britons stained their
naked bodies, to make them look terrible to their enemies. If
this plant is (hgested in alcohol, and the solution evaporated,
•white crystalline grains, somewhat resembling starch, will be
left behind; which grains are indigo, becoming gradually
blue by the action of the atmosphere. The blue color of in-
digo therefore is owing to its combination with oxygen.

656. TIte principal red colors are such as are found to exist in the
root, stem, or flower, of the five following plants : rubia tinc-
torum, lichen roccella and parellus, carthamus tinctorius,
caesalpinia crista, and hsematoxylon campechianum.

657. Yellow, which is a color of very frequent occurrence
among vegetables, and the most permanent.ajnong flowers, is ex-
tracted for the purpose of dyeing, from a variety of plants. It is
extracted from the reseda luteola, Lin., by the decoction of its
dried stems. The coloring matter is precipitated bv means
of alum, and is much used in dyeing wool, silk, and cotton.
It is also obtained from the mortis tuictoria, bixa orellana, or

659. Tannin. If a quantity of pounded nut-galls, or bruised seeds of the grape, is taken and dissolved in
cold water, and the solution evaporated to dryness, there will be left behind a brittle and yellowish sub-
stance of a highly astringent taste, which substance is tannin, or the tanning principle. It is soluble both
in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. With the salts of iron it strikes a black. And when a so-
lution of gelatine is mixed with an aqueous solution of tannin, the tannin and gelatine fall down in com-
bination, and form an insoluble precipitate. When tannin is subjected to the process of distillation, it
yields charcoal, carbonic acid, and inflammable gases, with a minute quantity of volatile alkali, and seems
accordingly to consist of the same elements with extract, from which, however, it is distinguished by the
peculiar property of its action upon gelatine. Tannin may be obtained from a great variety of other veget-
ables also, as well as those already enumerated, but chiefly from their bark ; and of barks, chiefly from
those that are astringent to the taste. The following table exhibits a general view of the relative value
of different species of barks, as ascertained by Sir Humphry Davy. It gives the average obtained from
4801b. of the entire bark of a middle-sized tree of the several different species, taken in the spring, when
the quantity of tannin is the largest.

amotta {fig. 54.), serratula tinctoria, genista tinctoria, rhus
colinus, rliamnus infectorius, and quercus tinctoria, or quer-
citron, the bark of which last affords a rich and permanent
yellow that is at present much in use.

658. The brorvn ailoring matter q/' vegelabUt is very abundant,
particularly in astringent plants. It is obtained from the root of
the walnut-tree, ana rind of the walnut ; as also from the
sumac and alder, but chiefly from nut galls, which are ex-
crescences formed upon the leaves of a species of quercus,
indigenous to the south of Europe, in consequence of the pimc-
ture of insects. The best in quality are brought from the
Levant. They are sharp and bitter to' the taste, and extremely
astringent ; and soluble in water by decoction when ground or
grated to a powder. The decoction strikes, with the solution
of iron, a deep black, that forms the basis of ink, and of most
dark colors used in dyeing cloths.

Oak . . . .

Spanish chestnut
Leicester willow (large)
Elm .. - . .
Common willow (large)
Ash . . - .

Beech

Horse-chestnut

Sycamore -

Lombardj poplar

Birch

Hazel

Ih.

a.

10

Black thorn

- 16

9

Coppice oak

- 32

11

Inner rind of oak -bark

- 72

15

Oak cut in autumn

- 21

H

Larch cut in autumn

- 8

660. Tannin is of the very first utility in its application to medicine and the arts ; being regarded by chemists
as the general principle of astringency. The medical virtues of Peruvian bark, so celebrated as a febrifuge
and antiseptic, are supposed to depend upon the quantity and quality of its tannin. In consequence of its
peculiar property of forming an insoluble compound with gelatine, the hides of animals are converted into
leather, by the important art of tanning. The bark of the oak-tree, which contains tannin in great
abundance, is that which is most generally used by the tanner. The hides to be tanned are prepared for
the process by steeping them in lime-water, and scraping off the hair and cuticle. They are then soaked
first ia weaker infusions, and afterwards in stronger infusions of the bark, till at last they are completely
impregnated. This process requires a period of from ten to eighteen months, if the hides are thick ; and
four or five pounds of bark are necessary on an average to form one pound of leather.

6G1. Bitter principle. The taste of many vegetables, such as those employed in medicine, is extremely
bitter. The quassia of the shops, the roots of common gentian, the bark and wood of common broom, the
calyx and floral leaves of the hop, and the leaves and flowers of chamomile, may be quoted as examples.
This bitter taste has been thought to be owing to the presence of a peculiar substance, different from every
other vegetable substance, and has been distinguished by the name of the bitter principle. When water
has been digested for some time over quassia, its color becomes yellow, and its taste intensely bitter ; and
if it is evaporated to dryness, it leaves behind a substance of a brownish yellow, with a slight degree of
transparency, that continues for a time ductile, but becomes afterwards brittle. This substance Dr.
Thomson regards as the bitter principle in a state of purity. It is soluble in water and in alcohol ; but the
solution is not much affected by re-agents. Nitrate of silver and acetate of lead are the only two that
occasion a precipitate. The bitter principle is of great importance, not only in the practice of medicine,
but also in the art of brewing ; its influence being that of checking fermentation, preserving the fermented
liquor, and when the bitter of the hop is used, communicating a peculiar and agreeable flavor. The
bitter principle appears to consist principally of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a little nitrogen.

662. Narcotic principle. There is a species of medical preparations known by the name of narcotics, which
have the property of inducing sleep; and if administered in large doses, of occasioning death. They are
obtained from the milky and proper juices of some vegetables, and from the infusion of the leaves or stem
of others, all which have been supposed to contain in their composition some common ingredient, which
chemists have agreed to designate by the name of the narcotic principle. It exists in great abundance in
opium, which is the concrete juice of papavcr album, or the white poppy, from which it is obtained pure,
in the form of white crystals. It is soluble in boiling water and in alcohol, as well as in all acid menstrua;
and it appears that the action of opium on the animal subject depends on this principle. When distilled
it emits white vapors, which are condensed into a yellow oil. Some water and carbonate of ammonia pass
into a receiver ; and at last carbonic acid gas, ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen, are disengaged, and
a bulky charcoal left behind. Many other vegetable substances besides opium, possess narcotic qualities,
though they have not yet been minutely analysed. The following are the most remarkable : the inspis-
sated juice of lettuce, which resembles opium much in its appearance, is obtained by the same means, and
possesses the same medical virtues j the leaves of atropa bcUadonna, or deadly nightshade, and indeed the

Book I.

COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS.

151

whole plant ; the leaves of digitalis purpurea, or foxglove ; and lastly, the following plants, hyoscyamu*
niger, conium maculatum, datura stramonium, and Ledum palustre, with many others belonging to th6
Linnxan natural order of Lurida;.

663. Acids. Acids are a class of substances that may be distinguished by their exciting on the palate
the sensation of sourness. They exist, not only in the animal and mineral, but also in the vegetable
kingdom ; and such of them as are peculiar to vegetables have been denominated vegetable acids. Of
acids peculiar to vegetables chemists enumerate the following : the oxalic, acetic, citric, malic, gallic,
tartaric, benzoic, and prussic, which exist ready formed in the juices or organs of the plant, and are ac-
cordingly denominated native acids ; together with the mucous, p}Tomucous, pyrotartarous, pyroligneous,
camphoric, and suberic, which do not exist ready formed in the plant, and are hence denominated arti-
ficial acids. They are consequently not within the scope of the object of the present work.

664. Oxalic acid. If the expressed juice of the oxalis aceto-
sella is left to evaporate slowly, it deposits small crjstals of

a yellowish color and saltish taste, which are known by the
name of the acidulum of sorrel, that is, a salt with excess of
acid, from which Uie acid may be obtained pure by processes
well known to- the chemist. It is not used in meaicine or
the arte, excejit in its state of acidulum, in which it is em-
ployed to make a sort of lemonade, and to discharge stains
if ink. It has been found also in oxalis comiculata, gera-
lium acidum, in the several species of rumex, and in the
pubescence of cicer arietiiium.

665. Acetic acid. The acetic acid, or vinegar, which is ge-
oeraUy manufactured from wine in a certain stage of ferment-
ation, has been found also ready formed in the sap of several
trees, as analysed by \'auquelin ; and also in the acid juice
of ttie cicer arietinum, of which it forms a constituent part.
It was obtained also by Scheele from the sau of the sam-
bucus nigra ; and is consequently to be regarded as a native
vegetable acid. It is distin^ished from other vegetable acids
by its forming soluble salts with the alkalies and earths.

666. Citric acid. Citric acid is the acid that exists in the juice
of lemon. Its taste is very sour in a state of purity, but ex-
ceedingly pleasant when diluted with water. By a red heat it
yields carDbnic acid gas and carbonated hydrogene gas, and is
reduced to a charcoal ; nitric acid converts it into oxalic and
acetic acid, and with lime it forms a salt insoluble in water.
It has been found unmixed with other acids in the following
vegetable substances : in the juice of oranges and lemons, and
in tlie berries of vaccinium oxycocrus, and vitis idsea, prunus
padus, soianum dulcamara, and rosa canina. It has been found
also in many other firuiLs, mixed with other acids.

667. Malic acid. Malic acid is found chiefly in the juice of un-
ripe apples, whence it derives its name. But it is found also in
tlie juice of barberries, alderberries, gooseberries, plums, and
«ommon house-leek.

668. Gallic acid. Gallic acid, as it is obtained in the greatest
abundance, so it derives its name from the nut-gall, from
■which it may be extracted by exposing a quantity of the powder
of nut-galls to a moderate heat in a glass retort; and the acid
will sublime and form crystals of an octahedral figure. Its
taste is austere and astringent. It strongly reddens veget-

able blues. It is soluble both in water and alcohol ; and is dis-
tinguished by its property of communicating to solutions of iron
a deep purple color. When exposed to a gentle heat it sub-
limes without alteration, but a strong heat decomposes it-
Nitric acid converts it into the malic and oxalic acids. It is
of great utility in the art of dyeing, and forms the basis of all
black colors, and of colors with a dark ground. It forms also
the basis of ink ; and chemists use it as a test to detect the
presence of iron.

669. Tariaricacid. If wine is kept for alength of time in a cask
or othei close vessel, a sediment is precipitated which adheres
to the sides or bottom, and forms a crust known by the name
of tartar, which is a combination of potass and a peculiar acid
in excess. The compound is tartarite of potass, and the acid,
in its state of purity, is tht> tartaric acid. It is characterised
by the property of its forming with potass a salt that is soluble
with difficulty. It has been found in the following vegetable
substances also : in the pulp of tamarinds, in the mice of the
grape, and mulberries, sorrel, and sumac ; and the roots of
triticum repens, and leontodon taraxacum. It is not much
used except among chemists. But the tartarite from which
it is usually obtained is well known for its medicsd virtues under
the name of cream of tartar.

670. Benzoic acid. From the stvrax benzoin there exudes a
reshious substance, known in the shops by the name of •• r voin,
and in which the benzoic acid is contained. It is distinguished
from the other acid-, by its aromatic odor and extreme volatihty.
It has been obtained also from the balsams of tolu and storax ;
and is used in pharmacy, in the preparation of boluses and elec-
tuaries.

671. Prussic acid. Theprassic acid is generally classed among
the animal acids, because it is obtainetl in the greatest abund-
ance from animal substances. But it has been proved to exist
in vegetable substances also, and is procured by distilling laurel
leaves, or the kernels of the peach and cherry, or bitter almonds.
AVhen pure it exists in the form of a colorless fluid, with an odor
resembling that of peach-tree blossoms. It does not redden
vegetable blues. But it is characterised by its property of
forming a bluish-green precipitate, when it is poured, with a little
alkali added to it, into solutions containing iron.

672. It appears that all vegetable acids contain carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, in one proportion or other ;
and that tne prussic acid contains also a portion of nitrogen. The gallic acid contains more of carbon
than any other vegetable acid, and the oxalic more of oxjgcn.

673. Vegetable oils are of two kinds, the fixed and the volatile The former are not suddenly afiTected by
the application of heat ; the latter are very inflammable.

674. Fued oils. Fixed oils are but seldom found, except in the seeds of plants, and chiefly in such as
are dicotyledonous. They are found also, though rarely, in the pulp of fleshy fruits, as in that of the olive,
which vields the most abundant and valuable species of aU fixed oils. But dicotyledonous seeds which
contain oil, contain also at the same time a quantity of mucilage and fecula, and form, when bruised in
water, a mild and milky fluid, known by the name of emulsion. And on this account they are sometimes
denominated emulsive seeds. Some seeds yield their oil merely by means of pressure, though it is often
necessarv to reduce them first of all to a sort of pulp, by means of pounding them in a mortar. Others
require to be exposed to the action of heat, which is applied to them by means of pressure between warm
plates of tin, or of the vapor of boiling water, or of roasting before they are subjected to the press. Fixed
oil, when pure, is generally a thick and viscous fluid, of a mild or insipid taste, and without smell. But it
is never entirely without some color, which is for the most part green or yellow. Its specific gravity is to
water as 9'40o to I'OOO. It is insoluble in water. It is decomposed by the acids, but with the alkalies it
forms soap. When exposed to the atmosphere it becomes inspissated and opaque, and assumes a white
color and a resemblance to fat. This is in consequence of the absorption of oxygen ; but owing to the
appearance of a quantity of water in oil that is exposed to the action of the air, it has been thought that
the oxygen absorbed by it is not yet perhaps assimilated to its substance. When exposed to cold it con-
geals and crystallises, or assumes a solid and granidar form ; but not till the thermometer has indicated a
degree considerably below the freezing jjoint. When exposed to the action of heat it is not volatilised till
it begins to boil, which is at 600" of Fahrenheit By distillation it is converted into water, carbonic acid,
and carburetted hydrogene gas, and charcoal ; the product of its combustion is nearly the same ; and hence
it is a compound of carbon, oxvgcn, and hydrogen. Fixed oils are generally divided into two sorts, fat
oils and drying oils. The former are readily inspissated by the action of the air, and converted into a sort
of fat The latter are capable of being dried by the action of the air, and converted into a firm and trans-
parent substance.

675. The principal species of fat oils are the following : —

Olirt oil, which is expressed from the pulpy part of the fruit
of olea europea. The fruit is first broken in a mill, and reduced
to a sort of paste. It is then subiacted to the action of a press,
and the oil which is now easily s«»£u:ated swims on the top of the
water in the vessel beneath. It is manufactured chiefly in
France and in Italy, and is much used throughout Europe in-
stead of butter, and to give a seasoning to food.

Oil of almonds, which is extracted from the fruit of the am^;
dalus communis or common almond. The almonds ar.. nrst
well rubbed or shook in a coarse bag or sack, to separate a bitter
powder which covers their epidermis. They are then pounded

to a paste in mortars of marble, which is afterwards subjected
to the action of a press ; and the oil is now obtained as in the
case of the olive.

Rapaeed-oil, which is extracted firom the brassica napus and
campestris. It is less fixed and less liable to become rancid
than the two former, and is manufactured chiefly in Flanders.

t»l^•' hthen, which is extracted from the fhiit of th6 guilandina
moringa^ common in Egypt and Africa. It is apt to become
rancid ; but it is without oiior, and is, on this account, much
used in perfumery

67& The principal species qf drying oils are linseed-oi , nut-oil, poppy-oil, and hempseed-oil.

Poppy-oil is extracted from the seeds of papaver somniferum,
""""aft

Linsted-cil us obtained from the seeds of flax, which are ge-
nerally roasted before they are subjected to any other process,
for thepurpose of drying up their mucilage and separating more
oil.

Sui-Ml is extracted from the fruit of corylus avellana, or ju-
glans regia. The kernel is first slightly roasted, and the oil
then expressed. It is used in paintings of a coarser sort ; and
alM in the seasoning of food bv many of the inhabitants of the
middle departments of France ; but it is J^t to become rancid

ich is cultivated in France and Holland for this purpose. It
is clear and transparent, and dries readily : and when pure it
U without tas.e or odor. It is used for the same punxxses as
the olive-oil, for which it is often sold, and possesses nothing of
the narcotic properties of the poppy.

Hemjtsied-pil is extracted fr..m the seed of the hemp. It has
a harsh and disagreeable taste, and is u-ed by painters in this
country, and very extensively fijr food in Kuisia-

L 4

152

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Paht II.

(>77. ViAalUe oils. Volatile oils, which are known also by the name of essential oils, are of very common
occurrence in the vegetable kingdom, and are found in almost all the different organs of the plant. They
are found in many roots, to which they communicate a fragrant and aromatic odor, with a taste somewhat
acrid. The roots of inula helenium, genista canariensis, and a variety of other plants, contam essential
oils. They are found also in the bark of laurus cinnamomum, of laurus sassafras, and pinus ; m the leaves
of labiate plants, such as mint, rosemary, marjoram ; and of the odorous umbelliferae, such as chervil,
fennel, angelica ; and of plants with compound flowers, such as wormwood. They are found also in the
flower itself, as in the flowers of chamomile, and the rose ; and in the fruit, as in that of pepper and ginger,
and in the external integuments of many seeds, but never in the cotyledon. They are extracted by means
of expression or distiUation, and are extremely numerous ; and perhaps every plant possessing a peculiar
odor possesses also a peculiar and volatile oil. The aroma of plants, therefore, or the substance from which
they derive their odor, and which is cognisable only by the sense of smell, is perhaps merely the more
volatile and evaporable part of their volatile oil, disengaging itself from its combinations. Volatile oils
are characterised by their strong and aromatic odor, and rather acrid taste. They are soluble in alcohol,
but are not readily converted into soaps by alkalies. They are very inflammable, and are volatilised by a
gentle heat. Like fixed oils, their specific gravity is generally less than that of water, on the surface of
which they will float ; though in some cases it is found to be greater than that of water, in which they
consequently sink. They are much in request on account of their agreeable taste and odor, and are pre-
pared and sold by apothecaries and perfumers, under the name of distilled waters or essences ; as well as
employed also in the manufacture of varnishes and pigments.

678. Wax. On the upper surface of the leaves of many trees there may often be observed a sort of var-
nish, which, when separated by certain chemical processes, is found to possess all the properties of bees'-
wax, and is consequently a vegetable wax. It exudes, however, from several other parts of the plant
besides the leaf, and assumes a more waxy and concrete form, as from the catkins of the poplar, the alder,
and the fir ; from the fruit of the myrica cerifera and croton sebiferum ; but particularly from the antherae
of the flowers, from which it is probable that the bees extract it unaltered. It was the opinion of Reaumur,
however, that the pollen undergoes a digestive process in the stomach of the bee before it is converted into
wax, though a late writer on the subject endeavours to prove that the wax is elaborated from the honey
extracted by the bee, and not from the pollen. It is found also in the interior of many seeds, from which
it is extracted, by means of pounding them and boiling them in water. The wax is melted and swims on
the top. Wax, when pure, is of a whitish color, but without taste and without smell. The smell of
bees' wax is indeed somewhat aromatic, and its color yellow. But this is evidently owing to some foreign
substance with which it is mixed, because it loses its smell and color by means of bleaching, and becomes
perfectly white. This is done merely by drawing it out into thin stripes, and exposing it for some time to
the atmosphere. Bleached wax is not affected by the air. Its specific gravity is 0-9600. It is insoluble in
water, and in alcohol. It combines with the fixed oils, and forms with them a composition known by the
name of cerate. It combines also with the fixed alkalies, and forms with them a compound possessing
the properties of common soap. The acids have but little action on it, and for this reason it is useful as a
lute to confine them, or to prevent them from injuring cork. When heat is applied to wax it becomes
8ofl, and melts at the temperature of 142* if unbleached, and of 155° if bleached, into a colorless and trans-
parent fluid, which, as the temperature diminishes, concretes again and resumes its former appearance.
At a higher temperature it boils and evaporates, and the vapor may be set on fire by the apphcation of red
heat. Hence its utility in making candles. And hence an explication of the singular phenomenon ob-
servable in the dictamnus fraxinella. This plant is fragrant, and the odor which it diffuses around forms
a partial and temporary atmosphere, which is inflammable ; for if a lighted candle or other ignited body
is brought near to the plant, especially in the time of drought, its atmosphere immediately takes fire.
This phenomenon was first observed by the daughter of the celebrated Linneeus, and is explained by sup.
posing the partial and temporary atmosphere to contain a proportion of wax exuded from the plant, and
afterwards reduced to vapor by the action of the sun. The result of its combustion in oxygene gas was,
according to Lavoisier, carbonic acid and water, in such proportion as to lead him to conclude that 100
parts of wax are composed of 82-28 of carbon and 17-72 of hydrogen. But owing to the little action of
acids upon it, there seems reason to believe that it contains also oxygen as an ingredient.

679. Wax possesses all the essential properties of a fixed oil. But fixed oils have the property of becom-
ing concrete, and of assuming a waxy appearance when long exposed to the air, in consequence as it seems,
of the absori^tion of oxygen. Wax therefore may be considered as a fixed oil rendered concrete, perhaps
by the absorption of oxygen during the progress of vegetation. But if this theory is just, the wax may be
expected to occur in a considerable variety of states according to its degree of oxygenation ; and this is ac-
cordingly the case. Sometimes it has the consistency of butter, and is denominated butter of wax, as
butter of coco, butter of galam. Sometimes its consistency is greater, and then it is denominated tallow,
as tallow of croton ; and when it has assumed its last degree of consistency, it then takes the appellation of
wax. The foUowing are its principal species : butter of cacao, butter of coco, butter of nutmeg, tallow of
croton, and wax of myrtle.

, ^^^l ?'!^ '"'^^'' "-f "^'^ •'' extracted from the seeds of the theobroma cacao or chocolate plant
Ifig: 55.), either by boiling them in water, or by subjecting them to the action of the press after
having exposed them to the vapor of boiling water.

Butter of coco is found in the fruit of trie cocos nucifera or coco-nut-tree. It is expressed
from the pulp of the nut, andU even said to separate from it when in a fluid state, as cream scpa-
rates from milk. ^

Butter of nutmeg is obtained from the seeds of the myristica officinalis, or nutmeg-tree.

Tallow of croton is obtained from the fruit of the croton sebiferum.

The wax of myrtle is obtained from the berry of the myrica cerifera.

681. Resins. Resins are volatile oils, rendered concrete by means of the
absorption of oxygen, or rather perhaps by tlie abstraction of part of their
hydrogen. They have a slight degree of transparency, and their color is
generally yellowish. Their taste is somewhat acrid ; but they are without
smell when pure. Their specific gravity varies from 1-0180 to 12289. They
are non-conductors of electricity, and when excited by friction their electri-
city is negative. The species of resins are numerous.

^682. Rosin is a species of resin, of which there are several varie-
ties.— From different species of the pine, larch, and fir-tree,
there exudes a juice which concretes in the form of tears. Its
extrication is generally aided by means of incisions, and it re-
ceives different appellations, according to the species from
•which it is obtained. If it is obtained from the pinus syl-
■v^tris, it is denominated common turpentine ; from pinus larix

w==L..», in, ueuoiiiinaiea common lurpeniine ; irom pinus larix, trom escaping in a volatilp staf*. Kv m»nr,c ««• .1.- 4.
Vemceturpe^ine; from amyris balsamea, Imlaam oftanada. It precinitatid Jid coll Jted in a vt^l iLn^ath It i, ^LJf
^,"!i='^_'^ AT».\"K^«»*?"ts, oil of turpentine and rosin. The verteS into an emuTreumatt ^;^"ff*; Jit' ^^3.

size, which are piled to-
gether in heaps, and co-
vered with turf. They are
then set on fire, and the
resinous juice which is thus
extricated, being prevented
from escaping in a volatile state by means of the hirf.

oil K extricated by distillation, and the rosin remains behind.
Jt the distillaUon is continued to dryness, the residuum is
common rottn or colophonium ; but if water is mixed with it
While yet fluid, and incorporated by violent agitation, the resi-
iluuni is yelloTV romn. The yellow rosin is the most ductile,
"JS, ?"°** Rene^ally used in the arts.

bH3. Pitch and /ar are manufectured from the resinous juices
•t the fir. The tnuik is cut or cleft into pieces of a convenient

K„- c _... ^" empyreumatic oil, and is now tar, "which, by
being further inspissated, is converted into pitch. '

Mastich IS extracted from the pistacia lentlscus.
Un^^tSatTon'^"'^ *"" the juniperis communis, by spon-

Elemi is extract*^ from the amyris elemifera.
baUamife^a. " '"""^"^^ "^""^ ^"* octandra and -.opulas

Labdanum is obtained from the cistus creticus. .

Book I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 153

681. Opcbalimmtm, or 'babnitfGilead.irhich has been so much 687. CopoiUtheproduceof therhuscopalUnurn, a treewhich

famed for its nietlical virtuts, is ihe produce of the amjris Is found in Nofth America.

_, a shrub which ffrows in Judia and in Arabia ; but ^ni»n<^, is obtained from the hymenaea coubaril, or Iociist-tre«,

u ts so much valued by the Turks that its importation is pro- a native of North America.

Iiibited. This is the balm ofGilead so much celebrated in Lac is the produce of the croton lacciferum, a native of the

Scripture. Pliny says it was first brought to Rome by the East Indies.

generals of Vespasian. It Ls obtained ui a liquid state from 6SS. Bloom. Upon theepidermis of theleavesandfruit of cet

mcisions made in the bark, and is somewhat bitter to the taste. tain species ofplants, there is to be found a fine, soft, and),

68i. Copaiva, or baltam xfcopaiva, is obtained from the co- powder. It is particularly observable upon cabbage-leaves, and

paifera officinalis. upon plums, to which it communicates a peculiar shade. It

Dragon's Uood is obtained from the dractena draco, pterocar* is known to gardeners by the njmie of bloom. It is easily rulv

pus draco, and calamus rotang. bed off by the fingers ; and when viewed under the microscope,

Gua'uic is the produce of the guaiacum officinale. seems to be composed of small opaque and unpolished granules,

Bo<anu Ca.v rMiii, the produce of the acaroisresinifera, a native somewhat similar to the powder of starch; but with a high

of New Holland, and found in great abundance about Botany magnifying power it appears transparent. When rubbed off.

Bay. it is again re-produced, though slowly. It resists the action

686. Green resin constitutes the coloring matter of the leaves of of dews and rains, and is consequently insoluble in water.

trees, and of almost all vegetables. It is insoluble in water, but But it is soluble in spirits of wine; from which circum-

Goluble in alcohol. When treated with oxymuriatic acid, it as- stance it has been suspected, irith some probability, to be a

sumes the color of a withered leaf, and exhibits the resinous resin.

properties more distinctly.

689. T7ie use of resins in the arts is very considerable ; but their medical virtues are not quite so
great as has been generally supposed. They are employed in the arts of painting, varnishing, embalm-
ing, and perfumerj- ; and they furnish us with two of the most important of all materials to a naval
power, pitch and tar.

690. Gum-resins. This term is employed to denote a class of vegetable substances, which have been
regarded by chemists as consisting of gum and resin. They are generally contained in the proper vessels
of the plant, whether in the root, stem, branches, leaves, flowers, or fruit. But there is this remarkable
difference between resins and gum-resins, that the latter have never been known, like the former, to
exude spontaneously from the plant They are obtained by means of bruising the parts containing them,
and expressing the juice, which is always in the state of an emulsion, generally white, but sometimes
of a different color ; or they are obtained by means of incisions from which the juice flows. This juice,
which is the proper juice of the plant, is then exposed to the action of the sun, by which, in warm cli-
mates, it is condensed and inspissated, and converted into the gum-resin of commerce. Gum-resins, in
their solid state, are brittle, and less transparent than resins. They have generally a strong smell, which
is sometimes alliaceous, and a bitter and nauseous taste. They are partially soluble both in water and in
alcoliol. When heated, they do not melt like the resins, nor are they so combustible. But they swell
and soften by heat, and at last bum away with a flame. By distillation they yield volatile oil, ammonia
combined with an acid, and have a bulky -charcoal. The principal species of gum-resins which have been
hitherto applied to any useful purpose are : —

Galbanum, obtained from the stem of the bubon galbanum. Arabia. Bruce says it belongs to the genus mimosa ; but however

Ammomac, brought ft-om Afnca in the form of small tears; this maj- be, myrrh is the juice of the plant concreted in the

the plant which yields it is thought to be a species of ferula. form of tears. Its color is yellow, its odor strong but agree-

6'cummony, the" produce of the convolvulus scamraonia. able, and its taste bitter; it is employed in raedieine, and is

Opoponai, obtauied ftom the pastinaca ojmponax. esteemed an excellent stomachic.

Euphorbium, the produce of the euphorbia officinalis; its 692. ^**{/(rrtJa,asubstanoe which is well known finr its strong

taste is caustic ; it Ls considered as a poison, but is occasionally and fetid smell, is obtained from the ferula assafoetida. At four

employed in medicine. years old the plant is dug up by the root. I'he root is then

Olibanum is obtained from the juniperus Ivcia, which grows cleaned, and the extremity cut ott ; a milky juice exudes which

in Arabia, particularly by the borders of the Red Sea. It is is collected; and when it ceases to flow another portion is cut

the frankincence of the ancients. It exudes from incisions off, and more juice extricated. The process is continued till the

made in the tree, and concretes into masses about the size of a root is exhausted. The juice which has been collected s<Kin

chestnut. concretes, and constitutes assafoetida. It is brought to Eurojie

Sotsapenum is supposed to be obtained from the ferula in small agglutinated grains of different colors, white, red.

•^1

persura. yellow. It is hard, but brittle. Its taste is bitter, and its

■ base, or eumeutta. the produce of the Gardnia cam- smell insufferably fetid ; the Indians use it as a seasoning for

^ ** " their food, and call it the food of the gods. In Europt^ it is

Myrrh, the plant yielding which grows in Abyssinia and used in medicine as an antispasmodic.

693. Balsams. The substances known by the name of balsams are resins imited to the benzoic acid.
Tliey are obtained by means of incisions made in the bark, from which a viscous juice exudes, which is
afterwards inspissated by the action of the fire or air, or they are obtained by means of boiling the part
that contains them. They are thick and viscid juices, but become readily concrete. Their color is brown
or red ; their smell aromatic when rubbed ; their taste acrid ; their specific gravity 1-090. They are un-
alterable in the air after becoming concrete. They are insoluble in water, but boiling water abstracts
ijart of their acid ; they are soluble in the alkalies and nitric acid. When heated they melt and swell,
evolving a white and odorous smoke. The principal of the balsams are the following : benzoin, storax,
styrax, balsam of tolu, balsam of Peru.

Benzoin is the produce of the st^Trax benioin. Balsam qfiolu is obtained from the toluifera baLsamum.

Storax is obtained from the stvTax officinale. Balsam of Peru is obtained from the mjToxjlon perui-

Styrax is a semi-fluid jtiice, the produce of a tree said to be ferum.
cultivated in Arabia.

69i Camphor. The substance known by the name of camphor is obtained from the root and stem of
the laurus camphora, by distillation. When pure it is a white britUe substance, forming octagonal crystals
or square plates. Its taste is hot and acrid ; its odor strong but aromatic : its specific gravity 0-9887. vN hen
broke into small fragments and put into water, on the surface of which it swims, a singular pheno-
menon ensues. The water surrounding the fragments is immediately put into commotion, advancing and
retiring in little waves, and attacking the fragments with violence. The minuter fragments are driven
backwards and forwards upon the surface as if impeUed by contrarj' winds. If a drop of oil is let fall on
the surface of the water it produces an immediate calm. This phenomenon has been attributed to elec-
tricity Fourcroy thinks it is merely the effect of the affinities of the camphor, water, and air, entering
into combination. Though camphor is obtained chiefly from the laurus camphora, yet it is known to
exist in a great many other plants, particularly labiate plants, and has been extracted from the roots of
zedoary, sassafras, th^^ne, rosemary, and lavender. , . . t- v. * ^u

695 Caoutchouc. The substance denominated caoutchouc was first mtroduced mto Europe about the
beginning of the eighteenth century. But from a use to which it is very generally applied of rubbing out
the marks made upon paper by a black-lead pencil, it is better known to most people m this country by the
name of Indian rubber. It is obtained chiefly from hevea caoutchouc and jatropha elastica, trees indi-
genous to South America ; but it has been obtained also from several trees which grow m the East Indies,
such as ficus indicu, artocarpus integrifolia, and urccola elastica. If an incision is made into the bark of
anv of these plants a milky juice exudes, which, when exposed to the air, concretes and forms caoutchouc.
As the object of the natives in collecting it had been originally to form it into vessels for their own use, it
it is generally made to concrete in the form of bags or bottles. This is done by applying the juice, when
fluid in thin layers to a mould of dry clay, and then leaving it to concrete in the sun or by the fire. A
second layer is addetl to the first, and others in succession, till the vessel acquires the thickness that is
wanted The mould is then broken and the vessel fit for use, and in this state it is generally brought into
Europe' It has been brought, however, even in its milky state, by being confined from the action of the
air If the milky juice is exiKwed to the air, an elastic pcUicle is formed on the surface. If it is confined

'IS4

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

In a vessel containing oxygen gas, the pellicle is formed sooner. If oxymuriatic acid is poured into the
milky juice, the caoutchouc precipitates immediately. This renders it probable that the formation of the
caoutchouc is ov/ing to the absorption of oxygen. Caoutchouc, when pure, is of a white color, without
taste and without smell. The black color of the caoutchouc of commerce is owing to the method of dry-
ing the dirterent layers upon the moulds on which they are spread. They are dried by being exposed to
smoke. The black color of the caoutchouc, therefore, is owing to the smoke or soot alternating with its
ditferent layers. It is soft and pliable like leather, and extremely elastic, so that it may be stretched to a
very great length, and still recover its former size. Its specific gravity is 0'9335. Gough, of Manchester,
has made some curious and important experiments on the connection between the temperature of caout-
chouc and its elasticity, from which it results that ductility as well as fluidity is owing to latent heat.
Caoutchouc is not altered by exposure to the air. It is perfectly insoluble in water ; but if boiled in water
for some time its edges become so soft that they will cement, if pressed and kept for a while closely toge-
ther. It is insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in ether. It is soluble also in volatile oils and in alkalies.
And from the action operated upon by acids it is thought to be composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxy-
gen, and azote. It seems to exist in a great variety of plants combined with other ingredients. It
may be separated from resins by alcohol. It may be separated from the berries of the misseltoe by means
of water, and from other vegetable substances by other processes. It is said to be contained both in opium
and in mastic. But from these substances it cannot be extracted in sufficient quantities to make it worth
the labor. It is applied to a great many useful puri>oses both in medicine and the arts, to which, from
its great pliability and elasticity, it is uncommonly well adapted. In the countries where it is produced
the natives make boots and shoes of it, and often use it by way of candle.

696. Cork. The substance known by the name of cork is the outer and exfoliated bark of the quercus
8uber or cork-tree, a species of oak that grows in great abundance in France, Spain, and Italy. But to
prevent its natural exfoliation, which is always irregular, and to disengage it in convenient portions, a longi-
tudinal incision is made in the bark from the root to the top of the stem ; and a transverse and circular in-
cision at each extremity. The outer layer, which is cork, is then stripped off, and to flatten and reduce
it to sheets it is put into water and loaded with weights. The tree continues to thrive, though it is thus
stripped of its cork once in two or three years. Cork is a light, soft, and elastic substance, distinguished
by the following properties : — Its color is a sort of light tan. It is very inflammable, and burns with a
bright white flame, leaving a black and bulky charcoal behind. When distilled it yields a small quantity
of ammonia. Nitric acid corrodes and dissolves it, changing its color to yellow, and finally decomposes it,
converting it partly into an acid, and partly into a soft substance resembling wax or resin. The acid
which is thus formed is denominated the suberic acid, and has been proved by the experiments of La-
grange to be an acid of a peculiar nature. It seems probable that cork exists in the bark of some other
trees also, as well as the quercus suber. The bark of the ulmus suberosa assumes something of the exter-
nal appearance of cork, which it resembles in its thickness, softness, and elasticity, and in its loose and
porous texture, as well as also in its chemical properties. Fourcroy seems, indeed, to regard the epider-
mis of all trees whatever to be a sort of cork, but does not say on what grounds his opinion is founded.

697. Woodi/fibre. The principal body of the root, stem, and branches of trees, is designated by the
appellation of wood. But the term is too general for the purpose of analytical distinction, as the part
designated by it often includes the greater part of the substances that have been already enumerated. It
remains, therefore, to be ascertained whether there exists in the plant any individual substance different
from those already described, and constituting more immediately the fabric of the wood. If a piece of
wood is well dried and digested, first in water and then in alcohol, or such other solvent as shall produce
no violent effects upon the insoluble parts ; and if the digestion is continued till the liquid is no longer
colored, and dissolves no more of the substance of the plant, there remains behind a sort of vegetable
skeleton, which constitutes the basis of the wood, and which has been denominated woody fibre. It is
composed of bundles of longitudinal threads, which are divisible into others still smaller. It is somewhat
transparent It is without taste and smell, and is not altered by exposure to the atmosphere. It is inso-
luble in water and alcohol ; but the fixed alkalies decompose it with the assistance of heat. When heated
in the open air it blackens without melting or frothing, and exhales a thick smoke and pungent odor,
leaving a charcoal that retains the form of the original mass. When distilled in a retort it yields an em-
pyreumatic oil, carburetted hydrogene gas, carbonic acid, and a portion of ammonia, according to Four-
croy, indicating the presence of nitrogen as constituting one of its elementary principles ; and yet this
ingredient does not appear in the result of the later analysis of Gay Lussac, and Thenard, which is, car-
bon, 52-53; oxygen, 4178; hydrogen, 5.69; totallOO.

698. Charcoal. When wood is burnt with a smothered flame, the volatile parts are driven off by
the heat, and there remains behind a substance exhibiting the exact form, and even the several layers of
the original mass. This process is denominated charring, and the substance obtained, charcoal. As it is
the woody fibre alone which resists the action of heat, while the other parts of the plant are dissipated, it
is plain that charcoal must be the residuum of woody fibre, and that the quantity of the one must depend
upon the quantity of the other, if they are not rather to be considered as the same. Charcoal may be ob-
tained from almost all parts of the plant, whether solid or fluid. It often escapes, however, during com-
bustion, under the form of carbonic acid, of which it constitutes one of the elements. From a variety of
experiments made on difterent plants and on their different parts, it appears that the green parts contain
a greater proportion of charcoal than the rest. But this proportion is found to diminish in autumn, when
the green parts begin to be deprived of their glutinous and extractive juice. The wood contains more
charcoal than the alburnum, the bark more than both. But this last result is not constant in all plants,
because the bark is not a homogeneous substance, the outer parts being affected by the air and the inner
parts not. The wood of the quercus robur, separated from the alburnum, yielded from 100 parts of its dried
substance 1975 of charcoal ; the alburnum, 175 ; the bark, 26 ; leaves gathered in May, 80; in Septem-
ber, 26. But the quantity of charcoal differs also in different plants, as well as in different parts of the
Bame. According to the experiments of Mushet, 100 parts of the following trees afforded as follows : —

Lignum vitse

Mahogany

Labunium

Chestnut ...

Oak - - - -

American black birch

- 26-8
. 2,0-4
. 24-5

- 23-2

- 22-6

- 21-4 J

Walnut -
Holly
Beech
American maple

20-6
19-9
19-9
19-9

Norway fir
Sallow
Ash
Birch
Scotch pine

19-2
18-4
17-9
17-4
16-4

699. 7^he properties of charcoal are insolubility in water, of which however it absorbs a portion when
newly made, as also of atmospheric air. It is incapable of putrefaction. It is not altered by the most
violent heat that can be applied, if all air and moisture are excluded ; but when heated to about 800 it
burns in atmospheric air or oxygenegas, and if pure, without leaving any residuum. It is regarded by
chemists as being a triple compound, of which the ingredients are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Char-
coal is of great utility both to the chemist and artist as a fuel for heating furnaces, as well as for a variety
of other purposes. It is an excellent filter for purifying water. It is a very good tooth-powder ; and is
also an indispensable ingredient in the important manufacture of gunpowder.

700. The sap. If the branch of a vine is cut asunder early in the spring, before the leaves have begun
to expand, a clear and colorless fluid will issue from the wound, which gardeners denominate the tears
of the vine. It is merely, however, the ascending sap, and may be procured from almost any other plant
by the same or similar means, and at the same season ; but particularly from the maple, birch, and walnut-
tree, by means of boring a hole in the tnuik. It issues chiefly from the iwrous and mixed tubes of the

Book I. COMPOUND PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 155

alburnum ; though sometimes it does not flow freely till the bore is carried to the centre. A small branch
of a vine has been known to yield from twelve to sixteen ounces, in the space of twenty-four hours A
maj>le-tree of moderate size yields about 200 pints in a season, as has been already stated ; and a birch-
tree has been known to yield in the course of the bleeding-season, a quantity equal to its own weight In
the sap of fagus sylvatica, Vauquelin found the following ingredients : —Water, acetate of lime, with excess
of acid, acetate of potass, gallic acid, tannin, mucous and extractive matter, and acetate of alumia In
iaj9 parts of the sap of the ulmus campestris, he found 1027 parts of water and volatile matter, 9-2-U) of ace-
tate of potass, 1.060 of vegetable matter, 0.796 of carbonate of lime, besides some slight indications of the
presence of sulphuric and muriatic acids ; and at a later period of the season he found the vegetable mat-
ter increasetl, and the carbonate of lime and acetate of potass diminished. From the above experiments,
therefore, as well as from those of other chemists, it is plain that the sap consists of a great variety of ingre-
dients, differing in different species of plants; though there is too little known concerning it to warrant
the deduction of any general conclusions, as the number of plants whose sap has been hitherto analysed is
yet but very limited. It is the grand and principal source of vegetable aliment, and may be regarded as
being somewhat analogous to the blood of animals. It is not made use of by man, at least in its natural
state. But there are trees, such as the birch, whose sap may be manufactured into a very {feasant wiue ;
and it is well known that the sap of the American maple-tree yields a considerable quantity of sugar.

701. T/ie proper Juice. When the sap has received its last degree of elaboration from the different or-
gans through which it has to pass, it is converted into a peculiar fluid, called the proi)er juice. This fluid
may be distinguished from the sap by means of its color, which is generally green, as in i)eriwinkle ; or red,
as in logwood ; or white, as in spurge ; or yellow, as in celandine ; from the two last of which it may rea-
dily be obtained by breaking the stem asunder, as it will then exude from the fracture. Its principal seat is
in the bark, where it occupies the simple tubes ; but sometimes it is situated between the bark and wood,
as in the juniper-tree ; or in the leaf, as in the greater part of herbs ; or it is diff"used throughout the whole
plant, as in the fir and hemlock ; in which case, either the proper juice mixes with the sap, or the vessels
containing it have ramifications so fine as to be altogether imperceptible. It is not, however, the same in
all plants, nor even in the different parts of the same plant In the cherry-tree it is mucilaginous; in the
pine it is resinous ; in spurge and celandine it is caustic, though resembling in appearance an emulsion.
In many plants the proper juice of the bark is different from that of the flower ; and the proper juice o/
the fruit different from both. Its appearance under the microscope, according to Senebier, is that of an
assemblage of small globules connected by small and prism-shaped substances placed between them. If
this juice could be obtained in a state of purity, its analysis would throw a considerable degree of light
upon the subject of vegetation. But it seems impracticable to extract it without a mixture of sap Sene-
bier analysed the milky juice of euphorbia cyparissias, of which he had procured a small quantity consi-
derably pure, though its pungency was so great as to occasion an inflammation of the eyes to the person
employetl to procure it. It mixed readily with water, to which it communicated its color. When left ex
posed "to the air a slight precipitation ensued ; and when allowed to evaporate a thin and opaque crust
remained behind. Alcohol coagulated it into small globules. Ether dissolved it entirely, as did also oil of
turpentine. Sulphuric acid changed its color to black ; nitric acid to green. The most accurate experi-
ments on the subject are those of ChaptaL When oxymuriatic acid was poured into the peculiar juice of
euphorbia, a very copious white precipitate fell down, which, when washed and dried, had the appear-
ance of starch, and was not altered by keeping. Alcohol, aided by heat, dissolved two thirds of it, which
the addition of water again precipitated. They had all the properties of resin. The remaining third part
possessed the properties of woody fibre. The same experiment was tried on the juice of a variety of other
plants, and the result uniformly was that oxymuriatic acid precipitated from them woody fibre.

702. The virtues of plants have generally been thought to reside in their proper juices, and the opinion
seems indeed to be well founded. It is at least proved by experiment in the poppy, spurge, and fig. The
juice of the first is narcotic, of the two last corrosive. The diuretic and balsamic virtues of the fir reside
in its turpentine, and the purgative property of jalap in its resin. If sugar is obtained from the sap of the
sugar-cane and maple, it is only because it has been mixed with a quantity of proper juice. The bark
certainly contains it in greatest abundance, as may be exemplified in cinnamon and quinquina. But
the peach-tree furnishes an exception to this rule : its flowers are purgative, and the whole plant aro-
matic ; but its gum is without any distinguished virtues. Malpighi regarded the proper juice as the prin-
ciple of nourishment, and compared it to the blood of animals ; but this analogj- does not hold very closely.
The sap is, perhaps, more analogous to the blood, from which the proper juice is rather a secretion. In
one respect, however, the analogy holds good, that is, with regard to extravasated blood and peculiar
juices. If the blood escapes from the vessels it forms neither flesh nor bones, but tumors ; and if the pro-
per juices escape from the vessels containing them, they form neither wood nor bark, but a lump or dqio-
sit of inspissated fluid. To the sap or to the proper juice, or rather to a mixture of both, we must refer
such substances as are obtained from plants under the name of expressed juices, because it is evident that
they can come from no other source. In this state they are generally obtained in the first instance whe-
ther with a view to their use in medicine or their application to the arts. It is the business of the chemist
or artist to separate and purify them afterwards according to the peculiar object he may happen to have in
view, and the use to which he' purposes to apply them. They contain, like the sap, acetate of potass or of
lime, and assume a deeper shade of color when exposed to the fire or air. The oxjTnuriatic acid precipi-
tates from them a colored and flaky substance as from the sap, and they yield by evaporation a quantity of
extract. But they differ from the sap in exhibiting no traces of tannin or gallic acid, and but rarely of the
saccharine principle.

703. Ashes. When vegetables are burnt in the open air the greatest part of their substance is evapo-
rated during the process of combustion ; but ultimately there remains behind, a portion which is altogether
incombustible, and incapable of being volatilised by the action of fire. This residuum is known by the
name of ashes. Herbaceous plants, after being drie<l, yield more ashes than wootly plants ; the leaves more
than the branches ; and the branches more than the trunk. The alburnum yields also more ashes than
the wood ; and putrefied vegetables yield more ashes than the same vegetables in a fresh state, if the putre-
faction has not taken place in a current of water. The result of Saussure's experiments on 1000 parts of
different plants was as follows : —

Gathered in May, dried leaTes of the oak ....

green leaves of the oak

dried leaves of the rhododendron - 30

dried leaves of the cesculus hippocastanum 72

trunk and branches of sesculus hippocastanum 35

Gathered in September, dried leaves of the aesculus hippocastanum 86

dried leaves of the oak - - o5

green leaves of the oak . . - 24

Gaihered when xnjlower, leaves of pisum sativum 95

Gathered rchen in fruit, leaves of pisum sativum - 81

leaves of vicia fiba " ' * " ?2

Gathered before coming intojlorrer, the leaves of the vicia faba 16

Oai:, the dried bark 60, the alburnum 4, wood - 2

704 The analysis of the ashes of plants, with a view to the discovery of the ingredients of whichthey are
composed protluces alkalies, earths, and metals, which must therefore be considered as ingredients in the
comUsition of the vegetable. But vegetable ashes contain also a variety of other principles, occurring,
however, in such small proportions as generally to escape observation. Perhaps they contain all substances
not capable of being volatilised by the action of fire.

156 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

705. Alkalies. The alkalies are a peculiar class of substances, distinguished by a caustic taste and the
property of changing vegetable blues to green. They are generally regarded as being three in number,
potass, soda, and ammonia, of which the two former only are found in the ashes of vegetables. Ammonia
is, indeed, often obtained from vegetable substances by means of distillation, but then it is always formed
during the process. If the ashes of land vegetables, burnt in the ojjen air, are repeatedly washed in water,
and tlie water filtered and evaporated to dryness, potass is left behind. The potass of commerce is manufac-
tured in this manner, though it is not quite pure. But it may be purified by dissolving it in spirits of wine,
and evaporating the solution to dryness in a silver vessel. When pure it is white and semi-transparent,
and is extremely caustic and deliquescent. It dissolves all soft animal substances, and changes vegetable
blues into green. It dissolves alumina, and also a small quantity of silex, with wliich it fuses into glass by
the aid of fire. It had been long suspected by chemists to be a compound substance ; and according to
the notable discovery by Sir H. Davy, its component parts are at last ascertained to be a highly inflam-
mable metal, which he denominates potassium, and oxygen — one proportion of each. Soda is found
chiefly in marine plants, from the ashes of which it is obtained by means of lixiviation. It exists in great
abundance in salsola soda, zostera maritima, and in various species of fuci. It is generally obtained in the
state of a carbonate, but is purified in the same manner as potass, to which it is similar in its properties ;
but from which it is easily distinguished by its forming a hard soap with oil, while potass forms a soft soap.
It consists, according to Sir H. Davy, of one proportion of a metal which he denominates sodium, and
two proportions of oxygen. Such are the only vegetable alkalies, and modes of obtaining them. They
are found generally in the state of carbonates, sulphates, or muriates, salts that form beyond all compa-
rison the most abundant ingredient in the ashes of green herbaceous plants whose parts are in a state of
vegetation. The ashes of the golden rod, growing in an uncultivated soil, and of the bean, turnsole, and
wheat, were found by Saussure to contain at least three fourtlis of their weight of alkaline salts. This
was nearly the case also with the leaves of trees just bursting from the bud. But the proixirtion of alkaline
salts is found to diminish rather than to augment as the parts of the plant are developed. The ashes of
the leaves of the oak, gathered in May, yielded 47 parts in the 100 of alkaline salts ; and in September,
only 17.

706. The utUity of the alkalies, as obtained from vegetables, is of the utmost importance in the arts, par-
ticularly in the formation of glass and of soaps. If a mixture of soda or potass, and silex or sand, in cer-
tain proportions, is exposed to a violent heat, the ingredients are melted down into a fluid mass, which is
glass in a state of fusion. In this state it may be moulded into almost any form at the pleasure of the ar-
tist And accordingly we find that it is manufactured into a great variety of utensils and instruments,
under the heads of flint-glass, crown-glass, bottle-glass. Bottle-glass is the coarsest ; it is formed of soda
and common sand, and is used in the manufacture of the coarser sort of bottles. Crown-glass is composed
of soda and fine sand : it is moulded into large plates for the purpose of forming window-glasses and
looking-glasses. Flint-glass is the finest and mosi transparent of all : that which is of the best quality is
composed of 120 parts of white siliceous sand, 40 parts of pearl-ash, 35 of red oxide of lead, 13 of nitrate of
potass, and 25 of black oxide of manganese. It is known also by the name of crystal, and may be cut and
polished so as to serve for a variety of ornamental purijoses, as well as for the more important and more
useful purpose of forming optical instruments, of which the discoveries of the telescope and the micro-
scope are the curious or sublime results. If a quantity of oil is mixed with half its weight of a strong so-
lution of soda or potass, a combination takes place which is rendered more complete by means of boiling.
The new compound is soap. The union of oil with potass forms soft soap, and with soda hard soap; sub-
stances of the greatest efficacy as detergents, and of the greatest utility in the washing and bleaching of
•linen. The alkalies are used also in medicine, and are found to be peculiarly efficacious in the reduction

of urinary calculi.

707. Earths. The only earths which have hitherto been found in plants are the following : lime, silica,
magnesia, alumina.

708. Of these earths, lime is by far the most abundant It is generally combined with a portion of phos-
phoric, carbonic, or sulphuric acid, forming phosphates, or carbonates, or sulphates of lime. The
phosphate of lime is, next to the alkaline salt, tiiemost abundant ingredient in the ashes of green herbace-
ous plants, whose parts are all in a state of vegetation. The leaf of a tree, bursting from the bud, contains
in its ashes a greater proportion of earthy phosphate than at any other period : 100 parts of the ashes of the
leaves of the oak, gathered in May, furnished 24 parts of earthy phosphate ; in September, only 18-25. In
annual plants the proportion of earthy phosphate diminishes from the period of their germination to that
of their flowering. Plants of the bean, before flowering, gave 145 parts of earthy phosphate ; in flower,
only 135. Carbonate of lime is, next to phosphate of Time, the most abundant of the earthy salts that are
found in vegetables. But if the leaves of plants are washed in water the proportion of carbonate is aug-
mented. This is owing to the subtraction of their alkaline salts and phosphates in a greater proportion
than their lime. In green herbaceous plants, whose parts are in a state of increase, there is but little car-
bonate of lime ; but the ashes of the bark of trees contain an enonnous quantity of carbonate of lime, and
much more than the alburnum, as do also the ashes of the wood. The ashes of most seeds contain no car-
bonate of lime ; but they abound in phosphate of potass. Hence the ashes of plants, at the period of the
maturity of the fruit, yield less carbonate of lime than at any previous period.

709. Silica is not found to exist in a great proportion in the ashes of vegetables, unless they have been
previously deprived of their salts and phosphates by washing; but when the ^ilants are washed in water,
the proportion of their silica augments. The ashes of the leaves of the hazel, gathered in May, yielded
2-5 parts of silica in 100. The same leaves, washed, yielded four parts in IWl. Young plants, and leaves
bursting from the bud, contain but little of silica in their ashes; but the proportion of silica augments as
the parts are developed. But perhaps this is owing to the diminution of the alkaline salts. The ashes of
some stalks of wheat gathered a month before the time of flowering, and having some of the radicle leaves
withered, contained 12 parts of silica and 65 of alkaline salts in 100. At the period of their flowering, and
when more of their leaves were withered, the ashes contained 32 parts of silica and 54 of alkaline salts. Seeds
divested of their external covering, contain less silica than the stem furnished with its leaves ; and it is
somewhat remarkable that there are trees of which the bark, alburnum, and wood, contain scarcely any
silica, and the leaves a great deal, particularly in autumn. This is a plienomenon that seems inexplicable.
The greater part of the grasses contain a very considerable proportion of silica, as do also the plants ef the
genus equisetum. Sir H. Davy has discovered that it forms a part of the epidermis of these plants, and in
some of them the principal part From 1(X) parts of the epidermis of the following plants the proportions
of silica were, in bonnet cane, 90; bamboo, 71'4; common reed, 48*1 ; stalks of corn, 6G-5. Owing to the
silica contained in the epidermis, the plants in which it is found, are sometimes used to give a polish to the
surface of substances where smoothness is required. The Dutch rush, equisetum hyemale, a plant of this
kind, is used to polish even brass.

710. Magnesia does not exist so abundantly in the vegetable kingdom as the two preceding earths. It
lias been found, however, in several of the marine plants, particularly the fuci ; but salsola soda contains
more of magnesia than any other plant yet examined. According to' Vauquelin, 100 parts of it contain
17 '929 of magnesia.

Alumina has been detected in several plants, but never except in very small quantities.

711. Metallic oxides. Among the substances found in the ashes of vegetables, we must class also
rnetals. They occur, however, only in small quantities, and are not to be detected except by the most de-
licate experiments. The metals hitherto discovered in plants are iron, manganese, and perhaps gold. Of
these iron is by f;ir the most common. It occurs in the state of an oxide, and the ashes of hard aiwl woody
plants, such as the oak, are said to contain nearly one twelfth of their own weight of this oxide. The ashes

Book I. SIMPLE PRODUCTS OF PLANTS. 157

of salsola contain also a considerable quantity. The oxide of manganese was first detected in the ashes of
vegetables by Schecle, and afterwards found by Proust in the ashes of the pine, calendula, vine, green oak,
and fig-tree. Beccher, Kunckel, and Sage, together with some other chemists, contend also for the exist-
ence of gold in the ashes of certain planU; but the ver>- minute portion which they found, seems more
likely to have proceeded from the lead employed in the process than from the ashes of the plant. It has
been observed by Saussure, that the proportion of the oxides of iron and of manganese augments in the
ashes of plants as their vegetation advances. The leaves of trees furnish more of these principles in autumn
than in spring. It is so also with annual plants. Seeds contain metals in less abundance than the stem j
and if plants are washed in water, the proportions of their metallic oxides is augmented.

/li Such are the prindiKit ingredients that enter into the vegetable composition. They are indeed nu-
merous, though some of them, such as the metallic oxides, occur in such small proportions as to render it
doubtful whether they are in reality vegetable productions or no. The same thing may be said of some of
the other ingredients that have been found in the ashes of plants, which it is probable they have absorbed
ready formed by the root, and deposited unaltered, so that they can scarcely be at all regarded as being the
genuine products of vegetation.

71o. Other substances. Besides the substances above enumerated, there are also several others that have
been supposed to constitute distinct and peculiar genera of vegetable productions, and which might have
been introduced under such a character ; such as the mucus, jelly, sarcocol, asparagin, inulin, and ulmii),
of Dr. Thomson, as describetl in his well known System of Cheirnstry ; but as there seems to be some dif-
ference of opinion among chemists with regard to them, and a belief entertained that they are but vari-
eties of one or other of the foregoing ingredients, it is sufficient for the purposes of this work to have
merely mentioned their names. Several other substances of a distinct and peculiar character have been
suspected to exist in vegetable productions : such as the febrifuge principle of Seguin, as discovering itself
in Peruvian bark; the principle of causticity or acridity of Senebier, as discovering itself in the roots of
ranunculus bulbosus, scilla maritima, bryonia alba, and arum maculatum, in the leaves of digitalis pur-
purea, in the bark of daphne mezereon, and in the juice of the spurges : to which may be added the fluid
secreted from the sting of the common nettle, the poisons inherent in some plants, and the medical virtues
inherent in others ; together with such iieculiar principles as may be presumed to exist in such regions of
the vegetable kingdom as remain yet miexplored. The important discoveries which have already resulted
ft-om the chemical analysis of vegetable substances encourage the hope that further discoveries will be the
result of further experiment ; and from the zeal and abUJty of such chemists as are now directing their
attention to the subject, every thing is to be expected.

Sect. II. Simple Products.

7 1 4. From the above analysis of the vegetable subject, it is evident, that tlie compound
ingredients of vegetables are all ultimately reducible to a very Jew co7istituent and uncom-
pounded elevients ; and that the most essential of such compounds consist of carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen, merely ; though others contain also a small proportion of nitrogen,
said to be found only in cruciform plants. The remaining elementary principles which
plants have been found to contain, although they may be necessary in the vegetable
economy, yet they are by no means principles of the first importance, as occurring only in
small proportions, and being dependent in a great measure on soil and situation ; whereas
the elements of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, form as it were the very essence of the
vegetable subject, and constitute by their modifications the peculiar character of the pro-
perties of tlie plant. This is conspicuously exemplified in the result of the investigations
of Gay Lussac, and Thenard, who have deduced from a series of the most minute and
delicate experiments the three following propositions, which they have dignified by the
name of Laws of Vegetable Nature (Traite de Chem. Element, torn. iii. chap, iii.) : — 1st,
Vegetable substances are always acid when the oxygen they contain is to the hydrogen in

greater proportion than in water ; 2dly, Vegetable substances are always resinous, or
oily, or spirituous, when the oxygen they contain is to the hydrogen in a smaller propor-
tion than in water ; 3dly, Vegetable substances are neither acid nor resinous, but sac-
charine or mucilaginous, or analogous to woody fibre or starch, when the oxygen and
hydrogen they contain are in the same proportion as in water. Such is a brief sketch of
the vegetable analysis : but if the reader, not being already an adept, wishes to descend
into tlie detail of particulars and to prepare himself for original experiment, let him search
out and peruse original papers, and let him consult the vegetable department of the several
elementary publications referred to, especially that of Dr. Thomson's System of Chemistry ;
the most distinguished and elaborate of all our elementary works on the subject, and the
guide chiefly applied to in the drawing up of the sketch that is here exhibited.

Chap. VIIL

Functions of Vegetables.

715. From the analysis of the structure and principles of plants, the transition to their
life, growth, and propagatioji is natural and easy. This subject necessarily involves the
several following topics : germination ; nutriment ; digestion ; growth and developement
of parts ; anomalies of vegetable developement ; sexuality of vegetables ; impregnation of
the vegetable germen ; changes consequent upon impregnation ; propagation and disper-
sion of the species; causes limiting the dispersion of the species; evidence and cha-
racter of vegetable vitality.

ISB SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

Sect. I. Germination of the Seed.

716. Qerminntion is that act or operation of the vegetative principle by which the em-
bryo is extricated from its envelopes, and converted into a plant. This is universally the
first part of the process of vegetation. For it may be regarded as an indubitable fact, that
all plants spring originally from seed. The conditions necessary to germination relate
either to the internal state of the seed itself, or to the circumstances in which it is placed,
with regard to surrounding substances.

717. The first condition necessary to germination is, that the seed must have reached
maturity/. Unripe seeds seldom germinate, because their parts are not yet prepared to
form the chemical combinations on which germination depends. There are some seeds,
however, whose germination is said to commence in the very seed-vessel, even before the
fruit is ripe, and while it is yet attached to the parent plant. Such are those of the tan-
gekolli of Adanson, and agave vivipara of East Florida, as well as of the cyamus nelumbo
of Sir J. E. Smith, or sacred bean of India ; to which may be added the seeds of the
common garden-radish, pea, lemon, &c. But these are examples of rare occurrence ;
though it is sometimes necessary to sow or plant the seed almost as soon as it is fully ripe,
as in the case of the coffee-bean ; which will not germinate unless it is sown within five
or six weeks after it has been gathered. But most seeds, if guarded from external injury,
■will retain their germinating faculty for a period of many years. This has been proved
by the experiment of sowing seeds that have been long so kept ; as well as by the deep
ploughing up of fields that have been long left without cultivation. A field that was thus
ploughed up near Dunkeld, in Scotland, after a period of forty years' rest, yielded a con-
siderable blade of black oats without sowing. It could have been only by the plough's
bringing up to the surface seeds that had been formerly too deeply lodged for germination.

718. The second condition is, that the seed sown must be defended from the action of the
rays of light. This has no doubt been long known to be a necessary condition of ger-
mination, if we legard the practice of the harrowing or raking in of tlie grains or seeds
sown by the farmer or gardener as being founded upon it.

719. A third condition necessary to germination is the access of heat. No seed has ever
been known to germinate at or below the freezing point. Hence seeds do not germinate
in winter, even though lodged in their proper soil. But the vital principle is not neces-
sarily destroyed in consequence of this exposure ; for the seed will germinate still, on the
return of spring, when the ground has been again thawed, and the temperature raised to
the proper degree. But this degree varies considerably in different species of seeds, as is
obvious from observing the times of their germination, whether in the same or in different
climates. For if seeds which naturally sow themselves, germinate in different climates
at the same period, or in the same climate at different periods, the temperature necessary
to their germination must of consequence be different. Now these cases are constantly
occurring and presenting themselves to our notice ; and have also been made the subject
of particular observation. Adanson found that seeds which will germinate in the space
of twelve hours in an ordinary degree of heat, may be made to germinate in the space of
three hours by exposing them to a greater degree of heat ; and that seeds transported from
the climate of Paris to that of Senegal, have their periods of germination accelerated from
one to three days. (Families des Plantes, vol. i. p. 84.) Upon the same principle, seeds
transported from a warmer to a colder climate, have their period of germination protracted
till the temperature of the latter is raised to that of the former. This is well exemplified
in the case of green-house and hot-house plants, from which it is also obvious that the tem-
perature must not be raised beyond a certain degree, otherwise the vital principle is totally
destroyed.

720. A fourth condition necessary to germination is the access of moisture. Seeds will
not germinate if they are kept perfectly dry. Water, therefore, or some liquid equivalent
to it, is essential to germination. Hence rain is always acceptable to the farmer or gar-
dener, immediately after he has sown his seeds ; and if no rain falls, recourse must be
had, if possible, to artificial watering. But the quantity of water applied is not a matter
of indifference. There may be too little, or there may be too much. If there is too
little, the seed dies for want of moisture ; if there is too much, it then rots. The case is
not the same, however, with all seeds. Some can bear but little moisture, though others
will germinate even when partially immersed ; as was proved by an experiment of Du
Hamel's, at least in the case of peas, which he placed merely upon a piece of wet sponge,
so as to immerse them by nearly the one half, and which germinated as if placed in the
soil. But this was found to be the most they could bear ; for when totally immersed in
the water they rotted. There are some seeds, however, that will germinate even when
wholly submersed. The seeds of aquatics must of necessity germinate under water ; and
peas have been also known to do so under certain conditions.

721. A fifth condition necessary to germination is the access of atmospheric air. Seeds
will not germinate if placed in a vacuum. Ray introduced some grains of lettuce-seed

Book I.

GERMINATION OF THE SEED.

159

into the receiver of an air-pump, which he then exhausted. The seeds did not germinate.
But they germinated upon the re-admission of the air, which is tlms proved by conse-
quence to be necessary to their germination. Achard proved that no seed will germinate
in nitrogen gas, or carbonic acid gas, or hydrogen gas, except when mixed with a cer-
tain proportion of oxygen gas ; and hence concluded that oxygen gas is necessary to
the germination of all seeds, and the only constituent part of the atmospheric air which
is absolutely necessary. Humboldt found that the process of germination is accelerated
by means of previously steeping the seed in water impregnated with oxymuriatic acid.
Cress-seed treated in this manner germinated in the space of three hours, though its or-
dinary period of germination is not less than thirty-two hours.

722. The period necessary to complete the jrrocess of germination is not the same in all
seeds, even when all the necessary conditions have been furnished. Some species require
a shorter, and others a longer period. The grasses are among tlie number of those plants
whose seeds are of tlie most rapid germination ; then perhaps cruciform plants ; then le-
guminous plants ; then labiate plants ; then umbelliferous plants ; and in the last order
rosaceous plants, whose seeds germinate the slowest. The following table indicates the
periods of the germination of a considerable variety of seeds, as observed by Adanson : —

■VVTieat, MUlet-seed
Spinage, Beans, Mustard
Lettuce, Aniseed
Melon, Cucumber, Cress- 1
seed - - - S

Davs.

3
4

Radish, Beet -root

Barley

Orache

Pturslain - -

Cabbage

Da^s.

7
8
9
10

^

Hrssop

Parsley - - - 4Uor5U

Almond, Chestnut, Peach - 1 year

Rose, Hawthorn, Filbert - 2 yean.

723. Physical phenomena. When a seed is committed to the soil under tlie conditions
that have been just specified, the first infallible symptom of germination is to be deduced
from the prolongation of the radicle (Jig. 56. a), bursting through its proper integuments.

and directing its extremity downwards into the soil. The next step in the process of ger-
mination is the evolution of the cotyledon or cotyledons (c), unless the seed is altogether
acotyledonous, or the cotyledons hj^pogean, as in the oak [b . The next step, in the case
of seeds furnished with cotyledons, is that of the extrication of the plumelet (c), or first
real leaf, from within or from between the cotyledon or cotyledons, and its expansion in
the open air. The last and concluding step is the developement of the rudiments of a
stem (rf), if the species is furnished with a stem, and the plant is complete. "Whatever
way the seed may be deposited, the invincible tendency of the radicle is to descend and
fix itself in the earth; and of the plumelet to ascend into the air. Many conjectures
have been offered to account for this. Knight accounts for it on the old but revived
principle of gravitation. Keith conjectures that it takes place from a power inherent in
the vegetable subject, analogous to what we call instinct in the animal subject, infallibly
directing it to the situation best suited to the acquisition of nutriment and consequent de-
velopement of its parts. '

724. The chemical phenomena of germination consist chiefly in the changes that are effected in the
nutriment destined for the support and developement of the embryo till it is converted into a plant.
This nutriment either passes through the cotyledons, or is contained in them j because the embryo die«

leO SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part IT.

when they are prematurely cut off. But the ferinaceous substance of the cotyledons, at least in exal-
buminous seeds, is a proof that they themselves contain the nutriment. They are to be regarded, therefore,
as repositories of the food destined for the support of the embryo in its germinating state. And if the
seed is furnished with a distinct and separate albumen, then is the albumen to be regarded as the repo-
sitory of food, and the cotyledon or cotyledons as its channel of conveyance. But the food thus contained
in the albumen or cotyledons is not yet fitted for the immediate nourishment of the embryo. Some
previous preparation is necessary ; some change must be effected in its properties. And this change is
effected by the intervention of chemical agency. The moisture imbibed by a seed placed in the earth is
immediately absorbed by the cotvledons or albumen, which it readily penetrates, and on which it imme-
diately begins to operate a chem'ical change, dissolving part of their farina, or mixing with their oily
particles, and forming a sort of emulsive juice. The consequence of this change is a slight degree of
fermentation, induced, perhaps, by the mixture of the starch and gluten of the cotyledons in the water
which they have absorbed, and indicated by the extraction of a quantity of carbonic acid gas as well as
by the smell and taste of the seed. This is the commencement of the process of germination, which
takes place even though no oxygene gas is present. But if no oxygene gas is present, then the process
stops ; which shows that the agency of oxygene gas is indispensable to germination. Accordingly, when
oxygene gas is present it is gradually inhaled by the seed ; and the farina of the cotyledons is found to
have changed its savour. Sometimes it becomes acid, but generally sweet, resembling the taste of sugar ;
and is consequently converted into sugar or some substance analogous to it This is a further proof that
a degree of fermentation has been induced; because the result is precisely the same in the process of the
fermentation of barley when converted into malt, as known by the name of the saccharine fermentation ;
in which oxygene gas is absorbed, heat and carbonic acid evolved, and a tendency to germination indi-
cated by the shooting of the radicle. The effect of oxygen, therefore, in the process, is that of converting
the farina of the albumen or cotyledons into a mild and saccharine food, fit for the nourishment of the
infant plant by diminishing the proportion of its carbon, and in augmenting, by consequence, that of its
oxygen and hydrogen. The radicle gives the first indications of life, expanding and bursting its integu-
ments, and at length fixing itself in the soil : the plumelet next unfolds its parts, developing the rudi-
ments of leaf, branch, and trunk : and, finally, the seminal leaves decay and drop off"; and the embryo
has been converted into a plant, capable of abstracting immediately from the soil or atmosphere the
nourishment necessary to its future growth.

Sect. II. Food of the vegetating Plant,

725. The substances which plants abstract from the soil or atmosphere, or the food of the
vegetating plant, have long occupied the phytological enquirer What then are the com-
ponent principles of the soil and atmosphere ? The investigations and discoveries of
modern chemists have done much to elucidate this dark and intricate subject. Soil, in
general, may be regarded as consisting of earths, water, vegetable mould, decayed animal
substances, salts, ores, alkalies, gases, perhaps in a proportion corresponding to the order
in which they are now enumerated ; which is at any rate the fact with regard to the three
first, though their relative proportions are by no means uniform. The atmosphere has
been also found to consist of at least four species of elastic matter — nitrogen, oxygen,
carbonic acid gas, and vapor; together with a multitude of minute particles detached
from the solid bodies occupying the surface of the earth, and wafted upon the winds.
Tlie two former ingredients exist in the proportion of about four to one ; carbonic acid
gas in the proportion of about one part in 100; and vapor in a proportion still less.
Such then are the component principles of the soil and atmosphere, and sources of vege-
table nourishment. But the whole of the ingredients of the soil and atmosphere are not
taken up indiscriminately by the plant and converted into vegetable food, because plants
do not thrive indiscriminately in all varieties of soil. Part only of the ingredients are
selected, and in certain proportions ; as is evident from the analysis of the vegetable sub-
stance given in the foregoing chapter, in which it was found that carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen, are the principal ingredients of plants ; while the other ingredients
contained in them occur but in very small proportions. It does not however follow, that
these ingredients enter the plant in an uncombined and insulated state, because they do
not always so exist in the soil and atmosphere ; it follows only that they are inhaled or ab-
sorbed by the vegetating plant under one modification or another. The plant then does
not select such principles as are the most abundant in the soil and atmosphere ; nor in
the proportions in which they exist ; nor in an uncombined and insulated state. But
what are the substances actually selected ; in what state are they taken up ; and in what
proportions? In order to give arrangement and elucidation to the subject, it shall be
considered under the following heads : Water, Gases, Vegetable Extracts, Salts, Earths,
Manures.

726. V/ater. As water is necessary to the commencement of vegetation, so also is it
necessary to its progress. Plants will not continue to vegetate unless their roots are
supplied with water ; and if they are kept long without it, the leaves will dioop and
become flaccid, and assume a withered appearance. Now this is evidently owing to the
loss of water ; for if the roots are again well supplied with water, the weight of the plant
is increased, and its freshness restored. But many plants will grow, and thrive, and
effect the developement of all their parts, if the root is merely immersed in water,
though not fixed in the soil. Tulips, hyacinths, and a variety of plants with bulbous
roots, may be so reared, and are often to be met with so vegetating ; and many plants
will also vegetate though wholly immersed. Most of the marine plants are of this de-
scription. It can scarcely be doubted, therefore, that water serves for the purpose of a
vegetable aliment. But if plants cannot be made to vegetate without water ; and if
they will vegetate, some when partly immersed witliout the assistance of soil ; and some

Hook I. FOOD OF THE VEGETATING PLANT. 161

even when totally immersed, so as that no other food seems to have access to them ; does
it not follow that water is the sole food of plants, the soil being merely the basis on
which they rest, and the receptacle of their food ? This opinion has had many advo-
cates ; and the arguments and experiments adduced in support of it were, at one time,
thought to have completely established its truth. It was indeed the prevailing opinion
of the seventeenth century, and was embraced by several philosophers even of the eight-
eenth century ; but its ablest and most zealous advocates were Van Helmont, Boyle,
Du Hamel, and Bonnet, who contended that water, by virtue of the vital energy of
the plant, was sufficient to form all the different substances contained in vegetables.
Du Hamel reared in the above manner plants of the horse-chestnut and almond to some
considerable size, and an oak till it was eight years old. And, though he informs us
that they died at last only from neglect of watering : yet it seems extremely doubtful
whether they would have continued to vegetate much longer, even if they had been
watered ever so regularly ; for he admits, in the first place, that they made less and less
progress every year ; and, in the second place, that their roots were found to be in a
very bad state. The result of a great variety of experiments is, that water is not the
sole food of plants, and is not convertible into the w hole of the ingredients of the veget-
able substance, even with the aid of the vital energy ; though plants vegetating merely
in water, do yet augment the quantity of their carbon. •

727. Gases. "When it was found that water is insufficient to constitute the sole food
of plants, recourse was next had to the assistance of the atmospheric air ; and it was
believed that the vital energy of the plant, is at least capable of furnishing all the dif-
ferent ingredients of the vegetable substance, by means of decomposing and combining,
in different ways, atmospheric air and water. But as this extravagant conjecture is
founded on no proof, it is consequently of no value. It must be confessed, however,
tliat atmospheric air is indispensably necessary to the health and vigor of the plant,
as may be seen by looking at the different aspects of plants exposed to a free circulation
of air, and plants deprived of it : the former are vigorous and luxuriant ; the latter
weak and stunted. It may be seen also by means of experiment even upon a small
scale. If a plant is placed under a glass to which no new supply of air has access, it soon
begins to languish, and at length withers and dies ; but particularly if it is placed under
the exhausted receiver of an air-pump ; as might indeed be expected from the failure of
the germi.iation of the seed in similar circumstances. The result of experiments on this
subject is, that atmospheric air and water are not the only principles constituting the
food of plants. But as in germination, so also in the progress of vegetation, it is part
only of the component principles of the atmospheric air tliat are adapted to the purposes
of vegetable nutrition, and selected by the plant as a food. Let us take them in the
order of their reversed proportions.

728. The ^ect of the apj^lication of carbonic acid gas was found to be altogether prejudicial in the pro-
cess of the germination of the seed. But in the process of subsequent vegetation its application has been
found, on the contrary, to be extremely beneficial Plants will not indeed vegetate in an atmosphere of
pure carbonic acid, as'was first ascertained by Dr. Priestley, who found that sprigs of mint growing in
water, and placed over wort in a state of fermentation, generally became quite dead in the space of a day,
and did not even recover when put into an atmosphere of common air. Of a number of experiments the
results are — 1st, That carbonic acid gas is of great utility to the growth of plants vegetating in the sun, as
applied to the leaves and branches ; and whatever increases the proportion of this gas in their atmo-
sphere, at least within a given degree, forwards vegetation ; 2d, That, as applied to the leaves and
branches of plants, it is prejudicial to their vegetation in the shade, if administered in a proportion beyond
that in which it exists in atmospheric air ; Sd, That carbonic acid gas, as applied to the roots of plants,
is also beneficial to their growth, at least in the more advanced stages of vegetation.

729. As oxygen is essential to the commencement and progress of germination, so also it is essential to
the progress of vegetation. It is obvious, then, that the experiment proves that it is beneficial to the
growth of the vegetable as applied to the root ; necessary to the developement of the leaves ; and to the
developement of the flower and fruit. The flower-bud will not expand if confined in an atmosphere de-
prived of oxygen, nor will the fruit ripen. Flower-buds confined in an atmosphere of pure nitrogen
faded without expanding. A bunch of unripe grapes introduced into a globe of glass which was luted by
its orifice to the bough, and exposed to tire sun, ripened without effecting any material alteration in its
atmosphere. But when a bunch was placed in the same circumstances, with the addition of a quantity of
lime, the atmosphere was contaminated, and the grapes did not ripen. Oxygen, therefore, is essential to
the developement of the vegetating plant, and is inhaled during the night.

730. Though nitrogen gas constitutes by far the greater part of the mass of amospheric air, it does not
seem capable of affording nutriment to plants ; for as seeds will not germinate, so neither will plants
vegetate in it, but for a very limited time, such as the vinca minor, lythrum salicaria, inula dysenterica,
epilobium hirsutum, and polygonum persicaria, that seem to succeed equally well m an atmosphere of
nitrogen gas as in an atmosphere of common air. Nitrogen is found in almost all vegetables, particularly
in the wood, in extract, and in their green parts, derived, no doubt, from the extractive principle of veget-
able mould. /. J I. T, . .., • •

731. Hijdrogen gas. A plant of the epilobium hirsutum, which was confined by Fnestley in a receiver
filled with inflammable air or hydrogen, consumed one third of its atmosphere and was still green.
Hence Priestley inferred, that it serves as a vegetable food, and constitutes even the true and proper
pabulum of the plant. But the experiments of later phytologists do not at all countenance this opinion.
Our conclusion from various experiments is, that hydrogen is unfavorable to vegetation, and does not
serve as the food of plants. But hydrogen is contained in plants as is evident from their analysis ; and if
thev refuse it when r^esented to them in a gaseous state, in what state do they then acquire it ? To this
question it is sufficient for the present to reply, that if plants do not acquire their hydrogen in the stete of
gas, they may at least acquire it in the state of water, which is indisputably a vegetable food, and of
which hydrogen constitutes one of the component parts.

M

162 SCIENCE OF GARDENING* Part II.

732. Vegetable Extract. When it was found tliat atmospheric air and water are not,
even conjointly, capable of furnishing the whole of the aliment necessary to the de-
velopement of the plant, it was then alledged that, with the exception of water, all sub-
stances constituting a vegetable food must at least be administered to tlie plant in a
gaseous state. But this also is a conjecture unsupported by proof; for even with
regard to such plants as grow upon a barren rock, or in pure sand, it cannot be said that
they receive no nourishment whatever besides water, except in a gaseous state. Many of
the particles of decayed animal and vegetable substances, which float in the atmosphere
and attach themselves to the leaves, must be supposed to enter the plant in solution with
the moisture which tlie leaves imbibe ; and so also similar substances contained in the
soil must be supposed to enter it by the root : but these substances may certainly con-
tain vegetable nourishment ; and they will perhaps be found to be taken up by the
plant in proportion to their degree of solubility in water, and to the quantity in which
they exist in the soil. Now one of the most important of these substances is vegetable
extract. When plants have attained to the maturity of their species, the principles of
decay begin gradually to operate upon them, till they at length die and are converted
into dust or vegetable mould, which, as might be expected, constitutes a considerable
proportion of the soil. Tlie chance then is, that it is again converted into vegetable
nourishment, and again enters the plant. But it cannot wholly enter the plant, because
it is not wholly soluble in water. Part of it, however, is soluble, and consequently
capable of being absorbed by the root, and that is the substance which has been denomi-
nated extract. Saussure filled a large vessel with pure mould of turf, and moistened it
with distilled or rain water, till it was saturated. At the end of five days, when it was
subjected to the action of the press, 10,000 parts in weight of the expressed and filtered
fluid yielded, by evaporation to dryness, 26 parts of extract. In a similar experiment
upon the mould of a kitchen-garden wliich had been manured vAth dung, 10,000 parts
of fluid yielded 10 of extract. And in a similar experiment upon mould taken from a
well cultivated corn-field, 10,000 parts of fluid yielded four parts of extract. Such was
the result in tliese particular cases. But the quantity of extract that may be separated
from common soil is not in general very considerable. After twelve decoctions, all that
could be separated was about one eleventh of its weight ; and yet this seems to be more
than sufficient for the purposes of vegetation : for a soil containing this quantity was found
by experiment to be less fertile, at least for peas and beans, than a soil that contained
only one half or two thirds the quantity. But if the quantity of extract must not be too
much, neither must it be too little. Plants that were put to vegetate in soil deprived of
its extract, as far as repeated decoctions could deprive it, were found to be much less
vigorous and luxuriant tlian plants vegetating in soil not deprived of its extract ; and yet
the only perceptible difference between them is, that the former can imbibe and retain a
much greater quantity of water than the latter. From tliis last experiment, as well as
from the great proportion in wliich it exists in the living plant, it evidently follows that
extract constitutes a vegetable food. But extract contains nitrogen ; for it yields by
distillation a fluid impregnated with ammonia. Tlie difficulty, therefore, of accounting
for the introduction of nitrogen into the vegetating plant, as well as for its existence in
the mature vegetable substance, is done away; for, although the plant refuses it when
presented in a gaseous state, it is plain that it must admit it along with the extract. It
seems also probable that a small quantity of carbonic acid gas enters the plant along with
the extractive principle, as it is known to contain this gas also.

733. Salts, in a certain proportion, are found in most plants, such as nitrate, muriate,
and sulphate of potass or soda, as has been already shown. Tliese salts are known to
exist in the soil, and the root is supposed to absorb them in solution with the water by
which the plant is nourished. It is at least certain that plants may be made to take up
by the roots a considerable proportion of salts in a state of artificial solution. But if
salts are thus taken up by the root of the vegetating plant, does it appear that they are
taken up as a food ? Some plants, it must be confessed, are injured by the application of
salts, as is evident from the experiments of Saussure ; but others are as evidently benefited
by it. Trefoil and lucerne have their growth much accelerated by the application of sul-
phate of lime, though many other plants are not at all influenced by its action. The
parietaria, nettle, and borage will not thrive, except in such soils as contain nitrate of lime
or nitrate of potass ; and plants inhabiting the sea-coast, as was observed by Du Hamel,
will not thrive in a soil that does not contain muriate of soda. It has been thouglit, how-
ever, that the salts are not actually taken up by the root, though converted to pu^rposes of
utility by acting as astringents or corrosives in stopping up the orifices of the vessels of the
plant, and preventing the admission of too much water : but it is to be recollected that
the salts in question are found by analysis in the very substance of the plant, and must
consequently have entered in solution. It has been also thought that salts are favorable
to vegetation only in proportion as they hasten the putrefaction of vegetable substances
contained m the soil, or attract the humidity of the atmosphere. But sulphate of lime is

Book I. FOOD OF THE VEGETATING PLANT. 163

not deliquescent ; and if its action consist merely in accelerating putrefaction, why is its
beneficial effect confined but to a small number of plants ? Grisenthwaite {New Theory
of Agriculture^ IS19, p. 111.) answers this question by stating, that as in the principal
grain-crops which interest the agriculturist, there exists a particular saline substance, pe-
culiar to each, so, if we turn our attention to the clovers, and turnips, we shall still find
the same discrimination. Saintfoin, clover, and lucerne, have long been known to con-
tain a notable quantity of gypsum (sulphate of lime) ; but such knowledge, very strange
to relate, never led to the adoption of gypsum as a manure for those crops, any more than
that of phosphate of lime for wheat, or nitrate of soda, or potassa for barley. It is true
that gjTJsum has been long, and in various places, recommended as a manure, but its uses
not being understood, it was recommended without any reference to crop, or indeed to the
accomplishment of any fixed object. It is very well known that some particular ingre-
dient may be essential to the composition of a body, and yet constitute but a very small
proportion of its mass. Atmospheric air contains only about one part in the 100 of
carbonic acid ; and yet no one will venture to affirm that carbonic acid gas is merely an
adventitious and accidental element existing by chance in the air of the atmosphere, and
not an essential ingredient in its composition. Phosphate of L"me constitutes but a very
small proportion of animal bodies, perhaps not one part in 500 ; and yet no one doubts
that it is essential to the composition of the bones. But the same salt is found in the
ashes of all vegetables ; and who will say tliat is not essential to their perfection ?

734. Earths. As most plants have been found by analysis to contain a portion of
alkaline or earthy salts, so most plants have been found to contain also a portion of
earths : and as the two suTjstances are so nearly related, and so foreign in their character
to vegetable substances in general, tlie same enquiry has consequently been made with
regard to their origin. ^V^]ence are the earths derived that have been found to exist in
plants ? Chiefly from the soil. But in what peculiar state of combination do they enter
the vessels of the plant ? The state most likely to facilitate their absorption is that of their
solution in water, in which all the earths hitherto found in plants are known to be in a
slight degree soluble. If it be said that the proportion in which they are soluble is so
very small tliat it scarcely deserves to be taken into the account, it is to be recollected that
the quantity of water absorbed by the plant is great, while that of the earth necessary to
its health is but little, so that it may easily be acquired in the progress of vegetation.
Such is the manner in which their absorption seems practicable : and "Woodward's expe-
riments afford a presumption that they are actually absorbed by the root. The proportion
of earths contained in the ashes of vegetables depends upon the nature of the soil in which
they grow. The ashes of the leaves of the rhododendron femigineum, growing on
Mount Jura, a calcareous mountain, yielded 43*25 parts of earthy carbonate, and only
0'75 of silica. But the ashes of leaves of tlie same plant, growing on Mount Breven, a
granitic mountain, yielded two parts of silica, and only 16-75 of earthy carbonate. It is
probable, however, that plants are not indebted merely to the soil for the earthy particles
which they may contain. Tliey may acquire them partly from the atmosphere. Margray
has shown tliat rain-water contains silica in tlie proportion of a grain to a pound ; which,
if it should not reach the root, may possibly be absorbed along with tlie water that adheres
to the leaves. But although the earths are thus to be regarded as constituting a small
proportion of vegetable food, they are not of themselves sufficient to support the plant,
even with the assistance of water. Giobert mixed together lime, alumine, silica, and
magnesia, in such proportions as are genemlly to be met with in fertile soils, and moistened
them with water. Several different grains were then sown in this artificial soil, which
germinated indeed, but did not thrive ; and perished when the nourishment of the cotyle-
dons was exhausted. It is plain, tlierefore, that the eartlis, though beneficial to the growth
of some vegetables, and perhaps necessary to the health of others, are by no means capable
of affording any considerable degree of nourishment to the plant.

735. Supply of food by manures and culture. With regard to the food of plants derived
from the atmosphere, the supply is pretty regular, at least, in as far as the gases are con-
cerned ; for they are not found to vary materially in their proportions on any part of the
surface of the globe : but the quantity of moisture contained in the atmosphere is con-
tinually varj-ing, so that in the same season you have not always the same quantity, though
in the course of the year the deficiency is perhaps made up. From the atmosphere,
therefore, there is a regular supply of vegetable food kept up by nature for the support of
vegetable life, independent of the aid of man : and if human aid were even wanted, it
does not appear that it could be of much avail. But this is by no means the case with
regard to soils ; for if soils are less regular in their composition, they are at least more
within the reach of human management. The supply of food may be increased by alter-
ing the mechanical or chemical constitution of soils ; and by tlie addition of food in the
form of manures. The mechanical constitution of soils may be altered by pulverisation,
consolidation, draining, and watering ; their chemical properties by aeration and torrifica-
tion : both mechanical and chemical properties by the addition of earths or other sub-

M 2

164 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

stances ; and manures, either liquid or solid, are supplied by irrigation and distribution
of dungs and other nourishing matters, with or without their interment. (See Book II.)
736. Soils in a state of culture, though consisting originally of the due proportion of
ingredients, may yet become exhausted of the principle of fertility by means of loo frequent
cropping ; whether by repetition or rotation of the same, or of different crops. In this
case, it° should be the object of the phytologist, as well as of the practical cultivator,
to ascertain by what means fertility is to be restored to an exhausted soil, or commu-
nicated to a new one. In the breaking up of new soils, if the ground has been wet or
marshy, as is frequently the case, it is often sufficient to prepare it merely by means of
draining off tlie superfluous and stagnant water, and of paring and burning the turf upon
the surface. If the soil has been exhausted by too frequent a repetition of the same crop,
it often happens that a change of crop will answer the purpose of the cultivator ; for al-
though a soil may be exhausted for one sort of grain, it does not necessarily follow that it
is also exhausted for another. And accordingly, the practice of the farmer is to sow his
crops in rotation, having in the same field a crop, perhaps, of wheat, barley, beans, and
tares in succession ; each species selecting in its turn some peculiar nutriment, or requir-
ing, perhaps, a smaller supply than the crop that has preceded it. But even upon the
plan of rotation, the soil becomes at length exhausted, and the cultivator obliged to have
recourse to other means of restoring its fertility. In tliis case, an interval of repose is
considerably efficacious, as may be seen from the increased fertility of fields that have not
been ploughed up for many years, such as those used for pasture; or even from that of
the walks and paths in gardens when they are again broken up. Hence also the practice
of fallowing, and of trenching or deep ploughing, wliich in some cases has nearly the same
effect.

737. The fertility of a soil is restored, in the case of draining, by means of its
carrying off all such superfluous moisture as may be lodged in the soil, which is well
known to be prejudicial to plants not naturally aquatics, as well as by rendering the
soil more firm and compact. In the case of burning, the amelioration is effected by
means of the decomposition of the vegetable substances contained in the turf, and sub-
jected to the action of the fire, which disperses part also of the superfluous moisture, but
leaves a residue of ashes favorable to future vegetation. In the case of the rotation of
crops, the fertility is not so much restored as more completely developed and brought into
action ; because tlie soil, though exhausted for one species of graip, is yet found to be
sufficiently fertile for another, the food necessary to each being different, or required in
less abundance. In the case of the repose of the soil, the restored fertility may be owing to
the decay of vegetable substances that are not now carried off in the annual crop, but left to
augment the proportion of vegetable mould ; or to the accumulation of fertilising particles
conveyed to the soil by rains ; or to the continued abstraction of oxygen from the atmo-
sphere. In the case of fallows, it is owing undoubtedly to the action of the atmospheric
air upon the soil, whether in rendering it more friable, or in hastening the putrefaction of
noxious plants ; or it is owing to the abstraction and accumulation of oxygen. In the
case of trenching, or deep ploughing, it is owing to the increased facility with which the
roots can now penetrate to the proper depth, and thus their sphere of nourishment is in-
creased. But it often happens that the soil can no longer be ameliorated by any of the
foregoing means, or not at least with sufficient rapidity for the purposes of the cultivator ;
and in this case there must be a direct and actual application made to it of such substances
as are fitted to restore its fertility. Hence the indispensable necessity of manures, which
consist chiefly of animal and vegetable remains that are buried and finally decomposed in
the soil, from which they are afterwards absorbed by the root of the plant, in a state of
solution.

738. But as carbon is the principal ingredient furnished by manures, as contributing to the
nourishment of the plant, and is not itself soluble in water, nor even disengaged by fer-
mentation in a state of purity ; under what state of chemical combination is its solution
effected ? Is it effected in the state of charcoal ? It has been thought, indeed, that car-
bon in the state of charcoal is soluble in water ; because water from a dunghill, when
evaporated, constantly leaves a residuum of charcoal, as was first ascertained by the experi-
ments of Hassenfratz. But there seem to be reasons for doubting the legitimacy of the
conclusion that has been drawn from it ; for Senebier found that plants whose roots were
immersed in water took up less of the fluid in proportion as it was mixed with water from
a dunglull. * Perhaps then the charcoal of water from a dunghill is held merely in sus-
pension, and enters the plant under some other modification. But if carbon is not
soluble in water in the state of charcoal, in what other state is it soluble ? It is soluble in
the state of carbonic acid gas. But is this the state in which it actually enters the root ?
On this subject phytologists have been somewhat divided in opinion. Senebier endea-
vours to prove that carbonic acid gas, dissolved in water, supplies the roots of plants with
almost all their carbon, and founds his arguments upon the following facts : in the

Book I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 165

first place, it is knoAvn that carbonic acid gas is soluble in water ; in the second place, it
is known to be contained in the soil, and generated by the fermentation of the materials
composing manures ; and, in the next place, it is known to be beneficial to vegetation
when applied artificially to the roots, at least in a certain degree. This is evident from
the following experiment of Ruckert, as well as from several experiments of Saussure's,
Dreviously related. Ruckert planted two beans in pots of equal dimensions, filled with
garden-mould ; the one was moistened with distilled water, and the other with water im-
pregnated with carbonic acid gas. But the latter appeared above ground nine days sooner
than the former, and produced twenty-five beans ; while the former produced only fifteen.
Now the result of this experiment, as well as the preceding facts, is evidently favorable to
the presumption of Senebier, and shows that if carbonic acid is not the state in which car-
bon enters the plant, it is at least a state preparatory to it ; and there are other circum-
stances tending to corroborate the opinion, resulting from the analysis of the ascending
sap of plants. The tears of the vine, when analysed by Senebier, yielded a portion of
carbonic acid and earth ; and as the ascending sap could not be supposed to have yet un-
dergone much alteration, the carbonic acid, like (lie earth, was probably taken i;p from
the soil. But this opinion, which seems to be so firmly established upon the basis of ex-
periment, Hassenfratz strenuously controverts. According to experiments which he had
instituted with an express view to the investigation of this subject, plants which were raised
in water impregnated with carbonic acid differed in no respect from such as grew in pure
water, and contained no carbon that did not previously exist in the seed. Now if this
were the fact, it would be decisive of the point in question. But it is plain from the ex-
periments of Saussure, as related in the preceding section, that Hassenfratz must have
been mistaken both with regard to the utility of carbonic acid gas as furnishing a vegetable
aliment, and with regard to the augmentation of carbon in the plant. The opinion of
Senebier, therefore, may still be correct. It must be acknowledged, however, that the
subject is not yet altogether satisfactorily cleared up ; and that carbon may certainly enter
the plant in some state different from that, either of charcoal in solution, or of carbonic
acid gas. Is not the carbonic acid of the soil decomposed before entering the plant ?
This is a conjecture of Dr. Thomson's, founded upon the following facts : — the green
oxide of iron is capable of decomposing carbonic acid ; and many soils contain that oxide.
Most soils, indeed, contain iron, either in the state of the brown or green oxide, and it
has been found that oils convert the brown oxide into green. But dung and rich soils
contain a quantity of oily substance. One effect of manures, therefore, may be that of
reducing the brown oxide of iron to the green, thus rendering it capable of decomposing
carbonic acid gas, so as to prepare it for some new combination, in which it may serve as
an aliment for plants. All this, however, is but a conjecture ; and it is more probable
that the carbonic acid of the soil enters the root in combination with some other substance,
and is afterwards decomposed within the plant itself.

Sect. III. Process of Vegetable I^^utriiion.

739. Plants are nourished in a manner in some degree analogous to the'animal economy.
The food of plants, whether lodged in the soil, or wafted through the atmosphere, is taken
up by intro-susception in the form of gases or other fluids : it is then known as their sap ;
tliis sap ascends to the leaves, where it is elaborated as the blood of animals is in the
lungs ; it then enters into the general circulation of the plant, and promotes its growth. !

740. Intro-susception. As plants have no organ analogous to the mouth of animals, they
are enabled to take up the nourishment necessarj' to their support only by absorption, or in-
halation as the chyle into the animal lacteals, or the air into the lungs. The former term is
applied to the intro-susception of non-elastic fluids ; tlie latter to that of gaseous fluids.
The absorption of non-elastic fluids by the epidermis of plants does not admit of a
doubt. It is proved, indisputably, that the leaves not only contain air, but do actually
inhale it. It was the opinion of Priestley that they inhale it chiefly by the upper surface.
And it has been shown by Saussure, that their inhaling power depends entirely upon the
organisation. It has been a question, however, among phj'tologists, whether it is not also
effected by the epidermis of the other parts of the plant. We can scarcely suppose it
to be effected by the dry and indurated epidermis of the bark of aged trunks, of which
the original organisation is obliterated ; nor by that of the larger and more aged branches.
But it has been thought there are even some of the soft and succulent parts of the plant
by which it cannot be effected, because no pores are visible in their epidermis. Decan-
dolle found no pores in the epidermis of fleshy fruits, such as pears, peaches, and goose-
berries ; nor in tliat of roots, or scales of bulbs ; nor in any part not exposed to the in-
fluence of air and light. It is known, however, that fruits will not ripen, and that roots
will not thrive, if wholly deprived of air ; and hence it is probable that tliey inhale it by
their epidermis, though the pores by which it enters should not be visible. In the root,
indeed, it may possibly enter in combination with the moisture of tiie soil ; but in the
other parts of the plant it enters no doubt in the state of gas. Herbs, therefore, and the

^ ]SI 3

166 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

soft parts of woody plants, absorb moisture and inhale gases from the soil or atmosphere
by means of the pores of their epidermis, and thus the plant effects the intro-susception
of its food.

741. Ascent of the sap. The means by which the plant effects the intro-susception of
its food, is chiefly that of absorption by the root. But the fluids existing in the soil when
absorbed by the root, are designated by the appellation of sap or lymph ; which, before
it can be rendered subservient to the purposes of vegetable nutrition, must either be
intermediately conveyed to some viscus proper to give it elaboration, or immediately
distributed throughout the whole body of the plant. Our present object, therefore, is
that of tracing out the progress of its distribution or ascent. The sap is in motion in
one direction or otlier, if not all the year, at least at occasional periods, as the bleeding of
plants in spring and autumn sufficiently illustrates. The plant always bleeds most freely
about the time of the opening of the bud ; for in proportion as the leaves expand, the sap
flows less copiously, and when they are fully expanded, it entirely ceases. IBut this sus-
pension is only temporary, for the plant may be made to bleed again in the end of the
autumn, at least under certain conditions. If an incision is now made into the body
of the tree, after the occurrence of a short but sharp frost, when the heat of the sun or
mildness of thp air begins to -produce a thaw, the sap will again flow. It will flow
even where the tree has been but partially thawed, which sometimes happens on the
south side of a tree, when the heat of the sun is strong and the wind northerly. At the
seasons now specified, therefore, the sap is evidently in motion ; but the plant will not
bleed at any otiier season of the year. It has been the opinion of some phytologists,
that the motion of the sap is wholly suspended during the winter. But though the
great cold of winter, as well as the great heat of summer, is by no means so favorable
to vegetation as the milder though more changeable temperature of spring and autumn,
yet it does not wholly suspend the m'ovement of the sap. Palms may be made to bleed
at any season of the year. And although this is not the case with plants in general,
yet there is proof suflScient that the colds of winter do not, even in tliis climate, entirely
prevent the sap from flowing. Buds exhibit a gradual developement of parts tlirough-
out the whole of the winter, as may be seen by dissecting tliem at different periods. So
also do roots. Evergi^eens retain their leaves ; and many of them, such as the arbutus,
laurustinus, and the beautiful tribe of the mosses, protrude also their blossoms, even in
spite of the rigor of the season. But all tins could not possibly be accomplished, if the
motion of the sap were wholly suspended.

742. ITius the sap is in perjietual motion with a more accelerated or more diminished
velocity throughout the whole of the year ; but still there is no decided indication, exhi-
bited in the mere circumstance of the plant's bleeding, of the direction in which the sap
is moving at the time ; for the result might be the same whether it was passing from the
root to the branches, or from the branches to the root. But as the great influx of the
sap is effected by means of the pores of tlie epidermis of the root, it follows that its motion
must, at least in the first place, be that of ascent ; and such is its direction at the season
of the plant's bleeding, as may be proved by the following experiment : — if the bore or
incision that has been made in the trunk is minutely inspected while the plant yet bleeds,
the sap will be found to issue almost wholly from the inferior side. If several bores are
made in the same trunk, one above another, the sap will begin to flow first from the lower
bore, and then from those above it. If a branch of a vine be lopped, the sap will issue
copiously from the section terminating the part that remains yet attached to the plant ;
but not from the section terminating the part that has been lopped off. This proves in-
dubitably that tlie direction of the sap's motion, during the season of the plant's bleeding,
is that of ascent. But if the sap flows so copiously during the season of bleeding, it
follows that it must ascend with a very considerable force ; which force has accordingly
been made the subject of calculation. To the stem of a vine cut off about two feet and
a half from the ground. Hales fixed a mercurial gauge which he luted with mastic ; the
guage was in the form of a syphon, so cony-ived that the mercury might be made to rise
in proportion to the pressure of tlie ascending sap. Tlie mercury rose accordingly, and
reached, as its maximum, to a height of thirty-eight inches. But this was equivalent to
a columnof water of the height of forty-three feet three and one-third inches ; demonstrat-
ing a force in the motion of the sap that, without the evidence of experiment, would have
seemed altogether incredible.

743. Thus the sap in ascending from the lower to the upper extremity of the plant is propelled
with a very considerable force, at least in the bleeding season. But is the ascending sap pro-
pelled indiscriminately throughout the whole of the tubular apparatus, or is it confined in
Us course, to any particular channel ? Before the anatomy of plants had been studied with
much accuracy, there was a considerable diversity of opinion on the subject. Some
thought It ascended by the bark ; others thought that it ascended by the bark, wood, and
pith indiscriminately ; and others thought it ascended between the bark and wood. The
first opinion was maintained and supported by Malpighi ; and Grew considers that the

Book I. ' PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 1^7

sap ascends by the bark, wood, and pith, indiscriminately. Du Hamel stript several trees
of their bark entirely, which continued, notwithstanding, to live for mjTny years, protrud-
ing new leaves and new branches as before. Knight stript the trunk of a number of
young crab-trees of a ring of bark half an inch in breadth, but the leaves were protruded,
and the branches elongated, as if the operation had not been performed. Du Petit
Thouars removed the central wood and pith from the stems of several young sycamore
trees, leaving the upper part to be supported only by four pillars of bark : in others he
removed the bark, liber, and alburnum, leaving the upper part of the tree to be supported
solely by the central wood. In both cases the trees lived, so that he concludes the bark
and wood can alternately act as the sap's conductor. {Hist, d'un Morceau de Bois.
Hort. Tour. 481.)

744. It is evident, therefore, that the saj) does not ascend exclusively by the bark. But it
is equally evident that it does not ascend by the pith, at least after the first year ; for then,
even upon Grew's own supposition, it becomes either juiceless or wholly extinct : and
even during the first year it is not absolutely necessary, if at all subservient to the ascent
of the sap, as is proved by an experiment of Knight's. Having contrived to abstract from
some annual shoots a portion of their pith, so as to interrupt its continuity, but not other-
wise materially to injure the fabric of the shoot. Knight found that the growth of the
shoots which had been made the subject of experiment was not at all affected by it.

745. Thus the sap ascends neither by the bark nor pith, but by the wood only. But the
whole mass of the wood throughout is not equally well adapted for the purpose of con-
veying it. The interior and central part, or that part that has acquired its last degree of
solidity, does not in general afford it a passage. This is proved by what is called the
girdling of trees, which consists in making a circular gap or incision quite round the
stem, and to the depth of two or three inches, so as to cut through both the bark and
alburnum. An oak-tree on which Knight had performed this operation, with a view to
ascertaining the channel of the sap's ascent, exhibited not the slightest mark of vegetation
in the spring following. The sap then does not ascend through the channel of the ma-
tured wood. But if the sap ascends neither through the channel of the bark, nor pith,
nor matured wood, through what other channel does it actually ascend ? The only re-
maining channel through which it can possibly ascend is that of the alburnum. In
passing through the channel of the alburnum, does the sap ascend promiscuously by the
whole of the tubes composing it, or is it confined in its passage to any peculiar set ?
The earliest conjectures recorded on this subject are those of Grew and Malpighi, who,
though they maintained that the sap ascends chiefly by the bark, did not yet deny that it
ascends also partly by the alburnum or wood. It occurred to succeeding phytologists
that the progress of the sap, and the vessels through which it passes, might be traced or
ascertained by means of making plants vegetate in colored infusions. Du Hamel steeped
the extremities of branches of the fig, elder, honeysuckle, and filbert in common ink.
In examining the two former, after being steeped for several days, the part immersed
was found to be black throughout, but the upper part was tinged only in the wood,
which was colored for the length of a foot, but more faintly and partially in proportion
to the height. Tlie pith, indeed, exhibited some traces of ink, but the bark and buds
none. In some other examples the external layers of the wood only were tinged.
In the honeysuckle the deepest shade was about the middle of the woody layers ; and in
the filbert there was also obser\'ed a colored circle surrounding tlie pith, but none in the
pith itself, nor in the bark.

746. Thus it is proved that the sap ascends through the vessels of the longitudinal Jlbre
composing the alburnum of luoody j^lants, aiid through the vessels of the several bundles of
longitudinal fibre constituting the ivoody part of herbaceous j)lants. But it has been already
shown that the vessels composing the woody fibre are not all of the same species. There
are simple tubes, porous tubes, spiral tubes, mixed tubes, and interrupted tubes. Through
which of these, tlierefore, does the sap pass in its ascent ? The best reply to this enquiry
has been furnished by Knight and Mirbel. Knight prepared some annual shoots of the
apple and horse-chestnut, by means of circular incisions, so as to leave detached rings of
bark with insulated leaves remaining on the stem. He then placed them in colored in-
fusions obtained by macerating the skins of very black grapes^ in water ; and, on exa-
mining the transverse section at the end of the experiment, it was found that the infu-
sion had ascended by the wood beyond his incisions, and also into the insulated leaves,
but had not colored the pith nor bark, nor the sap between the bark and wood. From
the above experiment. Knight concludes that the sap ascends through what are called
the common tubes of the wood and alburnum, at least till it reaches the leaves. Thus
the sap is conveyed to the summit of the alburnum. But Knight's next object was to
trace the vessels by which it is conveyed into the leaf. The apple-tree and horse-
chestnut were still his subjects of experiment. In the former the leaves are attached
to the plant by three strong fibres, or rather bundles of tubes, one in the middle of the
leaf-stalk, and one on each side. In the latter they are attached by means of several

M 4

1(58 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

such bundles. Now the colored fluid was found in each case to have passed through
the centre of tlie several bundles, and tlirough the centre only, tinging the tubes through-
out almost the whole length of tlie leaf-sfcilk. In tracing their direction from the leaf-
stalk upwards, they were found to extend to the extremity of tlie leaves ; and in tracing
their direction from the leaf-stalk downwards, they were found to penetrate the bark
and alburnum, the tubes of which they join, descending obliquely till they reach the
pith which they surround. From their position Knight calls tliem central tubes, thus
distinguishing them from tlie common tubes of the wood and alburnum, and from the
spiral tubes with which tliey were every where accompanied as appendages, as well as
from a set of other tubes which surrounded them, but were not colored, and which he
designates by tlie appellation of external tubes. The experiment was now transferred
to the flower-stalk and fruit-stalk, which was done by placing branches of the apple,
pear, and vine, furnished with flowers not yet expanded, in a decoction of logwood.
The central vessels were rendered apparent as in the leaf-stalk. When the fruit of the
two former was fully formed, the experiment was then made upon the fruit-stalk, in
which tlie central vessels were detected as before; but tlie coloring matter was found to
have penetrated into the fruit also, diverging round the core, approaching again in the
eye of the fruit, and terminating at last in the stamens. It was by means of a pro-
longation of the central vessels, which did not however appear to be accompanied by the
spiral tubes beyond the fruit-stalk. Such then are the parts of the plant through which
the sap ascends, and the vessels by which it is conveyed. Entering by the pores of the
epidermis, it is received into the longitudinal vessels of the root by which it is conducted
to the collar. Thence it is conveyed by the longitudinal vessels of the alburnum, to the
base of the leaf-stalk and peduncle ; from which it is further transmitted to the extremity
of the leaves, flower, and fruit. Tliere remains a question to be asked intimately con-
nected with the sap's ascent. Do the vessels conducting the sap communicate with one
another by inosculation or otherwise, so as that a portion of their contents may be con-
veyed in a lateral direction, and consequently to any part of the plant ; or do they form
distinct channels throughout the whole of tlieir extent, having no sort of communication
with any other set of tubes, or with one another? Each of the two opinions implied in
the question has had its advocates and defenders. But Du Hamti and Knight have
shown that a branch will still continue to live though the tubes leading directly to it are
cut in the trunk ; from which it follows that the sap, though flowing the most copiously
in the direct line of ascent, is at tlie same time also diffused in a transverse direction.

747. Causes of the sap^s ascent. By what power is the sap propelled ? Grew states
two hypotheses : its volatile nature and magnetic tendency, aided by the agency of fer-
mentation. Malpighi was of opinion that the sap ascends by means of the contraction
and dilatation of the air contained in the air-vessels. M. De la Hire attempted to ac-
count for the phenomenon by combining together the theories of Grew and Malpighi ;
and Borelli, who endeavoured to render their theory more perfect, by bringing to its aid
the influence of the condensation and rarification of the air and juices of the plant.

74S. Agency of heat. Du Hamel directed his efforts to the sohition of the difficulty, by endeavouring to ac-
count for the phenomenon from theagency of heat, and chiefly on the following grounds : — because the sap
begins to flow more copiously as the warinth of spring returns ; because the sap is sometimes foimd to
flow on the south side of a tree before it flows on the north side, that is, on the side exposed to the in-
fluence of the sun's heat sooner than on the side deprived of it; because plants may be made to vegetate
even in the winter, by means of forcing them in a hot-house ; and because plants raised in a hot-house
produce their fruit earlier than such as vegetate in the open air. There can be no doubt of the great
utility of heat in forwarding the progress of vegetation ; but it will not therefore follow that the motion
and ascent of the sap are to be attributed to its agency. On the contrary, it is very well known that if
the temperature exceeds a certain degree, it becomes then prejudicial both to the ascent of the sap and
also to the growtli of the plant. Hales found that the sap flows less rapidly at mid-day than in the
mormng ; and every body knows that vegetation is less luxuriant at midsummer than in the spring So
also, m the case of forcnig, it happens but too often that the produce of the hot-house is totally destroyed
by the unskilful apphcation of heat ; and if heat is actually the cause of the sap's ascent, how comes it
that the degree necessary to produce the eflbct is so very variable even in the same climate ? For there
are many plants, such as the arbutus, laurustinus, and the mosses, that will continue not only to ve
getate, but to protrude their blossoms and mature their fruit, even in the midst of winter, when the
temperature is at the lowest And in the case of submarine plants tlie temperature can never lie very
high ; so that although heat does no doubt facilitate the ascent of the sap by its tendency to make the
vessels expand, yet it cannot be regarded as the cflficient cause, since the sap is proved to be in motion
»'ven throughout the whole of the winter. Du Hamel endeavours, however, to strengthen the operation
of heat by means of the influence of humidity, as being also powerful in promoting the ascent of the sap,
whether as relative to the season ot the year or time of the day. The influence of the humidity of the
atmosphere cannot be conceived to operate as a propelling cause, though it may easilv be conceived to
operate as affording a facility to the ascent of the sap in one way or other ; which under certain circum
stances is capable of most extraordinary acceleration, but particularly in that state of the atmosphere
which forebodes or precedes a storm. In such a state a stalk of wheat was observed bv Du Hamel to erow
fc fff 'i"'^ri" three days ; a stalk of barley six inches, and a shoot of a vine almost two feet; but this
On S.!f,^ *i^7''t ^"* ^^'^T' t'?'^ cannot be of much service in the general propulsion of the sap.
On this intricate but important subject Lmnaeus appears to have embraced the opinion of Du Hamel or
an opinion very nearly aUied to it ; but does not seem to have strengthened it by anv new accession of
thfefflct ' '° ^^* "°"^ °^ ^^^ ^^"'""^^ ^"^^"^ "^"'"^ """ ^ '^^^'^^^ as adequaK^theVoductlon of

749. JrritaUnty. Perhaps the only cause that has ever been suggested as apnearine to be at all ademnt*
to the production of the effect, is that alleged by Saussure. According to Sa^uSure the cLse of thSt

Boor I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 169

aacent is to be found in a peculiar species of irritability inherent in the sap-vessels themselves and de
pendent upon vegetable life ; in consequence of which they are rendered capable of a certain degree of
contraction, according as the internal surface is affected by the application of stimuli, as well as of subse-
quent dilatation according as the action of the stimulus subsides ; thus admitting and propelling the s.in
by alternate dilatation and contraction. In order to give elucidation to the subject, let the tube be sup-
posed to consist of an indefinite number of hollow cylinders united one to another, and let the sap be
supposed to enter the first cylinder by suction, or by capillary attraction, or by any other adequate
means; then the first cylinder being excited by the stimulus of ihe sap, begins gradually to contract, and
to propel the contained fluid into the cylinder immediately above it. But the cylinder immediately
above it, when acted on in the same manner, is affected in the same manner ; and thus the fluid is pro-
pelled from cylinder to cylinder till it reaches the summit of the plant. So also when the first cylinder
has discharged its contents into the second, and is no longer acted upon by the stimulus of the sap, it
begins again to be dilated to its original cajjacity, and prepared for the intro-susception of a new portion
of fluid. Thus a supply is constantly kept up, and the sap continues to flow. The above is by far the
simplest, as well as most satisfactory of all theories accounting for the ascent of the sap.

750. Contraction and dilatation. Knight has presented us with a theory which, whatever maybe its real
value, merits at least our particular notice, as coming from an author who stands deservedly high in the
list of phytological writers. This theory rests ujwn the principle of the contraction and dilatation, not
of the sap-vessels themselves, as in the theory of Saussure, but of what Knight denominates the silver
grain, assisted perhaps by heat and humidity expanding or condensing the fluids. {Phil. Trans. 1801.)
Keith considers this theory of Knight as beset with many diflSculties, and the agency of the alleged cause
. as totally inadequate to the production of the effect to be accomplished.

751. Elaboration of the sap. The moisture of the soil is no sooner absorbed into the
plant than it begins to undergo a change. This is proved by the experiment of making
a bore or incision in tlie trunk of a tree during the season of bleeding ; the sap that issues
from the wound possesses properties very different from the mere moisture of the soil,
as is indicated by means of chemical analysis, and sometimes also by means of a peculiar
taste or flavor, as in tlie case of the birch-tree. Hence the sap has already undergone a
certain degree of elaboration ; either in passing through the glands of tlie cellular tissue,
which it reaches through the medium of a lateral communication, or in mingling with
the juices contained in the cells, and thus carrying off a portion of tliem ; in the same
manner, we may suppose, that water by filtering through a mineral vein becomes im-
pregnated with the mineral through which it i)asses. But this primary and incipient
stage of the process of elaboration must always of necessity remain a mystery to the
phytologist, as being wholly effected in the interior of the plant, and consequently beyond
the reach of observation. All he can do, therefore, is to trace out its future progress,
and to watch its succeeding changes, in which the rationale of the process of elaboration
may be more evident.

752. The process of elaboration is chie/lt/ operated in the leaf: for the sap no sooner
reaches the leaf, than part of it is immediately carried off by means of perspiration,
perceptible or imperceptible ; effecting a change in the proportion of its component parts,
and by consequence a change in its properties.

Hales reared a sun-flower in a pot of earth till it grew to the height of three feet and a half; he then
covered the mouth of the pot with a plate of lead, which he cemented so as to prevent all evaporation from
the earth contained in it. In this plate he fixed two tubes, the one nine inches in length and of but small
diameter, left open to serve as a medium of communication with the external air ; the other two inches
in length and one in diameter, for the purpose of introducing a supply of 'water, but kept always shut ex-
cept at the time of watering. The holes of the bottom of the pot were also shut, and the pot and plant
weighed for fifteen successive days in the months of July and August ; hence he ascertained not only the
fact of transpiration by the leaves, from a comparison of the supply and waste ; but also the quantity of
moisture transpired in a given time, by subtracting from the total waste the amount of evaporation from
the pot. The final result proved that the absorbing power of the root is greater than the transpiring power
of the leaves, in the proportion of five to two. Similar exi)eriments were also made upon some sjjecies of cab-
l)age, whose mean transpiration was found to be 1 lb. S oz. per day ; and on some species of evergreens,
which were found, however, to transpire less than other plants. The same is the case also with succulent
plants, which transpire but little in proportion to their mass, and which as they become more firm transpire
less. It is known, however, that they absorb a great deal of moisture, though they give it out thus
sparingly; which seems intended by nature for the purpose of resisting the great droughts to which they
are generally exposed, inhabiting, as they do, for the most part, the sandy desert or the sunny rock. Along
with his own experiments Hales relates also some others that were made by Miller of Chelsea; the result
of which was that, other circumstances being the same, transpiration is in proportion to the transpiring
surface, and is affected by the temjierature of the air ; sunshine or drought promoting it, and cold and
wet diminishing or suppressing it entirely. It is also greatest from six o'clock in the morning till noon,
and is least during the night. But when transpiration becomes too abundant, owing to excess of heat
or drought, the plant immediately suffers, and begins to languish ; and hence the leaves droop during the
day, though they are again revived during the night. For the same or for a similar reason, transpiration
has been found also to increa.se as the heat of summer advances; being more abundant in July than in
June, and still more in August than in either of the preceding months, from which last period it begins
again to decrease.

753. A Huid little different from common wa'er is exhaled according to the experi-
ments of Hales and Guetard ; in some cases it had the odor of the plant ; but Du
Hamel found that it became sooner putrid than water. Such then are the facts that have
been ascertained with regard to the imperceptible perspiration of plants, from which it
unavoidably follows that the sap undergoes a very considerable modification in its passage
through the leaf.

754 Perceptible perspiration, which is an exudation of sap too gross or too abundant
to be dissipated immediately, and which hence accumulates on the surface of the leaf, is
the cause of its further modification. It is very generally to be met with in the course of

170 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Pam II.

the summer on the leaves of the maple, poplar, and lime-tree ; but particularly on the
surface exposed to the sun, which it sometimes wholly covers.

Its physical as well as chemical qualities are very different in different species of plants ; so that it is not
always merely an exudation of sap, but of sap in a high state of elaboration, or mingled with the peculiar
juices or secretions of the plant. Sometimes it is a clear and watery fluid conglomerating into large drops,
such as are said to have been observed by Miller, exuding from the leaves of the musa arbor, or plantain-
tree ; and such as are sometimes to be seen in hot and calm weather exuding from the leaves of the poplar
or willow, and trickling down in such abundance as to resemble a slight shower. This phenomenon was
observed by Sir J. R Smith, under a grove of willows in Italy, and is said to occur sometimes even in Eng- i
land. Sometimes it is glutinous, as on the leaf of the lime-tree ; sometimes it is waxy, as on the leaves of
rosemary: sometimes it is saccharine, as on the orange-leaf; or resinous, as on the leaves of the cistus
creticus. The cause of this excess of perspiration has not yet been altogether satisfactorily ascertained ;
though it seems to be merely an effort and institution of nature to throw off all such redundant juices as
may have been absorbed, or secretions as may have been formed beyond what are necessary to the due
nourishment or composition of the plant, or beyond what the plant is capable of assimilating at the time.
Hence the watery exudation is perhaps nothing more than a redundancy of the fluid thrown off by imper-
ceptible perspiration, and the waxy and resinous exudations nothing more than a redundancy of secreted
juices ; all which may be still perfectly consistent with a healthy state of the plant. But there are cases in
which the exudation is to be regarded as an indication of disease, particularly in that of the exudation
known by the name of honey-dew, a sweet and viscid substance covering the leaves like a varnish, and
sometimes occasioning their decay. Such at least seems to be the fact with regard to the honey-dew of
the hop, which, according to the observations of Linnasus, is the consequence of the attacks of the cater-
pillar of the ghost-moth injuring the root. And such seems also to be the fact with regard to the honey-
dew of the beech-tree, and perhaps also the honey-dew of the oak. The sap then in the progress of its
ascent from the extremity of the root to the extremity of the leaf undergoes a considerable change, first in
its mixing with the juices already contained in the plant, and then in its throwing off a portion at the lea£

755. The sap isjurlher affected by means of the gases entering into the root along with
the moisture of the soil, but certainly, by means of the gases inhaled into the leaf; the
action and elaboration of which shall now be elucidated.

756. Elaboration of carbonic acid. The utility of carbonic acid gas as a vegetable food has been al-
ready shown ; plants being found not only to absorb it by the root along with the moisture of the soil, but
also to inhale it by the leaves, at least when vegetating in the sun or during the day. But how is the ela-
boration of this gas effected ? Is it assimilated to the vegetable substance immediately upon entering the
plant, or is its assimilation effected by means of intermediate steps ? The gas thus inhaled or absorbed is
not assimilated immediately, or at least not wholly : for it is known that plants do also evolve carbonic
acid gas when vegetating in the shade, or during the night. Priestley ascertained that plants vegetating in
confined atmospheres evolve carbonic acid gas in the shade, or during the night, and that the vitiated
state of their atmospheres after experiment is owing to that evolution ; and Saussure, that the elaboration
of carbonic acid gas is essential to vegetation in the sun ; and, finally, Sencbier and Saussure proved that
the carbonic acid gas contained in water is abstracted and inhaled by the leaf, and immediately decom-
posed ; the carbon being assimilated to the substance of the plant, and the oxygen in part evolved, and
in part also assimilated. The decomposition of carbonic acid gas takes place only during the light of day,
though Saussure has made it also probable that plants decompose a part of .the carbonic acid gas which
they form with the surrounding oxygen even in the dark. But the effect is operated chiefly by means of
the leaves and other green parts of vegetables, that is, chiefly by the parenchyma ; the wood, roots, petals,
and leaves that have lost their green color not being found to exhale oxygene gas. It may be observed,
howevir, that the green color is not an absolutely essential character of the parts decomposing carbonic
acid ; because the leaves of a peculiar variety of the atriplex hortensis, in which all the green parts change
to red, do still exhale oxygene gas.

757. Elab'Jration of oxygen. It has been already shown that the leaves of plants abstract oxygen from
confined atmospheres, at least when placed in the shade, though they do not inhale all the oxygen that
disappears ; and it has been further proved, from experiment, that the leaves of plants do also evolve a
gas in the sun. From a great variety of experiments relative to the action and influence of oxygen on the
plant, and the contrary, the following is the sum of the results. The green parts of plants, but especially
the leaves, when exposed in atmospheric air to the successive influence of the light and shade, inhale and
evolve alternately a portion of oxygene gas mixed with carbonic acid. But the oxygen is not immediately
assimilated to the vegetable substance; it is first converted into carbonic acid by means of combining with
the carbon of the plant, which withers if this process is prevented by the application of lime or potass.
The leaves of aquatics, succulent plants, and evergreens consume, in equal circumstances, less oxygen
than the leaves of other plants. The roots, wood, and petals, and in short all parts not green, with the
exception of some colored leaves, do not effect the successive and alternate inhalation and extrication of
oxygen ; they inhale it indeed, though they do not again give it out, or assimilate it immediately, but con-
vey it under the form of carbonic acid to the leaves, where it is decomposed. Oxygen is indeed assimilated
to the plant, but not directly, and only by means of the decomposition of carbonic acid ; when part of it,
though in a very small proportion, is retained also and assimilated along with the carbon. Hence the most
obvious influence of oxygen, as applied to the leaves, is that of fonning carbonic acid gas, and thus pre-
senting to the plant elements which it may assimilate; and perhaps the carbon of the extractive juices
absorbed even by the root, is not assimilated to the plant till it is converted by means of oxygen into car-
bonic acid. But as an atmosphere composed of nitrogen and carbonic acid gas only is not favorable to
vegetation, it is probable that oxygen performs also some other function beyond that of merely presenting
to the plant, under the modification of carbonic acid, elements which it may assimilate. It may effect also
the disengagement of caloric by its union with the carbon of the vegetable, which is the necessary result
of such union. But oxygen is also beneficial to the plant from its action on the soil ; for when the ex-
tractive juices contained in the soil have become exhausted, the oxygen of the atmosphere, by penetrating
into the earth and abstracting from it a portion of its carbon, forms a new extract to replace the first.
Hence we may account for a number of facts observed by the earlier phytologists, but not well explained."
Du Hamel remarked that the lateral roots of plants are always the more vigorous the nearer they are
to the surface ; but it now appears that they are the most vigorous at the surface because they have there
the easiest access to the oxygen of the atmosphere, or to the extract which it may fornj. It was observed
also by the same phytologist that perpendicular roots do not thrive so well, other circums'iances being the
same, in a stiff and wet soil as in a friable and dry soil ; while plants with slender and divided roots thrive
equally well m both : but.this is no doubt owing to the obstacles that present themselves to the passage of
tne oxygen in the former case, on account of the greater depth and smaller surface of the root. It was
lurttier observed, that roots which penetrate into dung or into pipes conducting water, divide into immense
numbers of fibres, and form what is called the fox-tail root ; but it is because they cannot continue to ve-
getate, excg)t by increasing their points of contact, with the small quantity of oxygen found in such
mediums, l^astly, it wag observed that plants, whose roots are suddenly overflowed with water remainine
afterwards stagnant, suffer sooner than if the accident had happened by means of a continued current. It
IS because in the former case the oxygen contained in the water is soon exhausted, while in the latter it if

Book L PROCESS OF VEGETABLE NUTRITION. 171

not exhausted at all. And nence also we may account for the phenomenon exhibited by plants vegetating
in distilled water under a receiver filled With atmospheric air, which having no proper soil to supply the
root with nourishment, effect the developement of their parts only at the expense of their own proper
substance j the interior of the stem, or a portion of the root, or tlie lower leaves decaying and giving up
their extractive juices to the other parts. — Thus it appears that oxygene gas, or that constituent part of
the atmospheric air which has been found to be indispensable to the life of animals is also indispensable to
the life of vegetables. But although the presence and action of oxygen is absolutely necessary to the process
of vegetation, plants do not thrive so well in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, as in an atmosphere of pure or
common air. This was proved by an experiment of Saussure's, who having introduced some plants of
I)isum sativum, that were but just issuing from the seed, into a receiver containing pure oxygene gas,
found that in the space of six days they had acquired only half the weight of such as were introduced at
the *ame time into a receiver containing common air. I'rom whence it follows that oxygen, though the
principal agent in the process of vegetation is not yet the only agent necessary to the health and growth of
the plant, and that the proportion of the constituent parts of the atmospheric air is well adapted for the
purposes both of vegetable and animal life.

758. Decojnposition of water. Altliough the opinion was proved to be groundless,
by which "water had been supposed to be convertible into all the different ingredients en-
tering into tlie composition of the vegetable substance by means of the action of the vital
energy of the plant ; yet when water was ultimately proved to be a chemical compound,
it was by no means absurd to suppose that plants may possess the power of decomposing
part, at least, of wh^t they absorb by the root, and tlius acquire the hydrogen as well as a
portion of tlie oxygen which, by analysis, they are found to contain. This opinion was
accordingly pretty generally adopted, but was not yet proved by any direct experiment.
Senebier pointed out several phenomena from which he thought it was to be inferred, but
particularly tliat of the germination of some seeds moistened merely with water, and so
situated as to have no apparent contact with oxygen. The decomposition of water was
inferred also by Ingenhouz, from the amelioration of an atmosphere of common air into
which he had introduced some succulent plants vegetating in pure water. Saussure having
gatliered a number of plants of the same species, as nearly alike as possible in all circum-
stances likely to be affected by the experiment, diied part of them to the temperature of
the atmosphere, and ascertained tlieir weight ; the rest he made to vegetate in pure water,
and in an atmosphere of pure oxygen for a given period of time, at the end of which he
dried them as before, and ascertained their weight also, wliich it was thus only necessary
to compare with the weight of the former, in order to know whether tlie plants had in-
creased in solid vegetable substance or not. But after many experiments on a variety of
plants, the result always was, that plants when made to vegetate in pure water only, and
in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, or of common air deprived of its carbonic acid, scarcely
added any thing at all to their weight in a dried state ; or if tliey did, the quantity was too
small to be appreciated. But from a subsequent experiment, in which carbonic acid gas
was mixed with common air by the same experiment, tlie decomposition and fixation of
water by the vegetating plant is legitimately inferred. It does not appear, however, that
plants do in any case decompose water directly ; tliat is, by appropriating its hydrogen and
at the same time disengaging its oxygen in the form of gas, wliich is extricated only by
the decomposition of carbonic acid.

759. Descent of the jrroper juice. Wlien the sap has been duly elaborated in the leaf
by means of the several processes that have just been described, it assumes the appel-
lation of the cambium, or proper juice of the plant. In this ultimate state of elaboration
it is found chiefly in the bark, or rather between the bark and wood, and may very often
be distinguished by a peculiar color, being sometimes white, as in the several species of
spurge, and sometimes yellow, as in celandine. It is said to be the principal seat of the
medical virtues of plants ; and was regarded by Malpighi as being to the plant what the
blood is to the animal body — tlie immediate principle of nourishment, and grand support
of life ; which opinions he endeavours to establish by the following analogies : if the blood
escapes from the vessels of tlie animal body, it forms neither flesh nor bone, but tumors ;
if the proper juices of the plant are extravasated, they form neither bark nor wood, but a
lump of gum, resin, or inspissated juice. The disruption of the blood-vessels and conse-
quent loss of blood, injures and often proves fatal to the animal. Tlie extravasation of
the proper juice injures and often proves fatal to vegetables, unless the evil is prevented
by the skill and management of tlie gardener. Whatever may be the value of these re-
marks as tending to establish the analogy in question, it cannot be doubted that tlie cam,-
hium or proper juice constitutes at least the grand principle of vegetable organisation ;
generating and developing in succession the several organs of the jilant, or furnishing the
vital principle with the immediate materials of assimilation.

760. Tlie proper juics is conveyed to the several parts of the plant by an appropriate set of vessels. One
of the earliest and most satisfactory experiments on this subject, at least as far as regards the return of
the proper juice through the leaf and leaf-stalk, is that of Dr. Darwin, which was conducted as follows:
a stalk of the euphorbia helioscopia, furnished with its leaves and seed-vessels, was placed in a decoction
of madder-root, so as that the lower portion of the stem and two of the inferior leaves were immersed in
it. After remaining so for several days the color of the decoction was distinctly discerned passing along
the midrib of each leaf. On the upper side of the leaf many of the ramifications, going from the midrib
tOTTards the circumference, were observed to be tinged with red; but on the under side there was ob-
served a system of branching vessels, originated in the extremities of the leaf and carrying not a red but
a pale milky fluid, which, at^cr uniting in two sets, one on each side the midrib, descended along with it

172 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Tart II.

into the leaf-stalk. These were the vessels returning the elaborated sap. The vessels observable on the
upper surface Darwin calls arteries, and those on the under surface he calls veins. To this may be added
the more recent discoveries of Knight, who in his experiments, instituted with a view to ascertain the
course of the sap, detected in the leaf-stalk, not only the vessels which he calls central tubes, through
which the colored infusion ascended, together with their appendages, the spiral tubes ; but also another
Bet of vessels surrounding the central tubes, which he distinguishes by the appellation of external tubes,
and which appeared to be conveying in one direction or other a fluid that was not colored, but that
proved, upon further investigation, to be the descending proper juice. In tracing them upwards they
were found to extend to the summit of the leaf, and in tracing them downwards they were found
to extend to the base of the leaf-stalk, and to penetrate even into the inner bark. According
to Knight, then, there are three sets of vessels in leaves, the central tubes, the spiral tubes, and the
external tubes. But by what means is the proper juice conducted from the base of the leaf-stalk to the
extremity of the root ? This was the chief object of the enquiry of the earlier phytologists who had not
yet begun to trace its progress in the leaf and leaf-stalk ; but who were acquainted with facts indicating
at least the descent of a fluid in the trunk. Du Hamel stript sixty trees of their bark in the course of the
spring, laying them bare from the upper extremity of the sap and branches to the root ; the experiment
proved indeed fatal to them, as they all died in the course of three or four years. But many of them
had made new productions both of wood and bark from the buds downwards, extending in some cases to
the length of a foot ; though very few of them had made any new productions from the root upwards.
Hence it is that the proper juice not only descends from the extremity of the leaf to the extremity of the
root, but generates also in its descent new and additional parts. The experiments of Knight on this sub-
ject are, if possible, more convincing than even those of Du Hamel. From the trunks of a number of
young crab-trees he detached a ring of bark of half an inch in breadth. The sap rose in them, and the
portion of the trunk above the ring augmented as in other subjects that were not so treated, while the
portion below the ring scarcely augmented at all. The upper lips of the wounds made considerable ad-
vances downwards, while the lower lips made scarcely any advances upwards ; but if a bud was protruded
under the ring, and the shoot arising from it allowed to remain, then the portion of the trunk below that
bud began immediately to augment in size, while the portion between the bud and incision remained
nearly as before. When two circular incisions were made in the trunk so as to leave a ring of bark be-
tween them with a leaf growing from it, the portion above the leaf died, while the portion below the leaf
lived ; and when the upper part of a branch was stripped of its leaves the bark withered as far as it was
stript. Whence it is evident that the sap which has been elaborated in the leaves and converted into
proper juice, descends through the channel of the bark, or rather between the bark and alburnum to
the extremity of the root, effecting the developement of new and additional parts. But not only is
the bark thus ascertained to be the channel of the descent of the proper juice, after entering the trunk ;
the peculiar vessels through which it immediately passes, have been ascertained also. In the language
of Knight they are merely a continuation of the external tubes already noticed, which after quitting the
base of the foot-stalk he describes as not only penetrating the inner bark, but descending along with it
and conducting the proper juice to the very extremity of the root. In the language of Mirbel they are
the large or rather simple tubes so abundant in the bark of woody plants, though not altogether confined
to it ; and so well adapted by the width of their diameter to afford a passage to the proper juice.

761. Causes of descent. The proper juice then, or sap elaborated in the leaf, descends
by the returning vessels of the leaf-stalk, and by the longitudinal vessels of the inner bark,
the large tubes of Mirbel and external tubes of Knight, dow^n to the extremity of the root.

The descent of the proper juice was regarded by the earlier phytologists as resulting from the
agency of gravitation, owing perhaps more to the readiness with which the conjecture suggests itself
than to the satisfaction which it gives. But the insufficiency of this cause was clearly pointed out
by Du Hamel, who observed in his experiments with ligatures that the tumor was always formed
on the side next to the leaves, even when the branch was bent down, whether by nature or art, so
as to point to the earth, in which case the power propelling the proper juice is acting not only in
opposition to that of gravitation, but with such force as to overcome it. This is an unanswer-
able argument ; and yet it seems to have been altogether overlooked, or at least undervalued in its
importance by Knight, who endeavours to account for the effect by ascribing it to the joint operation
of gravitation, capillary attraction, the waving motion of the tree, and the structure of the conducting
vessels; but the greatest of these causes is gravitation. Certain it is that gravitation has considerable
influence in preventing the descent of the sap in young shoots of trees which have grown upright, which,
when bent down after being fUlly grown, form larger buds, and often blossom instead of leaf buds. This
practice, with a view to the production of blossom-buds is frequently adopted by gardeners (Hart. Trans.
i. 237.) in training fruit-trees. — These causes are each perhaps of some efficacy; and yet even when
taken altogether they are not adequate to the production of the effect. The greatest stress is laid upon
gravitation ; but its agency is obviously over-rated, as is evident from the case of the pendent shoots of
the weeping willow ; and if gravitation is so very efficacious in facilitating the descent of the proper
juice, how comes its influence to be suspended in the case of the ascending sap ? The action of the silver
grain will scarcely be sulHcient to overcome it ; and if it should be said that the sap ascends through the
tubes of the alburnum by means of the agency of the vital principle, why may not the same vital prin-
ciple conduct also the proper juice through the returning vessels of the bark. In short if, with Saussure,
we admit the existence of a contracting power in the former case sufficient to propel the sap from ring to
ring, it will be absolutely necessary to admit it also in the latter. Thus we assign a cause adequate to
the production of the effect, and avoid at the same time the transgression of that most fundamental prin-
ciple of all sound philosophy which forbids us to multiply causes without necessity.

Sect. IV. Process of Vegetable Developement.

762. The production of the different parts and organs of plants is effected by the assimi-
lation of the proper juice. The next object of our enquiry, therefore, will be that of
tracing out the order of the developement of the several parts, together with the peculiar
mode of operation adopted by the vital principle. But this mode of operation is not
exactly the same in herbaceous and annual plants, as in woody and perennial plants. In
the former, the process of developement comprises as it were but one act of the vital prin-
ciple, the parts being all unfolded in immediate succession and without any perceptible
interruption till the plant is complete. In the latter, the process is carried on by gradual
and definite stages easily cognisable to tlie senses, commencing with the approach of
spring, and terminating with the approach of winter ; during which, the functions of the
vital principle seem to be altogether suspended, till it is aroused again into action by the
warmth of the succeeding spring. The illustration of the latter, however, involves also
that of the fonner ; because the growth of the first year exemplifies at the same time the

Book I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 173

growth of annuals, while the growtli of succeeding years exemplifies whatever is peculiar
to perennials.

763. Elementary organs. If the Embrjo, on its escape from the seed and conversion
into a plant, is taken and minutely inspected, it will be found to consist of a root,
plumelet, and incipient stem, which have been developed in consecutive order ; and if
the plant is taken and dissected at this period of its growth it will be found to be com-
posed merely of an epidermis enveloping a soft and pulpy substance, that forms the mass
of the individual ; or it may be furnished also with a central and longitudinal fibre ; or
with bundles of longitudinal fibres giving tenacity to the whole. These parts have been
developed no doubt by means of the agency of the vital principle operating on the proper
juice J but what have been the several steps of operation ?

Perhaps no satisfactory explication of this phenomenon has yet been qffcred. It is likely, however,
that the rudiments of all the different parts of the plant do already exist in theembrjo in such specific
order of arrangement as shall best fit them for future devcloperaent, by the intro-susception of new and
additional particles. The pellicle constituting the vegetable epidermis has generally been regarded as a
membrane essentially distinct from the parts which it covers, and as generated with a view to the dis-
charge of some particular function. Some phytologists, however, have viewed it in a light altogether
different, and have regarded it as being merely the effect of accident, and nothing more than a scurf
formed on the exterior and pulpy surface of the parenchyma indurated by the action of the air. It is
more probably, however, formed by the agency of the vital principle, even while the plant is yet in em-
bryo, for the very puqxjse of protecting it from injury when it shall have been exposed to the air in the
process of vegetation. There are several respects in which an analogy between the animal and vegetable
epidermis, is sufficiently striking : they are both capable of great expansion in the growth of the sub-
ject ; they are both easily regenerated when injured (excepting in the case of induration), and seemingly
in the same manner ; they are both subject, in certain cases, to a constant decay and repair ; and they
both protect from injury the parts enclosed.

764. Composite organs. The elucidation of the developement of the composite organs
involves the discussion of the two following topics : — the formation of the annual plant,
and of tlie original shoot of the perennial ; and the formation of the subsequent layers
that are annually added to the perennial.

765. Annuals and annual shoots. If a perennial of a year's growth is taken up in
the beginning of winter wheti the leaves, which are only temporary organs, have fallen,
it will be found to consist of a root and trunk, surmounted by one or more buds. The
root is the radicle expanded into the form peculiar to the species, but the trunk and buds
have been generated in the process of vegetation.

Tlie root or trunk, if taken and cut into two by means of a transverse section, will be found to con-
sist already of bark, wood, and pith. Here then is the termination of the growth of the annual,
and of the first stage of the growth of the perennial : how have their several parts or organs been
formed.

766. TJie pith seems only a modification of the original pulp, and the same hypothesis that accounts for
the formation of the one will account also for the formation of the other; but the pith and pulp, or
parenchj-ma, are ultimately converted into organs essentially distinct from one another; though phyto-
logists have been much puzzled to assign to each its respective functions. In the ages in which phytolo-
gical opinions were formed without enquirj-, one of the vulgar errors of the time seems to have been an
opinion by which the function of the pith was supposed to be that of generating the stone of fruit, and
by which it was thought that a tree deprived of its pith would produce fruit without a stone. {Phys. des
A)-b. liv. i. chap. 3.) But this opinion is by much too absurd to merit a serious refutation. Another
early opinion, exhibiting however indications of legitimate enquirj', is that by which the pith was re-
garded as being analogous to the heart and brain of animals, as related by Malpighi ; who did not him-
self adopt it, but believed the pith to be like the cellular tissue, the viscera in which the sap is elaborated
for the nourishment of the plant, and for the protrusion of future buds. Magnol thought that it pro-
duces the flower and fruit, but not the wood. Du Hamel regarded it as being merely an extension of
the pulp or cellular tissue, without being destined to perform any important function in the process of
vegetation. But Linnaeus was of opinion that it produces even the wood ; regarding it not only as the
source of vegetable nourishment, but as being also to the vegetable what the brain and spinal marrow
are to animals, the source and seat of life. In these opinions there may be something of truth, but they
have all the common fault of ascribing to the pith either too little or too much. M. Lindsay of Jamaica
suggested a nfew opinion on the subject, regarding it as being the seat of the irritability of the leaves of
the mimosa, and Sir J. E. Smith says he can see nothing to invalidate the arguments on which this
opinion is founded. Plenck and Knight regard it as destined by nature to be a reservoir of moisture to
supply the leaves when exhausted by excess of perspiration. Hence it appears that the peculiar function
of the pith has not yet been altogether satisfactorily ascertained ; and the difficulty of ascertaining it has
been thought to be increased from the circumstance of its seeming to be only of a temporary use in the
process of vegetation, by its disappearing altogether in the aged trunk. But although it is thus only
temporary as relative to the body of the trunk, yet it is by no means temporary as relative to the process
of vegetation ; the central part of the aged trunk being now no longer in a vegetating state, and the pith
being always present in one shape or other in the annual plant, or in the new additions that are an-
nually made to perennials. The pith then is essential to vegetation in all its stages : and from the
analogy of its structure to that of the pulp or parenchyma which is known to be an organ of elabor-
ation, as in the leaf, the fiinction of the pith is most probably that of giving some peculiar elaboration
to the sap.

IffJ. The generation qf the layer of ivood in woody plants, or of the parts analogous to wood in the case of
herbaceous plants, has been hitherto but little attended to. If we suppose the rudiments of all the
different parts to exist already in the embryo, then we have only to account for their developement by
means of the intro-susception and assimilation of sap and proper juice ; but if we suppose them to be
generated in the course of vegetation, then the difficulty of the case is augmented : and at the best we
can only state the result of operations that have been so long continued as to present an effect cognizable to
the sense of sight, though the detail of the process is often so very minute as to escape even the nicest
obser\'ation. All, then, that can be said on the subject, is merely that the tubes, however formed, do, by
virtue of the agency of the vital principle operating on the proper juice, always make their appearance at
last in a uniform and determinate manner, according to tne tribe or species to which the plant l)elongs,
uniting and coalescing so as to form either a circular layer investing the pith, as in woody plants ; or a
uumber of divergent layers intersecting the pith, as in some herbaceous plants ; or bundles of longitudinal

174 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II,

and woody fibre interspersed throughout the pith, as in others. In the same manner we may account for
the formation of the layer of bark.

768. Perennials and their annual layers. If a perennial is taken at the end of the
second year and dissected as in the example of the first year, it will be found to have in-
creased in height by the addition of a perpendicular shoot consisting of bark, wood, and
pith, as in the shoot of the former year ; and in diameter by the addition of a new layer
of wood and of bark, generated between the wood and bark of the former year, and cover-
ing the original cone of wood, like the paper that covers a sugar-loaf: this is the fact of
the mode of augmentation about which phytologists have not differed, though they have
differed widely with regard to the origin of the additional layer by which the trunk is in-
creased in diameter. Malpighi was of opinion that the new layer of wood is formed from
the liber of the former year.

769. The new layer of wood Linnaeus considered as formed from the pith, which is absurd, because the
opinion goes to the inversion of the very order in which the layer is formed, the new layer being always
exterior to the old one. But according to the most general opinion, the layer was thought to be formed
from a substance oozing out of the wood or bark — first, a limpid fluid, then a viscid pulp, and then a thin
layer attaching itself to the former; the substance thus exuding from the wood or bark was generally
regarded as being merely an extravasated mucilage, which was somehow or other converted into wood and
bark : but Du Hamel regarded it as being already an organised substance, consisting of both cellular and
tubular tissue, which he designated by the appellation of the cambium, or proper juice.

770. Knight has thrown the highest degree of elucidation on this, one of the most obscure and intricate
processes of the vegetable economy, in having shown that the sap is elaborated, so to render it fit for the
formation of new parts in the leaf only. If a leaf or branch of the vine is grafted even on the fruit-stalk
or tendril, the graft will still succeed ; but if the upper part of a branch is stripped of its leaves the bark
will wither as far as it is stripped ; and if a portion of bark furnished with a leaf is insulated by means of
detaching a ring of bark above and below it, the wood of the insulated portion that is above the leaf is
not augmented : this shows evidently that the leaf gives the elaboration necessary to the formation of new
parts, and that without the agency of the leaf no new part is generated: — Such then is the mode of
the augmentation of the plant in the second year of its growth. It extends in width by a new layer
of wood and of bark insinuated between the wood and bark of the former year ; and in height by
the addition of a perpendicular shoot, or of branches, generated as in the shoot of the first year.
But if the plant is taken and dissected at the end of the third year, it wiU be found to have aug-
mented in the same manner ; and so also at the end of the succeeding year as long as it shall continue
to live ; so that the outermost layer of bark, and innermost layer of wood, must have been originally
tangent in the first year of the plant's growth ; the second layer of bark, and second layer of wood, in the
second year ; and so on in the order of succession till you come to the layer of the present year, which will
in like manner divide into two portions, the outer forming one or more layers of bark, and the inner
forming one or more layers of wood. And hence the origin of the concentric layers of wood and of bark
of the trunk. But how are we to account for the formation of the divergent layers, which Du Hamel
erroneously supposed to proceed from the pith ? The true solution of the difficulty has been furnished by
Knight, who, in tracing the result of the operation of budding, obs?rved that the wood formed under the
bark of the inserted bud unites indeed confusedly with the stock, though still possessing the character and
properties of the wood from which it was taken, and exhibiting divergent layers of new formation which
originate evidently in the bark, and terminate at the line of union between the graft and stock.

771. But how is the formutwn'qf the wood that now occupies the place of the pith to be accounted for }
It appears that the tubes of which the medullary is composed do, in the process of vegetation, deposit a
cambium, which forms an interior layer that is afterwards converted into wood for the purpose of filling
up the medullary canaL

772. Conversion of the alburnum into perfect wood. In consequence of the increase of the trunk by means
of the regular and gradual addition of an annual layer, the layers whether of wood or of bark are ne-
cessarily of different degrees of solidity in proportion to their age ; the inner layer of bark, and the outer
layer of wood, being the softest ; and the other layers increasing in their degree of solidity till you reach
the centre on the one hand, and the circumference on the other, where they are respectively the hardest,
forming perfect wood or highly indurated bark, which sloughs or splits into chinks, and falls off in thick
crusts, as in the plane-tree, fir, and birch. What length of time then is requisite to convert the alburnum
into perfect wood, or the liber into indurated bark ; and by what means are they so converted ? There is no
fixed and definite period of time that can be positively assigned as necessary to the complete induration
of the wood or bark, though it seems to require a period of a good many years before any particular
layer is converted from the state of alburnum to that of perfect wood ; and perhaps no layer has received
its final degree of induration till such time as the tree has arrived at its full growth. The induration
of the alburnum, and its consequent durability, are attributed by many to the loss of sap which the
layer sustains after the period of its complete developement ; when the supply from the root diminishes,
and the waste by evaporation or otherwise is still kept up, inducing a contraction or condensation of
its elementary principles that augments the . solixiity of the layer, in the first degree, and begins the
process that future years finish. But Knight believes the induration of the alburnum as distinguishable
in the winter to be owing rather to some substance deposited in it in the course of the preceding summer,
which he regards as being the proper juice in a concrete or inspissated state, but which is carried offagain
by the sap as it ascends in the spring.

773. Circulation of vegetable juices. After the discovery of the circulation of the
blood of animals, phytologists, who were fond of tracing analogies between the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, began to think that there perhaps existed in plants also a circu-
lation of fluids. The sap was supposed to be elaborated in the root. The vessels in
which it was propelled to the summit of the plant were denominated arteries ; and the
vessels in which it is again returned to the root were denominated veins. Du Hamel,
while he admits the ascent of the sap, and descent of the proper juice, each in peculiar
and appropriate vessels, does not however admit the doctrine of a circulation ; which
seems, about the middle of the last century, to have fallen into disrepute. For Hales, who
contended for an alternate ascent and descent of fluids in the day and night, and in the
same vessels, or for a sort of vibratory motion as he also describes it, gave no countenance
whatever to the doctrine of a circulation of juices. But the doctrine, as it appears, has
been again revived, and has met with the support of some of the most distinguished of

Book I. PROCESS OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 175

modern plij-tologists. Hedwig is said to have declared himself to be of opinion, that plants
have a circulation of fluids similar to that of animals. Corti is said to have discovered a
species of circulation in the stem of the chara, but confined, it is believed, within the
limits of the intemodia. Willdenow has also introduced the subject, and defended the
doctrine {Principles of Botany, p. 8.5.); but only by saying he believes a circulation to
exist, and that it is impossible for the leafless tree to resist the cold if there be not a cir-
culation of fluids. Knight has given his reasons somewhat in detail ; and tliou"-h his
doctrine of a circulation should be false, yet the account which he gives of the progress
and agency of the sap and proper juice, short of circulation, may be true. Tlie sum of the
account is as follows : — When the seed is deposited in the ground under proper condi-
tions, moisture is absorbed and modified by the cotjledons, and conducted Erectly to the
radicle, which is by consequence first developed. But the fluid which has been thus con-
ducted to the radicle, mingling no doubt with tlie fluid which is now also absorbed from
the soil, ascends afterw ards to the plumelet through tJie medium of the tubes of the albur-
num. The plumelet now expands and gives the due preparation to the ascending sap, re-
turning it also in its elaborated state to the tubes of the bark, through which it again
descends to the extremity of the root, forming in its progress new bark and new albur-
num ; but mixing also, as he thinks, with the alburnum of the former year, where such
alburnum exists, and so completing the circulation.

774. Decomposite organs. To the above brief sketch of the agency of the vital prin-
ciple in the generation or growth of the elementary and composite organs, there now re-
mains to be added that of the progress and mode of the growth of the decomposite organs,
or organs immediately constituting the plant, as finishing tiie process of the vegetable de-
velopement. lliis will include the phenomena of the ultimate developement of the root,
stem, branch, bud, leaf, flower, and fruit.

775. The root. From the foregoing observations and experiments, it appears that the roots of plants,
or at least of woody plants, are augmented in their width by the addition of an annual layer, and in their
length by the addition of an annual shoot, bursting from the terminating fibre. But how is the develope-
ment of the shoot effected ? Is it by the intro-susception of additional particles throughout the whole of
its extent ; or only by additions deposited at the extremity ? In order to ascertain the fact, with regard
to the elongation of the root, Du Hamel instituted the tbllowing experiment : — Having passed several
threads of silver transversely through the root of a plant, and noted the distances, he then immersed the
root in water. The upper threads retained always their relative and original situation, and the lowest
thread which was placed within a few lines of the end was the only one that was carried down. Hence
he concluded that the root is elongated merely by the extremity. Knight, who from a similar experiment
obtained the same result, deduced from it also the same conclusion. We may regard it then as certain,
that the mode of the elongation of the root is such as is here represented, though in the progress of its
developement, it may aft'ect a variety of directions. The original direction of the root is generally perpen-
dicular, in which it descends to a considerable depth if not interrupted by some obstacle. In taking up
some young oak-trees that had been planted in a poor soil, Du Hamel found that the root had descended
almost four feet, while the height of the trunk was not more than six inches. If the root meets with an
obstacle it then takes a horizontal direction, not by the bending of the original shoot, but by the sending
out of lateral shoots. The same effect also follows if the extremity of the root is cut oft", but not always
so, for it is a common thing in nursen-gardens, to cut off the tap-roots of drills of seedling oaks without
removing them, by a sharp spade, and these generally push out new tap-roots, though not so strong as the
former. When a root ceases of its own accord to elongate, it sends out also lateral fibres which become
branches, and are always the more vigorous the nearer they are to the tnmk, but the lateral branches of
horizontal roots are the less vigorous the nearer they are to the end next the trunk. In the former case,
the increased luxuriance is perhaps owing to the easy access of oxygen in the upper divisions ; but in the
latter case, the increased luxuriance of fhe more distant divisions is not so easily accounted for, if it is not
to be attributed to the more ample supply of nutriment which the fibres meet with as they recede from
the trunk, particularly if you suppose a number of them lying horizontally and diverging like the radii of
a circle. But the direction of roots is so liable to be affected by accidental causes, that there is often but
little uniformity even in roots of the same species. If plants were to be sown in a soil of the same density
throughout, perhaps there might be at least as much uniformity in the figure and direction of their roots,
as of their branches ; but this will seldom happen. For if the root is injured by the attacks of insects, or
interrupted by stones, or earth of too dense a quality, it then sends out lateral branches, as in the above
cases ; sometimes extending also in length by following the direction of the obstacle, and sometimes ceas-
ing to elongate, and forming a knot at the extremity. But where the soil has been loosened by digging or
otherwise, the root generally extends itself to an unusual length, and where it is both loosened and en-
riched, it divides into a multiplicity of fibres. This is also the case with the roots of plants vegetating in
pots, near a river, but especially in water. \Miere roots have some considerable obstacle to overcome they
will often acquire a strength proportioned to the ditficulty : sometimes they will penetrate through the
hardest soil to get at a soil more nutritive, and sometimes they will insinuate their fibres into the crevices
even of walls and rocks which they will burst or overturn. This of course requires much time, and does
much injury to the plant. Roots consequently thrive best in a soil that is neither too loose nor too
dense ; but as the nourishment which the root absorbs is chiefly taken up by the extremity, so the soil is
often more exhausted at some distance from the trunk than immediately around it Du Hamel regards
the small fibres of the root which absorb the moisture of the soil as being analogous to the lacteals of the
animal system, which absorb the food digested by the stomach. But the root is rather to be regarded as
the mouth of the plant, selecting what is useful to nourishment and rejecting what is yet in a crude and
indigestible state ; the larger portions of it serving also to fix the plant in the soil and to convey to the
trunk the nourishment absorbed by the smaller fibres, which ascending by the tubes of the alburnum, is
thus conveyed to the leaves, the digestive organs of plants. Du Hamel thinks that the roots of plants are
furnished with pre-organised germs by which they are enabled to send out lateral branches when cut,
though the existence of such germs is not proved ; and affirms that the extremities of the fibres of the
root die annually like the leaves of the trunk and branches, and are again annually renewed; which last
peculiarity Professor Willdenow affirms also to he the fact, but without adducing any evidence by which
it appears to be satisfactorily substantiated. On the contrary. Knight, who has also made some observ-
ations on this subject, says, it does not appear that the terminating fibres of the roots of woody plants die
annually, though those of bulbous roots are found to do so. But the fibres of creeping plants, as the com-
mon crowfoot and strawberry, certainly die annually, as do those of the vine.

116 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

776. ^fie stejn. The stem, like the root, or at least the stem of woody plants, is also augmented in
width by the addition of an annual layer, and in length by the addition of an annual shoot bursting from
the terminating bud. Is the developement of the shoot issuing from the stem eftected in the same man-
ner also ? The developement of the shoot from the stem is not effected in the same manner as that of the
root — by additions to the extremity only, but by the intro-susception of additional particles throughout
its whole extent, at least in its soft and succulent state : the longitudinal extension diminishing in pro-
portion as the shoot acquires solidity, and ceasing entirely when the wood is perfectly formed ; though
often continuing at the summit after it has ceased at the base. The extension of the shoot is inversely as
its induration, rapid while it remains herbaceous, but slow in proportion as it is converted into wood.
Hence moisture and shade are the most favorable to its elongation, because they prevent or retard its in.
duration; and hence the small cone of wood which is formed during the first year of the plant's growth
increases no more after the approach of winter, neither in height nor thickness. Si'ch is the mode of the
growth and developement of the trunk of perennial and woody plants, to which t'lere exists a striking
exception in the growth of the trunk of palms. Their internal structure has been already taken notice of
as presenting no concentric or divergent layers, and no medullary canal, but merely an assemblage of large
and woody fibres, interspersed without order in a pulp or parenchyma, softer at the centre and gradually
becoming harder as it approaches the circumference. When the seed of the palm-tree germinates, it pro-
trudes a circular row of leaves, or of fronds, which crowns the radicle, and is succeeded in the following
year by a similar row issuing from the centre or bosom of the former leaves, which ultimately die down
to the base. This process is continued for four or five /ears successively without exhibiting as yet any
appearance of a stem, the remaining bases of the 'eaves oi frond forming by their union merely a sort of
knob or bulb. At last, however, they constitute oy their union an incipient stem, as thick the first year
as it ever is after ; which in the following year is augmented in height as before, and so on in succession
as long as the plant lives, the leaves ab>'ays issuing from the svmimit and crowning the stem, which is a
regular column, but decaying at the end of the year, and leaving circular marks at the points of insertion,
which furrow the surface of the plant, and indicate the years of its growth.

777. The bratiches, in their mode of growth and developement, exhibit nearly the same appearances as
the trunk from which they issue. They originate in a bud, and form also a cone that consists of pith,
wood, and bark ; or rather they form a double cone. For the insertion of the branch into the trunk
resembles also a cone whose base is at the circumference, and whose apex is at the centre, at least if it is
formed in the first year of the plant's growth, or on the shoot of the present year; but falling short of the
centre m proportion to the lateness of its formation, and number of intervening layers. Branches in their
developement assume almost all varieties of position from the reflected to the horizontal and upright ; but
the lower branches of trees are said to be generally parallel to the surface of the soil on which they grow,
even though that surface should be the sloi^ing side of a hill — owing, as it has been thought, to the evo-
lution of a greater number of buds on the side that forms the obtuse angle with the soil, in consequence
of Its being exposed to the action of a greater mass of air.

778. The fiwrf, which in the beginning of spring is so very conspicuous on the trees of this country as to
tte obvious to the most careless observer, is by no means common to all plants, nor to plants of all climates :
shrubs in general, and annuals universally, are destitute of buds as well as all plants whatever growing
wittiin the tropics, the leaf being in them immediately protruded from the bark. It is only in the woody
plants of cold climates, therefore, that we are to look for buds ; and in them no new part is added, whether
proper to the leaf or flower, without the intervention of a bud. For when the young shoot is produced, it
is at the same time furnished with new buds, v/hich are again extended into new shoots in the following
spring ; and thus the bud is to be regarded as forming, not only the cradle but also the winter quarters of
tne shoot, tor which its coat of tiled and glutinous scales seems admirably well adapted. It is found chiefly
in the extremity, or on the surface of the young shoot or branch, and but rarely on the stem, except it be
at the collar where it produces suckers. It is also generated for the most part in the axil of the leaves,
as may be seen by inspecting the annual shoot of almost any tree at random, though not universaUy so \
tor to this rule there exists a curious and singular exception in the bud of the platanus, which is gene-
rated in the very centre of the base of the foot-stalk, and is not discoverable till after the fall of the leaf.
But how are the buds formed which are thus developed ? Malpighi thouglit they were formed from the
pith or cellular tissue, which the latter regarded as viscera destined for the elaboration of the sap and pro-
trusion of future buds. Du Hamel thinks the exterior scales of the bud originate in the interior pirt of
the bark, and Knight relates an experiment from which he thinks it follows that the buds are formed
from the descending proper juice But whatever may be the actual origin of the bud, it is evident that
1^ developement does not take place except through the medium of the proper juice, which has been ela-
borated m the leaves of preceding buds, and originally in those of the plunaelet ; as the young bud does
not make its appearance till the leaves of the preceding buds have expanded, and wiU not ultimately
succeed if deprived of them too soon. ^ -^ j
tigiSn ^^^ ^° ''^^^^ similar to buds both in their origin and developement as to require no specific inves-

rr,I?h«^fiT;^ .v,Y^-^" *^^ '^^^^'K''H'■'^^™™u^^^ ^^^^ b"''' ^"'^ even long before that period, as

niay be seen by the dissection of the bud m the winter, they are complete in all their parts. Hence it is
SnPw'ninH^" h^*^* ''^ the young shoot, effects its final developement by means of tEntro^u cept on
toaul^vlfihJ? ^"^''*''.V^^ whole of Its dimensions : and yet this law of developement is not common

Sfcrd-tt^n^^eroft^e'^eS^^^ -'^ '^--^^"^ «^- that conTti^rw^at

780. The flower and fruit. When the flower bursts from the expanding bud, and even long before
that period, .t is already complete in all its parts, as may be seen also by the dissection of the bud "n winte^
Linnsus represents the pistil as originating in the pith, the stamens in the wood, and the corolla and calyx
in the inner and outer bark respectively : but this account of their origin, though extrSy plausible a1
first sight, will not bear the test of minute examination, being contradicted by the anatomy of Uie parts
themselves ; particularly in the case of compound flowers. Knight in investi|ating the organisation of
Snit ^F fw '^.r- 'V'^"'^^^''?"'"'^'^ *T° ^^e'"?i" the origin of the siveral parts by tracing the frgans of t^e
fruit-stalk to their termination. In the fruit-stalk he thought he could discover thi pith the central
Satio'n''■'ii"Hfn^'"h^'h^''>.' "^" ^"I'^' toge^-herwith its Epidermis : ai.d ^tricing tCm to thefr er
Zp^SrnnnnT^ the pith Seemed to end in the pistils; the central vessels in the sumens. afrer
diverging round the core and approaching agam in the eye of the fruit; and the bark and epidermis in
the two external skins. Hence he infers that the flower' is a prolongation of the pith wood and bark
A question of some cons derable importance has arisen out of this subject : does thi flowIrorVruk elabo
hrin^h^^"V.*K''''"?^^^'°P^"^">?'' '^ '^ supplied with nourishment from the leaf rBypSg small
found fh/th^/PP'^' ^^'\ ^"d^^"e ^vith blossoms not expanded in a decoction of lo|wood,\S
found that the central vessels were colored by the decoction. By means of a similar experiment on the
h™Cie She S'n! n' '''^i* Tl '"'"'"•t^' *^" '^olonn^ra^tter wa's traced through the mas o^tre fruit to
ttie base of the stamma. And hence it appears that the flower and fruit do posless the power of elaborat
fll^fJ''^^^'' ''^". developement. Knight infers from the foregoing data,C the bloZm if nSrished'

Book I. ANOMALIES OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 177

Sect. V. Anomalies of Vegetable Develojiement.

781. A d0uiation from the general laws of devehpe^ment is occasioned by the intervention
of some accidental cause ; or of some cause operating permanently in certain subjects.
Hence the anomaly may regard the developement either of an individual or a species,
and may occur either in the root; stem, branch, leaf, bud, flower, or fruit, according to
the circumstances in wliich it is placed ; or it may affect the habit, duration, or physical
virtues of the plant.

782. The root. According to the general laws of vegetable
developement, plants of tlie same species are furnished witli the
same species of root — not producing at one time a woody or
fibrous root, and at another time a bulbous root. And yet it is
found that there are cases in wliich changes of this kind do occur.
If part of the root of a tree planted by a pond or river, protrudes
beyond the bank so as to be partially immersed, it divides at tlie
extremity into innumerable ramifications, or sends out innumer-
able fibres from the surface, which become again subdivided into
fibres stiU more minute, and give to the whole an appearance
something resembling that of the tail of a fox ; which has ac-
cordingly been denominated by Du Hamel the fox-tail-root.
(fS- 57.)

783. TTie root of the Phleum pratense, when growing in a moist soU, which
it naturally affects, is uniformly fibrous ; but when growing* in a dry soil,
where it is also often to be found, it is furnished with a bulbous root. The
same is the case with the alopecurus geniculatus ; which, when growing
in its native marshes protrudes a fibrous root, though, when growing in a
very dry situation, as on the top of a dry wall, it is found to be furnished with an ovate and juicy bulb.
This anomaly also seems to be merely the result of a provision of nature by which the plant is endowed
with the capacity of collecting a supply of moisture suited to existing circumstances, and hence of adapt-
ing itself to the soil in which it grows.

784. The roots of Utricularia minor, which consist of a number of slender and hair-like filaments, exhibit
the singular anomaly of being furnished with a multitude of small and membranous bladders, each con-
taining a transparent and watery fluid, and a small bubble of air, by means of which the plant is kept
floating in the water.

785. The descending root, an anomaly which attends some perennials, is at first spindle-shaped and per-
pendicular, sending out some lateral fibres ; but djing at the lower extremity in the course of the succeed-
ing winter, and protruding new fibres from the remaining portion, and even'from the lower portion of the
stem, in the course of the following spring, which by descending into the soil, draw down the plant with
them, so that part of what was formerly stem is now converted into root. This process is repeated every
year, and by consequence a portion of the stem is made to descend every year into the earth. The
anomaly may be exemplified in the roots of Valeriana dioica, tanacetum vulgare, and oxalis acetosella ;
and will also account for the bitten and tnmcated appearance of scabiosa succisa, or devil's-bit.

786. The beet-root, if dissected when about a year old, presents the singular anomaly of being already
furnished with from five to eight distinct and concentric circles of longitudinal tubes or sap-vessels, im-
bedded at regular intervals in its pulp ; whereas other biennial roots form only an individual circle each
year, and are, consequently, at no time furnished with more than two.

787. Migratory roots depend on a principle similar to the foregoing. If the stem of a descending root hap-
pens to be creeping or procumbent instead of being erect, then the lateral shoots from above are carried for-
ward in the direction of that procumbency, so that in the course of a few years the plant has actually changed
its place by so much as the stem has been converted into a root. This is well exemplified in the genus
Iris, which as it enlarges in circumference, dies in the centre and presents a ring of plants instead of a
solitarv one. In the case of some aquatics, which float about on the surface of the water as they happen
to be driven by the winds, the whole plant may be said to be migratory, as in the case of the genus Lemna,
and some marine plants.

788. Roots changed to branches and branches to roots. If the stem of a young plum or cherry tree, but
particularly of a willow, is taken in the autumn and bent so as that onehalf of the top may be laid in the
earth, one half of the root being at the same time taken carefully out, but sheltered at first from the cold
and then gradually exposed to it, and the remaining part of the top and root subjected to the same process
in the following year, the branches of the top will become roots, and the ramifications of the root will
become branches, protruding leaves, flowers, and fruit in due season.

789. If the stem of a tiee planted by a pond or river is so bent in its growth as to come
near to the surface of tlie water and to be occasionally immersed in it, it will sometimes
send out from the under surface a multitude of shoots that will descend into the water,
and develope themselves in the manner of the fox -tail-root. Sometimes it happens that a
stem, instead of assuming the cylindrical form common to the species, assumes a com-
pressed and flattened form similar to the herbage of the cactus as in the fir-tribe, ash, &c.

790. The anomaly of the flattened stem (fig. 58. a) is accounted for by Du Hamel by supposing that an
unnatural graft must have taken place in the leaf-bud ; and so united shoots that would otherwise
have been distinct. Sometimes the stem is disfigured by accidental tumors or bunches projecting from
the surface, and forming ultimately what are called knots in the wood. They are very common in
the oak and elm, and are produced perhaps by means of some obstruction in the channel of the sap's
motion, by which the vessels become convoluted and swell up into a bunch.

791. But bunches are also to be met with on the stem of herbaceous plants, as on that of the carduus
pratensis ; of which you will often find a portion near the top swollen out into an egg-shaped or egg-oblong
bunch, extending from an inch to two inches in length, and about an inch across. If this bunch is cut
open in the month of August, it will be found to contain several large and white maggots. It has conse-
quentlv been occasioned by the puncture of the parent insect depositing lU eggs. It does not seem to
affect the general health of a vigorous plant, though it might prove seriously injurious to a weak one.

792. Bundled stem. Sometimes two or more contiguous stems, extending in the process of their
growth till they meet and press against one another, become incorporated at length into one, and form a
sort of bundle. This is what may be termed a natural graft, in opposition,to an artificial graft, of which

N

178

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

it is the model and proto-
type. The natural graft is
always affected by means
of the union of the liber of
the respective stems com-

posing it ; so that the per-
fection of the art of grafting
consists in applying the liber

of the graft and stock toge-
ther in such a manner as
shall most facilitate their
incorporation.

793. U the branch of
a tree is situated as in
the foregoing case of
the stem, so as to be
partially or periodically
immersed in water, it
will send out also the
same sort of brush-like
shoots.

794. Bunches or knots,
exhibiting a plexus of young
shoots (fig. 59 . a) issuing
from nearly the same point,
crossing in all directions,

and finally incorporating together by means of a sort of natural graft, frequently disfigure it. These bunches
are frequently to be met with on the branches ofthe birch -tree, and are known amongthepcasantry of Scot-
land by the name of witches' knots. They are occasioned, like the bunches of the stem, by some obstruc-
tion in the channel of the sap or proper juice. A peculiar sort of knot or bunch is also oflen formed on
the branches of the dog-rose. The nucleus, which is generally from an inch to an inch and a half in
diameter is covered with a long and winged shag, first of a green and then of- a purple color, presenting
the appearance of a ^mall bunch of moss. (fig. 58. b) It has been occasioned like that of the stem of the
thistle, by the puncture of an insect depositing its eggs in the tender shoot ; for if it is cut open about the
month of August, it contains maggots. These anomalies remind us always of that singular disease in the
human species, the Plica polonica.

795. The bud. The regular developement of the bud is also often prevented by means
of the puncture of insects, and converted into a large globular tumor.

796. The gall tumor is very often effected by a species of Cynips that lances its piercer into the heart of the
bud while yet tender, and penetrates with its saw into the very pith ; injecting at the same time a drop of
the corroding liquor contained in its bag, and then laying its egg. The bud being thus wounded, and the
juices corrupted by the injected poison, the circulation is not only impeded, but a fermentation is induced
which burns the contiguous parts and changes their color. The extravasated juice flows round the egg, and
is there accumulated and converted into a sort of spongy lump which vegetates and augments till it forms
what is called a gall. The gall thus formed affords both shelter and nourishment to the young maggot,
which, after being converted into a fly, pierces its enclosure and launches into the open air. The most re-
markable of such galls are those produced on the oak-tree, and known in this country by the vulgar
name of oak-apples, {fig. 59. b) The bud of the willow, particularly salix helix, is apt always to be
punctured by insects and converted into a gall. But the conversion is not always complete ; and in this
case the shoot remains dwarfish, and the leaves, which are now protruded from nearly the same point,
assume something of the figure of a rose. Hence it has obtained the common name of the rose-willow.
The galls ofthe salvia pomifera formed in the above manner arc said to be of a very pleasant flavor, and
are esteemed a great delicacy in eastern countries.

7&7. The leaves, like the buds, are also frequently chosen for the nidus of in-
secte, and disfigured with galls or excrescences. But the most remarkable gall
produced on the leaf, and indeed the most remarkable and important of all gaUs,
IS that which is so extremely useful in the arts of dyeing and making ink, the nut-gall
of the shops. ^ o & j &

Book I. ANOMALIES OF VEGETABLE DEVELOPEMENT. 179

798. The tmUgull is generated on the leaf of a species of oak that grows plentifully in the Levant, and
is so well known in commerce as to require no particular description. It is occasioned by the puncture of
the Cynips quercifolii, which deposits its egg in the substance of the leaf, by making a small perforation on
the under surface. Galls and tumors are to be found on the leaves of many plants ; and indee<l almost all
leaves are liable to deformities, giving them a blistered, wrinkled, or curled api)earance j and often pro-
ducing disease.

799. The excess or deficiency qf leaves protruded in a group sometimes constitutes the anomaly, as in
the case of the trefoils.

800. Sometimes in the natural figure of the leaf itself, as in asparagus officinalis, where they are bristle-
shaped; salsola kali, awl-shaped; and allium cepa, in which they are tubular, tapering to a point.
But one of the most remarkable anomalies of figure is that which occurs in the leaves of the genus Sarra-
cenia (fig, 43. 6\ of which the lower portion is tubular, ascending, and approaching to funnel-shaped, or
rather pitcher-shaped reversed, with a flattened and concave limb attached by the one side to the orifice of
the tube, and constituting the upper portion cfthe leaf Linnieus, who was acquainted with this singularity
of structure, accounted for it by supposing that it was an institution of nature, meant for the j^irpose of
fiirnishing the plant with a supply of water, which it could thus catch and retain in the leaf. But as some

of the gardeners of the botanic garden at Liverpool, to drag several large flies to a leaf of sarracenia,
adunca, and to force them into the tubular part of it On examination, the leaf was found to be about half
filled with water, in which tlie flies were now struggling ; the other leaves were also examined, and were
found crammed with dead or drowning flies. The leaves of sarracenia purpiire? are said to exhibit also
the same phenomena, and seem pec^iliarly well adapted to entrap and confine flies, by having the margin
beset with inverted hairs rendering the escape of such insects as may have accidentally fallen into the
watery tube, or are intentionally forced into it, impracticable ; so that the putrid exhalation from the dead
insects contained in the leaf often offends the nostrils, even in passing near the plant. Hence Sir J. E.
Smith infers, that the growth of the plant is perhaps benefited by means of the air evolted by the dead
flies, which tlie water has been intended to tempt, and the leaves to entrap and retain. This ingenious
conjecture is no doubt sufficiently plausible as far as the plant may be affected ; but cannot be regarded as
quite satisfactorj- till such time as it shall have been shown tliat the health of the plant is injured when
insects are prevented from approaching it.

801. The celebrated nepenthes distillatoria [fig. 43. c) exhibits also an anomaly similar to that of sarracenia,
holding an ounce or two of a fluid which appears to be secreted from the leaf, and to be intended as a
lure to insects, which gain admission either by the spontaneous opening of the lid, or by forcibly raising it
themselves. The consequence is that they fall into the fluid and are drowned, no insect being capable
of living in it except a certain small squilla or shrimp, with a protuberant back, which, according to Rum-
phius, sometimes crawls into it and can live there. To this phenomenon Sir J. E. Smith applies the same
explication as above, which is of course liable to the same objection.

802. The figure of the leaf , however singular, is generally the same throughout the same individual, ex-
cept in the case of accidental deformity, and yet there are exceptions even to this rule. For sometimes
the lower leaves of a plant are entire while the upper leaves are divided, as occurs in a variety of mountain-
ous plants, such as bumet, saxifrage, anise, coriander; and somethnes the lower leaves are divided while
the upper leaves are entire, as in the case of a variety of aquatics, particularly ranunculus aquaticus, in
which the lower leaves are capillarj' and immersed, and the upper leaves flat and circular, floating on the
surface of the water. But sometimes the dissimilitude of the leaves is still more remarkable. The Chi-
nese mulberry, and the Eucalj-ptus, has not two leaves alike in form on the whole plant. And lastly, there
are some plants, as in the case of the fungi, that are wholly destitute of leaves, and hence called
aphyllous ; while there are others, as in the case of the fuci, that seem to be wholly leaf.

803. The principal anomaly of the Jlower, is that by which one of its parts is unduly
augmented, to the exclusion or diminution of some of the rest. The flower is then said
to be luxuriant, and comprises the three following varieties : the multiplicate, the full,
and the proliferous flower.

804. The multiplicate fiower is sometimes, though rarely, occasioned by an luiusual multiplication of the
divisions of the calvx, as in dianthus caryophyllus, and some of the Alpine grasses. But the anomaly
most generally consists in the undue multiplication ol the divisions of the corolla, by the conversion of part
of the stamens into petals which is occasionally to be met with both in monopetalous and polypetalous
flowers. It occurs but seldom, however, in flowers growing in their natural state and habit, though now
and then a double flower is met with even in such circumstances.

805. The full flower is generallv described to be that in which the divisions of the corolla are so multi-
plied as to exclude the stamens and pistils wholly by means of their conversion into petals ; which conver-
sion is most readilv eflTected in polypetalous flowers, such as the tuUp. poppy, pink, and ranuncuhis ; mo-
nopetalous flowers' seldom being found full. This complete metamorphosis is always either the effect of
cultivation, or of some concurrence of natural circumstances analogous to it ; and is indeed one of the
principal objects of the art of the florist; the beauty of the flower, according to general estimation, being
thus much augmented. In the full flower the stamens are almost always converted into petals, whence we
should perhaps infer their identitv of origin. But the pistil is often converted into a leaf, as may be seen
by inspecting the flower of the double-blossomed cherry, which generally protrudes from the centre a ieat
in miniature. But a flower may become full also by the multi-
plication of the parts of the nectary, as is sometimes the case
in the genus Aquilegia, which produces full flowers in three
different ways — by the multiplication of the petals to the exclu-
sion of the nectaries, by the multiplication of the nectaries to
the exclusion of the petals, and by the multiplication of the nec-
taries while the proper petals remain. There are also some pe-
culiarities in the manner in which compound flowers become
full. Radiated flowers become fuU sometimes by the multipli-
cation of the floscules of the ray to the exclusion of the floscules
of the disk, as in helianthus, anthemis, and centaurea ; and
sometimes by the multiplication of the floscules of the disk to
the exclusion of those of the rav, as in matricaria and bellis.

806. The proliferous flower [fig. 60.) is that out of which
another flower or another shoot is produced. It is seldom
found but in flowers already full ; from the centre of which,
that is, from the ovarv or pistil, it sometimes happens that a
new flower and foot-stalk is produced, if the flower is simple, as
in the ranunculus, anemone, and pink ; or several flowers and
foot-stalks, issuing from the common calyx^ if the flower is com-
pound, as in the daisv, hawkweed, and mangold ; or a new
umbel issuing from the centre of the original umbel, it tne

N 2

180

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

flower is umbellate, as in comus. Sometimes the proliferous issue of the full flower is not itself a flower,
but a shoot furnished with leaves, as has been sometimes, thcoigh rarely, observed m the case of the
anemone and rose. Such are the several varieties of luxuriant flowers, constituting anomalies of excess ;
but it sometimes happens that there is also in the flower an anomaly of defect in the absence of one of Its
parts. Examples of this sort are occasionally to be met with in the flowers of cheiranthus cheiri, cam-
panula pentagonia, and tussilago anandria, in which the corolla is altogether wanting, though
proper to the species; and in this case the flower is said to be mutilated. Sometimes the anomaly con-
sists in the situation of the flower, which is generally protruded from the extremity or sides of the branches.
But the flower of the ruscus is protruded from the surface of the leaf; or it may consist in the relative
situation of the several parts of the flower. In simple flowers the pistil is invariably central with regard to
the stamens ; but in compound flowers the pistils are often situated in the circumference and the stamens in
the centre. This seems to be the case also with some monoecious plants having their flowers on the same
peduncle, as in the examples of the carex and arum, in which the stamens are more central than the pistils.
Sometimes the anomaly consists in the color o( the corolla, which will often deviate even in the same species.
The general color of the common cowslip (Primula veris) is a bright yellow ; but an individual is occasionally
to be met with, though very rarely, in which the limb or expansion of the corolla is purple with a line of
yellow around the border. Sometimes the anomaly consists in the time of flowering. The season proper
for the flowering of the apple and pear tree is the month of May ; but trees of that sort have been known to
protrude both buds and blossoms even in the month of November. Some plants, however, blow only in the
winter, as in the case of the laurustinus and arbutus unedo; while others blow only in the niglit, and
refuse to expand their petals to the light of the sun. Such is the case of the cactus grandiflorus, that
produces one of the most magnificent of flowers; but blows only in the night; and is hence known also
by the appellation of the night-blowing
cereus Some plants, such as the ferns,
algas, and fungi, are altogether destitute
of conspicuous flowers ; and are hence
called Cryptogamous J- but in this respect
the fig is perhaps the most singular. The
flowers which in other cases uniformly
precede the fruit, are in this case concealed
within what is generally denominated the
fruit ; as may be proved by cutting open a
green fig (^^'.61. a) by means of a longitudi-
nal section passing through its axis. Great
numbers of flowers (6) are then disco-
vered lining a sort of cavity in the axis
of the ft"uit ; and hence what is called the
fruit or fig, in common language, is rather
the receptacle of the flower than any thing
else. Most plants have their flowers fur-
nished both with stamens and pistils, and
are hence hermaphrodites : but there are
also many genera that have the stamens
in one flower and the pistils in another,
both on the same individual ; these are
denominated Monoecious plants, and are
exemplified in the oak and hazel. Other
genera have the flowers with stamens on
one plant, and the flowers with pistils on
another ; these are denominated Dioeci-
ous, and are exemplified in the hop and willow. Others have flowers of all the previous kinds on one and
the same plant ; these are denominated Polygamous, and are exemplified in the genus Atriplex.

807. The fruit. The anomalies of the fruit may affect eitlier its number, figure, color,
or appendages. The common hazel-nut produces in general but one kernel in one shell ;
but in the course of opening up a considerable number, you will now and then meet with
one containing two or three kernels in a shell.

This is perhaps best accounted for by supposing, with Du Hamel, that
it is the result of an unnatural graft effected in the bud ; though some
think that the shell does always contain the rudiments of two or more
kernels, although it rarely happens that more than one is developed.
But if two apples or pears are developed in an incorporated state, which
is a case that now and then occurs, it is no doubt best accounted for by
the graft of Du Hamel. Sometimes the anomaly consists in the figure
of the fruit, which is deformed by tumors or excroscences, in conse-
quence of the bite of insects, or injuries of weather producing warts,
moles, or specks. Sometimes it consists in the color, producing green
melons and white cucumbers. Sometimes it consists in an appendage of
leaves. (Jig. 62.)

808. Habit. Some plants, which, when placed in a rich
soil, grow to a great height and affect the habit of a tree,
are, when placed in a poor soil, converted into dwarfish
shrubs.

t>, J/'of '^tle^.^f ^T^'^^-' '"^^^^ -P^.?*" *^® box-tree ; and so also in the case of herbaceous plants ; as in
«„oh /c^JT. ' ' ^ '^'' ,'" ^7 situations IS but short and dwarfish, while in moist situations it grows to
bv mpa, f nf , f,utv?.n°„''th^^*°^^*^''' ^ different plant. The habit of the plant is sometimes totally altered
w^f?^TL/th^r^? TV^^^^''^'"?''"^^^ uncultivated state, is flu-nished

with strong thorns ; but when transferred to a rich and cultivated soil the thorns disaonear TWb

fchTs^exKuon Tf-ktr"''' S '^''''nT' "^^ ^^^^''^^^ '' being Lqutarentto'he tamin'S anirSs
S nlacrof^SrPr^f^nt WMM °^ L^f/'l™*" 1'^^* botanist, much more plausible thin profound,

t"vated state of fh/nTi^fii"^*'""'^/"*'',*'*^*'''^ following: The thorns protruded in the uncul!
with a sSciencv of^no .rUf^^n'i'^' rendered abortive from want of nourishment, which when supplied
wim a sumciency ot nourishment, are converted into leaves and branches,

•r.^^^' ;P%««^«^ virtues. When plants are removed from their native soil and taken
into a state of culture, it alters not only their habit 6ut their physical virtues. Thus the
sour grape is rendered sweet, the bitter pear pleasant, the dry apricot pulpy, the prickly

Book I.

SEXUALITY OF VEGETABLES.

181

lettuce smooth, and the acrid celery wholesome. Pot-herbs are also rendered more tender
by means of cultivation, and better fitted for the use of man ; and so also are all our fine
Varieties of fruit.

810. Duration. Plants are either annuals, biennials, or perennials, and the species is
uniformly of the same class. But it has been found that some plants which are annuals
in a cold climate, such as that of Sweden, will become perennials in a hot climate, such
as that of the West Indies ; this anomaly has been exemplified in tropaeolum, beet-root,
and malva arborea : and, on the contrary, some plants, which are perennials in hot climates,
are reduced to annuals when transplanted into a cold climate ; tiiis has been exemplified
in ricinus.

Sect. VI. Of the Sexuality of Vegetables.

811. The doctrine ihaX jylants are of different sexes, and which constitutes the found-
ation of the Linnean system, though but lately established upon the basis of logical in-
duction, is by no means a novel doctrine. It appears to have been entertained even
among the original Greeks, from the antiquity of their mode of cultivating figs and palms.
Aristotle and Theophrastus maintain the doctrine of the sexuality of vegetables; and
Pliny, Dioscorides, and Galen, adopted the division by which plants were then distributed
into male and female ; but chiefly upon the erroneous principle of habit or aspect, and
without any reference to a distinction absolutely sexual. Pliny seems to admit tlie dis-
tinction of sex in all plants whatever, and quotes the case of the pahn-tree as exliibiting
the most striking example.

812. Discoveries of the modems. Caesalpinus, in the sixteenth century, denominates trees which pro-
duce ffuit only, females; and trees of the same kind which are barren, males; adding, that the fruit is
found to he more abundant and of a better quality where the males grow in the neighbourhood of the
females, which is, he says, occasioned by certain exhalations from the males dispersing themselves-all
over the females, and by an operation not to be explained, disposing them to produce more perfect seed.
About the middle of the seventeenth century, the doctrine of the sexes of the plants began to assume a
more lixed and determinate character. Malpighi describes the stamens, anthers, and pollen : the merit of
suggesting the use of the latter seems to be between Sir T. Millington, Savilian Professor at Oxford, and
the celebrated Dr. Grew. The "opinion of Grew was adopted also by Ray. The first example of experi-
ment recorded on this subject is that of Camerarius, professor of botany at Tubingen, who having
adopted the opinions of Grew and Raj-, though without perhaps regarding their arguments as the best that
could be adduced, conceived that the subject might be still further illustrated by means of depriving the
plant of its male flowers altogether, or of removing the individuals of a different sex to a distance from
one another. Accordingly having selected some plants of mercurialis, morus, zea mays, and ricinus,
and stripped them of their staminiferous flowers, or removed the male plant to a great distance from the
female, he found that the fruit did not now ripen ; th6 inference from which was, that the generation of
plants is analogous to that of animals, and that the stamens of the flowers of the former correspond to the
sexual organs of the males of the latter. The great and illustrious Linnajus, reviewing with his usual
sagacity the evidence on which the doctrine rested, and perceiving that it was supported by a multiplicity
of the most incontrovertible facts, resolved to devote his labors peculiarly to the investigation of the
Bubject, and to prosecute his enquiries throughout the whole extent of the vegetable kingdom ; which great
and arduous enterprise he not only undertook but accomplished with a success equal to the unexampled
industry with which he pursued it. So that by collecting into one body all the evidence of former dis-
covery or experiment, and by adding much that was original of his own, he found himself at length
authorised to draw the important conclusion — that no seed is perfected without the previous agency of
the pollen ; that the doctrine of the sexes of plants is consequently founded in fact.

813. Proofs from the economy of the aquatics. Many
plants of this class that vegetate for the most part wholly
immersed in water, and often at a considerable depth,
gradually begin to elevate their stems as the season of
flowering advances, when they at last rear their heads
above the surface of the water, and present their opening
blossoms to the sun, till the petals have begun to fade,
when they again gradually sink down to the bottom to
ripen and to sow their seeds. This very peculiar economy
may be exemplified in the case of ruppia maritima, and
several species of potamogeton, common in our ponds
and ditches ; from which we may fairly infer, that the
flowers rise thus to the surface merely to give the pollen
an opportunity of reaching the stigma uninjured But
the most remarkable example of this kind is that of the
valisneria spiralis {fig. 63. \ a plant that grows in the
ditches of Italy. The plant is of the class Dioecia, pro-
ducing its fertile flowers on the extremity of a long and
slender stalk twisted spirally like a corkscrew, which-
uncoiling of its own accord, about the time of the open-
ing of the blossom, elevates the flowers to the surface of
the water, and leaves them to expand in the open air.
The barren flowers are produced in great numbers upon
short upright stalks issuing from a different root, from
which they detach themselves about the time of the
expansion of the female blossom, mounting up like little
air bubbles, and suddenly expanding when they reach the surface, where they float about in great
numbers among the female blossoms, and often cling to them in clusters so as to cover them entirely ;
thus bringing the stamens and pistils into immediate contact, and giving the anthers an opportunity of
discharging their pollen immediately over the stigma. When this operation has been performed, the now
uncoiled stalk of the female plant begins again to resume its original and spiral form, and gradually sinks
down, as it gradually rose, to ripen its fruit at the bottom of the water. We have gathered (in 1819)
these stalks, in the canals near Padua, upwards often feet long.

N 3

182 SCIENCE OF GARDEmNG. Part II.

Sect. VII. hnpregnalion of the Seed. ,

814. The stamens and jnsiils are the male and female organs of vegetable generation, and
tfie pollen is the substance by which the im]rreg7iation of the seed is effected ; but how is the
pollen conveyed to the ovary ? And what is the amount of its action ?

815. Access of the pollen. When the stamens and pistils are situated near each other, the elastic spring
with which the anther flies open will generally be sufficient to disperse the pollen, so as that part of it
must infallibly reach the stigma in such flowers as do not perfect their stamens and pistils at the same
time. The pollen is very generally conveyed from the anther to the stigma through the instrumentality of
bees, and other insects peculiar to a species. The object of the insect is the discovery of honey, in quest of
which, whilst it roves from flower to flower, and rummages the recesses of the corolla, it unintentionally
covers its body with pollen, which it conveys to the next flower it visits, and brushes off as it acquired it by
rummaging for honey ; so that part of it is almost unavoidably deposited on the stigma, and impregnation
thus effected. Nor is this altogether so much a work of random as it at first appears. For it has been
observed that even insects, which do not upon the whole confine themselves to one species of flower, will
yet very often remain during the whole day upon the species they happen first to alight on in the morning ;
hence the impregnation of the females of Dioecious plants where no male is near. Hence also a sort of
natural crossing of the breed of plants which might probably otherwise degenerate.

816. Fecundation of the ovary. Admitting that the pollen is conducted to the ovary
through the channel of the tubes of the style, how after all is the ovary fecundated ; or
the seed rendered fertile ? On this subject naturalists have been much divided ; and ac-
cording to their several opinions have been classed imder the respective appellations of
ovarists, animalculists, and epigenesists,

817. Ovarist. According to the opinion of the Ovarisf, the embryo pre-exists in the ovary, and is
fecundated by the agency of the pollen as transmitted to it through the style.

818. Animalculist. But the theory of the ovarists is not without its difficulties ; for as the embryo is
never found to make its appearance till after fecundation, it has been thought that it must necessarily pre-
exist in the pollen of the anther; from which it is conveyed to the ovary through the medium of the style,
and afterwards matured. This theory was founded upon that of Leuwenhoeck, with regard to animal
generation ; which supposes the pre-existence of animalcula in the seminal principle of the male ; the
animalcula being conveyed in coitu to the ovary of the female, where alone they are capable of
developtrnient.

819. Epteenesist. The difficulties inseparable from both theories, together with the phenomenon of
hybrid productions, have given rise also to a third ; this is the Theoi-y of the Epigenesists, who maintain that
the embryo pre-exists neither in the ovary nor pollen, but is generated by the union of the fecundating
principles of the male and female organs ; the former being the fluid issuing from the pollen when it
explodes; and the latter, the fluid that exudes from the surface of tlie stigma when mature. But if
the seed is generated from the union of two fecundating principles which form an intermediate offspring,
then female plants of the class Dioecia ought occasionally to produce seeds whose offspring shall be Her-
maphrodite, or at least Monoecious, which was never yet known to happen.

820. Hybrids. Although the arguments of the epigenesists are by no means satis-
factory, yet it cannot be denied, that hybrid productiongtpartake of the properties both of
the male and female from which they spring. This was long ago proved to be the fact
by Bradley, and more recently confirmed by the experiments of Knight ; as well as hap-
pily converted to the advantage of the cultivator.

821. Vegetable crossing. Observing that fanners who rear cattle improve the progeny by means of crossing
the breed. Knight argued from analogy, tliat the same improvement might be introduced into vegetables.
His principal object was that of procuring new and improved varieties of the apple and pear to supply the
place of such as had become diseased and unproductive. But as the necessary slowness of all experiments
of the kind, with regard to the fruit in question, did not keep pace with the ardor of his desire to obtain in-
formation on the subject, he was induced to institute some tentative experiments upon the common pea,—
a plant well suited to his purpose, both from its quickness of growth, and from the many varieties in form,
size, and color, which it afforded. In 1787, a degenerate sort of pea was growing in his garden, which had
not recovered its former vigor even when removed to a better soil. Being thus a good subject of experiment,
the male organs of a dozen of its immature blossoms were destroyed, and the female organs left entire!
When the blossoms had attained their mature state, the pollen of a very large and luxuriant grey pea was
introduced into the one half of them, but not into the other. The pods of both grew equally ; but the seeds
of the half that were unimpregnated withered away, without having augmented beyond the size to which
they had attained before the blossoms expanded. The seeds of the other half were augmented and
matured as in the ordinary process of impregnation ; and exhibited no perceptible difference from those
of other plants of the same variety; perhaps because the external covering of the seed was furnished
entirely by the female. But when they were made to vegetate in the succeeding spring, the eflfect of
the experiment was obvious. The plants rose with great luxuriance, indicating in their stem, leaves, and
fruit, the influence of this artificial impregnation ; the seeds produced were of a dark grey. By im-
pregnating the flowers of this variety with the pollen of others, the color was again changed, and new
varieties obtained, superior in every respect to the original on which the experiment was first made and
attaining in some cases, to a height of more than twelve feet. {Phil. Trans. 1789.) Knight thinks his
experiments on this subject aflTord examples of superfoetation, a phenomenon, the existence°of which has
been admitted amongst animals, but of which the proof amongst vegetables is not yet quite satisfactory
Of one species of superfoetation he has certainly produced examples ; that is, when, by impregnating a
white pea-blossom with the pollen both of a white and grey pea, white and grey seeds were obtained
But of the other species of superfoetation, in which one seed is supposed to be the joint issue of two males
the example is not quite satisfactory. Such a production is perhaps possible, and further experiments*
may probably ascertain the fact ; but it seems to be a matter of mere curiositv, and not aiMwrently con
nected with any views of utility. " 1 1 j

822. The practicability of improving the species, is rendered strikingly obvious bv these experiments • -
and the ameliorating effect is the same whether by the male or female ; as was ascertained by impreR-
nating the largest and most luxuriant plants with the pollen of the most diminutive and dwarfish or
the contrary. By such means any number of varieties may be obtained, according to the will of the
experimenter, amongst which some will no doubt be suited to all soils and situations Knight's ex
periments of this kind were extended also to wheat; but not with equal success. For thoueli some
very good varieties were obtained, yet they were found not to be permanent. But the success of his
cxt)erimcnts on the apple-tree were equal to his hoiws. This was indeed his principal object and no
means of obtaining a successful issue were left untried. The plants which were obtained in this cas*-

Book I. IMPREGNATION OF VEGETABLES. 183

were found to possess the good qualities of both of the varieties employed, uniting the greatest health
and luxuriance with the finest and best-flavoured fruit

823. Improved varieties of every fruit and esculent plant may be obtained by means of artificial impreg-
nation, or crossing, as they ware obtained in the cases already stated. Whence Knight thinks, that this
promiscuous impregnation of species has been intended by nature to take place, and that it does in fact
olten take place, for the purpose of correcting such accidental varieties as arise from seed, and of con-
fining them within narrower limits. All which is thought to be countenanced from the consideration of
the variety of methods which nature employs to disperse the pollen, either by the elastic spring of the
anthers, the aid of the winds, or the instrumentality of insects. But, although he admits the existence
of vegetable hybrids, that is, of varieties obtained from the intermixture of difFerent species of the same
genus, yet he does not admit the existence of vegetable mules, that is, of varieties obtained from the
intermixture of the species of different genera ; in attempting to obtain which he could never succeed,
in spite of all his efforts. Hence he suspects that where such varieties have been supposed to take place,
the former must have been mistaken for the latter. It may be said, indeed, that if the case exists in the
animal kingdom, why not in the vegetable kingdom ? to which it is, perhaps, dithcult to give a satisfactory
reply. But from the narrow limits within which this intercourse is in aU cases circumscribed, it scarcely
seems to have been the intention of nature that it should succeed even among animals. Salisbury is of a
different opinion, and considers {Hort. Trans, i. S&i.) that new species may be created both by bees and
the agenc^ of man ; and the receht experiments of Herbert, Sweet, and others seem to confirm this
opinion, bweet's experience leads him to conclude that the plants of all orders strictly natural may be
reciprocally impregnated with success, and he has already, in the nursery-gardens of Messrs. Colvill,
produced many new geraniaB and rhodraceee.

824. A singular or anomalous ejSTect of crossing, or extraneous impregnation, is the change sometimes un .
dergone by the seed or truit which is produced by the blossom impregnated. These effects are not uniform
results, but they are of frequent occurrence, and have attracted notice from a very early period. John Tur-
ner observes {Hort. Trans, v. 65.) that Theophrastus and Pliny {Theophrasf. Hist. Plant. L ii. c. 4. ; PliniiHist.
Nat. L xvii. c. 25.) seem to allude to it, and that the notion was entertained by Bradley, who, in his
New Improvements in Planting and Gardening, after giving directions for fertilising the female flowers
of the hazel with the pollen of the male, says, " By this knowledge we may alter the property and taste
of any fruit, by impregnating the one with the farina of another of the same class, as, for example, a
codlin with a pearmain, which will occasion the codlin so impregnated to last a longer time than usual,
and be of a sharper Uste j or if the winter fhiit should be fecundated with the dust of the summer kinds,
they will decay before their usual time ; and it is from this accidental coupling of the farina of one kind with
the other, that in an orchard, where there is variety of apples, even the fruit gathered from the same tree
differs in its flavor and times of ripening ; and, moreover, the seeds of those apples so generated, being
changed by that means from their natural qualities, will produce different kinds of fruit, if they are sown."
Turner, after quoting several ■ instances, and, among others, one from the Philosophical Transactions
" concerning the effect which the fiirina of the blossoms of different sorts of apples had on the fruit of
a neighbouring tree," states upwards of six cases of hybridised apples, that had come within his own
observation, and concludes with the remark, that if there does exist in fruits such a liability to change,
it will at once be evident to the intelligent cultivator how much care is requisite in growing melons,
cucumbers, &c. to secure their true characters, even without reference to saving seed for a future crop.
In the same volume of the UoriicuUural Transactions (p. 234.}, an account is given of different-colored
peas being produced in the same pod by crossing the parent blossom. All these facts seem to contradict
the generally received opinion, that crossing only affects the next generation ; here it appears to affect
the embrj'o offspring ; and a gardener who had no keeping apples in his orchard, might communicate
that quality in part to his summer fruit by borrowing the use of a neighbour's blossoms from a late variety.
It is probable, however, that such counter-impregnations do not take place readily ; otherwise the produce
oi a common orchard would be an ever- varying round of monstrosities.

Sect. VIII. Changes consequent upon Imjrregnation,

825. Tlie jKCuliar changes consequent ujxm impregnation, whether in the flowers or
fruit, may be considered as external and internal.

826. External changes. At the period of the impregnation of the ovary the flower has attained to Its
ultimate state of perfection, and displayed its utmost beauty of coloring and richness of perfume. But as
it is now no longer wanted, so it is no longer provided for in the economy of vegetation. Its period of
decline has commenced ; as is indicated, first bv the decay of the stamens, then of the petals, and then of
the calyx, which wither and shrink up, and finally detach themselves from the fruit altogether, except in
some particular cases in which one or other of them becomes permanent and falls only with the fruit. The
stigma exhibits also similar symptoms of decay, and the style itself often perishes. The parts contiguous
to the flower, such as the bractes and floral leaves, are sometimes also affected ; and finally the whole
plant, at least in the c;ise of annuals, begins to exhibit indications of decay. But while the flower withers
and falls, the ovary is advancing to perfection, swelling and augmenting in size, and receiving now all the
nutriment by which the decayed parts were formerly supported. Its color begins to assume a deeper and
richer tinge"; its figure is also often altered, and new jiarts are even occasionally added — wings, crests,
prickles, hooks, bloom, down. The common receptacle of the fruit undergoes also similar changes, becom-
mg sometimes large and succulent, as in the fig and strawberry ; and sometimes juiceless and indurated, as
in compound flowers.

827. Internal changes. If the ovary is cut open as soon as it is first discoverable in the flower, it pre-
sents to the eve merely a pulpy and homogeneous mass. But if it is allowed to remain till immediately
before the period of its impregnation, it will now be found to be divisible into several distinct parts, exhi-
biting an apparatus of cells, valves, and membranes, constituting the pericarp, and sometimes the external
coats of the seed. In tliis case the umbilical cord is also to be distinguished ; but the embryo is not yet
visible. These changes, therefore, are to be attributed merely to the operation of the ordinary laws of
vegetable developement, and are not at ail dependent upon impregnation. But impregnation has no
sooner taken place than its influence begins-to be visible ; the umbilical cord, which was formerly short
and distended, is now generally converted into a long and slender thread. Sometimes the position of the
seed is altered. Before impregnation the seeds of caryophyllus aromaticus, and metrosideros gummifera,
are horizonUl ; after impregnation they become vertical Before impregnation the magnolia seeds are
erect; after impregnation they become inverted and pendulous. The figure of the seed is often also
altered in passing from its young to its mature state ; changing from smooth to angular, from lapenng to
oval, from oyal to round, and from round to kidney-shaped. But all seeds are not brought to maturity, of
which the rudiments may exist in the ovarj'. Lagcecia and hasselquistia, produce uniformly the rudi-
ments of two seeds, of which thev mature but one. But the principal changes resulting from impregnation
are operated in the seed itself, which, though previously a homogeneous and gelatinous mass, is now con.
verted into an organised body, or embryo. Such are the phenomena, according to the description of
Geertner, accompanying or following the impregnation of all flowers producing seeds ; exceptions occur
where the fecundation is spurious or incomplete ; where the ovary swells, but exhibits no traces of perfect
seed within, as often happens in the vine and tamus ; or when barren and fertile seeds are intermingled
together in the same ovarv. This proceeds from some defect either in the quantity or quality of the pollen ;

N 4

184

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

but ratiier in the quality, as it is not always plants having the most pollen that produce the mo»t seeds. The
one stamen of the orch idea; fecundate 8000 seeds, and the five stamens of tobacco fecundate 900 : while the
50 sjtamens oi barringtonia, the 230 of thea, and the 80 of the caryophilli, fecundate only two or three
ovaries.

Sect. IX. The Propagation of the Species.
828. j4s the life of the vegetable, like that of the animal, is limited to a definite period,
and as a continued supply of vegetables is always wanted for the support of animals,
what we call art, or nature operating by means of the animal man, has taken care to
institute such means as shall secure the multiplying and perpetuating of the species in
all possible cases.

829. Equivocal Generation. It was long a vulgar error, countenanced even by the philosophy of the times
that vegetables do often spring up from the accidental mixture of putrid water and earth, or other putrid
substances, in the manner of what was called the equivocal generation of animals ; or at the very least,
that the earth contains the principle of vegetable life in itself, which in order to deveiope, it is only neces-
sary to expose to the action of the air. The former alternative of the error has been long ago refuted ;
the latter has lost its hold, having been also refuted by Malpighi, who proved that the earth produces
no plant without the intervention of a seed, or of some other species of vegetable germ deposited in it by
nature or by art

830. Projyagation by seeds. When the seed has reached maturity in tlie due and
regular course of the developement of its several parts, it detaches itself sooner or later
from the parent plant, either singly or along with its pericarp, and drops into the soil,
where it again germinates and takes root, and springs up into a new individual. Sudi
is the grand means instituted by nature for the replenishing and perpetuating of tlie
vegetable kingdom.

831. Dispersion of seed. If seeds were to fall into the soil merely by dropping down from the plant,
then the great mass of them, instead of germinating and springing up into distinct plants, would grow up
only to putrefy and decay ; to prevent which consequence

nature has adopted a variety of the most efficacious contri-
vances, all tending to the dispersion of the seed. The first
means to be mentioned, is that of the elasticity of the peri-
carp of many fruits, by which it opens when ripe, with a sort
of sudden spring, ejecting the seed with violence, and throw-
ing it some considerable ilistance from the plant. This may be
exemplified in a variety of cases ; the seeds of oats when ripe
are projected from the calyx with such violence, that in a fine
and dry day you may even hear them thrown out with a
slight and sudden snap in passing through a field that is ripe.
The pericarp of the Dorsiferous Ferns (Jig. 64 a) is furnished
with a sort of peculiar elastic ring (6), intended, as it would
appestr, for the very purpose of projecting the seeds. The
capsules of the cucumber, geranium geum, and fraxinella,
discharge their seeds also when ripe with an elastic jerk. But
the pericarp of impatiens, which consists of one cell with
live valves, exhibits perhaps one of the best examples of this
mode of dispersion. If it is accidentally touched when ripe
it will immediately burst open, while the valves, coiling
themselves up in a spiral form, and springing from the stem,
discharge the contained seeds and scatter them all around.
The bursting of the pericarp of some species of pines is also
worthy of notice. The pericarp, which is a cone, remains
on the tree till the summer succeeding that on which it was
produced, the scales being still closed. But when the hot
weather has commenced and continued for some time, so as
to dry the cone thoroughly, the scales open of their own
accord with a sudden jerk, ejecting the contained seeds : and if a number of them happen to burst together
which IS often the case, the noise is such as to be heard at some considerable distance. The twisted awn of
avena fatua (^^.65.), or wild oat, as well as that of geranium cicutarium, and some others, seems to have
been intended particularly for the purpose of aiding the further dispersion of the seed, after being discharged
from the plant or pericarp. This spiral awn or spring, , "v js uisv-ijanjeu

which is beset with a multitude of fine and minute hairs,
possesses the property of contracting by means of drought,
and of expanding by means of moisture. Hence it remains
of necessity in a perpetual state of contraction or dilatation,
dependent upon change of weather ; from which, as well as
from the additional aid of the fine hairs,which act as so many
fulcra, and cling to whatever object they meet, the seed to
which it is attached is kept in continual motion till it either
germinates or is destroyed. The awn of barley, which is
beset with a multitude of little teeth all pointing to its
upper extremity, presents also similar phenomena. For
when the seed with its awn falls from the ear and lies flat
upon the ground, it is necessarily extended in its dimensions
by the moisture of the night, and contracted by the drought
of the day. But as the teeth prevent it from receding in
the direction of the point, it is consequently made to ad-
vance in the direction of the base of the seed, which is thus
often carried to the distance of many feet from the stalk on
which it grew. If any one is yet sceptical with regard to
the travelhng capacity of the awn, let him only introduce
an awn of barley with the seed uppermost between his coat
and shirtsleeve at the wrist, when he walks out in th^^ morn-
ing, and by the time he returns to breakfast, if he has
walked to any great distance, he will find it up at his arm-
pit. This journey has been effected bv means of the con-
tmucd motion of the arm, and consequently of the teeth of
t"e awn actmgas feet to carry it forward.

832. Where distance of dispersion is required, nature is

Boor I. PROPAGATION OF VEGETABLES. 185

also furnished with a resource. One of the most common modes by which seeds are conveyed to a di».
tance from their place of growth is that of the instrumentality of animals. Many seeds are thus carried to
a distance from their place of growth merely by their attaching themselves to the bodies of such animals
as may happen accidentally to come in contact with the plant in their search after food ; the honks or hairs
*ith which one part or other of the fructification is often furnished serving as the medium of attachment
<aid the seed being thus carried about with the animal till it is again detached by some accidental cause, and
at last committed to the soil. This may be exemplified in the case of the bidens and myosotis, in which
the hooks or prickles are attached to the seed itself; or in the case of galium aparine and others, in which
they are atUched to the pericarp ; or in the case of the thistle and the burdock, in which they are attached
to the general calyx. Many seeds are dispersed by animals in consequence of their pericarps being used
as food. This is often the case with the seeds of the drupe, as cherries, sloes, and haws, which birds
often carry away till they meet with some convenient place for devouring the pulpy pericarp, and
then drop the stone into the soil. And so also fruit is dispersed that has been hoarded for the winter,
though even with the view of feeding on the seed itself, as in the case of nuts hoarded up by squirrels,
which are often dispossessed by some other animal, that not caring for the hoard scatters and disperses it.
Sometimes the hoard is deposited in the ground itself, in which case part of it is generally found to take
root and spring up into plants. Though it has been observed that the ground-squirrel often deprives the
kernel of its germ before it deposits the fruit it collects. Crows have been also observed to lay up acorns
and other seeds in the holes offence-posts, which being either forgot or accidentally thrust out, fall ulti-
mately into the earth and germinate. But sometimes the seed is even taken into the stomach of the
animal, and afterwards deposited in the soil, having passed through it unhurt. This is often the case with
the seed of many species of berry, such as the misletoe, which the thrush swallows and afterwards deposits
upon the boughs of such trees as it may happen to alight ujion. The seeds of the loranthus americanus,
another parasitical plant, are said to be deposited in like manner on the branches of the coccoloba grandi-
folia, and other lofty trees ; as also the seeds of phytolacca decandra, the berries of which are eaten by
the robin, thrush, aiid wild pigeon. And so also the seeds of currants or roans are sometimes deposited,
after having been swallowed by blackbirds or other birds, as may be seen by observing a currant-bush or
young roan-tree growing out of the cleft of another tree, where the seed has been left, and where there
may happen to have been a little dust collected by way of soil ; or where a natural graft may have been
effected by the insinuation of the radicle into some chink or cleft. It seems indeed surprising that any
seeds should be able to resist the heat and digestive action of the stomach of animals ; but it is undoubtedly
the fact. Some seeds seem even to require it. The seeds of magnolia glauca, which have been brought
to this country, are said to have generally refused to vegetate till after undergoing this process, and it is
known that some seeds will t)ear a still greater degree of heat without any injury. Spallanzani mentions
some seeds that germinated after having been boiled in water : and Du Hamel gives an account of some
others that germinated even after having been exposed to a degree of heat measuring 235° of Fahrenheit.
In addition to the instrumentality of brute animals in the dispersion of the seed might be added also that
of man, who, for purposes of utility or of ornament, not only transfers to his native soil seeds indigenous to
the most distant regions, but sows and cultivates them with care.

833. The agency of winds is one of the most effective modes of dispersion instituted by nature. Some seeds
are fitted for this mode of dispersion from their extreme minuteness, such as those of the mosses, lichens,
and fungi, which float invisibly on the air, and vegetate wherever they happen to meet with a suitable
soil. Others are fitted for it by means of an attached wing, as in the case of the fir-tree and liriodendron
tulipifera, so that the seed, in falling from the cone or capsule, is immediately caught by the wind,
and carried to a distance. Others are peculiarly fitted for it by means of their being furnished with
an aigrette or down, as in the case of the dandelion, goat's-beard, and thistle, as well as most plants of the
class Syngenesia j the down of which is so large and light in proportion to the seed it supports, that it is
wafted on the most gentle breeze, and often seen floating through the atmosphere in great abundance at
the time the seed is ripe. Some have a tail, as in clematis vitalba. Others are fitted for this mode of
dispersion by means of the structure of the pericarp, which is also wafted along with them, as in the case of
staphylea trifolia, the inflated capsule of which seems as if obviously intended thus to aid the dispersion
of the contained seed by its exposing to the wind a large and distended surface with but little weight. And
so also in the case of the maple, elm, and ash, the capsules of which are furnished, like some seeds, with
a membranous wing, which when they separate from the plant the wind immediately lays hold of and
drives before it.

8^. The instrumentality of streams, rivers, and currents of the ocean, is a further means adopted by
nature for the dispersion of the seeds of vegetables. The mountain-stream or torrent washes down to
the valley the seeds which may accidentally fall into it, or which it may happen to sweep from its banks when
it suddenly overflows them. The broad and majestic river, windirtg along the extensive plain, and tra-
versing the continents of the world, conveys to the distance of many hundreds of miles the seeds that may
have vegetated at its source. Thus the southern shores of the Baltic are visited by seeds which grew in
the interior of Germany, and the western shores of the Atlantic by seeds that have been generated in the
interior of America. But fruits indigenous to America and the West Indies have sometimes been found
to be swept along by the currents of the ocean to the western shores of Europe. The fruit of mimosa scan-
dens, dolichos pruriens, guilandina bonduc, and anacardium occidentale, or cashew-nut, have been thus
known to be driven across the Atlantic to a distance of upwards of 2000 mile^ ; and although the fruits
now adduced as examples are not such as could vegetate on the coast on which they were thrown, owing to
soil or climate, yet it is to be believed that fruits may have been often thus transported to climates or coun-
tries favorable to their vegetation.

835. Projjagation hy gems. Though plants are for the most part propagated by means
of seeds, yet many of them are propagated also by means of gems ; that is, bulbs and buds.

The caulinary bulb is often the means of the propagation of the species : it generally appears in the
axil of the leaves, as in dentaria bulbifera and liUum bulbiferum ; or between the spokes of their um-
bels, as in allium canadense ; in the midst of the spike of flowers, as in polygonum viviparum and poa
alpina. As plants of this last kind are mostly alpine, it has been thought to be an institution or re-
source of nature to secure the propagation of the species in situations where the seed may fail to ripen.

836. The bud, though it does not spontaneously detach itself from the plant and form a new individual,
will yet sometimes strike root and develope its parts if carefully separated by art and planted in the
earth : but this is to be understood of the leaf-bud only, for the flower-bud, according to Mirbel, if so
treated, always perishes.

• 837. Propagation by the leaves. The species may sometimes be propagated even by means of th3
leaves ; as in the aloe, sea-onion, and some species of arum, which if carefully deposited in the soil will
grow up into new plants, by virtue, no doubt, of some latent gem contained in them. The fungi and
lichens, according to Gasrtner, are all gemmiferous, having no sexual organs, and no pollen impregnat-
ing a germ. In the genus Lycoperdon, the gelatinous substance that pervades the cellular tissue is con-
verted into a proliferous powder ; in clavaria, the fluid contained in the cavities of the plant is converted
into a proliferous powder also ; and in the agarics, hypnum, and boletus, vesicles containing sobolifer-
ous granules are found within the lamina, pores, or tubes. Hedwig, on the contrarj', ascribes to the
fungi a sexual apparatus, and maintains that the pollen is lodged in the volva. But here it is to be
recollected, as in the cases of the scutells of the lichens, that all fungi are not furnished with a volva.

186 \ SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

and consequently not furnished with pollen. The confervse and ulvae, together with the genera Blasia
and Riccia, are also, according to Gsertner, propagated only by gems; while marchantia, anthoceros,
jungermannia, and lycoperdon, are said to be propagated both by gems and seeds.

838. Runners are young shoots issuing from the collar or summit of the root, and
creeping along the surface of the soil ; but producing a new root and leaves at the
extremity, and forming a new individual, by the decay of the connecting link, as in the
strawberry.

839. Slips. The process of raising perennials by slips is well known to gardeners, and
should perhaps be regarded as an extension of the old plant, rather than as the generation
of a new one ; though it serves the pui-pose of the cultivator equally well as a plant raised
from seed, with the additional advantage of bearing fruit much sooner. But how is the
root generated wliich the slip thus produces ? ' If the trimk of a tree is lopped, and all its
existing buds destroyed, then there will be protruded from between the wood and bark a
sort of protuberant lip or ring formed from the proper juice, and from which there will
spring a number of young shoots. The formation of the root in the case of the slip is
effected in the same manner, the moisture of the soil encouraging the protrusion of buds
at and near the section ; and the bud that would have been converted into a branch above
ground is converted into a root below.

840. Layers. The mode of propagation by layers is practised ujX)n trees that are deli-
cate, and which cannot readily be pro'pagated by means of slips ; in a\ hich case the root
is generated nearly as in tlie former case, the soil stimulating the protrusion of buds
which are converted into roots. In many plants, such as the currant and laurel, this is
altogether a natural process, effected by the spontaneous bending down of a branch to the
surface of the soil.

841. Suckers or q^-seis. Many plants protrude annually from the collar a number of
young shoots, encircling the principal stem and depriving it of a portion of its nourish-
ment, as in the case of most fruit-trees. Others send out a horizontal root, from which
there at last issues a bud that ascends above the soil and is converted into a little stem, as
in the case of the elm-tree and syringa. Others send out a horizontal shoot from the
collar or its neighbourhood ; or a shoot that ultimately bends down by its own weight till
it reaches the ground, in which it strikes root and again sends up a stem as in the currant-
bush and laurel. 'I'he two former are called suckers or onsets, though the term ofF-set
should perhaps be restricted to the young bulbs that issue and detach themselves annually
from bulbous roots. ITie latter is not designated by any particular name, but may be re-
garded as a sort of natural layer, resembling also, in some respects, the runner ; from
which, however, it is distinguished in that it never detaches itself spontaneously from the
parent plant, as is the case also with the two foi-mer. But if either of them is artificially
detached, together with a portion of root or a slice of the collar adhering to it, it v/ill now
bear transplanting, and will constitute a distinct plant.

842. Greying and budding. The species is also often propagated, or at least the
variety is multiplied, by means of grafting, which is an artificial application of a portion
of the shoot or root of one tree or plant to the stem, shoot, branch, or root of another, so
that the two shall coalesce together and form but one plant. The shoot which is to form
tlie summit of the new individual is called the scion ; the stem to which it is affixed is
called the stock ; and the operation, when effected, the graft. ' As the graft is merely an
extension of the parent plant from which the scion came, and not properly speaking
a new individual, so it is found to be the best method of propagating approved
varieties of fruit^-trees without any danger of altering the quality of the fruit, which is
always apt to be incurred in propagating from seed, but never in propagating from tlie
scion. The scion will also bear fruit much sooner than tlie tree that is raised from seed ;
and, if effected on a proper stock, will be much more hardy and vigorous than if left on
the parent plant. And hence the great utility of grafting in the practice of gardening.
Till lately, grafting was confined to the ligneous plants, but it is now successfully prac-
tised on the roots and shoots of herbaceous vegetables ; and the dahlia is grafted by the
root ; the melon on the gourd ; the love-apple on the potatoe ; the cauliflower on the cab-
bage, &c. by the shoot. A very ingenious tract has been published on this subject,
entitled, Essai sur la Greffe de Vherbe des 2)lantes et des arbres, par Mons . Le Baron de
Tsckoudi/, Bourgeois de Glaris. Paris, 1819.

Sect. X. Causes Uviiiing the Propagation of the Species.

843. Though plants are controlled chiejiy by animals, yet they also control one another.
From the various sources of vegetable reproduction, but particularly from the fer-
tility and dispersion of the seed, tlie earth would soon be overrun with plants of the most
prolific species, and converted again into a desert, if it were not that nature has set bounds
to their propagation by subjecting them to the control of man, and to the depredations of
the great mass of animals ; as well as in confining the germination of their seeds to cer-
tain and peculiar habitations arising from soil, climate, altitude, and other circumstances.

m

K Book I. EVIDENCE OF VEGETABLE VITALITY. 187

■ In order to form an idea of the manner in wliich these act upon vegetation ; imagine that
K every year an enormous quantity of seeds, produced by tlie existing vegetables, are spread
m over the surface of the globe, by the vnnds and other causes already mentioned, all of
V these seeds which fall in places suitable for their vegetation, and are not destroyed by ani-
mals, germinate and produce plants ; then among these plants, the strongest, and largest,
and those to wliich the soil is best suited, develope tliemselves in number and magnitude
so as to choke the others. Such is the general progress of nature, and among plants, as
among animals, the strong flourish at the expense of the weak. These causes have oper-
ated for such a length of time, that the greater number of species are now fixed and con-
sidered as belonging to certain soils, situations, and climates, beyond which they seldom
propagate themselves otherwise tlian by the hands of man.

Sect. XI. Evidence and Character of Vegetable Vitality.
844. The power of counteracting tlie Iqws of chemical affinity is reckoned tlie best and
most satisfactory evidence of the presence and agency of a vital principle as inherent in
any subject. Tlois principle, which seems first to have been instituted by Humboldt, is
obviously applicable to the case of animals, as is proved by the process of the digestion of
tlie food, and its conversion into chyle and blood ; as well as from the various secretions
and excretions effected by tlie several organs, and effecting the grov/th and developement
of the indi\-idual, in direct opposition to the acknowledged laws of chemical aflinity,
which, as soon as the vital principle is extinct, begin immediately to give indication of
their action in the incipient sjTnptoms of the putrefaction of tlie dead body. But the rule
is also applicable to the case of vegetables, as is proved by the intro-susception, digestion,
and assimilation of the food necessary to their developement ; all indicating the agency
of a principle capable of counteracting the laws of chemical affinity ; which, at the period
of what is usually called the death of the plant, begin also immediately to act, arid to give
evidence of their action in the incipient symptoms of the putrefaction of the vegetable.
Vegetables are therefore obviously endowed witli a species of vitality. But admitting the
presence and agency of a \-ital principle inherent in the vegetable subject, what are the
peculiar properties by which this principle is characterised,?

845. Excitability. One of the most distinguishable properties of the vital principle of vegetables is
that of its excitability, or capacity of being acted upon by the application of natural stimuli, impelling
it to the exertion of its vegetalive powers ; the natural stimuli thus impelling it being light and heat.

846. The stimulating influence of light upon the vital principle of the plant is discoverable, whether
in the stem, leaf, or flower The direction of the stem is influenced by the action of light, as well as
the color of its leaves. Distance from direct rajs of light or weak light produces etiolation, and its
absence blanching. The luxuriance of branches depends on the presence and action of light, as is par-
ticularly observable in the case of hot-house plants, the branches of which are not so conspicuously di-
rected, either to the flue in quest of heat, or to the door or open sash in quest of air, as to the sun
in quest of light. Hence also the branches of plants are often more luxuriant on the south than on
the north side ; or at least on the side that is best exposed to light. The position of the leaf is also
strongly affected by the action of light to which it uniformly turns its upper surface. This may be readily
perceived in the case of trees trained to a wall, from which the upper surface of the leaf is by con-
sequence always turned ; being on a south wall turned to the soutli, and on a north wall turned to the
north. And if the upper surface of the leaf is forcibly turned towanls the wall and confined in that
position for a length of time, it will soon resume its primitive position upon regaining its lilwrty, but
particularly if the atmosphere is clear. The leaves of the mallow are said to exhibit but slight indi-
cations of this susceptibility, as also sword-shaped leaves ; and also those of the mistletoe, are equally
susceptible on both sides. It had l)een conjectured that these effects are partly attributable to the
agency of heat ; and to try the value of the conjecture, Bonnet placed some plants of the atriplex in a
stove heated to 25° of Reaumur. Yet the stems were not inclined to the side from which the greatest
degree of heat came ; but to a small opening in the stoves. Heat then does not seem to exert any
perceptible influence iiT^the production of the above effects. Does moisture ? Bonnet found that the
leaves of the vine e.Khibited the same phenomenon when immersed in water, as when left in the open
air. Whence it seems probable that light is the sole agent in the production of the effects in question.
But as light produces such effects upon the loaves, so darkness or the absence of light produces an effect
quite the contrary ; for it is known that the leaves of many plants assume a very different position in the
night from what they have in the day. This is particularly the case with winged leaves, which, though
fully expanded during the day, begin to droop and bend down about sunset and during the fall of the
evening dew, till they meet together on the inferior side of the leaf-stalk, the terminal lobe, if the leaf
is furnished with one," folding itself back till it reaches the first pair ; or the two side lobes, if the leaf is
trifoliate^ as in the ca.se of common clover. So also the leaflets of the fake acacia and liquorice hang
down during the night, and those of mimosa pudica fold themselves up along the common foot-stalk
so as to overlap one another. Linnsus has designated the above phenomenon by the appellation of
The Sleep of Plants. The expansion of the flower is also effected by the action of light Many plants
do not fully expand their petals except when the sunshines; and hence alternately open them during
the day and shut them up during the night. This may be exemplified in the case of papilionaceous
flowers in general, which spread out their wings in fine weather to admit the rays of the sun, and again
fold them up as the night approaches. It may be exemplified also in the case of compound flowers, as in
that of the dandelion and hawkweed. But the most singular case of this kind is perhaps tliat of the
lotus of the Euj)hrates, as described by Theophrastus, which he represents as rearing and exjianding its
blossoms by day, closing and sinking down lieneath the surface of tiic water by night so as to be beyond
the grasp of the hand, and again rising up in the morning to present its expanded blossom to the sun.
The same phenomenon is related also by Pliny. But although many plants open their flowers in the
morning and shut them again in the evening, yet all flowers do not open and shut at the same time.
Plants of the same species are tolerably regular as to time, other circumstances being the same; and
hence the daily opening and shutting of the flower has been denominated by botanists The Horologium
Florce. Flowers requiring but a slight application of stimulus open early in the morning, while others
requiring more open somewhat later. Some do not open till noon, and some, whose extreme delicacy
cannot bear the action of light at all, open only at night, such as the cactus grandiflora, or night-blowing

188 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

cereus. But it seems somewhat doubtful whether or not light is the sole agent in the present case ; for
it has been observed that equatorial flowers open always at the same hour, and that tropical flowers
change their hour of opening according to the length of the day. It has been observed also, that the
flowers of plants that are removed from a warmer to a colder climate expand at a later hour in the latter.
A flower that opens at six o'clock in the morning at Senegal, will not open in France or England
till eight or nine, nor in Sweden till ten. A flower that opens at ten o'clock at Senegal, will not
open m France or England till noon or later, and in Sweden it will not open at all. And a flower
that does not open till noon or later at Senegal, will not open at all in France or England. This seems as
if heat or its absence were also an agent in the opening and shutting of flowers ; tliough the opening of
such as blow only in the night cannot be attributed either to light or heat. But the opening or shutting
of some flowers depends not so much on the action of the stimulus of light as on the existing state of
the atmosphere, and hence their opening or shutting betokens change. If the Siberian sow-thistle shuts
at night, the ensuing day will be fine ; and if it opens, it will be cloudy and rainy. If the African mari-
gold continues shut after seven o'clock in the morning, rain is near at hand. And if the convolvulus ar-
vensis, calendula pluvialis, or anagallis arvensis, are even already open they will shut upon the approach
of rain, the last of which, from its peculiar susceptibility, has obtained the name of the poor man's
weatherglass. But some flowers not only expand during the light of day ; they incline also towards the
6un, and follow his course, looking towards the east in the morning, towards the south at noon, and
towards the west in the evening ; and again returning in the night to their former position in the morn-
ing. Such flowers are designated by the appellation of Heliotropes, on account of their following the
course of the sun ; and the movement they thus exhibit is denominated their nutation. This phenomenon
had been observed by the ancients long before they had made any considerable progress in botany, and
had even been interwoven into their mythology, having originated, according to the recoi-ds of fabulous
history, in one of the metamorphoses of early times. Clytie, inconsolable" for the loss of the affections of
Sol, by whom she had been formerly beloved, and of whom she was still enamoured, is represented as
brooding over her griefs in silence and solitude ; where, refusing all sustenance, and seated upon the
cold ground, with her eyes invariably fixed on the sun during the day, and watching for his return dur-
ing the night, she is at length transformed into a flower, retaining, as much as a flower can retain it,
the same unaltered attachment to the sun. This is the flower which is denominated heliotropium by the
ancients, and described by Ovid as Flos qui ad solem vertitur. But it is to be observed, that the flower
alluded to by Ovid cannot be the heliotropium of the moderns, because Ovid describes it as resembling
the violet : much less can it be the sun-flower of the moderns, wiiich is a native of America, and could
not consequently have been known to Ovid ; so that the true heliotropium of the ancients is perhaps not
yet ascertained. Bonnet has further remarked that the ripe ears of com, which bend down with weight
of grain, scarcely ever incline to the north, but always less or more to the south ; of the accuracy of
which remark any one may easily satisfy himself by looking at a field of wheat ready for the sickle ; he
will find the whole mass of ears nodding, as if with one consent to the south. The cause of the pheno-
menon has been supposed to be a contraction of the fibres of the stem or flower-stalk on the side exposed
to the sun ; and this contraction has been thought by De la Hire and Dr. Hales to be occasioned by an
excess of transpiration on the sunny side; which is probably the fact, though there seems upon this
principle to be some difficulty in accounting for its returning at night ; because if you say that the con-
tracted side expands and relaxes by moisture, what is it that contracts the side that was relaxed in the
day? The moisture, of which it is no doubt still full, would counteract the contraction of its fibres, and
prevent it from resuming its former position in the morning.

847. Heat as well as light acts also as a powerful stimulus to the exertion of the
vital principle. This has been already shown in treating of the process of germination ;
but the same thing is observable with regard to the developement and maturation of the
leaves, flower, and fruit ; for although all plants produce their leaves, flower, and fruit,
annually, yet they dj not all produce them at the same period or season. Tliis forms
the foundation of what Linnaeus has called the Calendarium Florae, including a view of
the several periods of the frondescence and efflorescence of plants, together with that of
the maturation of the fruit.

848. Frondescence. It must be plain to every observer, that all plants do not protrude their leaves at the
same season, and that even of such as do protrude them in the same season, some are earlier and some
later. The honeysuckle protrudes them in the month of January ; the gooseberry, currant, and elder,
in the end of February, or beginning of March ; the willow, elm, and lime-tree, in April ; and the oak
and ash, which are always the latest among trees, in the beginning or towards the middle of May.
Many annuals do not come up till after the summer solstice ; and many mosses not till after the com-
mencement of winter. This gradual and successive unfolding of the leaves of different plants seems to
arise from the peculiar susceptibility of the species to the action of heat, as requiring a greater or less
degree of it to give the proper stimulus to the vital principle. But a great many circumstances will al-
ways concur to render the time of the unfolding of the leaves somewhat irregular ; because the mildness
of the season is by no means uniform at the same period of advancement ; and because the leafing of the
plant depends upon the peculiar degree of temperature, and not upon the return of a partfcular day of
the year. Hence it has been thought, that no rule could be so good for directing the husbandman in the
sowing of his several sorts of grain as the leafing of such species of trees as might be found by observation
to correspond best to each sort of grain respectively, in the degree of temperature required. Linnaeus
(Stillingfleet informs us) instituted some observations on the subject about the year 1750, with a view
chiefly to ascertain the time proper for the sowing of barley in Sweden ; he regarded the leafing of the birch-
tree as being the best indication for that grain, and recommended the institution of similar observations
with regard to other sorts of grain, upon the ground of its great importance to the husbandman, who
may be said to attend to it in a manner instinctively ; but as all the trees of the same species do not come
into leaf precisely at the same time, and as the weather may alter even after the most promising indi-
cations, no guide natural or artificial can be absolutely depended on with a view to future results.

819. Flfflorescence. The flowering of the plant, like the leafing, seems to depend upon the degree of tem-
perature induced by the returning spring, as the flowers are also protruded pretty regularly at the same
successive periods of the season. The mezereon and snowdrop protrude their flowers in February ; the
primrose in the month of March ; the cowslip in April ; the great mass of plants in May and June ; many
in July, August, and September ; some not till the month of October, as the meadow saffron ; and some
not till the approach or middle of winter, as the laurustinus and arbutus. Such at least is the period of
their flowering in this country; but in warmer climates they are earlier, and in colder climates they are
later. Between the tropics, where the degree of heat is always high, it often happens that plants will
flower more than once in the year ; because they do not there require to wait till the temperature is
raised to a certain height, but merely till the developement of their parts can be effected in the regular
operation of nature, under a temperature already sufficient For the greater part, however, they flower
during our summer, though plants in opposite hemispheres flower in opposite seasons. But in all climates
the time of flowering depends also much on the altitude of the place as well as on other causes affecting
the degree of heat. Hence plants occupying the polar regions, and plants occupying the tops of the high
mountains of southern latitudes are in flower at the same season j and hence the same flowers are later

Book I. EVIDENCE OF VEGETABLE VITALITY. 189

in opening in North America than in the same latitudes in Europe, because the surface of the earth is
higher, or the winters more severe.

850. Maturation of the fruit. Plants exhibit as much diversity in the warmth and length of time neces-
sary to mature their fruit as in their frondescence and flowering ; but the plant that flowers the soonest
does not always ripen its fruit the soonest. The hazel-tree, which blows in February, does not ripen its*
fruit till autumn ; while the cherry, that does not blow till May, ripens its fruit in June. It may be re-
garded, however, as the general rule, that if a plant blows in spring it ripens its fruit in summer, as in the
case of the currant and gooseberry ; if it blows in sununer it ripens its fruit in autumn, as in the case of
the vine ; and if it blows in autumn it ripens its fruit in the winter. But the meadow-saffiron, which
blows in the autumn, does not ripen its fruit till the succeeding spring.

851. Such are the primary facts on which a Calendarium Florce, should be founded.
They have not hitlierto been very minutely attended to by botanists ; and perhaps their
importance is not quite so much as has been generally supposed ; but they are at any
rate sufficiently striking to have attracted the notice even of savages. Some tribes of
American Indians act upon the very principle suggested by Linnaeus, and plant their
corn when tlie wild plum blooms, or when the leaves of the oak are about as large as a
squirrel's ears. The names of some of their months are also designated from the state
of vegetation. One is called the budding month, and anotlier the flowering month ;
one the strawberry month, and another the mulberry month ; and the autumn is desig-
nated by a term signifying the fall of the leaf. Thus the proposed nomenclature of the
French for the months and seasons is founded in nature as well as in reason.

852. Cold. As the elevation of temperature induced by the heat of summer is es-
sential to the full exertion of the energies of the vital principle, so the depression of
temperature consequent upon the colds of winter has been thought to suspend the ex-
ertion of the vital energies altogether. » But this opinion is evidently founded on a mistake,
as is proved by the example of such plants as protrude their leaves and flowers in the
winter season only, such as many of the mosses. ; as well as by the dissection of the yet
unfolded buds at different periods of the winter, even in the case of such plants as pro-
trude tlieir leaves and blossoms in the spring and summer, and in which, it has been
already shown, there is a regular, gradual, and incipient developement of parts, from
the time of the bud's first appearance till its ultimate opening in the spring. The sap,
it is true, flows much less freely, but is not wholly stopped. Du Hamel planted some
young trees in the autumn, cutting off all the smaller fibres of the root, with a view
to watch tlie progress of the formation of new ones. At the end of every fortnight he
had the plants taken up and examined with all possible care to prevent injuring
them, and found that, when it did not actually freeze, new roots were ^ways uniformly
developed.

853. JEnergies of life in plants like the jn-ocess of resjriration in animals. Hence it fol-
lows, that even during the period of winter, when vegetation seems totally at a stand,
the tree being stripped of its foliage, and the herb apparently \%-ithering in the frozen
blast, still the energies of vital life are exerted ; and still the vital principle is at work,
canying on in the interior of the plant, concealed from human \aew, and sheltered from
the piercing frosts, operations necessarj' to the preservation of vegetable life, or protru-
sion of future parts ; though it requires the returning warmth of spring to give that
degree of velocity to tlie juices which shall render their motion cognizable to man, as
well as that expression to the whole plant which is the most evident token of life : in the
same manner as the processes of respiration, digestion, and the circulation of the blood
are carried on in the animal subject even while asleep ; though the most obvious
indications of animal life are the motions of the animal when awake. Heat then
acts as a powerful stimulus to the operations of the vital principle, accelerating the mo-
tion of the sap, and consequent developement of parts ; as is evident from the sap's
beginning to flow much more copiously as the warmth of spring advances, as well as
from the possibility of anticipating the natural period of their developement by forcing
them in a hot-house. But it is known that excessive heat impedes the progress of veget-
ation as well as excessive cold ; both extremes being equally prejudicial. And hence
the sap flows more copiously in the spring and autumn, than in either the summer or
winter ; as may readily be seen by watching the progress of the growth of the annual
shoot, which, after having been rapidly protruded in the spring, remains for a while
stationary during the great heat of the summer, but is again elongated during the more
moderate temperature of autumn.

854. Stimularity. There are also several substances which have been found to operate
as stimulants to the agency of the vital principle when artificially dissolved in water, and
applied to the root or branch. Oxygenated mtiriatic acid has been already mentioned :
and the vegetation of the bulbs of the hyacinth and narcissus is accelerated by means of
the application of a solution of nitre. Dr. Barton, of Philadelphia, found that a de-
caj-ing branch of liriodendron tulipifera, and a faded flower of the yellow iris, recovered
and continued long fresh when put into water impregnated with camphor; though
flowers and branches, in all respects similar, did not recover when put into common
water.

190 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

855. Irritability. Plants are not only susceptible of the action of the natural stimuli
of light and heai, exciting them gradually to the exercise of the functions of their dif-
ferent organs in the regular progress of vegetation ; they are susceptible also of the action
of a variety of accidental or artificial stimuli, from the application of which they are
found to give indications of being endowed also with a property similar to what we
call irritability in the animal system. This property is well exemplified in the genus
Mimosa ,- but particularly in that species known by the name of the Sensitive Plnnt ;
and the dionaea muscipula and drosera. But sometimes the irritability resides in
the flower, and has its seat either in tho stamens or style. The former case is ex-
emplified in the flower of the berberry and cactus tuna, and the latter in stylidium
glandulosum.

856. Sensation. From the facts adduced in the preceding sections, it is evident that
plants are endowed with a capacity of being acted upon by the application of stimuli,
whether natural or artificial, indicating the existence of a vital principle, and forming
one of the most prominent features of its character. But besides this obvious and ac-
knowledged property, it has been thought by some phytologists that plants are endowed
also with a species of sensation. Sir J. E. Smith seems rather to hope that the doctrine
may be true, than to think it so.

857. Instinct. There is also a variety of phenomena exhibited throughout the extent
of the vegetable kingdom, some of which are common to plants in general, and some
peculiar to certain species, that have been thought by several botanical writers to exhibit
indications, not merely of sensation, but of instinct. The tendency of plants to incline
their stem and to turn the upper surface of the leaves to the light, the direction which
the extreme fibres of the root will often take to reach the best nourishment, the folding
up of the flower on the approach of rahi, the rising and falling of the water-lily, and
the peculiar and invariable direction assumed by the twining stem in ascending its prop,
are among the phenomena that have been attributed to instinct. Keith has endeavoured
(Lin. Trans, xi. p. 11.) to establish the doctrine of the existence and agency of an in-
stinctive principle in the plant, upon the ground of the direction invariably assumed by
fhe radicle and plumelet respectively, in the germination of the seed.

858. Definition of the plant. But if vegetables are living beings endowed with
sensation and instinct, or any thing approaching to it, so as to give them a resemblance
to animals, how are we certainly to distinguish the plant from the animal ? At the ex-
tremes of the two kingdoms the distinction is easy ; the more perfect animals can never
be mistaken for plants, nor the more perfect plants for animals, but at the mean, where
the two kingdoms may be supposed to unite, the shades of discrimination are so very faint
or evanescent that of some individual productions it is almost impossible to say to wliich
of the kingdoms they belong. Hence it is that substances which have at one time been
classed among plants, have at another time been classed among animals ; and there are
substances to be met with whose place has not yet been satisfactorily determined. Of
these 1 may exemplify the genus Corallina (Jig. 66.), which Linnaeus placed among

66

animals, but which Gaertner places among plants. Linnaeus, Bonnet, Hedwig, and
Mirbel, have each given particular definitions. According to Keith, a vegetable is an
organised and living substance springing from a seed or gem, which it again produces ;
and effecting the developement of its parts by means of the intro-susception and assimila-
tion of unorganised substances, which it derives from the atmosphere or the soil in which
it grows. The definition of the animal is the countei-part : an animal is an organised
and living being proceeding from an egg or embryo, which it again produces ; and ef-
fecting the developement of its parts by means of the intro-susception of organised sub-
stances or their products. For all practical purposes, perhaps plants may be distinguished

Boor 1. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY. 191

from animals with sufficient accuracy by means of the trial of burning ; as animal sub-
stances in a state of ignition exhale a strong and phosphoric odor, wliich vegetable sub-
stances do aot.

Chap. IX.

Vegetable Pathology, or the Diseases and Casualities of Vegetable Life.

859. As plants are, like animals, organised and living beings, tliey are, like animals
also, liable to such accidental injuries and disorders as may affect the health and vigor,
or occasion the deatli of tlie individual. These are w^ounds, accidents, diseases, and
natural decay.

Sect. I. Wounds and Accidents.

860. A wound is a forcible separation of tlie solid parts of the plant effected by means
of some external cause, intentional or accidental.

861. Incisions are sometimes necessary to the health of the tree, in the same manner perhaps as
bleeding is necessary to the health of the animal. The trunk of the plum and cherry-tree seldom expand
freely till a longitudinal incision has been made in the bark ; and hence this operation is often practised
by gardeners. If the incision affects the epidermis only it heals up without leaving any scar; if it pene-
trates into the interior of the bark, it heals up only by means of leaving a scar ; if it penetrates into the
wood, the wound in the wood itself never heals up completely, but new wood and bark are formed above
it as before.

862. Boring is an operation by which trees are often wounded for the purpose of making them part with
their sap in the season of their bleeding, particularly the birch-tree and American maple. A horizontal or
rather slanting hole is bored in them with a wimble, so as to penetrate an inch or two into the wood, from
this the sap flows copiously ; and though a number of holes is often bored in the same trunk, the health of
the tree is not very materially affected. For trees will continue to thrive though subjected to this oper-
ation for many successive years ; and the hole, if not verj- large, will close up again like the deep incision,
not by the union of the broken fibres of the wood, but bv the formation of new bark and wood projecting
beyond the edge of the orifice, and finally shutting it up altogether.

863. Girdling is an operation to which trees in North America are often subjected when the farmer
wishes to clear his land of timber. It consists in making parallel and horizontal incisions with an axe into
the trunk of a tree, and carrying them quite round the stem so as to penetrate through the alburnum^
and then to scoop out the intervening portion. If this operation is performed early in the spring, and be-
fore the commencement of the bleeding season, the tree rarely survives it ; though some trees that are pe-
culiarly tenacious of life, such as acer saccharinum and nyssa integrifolia, have been known to survive
it a considerable length of time.

864. Fracture. If a tree is bent so as to fracture part only of the cortical and woody fibres, and the stem
or branch but small, the parts will again unite by being put back into their natural position, and well
propped up. Especially cure may be expected to succeed if the fracture happens in the spring; but it will
not succeed if the fracture is accompanied with contusion, or if the stem or branch is large ; and even where
it succeeds the woody fibres do not contribute to the union, but the granular and herbaceous substance
only which exudes from between the wood and liber, insinuating itself into all interstices and finally be-
coming indurated into wood.

865. Pruning. Wounds are necessarily inflicted by the gardener or forester in the pruning or lopping
off the superfluous branches, but this is seldom attended with any bad effects to the health of the tree, if
done by a skilful practitioner : indeed no further art is required merely for the protection of the tree be-
yond that of cutting the branch through in a sloping direction so as to prevent the rain from lodging. In
this case the wound soon closes up by the induration of the exposed surface of the section, and by the pro-
trusion of a granular substance, forming a sort of circular lip between the wood and bark ; and hence the
branch is never elongated by the growth of the same vessels that have been cut, but by the protrusion of
new buds near the point of section.

866. Grafting. In the operation of grafting there is a wound both of the stock and graft; which are
united, not by the immediate adhesion of the surfaces of the two sections, but by means of a granular
and herbaceous substance exuding from between the wood and bark, and insinuating itself as a sort of
cement into all open sjiaces : new wood is finally formed within it, and the union is complete.

867. Felling is the operation of cutting down trees close to the ground, which certain species will survive,
if the stump is protected from the injuriesof animals, and the root fresh and vigorous. In this case the
fibres of the wood are never again regenerated, but a lip is formed as in the case of pruning ; and buds,
tliat spring up into new shoots, are protruded near the section ; so that from the old shoot, ten, twelve, or
even twenty new stems may issue according to its size and vigor. The stools of the oak and ash-tree
will furnish good examples ; but there are some trees, such as the fir, that never send out any shoots after
the operation of felling.

868. a buds are destroyed in the course of the winter, or in the early part of the spring, many plants
will again generate new buds that will develope their parts as the others would have done, except that they
never contain blossom or fruit. Du Hamel thought these buds sprang from pre-organised germs which
he conceived to be dispersed throughout the whole of the plant ; but Knight thinks he has discovered the
true source of the regeneration of buds, in the proper juice that is lodged in the alburnum. Buds thus re-
generated never contain or produce either flower or fruit. Perhaps because the fruit-bud requires more
time to develope its parts, or a peculiar and higher degree of elaboration ; and that this hasty production
is only the effect of a great effort of the vital principle for the preservation of the individual, and one of
those wonderful resources to which nature always knows how to resort when the vital principle is in dan-
ger. But though such buds do not produce flowers directly, as in the case of plants that bear their blos-
soms on last year's wood ; yet they often produce young shoots which produce blossoms and fruit the
same season, as in the case of cutting down an old vine, or pruning the rose.

869. Sometimes the leaves of a tree are destroyed partially or totally as soon as they are protruded from
the bud, whether by the depredations of caterpillars or other insects, or by the browsing of cattle. But
if the injury is done early in the spring, new leaves will be again protruded without subsequent shoots.
Some trees will bear to be stripped even more than once in a season, as is the case with the mulberry-tree,
which they cultivate in the south of France and Italy for the purpose of feeding the silk- worm. But if it is
stripped more than once in the season it requires now and then a year's rest.

8/0. The decortication of a tree, or the stripping it of its bark, may be either intentional or accidental,
partial or total. If it is partial, and affects the epidermis only, then it is again regenerated, as in the case
of slight incision, without leaving any scar. But if the epidermis of the {letal, leaf, or fruit, is destroyed,
it is not again regenerated, nor is the wound healed up, except by means of a scar. Such is the case also

192 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

with all decortications that penetrate deeper than the epidermis, particularly if the wound is not protected
from the action of the air : if the decortication reaches to the wood, then new bark issues from between the
bark and wood, and spreads till it covers the wound. But the result is not the same when the wound is
covered from the air. In the season of the flowing of the sap Du Hamel detached a ring of bark, of three
or four inches in breadth, from the trunks of several young elm-trees, taking care to defend the decorti-
cated part from the action of the air, by surrounding it with a tube of glass cemented above and below to
the trunk. After a few days the tubes became cloudy within, particularly when it was hot ; but when the
air became cool, the cloud condinsed and fell in drops to the bottom. At last there began to appear, as if
exuding from between the bark and wood of the upper part of the wound, a sort of rough scurfy substance ;
and on the surface of the wood, as if exuding from between the longitudinal fibres of the alburnum, a
number of gelatinous drops. They were not connected with the scurfy substance at the top, but seemed
to arise from small slips of the liber that had not been completely detached. Their first appearance was
that of small reddish spots changing by degrees into white, and finally into a sort of grey, and extending
in size till they at last united and formed a cicatrice, which was a new bark.

871. Abortion or failure in the produce of flowers, fruits, or of perfect seeds, is generally the effect of acci-
dental injuries, either directly to the flower or fruit, by which they are rubbed off or devoured by insects j or
to the leaves by insects ; or to the roots by exposure to the air or cutting off so much of them as essentially
to lessen their power of drawing up nourishment. Other causes will readily suggest themselves; and one
of the commonest, as to seeds and fruits, is want of sufficient impregnation.

872. Premature inflorescence or fruiting is sometimes brought on by insects, but more generally by checks
produced by cold or injuries from excessive heat, or long continued drought. Fruit is often ripened pre-
maturely by the puncture of insects ; and a pine-apple plant of almost any age may be thrown into fruit by
an hour or two's exposure to a frosty atmosphere in winter, or by scorching the roots in an overhot tan-
bed at any season.

Sect. II. Diseases.

873. Diseases are corrupt affections of the vegetable body, arising from a vitiated state
of its juices, and tending to injure the habitual health either of the whole or part of the
plant. The diseases that occur the most frequently among vegetables are the following :
Blight, smut, mildew, honey-dew, dropsy, flux of juices, gangrene, etiolation, suflPoca-
tion, contortion, consumption.

874. Blight. Much has been written on the nature of blight ; and in proportion as
words have been multiplied on the subject, the difficulties attending its elucidation have
increased.

875. The blight, or blast, was well known to the ancient Greeks, who were however totally ignorant of its
cause, regarding it merely as a blast from heaven, indicating the wrath of their offended deities, and utterly
incapable of prevention or cure. It was known also to the Romans under the denomination of rubigo, who
regarded it in the same light as the Greeks, and even believed it to be under the direction of a particular
deity, Rubigus, whom they solemnly invoked that blight might be kept from corn and trees. It is still well
known from its effects to every one having the least knowledge of husbandry or gardening ; but it has been
very differently accounted for. And, perhaps, there is no one cause that will account for all the different
cases of blight, or disease going by the name of blight ; though they have been supposed to have all the same
origin. If we take the term in its most general acceptation I think it will include at least three distinct
species — blight originating in cold and frosty winds, blight originating in a sort of sultry and pestilential
vapor, and blight originating in the immoderate propagation of a sort of small and parasitical fungus.

»76. Blight, originating in cold and frostywinds, is often occasioned by the cold and easterly winds of
spring, which nip and destroy the tender shoots of the plant, by stopping the current of the juices. The
leaves which are thus deprived of their due nourishment wither and fall, and the juices that are now
stopped in their passage swell and burst the vessels, and become the food of innumerable little insects
that soon after make their appearance. Hence they are often mistaken for the cause of the disease itself;
the farmer supposing they are wafted to him on the east wind, while they are only generated in the extra-
vasated juices, as forming a proper nidus for their eggs. Their multiplication will no doubt contribute to
the spreading of the disorder, as they always breed fast where they find plenty of food. But a similar
disease is often occasioned by the early frost of spring. If the weather is prematurely mild, the blossom is
prematurely protruded, which, though it is viewed by the unexperienced with delight, yet it is viewed by
the judicious with fear. For it very often happens that this premature blossom is totally destroyed by sub-
sequent frosts, as well as both the leaves and shoots, which c(msequently wither and fall, and injure if they
do not actually kill the plant. This evil is also often augmented by the unskilful gardener, even in at-
tempting to prevent it ; that is, by matting up his trees too closely, or by keeping them covered in the
course of the day, and thus rendering the shoots so tender that they can scarcely fail to be destroyed by
the next frost.

877. Blight, originating in sultry and pestilential vapor, generally happens in the summer when the
grain has attained to its full growth, and when there are no cold winds or frosts to occasion it. Such
was the blight that used to damage the vineyards of ancient Italy, and which is yet found to damage our
hop-plantations and wheat-crops. The Romans had observed that it generally happened after short but
heavy showers occurring about noon, and followed by clear sunshine, about the season of the ripening of
the grapes, and that the middle of the vineyard suffered the most. This corresponds pretty nearly to what
is in this country called the fire-blast among hops, which has been observed to take place, most commonly
about the end of July, when there has been rain with a hot gleam of sunshine immediately after; the
middle of the hop-ground is also the most affected whether the blight is general or partial, and is
almost always the point in which it originates. In a particular case that was minutely observed, the
damage happened a little before noon, and the blight ran in a line forming a right angle with the sun-
beams at that time of the day. There was but little wind, which was however in the line of the blight.
{Hale's Body of Husbandry.) Wheat is also affected with a similar sort of blight, and about the same
season of the year, which totally destroys the crop. In the summer of 18U9, a field of wheat, on rather a
light and sandy soil, came up with every appearance of health, and also into ear with a fair prospect of
ripening well. About the beginning of July it was considered as exceeding any thing expected from such
a soil. A week afterwards a portion of the crop, on the east side of the field, to the extent of several acres,
was totally destroyed ; being shrunk and shrivelled up to less than one half the size of what it had for-
merly been, and so withered and blasted as not to appear to belong to the same field. The rest of the field
produced a fair crop.

878. Blight, originating in fungi, attacks the leaves or stem both of herbaceous and woody plants,
such as euphorbia cyparissias, berberis vulgaris, and rhamnus catharticus, but more generally grasses ;
and particularly our most useful grains, wheat, barley, and oats. It generally assumes the appearance
&f a rusty -looking powder that soils the finger when touched. In March 1807, some blades of wheat were
examined by Keith that were attacked with this species of blight ; the appearance was that of a number
of rusty-looking spots or patches dispersed over the surface of the leaf, exactly like that of the seeds of
dorsiferous ferns bursting their indusium. Upon more minute inspection these patches were found to

Book I. DISEASES OF VEGETABLES. I93

consist of thousands of small globules collected into groups beneath the epidermis, which they raised up
in a sort of blister and at last burst Some of the globules seemed as if imbedded even in the longitudinal
vessels of the blade. They were of a yellowish or rusty brown, and somewhat transparent. But these
groups of globules have been ascertained by Sir J. Banks to be patches of a minute fungus, the seeds of
which, as they float in the air, enter the pores of the epidermis of the leaf, particularly if the plant is
Hck'y ; or they exist in the manure or soil, and enter by the pores of the root. (Sir J. Banks on Blighty
1805.) This fungus has been figured by Sowerby, and by F. Bauer, and Grew. It is known among farmers
by the name of red rust, and as it affects the stalks and leaves only it does not materially injure the crop.
But there is another species of fungus known to the farmer by the name of red gum, which attacks the
ear only, and is extremely prejudicial. In the aggregate it consists of groups of minute globules inter-
spersed with transparent fibres. The globules are tilled with a fine powder, which explodes when they are
put into water. It is very generally accompanied with a maggot of a yellow colour, that preys also upon
the grain, and increases the amount of injury. The only means of preventing or lessening the effect of
any of the different varieties of blight mentioned is proper culture. Palliatives are to be found in topical
applications, such as flower of sulphur, and where the disease proceeds from, or consists of, innumerable
minute insects, it may occasionally be removed. Grisenthwaite conjectures that in many cases in
which the blight and mildew attack corn-crops, it may be for want of the peculiar food requisite for per-
fecting the grain ; it being known that the fruit or seeds of many plants contain primitive principles not
found in the rest of the plant. Thus the grain of wheat contains gluten and phosphate of lime, and where
these are wanting in the soil, that is, in the manured earths in which the plant grows, it will t^ unable to
perfect its fruit, which of consequence becomes more liable to disease. {New Theory of Agr. &c.)

879. Smut is a disease incidental to cultivated com, by which the farina of the grain,
together with its proper integuments and even part of the husk, is converted into a black,
soot-like powder. If the injured ear is struck with the finger, the powder will be dis-
persed like a cloud of black smoke ; and if a portion of the powder is wetted by a di-op of
water and put under the microscope, it will be found to consist of millions of minute and
transparent globules, which seem to be composed of a clear and glary fluid encompassed
by a tWn and skinny membrane. This disease does not affect the whole body of the crop,
but the smutted eai-s are sometimes very numerously dispersed throughout it. Some have
attributed it to the soil in which the grain is sown, and others have attributed it to the
seed itself, alleging that smutted seed will produce a smutted crop. But in all this there
seems to be a great deal of doubt. Willdenow regards it as originating in a small fungus,
which multiplies and extends till it occupies the whole ear. (Princip. of Bot. p. 356.)
But F. Bauer of Kew, seems to have ascertained it to be merely a morbid swelling of the
ear, and not at all connected with the growth of a fungus. {Smith's Introd. p. 348.) It
is said to be prevented by steeping the grain before sowing in a weak solution of arsenic.
But besides the disease called smut there is also a disease analogous to it, or a different
stage of the same disease, known to the farmer by the name of bags or smut-balls, in
which the nucleus of the seed only is converted into a black powder, whilst the ovary, as
well as the husk, remains sound. The ear is not much altered in its external appearance,
and the diseased grain contained in it will even bear tlie operation of tlireshing, and con-
sequently mingle with the bulk. But it is always readily detected by the experienced buyer,
and fatal to the character of the sample. It is said to be prevented as in the case of smut.

880. Mildew is a thin and whitish coating with which the leaves of vegetables are some-
times covered, occasioning their decay and death, and injuring the health of the plant. It
is frequently found on the leaves of tussilago farfara, humulus lupulus, corj-lus avellana,
and the white and yellow dead-nettle. It is found also on wheat in the shape of a glu-
tinous exudation, particularly when the days are hot and the nights without dew. Will-
denow says it is occasioned by the growth of a fungus of great minuteness, the mucor
erisyphe of Linnaeus ; or by a sort of whitish slime wliich some species oi aphides deposit
upon the leaves. J. Robertson {Hart. Trans, v. 178.) considers it as a minute fungus
of which different species attack different plants. Sulphur he has found the only specific
cure. In cultivated crops mildew is said to be prevented by manuring with soot.

881. Hcmey-dew is a sweet and clammy substance which coagulates on the surface of
the leaves during hot weather, particularly on the leaves of the oak-tree and beech, and is
regarded by Curtis as being merely the dung of some species of aphides. This seems to
be the opinion of Willdenow also, and it is no doubt possible that it may be the case in
some instances or species of the disease. But Sir J. E. Smith contends that "it is not al-
ways so, or that there are more species of honey-dew than one, regarding it particularly
as being an exudation, at least in the case of the beech, whose leaves are, in consequence
of an unfavorable wind, apt to become covered with a sweet sort of glutinous coating,
similar in flavor to the fluid obtained from the trunk.

882. It is certain, however, that saccharine exudations are found on the leaves qf many plants, though
not always distinguished by the name of honey-dew ; which should not perhaps be applied except when
the exudation occasions disease. But if it is to be applied to all saccharine exudations whatever, then we
must include under the appellation of honey-dew, the saccharine exudations observed on the orange-tree
by De la Hire, together with that of the lime-tree which is more glutinous, and of the poplar which is
more resinous ; as also that of the cistus creticus, and of the manna which exudes from the ash-tree of
Italy and larch of France It is also possible that the exudation of excrement constituting honey-dew
may occasionally occur without producing disease; for if it should happen to be washed off soon after by
rains or heavy dews, then the leaves will not suffer. Washing is therefore the palliative : judicious culture
the preventive.

883. Plants are dso liable to a disease which affects them in a manner similar to that
of the dropsy in animals, arising from long continued rain or too abundant watering.

O

194 SCIENCE OF GARDENfNG. Part II.

Willdenow describes it as occasioning a preternatural swelling of particular parts, and in-
ducing putrefaction. It is said to take place chiefly in bulbous and tuberous roots, which
are often found much swelled after rain. It affects fruits also, which it renders watery
and insipid. It prevents the ripening of seeds, and occasions an immoderate production
of roots from the stem.

884. Succulent plants. This disease generally appears in consequence of excessive waterings, and is gene>
rally incurable. The leaves drop, even though plump and green ; and the fruit rots before reaching maturity.
In this case the absorption seems to be too great in proportion to the transpiration ; but the soil when too
much manured produces similar efFects. Du Hamel planted some elms in a soil that was particularly
well manured, and accordingly they pushed with great vigor for some time ; but at the end of five or six
years they all died suddenly. The bark was found to be detached from the wood, and the cavity filled up
with a reddish-colored water. The symptoms of this disease suggest the palliatives ; and the preventive
is ever the same — judicious culture.

885. Flux of juices. Some trees, but particularly the oak and birch, are liable to a
great loss of sap either bursting out spontaneously, owing to a superabundance of sap, or
issuing from accidental wounds j sometimes it is injurious to the health of the plant, and
sometimes not.

886. There is a spontaneous extravasation of the sap of the vine, known by the name of the tears of the
vine, which is not always injurious. As it often happens that the root imbibes sap, which the leaves are not
yet prepared to throw off, because not yet sufficiently expanded, owing to an inclement season, the sap which
is first carried up, being propelled by that which follows, ultimately forces its way through all obstructions,
and exudes from the bud. But this is observed only in cold climates ; for in hot climates where the
developement of the leaves is not obstructed by cold, they are ready to elaborate the sap as soon as it
reaches them. There is also a spontaneous extravasation of proper juice in some trees, which does not
seem in general to be injurious to the individual. Thus the gum which exudes from cherry, plum, peach,
and almond trees, is seldom detrimental to tlieir health, except when it insinuates itself into the other
vessels of the plant and occasions obstructions.

887. But the exudation of gu7n is sometimes a disease, and one for which there is seldom any remedy. It
is generally the consequence of an unsuitable soil, situation, or climate. Coki raw summers will produce it
in the peach, apricot, and more under-sorts of plum and cherry ; or grafting these fruits on diseased stocks.
Cutting out the part and applying a covering of loam or tar and charcoal to exclude the air are palliatives ;
but the only effectual method, where it can be practised, is to take up the tree and place it in a suitable soil
and situation.

888. The extravasation and corruption of the ascending or descending juices, has been known to occasion
a fissure of the solid parts. Sometimes the fissure is occasioned by means of frost, forming what is called a
double alburnum ; that is, first a layer that has been injured by the frost, and then a layer that passes into
wood. Sometimes a layer is partially affected, and that is generally owing to a sudden and partial thaw
on the south side of the trunk, which may be followed again by a sudden frost. In this case the alburnum
is split into clefts or chinks, by means of the expansion of the frozen sap.

889. Chilblains. But clefts thus occasioned often degenerate into chilblains that discharge a blackish and
acrid fluid to the great detriment of the plant, particularly if the sores are so situated that rain or snow will
readily lodge in them, and become putrid. The same injury may be occasioned by the bite or puncture of
insects while the shoot is yet tender ; and as no vegetable ulcer heals up of its own accord, the sooner a
cure is attempted the better, as it will, if left to itself, ultimately corrode and destroy the whole plant, bark,
wood, and pith. The only palliative is the excision of the part affected, and the application of a coat of
grafting wax. ( Willdenow, p. 354.)

890. Gangrene. Of this disorder there are two varieties, the dry and the wet. The
former is occasioned by means of excessive heat or excessive cold. If by means of cold,
it attacks the leaves of young shoots and causes them to shrink up, converting them from
green to black ; as also the inner bark, which it blackens in the same manner, so that it
is impossible to save the plant except by cutting it to the ground. If by means of heat,
the efFects are nearly similar, as may oftentimes be seen in gardens, or even in forests,
where the foresters are allowed to clear away the moss and withered leaves from the roots.
Sometimes the disease is occasioned by the too rapid growth of a particular branch, de-
priving the one that is next it of its due nourishment, and hence inducing its decay.
Sometimes it is occasioned by means of parasitical plants, as in the case of the bulbs of
the saffron, which a species of lycoperdon often attaches itself to and totally corrupts.

891. Dry ganp-ene. The harmattan winds of the coast of Africa kill many plants, by means of in-
ducing a sort ot gangrene that withers and blackens the leaves, and finally destroys the whole plant. The
nopal of Mexico is also subject to a sort of gangrene that begins with a black spot, and extends till the
whole leaf or branch rots off, or the plant dies. But plants are sometimes affected with a gangrene by which
a part becomes first soft and moist, and then dissolves into foul ichor. This is confined chiefly to the
leaves, flowers, and fruit. Sometimes it attacks the roots also, but rarely the stem. It seems to be owing,
in many cases, to too wet or too rich a soil ; but it may originate in contusion, and may be caught by in-
fection. But the nopal is subject also to a disease called by Thiery la dissolution, considered by Sir J. E.
Smith as distinct from gangrene, and which appears to be WiUdenow's dry gangrene. A joint of the
nopal, or a whole branch, and sometimes an entire plant, changes in the space of a single hour, from a
state of apparent health to a state of putrefaction or dissolution. Now its surface is verdant and shining,
and in an instant it changes to a yellow, and its brilliancy is gone. If the substance is cut into, the parts are
found to have lost all cohesion, and are quite rotten ; the attempt at a cure is by speedy amputation below
the diseased part Sometimes the vital principle collecting and exerting all its energies, makes a stand
as it were against the encroaching disease, and throws off the infected part. {Smith's Introduction, p. 340.)

892. Etiolation. Plants are sometimes affected by a disease which entirely destroys
their verdure, and renders them pale and sickly. This is called etiolation, and may arise
merely from want of the agency of light, by which the extrication of oxygen is effected,
and the leaf rendered green. And hence it is that plants placed in dark rooms, or be-
tween great masses of stone, or in the clefts of rocks, or under the shade of other trees,
look always peculiarly pale. But if they are removed from such situations, and exposed

Boor I. NATURAL DECAY OF VEGETABLES. 195

to the action of light, they will again recover tlieir green color. Etiolation may also en-
gue from the depredation of insects nestling in the radicle, and consuming the food of the
plant, and thus debilitating the vessels of the leaf so as to render them insusceptible of
the action of light. This is said to be often the case with the radicles of secale cereale ;
and the same result may also arise from poverty of soil.

893. Suffocation. Sometimes it happens that the pores of the epidermis are closed up,
and transpiration consequently obstructed, by means of some extraneous substance that
attaches itself to and covers the bark. Tliis obstruction induces disease, and the disease
is called suffocation.

89*. Sometimes it is occasioned by the imtiToderatc growth of lichens upon the bark covering the whole
of the plant, as may be often seen in fruit-trees, which it is necessary to keep clean by means of scraping
off the lichens, at least from the smaller branches. For if the young branches are thus coated, so as that
the bark cannot perform its proper functions, the tree will soon begin to languish, and will finally become
covered with fungi, inducing or resulting from decay, till it is at last wholly choaked up.

895. But a similar effect is also occasionally produced by insects, in feeding upon the sap or shoot Tliis
may be exemplified in the case of the aphides, which sometimes breed or settle upon the tender shoot in
8uch multitudes as to cover it from the action of the extenial air altogether. It may be exemplified also
in the case of Coccus Hesperidum and Acarus telarius, insects that infest hot-house plants, the latter by
spinning a fine and delicate web over the leaf, and thus preventing the access of atmospheric air. Insects
are to l^ removed either by the hand or other mechanical means, or destroyed by excess of some of the
elements of their nutrition, as heat, or cold, or moisture, where such excess does not prove injurious to
the plant ; or by a composition either fluid or otherwise, which shall have the same effects. Prevention
is to be attempted by general culture, and particular attention to prevent the propagation of the insects or
▼ermin, by destroying their embrj-o progeny, whether oviparous or otherwise.

896. Sometimes the disease is occasioned by an extravasation of juices which coagulate on the surface of
the stalk so as to form a sort of crust, investing it as a sheath, and preventing its further expansion.

897. Sometimes the disease is occasioned /rowi tuant of an adequate supply of nourishfnent as derived
from the soil, in which the lower part of the plant is the best supplied, while the upper part of it is starved.
Hence the top shoots decrease in size every succeeding year, because sufficient suj^ly of sap cannot be
obtained to give them their proper developement This is analogous to the phenomena of animal life,
when the action of the heart is too feeble to propel the blood through the whole of the system : for then
the extremities are always the first to suffer. And perhaps it may account also for the fact, that in bad
soils and unfavorable seasons, when the ear of barley is not wholly perfected, yet a few of the lower grains
are always completely developed. {Smith's Introduction, p. 344.)

898. Contortion. The leaves of plants are often injured by means of the puncture of
insects, so as to induce a sort of disease that discovers itself in the contortion or convolu-
tion of the margin, or wrinkled appearance of the surface. Tlie leaves of the apricot,
peach, and nectarine, are extremely liable to be thus affected in the months of June and
July.

899. The leaf that has been punctured soon begins to assume a rough and wrinkled figure, and a reddish
and scrofulous appearance, particularly on the iipper surfkce. The margins roll inwards on the under
side, and enclose the eggs wnich are scattered irregularly on the surface, giving it a blackish and granular
appearance, but without materially injuring its health. In the vine, the substance deposited on the leaf is
whitish, giving the under surface a sort of a frosted appearance, but not occasioning the red and scrofulous
aspect of the upper surface of the leaf of the nectarine. In the poplar, the eggs when first deposited re-
semble a number of small and hoary vesicles containing a sort of clear and colorless fluid. The leaf then
becomes reflected and conduplicated, enclosing the eggs, with a few reddish protuberances on the upper
surface. The embrjo is nourished by this fluid : and the hoariness is converted into a fine cottony down,
which for some time envelopes the young fly. The leaf of the lime-tree in particular is liable to attacks
from insects when fully expanded ; and hence the gnawed appearance it so often exhibits. The injury
seems to be occasioned by some species of puceron depositing its eggs in the parenchyma, generally about
the angles that branch off from the midrib. A sort of down is produced, at first green, and afterwards
hoary ; sometimes in patches, and sometimes pervading the whole leaf ; as in the case of the vine. Under
this covering the egg is hatched ; and then the young insect gnaws and injures the leaf, leaving a hole, or
scar of a burnt or singed appearance. Sometimes the upper surface of the leaf is covered with clusters of
wart-like substances somewhat subulate and acute. They seem to be occasioned by means of a puncture
made on the under surface, on which a number of openings are discoverable, penetrating into the warts,
which are hollow and villous within. The disease admits of palliation by watering frequently over the
leaves ; and by removing such as are the most contorted and covered by larvje.

900. Consumption. From barren or improper soil, unfavorable climate, careless
planting, or too frequent flowering exhausting the strength of the plant, it often happens
that disease is induced which terminates in a gradual decline and wasting away of the
plant, till at length it is wholly dried up. Sometimes it is also occasioned by excessive
drought, or by dust lodging on the leaves, or by fumes issuing from manufactories which
may happen to be situated in the neighbourhood, or by the attacks of insects.

901. There is a consumptive affection that frequently attacks the pine-tree, called Teredo Pinorutn
{Wiildenow, Princ. Bat. p. 351.}, which affects the alburnum and inner bark chiefly, and seems to proceed
from long continued drought, or from frost suddenly succeeding mild or warm weather, or heavy winds.
The leaves assume a tinge of yellow, bordering upon red. A great number of small drops of resin exude
from the middle of the boughs, of a putrid odor. The bark exfoliates, and the alburnum presents a livid ap-
pearance. The tree swarms with insects, and the disease is incurable, inducing inevitably the total decay
and death of the individual The preventive is obviously good culture, so as to maintain vigorous health :
palliatives may be employed according to the apparent cause of the disease.

Sect. III. Natural Decay.
902. Although a plant should not suffer from the influence of accidental injury, or
from disease, still there will come a time when its several organs will begin to experience
the approaches of a natural decline insensibly stealing upon it, and at last inducing death.
The duration of vegetable existence is very different in different species. Yet in the ve-
getable, as well as in the animal kingdom, there is a term or limit set, beyond which the

O 2

195 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

individual cannot pass. Some plants are annuals and last for one season only, springing '
up suddenly from seed, attaining rapidly to maturity, producing and again sowing their
seeds, and afterwards immediately perishing. Such is the character of the various species
of com, as exemplified in oats, wheat, and barley. Some plants continue to live for a
period of two years, and are therefore called biennials, springing up the first year from seed,
and producing roots and leaves, but no fruit ; and in the second year producing both
flower and fruit, as exemplified in the carrot, parsnep, and caraway. Other plants are ■
perennials, that is, lasting for many years ; of which some are called under-shrubs, and
die down to the root every year ; others are called shrubs, and are permanent both by the
root and stem, but do not attain to a great height or great age ; others are called trees,
and are not only permanent by both root and stem, but attain to a great size, and live to a
great age. But even of plants that are woody and perennial, there are parts which perish
annually, or which are at least annually separated from the individual ; namely, the leaves,
flowers, and fruit, leaving nothing behind but the bare caudex, which submits in its turn
to the ravages of time, and ultimately to death.

903. The decay of the temporary organs, which takes place annually, is a phenomenon
familiar to every body, and comprehends the fall of the leaf, the fall of the flower, and
the fall of the fruit.

904. The fall qf the leaf, or annual defoliation of the plant, commences for the most part with the colds
of autumn, and is accelerated by the frosts of winter, that strip the forest of its foliage, and the landscape
of its verdure. But there are some trees that retain their leaves throughout the whole of the winter,
though changed to a dull and dusky brown, and may be called ever-clothed trees, as the beech : and there
are others that retain their verdure throughout the year, and are denominated evergreens, as the holly.
The leaves of both sorts ultimately fall in the spring. Sir J. E. Smith considers that leaves are thrown off
by a process similar to that of the sloughing of diseased parts in the animal economy ; and Keith observes,
that if it is necessary to illustrate the fall of the leaf by any analogous process in the animal economy, it
may be compared to that of the shedding of the antlers of the stag, or of the hair or feathers of other
beasts or birds, which being, like the leaves of plants, distinct and peculiar organs, fall off, and are rege-
nerated annually, but do not slough.

905. The flowers, which, like the leaves, are only temporary organs, are for the most part very short-
lived ; for as the object of their production is merely that of effecting the impregnation of the germs,
that object is no sooner obtained than they begin again to give indications of decay, and speedily fall from
the plant ; so that the most beautiful part of the vegetable is also the most transient.

906. The fruit, which begins to appear conspicuous when the flower falls, expands and increases in
volume, and, assuming a peculiar hue as it ripens, ultimately detaches itself from the parent plant, and
drops into the soil. But it does not in aU cases detach itself in the same manner : thus, in the bean and
pea the seed-vessel opens and lets the seeds fall out, while in the apple, pear, and cherry, the fruit falls
entire, enclosing the seed, which escapes when the pericarp decays. Most fruits fall soon after ripening,
as the cherry and apricot, if not gathered ; but some remain long attached to the parent plant after being
fully ripe, as in the case of the fruit of euonjTnus, and mespilus. But these, though tenacious of their
hold, detach themselves at last, as well as aU others, and bury themselves in the soil, about to give birth
to a new individual in the germination of the seed. The fall of the flower and fruit ia accounted for in the
same manner as that of the leaf.

907. Decay of the permanent organs. Such then is the process and presumptive ra-
tionale of the decay and detachment of the temporary organs of the plant. But there is
also a period beyond which even the permanent organs themselves can no longer carry on
the process of vegetation. Plants are aflTected by the infirmities of old age as well as
animals, and are found to exhibit also similar symptoms of approaching dissolution. The
root refuses to imbibe the nourishment afforded by the soil, or if it does imbibe a portion,
it is but feebly propelled, and partially distributed, through the tubes of the alburnum ;
the elaboration of the sap is now effected with difficulty as well as the assimilation of the
proper juice, the descent of which is almost totally obstructed ; the bark becomes thick
and woody, and covered with moss or lichens ; the shoot becomes stunted and diminutive ;
and the fruits palpably degenerate, both in quantity and quality. The smaller or ter-
minal branches fade and decay the first, and then the larger branches also, together with
the trunk and root ; the vital principle gradually declines without any chance of recovery,
and is at last totally extinguished. " When life is extinguished, nature hastens the de-
composition ; the surface of the tree is overrun with lichens and mosses, which attract and
retain the moisture ; the empty pores imbibe it, and putrefaction speedily follows. Then
come the tribes of fungi, which flourish on decaying wood, and accelerate its corruption ;
beetles and caterpillars take up their abode under the bark, and bore innumerable holes
in the timber ; and woodpeckers in search of insects pierce it more deeply, and excavate
large hollows, in which they place their nests. Frost, rain, and heat assist, and the whole
mass crumbles away, and dissolves into a rich mould." {Dial, on Bot. p. 365.)

Chap. X.

V^etable Geography and History^ or the Distribution of Vegetables relatively to the Earth

and to Man.

908. The science of the distribution qf plants, Humboldt observes (Essai sur la Geo-
grajyhie des Plantes, &c. 1807), considers vegetables in relation to their local associations in

Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 197

different climates. It points out the grand features of the immense extent which plants
occupy, from the regions of perpetual snow to the bottom of the ocean, and to the interior
of the globe, where, in obscure grottoes, cryptogamous plants vegetate, as unknown as the
insects which they nourish. The superior limits of vegetation are known, but not the
inferior ; for every where in the bowels of the earth are germs which develope themselves
when they find a space and nourishment suitable for vegetation. On taking a general
view of the disposition of vegetables on the surface of the globe, independently of the
influence of man, that disposition appears to be determined by two sorts of causes, geogra-
phical and j)hysical. The influence of man, or of cultivation, has introduced a third cause,
which may be called civil. The different aspects of plants, in different regions, has given
rise to what may be called their characteristic, or jricturesque distribution ; and the subject
of distribution may be also considered relatively to the st/stematic divisions of vegetables,
their arithmetical proportions, and economical applications.

Sect. I. Geographical Distribution of Vegetables.

909. The territorial limits to vegetation are determined in general by three different
causes: — 1. By sandy deserts, which seeds cannot pass over either by means of winds or
birds, as that of Sahara, in Africa; 2. By seas too vast for the seeds of plants to be
drifted from one shore to the other, as in the ocean ; while the Mediterranean sea, on the
contrary, exhibits the same vegetation on both shores ; and, 3. By long and lofty chains
of mountains. To these causes are to be attributed the fact, that similar climates and
soils do not always produce similar plants. Thus in certain parts of North America,
which altogether resemble Europe in respect to soil, cKmate, and elevation, not a single

, European plant is to be found. The same remark will apply to New Holland, the Cape
of Good Hope, Senegal, and other countries, as compared with countries in similar phy-
sical circumstances, but geographically different. The separation of Africa and South
America, Humboldt considers, must have taken place before the developement of organised
beings, since scarcely a single plant of the one country is to be found in a wild state in
the other.

Sect. II. Physical IHstribution of Vegetables.

910. The natural circumstances affecting the distribution of plants, may be considered
in respect to temperature, elevation, moisture, soil, and light

911. Temj)erature has the most obvious influence on vegetation. Everyone knows
that the plants of hot countries cannot in general live in such as are cold, and the con-
trary. The wheat and barley of Europe will not grow within the tropics ; the same re-
mark applies to plants of still higher latitudes, such as those within the polar circles, which
cannot be made to vegetate in more southern latitudes ; nor can the plants of more southern
latitudes be made to vegetate there. In this respect, not only the medium temperature
of a country ought to be studied, but the temperature of different seasons, and especially
of winter. Countries where it never freezes ; those where it never freezes so strong as to
stagnate the sap in the stems of plants ; and those where it freezes suflSciently strong to
penetrate into the cellular tissue ; form three classes of regions in which vegetation ought
to differ. But this difference is somewhat modified by the effect of vegetable structure,
which resists, in different degrees, the action of frost ; thus, in general, trees which lose
their leaves during winter resist the cold better than such as retain them ; resinous trees
more easily than such as are not so ; herbs of which the shoots are annual and the root
perennial, better than those where the stems and leaves are persisting ; annuals which
flower early, and whose seeds drop and germinate before winter, resist cold less easily than
such as flower late, and whose seeds lie dormant in the soil till spring. Monocotyledonous
trees, which have generally persisting leaves and a trunk without bark, as in palms, are
less adapted to resist cold than dicotyledonous trees, which are more favorably organised
for this purpose, not only by the nature of their proper juice, but by the disposition of the
cortical and albumous layers, and the habitual carbonisation of the outer bark. Plants
of a dry nature resist cold better than such as are watery; all plants resist cold better in
dry winters than in moist winters ; and an attack of frost always does most injury in a
moist country, in a humid season, or when the plant is too copiously supplied with water.

912. Some plants of firm texture, but natives of ivarm climates, will endure a frost of
a few hours' continuance, as the orange at Genoa (Humboldt, De Distributione Plantarum) ;
and the same thing is said of the palm and pine-apple, facts most importanf for the gar-
dener. Plants of delicate texture, and natives of waim climates, are destroyed by the
slightest attack of frost, as the phaseolus, nasturtium, &c.

913. The temperature of sjrring has a material influence on the life of vegetables ; th«
injurious effects of late frosts are known to every cultivator. In general, vegetation is
favored in cold countries by exposing plants to the direct influence of the sun ; but thi*
excitement is injurious in a country subject to frosts late in the season : in such cases, it
is better to retard than to accelerate vegetation.

O 3

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

914. The temjyerature of summer, as it varies only by the intensity of heat, is not pro-
ductive of so many injurious accidents as that of spring. Very hot dry summers, however,
destroy many delicate plants, and especially those of cold climates. A very early summer
is injurious to the germination and progress of seeds ; a short summer to tlieir ripening,
and the contrary.

915. Autumn is an important season for vegetation, as it respects the ripening of seeds ;
hence where that season is cold and humid, annual plants, which naturally flower late, are
never abundant, as in the polar regions ; the effect is less injurious to perennial plants,
•which generally flower earlier. Frosts early in autumn are as injurious as those which hap-
pen late in spring. The conclusion, from these considerations, obviously is, that temperate
climates are more favorable to vegetation than such as are either extremely cold or ex-
tremely hot. But the warmer climates, as Keith observes, are more favorable upon
the whole to vegetation than tlie colder, and that nearly in proportion to their distance from
the equator. The same plants, however, will grow in the same degree of latitude,
throughout all degrees of longitude, and also in correspondent latitudes on different sides
of the equator ; the same species of plants, as some of the palms and others, being found
in Japan, India, Arabia, the West Indies, and part of South America, which are all in
nearly the same latitudes ; and the same species being also found in Kamschatka, Ger-
many, Great Britain, and the coast of Labrador, which are all also in nearly tlie same lati-
tudes. ( Willdenow, p. 374.)

916. The most retnarkable circumstances respecting the temperature in the three zones, is
exhibited in the following Table by Humboldt. The temperature is taken according to the
centigrade thermometer. The fathom is 6 French feet, or 6.39453 English feet.

Torrid zone.

Temperate zone.

Frigid zone.

Andes
of Quito,
Lat.O°.

Mountains
of Mexico,
Lat. 20*.

Caucasus,
Lat. 42i*'.

Pyrenees,
Lat. 4250.

Alps,
Lat.45^J-to

Lapland,

Lat 67' to

70"

Inferior limit of per*- \
petual snow - - ^

2460 fa.

2350 fa.

1650 fa.

1400 fa.

1370 fa.

550 fa.

Mean annual heat at \
that height - - )

H°

—

—

H°-

■ 4°.

6°.

Mean heat of winter, do.

U°

—

—

—

10°.

20^°.

Mean heat of Aug. do.

ir

—

—

—

6°.

9r-

Distance between trees )
and snow - - - ^

600 fa.

350 fa.

650 fa.

230 fa.

450 fa.

300 fa.

Upper limit of trees -

1800 fa.

2000 fa.

1000 fa.

1170 fa.

920 fa.

250 fa.

Betula
alba.

Last species of trees to- 1
wards the snow - y

Escalonia
alstonia.

Pinus ■
Occident.

Betula
alba.

Pin. rubra
P. uncin.

Pinus
abies.

Upper limit of the)
Ericineae - - - ^

Befaria;,
1600 fa.

—

Riwdod.
Caucas.
1380 fa.

—

Rhodod.
ferrug.
1170 fa.

Rhodod.
laponic.
480 fa.

Distance between the )
snow and com - - 3

800 fa.

—

630 fa.

—

700 fa.

450 fa.

"I

917. Elevation, or the height of the soil above the level of the sea, determines, in a very-
marked manner, the habitation of plants. The temperature lessens in regular gradation,
in the same manner as it does in receding from the equator, and six hundred feet of ele-
vation, De CandoUe states, are deemed equal to one degree of latitude, and occasion a
diminution of temperature equal to 23° of Fahrenheit ; 300 feet being nearly equal to half
a degree. Mountains 1000 fathoms in height, at 46° of latitude, have the mean temper-
ature of Lapland ; mountains of the same height between the tropics enjoy the tem-
perature of Sicily ; and the summits of the lofty mountains of the Andes, even where
situated almost directly under tlie equator, are covered with snow as eternal as that of tlie
north pole.

Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 199

918. Hence it is that plants of high latitudes live on the mountains of such as are much lower,
and thus the plants of Greenland and Lapland are found on the Alps and Pyrenees. At
the foot of Mount Ararat {fig. 67.), Toumefort met with plants peculiar to Armenia ;

above these he met with plants which are found also in France ; at a still greater height
he found himself surrounded witli such as grow in Sweden ; and at the summit with such
as vegetate in the polar regions. This accounts for the great variety of plants which are
often found in a Flora of no great extent ; and it may be laid down as a botanical axiom,
that the more diversified the surface of the country, the richer will its Flora be, at least in
the same latitudes. It accounts also, in some cases, for the want of correspondence be-
tween plants of different countries though placed in the same latitudes ; because the
mountains or ridges of mountains, which may be found in the one and not in the other,
will produce the greatest possible difference in the character of their Floras. And to this
cause may generally be ascribed the diversity that often actually exists between plants grow-
ing in the same latitudes, as between those of the north-west and north-east coasts of North
America, as also of the south-west and south-east coasts ; the former being more moun-
tainous, the latter more flat. Sometimes the same sort of difference takes place between
the plants of an island and those of the neighbouring continent ; that is, if the one is
mountainous and the other flat ; but if they are alike in their geographical delineation,
then they are generally alike in their vegetable productions.

919. Cold and lofty situations are the favorite habitations of most cryj^togamic j)lnnts of the
terrestrial class, especially the fungi, algae, and mosses ; as also of plants of the class
Tetradynamioy and of the Umbellatce and Syngenesian tribes ; whereas trees and shrubs,
ferns, parasitic plants, lilies, and aromatic plants, are most abundant in warm climates ;
only this is not to be understood merely of geographical climates, because, as we have
seen, the physical climate depends upon altitude. In consequence of which, combined
with the ridges and directions of the mountains, America and Asia are much colder in
the same degrees of northern latitude than Europe. American plants, vegetating at forty-
two degrees of northern latitude, will vegetate very well at fifty-two degrees in Europe ;
the same, or nearly so, may be said of Asia ; which, in the former case, is perhaps owing
to the immense tracts of woods and marshes covering the surface, and in the latter, to the
more elevated and mountainous situation of the country affecting the degree of temper-
ature. So also Africa is much hotter under the tropics than America ; because in the
latter the temperature is lowered by immense chains of mountains traversing the equa-
torial regions, while in the former it is increased by means of the hot and burning sands
that cover the greater part of its surface.

920. Elevation influences the habits of plants in various ways ; — by exposing them to the
wind ; to be watered by a very fresh and pure water from the melting of adjoining
snow ; and to be covered in winter by a thick layer of snow, which protects them from
severe frosts. Hence many alpine plants become frozen during winter in the plains, and
in gardens which are naturally warmer than their natural stations. In great elevations,
the diminution of the density of the air may also have some influence on vegetation. The
rarity of the atmosphere admits a more free passage for the rays of light, which, being in
consequence more active, ought to produce a more active vegetation. Experience seems
to prove this in high mountains ; and the same effect is produced in high latitudes by
the length of the day. On the otiier hand, vegetables require to absorb a certain quantity
of oxygen gas from the air during the night ; and as they find less of that in the rarefied
air of the mountains, they ought to be proportionably feeble and languishing. According
to experiments made by Theodore de Saussure, plants which grow best in the high Alps
are those which require to absorb least oxygen during the night ; and, in this point of
view, the shortness of the nights near the poles correspond. These causes, however, are
obviously very weak, compared to the powerful action of temperature.

O 4

200 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

921. Great anomalies are found in the comparative height in which the same plant will
grow in different circumstances. In countries situated under the equator, the two sides of
the mountain are of the same temperature, which is solely determined by elevation; but in
countries distant from it, the warmest side is that towards the south, and the zones of
plants, instead of forming lines parallel to the horizon, incline towards the north. Tlie
reason, in both cases, is sufficiently obvious. In the temperate zone we find the same
plants frequently on low and elevated situations, but this is never the case between the
tropics.

922. ^Itiiude influences the habits of aquatics { thus some aquatics float always on the
surface of the water, as lemna, while others are either partially or wholly immersed.
Such aquatics as grow in the depths of the sea are not influenced by climate ; but such as
are near the surface are influenced by climate, and have their habitations affected by it.

923. The moisture, or viode of watering natural to vegetables, is a circumstance which
has a powerful influence on the facility with which plants grow in any given soil. The
quantity of water absolutely necessary for the nourishment of plants, varies according to
their tissue ; some are immersed, others float on its surface ; some grow on the margin
of waters, with their roots always moistened or soaked in it, others again live in soil
slightly humid or almost dry. Vegetables which resist extreme drought most easily
are, 1. Trees and herbs with deep roots, because they penetrate to, and derive sufficient
moisture from, some distance below the surface ; 2. Plants which, being furnished with
few pores on the epidermis, evaporate but little moisture from their surface, as the suc-
culent tribe.

924. The qualities of water, or the nature of the substances dissolved in it, must neces-
sarily influence powerfully the possibility of certain plants growing in certain places.
But the difference in this respect is much less than would be imagined, because the food
of one species of plant differs very little from that of another. The most remarkable

. case is that of salt-marshes, in which a great many vegetables will not live, whilst a
number of others thrive there better than any where else. Plants which grow in marine
marshes and those which grow in similar grounds situated in the inferior of a country
are the same. Other substances naturally dissolved in water appear to have much less
influence on vegetation, though the causes of the habitations of some plants, such as
those which grow best on walls, as peltaria, and in lime-rubbish, as thlaspi, and other
crucifera?, may doubtless be traced to some salt (nitrate of lime, &c.) or oUier substance
peculiar to such situations.

925. The nature of the earth's surface affects the habitations of vegetables in different
points of view : 1. As consisting of primitive earths, or the debris of rocks or mineral
bodies ; and, 2. As consisting of a mixture of mineral, animal, and vegetable matter.

926. Primitive surfaces affect vegetables mechanically according to their different de-
grees of moveability or tenacity. In coarse sandy surfaces plants spring up easily, but
many of them, which have large leaves or tall stems, are as easily blown about and
destroyed. In fine, dry, sandy surfaces, plants with very delicate roots, as protea and
erica, prosper ; a similar earth, but moist in the growing season, is suited to bulbs. On
clayey surfaces plants are more difficult to establish, but when established are more per-
manent : they are generally coarse, vigorous, and perennial in their duration.

927. With respect to the relative jrroportions of the primitive earths in these surfaces,
it does not appear that their influence on the distribution of plants, is so great as might
at first sight be imagined. Doubtless different earths are endowed with different degrees
of absorbing, retaining, and parting with moisture and heat ; and these circumstances
have a material effect in a state of culture, where they are comminuted and exposed to the
air ; but not much in a wild or natural state, where they remain hard, firm, and covered
with vegetation. The difference, with a few exceptions, is never so great but that the
seeds of a plant which have been found to prosper well in one description of earth, will
germinate and thrive as well in another composed of totally different earths, provided
they are in a nearly similar state of mechanical division and moisture. Thus De Can-
dolle observes, though the box is very common on calcareous surfaces, it is found in as
great quantities in such as are schistous or granitic. The chestnut grows equally well
in calcareous and clayey earths, in volcanic ashes, and in sand. The plants of Aira, a
mountain entirely calcareous, grow equally well on the Vosges or the granitic Alps.
But though tlie kind or mixture of earths seems of no great consequence, yet the presence
of metallic oxides and salts, as sulphates of iron or copper, or sulphur alone, or alum, or
other similar substances in a state to be soluble in water, are found to be injurious to all
vegetation, of which some parts of Derbyshire and the maremmes of Tuscany (^Chateau^
vieux, let. 8.) are striking proofs. But excepting in these rare cases, plants grow ne-arly
indifferently on all primitive surfaces, in the sense in which we here take these terms;
the result of which is, that earths strictly or chemically so termed, have much less in-
fluence on the distribution of plants, than temperature, elevation, and moisture. Another

Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 201

result is, as De CandoUe has well remarked, that it is often a very bad method of cul-
ture to imitate too exactly the nature of the earth in which a plant grows in its wild
state.

928. Mired or seccmdary soUs include not only primitive earths, or the debris of rocks,
but vegetable matters — not only the medium through which perfect plants obtain their
food, but that food itself. In this view of the subject the term soil is used in a very ex^
tensive acceptation, as signifying, not only the various sorts of earths which constitute the
surface of the globe, but every substance whatever on which plants are found to vegetate,
or from which they derive their nourishment. The obvious division of soils in this ac-
ceptation of the term is that of aquatic, terrestrial, and vegetable soils ; corresponding
to the division of aquatic, terrestial, and parasitical plants.

929. Aquatic soils are such as are either wholly or partially inundated with water, and
are fitted to produce such plants only as are denominated aquatics. Of aquatics there
are several subdivisions according to the particular situations they affect, or the degree
of immersion they require.

One of the principal subdivisions of aquatics is that of marine plants, such as the fuel and many of the
alga^, which are very plentiful in the seas that wash the coasts of Great Britain, and are generally at-
tached to stones and rocks near the shore. Some of them are always immersed ; and others, which are
situated above low water mark, are immersed and exposed to the action of the atmosphere alternately.
But none of them can be made to vegetate except in the waters of the sea. Another subdivision of aqua-
tics is that of river plants, such as chara, potamogeton, and nymphaea, which occupy the bed of fresh
water rivers, and vegetate in the midst of the running stream ; being for the most part wholly immersed,
as well as found only in such situations.

A third subdivision of aquatics is that of paludal or fen plants, being such as are peculiar to lakes,
marshes, and stagnant or nearly stagnant waters, but of which the bottom is often tolerably clear. In
such situations you find the isoetes lacustris, flowering rush, water ranunculus, water violet, and a variety
of others which uniformly affect such situations J some of them being wholly immersed, and others im-
mersed only in part.

930. Earthy soils are such as emerge above the water and constitute the surface of the
habitable globe, that is every where covered with vegetable productions. Plants affecting
such soils, which comprise by far the greater part of the vegetable kingdom, are de-
nominated terrestrial, being such as vegetate upon the surface of the earth, without having
any portion immersed in water, or requiring any further moisture for their support
beyond tliat which they derive from tlie earth and atmosphere. This division is, like the
aquatics, distributed into several subdivisions according to the peculiar situations which
diifferent tribes affect.

931. Some of them are maritime, that is, growing only on the sea-coast, or at no great distance from
it, such as statice, glaux. samolus, samphire, sea-pea.

932 Some are /Mi>»a/»/e, that is, affecting the banks of rivers, such as lythrum, lycopus, eupatorium.

93.3. Some are champaign, that is, affecting chiefly the plains, meadows, and cultivated fields, sftch as
cardamine, tragopogon, agrostemma.

934. Some are diwiosc, that is, growing in hedges and thickets, such as the bramble.

iioo. Some are rudcraie, that is, growing on rubbish, such as senecio viscosus.

936. Some are sylvatic, that is, growing in woods or forests, such as stachys sylvatica, angelica sylvestris.

937. And, finally, some are alpine, that is, growing on the summits of mountains, such as poa alpina,
epilobium alpinum, and many of the mosses and lichens.

938. Vegetable soils are such as are formed of vegetating or decayed plants themselves,
to some of which the seeds of certain other plants are found to adhere, as being the only
soil fitted to their germination and developement. The plants springing from them are
denominated Parasitical, as being plants that will vegetate neither in the water nor earth,
but on certain other plants, to wliich they attach themselves by means of roots that
penetrate the bark, and from the juices of which they do often, though not always, derive
their support. This last circumstance constitutes the ground of a subdivision of parasiti-
cal plants, into such as adhere to the dead or inert parts of other plants, and such as ad-
here to living plants, and feed on their juices.

939. In the first subdivision we may place parasitical mosses, lichens, and fungi, which are found as
often, and in as great perfection on the stumps of rotten trees, and on rotten pales and stakes, as on trees
that are yet vegetating ; whence it is also plain that they do not derive their nourishment from the juices
of the plants on which they grow, but from their decayed parts, and the atmosphere by which they are
surrounded ; the plant to which they cling serving as a basis of support

940. In the second subdivision we may place all plants strictly parasitical, that is, all such as do actually
abstract from the juices of the plant to which they cling the nourishment necessary to the developement
of their parts ; and of which the most common, at least as being indigenous to Britain, are the Misletoe,
Dodder, Broom-rape, and a sort of tuber that grows on the root of Saffron, and destroys it if allowed to
spread.

941. The Misletoe (Fiscum album) is found for the most part on the apple-tree ; but sometimes also on
the oak. If its berry is made to adhere to the trunk or branch of either of the foregoing trees, which
from its glutinous nature it may readily be made to do, it germinates by sending out a small globular body
attached to a pedicle, which after it acquires a certain length bends towards the bark, whether above it or
below it, into which it insinuates itself by means of a number of small fibres which it now protrudes, and
by which it abstracts from the plant the nourishment necessary to its future developement WTien the
root has thus fixed itself in the bark of the supporting tree, the stem of the parasite begins to ascend, at
first smooth and tapering, and of a pale green colour, but finally protruding a multiplicity of branches and
leaves. It seems to have been thought by some botanists that the roots of the Misletoe penetrate even
into the wood, as well as through the bark. But the observations of Du Hamcl show that this opinion is
not well founded. The roots are indeed often found within the wood, which they thus seem to have

209

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Pa.it II.

penetrated by their own vegetating power. But the fact Is, that they are merely covered by the addi-
tional layers of wood that have been formed since the fibres first insinuated themselves into the bark.

942. The Cuscuta europeea, or Dodder (Jig. 68.), though it
Is to be accounted a truly parasitical plant in the issue, is
yet not originally so. For the seed of this plant when it
has fallen to the ground takes root originally by sending
down its radicle into the soil and elevating its stem into
the air. It is not yet, therefore, a parasitical plant But
the stem which is now elevated above the surface lays
hold of the first plant it meets with, though it is par-
ticularly partial to hops and nettles, and twines itself
around it, attaching itself by means of Uttle parasitical
roots at the points of contact, and finally detaching itself
from the soil altogether by the decay of the original root,
and becoming a truly parasitical plant. Withering de-
scribes the plant in his arrangement as being uiiginally
parasitical ; but this is certainly not the fact.

943. The Orobanche, or Broom-rape, which attaches
itself by the root to the roots of other plants, is also to be
regarded as being truly parasitical, though it sometimes
sends out fibres which seem to draw nourishment from
the earth. It is found most frequently on the roots of
common Broom.

944. The various tribes of Epidendrums are regarded also
by botanists as parasitical plants, because they are ge-
nerally found growing on other trees. But as they are
found to grow in old tan, they probably derive only sup-
port from the bark of trees, and not nourishment.

945. Light is a body which has very considerable influence on the structure of vege-
tables, and some also on their habitation. The fungi do not require the usual interludes
of day, in order to decompose carbonic acid gas, and can live and thrive with little or no
light. In green plants, which require the action of light, the intensity required is very
different in different species ; some require shady places, and hence the vegetable in-
habitants of caves, and the plants which grow in the shade of forests ; others, and the
greater number, require the direct action of the sun, and grow in exposed elevated sites.
De Candolle considers that the great difficulty of cultivating Alpine plants in the gar-
dens of plains, arises from tlie impossibility of giving them at once the fresh temperature
and intense light which they find on high mountains.

Sect. III. Cm! Catises affecting the Distribution of Plants*

946. By the art of man plants may he inured to circumstances foreign to their usual
habits. Though plants in general are limited to certain habitations destined for them by
nature, yet some are, and probably the greater number may be, inured to climates, soils,
and situations, of which they are not indigenous. The means used are acclimating and
culture.

947. Acclimating seems to be most easily effected in going from a hot to a cold climate,
particularly with herbaceous plants. Because it often happens that the frosts of winter arc
accompanied with snow, which shelters the plant from the inclemency of the atmosphere
till the return of spring. Trees and shrubs, on the contrary, are acclimated with more
difficulty, because they cannot be so easily sheltered from the colds, owing to the greater
length of their stems and branches. The acclimating or naturalisation of vegetables is to
be attempted by two modes : by sowing the seeds of successive generations, and by the
difference of temperature produced by different aspects. The former is well exemplified
in the case of the rice-plant which is grown in Germany, from seeds raised there, while
if seeds from its native country, India, are used they will not vegetate (Sir J. Banks,
in Hort. Trans, vol. i.) ; and the latter in the sloping banks of Professor Thouin of
Paris, as described by Girardin. (Physiologie Vegetale, vol. i.) Some plants seem to
have the capacity of vegetating in almost all climates, or of naturalising themselves in
almost any. This is particularly the case with esculents, such as the domestic cabbages,
potatoes, and carrots. (Dialogues on Botany, p. 411.)

948. Domesticated plants. " Some plants," Humboldt observes, " which constitute
the object of gardening and of agriculture, have time out of mind accompanied man
from one end of the globe to the other. In Europe, the vine followed the Greeks ; the
wheat, the Romans ; and the cotton, the Arabs. In America the Tultiques carried
with them the maize ; the potatoe and the quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, of which the
seeds are used,) are found wherever have migrated the ancient Condinamarea. The
migration of these plants is evident ; but their first country is as little known as that of
the different races of men, which have been found in all parts of tlie globe from the ear-
liest traditions." (Geographic des Plantes, p. 25.)

949. The general effect of culture on plants is that of enlarging all tlieir parts ; but it
often also alters their qualities, forms, and colors : it never, however, alters their pri-
mitive structure. " The potatoe," as Humboldt observes, " cultivated in Chili, at
nearly twelve thousand feet above the level of the sea, carries the same flower as in
Siberia."

Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES. 203

950. The cuHnary vegetables of our gardens, compared with the same species in their
wild state, afford striking proofs of the influence of culture on both the magnitude and
qualities of plants. Nothing in regard to magnitude is more remarkable than in the case
of the Brassica tribe ; and nothing, in respect to quality, exceeds the change e£fected on
the celery and carrot.

951. Tlie influence of culture on fruits is not less remarkable. The peach, in its wild
state in Media, is poisonous, but cultivated in the plains of Ispahan and Egypt, it be-
comes one of the most delicious of fruits. The effect of culture on the apple, pear,
cherry, plum, and other fruits, is nearly as remarkable ; for not only the fruit and leaves,
but the general habits of the tree are altered in these and other species. The history of
the migration of fruit-trees has been commenced by Sickler, in a work (^Geschichte, &c)
which Humboldt has praised as equally curious and philosophical.

952. The influence of culture on plants of ornament is great in most species. The
parts of all plants are enlarged, some are numerically increased, as in the case of double
flowers ; and what is most remarkable, even the colors are frequently changed, both
in the leaf, flower, and fruit.

953. The influence of civilisation and culture, in increasing the number of plants in a
country, is very considerable, and operates directly, by introducing new species for cul-
ture in gardens, fields, or timber-plantations ; and indirectly by the acclimating and final
naturalisation of many species, by the influence of winds and birds in scattering their
seeds. The vine and tlie fig are not indigenous to France, but are now naturalised there
by birds. In like manner the orange is naturalised in the south of Italy. Many her-
baceous plants of the Levant are naturalised both in France and Britain ; some, as the
cabbage, cherry, and apple, were probably naturalised during the subjection of England
to the Romans. The narrow-leaved elm was brought frotn the Holy Land during
the crusades. Phaseolus vulgaris, and impatiens balsamina were brought originally
from India ; and datura stramonium, which is now naturalised in Europe, was brought
originally from India or Abyssinia. Buckwheat and most species of com and peas
came also from the East, and along with them several plants found among com only,
such as centaurea cyanus, agrostemma githago, raphanus raphanistrum, and myagrum
sativum. The country from whence the most valuable grasses migrated is not known.
Bruce says he found the oat wild in Abyssinia, and wheat and millet have been found in
a wild state in hilly situations in the East Indies. Rye and the potatoe were not known to
the Romans. The country of the former Humboldt declares to be totally unknown.

954. The greatest refnement in cidture consists in tlie successful formation of artificial
climates for the culture of tropical plants in cold regions. Many vegetables, natives of
the torrid zone, as the pine-apple, the palm, &c.. cannot be acclimated in temperate
countries. But by means of hot-houses of different kinds they are grown even on the
borders of the frozen zone to the highest degree of perfection ; and in Britain some of
the tropical fruits, as the pine and melon, are brought to a greater size and better flavor
than in their native habitations. Casting our eyes on man, and the effects of his indus-
Xxy, we see him spread on the plains and sides of mountains, from the frozen ocean to
the equator, and every where he wishes to assemble around him whatever is useful and
agreeable of his own or of other countries. The more difliculties to surmount, the more
rapidly are developed the moral faculties ; and thus the civilisation of a people is almost
always in an inverse ratio with the fertility of the soil which they inhabit. What is the
reason of this ? Humboldt asks. Habit and the love of the site noted.

Sect. IV. Characteristic or Picturesque Distribution of Vegetables.

955. The social and antisocial habits of plants are one of their most remarkable charac-
teristics. Like animals they live in two classes : the one class grows alone and scattered,
as solanum dulcamara, lychnis dioica, polygonum bistorta, anthericum liliago, &c. The
other class unites in society, like ants or bees, covers immense surfaces, and excludes oXh&e
species, such as fragaria vesca, vaccinium myrtillus, polygonum aviculare, aira canescens,
pinus sylvestris, &c. Burton states that the mitchella repens is the plant most extensively
spread in North America, occupying all the ground between the 28° and 69^ of north
latitude. The arbutus uva ursi, extends from New Jersey to the 72° of latitude. On
the contrary, gordonia, franklinia, and dionaea muscipula are foimd isolated in small
spots. Associated plants are more common in the temperate zones than in the tropics,
where vegetation is less uniform and more picturesque. In the temperate zones, the
frequency of social plants, and the culture of man, has rendered the aspect of the country
comparatively monotonous. Under the tropics, on the contrary, all sorts of forms are
united ; thus cypresses and pines are found in the forests of the Andes of Quindiu, and of
Mexico ; and bananas, palms, and bamboos in the valleys, (^fig. 69.) But green meadows
and the season of spring are wanting in tiie south, for nature has reserved gifts for every
region. " The valleys of the Andes," Humboldt observes, " are omamented with bananas
and palms j on the mountains are found oaks, firs, barberries, alders, brambles, and a

flC4 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

crowd of genera believed to belong only to countries of the north. Tlius the inhabitant
of the equinoctial regions views all the vegetable forms which nature has bestowed around
him on the globe. Earth developes to his eyes a spectacle as varied as the azure vault
of heaven, which conceals none of her constellations." The people of Europe do not

enjoy the same advantage. The languishing plants, which the love of science or luxury
cultivates in our hot-houses, present only the shadow of the majesty of equinoctial vege-
tation ; but by the richness of our language, we paint these countries to tiie imagination,
and individual man feels a happiness peculiar to civilisation.

956. The features of many plants are so obvious and characteristic, as to strike every
general observer. The scitaminea;, tree-heaths, firs, and pines, mimosas, climbers, cacti,
grasses, lichens, mosses, palms, equisetaceae, arums, pothos, dracontium, &c. the chafFy-
leaved plants, malvaceae, orchideae, liliacea;, &c. form remarkable groups distinguishable
at first sight. Of tliese groups, the most beautiful are the palms, scitamineae, and liliaceae,
which include the bamboos and plantains, the most splendid of umbrageous plants.

957. The native countries of plants may often he discovered hy their features in the same
manner as the national distinctions which are observable in the looks and color of man-
kind, and which are effected chiefly by climate. Asiatic plants are remarkable for their
superior beauty ; African plants for their thick and succulent leaves, as in the case of the
cacti ; and American plants for the length and smoothness of their leaves, and for a sort
of singularity in the shape of the flower and fruit. The flowers of European plants are
but rarely beautiful, a great proportion of them being amentaceous. Plants indigenous
to polar and mountainous regions are generally low, with small compressed leaves ; but
with flowers large in proportion. Plants indigenous to New Holland are distinguishable
for small and dry leaves, that have often a shrivelled appearance. In Arabia they are low
and dwarfish ; in the Archipelago they are generally shrubby and furnished with prickles ;
while in the Canary Islands many plants, which in other countries are merely herbs,
assume the port of shrubs and trees. The shrubby plants of the Cape of Good Hope
and New Holland exhibit a striking similarity, as also the shrubs and trees of the northern
parts of Asia and America, which may be exemplified in the platanus orientalis of the
foi-mer, and in platanus occidentals of the latter, as well as in fagus sylvatica and fagus
ferruginea, or acer cappadocium and acer saccharinum ; and yet the herbs and under-
shrubs of the two countries do not in the least correspond. " A tissue of fibres," Hum-
boldt observes, " more or less loose — vegetable colors more or less vivid, according to
the chemical mixture of their elements, and the force of the solar rays, are some of the
causes which impress on the vegetables of each zone their characteristic features."

958. The influence of the general aspect of vegetation on the taste and imagination of a people
.^th6 difference in this respect between the monotonous oak and pine forests of the
temperate zones, and the picturesque assemblages of palms, mimosas, plantains, and
bamboos of the tropics — the influence of the nourishment, more or less stimulant,
peculiar to different zones, on the character and energy of the passions : — these, Humboldt
observes, unite the history of plants with the moral and political history of man.

Book I.

DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES.

205

Sect. V. Systematic Distribution of Vegetables.

959. The distribution of plants, considered in resjiect to their ^steinatic classifications, is
worthy of notice. The three grand systematic divisions of plants are acotyledoneae, dico-
tyledonese, and monocotyledoneaj. A simplification of this division considers plants as
agamous, or phanerogamotis, that is, without or with visible sexes.

960. Plants of visible sexes. Taking the globe in zones, the temperate contain J part
of all the phanerogamous or visible sexual species of plants. The equinoctial countries
contain nearly ^^, and Lapland only ^ part.

961. Plants with the sexual jmrts invisible or indistinct. Taking the whole surface of
tlie globe, the agamous plants, that is, mosses, fungi, fuci, &c. are to the phanerogamae
or perfect plants, nearly as 1 to 7 ; in the equinoctial countries as 1 to 5 ; in the tem-
perate zones as 2 to 5 ; in New Holland as 2 to 11 ; in France as 1 to 2 ; in Lapland,
Greenland, Iceland, and Scotland, they are as 1 to 1, or even more numerous than the
phanerogamous plants. Within the tropics, agamous plants grow only on the summits of
the highest mountains. In several of the islands of the Gulf of Carpentaria, having a Flora
of phanerogamous plants exceeding 200 species, R. Brown did not observe a single moss.

962. In the whole globe, the monocotyledonece, including the grasses, liliaceae, scita-
mineae, &c. are to the whole of the perfect plants as 1 to 6 ; in the temperate zones
(between 36° and 52°,) as 1 to 4; and in the polar regions as 1 to 20. In Germany, the
monocotyledoneae are to the total number of species as 1 to 4i ; in France as 1 to 4| ; in
New Holland the three grand divisions of plants, beginning with the acotyledoneae, are
nearly as 1, 2^, and 7|.

963. Dicotyledonece. In the whole globe, the monocotyledoneae are estimated, by
R. Brown, from Persoon's Synopsis, (^Gen. Rem. on tlie Bot. of Terr. Aust. 1814,) to be
to the dicotyledoneae as 2 to 1 1 ; or with the addition of undescribed plants, as 2 to 9.
From the equator to 30° of north latitude, they are as 1 to 5. In the higher latitudes a
gradual diminution of dicotyledoneae takes place, until in about 60° north latitude and
50° south latitude they scarcely equal half their intertropical proportions. The ferns ill
the temperate regions are to the whole number of species as 1, 2, and 5 ; that is, in the
polar regions as 1, in the temperate countries as 2, and in the intertropical regions as 5.
In France, ferns form ^ part of the phanerogamous plants ; in Germany ^ ; in Lap-
land ^.

964. The natural orders of perfect or phanerogamous plants are variously distributed in
different countries. The following Table gives a general view of the relative proportions
of several natural orders of perfect plants in France, Germany, and Lapland.

Ratio of

each Family to the

whole

of thp

Phanero-

Names of Natural Orders.

Number of Species in
different Countries.

gamous plants
Countries.

in these

Fran,

Germ.

■Lapl.

Fran.

Germ.

LapL

Cyperoideae - _ _

134

102

55

h

Vs

h

Gramineae - - _

284

143

49

1

I

I

Junceae - - - _
These three Families together

42

20

20

^
1

^

460

265

124

Orchideae - > >

54

44

11

h

h

^

Labiatae - - . -

149

72

7

i

1

Rhinantheae'et Scrophularineae

147

76

17

M

Boragineae

49

26

6

1

■R

^

Ericeae et Rhododendreae
Compositae - - - _

29

21

20

I

^

490

238

38

I

t

UmbelUferaB

170

86

9

I

Cruciferae * - _ _

190

106

22

1

i

4t

h

Malvaceae

25

8

Caryophylleae - - _

165

71

29

tV

Leguminosae - - >

230

96

14

s

I

K

Euphorbiaceae - - -

51

18

1

i

i

Amentaceee - - _

69

48

23

Coniferae - - - -

19

7

3

3645

1884

497

S06

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

965. Tlie most universal jylants are the agamous
families. Their germs are the only ones which nature
developes spontaneously in all climates. The poly-
trychum commune {Jig. 70.) grows in all latitudes ; in
Europe and under the equator ; on high mountains and
on a level with the sea; in short, wherever there is
shade and humidity. No phanerogamous plants have
organs sufficiently flexible to accommodate themselves in
this manner to every zone. The alsine media, fragaria
vesca, and solanum nigrum, have been supposed to enjoy
tills advantage ; but all that can be said is, that these
plants are very much spread, like the people of the race
of Caucasus, in the northern part of the ancient con-
tinent. (HumMdt.)

Sect. VI. Economical Distribution of Vegetables.

966. The plants chiefly employed in human economy differ in different climates and
countries { but some, as the cereal grasses, are in universal use j and others, as the banana
and plantain {Jig. 71.), only in the countries which

produce tnem. /n /a 71

967. The bread-corn of the temperate climates is
chiefly wheat and maize ; of the hot climates rice, and
of the coldest climates barley.

968. Tlie edible roots of the old world are chiefly the
yam, sweet potatoe, onion, carrot, and turnip ; of the
new the potatoe.

969. The oleraceous herbs of temperate climates are
chiefly the brassica family, and other cruciferae. In
hot climates pot-herbs are little used. Legumes, as
the pea, bean, and kidney-bean, are in general use in
most parts of the old world.

970. The fruits of the northern hemisphere belong _ _

chiefly to the orders of Pomaceae, Amygdalineae, ^ ^^^^

Grossulareae, Rosacese, Viticeae, and Amentaceae.

The fruits of the East Indies belong chiefly to Myrtaceae, Guttifcrae, Aurantiaceae, Musace», Palraae,
Cucurbitaceae, Myrisiiceas, &c. !

The fruits of China are chiefly of the orders of Aurantiaceae, Myrtaceae, Rliamneffi, Pomaceae, Amygda-
lineae, Palmae, &c.

The fruits of Africa belong to Sapoteae, Palmae, Chrysobalaneae, Guttiferae, Apocineae, Papilionaceae,
Musaceae, and Cucurbitaceae

• The fruits of South America belong to Annonaceae, Myrtacese, Terebintaceje, Myristiceie, Palmae, Bro-
meliaceae, Sapoteae, Laurinae, Chryeobalaneae, Musaceje, Papilionaceie, and Passifloreae.

971. The most showy herbaceous flowers of the temperate zone belong to Rosaceae, Li-
liaceae, Irideae, Ericinae, Ranunculaceae, Primulaceae, Caryophylleae, Gentianea?, &c.
Those of the torrid zone belong to the Scitamineae, Amaryllideae, Bignoniacea?, ^Iela-
stomaceae, Magnoliaceae, Papilionacese, Apocineae, &c.

The most useful timber-trees of temperate climates are of the pine or fir kind ; of warm climates the
palm and bamboo. Tlie universal agricultural order is the Grarmnece.

Sect. VII. Arithmetical Distribution of Vegetables.

972. The total number of species of plants known, or believed to exist, amounts to about
44,000, of which 38,000 have been described. According to Humboldt and R. Brown,
they are thus distributed : in Europe 7000 ; in temperate Asia 1500; in equinoctial Asia
and the adjacent islands 4500 ; in Africa 3000 ; in temperate America, in both hemi-
spheres, 4000; in equinoctial America 13,000; in New Holland and the islands of the
Pacific Ocean 5000 ; — in all 38,000. In Spitzbergen there are 30 species of perfect
plants ; in Lapland 534 ; in Iceland 533 ; in Sweden 1299 ; in Scotland 900 ; in Britain
1400 ; in Brandenburg 2000 ; in Piedmont 2800 ; in Jamaica, Madagascar, and the coast
of Coromandel, from 4000 to 5000.

Sect. VIII. Distribution of the British Flora, indigenous and exotic.

973. About thirteen thousand plants compose the Hortus Britannicus, or such species
as admit of cultivation. Mosses, Fungi, Fuci, Algae, and Lichens are, with a few ex-
ceptions, excluded.

Boor I. DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA. 207

974. The natives of Britain which enter into this Hortus are upwards of 1400 species ;
but the native British Flora contains in all alwve 3300 species. Of these there are about
1437 cotyledonous plants, and nearly 1893 of imperfect, or of what are termed, in the
Jussieuean system, acotyledoneae.

975. Of the cotyledonous or perfect plants^ 182 are trees or shrubs; 855 are peren-
nials ; 60 are biennials, and 340 annuals. Of the trees and shrubs, 47 are trees ; 25
above' thirty feet high, and the remainder under thirty, but above 10 feet high. Of the
perennials 83 are grasses ; the next greatest number belong to the two first orders of tlie
class Pentandria ; the next to the Syngenesia ; and the third to Monoecia Triandria, or
the Cyperaceae of Jussieu, comprehending chiefly the genus Carex. Most of the bien-
nials belong to the first order of the 19Ui class, and the two first orders of Pentandria.
There are 41 annual grasses ; 52 annuals belong to the two first orders of Pentandria ;
and the next greatest number of annuals to Diadelphia Decandria, which includes the tre-
foils and vetches.

976. Of the Cn/ptogamece, or im])erfect plants, 800 are fungi; 18 algae; 373 hchens;
85 hepaticae ; 460 musci ; and 130 ferns ; according to an estimate (in JReeis Ci/dop. art.
Plant,) understood to be made by Sir J. E. Smith.

977. In regard to the distribution of the perfect jilants as to elevation, little or nothing
has been yet generalised on the subject. In regard to soils, 276 are found in bogs, and
marshy or moist places ; 140 on the sea-shores ; 128 in cultivated grounds ; 121 in mea-
dows and pastures ; 78 in sandy grounds ; 76 in hedges and on hedge-banks ; 70 on
chalky and other calcareous soils ; 64 on heaths ; 60 in woods ; 30 on walls ; 29 on
rocks ; and 1 9 on salt-marshes ; — reckoning from Galpine's Compend. Fl. Brit.

978. In the distribution of the CryptogamecB, the ferns prevail in rocky places and wastes ;
most of the musci, hepaticae, and lichens, on rocks and trees ; most of the fuci and algae
in the sea ; and of the fungi, on decaying vegetable bodies, especially trunks of trees,
manures, &c.

979. In respect to geographical distribution, the mountainous and hilly districts of Eng-
land and South Wales are most prolific ; the greatest number, according to extent of sur-
face, are found in England and Wales, and the smallest number in Ireland.

980. Tlie genera of the native British Flora have been already arranged according to the
Linnaean and Jussieuean systems (where they are distinguished by marks *) ; they enter
into 23 classes and 71 orders of the former, and 8 classes and 121 orders of the latter
system.

981. With respect to the v^s or ajrplication of the native Flora, there are about 18 sorts
of wild fruits which may be eaten, exclusive of the wild apple and pear ; but only the
pear, apple, plum, currant, raspberry, strawberry, and cranberry, are gathered wild, or
cultivated in gardens. There are about 20 boiling culinary plants natives, including the
cabbage, sea-kale, asparagus, turnip, carrot, and parsnep. There are about the same
number of spinaceous plants, salading, and pot and sweet herbs, which may be used, but
of which but a few only enter into the dietetics of modern cooks. There are tliree fungi,
in general use, the mushroom, truffle, and morel ; and various others, as well as about
eight species of sea-weeds, are occasionally eaten. There are about six native plants
cultivated as florists' flowers, including the primula elatior, crocus, narcissus, dianthus,
&c. Nearly 100 grasses, clovers, and leguminous plants are used in agriculture, or serve
in their native places of growth as pasturage for cattle. Two native plants, the oat and
the big, or wild barley, are cultivated as farinaceous grains. Most of the trees are used
in the mechanical arts, for fuel, or for tanning : one plant, the flax, not an aboriginal
native, but now naturalised, affords fibre for the manufacture of linen cloth. Various
plants yield colored juices, which may be, and in part are, used in dyeing ; and some hundred
species have been, and a few are still used in medicine. About 20 cotyledonous plants,
and above 50 cryptogameae, chiefly fungi, are, or are reputed to be, poisonous, both to
men and cattle.

982. By the artificial Flora of Britain, we understand such of the native plants as admit of
preservation or culture in gardens ; and such exotics as are grown there, whether in the open
ground, or in different descriptions of plant habitations. The total number of species
which compose this Flora, or Hortus Britannicus, as taken from Sweet's catalogue, is, as
already observed (973.), about 13,000, including botanists' varieties, and excluding
agamous plants. This is nearly a fourth part of the estimated Flora of our globe, and
may be considered in regard to the countries from whence the plants were introduced ;
the periods of their introduction ; their obvious divisions ; their systematic classification ;
their garden habitations ; their application ; and their native habitations.

983. With respect to the native countries of tlie artificial Flora or Hortus Britannicus,
of 970 species the native countries are unknown ; the remaining 12,000 species were first
introduced from the following countries : —

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part IL

Europe,

Asia.

Africa.

America. j

Continent.

Continent.

Continent.

S. Continent

N. Continent.

S. of Europe - 659

East Indies -

826

"'S^^r"}^

Mexico .

102

United States 1222

Spain - . 266

Siberia .

364

Peru . -

77

Carolina . . 129

Italy ... 202

Levant -

213

Barbary . .

77

Brazil .

74

Virginia - . 49

Hungary - - 173

China .

205

Egypt - -

69

Guinea -

33

Canada - . 28

Austria . . 171

Caucasus . .

67

Morocco -

13

Vera Cruz

22

Missouri . 24

Germany . . 134

Persia -

37

Sierra Leone .

12

Caraccas -

21

Louisiana - 18

Switzerland . 117

Japan -

36

Guinea -

11

Chili .

29

Georgia . . 16

France . . 103

Syria . .

19

Abyssinia .

8

Buenos Ayres
Various other!

8

Plorida - . 9

Various other! ^^
Parts - J ^

Various otherT
Parts - i

82

Algiers - -

8

275

Other Parts T

Various other")
Parts . J

51

Places .

i

of British

America and S 111

Islands.

Islands.

S. Islands.

the United

Madeira - - 15

New So. Wales

239

Islands.

Cayenne -

.

9

States . . J

Candia . . 66

New Holland

152

Canaries . -

82 Falkland

]

3

Other Islands . 352

Ceylon . -

31

Tenerifffe - -

21

Islands .

N. Islands.

Britain - - 1400

VanDieman's")
Land . J

21

St Helena -

6

Teira del

]

1

West Indies - 435

Cape de Verde "7
Islands - j

1

Fuego -

Jamaica - - 248

Other Islands

73

Bahamas . - 9

Other Islands 55

European plants in the artificial Flora of Britain -

. 4169

Asiatic

...

_

_

. 2365

African

- . -

.

,

- 2639

South American

...

.

.

. 644

North American

, . •

.

_

- 2353

Native countries unknown

-

"

- 970

. 13,140

984. With respect to the dates of the introduction of the exotics from those different
countries, the dates of the introduction of none are known before the time of Gerard, in
Henry VIII.'s reign. From this author and Trew, it appears that 47 species were intro-
duced on or before 1548, including the apricot, fig, pomegranate, &c. Those previously
introduced, of which the dates are unknown, may be considered as left here by the Ro-
mans, or afterwards brought over from France, Italy, and Spain, by the ecclesiastics, and
preserved in the gardens of the religious houses. Henry died in 1 547 ; but the plants in-
troduced in the year after his death, may be considered as properly belonging to his reign.

182 plants, chiefly through the

Edry.Yl. 1547 to 1553. Durhig this troublous reign, only
seven exotic species were added to the British garden, chiefly
by Dr. Turner, director of the Duke of Somerset's (then Lord
Protector) garden at Zion House.

Mary. 1353 to 1558. No plants introduced.

Elizabeth. 1558 to 1603. 533 species were introduced during
this reign. Of these, '288 are enumerated in the first edition of
Gerard's Herbal, published 1557. Drake's voyage round the
world, Raleigh's discoveries in North America, and the con-
sequent introduction of the tobacco and potatoe, took place
during this reign.

James I. 1503 to 1625. Only 20 plants introduced during
this period.

Charles I. 1625 to 1649. 331 plants introduced, which are
chiefly mentioned by Parkinson, the first edition of whose
work was published in 1629. Parkinson was the king's herbalist,
and Tradescant his kitchen-gardener. A taste for j)lants began
to appear among the higher classes during this reign ; various
private gentlemen had botanic gardens ; and several London
merchants procured seeds and plants for Lobel, Johnston, and
Parkinson, through their foreign correspondents.

O. and R. Cromnell. 1649 to 1658. 95 plants introduced by
the same means as before. Cromwell encouraged agriculture;
but the part he acted left no leisure for any description of
elegant or refined enjoyment.

Charles 11. 1660 to 1685. 152 plants introduced, chiefly
mentioned by Ray, Morrison, and different writers in the
Transactions of the Royal Society, founded in 1663. The
Oxford and Chelsea gardens were founded, or enlarged, during
this reign. Sir Hans Sloane and Evelyn flourished. Many
native plants were now brought into notice by Ray and
Willoughby.

James IX. 1685 to 1688. 44 plants introduced.

WiUiam <!(• Mary. 1688 to 1702. 298 species introduced,
chiefly from the West Indies, and through Sir Hans Sloane
and the Chelsea garden. Plukenet succeeded Parkinson as
royal herbalist during this reign; and botanists were sent
from England, for the first time, to explore foreign countries.
As in the two former reigns, great additions were now made
to the indigenous Flora, by Ray, Sibbald, Johnson, and
others. Many of the 50 species annually presented to the
Royal Society were natives.

Anne. 1702 to 17X4. 230 plants in great part from the
East and West Indies, and through the Chelsea garden.

George I. 1714 to 1727.
Chelsea garden.

George IX. 1727 to 1760. 1770 plants, almost entirely
through the Chelsea garden, now in its zenith of fame under
Miller. 375 of these plants are stated as introduced in 1730
and 1731, the latter being the year in which the first folio
edition of the Gardeners' and Botanists' Dictionary appeared.
239 in 1739, in which year the 4th edition of the same work
appealed. 196 in 1752, and above 400 in 1758 and 1759,
when subsequent editions were published. In the last, in
1763, the number of plants cultivated in England is stated to
be more than double the number contained in the edition of
1751.

h George lU. 1760 to 1817. 6756 plants introduced, or con-
siderably above hajf the whole number of exotics now in the
gardens of this country. This is to be accounted for from the
general progress of civilisation, and the great extension of
British power and influence in every quarter of the world;
especially in the East Indies, at the Cape of Good Hope, and
New South Wales. The increa^iing liberality of intercourse
which now obtained among the learned of all countries,
must also be taken into account, by which, notwithstanding
the existence of political differences, peace reigned and com-
merce flourished in the world of science. George III. may
also be said to have encouraged botany, aided by the advice,
assistance, and unwearied efforts of that'distinguisfied patron of
science. Sir Joseph Banks ; and the garden of Kew, and its late
curator, Alton, became the Chelsea garden, and the Miller of
this reign. Most of the new plants were sent there, and first de-
scribed in the Hortiii Kervensis. The next greatest numbers were
procured by the activity of the l,ondon nurserymen, especially
Lee and t/oddiges, and described in the Botanical Magazine ;
Andrew's Heatliery ; the Botanical Register ; Loddiges* Cabi-
net, and other works. The greatest number of plants intro-
duced in any one year, during this period, is 336, in 1800, chiefly
heaths and proteas from the Cape of Good Hope, taken from
the Dutch in 1795. The following are the numbers annually
introduced since that period : —

42

1801. - 116 I 1805. - 169 I 1809. - 48 1 1813.

1802. . 169 1806. - 224 1810. - 68 1814. - 44

1803. - 267 1807. - 61 1811. - 149 1815. - 192

1804. . 299 I 1808. - 52 I 1812. - 316 I 1816. - 301
Annual Average of 17 years, ending 1816, 156 species.

985. With respect to the obvious character of the artificial Flora, 350 species are hardy
trees or shrubs ; of these 270 are trees above 10, and 100 trees above 30 feet high. Of
these, the larch, spruce fir, silver fir, and Lombardy poplar, sometimes attain the height
of 100 feet. Above 400 species are hardy grasses. Of the tender exotics, the greater
number are trees or shrubs, and the next greatest number annuals and bulbs. The
colors of the blossoms are generally rich and vivid in proportion to the warmth of the
climate of which the plants are natives.

986. In regard to systematic and horticultural distribution, the following Table gives a
combined view of the whole, arranged according to the Linruean system, and also according
to their habitation in the garden.

Book I.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA.

209

Class and order.

1 Hardy.

Frame.

Green-house.

Dry-stove.

Stove.

Total

MONANDRIA.

Monogj'nia ...

^

\n\i\Q

^:v:iie

h :v\s

0

^

^;^

0

b

If! ^10

Ge.

SP.

1

2

_

3

,

-

1; 3

1

.

.

.

3

49

2

.

20

65

Digynia

.

.

-

b

-

-

-] -

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3

5

DiA.NDRU.

1

Monogynia ...

3i

112

7

24

-

-

42 12

1

-

-

6

-

33

5

36

276

Digynia

.

2

.

.

.

-

.

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

Trigynia

.

.

-

-

J

.

-

.

-

-

13

14

1

1

28

Triandria.

Monogynia ...

.

122

1

20

.

_

1169

.

.

.

.

27

4

2

56

346

Digj-nia

l.'W

.'J

141

_

.

1

_

.

_

6

7

1

2

50

314

Trigynia

-

3

9

.

-

- -

•

-

-

-

-

-

.

9

12

Tktrandria.

Monog>Tiia ...

18

88

8

49

_

.

196 5

4

.

.

17

32

3

76

420

Digynia

1

1

3

.

-

- 1 -

.

.

.

•

-

-

-

3

5

Tetragynia ...

5

14

.

6

4

.

-

2 -

.

-

-

-

3

1

9

35

Pentandria.

1

Monog>-nia ...

117

211

31

117

3

.

.

202 851

13

1

_

12

25

200

'J6

209

1060

DigvTiia

13

227

26

90

.

.

26 7

2

.

74

.

.

.

17

5

93

4«7

Trigynia ......

42

2

1

3

_

-

23 -

.

1

.

2

-

7

4

15

85

Tetragynia ...

.

3

.

_

.

•

- 1 -

.

.

-

-

.

.

.

1

3

Pentag>'nia ...

3

46

2

4

7

-

43 10

6

6

-

-

3

1

11

131

Polygynia

1

_

2

_

.

- 1 -

.

_

.

.

-

_

-

3

3

Hexaxdria.

!

Monogynia ...

14

277

3

3

3

9

-

34 238

1

-

13

6

-

84

47

1

106

730

Digynia

.

_

_

_

_

.

1

^

.

.

_

1

3

4

Trigynia

.

-45

_

8

.

-

2

17

.

_

.

.

2

1

.

14

175

Heptandria.

Monog>Tiia ...

7

3

_

-

-

1

2

-

.

-

-

3

5

.

8

21

Digynia

_

1

-

«

.

.

_

.

.

.

-

.

-

.

.

1

1

Tetragj-nia ...

.

1

"

.

.

.

.

.

-

.

-

.

.

.

1

1

Heptagynia ...

.

_

"

.

.

.

.

3

.

.

-

-

-

.

.

1

3

Octandria.

Monogynia ..."

95

22

8

7

1

2

1

35

2

3

31

.

1

.

25

.

41

163

Digynia

.

1

_

_

_

.

1

.

.

.

.

.

.

_

_

2

2

Trigj-nia

a

11

.

17

.

.

2

.

1

.

.

.

1

14

2

6

50

Tetragynia ...

.

2

3

-

.

-

.

1

-

-

4

-

-

-

-

-

7

10

Enneandria.

Monogynia ...

5

2

-

.

-

-

7

-

.

.

-

-

-

6

.

3

20

Trigy-nia

.

7

_

_

.

.

_

_

.

_

-

•

.

.

_

1

7

Hexagj-nia ...

.

1

_

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

-

-

•

..

.

1

1

Decaxdria.

Monogynia ...

196

20

_

3

.

_

91

3

3

1

.: -

8

3

169

6

92

443

Digynia

4

111

67

8

9
49

2

1

20

1

-

-

"e

-

-

-

:

26

2

12
9

160
158

Trigynia

Pentagynia ...

.

63

2

20

1

.

IC

62

.

1

.

.

.

b

.

1

6

Decagynia ...

_

1

.

.

1

-

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

3

2

.

11

164

Dodecandria.

Monogj-nia ...

6

11

.

2

1

_

.

5

2

1

1

.

4

.

17

4

22

54

Digynia

6

.

.

.

.

.

1

.

_

_

.

.

.

1

.

3

8

Trigynia

2

30

3

24

6

3

.

26

a

21 -

23

.

1

3

7

6

3

139

Tetragynia ...

1

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

1

.

1

1

Pentagynia ...

.

.

.

.

.

_

.

.

.

.

-

.

.

.

.

1

1

Doderag

.

6

.

1

.

.

.

6

2

.

.

-

-

•

.

^

.

1

17

ICOSANDRIA.

Monogy-nia ...

33

.

.

.

1

.

_

53

.

2' -

55

-

.

.

34

_

18

173

Di-Pentag. ...

67

7

_

.

.

.

.

15

49

3 315

-

-

-

3

.

2

9

309

Polygynia

162

67

1

.

3

.

.

6

-

-

.

-

-

•

1

.

10

340

POLYAXDRIA.

Monogynia ...

28

19

3

17

33

5

.

6

-

.

-

-

-

6

37

5

32

161

Digvnia

5

-

13
27

2

"5

-

-

-

2
2

•

:

-

-

-

-

'1

-

:

4

3

21
36

Tri^-nia

Pentagynia ...

11

.

6

1

.

.

.

_

-

.

.

.

.

.

4

18

Polygynia

30

107

1

10

5

2

.

8

2

.

.

.

•

-

2

18

.

28

135

Did Y.N AM I A.

Gymnos.

22

198

4

38

24

7

2

48

5

6 - 1

_

.

_

5

5

15

48

279

Anglos

87

8

42

"

25

4

38

3 10!

-

-

-

15

9

511

81

346

Tetradyn.

Siliculosa

6

S5

11

56

4

1

1

6

_

_

_

_

_

.

.

.

30

120

Siliquosa

4«

22

66

15

.

2

2

.

-

2

.

1

6

20

164

Moxadelphia.

Triandria

1

.

_

.

.

_

_

9

.

".

.

.

.

.

1

.

5

11

PenUndria ...

1

3

.

8

.

2

.

34

3

1

.

_

.

1

.

38

1

7

92

Heptandria ...

.

.

.

_

107

59

2

2

.

.

.

2

5

.

1

175

Octandria

_

_

_

■_

_

_

1

_

.

.

.

_

.

_

_

1

1

Decandria ...

23

12

1

9.

9.

_

_

„

_

_

1

_

2

41

Dodecand. ...

.

.

.

1

3

1

.

.

.

1

.

7

_

5

15

Polvandria ...

3

14

4

24

1

.

53

3

2 31

.

_

23

3

55

22

27

21(1

DiA DELPHI A.

Pentandria ...

_

4

,

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

_

1

2

5

Hexandria ...

.

9

3

7

.

.

_

.

-

_

.

_

_

.

.

.

3

19

Octandria

2 5

6

.

_

15

.

.

.

.

_

.

1

_

2

29

Decandria ...

70138

9

189

8

6

_

1.59

12

4 .

_

_

18

8

7

76

88

80C

Polyajjelphia,

Decandria ...

^

.

_

_

_

_

,

2

_

2

Dodecand. ...

.

_

_

.

_

.

_

.

.

.

3

.

2

3

Icosandria ...

.

.

.

.

_

.

31

.

.

.

,

.

.

1

.

4

32

Polyandria ...

10

17

.

.

5

8

.

322

«

.

.

.

1

.

.

.

5

65

Syngenesia.

.Polyg.aqu. ...

253

48

11

52

3

6

-

-

12

4

- 1

-

-

-

-

7

S

3

10

74

274

310

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

Class and order.

Hardy.

Frame.

Green-house.

Dry-stove.

stove.

Total

SYNGE>f.— con<.

Pol. superflua

frustan£ca .

necessaria.

segregata .

Gynandria.

Monandria ..

Diandria ...

Hexandria...

MONCECIA.

Monandria..
Diandria ...
Triandria ...
Tetrandria..
Pentandria..
Hexandria...
Polyandria...
Monadelp. ...
Gynandria...
Dkecia.
Monandria...
Diandria ...
Triandria ...
Tetrandria...
Pentandria . .
Hexandria...
Octandria ...
Enneandria .
Decandria...
Dodecand. ...
Icosandria...
Polyandria...
Monadelp. ...
Gynandria...

POLYGAMIA.

Monoecia ...

Dicecia

Cryptogamia.
Gonopter. ...
Stachyopter.
Poropterid. .
Schismatopt.
Filices

^

V.

^10

^

n.i

0

^

^!<?1^

h n

^|0

T?|lf

1
1
2

"2

"2
4

2
855

0

13

1
6

3
1

}

:

764

Ge.

~60
19
20
10

48
3

5

2
11
12
7
7

22

26

• 1

1
3
7
13
8
8
2
2
5
6
3
5
12
.1

31
14

i
4
1

3

26
1850

Sp.

673
177
100
17

132
10
19

16
5
101
41
48
11

189.

158

1

4
87
12
46
18
36
15

6

9
12

6
26
40

8

204
76

7
18
1
9
130

8
"l

'2

'1

14

82
36

k

1

9
5
11
14

2
3
2

21

24
25

1

389
92
14
6

46
6
6

J
'I

'1
1

I

1

2

21
2

6
16

"5
5

2

8
6

-

98
36
14
2

9

42
14

'3

"2
2

29

s,"

4
2

1

"2
"2

'1

'2
'1

5

7

1
3

21

1

15

17

101
20
39
3

"1
3

5

"3

'2
13

'4
33
3
6

1
1
3
4

16

7
7

36
20

"1

2014

22

6
13
3

23
3
2

"1

1

'2
9

'4

*3

5
1

"1

1535

12

I

I
90

2

_

'_
1

■
I

I
I

5

'1

1

2

4

2

"2
10
1
16
14
46

4
2
3
4
5
5

'3
4
6

10

7

1

70
27

"2

5

2

"2
50
'2

'1
4

1
16
5

'e

9

"2
1
3

44

438

Hydropter. . .

--

Total

1132

3130'234ll232|

177

382

169

0

0

353

12700

987. The following Table exhibits the systematic and horticultural distribution of the
artificial Flora of Britain, according to the Jussieuean classification^ with the garden-
habitations.

Class and order.

Hardy. 1

Frame.

Green-house.

Dry-stove. 1 Stove. 1 Total.

Thalamif. §1.

Ranuncula. ..

Magnoliaceae

Annonaceae .

Menisperm. .

BerberideaB ..
Thalamif. ^2.

Papaveraceae

Crucifereae...

Capparide£B .
■ PassiflorejE...

Violeas

Pediculareffi

Cistine^

Thalamif. ^3.

Caryophyll. ."

Malvaceae ...

Sterculiaceae

Tiliaceas

Sapindeae ...

Acereae ......

Malpighiaceae

Pittosporese .

Hypericineae

Guttifereae...

Vitace«

GeraniacejB .

Meliaceae ...

Auranteae ...

Rutaceae

Diottnaceae

16
13
3
3

7

46

'1
4
2

11

5
5

21
1

22

10
"7

"2

If
f

■ 4

18
83
11
3
36
5
1

154
16

-

:
20

17

30

1

±

8

33

1

12

4

4

20
124
9
7
2
6
6

85

24

i

26

i

'5

"5

29

1
1

'1

"s

2

I

4

1

"2
4
3

}

3

£

■

.1

■"

■

I

■

_5_

1
3

"3

1

30
5
4
5

15

8
34

1
43

2

3

"9
10
2

175
5
28
11
34

2

'1

"1

1
3

1
1

5
6

-

"l

-
67

1

"1

£

3
1
1

f

5

_

2

0
.

"2

1

3

1

I

.
I

_

-

:

I

:

J

i

1

0

_^

1
3
13
4

1

1

16

34

5

1

71
5
65

'i

27

i

13
10

1

:

_
2

'1

I'

'2

30

"1
"1

"-s

"2

f

1
1

0

6

22

5

2

i

1^

23
5
4
5
7

13
53
7
1
3
2
2

30
35
2
20
10
17
3
3
2
8
1
7
14
8
10
7

\Sp.

69
24
16
12
13

51
330
53
55
53
.'29
47

281

216

6

88

20

51

27

10

54

15

8

309

21

38

27

34

Boor I.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA.

211

Class and order.

Hardy. 1 Frame. 1 Green-house.

Dry-stove. 1

Stove.

Total. 1

Thalamiflor. ^4

Calyciflobe*

Terebintaceffi .

Leguminosae .,

Rosaceae

0 c

52 184
157 195

C

'i
1

|0
) 0

292

0 c

)'■

'. "1

- "1

1 .

- 1

'2 18

2 4

I 3
"2 1

1 '
"225

23 7

- 9

- 1
I 2

" "1

I 3

"r 1

' '1

.£0

0 0

"1 I
-lis

1 i
"3 I

"1 :

3 '.

2 I

0

21

189

27

3

79

"1

3

152

42

5

1

2
2

IS

*8

2
2

1

2

C

'5
"1

! =

i .

'3
' 14

1:

' 2
5

"1

1

'2
2
3

'3

'4

1

1

"1
1

0

"3

15
4

"1
6

"1
9

"2
"5

'1

^ 1<
0 C

"4 I

55 I

"7 4

i£|0|2.
> 0 0 0

- - 20

- - 89

- - 4

- - 7

- - 20

- - 33

- . 9

- - 3

- - 2

151
0 (

10 li

\'}

7 "

2 "4

3 -

) 0

62
"1

"i

1

4

Ge.\Sp.

~oi 0

17' 70
144 1054
26 3qi

Salicareae

Melastomeffi...

Myrteaceffi

Combretaceae .
Cucurbitaceaj .

Loosaceae

Onograreaj ...

Ficoideffi

Semperviveae .
Portulaceas ...

CactesB

Saxifrageee ...
Cunoniaceae ...
AralejB

*£
*1

"a

22
4

4
53

1
21
41

1

67
1

's

9
34

"2
3

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9

32

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4

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190
16

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16
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11

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41
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172
494

36
127

33

24
118

84

'4
10

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"s

11

27

12

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227

'7
57
3

24
19
2

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36

"4

'8

'6
3

is

23
27

73

2
29
37
24
29

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: 8

28

't

25
14

17
15
6

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9

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51
148

' 43
26

9
59

9"

18
33
49

38

55

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- 7
3

14

60
26

20
10

'1
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IS
4

2S
4

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2

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7

13

14

3

9

2

3

11

53

133

51

23

5

15

10

10

1

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20

9

2

9

8

9

1

19

10

1

S

9

25

20

41

2

55

4

10

2

14

1

3

2
7
61
24
8
2
2
23
11
10
2

30
15
18
5

2
17

6
49

4
25

4
13
13,

1

5
5

27

24

: 123

i *"
\l

232

97

37

82

95

2

32

65

! 285

1 945

153

227

68

48

73

128

3

8

421

20

11
23
23
49

1
56
47

24

92

152

174

222

7

590

11

61

9

64

7

44

39

17

23

136

79

18

3

200

48

20

6

41

196

102

206

26

IS

58

30
128

15

00

4

102

102

9

59

47

35

32
7

22

- - 5

- - 3

- - 4

- - 1

'. '. 14

- - 62

- . 1

'. I 13
I I "2

I I "l

. - 10

- - 6

- . 16

- - 7

- - 3

- - 1

- . 34
. - 19

I ^ "9

- - 21

- - 42

- - 11

- - '7

- - 6

- - 35

I I "1

- - 3

'. I "6

- - 6
. - 10

- - 6

- - 9

- - 2

I I '2

- - 7

- - 1

- - 4

. . SO

- . 46

- - 4

- - 8

. . 71

I 2 '24

- - 6

- - 7

I - I 4

. - 2

- - 1

- - 1

- - 1

III

. 3

"1 "1
12 9
2 2

1 -

2 I

1 '3

2 -

'7 "1
1 .

3 2
3 1

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9 -

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3

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1

22

2
2

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9

2

9

2

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Caprifoleae ...
Umbellifereae .
Corymbiferae .

Rubiaceje

Cynarocephal.

Dipsacea

Gentianeae ...
Cichoraceas ...
Campanulaceae

Stylideae

Goodenoves...

EriceJB

Epacrideae

COROLLIFLOREiE

Myrsineae

Sapotese

Ebenaceae

Oleineae

Jasmineae

Apocyneae

Bignoniaceae .

Pedalineae

Poleraoniaceae
Convolvulaceae
Boragineae ...
Solaneae .. ..

11 -
lOi 8
169 54
19: 1
12: 4

4 1

- 5

1 3
8' 25
3 2

3 -
42, -
19|.

5 .

2 .
12 .

- 2

"5 I

4 -

12| 9
28' 5
28' »

Scrophularineae
Orobancheae...

Labiateae

Myoporineae...
Acanthaceae...
Lentibulareae .
Primulaceae ...
Globulareffi ...

MoXOCHLAMYDEi:

Plumbagineae .
Plantagineae...
Nyctagineje ...
Amaranth aceae
Chenopodeae...
Polygoneae ...

Laurineffi

Myristiaceffl...

Proteaceae

Thymeleas

Santalacea ...

Eleagneae

Aristoloches
Euphorbiaceae
Urticeae

17

61
5
3

i

5

61|

32;

fi

6;

25;

3

t

13
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'3

4

"1

3
1

2

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1
0

Amentaceae ...

Conifereae

Phanerogame^

Cycadeas

Hydrocharideae
Alisraaceas ...

Orchides

Musacea;

Iride«

Hffimodoraces
Amaryllideae .
Hemerocallid.

Dioscore£e

Smilaceae

Lilese

2 -

j;

5: .

166' '2
2' 61

Melanthaceae .

Junceae

Restiaceae

Commelineae .

11

"4

1

P 2

213

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

Class and order.

Hardy."

Frame. 1 Green-house.

Dry-stove' 1

stove.

Total

Pa AS. — cont.

Palme®

Pandaneae...
Scitamineae
Cyperaceas ..
Gramineas...

Cryptogame*.
Naiadeae
Equisetacese
MarsiliacesE
Lycopodinea?
Filices

h

-11

$

0

T?

^|.

©h

If ^

G

_^

^^

0

h

^

^'0

Ge.\ Sp.

-
*1

7

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174

5
5
2
11

76

78
5

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155

13

21

I
15

4

7

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1

2014

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2

9

1535

3
90

6

-
0

-
■

22
4
38

'1
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49

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19

1
1
12

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9

1
2
2
31

37

4

2

136

933

21

2

12

144

Total

1132

3130

234

1232

177

ii?icp

0

353

438 855

7(>t

1850 I2700I

988. The uses of these arrangements, and of the other tables in this chapter to the botanist
and cultivator, are very considerable. They afford a full view of the riches of the British
garden ; a condensed vievjr of the affinities of plants, by which their properties, culture, and
alliances by grafting, crossing, &c. may be estimated ; and the means of selecting plants
for every department of the garden. Thus, a person wishing to possess a collection of
hardy plants, may, from the two last tables, order a certain number of annuals, biennials,
perennials, and trees from each of the Linnaean or Jussieuean classes. Or if he wishes
merely a few species of dried plants to illustrate each of the classes or orders of these systems,
he may give instructions for forming a herbarium from the tables of the genera before
given. (588, 589.) He may there also make a choice for any purpose confined to British
plants. To the gardener these tables will be particularly useful, by enabling him to form
arrangements in any of the departments of culture with ease and effect. Thus, supposing
he is desirous of arranging his green-house plants according to the method of Jussieu ;
then, beginning, say with Ranunculaceae, he finds that order contains only one tree and
two perennials which are green-house plants ; on turning to the Jussieuean classification
of the genera (589. ), he finds Atragene and Knowltonia furnish these. If these genera are in
his collection, he begins by placing them together. Next, he proceeds to Magnoliacere,
in which there are three green-house trees, and so on ; — proceeding thus, whether in ar-
ranging hardy, green-house, or hot-house plants in the natural method, and similarly, if
arranging them according to that of Linnaeus. It is proper to observe, that though great
care has been taken to attain arithmetical correctness in these tables, yet, in some cases,
we have failed of perfect success ; but as the number of plants in the artificial Flora is
every day increasing, and their arrangement and even names very frequently varying,
there is no occasion for absolute perfection in arithmetical enumerations for subjects such
as ours, and even a much less degree than what has been attained would have answered
the purpose equally well.

989. Purchasable British Flora. The whole of the plants enumerated as forming the
British Flora, are probably not at any one time all in existence in Britain. Many of them,
especially the exotic species, which were introduced at Kew, have been lost there through
accidents or diseases, and are wanting for a time till new seeds or plants are obtained from
abroad. Had they been distributed among the nurserymen they would have been
abundantly multiplied and spread over the country. Casualties happen even to hardy
plants, and a species which at one time is to be found in moderate quantities in the nur-
series is at another period comparatively scarce. Thus, if we redute the actual number
of species to be found in cultivation at one time to from 9000 to 10,000, it will be found
nearer the truth. In the public nurseries, varieties are very much cultivated, in order, as
it were, to place the beauties of esteemed species in different points of view ; or to produce
in vegetables something analogous to what are called variations in musical compositions.
The following may be considered as a popular or horticultural distribution of the species
and varieties obtainable from British nurseries. It is taken from a catalogue entitled
Prodromus, &c. ; or Forerunner of the collection in Page's Southampton nursery-garden,
drawn up by L. Kennedy, (late of the Hammersmith nursery,) and published in 1818.
It is a work of great practical utility, and with Sweet's Hortus, should be in the hands
of every gardener who has a collection of plants under his care.

990. Hardi/ Plants.

Trees al)Ove .10 feet high -
Trees under ."0 and above 10

feethiKh -
Deciduous shrubs
Roses, double and'single
Hvergtem ihrubt '

Sp.&Var.
100

r,oo

330
400

Hardy climbing shrubs
Herbaceous plants - - -
Grasses introduced in botanic!
collections - - - J
Bulbous-rooted plants
Aquatics . . -

Sp.&Var.
130

Marsh plants
Biennials

Sp.&Var.
70
300

150
250
50

Book I. DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRITISH FLORA. 213

991. Green-house and Drt/stove Plants.

Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var. ' Sp.iVar.
Trees and shrub* ... 1450: CUmbers - - - - .90 Herbaceous and stemless planu 340

Heaths ... - - 400 Succulents - - - - 170

Geraniums ... - 150 MesembryanthemunM - • 160 Total 31S0

Froteas - • - - - 120 Bulbous-rooted planU - • 300

992. Hot-house Plants.

Sp. &Var. _ Sp. iVar.

Trees and shrubs 850 Aquatics - 28

cumbers 160 Reedy or scitanoineous ... - . 55

Succulent plants . « .... . 130 ■

Bulbous-rooted plants 80 Total 1463

Herbaceous 170

993. Annualst native and exotic.

Hardy ........

Halfhardy 140

Tender 100

- 200

Sp. &Var. Sp. &Var.

300 Used in agriculture exclusive of grasses ... 80

Total. Hardy, 4580; green-house and dry-stove, 3180; hot-house, 1463 ; annuals, 820;
total, 10,043 ; of these, above 3000 may be considered as varieties, so that the actual
hortus procurable in British nurseries, may be estimated, as to the British hortus of books,
as 7 to 12, or including the cryptogamous plants, as 8 to 12.

994. With respect to the application of the purchasable Flora of Britain, including species
and varieties, we submit the following as only a rude outline, the subject not admitting
of perfect accuracy from the ever-varying number of varieties.

995. Varieties of Fruit-trees, and Fruit-bearing Plants, for Sale in British Nurseries.

Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var.

30 Cranberry

150 Mulberries .-

100 FUberts

50 Walnuts

200 Melons
4 Pine^apples

20

Apples 300 Apr

Pears 300 Plums -

Medlars 2 Cherries -

Quinces ... . 2 Grapes -

Services . - . . • 3 Figs

Oranges and Lemons • • 60 Gooseberries

Peaches ..... 100 Currante

Nectarines .... 50 Raspberries

Almonds • - - 6 Strawberries

996. Esculent Herbaceous Plants, annuals and perennials, used in Horticulture.

Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var.

Cabbage tribe - - 1 35 Pot-herbs and gamishings 11 16 Edible wild plants which! -, _,

Luminous plants . 3 59 Sweet herbs ... 12 20 may be used - - . J "'■ ^'■

Esculent roots ... 10 45 Plants used in confectionary 1 ,. ,<, Edible fungi - • - 3 3

Spinaceous plants - . 6 10 and domestic medicine J ° Edible fiici - .-88

Alliaceous plants . . 7 18 Plants used as preserves and! .9 „«

Asparaginous plants . 11 18 pickles - - - J *^ -"^ Total 154 337

Acetaceous plants . . 25 40 . -

997. Florists' Flowers, used in Floriculture.

Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var.

Bulhous.rooted PlMTttt. Colchicums .... 10 Tubetvtu-rooltd Plants.

Hyacinths .... 200 Other sorts .... 100 DahUas .... 400

Tulips .... . 300 Fibrout-rooted PlanU. Psonies ... 20

Crocuses . - - . . 100 Auriculas .... 200 Ranunculuses ... 300

Narcissi ... . 200 Polvanthi .... 100 Anemonies - - . . 200

Irises 60 Primroses . - . . 20

FritiUaries ... - 20 CowsUps ;. - . . 10 Total 2666

Crown-unperiaU ... 20 Pinks COO

Dens canis .... 6 Carnations ... . 300

998. Hardy Timber-trees and Shrubs, used in Arboriculture, Floriculture, and Land-
scape-gardening.

Sp.&Var. Sp.&Var.

Trees planted for timber . . - • . - 100 Shmbs planted for various uses, as fuel, charcoal,! on

other useful purposes ... 20 bark, firewood, &c. J *"

Trees planted for ornament ... . 180 — ^

Hedge-plants 10 Total 330

999. Agricultural Herbaceous Plants, grown for Food for Men and Cattle, and for use
in various Arts.

Sp. &Var. Sp. &Var.

Grains for human food 4 20 Plants used for dyeing 2 2

Leguminous seeds ..... .4 10 Plants used for the clothing arts • - 2 2

Roots .........620 Sea-plants used 6 6

Herbage plants, not grasses .... . 9 15 Mosses used in dyeing - - --.11

. grasses, and grasses fijr grains &r the Infe. 1 qq 05 . for various purposes in the arts - 6 6

rior animals ...... J-.«*3K> ■

Plants used for furnishing oils and essences ..55 Total 65 112

1000. Miscellaneous applications of Hardy Perennials, native and exotic.

Sp. &Var. Sp. &Var-

Border-flowers, or such as are used in ftower-gar-'l -qq Used for distillation and perfumery - . 20

dens and shrubberies, in ordinary cases about J .

Used in the modem pharmacopoeias ... 50 Total 870

Sold by herbalists, and used by quacks and irregu-l OQ """""

lar practitioners ......j

1001. Application of curious Hot-house Exotics, or such plants of ornament as require the
protection of glass. Of these there are in ordinary green-houses seldom more than 100 species
and varieties, and not more than half that number in most of our plant-stoves. Tlie
remainder of this class are confined to the public and private botanic gardens, and to eminent

P 3

214 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

public nurseries. Many of this division are of great importance in their native countries,
as the indigo, sugar-cane, tea-tree, cinnamon, &c. ; the mango, durion, and other excellent
fruits, the palms, bamboos, &c. Even some here treated as entirely ornamental, afford
useful products in their own countries, as the camellia, sun-flower, &c. from the seeds of
which oils are expressed in China and America. Tlie cultivation or preservation of living
specimens of these plants, therefore, in our green-houses and stoves, is a rational entertain-
ment, and also useful, as many species become in time acclimated, and some even natu-
ralised ; and uses naay in time also be discovered for such as are now merely looked on as
objects of curiosity. But it is quite enough to justify much more than all the care that
is taken to obtain and preserve them, that they contribute to elegant enjoyment ; for what
is life when it does not exceed mere obedience to the animal instincts ?

1002. Witli respect to the native habitations of the exotic part of the Hortus Britannicvsi
little can be advanced with certainty. In general it seems to appear that moist and mo-
derately warm climates, and irregular surfaces, are most prolific in species ; and judging
of the whole world from Europe, we should venture to consider half the species of plants
in existence as growing in soft and rather moist grounds, whether low or elevated. The
soil of surfaces constantly moist, or inclining to be moist, whether watered from the at-
mosphere or from subterraneous sources, is almost always found to be minutely divided,
and generally of a black vegetable or peaty nature. Immense tracts in Russia and Ame-
rica are of this description, and even when dry, resist evaporation better than any other.
In such soils, the roots of plants are generally small and finely divided, as in the heaths,
most bog plants, and nearly all the American shrubs. Tlie next sort of habitation most
prolific in species, appears to us to be arenarious soils in temperate climates, and in pro-
portion to their moisture. Here the roots of plants are also small, but less so than in
soils of the former description. On rocky and calcareous soils tlie roots of plants are ge-
nerally strong and woody, or at least long and penetrating. In clayey habitations, ex-
clusive of the alluvial depositions of rivers, few plants are found, and these generally
grasses, or strong fibrous-rooted herbaceous plants, or tap-rooted trees. Such at least is
the am.ount of our generalisations ; but as our observation has been limited to Europe, and
does not even extend to tlie whole of it, those who have visited Africa and Asia are much
more capable of illustrating the subject. One conclusion we think the cultivator is fully
entitled to draw, that the greater number of plants, native or foreign, will thrive best in
light soil, such as a mixture of soft black vegetable mould or peat and fine sand kept
moderately moist ; and that on receiving unknown plants or seeds, of the native sites of
which he is ignorant, he will err on the safe side by placing them in such soils rather
than in any other ; avoiding, most of all, clayey and highly manured soils, as only fit
for certain kinds of plants constitutionally robust, or suited to become monstrous by
culture.

Chap. XI.
Origin of Culture, as derived from the Study of Vegetables,

1003. Agriculture and gardening are the two arts which embrace the whole business of
cultivating vegetables, for whatever purpose they are applied by civilised man, and in this
respect their fundamental principles are tlie same ; they are all indicated by nature, and
explained by vegetable chemistry and physiology.

1004. The object of vegetable cidture is either to increase the number of plants ; to in-
crease their number and retain their native qualities ; to increase their number and im-
prove their qualities ; to increase their magnitude ; to increase their number, improve the
quality, and increase the magnitude of particular parts of the vegetable ; to form new varieties
for the furtlierance of all or any of the above purposes ; to propagate and preserve from
degenerating approved varieties of vegetables ; and to preserve vegetables for future use.

The first step, for all these objects in common, is to piocure the desired plant, either by removing it
n entire state from its native site, and planting it in an appropriate situation ; or by gathering and sd
ing its seeds ; or by propagating from a part of the plant. Hence the general origin both of agriculture and
gardening, and of all the different modes of propagation, transplanting, and collecting seeds.
The next stev is to secure the plants to be cultivated from the depredations of animals, o

an entire state from its native site, and planting it in an appropriate situation ; or by gathering and sow-
; from a part of the plant. Hence the g
rent modes of propagation, transplanting

The next step is to secure the plants to be cultivated from the depredations of animals, or unsuitable
weather, either by surrounding them with an adequate barrier where they are growing fortuitously, or by
removing them to a spot already protected. Hence the origin of fences and enclosures, and plant habita-
tions.

A third step common to all the above objects of culture is to remove from the vicinity of the plant to be
cultivated, or from the plant itself, all other plants, or animals, or objects likely to impede its progress.
Hence the origin of weeding, thinning, destroying insects, and curing diseases.

1005. To increase the number and retain the native qualities of vegetables, it is necessary
to imitate, as exactly as circumstances will admit, their native habitation, in respect to
soil, climate, mode of watering, light, &c. If the habitation is in any way ameliorated,
the qualities of the plant will be altered, and its parts enlarged, which is not desired.

Book I. ORIGIN OF VEGETABLE CULTURE. 215

All that is necessary, therefore, for effecting this branch of culture, is to imitate the habit-
ation, and to propagate. This is, or ought to be the case, wherever plants are grown for
medical or botanical purposes, as in herb and botanic gardens. Nature is here imitated
as exactly as possible, and the result is productions resembling, as near as possible, those
of nature.

1006. To increase the mtmber arid improve the qxialities of plants, it is necessary to faci-
litate their mode of nutrition by removing all obstacles to the progress of the plant.
These obstacles may either exist under or above the surface ; and hence the origin of drain-
ing, clearing from surface-incumbrances, and the various operations, as digging, plough-
ing, &c, for pulverising the soil. Nature suggests this in accidental ruptures of the
surface, broken banks, the alluvial depositions from overflowing rivers, and the earth
tlirown up by underground animals. Many of the vegetables within the influence of
such accidents are 'destroyed, but such as remain are ameliorated in quality, and the reason
is, tlieir food is increased, because their roots, being enabled to take a more extensive
range, more is brought within their reach.

1007. It is necessary, or at least advantageous, to supply food artificially ; and hence the
origin of manuring. All organised matters are capable of being converted into the food
of plants ; but tlie best manure for ameliorating the quality, and yet retaining the peculiar
chemical properties of plants, must necessarily be decayed plants of their own species.
It is true that plants do not differ greatly in their primarj- principles, and that a supply
of any description of putrescent manure will cause all plants to thrive ; but some plants,
as wheat, contain peculiar substances, (as gluten and phosphate of lime,) and some ma-
nures, as those of animals, or decayed wheat, containing the same substances, must neces-
sarily be a better food or manure for such plants. Manuring is an obvious' imitation of
nature, ever)- where observable by the decaj-ing herbage of herbaceous plants, or the fal-
len leaves of trees, rotting into dust or vegetable mould about tlieir roots ; and by the
effect of the dung left by pasturing or other animals.

1008. Amelioration of climate is farther advantageous, in improving the qualities of vege-
tables, by increasing or diminishing its temperature according to the nature of the plant ;
unless, indeed, it be situated in a climate which experience and observation show to be
exactly suited to its nature. Hence the origin of shelter and shade, by means of walls,
hedges, or strips of plantation ; of sloping surfaces or banks, to receive more directly or
indirectly the rays of the sun ; of soils better calculated to absorb and retain heat ; walls
fully exposed to the south, or to the north ; of training or spreading out the branches cf
trees on these walls ; of hot- walls ; of hot-beds ; and finally of all the variety of hot-houses.
Nature suggests this part of culture, by presenting, in every country, different degrees of
shelter, shade, and surface, and in every zone different climates.

1009. The regidation of moisture is the next point demanding attention ; for when the
soil is pulverised, it is more easily dried by the penetration of the air ; when an increase
of food is supplied, the medium through wliich that food is taken up by the plant should
be increased; and when the temperature is increased, evaporation becomes greater.
Hence the origin of watering by surface or subterraneous irrigation, manual supplies to
the root, showering over the leaves, steaming the surrounding atmosphere, &c. Tliis is
only to imitate the dews and showers, streams and floods of nature ; and it is to be re-
gretted that the imitation is in most countries attended with so much labor, and requires
so much nicety in the arrangement of the means, and judgment in the application of the
water, that it is but very partially applied by man in every part of the world, excepting
perhaps a small district of Italy. But moisture may be excessive ; and on certain soils at
certain seasons, and on certain productions at particular periods of their progress, it may
be necessary to carry off a great part of the natural moisture, rather than let it sink into
the earth, or draw it off where it has sunk in and injuriously accumulated, or prevent its
falling on the crop at all ; and hence the origin of surface-drainage by ridges, and of un-
der-di-aining by covered conduits, or gutters ; and of awnings and other covers to keep off
the rain or dews from ripe fruits, seeds, or rare flowers.

1010. The regzilation of light is the remaining point. Light sometimes requires to be ex-
cluded and sometimes to be increased, in order to improve the qualities of vegetables ;
and hence the origin of thinning the leaves which overshadow fruits and flowers, the
practice of shading cuttings, seeds, &c., and the practice of blanching. The latter
practice is derived from accidents observable among vegetables in a wild state, and its in-
fluence on their quality- is physiologically accounted for by the obstruction of perspiration,
and the prevention of the chemical changes effected by light on the epidermis.

1011. Increasing the viagnitxide of vegetables, without reference to their quality, is to be
obtained by an increased supply of all the ingredients of food, distributed in such a body
of well pulverised soil as the roots can reach to ; of heat and moisture ; of a partial ex-
clusion of the direct rays of the sun, so as to moderate perspiration ; and of wind, so as to
prevent sudden desiccation. But experience alone can determine what plants are best
suited for this, and to what extent the practice can be carried. Nature gives the hint in

P 4

216 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

the occasional luxuriance of plants accidentally placed in favorable circumstances, and
man adopts it, and improving on it, produces cabbages and turnips of half a cwt. ; apples
of one pound and a half ; and cabbage-roses of four inches in diameter ; productions
which may in some respects be considered as diseased.

1012. To increase the number, improve the quality, and increase the magnitude of parti-
cular parts of vegetables. It is necessary, in this case, to remove such parts of the vegeta-
ble as are not wanted, as the blooms of bulbous ^r tuberous rooted plants, when the bulbs
are to be increased, and the contrary ; the water-shoots and leaf-buds of fruit-trees ; the
flower-stems of tobacco ; the male flowers and barren runners of the cucumis tribe, &c.
Hence the important operations of pruning, ringing, cutting off large roots, and other
practices for improving fruits and throwing trees into a bearing state. At first sight these
practices do not appear to be copied from nature ; but, independently of accidents by fire,
already mentioned, which both prune and manure, and of fruit-bearing trees, say thorns
or oaks, partially blown out by the roots, or washed out of the soil by torrents, which
always beai* better afterwards, why may not the necessity that man was under, in a pri-
mitive state of society, of cutting or breaking off* branches of trees, to form huts, fences,
or fires, and the consequent vigorous shoots produced from the parts where the amputa-
tion took place, or the larger fruit on that part of the tree wliich remained, have given the
first idea of pruning, cutting off" roots, &c. It may be said that this is not nature but art j
but man, though an improving animal, is still in a state of nature, and all his practices,
in every stage of civilisation, are as natural to him as those of the other animals are to
them. Cottages and palaces are as much natural objects as the nests of birds, or the
burrows of quadrupeds ; and all the laws and institutions by which social man is guided
in his morals and politics, are no more artificial than the instinct which congregates sheep
and cattle in flocks and herds, and guides them in their choice of pasturage and shelter.

1013. To form new varieties of vegetables, as well as of flowers and useful plants of
every description, it is necessary to take advantage of their sexual differences, and to
operate in a manner analogous to crossing the breed in animals. Hence the origin of
new sorts of fruits. Even tliis practice is but an imitation of what takes place in nature
by the agency of bees and other insects, and the wind ; all the difference is, that man ope-
rates with a particular end in view, and selects individuals possessing the particular
properties which he wishes to perpetuate or improve. New varieties, or rather subvarieties,
are formed by altering the habits of plants ; by dwarfing through want of nourishment ;
variegating by arenarious soils ; giving or ratlier continuing peculiar habits when
formed by nature, as in propagating from monstrosities — fasciculi of shoots, weeping
shoots, shoots witli peculiar leaves, flowers, fruit, &c.

1014. To propagate and preserve fro?n degeneracy approved varieties of vegetables, it is in
general necessary to have recourse to the different modes of propagating by extension.
Thus choice apples and tree fruits are preserved and multiplied by grafting ; others, as the
pine-apple by cuttings or suckers ; choice carnations by layers, potatoes by cuttings of the
tubers, &c. But approved varieties of annuals are in general multiplied and preserved by
selecting seed from the finest specimens and paying particular attention to supply suitable
culture. This part of culture is the farthest removed from nature ; yet there are not-
witlistanding examples of the fortuitous graft ; of accidental layers ; of leaves, or de-
tached portions, forming natural cuttings, (as of the cardamine hirsuta,) dropping and
taking root.

1015. The preservation of vegetables for future use is effected by destroying or render-
ing dormant the principle of life, and by warding off", as far as practicable, the progress
of chemical decomposition. Hence some vegetables are dried, and either their herbs, or
roots, or fruits ; others are placed beyond the reach of the active principles of vegetation,
heat, and moisture, as seeds, cuttings, scions, roots, and fruits ; and some are, in addi-
tion, even excluded from air, or placed in very low temperatures. The origin of these
practices are all obvious imitations of what accidentally takes place in nature, from the
withered grassy tressock to the hedgehog's winter store ; and hence the origin of herb,
seed, fruit, and root rooms and cellars, and packing plants and seeds for sending to a
distance.

1016. T/ie whole of gardening, as an art of culture, is but a varied developement of the
above fundamental practices, all founded in nature, and for the most part rationally and sa-
tisfactorily explained on chemical and physiological principles. Hence tlie great necessity
of the study of botany to the cultivator, not in the limited sense in which the term is often
taken as including mere nomenclature and classification, but in that extended signification
in which we have here endeavored, proportionately to our limited space, to present the
study of the vegetable kingdom. Those who would enter more minutely into the subject
■will have recourse to the excellent work of Keith, from whom we have quoted at such
length ; to Sir J. E. Smith's Introduction ,• and to the elementary works of Willdenow
and De Candolle.

Book II. NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE CULTURE. 217

BOOK IL

OP THE NATURAL AGENTS OF VEGETABLE GROWTH AND CULTURE.

1017. Tlie phEenomena of vegetation being examined, and the fact ascertained that plants
derive their nourishment from the external elements of matter : the next step in the study
of the science of gardening is to enquire into the coinjmsition and nature of material bodies,
and the laws of their changes. The earthy matters wliich compose the surface of the earth,
tlie air and light of the atmosphere, the water precipitated from it, the heat or cold pro-
duced by the alternation of day and night, and by chemical composition and resolution,
must include all the elements concerned in vegetation. These elements have all been
necessarily brought into notice in the study of the vegetable kingdom ; but we shall now
examine more minutely tiieir properties, in so far as they are connected with cultivation.
To study them completely, reference must be had to systems of chemistry and mechanical
philosophy, of which those of Dr: Thomson (Si/stem of Chemistry,) and Dr. Young
{^Lectures on Mechanical PhUosojihi/,) may be especially recommended.

Chap. I.

Of Earths and Soils.

1018. Earths are tlie jrroductions of the rocks which are exposed on the surface of the
globe, and soils are earths mixed ivith more or less of the decomposed organised matter
afforded by dead j)lants and animals. Earths and soils, therefore, must be as various as
the rocks which produce them, and hence to understand their nature and formation it is
necess^rj' to begin by considering the geological structure of the territorial surface, and
the manner in Hvhich earths and soils are produced ; and we shall next consider in suc-
cession the nomenclature, quality, use, and improvement of soils.

Sect. I. Of the Geological Structure of the Globe and the Formation of Earths and SoilSm

1019. The crust, or under surface of the earth, is considered by geologists as presenting
four distinct series of rocky substances ; tiie first, supposed to be coeval with the world,
are called primitive, and consist cliiefly of granite and marble, below which man has not
yet penetrated. The second series, called by the Wemerians transition-rocks, are of more
recent formation, and seem to have resulted from some great catastrophe, (probably that
to which history gives the name of deluge,) tearing up and modifying the former order
of things. Clay-slate is one of the principal rocks of this class, and next limestone,
sandstone, and trap or whinstone. The third series are called secondary rocks, and
seem to owe their formation to partial or local revolutions, as indicated by their compa-
ratively soft and fragile structure, superincumbent situation, and nearly horizontal position.
They are chiefly limestones, sandstones, and conglomerations of fragments of other rocks,
as plum-pudding-stone, &c. and appear rather as mechanical deposits from water than
as chemical compounds from fusion or solution. A fourth stratum consists of alluvial or
earthy depositions from water, in the form chiefly of immense beds of clays, marls, or
sands. These strata are far from being regular in any one circumstance ; sometimes one
or more of the strata are wanting, at other times the order of their disposition seems par-
tially inverted ; their continuity of surface is continually interrupted, so that a section of
the earth almost every where exhibits only confusion and disorder to persons who have not
made geology more or less their study.

1020. The siiccessio7i of alluvial, secondary, transition, and jrrimary strata, in England,
has been illustrated by Professor Brande (^Outlines of Geology), by two sections, supposed
to be taken through tiiem.

1 02 1 . Thefrst section (Jig. 72. ) commences with the blue clay of London ( 1 ), and pro-
ceeding westward through the counties of Berkshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorsetshire,
and Devonsliire, terminates at the Land's End, in Cornwall. The rocks and eartlis pre-
sented in this line are, the Windsor alluvion (2), Hampsliire and Salisbury chalk (3),
allu\'ion (4), sandstone (5), alluvion (6), Sherborne freestone (7), sandstone (8), blue
lias limestone (9), Blackdown sandstone (10), Devonshire red sandstone (11), mountain
limestone (12), Daitmoor slate (13), granite (14), slate again (15), greenstone (16),
i cmwall serpentine (17), slate killas (18), Cornwall granite (19), slate killas (20), and
finally, Cornwall granite.

72

218 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

1022. T/ie second section (Jig. 73.) commences with the coal strata, and h'mestone
resting upon slate and granite in Cumberland, and thence proceeds towards the metropolis
by Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Bedfordsliire, and Hert-
fordshire. The passage is here exhibited from the primary rocks of Cumberland to the
secondary hills of the southern counties. It shows the Cumberland coal (a), limestone
and slate (6), the Mossdale granite (c), slate (rf), grauwacke (e), Ribblesdale Umestone
(/)> gritstone (g), Ashton coal (A), Derby limestone (i), Derby toadstone (A-), gritstone
(0> gypsum (j7i), sandstone (n), limestone (o), Charnwood slate (;;), Mountsorrel
granite (q), red sandstone (r), lias limestone (5), Northampton oolite or freestone (t),
Woburn sand (w), Dunstable chalk (v), and terminates in the London clay (w), with
which the first section sets out.

1023. The surface earth, or that which forms the outer coating of the dry parts of the
glob'e, is formed by the detritus or worn off parts of rocks and rocky substances. For
in some places, as in chasms and vacuities between rocky layers or masses, earth occupies
many feet in depth, and in others, as on the summits of chalk hills or granite mountains,
it hardly covers the surface.

1024. Earths are, therefore, variously/ composed, according to the rocks or strata which
have supplied their particles. Sometimes they are chiefly formed from slate-rocks, as in
blue clays ; at other times from sandstone, as in siliceous soils ; and mostly of a mixture of
clayey, slaty, and limestone rocks, blended in proportions as various as their situations.
Such we may suppose to have been the state of the surface of the dry part of the globe
immediately after the last disruption of its crust ; but in process of time the decay of ve-
getables and animals form additions to the outer surface of the earths, and constitute what
are called soils ; the difference between which and earths is, that the former always contain
a portion of vegetable or animal matter.

1025. IVie manner in which rocks are converted into soils. Sir H. Davy observes (Elem.
of jdgric. Chem. 188.), may be easily conceived by referring to the instance of soft
granite, or porcelain granite. This substance consists of three ingredients, quartz, feldspar,
and mica. The quartz is almost pure siliceous earth in a crystalline form. The feld-
spar and mica are very compounded substances ; both contain silica, alumina, and oxide
of iron ; in the feldspar there is usually lime and potassa ; in the mica, lime and mag-
nesia. When a granitic rock of this kind has been long exposed to the influence of air
and water, the lime and the potassa contained in its constituent parts are acted upon by
water or carbonic acid ; and the oxide of iron, wliich is almost always in its least oxidised
state, tends to combine witli more oxygen ; the consequence is, that the feldspar decom-
poses, and likewise the mica; but the first the most rapidly. The feldspar, which is as it
were the cement of the stone, forms a fine clay : the mica partially decomposed mixes
with it as sand ; and the undecomposed quartz appears as gravel, or sand of diflferent de-
grees of fineness. As soon as the smallest layer of earth is formed on the surface of a
rock, the seeds of lichens, mosses, and other imperfect vegetables which are constantly
floating in the atmosphere, and which have made it their resting-place, begin to vegetate ;
their death, decomposition, and decay afford a certain quantity of organisable matter,
which mixes with the earthy materials of the rock ; in this improved soil more perfect
plants are capable of subsisting ; these in their turn absorb nourishment from water and
the atmosphere ; and, after perishing, afford new materials to those already provided : the
decomposition of the rock still continues ; and at length, by such slow and gradual pro-
cesses, a soil is formed in which even forest-trees can fix their roots, and which is fitted to
reward the labors of the cultivator.

1026. The formation of peaty soils is produced from very opposite causes, and it is interesting to contem-
plate how the same effect may be produced by different means, and the earth which supplies almost all
our wants may become barren alike from the excessive application of art, or the utter neglect of it. Con-
tinual pulverisation and cropping, without manuring, will certainly produce a hungry barren soil ; and
the total neglect of fertile tracts will, from their accumulated vegetable products, produce peat soils, and
bogs. Where successive generations of vegetables have grown upon a soil. Sir H. Davy observes, unless
part of their produce has been carried off by man, or consumed by animals, the vegetable matter increases
in such a proportion, that the soil approaches to a peat in its nature ; and if in a situation where it can
receive water from a higher district, it becomes spongy, and permeated with that fluid, and is gradually
rendered incapable of supporting the nobler classes of vegetables. Many peat-mosses seem to have been
formed by the destruction of forests, in consequence of the imprudent use of the hatchet by the early cul-
tivators of the country in which they exist : when the trees are felled in the outskirts of a wood, those in
the interior are exposed to the influence of the winds ; having been accustomed to shelter, they become
unhealthy, and die in their new situation ; and their leaves and branches gradually decomposing, produce
a stratum of vegetable matter. In many of the great bogs in Ireland and Scotland, the larger trees that

Book II. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 219

are found In the ouukirts of them, bear the marks of having been feUed. In the interior, few entire trees
are found ; and the cause is, probably, that they fell by gradual decay ; and that the fermentation and
decomposition of the vegetable matter was the most rapid where it was m the greatest quantity.

1027. Spurious peaty soil. Lakes and pools of water are sometimes filled up by the accumulation of
the remains of aquatic planU ; and in this case a sort of spurious peat is formed. The fermentation in
these cases, however, seems to be of a different kind. Much more gaseous matter is evolved ; and the
neighbourhood of morasses, in which aquatic vegetables decompose, is usually aguish and unhealthy j
whilst that of the true peat, or peat formed on soils originally dry, is always salubrious.

1028 Soils may generally be distinguished from mere tnasses of earth by their friable texture, darX
color, and by the presence of some vegetable fibre or carbonaceous matter. In uncultivated grounds, soils
occupy only a few inches in depth on the surface, unless in crevices, where they had been washed in by
rains ; and in cultivated soils their depth is generally the same as that to which the implements used in
cultivation have penetrated. ..i ,.u r> ^u

ll>29. Much has been written on soUs, and till lately, to very little purpose. All the Roman authors on
husbandry treated the subject at length ; and in modem times, in this countrj', copious philosophical dis-
courses on soils were published by Bacon, Evelyn, Bradley and others ; but it may be truly said, that in
no department of cultivation was ever so much written of which so little use could be made by practical
men One reason for this failure is, that some of the principal effects of operations on soils are chemical,
and chemistry, till within the last fortv vears, could hardly be considered an inductive science. In so Httle
esteem was it held in Evelyn's time, that he ranks it with astrology, and considers the term as synonymous
with alchemv. {Terra, p. 4. and Memoirs, &c.i.) Jethro Tull, about 60 years after the publication of
Evelyn's Terra, published a svstem of culture, in which every thing was referred to mechanical division ;
but though he referred to this theory the beneficial influence of some excellent practices, yet neither
gained ground at the time The first attempt to treat of soils chemically, was made by Kirwan about
1780, the next by Lord Dundonald in 1795, and then followed Dr. Darwin's Phytologia in 1800, and
lastly. Sir H. Daw's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry in 1802. It is from the last edition (in_1821)
of that valuable work, that we shall chiefly make our selections.

Sect. II. Clamjication and Nomenclature of Soils.

1030. Systematic order and an agreed nomenclature are as necessary in the study of soils
as of plants or animals. The number of provincial terms for soils which have found
their way into the books on cultivation, is one reason why so little use can be made of
their directions.

1031. A correct classification of soils may be founded on the presence or absence of
organic and inorganic matter in tlieir basis. This will form two grand classes, viz.
primitive soUs, or those composed entirely of inorganic matter, and secondary soils, or
those composed of organic and inorganic matter in mixtures. These classes may be
subdivided into orders founded on the presence or absence of saline, metallic, and car-
bonic matter. The orders may be subdivided into genera founded on the prevailing
eartlis, salts, metals, or carbon ; tlie genera into species founded on their different mix-
tures ; the species into varieties founded on color, texture ; and sub-varieties founded on
moisture, dryness, richness, lightness, &c.

1032. In naming the genera of soils, tlie first thing is to discover the prevailing earth or
earths ; either the simple earths, as clay, lime, sand, or the particular rocks from which
the soil has been produced, as granite, basalt, &c. When one earth prevails, the generic
name should be taken from that earth, as clayey soil, calcareous soil, &c. ; when two
prevail to all appearance equally, then their names must be conjoined in naming the
genus, as clay and sand, lime and clay, basalt and sand, &c. The great thing is precision
in applying the terms. Thus, as Sir H. Davy has observed, the term sandy soil should
never be applied to any soil that does not contain at least seven eighths of sand ; sandy
soils that eflfervesce with acids should be distinguished by the name of calcareous
sandy soil, to distinguish them from those that are siliceous. The term clayey soil
should not be appUed to any land which contains less tlian one sixth of impalpable
eartliy matter, not considerably effer\escing with acids ; the word loam should be limited
to soils, containing at least one third of impalpable earthy matter, copiously effervescing
with acids. A soil to be considered as peaty, ought to contain at least one half of
vegetable matter. In cases where the earthy part of a soil evidently consists of the de-
composed matter of one particular rock, a name derived from the rock may witli pro-
priety be applied to it. Thus, if a fine red earth be found immediately above decom-
posing basalt, it may be denominated basaltic soil. If fragments of quartz and mica be
found abundant in the materials of the soil, which is often the case, it may be
denominated granitic soil; and the same principles may be applied to other like instances.
In general, the soils, the materials of which are the most various and heterogeneous, are
those called alluvial, or which have been formed from the depositions of rivers ; and
these deposits may be designated as siliceous, calcareous, or argillaceous ; and in some
cases tlie term saline may be added as a specific distinction, applicable, for example, at
the embouchure of rivers, where their alluvial remains are overflown by the sea.

1033. In naming the species of soils, greater nicety is required to determine distinctions,
than in naming the genera ; and there is also some diflBcidty in applying or devising
proper terms. The species are always determined by tlie mixture of matters, and never
by tlie color or texture of that mixture which belongs to the nomenclature of varieties.
Thus a clayey soil with sand is a sandy clay, this is the name of the species ; if the
mass is yellow, and it is thought worth while to notice that circumstance, then it is
a yellow sandy clay, which expresses at once the genus, species, and variety. A soil con-

220

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

taining equal parts of clay, lime, and sand, would, as a generic term, be called clay,
lime, and sand; if it contained no other mixture in considerable quantity, the term
entire, might be added as a specific distinction ; and if notice was to be taken of its color
or degree of comminution, it might be termed a brown, a fine, a coarse, a stiflP, or a free
entire clay, lime, and sand.

1034. The following Table enumerates the more common genera, sjiecies, and varieties oj
soils. The application of the terms will be understood by every cultivator, though to
attempt to describe the soils either chemically, or empirically (as by sight, smell, or touch),
would be a useless waste of time. From a very little experience in the field or garden,
more may be gained in the study of soils, than from a volume of such descriptions. This
table corresponds with the nomenclature adopted in the agricultural establishments
of Fellenberg at Hofwyl in Switzerland, of Professor Thaer at Moegelin in Prussia, of
Professor Thouin in his lectures at Paris, and in general with that of all the
continental professors. It is therefore very desirable that it should become as generally
adopted as that of the Linnaean system in botany. The principle of the table may be
extended so as to include any other soil whatever.

Primitive
Soils.

rClay

j Lime
LSand

[Clay

Secondary
Soils.

Earths and Salts
or Metals < Lime

Clay

Earths and or-
ganic remains

Earths with or-
ganic remans,
metals, salts,

. and rocks.

Clay •

Schist -
Sandstone

•I

Speciet.

Entire

Entire
"Ferrugineous -

Cupreous

|_Saline ...
"Ferrugineous -
, Cupreous . . •
I. Saline

"Ferrugineous -
, Cupreous ...
.Saline

Loamy ...

Peaty ....

Mouldy ...

Limy ...

Sandy -

Clayey - - .

Loamy . .

Sandy . . .

Peaty ...

Mouldy . . -

''Clayey

Loamy . . .

Limy -

Peaty . - .

Mouldy . .
rFerrugineous, loamy ,&c.

Ferrugineous, limy, &c.

Ferrugineous, sandy ,&c.

Ferrugineous, peaty, &c.

Ferrugineous,mouldy&c

Cupreous, loany, &c.

Saline, loamy, &c. .
-Cinereous, loamy, &c.
'Ferrugineous, loamy ,&c.

Ferrugineous, sandv,&c.

Cupreous, loamy, &;c.

Cupreous, saiidv, &c.

Saline, loamy, &c. -

Saline, sandy, &c.

Cinereous, loamy, &c.

Cinereous, limy, &c.

Ferrugineous, loamy ,&c.

Ferrugineous, limy, &c.

Cupreous, loamy, &c.

Cupreous, limy, &c.

Saline, loamy, &c. .

Saline, limy, &c. . -

Cinereous, loamy, &c.

Cinereous, limy, &c.

Ferrugineous, See. .

Quartzose, &c.

Ferrugineous, &c. •

Columnar, &c.

Whinstone, &c.

Ferrugineous, &c. .

Micaceous, &c.

Chlorite, &c. .

Ferrugineous, &c. -

Calcareous, &c.

Argillaceous, &c.

Cupreous, &c. -

Chalky, &c.

Marble, &c.

Shelly, &c. . - -

Magnesian, &c.

Sulphuric, &c. • -

Ferrugineous, &c. -

Cupreous, &c. .

Argillaceous, &c.

Siliceous, &c. -

Slaty, &c. -

Pyritic, &c.

Stony, &c.

Woody, &c .

Vandy.

Yellow

Coarse

[Fine

Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, &c.
Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, &c.
Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, &c.
Black, red, &c. - - - -
Black, red, &c. - - . -

Black, red

Black, red

Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, &c.
Black, red, yellow, coarse, fine, &c.

Black

Black

Black, red, yellow, &c. ...
Black, red, yellow, &c. ...

Black

Black

Black

Black, red, yellow, &c. • - .

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black .....

Black

Black

Black

Black

Black, red, yellow, &c. ...

Black

Black, red, yellow, &c.

Black ....

Black ....

Black, red, yellow, &c.

Black

Black

Black, &c

Black

Black

Black ....

Black, red, &c. - . - -

Black

Black -

Black . . . -

Black

Black

Black .....

Black

Black

Black, red, yellow, &c. . . -

Black

Black .-..-..
Black - . ...

TMoist
Dry.
-(Rich.
IPoor.
LSterile.
Moist, dry J
Moist, dry J
Moist, dry,
Moist, dry,
Moist, dry.
Moist, dry.
Moist, dry.
Moist, dry.
Moist, dry.
Moist, dry.
Moist, djy.
Moist, dry.
Moist, dry.
Moist.
Moist, dry.
Moist, dry.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, dry.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist. ■
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Aloist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, dry.
Moist.
Moist, dry.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, &c.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, &c.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, dry,
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.
Moist, dry,
Moist.
Moist.
Moist.

&c.

&c.

&c.

&c.

rich,&c.

&c.

&c.

&c,

&c.

&c.

&c.

rich, &c.

rich, &c.

rich, &e.

Book II. ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 221

Sect. III. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils.

1035. The value of soUs to the cultivator, is discoverable botanically, chemically, and
mechanically ; that is, by the plants that grow on them naturally; by chemical analysas ;
and by exterior and interior inspection or liandling.

SuBSECT. 1. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by means of tfie Plants which grow

on them.

1036. Plants are tlie most certain indicators of the nature of a soil; for while no prac-
tical cultivator would engage with land of which he knew only the results of a chemical
analysis, or examined by the sight and touch a few bushels which were brought to him,
yet every gardener or farmer, who knew the sort of plants it produced, would be at
once able to decide as to its value for cultivation.

1037. The leading soils for the cultivator are the clayey, calcareous, sandy, femigineous,
peaty, saline, moist or aquatic, and dry. The following are the plants by which such
soils are distinguished in most parts of Europe : —

Argillaceous. Tussilago farfara, Potentilla anserina, argentea, and reptans. Tha-
lictrum flavum, Carex, many species. Juncus, various species. Orobus tuberosus,
Lotus major, and corniculatus. Saponaria officinalis. But the Tussilago farfara is
a certain and universal sign of an argillaceous soil, and is tlie chief plant found on the
alum grounds of Britain, France, and Italy. ~ . , j

Calcareous. Veronica spicata, Galium pusillum, Lithospennum officinale, and pur-
puro-c«ruleum. Campanula glomerata, and hybrida. Phyteuma orbicularis, Verbas-
cum lychnitis. Viburnum lantana, Berberis vulgaris, Cistus helianthemum, Anemone
Pulsatilla, Clematis vitalba, Hedysarum onobrj'chis.

Siliceous. Veronica triphylla, and verna. Echium italicum, Herniaria glabra, and
hirsuta. Silene anglica and other species. Arenaria rubra, &c. Spergula arvensis,
Papaver hybridum, Argemone, &c.

perrugineous. Rumex acetosa, and acetoeella.

Pealy. Vaccinium myrtillus, uliginosum, and oxycoccus. Erica 4 sp. Spergula
subulata. Tormentilla officinalis.

Saline. Salicornia 4 species. Zostera marina, Ruppia maritima, Pulmonaria mari-
tima. Convolvulus soldanella, lllecebrum verticillatum, Chenopodium maritimum,
Salsola kali, and fruticosa. Sium verticillatum. Arenaria • maritima, &c. Atriplex
laciniata.

Aquatic. Caltha palustris, Hippuris vulgaris. Pinguicula vulgaris, Lycopus euro-
peus, Valeriana dioica, Viola palustris, Sainolus valerandi, Selinum palustre, Epilobiura
tetragonum, Lythrum salicaria, Ranunculus lingua, and flammula.

Very dry. Arenaria rubra, Rumex acetosella. Thymus Serpyllum, Acinos vulgaris,
Trifolium arvense.

1038. These plants are not absolutely to be dejwnded on, however, even in Britain ;
and in other countries they are sometimes found in soils directly opposite. Still,
the saintfoin is almost always an indication of a calcareous soil ; the common coltsfoot
(^Tussilago farfara), of blue clay ; the arenaria rubra, of poor sand ; tlie small wood-
sorrel, of the presence of iron. The aquatic, peaty, and saline soils are almost every
where indicated by their appropriate plants ; a proof, as we have before stated, that tlie
climate and natural irrigation of plants have much more influence on their habits than
mere soil. (See the Slaliones Plantarum of lAn. and the Flore Franfaise of De
Candolle ; Galpine's Compendium Ft. Brit. ; Smith's Flora Brit. ; Kent's Hints j and
Farmers' Mag. Feb. 1819.)

SuBSECT. 2. Of discovering the Qualities of Soils by cliemical Analysis.

1039. Chemical analysis is much too nice an operation for general purposes. It is not
likely that many practical cultivators will ever be able to conduct the analytic
process with sufficient accuracy, to enable them to depend on the result. But still such
a knowledge of chemistry as shall enable the cultivator to understand the nature of the
process and its results, when made and presented to him by others, is calculated
to be highly useful, and ought to be acquired by every man whose object is to join theo-
retical to practical knowledge. If it so happens that he can perform the operations
of analysis himself, so much the better, as far as that point is concerned ; but
on the whole, such knowledge and adroitness is not to be expected from men who have
so many other points demanding their attention, and who will, therefore, effect their pur-
pose much better by collecting proper specimens of the soils to be studied, and sending
them for analysis to a respectable operative chemist.

1040. In selecting specimens, where the general nature of the soil of a field is to be

«22 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

ascertained, portions of it should be taken from different places, two or three inches below
the surface, and examined as to the similarity of their properties. It sometimes happens,
that upon plains, the whole of the upper stratum of the land is of the same kind, and in
this case, one analysis will be sufficient ; but in valleys, and near the beds of rivers, there
are very great differences, and it now and then occurs that one part of a field is calcareous,
and another part siliceous ; and in this case, and in analogous cases, the portions different
from each other should be separately submitted to experiment. Soils, when col-
lected, if they cannot be immediately examined, should be preserved in phials quite
filled with them, and closed with ground glass stoppers. The quantity of soil most
convenient for a perfect analysis is from two to four hundred grains. It should
be collected in dry weather, and exposed to the atmosphere till it becomes dry to tli'e
touch.

1041. The soil best suited for culture, according to the analysis of Bergman, contains four
parts of clay, three of sand, two of calcareous earth, and one of magnesia : and, accord-
ing to the analysis of Fourcroy and Hassenfratz, 9216 parts of fertile soil contained 305
parts of carbon, together with 279 parts of oil ; of which, according to the calculations
of Lavoisier, 220 parts may be regarded as carbon : so that the whole of the carbon
contained in the soil in question may be estimated at about 525 parts, exclusive of the
roots of vegetables, or to about one sixteenth of its weight. Young observed that equal
weights of different soils, when dried and reduced to powder, yielded by distillation
quantities of air somewhat corresponding to the ratio of their values. The air was a
mixture of fixed and inflammable airs, proceeding probably from decomposition of the
water ; but, partly, it may be presumed, from its capacity of abstracting a portion of air
from the atmosphere, which the soil at least is capable of doing. The following is the
analysis of a fertile soil, as occurring in the neighbourhood of Bristol : — In 400 grains,
there were of water, 52 ; siliceous sand, 240 ; vegetable fibre, 5 ; vegetable extract, 3 ;
alumine, 48; magnesia, 2; oxide of iron, 14; calcareous earth, 30; loss, 6. But
Kirwan has shown in his Geological Essays, that the fertility of a soil depends in
a great measure upon its capacity for retaining water : and if so, soils containing the
same ingredients must be also equally fertile, all other circumstances being the same ;
though it is plain that their actual fertility will depend ultimately upon the quantity
of rain that falls, because the quantity suited to a wet soil cannot be the same that is
suited to a dry soil. And hence it often happens tliat the ingredients of tlie soil do not
correspond to the character of the climate. Silica exists in the soil under the modifi-
cation of sand, and alumine under the modification of clay. But the one or the other
is often to be met with in excess or defect. Soils in which the sand preponderates retain
the least moisture ; and soils in which tlie clay preponderates retain the most : the former
are dry soils, the latter are wet soils. But it may happen that neither of them is suffi-
ciently favorable to culture ; in which case, their peculiar defect or excess must.be
supplied or retrenched before they can be brought to a state of fertility.

1042. Use of the result of analysis. In the present state of chemical science. Dr. Ure
observes, no certain system can be devised for the improvement of lands, independently of
experiment ; but there are few cases in which the labor of analytical trials will not be amply
repaid by the certainty with which they denote the best methods of melioration ; and
this will particularly happen, when the defect of composition is found in the proportions
of the primitive earths. In supplying organic matter, a temporary food only is provided
for plants, which is in all cases exhausted by means of a certain number of crops ; but
when a soil is rendered of the best possible constitution and texture, with regard to its
earthy parts, its fertility may be considered as permanently established. It becomes
capable of attracting a very large portion of vegetable nourishment from the atmosphere,
and of producing its crops with comparatively little labor and expense. (JDict. of Chem,
art. Soil)

SoBSECT. 3. Of discovering the Qualities of a Soil mechanically and empirically.

1043. The physical jyroperties of soils, and some of their most important constituents
relatively to the cultivator, may be ascertained to a certain extent by various and very
simple means.

1044. Tlie specific gravity of a soil, or the relation of its weight to that of water, may be
ascertained by introducing into a phial, which will contain a known quantity of water,
equal volumes of water and of soil, and this may be easily done by pouring in water
till it is half full, and then adding the soil till the fluid rises to the mouth ; the differ-
ence between the weight of the soil and that of the water, will give the result. Thus
if the bottle contains four hundred grains of water, and gains two hundred grains when
half filled with water and half with soil, the specific gravity of the soil will be 2, that is,
it will be twice as heavy as water, and if it gained one hundred and sixty-five grains,
its specific gravity would be 1825, water being 1000.

Book II. ,USES OF SOIL TO VEGETABLES. 223

1045. The presence of clay and sand in any soil is known, the first by its tenacity, the
other by its roughness to Uie touch, and by scratching glass when rubbed on it.

1046. The presence of calcareous matter in soil may be ascertained by simply pounng
any acid on it, and observing if it effervesces freely. Calcareous soils are also softer to
the touch than any other. ., , . •, ■ ^ •,

1047. The presence of organised matter in any soil may be ascertained very satisfactorily
by weighing it after being thoroughly dried j then subjecting it to a red heat, and weigh-
in<r it acraiiT, Uie weight last found will be the proportion of organic matter, llie same
object may also be attained by ascertaining the specific gravity of the soil, but with
less accuracy. ,, . , i u • ^

1048. The presence of metallic oxides in a soil may generally be known by their color.
Ferrugineous soils, are red or yellow; cupreous soils, interspersed with greenish
streaks, &c.

1049. The presence of saUs, sulphur, coal, &c. may l)e known by the absence or
peculiarity of vegetation, as well as by color, and the appearance of the water of such

soils. • J A 1 •

1050. The capacity ofasoUfor retaining water may he thus ascertained. An equal portion
of two soils, perfectly dry, may be introduced into two tall glass cylindrical vessels,
rfig, 74.) in the middle of each of which a glass tube is pre-
viously placed. The soils should be put into each in the same "^^^^ Y4
manner, not compressed very hard, but so as to receive a so-
lidity approacliing to that which they possessed when first ob-
tained for trial. If, after this preparation, a quantity of water
be poured into the glass tubes, it will subside ; and the capillary
attraction of the soils will conduct it up the cylinders towards
the tops of the vessels. That which conducts it most rapidly, provided it does not rise
from the weight of the incumbent column of water in the tube, may be pronounced to
be the better soil. ( Grisenthwaite. )

Sect. IV. Of the Uses of the Soil to Vegetables.

1051. SoUs afford to plants a fixed abode and medium of nourishment. Earths, exclu-
sively of organised matter and water, are allowed by most physiologists, to be of no other
use to plants than that of supporting them, or furnishing a medium by which they may fix
themselves to the globe. But earths and organic matter, that is, soils, afford at once
support and food.

1052. The pure earths merely act as Tuechanical and indirect chemical agents in the soU.
The earths consist of metals united to oxygen, and these metals have not been decomposed ;
there is consequently no reason to suppose that the earths are convertible into the elements
of organised compounds, that is, into carbon, hydrogen, and azote. Plants have been
made to grow in given quantities of earth. They consume very small portions only ; and
what is lost may be accounted for by the quantities found in their ashes ; that is to say, it
has not been converted into any new products. The carbonic acid united to lime or mag-
nesia, if any stronger acid happens to be formed in the soil during the fermentation of
vegetable matter, which will disengage it from the earths, may be decomposed ; but the
earths themselves cannot be supposed convertible into other substances, by any process
taking place in the soil. In all cases the ashes of plants contain some of the earths of the
soil in which they grow ; but these earths, as has been ascertained from the ashes afforded
by different plants, never equal more than one fiftieth of the weight of the plant consumed.
If they be considered as necessary to the vegetable, it is as giving hardness and firmness
to its organisation. Thus, it has been mentioned that wheat, oats, and many of the hollow-
stalked grasses, have an epidermis principally of siliceous earth ; the use of which seems
to be to strengthen them, and defend them from the attacks of insects and parasitical
plants.

1053. The true nourishment of plants is water, and decomposing organic mMter ;
both these exist only in soils, not in pure earths ; but the earthy parts of the soils are
useful in retaining water, so as to supply it in the proper proportions to the roots of
the vegetables, and they are likewise efficacious in producing the proper distribution of
the animal or vegetable matter. When equally mixed with it tliey prevent it from
decomposing too rapidly ; and by their means the soluble parts are supplied in proper
proportions.

1054. The soil is necessary to the existence of plants, both as affording them nourishment,
and enabling them to fix themselves in such a manner as to obey those laws by which their
radicles are kept below the surface, and their leaves exposed to the free atmosphere. As
the systems of roots, branches, and leaves, are very different in different vegetables, so
they flourish most in different soils ; the plants that have bulbous roots require a looser
and a lighter soil than such as have fibrous roots ; and the plants possessing only short

224 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

fibrous radicles demand a firmer soil than such as have tap-roots or extensive lateral
roots.

1055. The constituent parts of the soil which give tenacity and coherence are the finely
divided matters ; and they possess the power of giving those qualities in the highest
degree when they contain much alumina. A small quantity of finely divided matter
is sufficient to fit a soil for the production of turnips and barley ; and a tolerable
crop of turnips has been produced on a soil containing 1 1 parts out of 1 2 sand. A much
greater proportion of sand, however, always produces absolute sterility. The soil of
Bagshot heath, which is entirely devoid of vegetable covering, contains less than one twen-
tieth of finely divided matter : 400 parts of it, which had been heated red, afforded 380
parts of coarse siliceous sand ; 9 parts of fine siliceous sand, and 1 1 parts of impalpable
matter, -which was a mixture of ferruginous clay with carbonate of lime. Vegetable or
animal matters, when finely divided, not only give coherence, but likewise softness and
penetrability ; but neither tiiey nor any other part of the soil must be in too great propor-
tion ; and a soil is unproductive if it consist entirely of impalpable matters. Pure alumina
or silica, pure carbonate of lime, or carbonate of magnesia, are incapable of supporting
healthy vegetation ; and no soil is fertile that contains as much as 19 parts out of 20 of
any of these constituents.

1056. A certain degree of friability or looseness of texture is also required in soils, in order
that the operations of culture may be easily conducted ; that moisture may have free
access to the fibres of the roots, that heat may be readily conveyed to them, and that eva-
poration may proceed without obstruction. These are commonly attained by the presence
of sand. As alumina possesses all the properties of adhesiveness in an eminent degree,
and silex those of friability, it is obvious that a mixture of those two earths, in suitable
proportions, would furnish every thing wanted to form the most perfect soil as to water
and the operations of culture. In a soil so copipounded, water will be presented to the
roots by capillary attraction. It will be suspended in it, in the same manner as it is sus-
pended in a sponge, not in a state of aggregation, but minute division, so that every part
may be said to be moist, but not wet ( Grisenthwaite. )

1057. The water chemically combined amongst the elements of soils, unless in the case of
the decomposition of animal or vegetable substances, cannot be absorbed by the roots of
plants ; but that adhering to the parts of the soil is in constant use in vegetation. Indeed
there are few mixtures of the earths found in soils .that contain any chemically combined
water ; water is expelled from the earth by most substances that combine with them.
Thus, if a combination of lime and water be exposed to carbonic acid, the carbonic acid
takes the place of water ; and compounds of alumina and silica, or other compounds of
the earths, do not chemically unite with water ; and soils, as it lias been stated, are formed
either by earthy carbonates, or compounds of the pure earths and metallic oxides. When
saline substances exist in soils, they may be united to water both chemically and me-
chanically ; but they ai-e always in too small a quantity to influence materially the rela-
tions of the soil to water.

1058. The j)ower of the soil to absorb ivater by cohesive attraction depends in great measure
upon the state of division of its parts ; the more divided they are, the greater is their ab-
so:be;it power. The different constituent parts of soils likewise appear to act, even by
cohesive attraction, with different degrees of energy. Thus vegetable substances seem to
be more absorbent than animal substances ; animal substances more so than compounds
of alumina and silica ; and compounds of alumina and silica more absorbent than car-
bonates of lime and magnesia : these differences may, however, possibly depend upon the
differences in their state of division, and upon the surface exposed.

1059. The power of soils to absorb water from air is much connected vdth fertility. Wlien
this power is great, the plant is supplied with moisture in dry seasons ; and the effect of
evaporation in the day is counteracted by the absorption of aqueous vapor from the atmo-
sphere, by the interior parts of the soil during the day, and by both the exterior and in-
terior during the night. The stiff clays approaching to pipe-clays in their nature, which
take up the greatest quantity of water when it is poured upon them in a fluid form, are
not the soils which absorb most moisture from the atmosphere in dry weather. They cake,
and present only a small surface to the air ; and the vegetation on them is generally burnt
up almost as readily as on sands. The soils that are most efficient in supplying the plant
with water by atmospheric absorption, are those in which there is a due mixture of sand,
finely divided clay, and carbonate of lime, with some animal o? vegetable matter, and
which are so loose and light as to be freely permeable to the atmosphere. With respect
to this quality, carbonate of lime, and animal and vegetable matter, are of great use in
soils ; they give absorbent power to the soil without giving it likewise tenacity ; sand,
which also destroys tenacity, on the contrary, gives little absorbent power. The absorbent
powers of soils, with respect to atmospheric moisture, is always greatest in the most fertile
soils ; so that it affords one method of judging of the productiveness of land.

Book II. USES OF SOIL TO VEGETABLES. 225

1060. As examples of the absorbent powers of soils : 1000 parts of a celebrated soil (Vom
Ormiston, in East Lothian, which contained more than half its weight of finely divided
matter, of which 1 1 parts were carbonate of lime, and 9 parts vegetable matter, when dried
at 212*', gained in an hour by exposure to air saturated with moisture, at a temperature
of 62°, 1 8 grains. 1000 parts of a very fertile soil from the banks of the river Parret, in
Somersetshire, under the same circumstances, gained 16 grains. 1000 parts of a soil
from Mersea, in Essex, gained 13 grains. 1000 grains of a fine sand^ from Essex,
gained 11 grains. 1000 of a coarse sand gained only 8 grains. 1000 of a soil of Bag-
shot heath gained only 3 grains.

1061. The absorbent powers of soils ought to vary with the climate in which they are si-
tuated. The absorption of moisture ought to be much greater in warm or dry countries,
tlian in cold and moist ones ; and the quantity of clay, or vegetable, or animal matter in
soils greater. Soils also on declivities ought to be more absorbent than in plains or in the
bottom of valleys. Their productiveness likewise is influenced by the nature of the sub-
soil, or the stratum on which they rest. VVhen soils are immediately situated upon a bed
of rock or stone, they are much sooner rendered dry by evaporation than where the sub-soil
is of clay or marl ; and a prime cause of the great fertility of the land in the moist climate
of Ireland, is the proximity of the rocky strata to the soil. A clayey sub-soil will some-
times be of material advantage to a sandy soil ; and in this case it will retain moisture in
such a manner as to be capable of supplying that lost by the earth above, in consequence
of evaporation or the consumption of it by plants. A sandy or gravelly sub-soil often
corrects the imperfections of too great a degree of absorbent power in the true soil. In
calcareous countries, where the surface is a species of marl, the soil is often found only
a few inches above tlie limestone ; and its fertility is not impaired by the proximity of the
rock ; though in a less absorbent soil, this situation would occasion barrenness ; and the
sandstone and limestone-hills in Derbyshire and North Wales, may be easily distinguished
at a distance, in summer, by the different tints of the vegetation. The grass on the
sandstone-hills usually appears brown and burnt up j that on the limestone-hills flourish-
ing and green.

1062. In a moist climate, where the quantity of rain that falls annually equals from 40
to 60 inches, as in Lancashire, Cornwall, and some parts of Ireland, a siliceous sandy soil
is much more productive than in dry districts ; and in such situations wheat and beans
will require a less coherent and absorbent soil than in drier situations ; and plants having
bulbous roots will flourish in a soil containing as much as 14 parts out of 15 of sand.
Even the exhausting powers of crops will be influenced by like circumstances. In cases
where plants cannot absorb suflScient moisture, they must take up more manure. And
in Ireland, Cornwall, and the western Highlands of Scotland, com will exhaust less than
in dry inland situations. Oats, particularly in dry climates, are impoverishing in a much
higher degree than in moist ones.

1063. Many soils are jwpularly distinguished as cold or hot ; and the distinction, though
at first view it may appear to be founded on prejudice, is really just. Some soils are
much more heated by the rays of the sun, all other circumstances being equal, than others ,
and soils brought to the same degree of heat, cool in different times, i. e. some cool much
faster than others. This property has been very little attended to in a philosophical point
of view ; yet it is of the highest importance in culture. In general, soils that consist
principally of a stiff white clay are difficultly heated ; and being usually very moist, they
retain their heat only for a short time. Chalks are similar in one respect, that they are
difficultly heated; but being drier they retain their heat longer, less being consumed in
causing the evaporation of their moisture. A black soil, containing much soft vegetable
matter, is most heated by the sun and air ; and the colored soils, and the soils containing
much carbonaceous matter, or ferruginous matter, exposed- under equal circumstances to
sun, acquire a much higher temperature than pale-colored soils.

1064. JFheti soils are j)erfectly dry^ those that most readily become heated by the solar rays,
likewise cool most rapidly ; but the darkest-colored dry soil, (that which contains abund-
ance of animal or vegetable matter ; substances which most facilitate the diminution of
temperature,) when heated to tlie same degree, provided it be within the common limits
of the effect of solar heat, will cool more slowly than a wet, pale soil, entirely composed of
earthy matter. Sir H. Davy " found that a rich black mould, which contained nearly
one fourth of vegetable matter, had its temperature increased ii» an hour from 65'^ to 88°
by exposure to sunshine ; whilst a chalk soil was heated only to 69° under the same cir-
cumstances. But the mould removed into the shade, where the temperature was 62°,
lost, in half an hour, 15° ; whereas the chalk, under the same circumstances, had lost only
4°. A brown fertile soil and a cold barren clay were each artificially heated to 88°,
having been previously dried ; they were then exposed in a temperature of 57° ; in half
an hour the dark soil was found to have lost 9° of heat ; the clay had lost only 6°. An
equal portion of tlie clay containing moisture, after being heated to 88°, was exposed in a
temperature of 55 ** ; in less than a quarter of an hour it was found to have gained th§

^Q6 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

temperature of the room. The soils in all these experiments were placed in small tin-
plate trays two inches square, and half an inch in depth ; and the temperature asc^tained
by a delicate thermometer. Thus the temperature of the surface, when bare and exposed
to the rays of the sun, affords at least one indication of the degrees of its fertility ; and
the thermometer may be sometimes a useful instrument to the purchaser or improver of
lands."

1065. The moisture in the soil and sub-soil materially/ affects its temperature, and prevents,
as in the case of constantly saturated aquatic soils, their ever attaining to any great degree
either of heat or cold. The same observation will apply to moist peaty soils, or peat-
bogs.

1066. Chemical agency of soils. Besides these uses of soils, which may be considered
mechanical, there is. Sir H. Davy observes, another agency between soils and or-
ganisable matters, which may be regarded as chemical in its nature. Tlie earths, and
even the earthy carbonates, have a certain degree of chemical attraction for many of the
principles of vegetable and animal substances. This is easily exemplified in the instance
of alumina and oil ; if an acid solution of alumina be mixed with a solution of soap,
which consists of oily matter and potassa, the oil and the alumina will unite and form a
white powder, which will sink to the bottom of the fluid. The extract from decomposing
vegetable matter, when boiled with pipe-clay or chalk, forms a combination by which the
vegetable matter is rendered more difficult of decomposition and of solution. Pure silica
and siliceous sands have little action of this kind ; and the soils which contain the most
alumina and carbonate of lime, are those which act with the greatest chemical energy in
preserving manures. Such soils merit the appellation, which is commonly given to them, of
rich soils ; for the vegetable nourishment is long preserved in them, unless taken up by
the organs of plants. Siliceous sands, on the contrary, deserve the term hungry, which
is commonly applied to them ; for the vegetable and animal matters they contain, not
being attracted by the earthy constituent parts of the soil, are more liable to be decom-
posed by the action of the atmosphere, or carried off from them by water. In most of the
black and brown rich vegetable moulds, the earths seem to be in combination with a pe-
culiar extractive matter, afforded during the decomposition of vegetables ; this is slowly
taken up or attracted from the earths by water, and appears to constitute a prime cause of
the fertility of the soil.

1067. Thus all soils are useful to jdants, as affording them a fixed abode and a range for
their roots to spread in search of food ; but some are much more so than others, as better
adapted by their constituent parts, climate, inclination of surface and subsoil attracting
and supplying food.

Sect. V. Of the Improvement of Soils.

1068. Soils may be rendered more ft for answering the purjwses of vegetation by pulveris-
ation, by consolidation, by exposure to the atmosphere, by an alteration of their constituent
parts, by changing their condition in respect to water, by changing their position in re-
spect to atmospherical influence, and by a change in the kinds of plants cultivated. All
these improvements are independently of the application of manures.

SuBSECT. 1. Pidverisation.

1069. The mechanical division of the parts of soils is a very obvious improvement, and ap-
plicable to all in proportion to their adhesive texture. Even a free siliceous soil will, if
left untouched, become too compact for the proper admission of air, rain, and heat, and
for the free growth of the fibres ; and strong upland clays, not submitted to the plough
or the spade, will, in a few years, be found in the possession of fibrous-rooted perennial
grasses, which form a clotliing on their surface, or strong tap-rooted trees, as the oak,
which force their way through the interior of the mass. Annuals and ramentaceous-
rooted herbaceous plants cannot penetrate into such soils.

1070. The first object of imlverisation is to give scope to the roots of vegetables, for
without abundance of roots no plant will become vigorous, whatever may be the richness
of the soil in which it is placed. The fibres of the roots, as we have seen (740.), take
up the extract of the soil by intro-susception ; tlie quantity taken up, therefore, will not
depend alone on the quantity in the soil, but on the number of absorbing fibres. The
more the soil is pulverised, the more these fibres are increased, the more extract is ab- •
sorbed, and the more vigorous does the plant become. Pulverisation, therefore, is not only
advantageous previous to planting or sowing, but also during the progress of vegetation,
when applied in the intervals between the plants. In this last case it operates also in the
way of pruning, and by cutting off or shortening the extending fibres, causes them to
branch out numerous others, by which the mouths or pores of the plants are greatly in-
creased, and such food as is in the soil has the better chance of being sought after, and
taken up by them. Tull and Du Hamel relate various experiments which decidedly
prove that, aeteris paribus, the multiplication of the fibres is as the inter-pulverisation ;

Book II. TULVERISATION OF SOILS. 227

but the strength of the vegetable, in consequence of this multiplication of fibres, must
depecd a good deal on the quantity of food or of extract within their reach. The root of
a willow-tree, as we have seen (782.), has the fibres prodigiously increased by coming in
contact with the water in a river, and so have various other aquatic trees and plants, as
alder, mint, lysimachiathyrsiflora, calla palustris, oenanthe fistulosa, &c. ; but their herbs
or trunks are not proportionally increased unless the water be impregnated with organised
remains.

1071. Pulverisation increases the caiMlary attraction, or sponge-like property of soils,
by which their humidity is rendered more uniform. It is evident this capillary at-
traction must be greatest where the particles of the earth are finely di%'ided ; for
gravels and sands hardly retain water at all, while clays, not opened by pulverisation or
other means, either do not absorb water, or when, by long action it is absorbed, they re-
tain too much. Water is not only necessary to tlie growth of plants as such, but it is
essential to the production of extract from the vegetable matters which they contain ; and
unless the soil, by pulverisation or otherwise, is so constituted as to retain the quantity
of water requisite to produce this extract, the addition of manures will be in vain.
JNIanure is useless to vegetation till it becomes soluble in water, and it would remain
useless in a state of solution, if it so abounded as wholly to exclude air, for then the fibres
or moutlis, unable to perform their functions, would soon decay and rot off.

1072. The te7nj}erature of a soilis greatli/ prornotedbypulverisaiion. Earths, Grisenthwaite
observes, are also amongst the worst conductors of heat with which we are acquainted,
and consequently, it would be a considerable time before the gradually increasing tem-
perature of spring could communicate its genial warmth to the roots of vegetables, if
their lower strata were not heated by some other means. To remove this defect, which
always belongs to a close compact soil, it is necessary to have the land open, that there
may be a free ingress of the warm air and tepid rains of spring.

1073. Pulverisation contrilnites to the increase of vegetable food. Water is knovm to be
a condenser and solvent of carbonic acid gas, which, when the land is open, can be im-
mediately carried to the roots of vegetables, and contribute to their growth ; but if the
land be close, and the water lie on or near its surface, then the carbonic acid gas, which
always exists in the atmosphere and is carried down by rains, will soon be dissipated.
An open soil is also almost suitable for effecting those changes in the manure itself, which
are equally necessary to the preparation of such food. Animal and vegetable substances,
exposed to the alternate action of heat, moisture, light, and air, undergo spontaneous
decompositions, which would not otherwise take place.

1074. By means of jndverisation a portion of atmosjiheric air is buried in the soil. Thi$
air, so confined, is decomposed by the moisture retained in the earthy matters. Am-
monia is formed by the union of the hydrogen of the water with the nitrogen of the at-
mosphere ; and nitre, by the union of oxygen and nitrogen ; the oxygen may also unite
with the carbon contained in the soil, and form carbonic acid gas, and carburetted hydro-
gen. Heat is given out during these processes, and " hence," as Dr. Darwin remarks
{Phytologia, sect. xii. 1.), " the great propriety of cropping lands immediately after they
had been comminuted and turned over ; and this the more especially, if manvure has been
added at the same time, as the process of fermentation will go on faster when the soil is
loose, and the intei-stices filled with air, than afterwards, when it becomes compressed with
its own gra\-it)', the relaxing influence of rains, and the repletion of the partial vacuums
formed by the decomposition of the enclosed air. Tlie advantage of the heat thus obtained
in exciting vegetation, whether in a seed or root, especially in spring, when the soil is
cold, must be very considerable."

1075. The great advantages of jmlverisation deceived Tull, who fancied that no other
assistances were required in the well-management of the business of husbandry. A
knowledge of chemistry, in its present improved state, would have enabled him to discover
that the pulverisation of the soil was of no other benefit to the plants that grow in it than
as it '' increased the number of tlieir fibrous roots or mouths by which they imbibe their
food, facilitated the more speedy and perfect preparation of this food, and conducted the
food so prepared more regularly to their roots." Of this food itself it did not produce
one particle.

1076. The dej)th of jmlverisation. Sir H. Davy observes, " must depend upon the nature
of the soil, and of the sub-soil. In rich clayey soils it can scarcely be too deep ; and even
in sands, unless the sub-soil contains some principles noxious to vegetables, deep commi-
nution should be practised. WTien the roots are deep, they are less liable to be injured
either by excess of rain or drought ; the radicles are shot forth into every part of the soil ;
and the space from which the nourishment is derived is more considerable than when the
seed is superficially inserted in the soil."

1077. Pulverisation should, in all cases, he accomjmnied tdth the admixture of the parts
<f soils by turning them over. It is difficult, indeed, to pulverise without effecting this

Q 2

228 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Pari IT.

end, at least by the implements in common use ; but if it could be effected, it would be
injurious, because the difference of gravity between the organised matters and the earths,
has a constant tendency to separate them, and stirring a soil only by forks or pronged
implements, such as cultivators, would, in a short time, leave the surface of the soil too
light and spongy, and the lower part too compact and earthy.

SuBSECT. 2. Of the TmproveTnent of Soils by Comj)ression.

1078. Mechanical consolidation will improve some soils, such as spongy peats and light
dusty sands. It is but a limited source of improvement, but still it deserves to be
noticed.

1079. The jrroper degree of adhesiveness is best given to loose soils by the addition of
earthy matters ; but mere rolling and treading are not to be altogether rejected. To be
benefited by rolling a soil must be dry, and the operation must not be carried too far. A
peat-bog drained and rolled, will sooner become covered with grasses than one equally
well drained and left alone. Drifting sands may be well rolled when wet, and by re-
peating the process after rains they will in time acquire a surface of grass or herbage.
Every agriculturist knows the advantages of rolling light soils after sowing, or even
treading them with sheep. Gardeners also tread in seeds on certain soils.

SuBSECT. 3. Of the Improvement of Soils by Aeration or Fallowing.

1080. Soils are benefited by the free admission of the weather to their interior parts. This is
generally considered as one of the advantages of fallowing, and its use in gardening is ex-
perienced in compost heaps, and in winter and summer ridging. The precise advantages,
however, of exposure to the air, independently of the concurrent influence of water,
heat, and the other effects mentioned as attendant on pulverisation, do not seem at present
to be correctly ascertained. It is allowed that carbonic acid gas may be absorbed by cal-
careous earths, and Dr. Thomson considers that the cartlis alone may thus probably
administer food to plants ; but Sir H. Davy seems to consider mere exposure to the at-
mosphei-e as of no benefit to soils whatever. " It has been supposed by some writers," he
says, " that certain principles necessary to fertility are derived from the atmosphere, which
are exhausted by a succession of crops, and that these are again supplied during the repose
of the land, and the exposure of the pulverised soil to the influence of the air ; but this in
truth is not the case. The earths commonly found in soils cannot be combined with more
oxygen ; none of them unite to azote ; and such of them a? are capable of attracting car-
bonic acid, are always saturated with it in those soils on wliich the practice of fallowing is
adopted."

1081. Aeration and rejmse, or summer fallow. " The vague ancient opinion of the use of
nitre, and of nitrous salts in vegetation," Sir H. Davy says, " seems to have been one of the
principal speculative reasons for the defence of summer fallows. Nitrous salts are produced
during the exposure of soils containing vegetable and animal remains, and in greatest
abundance in hot weather ; but it is probably by the combination of azote from these re-
mains with oxygen in the atmosphere that the acid is foiTned ; and at the expense of an
element, which otherwise would have formed ammonia; the compounds of which are
much more efficacious than the nitrous compounds in assisting vegetation." It is proper
to observe that this reasoning is more speculative than experimental, and seems influenced,
in some degree, by the opinion adopted by the author, that fallows are of little use in
husbandry. One obvious advantage of aeration in summer, or a summer fallow, is, that
the soil may thus be heated by the sun to a degree wliich it never could be, if partially
covered with the foliage of even the widest-drilled crops. For this j)urpose, if the soil is
laid up in large lumps, it is evident it will receive more heat by exposing a greater sur-
face to the atmosphere, and it will retain this heat longer than can be expected, from the
circumstance of the lumps reflecting back the rays of heat radiated by each other. A
clayey soil, in this way, \t \s ^diidi (^Farmers' Magadiie, 1815), maybe heated to 120^,
which may in some degree alter its absorbent powers as to water, and contribute materially
to the destruction of vegetable fibre, insects, and their eggs. By the aeration of lands in
winter, minute mechanical division is obtained by tlie freezing of the water in the soil ;
fbr, as water in the solid state occupies more space than when fluid, the particles of
earthy matters and of decomposing stones are thus rent asunder, and crumble down in
a fine mould. Rough stony soils will thus receive an accession to their finer soil every
winter.

1082. Agricultural experience has fully proved that fallows are the only means by
which stiff clays in moist climates can be effectually cleared of weeds. Supposing there-
fore that no other advantage whatever was obtained, that no nutritive matter was
imbibed from the atmosphere, and the soil was neither chemically nor mechanically
benefited by aeration, this benefit alone — the effectual eradication of weeds — is suf-
ficient to justify the use of fallows on such soils.

Book II. ALTERATION OF THE PARTS OF SOILS. 229

SuBSECT. 4. Alteration of the constituent Farts of Soils.

1083. The constituent parts of soils may be altered by the addition or subtraction of in-
gredients in which they are deficient, or superabound, and by the chemical changes of
«ome constituent part or parts by the action offre.

1084. In ascertaining the composition of faulty soils with a view to their imjn-ovement
by adding to their constituent parts, any particular ingredient which is the cause of their
unproductiveness, should be particularly attended to ; if possible, they should be Gora-
pared witli fertile soils in the same neighbourhood, and in similar situations, as the dif-
ference of the composition may, in many cases, indicate the most proper methods of im-
provement. If, on washing a sterile soil, it is found to contain the salts of iron, or any
acid matter, it may be ameliorated by the application of quick-lime. A soil of good ap-
parent texture, containing sulphate of iron, will be sterile ; but tlie obvious remedy is a
top-dressing with lime, which converts the sulphate into manure. If there be an excess
of calcareous matter in the soil, it may be improved by the application of sand or clay.
Soils too abundant in sand are benefited by the use of clay, or marl, or vegetable matter.
Light sands are often benefited by a dressing of peat, and peats by a dressing of sand ;
though the former is in its nature but a temporary improvement. WTien peats are acid,
or contain ferruginous salts, calcareous matter is absolutely necessary in bringing them
into cultivation. The best natural soils are those of which the materials have been de-
rived from different strata, which have been minutely divided by air and water, and are
intimately blended together ; and in improving soils artificially, the cultivator cannot do
better than imitate the processes of nature, llie materials necessary for the purpose are
seldom far distant ; coarse sand is often found immediately on chalk, and beds of sand
and gravel are common below clay. The labor of impro\-ing the texture or constitution
of the soil, is repaid by a great permanent advantage, — less manure is required, and its
fertility insured ; and capital laid out in this way secures for ever the productiveness, and
consequently the value of the land.

1085. T/ie renwval of superabundant ingredients in soils may sometimes be one of the
simplest and most effectual means of tlieir improvement. It occasionally happens that
the surface of a well proportioned soil is thickly covered with peat, with drifted sand,
with gravel, or witli small stones. Extensive examples of the former occur in Stirling-
shire, and of the latter in Norfolk. In such cases, a simple and effectual mode of im-
provement consists in removing the superincumbent strata, and cultivating that below.
ITiis can seldom be put in practice on a large scale, with such heavy materials as gravel
or stones ; but some hundreds of acres of rich alluvial soil, deeply covered by peat, have
been bared and cultivated in Flanders moss in Stirlingshire ; an operation commenced by
the celebrated Lord Kaimes, (Gen. Eep. of Scot. App. v. 5.) copied by his neighbours,
and continued by his and their successors. The moss is floated off by streams of water,
wliich empty themselves in the Frith of Forth. In this river, by the winds and tides, it
is cast on shore in the bays and recesses, impregnated with salt ; and here it ingenders
vegetation on the encroaching surfaces of sand and gravel. Coatings of sand or gravel
can seldom be removed on a scale of sufficient extent for agriculture, but have, in some
instances, for the purposes of gardening. Sometimes this improvement may be effected
by trenching down the surface, and raising up a stratum of better earth.

1086. Incineration. The chemical changes which can be effected in soils by inciner-
ation are considerable. This practice was known to the Romans, is more or less in use
in most parts of Europe, is mentioned as an approved practice by our oldest agricultural
writers, and has lately excited some degree of attention from the successful experiments
of different cultivators. {Farmers MagaziyiC) 1810 to 1815, and Farmers^ Joumcd,
1814 to 1821.)

1087. The theory of burning soils is thus given by Sir H. Davy. It rests, he says,
entirely on chemical doctrines. The bases of all conamon soils, are mixtures of the
primitive earths and oxide of iron ; and these earths have a certain degree of attraction for
each other. To regard this attraction in its proper point of view, it is only necessary to
consider the composition of any common siliceous stone. Feldspar, for instance, contains
siliceous, alunainous, calcareous earths, fixed alkali, and oxide of iron, which exist in one
compound, in consequence of their chemical attractions for each other. Let this stone be
ground into impalpable powder, it then becomes a substance like clay . if the powder be
heated very strongly, it fuses, and on cooling forms a coherent mass similar to the original
stone ; the parts separated by mechanical division adhere again in consequence of chemical
attraction. If the powder is heated less strongly, the particles only superficially combine
with each other, and form a gritty mass, which, when broken into pieces, has the characters
of sand. If the power of the powdered feldspar to absorb water from the atmosphere
before, and after the application of the heat, be compared, it is found much less in the
last case. The same effect takes place when the powder of other siliceous or aluminous

230 * SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

stones is made the subject of experiment, and two equal portions of basalt ground into im-
palpable powder, of which one half had been strongly ignited, and the other exposed only
to a temperature equal to that of boiling water, gained very different weights in the same
time when exposed to air. In four hours the one had gained only two grains, whilst the
other had gained seven grains. When clay or tenacious soils are burnt, the effect is of
the same kind ; they are brought nearer to a state analogous to that of sands. In the
manufacture of bricks the general principle is well illustrated; if a piece of dried brick
earth be applied to the tongue, it will adhere to it very strongly, in consequence of its
power to absorb water ; but after it has been burnt, there will be scarcely a sensible ad-
hesion.

1088. The advantages of burning are that it renders tlie soil less compact, less tenacious
and retentive of moisture ; and when properly applied, may convert a matter that was
stiff, damp, and in consequence cold, into one powdery, dry, and warm, and much
more proper as a bed for vegetable life.

1089. The great olyection made by speculative chemists to paring and burning, is, that
it destroys vegetable and animal matter, or the manure in the soil ; but in cases in which
the texture of its earthy ingredients is permanently improved, there is more than a com-
pensation for this temporary disadvantage. And in some soils where there is an excess
of inert vegetable matter, the destruction of it must be beneficial ; and the carbonaceous
matter remaining in the ashes may be more useful to the crop than the vegetable fibre
from which it was produced.

1090. Three specimens of ashes from different lands that had undergone paring and
burning were examined by chemical analysis. The first was from a chalk soil, and 200
grains contained 80 of carbonate of lime, 11 gypsum, 9 charcoal, 15 oxide of iron,
3 saline matter, sulphate of potash, muriate of magnesia, with a minute quantity of ve-
getable alkali. The remainder alumina and silica. Suppose 2660 bushels to be the
common produce of an acre of ground, then, according to this calculation, they would
give 17 2, 900 lbs., containing carbonate of lime 691,60 lbs., gypsum 9509-5., oxide of
iron 12,967'5., saline matter 2593*5., charcoal 7780*5. In this instance there was un-
doubtedly a very considerable quantity of matter capable of being active as manure pro-
duced in the operation of burning. The charcoal very finely divided, and exposed on a
large surface, must be gradually converted into carbonic acid. And gypsum and oxide
of iron seem to produce the very best effects when applied to lands containing an ex-
cess of carbonate of lime. The second specimen was from a soil near Coleorton, in
Leicestershire, containing only four per cent, of carbonate 'of lime, and consisting of
three fourths light siliceous sand, and about one fourth clay. This had been turf before
burning, and 100 parts of the ashes gave 6 parts charcoal, 3 muriate of soda and sulphate
of potash, with a trace of vegetable alkali, 9 oxide of iron, and the remainder the earths.
In this instance, as in the other, finely divided charcoal was found, the solubility of
which would be increased by the presence of the alkali. The tliird instance was that
of a stiff clay, from Mount's Bay, Cornwall. This land has been brought into cultiva-
tion from a heath, by burning, about ten years before ; but having been neglected, furze
was springing up in different parts of it, which gave rise to the second paring and burn-
ing, 100 parts of the ashes contained 8 parts of charcoal, 2 of saline matter, principally
common salt, with a little vegetable alkali, 7 oxide of iron, 2 carbonate of lime, the re-
mainder alumina and silica. Here the quantity of charcoal was greater than in the other
instances. The salt was probably owing to the vicinity of the sea, it being but two miles
off. In this land there was certainly an excess of dead vegetable fibre, as well as un-
profitable living vegetable matter.

1091. Causes of the effects of burning soil. Many obscure causes have been referred to
for the purpose of explaining the effects of paring and burning ; but they may be re-
ferred entirely to the diminution of the coherence and tenacity of clays, and to the
destruction of inert and useless vegetable matter, and its conversion into a manure.
Dr. Darwin, in his Phytologia, has supposed that clay, during torrefaction, may absorb
some nutritive principles from the atmosphere that afterwards may be supplied to plants ;
but the earths are pure metallic oxides, saturated with oxygen ; and the tendency of
burning is to expel any other volatile principles that they may contain in combination.
If the oxide of iron in soils is not saturated with oxygen, torrefaction tends to produce
its further union with this principle ; and hence, in burning, the color of clay changes to
red. The oxide of iron, containing its full proportion of oxygen, has less attraction for
acids than the other oxide, and is consequently less likely to be dissolved by any fluid
acids in the soil ; and it appears in this state to act in the same manner as the earths.
A very ingenious author, Naismith {Elements of Agr.), supposes that the oxide of
iron, when combined with carbonic acid, is poisonous to plants ; and that one use of tor-
refaction is to expel the carbonic acid from it ; but the carbonate of iron is not "soluble
in water, and is a very inert substance ; and a luxuriant crop of cresses has been raised

Book II. CHANGING THE CONDITION OF LANDS. 281

in a soil composed of one fifth carbonate of iron, and four fifths carbonate of lime.
Carbonate of iron abounds in some of tlie most fertile soils in England, particularly the
red hop soil. And there is no theoretical ground for supposing that carbonic acid,
which is an essential food of plants, should, in any of its combinations, be poisonous to
them ; and it is know-n that lime and magnesia are both noxious to vegetation, unless
combined with this principle.

1092. The soils iinirroved by burning are all such as contain too much dead vegetable
fibre, and wliich consequently lose from one third to one half of their weight by inciner-
ation ; and all such as contain their earthy constituents in an impalpable state of division,
i. e. tlie stiff' clays and marls, are improved by burning : but coarse sands, or rich
soils containing a just mixture of tlie earths ; and in aU cases in which the texture is
sufficiently loose, or the organisable matter suflaciently soluble, the process of torrefaction
cannot be useful.

1093. All jwor siliceous sands are injured by burning. Young in his Essay on Ma-
nures, states, " that he found burning injure sand ; and the operation is never performed
by good cultivators upon siliceous sandy soils, after they have once been brought into
cultivation."

SuBSKCT. 5. Changing the Condition of Lands, in resj^ect to Water.

1094. The water of the soil where superabundant may be withdrawn, and ivhen deficient
supplied : these operations witli water are independent of its supply as a manure, or as
affording the stimulus of heat or cold.

1095. Sta<rnant water may be considered as injurious to all the useful classes of plants,
by obstructing perspiration and intro-susception, and thus diseasing their roots and sub-
rnerged parts. Where the surface-soil is properly constituted, and rests on a sub-soil mo-
derately porous, both will hold water by capillary attraction, and what is not so retained
M-ill sink into the interior strata by its gravity ; but where the sub-soil is retentive, it will
resist, or not admit with sufficient rapidity, the percolation of water to the strata below,
which accumulating in the surface-soil, till its proportion becomes excessive as a com-
ponent part, not only carries off the extractive matter, but diseases the plants. Hence
the origin of surface-draining, that is, laying land in ridges or beds, or intersecting it
with small open gutters.

1096. Springs. Where the upper stratum is porous in some places, and retentive in
others, and on a retentive base, the water, in its progress along the porous bed or layer,
will be interrupted by the retentive places in a great variety of ways, and there accumu-
lating will burst tlu-ough the upper surface in the form of springs, which are more in-
jurious than surface-water, as being colder, and generally permanent in their operation.
Hence the origin of under-draining in all its varieties of collecting, extracting, and con-
vepng water.

1097. The rmter of rivers may become injurious to lands on their banks, by too fre-
quently overflowing their surface. In this case the stream may be included by mounds
of earth, or other materials impervious to water : and thus aquatic soils rendered dry and
fit for useful herbage and aration. The same may be said of lands occasionally over-
flown by the sea. Hence the origin of embanking, an art carried to a great extent in
Holland and Italy. (See Smeatons Posthumous Works; Sigismondi, Agr. Tosc. ; and our
article Etnbanknient, in Supp. Encyc. Brit. 1819.)

1098. Irrigation. Plants cannot live without water, any more than they can prosper
in soils where it is superabundant ; and it is therefore supplied by art on a large scale,
either by surface or subterraneous irrigation. In both practices important points are to
imitate nature in producing motion, and in applying the water in tlie mornings or even-
ings, or under a clouded sky, and also at moderate intervals. The effects of water con-
stantly employed, would, in most cases, be such as attend stagnated water, aquatic soils,
or land-springs ; and employed in hot sunshine, or after violent heats, it may check eva-
poration and destroy life, exactly as happens to those who may have bathed in cold spring
water after long and \'iolent exercise in a hot day. (Phytologia, xv. 3. 5.)

1099. In surface irrigation the water is conveyed in a system of open channels, which
require to be most numerous in such grounds as are under drilled annual crops, and
least so in such as are sown in breadths, beds, or ridges, under perennial crops. This
mode of watering has existed from time immemorial. The children of Israel are repre-
sented as sowing their seed and " watering it with their foot ;" that is, as Calmet explains
it, raising the water from the Nile by a machine worked by the feet, from which it was
conducted in such channels as we have been describing. It is general in the south of
France and Italy ; but less required in Britain.

1 100. Subterraneous irrigation may be effected by a system of drains or covered gutters
in the sub-soil, which, proceeding from a main conduit, or other supply, can be charged
with water at pleasure. For grounds under the culture of annual plants, this mode would
be more convenient, and for all others more economical as to the use of water, than sur-

Q 4

2S3 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

face irrigation. Where the under-stratum is gravelly, and rests on a retentive stratum,
this mode of watering may take place without drains, as it may also on perfectly flat
lands, by filling to the brim, and keeping full for several days, surrounding trenches ;
but the beds or fields between the trenches must not be of great extent. This practice is
used in Lombardy on the alluvial lands near the embouchures of the Po. In Lincoln-
shire the same mode is 'practised by shutting up the flood-gates of the mouths of the
great drains in the dry seasons, and thus damming up the water through all the ramifica-
tions of the drainage from the sea to their source. This was first suggested by G. Ren-
nie and Sir Joseph Banks, after the drainage round Boston, completed about 1810. A
similar plan, on a smaller scale, had been practised in Scotland, where deep mosses had
been drained and cultivated on the surface, but where, in summer, vegetation failed
from deficiency of moisture. It was first adopted by J. Smith, (See Essai/ on the Im-
jrrovement of Peat- Moss, 1795,) on a farm in Ayrshire, and has subsequently been brought
into notice by J. Johnston, the first delineator and professor of Elkinston's system of
draining.

11 01. Manuring by irrigation. Irrigation with a view to conveying additions to the soil
has long been practised, and is an evident imitation of the overflowing of alluvial lands,
whether in meadow or aration. In the former case it is called irrigation or flooding, and
in the latter, warping. Warping is used chiefly as a mode of enriching the soil by an
increase of the alluvial depositions, or warp of rivers, during winter, where the sur-
face is not under crop, and is common on the banks of the Ouse.

1 102. The ratio7iale of irrigation is thus given by Sir H. Davy. " In general in nature
the operation of water is to bring earthy substances into an extreme state of division.
But in the artificial watering of meadows, the beneficial effects depend upon many dif-
ferent causes, some chemical, some mechanical. Water is absolutely essential to vegeta-
tion ; and when land has been covered by water in the vnnter, or in the beginning of
spring, the moisture tliat has penetrated deep into the soil, and even the sub-soil, becomes
a source of nourishment to the roots of the plants in the summer, and prevents those bad
effects that often happen in lands in their natural state, from a long continuance of dry
weather. When the water used in irrigation has flowed over a calcareous country, it is
generally found impregnated with carbonate of lime ; and in this state it tends, in many
instances, to ameliorate the soil. Common river water also generally contains a certain
portion of organisable matter, which is much greater after rains than at other times ; and
which exists in the largest quantity when the stream rises in a cultivated countrj'. Even
in cases when the water used for flooding is pure, and free from animal or vegetable sub-
stances, it acts by causing a more equable diffusion of nutritive matter existing in the
land ; and in very cold seasons it preserves the tender roots and leaves of the grass from
being affected by frost. Water is of greater specific gravity at 42^^ Fahx-enheit, than at
320, tiie freezing point ; and hence, in a meadow irrigated in winter, the water immediately
in contact with the grass is rarely below 40**, a degree of temperature not at all prejudi-
cial to the living organs of plants. In 1804, in the month of March, the temperature in
a water meadow near Hungerford was examined by a very delicate thermometer. The
temperature of the air at seven in the morning was 29°. The water was frozen above the
grass. The temperature of the soil below the water in which the roots of the grass were
fixed, was 43"." Water may also operate usefully in warm seasons by moderating tem-
perature, and thus retarding the over-rapid progress of vegetation. ITie consequence of
this retardation will be greater magnitude and improved texture of the grosser parts of
plants, a more perfect and ample developement of their finer parts, and, above all, an
increase in the size of their fruits and seeds. We apprehend this to be one of the princi-
pal uses of flooding rice-grounds in the East ; for it is ascertained that the rice-plant will
perfect its seeds in Europe, and even in this country, without any water beyond what is
furnished by the weather, and the natural moisture of a well constituted soil. " In
general, those waters which breed the best fish are the best fitted for watering meadows ;
but most of the benefits of irrigation may be derived from any kind of water. It is, how-
ever, a general principle, that waters containing ferruginous impregnation, though pos-
sessed of fertilising eflfects when applied to a calcareous soil, are injurious on soils that
do not effervesce with acids ; and that calcareous waters, which are known by the earthy
deposit they afford w^hen boiled, are of most use on siliceous soils, or other soils containing
no remarkable quantity of carbonate of lime."

SuBSECT. 6. Changing the Condition of Lands, in respect to Atmospherical Influence.

1 103. The influence of the weather on soils may be affected by changing the position of
their surface and by sheltering or shading.

1104. Changing the condition of lands, as to solar influence, is but a limited means of
improvement ; but is capable of being turned to some account in gardening. It is
effected by altering the position of their surface, so as that surface may be more or less
at right angles to the plane of the sun's rays> according as heat or cold is to be increased

Boor II. ROTATION OF CROPS. 233

or diminished. The influence of the sun's rays upon any plane are demonstrated to be
as their number and perpendicularity to that plane, neglecting the effects of the atmo-
sphere. Hence one advantage of ridging lands, provided the ridges run north and south ;
for on such surfaces the rays of the morning sun will take effect sooner on the east side,
and those of the afternoon will remain longer in operation on the west side ; whilst at
mid-day his elevation -vWll compensate, in some degree, for tlie obUquity of his rays to
both sides of the ridge. In culture, on a small scale, ridges or sloping beds for wmter-
crops may be made south-east and north-west, with their slope to the south, at an angle
of forty degrees, and as steep on the north side as the mass can be got to stand ; and on
the south slope of such ridge, cceteris paribus, it is evident much earlier crops may be
produced than on level ground. Tlie north side, however, will be lost during this early
cropping ; but as early crops are soon gathered, the whole can be laid level in time for
a main crop. Hence all the advantage of grounds sloping to the soutli south-east, or
south-west, in point of precocity, and of those sloping to the north for lateness and di-
minished evaporation. Another'advantage of such surfaces is, that tliey dry sooner after
rains, whether by tlie operation of natural or aitificial drainage ; or in the case of sloping
to the south, by evaporation.

1 105. Shelter, whether by walls, hedges, strips of plantation, or trees scattered over the
surface, may be considered generally, as increasing or preserving heat, and lessening
evaporation from the soil. But if the current of air should be of a higher temperature
than that of the eartli, screens against wind will prevent the earth from being so soon heated ;
and from the increased evaporation arising from so great a multiplication of vegetable
surface by the trees, more cold will be produced after rains, and the atmosphere kept
in a more moist state, than in grounds perfectly naked. When the temperature of a cur-
rent of air is lower than that of the earth, screens will prevent its carrying off so much
heat ; but more especially scattered trees, the tops of which will be chiefly cooled whilst
the under surfaces of their lower branches reflect back the rays of heat as they radiate
from the surface of the soil. Heat in its transmission from one body to another, follows
the same laws as light ; and, therefore, the temperature of the surface in a forest ^^-ill, in
winter, be considerably higher than tliat of a similarly constituted soil exposed to the full
influence of the weatlier. The early flowering of plants, in woods and hedges, is a proof
of this : but as such soils cannot be so easily heated in summer, and are cooled like others
after the sinking in of rains, or the melting of snows, the effect of the reflection as to the
whole year is nearly neutralised, and the average temperature of the year of such soils
and situations will probably be found not greater tlian that of open lands.

1106. Skaditi^ the ground, whether by umbrageous trees, spreading plants, or covering
it with tiles, slates, moss, litter, &c. has a tendency to exclude atmospherical heat and
retain moisture. Shading dry loose soils, by covering them with litter, or slates, or tiles,
laid round the roots of plants, is found very beneficial.

SuBSECT. 7. notation of Crops.

1 107. Growing different crops in succession is a practice which every cultivator knows to
be highly advantageous, though its beneficial influence has not yet been fully accounted
for by chemists. The most general theory is, that though all plants will live on the same
food, as the chemical constituents of their roots and leaves are nearly the same, yet that
many species require particular substances to bring their seeds or fruits to perfection, as
the analysis of these seeds or fruits often affords substances different from those which
constitute the body of the plant. (736.) A sort of rotation may be said to take place in
nature, for perennial herbaceous plants have a tendency to extend their circumference,
and rot and decay at their centre, where others of a different kind spring up and succeed
them. Tliis is more especisJly the case with travelling roots, as in mint, strawberry,
creeping crowfoot, &c.

1 108. The rationale of rotation, is thus given by Sir H. Davy. « It is a great advantage
in the convertible system of cultivation, that the whole of the manure is employed ; and
that those parts of it which are not fitted for one crop, remain as nourishment for another.
Thus, if the turnip is the first in the order of succession, this crop, manured with recent
dung, immediately finds sufficient soluble matter for its nourishment ; and the heat pro-
duced in fermentation assists the germination of the seed and the growth of the plant.
If, after turnips, barley with grass-seeds is sown, then the land, having been little
exhausted by tlie turnip crop, affords the soluble parts of the decomposing manure to the
grain. The grasses, rye-grass, and clover remain, which derive a small part o ily of
their organised matter from the soil, and probably consume the gj'psum in the manure
which would be useless to other crops : these plants, likewise, by their large systems
of leaves, absorb a considerable quantity of nourishment from the atmosphere ; and when
ploughed in at the end of two years, the decay of their roots and leaves affords manure
for the wheat crop ; and at this period of the course, the woody fibre of the farm-yard
manure, which contains the phosphate of lime and the other difficultly soluble parts, is -

234 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

broken down : and as soon as the most exhausting crop is taken, recent manure is again
applied. Peas and beans, in all instances, seem well adapted to prepare ground for
wheat ; and in some rich lands they are raised in alternate crops for years togetlier.
Peas and beans contain a small quantity of a matter analogous to albumen ; but it seems
that the azote, which forms a constituent part of this matter, is derived from the atmo-
sphere. The dry bean-leaf, when burnt, yields a smell approaching to that of decomposing
animal matter ; and in its decay in the soil, may furnish principles capable of becoming
a part of the gluten in wheat. Though the general composition of plants is very analo-
gous, yet the specific difference in the products of many of them, prove that they must
derive different materials from the soil ; and though the vegetables having the smallest
system of leaves will proportionably most exhaust the soil of common nutritive matter,
yet particular vegetables, when their produce is carried off, will require peculiar princi-
ples to be supplied to the land in which they grow. Strawberries and potatoes at first
produce luxuriantly in virgin mould, recently turned up from pasture ; but in a few
years they degenerate, and require a fresh soil. Lands, in a course of years, often cease
to afford good cultivated grasses ; they become (as it is popularly said) tired of them ;
and one of the probable reasons for this is, the exhaustion of the gypsum contained in the
soil."

1 109. The powers of vegetables to exhaust the soil of the jyrinciples necessary to their
growth, is remarkably exemplified in certain funguses. Mushrooms are said never to
rise in two successive seasons on the same spot ; and the production of the phenomena
called fairy rings has been ascribed by Dr. WoUaston to the power of the peculiar fungus
which forms it, to exhaust the soil of the nutriment necessary for the growth of the
species. The consequence is, that the ring annually extends ; for no seeds will grow
where their parents grew before them ; and the interior part of the circle has been ex-
hausted by preceding crops ; but where the fungys has died, nourishment is supplied for
grass, which usually rises within the circle, coarse, and of a dark green color.

1110. A rotation is unnecessary, according to Giisenthwaite ; and, in a strict chemical
sense, what he asserts cannot be denied. His theory is a refinement on the common
idea of the uses of a rotation stated above ; but l)y giving some details of the constituent
parts of certain grains and certain manures, he has presented it in a more clear and
striking point of view than has hitherto been done. To apply the theory in every case,
the constituent parts of all manures and of all plants (1st, their roots and leaves, and,
2dly, their seeds, fruits, or grains,) must be known. In respect to manures this is the
case, and it may be said to be in a great degree the case as to the most useful agri-
cultural plants ; but, unfortunately for our purpose, the same cannot be said of garden
productions in general, though no branch of culture can show the advantage of a rota-
tion of crops more than horticulture, in the practice of which it is found that grounds
become tired of particular crops, notwithstanding that manures are applied at pleasure.
If the precise effects of a rotation were ascertained, and the ingredients peculiarly neces-
sary to every species pointed out, nothing could be more interesting than the results of
experimental trials ; and whoever shall point out a simple and economical mode by which
the potatoe may be grown successively in the same soil, and produce annually, neglecting
the effects of climate, as dry and well-flavored tubers, or nearly so, as they generally pro-
duce the first and second years on a new soil, will confer a real benefit on society. That
wheat may be grown many years on the same soil by the use of animal manures, or such
as contain gluten, Grisenthwaite's theory would justify us in believing chemically ; and it
ought to be fairly tried by such cultivators as Coke and Curwen. Till this is done in
the face of the whole agricultural world, and the produce of every crop, and all the par-
ticulars of its culture, accurately reported on annually, the possibility of the thing may
be assented to from the premises, but will not be acted on ; and, in fact, even the best
agricultural chemists do not consider that we are sufficiently advanced in that branch of
the science to draw any conclusion, a jiriuri, very much at variance with general opinion
and experience.

Chap. II.
Of Manures.
1111. Every species of matter capable of ^yromoting the growth of vegetables may be con-
sidered as manure. On examining the constituents of vegetables, we shall find that
they are composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, or azote, with a small
proportion of saline bodies. It is evident, therefore, that the substances employed
as manure should also be composed of these elements, for unless they are, there will
be a deficiency in some of the elements in the vegetable itself ; and it is probable
that such deficiency may prevent the formation of those substances vvi^n it, for which its

Book II.

MANURES. 235

peculiar organisation is contrived, and upon which its healthy existence depends. Tlie
elementary bodies above enumerated are all contained in animal, and the three iirst m
vegetable matters. Sometimes vegetables, though very seldom, contain a small quantity
of nitrogen. As certain salts are also constantly found to be present m healthy living
vegetables, manures or vegetable food may, consequently, be distinguished into ammal,
vegetable, and saline. The authors whom we have already mentioned ( 1029. ) as produc-
ing the first chemical treatises on soils, were also the first to treat chemicaUy of manures.
Of these, the latest in the order of time is Sir H. Davy, from whose highly satisfactory
work we shall extract the greater part of this chapter.

Sect. I. Of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin,

1112. Decaying animal and vegetable substances constitute by far the most important
class of manures, or vegetable food, and may be considered as to the theory of their oper-
ation, their specific kinds, and their preservation and application in practice.

SuBSECT. 1. The Theory of the Operation of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin.

1113. The rationale of organic manures is very satisfactorily given by Sir H. Davy,
who, after having proved that no solid substances can enter in that state into the plant,
explains the manner in which nourishment is derived from vegetable and animal sub-
stances.

1 114. Vegetable and animal substances dqmsited in the soily as is shown by universal ex-
perience, are consumed during the process of vegetation ; and they can only nourish the
plant by affording solid matters capable of being dissolved by water, or gaseous substances
capable of being absorbed by the fluids in the leaves of vegetables; but such parts of
them as are rendered gaseous, and pass into the atmosphere, must produce a comparatively
small eflfect, for gases soon become diffused through the mass of the surrounding air.
The great object, therefore, in the application of manure should be to make it afford as
much soluble matter as possible to the roots of the plant ; and that in a slow and gra^
dual manner, so that it may be entirely consumed in forming its sap and organised
parts.

1115. Mucilaginous, gelatinous, saccharine, oily, and extractive fluids, carbonic add, and
water, are substances that in their unchanged states contain almost all the principles
necessary for the life of plants ; but there are few cases in which they can be applied
as manures in their pure forms ; and vegetable manures, in- general, contain a great ex-
cess of fibrous and insoluble matter, which must undergo chemical changes before they
can become the food of plants.

1116. The nature of the changes on these substances ; of the causes which occasion them,
and which accelerate or retard them ; and of the products they afford, have been scientifi-
cally stated and explained by our great agricultural chemist. If any fresh vegetable matter
which contains sugar, mucilage, starch, or other of the vegetable compounds soluble in water,
be moistened, and exposed to air, at a temperature from 55° to 80°, oxygen will soon be ab-
sorbed, and carbonic acid formed ; heat will be produced, and elastic fluids, principally car-
bonic acid, gaseous oxide of carbon, and hydro-carbonate will be evolved ; a dark-colored
liquid, of a slightly sour or bitter taste, will likewise be formed ; and if the process be
suffered to continue for a time sufficiently long, nothing solid will remain, except earthy
and saline matter, colored black by charcoal. The dark-colored fluid formed in the fer-
mentation always contains acetic acid ; and when albumen or gluten exists in the vege-
table substance, it likewise contains volatile alkali. In proportion as there is more
gluten, albumen, or matters soluble in water, in the vegetable substances exposed to fer-
mentation, so in proportion, all other circumstances being equal, will the process be more
rapid. Pure woody fibre alone undergoes a change very slowly; but its texture is
broken down, and it is easily resolved into new aliments, when mixed with substances
more liable to change, containing more oxygen and hydrogen. Volatile and fixed oils,
resins, and wax, are more susceptible of change than woody fibre, when exposed to air
and water ; but much less liable than the other vegetable compounds ; and even the most
inflammable substances, by the absorption of oxygen, become gradually soluble in water.
Animal matters in general are more liable to decompose than vegetable substances;
oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid and ammonia formed in the process of their putre-
faction. They produce fetid, compound, elastic fluids and likewise azote : they aflford
dark-colored acid and oily fluids, and leave a residuum of salts and earths mixed with
carbonaceous matter.

1117. The^ principal animal substances which constitute their different parts, or which are
found in their blood, their secretions, or their excrements, are gelatine, fibrine, mucus,
fatty, or oily matter, albumen, urea, uric acid, and different other acid, saline, and earthy
matters.

1118. General treatment of organic manures. Whenever manures consist principally of

236 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

matter soluble in water, it is evident that their fermentation or putrefaction should be pre-
vented as much as possible ; and the only cases in which these processes can be useful,
are when the manure consists principally of vegetable or animal fibre. The circumstances
necessary for the putrefaction of animal substances are similar to those required for the
fermentation of vegetable substances ; a temperature above the freezing point, the presence
of water, and the presence of oxygen, at least in the first stage of the process. To prevent
masures from decomposing, they should be preserved dry, defended from the contact of
air, and kept as cool as possible. Salt and alcohol appear to owe their powers of pre-
serving animal and vegetable substances to their attraction for water, by which they pre-
vent its decomposing action, and likewise to their excluding air.

SuBSECT. 2. Oftlie different Species of Manures of Animal and Vegetable Origin.

1119. The properties and nature of the manures in common use should be known to every
cultivator : for as different manures contain different proportions of the elements neces-
sary to vegetation, so they require a different treatment to enable them to produce their
full effects in culture.

1 120. All green succulent plants contain saccharine or mucilaginous matter, with woody
fibre, and readily ferment. They cannot, therefore, if intended for manure, be used too
soon after their death. Hence the advantage of digging or ploughing in green crops,
whether natural, of weeds, or sown on purpose ; they must not, however, be turned in too
deep, otherwise, as Mrs. Ibbetson has shown {PhUos. Mag. 1816), fermentation will be
prevented by compression and exclusion of air. Green crops should be ploughed in, if it
be possible, when in flower, or at the time the flower is beginning to appear, for it is at
this period that they contain the largest quantity of easily soluble matter, and that their
leaves are most active in forming nutritive matter. Green crops, pond-weeds, the paring
of hedges or ditches, or any kind of fresh vegetable matter, require no preparation to fit
them for manure. The decomposition slowly proceeds beneath the soil ; the soluble mat-
ters are gradually dissolved, and the slight fermenfcition that goes on, checked by the want
of a free communication of air, tends to render the woody fibre soluble without occasion-
ing the rapid dissipation of elastic matter. When old pastures are broken up and made
arable, not only has the soil been enriched by the death and slow decay of the plants which
have left soluble matters in the soil, but the leaves and roots of the grasses, living at the
time, and occupying so large a part of the surface, afford saccharine, mucilaginous, and
extractive matters, which become immediately the food of the crop, and the gradual de-
composition affords a supply for successive years.

1 121. Rape- cake, which is used with great success as manure, contains a large quantity
of mucilage, some albuminous matter, and a small quantity of oil. This manure should
be used recent, and kept as dry as possible before it is applied. It forms an excellent
dressing for turnip crops ; and is most economically applied by being tlu-own into the soil
at the same time with the seed.

1122. Malt-dust consists chiefly of the infant radicle separated from the grain. Sir
H. Davy never made any experiment upon this manure ; but has great reason to suppose
it must contain saccharine matter, and this will account for its powerful effects. Like rape-
cake, it should be used as dry as possible, and its fermentation prevented.

1 123. Linseed-cake is too valuable as a food for cattle to be much employed as a manure.
The water in which flax and hemp are steeped, for the purpose of obtaining the pure
vegetable fibre, has considerable fertilising powers. It appears to contain a substance ana-
logous to albumen, and likewise much vegetable extractive matter. It putrefies very
readily. By the watering process, a certain degree of fermentation is absolutely neces-
sary to obtain the flax and hemp in a proper state ; the water to which they have been ex-
posed should therefore be used as a manure as soon as the vegetable fibre is removed from
it. Washing with soap has been successfully substituted for watering by lie.

1 124. Sea-iveeds, consisting of different species of fuci, algae, and confervse, are much
used as a manure on the sea-coasts of Britain and Ireland. By digesting the common
fucus, which is the sea-weed usually most abundant on the coast, in boiling water, one-
eighth of a gelatinous substance will be obtained, with characters similar to mucilage. A
quantity distilled gave nearly four fifths of its weight of water, but no ammonia ; the
water had an empyreumatic and slightly sour taste ; the ashes contained sea-salt, car-
bonate of soda, and carbonaceous matter. The gaseous matter afforded was small in
quantity, principally carbonic acid, and gaseous oxide of carbon, with a little hydro-car-
bonate. This manure is transient in its effects, and does not last for more than a single
crop ; which is easily accounted for from the large quantity of water, or the elements of
water, it contains. It decays without producing heat when exposed to the atmosphere,
and seems, as it were, to melt down and dissolve away. A large heap has been entirely
destroyed in less than two years, nothing remaining but a little black fibrous matter.
Some of the firmest part of a fucus were suffered to remain in a close jar, containing at-
mospheric air, for a fortnight : in this time it had become very much slirivellcd ; the sides

Book II.

SPECIES OF MANURES. 237

of the jar were lined with dew. The air examined was found to have lost oxygen, and
contained carbonic acid gas. Sea-weed is sometimes suffered to ferment before it is
used ; but this process seems wholly unnecessary, for there is no fibrous matter rendered
soluble in the process, and a part of the manure is lost. The best cultivators use it as
fresh as it can be procured ; and the practical results of this mode of applying it are
exactly conformable to the theory of its operation. The carbonic acid formed by its in-
cipient fermentation must be partly dissolved by the water set free in the same process ;
and thus become capable of absorption by the roots of plants. The effects of tlie sea-
weed, as manure, must principally depend upon this carbonic acid, and upon the soluble
mucilage the weed contains ; some fucus which had fermented so as to have lost about
half its weight, afforded less than one twelfth of mucilaginous matter ; from which it may
be fairly concluded that some of this substance is destroyed in fermentation.

1125. Dry straw of wheat, oats, barley, beans, and peas, and spoiled hay, or any other
similar kind of dry vegetable matter, is, in all cases, useful manure. In general, such
substances are made to ferment before they are employed, though it may be doubted
whether the practice should be indiscriminately adopted. From 400 grains of dry barley-
straw eight grains of matter soluble in water were obtained, which had a brown color, and
tasted like mucilage. From 400 grains of wheaten straw, were obtained five grains of a
similar substance. ° There can be no doubt that the straw of different crops, immediately
ploughed into the ground, aflTords nourishment to plants ; but there is an objection to this
method of using straw, from the difficulty of burying long straw, and from its rendering
the husbandry foul. When straw is made to ferment, it becomes a more manageable
manure ; but there is likewise, on the whole, a great loss of nutritive matter. More
manure is perhaps supplied for a single crop ; but the land is less improved than it would
be, supposing the whole of the vegetable matter could be finely divided and mixed with
the soil. It is usual to carry straw that can be employed for no other purpose to the
dunghill, to ferment, and decompose; but it is worth experiment, whether it may not be
more economically applied when chopped small by a proper machine, and kept dry till it
is ploughed in for the use of a crop. In this case, though it would decompose much more
slowly, and produce less effect at first, yet its influence would be much more lasting.

1126. Mere woody fcbre seevas to be the only vegetable matter that requires fermentation
to render it nutritive to plants. Tanners' spent bark is a substance of tliis kind.
A. Young, in his excellent Essay on Manure, states, " that spent bark seemed rather to
injure tlian assist vegetation ;" which he attributes to the astringent matter that it contains.
But, in fact, it is freed from all soluble substances, by tlie operation of water in the tan-
pit ; and if injurious to vegetation, the effect is probably owing to its agency upon water,
or to its mechanical effects. It is a substance very absorbent and retentive of moisture,
and yet not penetrable by the roots of plants.

1 127. Inert peaty matter is a substance of the same kind. It remains for years exposed
to water and air without undergoing change, and in this state yields little or no nourish-
ment to plants. "Woody fibre will not ferment, unless some substances are mixed with
it, which act the same part as the mucilage, sugar, and extractive or albuminous matters,
with which it is usually associated in herbs and succulent vegetables. Lord Meadowbank
has judiciously recommended a mixture of common farm-yard dung for the purpose of
bringing peat into fermentation : any putrescible or fermentable substance will answer
the end ; and the more a substance heats, and the more readily it ferments, the better will
it be fitted for the purpose. Lord Meadowbank states, that one part of dung is suffi-
cient to bring three or four parts of peat into a state in which it is fitted to be applied to
land ; but of course the quantity must vary according to the nature of the dung and of
the peat. In cases in which some living vegetables are mixed with the peat, the ferment-
ation will be more readily effected.

1128. Tanners' spent bark, shavings of wood, and saw-dust, will probably require as
much dung to bring them into fermentation as the worst kind of peat. Woody fibre
may be likewise prepared, so as to become a manure, by the action of lime. It is evident,
from the analysis of woody fibre by Gay Lussac and Thenard, (which shows that it con-
sists principally of the elements of water and carbon, the carbon being in larger quantities
than in the otlier vegetable compounds,) that any process wliich tends to abstract carbo-
naceous matter from it, must bring it nearer in composition to the soluble principles ; and
this is done in fermentation by the absorption of oxygen and production of carbonic acid ;
and a similar effect, it will be shown, is produced by lime.

1 1 29. Wood-ashes, imperfectly formed, that is, wood-ashes containing much charcoal, are
said to have been used with success as a manure. A part of their effects may be owing
to the slow and gradual consumption of the charcoal, which seems capable, under other
circumstances than those of actual combustion, of absorbing oxygen so as to become car-
bonic acid. In April 1803, some well-burnt charcoal was enclosed by Sir H. Davy, in
a tube, half filled with pure water, and half with common air; the tube was hermetically
sealed. The tube was opened under pure water, in the spring of 1804, at a time when

23» SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

die atmospheric temperature and pressure were nearly the same as at the commencement
of the experiment. Some water rushed in ; and on expelling a little air by heat from the
tube, and analysing it, it was found to contain only seven per cent, of oxygen. The
watei in the tube, when mixed with lime-water, produced a copious precipitate ; so that
carbonic acid had evidently been formed and dissolved by the water.

1 1 30. Manures from animal substances, in general, require no chemical preparation to
fit them for the soil. The great object of the farmer is to blend them with the earthy
constituents in a proper state of division, and to prevent their too rapid decomposition.

1131. The entire jyarts of the muscles of land animals are not commonly used as manure,
though there are many cases in which such an application might be easily made. Horses,
dogs, sheep, deer, and other quadrupeds that have died accidentally, or of disease, after
their skins are separated, are often suffered to remain exposed to the air, or immersed in
water, till they are destroyed by birds or beasts of prey, or entirely decomposed ; and in
this case, most of their organised matter is lost for the land in which they lie, and a con-
siderable portion of it employed in giving off noxious gases to the atmosphere. By
covering dead animals with five or six times tlieir bulk of soil, mixed with one part of
lime, and suffering them to remain for a few months ; their decomposition would impreg-
nate the soil with soluble matters, so as to render it an excellent manure ; and by mixing
a little fresh quick lime with it at the time of its removal, the disagreeable effluvia would
be in a great measure destroyed ; and it might be applied in the same way as any other
manure to crops.

11 32. Fish forms a powerful manm-e, in whatever state it is applied ; but it cannot be
ploughed in too fresh, though the quantity should be limited. A. Young records an ex-
periment, in which herrings spread over a field, and ploughed in for wheat, produced so
rank a crop, that it was entirely laid before harvest. The refuse pilchards in Cornwall
are used throughout the county as a manure, with excellent effects. They are usually
mixed with sand or soil, and sometimes with sea-weed, to prevent them from raising too
luxuriant a crop. The effects are perceived for several years. In the fens of Lincoln-
shire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, the little fishes called sticklebacks, are caught in the
shallow waters in such quantities, that they form a great article of manure in the land
bordering on the fens. It is easy to explain the operation of fish as a manure. The skin
is principally gelatine ; which from its slight state of cohesion, is readily soluble in water :
fat or oil is always found in fishes, either under the skin or in some of the viscera ; and
their fibrous matter contains all the essential elements of vegetable substances.

1 1 33. Amongst oily substances, blubber has been employed as a manure. It is most
useful when mixed with clay, sand, or any common soil, so as to expose a large surface
to the air, the oxygen of which produces soluble matter from it. Lord Somerville used
blubber with great success at his farm in Surrey. It was made into a heap with soil, and
retained its powers of fertilising for several successive years. The carbon and hydrogen
abounding in oily substances, fully account for their effects ; and their durability is easily
explained from the gradual manner in which they change by the action of air and water.

1 134. Bones are much used as a manure in the neighbourhood of London. After being
broken, and boiled for grease, they are sold to the farmer. The more divided they are,
the more powerful are their effects. The expense of grinding them in a mill would pro-
bably be repaid by the increase of their fertilising powers ; and in the state of powder they
might be used in the drill husbandry, and delivered with the seed, in the same manner as
rape-cake. Bone-dust and bone -shavings, the refuse of the turning manufacture, may be
advantageously employed in the same way. The basis of bone is constituted by earthy
salts, principally phosphate of lime, with some carbonate of lime and phosphate of mag-
nesia ; the easily decomposable substances in bone, are fat, gelatine, and cartilage, which
seems of the same nature as coagulated albumen. According to the analysis of Fourcroy
and Vauquelin, ox-bones are composed of decomposable animal matter 5 1 ; phosphate of
lime 37'7, carbonate of lime 10, phosphate of magnesia 1-3 ; — total 100.

11 35. Horn is a still more powerful manure than bone, as it contains a larger quantity
of decomposable animal matter. From 500 grains of ox-horn, Hatchett obtained only
1 '5 grains of earthy residuum, and not quite half of this was phosphate of lime. The
shavings or turnings of horn form an excellent manure, though they are not sufficiently
abundant to be in common use. The animal matter in them seems to be of the nature
of coagulated albumen, and it is slowly rendered soluble by the action of water. The
earthy matter in horn, and still more that in bones, prevents the too rapid decomposition
of the anifnal matter, and renders it very durable in its effects.

1136. Hair, woollen rags, and feathers, are all analogous in composition, and princi-
pally consist of a substance similar to albumen united to gelatine. This is shown by the
ingenious researches of Hatchett. The theory of their operation is similar to that of
bone and liorn shavings.

1137. The refuse of the different manufactures of skin and leather form very useful
manures; such as the shavings of the currier, furriers' clippings, and the offals of the

Book II. SPECIES OF MANURES. 889

tan-yard and of tlie glue-maker. The gelatine contained in every kind of skin is in a
state fitted for its gradual solution or decomposition ; and when buried in the soil, it
lasts for a considerable time, and constantly affords a supply of nutritive matter to the
plants in its neighbourhood. . • , x- j • .1 - i u

1 138 Blood contains certain quantities of all the principles found in otiier animal sub-
stances, and is consequently a very good manure. It has been already stated that it
contains fibrine ; it likewise contains albumen ; the red particles in it, which have been
supposed bv many foreign chemists to be colored by iron in a paiticular state of combin-
ation with oxygen and acid matter, Brande considers as formed of a peculiar ammal
substance, containing very little iron. The scum taken from the boilers of the sugar-
bakers, and which is used as manure, principally consists of bullocks' blood, which has
been employed for the purpose of separating the impurities of common brown sugar, by
means of the coagulation of its albuminous matter by the heat of the boiler.

11 39. Tlie diferejtt species of corals, corallines, and sponges, must be considered as sub-
stances of animal origin. From the analysis of Hatchett, it appears that all these
substances contain considerable quantities of a matter analogous to coagulated albumen ;
the sponges afford likewise gelatine. According to Merat Guillot, white coral contains
equal parts of animal matter and carbonate of lime ; red coral 46-5 of animal matter,
and 53-5 of carbonate of lime ; articulated coralline 51 of animal matter, and 49 of
carbonate of lime. These substances are never used as manure in this country, except
in cases when they are accidentally mixed with sea-weed ; but it is probable that tlie
corallines might be advantageously employed, as they are found in considerable quantity
on the rocks, and bottoms of the rocky pools on many parts of our coast, where the land
gradually declines towards the sea ; and they might be detached by hoes, and collected
without much trouble.

1140. Amongst excrementitious anima/ si^isfawces used as manures, urine is the one
upon which the greatest number of chemical experiments have been made, and the
nature of which is best understood. The urine of the cow contains, according to the
experiments of Brande ; water 65 ; phosphate of lime 3 ; muriates of potassa and ammonia
15 ; sulphate of potassa 6 ; carbonates, potassa, and ammonia 4 ; urea 4.

1141. The urine of the horse, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, contains, of car-
bonate of lime 1 1, carbonate of soda 9, benzoate of soda 24, muriate of potassa 9, urea 7,
water and mucilage 940. In addition to these substances, Brande found in it phosphate
of lime. The urine of the ass, the camel, the rabbit, and domestic fowls, have been
submitted to different experiments, and their constitution have been found similar. In
the urine of the rabbit, in addition to most of the ingredients above mentioned, Vau-
quelin detected gelatine ; and the same chemist discovered uric acid in the urine of do-
mestic fowls. Human urine contains a greater variety of constituents than any other
species examined. Urea, uric acid, and another acid similar to it in nature, called
rosacic acid, acetic acid, albumen, gelatine, a resinous matter, and various salts are found
in it. The human urine differs in composition, according to the state of the body, and
the nature of the food and drink made use of. In many cases of disease there is a much
larger quantity of gelatine and albumen than usual in the urine ; and in diabetes it con-
tains sugar. It is probable that the urine of the same animal must likewise differ
according to the different nature of the food and drink used ; and this will account for
discordances in some of the analyses that have been published on the subject. Urine is
very liable to change, and to undergo the putrefactive process ; and that of carnivorous
animals more rapidly than that of graminivorous animals. In proportion as there is more
gelatine and albumen in urine, so in proportion does it putrefy more quickly. The species
of urine that contain most albumen, gelatine, and urea, are the best as manures ; and all
urine contains the essential elements of vegetables in a state of solution. During the
putrefaction of urine the greatest part of the soluble animal matter that it contains is
destroyed : it should consequently be used as fresh as possible ; but if not mixed with
solid matter, it should be diluted with water, as, when pure, it contains too large a quan-
tity of animal matter to form a proper fluid nourishment for absorption by the roots of
plants.

1 1 42. Putrid urine abounds in ammoniacal salts ; and though less active than fresh
urine, is a very powerful manure. According to a recent analysis published by Berze-
lius, 1000 parts of urine are composed of, %vater 933; urea 30-1 ; uric acid 1 ; muriate of
ammonia, free lactic acid, lactate of ammonia, and animal matter 17*14. The remainder
different salts, phosphates, sulphates, and muriates.

1 143. Dung of birds. Amongst excrementitious solid substances used as manures, one of
the most powerful is the dung of birds that feed on animal food, particularly the dung of
sea-birds. The guano, which is used to a great extent in South America, and which is the
manure that fertilises the sterile plains of Peru, is a production of this kind. It exists
abundantiy, as we are informed by Humboldt, on the small islands in the South Sea, at
Carinche, Ilo, Iza, and Arica. Fifty vessels are laden with it annually at Chinche, each of

240 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

which carries from 1500 to 2000 cubical feet. It is used as a manure only in very
small quantities ; and particularly for crops of maize. Some experiments were made on
specimens of guano in 1805. It appeared as a fine brown powder ; it blackened by heat,
and gave off strong ammoniacal fumes ; treated with nitric acid, it afforded uric acid.
In 1806, Fourcroy and Vauquelin published an elaborate analysis of guano. They
state that it contains a fourth part of its weight of uric acid, partly saturated with am-
monia, and partly with potassa ; some phosphoric acid combined with the bases, and
likewise with lime. Small quantities of sulphate and muriate of potassa, a little fatty
matter, and some quartzose sand. ' It is easy to explain its fertilising properties : from
its composition it might be supposed to be a very powerful manure. It requires
water for the solution of its soluble matter to enable it to produce its full beneficial effect
on crops.

1 144. The dung of sea-birds has never been much used as a manure in this country ;
but it is probable that even the soil of the small islands on our coast much frequented by
them would fertilise. Some dung of sea-birds, brought from a rock on the coast of
Merionethshire, produced a powerful, but transient effect on grass. Tlie rains in our
climate must tend very much to injure this species of manure, where it is exposed to
them, soon after its deposition ; but it may probably be found in great perfection in
caverns or clefts in rocks haunted by cormorants and gulls. Some recent cormorants*
dung, when examined, had not at all the appearance of the guano ; it was of a greyish-
white color ; had a very fetid smell, like that of putrid animal matter ; when acted
on by quick-lime, it gave abundance of ammonia ; treated with nitric acid, it yielded
uric acid.

1145. Night-soil, it is well known, is a very powerful manure, and very liable to de-
compose. It differs in composition ; but always abounds in substances composed of
carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen. From the analysis of Berzelius, it appears that a
part of it is always soluble in water ; and in whatever state it is used, whether recent or
fermented, it supplies abundance of food to plants. The disagreeable smell of night-
soil may be destroyed by mixing it with quick-lime ; and if exposed to the atmosphere
in thin layers, strewed over with quick-lime in fine weather, it speedily dries, is easily
pulverised, and in this state, may be used in the same manner as rape-cake, and
delivered into the fun-ow with the seed. The Chinese, who have more practical know-
ledge of the use and application of manures than any other people existing, mix their
night-soil with one third of its weight of a fat marl, make it into cakes, and dry it by
exposure to the sun. These cakes, we are informed by the French missionaries, have no
disagreeable smell, and form a common article of commerce of the empire. The earth,
by its absorbent powers, probably prevents, to a certain extent, the action of moisture
upon the dung, and likewise defends it from tlie effects of air. Desiccated night-soil, in
a state of powder, forms an article of internal commerce in France, and is known under
tlie name o^ poudrette. In London it is mixed with quick-lime, and sold in cakes under
the name of " Clarke's desiccated compost."

1146. Pigeons' dung comes next in order, as to fertilising power. 100 grains di-
gested in hot water for some hours, produced 23 grains of soluble matter, which
afforded abundance of carbonate of ammonia by distillation ; and left carbonaceous
matter, saline matter, principally common salt, and carbonate of lime as a residuum.
Pigeons' dung, when moist, readily ferments, and after fermentation, contains less
soluble matter than before ; from 100 parts of fermented pigeons' dung, only eight parts
of soluble matter were obtained, which gave proportionally less carbonate of ammonia in
distillation than recent pigeons' dung. It is evident that this manure should be applied
as new as possible ; and when dry, it may be employed in the same manner as the other
manures capable of being pulverised. The soil in woods, where great flocks of wood-
pigeons roost, is often highly impregnated with their dung, and it cannot be doubted,
would form a valuable manure. Such soil will often yield ammonia when distilled with
lime. In the winter, likewise, it usually contains abundance of vegetable matter, the
remains of decayed leaves, and the dung tends to bring the vegetable matter into a state
of solution. Manuring was, and still is, in great esteem in Persia.

1147. Tlie dung of domestic fowls approaches very nearly in its nature to pigeons' dung.
Uric acid has been found in it. It gives carbonate of ammonia by distillation, and im-
mediately yields soluble matter to water. It is very liable to ferment. The dung of
fowls is employed, in common with that of pigeons, by tanners, to bring on a slight degree
of putrefaction in skins that are to be used for making soft leather ; for this purpose
the dung is diffused through water. In this state it rapidly undergoes putrefaction, and
brings on a similar change in the skin. The excrements of dogs are employed by the
tanner with similar effects. In all cases, tlie contents of the grainer, as the pit is called
in which soft skins are prepared by dung, must form a very useful manure.

1 148. Rabbits* dung has never been analysed. It is used with great success as a manure
by some farmers, who find it profitable to keep rabbits in such a manner as to preserve

Book II. APPLICATION OF MANURES. 241

their dung. It is laid on as fresh as possible, and is found better the less it \\ta

fermented. ■ ■,, t^- , t> ,

1 149. The dung of cattle^ oxen, and cows, has been chemically examined by i^mhof and
Thaer. They found that it contained matter soluble in water ; and that it gave in
fermentation nearly the same products as vegetable substances, absorbing oxygen, and
producing carbonic acid gas. ., i •

11 50. Tlie recent dung of sheep and of deer aflfbrds, when long boiled m water, soluble
matters which equal from two to three per cent, of their weight. These soluble sub-
stances, procured by solution and evaporation, when examined, contain a very small quan-
tity of matter analogous to animal mucus ; and are principally composed of a bitter
extract, soluble both in water and in alcohol. They give ammoniacal fumes by dis-
tillation, and appear to differ very little in composition. Some blades of grass were
watered for several successive days with a solution of these extracts ; they evidently be-
came greener in consequence, and grew more vigorously than grass in other resjiects
under the same circumstances. Tlie part of the dung of cattle, sheep, and deer, not
soluble in water, appears to be mere woody fibre, and precisely analogous to the residuum
of tliose vegetables that form their food after they have been deprived of all their soluble
materials.

1151. The dung of horses gives a brown fluid, which, when evaporated, yields a bitter
extract, which affords ammoniacal fumes more copiously than that from the dung of
oxen.

1152. In the treatment of the jnire dung of cattle, slieep, and horses, there seems no
reason why it should be made to ferment except in tlie soil, like the other pure dungs ;
or, if suffered to ferment, it should be only in a very slight degree. The grass, in the
neighbourhood of recently voided dung, is always coarse and dark green ; some person.^
have attributed this to a noxious quality in unfermenting dung ; but it seems to
be rather tlie result of an excess of food furnished to the plants.

1 153. Street and road dung and the sweepings of houses may be all regarded as composite
manures ; the constitution of them is necessarily various, as they are derived from a num-
ber of different substances. These manures are usually applied in a proper manner,
witfiout being fermented.

1154. Soot, wliich is principally formed from the combustion of pit-coal or coal,
generally contains likewise substances derived from animal matters. This is a very
powerful manure. It affords ammoniacal salts by distillation, and yields a browTi
extract to hot water, of a bitter taste. It likewise contains an empyreumatic oil. Its
great basis is charcoal, in a state in which it is capable of being rendered soluble by the
action of oxygen and water. This manure is well fitted to be used in the dry state,
thrown into the ground with the seed, and requires no preparation.

SuBSECT. 3. Of the fermenting, jrreserving, and applj/ing of Manures of Animal and

Vegetable Origin.

1155. On tlie management of organic manures depends much of their value as food to
plants. The great mass of manures procured by the cultivator are a mixture of
animal and vegetable matters, and the great source of supply is the farm or stable yard.
Here the excrementitious matter of horses, cattle, swine, and poultry, is mixed
with straw, haulm, chaff, and various kinds of litter. To what degree should this
be fermented before it is applied to the soil ? And how can it best be preserved when not
immediately wanted?

1156. A slight incipient fermentation is undoubtedly of use in the dunghill; for, by
means of it a disposition is brought on in the woody fibre to decay and dissolve, when it
is carried to the land, or ploughed into the soil ; and woody fibre is always in great ex-
cess in the refuse of the farm. Too great a degree of fermentation is, however,
very prejudicial to the composite manure in the dunghill ; it is better that there should be
no fermentation at all before the manure is used, than that it should be carried
too far. ITie excess of fermentation tends to the destruction and dissipation of the most
useful part of the manure ; and the ultimate results of this process are like those of com-
bustion. It is a common practice amongst farmers to suffer the farm-yard dung to ferment
till the fibrous texture of the vegetable matter is entirely broken down ; and till
the manure becomes perfectly cold, and so soft as to be easily cut by the spade. Inde-
pendent of the general theoretical views unfavorable to this practice, founded upon the
nature and composition of vegetable substances, there are many arguments and
facts which show that it is prejudicial to the interests of the farmer.

1157. During the violent fermentation which is necessary for reducing farm-yard
noanure to the state in which it is called short muck, not only a large quantity of fluid, but
likewise of gaseous matter is lost ; so much so, that the dung is reduced one half, or two
thirds in weight ; and the principal elastic matter disengaged, is carbonic acid with some
ammonia ; and both these, if retained bv the moisture in the soil, as has been stated

R

242 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

before, are capable of becoming a useful nourishment of plants. In October, 1808,
Sir H. Davy filled a large retort capable of containing three pints of water, with some
hot fermenting manure, consisting principally of the litter and dung of cattle ; he adapted
a small receiver to the retort, and connected the whole with a mercurial pneumatic
apparatus, so as to collect the condensible and elastic fluids which might rise from the
dung. The receiver soon became lined with dew, and drops began in a few hours
to trickle down the sides of it. Elastic fluid likewise was generated; in three days
thirty-five cubical inches had been formed, which, when analysed, were found to contain
twenty-one cubical inches of carbonic acid, the remainder was hydrocarbonate mixed
with some azote, probably no more than existed in the common air in the receiver. The
fluid matter collected in the receiver at the same time amounted to nearly half an ounce.
It had a saline taste, and a disagreeable smell, and contained some acetate and carbonate
of ammonia. Finding such products given off from fermenting litter, he introduced
the beak of another retort, filled with similar dung, very hot at the time, in the soil
amongst the roots of some grass in the border of a garden ; in less than a week a very
distinct effect was produced on the grass ; upon the spot exposed to the influence of the
matter disengaged in fermentation, it grew with much more luxuriance than the grass in
any otl)er part of the garden. — Besides the dissipation of gaseous matter, when
fermentation is pushed to the extreme, there is another disadvantage in the loss of
heat, which, if excited in the soil, is useful in promoting the germination of the seed, and
in assisting the plant in the first stage of its growth, when it is most feeble and most
liable to disease : and the fermentation of manure in the soil must be particularly
favorable to the wheat crop, in preserving a genial temperature beneath the surface late
in autumn and during winter. Again, it is a general principle in chemistry, that in all
cases of decomposition, substances combine much more readily at the moment of theit*
disengagement, than after they have been perfectly formed. And in fermentation
beneath the soil the fluid matter produced is applied instantly, even whilst it is warm, to
the organs of the plant, and consequently is more likely to be efficient, than in manure
that has gone through the process ; and of which all the principles have entered into nev^
combinations.

1158. Checking fermentation by covering. "There are reasons sufficiently strong,"
Grisenthwaite observes, *' to discourage the practice of allowing dung-heaps to ferment
and rot without interruption. It appears that public opinion has slowly adopted the
decisions of chemical reasoning, and dung-jiies, as they are called, have been formed with
a view to save what was before lost ; a stratum of mould, sustaining the heap, being
placed to receive the fluid parts, and a covering of mould being applied to prevent the
dissipation of the aerial, or gaseous products. These purposes and contrivances,
unfortunately, like many of the other operations of husbandry, were not directed by
scientific knowledge. To cover is so commonly believed to confine, that there is no
wonder that the practical cultivator adopted it in this instance from such a consideration.
But it is in vain ; the elasticity of the gases generated is such as no covering whatever
cpuld possibly confine. If it were perfectly compact, it could only preserve as much
carbonic acid as is equal to the volume or bulk of air within it ; a quantity too incon-
siderable to be regarded, could it even be saved; but every particle of it must be
disengaged, and lost, when the covering is removed."

1 1 59. Checking fermentation hy watering is sometimes recommended ; but this practice
is inconsistent witli jusfc chemical views. It may cool the dung for a short time ; but
moisture, as before stated, is a principal agent in all processes of decomposition. Dry
fibrous matter will never ferment. Water is as necessary as air to the process ; and to
supply it to fermenting dung, is to supply an agent which will hasten its decay. In all
cases when dung is fermenting, there are simple tests by which the rapidity of the process,
and consequently the injury done, may be discovered. If a thermometer, plunged into
the dung, does not rise to above one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit, there is little
danger of much aeriform matter flying off. If the temperature is higher, the dung
should be immediately spread abroad. When a piece of paper, moistened in muriatic
acid, held over the steams arising from a dunghill, gives dense fumes, it is a certain test
that the decomposition is going too far, for this indicates that volatile alkali is
disengaged.

1160. In favor of the ajyplication of farm-yard dung in a recent state, a great mass of
facts may be found in the writings of scientific agriculturists. A. Young, in the Essay
on Manures, already quoted, adduces a number of excellent autliorities in support of the
plan. Many, who doubted, have been lately convinced ; and perhaps there is no subject
of investigation in which there is such a union of theoretical and practical evidence.
Within the last seven years Coke has entirely given up the system formerly adopted on
his farm, of applying fermented dung; and his crops have been since as good as
they ever were, and his manure goes nearly twice as far. A great objection against
slightly fermented dung is, that weeds spring up more luxuriantly where it is applied.

Book II. OPERATION OF MINERAL MANURES. 24S

If tliere are seeds carried out in the dung, they cert^nly will germinate ; but it is seldom
that this can be the case to any extent ; and if the land is not cleansed of weeds, any
kind of manure, fermented or unfermented, will occasion their rapid growtli. If
slightly fermented farm-yard dung is used as a top-dressing for pastures, tlie long
straws and unfermented vegetable matter remaining on the surface should be re-
moved as soon as the grass l>egins to rise vigorously, by raking, and carried back to
the dunghill : in this case no manure will be lost, and the husbandry will be at once
clean and economical. In cases when farm-yard dung cannot be immediately applied to
crops, the destructive fermentation of it should be prevented as much as possible :
the principles on which this may be effected have been already alluded to. The surface
should be defended as much as possible from the oxygen of the atmosphere ; a compact
marl, or a tenacious clay, offers tlie best protection against the air ; and before the dung
is covered over, or, as it were, sealed up, it should be dried as much as possible. If the
dung is found at any time to heat strongly, it should be turned over, and cooled by
exposure to the air.

1161. The doctrine of the projier application of manures from organised substances,
offers an illustration of an important part of the economy of nature, and of *he happy
order in which it is arranged. The death and decay of animal substances tend to
resolve organised forms into chemical constituents ; and the pernicious effluvia disengaged
in the process seem to point out the propriety of burying them in the soil, where they are
fitted to become the food of vegetables. The fermentation and putrefaction of or-
ganised substances in the free atmosphere are noxious processes ; beneath the surface of
the ground they are salutary operations. In tliis case the food of plants is prepared
where it can be used ; and that which would offend the senses and injure tlie health, if
exposed^ is converted by gradual processes into forms of beauty and of usefulness ; the
foetid gas is rendered a constituent of the aroma of the flower, and what might be poison
becomes nourishment to animals and to man.

11 62. To jrreserve dung for any time, the situation in which it is kept is of importance.
It should, if possible, be defended from the sun. To preserve it undel: sheds would be
of great use ; or to make the site of a dunghill on the north side of a wall. The floor
on which the dung is heaped, should, if possible, be paved with flat stones ; and there
should be a little inclination from each side towards the centre, in which there should be
drains connected with a small well, furnished with a pump, by which any fluid matter
may be collected for the use of the land. It too often happens that a dense mucilaginous
and extractive fluid is suffered to drain away from the dunghill, so as to be entirely lost
to the farm.

Sect. II. Of Manures of Mineral Origin.

11 63. Earthy and saline ?nanures are probably of more recent invention, and doubtless
of more uncertain use than those of animal and vegetable origin. The conversion of
matter that has belonged to living structures into organised forms, is a process that can
be easily understood ; but it is more difficult to follow those operations by which earthy
and saline matters are consolidated in the fibre of plants, and by which they are made
subservient to their functions. These are capable of being materially elucidated by
modem chemistry, and shall here be considered as to the theory of their operation, and
si>ecific kinds.

SuBSECT. 1. Theory of the Operation of Mineral Manures.

1164. Saline and calcareous substances form the principal fossil manures. Much has
been written on lime and common salt, both in the way of speculation and reasoning
from facts, which, from want of chemical knowledge, has turned to no useful account, and
cultivators till very lately contented themselves with stating that these substances acted as
stimuli to the soil, something like condiments to the digestive organs of animals. Even
chemists themselves are not yet unanimous in all their opinions; but still the result of
their enquiries will be found of great benefit to the scientific cultivator.

1165. Various opinions exist as to the rationale of tbe operation of mineral manures.
« Some enquirers," Sir H. Davy observes, " adopting that sublime generalisation of
the anaent philosophers, that matter is the same in essence, and that the different sub-
stances, considered as elements by chemists, are merely different arrangements of the
same mdestructible particles, have endeavoured to prove, that all the varieties of the prin-
ciples found m plants, may be formed from the substances in the atmosphere ; and that
vegetable life is a process in which bodies that the analytical philosopher is unable to
change or to form, are constantly composed and decomposed. But the general results
of experiments are ver>' much opposed to the idea of the composition of the earths, by
plants, from any of the elements found in the atmosphere, or in water; and there are
various facts contradictory to the idea. Jacquin states, that the ashes of glass-wort {Sal^

244 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

sola soda), when it grows in inland situations, afford the vegetable alkali ; when it grows
on the sea-shore, where compounds which afford the fossil or marine alkali are more
abundant, it yields that substance. Du Hamel found that plants which usually grow
on the sea-shore, made small progress when planted in soils containing little common
salt. The sun-flower, Mhen growing in lands containing no nitre, does not afford that
substance ; though when watered by a solution of nitre, it yields nitre abundantly. The
tables of De Saussure show that the ashes of plants are similar in constitution to the soils
in wliich they have vegetated. De Saussure made plants grow in solutions of different
salts ; and he ascertained that, in all cases, certain portions of the salts were absorbed by
the plants, and found unaltered in their organs. Even animals do not appear to possess
tlie power of forming the alkaline and earthy substances. Dr. Fordyce found, that when
canary-birds, at the time they were laying eggs, were deprived of access to carbonate of
lime, their eggs had soft shells ; and if there is any process for which nature may be con-
ceived most likely to supply resources of this kind, it is that connected with the repro-
duction of the species.

1 166. It seems a fair conclusion^ as the evidence on the subject now stands, that tlie dif-
ferent earths and saline substances found in the organs of plants, are supplied by the soils
in which they grow ; and in no cases composed by new arrangements of the elements in
air or water. What may be our ultimate view of the laws of chemistry, or how far our
ideas of elementary principles may be simplified, it is impossible to say. We can only
reason from facts. We cannot imitate the powers of composition belonging to vegetable
structures ; but at least we can understand them : and as far as our researches have
gone, it appears that in vegetation compound forms are uniformly produced from simple
ones ; and the elements in the soil, the atmosphere and the earth absorbed and made parts
of beautiful and diversified structures. Tlie views which have been just developed lead to
correct ideas of the operation of those manures which are not necessarily the result of de-
cayed organised bodies, and which are not composed of different proportions of carbon^
hydrogen, oxygen, and azote. — They must produce their effect, either by becoming a
constituent part of the plant, or by acting upon its more essential food, so as to render it
more fitted for the purposes of vegetable life.

SuBSECT. 2. Of the di^erent Species of Mineral Manures.

1167. Alkaline earths, or alkalies and their combinations, which are found unmixed with
the remains of any organised beings, are the only substances which can with propriety be
called fossil manures. The only alkaline earths which have been hitherto applied in this
way are lime and magnesia ; though potassa and soda, the two fixed alkalies, are both used
to a limited extent in certain of their chemical compounds.

11 68. 2'he most common form in which lime is found on the surface of the earth, is in a
state of combination with carbonic acid or fixed air. If a piece of limestone or chalk
be thrown into a fluid acid, there will be an effervescence. This is owing to the escape
of the carbonic acid gas. The lime becomes dissolved in the liquor. When limestone
is strongly heated, the carbonic acid gas is expelled, and then nothing remains but the
pure alkaline earth ; in this case there is a loss of weight ; and if the fire has been very
high, it approaches to one half the weight of the stone ; but in common cases, limestones,
if well dried before burning, do not lose much more than 35 to 40 per cent., or from
seven to eight parts out of twenty.

1 1 69. IFhen burnt lime is exposed to the atmosphere, in a certain time it becomes mild,
and is the same substance as that precipitated from lime-water ; it is combined with car-
bonic acid gas. Quick-lime, when first made, is caustic and burning to the tongue,
renders vegetable blues green, and is soluble in water ; but when combined with carbonic
acid, it loses all these properties, its solubility, and its taste : it regains its power of effer-
vescing, and becomes the same chemical substance as chalk or limestone. Very few
limestones or chalks consist entirely of lime and carbonic acid. The statuary marbles,
or certain of the rhomboidal spars, are almost the only pure species ; and the different
properties of limestones, both as manures and cements, depend upon the nature of the in-
gredient mixed in the limestone ; for the true calcareous element, the carbonate of lime,
is uniformly the same in nature, properties, and effects, and consists of one proportion of
carbonic acid 41-4, and one of lime 55. When a limestone does not copiously effer-
vesce in acids, and is sufficiently hard to scratch glass, it contains siliceous, and probably
aluminous earth. When it is deep brown or red, or strongly colored, of any of the shades
of brown or yellow, it contains oxide of iron. When it is not sufficiently hard to scratch
glass, but effervesces slowly, and makes the acid in which it effervesces milky, it contains
magnesia. And when it is black, and emits a fetid smell if rubbed, it contains coaly or
bituminous matter. Before any opinion can be formed of the manner in which the
different ingredients in limestones modify their properties, it will be necessary to con-
sider the operation of pure lime as a manure.

Book II. SPECIES OF MINERAL MANURES. 245

1 1 70. Quick-lime, in its pure state, whether in powder, or dissolved in water, is injurious
to plants. In several instances grass has been killed by watering it with hme-water.
But lime in its state of combination with carbonic acid, is a useful ingredient in soils.
Calcareoils earth is found in the ashes of the greater number of plants ; and exposed
to the air, lime cannot long continue caustic, for the reasons that were just now
assigned, but soon becomes united to carbonic acid. When newly-burnt hme is exposed
to air, it soon falls into powder ; in this case it is called slacked lime ; and the same effect
is immediatelv produced by throwing water upon it, when it heats violently, and tiie
water disappears. Slacked lime is merely a combination of lime, with about one third
of its wei<rht of water ; i. e. fifty-five parts of lime absorb seventeen parts of water ; and
in tliis ca°e it is composed of a definite proportion of water, and is called J)y chemists
hydrate of lime; and when hydrate of lime becomes carbonate of Ume by long exposure
to air, the water is expelled, and the carbonic acid gas takes its place. When hme,
whether freshly burnt or slacked, is mixed with any moist fibrous vegetable matter, there
is a strong action between the lime and the vegetable matter, and they form a kind of
compost together, of which a part is usually soluble in water. By this kind of operation,
lime renders matter which was before comparatively inert, nutritive ; and as charcoal
and oxygen abound in all vegetable matters, it becomes at the same time converted into
carbonate of lime.

1171. Mild lime, powdered limestone, marls, or cludks have no action of tliis kind
upon vegetable matter ; they prevent the too rapid decomposition of substances
already dissolved ; but they have no tendency to form soluble matters. It is obvious
from these circumstances, that the operation of quick-lime, and marl, or chalk, depends
upon principles altogether different. Quick-lime, in being applied to land, tends to
bring any hard vegetable matter that it contains into a state of more rapid decomposition
and solution, so as to render it a proper food for plants. Chalk and marl, or carbonate
of lime, will only improve the texture of the soil, or its relation to absorption ; it acts
merely as one of its earthy ingredients. Chalk has been recommended as a substance
calculated to correct the sourness of land. It would surely have been a wise practice to
have previously ascertained the certainty of this existence of acid, and to have determined
its nature, in order that it might be effectually removed. The fact really is, that no soil
was ever yet found to contain any notable quantity of uncombined acid. The acetic and
carbonic acids are the only two that are likely to be generated by any spontaneous de-
composition of animal or vegetable bodies, and neither of these has any fixity when ex-
posed to the air. Chalk ha^•ing no power of acting on animal and vegetable substances,
can be no otherwise serviceable to land than as it alters its texture. Quick-lime, when
it becomes mild, operates in the same manner as cbalk ; but in the act of becoming mild,
it prepares soluble out of insoluble matter. Bouillon la Grange says, that gelatine
oxygenised becomes insoluble, and vegetable extract w e know becomes so from the same
cause ; now lime has the property of attracting oxygen, and, consequently, of restoring
the property of solubility to those substances which have been deprived of it, from a
combination with oxygen. Hence the uses of lime on peat lands, and on all soils con-,
taining an excess of vegetable insoluble matter. (^Grisenthwaite.)

1 1 72. Effect of lime on wheat crops. When lime is employed upon land where there is
present any quantity of animal matter, it occasions the evolution of a quantity of ammonia,
which may, perhaps, be imbibed by the leaves of plants, and afterwards undergo some
change so as to form gluten. It is upon this circumstance that the operation of lime in
the preparation for wheat crops depends ; and its efficacy in fertilising peat, and in bring-
ing into a state of cultivation all soils abounding in hard roots, or dry fibres, or inert
vegetable matter.

1 1 73. General piinciplesfor applying lime. The solution of the question whether quick-
lime ought to be applied to a soil, depends upon the quantity of inert vegetable matter
that it contains. The solution of the question, whether marl, mild Hme, or powdered
limestone ought to be applied, depends upon the quantity of calcareous matter already in
the soil. All soils are improved by mild lime, and ultimately by quick-lime, which do not
effervesce with acids ; and sands more than clays» When a soil, deficient in calcareous
matter, contains much soluble vegetable manure, the application of quick-lime should
always be avoided, as it either tends to decompose the soluble matters by uniting to their
carbon and oxygen so as to become mild lime, or it combines with the soluble matters,
and forms compounds having less attraction for water than the pure vegetable substance.
The case is the same with respect to most animal manures ; but the operation of the lime
is different in different cases, and depends upon the nature of the animal matter. Lime
forms a kind of insoluble soap with oily mattersj and then gradually decomposes them by
separating from them oxygen and carbon. It combines likewise with the animal acids,
and probably assists their decomposition by abstracting carbonaceous matter from them
combined with oxygen ; and consequently it must render them less nutritive. It tends
to diminish likewise the nutritive powers of albumen from the same causes ; and alway*

R 3

246 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

destroys, to a certain extent, the efficacy of animal manures ; either by combining with
certain of their elements, or by giving to them new arrangements. Lime should never
be applied witli animal manures, unless they are too rich, or for the purpose of preventing
noxious effluvia. It is injurious when mixed with any common dung, and tends to
render the extractive matter insoluble.

1 1 74. Lime promotes fermentation. In those cases in which fermentation is useful to
produce nutriment from vegetable substances, lime is always efficacious. Some moist
tanners' spent bark was mixed with one fifth of its weight of quick-lime, and suffered to
remain together in a close vessel for three months ; the lime had become colored, and
was effervescent : when water was boiled upon the mixture, it gained a tint of fawn-color,
and by evaporation furnished a fawn-colored powder, which must have consisted of
lime united to vegetable matter, for it burnt when strongly heated, and left a residuum
of mild lime.

1 1 75. Different kinds of limestones have different effects. The limestones containing
alumina and silica are less fitted for the purposes of manure than pure limestones ; but
the lime formed from them has no noxious quality. Such stones are less efficacious,
merely because they furnish a smaller quantity of quick-lime. ITiere is very seldoni
any considerable portion of coaly matter in bituminous limestones ; never as much as
five parts in 100 ; but such limestones make very good lime. Tlie carbonaceous matter
can do no injury to the land, and may, under certain circumstances, become a food of the
plant.

1176. The subject of the application of the magnesian limestone is one of great interest.
It had been long known to farmers in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, that lime made
from a certain limestone applied to the land, often injured the crops considerably.
Tennant, in making a series of experiments upon this peculiar calcareous. substance,
found that it contained magnesia ; and on mixing some calcined magnesia with soil, ia
which he sowed different seeds, he found that they either died or vegetated in a very
imperfect manner, and the plants were never healthy. And with great justice and
ingenuity he referred the bad effects of the peculiar limestone to the magnesian earth it
contains.

1177. Magnesian limestone is used ivith good effect in some cases. Magnesia has a
much weaker attraction for carbonic acid than lime, and will remain in the state of caus-
tic or calcined magnesia for many months, though exposed to the air. And as long as
any caustic lime remains, the magnesia cannot be combined with carbonic acid, for lime
instantly attracts carbonic acid from magnesia. When a magnesian limestone is burnt,
the magnesia is deprived of carbonic acid much sooner than the lime ; and if there is not
much vegetable or animal matter in the soil to supply by its decomposition carbonic acid,
the magnesia will remain for a long while in the caustic state ; and in this state acts as a
poison to certain vegetables. And that more magnesian lime may be used upon rich
soils, seems to be owing to the circumstance that tlie decomposition of the manure in them
supplies carbonic acid. And magnesia, in its mild state, i. e. fully combined with car-
bonic acid, seems to be always a useful constituent of soils. Carbonate of magnesia
(procured by boiling the solution of magnesia in supercarbonate of potassa,) was thrown
upon grass, and upon growing wheat and barley, so as to render the surface white ; but
the vegetation was not injured in the slightest degree. And one of the most fertile parts
of Cornwall, the Lizard, is a district in which the soil contains mild magnesian earth.
It is obvious, from what has been said, that lime from the magnesian limestone may
be applied in large quantities to peats ; and that where lands have been injured by
the application of too large a quantity of magnesian lime, peat will be a proper and
efficient remedy.

11 78. A simple test of magnesia in a limestone is its slight effervescence with acids, and
its rendering diluted nitric acid, or aqua fortis, milky. From the analysis of Tennant, it
appears to contain from 20*3 to 22-5 magnesia; 29-5 to 31 '7 lime ; 47-2 carbonic acid ;
0*8 clay and oxide of iron. Magnesia limestones are usually colored brown or pale yel-
low. They are found in Somersetshire, Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Shropshire, Durham,
and Yorkshire ; and in many parts of Ireland, particularly near Belfast. In general,
when limestones are not magnesian, their purity will be indicated by their loss of weight
in burning ; the more they lose, the larger is the quantity of calcareous matter they con-
tain. Tlie magnesian limestones contain more carbonic acid than the common lime-
stones ; and I have found all of them lose more than half their weight by calcination.

1179. Gypsum. Besides being used in the forms of lime and carbonate of lime, cal-
careous matter is applied for the purposes of agriculture in other combinations. One of
these bodies is gypsum or sulphate of lime. This substance consists of sulphuric acid
(the same body that exists combined with water in oil of vitriol,) and lime ; and when dry
it is composed of 55 parts of lime and 75 parts of sulphuric acid. Common gypsum or
selenite, such as that found at Shotover Hill, near Oxford, contains, besides sulphuric
acid and lime, a considerable quantity of water; and its composition may be thus

r.ooi: II. SPECIES OF MINERAL MANURES. 247

expressed : sulphuric acid one proportion 75 ; lime one proportion 55 ; water two pro-

^1 180. The nature ofgt/psum is easily demonstrated ; if oil of vitriol be added to quick-
lime, there is a violent heat produced ; when the mixture is ignited, water is given off,
and g>'psum alone is the result, if the acid has been used in sufficient quanuty ; and gj-p-
sum mixed with quick-lime, if the quanUty has been deficient. Gypsum, free from
water, is sometimes found in nature, when it is called anhydrous selenite. It is distin-
guished from common gypsum by giving off no water when heated. When gypsum, free
from water, or deprived of water by heat, is made into a paste with water, it rapidly sets
by combining with that fluid. Plaster of Paris is powdered dr>' gypsum, and its property
as a cement, and its use in making casts, depends upon its solldiiymg a certain quanUty
of water, and making with it a coherent mass. Gypsum is soluble in about 500 times its
weight of cold water, and is more soluble in hot water ; so that when water has been
boiled in contact with gypsum, crystals of tliis substance are deposited as tlie water cools.
Gypsum is easily distinguished by its properties of affording precipitates to solutions of
oxalates and of barytic salts. In America it is employed with signal success ; it has been
advantageously used in Kent, but in most counties of England it has failed, though tried
in various ways, and upon different crops.

1181. Very discordant notions have been formed as to the mode cf operation of gy])sum.
It has been supposed by some persons to act by its power of attracting moisture from the
air ; but this agency must be comparatively insignificant. ^\Tien combined with water,
it retains that fluid too powerfully to yield it to the roots of the plant, and its adhesive at-
traction for -moisture is inconsiderable ; the small quantity in which it is used likewise is
a circumstance hostile to tliis idea. It has been erroneously said that gypsum assists the
putrefaction of animal substances, and the decomposition of manure.

1182. The ashes of saintfoin, clover^ and rye-grass, afford considerable quantities of gypsum;
and the substance probably is intimately combined as a necessary part of their woody
fibre. If this be allowed, it is easy to explain the reason why it operates in such small
quantities ; for the whole of a clover crop, or saintfoin crop, on an acre, according to esti-
mation, would afford by incineration only three or four bushels of gypsum. The reason
why g)-psum is not generally efficacious, is probably because most cultivated soils contain
it in sufficient quantities for the use of the grasses. In the common course of cultivation,
gypsum is furnished in the manure ; for it is contained in stable dung, and in the dung
of all cattle fed on grass ; and it is not taken up in com crops, or crops of peas and beans,
and in very small quantities in turnip crops ; but where lands are exclusively devoted to
pasturage and hay, it will be continually consumed. Should these statements be con-
firmed by future enquiries, a practical inference of some value may be derived from them.
It is possible that lands which have ceased to bear good crops of clover, or artificial grasses,
may be restored by being manured with gypsum. This substance is found in Oxford-
shire, Glocestershire, Somersetshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, &c. and requires only pul-
verisation for its preparation. ''

1183. U}wn the use of sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, which is a salt produced from peat
in Bedfordshire, some very interesting documents have been produced by Dr. Peai'son ;
and there is little doubt that the peat salt and the vitriolic water acted chiefly by pro-
ducing gypsum. The soils on which both are efficacious are calcareous ; and sulphate
of iron is decomposed by the carbonate of lime in such soils. Tlie sulphate of iron con-
sists of sulphuric acid and oxide of iron, and is an acid and a very soluble salt ; when
a solution of it is mixed with carbonate of lime, the sulphuric acid quits the oxide of
iron to unite to the lime, and the compounds produced are insipid and comparatively
insoluble.

1 184. Vitriolic imjrregnations in soils where there is no calcareous matter are injurious ;
but it is probably in consequence of their suppljnng an excess of ferruginous matter to
the sap. Oxide of iron, in small quantities, forms a useful part of soils; it is found
in the ashes of plants, and probably is hurtful only in its acid combinations. The aslies
of all peats do not afford gj-psum. In general, when a recent peat-ash emits a strong
smell, resembling that of rotten eggs, when acted upon by vinegar, it will furnish
gjTJsum.

1 1 85. Phos])hate of lime is a combination of phosphoric acid and lime, one proportion of
each. It is a compound insoluble in pure water, but soluble in water containing any acid
matter. It forms the greatest part of calcined bones. It exists in most excrementitious
substances, and is found both in the straw and grain of wheat, barley, oats, and rv^e, and
likewise in beans, peas, and tares. It exists in some places in these islands native, but
only in very small quantities. Phosphate of lime is generally conveyed to the land in
the composition of other manure, and it is probably necessary to com crops and other
white crops.

1186. Bone-ashes calcined and ground to powder will probably be found useful on arable
lands containing much vegetable matter, and may perhaps enable soft peats to produce

R 4

248 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. " Part II.

wheat ; but the powdered bone in an uncalcined state is much to be preferred in all cases
when it can be procured.

1187. The saline compounds of magnesia will require very little discussion as to their uses
as manures. In combination with sulphuric acid, magnesia forms a soluble salt. This
substance, it is stated by some enquirers, has been found of use as a manure ; but it is not
found in nature in sufficient abundance, nor is it capable of being made artificially suffi-
ciently cheap to be of useful application in the common course of husbandry.

1 1 88. Wood-ashes consist principally of the vegetable alkali united to carbonic acid ; and
as this alkali is found in almost all plants, it is not difficult to conceive that it may form
an essential part of their organs. Tlie general tendency of the alkalies is to give solu-
bility to vegetable matters ; and in this way they may render carbonaceous and other
substances capable of being taken up by the tubes in the radical fibres of plants. The
vegetable alkali likewise has a strong attraction for water, and even in small quantities,
may tend to give a due degree of moisture to the soil, or to other manures ; though this
operation, from the small quantities used or existing in the soil, can be only of a second-
ary kind.

1189. The mineral alkali or soda is found in the ashes of sea- weed, and may be procured
by certain chemical agencies from common salt. Common salt consists of the metal
named sodium, combined with chlorine ; and pure soda consists of the same metal united
to oxygen. When water is present, which can aflPord oxygen to tlie sodium, soda may be
obtained in several modes from salt. The same reasoning will apply to the operation of
the pure mineral alkali, or the carbonated alkali, as to that of the vegetable alkali ; and
when common salt acts as a manure, it is probably by entering into the composition of
the plant in the same manner as gypsum, phosphate of lime, and the alkalies. Sir John
Pringle has stated, that salt in small quantities assists the decomposition of animal and
vegetable matter. This circumstance may render it useful in certain soils. Common
salt, likewise, is offensive to insects. In small quantities it is sometimes a useful
manure, and it is probable that its efficacy depends upon many combined causes. Some
persons have argued against the employment of salt ; because when used in large quan-
tities, it either does no good, or renders the ground sterile ; but this is a very unfair mode
of reasoning. That salt in large quantities rendered land barren, was known long before
any records of agricultural science existed. We read in the Scriptures, that Abimelech
took the city of Shechem, "and beat down the city, and sowed it with salt;" that the soil
might be for ever unfruitful. Virgil reprobates a salt soil ; and Pliny, though he recom-
mends giving salt to cattle, yet affirms, that when strewed over land it renders it barren.
But these are not arguments against a proper application of it. Refuse salt in Cornwall,
which, however, likewise contains some of the oil and exuviae of fish, has long been known
as an admirable manure. And the Cheshire farmers contend for the benefit of the peculiar
produce of their county. It is not unlikely, that the same causes influence the effects of
salt, as those which act in modifying the operation of gypsum. Most lands in this island,
particularly those near the sea, probably contain a sufficient quantity of salt for all the
purposes of vegetation ; and in such cases the supply of it to the soil will not only be
useless, but may be injurious. In great storms the spray of the sea has been carried more
than fifty miles from the shore ; so that from this source salt must be often supplied to the
soil. Salt is found in almost all sandstone rocks, and it must exist in the soil derived
from these rocks. It is a constituent likewise of almost every kind of animal and ve-
getable manure.

1190. Other compounds. Besides these compounds of the alkaline earths and alkalies,
many others have been recommended for the purposes of increasing vegetation ; such
are nitre, or the nitrous acid combined with potassa. Sir Kenelm Digby states, that he
^ade barley grow very luxuriantly by Avatering it with a very weak solution of nitre ; but
he is too speculative a writer to awaken confidence in his results. This substance consists
of one proportion of azote, six of oxygen, and one of potassium ; and it is not unlikely
that it may furnish azote to form albumen or gluten in those plants that contain them ;
but the nitrous salts are too valuable for other purposes to be used as manures. Dr. Home
states, that sulphate of potassa, which was just now mentioned as found in the ashes of some
peats, is a useful manure. But Naismith (^Elements of Agricidture, p. 78.) questions his
results ; and quotes experiments hostile to his opinion, and, as he conceives, unfavorable
to the efficacy of any species of saline manure. Much of the discordance of the evidence
relating to the efficacy of saline substances depends upon the circumstance of their having
been used in different proportions, and, in general, in quantities much too large.

1191. Solutions of saline substances were used twice a week, in the quantity of two
ounces, on spots of grass and corn, sufficiently remote from each other to prevent any in-
terference of results. The substances tried were super-carbonate, sulphate, acetate, nitrate,
and muriate of potassa; sulphate of soda; sulphate, nitrate, muriate, and carbonate of am-
monia. It was found, that in all cases when the quantity of the salt equalled one thirtieth

Book II. HEAT AND LIGHT. 249

part of tha weight of the water, the effects were injurious; but least so in the instances of
the carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of anunonia. ^\^len the quantities of the salts were
one three-hundredUi part of the solution, the effects were different. The plants watered
with the solutions of tlie sulphates grew just in the same manner as similar plants watered
with rain-w ater. Those acted on by the solution of nitre, acetate, and super-carbonate
of potassa, and muriate of ammonia, grew rather better. Those treated with the solution
of carbonate of ammonia grew most luxuriantly of all. This last result is what might be
expected, for carbonate of ammonia consists of carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen.
There was, however, another result which was not anticipated ; the plants watered with
solution of nitrate of ammonia did not grow better than those watered with rain-water.
The solution reddened litmus paper ; and probably the free acid exerted a prejudicial effect,
and interfered with the result.

1 192. Soot doubtless owes part of its eflBcacy to the ammoniacal salts it contains. ITie
liquor produced by the distillation of coal contains carbonate and acetate of ammonia, and
is said to be a very good manure.

1 1 93. Soopers' waste has been recommended as a manure, and it has been supposed that
its eflBcacy depended upon the different saline matters it contains ; but their quantity is
verj- minute indeed, and its principal ingredients are mild lime and quick-lime. In the
soapers* waste, from the best manufactories, there is scarcely a trace of alkali. Lime,
moistened with sea- water, affords more of this substance, and is said to have been used in
some cases with more benefit than common lime.

1 1 94. The result of Sir H. Davys discussion as to tlie extent of the effects of saline sub-
stances on vegetation, is, tliat except the ammoniacal compounds, or the compounds con-
taining nitric, acetic, and carbonic acid, none of them can afford by their decomposition
any of the common principles of vegetation — carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The alkaline
sulphates and the earthy muriates are so seldom found in plants, or are found in such mi-
nute quantities, that it can never be an object to apply them to the soil. The earthy and
alkaline substances seem never to be formed in vegetation ; and there is every reason to
believe, that they are never decomposed ; for, after being absorbed, they are found in their
ashes. Tlie metallic bases of them cannot exist in contact with aqueous fluids ; and
these metallic bases, like other metals, have not as yet been resolved into any other forms
of matter by artificial processes ; they combine readily with other elements ; but they re-
main indestructible, and can be traced undiminished in quantity, through their diversi-
fied combinations.

Chap. IIL
Of the Agency of Heat, Light, Ekctricity, and Water, in Vegetable Culture.

1195. Tlie particular agency of heat, light, and water in vegetation and culture has
been so frequently illustrated, that it only remains to give a general idea of their natures,
and to offer some remarks on electricitj%

Sect. I. Of Heat and Light.

1 1 96. The heat of the sun is the catise of growth, and its light the cause of maturity, in the
vegetable kingdom. Tliis is universally acknowledged : animals will live without ot with
very little light ; but no plants whatever can exist for any time without the presence of
this element. The agency of electricity in vegetation is less known.

1 1 97. Two opinions are current res])ecting the nature of heat. By some philosophers it
is conceived to be a peculiar subtile fluid, of which the particles repel each other, but have
a strong attraction for the particles of other matter. By others it is considered as a mo-
tion or vibration of the particles of matter, which is supposed to differ in velocity in dif-
ferent cases, and thus to produce the different degrees of temperature. Whatever deci-
sion be ultimately made respecting these opinions, it is certain that there is matter moving
in the space between us and tlie heavenly bodies capable of communicating heat ; the mo-
tions of which are rectilineal : thus the solar rays produce heat in acting on the surface of
the earth. The beautiful experiments of Dr. Herschel have sho'wn that there are rays
transmitted from the sun which do not illuminate, and which yet produce more heat than
the visible rays ; and Ritter and Dr. Wollaston have shown that there are other invisible
rays distinguished by their chemical effects.

1 1 98. Heat is radiated by the sun to the earth, and if suffered to accumulate. Dr. Wells
obser\es, would quickly destroy the present constitution of our globe. This evil is pre-
vented by the radiation of heat from the earth to the heavens, during tlie night, when it re-
ceives from them little or no heat in return. But, through the wise economy of means,
which is witnessed in all the operations of nature, the prevention of this evil is made the
source of great positive good. For the surface of die earth, having thus become colder

250 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

than the neighbouring air, condenses a part of the watery vapor of the atmosphere into
dew, the utility of which is too manifest to require elucidation. This fluid appears chiefly
where it is most wanted, on herbage and low plants, avoiding, in great measure, rocks,
bare earth, and considerable masses of water. Its production, too, tends to prevent the
injury that might arise from its own cause ; since the precipitation of water, upon the
tender parts of plants, must lessen the cold in them, which occasions it. The prevention,
either wholly or in part, of cold, from radiation, in substances on the ground, by the in-
terposition of any solid body between them and the sky, arises in the following manner :
the lower body radiates its heat upwards, as if no other intervened between it and tlie
sky ; but the loss, which it hence suffers, is more or less compensated by what is radiated
to it, from the body above, the under surface of which possesses always the same, or very
nearly the same temperature as the air. The manner in which clouds prevent, or occa-
sion to be small, the appearance of a cold at night, upon the surface of the earth, is by
radiating heat to the earth, in return for that which they intercept in its progress from
the earth towards the heavens. For although, upon the sky becoming suddenly cloudy
during a calm night, a naked thermometer, suspended in the air, commonly rises 2 or 3
degrees : little of this rise is to be attributed to the heat evolved by the condensation of
watery vapor in the atmosphere, for the heat so extricated must soon be dissipated ;
whereas the eflTect of greatly lessening, or preventing altogether, the appearance of a su-
perior cold on the earth to that of the air, will be produced by a cloudy sky, during the
whole of a long night.

1199. Dense clouds, near t/ie earth, reflect back the heat they receivefrom it by radiation. But
similarly dense clouds, if very high, though they equally intercept the communication of the
earth with the sky, yet being, from their elevated situation, colder than the earth, will ra-
diate to it less heat than they receive from it, and may, consequently, admit of bodies on
its surface becoming several degrees colder than the air. Islands, and parts of continents
close to the sea, being, by their situation, subject to a cloudy sky, will, from the smaller
quantity of heat lost by them through radiation to the heavens, at night, in addition to
the reasons commonly assigned, be less cold in winter, than countries considerably distant
from any ocean.

1 200. Fogs, like clouds, will arrest heat, which is radiated upwards by the earth, and if
diey be very dense, and of considerable perpendicular extent, may remit to it as much as
they receive. Fogs do not, in any instance, furnish a real exception to the general rule,
that whatever exists in the atmosphere, capable of stopping or impeding the passage of
radiant heat, will prevent or lessen the appearance at night of a cold on the surface of
the earth, greater than that of the neighbouring air. The water deposited upon the earth,
during a fog at night, may sometimes be derived from two different sources, one of which
is a precipitation of moisture from a considerable part of the atmosphere, in consequence
of its general cold ; the other, a real formation of dew, from the condensation, by means
of the superficial cold of the ground, of the moisture of that portion of the air, which
comes in contact with it. In such a state of things, all bodies will become moist, but
those especially which most readily attract dew in clear weather.

1201. When bodies become cold by radiation, the degree of effect observed must depend,
not only on their radiating power, but in part also on the greater or less ease with which
they can derive heat, by conduction, from warmer substances in contact with them.
Bodies, exposed in a clear night to the sky, must radiate as much heat to it during the
prevalence of wind, as they would do if the air were altogether still. But in the former
case, little or no cold will be observed upon them above that of the atmosphere, as the
frequent application of warm air must quickly return a. heat equal, or nearly so, to that
which they had lost by radiation. A slight agitation of the air is sufficient to produce
some effect of this kind ; though, as has already been said, such an agitation, when the
air is very pregnant with moisture, will render greater the quantity of dew, one requisite
for a considerable production of this fluid being more increased by it, than another is
diminished.

1202. It has been remarked, that the hurtful effects of cold occur chiefly in hollow places.
If this be restricted to what happens on serene and calm nights, two reasons from
different sources are to be assigned for it. The first is, that the air being stiller in such
a situation, than in any other, the cold, from radiation, in the bodies which it contains,
will be less diminished by renewed applications of warmer air ; the second, that from the
longer continuance of the same air in contact with the ground, in depressed places than
in others, lAs dew will be deposited, and therefore less heat extricated durmg its

formation. i u • 7

1203. An observation closely connected with the preceding, namely, that m clear and
sliU nights, frosts are less severe upon hUls, than in neighbouring jUains, has excited more
attention, chiefly from its contradicting what is commonly regarded an established feet,
that the cold of the atmosphere always increases with the distance from the earth. But
on the contrary the fact is certain, that in very clear and still nights, the air near to the

Book II.

HEAT AND LIGHT. 251

earth is colder than that which is more distant from it, to the height at least of 220 feet,
this being the greatest to which experiments relate. If then a hill be supposed to rise
from a plain to the height of 220 feet, having upon its summit a smaU flat surface
covered with grass ; and if the atmosphere, during a calm and serene night, be admitted
to be 10^ warmer there than it is near the surface of the low grounds, which is a le^
difference than what sometimes occurs in such circumstances, it is manifest that, should
both the grass upon the Iiill, and that upon the plain, acquire a cold of 10° by radiation,
the former will, notwithstanding, be 10° warmer than the latter. Hence also the tops
of trees are sometimes found dry when the grass on the ground's surface has been found

covered with dew. ^ , , r. x. t-» T^r n

1904. A very slight covering will exclude much cold. I had often, observes Dr. Wells,
in the pride of half knowledge, smiled at the means frequently employed by gardeners,
to protect tender plants from cold, as it appeared to me impossible, that a thin mat, or
any such flimsy substance, could prevent them from attaining the temperature of the
atmosphere, by which alone I thought them liable to be injured. But, when I had
learned, that bodies on the surface of the earth become, during a still and serene night,
colder than the atmosphere, by radiating their heat to the heavens, I perceived
immediately a just reason for the practice, which I had before deemed useless.
Being desirous, however, of acquiring some precise information on this subject, I
fixed, perpendicularly, in tlie earth of a grass-plot, four small sticks, and over their
upper extremities, which were six inches above the grass, and formed the corners of
a square, the sides of which were two feet long, drew tightly a very thin cambric hand-
kerchief. In this disposition of things, therefore, nothing existed to prevent the free
passage of air from the exposed grass, to that which was sheltered, except the four
small sticks, and there was no substance to radiate heat downwards to the latter grass,
except the cambric handkerchief. The temperature of the grass, which was thus
shielded from the sky, was, upon many nights afterwards examined by me, and was
always found higher than that of neighbouring grass which was uncovered, if this was
colder than tlic air. When the difference in temperature, between the air several feet
above the ground and the unsheltered grass, did not exceed 5°, the sheltered grass was
about as warm as the air. If that difference, however, exceeded 5 , the air was
found to be somewhat warmer than the sheltered grass. Thus, upon one night, when
fully exposed glass was 11° colder tlian the air, the latter was 3° wam^.er than the
sheltered grass ; and the same difference existed on another night, when the air was
14° warmer than the exposed grass. One reason for this difference, no doubt, was
that the air, which passed from the exposed grass, by which it had been very much
cooled, to that under the handkerchief, had deprived the latter of part of its heat;
another, that the handkerchief, from being made colder than the atmosphere by the
radiation of its upper surface to the heavens, would remit somewhat less heat to the
grass beneath, than what it received from that substance. But still, as the sheltered
grass, notwithstanding these drawbacks, was upon one night, as may be collected
from the preceding relation, 8°, and upon another 1 1 , warmer than grass fully ex-
posed to the sky, a suflficient reason was now obtained for the utility of a very slight
shelter to plants, in averting or lessening injury from cold, on a still and serene night.

1205. 'I'he covtrrufg has most efect ivhen placed ata tilth distaji-ce above the plants or objects
to be sheltered. A difference in temperature, of some magnitude, was always observed on
still and serene nights, between bodies sheltered from the sky by substances touching them,
and similar bodies, which were sheltered by a substance a little above them. I found, for
example, upon one night, tliat the warmth of grass, sheltered by a cambric handkerchief
raised a few inches in the air, was 3° greater than that of a neighbouring piece of grass
which was sheltered by a similar handkerchief actually in contact with it. On another
night, the difference between the temperatures of two portions of grass, shielded in the
same manner, as the two above mentioned, from the influence of tlie *ky, was 4°. Pos-
sibly, continues Dr. Wells, experience has long ago taught gardeners the superior ad-
vantage of defending tender vegetables, from the cold of clear and calm nights, by means
of substances not directly touching them ; though I do not recollect ever having seen
any contrivance for keeping mats, or such like bodies, at a distance from the plants
which they were meant to protect. ,

1206. Heat produced by ivalls. Walls, Dr. Wells observes, as far as warmth is con-
cerned, are regarded as useful, during a cold night, to the plants which touch them, or
are near to them, only in two ways ; first, by the mechanical shelter which they afford
against cold winds, and secondly, by giving out the heat which they had acquired during
the day. It appearing to me, however, that, on clear and calm nights, those on which plants
frequently receive much injury from cold, walls must be beneficial in a tliird way,
nanriely, by preventing, in part, the loss of heat, which tlie plants would sustain from
radiation, if they were fully exposed to the sky : the following experiment was made for
the purpose of determining the justness of this opinion. A cambric handkerchief liaving

252 SCIENCE OF GARDENING Part II.

been placed, by means of two upright sticks, perpendicularly to a grass-plot, and at right
angles to the course of the air, a tliermometer was laid upon the grass close to the lower
edge of the handkerchief, on its windward side. The thermometer thus situated was
several nights compared with another lying on the same grass-plot, but on a part of it
fully exposed to the sky. On two of these nights, the air being clear and calm, the grass
close to the handkerchief was found to be 4'' warmer than the fully exposed grass. On
a third, the difference was 6°. An analogous fact is mentioned by Gersten, who says,
that a horizontal surface is more abundantly dewed, than one which is perpendicular to
the ground.

1207. Heat from a covering of snow. The covering of snow, the same author ob-
serves, which countries in high latitudes enjoy during the winter, has been very
commonly thought to be beneficial to vegetable substances on the surface of the
earth, as far as their temperature is concerned, solely by protecting them from the cold
of the atmosphere. But were this supposition just, the advantage of the covering
would be greatly circumscribed ; since the upper parts of trees and of tall shrubs
are still exposed to the influence of the air. Another reason, however, is furnished
for its usefulness, by what has been said in this essay ; which is, tljat it prevents the
occurrence of the cold, which bodies on the earth acquire, in addition to that of
the atmosphere, by the radiation of their heat to the heavens during still and clear
nights. The cause, indeed, of this additional cold, does not constantly operate ; but
its presence, during only a few hours, might effectually destroy plants, which now
pass unhurt through the winter. Again, as things are, while low vegetable produc-
tions are prevented, by their covering of snow, from becoming colder than the atmo-
sphere in consequence of their own radiation, the parts of trees and tall shrubs, which
rise above the snow, are little affected by cold from this cause. For their outermost
twigs, now that they are destitute of leaves, are much smaller than the thermometers
suspended by me in the air, which in this situation very seldom became more than 2"
colder than the atmosphere. The larger branches, too, which, if fully exposed to the sky,
would become colder than the extreme parts, are, in a great degree, sheltered by them ;
and, in the last place, the trunks are sheltered both by the smaller and the larger parts,
not to mention that the trunks must derive heat, by conduction through the roots,
from the earth kept warm by the snow. In a similar way is partly to be explained tlie
manner, in which a layer of earth or straw preserves vegetable matters in our own
fields, from the injurious effects of cold in winter. [Essay on Dew, &c. 1819.)

1208. The nature of light is totally unknown : the light which proceeds from the sun
seems to be composed of three distinct substances. Scheel discovered that a glass mir-
ror held before the fire reflected the rays of light, but not the rays of caloric ; but when
a metallic mirror was placed in the same situation, both heat and light were reflected.
The mirror of glass became hot in a short time, but no change of temperature took place
on the metallic mirror. This experiment shows that the glass mirror absorbed the rays
of caloric, and reflected those of light ; while the metallic mirror, suffering no change of
temperature, reflected both. And if a plate glass be held before a burning body, the
rays of light are not sensibly interrupted, but the rays of caloric are intercepted ; for no
sensible heat is observed on the opposite side of the glass ; but when the glass has reached
a proper degree of temperature, the rays of caloric are transmitted with the same facility
as those of light. And thus the rays of light and caloric may be separated. But the
curious experiments of Dr. Herschel have clearly proved that the invisible rays which
are emitted by the sun, have the greatest heating power. In those experiments, the dif-
ferent colored rays were thrown on the bulb of a very delicate thermometer, and their heat-
ing power was observed. The heating power of the violet, green, and red rays were found
to be to each other as the following numbers: violet, 16-0; green, 22-4 ; red, 55-0.
The heating power of the most refrangible rays was least, and this power increases as
the refrangibility diminishes. The red ray, therefore, has the greatest heating power,
and the violet, which is the most refrangible, the least. The illuminating power, it has
been already observed, is greatest in the middle of the spectrum, and it diminishes to-
wards both extremities ; but the heating power, which is least at the violet end, increases
from that to the red extremity ; and when the thermometer was placed beyond the limit of
the red ray, it rose still higher than in the red ray, which has the greatest heating power
in the spectrum. The heating power of these invisible rays was greatest at the distance
of half an inch beyond the red ray, but it was sensible at the distance of one inch and a
half.

1209. The influence of the different solar rays on vegetation has not yet been stu-
died ; but it is certain that the rays exercise an influence independent of the heat they
produce. Thus plants kept in darkness, but supplied with heat, air, and moisture, grow
for a short time, but they never gain their natural colors ; their leaves are white and
pale, and their juices watery and peculiarly saccharine : according to Knight they merely

Book II. ELECTRICITY. — WATER. 253

expend the sap previously generated under tlie influence of light. {Xotes to Sir II.
DavysAgr. Chem. p. 402.)

Sect. II. Of Electricity.

1210. Electrical changes are constantly taking place in nature, on the surface of tlie eartli,
and in the atmosphere; but as yet the eflects of this power in vegetation have not been cor-
rectly estimated. It has been shown by experiments made by means of the voltaic bat-
terj', that compound bodies in general, are capable of being decomposed by electrical
powers, and it is probable that the various electrical phenomena occurring in our system,
must influence both the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. It has been found
that corn sprouted mucli more rapidly in water positively electrified by the voltaic instru-
ment, than in water negatively electrified ; and experiments made upon the atmosphere
show that clouds are usually negative ; and, as when a cloud is in one state of electri-
city, the surface of the earth beneath is brought into the opposite state, it is probable tliat
in common cases the surface of the earth is positive. A similar experiment is related
by Dr. Darwin. {Phytologia, sect. xiii. 2, 3.)

1211. Respecting the nature of electricity different opinions are entertained amongst sci-
entific men ; by some, tlie phenomena are conceived to depend upon a single subtile fluid
in excess in the bodies said to be positively electrified, and in deficiency in the bodies said
to be negatively electrified. A second class suppose the effects to be produced by two
different fluids, called by them the vitreous fluid and the resinous fluid ; and others
regard tliem as affections or motions of matter, or an exhibition of attractive powers,
similar to those which produce chemical combination and decomposition; but usually
exerting their action on masses.

1212. A jrrof table aj)j)lication of electricity, Dr. Darwin observes, to promote the
growth of plants is not yet discovered ; it is nevertheless probable, that in dry seasons,
the erection of numerous metallic points on the surface of tlie ground, but a few feet
high, might, in the night-time, contribute to precipitate the dew by facilitating the
passage of electricity from the air into the earth ; and tliat an erection of such points
higher in the air by means of wires wrapped round tall rods, like angle rods, or elevated
on buildings, might frequently precipitate showers from the higher parts of the atmosphere.
Such points erected in gardens might promote a quicker vegetation of the plants in
their vicinity, by supplying them more abundantly with the electric ether. {Phytologiuy
xiii. 4.) J. Williams (Climate of Great Britain, 348.), enlarging on this idea, proposes
to erect large electrical machines, to be driven by wind, over the general face of the
country, for tlie purpose of improving the climate, and especially for lessening that
superabundant moisture which he contends is yearly increasing from the increased
evaporating surface, produced by the vegetation of improved culture, and especially
from the increase of pastures, hedges, and ornamental plantations.

Sect. III. Of Water.

1213. Water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen gas, though primarily reckoned a
simple or elementary substance. " If the metal called potassium be exposed in a
glass tube to a small quantity of water, it will act upon it with great violence ; elastic
fluid will be disengaged, which will be found to be hydrogen ; and the same effects will
be produced upon the potassium, as if it had absorbed a small quantity of oxygen ; and
the hydrogen disengaged, and the oxygen added to the potassium, are in weight as 2 to
15 ; and if two in volume of hydrogen, and one in volume of oxygen, which have the
weights of 2 and 15, be introduced into a close vessel, and an electrical spark passed
through tliem, they will inflame and condense into 17 parts of pure water."

1214. Water is absolutely necessa-ry to the economy of vegetation in its elastic and fluid
state ; and it is not devoid of use even in its solid form. Snow and ice are bad con-
ductors of heat ; and when the ground is covered with snow, or the surface of the soil or
of water is frozen, the roots or bulbs of the plants beneath are protected by the congealed
water from the influence of the atmosphere, the temperature of which, in northern win-
ters, is usually very much below the freezing point ; and tliis water becomes the first
nourishment of the plant in early spring. The expansion of water during its congelation,
at which time its volume increases one twelfth, and its contraction of bulk during a
thaw, tend to pulverise the soil, to separate its parts from each other, and to make it more
permeable to the influence of the air.

2^^ SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

Chap. IV.
Of the Agency of the Atmosphere in Vegetation.

1215. The aerial medium which envehpes the earth may be studied chemically and phy-
sically ; the first study respects the elements of which the atmosphere is composed ; and
the second their action in a state of combination, and as influenced by various causes,
or those phenomena which constitute the weather.

Sect. I. OftJie Elements oftlie At?)iosphere.

1216. jrater, carbonic acid gas, oxygen, and azote, are the principal substances composing
the atmosphere ; but more minute enquiries respecting their nature and agencies are
necessary to afford correct views of its uses in vegetation.

1217. That water exists in the atmosphere is easily proved. If some of the salt, called
muriate of lime, that has been just heated red, be exposed to the air, even in the driest
and coldest weather, it will increase in weight, and become moist ; and in a certain time
will be converted into a fluid. If put into a retort and heated, it will yield pure water ;
will gradually recover its pristine state ; and, if heated red, its former weight : so that it
is evident that tlie water united to it was derived from the air. And that it existed in
the air in an invisible and elastic form, is proved by the circumstance, that if a given
quantity of air be exposed to the salt, its volume and weight will diminish, provided the
experiment be correctly made.

1218. The quantity of water which exists in air, as vapor, varies with the temperature. In
proportion as the weatlier is hotter, the quantity is greater. At 50° of Fahrenheit,
air contains about one 50th of its volume of vapor; a7id as the specific gravity of vapor
is to that of air nearly as 10 to 15 ; this is about one 75th of its weight. At 100"^, sup-
posing that there is a free communication with water, it contains about one 14th part
in volume, or one 21st in weight. It is the condensation of vapor by diminution of the
temperature of the atmosphere, which is probably the principal cause of the formation of
clouds, and of the deposition of dew, mist, snow, or hail.

1219. The power of different substances to absorb aqueotis vapor from the atmosphere by
cohesive attraction has been already referred to. (1058.) Tlie leaves of living plants ap-
pear to act upon this vapor in its elastic form, and to absorb it. Some vegetables
increase in weight from this cause, when suspended in the atmosphere and unconnected
with the soil; such are the house-leek, and different species of the aloe. In very
intense heats, and when the soil is dry, the life of plants seems to be preserved by the
absorbent power of their leaves ; and it is a beautiful circumstance in the economy
of nature, that aqueous vapor is most abundant in the atmosphere when it is most
needed for tlie purposes of life ; and that when other sources of its supply are cut oflf,
tills is most copious.

1220. The existence if carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere is proved l)y the following
process : if a solution of lime and water be exposed to the air, a pellicle will speedily
form upon it, and a solid matter will gradually fall to the bottom of the water, and in a
certain time the water will become tasteless ; this is owing to the combination of the lime
which was dissolved in the water with carbonic acid gas, which existed in the atmosphere,
as may be proved by collecting the film and the solid matter, and igniting them strongly
in a little tube of platina or iron ; they will give out carbonic acid gas, and will become
quick-lime, which, added to the same water, will again bring it to the state of lime-
water.

1221. The quantity of carbonic acid gas in the atmosjyJiere is very small. It is not easy
to determine it with precision, and it must differ in different situations ; but where there
is a free circulation of air, it is probably never more than one 500th, nor less than one 800di
of the volume of air. Carbonic acid gas is nearly one third heavier than the other elastic
parts of the atmosphere in their mixed state ; hence at first view it might be supposed
that it would be most abundant in the lower regions of the atmosphere ; but unless it has
been immediately produced at the surface of the earth in some chemical process, this does
not seem to be the case; elastic fluids of. different specific gravities have a tendency to
equable mixture by a species of attraction, and the different parts of the atmosphere are
constantly agitated and blended together by winds or other causes. De Saussure found
lime-water precipitated on Mount Blanc, the highest point of land in Europe ; and
carbonic acid gas has been always foiaid, apparently in due proportion, in the air brought
down from great heights in the atmosphere by aerostatic adventurers.

1222. The jmncipal consumption of the carbonic acid in the atmosphere seems to be in
affording nourishment to plants ; and some of them appear to be supplied with carbon
chiefly from this source. . .

1223. The formation of carbonic acid gas takes place during fermentation, combustion,
putrefaction, respiration, and a number of operations taking place upon the surface of the

Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 255

eartli ; and there is no other process known in nature by which it can be destr<^edbut by

^ I224. Oxv'^en and azote are the remaining constituents of the atmosphere. After a given
portion of common air has been deprived of aqueous vapor and carbonic acid gas, it ap-
pears little altered in its properties ; it remains a compound of oxygen and azote, which
supports combustion and animal life. There are many modes of separating these two
gases from each oUier. A simple one is by burning phosphorus m a confined volume of
air- this absorbs the oxvgen and leaves the azote; and 100 parts m volume of air, in
which phosphorus has been burnt, yield 79 parts of azote ; and by mixing this azote with
21 parts of fresh oxygene gas artificially procured, a substance having tlie original charac-
ters of air is produced. To procure pure oxygen from air, quicksilver may be kept heated
in it, at about 600°, till it becomes a red powder ; this powder, when ignited, will be
restored to the state of quicksilver by giving off oxygen.

1225. Oxysen is necessary to some functions of vegetaUes; but its great importance in na-
ture is in its relation to the economy of animals. It is absolutely necessary to their life.
Atmospheric air taken into the lungs of animals, or passed in solution in water tlirough
the gills of fishes, loses oxygen ; and for the oxygen lost, about an equal volume of car-
bonic acid appears.

1226. The effects of azote in vegetation are not distinctly known. As it is found in some
of tlie products of vegetation, it may be absorbed by certain plants from the atmosphere.
It prevents the action of oxygen from being too energetic, and serves as a medium in
which the more essential parts of tlie air act ; nor is this circumstance unconformable to
the analogy of nature ; for the elements most abundant on tlie solid surface of the
globe, are not those which are tlie most essential to the existence of the living beings be-
longing to it. . .

1227. The actum of the atnwspliere on plants differs at different periods of their growth,
and varies with the various stages of the developement and decay of their organs. We have
seen (723.) that if a healthy seed be moistened and exposed to air at a temperature not
below 45**, it soon germinates, and shoots forth a plume, which rises upwards, and a
radicle which descends. If the air be confined, it is found that in tlie process of germin-
ation the oxygen, or a part of it, is absorbed. Tlie azote remains unaltered ; no carbonic
acid is taken away fiom the air ; on the contrary, some is added. Seeds are incapable of
germinating, except when oxygen is present. In the exhausted receiver of the air-pump, in
pure azote, or in pure carbonic acid, when moistened they swell, but do not vegetate ; and
if kept in these gases, lose their Living powers, and undergo putrefaction. If a seed be
examined before germination, it will be found more or less insipid, at least not sweet ;
but after germination it is always sweet. Its coagulated mucilage, or starch, is converted
into sugar in the process ; a substance difficult of solution is changed into one easily
soluble ; and the sugar carried through the cells or vessels of the cotyledons, is the nou-
rishment of tlie infant plant. The absorption of oxygen by the seed in germination, has
been compared to its absorption in producing the evolution of foetal life in the egg ; but
tills analogy is only remote. All animals, from the most to the least perfect classes, re-
quire a supply of oxygen. From the moment the heart begins to pulsate till it ceases to
beat, tlie aeration of tlie blood is constant, and the function of respiration invariable ;
carbonic acid is given off in the process, but the chemical change produced in the blood
is unknown ; nor is there any reason to suppose the formation of any substance similar to
sugar. It is evident, that in all cases of semination, the seeds should be sown so as to be
fully exposed to the influence of the air. And one cause of the unproductiveness of cold
clayey adhesive soils is, that the seed is coated with matter impermeable to air. In sandy
soils the earth is always suflSciently penetrable by the atmosphere ; but in clayey soils
there can scarcely be too great a mechanical division of parts. Any seed not fully sup-
plied with air, always produces a weak and diseased plant. We have already seen (756.)
that carbon is added to plants from the air by the process of vegetation in sunshine ; and
oxygen is added to the atmosphere at the same time.

1228. Those changes in the atmos})here which constitute the most important meteorological
phenoTnena, may be classed under five distinct heads ; the alterations that occur in the
weight of the atmosphere ; those that take place in its temperature ; the changes produced
in its quantity by evaporation and rain ; the excessive agitation to which it is frequently
subject ; and the phenomena arising from electric and other causes, that at particular times
occasion or attend the precipitations and agitations alluded to. All the above phenomena
prove to demonstration that constant changes take place, the consequences of new com-
binations and decompositions rapidly following each other.

1229. With respect to tlie changes in the weight of the atmosjyhere it is generally known
that the instrument called the barometer shows the weight of a body of air immediately
above it, extending to the extreme boundary of the atmosphere, and the base of which is
equal to that of the mercury contained within it. As the level of the sea is the lowest

256

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

1

Latitude.

Places.

Range of the Barometer.

Greatest.

Annual.

0» 0°

Peru - . -

0 20

22 23

Calcutta - -

0 77

33 55

Cape Town -

0 89

Naples - -

1 00

61 8

Dover - - -

2 47

I 80

53 13

Middlewich -

3 00

1 94

53 23

Liverpool

2 89

1 96

59 56

Petersburgh -

3 45

2 77

point of observation, the column of air over a barometer placed at that level is the lon^rest
to be obtained. °

The variations of the barometer between the tropics are very trifling, and it does not descend more than

The rL"'fnf ih 'Y' ^'K°' ^^' «'°^^ '''' T^"^ *^« ^"'^^^'i ''^' of ellVation asTt does Sfvond Ctro^^^^^^^
,Tlt'?.^f f^!"^ barometer increases gradually as the latitude advances towards the polei. till in the end
It amounts to two or three inches. The foUowing Table wiU explain this gradual increase : -1

The range of the barometer is considerably less in
Aorth America than in the corresponding latitudes of
Europe, particularly in Virginia, where it never ex-
ceeds 1-1. The range is more considerable at the level
of the sea than on mountains ; and in the same degree
of latitude it is in the inverse ratio of the height of tiie
place above the level of the sea. Cotte composed a
table, which has been published in the Journal de Phy.
sique, from which it appears extremely probable, that the
barometer has an invariable tendency to rise between
the morning and the evening, and that this impulse
is most considerable from two in the afternoon till nine
at night, when the greatest elevation is accomplished ;
«.,._* iftu u-i ^u . X.. . „ . ^^^ ^^^ elevation at nine differs from that at two by

lour twelfths, while that of two varies from the elevation of the morning only by one twelfth, and that in
particular climates the greatest elevation is at two o'clock. The observations of Cotte confirm those of
l^uke Howard; and from them it is concluded, that the barometer is influenced by some depressing
cause at new and full moon, and that some other makes it rise at the quarters. This coincidence is most
considerable in fair and calm weather ; the depression in the interval between the quarters and conjunc-
tions amounts to one tenth of an inch, and the rise from the conjunctions to the quarters is to the same
amount. The range of this instrument is found to be greater in winter than in summer : for instance the
mean at York, during the months from October to March inclusive, in the year 1774, was 1-42. and in the
SIX summer months 1016. '

The more serene and settled the weather, the higher the barometer ranges ; calm weather, with a tendency
to rain, depresses it ; high winds have a similar effect on it ; and the greatest elevation occurs with easterly
and northerly winds ; but the south produces a directly contrary effect.

1230. The variations in the temperature of the air in any particular place, exclusive of
the differences of seasons and climates, are very considerable. These changes cannot be
produced by heat derived from the sun, as its rays concentrated have no kind of effect on
air; those, however, heat the surface of our globe, which is communicated to the immediate
atmosphere ; it is through this fact that the temperature is highest where the place is so
situated as to receive with most effect the rays of the sun, and that it varies in each region
with the season ; it is also the cause why it decreases in proportion to the height of the
air above the surface of the earth. The most perpendicular rays falling on the globe at
the equator, there the heat of it is the greatest, and that heat decreases gradually to the
poles, of course the temperature of the air is in exact unison ; from this, it appears, that
the air acquires the greatest degree of warmth over the equator, where it becomes insensi-
bly cooler till we arrive at the poles ; in the same manner, the air immediately above
the equator cools gradually. Though the temperature sinks as it approaches the pole,
and is highest at the equator, yet as it varies continually with the seasons, it is impossible
to form an accurate idea of the progression without forming a mean temperature for a
year, from that of the temperature of every degree of latitude for every day of the year,
which may be accomplished by adding together the whole of the observations and dividing
by their number, when the quotient will be the mean temperature for the year. Tlie
*' diminution," says Dr. Thomson, " from the pole to the equator takes place in arith-
metical progression ; or to speak more properly, the annual temperature of all the lati-
tudes, are arithmetical means between the mean annual temperature of the equator and
the pole. And as far as heat depends in the action of solar rays, that of each month is as
the mean altitude of the sun, or rather as the sine of the sun's altitude."

1231. Inconsiderable seas, in temperate and cold climates, are colder in winter and
warmer in summer than the main ocean, as they are necessarily under the influence of
natural operations from the land. Thus the Gulf of Bothnia, is generally frozen in
winter, but the water is sometimes heated in the summer to 70'', a state, the opposite part
of the Atlantic never acquires ; the German Sea is five degrees warmer in summer tlian
the Atlantic, and more than three colder in winter ; the Mediterranean is almost through-
out warmer both in winter and summer, which therefore causes the Atlantic to flow into
it ; and the Black Sea being colder than the Mediterranean, flows into the latter.

The eastern parts of North America, as appears from meteorological tables, have a much colder air than
the opposite European coast, and fall short of the standaid by about ten or twelve degrees. There are
several causes which produce this considerable difference. The greatest elevation in North America is
between the 40th and 50th degree of north latitude, and the 100th and 110th of longitude west from Lon-
don ; and there the most considerable rivers have their origin. The height alone is sufficient to make this
tract colder than it would otherwise be ; but there are other causes, and those are most extensive forests,
and large swamps and morasses, each of which exclude heat from the earth, and consequently prevent it
from ameliorating the rigor of winter. Many extensive lakes lie to the east, and Hudson's Bay more to
the north ; a chain of mountains extends on the south of the latter, and those equally prevent the accu-
mulation of heat ; besides, this bay is bounded on the east by the mountainous country of Labrador, and
has many islands ; from all which circumstances arise the lowness of the temperature, and the piercing
cold of the north-west winds. The annual decrease of the forests for the purpose of clearing the ground

Took II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 257

and the consumption for building and fuel, is supposed to have occasioned a considerable decrease of coW
in the winter; and if this should be the result, much will yet be done towards bringing the temperature of
the European and American continents to something like a level.

1232. Continents have a colder atitiospliere than islands situated in the same degree of
latitude ; and countries lying to the windward of the superior classes of mountains, or
forests, are warmer than those which are to the leeward. Earth always possessing a cer-
tain degree of moisture, has a greater capacity to receive and i-etain heat than sand or
stones, the latter therefore are heated and cooled with more rapidity : it is from tliis cir-
cumstance that the intense heats of Africa and Arabia, and the cold of Terra del Fuego,
are derived. Tlie temperature of growing vegetables changes very gradually ; but there
is a considerable evaporation from them : if those exist in great numbers, and congre-
gated, or in forests, their foliage preventing the rays of the sun from reaching the earth, it
is perfectly natural that the immediate atmosphere must be greatly affected by the ascent
of chilled vapors.

123.3. Our next'object is the ascent and descent of water : the principal appearances of
this element are vapor, clouds, dew, rain, frost, hail, snow, and ice.

1234. Vapor is water rarefied by heat, in consequence of which becoming lighter than
the atmosphere, it is raised considerably above the surface of the earth, and afterwards by
a partial condensation forms clouds. It differs from exhalation, wliich is properly a dis-
persion of dry particles from a body. When water is heated to 212** it boils, and is ra-
pidly converted into steam ; and the same change takes place in much lower temper-
atures ; but in that case the evaporation is slower, and the elasticity of the steam is
smaller. As a very considerable proportion of the earth's surface is covered with water,
and as this water is constantly evaporating and mixing with the atm.osphere in the state of
vapor, a precise determination of the rate of evaporation must be of very great import-
ance in meteorology. Evaporation is confined entirely to the surface of the water ; hence
it is, in all cases, proportional to the surface of the water exposed to the atmosphere.
Much more vapor of course rises in maritime countries or those interspersed with lakes,
tiran in inland countries. Much more vapor rises during hot weather than during
cold : hence the quantity evaporated depends in some measure upon temperature. The
quantity of vapor which rises from water, even when the temperature is the same, varies
according to circumstances. It is least of all in calm weather, greater when a breeze
blows, and greatest of all with a strong wind. From experiments, it appears, that the
quantity of vapor raised annually at Manchester is equal to about 25 inches of rain. If
to this we add five inches for the dew, witli Dalton, it will make the annual evapor-
ation 30 inches. Now, if we consider the situation of England, and the greater quantity
of vapor raised from water, it will not surely be considered as too great an allowance,
if we estimate the mean annual evaporation over the whole surface of the globe
at 35 inches.

1235. A cloud is a mass of vapor, m.ore or less opaque, formed and sustained at con-
siderable height in the atmosphere, probably by the joint agencies of heat and electricity.
The first successful attempt to arrange the diversified form of clouds, under a few general
modifications, was made by Luke Howard, Esq. We shall give here a brief account of
his ingenious classification.

1236. The simple modifications are thus named and defined: — 1. Cirrus, parallel,
flexuous, or diverging fibres, extensible in any or in all directions (fig. 75. a); 2. Cumulus,
convex or conical heaps, increasing upwards from a horizontal base (6) ; 3. Stratus,
a widely-extended, continuous, horizontal sheet, increasing from below (c).

1 237. The intermediate modifications which require to be noticed are, 4. Cirro-cumulus,
small, well-defijied, roundish masses, in close horizontal arrangement (d) ; 5. Cirro-stratus,
horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenuated towards a part or the whole of their
circumference, bent downward or undulated, separate or in groups consisting of small
clouds having these characters (e).

1238. The compotind modifications are, 6. Cumulo-stratus, or twain cloud; the cirro-
stratus, blended with the cumulus, and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the
latter, or superadding a wide-spread structure to its base {f) ; 7. Cumulo-cirro-stratus,
vet Nimbus ; tlie rain-cloud, a cloud or system of clouds from which rain is falling.
It is a horizontal sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it
laterally and from beneath {g, g) ; 8. The Fall Cloud, resting apparently on the surface
of the ground (/j).

12.39. The cirrus appears to have the least density, the greatest elevation, the greatest variety of extent
and direction, and to appear earliest in serene weather, being indicated by a few threads pencilled on the
sky. Before storms they api^ear lower and denser, and usually in the quarter opposite to that from which
the storm arises. Steady high winds are also preceded and attended by cirrous streaks, running quite across
the sky in the direction they blow in.

1240. The cumulus has the densest structure, is formed in the lower atmosphere, and moves along with
the current next the earth. A small irregular spot first appears, and is, as it were, the nucleus on which
they increase. The lower surface continues irregularly plane, while tlie upper rises into conical or hemi-
spherical heaps j which may afterwards continue long nearly of the same bulk, or rapidly rise into mouD-

258

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.
75

Part XL

mm

\^^^Sil^SSt99JSfH'fS^fr

tains. They will begin, in fair weather, to form some hours after sunrise, arrive at their maximum in
the hottest part of the afternoon, then go on diminishing, and totally disperse about sunset Previous to
rain the cumulus increases rapidly, appears lower in the atmosphere, and with its surface full of loose
fleeces or protuberances. The formation of large cumuli to leeward in a strong wind, indicates the ap-
proach of a calm with rain. When they do not disappear or subside about sunset, but continue to rise,
tliunder is to be expected in the night.

1241. The stratus has a mean degree of density, and is the lowest of clouds, its inferior surface commonly
resting on the earth in water. This is properly the cloud of night, appearing about sunset. It compre-
hends all those creeping mists which in calm weather ascend in spreading sheets (hke an inundation of
water) from the bottoms of valleys, and the surfaces of lakes and rivers. On the return of the sun, the
level surface of this cloud begins to put on the appearance of cumulus, the whole at the same time separat-
ing from the ground. The continuity is next destroyed, and the cloud ascends and evaporates, or passes
off with the appearance of the nascent cumulus. This has long been experienced as a prognostic of fair
weather.

1242. Transition of forms. The cirrus having continued for sometime increasing or stationary, usually
passes either to the cirro-cumulus or the cirro-stratus, at the same time descending to a lower station in the
atmosphere. This modification forms a very beautiful sky, and is frequently in summer an attendant on warm
and dry weather. The cirro-stratus, when seen in the distance, frequently gives the idea of shoals of fish.
It precedes wind and rain ; is seen in the intervals of storms ; and sometimes alternates with the cirro-
cumulus in the same cloud, when the different evolutions form a curious spectacle. A judgment may be
formed of the weather likely to ensue by observing which modification prevails at last. The solar and
lunar halos, as well as the parhelion and paraselene (mock sun and mock moon), prognostics of foul wea-
ther, are occasioned by this cloud. The cumulo-stratus precedes, and the nimbus accompanies rain.

1243. Dew is the moisture insensibly deposited from the atmosphere on the surface of

Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 259

the eartli. This moisture is precipitated by the cold of the body on which it appears, and
will be more or less abundant, not in proportion to the coldness of that body, but in pro-
portion to the existing state of the air in regard to moisture. It is commonly supposed
that the formation of dew produces cold, but like every other precipitation of water from
the atmosphere, it must evidently produce heat.

1244. Phenotnena of dew. Aristotle justly remarked, that dew appears only on calm and clear nights.
Dr. Wells shows, that very little is ever deposited in opposite circumstances ; and that httle only when the
clouds are very high. It is never seen on nights both cloudy and windy ; and if in the course of the n.ght
the weather, from l^ing serene, should become dark and stormy, dew which had been deposited will disap-
pear. In calm weather, if the sky be partiaUy covered with clouds, more dew will appear than if it were en-
Urely uncovered. Dew probably begins in the country to appear upon grass in places shaded from the sun,
during clear and calm weather, soon after the heat of the atmosphere has declined, and continues to be depo-
sited through the whole night, and for a little after sunrise. Its quantity will depend in some measure on
the proportion of moisture in the atmosphere, and is consequently greater after ram than after a long tract of
drv weather : and in Europe, with southerly and westeriy winds, than with those which blow from the
north and the east. The direcUon of the sea determines this relation of the winds to dew. For m tp)!)!,
dew is scarcely ever observed except while the northerly or Etesian winds prevail. Hence also, dew is
generally more abundant in spring and autumn, than in summer. And it is always very copious on those
clear nights which are followed by misty mornings, which show the air to be loaded with moisture. And
a clear morning, following a cloudv night, determines a plentiful deposition of the retained vapor. When
warmth of atmosphere is compatible with clearness, as is the case in southern latitudes, though seldom in
our country, the dew becomes much more copious, because the air then contains more moisture. Dew
continues to form with increased copiousness as the night advances, from the increased refrigeration of
the ground.

12-15. Cause of dew. Dew, according to Aristotle, is a species of rain, formed in the lower atmosphere,
in consequence of its moisture being condensed by the cold of the night into minute drops. Opinions of
this kind, says Dr. Wells, are still entertained by many persons, among whom is the very ingenious Pro-
fessor I>eslie. {Relat. of Heat and Moisture, p. 37. and lo2 ) A fact, however, first Uken notice of by
(jarstin, who published his Treatise on Dew in 1773, proves them to be erroneous ; for he found, that bodies,
a little elevated in the air, often become moist with dew, while similar bodies, lying on the ground, remain
dry, though necessarilv, from their position, as liable to be wetted, by whatever falls from the heavens, as
the former. The above notion is perfectly refuted by the fact, that metallic surfaces exposed to the air in
a horizontal position, remain dry, while every thing around them is covered with dew. After a long
period of drought, when the air was very still and the sky serene. Dr. Wells exposed to the sky,
28 minutes before sunset, previously weighed parcels of wool and swandown, upon a smooth, unpainted,
and perfectly dry fir table, 5 feet long, 3 broad, and nearly 3 in height, which had been placed an hour
before, in the sunshine, in a large level grass field. The wool, 12 minutes after sunset, was found to be
14° colder than the air, and to have acquired no weight The swandown, the quantity of which was much
greater than that of the wool, was at the same time 13° colder than the air, and was also without any ad-
ditional weight In 20 minutes more the swandown was 14^° colder than the neighboring air, and was
still without any increase of its weight. At the same time tlie grass was 15° colder than the air four feet
above the ground. Dr. Wells, by a copious induction of facts derived from observation and experiment,
establishes the proposition, that bodies become colder than the neighboring air before they are dewed.
The cold therefore, which Dr. Wilson and M. Six conjectured to be the effect of dew, now appears to be
its cause. But what makes the terrestrial surface colder than the atmosphere ? The radiation or pro-
jection of heat into free space. Now the researches of Professor Leslie and Count Rumford have de-
monstrated, that different bodies project heat with very different degrees of force. In th,e operation of
this principle, therefore, conjoined with the power of a concave mirror of cloud, or any other awning, to
reflect or throw down again those calorific emanations which would be dissipated in a clear sky, we shall
find a solution of the most mysterious phenomena of dew.

1246. Rain. Luke Howard, who may be considered as our most accurate scientific
meteorologist, is inclined to think, that rain is in almost every instance the result of the
electrical action of clouds upon each other.

1247. Phenomena of rain. Rain never descends till the transparency of the air ceases, and the invisible
vapors become vascular, when clouds form, and at length the drops fall : clouds, instead of forming
gradually at once ibroughout all parts of the horizon, generate in a particular spot, and imperceptibly
increase till the whole expanse is obscured.

1248. The cause of rain is thus accounted for by Dalton. If two masses of air of
unequal temperatures, by the ordinary- currents of the winds, are intermixed, when
saturated with vapor, a precipitation ensues. If the masses are under saturation, then
less precipitation takes place, or none at all, according to the degree. Also the warmer
the air, the greater is the quantity of vapor precipitated in like circumstances. Hence the
reason why rains are heavier in sunmier than in winter, and in warm countries than in
cold.

1249. The quantity of rain, taken at an annual mean, is the greatest at the equator, and
it lessens gradually to the poles ; but there are fewer days of rain there, the number of
which increase in proportion to the distance from it. From north latitude 12^ to 43° the
mean number of rainy days is 78 ; from 43° to 46° the mean number is 103 ; from 46°
to 50°, 134 ; and from 51° to 60°, 161. Winter often produces a greater number of rainy
days than summer, though the quantity of rain is more considerable in the latter than in
tlie former season ; at Petersburgh rain and snow falls on an average 84 days of the
winter, and the quantity amounts to about five inches ; on the contrary the sununer pro-
duces eleven inches in about the same number of days. Mountainous districts are sub-
ject to great falls of rain ; among the Andes particularly it rains almost incessantly, while
the flat countrj' of Egypt is consumed by endless drought. Dalton estimates the quantity
of rain falling in England at 31 inches. The mean annual quantity of tain for the whole
globe is 34 inches.

1250. The cause why less rainfalls in tlie first six montfis oftlie year than in the last sir
months is thus explained. The whole quantity of water in the atmosphere in January
is usually about tliree inches, as appears from the dew point, wliich is then about 32°,

S 2

260

SCIENCE OF GARDENING

Part II.

Now the force of vapors at that temperature is 0*2 of an inch of mercury, which is equal
to 2*8 or three inches of water. The dew point in July is usually about 58° or 59^^, cor-
responding to 0*5 of an inch of mercury, which is equal to seven inches of water ; the
difference is four inches of water, which the atmosphere then contains more than in the
former month. Hence, supposing the usual intermixture of currents of air in both the
intervening periods to be the same, the rain ought to be four inches less in the former
period of the year than the average, and four inches more in the latter period, making a
difference of eight inches between the two periods, which nearly accords with the preced-
ing observations.

1251. The mean monthly and annual quantities of rain at various places, deduced from
the average for many years, by Dal ton, is given in the following Table : —

k

II

%

fi

11

fi

II

II

ft

a

it

i»^

3"

5%

ws

Ss

SS

^o

P,j2

^§

Inch.

Inch.

Inch.

Inch.

Inch.

Inch.

Inch.

Inch.

Fr. In.

Fr. In.

Inch.

January -

2.310

2.177

2.196

3.461

5.299

3.095

1.595

1.464

1.228

2.477

2.530

February -

2.568

1.847

1.652

2.995

5.126

2.837

1.741

1.250

1.232

1.700

2.2a5

March . .

2.098

1.523

1.322

1.753

3.151

2.164

1.184

1.172

1.190

1.927

1.74«

April - -
May - -

2.010

2.104

2.078

2.180

2.986

2.017

0.979

1.279

1.185

2.686

1.950

2.895

2.573

2.118

2.460

3.480

2.568

1.641

1.636

1.767

2.931

2.407

June - -

2.502

2.816

2.286

2.512

2.722

2.974

1.343

1.738

1.697

2.562

2.315

July - -

3.697

3.663

3.006

4.140

4.959

3.256

2.303

2.448

1.800

1.882

3.115

August

3.665

3.311

2.435

4.581

5.089

3.199

2.746

1.807

1.900

2.347

3.103

September.

3.281

3.654

2.289

3.751

4.874

4.350

1.617

1.842

1.550

4.140

3.135

October -

3.922

3.724

3.079

4.151

5.439

4.143

2.297

2.092

1.780

4.741

3.537

November -

3.360

3.441

2.634

3.775

4.785

3.174

1.904

2.222

1.720

4.187

3.120

December -

3.832

3.288

2.569

3.955

6.084

3.142

1.981

1.736

1.600

2.397

3.058

36. 14C

34.121

27.664

39.714

53.994

36.919

21.331

20.686

18.649

33.977

1252. Frost, being derived from the atmosjyhere, naturally proceeds from the upper parts
of bodies downwards, as the water and the earth ; so the longer a frost is continued, the
thicker the ice becomes upon the water in ponds, and the deeper into the earth the ground
is frozen. In about 16 or 17 days' frost, Boyle found it had penetrated 14 inches into
the ground. At Moscow, in a hard season, the frost will penetrate two feet deep into
the ground; and Captain James found it penetrated 10 feet deep in Charlton island, and
the water in the same island was frozen to the depth of six feet. Scheffer assures us, that
in Sweden the frost pierces two cubits (a Swedish ell), into the earth, and turns what
moisture is found there into a whitish substance, like ice ; and standing vrater to three
ells or more. The same author also mentions sudden cracks or rifts in the ice of the
lakes of Sweden, nine or ten feet deep, and many leagues long ; the rupture being made
with a noise not less loud than if many guns were discharged together. By such means
however the fishes are furnished ^vith air, so that they are rarely found dead.

The history of frosts furnishes very extraordinary facts. The trees are often scorched and burnt up, as
with the most excessive heat, in consequence of the separation of water from the air, which is therefore
very drying. In the great frost in 1683, the trunks of oak, ash, walnut, and other trees were miserably
split and cleft, so that they might be seen through, and the cracks often attended with dreadful noises like
the explosion of fire-arms.

1253. Hail is generally defined as frozen rain, it differs from it in that the hailstones
are not formed of single pieces of ice, but of many little spherules agglutinated together ;
neither are those spherules all of the same consistence ; some of them being hard and
solid, like perfect ice ; others soft, and mostly like snow hardened by a severe frost.
Hailstone has a kind of core of this soft matter ; but more frequently the core is solid
and hard, while the outside is formed of a softer matter. Hailstones assume various
figures, being sometimes round, at other times pyramidal, crenated, angular, thin, and
flat, and sometimes stellated with six radii, like the small crystals of snow. Natural
historians furnish us with various accounts of surprising showers of hail in which the
hailstones were of extraordinary magnitude.

1254. Snow is formed by the freezing of the vapors in the atmosphere. It diflers trom
hail and hoar frost, in being as it were crystallised, which they are not. As the flakes
fall down through the atmosphere, they are continually joined by more of these radiated
spicula, and they increase in bulk like tlie drops of rain or hailstones. The bghtness ot
snow, although it is firm ice, is owing to the excess of its surface m comparison to the
matter contained under it: as gold itself may be extended in surface till it will ride
upon the least breath of air. The whiteness of snow is owing to the small particles into
which it is divided ; for ice when pounded, will become equally white.

1255. Snow is of great use to the vegetable kingdom. Were we to judge from appearance
only, we might imagine, that so far from being useful to the earth, the cold humidity ot
snow would be detrimental to vegetation. But the experience of all ages asserts the con-

Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 261

trary. Snow, particularly in those northern regions where the ground is covered with it
for several montlis, fructifies the earth, by guarding the corn or other vegetables from
the intenser cold of the air, and especially from the cold piercing winds. It has been
a vulgar opinion, very generally received, tliat snow fertilises the land on which it falls
more than rain, in consequence of the nitrous salts, which it is supposed to acquire
by freezing. But it appears from the experiments of Margraaf, in tlie year 1731, that
the chemical difference between rain and snow water, is exceedingly small ; tliat tlie
latter contains a somewhat less proportion of earth than the former ; but neitlier of
them contain either earth, or any kind of salt, in any quantity which can be sensibly
efficacious in promoting vegetation. The peculiar agency of snow, as a fertiliser in
preference to rain may be ascribed to its furnishing a covering to tlie roots of vegetables,
by wliich they are guarded from the influence of the atmospherical cold, and tlie
internal heat of the earth is prevented from escaping. The internal parts of the earth
are heated unifoi-fnly to tlie fifty-eighth degree of Fahrenheit's thermometer. This degree
of heat is greater than that in which the watery juices of vegetables freeze, and it is pro-
pagated from the inward parts of the earth to the surface, on which the vegetables grow.
The atmosphere, being variably heated by tlie action of the sun in different climates, and
in the same climate at different seasons, communicates to tlie surface of tlie earth, and to
some distance below it, tlie degree of heat or cold wliich prevails in itself. Different ve-
getables are able to preserve life under different degrees of cold, but all of them perish
when the cold which reaches dieir roots is extreme. Providence has, therefore, in the
coldest climates, provided a covering of snow for the roots of vegetables, by which tliey are
protected from the influence of the atmospherical cold. The snow keeps in the internal
heat of the earth, ^^•llicll surrounds the roots of vegetables, and defends them from the cold
of tlie atmosphere.

1256. Ice is water in the solid state, during which the temperature remains constant,
being 32 degrees of the scale of Falirenheit. Ice is considerably lighter than water, name-
ly, about one eighth part ; and this increase of dimensions is acquired with prodigious
force, sufficient to burst tlie strongest iron vessels, and even pieces of artillerj-. Congel-
ation takes place much more suddenly than the opposite process of liquefaction ; and of
course, the same quantity of heat must be more rapidly extricated in freezing, than it is
absorbed in thawing ; tlie heat thus extricated being disposed to fly off" in all directions,
and little of it being retained by tlie neighboring bodies, more heat is lost than is gained
by the alternation : so that where ice has once been formed, its production is in this manner
redoubled.

1 257. The northern ice extends about 9° from the pole ; the southern 1 8^ or 20° ; in
some parts even 30^ ; and floating ice has occasionally been found in both hemispheres
as far as 40'^ from the poles, and sometimes, as it has been said, even in latitude 41° or
42°. Between 54^ and 60° south latitude, the snow lies on the ground, at the sea-side,
tliroughout the summer. The line of perpetual congelation is three miles above the
surface at the equator, where the mean heat is 84^^; at TeneriflTe, in latitude 28°, two
miles ; in the latitude of London, a little more than a mile ; and in latitude 80° north,
only 1250 feet. At the pole, according to the analogy deduced by Kirwan, from a
comparison of various 0bs!er\ations, the mean temperature should be 31°. In London
the mean temperature is 50° ; at Rome and at Montpelier, a little more than 60° ; in
the island of IMadeira, 70° ; and in Jamaica, 80°.

1 258. jrmd. Were it not for this agitation of the air, putrid eflfluvia arising from the
habitations of man, and from vegetable substances, besides the exhalations from water,
would soon render it unfit for respiration, and a general mortality would be the conse-
quence. The prevailing winds of our own country, which were ascertained by order of
the Royal Society of London, at London are,

ninds.

Days.

112

South-west

North-east

58

North-west

50

Winds. Days. Winds. Days.

South - . if

yy inas. uayt

West . . 53
South-east - 32 I North - - 16

The south wind blows more upon an average in each month of tlie year than any other,
particularly in July and August ; the north-east prevails during January, March, April,
May, and June, and is most unfrequent in February, July, September, and December;
the nortli-west occurring more frequently from November to March, and less so in
September and October than in any other months.
Aear Glasgow, the average is stated as follows : —

Winds. Days. Winds. Davs.

South-west - - 174 I North-east - . 104

North-west - - 40 j South-east - . 47

In Ireland, tlie prevailing winds are the west and south-west.

1 259. The different degrees of motion of wind next excites our attention : and it seems al-

S 3

263 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

most superfluous to observe, that it varies in gradations from the gentlest zephyr, which
plays upon the leaves of plants, greatly undulating them, to the furious tempest, calculated
to inspire horror in the breast of the most callous. It is also a remarkable fact, that vio-
lent currents of air pass along, as it were, within a line, vrithout sensibly agitating that
beyond them. An instance of this kind occurred at Edinburgh, where the celebrated
aeronaut Lunardi ascended in his balloon, which was conveyed with great velocity by
the wind at the rate of 70 miles an hour, while a perfect calm existed in the city and
neighborhood.

1260. Causes of wind. There are many circumstances attending the operations of the air, which we term
wind, that serve for a basis for well-founded conjectures, and those, united to the result of daily observ-
ation, render the explanation of its phenomena tolerably satisfactory. It must be clear to the most common
capacity, that as the rays of the sun descend perpendicularly on the surface of the earth under the torrid
zone, that part of it must receive a greater proportion of heat than those parts where they fall obliquely ;
the heat thus acquired communicates to the air, which it rarefies, and causes to ascend, and the vacuum
occasioned by this operation is immediately filled by the chill air from the north and south. The diurnal
motion of the earth gradually lessens to the poles from the equator : at that point it moves at the rate of
fifteen geographical miles in a minute : this motion is communicated to the atmosphere in the same de-
gree ; therefore, if part of it was conveyed instantaneously from latitude 30°, it would not directly acquire
the velocity of that at the equator; consequently, the ridges of the earth must meet it, and give it the ap-
pearance of an east wind ; the effect is similar upon the cold air proceeding from the north and south, and
this similarity must be admitted to extend to each place particularly heated by the beams of the sun. The
moon, being a large body situated comparatively near the earth, is known to affect the atmosphere in its
revolutions by the pressure of that upon the sea, so as to cause the flux and reflux of it, which we term
tides ; it cannot, therefore, be doubted, that some of the winds we experience are caused by her motion.

1261. The regular motion of the atmosphere, known by the name of land and sea breezes, may be accounted
for upon the above principle : the heated rarefied land air rises, and its place is supplied by the chill damp
air from the surface of the sea ; that from the hills in the neighborhood, becoming cold and dense in the
course of the night, descends and presses upon the comparatively lighter air over the sea, and hence the land
breeze. Granting that the attraction of the moon, and the diurnal movement of the sun affects our atmo-
sphere, there cannot be a doubt but a westward motion of the air must prevail within the boundaries of
the trade-winds, the consequence of which is an easterly current on each side : from this, then, it proceeds
that south-west winds are so frequent in the western parts of Europe, and over the Atlantic Ocean.
Kirwan attributes our constant south-west winds, particularly during winter, to an opposite current
prevailing between the coast of Malabar and the Moluccas at the same period : this, he adds, must be sup-
plied from regions close to the pole, which must be recruited in its turn from the countries to the south of
it, in the western parts of our hemisphere.

1262. The variable winds cannot be so readily accounted for ; yet it is evident, that though they seem the
effect of capricious causes, they depend upon a regular system, arranged by the great Author of nature.
That accurate and successful observer of part of his works, the celebrated Franklin, discovered in 1740, that
winds originate at the precise points towards which they blow. This philosopher had hoped to observe an
eclipse of the moon at Philadelphia, but was prevented by a north-east storm, that commenced at seven in
the evening. This he afterwards found did not occur at Boston till eleven ; and upon enquiry, he had
reason to suppose, it passed to the north-east at the rate of about 100 miles an hour. The manner in which
he accounts for this retrogade proceeding is so satisfactory, that we shall give it in his own words, particularly
as his assertions are supported by recent observations, both in America and Scotland. He argued thus : —
" I suppose a long canal of water, stopped at tJie end by a gate. The water is at rest till the gate is opened j
then it begins to move out through the gate, and the water next the gate is put in motion and moves on
towards the gate ; and so on successively, till the water at the head of the canal is in motion, which it is
last of all. In this case all the water moves indeed towards the gate ; but the successive times of beginning
the motion are in the contrary way, viz. from the gate back to the head of the canal. Thus to produce a
north-cast storm, I suppose some great rarefaction of the air in or near the Gulph of Mexico ; the air rising
thence has its place supplied by the next more northern, cooler, and therefore denser and heavier air ; a
successive current is formed, to which our coast and inland mountains give a north-east direction." Ac-
cording to the observations made by Captain Cook, the north-east winds prevail in the Northern Pacific
Ocean during the same spring months they do with us, from which facts it appears the cold air from Ame-
rica and the north of Europe flows at that season into the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

1 263. Other descriptions of winds may arise from a variety of causes. As the atmosphere
has been ascertained to be composed of air, vapor, and carbonic acid and water, it is well
known these frequently change their aerial form, and combine with different substances,
and the reverse ; consequently partial winds and accumulations must continually occur^
which occasion winds of different degrees of violence, continuance, and direction.

1264. The principal electrical phenoj^iena of the atmosphere are thunder and lightning.

1265. Thunder is the noise occasioned by the explosion of a flash of lightning passing
through the air : or it is that noise which is excited by a sudden explosion of electrical
clouds, which are therefore called thunder-clouds.

The rattling, in the noise of thunder, which makes it seem as if it passed through arches, is probably
owing to the sound being excited among clouds hanging over one another, and the agitated air passing ir-
regularly between them.

The explosion, if high in the air and remote from us, will do no mischief; but when near, it may, and
has, in a thousand instances, destroyed trees, animals, &c. This proximity, or small distance, may be esti-
mated nearly by the interval of time between seeing the flash of lightning and hearing the report of the
thunder, estimating the distance after the rate of 1142 feet for a second of time, or SJ seconds to the mile.
Dr. Wallis observes, that commonly the difference between the two is about seven seconds, which at the
rate above-mentioned, gives the distance almost two miles. But sometimes it comes in a second or two,
which argues the explosion very near to us, and even among us. And in such cases, the Doctor assures
us, he has sometimes foretold the mischiefs that happened.

Season of thunder. Although in this country thunder may happen at any time of the year, yet the
months of July and August are those in which it may almost certainly be expected. Its devastation is of
very uncertain continuance ; sometimes only a few peals will be heard at any particular place during the
whole season ; at other times the storm will return at the interval of three or four days, for a month, six
weeks, or even longer ; not tliat we have violent thunder in this country directly vertical in any one place
so frequently in any year, but in many seasons it will be i)crceptible that thunder-clouds arc formed in the
neighbourhood, even at these short intervals. Hence it appears, that during this particular period, there
must be some natural cause operating for the production of this phenomenon, which does not take place at
other times. This cannot be the mere heat of the weather, for we have often a long tract of hot weather

Book II. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 26S

without any thunder ; and besides, though not common, thunder is sometimes heard in the winter also.
As therefore the heat of the weather is common to the whole summer, whether there be thunder or not,
we must look for the causes of it in those phenomena, whatever they are, which are neculiar to the months
of July August, and the beginning of September. Now it is generally observed, that from the month of
Aoril an east, or south-east wind generally takes place, and continues with little mterruption till towards
the end of June. At that time, sometimes sooner and sometimes later, a westerly wind takes place ; but
as the causes producing the east wind are not removed, the latter opposes the west wind with Us whole
force. At the place of meeting, there is naturally a most vehement pressure of the atmosphere, and friction
of its parts against one another ; a calm ensues, and the vapors brought by both winos begin to collect
and form dark clouds, which can have little motion either way, because they are pressed almost equally on
aU sides. For the most part, however, the west wind prevails, and what little motion the clouds have is
towards the east : whence, the common remark in this country, that " thunder-clouds move against the
wind." But this is by no means universally true : for if the west wind hapiK?ns to be excited by any tem.
Dorary cause before its natural period when it should take place, the east wind will very frequently get the
better of it ; and the clouds, even although thunder is produced, will move westward. Yet in either
case the motion is so slow, that the most superficial observers cannot help taking notice of a considerable
resistance in the atmosphere. , . , u »i

1263. Thunderbolts. When lightning acts with extraordinary violence, and breaks or shatters any
thine it is called a thunderbolt, which the vulgar, to fit it for such effects, suppose to be a hard ^y,
and even a stone. But that we need not have recourse to a hard solid body to account for the effects
commoijly attributed to the thunderbolt, will be evident to any one, who considers those of gunpowder,
and the several chemical fulminating {wwders, but more especially the astonishing powers of elasticity,
when only collected and employed by human art, and much more when directed and exercised in the course
of nature. When we consider the known effects of electrical explosions, and those produced by lightning,
we shall be at no loss to account for the extraordinary operations vulgarly ascribed to thunderbolts. As
stones and bricks struck by lightning are often found in a vitrified state, we may reasonably suppose,
with Beccaria, that some stones in the earth, having been struck in this manner, gave occasion to the
vulgar opinion of the thunderbolt.

1^. Thunder-clouds are those clouds which are in a state fit for producing lightning and thunder. The
first appearance of a thunder-storm, which usually happens when there is little or no wind, is one dense
cloud, or more, increasing very fast in size, and rising into the higher regions of the air. The lower sur-
face is black, and nearly level ; but the upper finely arched, and well defined. Many of these clouds often
seem piled upon one another, all arched in the same manner ; but they are continually uniting, swell-
ing and extending their arches. At the time of the rising of this cloud, the atmosphere is conrmonly full of
a great many separate clouds, that are motionless, and of odd whimsical shapes ; all these, upon the appear-
ance of the thunder-cloud, draw towards it, and become more uniform in their shapes as they approach ;
till, coming very near the thunder-cloud, their limbs mutually stretch towards one another, and they
immediately coalesce into one uniform mass. Sometimes the thunder-cloud will swell, and increase
very fast, without the conjunction of any adscititious clouds ; the vapors in the atmosphere forming
themselves into clouds whenever it passes. Some of the adscititious clouds appear like white fringes,
at the skirts of the thunder-cloud, or under the body of it; but they keep continually growing
darker and darker, as they approach to unite with it. When the thunder-cloud is grown to a great size,
its lower surface is often ragged, particular parts being detached towards the earth, but still connected
with the rest. Sometimes the lower surface swells into various large protuberances, bending uniformly
downward; and sometimes one whole side of the cloud will have an inclination to the earth, and the ex-
tremity of it nearly touch the ground. When the eye is under the thunder-cloud, after it is grown large
and well-formed, it is seen to sink lower, and to darken prodigiously ; at the same time that a number of
small adscititious clouds (the origin of which can never be perceived) are seen in a rapid motion, driving
about in very uncertain directions under it W^hile these clouds are agitated with the most rapid motions,
the rain commonly falls in the greatest plenty ; and if the agitation be exceedingly great, it commonly
hails.

1268. Lightning. While the thunder-cloud is swelling, and extending its branches
over a large tract of countrj', the lightning is seen to dart from one part of it to another,
and often to illuminate its whole mass. When the cloud has acquired a sufficient
extent, the lightning strikes between the cloud and the earth, in two opposite places ; the
path of the lightning lying through the whole body of the cloud and its branches. The
longer this lightning continues, the less dense does the cloud become, and the less dark
its appearance ; till at length it breaks in different places, and shows a clear sky. Those
thunder-clouds are sometimes in a positive as well as a negative state of electricity. The
electricity continues longer of the same kind, in proportion as the thunder-cloud is sim-
' pie and uniform in its direction ; but when the lightning changes its place, there com-
monly happens a change in the electricity of the apparatus over which the clouds passed.
It changes suddenly after a very violent flash of lightning; but gradually when the
lightning is moderate, and the progress of the thunder-cloud slow.

' 1269. Lightning is an electrical explosion or phenomenon. Flashes of lightning are usually seen crooked
and waving in the air. They strike the highest and most pointed objects in preference to others, as hUls,
trees, spires, masts of ships, &c. ; so all pointed conductors receive and throw off the electric fluid more
readily than those that are terminated by flat surfaces. Lightning is observed to take and follow the
readiest and best conductor ; and the same is the case with electricity in the discharge of the Leyden
phial ; from whence it is inferred, that in a thunder-storm it would be safer to have one's clothes wet than
dry. Lightning bums, dissolves metals, rends some bodies, sometimes strikes persons blind, destroys ani-
mal life, deprives magnets of their virtue, or reverses their poles ; and all these are well-known properties
of electricity.

1270. Tilth regard to places of safety in times of thunder and lightning. Dr. Franklin's advice is to sit in
the middle of a room, provided it be not under a metal lustre suspended by a chain, sitting on one chair,
and laying the feet on-^another. It is still better, he says, to bring two or three mattresses or beds into the
middle of the room, and folding them double, to place 'the chairs upon them ; for as they are not so good
conductors as the walls the lightning will not be so likely to pass through them. But the safest place of all
is in a hammock hung by silken cords, at an equal distance from all the sides of the room. Dr. Priestley
observes, that the place of most perfect safety must be the cellar, and especially the middle of it ; for when
a person is lower than the surface of the earth, the lightning must strike it before it can possibly reach him.
In the fields, the place of safety is within a few yards of a tree, but not quite near it. Beccaria cautions
pereons not always to trust too much to the neighborhood of a higher or better conductor than their own
body, since he has repeatedly found that the lightning bv no means descends in one undivided track but
that bodies of various kinds conduct their share of it at the same time, in proportion to their auantitv and
conducting power. ^ '

S 4

26'i

SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Paht II.

Sect. II. Of the Means of prog7iosticating the Weather.

1271. The study of atmospherical changes lias, in all ages, been more or less attended to
by men engaged in the culture of vegetables, or the pasturage of animals; and we, in
thjs country, are surprised at the degree of perfection to which the ancients attained in
this knowledge. But it ought to be recollected, that the study of the weather in the
countries occupied by the ancients, as Egypt, Greece, Italy, and the continent of Europe
IS a very different thing from its study in an island situated like ours. It is easy to foretel
weather in countries where months pass away without rain or clouds, and where some
weeks together, at stated periods, are as certainly seasons of rain or snow. It may be as-
serted with truth, that there is a greater variety of weather in London in one week, than
in Rome, Moscow, or Petersburg, in three months. It is not therefore entirely a' proof
of our degeneracy, or the influence of our artificial mode of living, that we cannot predict
the weather with such certainty as the ancients ; but a circumstance rather to be accounted
for from the peculiarities of our situation.

1272. A varutble climate, such as ours, admits of being studied, both generally and lo-
cally ; but it is a study which requires habits of observation and reflection like all other
studies ; and to be brought to any useful degree of perfection must be attended to, not as
it commonly is, as a thing by chance, and which every body knows, or is fit for, but as a
serious undertaking. The weather may be foretold from natural data, artificial data,
and from precedent.

1273. The natural data for this study are, 1. The vegetable kingdom ; many plants
shutting and opening their flowers, contracting or expanding their parts, &c. on ap-
proaching changes in the humidity or temperature of the atmosphere ; 2. The animal
kingdom ; most of which, that are familiar to us, exhibiting signs on approaching
changes, of which those by cattle and sheep are more especially remarkable ; and hence
shepherds are generally, of all others, the most correct in their estimate of weather ; 3. The
mineral kingdom ; stones, earths, metals, salts, and water of particular sorts, often
showing indications of approaching changes ; 4. Appearances of the atmosphere, the
moon, the general character of seasons, &c. The characters of clouds, the prevalence of
particular winds, and other signs" are very commonly attended to.

1274. IVie iyifluence of the moon on the weather has, in all ages, been believed by the
generality of mankind : the same opinion was embraced by the ancient philosophers ; and
several eminent philosophers of later times have thought the opinion not unworthy of
notice. Although the moon only acts (as far at least as we can ascertain) on the
waters of the ocean by producing tides, it is nevertheless highly probable, according to
the observations of Lambert, Toaldo, and Cotte, that in consequence of the lunar in-
fluence, great variations do take place in the atmosphere, and consequently in the wea-
ther. The following principles will show the grounds and reasons for their embracing
the received notions on tliis interesting topic ; —

There are ten situations in the moon''s orbit when she must particularly exert her influence on the at-
mosphere ; and when, consequently, changes of the weather most readily take place. These are, —

1. The neiv, and 2. the full moon, wlien she exerts her influence in conjunction with, or in opposition
to the sun.

3. and 4, The quadratures, or those aspects of the moon when she is 90° distant from the sun ; or when
she is in the middle point of her orbit, between the points of conjunction and opposition, namely, in the
first and third quarters.

5. The perigee, and, 6. The apogee, or those points of the moon's orbit, in which she is at the least and
greatest distance from the earth.

7. 8. The two passages of the moon over the equator, one of which Toaldo calls, 7. The moon's ascend-
ing, and the other, 8. The moon's descending equinox, or the two lunistices, as De la Lande terms them.

9. The boreal lunistice, when the moon approaches as near as she can in each lunation, (or period be-
tween one new nioon and another,) to our zenith (that point in the horizon which is directly over our
heads').

10. The austral lunistice, when she is at the greatest distance from our zenith ; for the action of the
moon varies greatly according to her obliquity. With these ten points Toaldo compared a table of forty-
eight years' observations; the result is, that the probabilities, that the weather will change at a certain
period of the moon arc in the following proportions : New moon, 6 to 1. First quarter, 5 to 2. Full
moon, 5 to 2. Last quarter, 5 to 4. Perigee, 7 to 1. Apogee, 4 to 1. Ascending equinox, 13 to 4.
Northern lunistice, 11 to 4. Descending equinox, 11 to 4. Southern lunistice, 3 to 1.

1275. That the new moon will bring with it a change of weather is in the doctrine of chances as 6 to 1.
Each situation of the moon alters that state of the atmosphere which has been occasionetl by the i)rece-
ding one : and it seldom happens that any change in the weather takes place without a change in the lunar
situations.^ These situations are combined, on account of the inequality of their revolutions, and the

greatest I " " ' ' " ' " '" " '' *" - - ' * —•♦

the sun,

tance frc ^„ ^--^ , . ., u

moon coinciding with the perigee, 33 to 1. Ditto, with the apogee, 7 to 1. Full moon coinciding with the
perigee, 10 to 1. Ditto, with the apogee, 8 to 1. The combination of these situations generally occasions
storms and tempests ; and this perturbing power wiH always have the greater effect, the nearer these com-
bined situations are to the moon's passage over the equator, particularly in the months of March and
September. At the new and full moons, in the months of March and September, and even at the solstices,
especially the winter solstice, the atmosphere assumes a certain character, by which it is distinguished tor
three, and sometimes six months. The new moons which produce no change m the weather, are those
that happen at a distance from the apsides. As it is perfectly true that each situation of the moon alters
that state of the atmosphere winch has been produced by another, it is, however, observed that niiiny situ-
ations of the moon are favorable to good and others to bad weather.

Cook it. OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 265

' I'^a The situations of the moon favorable to bad weather are the perigee, new and ftiU moon, passage of
the wmtorandX northern lunistice. Those belonging to the fonner are the apogee, quadratures,
and X southern lunistice. Changes of the weather seldom take place on the very day. o the moon s
sUtiat^onsCether precede or follow them. It has been found by observation, that the changes
affcS by the lunar situations in the six winter months precede, and in the six summer months follow

'*'l277 T7ie octants. Besides the lunar situations to which the above observations refer, attention must be
pa ?Iiso to tSurth day before new and full moon, which days are caU^^

wpather is inclined to changes; and it may be easily seen, that these wiU follow at the next lunar
Sti^n v"rgn calU this fourth day a very sure prophet. If on that day the horns of the moon are
dear and well defined, good weather may be expected ; but if they are dull, and not clearly marked on the
Ss it ila slln that bad weather will ensue When the weather remains unchanged on the fourth,
SCandsixth day of the moon, we may conjecture that it wiU continue so tiU full moon, even somebme.
tU the next new moon ; and in that case, the lunar situations have only a very weak effect Many
obsen-errof nature have also remarked, that the approach of the lunar situations .s somewhat critica for
thrVick. According to Dr. Herschel. the nearer the time of the moon's entrance, at full, change
or quarters, is to midnight (that is within two hours before and after midnight), the more fair the weather
is in summer, but the nearer to noon the less fair. Also, the moon's entrance, at fuil, change, or
quarters, during six of the afternoon hours, viz. from four to ten, may be followed by fair weather ; but
this is mostly dependent on the wind. The same entrance during all the hours after midnight, except the
two first, is unfavorable to fair weather ; the like, nearly, may be observed m winter.

1278. The artificial data are the barometer, hygrometer, rain-gauge, and ther-
mometer.

1279. By means of the barometer, Taylor observes, we are enabled to regain, in some
degree at least, that foreknowledge of the weather, which the ancients unquestionably
did possess ; though we know not the data on which tliey founded their conclusions.
We shall therefore annex such rules, as have hitherto been found most useful in ascer-
taining the changes of the weather, by means of the barometer.

1280. The rising of the mercury ^re^Ages, in general, fair weather; and its falling
foul weather, as rain, snow, high winds, and storms.

The sudden falling of the mercury foretels thunder, in very hot weather, especially if the wind U
south.

The rising in winter indicates frost ; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or four divisions,
tliere will follow a thaw : but if it rises in a continued frost, snow may be expected.

When foul weather happens soon after the falling qf the mercury, it will not be of long duration; nor are
we to expect a continuance of fair weather, when it soon succeeds the rising of the quicksilver.

If, in foul weather, the mercu)~y rises considerably, and continues rising for two or three days before the
foul weather is over, a continuance of fair weather may be expected to follow.

In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and low, and continues falling for two or three days before
rain comes, much wet must be expected, and probably high winds.

The unsettled motion of the mercury indicates changeable weather.

1281. Respecting the loords engraved on the renter-plate of the barometer, it maybe
observed, that tliey cannot be strictly relied upon to correspond exactly with the state of
the weatlier ; tliough it will in general agree with them as to tlie mercury rising and
falling. The words deserve to be particularly noticed when the mercury removes from
' changeable' upwards ; as those on the lower part should be adverted to, when the mer-
cury falls from ' changeable' downwards. In other cases, tliey are of no use : for, as its
rising in any part forebodes a tendency to fair, and its falling to foul weather, it follows
that, though it descend in the tube from settled to fair, it may nevertheless be attended
widi a little rain ; and when it rises from the words * much rain' to ' rain' it shows only
an inclination to become fair, though the wet weather may still continue in a less consi-
derable degree than it was when the mercury began to rise. But if the mercurj-, after
having fallen to 'much rain,' should ascend to 'changeable,' it foretels fair weather,
though of a shorter continuance than if the mercury had risen still higher ; and so, on
the contrary, if the mercury stood at ' fair' and descends to ' changeable,' it announces
foul weather, tliough not of so long co^itinuance, as if it had fallen lower.

1282." Concaiity of the surface cf the mercury. Persons v. ho have occasion to travel
much in the winter, and who are doubtful whether it will rain or not, may easily ascer-
tain this point by the following observation : — A few hours before he departs, let the
traveller notice the mercury in the upper part of tlie tube of the barometer; if
rain is about to fall, it will be indented, or concave; if otherwise, convex or pro-
tuberant.

1 283. Barometer in spring. Towards the end of March, or more generally in the be-
ginning of April, the barometer sinks very low, with bad weather ; after which, it seldom
falls lower than 29 degrees 5 minutes till the latter end of September or October, when
the quicksilver falls again low, with stormy winds, for then the winter constitution of the
air takes place. From October to April, the great falls of the barometer are from 29
degrees 5 minutes to 28 degrees 5 minutes, and sometimes lower ; whereas during the
summer constitution of the air, the quicksilver seldom falls lower than 29 degrees 5
minutes. It therefore follows that a fall of one tenth of an inch, during the summer,
is as sure an indication of rain, as a fall of between two and three tenths is in the
winter.

1284. Barometer relative to situation. It must, however, be observed, that tlicse
heights of the barometer hold only in places nearly on a level with the sea; for expe-

2«« SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

riments have taught us, that for every eighty feet of nearly perpendicular lieight that the
barometer is placed above the level of the sea, the quicksilver sinks one tenth of an inch •
observations alone, therefore, must determine the heights of the quicksilver, which in each
place denotes either fair or foul weather.

1285. The hygrometer is of various sorts, but cord, fiddle-string, and most of the sub-
stances commonly used become sensibly less and less accurate, bo as at length not to
undergo any visible alteration from the different states of the air, in regard to dryness or
moisture.

A sponge makes a good hygrormter on this account, as being less liable to be changed
by use than cord. To prepare the sponge, first wash it in water, and when dry, wash it
again in water wherein sal ammoniac or salt of tartar has been dissolved ; and let it dry
again. Now, if the air becomes moist, the sponge will grow heavier ; and if dry, it will
become lighter.

Oil of vitriol is found to grow sensibly lighter or heavier in proportion to the lesser or
greater quantity of moisture it imbibes from the air. Tlie alteration is so great, that it
has been known to change its weight from three drams to nine. The other acid oils, or,
as they are usually called, spirits, or oil of tartar, j^er deliquium, may be substituted for
the oil of vitriol.

Steel-yard hygrometer. In order to make a hygrometer with those bodies which
acquire or lose weight in the air, place such a substance in a scale on the end of a
steel-yard, with a counterpoise which shall keep it in equilibrio in fair weather; the
other end of the steel-yard, rising or falling, and pointing to a graduated index, will
show the changes.

Line and plummet. If a line be made of good well dried whipcord, and a plummet
be fixed to the end of it, and the whole be hung against a wainscot, and a line be
drawn under it, exactly where the plummet reaches, in very moderate weather it will
be found to rise above such line, and to sink below it when the weather is likely to be-
come fair.

The ivhalebone hygrometer^ originally invented by De Luc, is esteemed one of the best
now in use.

1 286. The rain-gauge, pluviometer, or hyetometer is a machine for measuring the quan-
tity of rain that falls.

yl holloiv cylinder forms one of the best -constructed rain gauges : it has
within it a cork ball attached to a wooden stem {fig. 76.), which passes through
a small opening at the top, on which is placed a large funnel. When this in-
strument is placed in the open air in a free place, the rain that falls within the
circumference of the funnel will run down into the tube and cause the cork
to float ; and the quantity of water in the tube may be seen by the height to
which the stem of the float is raised. The stem of the float is so graduated,
as to show by its divisions the number of perpendicular inches of water which
fell on the surface of the earth since the last observation. After every observ-
ation the cylinder must be emptied.

A copper funnel forms another very simple rain-gauge : the area of the opening must
be exactly ten square inches. Let this funnel be fixed in a bottle, and the quantity of
rain caught is ascertained by multiplying the weight in ounces by '173, which gives tlie
depth in inches and parts of an inch.

In fixing these gauges, care must be taken that the rain may have free access to
them ; hence the tops of buildings are usually the best places, though some
conceive that the nearer the rain-gauge is placed to the ground the more rain it will
collect.

In order to compare the quantities of rain collected in pluviometers at different places,
the instruments should be fixed at the same heights above the ground in all such places ;
because, at different heights, the quantities are always different, even at the same
place.

1287. Thermometer. As the weight of the atmosphere is measured by the barometer, so
the thermometer shows tlie variations in the temperature of the weather ; for every change
of the weather is attended with a change in the temperature of the air, which a thermo-
meter placed in the open air will point out; sometimes before any alteration is perceived
in tlie barometer.

The scales of different thermometers are as follow. In Fahrenheit's the freezing point is 32 degrees,
and the boiling point 212 degrees. In Reaumur's the freezing point is 0, and the boiling point 80 dogrees.
In the centigrade thermometer, which is generally used in France, and is the same as that of Celsius,
which is the thermometer of Sweden, the freezing point is 0, and the boiling point 100 degrees. As a rule
for comparing or reducing these scales, it may be stated, that 1 degree of Reaumur's scale contains 2i degrees
of Fahrenheit, and to convert the degrees of the one to the other, the rule is to multiply by 9, divide by
34, and add 32. One degree of the centigrade scale is equal to one degree and eight-tenths of Fahrenheit;
and the rule here is to multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. Any of these thermometers may be proved
by immersing it in jwunded ice for the freezing point, and in boiling water for the boiling point, and If
the space between these pointe is equally divided, the thermometer is correct.

Book II. OF THB ATMOSPHERE. 2C7

I'^SS The study of the weatlier from precedent affords useftil hints as to the character of
approachin"^ seasons. From observing the general character of seasons for a long period,
certain general results may be deduced. On this principle, Kirwan, on comparmg
a number of observations taken in England from 1677 {Trayis. Jr. Acad. v. 20.) to
1789, a period of 1 12 years, found :

That when there has been no storm before or after the vernal equinox, the ensuing summer is generaDy
'"'"^haVX'L'^t" «;^^. from an easterly point, either on the 19th, 20th, or 21st of May. the sue-
•^^SXnTJ^rj;^!? ';T^/y.r^^^^^ and not before in any point, the succeed-

'ifTh'rTbJa'.?"^^ "J ff^'o^V^Tf "on'?he 19th. 2Cth. 21st, or 22d of March, the succeeding sum-

drv summers and autumns are usullly hot, and moist summers cold ; so that, ,f we know the moistn^
or dryness of a season, we can form a tolerably accurate judgment of its temperature In this country
also it eeneralh- rains less in March than in November, in the proportion at a medium of / to 12. It
Ecnerallv rains less in April than October, in the proportion of 1 to 2, nearly at a medium. It generally
rains less in May than September ; the chances that it does so, are, at least, 4 to 3 ; but, when it rams
plentifully in May, as 18 inches or more, it generally rains but Uttle in September ; and when it rams one
inch, or less, in May, it rains plentifully in September.

1289. The irrobabilities of particular seasons being followed by others, has been calculated
by Kirwan, and although his rules chiefly relate to the climate of Ireland, yet as there
exists but little difference between that island and Great Britain, in the general appear-
ance of the seasons, we shall mention some of his conclusions.

In forty-one years there were six wet springs, 22 dry, and 13 variable ; 20 wet summers, 16 dry. and
5 variable ; 11 wet autumns, 11 dry, and 19 variable.

A season is accounted vuet, when it contains two wet months. In general, the quantity of ram, which
falls in dry seasons, is less than five inches, in wet seasons more; variable seasons are those, in which
there falls between 30 lbs. and 3(i lbs., a lb. being equal to -10/639 of an inch.

January is the coldest month in every latitude ; and July is the warmest month in all latitudes
above 48 degrees : in lower latitudes, August is generally the warmest. The difference between the
Jiottest and coldest months increases in proportion to the distance from the equator. Every habitable
latitude enjoys a mean heat of GO degrees for at least two months ; which heat is necessary for the pro-
duction of com.

Sect. III. Of the Climate of Britain.

1290. The climate of the British isles, relatively to others in the same latitude, is tem-
perate, humid, and variable. The moderation of its temperature and its humidity are
owing to our being surrounded by water, which being less affected by the sun than the
earth, imbibes less heat in summer, and from its fluidity is less easily cooled in winter.
As tlie sea on our coasts never freezes, its temperature must always be above 33° or
34" ; and hence, when air from the polar regions at a much lower temperature passes
over it, that air must be in some degree heated by the radiation of the water. On the
other hand, in summer, the warm currents of air from the south, necessarily give out
part of their heat in passing over a surface so much lower in temperature. The vari-
able nature of our climate is chiefly owing to the unequal breadths of watery surface
which surround us ; on one side, a channel of a few leagues in breadth ; on the other, the
Atlantic ocean.

1291. The British climate varies'materially within itself: some districts are dry, as the
east ; others moist, as the west coast ; in the northern extremity, dry, cold, and windy ;
in the south, warm and moist. Even in moist districts some spots are excessively dry,
as part of Wigtonshire, from the influence of tlie Isle of Man, in warding off the watery
clouds of the Atlantic ; and, in dry districts, some spots are moist, from the influence of
high mountains in attracting and condensing clouds charged with watery vapor.

1292. The deterioration of the British climate is an idea entertained by some ; but whether
in regard to general regularity, temperature, moisture, or wind, the alleged changes are
unsupported by satisfactory proofs. It is not improbable but the humidity of our climate,
as Williams alleges {Climate of Britain, &c. 1816), has of late years been increased by
the increase of evaporating surface, produced by the multiplicity of hedges and plant-
ations ; a surface covered with leaves being found to evaporate considerably more than a
naked surface. If the humidity of the climate was greater before the drainage of mo-
rasses and the eradication of forests for agricultural purposes, a comparative return to
the same state by artificial planting and irrigation, must have a tendency to produce
the same results. However, it will be long before the irrigation of lands is carried to
such a degree as to produce the insalubrious effects of und rained morasses ; and as to
our woods and hedges, we must console ourselves with tlie beauty and the shelter wliich
they produce, for tlie increase of vapor supposed to proceed from them.

268

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Taut li

BOOK III.

MECHANICAL AGENTS EMPLOYED IN GARDENING.

1293. Having considered the nature of vegetables, and the nature of the materials by
which their culture or improvement is effected by art, the next step is to consider the
means by which art is applied in the practice of cultivation. In general it may be ob-
served, that every change effected in the circumstances of materials, either consists in,
or must be preceded by, a mechanical change in their position. To effect mechanical
changes, the fundamental engine is the human frame ; but its agency is essentially in-
creased by the use of certain implements, utensils, machines, and buildings. 'The
primary implements of gardening, as an art of culture, would necessarily be confined to
a few tools for stirring the ground, and one or two instruments for pruning trees or
gathering crops. But in the present state of the art, both the number and kind of agents
are greatly extended and diversified. There are tools, instruments, and machines for
culture, as the spade, knife, and water-engine ; for beautifying scenery, as the broom,
scythe, and roller; utensils for portable habitations of plants, or conveying materials, as
pots and baskets ; structures for culture, as glass frames, hot-houses, and awnings ; and
buildings for use, convenience, or decoration, as tool-houses, arbors, and obelisks. The
whole may be included under implements, structures, and edifices, as in the following
Table : —

Implements

f Lever.

Pick.

Spade.

Shovel.

Fork.

Dibber.
LPlanter's hack.

Planter's trowel.

Planter's pick-axe.

Garden-trowel.

Transplanter.

Hoe.

Rake.

Of operation

Of designation

Garden-knife.
Garden -chisel.
Prunlng-blU.
Forest-axe.
Pruning-saw.

Averruncator.

Shears.

Scythe.

Scarifiers.

Barking-irons.

Turf-ra«er.

Turf-beetle.

Turf-scraper.

Weeder.

Besom.

I mplement-cleaner.

Climbmg-spurs.

TGarden-line.

< Ground-measure.

l_ Timber-measure.

Ground-compasses.

Boming-piece.

Level.

Statr.

Straight-edge.

Stake.

fNc
IW

fOf prei)aration ("Screens.
I and deportation j Sieves.

Basket.

Packing-rase.

fPots.

i Water-saucers.

Watering pot.
Syringe.

Of protection or I Cover,
modification IShade^

modification
i_For vermin •

Blancher.
Hand-glass.

Birdtrap-cage.

Wasp and fly trap.

t Barrow
.Water
I. Roller

\ -I

< Watering engine.

(.r ■

Tree- transplanter.
Seed-separater.

1 For vermin - Engin
LFor regulation

i of destruction. Engines of alarm or snares Living vermin-killers.

["Of adaptation

Registering thermometer Alarum thermometer Regulating thermometer,

coping. Garden-hurdle. Protecting bag.

opii
I Horiiontal shelter.
- Netting screen..

Moveable edging.

Shoe-scraper.

Of manufacture | Canvass,
t Gauze.

I Of preparation •[ Props.

Various articles.

Portable or moveable
Partly moveable -

Economical
Anomalous

1 The flower-stage.

L Opaque covering-frame.

Glazed frame or sash.
Glass case.

Hotbed-frame.

Pit.

Adapted frame.

Wall.

Espalier rail.

Hot-house.

Mushroom-house.

Cold house.

r Head gardener's dwelling.
J house.

") Official or administrative
( apartment.

Seed-room.
Fruit-room.
Under-gardener's lodge.

Entrance-lotlge and gate.
Building for raising water

Apiary.

Aviary

("Cottage.
1 Bridge.

Boat.
Sepulchre.

Gate.
Fence.

Prospect-tower.

Temple.

Porch.

Portico.

Arbor.

Cave.

Cavern.
Grotto.
Roofed seat.
Exposed seat.
S-wiiig.

Waterfall.
Cascade.
•Tet or spout.
Sun-dial.
Vane.

"Rocks.
Ruins.
LAntiquitie*.

Rarities.

Monuments.

Statues.

Vegetable sculptures.

Inscriptions.

Ei-e-traps.

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

269

Chap. I.
Imjilemeiils of Gardening.

1 294. The usual mechanical agents employed in garden-culture, may be classed as fol-
lows : 1. Tools, or simple implements for performing operations on the soil, and other

dead or mineral matters; 2. Instruments for performing operations on plants, or on living
bodies, as insects and vermin ; 3. UtensUs for habitations of plants, or the deportation
or retention of either dead or living materials ; 4. Machines, or compound implements
for any of the above or odier purposes ; and, 5. Articles adapted, manufactured, or pre-
^mred, so as to serve various useful purposes.

Sect. I. Tools,

1295. The common character of tools is, tliat they are adapted for labor which re-
quires more force than skill ; tliey are generally large, and require the use of both hands
and the muscular action of the whole frame, often aided by its gravity. . Tools consist
of two parts, the head, blade or acting part ; and the handle or lever, by which the power
is communicated, and the tool put in action. As almost all tools operate by effecting a
mechanical separation between the parts of bodies, tliey generally act on the principle of
the wedge and lever, and consequently the wedge-shape ought to enter, more or less,
into the sliape of the head or blade of most of tliem, and the lever or handle ought to be
of some length. Where the handle is intended to be grasped and held firm, its form
may be adapted for that end, as in the upper termination of the handle of the shovel or
the spade ; but where the human hand is to slide along the handle, then it should be
perfectly cylindrical, as producing least friction, as in the hoe and the mattock. The
materials of which tools are composed, are almost exclusively iron and timber ; and of
the latter the ash is reckoned to combine most strength and toughness, the willow to be
lightest, and fir or pine deal the straightest. The best quality of both materials should,
if possible, be used, as scrap-iron and cast-steel, and root-cut young ash from rocky steeps.
For light tools, such as the hoe and rake, the willow, or pine deal, may be used for the
handles, but in scarcely any case can inferior iron or steel be admitted for the blades.

1296. The jnck (jig, 77.) is a double or compound lever, and consists of the handle (a),
which ought to be formed of sound ash timber, and the head (6), which ought to be
made of the best iron, and pointed with steel. There are several varieties : the first, the
pick with the ends of the head pointed {jig, 77.), is used for loosening hard ground,
gravel, &c. ; tlie second, or pick-axe {^jig. 78.) with both ends wedge-shaped, in reversed
positions, and sharp, is used for cutting through the roots in felling timber ; the third,
or mattock {^jig, 79.), is used chiefly for loosening hard surfaces and for grubbing up
roots of small trees or bushes. It is sometimes called a crow, and also a grubbing-axe,
hoe-axe, &:c.

1297. Garden-levers are of two species, the removing and the carrying lever.

1298. The removing-lever (Jig. 80.) is a straight and generally cylindrical or polygonal
bar of iron, somewhat tapered and wedge-shaped or flattened in the thick end ; it is used
for the removal of large stones or other heavy bodies, in which its advantage is as the
distance of the power (a), from the fulcrum (6), &c.

1 299. The carrying-lever, or hand- spoke, is used in pairs for carrying tubs of plants or other
bodies or materials furnished witli hooks or bearing staples, under or in which to insert the
hand-spokes. Two of them united to a platform of boards form the common hand-barrow.

81 82 83 85 86 84 89

1300. The spade {Jig. 81.) consists of two parts ; the Wade, of plate-iron, and the handh

270 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

tlTf^^ •'?«t-cut ash timber, rather longer than the handle of the pick, but generally about
two fee nnie mches. Spades are manufactured of different sizes, and gfnerally^vith a
flat blade; but perforated blades fjtg, 82.) are sometimes prized, as cleaning or^freein^
themselves better from earth in adhesive soils ; and semi-cylindrical blades (%r. 83 ) or
wliat canal-diggers call srafling-tools, are preferred for tlie ^ame reason, and also as enSer-
*!!^,*j i-f ^*^'^''' ^'^'^^"^^ gradually, and in effect as if a flat spade with a pointed or
shield-like curved edge were used. Spades wiUi curved edges or pointed blades are easiest
to thrust into the earth m hard or stiff soils, and clean themselves better, but they are
more apt to leave untouched parts (baulks) in the bottom of the trench than the common
square-mouthed spade. Tliey are the best species for new ground work, but not wel>
adapted for culture.

1301. The shovel (Jig. 84.) consists of two parts, the handle and the blade ; the latter of
plate-iron, and the former of ash timber. There are several species. Such as are turned
up on the edges, and are used for shovelling mud, or, when formed of wood (generally of
beech), for turning grain, seeds, or potatoes ; square- mouthed shovels, for gathering
up dung m stables, and used by the gardener in the melon-ground ; heart-shaped or
pointed-mouthed shovels, used for lifting earth out of trenches in ditch-making, trenching,
or in other excavations ; and long narrow-mouthed shovels, for cleaning out'drains, &ct'

1302. The fork. (Jigs, 85, 86, and 87.) Of this tool there are three principal
species: — The fii'st (Jig. 85.), for working with litter, haulm, or stable-dung: the
second (Jig. 86.), for stirring tlie earth among numerous roots, as in fruit-trees and
flower-borders, or for taking uproots; and the third (Jig. 8-7.), for plunging pots ii\
bark-pits, or for taking up asparagus or other roots. The prongs of the last are small,
round, and should be kept clear or polished by use, or by friction with sand. In adhe-
sive soils, a strong two-pronged fork (Jig. 86.) is one of the most useful of garden-tools,
and is advantageously used on most occasions where the spade or even the hoe would be
resorted to in free soils, but especially in stirring between crops.

1303. The hirf-spade (Jig. 104.) consists of a cordate or scutiform blade, joined to a
handle by a kneed or bent iron shank. It is used for cutting turf from old sheep-
pastures, with a view to its being employed either for turfing garden -grounds, or being
thrown together in heaps to rot into mould. It is also used in removing ant-hills and
other inequalities in sheep-pastures, in parks, or rough lawns. A thin section is first
removed, then the protuberance of earth is taken out and the section replaced, which, cut
thin, and especially on the edges, readily refits ; and the operation is finished with gentle
pressure by the foot, back of the spade, beetle, or roller.

1304. The dibber (Jigs. 88, and 89.) is a short piece of cylindrical wood, obtusely
pointed, and sometimes shod with iron on the one end, and formed into a convenient
spade-like handle in the other. Tliere are three species. The common garden-dibber
(Jig. 88.), the potatoe-dibber (Jig. 89.), and the forester's or planter's dibber. The
forester's dibber has a wedge -shaped blade, forked at the extremity, for the purpose of
carrying down with it the tap-root of seedling trees ; it has been much used in planting
extensive tracts, but may be considered as a barbarous mode of treating plants, and
deserving reprobation. There are also dibbers that make two holes at once, sometimes
used in planting leeks or otlier articles that are placed within a few inches of each other ;
dibbers which make several holes for planting beans and other seeds ; and wedge-shaped
dibbers which in soft sandy soils are easily worked, and admit of spreading the roots
better tlian the round kind. These wedge-shaped tools also admit of putting two plants
in a hole, one at each extremity.

1305. The planter s hack, or double mattock (Jig. 90.), is used for the same purpose
AS the forester's dibber, and is much to be preferred. (See Ponteys Projitable Planter.)

1306. The planter's trowel is a triangular blade of iron joined to a short handle,
used for planting young trees in free but unprepared soils, as heaths, moors, &c. Sang's
Planters* Kalendar.

1307. The planter s pick-axe is the tool of that name (Jig. 78.) in miniature, or some-
times merely a small mattock (Jig. 79.), used for planting in stony uncultivated soils.

1S08. The garden-trowel is a tongue-shaped piece of iron, with a handle attached ; the
blade or tongue either flat (Jig. 91.), or semi-cylindrical (Jig. 92.), or merely turned up
on the sides. It is used to plant, or take up for transplanting, herbaceous plants and
small trees. Trowels are also used for loosening the roots of weeds, and are then called
weeding-irons. Sometimes they are used for stirring the soil among tender plants in
confined situations. Wooden trowels or spatulae are sometimes used in potting plants to
fill in the earth ; but the garden-trowel with the edges turned up is the best for this and
most other purposes. , * • r • • .

1309. The transplatUer (Jig, 93.) consists of two semi-cylindrical pieces of iron with
handles, and which are so inserted in the ground as to enclose a plant with a ball of earth
between them. In this state they are attached to each other by two iron pins, and, being
pulled up, bring with them the plant to be removed, surrounded with a ball of earth.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

271

Book III.

This beinff «e» in a prepared excavation surrounded by loose earth, ^ '^]^'^'Jl
This benig so* '""PI . ^^jthdrawn, one half at a Umc, the earth is gently

;::^' JC;:tn" frnrg'.!:^ ^a„, ana .,; wh..e ,ven »a.ered. Tender p.anu s«
transplanted receive no check, even if in flower.

103

102

104

108

1310. Hoes are of two species, the draw-hoe and thrust-hoe, of each of which Uierc are
several varieties. • , i i

1311. T/ie (Iraiv-hoe {Jigs. 94. to 97.) is a plate of iron, six or seven inches long by
two or three broad, attached to a handle about four feet long, at an angle less than a right
angle. The blade is eitlier broad for cutting weeds 171^. 94.) ; deep and strong for
drawing eartli to tlie steins of plants {Jig. 95.) ; curved so as to act like a double mould-
boarded plough in drawing drills ; formed into two strong broad prongs for stirring hard
adhesive soils {Jig. 96. ) ; or it is formed to accomplisli tlie first and last purposes, as in
the double hoe. {Jig. 97.)

1312. The thrust-hoe {Jigs. 98, and 99.) consists of a plate of iron attached somewhat
obliquely to tlie end of a handle, either by a bow {Jig. 98.), or a straight piece. {Jig. 99.)
These hoes, which are sometimes called Dutch hoeSy are used only for killing weeds, or
loosening ground which is to be afterwards raked. As a man can draw more than he
can push, most heavy work will be easiest done by the draw-lioe.

1313. The wheel-hoe {Jig. 108.) is a compound
between the draw and thrust hoes, being drawn by one
man and thrust by another. It is used for hoeing
garden-walks in tlie Low Countries and France, where
the walks are either of sand or earth. In tliis coun-
try it could seldom be employed for this purpose ;
and indeed for this or any other object it is a bad
implement, as it requires two men to work it ; and
two men working with tlie same tool will never do
as much work as if they used separate tools.

1314. The gardeii-rake consists of a range of teeth inserted in a straight bar of iron or
wood from six to eighteen inches in length, and attached at right angles across the end of
a handle. Rakes vary in size, and in the length and strength of their teeth, and are used
for covering seeds, or raking off weeds or cut grass, for smoothing surfaces and for
removing or replacing thin strata of pulverised surfaces as in cuffing. For the latter pur-
pose a wooden-headed rake is preferable, for the otliers iron is generally more eligible.

1315. The drill-rake has large coulter- formed teeth about six inches long and the same
distance apart : it is used for drawing drills across beds for receiving small seeds, and the
same rake serves to stir the soil between the rows after tlie seeds come up. In very loose
soils, where a wide drill is required a sheath of wood may be fixed to the upper part Of
each prong to spread the earth, but this is seldom necessary. When the drills are re-
quired not to be quite so wide as six inches, the operator has only to work the implement
diagonally.

1316. The hoe -rake combines a hoe and rake, either at opposite ends of the same
handle, as in France, or back to back at one end, as in England, {fg, 100.) They are
used for giving slight dressings to borders.

1317. The turf-raser {raser, Fr. to shave or trim.) {Jig, 101.) cjnsists of a narrow

^■^2 SCIENCE OF GARDENING Part H

fcidney-shaped blade fixed to a straight handle, and is UBcd for paring the edges of
Sspade '"'^^ """'^ ^"^ '""^"^ *''" ^"*^'"''' ^^ '"'■"'^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^'^^d ^i^' the

1318. The turf. beetle {Jig. 102.) is a cylindrical or conical piece of wood, of one hun-
dred or two hundred pounds' weight, with an upright handle and two cross-handlets
attached ; it is used chiefly for pressing down and levelling new-laid turf. There is a
variety, consisting of a rectangular block with a handle placed obliquely ( firr. 103. ) which
IS used" when a less powerful pressure is desirable.

^ 1319. The tmf-scraper is a head or plate of wood (Jig. 105.) or iron ( fi^r. 106.) fixed at
nght ai.g.es across the end of a long handle, and is used chiefly to scrape" off' earth or the
exuviffi of worms, snails, &c. from lawns, grass verges, or walks, early in spring. In some
cases, teeth, like those of a saw, are formed in the edge of the blade of such scrapers, in
order to tear out the moss from lawns ; in many situations, however, a mossy lawn is
much to be preferred to grass, as softer, and requiring less frequent mowino-. Wire
besoms are used with good effect for this purpose, as well as for removing iiToss f^om
walls or trunks of large trees.

1 320. The dock-iveeder (fig. 107. ) is composed of a naiTow iron blade attached to a spadc-
hke handle, with a protruding iron stay joined to the lower end of the handle, or to the
iron shank of the blade, to act as a fulcrum. It is used for digging up long conical
roots of weeds in pastures or close crops, where the spade or two-pronged fork cannot be
introduced ; or for taking up crops of fusiform roots, as the parsnep, scorzonera, &c.

1321. The besom used in gardening is of three species. The spray broom, consisting of
a small faggot of spray, generally that of the birch, or of spartium, with a handle inserted ;
or a brush of bristles with a similar handle : the foi-mer sort are used for the open air, the
latter in hot-houses, seed-rooms, &c. The wire besom consists of a bundle of iron or
copper wires, of one twentieth of an inch in diameter, fixed to a long handle. It is
used for sweeping gravelled paths which have become mossy, mossy walls, mossy trunks
of trees, &c. Such besoms require to be dipt in oil occasionally, to retard the progress
of oxidation. *^

^ 1 322. Implement-cleaners, are small spatulae formed of wood, generally by the operator
himself. A small brush of wire like a painter's large brush is useful for cleaning pots,
and some have a particular description of knife for that purpose, and for spades, hoes, &c.

1323. Of these tools the essential kinds are the spade, the dimgjhrfc, and tlie rake ; for
with these, all the operations for which the others are employed may be performed, though
with much less facility, exj)edition, and perfection. There are diminutive sizes of most
of them to be had in the shops for infant gardeners ; and portable and convertible sets for
ladies and amateur practitioners.

Sect. II. Instruments.

1324. The common character of cutting-implements is, that they require in their use more
skill tlian physical force : they may be divided into instruments for operations, as the knife,
saw, &c. ; instruments of direction, as the measuring-rod, level, &c. ; and instruments of
designation, as numbering-tallies, name-pieces, &c.

SuBSECT. 1. Instruments of Operation.

1325. Operative instruments are used in labors of a comparatively light kind. They may
be used in general with one hand, and commonly bring into action but a part of tlie mus-
cular system ; tJie scythe however is an exception. They are similarly constructed to tools,
and act on the same principles, differing from those only in being generally reducible to
levers of the third kind, or those in which the power or hand is between the weight or
inatter to be cut or separated, and tlie fulcrum or arm, as in cutting off a shoot with a
knife. But in clipping, the fulcrum is between the hand and the weight or object to be
dipt off", and therefore shears act as wedges moved by levers of the second kind. Tlie ma-
terials of instruments are in general the same as tools, but the handles of knives are of
horn, bone, ivory, or ramose fucus, and the greatest attention is requisite as to tlie iron and
steel of the blades.

132G. The garden-knfe is of several species and varieties.

The common garden-knife consists of a blade of prepared steel, fixed without a joint in a handle of bone
or horn, and kept in a sheath of leather or pasteboard. It varies in shape and size, and in the quality
of the blade ; the best in England are generally made in London, but tlie great mass disposed of in com-
merce are manufactured at Sheffield. Every working-gardener ought to carry one of these knives in a
side-pocket on his thigh, that he maybe ever ready to cut off pieces of dead, decayed, or injured plants, or
gather crops, independently of other operations.

The common pruning-knife is similar to the former, but less hooked at the point ; for though the hook
lie useful in gathering some crops, and in cutting over or pruning herbaceous vegetables, yet as all knives
cut on the same principle as the saw, it is injurious when the knife is used to cut woody shoots : therefore,
wherever a clean section is of importance, the pruning-knife, with a straight-edged blade, and not ths
common garden-knife, with a hooked blade, ought to be employed.

The folding fruning-knife differs from the other, in having the blade jointed in the handle, for the pur-
pose of rendering it portable with greater ease and in any description of pockets j such knives are more

[MPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

J, J T>T«T T:'A.fr'xi'r«: nv aARHRNlNG. 273

ospeciallv used by master-gardeners. There are varieties of these, with saws, chisels, peuknives. &c. ; the

**T^^^X."^//(%^^^^ the common pruning-knife in having a thinner and more nar-

ro wblldf fixli i^ a bSfe or hbm handle. It is used for grafting, marching, &c

1C9 ^^

110

The buddineJmife ( fie. 110.) differs from the grafting-knife, in having the pomt of the sharp edge of the
blad7rmmde3 offYn the same manner as is the back or blunt edge of the grafting and pruning knives, it
has also a thin wedge-shaped ivory or bone handle for raising up the bark, in the operation of inocu-

**^* asparagus-knife consists of a strong blade, fixed in a handle, blunt on both edges, and straight
(fig. 111.) J or slightly hooked, and serrated at one end. {,fig. 112.)

1327. The garden-chisel is of two species, of vrhich there are several varieties.

The grafting-chisel differs from the carpenter's chisel, in being a narrow wedge tapering equally on both
sides It is used to split stocks where the common pruning-knife is not deemed sutBciently strong. ,

The forest-chisel {fig. 113.) is a sharp edge of steel, with or without a sharp steel hook or hooks, generally
called ears : this blade or wedge is attached to a handle, from six to ten feet long or upwards ; or better to
a handle capable of being lengthened by additional joints. It is used for cutting off small branches of
forest-trees close by the bole or trunk ; with one hand it is placed and adjusted under the branch, and with
the other a smart blow is given by a wooden mallet, which, either at once or by repetition, effects separ-
ation, and leaves a smooth section. A variety of this instrument, used for pruning orchards, is furnished
with a guard or plate behind the blade, to prevent its entering too far into the trunk or main branch.
(M 114-)

115

120

1328. Tfie jyruning-bill is generally a hooked blade, sometimes sharpened on one and
sometimes on both edges, attached to a handle of from one to four feet in length.
There are several varieties : one resembles the pruning-knife on a large scale (Jig. 115.),
having a handle four feet long, and is used for pruning hedges in the best hedge-districts,
such as Northumberland and Berwickshire ; another (Jig' 116.) has a handle of only one,
or one foot and a half long, and is sharpened in part on the back, forming a sort of halberd-
like blade, and is used where hedges are plashed, as in Middlesex and Hertfordshire ;
and the last we shall mention, contains a saw on one edge of the blade, and a knife on
the other (Jig. 117.); of this and the first-mentioned sorts are small portable varieties
with cases, &c. for amateur foresters.

1 329. The forest-axe is a steel wedge fixed at right angles to the end of a handle of
wood, from tvvo and a half to four feet long, and is chiefly used for cutting roots or trunks
at the ground's surface, where the saw cannot operate. Axes vary in dimension, and
also in the shape of the head or wedge, which, for the purposes of gardening, ought
to be long and narrow.

1 330. . Occasional instruments. Besides the above there may be wanted, in extraordinary
cases, adzes, gouges, carving-chisels, and peculiar-shaped instruments, which the intelligent
gardener will search for or procure to be made to answer his intentions.

1331. The pruning-saw (Jig. 118.) is a blade of steel, serrated in what is called the
double manner on one side, and is either jointed like a folding pruning-knife ; jointless
as in the common knife ; shaped like a carpenter's saw (Jig. 119.); or of some length, say
with a handle of six or eight feet, as in the forest-saw. (Jig. 120.) The small saws are
used for cutting off branches where the knife cannot easily act owing to want of room,
apd the forest-saw is used in cutting off large branches. In either case the section must
be smoothed with the forest-chisel or pruning-knife, and, if possible, or at least in delicate
cases, should always be covered with some tenacious air-excluding composition.

1332. The averruncator (Jig. 121.) is a compound blade attached to a handle from five

T

274

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

to eight feet in length, and operating by means of a lever moved by a cord and pulley.
Its use is to enable a person standing on the ground to prune standard trees, which it
readily does when the handle is eight feet long, to the height of fifteen feet ; and, by using
step-ladders, any greater height may be attained. Branches one inch and a half in
diameter may readily be cut off with this instrument. There is a species made entirely
of metal, to be used with one hand for pruning shrubs or hedges : of this species there
are varieties made at Sheffield of different sizes and qualities.

1333. The shears used in gardening are of several species.

1334-. Tfie pnining-shears {fig. 122.) differ from the common sort, in having a moveable centre {a) for
the motion of one of the blades, by which means, instead of a crushing-cut, they make a draw-cut, leaving
the section of the part attached to the tree as firm and smooth as if cut off with a knife. It is used in tlie
same way as the common shears, and is very convenient in reducing the size of the shrubs or bushes, and
clipping hedges of roses or other select plants.

1335v The ringing-shears (fig. 12a) is an instrument of French invention for expediting the practice of
ringing trees. A two-bladed knife, with both blades open at once, will give the best idea of its mode of
operating, and is, in fact, a good substitute.

123 124

1336. The French pruning-shears {fig. 124.), by the curvature of the cutting blade, cuts in a sort of
medium way between the common crushing and pruning shears : it is an expeditious implement for
pruning the vine.

1337. Hedge-shears (figs. 125 & 126.) are composed of two blades, acting in unison by means of a pivot,
on which they turn, on the principle of a lever of the second kind. They were formerly much used in
gardening, for hedges, fanciful figures, bowers, and even fruit-shrubs, which were then shorn or trimmed,
into globes, cones, and pyramids, by shears. At present the taste is different. Shears, however, are still
wanted for hedges of privet and yew ; but where the twigs or shoots are stronger, as in the holly, thorn,
and beech, the hedge-bill or pruning-shears is preferable, as producing wounds more easily cicatrised, and
not thickening the outer surface of the hedge, by which means the interior shoots rot for want of air,
especially in thorn and other deciduous hedges

125 126

1338. Veree-shears {fig. 127.) are a species in which the blades are joined to the handles by kneed shanks,
to lessen stooping in the operator. They are chiefly used for trimming the sides of box-edgnigs and grass-
verges. A variety has a small wheel appended, which in cutting grass-edgings is a great improvement.

1339. Turf-shears {fig 128.) are another variety, for cutting the tops ot box-edgmgs and the tuftsot
grass at the roots of shrubs, not easily got at by the scythe. Some of these have also a wheel or even two
wheels on an axle fixed to the shears on the principle of the table-caster.

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

2T5

1340. The scythe {Jig. 129.) is a sharp blade of steel attached to the end of a crooked
wooden liandle. It varies somewhat in size and in the angle made by the plate or knife,
which is so contrived as to be varied at the pleasure of the operator ; and in mowing very
short thick grass, is generally placed so as the plane of the blade may be parallel to the
plane of the surface to be mown.

1341. Of the garden-scarifiers, or bark-sealers, there are several sorts. They are gene-
rally hooked edge-tools or blunt knives, used for removing the already scaling oflf external
epidermis of the stem and branches of fruit-trees of some age. They vary in size and
strength, in order to suit different sorts of trees, and different parts of the same tree.
The two-handed instrument (Jig. 130.) is for removing the bark from the axillae of the
branches, or other angular parts difficult to be got at. The small hook (^.131.) is for
lateral branches of one and two inches in diameter; and the knife-hook (Jig. 132.) for
the trunks of the largest trees. This operation should be performed in ^e middle of
winter ; and to guard against accidents, the whole of a tree should seldom be done in
one season.

I
135

1342. The moss-scraper, for standards, is a sort of horse curry-comb (Jig. 133.) ; and
for wall-trees, is a sickle-like instrument. (Jig. 134.) In either form it is used to re-
move moss from the branches, or woody parts of trees ; the existence of which is a cer-
tain indication of the commencement of decay. It must be confessed, however, that
such instruments seldom remove the moss completely, and that the scarifier, by removing
a portion of the outer bark, does the business much more effectually, and is greatly to be
preferred.

1343. The blunt knife (Jig. 135.) has a lanceolate, double-edged blade, somewhat
obtuse on the edges, and is used for the removal of decayed wood from hollow wounds
in old neglected trees. It can never be wanted where there has been any thing like good
management.

137 138

136

139

140

1 344. Of forest barking-irons there are two species and several varieties. They are used,
not to scarify or remove the scaly decaying epidermis, but to remove the entire mass of

T 2

276

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part IJ.

cortical layers of the oak for the purposes of the tanner. The first species includes four
varieties: the smaller instruments {figs. 136, 137, & 138.) are for undergrowth, or
copse bark, or small branches ; the largest (fig. 139.) for the larger branches and trunks :
the long blade (fig. 140.) is the second species, and is used for cross-cutting the bark,
before removed by the scarifiers, into proper lengths.

1345. The garden-hammer consists of a head with a flat face and forked claw, and is
generally lighter than the carpenter's hammer. It is used chiefly by gardeners for
driving or drawing the nails in dressing wall-trees.

1346. Of fruit-gatherers there are several species.

1347. SauVs fruit-gatherer (fig. 141.) consists of
a pair of cutters (a and b) attached to a long pole,
winch may be lengthened by screwed joints or other-
wise. The operating lever (c) may be attached to
any part of the pole; the lever of the moving
chop (d) has a spring under it to keep it open ;
and the communicating string passes over a pul-
ley (e); tlie cutters (a, b) are so connected to tlie
pole by a joint and arch (/), that they may be set
at any angle required, for tlie purpose of getting
at the fruit readily. Half the top of the basket
may be covered to prevent the fruit from falling out
when a full basket is brought down.

1348. Lane's fruit-gatherer (fig. 142.) consists of
a pole (a), with a pair of forceps (5, c) at tlie end ;
one forcep (b) being fixed, and the other (c) move-
able ; a wire (rf, d) is attached to the moving forcep,
which passes along a groove to the trigger (e).
The pole being raised by the left-hand, the back of
the right raises the trigger, and opens the forcep,
which, being ap.plied to the fruit, the trigger is
pressed, by which the fruit is secured. The for-
ceps are formed of a ring of metal, covered witli
soft leather and padded.

1349. The orange-gathererusedin Spain (fig. 143.)
consists of a rod with a cup at the end, composed of
six Ungulate pieces of plate-iron or hoop, some-
what sharp at the edges. The instrument is made
to enclose the fruit, the stalk being between the iron-

^'^ ptates ; a gentle twist is then given, when the fruit is
SVt^^*' detached and brought down in the cup.

1350. The Svnss fruit-gatherer (fig. 145.) is a
small basket, with the ends and edges of the ribs
sharpened and protruding : it is used like the orange-
gatherer, in collecting apples, pears, and walnuts. (Lasteyrie, Collect.
de Mach. &c.) ^ . ^ ^ . ^ •

13-51. The orchardisVs hook (fig. 144.) consists of a rod, with an iron
hook fixed at one extremity, and a sliding-piece (a) at the other. The oper-
ator being on the tree, seizes a branch with the hook, draws it towards
him, and holds it in that position till he gathers the fruit, by hooking on
the sliding cross-piece to another branch. This slider passes freely
along the rod, but cannot drop off on account of the pin (b) at the end.

143

Ha

b

144 .^

^

=i^

145

1352. Garden-jnncers are of three species ; those for drawing nails do not differ from
those used by carpenters, consisting of two hooked levers of iron, acting as levers of the
first kind; those for twisting wire in repairing trellis or flower-baskets, &c. are the sort
ujed by wire-workers, which operate both as pliers and pincers ; and those for pulling

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

277

weeds are, when large {Jig. 146.\ formed of wood pointed with plate-iron, and are used
for pulling out large weeds, particularly tliistles and other large plants in hedg », or
other bulky crops. They are also sometimes used for common weeding, to prevent
stooping and treading beds and borders ; but their chief use is to weed ponds, either
reaching from the shores or from boats. A small sort formed of iron is sometimes used
for weeding very hard gravel-walks. Gloves, having the first finger and thumb pomts
cased with iron or steel, brought to a wedge shape, are also used for the same purpose.

1353. The grape-gatherer {fig.lAl.) is a pair of scissars, combining also tweezers or
pincers, attached to the end of a rod six or eight feet long, and worked by a cord and
pulley, or lever and wire. Tlie bunch of grapes to be gathered from the roof of a lofty
vinery, or the sprig of myrtle to be culled from the summit of a green-house stage, is not
only clipped cleanly ofi" the plant by the sheers, but held fast by that part of them acting
as pincers till it is brought down to the operator.

146 147 150

1354. The peach-gatherer (Jig. 148.) consists of a tin funnel or inverted hollow cone,
fixed on the end of a rod or handle at an obtuse angle, the funnel is first introduced under
eadi fruit, and then gently raised or moved sideways ; if ripe, the fruit will fall into the
funnel. It is used for gathering the peach tribe, apricots, and plums.

1 355. The pear-gatherer resembles the above, but the funnel is deeply notched or ser-
rated, in order to aid in gently drawing oiF ripe fruit. It is used in gathering the finer
sorts of pears and apples from walls. This and the last instrument are also sometimes
used for gathering mulberries. Common pears and apples are often gathered by Lane's
instnnnent. (^55. 142. & 151.)

1356. The berrymgatherer (Jig. 149.) is the combined scissars and pincers above men-
tioned, worked by the hand like common scissars, and is used for gathering gooseberries,
strawberries, raspberries, and such fruits as should be touched by no other hand than that
which conveys tiiem to the mouth. Some opulent proprietors have branches of fruit
shrubs cut off and brought to table, as bouquets, in elegant china vases ; or have their
strawberries grown in pots, and thus served up to be gathered as used, &c. Jerome
Buonaparte, when king of Westphalia, passing through Warsaw, on his way to Moscow,
in the campaign of 1812, had branches of cherry-trees laden with fruit held upright by
soldiers round his table like a sort of grove, from the branches of which, extending ov^r
their heads, he and his guests gathered the fruit.

1357. The seed and cherry gatherer (Jig. 150.) consists of a valvular pocket placed on
the end of a long rod. One valve or jaw of the mouth or pocket is fixed, and the other
is kept open by a spring, and closed at pleasure, and made tc bite or pinch ofi* seeds of
forest-trees, or even fruits, especially cherries,
by operating gn it with a string and pulley,
or wire and lever. It is peculiarly use-
ful for gathering ash and sycamore keys,
haws, and such like seeds.

1 358. Flower-gatherers are of two sorts, the
long-handled and the small flower-gatherer.
The latter may be the same implement as the
berry-gatherer. (Jig. 149.) The long han-
dled flower-gatherer (Jig. 152.), and which
is also an excellent grape-gatherer, cuts and
holds on the same principle as the wire-
worker's pincers, or berry-gatherer. It is
worked by means of two small cords, one
(a) serves to vary the direction of the cutting
part or scissars, and the other (b) to effect
the amputation and retention of a flower,
twig, or bunch of fruit.

T3

278

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

1359. The climbing-spur {Jig. 153.) is of two sorts, one with,
and the other without a stem. The first sort (a) is fastened to the
upper part of the leg with a leatlier belt {b) ; the other sort (c)
is tied to the feet. By means of these spurs, one on each foot,
naked-stemmed trees may be ascended to any height, and when
it is wished to stop a short time at any part, the screw of the ring
(rf) is entered in the trunk, and forms a firm point for one foot.
{Lasteyrie, Coll. de Machines, &c.)

1360. The essential operative instruments are the knife, saw, shears, scythe, and hammer.

SuBSECT. 2. Instruments of Direction.

1361. The common characteristic of directive or jrrejmratory instruments is, that they are
used in actions preparatory to operations, rather than in operations themselves, and depend
on scientific knowledge more than on practical dexterity ; this remark will apply also to
their construction, which is founded on the doctrines of quantities, gravitation, &c.

1362. The garden-line is composed of three parts, the frame, generally of iron, the cord
which is wound upon the frame, and the pin which terminates the cord. The common
use of the line is perfectly understood from the name ; though generally used for straight
lines, yet it is also applied, by means of pegs or small stakes, to form curved lines.

1363. The ground-measure. Of this there are at least three sorts used in gardening.
A Gunter's chain of 100 links, or 66 feet, a rod of one twelfth, or any equal part of the
chain, marked with links on one side, and feet on the other, and a common pocket-rule.
To these may be added a pocket measuring-line, though it is not, from its contraction and
expansion, to be much depended on. The chain is used to ascertain the contents of, or to
lay out and subdivide considerable plots ; the rod for the detail of such plots, or for
marking out rows, &c. ; and the pocket-rule for taking smaller dimensions.

1364. Of timber-measurers and dendrometers there are various kinds, and their use is
for taking the dimensions of standing timber without climbing the tree. Broad's mea-
surer (Jig. 154.) is composed of two pieces of deal about 13 feet long, with a brass limb or

154

index (a), on which are engraven figures denoting the quarter girth in feet and inches.
Raising the instrument, the index end (a) is taken hold of, and the other applied to that
part of the trunk where the girth is to be taken, opening it so wide as just to touch at the
same time both sides of it, keeping the graduated index uppermost, on which the quarter
girth will be shown, allowing 1 inch in 13 for the bark. (Trans. Soc Arts, vol. xxv.
p. 20.) There are various other dendrometers, among wliicli is a curious one by
Monteath, which will be afterwards noticed. The above we consider as much the
best.

1 365. For taking the height of a tree. Rods of deal or bamboo, seven feet long, made so
as to fit into ferrules at the end of each other, tapering as in a fishing-rod, may be used.
Five of them with feet marked on them would enable a man quickly to measure
the height of a trunk of more than 40 feet, as he would reach above seven feet.

1366. The ground-compasses {fig. 155.) are generally made of hard wood, such as oak,

shod with iron, and with an iron gauge or segment (a) ; tlieir length may be six feet ;
they are used chiefly for laying out parterres in the ancient manner ; since, by a previous

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

279

preparation of the soil, the curvilinear parts of such parterres can be described by them
with perfect accuracy. The stationary foot is placed on a slip of board a few inches
square, with a pin beneath to retain it in its place, and a lead cap above for the point of

1367* The boming-piece (Jig. 156.) is cottiposed of the body (o), commonly a thin slip
of board, four inches wide, half an inch thick, and four feet two inches long ; the head
(b) of a similar slip of board placed across, but only eighteen inches long ; and the foot
is either of tlie same form as the head, or merely the squared end of the body (as in the
figure). The upper and under edge of the head and foot must be perfectly straight, and
form right angles with the edges of the body. Borning-pieces are used to prove, com-
plete, and continue level lines, or lines on certain given slopes. One is placed at each
end of a convenient length of the level or slope, and there held perpendicular to its sur-
face, and others, being placed in the interval, and in the same line or vertical plane,
the ground hnder the feet of the intermediate borning-pieces is raised or lowered till it
is brought to the proper level or slope, when the upper edges of all the heads will range.
Where box-edgings are to be planted with accuracy and beauty, the use of these imple-
ments cannot be dispensed with.

1368. Of levels (Jigs. 157 & 158.) there are a variety of sorts; but the most con-
venient is half a square, with an iron index in the angle marked with ninety divisions or
degrees. The use of these degrees is to facilitate the laying out of slopes ; at a perfect
level the plummet will hang at 45°, and for a slope it may be any lesser number in ascend-
ing, or any greater number in descending from a fixed point. This level may also be
used as a square to set oflf right angles, or indeed angles of any description.

158

1369. The adjusting horizontal level (Jig. 157.) is peculiarly useful in laying out roads,
or regulating the slope of lawns or borders, as is also the following instrument.

1370. DalzieVs level. (Jig. 159.) This is an instrument of a very simple description,

159

lately invented, for ascertaining the relative elevation of unequal surfaces. It consists of a
wooden bar (a) with a foot at one end (b), and at the other another larger foot with a groove
and scale (c), to which the bar is connected by a screw and nut. In using this instru-
ment, two points of different altitude being chosen, the support of the bar (b) is to be
ulaced on the higher, and (c) the foot of the scale on the lower, while the position of both is
secured by a slight turn of the thumb-screw. The bar being brought parallel to the horizon
vrith the plummet (d), will indicate, that the upper part of the scale is to be advanced, or
the reverse, keeping its foot on the point of support, until some one of the graduations
coincides vrith, or is visibly parallel to the upper edge of the bar. The difference of alti-
tude sought is seen in figures, without calculation. Any person that understands the use
of a level will see a variety of levelling operations on a small scale that this implement is
calculated to simplify : for example, if it be required to construct an inclined plane, rising
an inch in a foot, the inner edge of the scale is to be brought six feet from the foot end
of the horizontal piece, and rendered perpendicular to it, by making the graduated line at
six inches coincide with the horizontal edge of the bar. Being fixed immoveably by the
screw in that position, the surface of the ground is then to be worked until the plummet
bangs perpendicularly. The first six feet of the inclined plane having been thus con-
structed, other portions are to be taken successively throughout the remainder. If a plane
of a different inclination is required, as of half an inch in a foot, the scale is to be shifted
to three inches, and so on. (High. Soc. Trans, vol. v. p. 575.)

T 4

280

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

1371 . The spirit-level, with a theodolite, compass, and telescope, is used for laying out ex-
tensive scenes. The most convenient are put together, and assume the form of a stout
walking-stick. Smalcalder is at present the best London artist in this line.
^ 1372. The staj" is used in laying out straight lines. It may be a straight rod of six or
eight feet long or upwards, and one inch in diameter ; with the first six inches at the top
painted white, the second black, and the third six inches red. Two points of the desired
straight line being found or given, any greater number of points are found by placing
other staffs or rods so as they shall range, and the first staff conceal from the eye placed
behind it, all the rest in the line ; the use of the three different colors is to render the ends
distinctly visible when the ground is fresh dug, white or covered with snow, or green, as
in pastures.

1373. T/ie straight-edgey for a garden, may also serve for a plumb-rule. It is merely a
slip of board with straight parallel edges and sides, of any length from four to ten feet,
with the addition of a plummet for occasional use as a plumb-rule. It is used to form
and prove smaller levels, between points settled, by the borning-pieces ; or to prove beds
or borders of even or plane surfaces. As a plumb-rule, this implement is also used to
place espalier rails, temporary walls of boards, and even standard trees, upright.

1374. The stake is any straight piece of wood of an inch or two in diameter, and from
one to four feet in length. There are two sorts, the one short and thick, of one foot or
eighteen inches in length, and used, by being driven into the ground iu levelling, as resting-
places for the level, or fixed indications of surface alterations ; the other, comparatively
slender and long, may either be covered with white- wash, or the lower half dipped in
white- wash, and the upper half in a black -wash, or they may be painted as the staffs. The
last kind are used for tracing out lines of any description, or for indicating the situations
of trees, or other objects. Twigs and bits of lath are commonly used as substitutes, but
wherever correctness is any object, the trifling expense of two or three hundred of such
stakes, should not deter from procuring them.

SuBSECT. 3. Instruments of Designation.

1375. The object of designating instruments is to record and render ascertainable tlie
individuality of objects, and chiefly of plants ; either as species, genera, or varieties. A
tally or stake driven into the soil and remaining fast, is, mechanically considered, a
wedge held in equilibrium by the resistance of the earth. Wherever there is a variety of
plants cultivated, it becomes necessary to be able to mark and distinguish them, as well
when in a growing state, as when in a state of hybernation, or recent insertion in the
soil. — In sending plants to any distance, the same thing is requisite. For both purposes
the name is either written on some instrument, and attached to or placed beside the
plant ; or a number is made use of instead of the name, from which reference is made to
> written list. Of both these a considerable variety is used in gardening.

1376. Notch numbering-sticks are of several distinct species.

1377. The common tally {taiUer, Fr.), or number-stick {fig. 160.), is a slip of lath, or

160 166

167

168

169

170 163 164 165

y—j \ /\\^/n\7rTr^^

deal, or a piecp of a rod, nine or twelve inches long, sharpened at one end and squared
at the other. The numbers, to nine inclusive, are cut on the face with a knife in
Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, VI,. VII, VIII, IX.) ; reading always from the
insertion, or sharpened end. Ten is formed by a notch or tally on the near angle, and
placed behind the above numerals, extends the series from eleven to nineteen. Twenty
is formed by two notches, thirty by three, and so on ; the nine numerals above being

Book III. IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING. 281

placed after the notches, so as to form the intermediate terms of the series. Fifty,
instead of five notches, is formed by a cross cut, or channel bke I, on the face with a
similar one on the right side joined to it. One hundred is formed by jommg to these
two cuts a similar cut on the other side, that is a channel conUnued on three sides ; and
one hundred and fifH", by a cut or channel continued on the four sides of the sUck.
Ninety may be more i^eadily formed by using the mark for one hundred, jnd placing a
notch behind it, to signify 100 less 10, than using the cuts for fifty, and adding four
notches before. Other high numbers may be simplified in the ^me manner. A httle
reflection will show that this mode of numbering may be carried to almost any extent;
and in some nurseries, particularly in Scotland, we have known it carried as far as five
hundred, which is formed by only three rings forl50 x 3 = 450, and a half nng for 50.
Particular attention must always be had to read from the root, or insertion end.

1378. ^to7is botanic tally {Jigs. 161. to 165.) is a highly improved method of
numbering, devised by Alexander and George, sons of the late Dr. Anderson. It proceeds
upon the same general principles as Uiat above, but with different marks, the ten cyphers
(fig. 162.) being denoted by as many single distinct cuts of easy and expediUous exe-
cution ; and any number, however high, requiring no more marks than it would require
figures written with a pen.

1379. As an example of application, the number 590 {Jig. 161.) may be referred to.
" The only way in which the memory is apt to misgive, in this scheme, is by confounding
/&\, /1&|V, A& V> with each other, (as a child would confound the figures 6
and 9,) but this slight inconvenience will be remedied by the following key, which may be
easily borne in the mind. Let us recollect that, in writing, we naturally draw a stroke
from the right, at top, to the left, at bottom, thus / , and not in the opposite direction,
thus \ : now, in all the above numbers, which differ from each other in the direction of
the diagonal line, that which is in the direction usual in writing precedes the other,
thus / \ ^ K /\ /\; the other two, A & V» will not be confounded, on recol-

236789 4 5

lecting that V is the usual numeral notation of five.

/n order to express the numbers which refer to a botanical cataloguf, a practice of great use to every cul-
tivating botanist, " we cut the stick in the form of a prism of four sides, whereof one is narrower than the
rest ; or of a triangle, with one of the angles cut oft! A transverse section of the tally should be a
truncate triangle. {Jig. 162. a) On the narrowest side, notch the number corresponding with that of
the genus, in the catalogue. Its being rather more easy to cut the numbers on the smaller than on the
larger surface, is the reason for preferring the former for the genus, the number of which is, in most cases,
greater than that of the species. On the opposite and wider side, put the number of the species; and if
there be a variety, put it on one of the intermediate sides. By this simple method, in going over the
garden with the catalogue in our hand, we can see at once the genus, species, and variety of any plant
we wish to look for ; and in putting in plants, we have always the means ready at hand of placing
the num!)ers with them, without the apparatus of whitened tallies, with ink, blacking, or any of those
troublesome expedients in common use. The sticks themselves, which may be painted of a dark color,
and kept always at hand, are, besides, less conspicuous and unsightly than the usual large white marks
with writing on them, and they are not so easily effaced." {Hort. Trans. voL iL p. 348, 3*9.)

1380. Tlie written number-stick (Jigs. 166. to 170.) varies in form, size, and materials.
Tlie first sort {Jig. 166.) is a flat piece of lath, smoothed and pointed with the knife, and
either painted, or more commonly rubbed on the face with white lead at the time of
using, and numbers corresponding with those of genus, species, and varieties are written
on it with a lead pencil. Sometimes types and printers' ink are used : when the paint is
dry, common ink, or black paint is also made use of; and in some cases the number is
impressed by a cold type, or burnt in by one heated to redness. A little white lead
rubbed on with the finger, and the name immediately written with a hard black lead
pencil, will last as long as the wood, and is on the whole the best mode. Various sizes
are used ; from laths formed with the knife tliree inches long, and half an inch broad, to
pieces sawed out of deal, two or three inches broad, and from eighteen inches to three
feet long ; the upper part painted white, and lower part pitched, charred, or coated with
some preservative liquid, for durability. With respect to materials, fir deal is most
commonly used, but oak boards, or old oak spokes are occasionally made use of in
botanic gardens. Cast-iron is also used, and found by nurserj-men to be in tlie end the
most economical. Earthenware, hoop-iron, lead, and copper have been tried. The general
form in all these cases, is a parallelogram pointed at the insertion end, and somewhat
rounded at the other. To detect stealing, or mark appropriation, the name of the proprietors
or of the garden may be cast on the back of all lead, or cast-iron, or earthenware
naming-instruments.

1381. Tke stamped numbering-instrument is formed in various ways; the simplest and
most economical is that of triangular slips of lead dipt or stampt from sheet-lead of 4lbs.
to a superficial foot ; and for plants in pots, they need not be longer than three inches
nor broader at the head than half an inch. On these the number is stamped with a type
or the name at length may be stamped in tlie same manner. Such tallies are durable^
unobtrusive, and not so readily driven out of pots as those of wood ; for herbaceous plants
they may be of double size and weight.

282 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

1382. Number-bricks. For plants in the open ground, bricks set endways and rather
obhquely in the soil, and the number painted on a black or white ground, answers well
where they do not require to be often removed. This mode is extensively used in the
herbaceous and tree arrangements in the nurseries of Messrs. Loddiges.

1383. The name-stick differs from the number-stick in having the name written
or printed at length, instead of a number, figure, or sign referring to some list
or catalogue containing the name. Any of the written number-sticks will serve also for
a name-stick; but frequently the upper end is broader, square, round, or oblong,
iJ^S^- 167, 168. & 170.) and inclined to the stem, so as the name may meet the eye at
a parallel angle for reading. A very neat sort of naming-instrument for plants in hot-
houses, which do not require to be often removed, is formed of white earthenware, on
which the name may be written with ink or pencil, or printed. A variety of other
devices for numbering and naming planted plants, by instruments inserted in the ground,
might be mentioned : in the garden of the Ducal Palace Pitti, at Florence, the name, &c. is
printed on slips of paper, and placed inside a small glass bottle, which is fixed on the end of
an iron rod, a complex mode, and one which can only succeed in climates like that of Italy.

1384. For vxriting the figures or letters on small sticks, a little white lead is rubbed on with a bit of stiff
leather, and a hard pencil is then used ; on a larger scale, and on durable materials, the stick is first
painted, and the figures or letters afterwards put on in oil colors. On earthenware instruments either
ink or oil color may be used. On large sticks the skeleton type may be used. This is the practice in the
Paris garden ; the classes, orders, and generic name are cut out of one thin plate of brass, which is
applied to the face of the stick, and then oil color brushed over it : the specific name is then added in
separate letters, from an alphabet so cut or stampt out of brass lamina.

1385. The plant-label is distinguished from the number and naming sticks, in being
hung or tied to the plant, or nailed, or otherwise fixed to the wall or trellis against which
it is trained. There are two species or varieties, the permanent and temporary.

1386. The permanent label is a slip or plate an inch or more in width, and two or three
inches long, of deal, metal, earthenware, leather, horn, bone, ivory, &c. on which the
number or name is impressed or written, and it is then hung to trees or nailed on the wall
or espalier rail to which trees are trained. Tlie difficulty in the case of hanging labels on
trees, is to find a durable tie, or thread, and for this purpose, untanned leathern thongs
or catgut is preferred ; silver or lead wire may also be used, the former for select plants,
and the latter for commoner cases.

1387. The temporary label is a shred of paper or parchment, and sometimes of leather,
with a string attached, and is used chiefly by nurserymen to designate plants sold.

1 S88. The mode oi naming or registering by scries, chiefly applies to fruit-trees in kitchen-
gardens or orchards, and is done by marking down the names in a book or on a plant,
in the same order in which the trees or shrubs are planted in the garden. Thus, suppose
the east side of an east wall is to be planted and registered without the use of naming-
instruments or labels. Begin at the south corner and write down under that title the
sort of trees in the order in which they are planted, placing in the list a number against
each name in regular series. Suppose that at any time afterwards, you wish to find
which tree is the golden pippin ; then looking in the list, that name is found opposite
No. 9 ; counting nine, therefore, from the south corner, will give you the tree, &c.
This mode of registering by series is always a very good check to any other mode of
numbering or naming. Sometimes it is done on a general plan of the garden, but the
plan must then be on a large scale to admit of writing down all the numbers or names
of the trees in the spots where they are planted.

1389. The essential instruments of direction and designation are the line, rule, level, and
common tally.

Sect. III. Utensils.

1390. Utensils may be characterised by their property of being adapted to hold, con-
tain, or include some material or thing, and either for the preparation of materials, the
deportation of plants and garden-productions, or their culture and protection.

SuBSECT. 1. Utensils of Preparation and Dqwrtation.

1391. Preparatory utensUs are the screen and sieve. Their construction and use em-
brace a variety of operations, mechanical and chemical.

1392. Screens are used in gardening for fining or sort- 171
ing earths, gravel, or tanners' bark. The mould-screen
(Jig. 171.) is a wire frame with a jointed fulcrum, by
which it can be placed sloping to any required degree ; its
use is to separate stones and coarser particles from mould,
either in trenching over ground intended for bulbous or
other tender and succulent roots, or in turning over compost-
heaps. The soil must be well broken with the spade before
tlu-own on the screen, and it is in vain attempting to use
the utensil, unless the earth is dry.

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

283

1S93. In gravel-screeiis the wires are placed wider, according to the use to which the
gravel is to be applied. In general, one quarter of an inch is the width for earth, and
half an inch for garden-gravel ; but for gravel used in the highways, one inch is not
too wide for excluding small stuff, nor two inches too narrow for admitting the stonelets
to be used.

1394. Garden-sieves are of various kinds. The mould-sieve, is a piece of cloth of wire
firmly attached to a circular rim, and the holes or interstices need not be above one
fourth of an inch in diameter. It is used for sifting mould for small pots ; sieves are
also required in gardening, for cleaning seeds; and wooden sieves of different kinds for
airing or keeping fruit.

1 395. Utejisils of deportation are, the mould-scuttle, pot-carrier, basket, and packing-case.

1396. Tke mould-scuttle is a wooden box for carrying sifted earth in situations where the
wheelbarrow cannot be brought into use. Sometimes it is made of iron, like the
common coal-scuttle.

1397. The pot-carrier is an oblong board, with a hoop-handle in the middle : it is used
for carrying pots of plants from one part of the garden to another. A wire sieve answers
the same purpose ; but it is an ill application of that utensil, and besides occupies both
hands, and requires stooping.

1398. Garden-baskets are of several species and varieties, used for growing, carrying,
measuring, or keeping vegetable productions. They are woven or worked of the spray,
bark, or split woody fibre of trees, or of the young shoots of willow, hazel, and other shrubs.

1399. The plant basket is a vessel of wicker-work, and shaped like a large pot, not less than eighteen inches
wide, by twenty inches deep, and is used by some nurserj-men, and particularly by the Dutch, to grow
large peach-trees, vines, &c. for deportation. By the means of these baskets, when new garden-walls or
hot-houses are built, one, and often two years, may be saved in the fruit-trees ; the mode is at present a
good deal out of use, but deserves to be revived.

1400. The planters' basket is a flat, rectangular utensil of wicker-work, or boards partitioned into three op
more parts, for the purpose of carrying with the gardener when about to plant or remove plants. One
division is for the plants taken up ; another for the plants tx) be planted ; and a third, for the tools which
he uses, and for any decayed parts of plants, stones, weeds, or other refuse. By using such a basket the
young gardener may proceed in his operations with order, accuracy, and neatness.

1401. The 7nould-basket is a strong reticulated utensil of unpeeled willows or hazel,- used for carrying
earth, gravel, or tanners' bark.

1402. Can-ying-baskets and package-baskets are of various sizes, shapes, and qualities of material and
workmanship. Such as are large, coarse, and without handles are called hampers, and about London,
boats, barges, and other local names.

1403. Measuring-baskets are chiefly in use by market -gardeners : the largest are bushels and half-busheb,
formed of unpeeled or peeled willow shoots or withies ; pecks and half-pecks are formed of peeled withies ;
and sieves, punnets, pottles, and thumbs, for the more rare culinary vegetables and fruits, are formed from
shavings of woody fibre.

1404. The jylant packing-case is of various species, according as plants in a growing
state, plants in a state of rest, and with or without leaves, cuttings, bulbs, or other roots,
or seeds, are to be packed. Each of these species varies also according to the distance to
which it is to be sent, climate, season of the year, and mode of conveyance. In
sending plants in leaf from this country to the continent, and the contrary, a close-bot-
tomed box hooped over (Jig. 172.), is generally used ;
the cover of the upper part being either netting, or
if matting very frequently removed.

1405. The glazed packing-case is the most suitable
for importing plants from distant countries. One
of this kind employed by Sir R. Farquhar, in send-
ing plants from the Mauritius to the Horticultural
Society (Jig. 173.), was made of inch boards, three
feet long, four feet wide, and twenty inches deep.
The sloping roof consisted of two glazed shutters

172

178

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Irt size has 2 to the m*/, and are called twos, beitiff IS ^''
*} i fours 12 I

S!d

4

.-M

6

4th

8

4th

12

6th

Ifi

sixes
eighths
twelves
sixteens

Part II.

rolk'.fl' "^'"''I- °P^"^^/° ^^'^'t air (6), and could bo covered at pleasure with two
CO t.rn ^^'^'l '"? ^'' '^l '^'' '"''' ''''' P'^"**^^ '" -««dea boxes just large enough to
conta. I a smgle plant and perforated in their sides and bottom (d), and their surface wa^
carefully covered with moss (e), tied down with cord.

SuBSECT 2. Uteiisils of Cullxire.

1406. r/ie M/ens/& W5erf wi ^rowm^ plants are the pot, water-saucer, box, tub, watering-
pot, ana syrmge. "

1407. Ofjtoiver-pots there are several species and many varieties.

In. in.
7th size has 24 to the east, and are called t wentv-fours, beinff's 6^"

2"" ?!f thirty -twos 'l 6

fJ;,V 1^ forty-eighths 3 4

|V!k fS sixties -2 Vi

* ^ '" w • • . . .. thumbs or ei«lities 1 j i;

uoSZ"^cJt7f%T? oZ-,'r!!l1hi^ ^^ ""'■' ^""^ "l*; P"^^ ■'" generally the same for all the 10 sorts ; two
po^ or a cast oi No. 1, costing the same price as eight pots, or a cast of No 11

The store.poi is a broad flat-bottomed pot, used for striking cuttings or raising seedlings.

7%e/>o//o;-6M/6oK5roo/s IS narrower and deeper than usual.

The pot for aquatics should have no holes in the bottom or sides.

The pot for vtarsh-plants should have three or four smail holes in the sides about one third of the denth
%^^^%-^T::^jh:Ts.^i ''''' ^''^ ^'^^''^ ^"^ the remainder With soiU^i.^SSi^^':!

sto^eTaTeS ^1^ i?mtKol'Ju\atir ^'"^'^' '"^ '""^" "^'^^ '^ ^'^^' "^^^^ ^''^'^ ''"^''--^

.iZc^ofi'ff'i'fli'''"'',"^"'*'*^^"'"?''"^'"''"*' they are generaUy glared green, but, for superior ocoa-
Bions, are sculptured and painted, or mcrusted, &c. .< o o . , t

1408. Thepropagation-pot(ftg. 115.) has
a slit in tlie side, from tlie rim to the hole in
tlie bottom, the use of which is to admit a
shoot of a tree for propagation by ringing in
the Chinese manner. Opposite to the slit is
an ear, or round appendage, with a hole for
hanging tlie pot to a branch. To those
who practise the mode of rooting shoots
without laying them down to the ground,
such pots will prove very convenient. In
France and Italy they are formed in a similar manner, and for the same purpose, of tinned
iron ; and by such means they propagate the camellia, banksia, &c.

The square pot is preferred by some for the three smallest sizes of pots, as containing more earth in a
given surface of shelf or basis ; but they are more expensive at first, less convenient for shifting, and, not
admitting of such perfection of form as the circle, do not, in our opinion, merit adoption. They are used
in different parts of Lombardy and at Paris.

The classic pot is the common material formed into vases, or particular shapes, for aloes and other plants
which seldom require shifting, and which are destined to occupy particular spots in gardens or conserva-
tories, or on the terraces and parapets of mansions in the summer season.

TTie Chinese pot is generally glazed, and wide in proportion to its depth ; but some are widest below,
with the saucer attached to the bottom of the pot, and the slits on the side of the pot for the exit or
absorption of the water. Some ornamental Chinese pots are square at top and bottom, and bellied out in
the middle.

The French pot, instead of one hole in the centre of the bottom to admit water, has several small holes
about one eighth of an inch in diameter, by which worms are excluded.

1409. F/ower-pot gauge. (Jig. 174.) In order to form pots of different sizes of a regular ratio to each other.
Knight has suggested a plan, of which this may be considered the substance. Assume as a convenient
proportion as to width at top, bottom, and height, 8, 5, and 6 ; lay down the vertical section of a pot of
this proportion on a board or large paper ; from its centre («) draw two lines (6 and c) passing through
the bottom of the sides, and equal distances measured on these lines will give equal accretions to smaller
or larger sized pots. Knight considers 2 inches as forming a proper difference in diameter in the scale of
«izes of pots, whi'ch is nearly double that in common use.

1410. Thejioiver-pot saucer is a flat circular vessel, with a rim from one to two inches
high, and is made somewhat larger than the bottoms of all the above sorts of pots. Its
chief use is to prevent the water, which escapes by the bottom of the pot, from proving
inconvenient on tlie shelves or stages in rooms or particular situations. In gardens they
are seldom wanted. A species named the carnation-saucer (Jig. 176.) is formed as
much larger than the pot to be placed in it as to admit of surrounding its base with
water, in order to prevent creeping insects from getting at the pot. In the centre of the
saucer is raised a basement on which to place the pot, in order to keep it dry, &c.

1411. The qualities and durability of pots and saucers depend on the sort of clay and
degree of burning, in which a knowledge can only be acquired by observation and ex-
perience. Pots too much burned, crack and fall in pieces ; and those which are not
burnt enough, splinter or scale off with the frost and continued moisture. Porous
earthenware is most congenial to the plants; but by admitting transpiration by the sides.

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

985

Glazed or stone-ware pots are not congenial, but retain

dries the earth within sooner.

moisture a long time. . „ , . . ,.

1412. The plant-box (fgs, 177, 178, & 179.) is asubsUtute for a large pot; it is of a
cubical fio-ure, and generally formed of wood, though in some cases the frame is formed of
cast-iron,° and the sides of slates cut to fit, and moveable at pleasure. Such boxes
are chiefly used for orange-trees. The construction of those of VersaUles is generally

I'.'i-r^

1

«.l } ^ :l

! 0 i , ^

177

178

179

approved. Two of the opposite sides are fixed, the other two are moveable, but kept in
tlieir places by a couple of iron bars with hinges, wliich are fastened on one side, and on
tlie oUier are hooks to catch in (Jig. 177.), that the state of the roots may be readily ex-
amined, the old earth taken out, and fresh put in at pleasure. Another material advan-
tage gained in these boxes is, that the plants may be shifted by sliding them into others.

1413. The plant-tub (Jig. 180.) is a circubar utensil formed by tlie cooper for the
same purpose as the plant-box. In shifting, the box is unhooped, and when the old
earth is removed it is refitted on the same or a new bottom by the cooper.

1414. The garden watering-pot is of different species. The common watering-pot is a
tinned iron or copper vessel, used for conveying water to plants. Tliere are several
varieties; but the principal are, 1st, the common large pot, with two roses of different
sizes, the one pierced with small, and the other with large holes ; 2d, the long
spouted pot, for watering plants in pots, at a small distance, either with or without a
rose ; and, 3d, the shelf watering-pot, which is a small cartouche-shaped pot for watering
plants on shelves, or the back part of stoves, close imder the glass, consequently above
the eye of the gardener.

1415. The French imtering-iyots (fgs. 181, 182, & 183.) are generally formed of
copper, and some (fg. 183.) have zig-zag spouts, to break the force of the water when
pouring it on plants wit>iout the use of the rose.

180

184

181

182

183

1416. The Italian watering-pot is formed of earthenwai-e in shapes similar to tlie
French.

1417. The watering-tuhe (Jig. 184.) is a tin tube with a funnel joined to it at rio-iu
angles at one end, and with or without a rose joined to it in an opposite direction at tne
other. It is used for watering pines, and other potted plants in pits or beds, not easily
reached, and where it is desirable not to moisten the leaves.

1418. The garden-syringe is of different species : the common is made of tinned iron,
copper, or brass, generally about two feet in length, and two inches in diameter.

1419. Read's syringe (fg. 185.) is by far the best implement of the kind. By means
of a ball valve (d), which can never go out of repair, the water is drawn in through
a large opening, and forced out either through a fine rose (e), a larger rose (b), or in
one spout (a), each forming a separate cap, which screws off and on. In common
syringes the air above the piston proves an obstacle to the operation of the syringe, and
greatly increases the labor of the operator; but in Read's syringe there is a tube (f)
by which this air escapes in the operation of drawing in water, and the space is as readily
replaced with au- through the same aperture in pressing the water out again. It is

289

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

185

astonishing how much this lessens the power requisite either to fill
the syringe or empty it. A child may do with Read's engine,
what requires a man in the common kind. This instrument may
be considered as superseding not only the common hand-syringes,
but even the barrow-engine, and other machines of this kind to
which the same improvements are not applied.

SuBSECT. 3. Utensils of Protection.

1420. Utensils of shade, shelter, and exclusion are the cover,
shade, blancher, hand-glass, and bell-glass.

1 42 1. Plant-covers are of different species.

1422. The portable cloth cover or shelter is of different species:
it consists of a frame of wicker-work, of any size, from tliat
of a hand-glas6, to six or eight feet high, which is covered
with gauze, oiled canvas, matting, and sometimes entirely with
wicker-work. It is used for protecting half-hardy shrubs and plants
in the winter season, and when recently transplanted.

1423. Tlie portable paper cover or shelter is a «5mall frame, like
the skeleton of a hand-glass, covered with oil-paper, and is used
for protecting cauliflower-plants, striking cuttings, &c.

1424. Shades are of three sj)ecies. The place -umbrella (Jig. 186.)
resembles the domestic instrument of that name ; but instead of
the ordinary handle, has a pointed rod, shod with iron, for insertion
in the ground. It is used for shading tender plants from the
sun, or sheltering them from the rain. For both purposes it is conve-
nient to have a joint in the stem, so as to incline the cover accord-
ing to the situation of the sun and the direction of the rain. They
are much used in the Paris garden, and at Monza, in Lombardy.

1425. The portable wire shade is a bottomless cage of wire or wicker work, to place
over tender plants, to protect them from excess of wind, sun, and rain. Tliey are a
good deal used in the botanic gardens of the continent, for moderating the direct influence
of the sun on plants of coldclimates.

1426. The earthenware shade (Jigs. 187, & 188.) is in the form of a flower-pot,
but with a section cut from one side to admit the air and light. This open side in the
case of auriculas and Alpine plants, is placed to the north, and in the case of tender
plants to the south, or other points. These utensils are exceedingly useful in transplanting
tender plants, and in cultivating Alpine plants. One species (^g. 188.) is entirely per-
forated with holes, for shading ferns, mosses, and fungi. Common pots are often used
for sheltering and shading newly transplanted articles with the greatest benefit.

1427. Blancliers are any close utensil that when whelmed over a plant will exclude the
light. The most common is the blanching-pot, which is used to exclude light from sea-
cale and rhubarb-stalks, and some other culinary vegetables, where the green color is to
to be avoided. In the Pyrenees they are used for blanching celery.

1428. The conic blanching-pot is in the form of a sugar-loaf, and is used in France for
blanching lettuce and endive. (Lasteyrie.) In Valentia, asparagus is blanched stalk
by stalk, by portions of reed with a knot or joint placed over each. (Ibid.)

187

188

189

190

1429. The hand-glass is of various species.

formed
eaves.

The'S iand'S^the cAeSest^ but^tWs is by S^^ ;nost elegant ; they are manufactured
by Jorden'Ld'o'theStlSifgL'^^^^^^

t>o?SSSf^iftiScTttp^^^^^^^^^^

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

287

screwed together, and the top, which is always kept separable is cast in one piece, When air is to be
Riven to the plants enclosed, it is done by lifting up the top, and replacing it diagonally, by which means
air is admitted in every direction ; and one advantage of not being obliged to lift the bottom part is, that
in severe weather, when it is frozen to the ground, air is admitted without danger of breaking the glass ;
add also that the leaves of large plants, as of cauliflower, are less liable to be injured in replacing it. A
glass case may be composed from two or three of these hand-glasses, of any height, by placing two or three
bottom frames one above the other. The relative prices, the size and shape being the same, is in the
order of lead, copper, and cast-iron.

1430. The wrought-iron hand-glass {Jigs.
191, & 192.) is composed of solid iron
sash-bars, and may therefore be formed
of any shape or height It is particularly
eligible for covering tender shrubs, fixed
in the open air, as tree-pceony, some half-
hardy mimosas, &c., and even geraniums
and fuchsias in the south of England.

1431. The bell-glass AiS^QTS irom
the hand-glass in being one entire
piece of glass and commonly bell-
shaped, semi-globuIar,or cylindrical.

14S2. The common green glass bell {fig.
193.) is formed of bottle glass, and is com-
monly used in the open garden for protect-

ing cauliflowers or other culinary plants, or for striking cuttings or retaining a moist atmosphere about
seeds, &c.

1433. The crystal bell or receiver,
{Jigs. 194, 195, & 196.) used in gar-
dening, is generally from three to
eight inches in diameter, and from
four inches to one foot in height ;
they are employed in striking tender
cuttings in the exotic departments,
especially heaths.

1434. The essential utensils are the sieve, flower-pot, watering-pot, and

191

192

197

SuBSECT. 4. Utensils for entrajrping Vermin.

1435. Birdf beetle, and wasp traps constitute the only genera of this tribe of the class
vorth mentioning.

1436. The birdtrap-cage {fig. 197.) is^ a wicker
utensil with a funnel, through which the bird having
descended in quest of the bait placed within, cannot
ascend. It is successfully employed to catch young
sparrows.

1437. The earwig and beetle trap {fig. 198.) is
often only a hollow cylinder, but from tliis, if not
taken regularly at certain seasons, the insects escape.
A close box, \vith an inverted truncated cone of
glass in the centre as a hopper, is better ; because
when earwigs, beetles, wood-lice, or such insects
enter, they cannot escape, and may be drowned or
scalded, or suffered to die tiiere. The common bait
is crumbs of bread.

14-38. The wasp and fiy trap, is merely a bottle half full of water honied at the
mouth to entice their entrance. . Some assert that the plant hoya camosa, whilst in
bloom, will attract wasps and all other insects from the fruit in the house in which it
grows [Maher, in Hort. Trans, vol. i. 197.) ; and others that boiled carrots will have the
same effect.

Sect. IV. Machines.

1439. Machines are agents for abridging manual labor. All the operations of gar-
dening may be performed by the simple tools, instruments, or utensils, already mentioned ;
but in practice some labors would be insufferably tedious, and others inconveniently
cumbersome ; and in many operations, the ordinary force of man could not be conveniently
brought into action. RoUers, as opposed to the turf-beetle, are illustrative of the first
case ; the German devil, and Bramali's hydrostatic press, as opposed to a number of
men witli ropes or levers, of the second ; and the boat-scythe, as performing the oper-
ations of the pincers or common scythe, of the third case. But the machines of gar-
dening are very few, and chiefly artificial contrivances for the defence of gardens or
scientific machines for measurement or designation of temperature. In contriving either

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

of these, simplicity ought to be attended to; for a complicated machine is not only more
expensive, and more apt to be out of order, but there is also a greater degree of
friction, according to the number of rubbing parts.

Su

BSEOT. 1. Machines of Labor.

199

200«

1 440. The more cumbrous machines of gardening are the barrow, roller, watering-engine,
boat-scythe, ladder engine, and transplanter.

1441. Garden-wheelbarrows are of several
species. The common garden-iuheelbarroio
{fg. 199.) is a box, open at top, placed on
two levers, terminating in a wheel and axle
at one end, and in two handles at the other.
They are commonly made of wood, the levers

of ash or elm, and the sides and bottom of any soft w^^ The wheel is either whoUy of
cast-iron, or of wood, shod with wrought-iron. Excellent garden- wheelbarrows are now
n^ade of wrought-iron ; but wooden ones are better for new ground work. They are used
for conveying dung, weeds, garden-soils, litter, &c.

1442. The separating barrow is, in appearance, the same as the above, buf the body being
kept in its place by two iron bolts at opposite angles of the bottom, may be lifted off by
two men, and thus tan, dung, and other articles are readily earned into hot-houses, where
the wheel and levers could not be pushed along.

1443. The neiv ground work barrow {fig. 200.)
differs from the first in having the sides and
back very low, and a front of the same height.
It is made much stronger, and is used chiefly for
wheeling earth, clay, or gravel, in extensive ex-
cavations or removals of these materials.

1444. The haulm-barrow (fig. 201.) is an open box
or case of wicker or other work placed on or suspended
from a pair of handles, with or without a wheel, and is
useful for carrying litter, leaves, haulm, spray, prunings
of hedges, &c.

1445. I'he fiower-pot harrow is a flat surface and
wheel, on which plants, pots, or leaves are placed either
directly, or when small in one or more shallow baskets.

1446. The water-barrow, instead of a box, contains a barrel, tub, or cistern, in ^hich
fluid manure or mere water is conveyed to different parts of the garden.

1447. The hand-barrow is a frame of
wood carried by two levers, which form four
handles, and is used, in gardening, for re-
moving large pots or tubs of trees in blossom
or in fruit, and which wheeling might shake
and otherwise injure.

1448. Watering-engines are of several
species.

1449. The jmmp-si/ringe, or hand forcing-
jmmp {fig. 202.) consists of a barrel-piston
and directing-tube. The water is drawn
up through a perforated base ; and the ad-
vantage of this engine is, that it may be
placed in any common watering-pot or
bucket, and thus much room and some
trouble and expense saved in small gardens.

1450. The banmu watering-engine (fig.
203.) is a portable forcing-pump so ar-
ranged as to throw the water forty or fifty feet
distance, and either in the form of a spout or a
fine shower. The cistern commonly contains
from twenty to thirty gallons of water, and
the frame which holds it being fitted up as
a wheelbarrow, it may be wheeled round the
garden, and the walks, borders, or even the
compartments to the extent of forty-five feet
from the walk may be watered completely.
Tlie most desirable variety of this machine

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

289

204

is that which is furnished with a sucking- 203

pipe ( a), like the fire-engines, by means
of which, if there are ponds or regular sup-
plies by pipes or wells in a garden, the
labor of canying the water is avoided.

1 45 1 . Tlie cu rved-barrel engine {fig- 204. )
has the barrel and piston-rods curved so as to
form part of a circle, &c. By this construc-
tion, the bore of Uie barrels may be formed
in the lathe, and consequently made perfectly
true : the piston-rods move exactly in the
direction of the axis of the barrels, and there-
fore operate with the least possible friction.
For a portable engine this is one of the best.
— Both these engines would receive great ad-
ditional power, by adopting the improve-
ments on the syringe by Read. (1419.)

1452. The self-acting greenhouse-engine is
a small vessel of cast-iron, one part of which
is filled with air, highly condensed by a piston, and the other
with water, which, by turning tlie cock, is let out by a spout
either as a shower or stream. The machine may be held in
the hand, and the stream or shower directed against any
particular plant. Instead of water, if tobacco-smoke is intro-
duced, the smoke will be driven with great force to a consider-
able distance. This machine will throw the water from thirty
to fifty feet, but its chief use is in green-houses, for the pur-
poses of fumigation, as a plant on the upper part of a stage
may thus be fumigated without touching it, or the operator
being nearer it than the path. On the whole, it is more an
instrument for the amateur than the practical gardener.

1 453. The carriage water-barrel is used for watering lawns
the first season after their formation, when the weather is dry ;
or for watering borders or other cultivated surfaces near a
broad wall. In the former case, the water is delivered by a ^^
horizontal tube six or eight feet long, perforated at the lower

angle so as to produce a series of horizontal jets ; in the latter, a long leathern tube, ter-
minating in a rose, is made use of. The barrel in the first case is drawn slowly along by a
horse, in the latter it is nearly stationary, and a man waters on each side as far as may
be deemed advisable, or as the leathern tube admits.

1454. The roller water-engine (fig. 205.) consists of a horse, frame, and wheels, on
which is placed a water-barrel, and under it an iron roller. It is an excellent machine
for lawns and roads, as they may be watered and rolled by the same operation. The person
who directs the water, irrigating the space to be rolled, not that which has undergone the
operation.

205

1455. The gardenr^roUer is formed either of wood, stone, or cast-iron. The first requires
to be loaded ; the second, from the smaUness of its diameter, is heavy to draw ; and there-
tore Ae third, which may be formed of any diameter, weight, or breadth, is generally pre-
ferred for garden-walks. The cyUnder need not be above four feet wide, which will
cover most walks at two or three breadths. For extensive lawns the horse-roller will be
preferred.

U

290

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

1456. Garden-ladders are of three species.
^ 1457. The common wall-tree /arf</er differs from those used in other arts in having two
pieces of ten or twelve inches in length, projecting at right angles from the upper end, the
use of whrch is to avoid injuring the trees, by keeping the top of tlie ladder at a small dis-
tance from the wall, and thus admit of the operation of nailing, as well there as elsewhere.

1458. The orchard-laddci- consists of a frame on low wheels, as a basis for several ladl
ders .which fit into each other, and are capable of being hoisted up by machinery so as a
person near the extremity of the ladder may have access to any part of a tree with con-
vemence, eitlier to prune it or gather the fruit.

1459. The three -styled, forked, and double ladders {fig. 206. a, b, c) are also well adapted
for the ordinary purposes of gathering fruit or pruning.

206

1460. The rule-joint ladder {fig. 207.) is used for working on curvilinear roofs either
of glass, or domes of lead, stone, &c. which require panes renewed or trees nailed.
Each step or foot-board, has what is called a stop, to prevent the feet from breaking the
glass, and at every joint is a moveable foot to project in the case of training trees on such
surfaces, in order that their leaves, &c. may not be injured. Such ladders are particularly
useful for repairing curvilinear hot-house roofs.

208

1461. Tlw step-ladder {fig. 208.), instead of round rods on which to place the feet, has
steps or boards, an improvement essentially necessary, where much work is to be done,
because less fatiguing to the feet. Such ladders have a back or fulcrum by which they
stand independently of any other object, and which is removeable at pleasure by drawing
out an iron bolt.

Book III.

IMPLEMENTS OF GARDENING.

2dl

1462. The platform is of two species.

1463. The ixrrtable platform combines a Step-ladder and platftmn, which in part comes
to pieces, and in part folds together, so as readily to be carried from place to place, and
to occupy little room in a tool-house.

1464. The wheel-j^atfarm (fg. 209.) is a flat surface of boards
generally five or six feet square, elevated by a frame with wheels ;
it can thus be moved along lawns or walks, and is used chiefly in
clipping loftj' hedges. A variety of this, used in some places, has
folding steps or boards on frtvo sides, supported by brackets, by
which three men at different heights, and one on tlie ground, can
proceed with dressing the whole side of a hedge at once. Such a
machine is used in shearing tlie magnificent hornbeam hedges in
tlie imperial gardens at Schoenbrunn, and those of spruce fir at
Petrowsky, near 3Ioscow.

1465. The boat-scythe, for mowing weeds in ponds, is a machine
invented by General Betancourt, now of Petersburgh, consisting of
a boat with a system of wheels and pinions placed in the head, which ^ive motion to a
vertical shaft, containing on its lower end (which passes through the bottom of the boat
into the water) tliree scythes ; two men communicate motion to tlae machinerj', and one
man rows the boat ; the upright shafts on wliich tlie scytlies are placed, can be raised or
lowered according to the depth of the weeds, &c. Tliis machine has beeij imprpyed by
General Betancourt, but is cap^le of being further simplified.

1466. The garden sharjring-engine is of several sorts.

1467. The grindstone, as well as ivhetstone, scytliestone, hone for penhdvc?, (tlie last used
in making cuttings of heath and such like plants,) are necessary in every garden. Blunt
spades, hoes, or knives should never be used, as they caimot operate properly in the hands
of the most expert gardener.

1 4 68. Tree-transplanting machines of two
or more species have been invented. The pole
and wheels {fig. 210.) is for general pur-
poses the best of any of them. It consists of
a long beam or pole, attached to an axle and
wheels. Tlie tree being prepared for removal,
and tJie pole placed in a vertical position
against it, the stem or trunk is attached to it
by ropes ; thus attached, they are brought into
a horizontal position, by men or horses, with
the ball of earth attached to the tree. Horses
may then be yoked to tlie axle at the oppo-
site end of the pole, or root end of the tree,
with or without the aid of another axle, and
the tree drawn to any distance and planted.
In favorable climates, and when a little extra
expence is no object, astonishing effects may
be produced by removing large trees; and
no machine is better adapted for aiding in
the labor than this simple union of the pole and cart-axle.

1469. The German devil is a frame of timber, with a cylinder moved by a combination
of wheels, and a winch, as in raising clay or earth from pits or mines by manual labor.
But instead of the bucket of clay, three hooks are attached to the end of the lifting rope,
and these are fastened to the roots. (See Hunter s Evelyiis Sylva,)

1 470. The hydrostatic press (fg.2ll.) may 2 1 1
be applied to the same purpose as the Ger-
man devil, with incomparably greater effect.
The only difliculty is in finding a proper and
convenient fulcrum ; that done, this engine
will root out the largest trees. It is suc-
cessfully employed by engineers in drawing
piles, gate-posts, raising stones, &c. (See
Nicholson's Arch. Diet. art. Hydrostatic
Press.)

1471. The garden-seed sejmrater is a small
portable threshing machine, on Meikle's prin-
ciple, but fed, in Lee's manner, from a hopper, and with a ^vinnowing machine either under
or connected with it. {fig. 283.)

1472. Tlie essential machines (f garden-labor may be considered the wheelbarrow
roller, and hand forcing-pump.

U 2

^92

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

SuBSECT. 2. Machines for Vermin^ and Defence against the Enemies of Gardens.

1473. Of endues for entrajijnng or destroying vermin, and for t\e defence of gardens, there
are but a few. All of them, with their modes of operating, are referable to commonly un-
derstood mechanical and chemical principles, and to certain instincts and propensities of
animated beings, which it is imnecessary to detail.

1474. Engine-traps for man are of two species, the common and the humane.

1 475. The common man-trap is a rat-trap on a large scale, differing from it only in the
mode of setting ; tlie former being baited and left loose, and the latter not being baited, but
fixed to the ground by a chain. This is a barbarous contrivance, though rendered absolutely
necessary in the exposed gardens around great towns. Its defect is, that its severity defeats
its own purpose ; for though kept and exposed to view in many places in the day-time,
yet few venture to set them at night, and hence intruders, calculating on this humanity,
enter and commit their depredations in spite of these machines.

1476. The humane man-trap, instead of breaking the leg by crushing, and consequently by
the worst of all descriptions of compound fractures, simply breaks the leg, and therefore
is comparatively entitled to the appellation of humane. It is not unfrequently set in market-
gardens near the metropolis.

1477. Engine-traps for quadrupeds are chiefly the mouse, rat, and mole traps.

1478. The garden mouse-trap is generally composed of a slate and a brick, supported by
a combination of three slips of wood, forming tlie figure 4, and baited by a pea or bean.
A few cats domiciled in the back sheds of hot-houses, will generally keep a walled garden
clear of this enemy ; but the above trap is good for open grounds.

1 47 9. Tlie garden rat-trap ( fg. 212.)
should generally be a box, or enticing
engine, of some sort, rather than a toothed
iron trap ; because unless there is a great
scarcity of food, which is seldom the case
as to the field rat, it will not he allured
by the bait of tlie former ; whereas a trap
may be so disguised by straw, or moss, or
leaves, and so scented by oil of anise, as
to be resorted to or at least not recog-
nised by the rats till they are taken.

1480. The mole-trap {figs. 213, &
214.) is of various forms, and either
made of wood or iron, or of both mate-
rials. There are several varieties to be
obtained in the shops ; none of which

appear superior to the original bow-trap, which any laborer may form for himself.
Moles may be effectually destroyed by taking their nests in spring.

1481. Engines of destruction are the spring-gun, musket, and fumigating bellows : the

u

a

213

214

215

musket is essentially necessary, both as a destroyer, and scare of birds.

1482. The fumigating bellows {fig. 215.) differs from the common
domestic bellows in having a receptacle (a) for leaves of damaged
foreign or of home-grown tobacco, which being ignited, and the
blast sent through it, a powerful issue of smoke is produced by the
rose {b), which can either be directed against insects on particular
plants, or used to fill the atmosphere of a hand-glass, frame, or hot-
house.

1483. Engines of alarm, or scares, are the bell or gong alarm for
man ; and the rattle-engine driven by hand, or a small wind-engine
for herds.

1484. TJie concealed alarm is a system of wires spread over a gar-
den or orchard, like those of the spring-gun, and terminating in a
bell or gong alarm, which goes off when any of the wires are dis-
turbed. This alarm may be in or near to the gardener's room, watch-
tower, or other suitable place, though at a considerable distance from
the wires. This is, perhaps, on the whole, the best way of detectmg
intruders. In addition to setting off an alarm, the same wire may let
loose a watch-dog, drop a heavy body, or a fuhninating glass bead,

^^t^^ronidnTvermin-kUlers, the ferret is useful for catching rabbits, squirrels and
ground rats ; the cat for mice, rats, and birds ; the terrier for eradicaUng foxes ; and ducks
and gulls eat snails, worms, frogs, &c.
1486. The essential vermin- en^nes
bellows, and musket.

he>

the mole and mouse traps, fumigating

Book III.

METEOROLOGICAL MACHINES.

SuBSECT. 3. Meteorological Machines.

1487. The garden-indicators of weather diflfer from those in common
use only in two instances, that of the registering thermometer and regu-
lating thermometer. The barometer, hygrometer, rain-gauge, and vane
or Eolian index, may all be usefully employed in gardening, (1278.)
and should be fitted up in and about the gardener's office. The rain-
gauge and vane may be placed on the roof of his office, and should
communicate with the interior by means of tubes and macliinery, the
detail of which is perfectly known to opticians, and such as fit up ap-
paratus of this kind.

1488. Six's registering thermometer (Jig. 216.) is so contrived as to
indicate the extreme points to which it falls or rises in the course of
the day or night, and is, therefore, particularly useful as a check upon
the working gardeners, who have to attend to the fires, or steam, &c of
hot-houses in the winter time. In the open air it is also a very useful
instrument, by pointing out the extremes of temperature. (NicJt.
JSncyc. art. Thermometer.)

217

216

L^:!iii:ii...::.i:h^j:infclft

^^

U3

294 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

1489. Kewleijs alarum-thermometer {Jig. 21 9.) consists of a glass tube {a, a), about ten
inches in length, hermetically sealed atone end, and united at the other to a capillary tube
(6, b), with an intervening and also a terminating ball (c and d). Imagine this double tube
placed in a horizontal position, the largest tube, and half the intervening ball, filled with
spirits of wine ; and the smaller tube and half of both of the balls, with mercury. If the
tiibe is now fixed by its centre in a brass frame (e), and nicely balanced, it is evident that
every change in the temperature of the atmosphere will produce a change in the position
of the centre of gravity of the tubes. One degree of heat, by expanding the spirit, will
press on the mercury in the intervening ball (c), and drive part of it over to the termi-
nating tube (rf), which end will, in consequence, descend like the beam of a pair of scales
or of a steam-engine. Hence a moving power of great nicety and certainty is obtained,
the details for the application of which, to the ringing of a bell at any distance, commu-
nicating by a wire {/), need not be here entered into. Suffice it to say, that by means of
a Scale (g), it may be set to any required temperature, and will give the alarm at a dif-
ference of even the fourth of a degree, either of depression or elevation. It may be oc-
casionally used in gardening, to convey some idea of the changes taking place in the
temperature of particular hot-houses, to the head gardener's room, in the night-time ; but
its most important uses are in domestic economy, hospitals, &c. This balance-thermo-
meter, as it may be called, has been also applied, by its ingenious inventor, to the open-
ing and shutting of windows or sashes, valves of chimneys, or flues, and steam-cocks,
and either to all of these purposes at once, or to any one of them.

1490. Kewleys regulating thermometer, or automaton gardener (Jig. 217.), consists of a
particular application of the alarum thermometer just described. For this purpose, the
thermometer is made from two to three feet in length, and the same principle may be ex-
tended to any length, as ten or twelve feet, with a proportionate increase in the diameter.
The apparatus which Kewley applies to the thermometer, and which enables him to get
the power requisite for opening the sashes or windows of hot-houses or buildings of any
magnitude, is a metal cylinder (h), generally of rolled copper, as being cheapest, from
seven to fourteen inches in diameter, and from eighteen inches to two feet in length,
with an accurately fitted piston (i). Tliis cylinder is placed either within or without the
hot-house or room in any convenient situation, and a cistern, or a barrel of ordinary dimen-
sions, filled with water, is placed on an elevated situation, say on a level with the chimney-
tops. The deeper the cylinder is sunk, the less the cistern requires to be raised above
the level of the floor of the house. If, as is often the case, a pipe of water is conducted
through the house from a distant reservoir of ordinary elevation, then nothing more is
necessary than attaching a branch-pipe. It is requisite that this pipe pass directly to the
point where the thermometer is placed, and at any convenient distance under it, not
higher than the bottom of the cylinder. Here it is joined to a tripartite cock (k), whence
proceed two other pipes, one (I) to the cylinder, and the other (m) to a waste drain. Tlie
stopper to this cock turns only to the extent of about one-fifth of a circle ; and when
turned to this extent to the right, it opens a communication between the supply-pipe (n),
and the cylinder (h), when the pressure of the water in the reservoir, whether a barrel on
the top of a house or a distant cistern, raises the piston, and by a communication of cords
and pulleys with the sashes (o), they will be raised or opened ; and by another chain (;;),
the fire or steam-damper (q), will be opened also. When the cock is turned to the left,
this communication is stopped, and one opened between the cylinder and waste-pipe (m),
by which the water escaping, the piston descends, and the sashes and dampers are shut.
The equilibrium of the balance-thermometer restored by the temperature, being reduced
or elevated to the proper degree, the plug is neither turned to the right nor left, and
evely communication is closed. The cock is worked by two wires (r r), fastened to two
short levers, fixed on each side of the thermometer-frame, and the other ends of the cross
or handle of the cock (s s). To set the machine at work, it is only necessary to place the
scale to a degree at which it is desirable air should be given, taking care that the cistern
is not without water. A small cask of water, regularly supplied, will answer as well as
a large cistern, as the power is not as the body of water, but as its height. As a hot-
house seldom remains many minutes at the same degree of heat in the day-time, it is
evident that the sashes would be in almost continual motion, which, in houses where the
sashes open outwards, and especially the polj/prosopic, to be afterwards described, would
have a singular and animated effect in a flower-garden, or on a lawn. Where light
valves or ventilators are used, the balance-thermometer of this size has sufficient power
to open them without the aid of machinery ; and by lengthening the tube, sufficient
power may be obtained to open balanced windows in dwelling-houses, churches, or hos-
pitals. This machine was originally contrived for the use of the inventor's own garden
in Douglas (Isle of Man), and successfully employed to give air to pits and frames there
for two seasons. Having come to London, he employed it with the-addition of more
machinery (see the patent, 1816) than he now uses, to ventilate a part of a house in the
New Kent Road, from 1816 to 1817. In 1818 he greatly simplified it, and thus im-

Book III.

ARTICLES OF ADAPTATION,

«95

218

proved, it was in operation on a hot-house in Colvill's nursery, King's-road, during
the summer of 1819. In botli cases the success was perfect and undisputed. The
price of the alarum-thermometer is from two to three guineas; and of the regulator, from
ax to ten pounds complete. These machines were exhibited to Sir Joseph Banks and
to the Horticultural Society. But the president and other individuals of this body
thou<*t such a macliine not 'wanted in gardening. We cannot but regret, however, that
some^mark of approbation was not bestowed on the author of so ingenious an attempt to
render a service to our art, and who, like other inventors, had devoted a great part of his
time, and the greater part of his fortune, to bringing the invention to its present state.
We are glad to see that it has been noticed by the Caledonian Horticultural Society
(Mem. vol. iii. p. 170.), and we trust the inventor may yet obtain, at least, credit for his
genius in mechanics.

Sect. V. Various Articles used in Gardening Operations.

1491. The objects used in gardaiing, which can neither be denominated implements nor
machines, may be classed as adapted articles, manufactured articles, and prepared articles.

SuBSECT. 1. Articles of Adaptation. >

1492. Of articles fitted for particular situations or objects, we ^all notice the temporary
coping, horizontal shelter, moveable edgings, basket-edgings, and a few others.

1493. The temporary cojnng is commonly a board, or two or more boards joined, so
as to form a breadth of eighteen inches or two feet. To these boards hinges are attached,
which fit into irons on the front upper edge of the permanent coping of the wall ; and
thus, by means of a rod or a cord and pulley, the board is either made to project over
the front of the wall, or is laid flat on the top of the permanent coping.

1494. The horizontal shelter is a board of eighteen inches broad, and of any convenient
length. By means of iron pins inserted in tlie wall, a number of such are placed hori-
zontally, like shelves, about the middle and top of fruit-walls, to protect the blossom
from perpendicular colds and frosts ; they were first recommended by Lawrence, but
are now seldom used.

1 495. The netting screen (Jig. 218.)
** consists of two deal poles, on
which is nailed a common fish-
ing-net pre\aously dipped in a
tanner's bark-pit, to prevent its
being mildewed when rolled up
wet. At the top, the ends of the
poles fit into double iron loops, pro-
jecting a few inches from the wall,
immediately under the coping ; and
at the bottom they are fixed by a
hole at tlie end of each pole upon
a forked iron coupling, which pro-
jects about fourteen inches from the
wall, thereby giving the screen a
suflScient inclination to clear the
branches. \^Tien it is wished to
uncover the trees, one of the poles
is disengaged and rolled back to
the side of the other, where it is ^
fastened as before. The most violent winds have no injurious effects upon shades
of this kind ; a wall is very expeditiously covered and uncovered, and there is not
any danger of damaging the blossoms in using them ; they occupy very little space
when rolled up, are not Liable to be out of order, and although rather expensive at first,
seem to be verj- durable. From the facility' with which the screen is put up, it may be
beneficially used in the seasons when fruit ripens, to secure a succession, by retarding
tlie crop of any particular tree. The lower ends of the poles are advantageously retained
in their places, by means of a small iron spring-key attached to the coupling by a short
chain." (Hort. Trans, vol. iv.) Canvass, oil-cloth, or gauze screens, may be similarly
formed and fixed.

1496. The canvass screen is a sheet of canvass in a moveable frame, to be placed against
blossoming wall-trees during nights, and removed during temperate weather. Bunting,
rendered more transparent by oiling, is considered by Nicol as preferable to canvass.
Others recommend Osnaburgh or Scotch gauze. The screens should have hooks, to
hook into projectmg eyes at the top of the wall, from which, as well as at bottom, they
should be kept distant one or two feet. " Canvass screens in frames may be fitted to
move in the manner of a common sasli, between rafters, and may be double, as in a

U 4

296 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

window, to go either up or down, in order to admit air. The rafters being made move-
able, by being fixed with hooks to stretchers at top and bottom, the whole could easily be
removed or replaced at pleasure. Thus a frame might be made of ten, fifteen, twenty,
or more feet in length, to answer for one or more trees, as may be required ; and if the
whole be packed and laid up in a dry loft, garret, or shed, each season after using, it may
last for many years." (Nicol.)

1497. The canvass curtain is so arranged by means of pulleys and weights, as to be drawn
up over a wall of a hundred feet in length in a few seconds, and let down and spread
out to dry in a short time. It is kept at a distance from the trees by cords stretched
from the coping to the ground in a sloping direction : a fine example of tliis occurs at
Dalmeney Park garden, near Edinburgh, erected under the inspection of J. Hay of
Edinburgh, a meritorious designer of kitchen-gardens. " If screens be made in sheets,"
Nicol observes, " they are best to hoist up and lower with pulleys and cords (which
pulleys may be fixed to the coping, as above mentioned, or to a beam or stretcher fixed
at the top of the wall), they should be suspended over small rafters or spars, of an inch
and a half to two inches square, according to their lengths, placed so closely as to pre-
vent the canvass from dasliing against the trees, as above hinted. Sheets of this kind may
be of any convenient size, and made to cover one or more trees, as may be required.
I have had one sheet 200 feet in lengtli, which I could join or unjoin at two or three
different places, and could unclew and hoist, or lower and clew up, in fifteen or twenty
minutes. I first contrived it to clew at the top of the wall, but afterwards found it
safer to do it at bottom, as a gust of wind had once nearly torn it away altogether. In
the clew it was hung by loops to the bottom part of the upright spars (which were placed
at four feet asunder), so as to be a few inches clear of the ground. These rafters were
fastened with hooks and eyes to the coping at top ; and at bottom to stakes diove fast
into the earth, eighteen inches clear of the wall." {Kalendar.)

1498. The oiled-paj)er frame consists of a light frame of timber, with cross bars mor-
tised into the sides, and intersected by packthread, forming meshes about nine inches
square. Common printing-paper is then pasted on, and, when quite dry, painted over
with boiled linseed-oil. These frames are then fitted to the wall, or subject of protection,
according to circumstances.

1499. The garden-hurdle is of different species.

Wire hurdles are used as inconspicuous fences, and sometimes for training plants or young hedges.
Wattled hurdles, or such as are woven with shoots or spray, for shelter and shade.

Straw and reed hurdles are used for shelter, for shade, and for covering frames and other plant-habit-
ations, or for forming temporary cases around plants to exclude cold.

1500. Moveable edgings to borders, beds, or patches of flowers, are of different species.

1501. The basket-edging {fig.

219.) is a rim or fret of iron- 219 220

wire, and sometimes of laths ;

pieces, and when large, in seg- r?^^^''^V)Z)w'^^^^^^^

ments. Its use is to enclose dug V^^^^=^^^-^^^^^^^ [> ^^ ■^\C-.<^.<^.^,

spots on lawns, so that when the ^^^^^^KT^^T^T^^^^m 17 \ \ / \ I

flowers and shrubs cover the °^^^^^^^XaA4^:^:^^

surface, they appear to grow """^^^^ ' ^

from, or give Some allusion to,

a basket. These articles are also formed in cast-iron, and used as edgings to beds and

plots, in plant-stoves and conservatories.

1502. The earthemvare border (fig. 220.) is composed of long narrow plates of com-
mon tiie-clay, with the upper edge cut into such shapes as may be deemed ornamental.
They form neat and permanent edgings to parterres ; and are used more especially in
Holland, as casings, or borderings to beds of florists' flowers.

1503. Edgings of various sorts are formed of wire, basket- willows, laths, boards, plate-
iron, and cast-iron ; the last is much the best material.

1504. Protecting bags, for guarding ripening fruits from insects, are formed of gauze,
oiled-paper, or muslin-paper ; gauze is preferable, as it admits the air. They are used
with advantage, in the case of grapes and stone-fruit, on walls in the open air, and in
some cases are required even in hot-houses.

1505. The shoe-scraper is a plate of iron, fixed vertically, either in a portable or fixed
frame ; and to render it complete, should always have a rigid brush and dust-box at-
tached, both of wliich may be taken out and cleaned ; their use in gardening is consi-
derable, portable ones being placed at tlie entrances to every description of garden-
building, and fixed ones at the exits from compartments to the main walks. They ought to
abound, and their use be effectually insisted on wherever clean and pure gravel or turf-
walks are desired objects.

1506. Garden or bass mats, are sheets of cloth, woven or matted from the bust (Russ.)

Book III. ARTICLES OF MANUFACTURE. 297

or inner bark of trees, and generally of the lime. They are manufactured in ^e inland
parts of Russia and Sweden, and even in some parts of Monmouthshire, of different
sizes. They are used in gardening for a great variety of purposes ; for protectmg wall-trees,
by beinff hung before them, and removed in mild weather ; for protecting espa lers and
Standards, by being thrown over them ; for protecting more dehcate shrubs, by being
thrown over an envelope of hay or straw, in which way most American trees and standard-
protected in the neighbourhood of Petersburgh ; for protecting tender plants

by being supported on hooped framing. They are used to cover hot-bed^ hot-houses,
hand-glasses, and every sort of glass case ; to shelter plants from wind, shade them from

*^1507' Prejmred coverings are double mats with a layer of hay or straw within, like
mattresses • they are used for covering hot-beds in mid-winter, but are readily rendered
injurious by heavy rains. A mode which would produce the same effect, is to use three
tliicknesses of mats, keeping them apart by small frames of lath or hollow roUers ; the
object being to preserve vacuities or strata of air between the glass and first mat,
between the first and second mat, and between the second and third mat, which, if
attended to, would resist any external cold whatever without cumbrous loads of hay,
straw, &c. (See Dr. Wells on Dew, and Remarks on Hot-houses, &c.)

1508. Straw coverings are formed of straight long wheat or rye straw, tied in handfuls
in the middle, so as each handful may be nearly of the length of two straws, and the hand-
fuls are connected together by packthread. They are thus formed into rolls, and were for-
merly much used, especially in the culture of early salading, and in covering glass cases.
Melons were formerly protected by nothing more than loose wheat-straw, and this mode
by rolls seems merely a more economical and neat mode of practice. Loose wheat-straw
is used by the market-gardeners, to protect early crops of radishes and other saladings.

1509. Reed coverings are formed exactly like those of straw, and are used chiefly for
protecting glass, or forming protecting cones round tender shrubs, or bee-hives of the
common kind.

SuBSECT. 2. Articles of Manufacture.

1510. The manufactured articles used in gardening are chiefly canvass, gauze, netting,
mats, and nails.

1511. Canvass, either plain, oiled, tanned, orjminted, is used for protecting the blossoms
of wall-trees; excluding cold from plants or plant-structures, shading or sheltering
plants, and for keeping off rain.

1512. Coarse gauze and netting, such as is used by fishers and bird-catchers, maybe
prepared similarly to canvass, and used for the same purposes as that article, excepting
excluding rain. Oiling or tanning is best adapted for gauze ; as painting or tarring
destroys its property of transmitting light.

1513. A netting of straw ropes has been found efBcacious in protectmg trees from frost, either thrown
over an entire standard-tree, or hung before fruit- walls. They are used at Dalkeith gardens, near Edin-
burgh, and were formerly much resorted to in the Netherlands.

1514. Wall-tree nails are of several sorts, but the principal are, the small 221
cast-iron nail, in most common use with lists ; the flat-headed wrought-iron
nail, used eitlier with lists, loops of cord, or mat ; and the eyed cast-iron
nail {fig. 221.), used with small pieces of spray, dried willow-twigs, or
mat-ties, as in trellis-training. Its chief advantage is the not being so liable
to lodge the larvae of insects as the nails which are used with lists ; and being
once driven, they never require removal, or occasion the injury of the wall,
as the branches may be loosened, or altered, by merely taking out the slips
of spray, or cutting the mat-ties. (Caled. Mem. vol. iii.)

1515. Wall-tree lists are marginal ends or shreds of broad cloth cut
into lengths of from two and a half to four inches, and from one half to

one inch in breadtli, according to the size of the shoots, &c. Their grand disadvantage
is the harboring of insects, for which some have substituted shreds of leather with ad-
vantage, and- others recommend steeping the shreds in a mixture of sulphur and soap-
suds, or better in that of corrosive sublimate, recommended for preserving specimens of
plants. (581.) The colors of black, scarlet, and reddi^-brown are the best for lists, as
contrasting well with vegetation.

SuBSECT. 3. Articles of Prqiaration.

1516. The prepared materials used in gardenirig are numerous : we shall merely enu-
merate props, ties, covering materials, gravel, sand, cinders, lime and straw.

1517. Props for plants are of two kinds, rods or poles, and spray.

Bods vary from six inches to sLx feet or upwards in length, tapering to a point, and thick in proportion
t or small plants in pots and for dehcate bulbous roots, as hyacinths, smaU splinters of lath, drcssedwith a
knife or small plane, are the best ; and for hyacinths and florists' flowers in general, they should be painted
green ; for botanical plants, however, this may, in some cases, appear too formai For hardy plants and
chmbmg shrubs, young shoots or poles of hazel or ash from copse-'woods are the most suiteble ; they should

298 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

in general, be straight and tapering to a point, and as deucate as the weight of the plant, and the exposure
of the situation will admit. The side shoots of these props should, in most cases, be cut oft'; but in others
as m. propping the dahha, it is desirable to have some lateral studs, from tliree to eight inches long, near
the top, so as to spread out the head. In lieu of this, several props are sometimes used, placed in form of
an inverted pyramid, or cone, or of a regular prism. One prop, however, jiuiiciously managed, will gene-
rally he found sufficient. In no case should the bark be removed, because its natural tint is less glaring
and therefore preferable to that of peeled wood, and also because it preserves better the texture of the
wood. In order that they may last several years, they should be cut in mid-winter, and the thick end
pointed and charred by burning, or dipped in boiUng pitch. The elegant propping of plants deserves the
particular attention of the young gardener, as it is frequently done in so slovenly a manner as greatly to
detract from the order and neatness which ought to reigii in most descriptions of gardens. In pleasure-
grounds or picturesque scenes, trees and shrubs should, in general, prop themselves, or each other ; but
in flower and botanic-gardens, flower-borders, green-houses, &c. the greatest degree of art and high-
keeping, and a sort of drilled polish, easier felt than described, ought always to prevail. In all that re-
spects this part of gardening, the French and Germans greatly excel the English, who are herein too apt
to look at the end, without regarding the means.

1.518. Spray or branches are used as props for plants furnished with tendrils, as the common pea, and
many of the leguminous tribe. Spreading frond-like, and yet thin spray, such as that of the beech, hazel,
or Scotch elm, is generally preferable ; but for early crops the spray of the resinous tribe, and especially of
the spruce and silver firs, is valuable, as producing warmth and shelter, by its numerous chaflPy leaves,
which are non-conductors.

1519. Ties are various; the most general are the ligular threads of bass matts; for
espaliers some use withs, or tarred cords or threads : ' on the continent, rushes (Juneus
effusus) cut green and dried in the sun are used ; and often wheat-straw. When mat,
bark, rush, willow or other spray or shoots, or straw are used, they should be previously
soaked a short time in water.

1520. Covering materials are straw, reeds, haulm of any sort, spray, &c. They may
either be used loose, which when the weather is diy and calm, is the most effectual way
of excluding cold ; or drawn, that is, with the stalks or spray arranged in parallel lines in
tlie manner of thatch, by which means the rain runs off, and then they exclude cold
both in dry and wet weather. Sometimes straw and reeds are so prepared in frames, or
rails suited to the size of beds in the manner of tlie reed, or spray, or wattled hurdle.
(1499.) Sometimes they are covered with mats; but as the latter readily admit rain,
this mode is much inferior to that of arranging the straw or reeds in the manner of thatch.

1521. Boards and planks are used in gardening, for wheeling up declivities, over steps
and hollows, across borders, walks, &c. The notched or bridge-plank is used to protect
edgings, serving as a bridge across them. Tressels are used for raising planks in ex-
tensive operations on the soil, in forming pieces of water, new^ gardens, or garden-scenery.

1522. Various j)repared articles might be mentioned as of frequent or occasional use.
Scoria from a forge is used for forming a platform impervious to worais, on which to place
pots of plants. Soaper's ashes or waste is used for the same purpose. The use of gravel
and sand is very general ; fine sand, uncontaminated with ferruginous matter, is parti-
cularly useful in propagating heaths and other delicate plants by cuttings. Oyster-
shells are used as crocs or sherds for covering the bottom holes of pots. Quick-lime in
powder or infusions to destroy vermin, especially worms. Tobacco and other prepared
matters are also used for tlae same purpose. Moss is used in packing and for other
objects. Tanner's bark for its heat and fermentation.

Chap. II.
Structures used in Gardening.

1523. By garden-structures WQ mean to designate a class of buildings which differ
from all other architectural productions, in being applied to the culture, or used exclu-
sively as the habitations of plants. As edifices, the principles of their construction belong
to architecture ; but as habitations for plants, their form, dimensions, exposition, and,
in many respects the materials of which they are composed, are, or ought to be, guided
by tlie principles of culture, and therefore under the control of the gardener. They may
be arranged into tlie moveable, as the hot-bed frame ; fixed, as tlie wall, trellis, &c. ; and
permanent, as the hot-house.

Sect. I. Temporary or Moveable Structicres.

1524. Of these, some are for protecting plants in fixed places, as against walls or trel-
lises, and exemplified in the different methods of covering by frames of canvass, netting, or
glass ; others constitute habitations for plants, as the hot-bed frame, pit, &c.

SuBSECT. 1. Structures Portable, or entirely Moveable.

1525. Portable structures arc the flower-stage, canvass or gauze frame or case, glass
frame or case, glass tent, and glazed frame.

1526. Of the Jloiver-stage there are two principal species ; the stage for florists flowers
and the stage for decoration.

1 527. The stage for florists' fiowers, when portable, is commonly a series of narrow shelv-es
rising in gradation one above the other, and supported by a frame and posts, so as to be<
3 or 3^ feet from the ground at the lowest shelf. These shelves are enclosed, generaUy,

Boor III.

PORTABLE STRUCTURED

299

on three sides by boards or canvass, and on the fourth side by glass doors. This stage,
when in use? Ts^laced so as the glazed side may front ^e mormng sun, or the north,
so as the colors of auriculas, carnations, &c. may not be
impaired by him. (See Floriculture, Part III. Book II.
Cb. VIII.) , ;, . .

1528. The decorative stage consists of shelves nsmg in gra-
dation, in various forms, according to taste, and particular
situation. Those to be viewed on all sides are commonly co-
nical (Jig. 222.) or pyramidal ; tliose to be seen only on one
side triangular. They are constructed either of boards or
iron work, and placed in parterres, open courts, and large

*" 1529.\he omgue covering-frames are borders of board, strengthened by cross or diagonal
sUps of wood or rods of iron, and covered with canvass, gauze, wooUen, or common net-
tin-, or soiled paper. They are used for protecting plants from cold, or for sheltering
from wind, or shading, either singly, supported by props, or connected so as to form roots,
cases, or enclosures. . j • /• ^

1 530. Tfie transjmrent covering, or glazed frame or sash, consists of a boundary frame com-
posed of two side pieces called styles, and two end pieces called the top and bottom rails,
with the interspace divided by rabbeted bars to contain the glass. It is used as the
opaque covering frames, and has the advantage of them in admitting abundance of hght.
In general the rabbeted bars are inserted in one plane, as m common hot-bed sashes ;
butln some cases the surface is in angular ridges, or ridge and furrow -work (fg. 223.),
cuneform {Jig. 224.), or trigonal {Jig. 225.), in order, in each of these cases, to admit

223

224

225

more of the rays of the sun in the morning and afternoon, and to moderate it in the middle
hours of the day. Such frames are used for placing over beds of hot dung, for growing
cucumbers, forcing roots or flowers, and for a great variety of purposes. ITie materials of
sashes is commonly timber, but iron, cast and wrought, and copper, are also used.

1531. The common glass case is a glazed wooden frame or frames, so contrived as to fit
together, and cover either single trees, espaliers, or shrubs too large for the hand-glass.
The flavor of plums and cherries on espa- 226
liers in bad seasons is much improved by the
use of this structure. In France it is chiefly
used for peaches. For orange-trees, it con-
sists of a number of frames, chiefly parallelo-
grams, but partly right-angled triangles
{fg- 226- )i easily pat together and taken
asunder, to be used in the summer months in
growing melons, or covering walls or espalier
rails ; and in winter in protecting orange-trees
in situations where they are planted in rows against walls, or in groves in the open air.

1532. The hot-bed frame is of three species, the common, fixed^bottomed, and move-
able-bottomed.

1533. The common hot-bed frame is a rectangular box of wood, bottomless and highest
at the side to be placed to the north, subdivided by cross bars dove-tailed into the outer
frame, and each subdivision covered by a glazed sash. Knight, instead of having the
north side of the frame highest, has all the four sides of equal height, but forms tlie base
ment of the dung-bed, and builds the dung-bed itself of that slope wliich he thinks most
suitable for the sashes of hot-beds.

1534. The fxed-bottomed frame is tlie common hot-bed frame, with a boarded bottom
for the retention of earth. In the boards are holes for the emission of water.

1535. The adjusting-botlomed frame has a box for the earth, of tlie size of the inside di-
mensions of the frame, and the frame being deep or placed on walls, like tliose of a pit,
the bottom and its earth and ulants, or its pots and plants, may be raised or lowered by a

SCO

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

power composed of a^pimon and screw, or any other equally convenient power The
bottom IS composed of perforated boards, and has boarded sides to keep in the earth The
object IS to prevent plants from being burned when the dung is very hot, by raisin^'them^
r^^'t -^"^ cl»«e t« the glasswhen young, and to lower them in cold nights. The chTef
diftculty It managmg it is, to keep the earth of uniform moisture. Lawrence, in the las
edition of his Aalendar{1715), suggests the idea of putting a bottom of wire t^theframes
of hot-beds and of covering it with flat tiles, and over these the earth, &c. so as to admit
of the whole being lifted, and the dung below stirred or renewed at pleasure. He savs
he has not seen it done, but merely suggests it as a hint to the ingenious. A century af-
terwards, J. Weeks, of the Horticultural Manufactory, King's Road, London, invented
his patent forcing-frame, which is that just described.

1536. Separating frames. The component parts of any of the above frames, instead of
being mortised into one another, are fastened by keyed iron bolts, which easily admit of
their being taken asunder and put under cover, when not wanted for use ; these frames
may, consequently, be preserved longer from decay, and are also more portable than the
common sort.

1537. Mallet's frame (Jig. 227.) is the invention of -^^^^^^ 227
a French horticulturist of that name, and the ad- ^l^'^^s.
vantages it possesses are, 1. The admission of more | ^X^
light and solar heat from the elevated angle of the \ ^■■■^^■>t^

Curvilinear roof; and, 2. The direct admission of the ^

sun's rays when air is given. Professor Thouin (Cours
d' Agriculture, &c. art. Chassis) says that they have not
been much used, owing to the cost of their first con-
struction.

1538. The essential portable structures are the common
hot-bed frame with flat sashes ; and next in ordfer, the can-
vass curtain or netting screen.

ScBSECT. 2. Structures partly Moveable.

1539. Plant-structures partly moveable are pits and adapted frames : the characteristic
of the pit is, that it is surrounded by a wall of earth or masonry, enclosing a pit or bed
for containing dung or bark. The characteristic of the adapted frame is, as the name im-
ports, a hot-bed frame adapted to some structure of timber, masonry, or iron.

1540. Ofthejnt. The species are the earth, walled, flued, vaulted, and pillar-pit.

1541 . The earth or jmmitive jnt is in part sunk in the earth, and in part raised above it
by walls of loam or turf. On these walls, glass frames are sometimes placed, and at other
times only mats or canvass frames. Such pits are used by nurserymen and market-gar-
deners, and answer perfectly for the preservation of half-hardy plants.

1542. The walled pit is also partly sunk in the ground, and in part raised above it; but
instead of earth or turf walls, they are formed of brick or stone, finished with a wooden
coping the width of the wall, in which cross rafters are mortised to support the sashes.
For ordinary pui-poses, such as growing melons or young pines, or half-hardy plants, such
pits need not be above five feet deep, and if only one sash between each rafter is to be used,
they should not be above six or eight feet wide. Where double sashes, one lapping over
the other are to be used, the width of the pit may be from eight to twelve feet. Artificial
heat is supplied to such pits entirely from the' bed of tan or leaves.

1543. The flued pit {fig. 228.) is the
same as the last described, with the addi-
tion of a flue, which either makes the
circuit of the pit, or runs along and re-
turns by its back wall. This is the most
generally useful description of this class
of buildings, as, whenever the heat of
the bark or other fermentable matter
subsides, or whenever the air in the pit
is too moist, and in danger of generating
damps, a fire can be lighted which will
remove both evils.

1544. Scott' sfiued pit and Knight's pit are both excellent varieties of this species, and will
be described in treating of the pine and melon, for which they are particularly adapted.

1545. Buck's flued pit {fig. 229.), by the interior position of the flues, saves some-
thing in the length of the sashes, at the expense, however, of a greater first cost for
the flues, and the obvious loss of a portion of the fire-heat ever afterwards. It is fully
described in Hort. Trans, iv. 535.

1546. The vaulted pU, in its simplest form, is the walled pit, with an arch thrown from
the front to the back wall. Under the arch the fire is made, or steam admitted ; or in some

Book III.

MOVEABLE STRUCTURES.

229

301

cases fermenting litter thrown
in. A great improvement on
tills species of pit has been
made by J. West, of Castle Ash-
by, Northamptonshire. The
principle of the improvement
is the facilitating the passage
of the heat from the vault to
the bed of earth over it by sub-
stituting a thin floor of boards

or slates, or wattled hurdle, for ^ ,. ■ a

brick-work ; the walls are also flued, and the heat suppUed is tliat of fermentmg dung,
litter, weeds, &c. On the whole it seems an excellent improvement. Nme years expe-
rience enable its inventor to recommend it for neatness of appearance, the power of
regulating the heat to the greatest nicety, and for forcing asparagus, strawberries, and
thi most delicate kind of cucumbers. By raising the walls of the pit higher above the
earth, it is evident it would answer equally well for growing pines, or forcing shrubs, or
any other purpose to which pits are applied.

1547. In West's pit the dung is placed in a chamber (e) three f^et and a half deep,
being about eighteen inches below the surface-line ; the walls {g) which surround it are
nine-inch brick-work ; both on the front and at the back of the chamber are two openings
(a), about two feet six inches square each, with moveable doors through which the dung
is introduced ; the doors fit at bottom into grooves (b), and are fastened by a wooden
pin and staple at top. o In front of the doors, is a small area (o) sunk in the ground,
surrounded by a curb of wood, by which the introduction or removal of the dung
is facilitated. Along the centre of the chamber is a bar (d), which serves as a guide
for packing the dung ; and across the top, at intervals of twelve inches, are placed,
on their edges, cast-iron bars Qi), two inches wide, and three quarters of an inch thick,
to support a layer of small wood, bushes, and leaves (f), over which is laid the soil for
the plants (A:). Just below the level of the bars all round the dung-chamber, are
holes (/), passing in a sloping direction through part of the wall into a cavity {g) in
the upper part of the wall at the back front and both ends of the pit. In the exterior
part of the back wall are holes with plugs (/), to let out the steam and heat at discretion.

230

At the commencement of forcing, half the chamber is filled longitudinally
and if the doora are kept shut, this will afford
sufficient heat from twelve to eighteen days. As
the heat declines the other half of the cham-
ber is filled, and the temperature is kept up by
additions to the top of the dung, on either or
both sides, as it settles. When the united heat
of the two sides ceases to be sufficient, the side
first filled must be cleared out, and mixed with
fresh dung and replaced, and so on, adding and
turning as circumstances require. (Hort. Trans.
iv. 220.)

1548. As an imin-ovement on Ifie construction

with dung,

302

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

of this pit, we would suggest the perforation of the whole of the side walls {Jig. 231. a)
m order to admit the steam more readily than it can find admittance by a single ran^e of
openings adopted by West. Where pits on West's plan are already built, a substitute for
this preparation m the side walls may be found in the application of a wattled hurdle
against tliem {Jig. 231. b), as has been adopted in the Comte de Vande's garden at
Bayswater. On wet soils a hollow bottom is an obvious improvement.

1549. ThepUlar-2nt, or Alderstoiie jiU {Jig. 232.}, is constructed with cast-iron pillars of

232

three feet in height (a, a), which being joined by plates of that metal, form a support to the
wall on which the sashes rest. Above ground, this wall {b, b, b, b), of four or nine inches in
thickness, is built on the iron plates, and carried the usual height of a cucumber-frame.
On this, a coping, or plate, either of wood or iron, is placed, to which is fixed cross rafters
either of wood or iron (c, c, c, c), to hold the sashes {d, d). Around the pit is a trench {e, e)
of the same depth as the cast-iron pillars, and its exterior sides supported by a brick wall.
The centre of the bed, under the sashes, is filled with dung or bark in tlie usual manner,
and the surrounding trench is destined for linings, which being protected by the wall, and
covered by boards (/, /,/,/), supported on cross pieces of iron, retain their heat longer, and
are less influenced by changes in the atmosphere. The chief advantage alleged in favor
of this frame, is the greater durability of the brick walls, than of frames of wood, and its
more elegant appearance in a garden.

1550. Of adapted frames there are M'Phail's, or the frame with dung-flues, the pit with
rising frame, and the frame with props.

1551. M^PhaiVs frame {Jig. 233.) consists of two parts, the frame (a, a) and lights (6),
which are of wood, and not different from those used for growing cucumbers, and
the basement (c, d) on which the frame is* placed, which is flues of brick-work, with
the outer wall uniformly perforated. Against these perforated flues, linings of
dung are formed, the steam of which enters the flue and heats the earth (e, e, e) in the
centre of each light. The chief objections to this plan are the first cost, and the greater
consumption of dung, which some allege is required to keep up the proper heat. Its
advantages are, that hot dung may be used without any preparation, by which much
heat is gained ; and in the winter months, when a powerful artificial heat is required,
and (in the case of common hot-beds) is apt to burn the plants, they are here in the
coldest part of the soil, and cannot possibly be injured by any degree of heat which can
be communicated by dung.

233 ^. ^ — J

1552. The pit with rising frartie {fig. 234.) contains a basement-wall of brick-work of
the height of the dung or bark (a, a), and in this is a perpendicular vacuity (6, b) in which
a common frame (c, c) is placed, and by a spindle, pinion, &c. {d) may be raised or
lowered at pleasure. Its object is the same as that of Weeks's frame already described,
and which it attains with less risk to the plants, but at a great comparative expense.
Tliis variety of pit is the invention of John Nairn, {Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) who has had
it executed, and heated by surrounding tubes {e, e, e). filled with steam.

Book III.

FIXED STRUCTURES.
234

905

1 553 The frame on jn-ops, in construction, resembles the Alderstone pit, excepting that
the superstructure is a frame instead of masonry. Such frames are much used about
London to grow pines, the back being enclosed by walled hurdles, supported by the
props as stakes, and round the hurdles linings of dung are applied. ■, ' ^,

1554. There are a great many varieties of this species of frame : that adopted at Ed-
monton for the culture of pines will be noticed in treating of that fruit.

Sect. II. Fixed Structures.

1555. Fixed structures consist chiefly of erections for the purpose of improving the
climate of plants by shelter, by supplying heat, and by exposing them to the influence
of the sun. The genera are walls and espalier rails, of each of which the species are

numerous. i . • i j

1556. Garden-ioalls are formed eiUier of brick, wood, stone, or earth, or bnck and
stone togetlier ; and they are either solid, flued, or cellular, upright or sloping, straight
or angular.

1557. Brick, stone, or mud ivalls consist of three parts, the foundation, the body of the
wall, and the coping. The foundation should be somewhat broader than the body of
the wall, and of depth proportionate to the quality of the sub-soil, or intended plan of
culture. In some cases where it is intended that the roots should have free access to
both sides of the wall, it should be placed on arches {Jig, 235.), or piers, with plank-
stones, the soffit of the stone or under crown of the arch being within 6 inches, or 1 foot of
the surface, and tlie openings, smaller or larger, according to the power of the materials
to resist the pressure of the wall. Tlie arch should be a segment of a circle, or an ellip-
sis, and the piers (a, a, a) proportioned to the qualities of the foundation and the super-
structure. Where the body of the wall commences, there will be a. set-off or rebate of
one or two inches on each side, which should be commenced below the ground's surface,
both for the sake of appearance, and to prevent tiie alternate action of tiie air and rain
from rotting the mortar in the rebate. The body is generally carried up of the same
width to the coping ; but where the walls are high, say 18 feet, it may taper equally on
both sides to 14 inches ; in doing which, great care must be taken by the bricklayer to
make good joints. To facilitate this, some architects have bricks formed of a smaller
size for the upper part of the wall. It is not settled among gardeners whether the cop-
ing should project at all ; or if it projects, how much, and what proportion on each side.
Nicol is of opinion it need not project at all, and that there is no occasion, as is gene-
rally done, to bevel the coping stones to the north, or less useful side of the wall, to
throw off the rain in that direction. Walls without copings have two advantages in their
favor ; the first is, that no insects are harbored in the angle, under the coping, as is
generally the case ; and the second, that trees are more readily trained over from one
face of the wall to the other, a practice which has been found to induce a fruitful state
in trees, which had never produced fruit before. There is also some saving in extent

235

304

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

of coping. On the other hand, copings which have a considerable projection are
known to protect wall-trees from spring frosts. We prefer for this purpose moveable
copings. (1493.)

1558. The brick and stone wall is a stone wall faced with four inches of brick-work, or
what is called brick and bed, on the side most exposed to the sun, as on the south sides
of east and west w alls, and on the insides for the sake of appearance of the two end, or
north and south walls of enclosed gardens. Where free- working stone abounds on the
spot, such walls are erected at much less expense than walls entirely of brick. Whetlier
they are as dry, durable, and warm, depends on the sort of stone ; some scliistous and
otlier argillaceous stones are apt to be damp, but compact limestones may be accounted
as good as brick, and if they are of a dai-k grey or blue color, better on account of their
absorption and refraction of heat.

1559. The solid brick wall is the simplest of all garden- walls, and where the height
does not exceed 6 feet, 9 inches in thickness will suffice ; when above that to 13 feet,
14 inches, and when from 13 to 20 feet, 18 inches in width are requisite. In most
cases, such walls may be contracted in width as they are carried up, so that a 20 feet
wall may begin with 18, and terminate in 9 inches in breadth. The contraction must
be gradual from bottom to top ; or if accomplished by rebates, they must be bevelled,
by means of a course of sloping-edged or flanched bricks at each set off; and these must
be made exactly alike on both sides of the wall, in order to preserve its centre of gravity
exactly in tlie centre of the foundation.

1560. Thefued wall, or hot-wall, (figs. 236, & 237.) is generally built entirely of
brick, though where stone is abundant and more economical, the back or north side may
be of that material. A flued wall may be termed a hollow wall, in which the vacuity is
thrown into compartments (a, a, a, a), to facilitate the circulation of smoke and heat,
from the base or surface of the ground to within one or two feet of the coping. Thej
are generally arranged with hooks inserted under the coping, to admit of fastening some
description of protecting covers (1495.), and sometimes for temporary glass frames.
A length of 40 feet, and from 10 to 15 feet high, may be heated by one fire, the furnace
of which (6), being placed 1 or 2 feet below the surface of the ground, the first course
or flue (c) will commence 1 foot above it, and be 2 feet 6, or 3 feet high, and the 2d,
3d, and 4th courses (rf, e,f), narrower as they ascend. Tlie thickness of that side of the
flue, next the south or preferable side, should for the first course be 4 inches, or brick and
bed ; and for the other courses it were desirable to have bricks cast in a smaller mould ;
say for the second course 3, for the third 2|, and for the fourth, 2^ inches in breadth.
This will give an opportunity of bevelling the wall, and the bricks being all of the same
thickness, though of di£ferent widths, the external appearance will be every .where the same.

236

Sometimes a vacuity is formed between the flue and the south or valuable side of the
wall {Hort. Trans, iv. 139.); but this, we tliink, maybe considered an extravagant
refinement. It cannot be carried into execution without employing a great quantity of
materials and much labor. A wooden or wire trellis is also occasionally placed before
flued walls ; but both modes suppose a degree of forcing which does not appear ad-

JBOOK III.

FIXED STRUCTURES.

305.

visable unless the wall is kept constantly covered with glass, in which case, without
this precaution, constant fires might injure, by occasioning the partial growth of the
trees or even burning those parts of them immediately opposite the tumace. lo
prevent accidents of tliis kind, the furnace must always be placed at some distance,
say from eighteen inches to three feet from the back of tlie waU. ^

1561. The ceUular u-all {Jig. 238.) is a recent invention {Hort. Trans, vol. iv.), the
essential part of the construction of which is, that tlie wall is built hollow, or at least
with communicating vacuities, equally distributed from the surface of the ground to the
coping. If the height does not exceed 10 or 12 feet, tliese walls maybe formed
of bricks set on edge, each course or layer consisting of an alternate series of two bncks
set edgeways, and one set across, forming a thickness of nine inches, and a series of cells,
nine inches in the length of the wall, by three inches broad. The second course being
laid in the same way, but the bricks alternating or breaking joint with the first. The
advantages of this wall are obviously considerable in the saving of material, and in the
simple and efficacious mode of heating ; but the bricks and mortar must be of the best
quality. This wall has been tried in several places near Chichester ; and at Twickenham,
by F. G. Charmichael, and found to succeed perfectly as a hot-wall, and at 10 feet high
to be sufficiently strong as a common garden-wall, with a saving of one brick in three.
As a whole, indeed, it is stronger than a solid nine-inch wall, on the same principle that a
hollow tube is less flexible than a solid one. It is evident, that the same general plan
might be adopted in forming cellular walls of greater height, by increasing their width.
A very high wall might have two systems of cells divided vertically, one or both of
•which might be heated at pleasure. The same idea may be advantageously applied to
flues, for heatino- hot-houses by steam, and for other purposes. Piers may be formed
either on both sides of tlie wall (a), Or on one sidQ by bricks on edge (&), so as to bond
in with the rest of the work.

Uli.,ii,.ii

Cn

rOT

238

II !1 .1' '

TpT

-''"■■:!M:i''!:i'!s:^^xi^^

"^

r r n TV n n ir

wjite

RRHHHIL

£/lBe^

f^

1562. Hollow walls may also be formed by using English instead of Flemish bond :
that is, laying one course of bricks along each face of the wall on edge, and then bonding
them by a course laid across and flat. Such a mode has been practised and described by
Dearne, an architect in Kent.

1 563. Where wall-fruit is an object of consideration, the whole of the walls should be flued.
or cellular, in order that in any wet or cold autumn, the fruit and wood may be ripened
by the application of gentle fires, night and day, in the month of September. It is an
error to light the fires of hot- walls only in the evenings, the effect of heat in the process
of maturition being much greater when accompanied by light. In all hot-walls one
precaution must not be neglected, the building in, on the inferior or outer side, small
cast-iron doors, or framed stones, which may be opened at pleasure, in order to withdraw
the soot. They must be made perfectly air-tight, which is readily accomplished by
having double cast-iron doors, in what is called Count Rumford's manner.

1564. The mud or earth- waU {fig. 239.) is formed of clay, or better of brick earth in a
state between moist and dry, compactly rammed and pressed together between two
moveable boarded sides {a, a), retained in their position by a frame of timber (6, b\
which form, between them the section of the wall (c, c) : these boarded sides aie placed^
inclining to each other, so as to form the wall tapering as it ascends ; one layer of
the length of twelve or twenty feet being completed, another layer is formed on that,

A.

fm

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

and so on, till the wall attains the given height, which in tlie Netherlands, and some
parts of Germany, where these walls prevail, is seldom above ten feet. At Lyons they
are often fifteen and eighteen feet. Sometimes a trellis is placed before them, but in
general the branches of the trees are fastened by means of wooden hooks of six or seven
inches long, which are driven into the walls, and from which twigs or rods are stretched
across, from the one to the other. These walls are generally covered with a projecting
coping of tliatch, or boards ; the latter is much the neatest, and least liable to harbor
b 239

jj J^L- -. .n

insects. Peaches are grown on them in France and Germany, but in this country, where
tlie weather is more variable, and tlie atmosphere more generally charged with vapor,
particular attention requires to be paid to tlie coping. This attended to, these en pise, or
mud-walls, may be useful as shelters to cottagers' gardens, but rarely of much service as
sources of wall-fruit. For a more particular account of their construction, see CommU'

or Nicholson's Arch. Diet. art. IFall.
b

nications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. u. ;
1565. Boarded or wooden walls (Jig. 240.a)
are variously constructed. One general
rule is, that the boards of which they are
composed, should either be imbricated or
close-jointed, in order to prevent a current
of air from passing through the seams ; and
in either case Mell nailed to the battens
behind, in order to prevent warping from
the sun. When well tarred and afterwards
pitched, such walls may last many years. They must be set on stone posts, or the main
parts or supports formed of cast-iron. Nicol informs us [Kalendar, p. 149.) that he
has " constructed many hundred lineal feet of wooden walls, which recline considerably
towards the north {fig. 240. b), presenting a surface at a better angle with the sun than
if they were upright. They are placed on sloping ground, and range in five ranges or
lines, due east and west, at the distance of seven yards from each other, the southmost
being five feet high, and the northmost seven, composed of imbricated boards, pitched
over to give them durability ; the supports are set on (not in) blocks of stone, which are
sunk in the earth, and firmly laid on solid foundations, three feet under the ground
level.'*

1566. Inclined fruit-walls seem to have been first suggested about the beginning of the
eighteenth century, by N. F. De Douillier, F. R. S. an able mathematician, author of a
work entitled Fruit-walls imj)roved by inclining them to the Horizon, &c. Some
walls were formed at Belvoir Castle on this plan, which Switzer informs us he went to
see, but found them damp, and the trees liable to be injured by perpendicular frosts.
De Douillier's work, as being the production of a speculative theorist (he was tutor to
the Marquis of Tavistock), appears to have been rejected by Miller, Switzer, Lawrence,
and the designers of gardens of that day, but it is replete with ingenuity and mathe-
matical demonstration, and well illustrates the importance of sloping walls where they
are to be protected by glass or gauze. For exposed walls, it does not appear that
tliis form will ever be adopted, chiefly on account of the difficulty of building them, the
inutility of the northern or inferior side, and because, if formed in the most economical
manner, they would not serve as fences. In particular situations, as in the case of ter-
race slopes, they certainly merit trial ; and if covered in severe weather, there can be no
doubt that their surface, by being more perpendicular to the sun's rays in summer, would
receive a greater accession of light and heat at that season. In a communication to the
Horticultural Society (vol. iv. p. 140.), by Stoffels, gardener at Mechlin, be states, " that
he had an opportunity of comparing the effect of a sloping and perpendicular wall m the
same garden, for the growth of peach-trees, and that the result was greatly m favor of the
former." It appears to us, that for this and other fruit-trees that do not grow very ngid
at the root or main stem, a boarded wall which might be inclined at pleasure, to an angle
of 45° to both sides of the perpendicular, might be advantageously adopted. In the day-

Book III.

FIXED STRUCTURES.

307

time, or at least when the sun shone in the beginning of summer, it might be inclined
to the north, (the trees being planted on the south side,) to give the trees the advantage of
the sun ; and during severe weather in autumn, or at any time when it was either desired
to protect or retard the trees, it could be inclined to the south to protect them from dews
and shade them from the sun's rays.

1 567. The wavy or serjyentine wall (Jig. 241. ) has two avowed objects ; first, the saving of
bricks, as a wall in which the centres of the segments composing the line are fifteen feet
apart, may be safely carried fifteen feet high, and only nine inches in thickness from the
foundations ; and a four-inch wall may be built seven feet high on the same plan. The
next proposed advantage is, shelter from all winds in the direction of the wall ; but this
advantage seems generally denied by practical men. Miller says, he saw them tried at
Le Cour's in Holland, and that the trees which grew on them were in no respect supe-
rior to those on straight walls. They have been tried at different places in the northern
and southern provinces of Britain, but are generally disapproved of as creating eddies.

1568. The angtdar wall (Jig. 242.) is recommended on tlie same general principles of
shelter and economy as the above ; it has been tried nearly as frequently, and as generally
condemned on the same grounds.

1569. The zig-zag wall (Jig. 243.) is an angular wall in which th'e angles are all right
angles, and the length of their external sides one brick or nine inches. This wall is built
on a solid foundation, one foot six inches high, and fourteen inches wide. It is then com-
menced in zig-zag, and may be carried up to the height of fifteen or sixteen feet of one
brick in thickness, and additional height may be given by adding three or four feet of
brick on edge. The limits to the height of this wall is exactly that of a solid wall of
fourteen inches thick ; that being the width of the space traversed by the angles or zig-
zag. That as a whole it is suflficiently strong for a fence against cattle, may be proved
by applying to it the first problem in dynamics ; the two diagonal lines formed by the
zig-zag producing an equal resistance to one line directly across a fourteen-inch wall.
In training on these walls, wires are stretched horizontally from angle to angle, and
either four and a half, or nine inches apart, or upright rods of wood (a, a) may be em-
ployed ; they are, however, better adapted for fences, or walls of botanic, flower, or
nursery gardens, than for fruit-walls.

243

1 570. The sqwirefret wall (Jig. 244. ) is a four-inch wall like the former, and the ground-
plan is formed by joining a series of half-squares, the sides of which are each of the pro-
per length for training one tree during two or three years.

244

xju 1 1 I fxi:

rJ \ ''''■'t^r'' '' ^'f'^PPortedfour.inch waU(Jig. 245.), is formed in lengths
of from five to eight feet, and of one brick in breadth, in alternate planes, so that the points

Snf nf r T.r ^''' P'^'' ""u \t^5^ ^^"^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^°'^^^«- ™« ^a" is the inven-
tion of Lee, of the Hammersmith Nursery, and is well calculated for training peaches

»08

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

and other fruit-trees for public sale. It seems to be the most economical wall that can
be devised, as the parts forming piers are as useful as any other parts of the wall, which is
not the case with piered walls of the common sort.

245

1 572. The piered wall (Jig. 246.) maybe of any thickness with piers generally of double
that thickness, placed at regular distances, and seldom exceeding the wall in height, unless
for ornament. Tliese piers are generally made square in the plan ; but they have been
found to be less obstructive to the training of trees, when rounded at the angles (a) ; or
angular {b), and either hollow, or effected by deviation (c). The same remark will
apply to piers formed partly to support the wall, but principally as in the gardens laid
out by London and Wise, Bridgeman, &c. for sheltering the fruit-trees. Where train-
ing is not a leading object, a thin deep projection (rf) is much stronger as a whole, than
the clumsy square piers generally formed by routine practitioners.

1573. Sheltering piers were formerly, in some cases, made of such a width and deptli
as to contain a niche for training a vine, and, in that case, they were frequently raised
above the coping of the wall. Examples of such piers exist in the walls of the kitchen-
garden at Claremont, built from the designs of Brown, and at Hatton in Scotland, built
after a design by London and Wise.

1574. Arched, niched, or recessed walls (Jig. 247.) were contrived for the same pur-
pose by Switzer, and, at least, had a massive imposing effect to the eye. Such walls were
generally heated by flues, and formed in fact the intermediate link in the progress of im-
provement between hot-walls and forcing-houses.

1575. Trellised walls are sometimes formed when the material of the wall is soft, as in
mud walls ; rough, as in rubble-stone walls, or when it is desired not to injure the face of
neatly finished brick- work. Wooden trellises have been adopted in several places, espe-
cially when the walls are flued. Wire has also been used, and the following mode has been
adopted by C. Holford, an ingenious horticultural amateur at Hampstead : " I affix cop-
per wires from the top to the bottom of the wall, in a perpendicular direction, secured at
each end by a small iron hook, two iron stair-staples are also driven in over the wires, at
equal distances, to keep them nearly close to the wall. The wires may be placed at six
to eight inches' distance from each other. The branches and shoots are fastened by means
of tliin twine, which is first tied to the wire with a single knot, and then round the shoot
more or less tight, according as it may be required to check or encourage the circulation
of the sap ; with a very little practice this may be done with great expedition. The
wire which I have used is of the substance measuring about twenty yards to the pound
weight, and as it does not oxydate by exposure to the atmosphere, will not require paint-
ing, and will last for years. The expense is about one penny per yard. I have not found
the peaches and nectarines to be at all retarded by this mode of training." (Hort. Trans.

V. 569.)

1576. Espalier raUs are substitutes for walls, and which they so far resemble, that trees

Book HI.

FIXED STRUCTURES.

309

are regularly spread and trained along them, are fully exposed to the light, and having
their branches fixed are less liable to be injured by high winds. They are formed of wood,
cast-iron, or wire and wood, 'k

1577. Tlie wooden esjmlier, of the simplest kind, is merely a straight row of stakes
driven in the ground at six or eight inches asunder, and four or five feet high, and joined
and kept in a line at top by a rail of wood, or iron hoop, through which one nail is driven
into the heart of each stake. If the lower ends of the stakes are charred, and the sort oi
wood be larch, oak, ash, or birch, with the bark adhering, they will last for many years ;
but stakes of young Scotch pines or poplars lose their barks and soon decay. Young larch-
trees are much the most durable.

1578. The framed ivooden espalier rail is composed of frames fitted with vertical bars at
six or eight inches asunder, which are nailed on in preference to mortising, in order to
preserve entire the strength of the upper and lower rails. The end stj'les or uprights of
the frame are set on stone piers, and attached and kept upright by irons leaded into the
stone. This is the most frequent mode of construction, but sometimes the frame is fitted-
in with lattice- work, or wire, or stout laths ; and instead of stones, oak posts, or posts of
fir charred, are driven into the ground, to which to attach the styles of the frames.

1579. The cast-iron espalier rail, \ 248

L

f-

L

(Jig. 248; ) resembles a common street
railing, but it is made lighter. The
columns or styles may either be fixed
in oak or stone (a, a) ; or, when this
mode is not adopted, to form their
base in the shape of a reversed j^,
setting them on a foundation of four-
inch brick- work. Such espalier rails
have been tried in Scotland (Caled.
Mem. i. 483.), and found to come
somewhat cheaper than wooden ones ;
but their great advantage must be
their durability, (especially when well
painted, or oiled, whilst the iron is
hot,) and the elegance of their appear-
ance.

1580. Tlie horizontal esjyalier rail (Jigs. 249, & 250.) is a frame of wood or iron, of any
form or magnitude, and either detached or united, fitted in with bars, and placed horizon-
tally, at any convenient distance from the ground. For dwarf trees the common height is

249

'J

three feet, and for standards, six feet. In the latter case, the frames may be arched, and
the trees trained so as to form a bower, covered way, &c. . These have not been much used,
nor, from the loss of ground, and the too violent constraint on the tree, is it likely thev
will ever become general.

1581. The oblique espalier rail is covmposed of frames of bars, wires, or lattice- work,
placed obliquely. (Hort. Trans. App. to vol. ii.) Trees will no doubt thrive well,
trained on such surfaces, but, unless they run north and south, one side will be of little
use ; and even running north and south, they can only enjoy half the day's sun. Tm
ground too under them, unless used as a walk, must be in a great degree lost, so that
these rails are on the whole inferior to the common sort,

1582. Of f.xed structures, the brick wall, botii as a fence, and retainer of heat, may be
reckoned essential to every kitchen-garden ; and in many cases the mode of building Uiem
hollow may be advantageouslv adopted.

X 3

310 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part I L

Sect. III. Permanent Horticultural Structures.
1CS3. Buildings with glass roofs, or artificial habitations for plants, constitute by far the
most important part of garden-structures, whether we regard the expense of their first
erection, the skill required to manage them, or the interesting nature of their products.
. 1584. Green-houses were known in this country in the seventeejith century. Tliey were
then, and continued to be, in all probability, tiU the beginning of the 18th century,
mere chambers distinguished by more glass windows in front than were usual in dwelling '
rooms. Such was the green-house in the apothecaries' garden at Chelsea, mentioned by
Ray, in 1684, {Letters, p. 174.) as being heated by hot embers put in a hole in the floor;
a practice still extant in some parts of Normandy, and to which, as is well known, the
curfew, or couvr^eu bell refers. The same general form of house with tlie addition of a
furnace or oven is given by Evelyn in the different editions of his Xalendarium.

1585. Thejtrst cera of improvement may be dated 1717, when Svsdtzer published a plan
for a forcing-house, suggested by the Duke of Rutland's graperies at Belvoir Castle.
Miller, Bradley, and others, now published designs, in which glass roofs were introduced ;
and between the middle and the end of the last century, Speechley and Abercrombie in
England, and Kyle and Nicol in Scotland, made various improvements in forcing-
houses, as to general form, internal arrangements, and mode of heating. The largest plant-
stoves were the joint productions of the late W. Alton, and Sir W. Chambers at Kew,
and the largest pineries were erected at Wellbeck by Speechley.

1586. A second cera qfim^)rovem£nt may be dated from the time when Dr. Anderson pub-
lished a treatise on his patent hot-house, and from the publication of Knight's papers in the
Horticultural Society's Transactions, both of which happened about 1 809. Not that the
scheme of Dr. Anderson ever succeeded, or is at all likely to answer to the extent ima-
gined by its inventor ; but the philosophical discussion connected with its description and
uses, excited the attention of some gardeners, as did the remarks of Knight on the proper
slope of glass roofs (Hort. Trans, vol. i.) ; and both contributed, there can be no doubt,
to produce the patent hot-houses of Stewart and Jorden, and other less known improve-
ments. These, though they may now be considered as reduced au merite historique, yet
were really beneficial in their day. Knight's improvements chiefly respected the angle
of the glass roof; a subject first taken up by Boerhaave about a century before, adopted
by Linnaeus (Amen. Acad. i. 44.), and subsequently enlarged on by Faccio in 1699,
Adanson (Families des Plantes, torn, i.) in 1763, Miller in 1768, Speechley in 1789,
John Williams of New York (Tr. Ag. Soc. New York, 2d edit.) in 1801, Knight
in 1806, and by some intermediate authors whom it is needless to name.

1587. The last and most important cera is marked by the fortunate discovery of Sir
G. Mackenzie in 1815, "that the form of glass roofs best calculated for the admission of
the sun's rays is a hemispherical figure." This may be considered as the ultimatum in
regard to the principle and perfection of form ; and has already given rise to many
beautiful curvilinear structures, of which a series of plans is in course of publication
by Messrs. W. and D. Bailey, of Holborn, London, who have erected curvilinear houses
at the following places : —

names of the Proprietors. Their Residences. ^^£, Descriptionqf Houses,

Vincent Stuckey.Es,. - - {"S^^'t^-f ?«! } 1 {curvilinear roof, Sc^Ved ends - -{S|'|ll^g:

r r- r 36 ft. long.

Samuel Chavers, Esq. - - Finchley. Middlesex 1 {curvilinear roof, wUh^JVed ends - -|l^?;:Sii":

T^g«AndrewKnight.Esq.|i,„^„,„„CasUe,Salop 1 {curvilinear roof, wittllvTirick ends - -{

60 ft. long.

10 ft. wide.

I ft. high.

n•t.^,^^ H T„rr,m. V^ f Rook's Nest, near "J , J Plain sloping roof, with sashes opening in l j i f" ".n" °"S'

Charles H. Turner, lisq. - | (Jodstone - - - J ^ frnnt- a"d »♦ t^P hack, bv means of racks r J5 i*- ,^'?^-

r Camellia House. T 120 ft. long.

Messrs. Ixxldiges ... Hackney . . . 1 < Curvilinear roof, with curved ends, glazed V- 23 ft. wide.

i back sashes - - - . - - J 18 ft. high.

Peter Kendall, Esq. - - Walthamstow

}r stove and Grapery. 1 t^ ^ o in

, J Plain sloping roof, with sashes opening in f , . f " . , '
^ i front, and at the back, by means of racks C Ja ft' Z^'

(_ and pinions J ' '

r Camellia House. 1 120 ft. long.

1 < Curvilinear roof, with curved ends, glazed J> 23 ft. wide.

I back sashes .... - -j 18 ft. high.

r Conserratory. ~i VJfi s in Innir

1 J Gothic span roof, with French sash-doors f |q rt' -P^ '."• '"Vf-
^ i in front, and opening sashes on the back f ig |^ 3 in. 'high.

r

r

/Curvilinear roof ^ 11 ft. 6 in. high.

r Green-house. . ,_ .1 40 ft. long.

3 On a circular plan, with ventilators m back I jg f^ ^j^^

") wall and sash doors in front, ornamented I j^ jj. j^gj^
l_ cast-iron pHjisters and cornice - - -J

r Pine-stove and Grapery. 1 ?5C*",'°Pf*

■< Curvilinear roofs, with curved ends, and V 13 ft. wide.

I placed at each side of a large orangery . J 16 tt. high.

rValel^odse Leather- 1 „ i Curvilinear roof, with upright glazed ends ) 6 ft.' high
Thomas Dickens, Esq. . . | Va^e Lodge, Leather- I 2 1 b 55 ft. long

t "^^<* - -J ( Green-house. J I5 ft, wi^l

William Henry Cooper, Esq. Regent's Park • - 1

I cast-iron pHjisters and cornice - - -J

^ ^ ^ 33 ft. long

M P S. De Caters De Wolfe Antwerp ... 2 *

Book III. PRINCIPl.ES OF DESIGN IN HOT-HOUSES. 311

r Green-houte. ^ 1 12^- '°^-

. ,r„ w^c«„i . - X •< Gothic span roof, with folding doors at the V 15 ft. wide.

Messrs. Sweets and MUler - Bristol . - * J^ ends, iod glaxed on aU sides - - -S 9 ft. 6 in. high.

r Grapery.

Thomas Fox. Es,.- ■ - Beaminster. Dorsetshire 1 jp^^^^oping roof, as an addiUon to an old

r Grapery. J 11 ft wi&.

_ I Plain sloping roof - - - - '/g ft. 6 in. high.

Friends of T. Fox, Esq. ' f ^^f ^K^ ' ^I 1 M Pe«M-W. ^ UlV^'^t

(. woou, n J . pj^j^ sloping roof, in separate sashes - - | lo ft. high.

T. A. RusseU, Esq. - - Cheshunt Park, Herts 1 f^c^^^^^t^w.U|, ^^^^

r Conservatory. lll^^T^"^

1 ^ Circular front, with domical ventilator, > 22 ft. w'de.
/ made to rise and fell at pleasure - - -J 16tt. 6 m. higji.

Heno" Brooke, Esq. - - Bristol . - • 1 -j frame-work, opening sashes in front, and ^ 9 ft. 7^ in. high-

40 ft. diameter
EarlofSuVincetit - - Rochetts, Essex -

5Green-houte and Grapery. 1 45 ft. 9 in. lone.

Sloping roof, with cast-iron gutters and L 14 ft. 3 „,. wide,
frame-work, opening sashes in front, and I 9 ft. -J in. high
at the back - - .... J

r Orangery. , 7 40 ft. diami

< Spherical shape, with cast-uron coping and > 20 ft. high.
i gutter, ventilators in front and back walls 3

! Pine-stove.

Currilinear roof, the bars fixed into a cast- ^ f^^ !„„_
iron gutter in front, with ventilators un- ^ f^ ft, ^-^^
dem^th, and in the back waUs glazed up- " "" "°^
right ends - - - -

r South Stove. V ^ ^ ^°°^' j

' Curvilinear roof, with glazed ends, cast-iron< 12 ft. 3 m. wide.
_ ^ o copins plate - - - - - - / 12 ft. high.

The Horticultural Society - Tumham Green- - 2 j ^ sf -,,^ ^_ f 54 ft. long.

I J*"^ r*?^ J < 8 ft- 6 in. wide.

[Currilinear roo^ with bnck ends - - " 1 12 ft. high.

ii Pine-stove. f 51 ft. 4 in. long.

Curvilinear roof, with brick ends . -LIS ft, wide.

Green^house. f 25 ft. 6 in. long.

Curvilinear roof - - - - - J. 12 it. 10 m. wide.

^ _ r Green-houie. 1 15 ft- long.

r-x. , zj , »,•„<: F«i . JHoxton Square, ton- 1 j J Opening sashes in front, and ventilators at }. 10 ft. wide.

Charles Hutchins, Esq. - - | don - - - -J J. »eends - - - - - - - 3 8 ft. high.

r Green-house. f

. „ ^ ,1 Cmnilar Uced roof, the bars fixed in a circu- C 01 fi diamet^

James Burton, Esq. - - B«genfs Park - - 1 S lar cast-iron gutter, with wooden frame r ^* »• a^^^"^-

(_ and doors underneath - - - • - J

r Green-house.

Henry Se.vmour. Esq. - - {^^^-". ^^^^ . } 1 f lopny^J^f. ^h^ogening sashes at the top

1588. Great emulation noiv exists in this department of horticulture, not only among
country gentlemen, but among commercial gardeners. One house for growing palms
and scitamine£e, erected by Messrs. Loddiges, is 45 feet high and 60 feet wide, and
another by the same nurserj'men for green-house plants, is 23 feet wide, 18 feet high,
and upwards of 100 feet long, without a single rafter or standard : and these spirited
cultivators, and also Messrs. Gunter, Grange, Wilmot, Andrews, and others, have
heated the whole of their extensive ranges of glass by steam.

1589. The ajy]ilication of steam to the heating of hot-houses appears first to- have been
attempted by Wakefield of Liverpool, in 1788, and afterwards eflfectually applied in
the vault of a cucumber-house at Knowle in that neighbourhood, by Butler, gardener
to the Earl of Derby, in 1792. It made little progress till about 1816, since which it
has extended rapidly, and wherever an extensive range of hot-houses are to be heated, it
will be found a saving of fuel and labor, attended with less risk of over heating or con-
tamination by bad air.

1590. The grand cause of the improvements luhich have been made in hot-houses, may be
traced to their being no longer as formerly under the control of mansion architects. To
civil architecture, as far as respects mechanical and chemical principles, or the laws of the
strength and durability of materials, they are certainly subject in common with every
description of edifice ; but in respect to the principles of design or beauty, the found-
ation of which we consider, in works of utility at least, to be " fitness for the end in
view," they are no more subject to the rules of civil architecture, than is a ship or a
fortress ; for those forms and combinations of forms, and that composition of solids
and openings which are very fitting and beautiful in a habitation for man or domestic
animals, are by no means fitting, and consequently not beautiful in a habitation for
plants. Such, however, is the force of habit and professional bias, that it is not easy
to convince architects of this truth ; for structures for plants are considered by them no
further beautiful than as displaying not only something of architectural forms, but even
of opaque materials. Fitness for the end in view, we repeat, is the basis of all beauty
in works of use, and, therefore, the taste of architects so applied, may safely be pro-
nounced as radically wrong. — We shall consider the subject of hot-houses as to the
principles of construction, external forms, and interior details.

SuBSECT. 1. Of the Principles of Design in Hot-houses.

1591. To ascertain the principles of action, it is always necessary to begin by consider-
ing the end in view. The object or end of hot-houses is to form habitations for veget-
ables, and either for such exotic plants as will not grow in the open air of the country

X 4

312 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Pari II.

where the habitation is to be erected ; or for such indigenous or acclimated plants as it
IS desired to force or excite into a state of vegetation, or accelerate their maturation
at extraordinary seasons. The former description are generally denominated green-
houses or botanic stoves, in which tlie object is to imitate the native cUmate and
soil of the plants cultivated ; the latter comprehend forcing-houses and culinary stoves,
in which the object is, in the first case, to form an exciting climate and soil, on general
principles ; and in the second, to imitate particular climates. Tlie chief agents of ve-
getable life and growth are heat, light, air, soil, and water ; and the merit of artificial
climates consists in the perfection with which these are supplied.

1592. Such heat as is required in addition to that of the sun is most generally produced
by the ignition of carbonaceous materials, which heat the air of the house, either directly
when hot embers of wood are left in a furnace or stove, placed within the house, as in
Sweden and Russia ; mediately, as when smoke and heated air, from, or passing through
ignited fuel, is made to circulate in flues ; or indirectly, when ignited fuel is applied *to
boil water, and the hot vapor, or the water itself, is impelled through tubes of metal or
other conductors, and either to heat the air, of the house at once, as in most cases, or to
heat masses of brick-work, sand, gravel, rubble, or earth, tan, or even water, (Hort.
Trans, vol. iii.) which materials may afterwards give out the heat so acquired slowly to
the atmosphere of the house. But heat is also occasionally supplied from fermenting
vegetable substances, as dung, tan, leaves, weeds, &c. applied either beneath or around
the whole or a part of the house, or placed in a body within it.

1593. In particular situations heat may be obtained from anomalous sources, as in Iceland,
Toeplitz, and Matlock, from hot springs ; and perhaps in some cases, especially in coal
districts, from a basement composed of certain compounds of sulphur and iron, &c.
Dr. Anderson {^Treatise on the Patent Hot-house,) proposed to preserve the superfluous
heat generated by the sun in clear days, and to retain it in reservoirs placed under,
above, or at one side of the house, re-admitting it as wanted to keep up the temperature ;
but the plan, though ingenious and philosophical, required too much nicety of execution,
and the clear days in this country are too few to admit of adopting it as a substitute for
heating by ignition. Heat must not only be produced in hot-houses, but its waste avoided,
by forming as large a portion of the cover as possible of materials through which it
escapes with difficulty, as far as this is consistent with other objects. Hence, in certain
classes of houses, the side to the north is formed of opaque and non-conducting
materials.

1594. Light is admitted by constructing the roof, or cover, of transparent matter, as
oiled paper, talc, or glass, (the last being found much the best material,) joined to as small
a proportion of opaque substances, as timber or metal, as is found consistent with the
strength requisite to bear the weight of the glass, resist the accidents of weather, &c.
All plants require perpendicular light, but some, as many succulents and others, which
throw out, or are allowed to radiate their branches on all sides, require the direct influ-
ence of light on all sides ; others naturally, as creepers or climbers, or artificially, when
rendered creepers or climbers, by the art of training on walls or trellises, require direct
light on one side only ; and hence it is, that for certain purposes of culture, hot-houses
answer perfectly well when the transparent covering forms only a segment of their
transverse section, provided that segment meets the sun's rays at a large angle the greater
portion of the growing season. This, of course, is subject to limitations and variations
according to circumstances, and has given rise to a great variety in the external forms
of hot-houses, and the angles of their roofs. It decides, however, the necessity of
placing all houses whose envelope is not entirely transparent, with their glazed side to
the south.

1595. The introduction and management of light is the most important point to attend to in
the construction of hot-houses. Every gardener knows, that plants will not only not thrive
without abundance of light, but will not thrive unless they receive its direct influence by
being placed near or at no great distance from the glass. The cause of this last fact
has never been satisfactorily explained. {Sowerby on Light and Colors, 1816.) It seems
probable, that tlie glass acting in some degree like the triangular prism, partially de-
composes or deranges the order of the rays. It is an important fact also, that light in
nature is always accompanied by heat ; and, therefore, it should not only be an object to
admit the sun's direct rays in clear weather, when he is visible, but even when the raya
are refracted and deranged by clouds and vapors, when he is invisible.

1596. The theory of the transmission of light through transparent bodies, is derived from
a well known law in optics, that the influence of the sun's rays on any surface, both in
respect to light and heat, is directly as the sine of the sun's altitude, or in other words,
directly as his perpendicularity to that surface. If the surface is transparent, tlie nuni-
ber of rays which pass through the substance is governed by the same laws. Tims, if
1000 rays fall perpendicularlv upon a surface of the best crown-glass, the whole will
pass through, excepting about a fortieth part, which the impurities of even the fincsl

Book III. PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN IN HOT-HOUSES. 313

crystal, according to Bouguer, will exclude ; but if these rays fall at an incidental angle
of 75°, 299 rays, according to the same author, will be reflected. The incidental angle,
it will be recol'lected, is that contained between the plane of the falling or impinging
ray, and a perpendicular to the surface on which it falls.

1597. Tlie benefit derived from the suns influence on the roofs of hot-ho\ises depends, as
far as respects form of surface, entirely on this principle. Boerhaave applied it to
houses for preser\ing plants through the winter, and of course retjuired that the glass
surface should be perpendicular to the sun's rays at the shortest day, when most heat and
light were required. :Miller {Diet. art. Siai,) appUed it to plant-stoves, and prefers two
angles in the roof; one, as the upright glass, to meet tlie winter's sun neariy at right
angles, and the other, as the sloping glass, to meet him at an angle of 45° for summer
use, and "the better to admit the sun's rays in spring and autumn." Williamson
{Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 161.) prefers this angle (45*^) in allhouses, as do most gardeners,
probably from habit ; but Knight prefers, in forcing-houses at least, such a slope of roof
as shall be at right anglesto the sun's rays, at whatever season it is intended to ripen the
fruit. In one of tlie examples given {Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 99.), his object was to
produce a large and highly flavored crop, rather than a very early crop of grapes ; and
he accordingly fixed upon such a slope of roof as that the sun's rays might be perpen-
dicular to it about the beginning of July, the period about which he wished the crop to
ripen. The slope required to effect tliis purpose in latitude 52°, he found to form
an angle of 34° with the plane of the horizon. In the application of the same principle
to the peach-house {Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 206.) in order to ripen the fruit about mid-
summer, the roof was made to form an angle with the horizon of 28°. Both these
houses, Knight assures us, produced abundant crops perfectly ripened.

1598. ^s data to determine the angles of glass roofs, the following are laid down by
Wilkinson. Tlie angle contained between the back wall of the forcing-house, and
the inclined plane of the glass roof, always equals tlie sun's altitude, when his rays fall
perpendicularly on tliat plane, provided that the inclination of the plane to the horizon be
at an angle not less than 28° 2', nor greater than 75°. Within the above limits, the
sun's rays are perpendicular twice in the year, once in going to, and once in returning
from, the tropic. Hence then, having determined in what season we wish to have the
most powerful effects from the sun, we may construct our houses accordingly by the
following rule. Make the angle contained between the back wall of the house and its
roof, equal to the complement of latitude of the place, less or more the sun's declination
for that day on which ve wish his rays to fall perpendicularly. From the vernal to tlie
autumnal equinox, the declination is to be added, and the contrary. Thus, to apply
these principles to the slope of roof recommended by Knight, for ripening grapes in
July ; say at London we have

Latitude of London - . . .
Sim's declination on the 21st July

ZZ" Sy or 34" nearly,

Wilkinson adds that " as we want the genial warmth of the sun most in spring,
therefore, for general purposes, that construction would perhaps be best which gives us
the greatest quantity of perpendicular rays then. If the inclination were 45°, the sun's
rays would be perpendicular about April 6th and September 4th. And as the ray
would vary very little from the peqiendicular for several days before and after the
6th of April and September 4th, the loss of rays arising from reflexion, would, as appears
from the annexed taLle, be nearly a minimum. Even at the winter solstice, the loss by
the obliquity of the angle of incidence would be only two in 1000 more than when the
rays fall perpendicularly, as appears by Bouguer's Table of Rays reflected from Glass.

Of 1000 incidental rays when the angle of incidence is

87" SC

584 are reflected.

750

299 are

reflected.

40'» 34 are reflected.

8.5

543

70

222

30 27

8'2 30

474

65

157

20 25

80

412

60

112

10 25

77 30

356

50

57

1 25

Bart. Trant. vol. ii. p. S37.

When, in addition to this, it is considered, that the slope of 45° is the least that will
effectually drain tlie water from the internals between the lapping over of the panes of
glass, that angle appears to us, as Williamson suggests, decidedly the best slope for
general puqioses.

1599. ylir is supplied by the portion of the atmosphere enclosed by the tegu-
.ment. Tliis air may be raised in temperature, charged with vapors, or renewed, at the
will of the operator. It might also be put in motion by art, for the sake of obtaining
strengtli of stem in ramose or tree-like plants ; but the motion communicated to plants, by
opening the cover, and exposing them to the direct influence of the air in fine weather, is
deemed sufficient, either for this purpose, or giving flavor to fruits when advancing to
maturity. A very fit machine for putting air in motion, or for extracting air, was
invented by D. Deacon {PatoU office, 1812, and Remarks on Hot-houses, part 2.) It

314

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

is impelled by manual labor, or clock or jack machinery, and has been successfully used
lor ventilating public rooms and churches.

1600. Soil, it must be obvious, is perfectly vt^ithin the control of ai-t, which, in fact,
can far surpass nature, when increased dimensions of the parts of plants and improved
quality of fruit are objects.

1601. Water is equally at our command with soil : it may be made to pass through the
house in a surface rill ; or under the soil in subterraneous channels ; may be retained
in a cistern or basin; or introduced in tubes, either to throw' up innumerable jets from
the floor, or pour them down from the roof to serve as rain. It may be supplied
directly to the roots of plants, without wetting their leaves, in the manner of irrigation ;
be stagnated round them, as in natural marshes, or made to ascend as vapor from
steam-pipes, by pouring it on flues or hot bodies, or even watering the floor or interior
surface of the house. Having ascended and filled the air, it parts with its caloric, and is
precipitated on the plants in the form of dew.

SuBSECT. 2. Forms of Hot-house Roofs.

1602. T/ie general form and appearance of the roofs of hot -houses, was, till very lately,
that of a glazed shed or lean-to ; differing only in the display of lighter or heavier frame-
work or sashes. But Sir George Mackenzie's paper on this subject, and his plan and
elevation of a semi-dome {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 175.), have materially altered the
opinion of scientific gardeners. Kniglit made the first observations on this figure. Sir
George Mackenzie's plan for forcing-houses, he observes, is extremely interesting ; but
contains "some defects which cannot be obviated without deviating from the spherical to
the spheroidal form, which Sir George states to be objectionable, on account of the
great nicety requisite in the workmanship. On making a few trials, to ascertain the
varieties of forms which might be given to forcing-houses, by taking different segments
of a sphere, I, however, soon became perfectly satisfied that forcing-houses, of excellent
forms, for almost every purpose, and of any convenient extent, might be constructed
without deviating from the spherical form ; and I am now perfectly confident, that such
houses will be erected and kept in repair at less expense, will possess the important
advantage of admitting greatly more light, and will be found much more durable than
such as are constructed according to any of the forms which have been hitherto
recommended. By employing a small segment {fig. 251. b, c) of a large sphere
(fig. 251. a, a), as low and as wide a forcing-house as can be wanted for any purpose,
may be readily obtained. Instead of the half of a hemisphere of thirty feet diameter,
let the half of one of fifty feet (a, a) be chosen, and from the base of this, cut off thirty-
five degrees (6, 6), and from the summit fifteen degrees (c, c) ; and the following pro-
portions for a forcing-house (fig. 251. b, c) will be given. Its height (including
eighteen inches of upright opaque front, opening as shutters,) will be twelve feet ; its
width in the centre fourteen feet, and its length very nearly forty feet ; and there are
very few purposes for which a house, constructed according to some of the intermediate
forms, between that above mentioned and the acuminated semi-dome, will not be found

251

b L.

extremely well adapted." A few observations on Sir G.
the improvements on it, proposed by Knight, were made by
Neill (Edin. Encyc. art. Harrt.') and the next in order by us in
Remarks on the Construction of Hot-houses, &c . 1 8 1 7. A year be-
fore (1816) we had invented a wrought-iron sash-bar, the section
of which ( /ig. 252. a) is not more than half an inch wide,
and a half bar (jig. 252. b) equally light (a specimen of both of
which was presented to the Hort. Soc. in May 1816.) ; and in
1818 we completed a considerable erection of glass roofs at
Bayswater (fig. 253.), on the curvilinear principle, the first, we
believe, attempted in Britain. The object of such a junction
of different curvatures in the Bayswater example is to show,

Mackenzie's plan,

252

and

Book III.

FORMS OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS.

SI«

that, in regard to form, the strength and tenacity of the iron bar, and tlie proper choice
of shape in the panes of glass, admits of every conceivable variety of glazed surface.
In this we have completely succeeded, without in the least interfering with the objects
of culture. To render all these improvements available by the public, as matters of trade,
we transferred, in 1818, our right in the invention of the bar to efficient tradesmen (W. and
D. Bailey, 272. Holborn, London), who have since, from our plans, constructed in a most
excellent style of workmanship, the curvilinear houses in different parts of the country,
of which we have already given a list and description. (1587.)

1 603. Some forms of hot-houses on the curvilinear jrrinciple shall now be submitted, and
aften^ards some specimens of the forms in common use ; for common forms, it is to be
observed, are not recommended to be laid aside in cases where ordinary objects are to be
attained in the easiest manner ; and they are, besides the fo^ns of roofs, the most con-
venient for pits, frames, and glass tents, as already exemplified in treating of these struc-
tures.

1604. T/ie acuminated semi-globe,
(fg. 254.) The most perfect form ..^TJ^-r^. 254
of a hot-house is indisputably that of
a glazed semi globe. Here plants, as
far as respects light, would be nearly
in the same situation as if in the open
air; and art, as already observed,
( 1 592. ) can add heat, and all the other
agents of vegetation, nearly to perfec-
tion. But in respect to excluding the
rain, the semi-globe is too flat at top,
and requires to be acuminated ; and in regard to econ<Mny, the first cost and expense of
maintaining an artificial heat against its constant abduction through a thin medium, ex-
posed to the north winds, would, for most purposes, be a great objection.

1605. An acuminated semi-dome, or a vertical section of the last figure, placed against
a wall built in a direction from east to west, removes a great part of the objection as to
heat, and will still admit an adequate supply of light to plants kept constantly in the
same position, or turned very frequently. This, therefore, may be reckoned the second
best form for a plant-habitation for general purposes, and without reference to particular
modes of culture.

1606. The semi-ellipse (^fg. 255.) is a figure which, in the plan (0,0), displays half an

' .s?<!§^^r^

255

^_fr.

3

S16

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Pakx II.

ellipsis, or oval, and in the superstructure {b, b) one fourth part of the solid figure. Its ad-
vantage over a semi-dome is, that, whether the trees are to be trained on a trellis parallel
to the glass, or against the back wall, a greater surface for training is obtained in propor-
tion to the volume of cubic air to be heated. On the other hand, its glass surface is less
perfect in respect to perpendicularity to the sun's rays ; though in this respect the differ-
ence is not of great consequence. Houses of this sort, Adanson informs us, are of Dutch
invention. As the sun retired from them in the afternoon, the eastern parts of the ellipse,
as they fell successively into shade, were covered with reeds or mats ; and, in like manner,
in the morning the east end was uncovered first, and the west end only as the sun came
round on it. (^Families des Plantes, vol. i. Pref.)

1607. The parallelogram with curved roof and ends {fig. 256.) is one of the most con-
venient forms of curvilinear roofs for the common purposes of culture, as it admits of
more regular figures of beds, paths, trellises, &c. within, and of every variety of dimen-
sion. In regard to light, heat, and beauty, they do not difl^er materially from the semi-
ellipse. Of this form, a considerable number of forcing-houses, and some green-houses,
have been erected. Among the latter may be noticed one for Messrs. Loddiges, and
another for the Horticultural Society. {See the Table, 1587.)

256

1608. The ridge and furrow roofvaay be effected either in curvilinear or right-lined hot-
houses ; and consists in placing the bars in the rebates of which the glass is put, in such a
manner as that the section of the roof may always be a zig-zag line, in which the space
traversed by each side or zig may either contain several bars {fig. 257.), or merely one
pane of glass, {fig. 258.) In both modes it is generally desirable, that the ends of aU

.:v-+'

-<-

257

■^-/.

•y-

-V

."<

•^

a

258

tiie bars should terminate in one horizontal line on the top of the parapet ; which need
not, however, be the case in their termination against the back wall. Some apparent
difficulty of glazing is thus occasioned in the lower part of the roof; but the difficulty
is only apparent, for as smaller and only triangular pieces of glass can be used Uiere,
. it becomes, in fact, more economical, by occasioning the use of pieces of glass which
would otherwise be thrown away. The advantages of ridge and furrow roofing are
chiefly obtainable in countries liable to heavy falls of snow or hail, and in houses which
are parallelograms in plan. Almost any weight of snow may be carried by such roofs,
especially when the bars are 'not far apart, as the pressure will evidently be almost
entirely on the upper bars, and not on the glass. As to hail, as it will always meet the
surface of the glass in abridge and furrow roof at an angle of 45°, it can never do it
much, if any, harm. Curvilinear houses with roofs of this description are therefore
peculiarly suitable for the north of Europe, and especially for Russia ; and m houses
with triangular and straight-lined roofs, the sun {a, figs. 257, & 258.) will be perpendi-
cular to half the roof (by being so to half each ridge) at that period wlucli ionns halt

FORMS OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS.

31'

Book III.

the time between his rising and mid-day, and perpendicuW to the other half, at half

the pTnod of time between mid-day and sunset. Another advantage of ndge and fun-ow

roofH that the laps between the panes, unless very broad or puttied are always kept

free from accumulations of dust. This takes place in consequence of their angle of m-

cUnatio" which being about 45°, the gravity of the column of water between the laps

is found to counterbalance the attraction of cohesion, and shdes in the lap from the

crown to the bottom of the furrow.

1609. The general form 259

and ajypearance of a ridge and
furrow house {fig. 259.) is

not materially different from

that of others. Where the

curbed end is adopted, it will

not be necessary to deviate

from the common mode of

glazing in these parts of the

roof, unless witli a view to resist a weight of snow.

the roof, tlierefore, is ridged
(^fig. 260. a, a), the ends will

present a smooth surface
{fig. 260. b, b).

1610. The jmlyirrosopic
hot-house {fig. 261. ) re-
sembles a curvilinear house,
but differs in hanng the
surface thrown into a num-
ber of faces, the chief advan-
tages of which are, 1. That
by hinging all the different

faces at their upper angles, and by having rods connecting the lower outside comers of
the faces terminating in chains which go over pulleys in the top or above the back wall,
the whole roof, including the ends, may be opened or raised sympathetically, like Vene-
tian blinds {fig. 261. a.), either so as each sash or face may be placed in the plane of the
angle of the sun's rays at the time, or to the perpendicular, to admit a shower of rain.

While the parallelogram part of

260

In consequence of this arrangement, the plants in a polyprosopic house may, at
any time, and in a few minutes, be placed in effect, or as far as respects light, air, wind,
rain, dew, &c. in the open air ; and being so placed, may, whenever desired, be as
speedily restored again to their proper climate. The arrangement by which this is effected,
and which is perfectly simple, is applicable to every form of hot-house, whether of glass on
all sides, on two, or on three sides ; or whether the roof is formed of curved or straight lines.
We consider it, indeed, to be the ne plus ultra of improvement, as far as air and light are
concerned. One objection to all curvilinear forms in this respect is, that the roof, unless
a considerable expense be incurred, must be fixed, and air admitted by horizontal wooden
or glazed shutters in the parapets, or between the props, and allowed to escape by sky-
lights or shutters at the top of the back wall ; but here the air is equally admitted in every
part of tlie house, in the most natural manner, witliout the creation of currents or eddies,
and without excluding any more sun than will be obstructed by the thickness or edge of
the faces or sashes. In Like manner, a great objection to straight-lined roofs with sliding
sashes is, that air can only be partially admitted, and tliat while this is being done, one
glazed frame being slid over the other in all those parts where there is a double portion of
glass, a double portion of light must be excluded ; and as opticians are aware, the light
so transmitted will be doubly decomposed by passing through two surfaces of glass.

1611. This roof, with res2)ect to the suns rays, may be considered as exactly equivalent
to a curvilinear figure virhose curve lines shall touch all the angles of the faces, so that the
sun ill general would be nearly perpendicular to some one face every hour in the day,
and every day in the year. A specimen of glass roof, constructed on this principle,
formed a part of the erection at Bayswater (1602.), already referred to, but which
owing to local alterations it became necessary to remove in 1823.

^^^ SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

vnilfi!" ^ r""^^ ofhoUiouses {Jig. 262.) of any or of all the different varieties of cur-
vilinear surfaces, every one will allow to have a better effect than the common glazed
sheds or lean-to hnt_lir.i,ooc n.e u;*^u, j fcia^eu

Sheds or lean-to hot-houses of kitchen-gardens.

262

1613. Lean-to glass roofs are of various sorts. The simplest and most economical hot-
house of this description may be compared to a large pit. The back and front walls and
ends being of masoniy, and a sloping side above of glass, and either fixed or moveable ;
It fixed, then air is admitted by openings in the front wall and top of the back wall • if
moveable, the sashes slide, or are moved in grooves, the lower one being drawn up, and
tiie upper sash let down. Such a house will succeed perfectly well for grapes and pines.
Jhe faret improvement on this form consists in forming moving glass frames in front, in-
stead of the opaque wall of masonry and shutters ; a second consists in adding glass ends ;
a third, m forming the roof into two slopes ; and a fourth, in bevelling the positions of
the front sashes, and forming the whole roof into three different slopes, the lower for
receiving the sun's rays in winter ; the second for spring and autumn ; and the third, for
nudsummer.

1614. A variety of other forms will afterwards be given, both regular and anomalous,
adapted to specific purposes of culture, particular situations, as conservatories or cabinet
appendages to mansions, or for variety in flower-gardens.

SuBSECT. 3. Details of the Construction of Roofs, or the glazed Part of Hot-houses.

1615. The glazed tegument, or cover, may either be wholly fixed, wholly moveable, or
partake of both modes. Each of these varieties may be considered in respect to com-
ponent parts and materials.

1616. Fived roofs are either formed of a series of bars 'of iron or wood, proceeding
at once from the front parapet to the back wall ; or from the base to the centre, or they
may be composed of sashes placed beside each other, or between rafters, as in common
lean-to houses. Roofs of this fixed kind have been approved of by Knight for vines ;
by Beattie, of Scone, for peaches ; and by most cultivators for the culture of pines and
palms ; but, excepting for the two latter purposes, the general experience of gardeners is
(in our opinion, very justly,) against them. It is to be observed, that in all cases of fixed
roofs, shutters for ventilation are formed in the parapet, and in the upper part of the back
wall immediately under the roof. Economy in first cost, and less breakage of glass after-
wards, are the chief arguments in their favor ; the latter advantage, however, is generally
denied, it being improper glazing rather than the moving of the sashes, which occasions
the breakage of glass.

1617. Moveable roofs are generally composed of sashes, six or eight feet 263 ^^
long, and three or four feet wide, which slide over each other, and are
moved by cords and pulleys, and sometimes balanced by weights, to
facilitate their motion ; but they are also occasionally formed of sashes
which open outwards by means of iron levers at their lower extremities,
and hinges at their upper angles {Jig- 263.), in the manner of the poly-
prosopic house, {fg. 261.)

1618. Roofs partaking of both characters generally have a few sashes
which let down or rise up in the roof or front glass ; or in the
case of domes or acuminated roofs, the top part rises in the manner of a sky-light.

1619. The material of fxed roofs is generaUy iron, as being least bulky in proportion
to the strength required, most durable, and admitting, in the case of curvilinear roofs, a
curvature to be formed at less expense than it could be of timber. In these roofs, in gene-
ral, no other bars or opaque bearers are required than those for receiving the glass ; and
hence their simplicity and unity with regard to component parts, and the equal degree of
transparency in every part of the surface.

1620. T/ie materials of moveable roofs are most commonly timber; but frequently also
timber and iron, or timber and copper joined together. Thus cast-iron and wrought-iron
lafters are frequently used ; and in these are placed sashes with styles and rails of timber,
and bars of copper, and of cast or wrought iron. Two of the lightest-roofed shed-houses
yet built with sliding sashes are, one by Timmins, of Birmingham, in 1811, at Loddiges*
nursery, in which the rafters are of wrought-iron, cased in copper, to which are screwed
pulleys, on which the sashes, composed of copper bars and timber styles, slide without
grooves ; and the other is at the Union Nursery, King's Road, erected by J. S. Jorden,
in 1815, in which the upper part of the roof only moves ; the rafters are trusses of
wrought-iron, supporting bars of cast-iron ; and the entire sash is formed of hollow sheet-

Book III. GLAZING OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS. 519

copper The use of sheet-copper, however, may now be considered as exploded in hot-
house building, wrought-iron being a much more economical, wholesome, durable, and
equally elegant substitute for timber. In general, it may be observed, that where sashes
and riters are used in the formation of moveable roofs, a mixture of timber and metal is
better than timber alone, the former in extremes of temperature being liable to expansion
and contraction. Thus sashes with iron bars, and the outer frame or the 8t>les and rails
of timber, move readily in the grooves of cast-iron rafters, because when the metal expands
with great heat, the timber in a slight degree contracts. The reverse is also Uie c^e, and
cast-iron sashes slide readily in timber rafters. In both cases small rollers should be in-
serted, either into the sides of the sash or the fillet or groove of the rafters, or both. Cast-
iron rafters need not, for general purposes, be more than half an inch 264
thick, and six or eight inches deep ; where the house is wide, they
require to be supported by slender pillars. Wrought-iron rafters
may be rolled out of broad bar-iron {fig. 264.), so as to present as
light and elegant an appearance as our moulded wrought-iron sash-
bar, {fig. 252.)

1621. Arrangements for covering the roofi of hot-houses by hoards, canvass^ or jnats, to be
lifted or rolled up or down, might be easily contrived and advantageously used ;• but ex-
cepting in pits and low hot-houses, they are not thought worth attending to, it being con-
sidered better to gain the admittance of all the light possible, than lose it for the sake of
a little economy in fuel.

1 622. The pillars or jyroj)S which are placed on the parapet, to support the rafters, whether
of timber or iron, are generally formed of the same thickness as the rafters, because
similar sashes are placed between them.

1623. Interior ujnights to support wide roofs are almost always of iron, either wrought-
metal or small cast-iron columns, sometimes forming intersecting arches, or treillaged
capitals, or connecting imposts for training creepers.

1624. The wall-plate, or cojring of the parajyet, is sometimes a plate of timber, some-
times of stone, and occasionally of cast-iron. Wherever upright glass is not employed,
it must of necessity form also the guttering for the water of the roof, and at the same
time for the water which condenses on the glazed inside of the house.

1625. Objections to metallic roofs. In. general it may be observed, that till lately gar-
deners had a prejudice against metallic roofs. Of authors, who have avowed this, Aber-
crombie, INIean, and Nicol, maybe mentioned ; others have adopted a cautious neutrality,
as M'Phail, Forsyth, Alton, &c. Philosophical and amateur gardeners have generally
approved of their introduction ; among which may be named Knight, Sir George Mac-
kenzie, Loddiges, and others. We shall here, as briefly as possible, enumerate the ob-
jections to metallic roofs, which are expense, rust, breakage of glass, abduction of hea^
and attraction of electricity.

Expense. Metallic houses are, in general, rather more expensive than wooden ones ; but they admit
more light and are more durable and elegant.

Rust. Tliat all ordinary metals are liable to rust is imdeniable. This objection cannot be got rid of.
The reply is, balance against it the advantages of light and durability ; and take into- consideration that
careful painting wiU in a great degree prevent it. Knight observes, if one third of the sum requisite to
keep a wooden roof properly painted be expended upon an iron roof, no injury will ever be sustained &om
the liability of that to suffer from rust. {Hart. Trans, v. 231.)

Breakage qf glass. This is altogether denied, as respects cast or wrought iron at least, and if appli-
cable at all, can only be so to copper or compoxind metallic roofs, where weakness produces a bending of
the sash ; or where corrosion or unequal expansion of improper mixtures of metals as iron cased with
copper, occasions a twisting of the bar. Cast-iron or solid wrought-iron frames, have never been known
to occasion the breakage of more glass than wood. The grand cause of the breakage of glass, arises in
almost every case from glazing with broad laps. The expansibility of copper is greater than that of brass,
and that of brass greater than the expansion of iron in the proportion of 95, 89. 60. (Young's Lect.) Con-
sequently copper is above one third part more likely to break glass than iron ; but when it is considered,
that a rod of copper expands only one hundred thousandth part of its length, with every degree of heat,
and that iron only expands the one hundred and sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixtv-sixth part,
the practical eflfects of our climate on these metals can never amount to a sum equal to the' breakage of
glass.

Abduction of heat. The power of metals to conduct heat is an objection, which, like those of rusting
and additional expense, cannot be denied. The reply is, the smaller the bars, the less their power of con-
ducting ; and a thick coat of paint, and the covering of half the bar by the putty requisite to retain the
glass, also lessens this power ; it is added, heat may be supplied by art, but solar light, the grand advan-
tage gained by metallic bars, cannot, by any human means, be supplied otherwise than by the transparencv
of the roof * ^

Attraction of electricity. To this objection it is replied, that if metallic hot-houses attract electricity,
they also conduct it to the ground, so that it cannot do any harm. Also that no instance can be produced
of iron hot-houses having been injured by the eflfects of this fluid,

SuBSECT. 4. Glazing of Hot-house Roofs.

1626. Glazing was formerly performed with the very worst description of glass, called
green glass; and accordingly, Adanson, in 1710, reconunends the adoption of Bohe-
mian glass, then the best in Europe, but now equalled by our best crown or jmtent croien
tables. If, as Bouguer has shown, one fortieth part of the light which falls perpendicu-
larly on tlie purest crystal is reflected oflT, or does not pass through it, it may safely be

S20

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

asserted, that green glass reflects off more than three fomlhs. Economy, as to tlie
quahty of glass, therefore, is defeating the intention of building hot-houses, which is to
imitate a natural climate in all tlie qualities of light, heat, air, water, earth, &c. as per-
fectly as possible. Without a free influx of light, the sickly pale etiolated appearance of
plants is more painful than agreeable to the eye of any who take an interest in the
vegetable kingdom. As the panes or pieces of glass employed in hot-house roofs lap
over each other, the air which enters by the lap, when uneven glass is employed or care-
less glaring performed, no doubt, suggested the idea of closing the lap with lead or putty.
But both these modes being found to prevent the water which collects on the inner sur-
face of glass roofs, from escaping by the outside surface, gave rise, first, to partially
closing the lap ; and subsequently to various forms of panes, and descriptions of laps, of
which the principal are as follow.

1627. Common sash-glazing is performed by even the best hot-house builders with a
lap of from one fourth to three fourths of an inch ; but by the great majority of glaziers,
with a full inch lap. Tlie objection to this mode is, that the broader the lap, the greater
the quantity of water retained in it by capillary attraction ; and when such water, through
a deficiency of heat in the house, is frozen, the glass is certain of being broken. But
supposing this breakage not to take place, the broader the lap, the sooner it fills up with
eartliy matter, forming an opaque space, both injurious by excluding light, and unpleas-
ing because imperfect : or if the lap is to be puttied, the opacity is the same. The
accidental filling up of such spaces (when not puttied by art) with dust and earthy matter,
is what prevents them from being broken, by excluding the water in a great degree.
Where the lap is not more than one fourth of an inch, it may be puttied without a very
disagreeable effect. The rectangular pane is the only form which can with propriety be
admitted in curvilinear roofs ; and the most approved practice as to the lap, whether in
roofs or common sashes, is never to make the lap greater than the thickness of the glass,
and npt to close it with putty. It is extremely difficult to get glaziers to attend to this ;
but by employing superior workmen, and obliging them to remove every pane which
shall project over the other more than one sixteenth of an inch, the thing may be accom-
plished. This is not only the most elegant of all modes for a curved roof, or indeed for
any other, but the safest for the glass, which is, we repeat, seldom broken by any other
natural means than the expansion of frozen water retained between the laps. It must
not be forgotten that this form is also by far the easiest to repair, and that no mode of
puttying or closing a narrow lap with lead is of long duration.

265

c d e f g

1628. Glazing with a leaden lap (265. a) was formerly practised with a view of ex-
cluding the air by a more permanent material than putty. The sort of lap made use of,
is tljat used by glaziers in lattice- work windows (Jig. 266. a.) The panes being inserted

in the grooves, formed in tlie edges of the lap, are of
course all in one plane, and the water in running
down eitlier the outside or inside of the roof, must ac-
cumulate on the upper edge of each riband or cross-
string of lead, and so penetrate between it and the glass,
and drop on the plants in the house. This indeed
forms the chief objection to the leaden lap, which is
now deservedly exploded.

.1629. An imjrroved form of lead lap (Jig. 266. b)
consists in using slips of lead rolled so thin as not to
be thicker than fine drawing paper, in connection with
putty, and for the sole purpose of retaining it in its place

266

It is never allowed to project

beyond the exterior edges of the glass, so that it readily permits the descent of the water.
- ' ■■ ^ '■ -1 ao-eable, and tlie time employed in filling up such laps.

Its thinness renders it easily mana^, , . . u ^^,.„ ♦v,^„

when one man is stationed outside the glass and another within ^^ not much more to
that occupied in glazing a roof with the common putty lap. Such lead laps may either
have a small opening in the middle, or at tiie angles, and are equally applicabk to aiiy
of the modes of glazing to be described,
cut to the size wanted as used.

The lead is rolled to any widtli, and dipt or

Book III. GLAZING OF HOT-HOUSE ROOFS. ^321

1630. The copper lap {Jig. 265. c) is the invention of D. Stewart, and its origin may be
recognised in the ess-shaped shred of lead introduced by glaziers between newly glazed
panes, to retain them in their places (Jig. 265. d). The lap is drawn tlirough graduated
moulds till at last it is brought into the shape of the letter ess compressed. It adds
greatly to the strength of glazing, by giving each pane a solid firm bearing on the upper
and lower edges, and by preventing water from lodging between the panes. Where the
sashes are flat, however, it occasions droppings of condensed water on the plants, against
which there is a general prejudice among gardeners ; and it has been alleged, that tlie
drip from copper becomes in a few years poisonous from the partial oxidation of the
metal. In steep roofs, however, this objection does not hold, and there remains in such
cases only the objection of the opacity produced by the lap. It has been used in the
large conservatories at East Sheen and Woodlands ; but appears to us much too opaque
for hot-house roofs, and only adapted for sky-lights in common buildings. If so much
light can be spared as is lost by these laps, it were better to increase the number of sash-
bars, by which the panes would be smaller, and consequently stronger and less expensive,
and no metallic lap would be wanting. It is now entirely or nearly out of use.

1631. Fragment glazing (f.g. 265. b). This is the primitive mode adopted by nur-
serj'men and market-gardeners, before it was supposed that the productions raised under
glass would pay for any thing better. In steep roofs it answers nearly as well as any
other mode in respect to keeping out rain and air, but as a somewhat greater lap is re-
quired in these crooked or undulated pieces of glass, a flat roof is liable to be covered by
dark lines, formed by the lodging of earthy matter in the laps or interstices. WTaere the
bars are not placed more than six or seven inches asunder, centre from centre, this method
is much more economical than any other ; and is therefore useful for such countrj'-flur-
serymen or market-gardeners as have not, like the nurserymen of London, the opportu-
nity of purchasing the hot-houses of decayed gentlemen or bankrupts ; and consequently
are obliged to build and construct every part ab arigine,

1632. In rhomboidal glazing {fig. 265. c), the panes are in the form of rhomboids, the
advantage of which is, that the water runs rapidly to the lower angle, and passes off both
inside and outside along the bar ; and what is retained by capillary attraction, is alleged
to be so small as not to have the power of breaking the glass.

1633. Perforated shield gladng {fig. 265. d). This is a supposed improvement on the last
described mode, wliich it would be, were it not that by the perforation in the upper part
of the shield as it is called, the dexter and sinister chiefs are liable to be broken off; and
by the prolonged acumination of its base, it is rendered obnoxious to the same casualty
in the nombril point.

1 634. Entire shield glazing {fig. 265. e). This plan has been used by Butler, a London
hot-house builder ; but it does not seem either to merit or obtain general adoption. It
is difficult, indeed, to conceive what are the arguments in its favor beyond that of
strength, with a very great loss of light, which may surely be better obtained by Stewart's
lap.

1635. Curvilinear lap glazing {fig. 265. /). Tliis mode appears, unless on very flat
roofs, preferable to the common square mode, because the curve has a tendency to
conduct the water to the centre of the pane. If the lap is broad, however, the globule
retained there by attraction is situated precisely in the point where it is calculated to do
most inischief, being in fact as a power on the end of two levers. Wlien tlie lap is not
more than one sixteenth of an inch, no evil of this sort can happen ; it also happens less
frequently for the first few years after puttying the lap, and leaving a small opening in
the centre for the water to escape. In time, however, according as the house has been
used, the putty begins to decay, it becomes saturated with water, and during frost, when-
ever the temperature of the house is inadequate to prevent this water from freezing, the
panes are certain of being broken. It can hardly be too often impressed on the mind of
the gardener, that puttying or odierwise filling up the lap is in no case requisite, if care
be taken in the glazing to use flat glass, and never to let the lap exceed one fourth, or
fall short of one sixteenth of an inch. This is now rendered the more easily practicable
since the invention of a variety of glass called patent crown glass, and which, purchased
m panes fit for hot-houses, is hardly more expensive than the other. It may be added,
that taking all circumstances into consideration, and especially that of repairs, the common
rectangular pane of a small size is, according to common consent, decidedly the best,

1636. Reversed curvUinear glazing {fig. 265. g) is a method of throwing the water of
condensation to the bars, so as to carry it off by their means, and, if possible, prevent it
from dropping in the house.

1637. Anomalous surfaces can only be glazed by throwing the panes into triangles
and by no other manner, unless by annealing and bending the glass, because three i?the
greatest number of points that mil touch a globular surface in one plane. By adopting
triangular panes the most singular-shaped roofs may be glazed as perfectly as the simplest
lorms of surface. * .• r

Y

322

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Pakt II.

1638. Though the making of jnitty be hardly within the gardener's province, yet it is
fitting he should know that there are several sorts, of which the following are the prin-
cipal : —

Soft putty, being a well- wrought paste of flour of whitening and raw linseed-oil j

Hard putty, composed of whitening and boiled linseed-oil ;

Harder putty, in which a portion of turpentine, or what is called, drying, is introduced; and the

Hardest putty, composed of oil, red or white lead, and sand. The first is tlie most durable of all, be-
cause it forms an oleaginous coat on the surface, but it requires a longer time for drying. Tlie hard sorts
are apt to crack, if not soon well painted ; and the hardest of all, though it appears to be impenetrable,
and of the greatest durability, yet renders it difficult to replace a pane when broken. It seems, therefore,
quite unfit for hot-houses. Much depends on well working tlie putty some days before it is to be used j
and in general, that putty which has been ground and wrought in a putty-mill is to be preferred.

1639. The best sort of paint for hot-houses is that which, for the last twenty years,
has been known by the name of anti-corrosion, which is composed chiefly of the
powdered scoriae of the lead-mines of Col. Beaumont, near Hexham. There are other
sorts, which are called anti-corrosive and impenetrable paints ; but they have not been long
enough in use to enable us to recommend them. It may be a sufficient recommendation
of the anti-corrosion to state, that it is used in government works, and especially on all
cast-iron erections, by Rennie, Telford, and others. As to the color of paint, or washes
of any sort, for tlie walls or interior of hot-houses, it is almost unnecessary to observe,
that as light is the grand object, white is to be preferred.

SuBSECT. 5. Walls and Sheds of Hot-houses.

1640. Walls of some sort are necessary for almost every description of hot-house, for
even those which are formed of glass on all sides are generally placed on a basis ©f
masonry. But as by far the greater number are erected for culinary purposes, they are
placed in the kitchen-garden, with the upper part of their roof leaning against a wall,
which forms their northern side or boundary, and is commonly called the back wall, and
the lower part resting on a low range of supports of iron or masonry, commonly called
the front wall. Behind the back wall a shed is commonly formed, and within this is
placed the furnace, the fuel to be used therein, and other materials or implements con-
nected with the culture or management of the hot-house.

1641. The parajyet, or front wall, of hot-houses comes first in order. 'Where upright
sashes are used, there are generally brick walls, either carried up solid from the found-
ation, or built on piers, according as it may be desirable to have the roots of the plants
within pass through to the soil without, or not. In the case of fixed roofs, that part of
the wall which is above ground is formed with horizontal openings, to which opaque or
glazed shutters are fixed, opening outwards for the purpose of admitting air. A recent
improvement on parapets consists in forming them of cast-iron props or pillars {fig. 261.),
which are placed on a basis of two or three bricks (c, c), three or four feet under the sur-
face : to these props, top and bottom rails are fitted, which are rebated to receive a shut-
ter, (fig. 268.) The wall-plate (a, b,figs. 267, & 268.), which receives the ends (d) of
the rafters or sash-bars, forms also a gutter for carrying off the water of the roof, exter-
nally (a), and the condensed water internally {figs. 267, & 268. b).

267

268

269

1642. Where the roof is moveable on the pol^n-asopic plan,uo ^^^^ shutters are in-
quired, and therefore the ends of the rafters may go at once three ^^ Jour feet m^^ t^^^^
soil, according to the nature of the foundations, and rest on bnck-work ; the s^^rf^ce of
t^ ^ount fnd the lower edge of the lowest sash being umted by a moveable plate,
fonrnng at once a gutter and a rest for the lower rail of the sash.

Book III. HOT-HOUSE FURNACES AND FLUES. 32»

1643. Holes for vine-ttems {fig. 268./^/). In all paraijets or front arrangements
where vines are to be introduced from without, particular care must be had to provide for
the withdrawing of the vines, even when tlieir wood is of a considerable age and thick-
ness. For this reason, where horizontal shutters are used, the lower styles or pieces
against which they shut, should always be moveable ; and, in general, it may be stated,
that of the various modes for tlie introduction of the vine from without which have been
adopted, that by cutting off a corner of the sloping or front sash, is the best ; by this
means, when the sash is opened, a vine of almost any size (fig. 269. a) may be taken out
with ease. A piece of thin board or cork cut every year to fit the increasing diameter of
the shoot is screwed to the wall-plate or lower style, as the case may be, and the vacuity,
which must necessarily be left around the stem, is closed up witli moss. WTien the vine
is to be taken out by unscrewing tlie triangular board, and opening the sash, or shutter,
a more than sufficient space for drawing out any ordinarj'-sized plant is obtained without
the least trouble or chance of fracturing the shoots. It may be added, that in curvilinear
ground plans, some exertion of design and nicety of workmanship is required in framing
the horizontal shutters, so as they shall not twist, and also that they require in such cases
to be hinged with what are called coach-hinges.

1644. Glazed shutters (fig. 269.) are preferred by some to an opaque panel, the utility
of which must, of course, depend on the relative height of
the pots or plants immediately within. The mode of
opening such shutters, and keeping them open (fig. 270.),
is perfectly simple.

1645. The back wall is in general straight or perpendi-
cular, and carried up one or two feet Iiigher than the glass,
to shelter it from the nortli. (fi^. 255.) Sometimes, how-
ever, it is bevelled or curved to meet the sun's rays.
(fig. 261. b)

1646. The back shed (fig. 256. a) is naturally con-
nected with the back wall, and in form and extent, is ge-
nerally regulated more by its uses as a working^shed, than
by the mere enclosure and covering of the fire-places and
fuel, its original and legitimate objects. The Avidth may be varied at pleasure, but sel-
dom exceeds ten or twelve feet, and the height is generally seven or eight feet in the lower
wall, and nearly of the same height as the back wall ; but where opening shutters are
formed in the back wall, for the purposes of ventilation, the upper angle of the shed-roof
must be kept under the level of the shutters to save intricacy of contrivance. But as these
shutters frequently do not communicate directly with the open air, but with passages
under the shed-roof, or channels in the top of the back wall, the height of the shed may
in such cases be made higher. In some cases, instead of shutters (fig. 270.), boards slid-
ing in grooves, or a sort of Venetian blind, or which is best, flaps held close by a cord,
pulley, and weight, are used ; but Uie great heat of hot-houses is apt to warp and derange
some of tliese contrivances. The essential part of the back shed, as respects the hot-
house, is the situation for the furnace and fuel, or steam apparatus, with which no other
use to which it may be applied must be allowed to interfere. Sometimes back sheds are
not enclosed, but supported on pillars, in whidi case they are used for fermenting tan,
leaves, or dung, growing mushrooms on ridges of dung, holding pots, pease-sticks, and
other similar purposes. Where the range of hot-houses is situated in the middle of the
garden, great care must be taken, that it present nothing oflTensive, and that the sheds
behmd neither resemble a row of workshops, alms-houses, brickmakers' sheds, or cattle-
hovels. An effectual way of preventing this, is by carrying up the walls of the sheds as
high as the other walls, thus completely concealing their roofs.

SuBSECT. 6. Furnaces mid Flues.

1647. The most general mode of heating hot-houses is by fires and smoke-fiues, and on a
small scale, this will probably long remain so. Heat is the same material, however pro-
duced ; and a given quantity of fuel will produce no more heat when bumin<T under a
boiler than when burning in a common furnace. Hence, with good air-tT^rht flues
formed of well burnt bricks and tiles accurately cemented ^^^th lime-putty, and arranged
so as the smoke and hot air may circulate freely, every thing in culture, as far asresuits
heat, may be perfectly accomplished.

1648. The hot-house fire-place, or furnace, consists of several parts : a chamber, or oven
to contain the fuel, surrounded by brick-work, in which fire-brick (a sort containing a
large proportion of sand, and thus calculated by their hardness not to crumble by hSat,
£ wWcHh; \^'^^ "'r^'' grating, on which the fuel is laid; a pit or chamber
ash^pil ^""^ ^'^'^^' ^""^ '""'' ^^" ^"^ ^^ fuel-chamber and

Y 2

324^

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

27]

1649. The iron doors admit of several varieties ; but it does not appear that there is any
great difference in the effect produced by the different plans of Nicol, Hay, Stewart, and
others. A double door has the advantage of durability, of preserving heat, and of not so
readily admitting cool air to pass over the fire ; which air, of course, must be less heated,
and consequently less capable of heating the flue than such as, entering from below, passes
through it. The use of the ash-pit door is to act as a regulator to the current of air, or as
a damper or suffocator.

1650. Vacuities have been formed around furnaces, and by communications between these
and the open air, and an air -flue in the house, a stream of heated air has been introduced :
but this air is so little at the command of the gardener ; is so dried up or burnt, as the
phrase is, that is,- mixed with offensive gases from decomposed water, burned oil, iron,
sulphur, or very fine dust ; and so liable to be mixed with smoke, that such plans are now
generally laid aside. Vacuities, however, are frequently formed round furnaces, and
along the first four or six f 2et of the flue, in order to temperate the heat in that part ; but
such vacuities rarely have any communication with the air of the house. Where a house
of considerable length and volume is to be heated, it is generally deemed better to increase
the number of furnaces than to increase their size, or have recourse to air-flues ; for when
the latter practice is resorted to, they are necessarily projected so far into the shed, or
otherwise kept back from the house, that a great part of the heat is lost in the mass of
brick-work which surrounds them. Small furnaces, on the contrary, may be built in great
part under the walls or floor of the house. In countries where turf, wood, or inferior
coal, is used for fuel, the chamber of the furnace must be large ; on the contrary, where
the best coal, cinders, charcoal, or coke (the three last, the best of all fuel for hot-houses,
as having no smoke), is used, they may be made smaller in proportion to the different de-
grees of intensity of tlie heat produced by these different materials. In fixing on the
situation of furnaces, care must be taken that they are always from one to two feet under
the level of the flue, in order to favor the circulation of the hot air and smoke, by allow-
ing it to ascend.

1651. A small lime-kiln {fig. 271. a) is __
in some places constructed or fixed over
hot-house furnaces for burning lime ; and
when the heat, wliich passes through the
limestone, is made to enter tlie flues (^),
it is evident a real benefit must result from
the practice, as the heat applied to the
burning of the lime in the common way
escapes in the atmosphere. The grate
or fuel bars (rf) are contrived to draw
out, by means of a grooved frame (c),
so that when the lime is burned, it then
drops into the ash-pit (6).

1652. As to the size of hot-house fire-
2)laces, tlie door of the furnace may be from
ten inches to one foot square ; the fuel-
chamber from two to four feet long, from
eighteen inches to two feet wide, and of
the same dimensions as to height. Every
thing depends on the kind of fuel to
be used. For Newcastle coal, a chamber
of two feet long, eighteen inches broad,
and eighteen inches high, will answer as well as one of double the size, where smoky
Welsh or Lancashire coal is to be used. Various contrivances, as hoppers, horizontal
wheels, &c. have been invented for supplying fuel to furnace-fires without manual labor,
and especially during night ; but from the nature of combustion, and the common mate-
rials used in this country to supply it, no effectual substitute has yet been discovered. If
wood or charcoal, or even cinders or coke were used, there would be a greater chance of
such inventions succeeding, but we do not think ourselves warranted in detailing any of

1653. The modes of constructing fines are various. The original practice was to build
them on the naked earth, like drains or conduits ; or in the solid walls of the backs and
fronts of the pits, like the flues of dwelling-houses. The first improvement seems to have
been that of detaching them from the soil by building them on flag-stones, or tiles sup-
ported by bricks ; and the next was, probably, that of detaching them from every descrip-
tion of wall, and building their sides as thin as possible. A subsequent amelioration
consisted in not plastering them within, but in making their joints perfect by lime-putty,
by which means the bricks were left to exert their full influence in giving out the heat ot
the smoke to the house.

E H

Book III.

HOT-HOTJSE FURNACES AND FLUES.

325

272

1654. The sides of common Jiu£S are commonly built of bricks placed on edge, and the
top covered by tiles, either of the full wddth of the flue outside measure, or one inch nar-
rower, and the angles filled up with mortar, which Nicol prefers, as neater. Where a
stone that will endure fire-heat without cracking is found to be not more expensive than
tiles, it is generally reckoned prefemble, as offering fewer joints for the escape of the
smoke. Such stones are sometimes hollowed on the upper surface, in order to hold water
for the benefit of plants in pots, or for steaming the house.

1655. Broad and deep Jlues, agreeably to the Dutch practice, have been
recommended by Stevenson {Caled. Mem.) ; that of making them narrow
and deep, agreeably to the practice in Russia, is recommended by Oldacre,
gardener to Sir Joseph Banks, and that of using thin bricks {Jig. 272.)
with thick edges, by J. R.Gowen(^orf. Trans, iii.) In Gowen's flues, the
section {Jig. 273. a) shows less materials
than any other brick flue, the covers [b) and
the side wall bricks (c) being quite thin,
the base requisite for building the latter on
one another being obtained by the thickness
of their edges (d, e), which is equal to that
of common bricks.

1656. Can-Jlues {Jig. 274.), long since
used by the Dutch, imbedded in sand, and
for the last fifty years occasionally in Eng-
land, are sometimes employed. Tliey consist o 6

of earthen pipes, straight (a), or rounded at the ends for returns {b), and joined together
by cement, placed on bricks (c). They are rapidly heated, and as soon cooled. None of
the heat, however, which passes through them, can be said to be absorbed and lost in the
mass of enclosing matter, as Knight and Sir Joseph Banks {Hort. Trans.) assert to be the

274

275

case with common flues. They are only adapted for moderate fires, but judiciously
chosen, may frequently be more suitable and profitable than common flues ; as, for
example, where there are only slight fires wanted occasionally ; or where there is a re-
gular system of watching the fires, in which case, but not otherwise, the temperature can
be regulated with sufficient certainty. ■>

1657. The eynbrasure fue {Jig.275.) h the
invention of Sir G. Mackenzie, and is by him
strongly recommended, as exposing a greater
heated surface in proportion to its length.
{Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 175.)

1658. Cast-iron Jlues have also been recom- " ' '
mended on account of their durability, but unless they were to be imbedded in sand, or
masonr)', they are liable, in an extreme degree, to the same objections as can-flues. ' A
triangular cast-iron flue, to be coated over with a mixture of one part clay and three of
sand, is recommended for trial by Sir G. Mackenzie. {Hort. Trans, v. 216.) For our
part we cannot perceive a single circumstance in favor of its adoption.

1659. The best sort of fnes, after all that has been said on the subject, is, in our opi-
nion, the common form, built of thin well burned bricks neatly jointed, with the bottom
and top of tiles, and no plaster used either inside or outside. Where only one course of
a flue can be admitted the broader it is the more heat will be given out as it proceeds, and
as a consequence, one extremity of the space to be heated will be hotter than the other ;
a return or double course of a narrow flue is, therefore, almost always preferable to one
course of a broad flue. With respect to the embrasure flue, flues with iron tubes, or iron
covers, and various others that have been recommended or described in recent volumes of
the Horticidtural Societtjs Transactions, they are liable, in our opinion, to great objections
and chiefly to produce sudden excesses of heat, and in general as tending to extremes of
temperature.

1660. The size of Jlues is seldom less than nine inches wide, by fourteen or eighteen
inches high inside measure, which suits a furnace for good coal, whose floor or chamber is
two feet long, eighteen inches wide, and eighteen inches high. According as the object
varies, so must the proportion both of furnaces and flues. {Designs for Villas &c. ISl'^ •

3^6 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part 11.

Hort. Trans, vol. iv.) The furnaces from whence the flues proceed, are generally
placed behind the back wall, as being unsightly objects ; but in point of utility, the best
situation is at the end of the front wall, so as it may enter the house, and proceed a con-
siderable length without making an angle. A greater utility, however, is here given up
for fitness ; it being more fitting in a gentleman's garden that something should be sa-
crificed to neatness, than that all should be sacrificed to profit.

1661. The direction offiues, in general, is round the house, commencing always within
a short distance of the parapet, and after making the course of three sides, that is, of the
end at which the fire enters, of the front, and of the opposite end, it returns (in narrow
houses) near to^ or in the back wall, or (in wide houses) up the middle, forming a path ;
and in others, immediately over or along side of the first course. In all narrow houses
this last is the best mode.

1662. The power of flues depends so much on their construction, the kind of fuel, the
roof, mode of glazing, &c. that very little can be aflfirmed with any degree of certainty on
this subject ; 3000 cubic feet of air is in general enough for one fire to command in stoves
or forcing-houses ; and 5000 in lean-to green-houses. In houses exposed on all sides,
2000 cubic feet is enough in stoves, and 3000 cubic feet for green-houses. The safest
side on which to err is rather to attach too little than too much extent to each fire, as ex-
cessive fires generally force through the flues some smoke or mephitic air ; and besides
produce too much heat at that part of the house where the flue enters.

1663. Dampers, or valves, are useful in flues and chimneys, both in case of accident and
also to moderate the heat, or in case of one furnace supplying two flues, to regulate the
passage of smoke and heat. For general purposes, however, the ash-pit door is perfectly
sufl!icient. The dajnper, and furnace, and ash-pit doors ought seldom to be all shut
at the same time, as such a confinement of the hot air of the flue is apt, owing to its ex-
pansion by increased heat from the hot masonry, to force some of it through the joints of
the flue into the. house.

1664. Chijnney-tops are generally built on the coping of the back wall, and some-
times ornamented with mouldings, and even disguised as vases. Where there are
only one or two to a conservatory or other house of ornament, these last modes may
be allowable ; but in culinary ranges, it appears to us an unsuitable application of orna-
ment either to form on the stone or brick chimneys many mouldings, or to disguise them,
as urns or vases. When these last are to be adopted, cast-iron presents abundant facilities
of economical execution. Tliere is a four-sided composition -stone chimney-pot recently
come into use near London, wliich will answer extremely well till it becomes so common
as to be reckoned vulgar. Sometimes the flues are carried under ground to some
distance from the hot-house, and the chimney carried up in a group of trees, or other-
wise concealed. This practice is suitable to detached buildings formed of glass on all
sides.

SuBSECT. 7. Steam Boilers and Tubes.

1665. Steam affords the most simple and effectual mode of heating hot-houses, and indeed
large bodies of air in every description of chamber, for no other fluid is found so con-
venient a carrier of heat. The heat given out by vapor, differs in nothing from that "given
out by smoke, though an idea to the contrary prevails among gardeners, from the cir-
cumstances of some foul air escaping into the house from the flues, especially if these are
over-heated or over-watered ; and from some vapor issuing from the steam -tubes when
these are not perfectly secure at the joints. Hence flues are said to produce a burnt or
drying heat, and steam-tubes a moist or genial heat, and in a popular sense this is cor-
rect for the reasons stated. It is not, however, the genial nature of steam heat which
is its cliief recommendation for plant-habitations, but the equality of its distribution,
and the distance to which it may be carried. Steam can never heat the tubes, even close
to the boiler, above 212 degrees, and it will heat them to the same degree, or nearly so, at
the distance of 1000, 2000, or an indefinite number of feet. Hence results the convenience
of heating any range or assemblage of hot-houses, however great, from one boiler, and the
lessened risk of over or insuflScient heating at whatever distance the house may be from
the fire-place. The secondary advantages of heating by steam are the saving of fuel and
labor, and the neatness and compactness of the whole apparatus. Instead of a gardener
having to attend to a dozen or more fires, he has only to attend to one ; instead of ashes,
and coal, and unsightly objects at a dozen or more places in a garden, they are limited to
one place ; and instead of twelve paltry chimney-tops, there is only one, which being
necessarily large and high, may be finished as a pillar so as to have effect as an object ;
instead of twelve vomitors of smoke and flakes of soot, the smoke may be burned by
using Parkes's or some other smoke-consuming furnace. The steam-tubes occupy much
less space in the house than flues, and require no cleaning ; they may often pass under
paths where flues would extend too deep ; there is no danger of steam not drawing or
circulating freely as is often the case with flues, and always when they are too narrow or

Book III.

STEAM BOILERS AND TUBES.

327

too wide, or do not ascend from the furnace to the chimney ; steam is impelled from the
boiler and will proceed with equal rapidity along small tubes or large ones, and descend-
ing or ascending. Finally, with steam, insects may be effectually kept under in hot-houses,
with tlie greatest ease, by merely keeping the atmosphere of the house charged with vapor
from the tubes for several hours at a time.

1666. Tlie disadvantages of steam as a vehicle for conveying heat to hot-houses are few.
On a small scale it is more expensive than the mode by flues, and more trouble is required to
attend to one boiler than to one or even two or three furnaces. These are all the dis-
advantages we know of. It has been stated by some that steam draws up or etiolates bo-
tanic plants, and lessens tlie flavor of fruits ; but we are inclined to consider such effects,
when attendant on plants or fruits in houses heated by steam, as resulting from some de-
ficiency of management in other points of culture.

1667. The boilers used to generate steam are formed of cast or wrought iron, or copper,
and of different shapes. Wrought-iron and an oblong form are generally preferred at
present, and tlie smoke-consuming furnace most approved is that of Parkes.

1668. The tubes used for conveying steam are formed of the same metals as the boilers;
but cast-iron is now generally used. Earthen or stone ware tubes have been tried ; but it is
extremely difficult to prevent tlie steam from escaping at tlieir junctions. The tubes are laid
along or around the house or chamber to be heated, much in the same manner as flues, only
less importance is attached to ha\'ing the first course from the boiler towards the coldest
parts of the house, because the steam-tube is equally heated throughout all its length. A?
steam circulates with greater rapidity, and conveys more heat in proportion to its bulk,
than smoke or heated air, steam-pipes are consequently of much less capacity than smoke-
flues, and generally from three to six inches diameter inside measure. Where extensive
ranges are to be heated by steam, tlie pipes consist of two sorts, mains or leaders for sup-
ply, and common tubes for consumption or condensation. Contrary to what holds in
circulating water or air, the mains may be of much less diameter than the consumption
pipes, for the motion of tlie steam is as the pressure ; and as the greater the motion, the
less the condensation, a pipe of one inch bore makes a better main than one of any larger
dimension. This is an important point in regard to appearance as well as economy.
In order to procure a large mass of heated matter, M'Phail and others have proposed to
place them in flues, where such exist. 'ITiey might also be laid in cellular flues built as

275

n ft

iL

w -It

'^A^

^G^'^ •

i^K

Y4

•'^28 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

cellular walls. {Jig. 238.) The most complete mode, however, is to have three parallel
ranges of steam-pipes of small diameter, communicating laterally by cocks. Then, when
least heat is wanted, let the steam circulate through one range of pipes only ; when more,
open the cocks which communicate with the second range; and when most, let all
the three ranges be filled with steam. This plan has been adopted by Messrs. Lod-
diges at Hackney, and Messrs. Bailey in heating the hot-houses at Knowle and other
places.

1669. As an example of the jwwer and convenience of steam, as a medium of conveying
heat to hot-houses, we may refer to the garden, mansion, and farm-yard of Edward Gray,
Esq. of Harringay House, Homsey, where ten large hot-houses, and the largest of them
550 feet from the boiler, have been heated in a masterly manner by Messrs. Bailey. There
are for this purpose two boilers (Jig. 276. a&b): one smaller than the other for mild weather,
and when the whole of the forcing-houses are not in operation ; and the other larger as a re-
serve boiler in case of accident, as an accessory power in extremely severe weather, or for
use alone in cold weather. A main from these boilers heats in succession two graperies
(c, d) two pineries (e,f), a peach-house (g), strawberry-pit (h), plant-stove (i), grapery (k),
green-house (/), conservatory (m), and a mushroom-house, in all upwards of 50,000 cubit
feet of air. In addition it supplies a steam-apparatus in the farm-yard (?«) ; and it would
also heat the mansion (o) if required. The boilers to this steam-apparatus are on the
most approved construction : they are fitted up with furnaces for consuming the smoke
(/;), have safety valves (q), a supply-cistern (r), and chimneys (s) sufficiently high to pre-
vent what smoke or contaminated air may pass off by them from injuring the garden. So
effectually is heat carried by steam, that at the extreme distance from tlie boiler U) a
thermometer applied to the steam-pipe will rise to within two degrees of what it will stand
at close to the boiler. The whole is a most masterly performance.

1670. Pipes of hot water have been proposed to be circulated through hot-houses
by Knight (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) ; the plan was tried many years ago by the late
Gbuld, gardener to Prince Potemkin, in the immense conservator)' of the Tauridian palace
at Petersburgh. There, however, pumps were employed to re-deliver the water to the
boiler. It was adopted to a certain extent by Davis, a sugar-boiler in Essex ; but it does
not appear likely to become general. The only advantage proposed is, that should the
boiler or steam-apparatus go wrong in the night-time, pipes filled with water would be
longer of cooling than pipes filled with steam. It has been asserted in reply, that an appa-
ratus capable of circulating hot-water, would be much more likely to go out of order than
one adapted to circulate steam.

SuBSKCT. 8. Trellises.

1671. Trellises are of the greatest use in forcing-houses and houses for fruiting the trees of
hot climates. On these the branches are readily spread out to the sun, of whose influence
every branch, and every twig and single leaf partake alike, whereas, were they left to grow
as standards, unless the house were glass on all sides, only the extremities of the shoots
would enjoy suflBcient light. The advantages in point of air, water, pruning, and other
parts of culture, are equally in favor of trellises, independently altogether of the ten-
dency which proper training has on woody fruit-trees, to induce fruitfulness.

1672. T/ie material of the trellis is either wood or metal ; its situation in culinary hot-
houses is against the back wall, close under the glass roof, or in the middle part of
the house, or in all these modes. Sometimes it is in separate parts, and either fixed
or moveable ; and in some cases, though rarely, it is placed across the area of the
house. Sometimes it is introduced ornamentally in arches, festoons, &c. The most
general plan is to place it under the glass roof, and at the distance of from ten to twenty
inches from it, according to the length of the footstalk of the leaves of the plants to be
trained.

1673. The back wall trellis was formerly in general use, and considered the principal
part of the house for a crop ; but that is now only the case in narrow houses. In many
cases a trellis is still applied against the back wall for temporary crops, till the plants
trained under the front glass trellis cover the roof ; or for figs, which are found to succeed
better than most trees under the shade of others.

1674. The middle trellis is generally recurvate so as not to exclude the light from the
back wall. Sometimes it is horizontal for the same purpose, and sometimes it is omitted,
and dwarf standards preferred in its room.

1675. The front or roof trellis generally extends under the whole of the roof, at a mo-
derate distance (256. b) from it, according to circumstances. It is generally formed of
wires stretched horizontally at 6 or 8 inches' distance, and retained in their places by being
passed through wrought-iron trellis-rods proceeding from the parapet to the back wall,
or the lower edges of the rafters, when formed in a manner adapted for this end.

Book III. PITS, STAGES, DOORS, PATHS, &c. 329

1676. The fixed rqfter-trdlis consists ordinarily of tliree
wires, which pass through the points of crosses {fig. 271.), in
breadth from fourteen to eighteen inches, and which crosses are
screwed to the under edge of the rafter; the first fixed at Uie
plate of the parapet, and the last at the upper end of Uie
rafter, and the intermediate ones at distances of from three
to four feet. ,

1677. The moveable rafler-treUis consists of a rod bent parallel
to tlie roof, with horizontal studs or rods, extending from 6 to
10 inche? on each side, containing two collateral wires, the rod
itself forming the third. This rod is hinged, or moves in an

eye or loop, fixed either immediately above the plate of die parapet, or near tlie top of die
front glass. It terminates within oue or two feet of the back wall, and is suspended
from tlie roof by two or more pieces of chain attached to the studs, the links of which are
put on hooks attached to proper parts of the roof. Tlieir advantage is chiefly in tlie
case of very early forcing, when they can be let down two or three feet from the glass,
and thus is lessened the risk of injury from frost. A whole sheet or tegument of trellis,
if desirable, may be lowered and raised on the same general plan. (See the details,
Hort. Trans, vol. iii. j Rafter-trellises are in general used only for such houses as are not
chiefly devoted to vines ; such as pineries, peach-houses, and sometimes green-houses.

1678. The secondary trellis is placed from six inches to eighteen inches behind tlie
first, and is used for training shoots of the current year, while that nearest the light is
devoted to such as are charged with fruit. In ordinary trellises, the wires are generally
placed from nine inches to a foot asunder, in a horizontal direction j on tlie secondary
trellis they are placed at double tliat distance.

1679. The cross trellis has been sometimes employed in peach-houses, and is strongly
recommended by Sir George Mackenzie, in what he calls an economical hot-house. Tliese
trellises, however, unless kept very low, darken t!ie house to such a degree as to prevent
the ripening of fruits. They may be useful for nurserymen for training peaches or fig-
trees for sale, but for culinary forcing are worse tlian useless. Sir G. M.'s house, though
lauded by Dr. Duncan (Caled. Memoirs, vol. ii.), was soon obliged to be cleared of its
cross trellisses, and restored to the common form. The only houses where such trellises
can be used with any reasonable prospect of advantage, are such as are placed south and
north, and span-roofed, or glass on all sides. On tliese two or more lines of low trellis
may be placed, and the plants will enjoy the forenoon's sun on one side, and the after-
noon's sun on tlie other.

1 680. The entrance to hot-houses is commonly at each end, and sometimes in the
middle, either of which modes answers perfectly where the ground-plan is a parallelo-
gram ; but for any description of curvilinear house, the entrance is more commodiously
made through a lobby at each end of the house, and which lobby is best formed behind
die wall. When there are a number of curvilinear houses placed against one wall, one
door in the wall between each will serve every purpose, and the whole will be at once
elegant and commodiously connected, {fig. 262.)

SuBSECT. 9. Paths, Pits, Stages, Shelves, Doors, ^c.

1681. The paths in hot-houses vary in direction, breadth, and construction. In ge-
neral, one path runs parallel to the front, sometimes upon the front flue, but more gene-
rally beside it ; at other times, as in peach-houses, it passes near the back wall, or through
the middle of the house. In pineries and houses with pits, it generally surrounds
these, and in green-houses it is commonly confined to a course parallel to the front
and ends. Some of the most ornamental paths we have yet seen have been formed by
Messrs. Bailey, of cast-iron plates, laid over steam-pipes, and so perforated as to form an
elegant running pattern, or cast-iron carpet.

1682. The materials of which die path is composed in the case of some houses, are
mere planks, or lattice-work, supported on cross pieces of timber, in order to admit the
sun and air to the soil below, and not to indurate it by the pressure of feet. An improve-
ment on this mode consists in using grated cast-iron plates, which are more durable,
and may be set on iron stakes driven in till their tops are on a level, and at a proper
height, &c. These gratings are also particularly preferable when the path is over a flue,
not only as presenting a cooler surface to walk on than the covers of the flue, but also by
readily admitting the ascent of the heat in the interstices, and preventing the movement
of the covers by the motion of walking. But the best material for a permanent path, as
in green-houses, botanic stoves, &c. is argillaceous flag-stone, and of this one of the best
varieties is that obtained from Arbroath, and known by the name of Arbroath pavement.
It is a light grey schistus, which rises in lamina of from three to six inches in thick-
ness, and eight or ten feet square ; requires very littie work on the surface ; and has the
property of but very slighdy absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, or from the

330 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part XL

moist ground on which it may be placed. Thus, unless when watered on purpose it
always appears perfectly dry and agreeable, however moist the soil below. Where the
paths in a house are on different levels, they are commonly united by steps ; but an
mclined plane, when not steeper than one inch in six, will generally be found more con-
venient for the purposes of culture and management ; and if the slope is one in eight it
is more agreeable to ascend or descend than a stair. '

1683. Pits, as applied to the interior parts of houses, are excavations, or rather en-
closures, for holding bark or other fermentable substances. They should be formed so
as the plants may stand at a moderate distance from the glass, which of course depends
on the nature of these plants, whether dwarf bushy plants, as the pine, or taller, as palms
and hot-house trees. They are generally surrounded by walls of brick, four or nine
inches thick, or to save room, by plates of cast-iron, stone, or slate. Sometimes tlie slope
of thoir surface approaches to that of the roof; but as, in this case, the tan or leaves in
the course of fermentation, do not settle or compress regularly, the pots are thrown off
their level, and therefore the more common way is to adopt a slope not exceeding 5° or
to form a level surface. Tan will fennent with all the rapidity necessaiy for bottom heat,
if in a layer of two and a half or three feet thick, and therefore no tan-pits need exceed
that depth. Those for leaves may be somewhat deeper. Heat from fire, or steam or
water, is sometimes substituted for that afforded by fermentable substances, and in these
cases various forms of construction are adopted. For fire-heat, flues are made to cir-
culate under a covering of pavement, on which sand, gravel, scoria, or sawdust, is
placed to preserve a moist heat round the pots. An air-chamber is thus formed under
the pit, from which the heated air may be allowed to escape, if desired, by upright tubes,
with stops, as in the Chelsea garden, or small openings in the side walls of tlie pit, as at
W. Kent's, of Clapton, or as we suggested and executed at different places in 1804.
(Tr. on Hoth. 8vo. Edin. 1804. Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) Another mode consists in
filling the vacuities round the flues with loose stones (as in the Glasgow garden), flints,
brick-bats, or large gravel. These materials, when once heated, retain their heat a very
long time, and give it out slowly to the superincumbent mass of sand, gravel, or other
media, in which the pots may be plunged. Sometimes soil is placed over this stratum of
stone and gravel, and the plants inserted in the soil. Pines have been successfully grown
in this way at Underley Park from our suggestions. [Tr. on Hoth. 8vo. Edin. 1804. :
Tr. on Country Besid. vol. i. 1806.) Another, and very old method of heating
pits by smoke is by forming a vault under them, building in a furnace and ash-pit
door at one end, and a chimney at that opposite. This is the mode originally used in
France and Germany. (Encyc. Method, in vol. d'Aratoire et Jardinage, art. Serre.) Knight
suggests the idea of building the walls of bark-pits cellular, and of admitting at their
bottom a current of external air, to be heated in the cells, and issue in that state into
the house. This he " feels confident" will save fuel, but as it would be at the expense
of the heat of the bark or other fermenting material in the pit, it does not appear to us
that any advantage would result from the plan. {Hort. Trans, vol. v. 246.)
■ 1684. Pits may he heated by steam by substituting tubes for flues, and in the case of
the vault, merely by introducing the steam-tube about the middle of the space, and omit-
ting the chimney. Or the tubes may circulate at once in the tan, sand, or sawdust; or
a vacuity may be formed not more than six inches deep, the whole width of the pit,
covered by pierced oak boards, and the steam introduced there at proper intervals. All
these and other plans have been tried by Butler, at Knowle, near Pre^cot, in 1791 ;
Mawer, at Dairy, in 1795 ; Thomson, at Tynningham, in 1805 ; Gunter, at Earl's Court,
in 1818; W. Phelps, of Wells, in 1822 {H. Trans, v. 357.), and various other persons;
accompanied, as was to be expected, by different degrees of success. A cistern of water
of the size of the pit has been heated by steam, and left to give out its heat to the superin-
cumbent materials of the pit, by Count Zuboff, at Petersburgh. We have seen cucum-
bers grown over a cistern in which the hot water from a distillery passed through.
The result of all the attempts hitherto made to find a substitute for the heat of ferment-
able substances, as applied to pits in which pots are to be plunged, is not such as to
warrant much deviation from the usual practice. But that bottom heat may be very
generally dispensed with altogether, at least with ornamental plants, modern experience
goes far to prove ; and it is more likely that it wall be given up altogether, and bottom
moisture obtained by plunging the pots in gravel or scoria, than that methods so expen-
sive, and attended with so much risk to the plants, will ever come into general use.

1 685. Beds and borders in hot-houses are generally formed on the ground level, though
^sometimes raised above it. They aie either composed of earth, for the direct growth of
plants, or of gravel or scoria, in or on which to place pots. When the use of tan is given
up, as in some plant-stoves, the tan-pits are filled with gravel, on or in which, the pots
are set or plunged. Where heat and moisture are judiciously applied, this mode is found
to succeed perfectly, as at the Comte de Vandes', Bayswater, and Messrs. Loddiges',
Hackney. . ^ . .

Book III. DETAILS FOR WATER, AIR, &c. 331

1686. Shelves, excepting such as are placed near the ground, or aliBost close under the
upper angle of the roof, are extremely injurious to the vegetation going forward in tlie
body of tJie house by tlie exclusion of light. This consideration, therefore, must be
kept in view in placing them ; in some cases they are inadmissible, as in conservatories j
in others, as in propagating-houses, the light they exclude can better be spared, than in
fruiting or flowering departments. For forcing strawberries, they may be introduced
under the roof in vine and peach-houses, and removed when their shade proves inju-
rious, &c. 'Hie ordinary form is that of a flat board ; but an improvement consists in
nailing two fillets along its edges, and covering the board with a thin layer of small
gravel or scoria. This preserves a cool genial moisture wliich keeps the earthen pot
moist, and lessens tlie effect on the earth of alternate dr^'ings and waterings ; and it also
admits tlie more ready escape of water from the orifices in the bottoms of tlie pots. Some,
in the case of forcing strawberries and French beans, have the fillets or ledges of the
shelves so high as to contain two or three inches of water, by which means whole rows of
pots can be inundated at one operation ; but this is too indiscriminate an application of
a material on which so much in the growth of plants depends.

1687. Stages are shelves in series rising above each other, and falling back so as their
general surface may form a slope. They vary in form according to tliat of the house.
The houses with shed roofs and opaque ends have merely a series of steps reaching from
one end to tlie other ; but wherever the ends are of glass, by returning each
shelf to the back wall, due advantage is obtained from the light furnished by the glass
ends. The addition of ledgement, or turned-up edges to each shelfj and the covering
them with gravel, is, of course, as advantageous as in separate shelves, and surely
more consonant with natural appearances, than leaving them naked like household, or
book shelves. Shelves and platforms of stone are now verj' general, and found more
congenial to the plants than dry painted boards.

SuBSECT. 10. Details Jor Water, Wind, and Renewal of Air.

1688. The reservoirs of water in hot-houses are commonly cisterns of stone or timber,
lined with lead, or cast-iron troughs or basins. Sometimes, also, tanks are built in the
ground, and lined with lead or cement. The cistern is sometimes placed in an angle, or
other spare part of the house, and the water lifted from it at once with tlie watering-pots ;
but a more complete plan is to build it in an elevated part of the back wall, where it may
have the benefit of the heat of the house, and whence pipes may branch off to different
parts of tlie house with cocks, every 30 or 40 feet, for drawing supplies. Tanks and
cisterns below tlie level of the front gutter may be supplied great part of the year from
the water which falls on the roof ; but more elevated cisterns must either be supplied by
pumps, or elevated springs. The sources of supply, and the quality of the water must
be taken into consideration before the situation of the cisterns are determined on. In all
cases, there must be waste-boxes at the cocks, and waste-pipes from the cistern, to coun-
teract the bad effects of leakage.

1689. Artificial rain. A very elegant plan has been invented and executed by Messrs.
Loddiges, for producing an artificial shower of very fine rain in hot-houses, by conduct-
ing pipes horizontally along the roof, at the distance of six or eight feet, and having these
pipes verj- finely perforated by a needle. According to the power of the supply, one or
more pipes may be set to work at a time, and a very fine shower thrown down on the
leaves of the plants with the greatest regularity. Tliis has been done in one of the
palm-houses of these spirited cultivators at Hackney, and for which a medal was voted
to them by the Horticultural Society, in 1817. The following is a particular account of
this apparatus. {Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 15.)

A leaden pipe of half an inch bore is introduced into one end of the house, in such a situation that the
stop-cock, which is fixed in it, and which is used for turning on the supply of water, may be within
reach : it is then carried either to the upper part, or the back of the house, or 'to the inside of the ridge
of the glass frame-work, being continued horizontally, and in a straight direction, the whole extent of the
house, and fastened to the wall or rafters, by iron staples, at convenient distances. From the point where
the pipe commences its horizontal direction, it is perforated with minute holes, through each of which
the water, when turned on, issues in a fine stream, and, in descending, is broken, and falls on the plants,
in a manner resembling a gentle summer shower. The holes are perforated in tlie pipe with a needle,
fixed into a handle -like that of an awl ; it being impossible to have the holes too fine, very small needles
are necessarily used for the purpose, and in the operation great numbers are of course brokeh. The
situation of the holes in the pipe must be such as to disjjerse the water in every direction that may
be required, and in this particular the relative position of the pipe, and of the stations of the plants to be
watered, must be considered, in making the perforations. The holes are made, on an average, at about
two inches' distance from each other, horizontally, but are somewhat more distant near the commence-
ment, and rather closer towards the termination of the pipe, allowing therebv for the relative excess and
diminution of pressure, to give an equal supply of water to each end of 'the house. A single pipe is
suflScient for a house of moderate length : one house of Messrs. Loddiges, which is thus watered, is sixty
feet long, and the only difference to be made in adapting the plan to a longer range, is to have 'the pipe
larger. The reservoir to supply the pipe, must of course be so much above the level, as to exert a
sufficient force on the water in the pipe, to make it flow with rapidity, as it will otherwise escape only in
drops ; and as too strong a iwwer may be readily controlled by the stop-cock, the essential point to be
attended to, in this particular, is to secure force enough. From the above details it will be observed, that

832

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part IT.

some nicety is required in the arrangement and formation of the machinery ; but it is only netteSs^n-y to
view the operation in Messrs. Loddiges' house, to be convinced of the extreme advantage and utility of
the invention, when it is properly executed. {Sabine, m Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 15.) We adopted this plan
on a smaller scale m our^erections at Bayswater, and the whole of the plants under the square dome
(in fig. 2i)3.) were watered from a perforated pipe, which passed round the dome near its apex, and radiated
from thence a very fine shower, which reached every part of the floor beneath.

1690. Wind in hot-houses has been attempted, or rather recommended to be attempted,
by Dr. Anderson and others by means of fans. If any thing of this sort were desirable,
the Eolian machine invented by B. Deacon, already mentioned (159.9.) might be
employed, either placed in the house, and kept in motion by human, or mechanical
power, or placed at one end to force in or draw out the air. In a range of houses form-
ing a circle or square, or any endless figure, a peqietual breeze might be readily
produced in the following manner. Place under the floor, a powerful fan of the width
of the house. Exactly over the fan, place a glass division across the house, and let tlie
fan draw in the air through apertures in the floor on one side of the division, and give it
out through similar apertures, or through tubes of any sort on the other. It is evident,
a regular current would thus be produced, more or less powerful according to the size of
the fan, and the rapidity of its motion.

1691. Ventilators^ ^c. The general mode of renewing the air, is by opening the
sashes or doors of the house, in periods when the exterior temperature and weather is such
as not to injure the plants within. The cool air of the atmosphere being then more
dense than that of the house, rushes in till it cools down the air of the house nearly to an
equilibrium with that without. Tlie next mode most common, is that of having a range
of boards hinged to oblong openings, in the lower and upper parts of the house, and
generally in the front and back wall : those in the back wall opening to the south, or
having the opening otherwise guarded, so as to prevent the rushing in of cold north
winds. Sometimes these ventilators are made with a cylinder and fans to extract the air,
and sometimes, as most generally, they are mere openings of small dimensions ; but, in
order to effect any circxilation or renewal with this sort of ventilators, the opening must
have an area of two or three feet, and there must be a considerable difference of temperature
between the air of the house and the optMi air.

1692. To effect the reneival, or cooling cloivn the air, without manual labor, some con-
trivances have been adopted besides the automaton gardener of Kewley already described,
(Jig. 217.) Dr. Anderson and J. Williams made use of oblong bladders made fast at
one end, and with the other attached by means of a cord to a moveable pane or small
sash. The bladder being filled witli air at the common temperature allowed for the
house, and hermetically sealed, the window remains at rest ; but as the air of the house
becomes heated, so does that of the bladder, which consequently swells, and assumes the
globular form, its peripheries are brought nearer together, and of course the sash or pane
pulled inwards. In a small house this scheme may answer perfectly well for the pre-
vention of extreme heat. Another mode is by using a rod of metal, such as lead, of
the whole length of the house, and one end being fixed to tlie wall, on the other is
attached a series of multiplying wheels, the last of which works into one, which in
various ways may open valves or sashes. As the expansion of lead is considerable, the
effect of twenty degrees of increase with proper machinery, might perhaps guard against
extremes, as in the other case. A column of mercury , with a piston-rod and machinery
attached, has also been used, and a ring on a barometrical principle is suggested by
Silvester; but the only complete mode is that of Kewley. For details at greater length
on all the departments of the construction of hot-bouses, see Remarks, &c. 4to. 1817.

Sect. IV. Mushroom-houses.

1693. The mushroom-house is a genus of plant-habitation, which differs from the others
in requiring very little light. The simplest form of the mushroom-house is that of an
open shed or roof, supported on props, for throwing off the rain, and protecting from per-
pendicular cold. Under this, the mushrooms are grown on ridges, covered by straw, &c.
to maintain the requisite temperature.

1694. The fined mushroom-house {fig. 278.) is an improvement on tlie shed, by being
better calculated for growing them in winter. Provided it be placed in a dry situation,
the aspect, size, proportions, doprs, or windows, are of little consequence. To be suffi-

278

Boor III.

MUSHROOM-HOUSES.

335

ciently warmed by one fire in winter, it should not contain more than 10,000 cubic feet
of air. As mushrooms will not thrive without some light, and at all events require air,
it ou"ht to have two or tliree windows or valves for these purposes.

1695. The German viushroom-honse {Jigs. 279, 280 & 281,) It is a common practice %vith
German gardeners to grow mushrooms on shelves, and in pots and boxes, placed behmd
stages, or other dark parts of their forcing-houses otherwise unoccupied. (Dielrich's
Gdrtmrs Lexicon: Ramlebens Brieffe, &c.) This practice was carried to Russia,
and from Russia was brought to England by Isaac Oldacre, who thus describes the sort
of house adapted for the German practice. " The outside walls (G, Yi. Jigs. Tt% 280.)
should be eight and a half feet high, for four heights of beds, and six feet and a half for
three heights, and ten feet wide withinside the walls ; tliis is the most convenient widtli,
as it admits of a set of slielves three feet and a half wide on each side ; and affords a
space through the middle of the house, three feet wide for a double flue and walk upon
it. The wall should be "nine inches thick, and the length of the house as it may be
judged necessary. When the outside of tlie house is built, make a floor or ceiling over it
ios, high as the top of the outside walls) of boards one inch tliick, and plaster it on the upper
side (e, e) with road-sand well wrought together, one inch thick (this will be found supe-
rior to lime), leaving square trunks (/) in the celling, nine inches in diameter, up the
middle of the house, at six feet distance from each other, with slides (s) imder them, to
admit and take off air when necessary ; this being done, erect two single brick walls (y, v\
each five bricks high, at the distance of five feet and a half from the outside walls, to
hold up the sides of the floor-beds {a.,a\ and form one side of the air-flues {tu, tu),
leaving three feet up the middle {txi) of the house for the flues. Upon these walls (v, v)
lay planks {t v) four and a half inches wide and three inches thick, in wliich to mortise
the standards {t k) which support the shelves. These standards should be three inches
and a half square, and placed four feet six inches asunder, and fastened at the top (k, Ar),
tlirough the ceiling. "When the standards are set up, fix the cross bearers {in, in), that
are to support the shelves (o, o), mortising one end of each into the standards (i), the
other into the walls («). The first set of bearers should be two feet from the floor, and
each succeeding set two feet from that below it. Having thus fixed the uprights (t k),
and bearers (i 7i), at such a height as the building will admit, proceed to form the shelves
(o, o) with boards an inch and a half thick, observing to place a board (</, d), eight inches
broad and one inch thick, in the front of each shelf, to support the front of the beds.
Fasten this board on the outside of the standards, that the width of the beds may not be

2.79

^80

diminished. The shelves being complete, the next thing to be done is the construction of the
flue (P, Jig. 281.), which should commence at the end (L) of the house next to the door,
run parallel to the slielves the whole length of the house, and return back to the fire-place,
where the chimney (S) should be built, the sides of the flue inside to be the height
of four bricks, laid flat-ways, and six inches wide, which vrill make the width of the flues
fifteen inches from outside to outside, and leave a cavity {tu, Jigs. 279, 280.) on each
side, betwixt the flue and the walls that are under the shelves, and one {xij) up the middle,
, betwixt the flues, two inches wide, to admit the heat into the house from the sides of the
flues. The middle cavity {xy) should be covered with tiles, leaving a space {h) of one
inch betwixt each tile, for, the admission of the heat. The top of the flue, including- the
covering, should not be higher than tlie brick walls tliat form the front of the floor-beds.
The reason why the sides of the flues are recommended to be built stron<»er than usual
IS, because they support the walk. The walk itself is formed by three ro°ws of tiles, the
outside rows making the covering of tlie flues, and those of the centre row are what cover
the middle cavity {xy), as above mentioned ; the outside cavities (f m) of the flue are
left open, the tiles which are placed over the flues being laid so as not to cover these

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

PaktII.

281

Sect. V. Co/d Plant-habitations.

1696. CoW;j/a7i/-/m5/ia^ioM.?,: though seldom or never erected, yet deserve to be men-
tioned as resources under certain circumstances. Tliese circumstances may be, a desire
to cultivate the alpine plants of Europe in tropical climates, or to cultivate the mosses
and ferns of the north of Europe in its more southern countries.

• l^^^' V^^ principle on which a cold house can be constructed in a warm climate must
either be that of the exclusion of the heat by coverings or envelopes ; or tlie abduction of
heat by evaporation or contact with cold bodies. Heat will be, to a certain extent, ex-
cluded, by fonning the house in the ground ; by excluding the sun's ravs from its roof •
by a high wall on three sides, leaving only an opening in the middle of the north side •
and by a double or treble roof of glass to the excavation. A house to be cooled by eval
poration may also be sunk in the ground; or it may be raised above it, shaded from
the sun, and over it may be supported a number of shower-pipes (1689.), which, by pro-
ducing a gentle and continual rain on the glass roof and stone or other sides of the house,
would draw off much heat by evaporation. Enclosing it by a line of powerful jets -d'eau
Would effect the same purpose. To produce cold by abduction, the house might be sunk;
Its floor supported on pillars; and its sides and bottom kept in contact with a running
stream ; or, if it could be afforded, ice renewable as it melted. These hints are sufficien*t
to show how cold plant-habitations may be formed in any climate : to enter more at
length on the subject would be useless, in a work calculated chiefly for the climate of
Britain.

Chap. III.
Edifices used in Gardening.

1698. Edifices of different kinds are required in gardening, for carrying on operations,
for retaining or preserving materials and products, and for recreative or decorative pur-
poses. We shall consider the leading genera in the order of economical, anomalous,
and decorative edifices. In all of these, the details of construction belong to civil ar-
chitecture ; but the design of the greater part ought to be regulated by the judgment of
the gardener or garden-architect.

Sect. I. Economical Buildings.

1699. Economical buildings are cliiefly dwellings, store-rooms, and working-places,
entrance-lodges, and buildings for procuring or retaining water.

1 700. The head-gardener s dweHing-hou^e, in small places, often assumes the character
of porter's lodge to the gate or entrance ; or is placed in some point of the grounds requiring
protection. In all cases it should be near to the garden, and if forcing is earned on,
the nearer it is placed to that department the better. Sometimes it is placed in the
back sheds, but that is an unwholesome situation ; such sheds fronting the direct north,
and without a sirigle opening to the south, east, or west, are entirely excluded from the
sun, excepting during a few mornings and evenings in summer. A small enclosure, near
the forcing-department, and, if possible, on rising ground, so as to command a view of
at least that part of the garden, is to be preferred. With respect to accommodation, no
dwelling in this country, for a servant expected to do his duty, ought to contain less on
the ground-floor than a kitchen, back-kitchen, and parlor ; on the floor above that, at
least two bedrooms, with closets, and other requisite appendages, internal as well as ex-
ternal. This will suit a prudent man and his wife, not in circumstances to keep a maid,
or to produce a numerous offspring. But for such as afford to keep a servant, or have,
or deem it right to have, a large family, or persevere without thinking any thing about

Book III.

ECONOMICAL BUILDINGS.

8S5

the consequences in generating one child after another, more bedrooms will be necessary,
and a lar^rer parlor and kitchen. As a gardener, in common with other domesticated
servants, ts liable to be removed from the house he occupies at a short notice, and with-
out ar.y reference to his having, or being able to procure another, it follows, as a matter
of justice, that what are called house-fixtures should be provided by the master. Water
should be conducted to a pump fixed in the back-kitchen ; a furnace and boiler for
washing affixed ; a proper range, with oven, &c. dressers, tables, shelves, &c. m the prin-
cipal khchen ; grates, and such closets and clothes-presses placed in the parlor and other
rooms, &c. as the occupier would place there, if he held the house on lease. In general,
we may observe that a master has seldom occasion to repent making his servants' abode
comfortable, and even rather agreeable and elegant, than otherwise. A master of a well
regulated mind, indeed, will be anxious to effect this, as far as lies in his power, for every
portion of animated nature under his protection.

1701. The gardener'' s office is necessarily omitted in small places; but it is an essential
requisite wherever several men are kept. It should, if possible, adjoin the dwelling, and
be connected with the seed-room, fruit-room and cellar, root-cellar, tool-house, and gar-
dener's lodge. The furniture or appendages to this room are the vtriting-desk ; a
bookcase, containing a small library, to be lent out to the men; a map of the garden,
and of all the grounds under the master's care ; a herbarium press, and a cabinet for such
specimens of plants as the gardener may find it useful to dry for his own use, or, as often
happens, for that of his family ; a drawing-board and T square ; a board to be used when
new grounds are lajang out, as a j)lain table (in geometry) ; a theodolite, Gunter's chain,
and measuring laths ; vnth any similar articles, as spare thermometers, budding-
knives, &c.

1702. The seed-room may be connected with the office by a door in the lobby. This
should be a small room, well ventilated, with a cabinet of drawers, as in a common seed-
shop, but on a smaller scale, and somewhat different system. The lower tier of drawers
should, of course, be the largest, and may be one foot deep by two wide on the face, and
eighteen inches broad within. This tier will serve for beans, peas, acorns, mast, &c. A
second may be three fourths the size, for carrot, turnip, spinage, larch-seed, &c. A third,
half the size, for salad-seeds ; and the fourth for those of pot and sweet herbs, need not be
more than four inches deep on the face. The upper part of the cabinet may consist of
shallow drawers, divided into ten or twelve compartments each, for flower-seeds ; and on
the top of all, as being least in requisition, similar shallow drawers, with moveable parti-
tions for bulbous roots. As the kind or kinds placed in each drawer \\\\\ probably vary
every year, it seems better that their names should only be written on paper and pasted
on. There ought to be a small counter, with a weighing machine (that of Medlmrst is
preferable), an ink-piece placed on it, and drawers, with paper bags, packthreads, &c.
below. Some seeds, which it is desirable to keep in the fruit, as capsicum, pompion, &c.
may be suspended from rows of hooks, fixed in the ceiling.

1 703. The fruit-room may be connected with the seed-room. This ought to be well
ventilated, for which purpose, like the three other rooms, it ought to have a small fire-
place. The fruit-room was formerly a mere loft, where fruits were kept on the floor in
common with onions, with no proper means of separation, or arrangement for systematic
consumption. Now, however, they are regularly fitted up, either with shelves of lattice-
work, on vv^hich to place sieves of different sorts of fruit ; or with close shelves, for jars,
boxes, &c. according to the various modes adopted of preserving them. The room may
be of any form, but one long and narrow (Jig. 282. a, a) is generally best adapted for
ventilation and heating, or drying, when necessary, by a flue. The system of shelves
(6, b) may be placed along one side, and may be raised to the height of six feet or more,
(c, c) according to the number wanted. These shelves are formed of open work (rf, d),
on which to place square sieves of fruit, each of which should be numbered, and a table
or slate (e), containing the corresponding numbers, may be hung up in the room, and

a ' — -^

33« SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

opposite each number should be a space for noting down daily the number taken out of
each sieve for use. From this table statements may be made from time to time of the
quantity of fruit on hand for the use of the house-steward. {Maker, in Hort. Trans.
vol. 11. 76.) Forsyth directs that all the floors or shelves on which apples are to be kept or
sweated should be made of white deal, as when red deal is made use of for these purposes
It IS liable to give a disagreeable resinous taste to the fruit, and spoil its flavor ; when white
.deal cannot be procured, he advises covering the shelves with canvass. Those sorts of
•fruit which keep longest are generally best preserved in jars, excluded from the air, and
placed in cold dry situations, not under 32° nor above 40^.

1704. The root-cellar should be placed beneath the oflSce and seed-shop ; and the
fruil-ccllar below the fruit-room, and both descended to from the lobby. Tlie' great ob-
ject is to keep the air in these apartments cool, and always, as near as possible, of the
same degree of coolness : and for this purpose the windows should be small, placed be-
low the ground level, and furnished with double or treble casements or sashes. These
cellars should also be approached through double doors for the same reason. The fruit-
cellar may be fitted up with binns or cells, like a wine cellar, in which casks and jars or
sieves of fruit may be placed ; and the root-cellar may have a few divisions on the
ground to keep diflPerent roots apart, and sand, to keep them of uniform plumpness or
moisture.

1 705. The seed rooms or garrets may consist

of one for drying and cleaning seeds ; one for 283

drying bidhous roots, as onions, hyacinths, &c. ;
and one for drying fruits or preserving them
there. In all of these rooms, there should be
hooks from the roof for hanging bundles of pot-
. herbs, branches of seeds, sieves, bags, &c. and a
moveable table or counter in the centre of each,
with lattice-shelves below for holding sieves of
roots, seeds, or fruits. A very small fanning-

, machine, and a couple of grooved cylinders to ^,-gi^^^'?=^'-L,,-<tr'--.- .- •'- r

act as a tlireshing-machine, or a Meikle's hand '■^^^^^^^^y'''^^^,''!^'':''/'''^''-
threshing-machine (Jig. 283.) to be worked '"'^^^ •'. f.*;^*

by two men, are requisite appendages of the
seed-room. Supposing these rooms to form one
wing to the gardener's house, the oflSce opening into his kitchen ; then the other wing
may consist of a tool-house and men's living-room on the ground-floor ; cellars for po-
tatoes and fuel for their use under, and sleeping-apartments over, with a door, lobby,
and stair, corresponding with the other wing.

1706. The tool-house is commonly a small apartment in the back sheds of hot-houses, in
M'hich the tools are laid down or piled up in the angles promiscuously ; but in a proper,
tool-room, wherever situated, there should be contrivances of different sorts for hanging
up the tools, so as their important parts, such as the teeth of rakes, blades of hoes, and
spades, &c. may always be so exposed, that the master may see whether or no they are
properly cleaned. There are certain tools, of which each workman appropriates one to
himself, as spades, scythes, &c. ; in these cases a small space should be allotted to each
hired man, with his name affixed, &c. Watering-pots, syringes, engines, &c. should
have their moveable parts separated, and be reversed, in order that they may drain and
continue diy. Lists, nails, and mat-ties, should be kept in close drawers. Pruning-
instruments oiled, and laid horizontally on latticed shelves or pins. A grindstone and
other stones, and hones, with a vice, and files for sharpening the tines and teetli of forks
and rakes, are the appropriate furniture of the tool-house.

1707. The lodge for under-gardeners should never consist of less than three apartments
or divisions ; first, an outer lobby, with a pump and exit for water, in which the work-
men may wash their hands on entering to their meals, and the party who acts as cook or
servant, which is generally taken by turns, may wash, scour, &c. ; secondly, the cook-
ing and living room, in which should be an economical kitchen-range, with an oven and
boiler included, and proper closets, cupboards, tables, &c. to expedite and simplify
cooking ; and, thirdly, the bedroom over, where the bedsteads should be of iron, nar-
row, and without curtains, and for not more than one person. To each bed, there should
be a small clothes-press, in which should be kept the linen, &c. belonging to each bed,
and for which the occupier ought to be rendered responsible. A cellar for fuel and
edible roots should be formed below. It is a common practice to place the lodges for
working gardeners behind the hot-houses, or some high wall, in what is called a back
shed. Tliere, in one ill-ventilated apartment, with an earthen or brick floor, the whole
routine of cooking, cleaning, eating, and sleeping is performed, and young men are
rendered familiar with filth and vermin, and lay the foundation of future diseases, by
breathing unwholesome air, and checking the animal functions by cold and damp. How

Book III. BUILDINGS FOR RAISING WATER. 337

roasters can expect any good service from men treated worse than horses, it is difficult to
imagine ; but the case is ten-fold worse, when head-gardeners and their famihcs are com-
pelled to lodge in these shed-houses. Independently of filth and incommodiousness, the
mother never fails to contract, early in life, rheumatism or ague ; and it is only tlie ex-
treme healtlifulness of tlie employment of gardening, and the consequent vigor of the
operatives, that ward off till a later day the same and similar diseases in tlie fathers and
journeymen.

1 708. As a general arrangement of a gardener's house, office, and other ajyjyendages, the
house may form a centre ; the office, seed and fruit apartments, cellar, and garrets, one
wing ; and the lodge for under-gardeners, tool-house, &c. the other.

1709. A line of sheds is generally placed behind the range of hot-houses, or be-
hind the hot- wall, or other high wall of the garden. Tliese are used as stores, or places
of reserve for utensils, machines and implements, and for working-sheds. The width
and height of this line of sheds is necessarily regulated by the height of tlie wall. The
roof of the shed being towards the north, and therefore without the advantage of the sun
to dry it after rains, should not make an angle of less than 40° degrees with the horizon,
and as the lower wall or line of props ought, at least, to be seven feet high above the
level of the floor of the shed, the width is guided accordingly. All the fitting up requi-
site for the part destined to hold materials, is a few hooks and projecting pins for ladders,
&c and a sound floor, either paved or prepared with mortar, Roman cement, and scoria ;
and the whole, or the greater part of the division may have props or piers in front, in-
stead of a wall and windows. As these sheds generally contain the hot-house furnaces,
each of these, or every pair or group of them, ought to be enclosed with a low parapet to
retain tlie fuel, give an orderly and neat appearance, and guard against accidents by fire,
which might communicate with mats, litter, &c. Doors generally communicate with the
hot-houses at different points, and near to each of these should be a bench or table on
which to set or shift pots, &c.

1710. The jmrt of these sheds more partictdarli/ set apart for working, ought to be en-
closed with a wall on all sides, and warmed by a fire-place or flue. It ought to be made
perfectly light, and well aired by having numerous windows, and along these a range of
benches or tables, for potting cuttings or bulbs, sowing seeds, preparing cuttings, num-
ber-tallies, painting and naming them, preparing props for plants, hooks for layers, lists
for wall-trees, making baskets, wattled hurdles, and a great variety of other operations
performed in winter, or severe weather, when little or nothing can be done in the open
air. It may by some be thought too great a refinement to place a fire-place or a flue
in such sheds ; but if work is really expected to be done in them in cold weather, the
saving will soon be rendered obvious.

1711. In small gardens, where there are no hot-houses, one small building is generally
devoted to all the purposes for which the office, seed, tool, and fruit rooms, and working-
sheds, are used. This should be fitted up with some degree of attention to the various
uses for which it is designed, and a fire-place never omitted.

1712. Entrance lodges and gates more properly belong to architecture than gardening
But, as in small places, they are sometimes designed by the garden-architect, or land
scape-gardener, a few remarks may be of use. In respect to stt/le, the lodcre ought al-
ways to bear as much analogy as possible to the mansion. If the one is Grecian so
should the other ; but the lodge should display less decoration, because, as the mind 'na
turally ascends from the less to the greater, the lodge would otherwise prove a false index
to the mansion. In regard to geiieral form, a cubic mass with a central chimney is an
unvaried comfortless-looking dwelling, especially when small. It is an attempt to form
a whole without composing it of parts. A lodge, however small, to be a picturesque ob-
ject, ought to contain a principal and subordinate mass or masses, and in the composition
ot which, the gate and piers may form one gradation. In respect to accommodations for
the occupier, it ought never to contain less than three apartments — a kitchen or iivinff
room, back kitchen, and sleeping-room, M-ith the usual conveniencies ; and, at least two
sleeping-rooms where there are children. A handsome architectural entknce is but a
poor compensation for its want of harmony with the mansion, of which that at Sion
House IS an instance, and that at Blenheim of the contrary. But architects like all of
us, are sometimes so wrapt up in their art, or their favorite part of it, that 'they foreet
that congruity of parts is essential to the unitj' of the whole. «it mey rorget

1713. BuUdingsfor raising water. There are various contrivances for procuring
7^Z ^" g^t";.^^^"^^' ^here it is not found in springs, rills, or lakes ; and where it g
S, fndt::;::!^' '^"^"^ ^^ ^^^ ^-^"^^^ ^'^^- -^ wells,'conduit-pi;es or

beneath it. A weU otherwise excavated is tmlrf tank f™ the wat7rwh?.>,*'ii' '*''^*""? °' '" ^hat
the surface strata. The form of the well is generally circular and to orP^pnf f^^^ ooze into it from
falling ui of the sides, this circle is Uned wLi timirrS^i^f.^for^'zo^nTo"/ mel.r?S

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Pakt ir.

top,
284

terials being thus pressed on equally in every point of this circle, are kept in equilibrium. When tiie well
finLh^f ""^K f P'u^"'^l" ^^^ ground, this casing is built from the bottom to top, after the excavation is
nnisned j but when the soil is loose, the excavation deep, or its diameter
considerable, it is built on the top in zones, sometimes separated by hori-
zontal sections of thin oak boards, which, with proper management, sink
down as the excavation proceeds. There are various other modes, which
those who follow this department of architecture are sufficiently conver-
sant with. The height to which the water rises in the well, depends on
the height of the strata which supply the water; occasionally it rises to
the surface, but generally not within a considerable distance. In this
case it is raised by buckets and levers {fig. 284.), by buckets and hand-
machines placed over the well, or by buckets raised by horse-machines.
(fig. 285.) - ■

1714. The lever and bucket mode is the most ancient and the simplest.
It is common in the market-gardens round London and Paris, and in most
of the villages from France to Berlin, Warsaw, Moscow, Astracan ; and, we are told, it is to be seen in
Iiirkey, Persia, India, and China. The hand and horse-machines are more recent inventions, applicable
to market-gardens. **^

1715. The process qf boring the earth for water has of late been successfully practised in various places,
and especially at Tottenham, Middlesex, and Mitcham, Surrey. An augur like that used in draining is
employed, and when the spring is reached, the augur hole is kept open by tin tubes soldered one to the
other as they are pushed down. Up these tubes the water rises to the height of the source of the spring,
and when this height does not reach the surface, a well is dug down to the level to which the water will
rise. It is evident that where the spring will rise to the surface boring must be a great saving, but less so
in proportion as the source of the spring is low. {London Journal of Arts, &c. Oct. 1822. p. 204.)

1716. Pumps are of various kinds, as the lifting-pump ; the forcing-pump, for very deep wells ; the suction,
pump ; and the roller-pump, a recent invention for such as do not exceed thirty-three feet in depth. A
good pump for gardens, where the water is not to be raised above twenty-eight or thirty feet in depth, is that
of Robertson Buchannan (author of a Treatise on Heating by Steam, &c.), because this pump, which also
acts by the pressure of the atmosphere, will raise drainings of dunghills, or even water thickened by mud,
sand, or gravel. " The points in which it differs from the common pump, and by which it excels, are, that it
discharges the water below the piston, and has its valves lying near each other. The advantages of this
arrangement are — that the sand or other matter, which may be in the water, is discharged without injur-
ing the barrel or the piston-leathers ; so that besides avoiding unnecessary tear and wear, the power of the
pump is preserved, and it is not apt to be diminished or destroyed in moments of danger, as is often the
case with the common and chain pumps ; that the valves are not confined to any particular dimensions,
but may be made capable of discharging every thing that can rise in the suction-piece without danger of
being choked ; and that if, upon any occasion, there should happen to be an obstruction in the valves,
they are both within the reach of a person's hand, and may be cleared at once, without the disjunction of
any part of the pump. It is a simple and durable pump, and may be made either of metal or wood, at a
moderate expense." Where clear water only is to be raised, Aust's (of Hoxton) curvilinear pump is pre-
ferable even to Buchannan's. The advantages depend on the curvilinear form of the barrel, which allows,
and indeed obliges, the rod, the handle, and the lever, on which it works, to beallin one piece. Hence
simplicity, cheapness, precision of action, more water discharged in proportion to the diameter of the
barrel, and less frequent repairs. {Repertory of Arts, Jan. 1821.) Perkins's square-barrelled pump is a
powerful engine {London Journal, &c.); but this and other contrivances for raising water will be found
detailed in works on hydraulics.

1717. Conduits for watering gardens are either open or surface conduits, or internal tubes or apertures.
Open conduits are not common in Britain, though very general in France and Italy. They are formed in
the commonest gardens of puddled or well incorporated clay ; in the better sort of brick, or rough stone lined
with stucco or cement; and in the best,of hewn stone, in regular troughs, carefully jointed both by mecha-
nical and chemical means. Internal tubes may be formed of timber, iron, lead, or earthenware. For
mains or large supplies, cast-iron is the most durable, and timber the cheapest material ; but for the minute
ramifications necessary to afford supplies at different points, lead excels every thing else. A beautiful ap-
plication of the principles of chemistry to the jointing of lead pipes, has been made by Kewley (inventor
of the automaton gardener). Instead of a large gibbous joint, formed by plastering on a mass of solder at
an expense both of material and time, which in inch-pipes amounts to at least os. a joint, Kewley prepares
clear transverse sections on the extremities to be joined, places these in perfect contact, heats the pipe
within a few degrees of the melting point, and then, with "one drop of solder not larger than a pea, he
forms a junction as perfect as if no separation had previously existed. By proper irons this is done in
three minutes, at an expense, time and materials included, of not more than one penny per joint
Earthen pipes in a clayey sub-stratum may be used with economy, to convey water from one point to
another ; their disadvantages are liability to fracture or derangement from operations performed on the
soil, to guard against which they should be laid at not less than three feet depth from the surface, and
well bedded in worked clay. Conduits of common masonry can seldom be advantageously used on a
small scale, unless for serving jointly as drains and conduits, but where they are eighteen inches or two
feet in diameter, a complete cylinder of masonry may be formed, which, well executed, becomes very
durable. It is observed, however, that all conduits of masonry, and even earthen pipes, can pnly be used

Book III.

ICE-HOUSE.

339

as such where the water is conducted along a level or declining bed ; whereas by metal or wooden pipes,
water may pass alternately over hollows and eminences, the latter not bemg higher than the source,
without loss in the ground through which it passes.

1718. Resert'oirs may be either tanks, cisterns, basins, or ponds. Tanks and cisterns
are sometimes old barrels well tarred or painted, and then sunk in the soil ; occasionally
they are framed boxes of timber, the joints filled with oxide of lead and oil, and the
whole pitched over, and then placed where they are to remain either above or on a level
with the surface.

1719. Ponds or large basins {fig. 286.) are reservoirs foraied in excavations, either in
soils retentive of water, or rendered so by tlie use of clay. This clay is tempered, or
made compact and tenacious, by working it so as to exclude the larger globules of air
and water, and intimately unite all its parts with as much moisture as leaves it plastic.
Tlie bottom and sloping sides of the excavation, being smoothed and made firm, this
tempered clay or puddle is to be spread evenly over it, from margin to margin, about
a foot tliick, and well compacted by beating. To preserve it from injury by the
pressure of feet, or other accidents, it should be covered with gravel, in thickness
according to the supposed liability to accidents. If cattle are to enter it, eighteen
inches of coarse gravel, or stones covered with six inches of fine gravel, will not be
too much. Sometimes these basins are lined with pavement, tiles, or even lead, and
the last material is the best, where complete dryness is an object around the margin.

286

287

288

1720. Tanks or cisterns (fig, 287.) are generally excavations in tlie earth, lined with
masonry, and sometimes raised two or three feet above it. This masonry is always
built with mortar which sets or hardens under water, as the Dorking and other sorts
of lime, gypsum, and any lime mixed with oxide of iron, in the form of what is called
Roman cement, or Puzzolana earth. (Davys Elements of Agr. Chem. lect. vii.) To
protect this, the bottom of the cistern or basin is sometimes covered with six or eight
inches of clay. Sometimes the bottom of the excavation for a pond or tank, is naturally
a retentive clay, while the sides are of porous earth. In this case, the simplest way is to
raise a wall, or vertical stratum of puddle {fig. 288.), from the horizontal stratum of clay,
to within a few inches of the surface of the ground.

1721. Water for culinary purposes should be preserved in tanks, or in barrels interiorly charred, sunk
deep in the ground, and rendered inaccessible to surface water. Tanks should be arched over with ma-
sonry, leaving, as ought always to be done in wells, a hole for the pump, sufficiently large to admit a man
to clean or repair. A similar construction is proi>er for reservoirs of liquid manures, but they need not
be so deep, as coolness in them is less sought for. {Ratcliff's Agr. of Fland. 1819.) All reservoirs for pure
water, to be used in gardening, ought to be exposed to the sun and air.

Sect. II. Anomalous BtiUdings.

1722. Collecting and preserving ice, rearing bees, &c. however unsuitable or dis-
cordant it may appear, it has long been the custom to delegate to the care of .the
gardener. In some cases also he has the care of the dove-house, fish-ponds, aviary, a
menagerie of wild beasts, and places for snails, frogs, dormice, rabbits, &c. but we shall
only consider the ice-house, apiary, and aviary, as legitimately belonging to gardening,
leaving the others to the care of the gamekeeper, or to constitute a particular depart-
ment in domestic or rural economy. That the subject of anomalous buildings may not
occur again, we shall here conclude it by treating also of their management.

SuBSECT. 1. Of tlie Ice-house and its Management.

1723. The ice-house. Ice is kept on the continent in cellars, at a greater or less
depth from the surface according to the climate. These cellars are without windows,
surrounded by very thick walls, and entered by double and treble doors, sometimes
placed in angular or circuitous passages, and always with intervals of several feet between
them. Sometimes precautions are taken to carry off any water which may arise from a
partial thaw, by forming gutters across the floor, and covering it with a grating of strong
lattice-work, leading to a cess-pool in the passage, whence the water can be taken out by
utensils without opening the inner door ; but verj- frequently full confidence is had in
the coolness of fhe situation, especially if tlie surrounding soil be dry. Wliere the sur-
rounding soil is moist, a frame-work or cage of carpentry, grated at bottom, is con-
structed in the cellar, so as to be from one to two feet apart from the floor, sides, and
roof, and in this the ice is as perfectly preserved as in a dry soil. {Cours, &c. ; Bordlei/'s
Essays and A'^otes on Husbandry, Philadelphia, 1780.) Ice is kept in the cellars of con-

Z 2

940

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

fectioners, and also by some of the market-gardeners, in heaps, with a very thick covering
of straw or reeds.

1724. To keep ice in stacks or heaps in t/ie open air, 289
an elevated circular platform (Jig. 289. a) is raised of
earth ; on this the ice is piled up in a conic form during
a severe frost, and the addition of water enables the
builder to form the cone very steep. On this cone
wheat-straw is laid a foot in thickness (b), over this a
stratum of faggot-wood or spray (c), and finally another
thick stratum of thatch or long litter of any sort (rf).
In this way ice will keep a year, care being taken to
expose it to the air as short time as possible in taking
supplies.

1725. The form of ice-houses commonly adopted at
country-seats, both in Britain and in France, is gene-
rally that of an inverted cone, or rather hen's egg, with
the broad end uppermost. (Jig. 290. )

1726. The pi-oper situation for an ice-house is that of a dry spot of ground ; as, where-
ever there is moisture, the ice will be liable to dissolve : of course, in all strong soils
which retain the wet, too much care cannot be taken to make drains all round the house
to carry off moisture. The situation should likewise be elevated, that there may be
descent enough to convey off any wet that may arise near it, or from tlie ice melting ; and
also as much exposed to the sun and air as possible.

1727. The depth and diameter of the ice-well should be proportioned to the quantity of
ice wanted ; but it is always best to have sufficient room, as when the house is well built,
it will keep the ice two or three years : and there will be this advantage in having it large
enough to contain ice for two years' consumption, that if a mild winter should happen,
when there is not ice to be had, there will be a stock in the house to supply the want.
Where the quantity wanted is not great, a well of six feet diameter, and eight feet deep,
■will be large enough ; but for a large consumption, it should not be less than nine or ten
feet diameter, and as many deep.

1728. The excavation for the ice-well, where the situation is either of a dry, chalky,
gravelly, or sandy kind, may be made entirely below the surface of the ground ; but in
strong loamy, clayey, or moist ground, it will be better to raise the well so high above
the surface, as tliat there may be no danger from the wetness of the soil.

1729. In building the ice-

well there should be a space 290

about two feet deep left at the
bottom {Jig. '290. a), for re-
ceiving any moisture which
may drain from the ice, and
a small underground drain
(6) containing a stop or trap
for the exclusion of air (c)
should be laid from this, to
carry off the wet. Over the
space at bottom (a) should be
placed a strong grate of wood
or a cart-wheel, to let the
moisture fall down, which
may at any time happen from
the melting of the ice. The
sides of the well [d] must be
■walled up with brick or stone at least two feet thick ; or the wall may be built hollow.
When the proper height is attained the wall may be arched over with two arches with a
vacuity between, and leaving in the centre a hole for the admission of the ice (e), and in
the sides a door for taking it out {f). Tliis door, in order the better to exclude the air
should open into a porch {g) with the three other doors, tlie spaces between which should
be filled with straw to exclude more effectually the heat of the atmosphere. The whole
being covered first with a layer of tempered clay and next with a hill of earth, the appear-
ance will not be disagreeable [Jig. 291. ) and may be made ornamental.

1730. Management. When the house is finished, it should have time to dry before the
ice is put into it ; as when the walls are moist, the damp of them frequently dissolves the
ice. At the bottom of the well, upon the wooden grate, some small faggots should be
laid ; and if upon these a layer of reeds be placed smooth for the ice to rest upon, it will
be better than straw, which is commonly used. In the choice of the ice, the tlimner it is,
the better it may be broken to powder ; as Uie smaller it is broken, the better it will umte

Book III.

APIARY.

S4l

291
when put into the well. In putting it in, it should be rammed close, and a space left be-
tween it and the wall of the well, by straw being placed for the purpose, so as to give
passage to any moisturR that may be collected by tlie dissolving of the ice on the top or
otherwise. If snow is used instead of ice, it ought to be pressed very firmly together, so
as to exclude air, and in fact approach in texture to ice. To aid in consolidating both ice
and snow, a little water may be occasionally poured over it from tlie rose of a watering-
pot. In putting the ice into the house, some mix a little nitre or common salt with it, to
make it congeal more fully ; but this is not necessary. As the ice becomes solid in the
well, an iron crow is necessary to take it up with.

1731. An ice-cold chamber is found of great use in horticulture, in preserving gathered
vegetables, as pease, beans, cauliflowers, &c. in a fresh state, for some time after they are
gathered. Potatoes and other tubers and bulbs, also plants in pots, cuttings, &c. may
have their vegetation retarded by being placed in so cold an atmosphere. Several ice-
houses, Neill informs us, excellently adapted not only for the main purjjose, but for these
secondary views, which nowise interfere ^^•ith the otlier, have lately been constructed in
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, under the directions of Hay, particularly at Dalmeny
Park and Dundas Castle. These ice-houses have double walls, a passage being left be-
tween the outer and inner. In the thick wall immediately enclosing the ice, are four re-
cesses, with stone shelves for recei^'ing the vegetables or fruits. In the outer wall, the
same object is provided for. The roof, it may be added, is arched with stone, and has a
hole in the top, over the centre of the ice-chamber, for introducing the ice. The passage
between the two walls is likewise arched, and has two or three small grated apertures,
which are closed with fitted stones, and may be opened for the purpose of admitting light
and air when wanted. (Siijy]). to Encyc. Brit. art. Hort.)

1732. Ifa/i ice-cellar was added to the domestic offices of country-seats, and the ice
preserved in it, and placed under the immediate care of the steward or housekeeper, it
would certainly be more convenient for culinary use, and attended with less risk of melt-
ing when ice was tiken out. Ice-cold rooms, which would be found useful for various
purposes in domestic economy, might be formed adjoining. It is possible, however, that
artificial modes of producing cold and ice as wanted, may supersede the use of ice-houses
altogetlier. A very scientific view of the subject of ice-houses will be foimd in Rozier's
Diet, of Agr.y and in Nbuveau Cours d' Agriculture, Sec. art. Gladcre.

SuBSECT. 2. Of the Ajriary and the Management of Bees.

1733. The care of bees seems more naturally to belong to gardening than the keeping
of ice ; because their situation is naturally in the garden, and tlieir produce is a
vegetable salt. The garden-bee is found in a wild state in most parts of the globe, in
swarms or governments ; but never in groups of governments so near togetlier as in a
bee-house, which is an artificial and unnatural contrivance to save trouble, and injurious
to the insect directly as the number placed together. Thus, if ten acres are suflScient to
maintain two hives, a hundred acres will be required to maintain twenty ; but while, in
the former case, the hives being placed in the centre of the ten acres, each bee need not
perform a longer journey than two hundred yards ; in the latter, the colony being simi-
larly situated as to the hundred acres, the average journey for each insect wUl be nearly a
mile. Hence, independently of other considerations, one disadvantage of congregating
hives in bee-houses or apiaries. The advantages are, greater facility' in protecting from
heats, colds, or thieves, and greater facilities of examining their condition and progress.
Independently of their honey, bees are considered as useful in gardens, by aiding in the
impregnation of flowers. For tliis purpose, a hive is sometimes placed in a clicrry-house,
and sometimes in peach-houses; or tlie position of the hive is in tlie front or end wall
of such houses, so as the body of the liive may be half in the house and half in the wall,
with two outlets for the bees, one into the house, and the other into the open air. By
this arrangement, the bees can be admitted to the house and open air alternately, and ex-
cluded from either at pleasure.

Z 3

342

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

292

1 734. The apiary, or bee-house. The sim-
plest form of a bee-house consists of a few
shelves in a recess of a wall or other building
(Jig. 292.) exposed to the south, and with
or without shutters, to exclude the sun in
summer, and, in part, the frost in winter.
The scientific or experimental bee-house is a
detached building of boards, differing from
the former in having doors behind, which
may be opened at any time during day to
inspect the hives. In both kinds of houses,
small holes, say half an inch high and three
inches wide, with a small projection as a
landing-place, are made in the front shutters, opposite the situation of each hive on the
shelf. 'Ilie upper part of these openings or entrances is sometimes guarded by a hori-
zontal fillet to throw off the rain. Bee-houses may always be rendered agreeable, and
often ornamental objects : they are particularly suitable for flower-gardens ; and one
may occur in a recess in a wood or copse, accompanied by a picturesque cottage and
flower-garden. They enliven a kitchen-garden, and communicate particular impressions
of industry and usefulness.

1735. The jmsition of the ajnary i% thus treated by Huish : in the southern countries
the aspect which is preferred is always to the eastward ; in the northern countries, it is
always to the eastward and the southward ; but in England little or no attention is paid
to the aspect. It is certain, however, that the aspect of the apiary should vary with the
climate of the country ; and in this climate, there can be little doubt that two points to
the eastward of south, is the best.

Protection from high winds is essential in whatever position the hives are placed. In this country,
therefore, a protection from the south-west is advisable. The high winds not only prevent the bees from
leaving the hive in quest of honey, but they also surprise them in the fields, and often kill them by dashing
them against the trees and rocks, or into the rivers.

The hives in an apiary should always be placed in a right line ; but sliould the number of the hives be
great, and the situation not capacious enough to admit of their being placed longitudinally, it is more ad-
visable to place them over one another, on shelves, than in double rows on the ground. A bee, on leaving
the hive, generally forms an angle of about forty-five with the horizon ; the elevation of the hive should,
therefore, be about two feet from the ground, in order to protect it from humidity. The greater the
elevation of the hive, the longer is the flight of the swarm ; and when they are at a certain point of
elevation, the swarms are lost for ever to the proprietor. If the hives are to be placed in a double row,
the hinder ones should alternate with, and be placed at, such a distance from the front ones, that when
the bees take their flight, no obstruction is ofFered to their ascent.

Placing several hives upon the same bench, is very injurious, and during the swarming season, it is often
attended with very destructive consequences. Huish was once requested by a gentleman to perform an
experiment upon a hive, which was placed on the same bench with six others, and in attempting to move
the hive destined for the operation, the others were agitated, and the whole apiary became in a little time
in a state of confusion. The easy access also, which the bees of one hive have to those of another, pro-
motes quarrels and murderous battles. It is an erroneous opinion, though held by some skilful apiarians,
that all the bees of one apiary know each other, and that it is only the bees of a foreign apiary, with
whom they quarrel. Huish having been often witness of the destructive animosity of these little insects,
and the wars which they wage upon the weaker hives in their own establishment, endeavours to impress
it strongly upon the attention of every apiarian, to place every hive upon a respective pedestal. In general
a post is placed at each corner of the stand, as some prejudiced people believe that a hive stands firmer
upon four feet than upon one ; but Huish is certain that they who have once used the single pedestal,
will never have recourse again to the four-legged stool. Another advantage particularly arises from the
use of a single pedestal, which is, that the hive may be chained down and locked.

The apiary should be kept particularly clean; all noxious weeds carefully removed, and no rubbish' be
left in which the enemies of the bees can conceal themselves. A few low trees or shrubs, planted in the
vicinity of the apiary, will be found useful in arresting the flight of the swarms, for they very often
alight on espalier trees, or on currant and gooseberry bushes. It is essential, however, to observe, that
the apiary should not be incommoded with herbs or plants, which rise to a height equal to, or exceeding
the entrance of the hive ; because the bees, on their arrival from their journeys, being much fatigued,
are impeded by these plants, and regain their habitation with difficulty. If they touch these plants on
passing, they often fall to the ground, and become victims to their enemies, or are unfortunately trodden
under foot. Such plants also serve the purpose of a ladder, for the enemies of the bees to ascend into the
hive, and especially the ants, which in some districts are particularly numerous. These little insects are
a great detriment to a hive, and they baffle the most vigilant attention of the apiarian to prevent their
depredations. I have found that a small leaden reservoir of water, encircling the bottom of the pedestal,
is of great service in preventing the ascent of these insects.

The vicinity of great towns is not a proper situation for an apiary. The smoke of a city is very detri-
mental to bees, and the chimneys are in general the resort of the swallows and martins, who are great
destroyers of these insects.

The proximity of a large river is also injurious, as the bees in their homeward flight are often dashed
into it by the high winds, or fall into it from fatigue.

1736. The position of hives, according to Dr. Howison, should be such as to receive the rays of the
rising as well as meridian sun ; heat and light appearing the principal stimulants to the action of bees.
A hive so situated as not to be touched by the sun until some hours later than the other hives in the same
garden, would, in the course of the season, lose a proportional number of days' labor. Hives should stand
at some distance from walls and hedges. When lately building a garden-wall, with a good exposure for
bees, I ordered a number of niches to be made, into which I afterwards put hives. These were, however,
so much infested with snails in sununer, and mice in winter, that I was under the necessity of removing
them to a more open situation.

Book III.

APIARY.

343

1737. The furniture of the apiary, or bee-house, consists of the hives or utensils in which
each hive or swarm is congregated, and lives, and works, and of these there is a great
variety of sorts.

1738. The Polish hive, or log-hive, {Pasieka Pol.) {fle. 203.) may be considered as 293
the primitive form of artificial dwellings for bees. It is simply the tnmk of a
tree, of a foot or fourteen inches in diameter, and about nine feet long. It is
scooped out (boring in this country would be better} for about six feet from one
end, so to form a hollow cj'hnder of that length, and of six or eight inches dia-
meter within. Part of the circumference of this cylinder is cut out during the
greater part of its length, about four inches wide, and a slip of board is made to
fit the opening. On the sides of this slip [a), notches are made every two or three
inches, of sufficient size to allow a single bee to pass. This slip may be furnished
with hinges and with a lock and key ; but in Poland it is merely fastened in by a
wedge. All that is wanting to complete the hive is a cover at the top to throw
off the rain, and then it requires only to be placed upright like a strong post in
the garden so as the bottom of the hollow cylinder may be not nearer the ground
than two feet, and the opening slip look to the south. \Vhen a swarm is to be
put in, the tree, with the door or slip opened, is placed obliquely over it ; when
the bees enter, the door is closed, and the holes stopped with clay till the hive is
planted or placed upright. When honey is wanted, the door is opened during
the finest part of a warm dav, when most of the bees are out ; its entire state is
seen from top to bottom, and the operator, with a segar in his mouth, or with a
lighted rag, to keep ofi"the bees from his hands, cuts out, with a hooked knife,
as much comb as he thinks fit In this way fresh honey is obtained during the
whole summer, the bees are never cramped for room, nor does it become neces-
sary to kill them. The old comb, however, is annually cut out to prevent or
lessen the tendency to swarming, which, notwithstanding this and the size of
their dwelling, they generally do once a year ; for the laws of nature are not
to be changed. Though it is a fact that a small swarm of bees will not do well
in a large hive, yet if the hive extend in length and not in breadth, it is ad-
mitted both by Huber and Huish, that they will thrive in it " If too great a diameter," says Huber,
" be not given to the abode of the bee, it may without danger be increased in the elevation, their success
in the hollow trees, their natural domicile, incontestably proves the truth of this assertion." We wit-
nessed in 1813, near Grodno, the management by a woman, Panna Andriewschieskniowna, {X. M. Ma-
gazine, June 1818.) in whose house we lodged, of above a dozen of these hives, for nearly four months,
and are of opinion that they merit a trial in this country. It is singular, that this should be almost
the only continental hive that Huish, %vho seems to have paid more attention to the subject by foreign
travel, study, and practice, than almost any man, has not seen. In Poland, he says, the inhabitants
have no regular bee-hives. {Treatise on Bees, 3d edit 1817, p. 52.)

1739. The common hive, calletl by the French the Scotch hive, is a thimble-shaped basket of rushes, straw,
and sometimes of willows, about a foot in diameter within, and fourteen inches high. It is formed by
coiling ropes of straw of wheat on a mould, sewing the layers to each other in advancing bv flattened
shoots of bramble, clematis, or willow. In Georgia, hives of this class are wrought with willows in the
form of a cone, and the bees enter by the apex. {Johnston's Journey overland from India, 1817.)

17-10. The glass hive is variously constructed, sometimes with two of the sides of glass in order to seethe
bees at work ; at other times the hive is entirely of wood or straw, but with a flat surface at top, pierced
•with holes about an inch diameter, on which to insert crj'stal bell-glasses or drinking.glasses, in which

the bees may be seen at workj and which glasses, when filled with comb, may be removed and replaced
by empty ones, and thus occasional supplies of fresh honey obtained during summer. In the glass hive of
White and Thorley, one large globe is used, which, as often as filled, is removed and replaced by an empty

one. Such hives must necessarily be placed in the bee-house, or under a proper cover to exclude the
weather. Huish says, " they are fit only for the amateur, or those persons who wish to have a little fine
honey during the season, but who have no inclination to preserve the bees for the benefit of the succeeding

1741. The storying or pyramidal hive admits of increase, by ^94
the addition of horizonul sections of case, whether of straw
or timber. The object is to produce a very strong hive ; but
this, when carried beyond a certain point, is found injurious,
rather than otherwise. {Huish, p. 6/.)

1742. TTie hive of Palteau {fig. 29t ) is composed of three or
four frames, each a foot square, by three inches in height
These square frames are placed the one on the other, and
the first and last can always be lifted without deranging the
work in the others. Each square is strengthened from
every side by a cross piece of eight or ten lines in width,
and two lines in thickness, which serves to sustain the combs
of the bees. All the frames are tied together by means
of these cross pieces ; a board is placed on the top j and a
general cover is placed over the whole to guard it from the
efl^ects of the seasons. In autumn, when the honey is to be
taken from this hive, the cross pieces are untied, and one or
two of the upper frames are removed, passing the long blade
of a knife or a wire between. This done, an emptv frame is
placed above, and another under all the rest, which make up
for the two removed. " In an hour after," savs Bosc, who de-
scribes and recommends this hive, "the bees are at work as if nothing had happened; and the same
operation can be renewed to infinity." » r > c eauic

1743. Huish's hive {fig. 295.) is about the capacity of the common straw hive (1739.). in shane like a
flower-pot, placed on its narrow end, with a convex cover (a). It is so constructed interiorlv that
each combvc) may be extracted by itself without deranging the rest; the combs being attached to
shps of board ^6, placed across the mouth or top of the hive. Any one of them may be lifted ud
and to this the tapering construction of the interior is favorable. To prevent the bees from working
between the slips air is admitted by means of pierced plates of tinned iron (fig 296 a^ and to

prevent human thieves from carrj-ing off the whole hive, it is chained and padloirked f/j'^^Pfi h\
to a strong post, which serves also as a fulcrum. The inventor of this hive has tried '^' he
says, for nearly twenty years, and the following he states as the mode of using it and the ad
vantages attending its construction. « At anytime and season when 1 require some honevcomb or^t

the end of the season when I deprive my bees of their superfluous store, I open the top, and take the side'
boards out, from which havmg cut the honeycomb, I replace thein in the hive, ^d the o^mi^L^

344

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

facilitated by having some vacant boards ready
to supply the place of the full ones. This oper-
ation is very easily and speedily performed ; it
has the advantage of not disturbing the middle
combs, and I have often deprived these hives of
their honey without the loss of a single bee, ex-
cepting those few who left their stings in various
parts of my dress. — Two very considerable ad-
vantages arise from the use of this hive : in the
first place, there is never any occasion to make
an addition to the hive at the bottom, when the
bees, by lying out in clusters, declare that they
stand in need of room ; for the operation of de-
priving tliem of a part of their combs from the
top, will give them the room which they require,
and which they will soon replenish with honey.
In the common hive it is customary, in this pre-
dicament, to place, what is called in Scotland an

eek, which consists of from four to six bands of the same diameter as the hive ; but, on taking away this eek
in the autumn, I have seen the most injurious consequences result to the hive. It is, in general, perfoaned
by cutting the combs with a wire between the hive and the eek, and then, whilst one person lifts up the hive
another draws the eek away : the hive then rests on the stool. Few persons, however, consider that, as
the combs are cut parallel with the bottom of the hive, they will all touch the stool on which it stands, and
I have thus known a whole hive perish. The second advantage is, that the whole of the interior of the
hive is open to your inspection, and you are thus enabled to examine the devastation of the moth, or to
ascertain the presence of any other enemy." {Treatise on Bees, p. 85.)

1744, Dr. Howison's hive {figs. 297. to 299.) for obtaining the honey without killing the bees, " consists of
two distinct hexagons {figs. 297, 298.) ; one placed above the other. The under is formed of six panes of
half-inch deal, each measuring ten inches in width and eight in depth, and covered with a thin board at top.
This forms a box that will contain two pecks' measure of corn, and which he considers as sufficient lor
the largest swarm. This is intended for the breeding, as well as winter habitation of the bees. The upper is
of the same dimensions and form as the under at bottom, but, in order to give it a conical shape, for the
more conveniently fixing thereon a coat of straw, the panes at top are only five inches wide, which is also
covered by a piece of board. The upper box has a moulding {fig. 297. a) fixed to its under part, which
projects about a quarter of an inch, and so exactly embraces the upper part of the lower box, as to join
these two firmly together. In the deal which forms the top of the lower box, are cut four oval holes
{fig. 298. c), each one inch wide and two inches long, through which the bees pass into the upper. This
communication, when not wanted, is shut by a board whicli moves on a nail in its centre. The small pane

297

298

299

of glass (^ff.297. b), in the top of the upper box, admits of seeing the progress the bees have made in if,
without separating it from the lower one. This pane is covered to exclude light and cold or heat by a small
shutter (c). When the swarm is first put into the lower box, the communication is shut with the upi>er,
until the bees have completely filled the lower with combs. The communication is then to be openctl,
•when the bees will ascend, and, if the season is favourable and the swarm numerous, they will fill it also,
but not until they have completely stocked the lower. By removing the straw covering, and looking
through the glass in the upper box, it may be seen what honey has been collected. Should a part or the
whole of it be wanted, it will only be necessary carefully to separate the upper from the lower box, and shut
the board of communication. The ujjpcr box is then to be removed to some distance, and the bees con-
tained in it driven off, on which they will immetliately join their companions in the lower. So soon as (he
honey is taken from the box, it can be replacetl, and if early in the season, the communication opened for
making more honey, but if late, it must be kept shut uniil the hive has swarmed next summer. Both the
lower hexagon {fig. 298.) and the upper {fig. 299.) contain the usual cross horizontal sticks {a, a, a) for su|>.
porting the combs. If honeycomb early next season is preferred to a swarm, then the communication must
be opened about the beginning of June. All the lionev procured in this way is remarkable for its purity,
none of the cells having been ever polluted by the hatching of young bees. The greatest advantages, how-
ever, from this method, are the early and large swarms j the consequence of not killing the bees." {CaiC'
donian Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 133.)

Book III. APIARY. 345

1745. ManagemerU of bees. Being of opinion that tlie common straw or Scotch hive
is the best for general purposes, we shall give Dr. Howison's mode of management as
the simplest and most effectual for the common end in view. If the Uves of the bees
are to be saved, then some of the others may be tried ; and the most suitable for this
purpose, we tliink, is tlie Polish hive, and the next best that of Howison. The
most ingenious, and the fittest for an amateur, is no doubt that of Huish. The latter
author justly remarks, that " there is no certain method, nor will one be ever dis-
covered, by which a great harvest of wax and honey, and great swarms, can be ob-
tained at pleasure : these are chimerae, which it is folly to pursue ; because the former
depends on the seasons being more or less favorable to the secretion of honey, on
the countries which the bees inliabit being more or less wooded and covered with
flowers, and the latter on the fecundity of tlie queen. Hence that annual difference
between the harvest of honey and wax, and the largeness or smallness of the swarms
which is found in all countries. To the same causes may be attributed the fact,
that a mode of treatment, which has succeeded one year, will not succeed the
next, although the circumstances be alipost the same in appearance. It is these dif-
ferences and variations, which, for the period of fifty-five years, have given rise to hives
of different forms and materials, which have only tended to instruct us, that bees can
inhabit, work, and collect provisions in vessels of every form, from the excavated trunk
of the tree, as it is used in Poland and the northern countries, to the expensive and
useless glass hive, or to the hive of Du Hamel ; and, where no hollow trunk of the tree
can be found, in the holes of walls, in chimneys, and under the roofs."

174G. Choke of bees. To the common observer, all working bees, as to external appearance, are nearly
the same ; but to those who examine them with attention, the difference in size is very distinguishable ;
and they are in their vicious and gentle, indolent and active natures, essentially different Of the stock
which I had in 1810, it required 250 to weigh an ounce ; but they were so vicious and lazy, that I changed
it for a smaller variety, which possesses much better dispositions, and of which it requires 296, on an
average, to weigh an ounce. \VTiether size and disposition are invariably connected, I have not yet had
sufficient expeiience to determine.

1747. Materials and size of hives. Hives made of straw, as now in use, have a great advantage over
those made of wood or other materials, from the effectual defence they affbrd against the extremes of heat
in summer, and cold in winter. That the hives in size should correspond as nearly as possible with that
of the swarms, has not had that attention paid to it which the subject demands, as much of the success in
the management of bees depends on that circumstance. From blind instinct, bees endeavour to fill with
combs whatever hive they are put into, before they begin to gather honey. Owing to this, when the hive is
too large for its inhabitants, the time for collecting their winter store is spent in unprofitable labor : and
starvation is the consequence. This evil also extends to occasioning late swarming the next summer ; it
being long before the hive becomes so filled with young bees as to produce a necessity for emigration,
from which cause the season is too far advanced for the young colonies to procure a winter stock. I should
consider it as a good rule in all cases, that the swarm should fill two thirds of the hive. The hives used
by me for my largest swarms, weighing from five to six pounds, will contain two pecks' measure of com,
and will yield, in a good season, eight Scots pints of honey, and for smaller swarms in proportion. Hives
with empty combs are highly valuable for second swarms, as the bees are thereby enabled much sooner to
begin collecting honey.

1748. Feeding of bees. Near the sea little honey is collected after the first week in August ; but in
high situations, where the flowers are later and heath abounds, the bees labor with advantage until the
middle of September. These are the proper periods, according to situation, for ascertaining If the hives
intended to be kept, contain a sufficient winter stock. The killing of the drones perhaps marks this time
with more precision. If a large hive does not weigh thirty pounds, it will be necessary to allow it half a
pound of honey, or the same quantity of soft sugar, made' into a syrup, for every pound that is deficient
of that weight ; and, in like proportion to smaller hives. This work must not be delayed, that time may
be given for the bees to make the deposit in their empty cells before they are rendered torpid by the cold.

1749. Prepariiig sugar for bees. I must here notice, that sugar siniply dissolved in water (which is
a common practice^ and sugar boiled with water into a syrup, form compounds very differently suited for
the winter store of bees. WTien the former is wanted for their immediate nourishment, as in spring, it
will answer equally as a sjTup ; but if to be laid up as a store, the heat of the hive quickly evaporating the
water, leaves the sugar in dry crystals, not to be acted upon by the trunks of the bees. I have known several
instances of hives killed by hunger, while some pounds' weight of sugar in this state remained in their
cells. The boiling of sugar into syrup forms a closer combination with the water, by which it is prevented
from flying off, and a consistence" resembling that of honey, retained. I have had'frequent experience of
hives not containing a pound of honey, presers^ed in perfect health through the winter, with sugar so pre-
pared, when given in proper time, and in sufficient quantity.

1750. Covering the hives. Bees are evidently natives of a warm climate, a high temperature being ab-
solutely necessary to their existence ; and their continuing to live in hollow trees during the severe win-
ters of Russia and America, must depend on the heat produced from the great size of the swarms which
inhabit these abodes. From my own obsen-ation, the hives which are best covered during winter,
always prosper most the following summer. In consequence, about the end of harvest, I add to the thin
covering of straw put on the hives at the time of swarming a thick coat, and shut up the aperture through
which the bees entered, so that only one can pass at a time. Indeed, as a very small portion of air is
necessary for bees in their torpid state, it were better, during severe frosts, to be entirely shut up, as num-
bers of them are often lost from being enticed to quit the hive by the sunshine of a winter day. It will,
however, be proper at times to remove, by a crooked wire or similar instrument, the dead bees and other
filth, which the living at this season are unable to perform of themselves.

1751. Treatment during the breeding season. To hives, whose stock of honey was sufficient for their main-
tenance, or those to which a proper quantity of sug:ar had been given for that purpose, no further atten-
tion will be necessary, until the breeding season arrives. This, in warm situations, generally takes place
about the beginning of May, and in cold, about a month after. Owners of hives are often astonished,
that, at this advanced season, when their bees had, for weeks preceding, put on the most promising ap-
pearance, after a few days of rain, they become so weak and sickly as to be unable to leave the hive, and
continue declining until they at last die. From paving attention to this subject, I am convinced that the
cause IS as follows : The young bees for a short time previous to their leaving their cells, and some time
after, require bemg fed with the same regularity that young birds are by their parents ; and if the store
in the hive be exhausted, and the weather such as not to admit of the working bees going abroad to col-
lect food HI iufBcicnt quantity for themselves and their brood, the powerful principle of affection for their

346 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

young compels them to part with what is not enough for their support, at the expense of their own lives
To prevent such accidents, I make it a rule, that if, during the breeding season, it rain for two successive
^^h}° '<^^" ^" t"6 bees indiscriminately, as it would be difficult to ascertain those only who require it

17j2. Swarmmg. For several years past, my hives have uniformly sent forth their first swarms during
the second week m July, from which it appears, that early or late swarming, in the same situatiom is not
so much regulated by good or bad seasons as might have been expected. Near the sea this will, of course
take place some weeks earlier. '

1753. Signs of swarming. The first swarming is preceded by the appearance of drones, and hanging
out of working bees. The signs of the second are more equivocal, the most certain being that of the
queen, a day or two before swarming, at intervals of a few minutes, giving out a sound a good deal re-
sembling that of a cricket. It frequently happens that the swarm will leave the old hive, and return
again several times, which is always owing to the queen not having accompanied them, or from having
dropt on the ground, being too young to fly to a distance. In such cases, I have seen her found near to
the old hive, and on being taken up and placed in the new one, the swarm instantly settled.

1754. Late swarms. When a hive yields more than two swarms, these should uniformly be joined to
others that are weak, as from the lateness of the season, and deficiency in number, they will otherwise
perisli. This junction is easily formed, by inverting at night the hive in which they are, and placing
over it the one you intend them to enter. They soon ascend, and apparently with no opposition from the
former possessors, as I have never observed fighting to be a consequence. It being very universally be-
lieved that two queens cannot live together in the same hive, I have, for several days after this forced
junction, searched for the murdered queen, but never with success. Should the weather, for some days
after swarming be unfavorable for the bees going out, they must be fed with care until it clears upj
otherwise the young swarm will run a great risk of dying. (Hoivison, in Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc.)

1755. Taking the honey. This may be effected, even with hives of the common
construction, by three modes, partial deprivation, total deprivation, and suffocation.

175(1 Partial deprivation is performed about the beginning of September. " Having ascertained the
weight of the hive, and consequently the quantity of honeycomb which is to be extracted, begin the oper-
ation as soon as evening sets in, by reverting the full hive, and placing an empty one over it ; particu-
lar care must be taken that the two hives are of the same diameter, for if they differ in their dimensions,
it will not be possible to efFect the driving of the bees. The hives being placed on each other, a sheet or
large tablecloth must be tied round them at their point of junction, in order to prevent the bees from
molesting the operator. The hives being thus arranged, beat the sides gently with a stick or the hand,
but particular caution must be used to beat it on those parts to which the combs are attached, and which
will be found parallel with the entrance of the hive. The ascent of the bees into the upper hive will be
known by a loud humming noise, indicative of the pleasure in finding an asylum from their enemy ; in a
few minutes the whole community will have ascended, and the hive with the bees in it may be placed
upon the pedestal from which the full hive was removed. The hive, from which the bees have been
driven, must then be tajjf n into the house, and the operation of cutting out the honeycomb commences.
Having extracted the requisite quantity of comb, this opportunity must be embraced of inspecting the
hive, and of cleaning it from any noxious matter. In cutting the combs, however, particular attention
should be paid not to cut into two or three combs at once, but having commenced the cutting of one, to
pursue it to the top of the hive ; and this caution is necessary for two reasons. If you begin the cutting
of two or three combs at one time, were you to extract the whole of them, you would perhaps take too
much ; and, secondly, to stop in the middle of a comb, would be attended with very pernicious conse-
quences, as the honey would drop from the cells which have been cut in two, and then the bees on being
returned to their native hive, might be drowned in their own sweets. The bees, also, in their return to
their natural domicile, being still under the impression of fear, would not give so much attention to the
honey which flows from the divided cells ; and as it would fall on the board, and from that on the ground,
the bees belonging to the other hives would immediately scent the wasted treasure, and a general attack
upon the deprivated hive might be dreaded. The deprivation of the honeycomb being eflf'ected, the hive
may be returned to its former position, and reversing the hive which contains the bees, and placing the
deprivated hive over it, they may be left in that situation till the morning, when the bees will be found to
have taken possession of their native hive, and if the season proves fine may replenish what they have
lost." {Huish's Treatise on Bees.)

1757. Total deprivation is effected in the same manner, but earlier in the season, immediately after the
first swarm ; and the bees, instead of being returned to a remnant of honey in their old hive, remain in
the new empty one, which they will sometimes, though rarely, fill with comb. By this mode, it is to be
observed, very little honey is obtained, the bees in June and July being occupied chiefly in breeding, and
one, if not two, swarms are lost.

1758. Suffocation is performed when the season of flowers begins to decline, and generally in October
The smoke of paper, or linen rag soaked or smeared with melted sulphur, is introduced to the hive by
placing it on a hole in the ground, where a few shreds of these articles are undergoing a smothering com-
bustion ; or the full hive may be placed on an empty one, inverted as in partial deprivation, and the sul-
phureous smoke introduced by fumigating bellows, &c. The bees will fall from the upper to the lower
hive in a few minutes, when they may be removed and buried, to prevent resuscitation. Such a death
seems one of the easiest, both to the insects themselves and to human feelings. Indeed, the mere depri-
vation of life to animals not endowed with sentiment or reflection, is reduced to the precise pain of the
moment without reference to the past or the future ; and as each pulsation of this pain increases in efFect
on the one hand, so on the other the susceptibility of feeling it diminishes. Civilised man is the only
animal to whom death has terrors.

1 759. Estimate of the humanity of the three modes. Much has been said about the cruelty
of killing bees ; but if man is entitled to deprive them either totally or partially of their
food, he has an equal right (and in truth by that very act exercising it) of depriving
them of their lives. For of the hives that have been partially or wholly deprived of their
honey, it may be safely affirmed, that there is not one in ten that does any good. If
they live till the succeeding spring they are commonly too weak to collect food or to
breed, and, being plundered by their neighbours, dwindle away, till at last the hive is
without inhabitants. A prompt death is surely preferable to one so protracted. — Some
judicious observations on this subject will be found in Huish's book, extracted from
the works of La Gren^e, a French apiarian.

SuBSECT. 3. Of the Aviary, and of Menageries, Piscinaries, ^c.

1760. The aviary was common to the country-houses of the Romans, but used princi-
pally, as it would appear from Pliny, for birds destined to be eaten. Singing-birds, how-
ever, were kept by the Persians, Greeks, and also the Romans in wicker-cages ; and these
utensils, no doubt, gave rise to the large and fixed cage called an aviary ; but in what

Book III.

AVIARY, &c.

341

country, and in what age, appears uncertain. They are highly prized in China, and
seem there to confer about a similar degree of dignity to a house and family as does a
large conservatory in this country ; for in the altercations which took place during Lord
Amherst's embassy, it was stated, on the part of the emperor, that Sir George Staunton
had profited greatly from China, and had built himself a house and an aviary. That
they were in use in England in Evelyn's time, is evident from a memorandum entered
in his diary, that the INIarquis of Argyle took the parrots in his aviary at Sayes' Court
for owls. .

1761. The cajiary or singing-bird aviary used not unfrequently to be formed m the
opaque-roofed green-house or conservator}-, by enclosing one or both ends with a
partition of wire ; and furnishing them with dead or living trees, or spray and branches
suspended from the roof for the birds to perch on. Such are chiefly used for the canary,
bullfinch, linnet, &c.

1762. The parrot aviary is generally a building formed on purpose, with a glass roof,
front, and ends ; with shades and curtains to protect it from the sun and frost, and a
flue for winter heating. In these, artificial or dead trees with glazed foliage are fixed
in the floor, and sometimes cages hung on them ; and at other times the birds allowed to
fly loose. An aviary of this sort was built at Morden by the late Abraham Goldschmidt.

1763. The verdant aviary is that in which, in addition to houses for the different sorts
of birds, a net or wire curtain is thrown over the tops of trees, and supported by light
posts or hollow rods, so as to enclose a few poles, or even acres of ground, and water in
various forms. In this the birds in fine weather sing on the trees, the aquatic birds sail
on the water, or the gold-pheasants stroll over the lawn, and in severe seasons they be-
take themselves to their respective houses or cages. Such an enclosed space will of
course contain evergreen, as well as deciduous trees, rocks, reeds, aquatics, long grass
for larks and partridges, spruce firs for pheasants, furze-bushes for linnets, &c. An
aviary, somewhat in this way, was formed by Catherine of Russia, in the Hermitage
Palace ; and at Knowlsley in Lancashire. In short these are tlie only sorts admissible
in elegant gardens ; since nothing surely to one who is not an enthusiast in this branch
of natural history, can be more disagreeable than an apartment filled with the dirt and
discordant music of innumerable birds, such, for example, as the large aviary at Kew.
Birds from the hot climates are sometimes kept in hot-houses among their native plants,
as in the large conservatories at Vienna. (218.) In this case, the doors and openings
for giving air must be covered with wire cloth, and the number must not be great, other-
wise they will too much disfigure the plants with their excrement.

1764. Gallinaceous aviary. At Chiswick, portable netted enclosures, from ten to
twenty feet square, are distributed over a part of the lawn, and display a curious col-
lection of domestic fowls. In each enclosure is a small wooden box or house for shel-
tering the animals during night, or in severe weather, and for breeding. . Each cage or
enclosure is contrived to contain one or more trees or shrubs ; and water and food are
supplied in small basins and appropriate vessels. Curious varieties of aquatic fowls
might be placed on floating aviaries on a lake or pond.

300 1765. Wire-cages. In a flower-garden

or pleasure-ground where the object is the
singing of birds, much the most effectual
mode is to distribute over it a number of
common-sized cages containing different
sorts of birds. They may either be hung
on trees or fixed to iron rods. {Jig. 300.)
The more hardy sorts of British birds
may remain there during night, and the
more delicate sorts and canaries taken in
either by removing the cage only or the
cage and rod together {Jig. 301.), and
placing or fixing it in a shed or conserv-
atory.

1766. Menageries were formerly attach-
ed to most of the royal gardens and parks
of Europe. The most complete example
is that of the Paris garden, constructed
and arranged, as much as possible, ac-
cording to the natures and habits of the diflferent animals enclosed.
The subject, however, can hardly be considered within our depart-
ment.

1767. The piscinaryf cochlearium, ranarium, columbarium, &c.
belong to that part of rural economy which forms the connecting link
between rural and domestic economy.

301

b

MW^ mir

348

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

PxttT IL

Sect. III. Decorative Buildings.

1768. The general characteristic of decorative buildings is, that they are introduced more
for their picturesque effect as parts of external scenery, than as absolutely necessary.
Their construction, like the others, belongs chiefly to civil architecture and sculpture ;
but the choice and emplacement to gardening. Their variety is almost endless ; but we
shall rank a few selections under the different heads of useful, convenient, and character-
istic decorations.

SuBSECT. 1. Useful Decorative Buildings.

1769. Useful decorations are such as while they serve as ornaments, or to heighten the
effect of a scene, are also applied to some real use, as in the case of cottages and bridges.
They are tlie class of decorative buildings most general and least liable to objection.

1770. Cottages are of various 302
sorts ; one grand division is

founded on the style of archi--
tecture employed, as Grecian,
Gotliic, Chinese, &c. ; another,
on the materials used, as stone,
brick, timber, trees unbarked
(Jig- 302.), wicker-work, with
moss or mud; and another, on
tlie peculiar style of different
countries, as English, Swedish,
Italian, &c. (See Prin. of Design
in Arch. 8vo. 1821.)

1771. The Gothic cottage is
characterised by the forms of the
Gothic or pointed style of architecture in the openings, as doors, windows, &c. in the
chimney-tops and gable-ends. It may be thatched ; but the most appropriate roof is
grey slate, or slate stone, or flat grey tiles.

1772. The Grecian cottage is that in which the lines of Grecian architecture prevail
These are generally horizontal, and may be displayed in the windows, roof, and othe
parts. The roof is generally flat and projecting, and the best slate or flag stone seemi
the most approved covering.

1773 The Chinese cottage (Jig. 303.) is characterised by concave lines in the roof, pro-
jecting eaves, small windows, and bell or drop ornaments. The proper roofing is party-
colored tiles, with which the walls may also be covered.

303

1774. Tfie Bengal cottage has walls of mud, the openings surrounded by frames of
bamboo, the doors and divisions of the windows of the same material, and the roof covered
with reeds or palm-leaves.

1 775. The English cottage is generally Gothic as to style, the lowest order formed oi
mud and tliatrhcd, with boarded labels over the windows and doors ; the second order ot

Book III.

USEFUL DECORATIVE BUILDINGS.

S49

304

framed timber, filled up with brick-work, with oaken door and window-frames ; and the
third order of solid brick, with stone door and window-frames, and Gothic mouldings
and labels. Tliere is a very pleasing assemblage of picturesque cottages, mostly thatched,
erected on the grounds at Blaze Castle, near Bristol. They are not only varied in form,
for which much facility is obtained, by including two, and sometimes three dwellings, in
one pile ; but their disposition on the ground, and the surface of the ground itself, is
varied ; and by the management of the walks and trees, an eyeful of any part seldom
contains more than two or three groups ; always one in the fore-ground, and the others
in the middle or remote distance. They were designed by Nash.

1776. The Scotch cottage is, as to architectural style, something between Gothic and
Grecian. It is the same with the cottage of France and Flanders, is characterised by
high narrow gable-ends, with notched or step-like finishings. The material of the walls,
almost always stone ; and of the roof, pantiles or grey schistus slate.

1777. The Italian cottage is characterised by Grecian lines, and forms bold projections
and recesses, as far as a cottage admits of these ; high pantiled roofs of a peculiar con-
struction ; the walls white-washed, and in farmers' cottages, especially in Tuscany, often
a part of the roof raised as a sort of watchtower.

1778. The Polish cottage (Jig. 304. ) is formed chiefly of timber,
with some plaster and wicker-work to thicken the walls within.
The roof is covered with shingles or fir-timber split into pieces
of about eighteen inches long, six inches broad, and half an inch
thick. The ends are generally upright, not en jmiUloHy and
the roofs projecting.

1779. The Russian cottage is also built of timber, but of solid
logs or trees notched, and let into each other at the angles of
the buildings where they intersect. They are roofed as in the
Polish cottage, and sometimes highly ornamented at the ends
by carved imitations of the sun, moon, stars, &:c. protruded
from the ends, and protected by the projection of the roof.

1780. The Swedish and Danish cottage is built of logs and
moss, like the Russian.

1781. The jrrimitive hut, or cairn, varies as to material, according to the country in
which it is formed. The rudest description of artificial shelter for man is perhaps
that used by the aboriginal inhabitants of Botany Bay, which is a large plate of the
bark of a tree bent in the middle, and its two ends stuck in the earth. The African
cottage {Jig. 305. ) is a low 3q5

oblong mud hut, con-
structed by tlie natives as
swallows do their nests.
[Sir ir. Ouseley.) The
rudest European hut is
generally a cone formed by
branches, poles, or young
trees, with their ends set
in the ground, made to
lean against each other at
the top, sucJi as are now in

use in Lapland. {Jig. 306.) They are then covered with spray, heath, straw, reeds,
or turf. One opening serves the purpose of all others. In countries abounding in
noxious reptiles, this is made in the upper part of tlie roof, and entered by a trap-door,
as in Stedman's hut at Surinam, or by a ladder as in the huts of Morocco {Jig. .Sll.) ;
but in Europe the entrance is generally made on a level with the floor, as in the huts of

306

950

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

310

^07 308 309

Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, and Lapland.
Modifications of this and other rude forms (Jigs. 307.
to 310.) may sometimes be admitted in garden-scenery,
as tool-houses, or shelters for other materials, game,
&c. — A variety of examples of rustic huts and
cottages are to be found in Kraft's plans, &c. ; and of
highly decorated cottages and ornamented buildings
in Mrs. Hofland's White Knights, and Ackermann's
Repository of the Arts.

1782. The bridge is one of the grandest decorations
of garden-scenery, where really useful. None require
so little architectural elaboration, because every mind
recognises the object in view, and most minds are
pleased with the means employed to attain that object
in proportion to their simplicity. There are an im-
mense variety of bridges, which may be classed accord-
ing to the mechanical principles of their structure;
the style of architecture, or the materials used.

With respect to the principles of their mechanical structure, the materials of bridges are held together, either
by their gravity, as in all arches, whether of stone, iron, or timber ; or by their tenacity, as in single planks,
flat bridges of iron or timber, and those new and wonderful exertions of ingenuity, suspended bridges, of
which fine examples have been executed across the Menai and the Tweed, and the principles of which we
have elsewhere {Annals of Philosophy, Jan. 1816.) entered into at large.

With respect to styles of architecture, the bridge afFords little opportunity of detailed display ; but the
openings may be circular or pointed arches, or right-lined, or a mixture of these.

As to Twa^ma/, bridges of tenacity are formed of timber or wrought-iron ; bridges of gravity, generally
of cast-iron or stone ; but they may be formed of any material. We submit a few examples in different
styles, and composed of different materials.

1783. The fallen tree is the original form, and may sometimes be admitted in garden-
scenery, with such additions as will render it safe, and somewhat commodious.

1784. The foot-plank is the next form, and may or may not be supported in the middle,
or at different distances by posts.

1785. The Swiss bridge [Jigs. 312, 313.) is a rude composition of trees unbarked,
and not hewn or polished.

312

1786. The tied plank {fig. 314.) is formed by fixing the ends of one or more planks
in two heads or cases of cast-iron (a, a), and then connecting them by wrought-iron
rods {b, b) fixed to the heads in the manner of a string to a bow. A very light bridge
is thus formed, which acts both by tenacity and gravity. Thus, when a light weight
is on the bridge, the particles of the boards are not moved, but merely pressed on, and
therefore the arched part may then be said to act by gravity ; while this pressure being
propagated to the abutments, these are held in equilibrium by the iron rods acting by
their tenacity. On the other hand, when a bridge of this sort is heavily loaded, the

Book TIL

USEFUL DECORATIVE BUILDINGS.

851

arch will bend down, or yield in some places and rise in others ; in which case the whole
acts by its tenacity. 314

^S^^§$^^$^§^NS^J§S^SSSS^^

1787. A very light and strong bridge may be formed by screwing together thin boards in
the form of a segment, or by screwing together a system of triangles of timber. This
principle may be carried to a great extent ; by using so many lamina the elasticity of
the materials is lessened without rupturing their parts, and though from the form of
such arches, they would appear to act by gravity, yet in truth, they act more by
tenacity, for the ends of the segment cannot be pressed out without rupturing the soffit,
or crushing the crown of the arch. For broad tame rivers in flat grounds, such arches
may be considered appropriate, as attaining the end without any appearance of great
effort. (Fuiton on Bridges ; Howard on Military Bridges.)

1788. Brixlges of common carpentry (Jigs. 315, 316.) admit of every variety of form,
and either of rustic workmanship or with unpolished materials, or of polished timber
alone, or of dressed timber and abutments of masonry.

315 SIC

1789. Bi-idges of masonry {Jig. 317.) may either have raised or flat roads; but in all
cases those are the most beautiful (be- 317

cause most consistent with utility) in
which the road on the arch rises as little
above the level of the road on the shores
as possible ; notwithstanding the pre-
judices of some eminent engineers

{Telford, in Ed. Encyc. art. Bridge) in .^^ ^ . _^^

favor of the old practice of always . --^^-=^^^^'^~^^S^rC^

forming the extrados of a considerable curve. It is only where masted vessels are to
pass under, that the raising the arches higher tlian what is necessary for the transit of the
stream can be considered in good taste.

1790. Cast-iron bridges are necessarily curved; but that curvature, and the h'nes
which enter into the architecture of their rails, may be varied according to taste or
local indications.

1791. The boat, as to construction, belongs to naval architecture. In gardening,
it is sometimes used as a substitute for the bridge, sometimes worked by a mechanical
power, as the wheel and pinion, and commonly with the deck arranged as part of the
gravel walk, which approaches the edge of the water. But where a river with a cur-
rent is to be crossed, the fying boat, with the deck arranged as part of the walk (Jig. 318.),

d^d

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part IT.

is preferable. Tlie motion of this boat is de-
rived from the obliquity of its sides to the
direction of the current, which must be kept
up by the use of the rudder. ITie boat (a)
must be anchored to a post (b) fixed in the
middle of the river ; and the longer the ca-
ble (c), the manoeuvre will be the more easily
executed, provided the movement is not
made in a greater arc than 90°. The force
of the stream is at a maximum, when the
angle formed by it, and the side of the boat
is 54" 44', The same purpose may be ef-
fected by a triangular raft without the use of
a rudder. (Howard on Military Bridges,
sect. 4. p. 97).

1792. Sepulchral structures have been
adopted as parts of garden-scenery from
the earliest times. They are most common
in the Protestant countries of Europe, and
in England are to be found in parks and
pleasure-grounds in various characters and
styles, from the consecrated flower-plot, as
at Nuneham Courtenay, to the superb mau-
soleum of Castle Howard, or of Cobham
Hall.

The most ancient fm-m of sepulchres seems to have "been f «»««/», harrows, or mmnds of earth ; some-
times planted, but generally left to acquire a clothing of turf. In cool regions, these may be considered
the most durable of all tombs, because the roots and clothing of the turf prevent the earth from being
washed or blown away by the weather, and the material presents no temptation to the avarice of man-
kind. Of such tombs there are several on a small scale in Wiltshire, and on a large scale round the city
of Cracow ; the last considered as the sepulchres of the ancient kings of Poland.

The cairn, or cone of rough stones, is the next form, common in some parts of Britain. To this suc-
ceeded the pyramid of Egypt These are, in their nature and construction, calculated to serve as durable
monuments, and were very properly employed by kings and chieft hi rude ages ; fbr then, as now, the
idea of being quite forgotten was felt to be unpleasant. But in more modern times, those parts of men's
actions, which are worth remembering, can be recorded in books, which, when good, are the most
durable of all monuments. Such piles as have been mentioned are felt as too expensive, and considered
as too gross a display of the love of fame ; men, therefore, have recourse to what may be called emblems
of monuments, known under the names of mausoleums, obelisks, pillars, tombs, vaults, stone coffins,
sarcophagi, urns, &c. ; all of which exist from general consent, and not from the indestructive nature of
their materials or construction, as in the former class. The most unnatural form of sepulture, and the most
liable ultimately to defeat the very end in view — respect to the memory of the deceased — is that in which
the body is embalmed, richly clothed, and hermetically sealed up in a box or chest of durable materials,
such as lead, and placed in a richly ornamented building of valuable stone. Here, in times of intestine
war and rapine, the building will be broken into, and the lead and other valuable materials taken from
the bodies ; even the stuffs in which the body is wrapped may be an object, as was the case with the
retreating French army at Kowno and other places in 1812 ; or the architectural ornaments, and the dead
bodies themselves, may be objects of research, as in the case of certain Grecian marbles taken by Lord Elgin,
and the despoliation of numerous Egyptian tombs by Signor Belzoni and others. A very natural form of
sepulture for a family residing on their own estate in the country, is a consecrated grove or enclosure,
in which each individual is buried near a tree, inscribed with his name on the bark. All that an enemy
or a new purchaser can do, is to cut down the trees, and change the state of the ground from pasture
to arable. If any of the family have effected any great public good, it will be elsewhere permanently
recorded ; if they have not, it is fitting their names should, as indeed they always will, perish with their
bodies. The utility of epitaphs and tombs in public groves or churchyards, however, it is not meant to
deny ; nor to impugn the different tastes of individuals. The grand object appears to us to be the at-
tainment of the greatest possible quantum of enjoyment, mental and corporal, while living.

1793. As to monuments for the inferior animals, such as are to be found at Potsdam, Oatlands, and
Bramley Hall, we eay, with that enviable and remarkable character the Prince de Ligne,
" Loin ces vains monumens d'un chien ou d*un oiseau,
C'est profaner le deuil, insulter au tombeau."

1 794. The gate is of various forms and materials, according to those of the barrier of
which it constitutes a part. In all gates, the essential part of the construction, or those
lines which maintain its strength and position, and facilitate its motion, are to be distin-
guished from such {a, a, Jig. 319. ; Scjig. 320.) as serve chiefly to render it a barrier,
or as decorations. Tlius a gate with a raised top or head (Jig' 321.) is almost always
in bad taste, because at variance with strength ; while the contrary form {fig- 320.) is
generally in good taste, for the contrary reason. In regard to strength," the nearer the
arrangement of rails and bars approaches in effect to one solid lamina, or plate of wood
or iron, of the gate's dimensions, the greater will be the force required to tear or break
it in pieces. But this would not be consistent with lightness and economy, and, there-
fore, the skeleton of a lamina is resorted to, by the employment of slips or rails joined
together on mechanical principles ; that is, on principles derived from a rnechanical
analysis of strong bodies. Strength of the most perfect kind is resolvable into hard-
ness and tenacity ; and in artificial compositions, the latter is obtained by what in car-
pentry are called ties {Jigs. 319. a, & 322.) and the former by what are called struts
(Jig. 322. b). The art of carpentry, as far as construction is concerned, whether of gates,

Book III.

USEFUL DECORATIVE BUILDINGS.

353

or of roofs, consists in the judicious composition of ties and struts ; the former always re-
sisting a drawing or twisting power, and tlie latter one of a pressing or crushing nature.

321
319

a

a

a

1795. By the maintenance of a gate's position, we mean the resistance to that tendency
which most gates have to sink at the head or falKng-post, and thus no longer to open and
shut freely. If the construction and hanging of tlie gate were perfect, this could not
possibly take place ; but as the least degree of laxity in trussing the gate, or want of
firmness in fixing the post in the ground, will occasion, after frequent use, a sensible de-
pression at the head, it becomes requisite eitlier to guard against it as much as possible, in
the first construction ; or, to have, as in N. Parker's gate, a provision in the design of the
upper hinge, for rectifying the deviations as they take place. In order to understand the
construction best calculated to resist depression, suppose a gate hung, and resting on its heel
(Jig. 322. c), acting as a strut, and maintained

tliere by its upper hinge (rf), acting as a tie,
then the bottom rail of the gate considered as
representing the whole, becomes a lever of the
second kind, in which the prop is at one end
(c), the power at the otlier (g), and the weight
placed between them in the line of the centre
of gravity of the gate (i). Now, as two equal
forces, to hold each other in equilibrium, must
act in the same line of direction, it follows,
that the power acting at the end of the lever
(g), will have most influence %vhen exerted at
right angles to it or parallel to the line of
gravity (g e) ; but as this cannot be accom-
plished in a gate where the power must be
applied obliquely, it follows, that a larger
power becomes requisite ; but that the less
the obliquity, the less will be the power, or in other words the less the strain on the con-
struction of the gate, or the less the tendency to sink at the head. The half of tlie right
angle (g e c), seems a reasonable limit, by which, if the power requisite to hold the
weight in equilibrium, when acting at a right angle, be as the side of a square of the
length of the lower bar of the gate (g c), then the power requisite to effect the same end,
when acting at an angle of 45 degrees, is as the diagonal to this square (g k). By
changing the square to a parallelogram, the relative proportions will still be the same,
and the advantages and disadvantages will be rendered more obvious. (For g d is not
to d c, as g h is to h c.) It is evident from this principle, that gates whose upper line is
concave, or falls from the posts or piers to the centre {Jig. 320.), are more fitting, and
consequently more beautiful, than such as are of an opposite description (Jig. 321.)
But a person totally ignorant of mechanical principles, but of good taste in visual mat-
ters in general, might prefer the latter, which shows, that a just or true taste must be
founded on science or reason, and is by no means so vague and indefinite, or arbitrary
an exertion of judgment as many are apt to imagine.

1796. Compensation-hinges. Where there is no choice between a construction calcu-
lated to resist sinking, and the common form, then the corrective or comiyensation-hinge
of N. Parker {Jig. 323.) is very proper for division-gates in parks or drives ; but a sci-
entific construction, either polished or rustic {Jig. 326.), may be easily contrived for
gates m forests and farms. When Parker's hinge is used, all that is necessarj', when the
gate smks at the head, is to screw it up by the nut {a, Jig. 323.) till it is replaced in its
original position.

the least, as the rubbing there is limited to one point, instead of the whole surfaces of two
cyhnders. WTiatever, therefore, has a tendency to throw the preponderance of weight
on the heel, must lessen the friction of the upper hinge. This will be accomplished in

A a

354

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Tar^ II.

323

^^

proportion as the centre of gravity is moved from the centre of the gate towards the
heel : and this, as well as additional strength, may be obtained by increasing the dimen-
sions of the materials gradually from the head to the heel. — Some have proposed to
suspend gates by weights, in the manner of windows, instead of hanging them, but ex-
cepting in anomalous cases, this would be an unsightly and inconvenient practice.
(^Farmer s Mag. 1819.)

1798. The forces and dh^ecftions of the strains on the hinges of gates has been practically
explained and mathematically demonstrated by Bailey (^Agric. Rej). Northumb.) and
N. Parker. [Essay on Gates, 1816.) The turnpike-gate of the last author seems to be a
very near approach to perfection.

1799. Substitutes for gates, such as the gate with falling bars {figs. 324, 325.) ; the stile,
which is of various sorts ; turn-wicket ; horizontal grating ; and various other modes of
permitting man to pass a barrier and yet excluding cattle, belong rather to agriculture
than to gardening.

1800. Gates, as decorations, may be classed according to the prevailing lines, and the
materials used. Horizontal, perpendicular, diagonal, and curved lines, comprehend all
gates, whether of iron or of timber, and each of these may be distinguished more or less
by ornamental parts, which may either be taken from any of the known styles of archie
tecture, or from heraldry or fancy.

1801. The published designs for gates are numerous, especially those for iron gates; for
executing which, the improvements made in casting that metal in moulds afford great
facilities. By a judicious junction of cast and wrought iron, the ancient mode of en-
riching gates with flowers and other carved-like ornaments might be happily re-intro-
duced.

1802. Gates in garden-sceneri/, where architectural elegance is not required to sup-
port character, simple or rustic structures (fg. 326.), wickets, turn-stiles, and even move-

326

CONVENIENT DECORATIONS.

855

327

Book IH.

able or suspended rails, like the German scMaghaum {/g. 324.), maybe introduced
according to the character of the scene. • • -i i u .

1 803. RaUs or fences, for parks and garden- scenery, are, as^^ lines, sinularly charact^P-
ised as gates ; and, like gates,
fences are of many species,
from the rudest barriers with-
out nails or iron work (Jig.
327.) to the numerous sorts
of iron and wire barriers.
Hurdles, whether of wood or
iron, are the most convenient
description of temporary fences. Tliey are manufactured of various forms and dimen-
sions, so as to prove, as to height and openings between the rails, rods, or wires, barriers
to hares, sheep, cattle, or deer. Where iron fences are considered as permanent fixtures,
those parts which are inserted in the ground should be of cast-iron, as resisting oxidation
much better than the wrought material. It ought, at the sanae time, to be covered with
tar, pitch, or pyroligneous acid, or, whilst hot, painted over with oil. For interior fences,
poles or laths may be formed into trellis-work of different kinds (/g. 328.) ; preserv-
ing the bark of the former, and pitching or charring the ends inserted in the earth. A

328

neat garden or lawn fence, and one which will last a long time maybe made of the stems
ofyoung larch-trees, (/g. 329.)

329

1804. f Falls are unquestionably the grandest fences for parks ; and arched portals,
the noblest entrances ; between these and the hedge or pale, and rustic gate, designs in
every degree of gradation, both for lodges, gates, and fences, will be found in the works
of Wright, Gandy, Robertson, Aikin, Pocock, and other architects who have published
on the rural department of their art. The pattern books of manufacturers of iron gates
and hi^dles, and of wire workers, may also be advantageously consulted.

SuBSECT. 2. Convenient Decorations.

1805. Of convenient decorations the variety is almost endless, from the prospect-tower
to the rustic seat ; besides aquatic decorations, agreeable to the eye and convenient for
the purposes of recreation or culture. Their emplacement, as in the former section, be-
longs to gardening, and their construction to architecture and engineering.

1806. The jyrospect-tower is a noble object to look at, and a gratifj-ing and instructive
position to look from. It should be placed on the highest grounds of a residence, in
order to command as wide a prospect as possible, to serve as a fixed recognised point to
strangers, in making a tour of the grounds. It may very properly be accompanied by
a cottage ; or the lower part of it may be occupied by the family of a forester, game-
keeper, or any rural pensioner, to keep it in order, &c.

1807. The kiosque is the Chinese prospect-tower, of peculiar construction, charac-
terised by numerous stories, designated by projecting roofs and pendent bells. An ex-
ample exists at Kew, and its details will be found in the Plans of the Btiildings, &c.,
erected there by Sir W. Chambers. Sometimes the prospect-tower is a hollow column,
as in the monumental column of London, that to the memory of Lord Nelson, at
Edinburgh, and to Lord Hill, at Shrewsbury ; but the stairs in such buildings are ne-
cessarily too narrow for the prospect-tower of country-residences, and besides there can

Aa 2

356

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

be no rooms as resting-places, which are absolutely necessary, where ease and enjoyment
are studied, and where some attention is had to the delicacy of women, and the frailties
of old age.

1 808. Temples, either models or imitations of the religious buildings of the Greeks
and heathen Romans, are sometimes introduced in garden-scenery to give dignity and
beauty. In residences of a certain extent and character, they may be admissible as imi-
tations, as resting-places, and as repositories of sculptures or antiquities. Though their
introduction has been brought into contempt by its frequency, and by bad imitations in
perishable materials, yet they are not for that reason to be rejected by good taste. They
may often add dignity and a classic air to a scene ; and when erected of durable mate-
rials, and copied from good models, will, like their originals, please as independent ob-
jects. Knight, and some other connoisseurs of less note, disgusted by the abuse of
temples, have argued, as it appears to us, too exclusively against their introduction, and
contend for. cottages as the fittest ornaments of rural scenery : but why limit the resources
of an art because they are liable to abuse ? Thatched roofs may become tiresome, as
well as columns ; and if Stow is an example of the latter carried to excess, White
Knights is as certainly of the former

1809. Porches and porticoes (Jig. 330.) are sometimes employed as decorative marks
to the entrances of scenes ; and sometimes merely as roofs to shelter seats or resting
benches.

1810. Alcoves {jig- 331.) are used as winter resting-places, as being fully exposed to
the sun. 330 331

1811. Arbors are used as
summer seats and resting-places :
they may be shaded with fruit-
trees, as the vine, currant, cherry ;
climbing ornamental shrubs, as
ivy, clematis, &c. ; or herba-
ceous, as everlasting pea, gourd,
&c. They are generally formed
of timber lattice-work, some-
times of woven rods, or wicker-
work, and occasionally of wire.

1812. The Italian arbor (Jig.

332.) is generally covered with a dome, often framed of thick iron or copper wire
painted, and covered with vines or honeysuckles.

332 333

1813. The French arbor (Jig. 333) is characterised by the various lines and surfaces,
which enter into the composition of the roof.

1814. Caves and caverns, where they exist naturally in the grounds of a residence, as at
Piercefield, Corby Castle, &c., or can be readily formed, are to be regarded more as singu-
larities or picturesque objects than as places of use or enjoyment in this climate ; in Italy
and Spain they are great luxuries. „ j

1815. GroWoes are resting-places in recluse situations, rudely covered externally, and
within finished with shells, corals, spars, crystallisations, and other marine and mineral
productions, according to fancy. To add to the eflfect, pieces of looking-glass are m-
serted in different places and positions.

Book III.

CONVENIENT DECORATIONS.

357

1816. Roofed seats, boat-houses, inosi houses, fint houses, bark huts, and similar con-
structions, are different modes of forming resting-places containing seats, and some-
times other furniture or conveniences in or near them. Very neat buildings and furni-
ture of this class may be formed of hazel-rods ; or of any tree with a clean bark, and
straight shoots, as young oaks or mountain ash. The spruce fir affords a good outside
material : and five or six young trees coupled together, make good rustic coliunns. At
White Knights, the Slopes at Windsor, and Bothwell Castle, are good examples of
covered seats of the rustic kind, {figs, 334, 335, 3S6.)

334 335 336

1817. Roofed seats of a more polished description are boarded structures generally
semi-octagonal, and placed so as to be open to the south. Sometimes they are portable,
moving on wheels, so as- to be placed in different positions, according to the hour of the
day, or season of the year, which, in confined spots, is a desirable circumstance. Some-
times they turn on rollers, or on a central pivot, for the same object, and this is very
common in what are called barrel-seats. In general they are opaque, but occasionally
their sides are glazed, to admit the sun to the interior in winter.

1818. Folding chairs. A sort of medium seat, between the roofed and the exposed, is
formed by constructing the backs of chairs, benches, or sofas with hinges, so as they may
fold down over the seat, and so protect it from rain. After rain, when these backs are
replaced in their proper position, a dry seat, and dry back to lean against, are at once
obtained.

1819. Elegant structures of the seat kind for summer use, may be constructed of iron rodb
and wires, and painted canvas ; the iron forming the supporting skeleton, and the canvass
the protecting tegument. The mushroom or umbrella form {fg. 337.), and that of the
Turkish tent {fig. 338.), the oriental pavilion, or any other exotic form free &om vul-
garity and meagre lines, may be made choice of on such occasions.

337

338

1820. Exposed seals
include a great variety,
rising in gradation from
the turf bank to the
carved couch. Inter-
mediate forms are stone
benches,root stools, sec-
tions of trunks of trees,
wooden, stone, or cast-
iron mushrooms paint-
ed or covered with moss, or mat, or heath ; the Chinese barrel-seat, the rustic stool, chair,
tripod, sofa, the cast-iron couch or sofa, the wheeling-chair, and many sub-varieties.

1821. Swings {fig. 339.), see-saws, &c.
are not very common in English gardens,
but, as exercising places for chil£en, are
very proper in retired, but airy parts of the
pleasure-ground. Hurley-burleys, riding-
wheels, &c. are better substituted by
donkies and ponies. No greater danger
is incurred, and something of the art of
horsemanship is thus actually acquired.
In every country-residence where there
are children, contrivances for their exercise
and amusement ought to be considered
essential objects ; for these purposes, a riding school, and bath or pond for learning to
swim and row a boat, may be considered essential. The former may also serve for ac-
quiring the infantry and cavalry exercise, and learning to fire at a mark, jump, run,
wresUe, box, chmb trees or smooth poles, ascend ropes, &c.

A a 3

•358 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

1822. Of constructions for displaying xvater, as an artificial decoration, the principal are
cascades, waterfalls, jets, and fountains. Tlie foundation of the cascade and waterfall, is
the head or dam which must be thrown across the river or stream ; and in this, two tilings
are to be considered, its strength, and the materials of which it is composed.

1823. With respect to strength, the pressure of water is as its depth, and consequently a
dam, whose section is a right-angled triangle (fg. 340. a, b, c), and whose hypothenuse
(a, b) forms an angle of 45°, with the base (a, c) formed of any material of greater specific
gravity than water, would, as far as strength is concerned, hold in equilibrium a body of
still water of a depth equal to its perpendicular. If the hypothenuse, or- sloping side,
be placed next the water, it will more than hold the water in equilibrium, by the weight
of the triangle {a, b, d) of the water superincumbent on the triangle of the dam or bank.

1 824. That the viaterials of the bank must be of a nature impervious to water, and also
must adhere to the base or -bottom, so as not to admit water to escape beneath it, are ob-
vious conditions of the foregoing proportion. The practice of forming dams or heads, is
derived from this theory ; but to guard against accident, the base of the triangle is always
made three or more times greater than its height ; the slope next the stream may form an
angle with the horizon, of from 40*^ to 20°, and that on the lower side is regulated by the
uses of the dam. If for raising water so as to cover a hollow where there is little pr no
overflow expected, then the slope is generally of earth, 40° or 35° {fig. 340. e,f), turfed
or planted ; if for a cascade, the slope is regulated by the form or undulations on which
the rocks to produce the breaking of the water are to be placed ; and if for a waterfall, a
perpendicular wall is substituted, over which the water projects itself in a sheet or lamina,
in breadth proportioned to the quantity of the current.

340

1 825. In all these cases, instead of forming the dam entirely of materials impervious
to water, it is sufficient if a vertical stratum of wrought-clay be brought up its centre
{fig. 340. g,f), and the surface of the bank rendered firm by a coating of gravel on the
slope next the water.

1826. The construction of the waterfall, where avowedlij artificial, is nothing more than a
strong-built wall across the stream, perfectly level at top, and with a strong, smooth, ac-
curately fitted, and well jointed coping. On the perfection of the coping, both as to level
and jointing, depends the regular distribution of the lamina of water to be projected.
Formerly artificial cascades of this sort were curved in the ground-plan, the concavity
pointing down the stream, by which som.e strength and a better view of the water were
supposed to be obtained. With respect to strength, this can only hold true, or at least be
of consequence, in cases where the upper slope of the dam is very steep, and the force of
the current great; and as to a fuller view, this can only take place when the eye of the
spectator is in the focus of the segment. Where a natural waterfall is to be imitated, the
upright wall must be built of huge irregular blocks ; the horizontal lamina of water
broken in the same way by placing fragments of rocks grouped here and there so as to
th row the whole into paits ; and as nature is never methodical, to form it as if in part a
cascade.

1827. In imitating a natural cascade in garden-scenery, the horizontal line must here
also be perfect, to prevent waste of water in diy seasons, and from this to the base of the
lower slope the surface must be paved by in-egular blocks, observing to group the promi-
nent fragments, and not distribute them regularly over the surface. In the infancy of
landscape-gardening, the lower bank or slope of the dam was formed into ogee and othei*
curves, or a serpentine line, and smoothly paved or causeyed, fixing on the convexities of
the curves projecting boards across the current ; and the current being thus interrupted,
was thrown up in arched waves. Such was the sort of beauty then admired ; fdr it is a
long time in the progress of improvement before man can see any other beauty than that
which he has himself produced.

1828. Tlie greatest danger in imitating cascades and waterfalls, consisting in attempting
too much, a very few blocks, disposed with a painter's eye, will effect all that can be
in good taste in most garden-scenes ; and in forming or improving them in natural
rivers, there will generally be found indications both as to situation and style, especially
if the country be uneven, or stony, or rocky. Nothing can be in worse taste than piles of
stones and rocks across a river either natural or artificial, in a tame alluvial meadow : they
may be well chosen fragments from suitable materials, and arranged so as to form a cas-
cade or waterfall very beautiful of itself, but whose beauty is really deformity or mon-

Book III.

CONVENIENT DECORATIONS.

359

strosity, relatively to the surrounding scenery, or to that whole of wliich it should form an
accordant part.

1829. Jets and other hydraulic devices, though now less in repute than formerly, are not
to be rejected in confined artificial scenes, and form an essential decoration where the
ancient style of landscape is introduced in any degree of perfection.

1830. The Jirst requisite for jets or projected spouts, or threads of water, by atmospheric
pressure, is a sufficiently elevated source or reservoir of supply. This being obtained,
pipes are to be conducted from it to the situations for the jets. No jets, however con-
structed, will rise as high as the fountain-head ; because the water is impeded by the re-
sistance of the air, the friction against the opening of the pipe or adjutage, and its own
gravity. It is not easy to lay down data on tliis head ; if the bore of the adjutage be too
small, the rising stream will want sufficient weight and power to divide the air, and so being
dashed against it will fall down in vapor or mist. If too large, it will not rise at all. The
length of pipe between the reservoir and the jet will also impede its rising in a slight degree
by the friction of the water on the pipe. This is estimated by P. J. Francois {Art des ,
Fontaines, 137.) at one foot for every hundred yards from the reservoir. The proportion
which this author gives to the adjutages relatively to the conducting-pipes, is one fourtli ;
and thus for a jet of four lines, or a third of an inch, he requires an adjutage of between
four and five lines, and a conducting pipe of one inch and a half diameter ; for a jet of six
or seven lines, a con ducting-pipe of two inches, and so on. From these data, the height
of the fountain and the diameter of the conducting-pipe being given, the height to which
a jet can be forced can be estimated with tolerable accuracy, and the contrary. But where
the pipes are already laid, and the power of the head, owing to intervening obstructions,
not very accurately known, tlie method by trial and correction by means of a leaden nozzle,
the orifice of which may be readily increased or diminished, will lead to the exact power
under all tlie circumstances.

1831. Adjutages are of various sorts. Some are contrived so as to throw up the water
in the form of sheaves, fans, showers, to support balls, &c. ; others to throw it out hori-
zontally, or in curved lines, according to the taste of the designer ; but the most usual
form is a simple opening to throw the spout or jet upright. The grandest jet of any is
a perpendicular column issuing from a rocky base, on which the water falling, produces
a double effect both of sound and visual display. A jet rising from a naked tube in
the middle of a basin or canal, and the waters falling on its smooth surface, is unnatural,
without being artificially grand.

1832. Drooping foimtains (Jigs. 341, 342, 343.), overflowing vases, shells (as the
chama gigas), cisterns, sarcophagi, dripping rocks, and rockworks, are easily formed,
requiring only the reservoir to be as high as the orifice whence the dip or descent pro-
ceeds. This description of fountains, with a surrounding basin, are peculiarly adapted
for the growth of aquatic plants. Both classes of water-works successfully combine.

341

342

5U_E-l-ll.

348

1833. Waste-drains. In all water- works in gardens, pipes or drains must be contrived
to carry off such of the water as is not used in culture. The diameter of these should be
somewhat larger than the conducting-pipes, for obvious reasons.

1834. Su7i-dials are venerable and pleasing garden-decorations ; and should be placed
in conspicuous frequented parts, as in the intersection of principal walks, where the
" note which they give of time" may be readily recognised by the passenger. Elegant
and cheap forms are now to be procured in cast-iron, which, it is to be hoped, will render
their use more frequent.

1835. Vanes are useful in the same way, but are an unsuitable garden-ornament,
though frequently introduced on the summits of garden-buildings. The ideas to which
they give rise, as connected with ships, flags, fairs, military standards, &c. are all oppo-
site to the stillness and repose of gardens. Over a library or office they are useful, con-
nected with an internal index ; and they are characteristic and proper over churches,
family-chapels, clock-towers, and domestic offices.

A a 4

SCO SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part 11.

SuBSECT. 3. Characteristic Decorations.

1 836. As characteristic decoratioiis are purely decorative, without any pretensions to
convenience, they should ever be very sparingly employed, and only by persons of
judgment and experience. A tyro in gardening will be more apt to render himself
ridiculous by the use of decorations, than by any other point of practice, and most apt
by the use of characteristic decorations.

1837. Rocks are generally considered as parts of the foundation of the earth, and their
general character is that of grandeur, sometimes mixed with the singular, fantastiCf or
romantic. Their expression forms a fine contrast to that of perishable vegetation, and
therefore they have been eagerly sought after in gardens, both on this account, and as
forming a suitable habitation for certain descriptions of plants. Plant-rockworks are
protuberant surfaces, or declivities irregularly covered with rocky fragments, land-stones,
conglomerated gravel, vitrified bricks, vitrified scoriae, flints, shells, spar, or other earthy
and hard mineral bodies. Such works are, in general, to be looked on more as scenes
of culture than of design or picturesque beauty.

1838. Rockworks for effect or character require more consideration than most gar-
deners are aware of. The first tiling is to study the character of the country, and of the
strata of earthy materials, whether earth, gravel, sand, or rock, or a mere nucleus of either
of these, such as they actually exist, so as to decide whether rocks may, with propriety,
be introduced at all ; or, if to be introduced, of what kind, and to what extent. The
design being thus finally fixed on, the execution is more a matter of labor than of
skill.

1839. The ruins of objects adapted by their natures or constructions to brave time,
have always excited veneration ; and this sentiment, forming a contrast with those emo-
tions raised by mere verdant scenes, has ever been esteemed very desirable in gardens.
Hence the attempt to produce them by forming artificial ruins, which, being absolute
deceptions, cannot admit of justification. If any thing is admissible in this way, it is the
heightening the expression of ruins which already exist, by the addition of some parts,
which may be supposed to have existed there when the edifice was more entire. Thus,
the remains of a castle-wall, not otherwise recognisable from that of a common house or
enclosure, may be pierced with a window or a loophole, in the style appropriate to its
date, or it may be heightened or extended in some degree. In other cases, turrets, or
pinnacles, or battlements, or chimney-tops may be added according to circumstances, and
as a judicious and experienced taste and antiquarian architect may direct. Unless the
style of the age of the ruins be adopted, the additions become worse than useless to all
such as are conversant in the history of architecture, of which an example may be given
in the modern Gothic turrets, in the grounds of White Knights, intended to represent
the abbey of that name, founded soon after the Norman conquest.

1840. Antiquities (Jig. 344.) are nearly allied to ruins, but differ from them in being
of some value as objects, independently of locality. They may be valuable from their
great age, as druidical ; from historical traditions connected with them, as stones indi-
cating the site of a battle, the cross-stone of an ancient town, &c. ; or from the excel-

344

Book III. CHARACTERISTIC DECORATIONS. 361

lence of the workmanship or the material, as in the fragments of Grecian and Roman
sculpture and architecture. This class of decorations is very common in Italy, and espe-
cially near Rome and Naples. Viewed as parts of landscape, almost every thing depends
on their union with the surrounding scenery.

1841. Rarities and curiosities, like antiquities, possess a sort of absolute value ; but
the sentiments to which they give rise are more allied to wonder than veneration. They
are occasionally introduced in gardening, such as the jaw-bones of the whale, basaltic
columns, lava blocks, pillars of earthy rock-salt. The tufFa, corals, and madrepores
brought from Otaheite by Captain Cook, as ballast, now form part of the rock work in
the Chelsea garden. Chinese rocks, idols, and other Chinese garden-<)rnaments, are
sometimes admitted, not as imitations of rocks or sculpture, but as curiosities.

1842. MonumeiUal objects, as obelisks, columns, pyramids, may occasionally be intro-
duced with grand effect, both in a picturesque and historical view, of which Blenheim,
Stow, Castle Howard, &c. afford fine examples ; but their introduction is easily car-
ried to the extreme, and then it defeats itself, as at Stow. In this department may be
truly said, after Buonaparte, *' Z>u sublime au ridicule U rCy a quun pas /"

1843. Sculptures. Of statues, therms, busts, pedestals, altars, urns, and similar
sculptures, nearly the same remarks may be made. Used sparingly, they excite interest,
often produce character, and are always individually beautiful, as in the pleasure-grounds
of Blenheim, where a few are judiciously introduced ; but profusely scattered about, they
distract attention.

1844. Vegetable sculptures {fig. 345.) are very appro-
priate in parterres and other scenes in the ancient style. ^a 345
That tljey may be executed with correctness and without
loss of time, the skeleton should be formed of wire, with-
in which all the shoots should be confined, and when
once the form is filled up with vegetation, tlie gardener
has only to clip the protruding shoots. Groups of
figures of different colors may be very curiously executed
by using different colored greens. In the garden of the
convent of the Madre di Dio, near Savonna, is a group
representing the flight of Joseph into Egj^pt, in yellow
box, variegated holly, myrtle, cypress, laurel, and rose-
mary. The attending priest told us these plants com-
pleted their forms in three years.

1845. Inscriptions, as historical records, without comment, may in some cases be ad-
missible ; as the date when any work was begun and finished, Uie height of elevated
points above the level of the sea, or relatively to other surrounding elevated and conspi-
cuous objects, &c. &c. ; but sentimental and religious inscriptions cannot be approved
of by men in general. They are something superadded to what is or ought to be already
complete, and place nature in the situation of the painter, whose portraits required the
aid of graphical description. " This is a black bear. '* That is " A happy nrral seat of
various view."

1846. Eye-traps, painted perspectives, on walls or boards, as terminations, mock hermits,
soldiers, banditti, wooden lions (as at Hawkstone), sheep in stucco, or any other figures of
men or animals, intended to pass for realities, though still used in Holland and France, may
be pronounced as too puerile for the present age. If they are still admired by the city mob
in a suburban tea-garden, so much the better ; the mob must be pleased as well as their
superiors, and the rich vulgar may join with them ; but the object of all the arts, whether
useful or agreeable, is to elevate our tastes and enjoyments ; and therefore as soon as
men's minds are prepared for any refinement on former tilings, the particular art to which
these things belong should prepare the way for their removal, by presenting appropriate
substitutes. A few reading tents and portable coffee-houses scattered over the public
parks round London and Edinburgh, as at Paris and Vienna, in umbrageous and pictu-
resque situations, would be fitting resources for one class of pedestrians, as those
crowded yards called tea-gardens are for others.

Chap. IV.

Of the Improvement of the Mechanical Agents of Gardening.

1847. The greater number of the implements and buildings enumerated in the fore-
going chapters may no doubt be done without, even in the first-rate gardens. A number
more, however, might have been added, which are in use in particular situations and
circumstances, but we have omitted them, some as not meriting to become general, and

362 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Tart II.

others because their forms or consfractions were too obsolete for modern practice, or too
new and imperfect in construction to merit recommendation. A gardener of science
and experience is not to be confined in his choice to what is or has been in this or in any
department of his art ; but drawing from the resources of his own mind, he may, and
ought not only to improve what is already in use, but design and get executed, new
tools, instruments, and constructions, better calculated to effect the ends in view gene-
rally, or more suited to the exigencies of his particular case. Notwithstanding the al-
terations and ameliorations which have of late been so frequently made, there are few of
the mechanical agents of gardening now in use, that do not admit of some, and many
of them, unquestionably, of much improvement. The ultimate effect of all these amelior-
ations is to lessen human labor, and increase the quantity, or improve the quality, of gar-
den-productions, so that every attempt to extend them is highly meritorious.

1848. As a general jyrinciple in re&pect to implements, structures, and buildings, the best
designs should be selected, and their execution procured in the best manner and of the
best materials. This can scarcely be too strongly impressed on the mind of the gardener
or his employer. With tools or instruments made of improper timber or iron, and of in-
different workmanship, the operator can never satisfy himself or his master. The quan-
tity of his labor is less, and the quality inferior ; add to this, that the instrument soon
begins to decay, and requires to be renewed, so that independently altogether of the
loss in the quantity and quality of labor, the loss occasioned by the renewal of the tool,
instrument, or machine, ought to be a sufficient inducement to procure at first only the
very best. The true way to ensure this, where the party are not judges, is to employ
tradesmen of good repute and long standing. In general, seedsmen should be the per-
sons from whom all the implements of gardening ought to be procurable ; but as they
often omit this branch of their business, from the want of regular demand, recourse must
be had to ironmongers, or to those new establishments called Horticultural and Agri-

. cultural Repositories.

1849. Hot-houses are by far the most important class (f garden-constructions. With respect
to them, no degree of horticultural skill and practical attention will compensate for the
want of light or air, or a bad exposure ; and where the arrangements for supplying arti-
ficial heat are imperfect, the risk is great, and painful for a zealous gardener to contem-
plate. One night may destroy the labors of the past year, and forbid hope for the year
to come ; the blame may be laid where it is not merited, and a faithful servant may lose
his situation and his character, without having committed either errors of ignorance or
carelessness.

1850. In all structures and edifices, the most complete, elegant, or grand design, when
badly executed, is disagreeable to the view, defective in the object of its erection, and
ruinous to tlie proprietor. Bad foundations and roofs, improper materials, materials of
difierent degrees of durability, piled incongruously together, and bad workmanship form
the elements of bad execution. In no country are materials and labor obtained in
greater perfection than in England ; and in all regular works coming under the architect
or the engineer, we generally find little to condemn, and often much to admire in the
execution of the work. Garden-buildings, however, and especially that important class,
hot-houses, are, relatively to civil architecture, an anomalous class of structures ; and
hence they are more the subject of chance or caprice in design, and of local convenience
in execution, than those of any department of rural architecture. The subject of horti-
cultural architecture, indeed, till very lately, has not been deemed of sufficient import-
ance, to induce an architect to make himself master of the first step towards improvement
in every art, the knowledge of what has already been done in it by others. Hence it fol-
lows, that garden-buildings, and especially hot-houses, are left either wholly to gardeners,
who understand little of the science of architecture, or wholly to architects, who under-
stand as little of the science of gardening. The consequence in either case, generally is,
incongruity in appearance, want of success in the useful results, and want of permanency
in duration. It would be more easy to adduce examples than to avoid the charge of im-
partiality in tlie selection.

1851. The recent improvement in the manufacture of iron, and the war-jmce of timber,
have greatly extended the use of the former material in most erections, and contributed,
from the novelty of the thing, to a good deal of incongruity in the disposition of the ma-
terials of buildings. Thus we have cast-iron sashes in deal frames, cast-iron rafters
placed on timber wall-plates, iron bars sheathed with copper, and many such dis-
cordant arrangements, certain in the end of defeating the purpose for which they were
adopted.

1852. Artists. There are two modes which proprietors may adopt who are desirous of
embodying in garden-erections the modern improvements. Tlie first is, to employ a
first-rate head gardener, and to authorise and require of him, to consult with a regular
architect or engineer, previously to fixing on any plan for a structure or machine ; and
the second is, to employ a regular garden-architect. A connoisseur will, no doubt, think

Book IV. OF THE OPERATIONS OF GARDENING. 363

for himself, and form his own plans ; and a spirited amateur will be tlie first to adopt
new improvements ; but the policy of a well regulated man, who has no pretensions to
particular skill himself, will certainly lead him to adopt one of the two first modes.

BOOK IV.

OF THK OPERATIONS OF GXRDENING.

1853. All the operations of gardening are mechanical in tlie first instance, though the
principal intention of many of them is to effect chemical changes, and of others, changes
on tlie vital principle. They are also all manual, or effected by man, who, though
possessing little power over nature in his naked, unarmed state, yet taking in his hands
some one of the implements or machines described, becomes thereby armed with a new
power, and operates on the soil, or on the vegetable itself, by effecting changes in
his own centre of gravity, and by muscular movements of his legs and arms, calculated
by pusliing, drawing, or lifting, to bring the implement into the action proper for per-
forming tlie operation in view. All these movements are governed by the laws of me-
chanics, and the operations performed, are all referable to one or more of the mechanical
powers, and chiefly, as we have before observed, to the lever and the wedge.

1854. The oj^erations of gardening jrresejit astonishing jrroofs of the advanced state of tlie
art. In the infancy of gardening, as the implements were few, so would be also (he
operations of culture, llie ground would be loosened on tlie surface with a hooked
stick (fig' 2.), or scratched with a bone, or a horn in the spring season ; the plants or seeds
rudely inserted, and the produce in autumn broken over or pulled up, as wanted by the
family or band to whom they belonged. But in the present state of human improve-
ment, the operations of gardening have branched out into a number and variety wliich
at first sight appear astonishing. Tlie operativns of pulverisation and sowing, for ex-
ample, are not confined to spring ; but are practised in every month of the year. The
season of reaping or gathering crops is equally extended ; and for such productions as
cannot be produced or preserved in the open air, recourse is had to hot-houses, and fruit
and root store-rooms. Vegetation is accelerated, retarded, and modified, almost at the
will of the operator ; and by processes which suppose a considerable degree of pljysiolo-
gical and chemical science, as well as practical skiU, mechanical dexterity, and personal
attention. Thus, shading, airing, and watering, tliough operations exceeded by none in
manual simplicity, cannot be performed without continual reference to the state of the
plant, of the soil, and of tlie climate or weather. Hence it is, that an operative gardener
who really knows his profession, requires to be not only a habile workman, but a thinking
and reasoning being, and a steady man. "We shall consider the operations of gardening,
1. As consisting of operations or labors in which strength is chiefly required ; 2. As
operations where skill is more required tlian strength ; and, 3. As operations or pro-
cesses where strength, skill, and science, are combined.

Chap. I.
Operations of Gardening, in which Strength is chiefly required in the Operator.

1855. To acquire the practice of gardening-operations, a few hours' labor with the im-
plements or machines will be of more use than a volume of words ; all that we shall
submit, therefore, will be some observations relatively to the mechanical action of the
implement and operator, the object of the operation, and the best season of performing
it. They may be arranged as, 1. Mechanical operations common to all arts of maniial
labor J 2. Garden-labors on the soil ; and, 3. Garden-labors on plants.

Sect. I. Mechanical Operations common to all Arts of Manual Labor.

1856. All the operations which man performs leith implements or machines are, as far
as his own person is concerned, reducible to lifting, carrjang, drawing, and thrusting.
Man himself, considered as an engine, derives his power from alterations in the posi-
tion of his centre of gravity, and he applies it chiefly by his hands, arms, and legs acting
as levers of the third kind.

1857. Lifting is performed by first stooping or lowering the centre of gravity, and at
the same time throwing it to one side The object being then laid hold of by the hands,
the body is raised, and the centre of gravity, in being restored to its true position,
acts as a counterbalancing weight to the w eight to be raised. The weight retained by

S<54 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

the hand is now raised a certain height, never exceeding half that of the man ; if to be
raised higher, recourse is had to muscular strength, or the power of the arms to act as
levers.

1858. Carn/i7ig. To carry a thing is merely to walk with a greater weight than before,
and walking is performed by a series of alternate derangements and adjustments of the
centre of gravity, slow or rapid, according as the person may walk or run. According
to Delolra, the most advantageous weight for a man of common strength to carry hori-
zontally is 112lbs. J or, if he returns unladen, 135lbs.

1859. Drawing. In this operation, the upper part of the body is thrown forward, so
as to act as a power to counterbalance or lift up the body or weight to be moved ;
and by joining to this lifting motion the operation of walking, the weight is at once
lifted up and drawn along. This compound operation is exemplified in a horse, when
straining at a draught in a plough or cart. He first lowers his chest, then raises it,
and lastly steps forward. When drawing at ease, the lifting motion is scarcely dis-
tinguishable from the progressive one.

1 860. Pushing or thrusting is performed exactly on the same principles as drawing,
and diflPers from it chiefly in the kind of implement or machine which requires to be
employed ; all machines which are to be pushed requiring to be attached to the animal
machine by parts acting by their rigidity ; whereas, those to be drawn may be attached
by parts acting by their tenacity merely.

1861. All these operations may be varied in quantity ^ either by a variation in the weight
or gravity of the man, or moving power ; or by a variation in the time or rapidity of his
motions. Thus a heavy man may, in one movement, lift a weight ten times greater
than can be done by one of less weight ; but a light man may, by increasing the time of
performance, lift the same weight at ten times. A man, who in digging can apply with
his feet five cwt. of his weight towards pushing the wedge or blade of the spade into the
soil, has an evident advantage over a lighter man who can only apply three cwt. fof that
purpose ; but yet the latter may equal the former, by accompanying his power or foot
with a proportionate increase of motion. The power in this last case is said to be
obtained by the momentum, or quantity of matter in a body multiplied by the velocity
with which it is moved. Power, therefore, we thus ascertain, is obtained by matter and
motion jointly, and what may be deficient in the one, may be made up by excess in the
other. Thus, a small, light workman may (though with more animal exertion) produce
as much work as a larger or heavier man : for if we suppose the quantity of matter
in the large man to be thirty, and his motion at the rate of two, then if the quantity
of matter in the small man be twenty, and his motion at the rate of three, he will pro-
duce an equal effect with the large man. As small human machines, or little men,
are generally constructed of firmer materials, or more healthy and animated, than large
ones, the small man performs his rapid motions with nearly as great ease to himself
as the heavy man moves his ponderous weight j so that in point of final result they are
very nearly on a par.

Sect. II. Garden-labors on the Soil.

1862. The simple labors peculiar to arts of culture are performed either in the body of
the soil, as picking, digging ; on its surface, as hoeing, raking ; or on vegetables, as cut-
ting, clipping, &c.

1863. Picking. The pick, as we have seen (Jig. 77.) is a blunt wedge, with a
lever attached to it at right angles, and the operation of picking consists in driving in
'the wedge perpendicularly, so as to produce fracture, and then causing it to operate ho-
rizontally by the lever or handle, so as to effect separation, and thus break up and loosen
hard, compact, or stony soils. It is also used to loosen stones or roots ; and the pick-
axe is used to cut the latter. For breaking and pulverising the soil, the most favorable
conditions are, that the earth should be moderately moist, to facilitate the entrance of
the pick, but in tenacious soils not so much so as to impede fracture and separation.

1864. Digging. The spade is a thin wedge, with a lever attached in the same plane,
and the operation of digging consists in thrusting in the wedge by the momentum
(or weight and motion) of the operator, which effects fracture ; a movement of the lever
next effects separation, whilst the operator, by stooping and rising again, lifts up the
spitful or section of earth on the blade or wedge of the spade, wlych, when so raised,
is dropt in a reversed position, and at a short distance from the unbroken ground. The
separation between the dug and undug ground is called the trench or furrow ; and
when a piece of ground is to be dug, a furrow is first opened at that end of it where the
work is to commence, and the earth carried to one end where it is to terminate, where
it serves to close the furrow. In digging, regard must be had to maintain a uniform
depth throughout ; to reverse the position of each spitful, so as what was before surface
may now be buried; to break and comminute every part where pulverisation is the
leading object ; to preserve each spitful as entire, and place it separate, or isolated as

Book IV.

GARDEN-LABORS ON THE SOIL,

365

much as possible where aeration is the oliject ; to mix in manures regularly where they
are added ; to bury weeds not injurious ; and to remove others, and all extraneous
matters, as stones, &c. in every case. For all these purposes a deep open trench is
requisite, and that this may not be diminished in the course of the operation, it must
never be increased in length. If allowed to become crooked by irregular advances in
the digging, it is thus increased in length, and necessarily diminished in capacity, unless,
indeed, the dug ground is allowed to assume an uneven surface, which is an equally
great fault.

1865. Weather for the o])eratiun. Digging, for pulverisation and mixing in manures,
is best performed in dry weather ; but for the purposes of variation, a degree of moisture
and tenacity in the soil is more favorable for laying it up in lumps or entire pieces. The
usual length of the blade of a spade is from ten inches to a foot, but as it is always in-
serted somewhat obliquely, the depth of pulverisation in gardens attained by simple
digging seldom exceeds nine inches, and in breaking up firm grounds it is seldom so
much.

1866. Shovelling is merely the lifting part of digging, and the shovel being broader
than the spade, is used to lift up fragments separated by that implement or the pick.

1867. Excavating is the operation of working out pits, furrows, or other hollows in
grounds, either for the commencement of other operations, as digging or trenching, or
for planting, burying manures, inserting roots ; or on a large scale, for forming pieces of
artificial water, &c.

1868. Levelling, in the ordinary sense of the term, as used in gardening, consists in
spreading abroad the soil in such a way that its surface may be nearly in one uniform
plane, either level or nearly so ; to be correct, this plane ought to be parallel with that
of the horizon ; but very generally an even surface, if not very far from level, answers
all its purposes. The terms level and even, in ground-work, however, ought to be
considered as quite distinct : the former should be like the surface of still water, and the
latter merely free from inequalities.

1869. Marking with the line is an operation preparatory to some others, and consists
in stretching and fixing the line or cord along the surface by meant, oi its attached pins
or stakes, in the direction or position desired, and cutting a slight continuous notch,
mark, or slit in the ground, along its edge with the spade.

1870. Trenching is a mode of pulverising and mixing the soil, or of pulverising and
changing its surface, to any greater depth than can be done by the spade alone. For
trenching, with a view to pulverising and changing the surface, a trench is formed like
the furrow in digging, but two or more times wider and deeper ; the plot or piece to be
trenched is next marked off with the line into parallel strips of this width ; and beginning
at one of these, the operator digs or picks the surface stratum, and throws it in the
bottom of the trench. Having completed witli the shovel the removal of the surface
stratum, a second, and a third, or fourth, according to the depth of the soU and other
circumstances, is removed in the same way ; and thus, when the operation is completed,
tlie position of the different strata is exactly the reverse of what they were before.

In trenching, with a view to mixture and pulverisation {Jig. 346.), all that is necessary
is to open, at one corner of the plot, a trench or excavation of the desired depth, three
or four feet broad, and six or eight feet long. Then proceed to fill this excavation
from one end by working out a similar one. In this way proceed across the piece to
be trenched, and then return, and so on in parallel courses to the end of the plot,
observing that the face or position of the moved soil in the trench must always be that of
a slope, in order that whatever is thrown there may be mixed, and not deposited in
regular layers, as in the other case. To effect this most completely, the operator should
always stand in the bottom of the trench, and first picking down and mixing the
materials, from the solid side (a), should next take them up with the shovel, and throw
them on the slope or face of the moved soil (6), keeping a distinct space of two or three
feet between tliera. For want of attention to this, in trenching new soils for gardens
and plantations, it may be truly said that half the benefit derivable from the operation
IS lost. In general, in trenching, those points which were mentioned under digging*
such as turning, breaking, dunging, &c. require to be attended to, and sometimes an

366 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

additional object, that of producing a level from an irregular surface is desired. In this
case double care is requisite to avoid forming subterraneous basins or hollows, which
might retain water in the substratum, at the bottom of the moved soil, and also to mix
inferior with better soil, &c. where it becomes requisite to penetrate into depositions of
inferior earthy matters.

1871. Bidgmg is a mode of finishing the surface, applicable either to dug or trenched
grounds, which, when so finished, are called ridge-dug or ridge-trenched. Instead of
being formed with an even surface, ridged grounds are finished in ridges, or close ranges
of parallel elevations, whose sections are nearly equilateral triangles. Hence, supposing
the triangles to touch at their base's, two thirds more of surface will be exposed to the
influence of the atmosphere and the weather, than in even surfaces.

1872. Forking, The fork is composed of two or three separate, parallel, and uniform
wedges, joined so as form one general blade, which is acted on like the spade, by
means of a shoulder or hilt, for thrusting it into the matters to be forked, and a lever or
handle for separating and lifting them. In gardening, forking is used for two pur-
poses ; for pulverising the soil among growing crops, and for moving vegetable
manures. In the first case the operation is similar to digging, the only difference being
that pulverisation is more attended to than reversing the surface ; in the other, the fork
separates chiefly by drawing and lifting ; hence for this purpose a round-pronged (or
dung) fork {Jig' 85.) produces least friction during the discharge of the forkful and re-
insertion; and in the other abroad-pronged (or garden) fork {Jig. 86.) separates and
lifts the soil more readily. Dry weather is essentially requisite in forking soils, and
most desirable for spreading manures; but dunghills may be turned, and hot-bedi»
built, during rain, with no great injury.

1873. Hoeing is performed by drawing or thrusting the wedge or blade of the draw or
thrust hoe along the surface of the soil, so as to cut weeds at or under the surface, and
slightly to pulverise the soil. It is used for four purposes, sometimes together, but
commonly separate ; first, to loosen weeds so as they may die for want of nourislunent,
or be gathered or raked off, for which purpose, either tlie thrust or draw hoe may be used ;
the second, to stir the soil, and for this purpose, when no weeds require killing, the
pronged hoe is preferable, as being thrust deeper with less force, and as likely to cut the
roots of plants ; the third, is to draw up or accumulate soil about the stems of plants, for
which purpose a hoe with a large blade or shovel will produce most effect; and the
fourth is to form a hollow gutter or drill, in which to sow or insert the seeds of plants,
for which a large or small draw-hoe may be used, according to the size of the seeds to be
buried. The use of the hoe for any of the above purposes requires dry weather.

1874. Raking is performed by drawing through the surface of the soil, or over it, a
series of small equilateral wedges or teeth, either with a view to minute pulverisation, or
to collecting weeds, stones, or such other extraneous matters as do not pass through the
interstices of the teeth of the rake. Tlie teeth of the rake being placed nearly at right
angles to the handle, it follows that the lower the handle is held in performing the
operation, the deeper will be the pulverisation, and on the contrary, that the higher it is
held, the interstices being lessened, the fewer extraneous matters will pass through the
teeth. The angle at which the handle of the rake is held must therefore depend on tlie
object in view ; the medium is forty-five degrees. For all raking, except that of
new-mown grass, dry weather is essentially requisite.

1875. Cuffing is a mode of excavating used in preparing a surface for seeds, and in
covering them when sown ; the surface being well pulverised by digging and raking, is
laid out into beds with alleys between, at least three times the breadth of the operator's foot.
Then take a wooden-headed or cuffing-rake (1314.), stand on the alley of the opposite
side of the bed ; turn the rake on its back, and push off the earth from the one half of the
bed to the purposed depth, as far as the side of the alley marked by your feet, being
careful to keep the earth so pushed off quite straight. When one side is finished, turn
round and do the other in the same manner. After the seeds are sown take the rake,
stand on the alley on the opposite side of the bed ; put in the teeth of the rake imme-
diately beyond the cuffing or ridge of earth pressed off, and, by a sudden pull, draw it
on the bed so as to cover its own half equally. And having finished this half, turn
round, and finish the other in the same manner ; and the operation is completed.
{Bang's. Plant. Kal. 242.)

1876. Scraping is drawing a broad and blunt wedge along hard surfaces, in gardening
generally those of lawns or walks, to remove excrementitious matters thrown out of the
soil by worms. Moist weather best suits the operation on lawns, and dry weather on
gravel.

1877. Sweeping, mechanically considered, is the same operation as scraping. In gar-
dening, it is chiefly used after mowing, and for collecting leaves ; for both which purposes
dewy mornings are preferable, as at such seasons the leaves or grass being moist, conglo-
merate without adhering to the dry soil.

Book IV. GARDEN-LABORS WITH PLANTS. 367

1878. JVfieeling is a mode of carrying materials in which the weight is divided between
the axle of the wheel and the arms of the operator. The arms or shafts of the barrow
thus become levers of the second kind, in which the power is at one end, and the fulcrum
at the other, and the weight between them. The weight Is carried or moved on by the
continual change of the fulcrum with the turning of the wheel; and this turning is pro-
duced by tlie operator throwing forward liis centre of gravity so as to push against the
wheel by means of the moveable axle, &c. The chief obstacles to wheeling are the
roughness or softness of the surface to be wheeled on. Where this is firm, there wheel-
ing will be best performed with the greater part of the load resting on the axle ; but
when soft and deep, the centre of gravity should be nearest the operator, who will find
it easier to carry tlian to overcome excessive friction. Dry weather is obviously prefer-
able for this operation. " With wheelbarrows," Dr. Young observes, " men will do half
as much more work as with hods. "

1879. Beating is the application of pressure to surfaces or to materials, vrith a view to
render them more fit for particular uses. Thus, in new-laid turf verges, or gravel alleys,
compactness and adhesion are required and obtained by beating ; in working clay for
puddling or claying the bottom of ponds or cisterns, intimate mixture, exclusion of air,
and of hard particles, are effected by the same means.

1 880. Rolling is tlie application of pressure to surfaces on a large scale, and chiefly to
turf and gravel. The roller, mechanically considered, is the second mechanical power, or
wheel and axle, to which the handle becomes a lever of the second kind, as in the wheel-
barrow. The amount of its action is as the breadth of the wheel and joint weight of it
and of the axle ; it is drawn over the surface, and produces by far the greatest effect when
the ground is saturated witli moisture below, but dry on the immediate surface.

1881. Sijling or screening are operations for separating the coarser from the finer par-
ticles of earth, gravel, tanners' bark, &c. The materials require to be dry, well broken,
and then thrown on the screen (Jig. 1392.), which being a grated inclined plane, in slid-
ing down it, the smaller materials drop through while the larger pass on. In sifting, the
same process is effected by motion with a sieve or circular and flat grating of limited ex-
tent. The screen is calculated for coarser operations, as with gravel and bark on a large
scale, and the sieve for finer operations with plant-moulds and composts.

Sect. III. Garden-labors with Plants.

1882. The simple operations performed on vegetables are sawing, cutting, clipping,
splitting, mowing, and weeding.

1883. Sawijig. The saw is a conjoined series of uniform wedges, which, when drawn
or thrust in succession across a branch or trunk gradually wear it through. In perform-
ing the operation, the regularity of the pressure and motion are chiefly to be attended to.
In green or live shoots, the double-toothed saw produces less friction on the sides of the
plate, by opening a larger channel for its motion. Where parts are detached from living
trees, the living section ought generally to be smoothed over with a knife, chisel, or file ;
and a previous precaution in large trees is to cut a notch in the lower part of the branch
immediately under and in the line of the section, in order to prevent any accident to the
bark, when the amputated part falls off. Sawing is a coarser mode of cutting, mowing,
or shaving ; or a finer mode of raking, in which the teeth follow all in one line.

1884. Cutting is performed by means of a very sharp wedge, and either by drawing
this through obliquely or across the body to be cut, as in using the knife ; or by pressing
or striking the axe or hedge-bill obliquely into the body, first, on one side of an imagi-
nary line of section, and then on the other, so as to work out a trench across the branch
or trunk, and so effect its separation. The axe, in gardening, is chiefly used in felling
trees, and for separating their trunks, branches, and roots into parts. The knife is ex-
tensively used for small trees, and tlie hedge-bill and chisel for those of larger size. In
amputating viith the knife, one operation or draw-cut ought generally to be suflicient
to separate the parts ; and this ought to be made with the knife sufliciently sharp,
and the motion so quick as to produce a clean, smooth section, with the bark un-
injured.

1885. Every draw-cut produces a smooth section, and a fractured or bruised section ;
and one essential part of cutting living vegetables, is to take care that the fractured sec-
tion be on the part amputated. Another desirable object is, that the section of the living
or remaining part should be so inclined {a, Jig. 347.) as not to lodge water or overflowing
sap, and so far turned to the ground (rf) or to the north, as not to be struck by the direct
rays of the sun. To accomplish both these purposes, as well as to make sure of having
the fractured section on the part amputated, the general practice is to cut from below or
from the under edge of the branch or shoot, unless the position of the leading bud occa-
sions a deviation from the rule (b). The cut should also be made in all shoots of not
more than three or four years old, within from one fourth to half an inch, or a little more
of the bud intended to take the lead ; when this is not done, and half an inch or more of

368

shoot l^t without a bud (c and e), the consequence is, the stump dies back to the bud in
the course of the season (g), and if not carefully cut off (/), will end in a decaying ori-
fice both unsightly and injurious. The bud selected for a leader ought always to be a
leaf-bud, and in general the plane of the section ought to be parallel to the angle which
the bud makes with the stem (d). Exceptions occur in the case of plants with much
pith (A), as the vine, elder, &c. in cutting the year-old shoots of which, an inch or more
ought to be left, as tliese always die back a few lines j and thus the leading bud might
be injured, if this precaution were not taken. In like manner, when pruning a large
tree, the section of amputation ought to be made so oblique as to throw off the rain ; as
generally as possible, it should be turned from the sun, and rather downwards than up-
wards, in order to shield it from heat and cracking : and whenerer it can be done, it should
be made near a branch, shoot, or bud, which may take the lead in the room of that cut off,
and thus, by keeping the principle of life in action at the section, speedily heal up the wound.

1886. In pruning roots, the same principle, as far as applicable, ought to be attended to ; the trunk or
stem when cut over ought to be sloped to the north (f), and the lateral roots cut so as the section may be
on the under side (*), and therefore less likely to rot than when the cut faces the surface of the ground
(/), or is bruised by neglecting to form the smooth section on the attached extremity. When roots are
large always cut to a lateral, and when they are small to a fibre j for in roots as in shoots, naked extremi-
ties always die back to the nearest leader. When a root broken or bruised has neither laterals nor fibres,
then merely cut back to sound wood, leaving a smooth section ; for the sap which always operates first
and most powerfully at the extremities both of roots and shoots, will there originate fibres.

1887. In cutting with the chisel, the blade is applied below the branch to be amputated, so as to rest on
the trunk or main branch, and so applied, a quick blow with a mallet is applied to the handle of the chisel
by the operator or his assistant. If this does not effect a separation, it is to be repeated. In forest-pruning
it is often advantageous to apply one cut of the chisel on the underside of the branch, and then saw it
through with the forest-saw from the upper.

1888. Clipping is an imperfect mode of cutting adapted for expedition and for small
shoots. The separation is effected by bruising or crushing along with cutting, and, in
consequence, both sections are fractured. In gardening it is chiefly applied for keeping
hedges and edgings in shape ; but the hedge-knife {Jig. 115.), which operates by clean,
rapid, draw-cuts given always from below, is generally preferable, as not decreasing the
live ends of the amputated shoots. The new pruning-shears {Jig. 122.), and the
averuncator {Jig- 121.), it is to be observed, by producing cuts much more like the draw-
cuts of knives, are greatly to be preferred to the common hedge-shears.

1889. In respect to the seasons for sawing, cutting, or clij-qiing living trees, the best seem
early in spring, and in midsummer. Early in autumn, trees are apt to bleed ; later, and
in winter, the section is liable to injury from the weather ; but trees pruned early in spring
remain only a short period before tiie wound begins to heal ; and in those pruned at mid-
summer wounds heal immediately. There are, however, exceptions as to spring pruning
in evergreens, cherries and other gummiferous trees ; and summer pruning is but ill
adapted for forest-work or trees in crowded scenery.

1890. Splitting, as an operation of gardening, is generally performed on roots of trees
remaining in the soil, for the purpose of facilitating their eradication. The wedge in its
simplest form, and of iron, is driven in by a hammer or mallet, till it produces fracture
and separation, when the parts are removed as detached, &c.

1891. Mowing is performed by the rapid motion of a very sharp wedge across the mat-
ters to be cut or mown, and at an oblique angle to them. In gardening it is applied to
grassy surfaces, in order, by repeated amputations, to keep the plants short, spreading,
and thick, and by always admitting light and air to the roots or stools, to render the sur-
face green. This operation requiring great force, and also a twisting motion of the body,
brings almost every muscle into action, and is, in fact, one of the most severe in vegetable
culture.

1892. Mowingfrom a boat, is in use for cutting weeds in rivers and ponds. The operator
stands in the boat, and is rowed forward by another, as required. Sometimes scythe-
blades are tied or rivetted together, and worked by means of ropes like a saw from one
shore to the other ; but the first mode is generally reckoned the best, even in public
canals, and is unquestionably so in gardening.

1893. Weeding is the operation of drawing or digging out such plants from any given

Book IV.

TRANSFERRING DESIGNS OF GARDENS.

369

plot as are foreign to those cultivated there. In this sense every plant may become a weed
relatively ; but absolute or universal weeds are such as are cultivated in no department of
gardening, excepting in that purely botanical. Weeds are drawn out of the ground by
the hand or by pincers {Jig. 146.), or they are dug or forked out by weeding tools.
Aquatic weeds are necessarily drawn up by pincers. The best season for weeding is after

Chap. II.
Operatixms of Gardening in which Skill is more required than Strength.

1894. Operations of skill require the end to be known and kej)t in view by tlie operator y
during the operation. The labors which we have enumerated in the foregoing chapter,
may almost all be performed by the laborer witliout reference to any plan or design ; but
those which come next to be enumerated, require a greater or lesser degree of reference
to the ultimate object. Of this, even the simple operations of digging a drain to carry off
water, planting in a row, or forming a bed of earth, may be mentioned as examples.
Previously to proceeding to these operations, it becomes necessary to consider the subject
of transferring designs from ground to paper, or to memory, and from paper or memory
to ground j we shall then be prepared to treat of executing designs.

Sect, I. Of transferring Designs from Ground to Paper or Memory.

1895. The subject of taking jylans or designs of objects is to be considered as part of a
gardener's general education, since none who aspire to any degree of eminence in their
art ought to be ignorant of the first principles of geometry, land-surveying, and drawing.
We shall merely,- therefore, touch on a few points with a view to assisting a gardener in
bringing the knowledge he has so acquired into action. A gardener may require to take
plans of gardens, or parts of gardens, or of implements or buildings, for his own instruc-
tion, or to execute similar objects for his employer. It is as requisite, therefore, that
a gardener should be able to copy a garden, as a carpenter a gate or a roof.

1896. The dimensions of simple objects, as of a bed of earth or dung, border or other
plot, he may retain in memory, and transfer from memory to the imitation or copy ; but
in general he will require the assistance of graphic memorandums, either of the pen or
pencil, or both. The instruments necessary for taking measurements and angles so as
to transfer plans from the ground to paper, are the measuring-Une or chain, the measur-
ing-rod, and occasionally the theodolite ; but for all ordinary purposes the chain and rod
are suflScient.

1897. The simplest form of surface-plan to transfer from ground to paper is a circle ;
for here it is only necessary to find the diameter. The next is a parallelogram or bed, in
which it is only requisite to take the length and breadth. Most of the details of the plans
of kitchen-gardens, may be reduced to parallelograms, so that they are transferred to paper,
or even taken down arithmetically, as in the land-surveyor's field-book, with great ease.

1898. Irregular figures, as parterres, outlines of picturesque plantations {fig. 348.), or
ivater ; or the plans of winding walks, require greater nicety. In such cases, temporary
or imaginary lines {fig. 348. a, b, c), forming parts of regular figures (as d with 6,

fig. 348.), are first to be formed, or partially indicated around, or through the plot to be
transferred ; and dimensions are next to be taken relatively to these known and simple
lines or figures. Of all temporary or skeleton figures, the triangle is the most simple,
the most correct, and the most generally used. The skeleton or temporary figure {e) or
line (a b, &c.) being transferred to paper, the dimensions {d) are set off from it, and the
irregular plot and all its details are thus correctly protracted.

348

1899. Raised or dejrressed surfaces, whether naturally or artificially so, require a sort of
double measurement ; first, horizontally, by true horizontal lines, to get the surface-plan ;
and next, to measure their elevations or depressions from these lines, in order to find their
height or depth. Few gardens of any description are made perfectly flat ; the borders of

Bb

370

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

the kitchen-departments generally rise on each side of the walks ; and in large parterres,
one of the chief beauties arises from the inequalities of the surface. The depth of ponds,
excavations for dung, earth, &c. ridges, hot-beds, rock works, even houses, trees, &c. are
all to be measured with reference both to their horizontal and perpendicular extensions.
Four persons are required in performing such operations accurately ; two to hold the
chain or line in a horizontal position, or in the plane of the general surface ; one to take
the dimensions downwards or upwards from this with the measuring-rod, and one to mark
down the dimensions.

1 900. In protracting elevations and depressions on paper, the simplest way is to introduce
sections, in dotted or otherwise distinguished lines, to prevent their being mistaken for
surface-lines ; or in wavy surfaces, figures may be introduced, thus 7 or 4, to denote their
elevation above, or depression below, some piece of water, or other surface fixed on as a
medium. Some excellent observations on this subject will be found in Major Lehman's
Topographical Plan Drawing, as translated by Lieutenant Siborn, (oblong fol. Loud.
1822,) which it is to be hoped will soon be appropriated in the popular books on land-
surveying, and adopted in practice.

1901. Where it is in contemplation to form jneces ofivater, the elevations and depressions
or levels must be taken and recorded either by sections or arithmetically with the greatest
accuracy ; and, in some cases, sections may require to be taken to show particular trees,
buildings, the depth of water, or other objects. (Jig. 349.)

1 902. With respect to the elevations and shapes of hUls and mountains which may He
within parks or plantations, they are only to be measured correctly by the quadrant and
theodolite, in the hands of regular land-surveyors ; and, therefore, are not considered as
hei-e included. Their shape and dimensions are laid down in maps in the same manner
as those of smaller deviations from the flat surface. Inaccessible dimensions of height,
as of trees or buildings, are obtained by the quadrant, or by relative comparisons of
shadows ; of depth, as of water or wells, by rods ; of breadth or length, by finding the
two angles of a triangle whose base shall be in one extremity of the distance ; and apex
in the other. These, and many other equally simple problems in trigonometry, need not
be enlarged on, because they must be supposed to form a part of general education.

1 903. The greatest accuracy is requisite in transferring plans of garden-scenery. Not
only the mere ground-lines are to be transferred ; but to form a complete plan, the
distances between scattered trees or trees in rows, or otherwnse regularly disposed, ought
to be marked, the situations of their stems indicated, and, where they are of considerable
size, representations of the horizontal extension of their heads (Jig. 350. b) should also be
given. The same ought to be done in the case of walls, buildings, and all other raised ob-
jects. The intention of a ground-plan is to give an idea of the superstructure ; and with-
out such additions as these and others of a pictorial nature (fg. 350.), to the mere
ground-lines, that idea must be very imperfect, at least in plans of mixed scenery.

1904. For protracting rural objects various modes have been adopted by land-surveyors :
trees are sometimes shown by small crosses or ciphers, triangles or dots (Jig. 350. a) ; by

{if f^

an orbiculate line representing the extension of the branches or head, and a dot in the
place of the trunk (a and e) ; by the same, with the addition of a shadow, taken when the
sun is south or south-west, and his elevation exactly 45°, by which the points of the com-'
pass are readily ascertained throughout the plan, and tlie shape of the head, and the height
of the tree exhibited (e) ; sometimes an elevation or profile of the tree is given, either

Book IV,

TRANSFERRING DESIGNS OF GARDENS.

S7t

!n foliage (f), or to show the form of the trunk and branches (g), or merely to give a
rude idea of a tree (c). Hedge-rows, whether with or without trees, are either shown in
elevation or profile (h), or in vertical profile or bird's-eye view (;). They may be de-
lineated either in skeleton or foliage. Buildings may be shown either in general plan (k),
detailed plan (/), vertical profile of the roof (w), elevation (n), perspective view (o) ; or a
plan may be given (;>), and a diagonal elevation (g) taken and placed opposite the plan
in the margin of the map. A pictorial surveyor, who understands perspective, and is
desirous of conveying a correct idea of the subject he is to measure and delineate, will
readily find expedients for attaining success.

1 905. In portraying the general surface of land-estates, different modes have been
adopted by modern land-surveyors. The first we shall mention is the old mode of giving
what may be called the ground-lines only ; as of roads, fences, water- courses, situations of
buildings and trees. (Jig. 351.) This mode has no other pretensions than that of accuracy
of dimensions, and can give few ideas to a stranger who has not seen the property, beside
those of its contents and general outline.

351 S52

1 906. In the second, elevations of the objects are added to these lines ; but which, in
crowded parts, tend much to obscure them. (Jig. 352.) This mode is perhaps the best
calculated of any to give common observers a general notion of an estate ; more especially
if ably executed. Very frequently, however, this mode is attempted by artists ignorant
of the first principles of drawing, optics, or perspective, and without taste.

1907. In the third, a vertical proJUe, or geometrical bird's-eye view, that is, a bird's-eye
view in which all the objects are laid down to a scale is presented. In this the upper sur-
face of every object is seen exactly as it would appear to an eye considerably elevated
above it, and looking centrically down on it. (Jig. 353.) This mode, properly executed,

353

Bb 2

S72

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part If.

is calculated to give a more accurate idea of the furniture or surface-objects of an estate
than any other j and if the declivities be correctly indicated, and the shade of tlie hollows

354

and eminences be laid on with reference to some medium elevation, referred to or illus-
trated by sections, taken in the direction of indicated lines (a...b), it will give an equally
correct idea of the -variations of the ground. In short, it is the best mode for most pur-
poses, and is now coming into general use.

1908. -4 very complete method of giving the plan of an estate, is to adopt the profile
manner and include such a portion of the plans of the adjoining estates or country as
shall be contained within a circle of moderate extent (Jig. 354.), the centre of which may
be the centre of the demesne-lands, family-mansion, or prospect-tower. Around a map
so formed, the distant scenery, as seen from the roof of the house or prospect-tower, may
form a panoramic circumference, or margin of prospects. (Jig. 354.) In all these modes,
dimensions and contents are given or obtainable along tvith effect ; in those which follow,
effect or general appearance only is obtained.

1909. IVie natural bircCs-eije view is intended to give a general idea of the external ap-
pearance of an estate. In this the eye of the spectator is supposed to be considerably
elevated above the centre of the estate, and all the objects are portrayed exactly as they
would appear to him in that situation ; largest in the centre, and gradually diminishing to
the circumference of the circle of vision. In such a delineation, parts of other adjoining
estates may often require to be included, in order to complete the circle ; but these are
necessary to the general idea, and can easily be distinguished from the principal property
by minute marks on the delineation.

1910. In the panoramic view, the delineator supposes himself placed on an eminence,
as the roof of the mansion, where centrical, and looking round on all that he sees on
every side. Where there is a prominent hill, or where the mansion is on an eminence,
this is a very desirable mode of giving a general idea of a domain, and by the aid of hori-
zontal lines and lines converging to them from the centre of vision, some idea may be
had, on flat surfaces at least, of the relative heights and distances of objects.

1911. A simple mode is to give a general view, or distant prospect of the estate, or its

Book IV. TRANSFERRING DESIGNS TO PLANE SURFACES.

375

principal parts {Jig. S55.), as seen from some elevated conspicuous hill, building, or
object near it ; or if the estate, as is frequently the case, is situated on the side of a
hill, or r^nge of hills, a situation on the plain, or flat grounds opposite to it, will be
sufficient.

355

1912. Great imjrrovements have been made in the art of delineating estates by T. Homer,
an elegant and scientific chorometer and draughtsman. See his Mode of Delineating
Estates, 8vo. 1813; and Lehman's Topographical Plan Draivingy ohloiig fol. 1822. Mo-
dels of estates are also formed in cork, papier machee, and other substances, which
for hilly scenery are very useful and entertaining.

Sect. II. Of transferring Designs from Paper or Memory to Ground,

1913. Staking or marking out plans is a subject requiring much greater skill than the
last, on account of the inequalities and other obstructions met with on the ground's
surface. It may be considered, 1. As to transferring figures to plane surfaces; 2. To
irregular or obstructed surfaces ; and, 3. Arranging quantities.

SuBSECT. 1. Transferring Figures and Desig7is to plane Surfaces,

1914. The transferring of j)lane or regular figures to even ground is nothing more tlian
performing the elementary problems of geometry on a large scale. The subject has been
amply illustrated by Switzer, Le Blond, and other writers of their day ; but a very
few examples will here suffice, as the school education of gardeners is now superior to
what it was in those times.

1915. A perpeyidicular to 2J\y MtiQ 356
may either be found by taking a
garden-line, doubling a portion of it,
and applying the extremities at equal
distances from the point whence the
perpendicular is to proceed (fig.
356. a) ; or more simply, but on a
large scale with less accuracy, by
applying the garden-square (6), or
on any scale by the use of a rope
or line united at the extremity, and
divided in the proportions of 6, 8,
and 10 (c). The 6 is to be placed
as the perpendicular of a right-angled

triangle, the 8 as the base, and the 10 as the hypothenuse ; or three rods of similar
proportions, or divided into feet, and the proper numbers taken, may be used for tliis
purpose. Switzer informs us this was the mode in which all right-angled figures in
gardens, and all other works, were set out in his time.

1916". To divide an angle, a line united at tlie extremities, and divided into four equal
parts (f/j, may readily be so applied to any angle as to divide it equally; or the same
thing may be done by a portion of line bisected, and its extremities applied at equal
distances from the angle (e). A line divided into three equal parts readily forms an
equHlaieral triangle (fig. 356. f).

1917. To describe an oval within a given lengthy the length may be divided into three
equal parts ; then let the two inner points so found be the centres of two circles which
shall form the ends of the oval, and the sides may be formed by segments whose centres
«re the intersecting points of the circles [fig. 357. a). The same oval may be formed by

Bb 3

874

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

b

Part IL

357
dividing the given line into four parts ; forming the ends by segments of which the
two outermost points are the centres, and the sides by segments proceeding from a line
passing at right angles through the centre of the given line (^Jig. 3,57. 6).

1918. The gardener s aval, or one in which both diameters are given, is thus formed.
Bisect the long diameter by the transverse one, itself thus bisected by the other. Divide
half the transverse diameter into three parts. Take one of these parts, and set it off
from both extremities of the long diameter. Fix there two pins or stakes^ and fix a
third stake one part from the end of the transverse diameter ; double a line and put it
round these stakes, of such a length that when stretched, it may touch the extremities of
one of the diameters. Then, with a pin in this extremity, move it completely round,
and so strike out the oval {Jig. 357. c). The long and short diameters are more easily
divided arithmetically ; thus, supposing the given length of the oval be ninety feet, and
its width sixty feet ; then the third part of half of the width is ten feet, and this distance
set back from the extremities of the diameters gives the situation of the stakes at once.

358

359

1919. A spiral line, or volute, may be sometimes re-
quired in gardening, for laying out labyrinths or curious
parterres. The width or diameter of the spiral being
given {Jig. 358. i, h), bisect it, and divide each half into
as many parts as the spiral is to form revolutions {fig. 358.
g to h). Then, from the centre draw all the halves of
the spirals which are on one side of the diameter line * j,---
{be, de, Jg, hi) ; and from the point where the first semi-
spiral intersects the diameter line (6), as a centre, draw
ajl the others {dc,Je, hg ).

1920. Uniting three points in a curved line. A very
useful problem both in laying down plans on paper, and
transferring them to gardening, is that which teaches how,

Jrom any three points {fig. 359. a, b, c), not in a straight
line, to find the centre oj a circle whose circuniference shall
pass through them. Imagine the three points connected
by two straight lines ; bisect these lines by others {g and e),
perpendicular to them, and where these intersect (at g)
will be found the centre of the circle whose circumference
shall pass through the three points.

1921. The method of laying out polygons on even
ground, or any geometrical figure, will be perfectly sim-
ple to such as can perform the problems on paper ; all
the difference on the ground is, that the line is used in-
stead of the compasses, with or witliout the assistance of
the square and arithmetical calculation.

1 922. Laying out the ground-lines of gardens, parterres, or any large figures on plain
surfaces, is merely a mixed application of geometrical problems. It is only necessary
to premise, that a straight line is found by placing rods upright, so as they may range
one behind the other at convenient distances, and so accurately adjusted, that the one
next the eye may conceal all the rest. A plan
of a garden, &c. {fig. 360. a) being given
with a scale and north and south line attached,
first find its extreme dimensions, and supposing
you have space sufficient for laying it out, find
the central lines {fig- 361. a,a,b,b), and lay
them down first, distinguishing them by rows
of stakes ; then from these set off the lines of
the central plot, if any, the walks, alleys, walls,
&c., distinguishing them by strong stakes,
which may remain till the ground is put into
proper form.

1923. In laying out polygonal gardens, or
plots, or ponds {fig. 360. 6), when the dimen-

360

Book IV. TRANSFERRING DESIGNS TO IRREGULAR SURFACES. 375

sions are too great for inscribing a circle of the full size with a line ; the obvious mode
is to form a small circle in the centre, and mark the figure on its circumference ; then
from the points where the sides intersect radii can be cTctended as far as required, and

6 J.

361
—I J.J

•T-^j. ; Ob ,^-.-r*' ■

..J...J...J...-/.--

362

ri I

^, ..±i' .1 .„„...i':3--j.

^':*^

VV- ^/'

.:hj;:::5i

tlie length of one being found, the rest can be adjusted accordingly, and the plot thus
laid out of the required size. (Jig. 362.)

1924. Intricate and fanciful figures of parterres are most correctly transferred to
ground, as they are copied on paper, by covering the figure to be copied with squares
{fg. 36S. a) formed by temporary lines intersecting each other at equal distances and right
angles, and by tracing on the ground similar squares, but much larger, according to the
scale {fig. 363. b). Sometimes the figure is drawn on paper in black, and the squares in
red, wliile the squares on the ground are formed as sawyers mark the intended path of
the saw before sawing up a log of timber ; that is, by stretching cords rubbed with
chalk, which, by being struck on the ground (previously made perfectly smooth}, leave
white lines. With the plan in one hand and a pointed rod in the otlier, the design is
thus readily traced across these indications. The French and Italians lay out their
most curious parterres (fig. 364,) in this way.

364

ScBSECT. 2. Transferring Figures and Designs to irregular Surfaces.
1925. StaAing or marking out j)lans on irregular surfaces constitutes the most difficult
part of practice, whether in arranging grounds in the countr)-, or streets, or other
improvements in towns. These difficulties do not arise from the intricacy of the princi-
ples of action ; but from the variety of operations often requisite to overcome the obstruc-

Bb 4

876

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Paut IL

tions. They may be all classed under three heads, that of transferring a straight line, a
curved line, and a level line.

1926. Wliere a straight Zme is to be indicated among objects or inequalities not more
than fifteen or twenty feet high, its plan or tract on the earth (^Jig. 365. «... b) may be
found by the use of poles, a few feet higher than the elevation of the obstructions, the
director being placed on a step-ladder, or other elevation at one end. Where tliis method
cannot be adopted on account of the height of the inequalities, the line must either be
formed along the summits of these inequalities, which may be done if tliey are houses,
hills, or trees ; or parallel lines (c, d, e) formed where practicable, and the main line
found by offsets (/, g, h) from those collateral lines at such places as are suitable. A
third method, but one not always perfectly accurate, is to take a plan of the field or scene
of operations, and on this to set out the proposed line ; then by ascertaining its bearings
and distances relatively to the obstructions, it may be transferred from the paper to the
ground. In carrying straight lines through woods, lanterns have been used ; but a much
more correct method is to elevate poles above the surface of the wood.

365

1027. Continuous lines may always be made perfectly straight, however irregular the
surface, by following the same parallel as indicated by points of the compass ; or by the
shadow of the operator during sunshine. If the needle does not move, or the shadow of
the spectator is always projected at the same angle to his course, the direction in which
he walks, in either case, must be straight. The mode of forming right lines in such cir-
cumstances being understood, the formation of right-lined figures is merely a repetition
of the process, uniting each side by the required angle.

1928. Curved lines on irregular surfaces are in general only to be laid down by the
previous establishment of straight lines ; first, leading straight lines {Jig. 348. a, b, c) and
next secondary straight lines (Jig. 348, d, rf), which shall form skeletons to the curves.
A second mode, and on a large scale by much the most certain, is to find the leading
points of the curves by triangles from a known base or known bases ; but as both modes
are rare in the practice of gardening, they need not be enlarged on.

1929. Circles, ovals, and every description of curvilinear figure maybe laid down by
either of the above modes ; but where the obstructions are not great, circles, or parts of
circles, may be transferred more expeditiously by the following method. The diameter
of the circle [fig. 366.), and any two points (a and c) which 366
its circumference is to touch, being given, next ascertain the
side of the largest square which the circle will contain. Then,
if the director place himself in the given point of the cir-
cumference, and look either through the sights of a theodo-
lite, or along the edge of a common carpenter's square (d),
or any right-angled board, the straight line traced by his eye
will intersect the situation of the circumference of the cir-
cle ; if he then causes to be measured along that straight
line, the length of the side of the square contained within the
circle, the extent of the dimension will determine a point in
the circumference. Then looking along the other side of the

square, or through the sights of the theodolite at right angles to the former observation,
he will by a shnilar process determine another circumferential j>oint; and now, by
changing his position either to the right or left, taking care to set off always the same
dimension from the side of the square, he will trace out the circumference of the circle
or any portion of it. It is evident to any person in the slightest degree acquainted with

Book IV.

ARRANGEMENT OF QUANTITIES.

377

367

practical geometry, that the same object may be attained by an adjusted triangle (such as
e), the extremities of which will indicate points in the circumference without further
trouble.

1930. Other modes on similar principles, well known to
land-surveyors, are occasionally resorted to in laying out
gardens, especially in the geometric style, and in preparing
the foundations of farmeries, and other rural offices and
appendages. A very obvious application of it is tha* of
reducing an irregular basin of water to a circular figure.
The director moves round with the adjusted triangle
{J^8' 2^^* °) 5 ^^* assistant sets off' the dimensions and as each
point in the circumference is ascertained, it is marked by a
stake 6, c, rf).

1931. A level line (Jig. S68.f,f), whether straight or
curved in direction, can only be determined on an irregu-
lar surface by measuring down from an elevated level line (a), or from level lines in
parallel directions, and so transferring the points by horizontal levels to the proper line.
Straight rods are the ready means of measuring down, and the points must be marked
by hillocks or hollows (6) ; or by smooth-headed stakes driven into the surface, and pro-
truding above, or sunk under it, according to the obstructions.

1 932. Lines of uniform acclivity or declivity (fg. 368. e, e, e) are readily formed on
the same principle. In this and the former case, the common level and the borning-
pieces (a and rf), with measuring rods and stakes, are all the instruments required. The
formation of level lines and uniform slopes, by the borning-pieces and common level,
ought to be familiar to every working-gardener ; for, without considerable adroitness in
this department of garden-operations, none can be considered as fit to form a walk, or
even plant a box-edging.

1933. Levelling for terrace-slojyes (Jig. 369.), or for geometrical surfaces, however
varied, is performed by the union of both modes, and requires no explanation to those
who have acquired the rudiments of geometry, or understand what has been described.

369

SuESECT. 3. Of the Arrangement of Quantities.
1934. The dividing and subdividing of land is generally the business of the land-sur-
veyor, but It sometimes comes under the practice of the gardener, on a small scale, and on
simple principles. Thus it may be required to determine the dimensions of a square, of a
cu-cle, of an oval, or of a mixed figure of a kitchen-garden, which shaU contain a certain

378 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part TI.

number of acres, or acres and parts of acres. Or, on a certain compartment in a garden
of given breadth and length, it may be required to sow or plant a certain number of
poles of any given crop, &c.

1935. Where the figures are dmjyle and regular, as squares, parallelograms, triangles,
circles, &c., these problems are easily solved ; but where they are irregular, the safest way
for practical gardeners, not much in the habit of calculation, is by trial and correction.
Thus, supposing it required to find the dimensions and ground-plan of a garden-wall,
which shall enclose two acres, the north and south walls to be straight and parallel, and
the two ends parts of ellipses. Try a parallelogram, which shall contain 1| acres, and
try and adjust two curves to its ends, which shall each contain i of an acre. If an eighth
of an acre does not give sufficiently curved ends, narrow the parallelogram part a little,
which will admit an increase to tlie curved ends. All this being laid down on paper to
a scale, when the figure is completed, ascertain its contents by the scale, and vary it as
above, till it corresponds exactly with what is required.

1936. For more intricate figures, first cover the paper with squares, each containing a
certain area ; say a yard, a pole, &c., according to the magnitude of the design to be ad-
justed. Then, on these squares adjust the form and the contents of the given figure,
by alternate delineations of the desired shape, and numbering the squares for the desired
contents. When the end appears to be attained, prove the whole by measuring from the
scale.

1937. V^iihresi^eci to measuring for crojrinng comjmrtments or borders, supposing it is
desired to sow three poles of turnips on a compartment 60 feet broad, then the first question
is simply, given 60 feet as one side, required the length of another requisite to form a pole.
A pole contains 30^ square yards, or 27 3^- square feet ; dividing tlie last sum by 60,
the quotient, 4 feet 6|, is the length of one pole at this breadth. Or, if by links, then 60
feet = 136-2 links, and 625 square links = 1 square pole ; hence 625 -r- 136-2^6^9- links.
3x4 feet 6\ inches, or 3 x 6^^ links = 13 feet 8 inches,, or 20 j'^ links, the length of
three poles of the given breaddi.

1938. For arrangifig work done by contract, it is necessary for the gardener to be able
to determine the superficial and solid contents of ground, whether it is to be cultivated
on the surface, as in digging or hoeing ; turned over to a considerable depth, as in digging
drains or trenching ; or removed from its place, as in former excavation for water or
foundations. All this is abundantly simple, where the first rudiments of mensuration
are understood. The most important part is what lelates to digging out large excava-
tions, and wheeling the earth to different distances ; and to guide in this, the following
rules, known to every canal contractor, may be worth attending to by the gardener.

1939. For excavating and transjwrting earth. In soft ground, where no other tool
than the spade is necessary, a man will throw up a cubic yard of 27 solid feet in an hour,
or ten cubic yards in a day. But if picking or hacking be necessary, an additional man
■will be required ; and very strong gravel will require two. The rates of a cubic yard,
depending thus upon each circumstance, they will be in the ratio of the arithmetical
numbers 1, 2, 3. If, therefore, the wages of a laborer be 2s. 6d. per day, the price of a
yard will be 3rf. for cutting only, 6d. for cutting and hacking, and 9rf. when two hackers
are necessary. In sandy ground, when wheeling is requisite, three men will be re-
quired to remove 30 cubic yards in a day, to the distance of 20 yards, two filling and
one wheeling ; but to remove the same quantity in a day, to any greater distance, an
additional man will be required for every twenty yards.

To find the price of removins any number of cubic yards to any given distance :

Divide the distance in yards by 20, which gives the number of wheelers ; add the two cutters to the quo-
tient, and you will have the whole number employed ; multiply the sum by the daily wages of a laborer,
and the produce will be the price of 30 cubic yards. — Then, as 30 cubic yards is to the whole number, so is
the price of 30 cubic yards to the cost of the whole.

Example. What will it cost to remove 27o0 cubic yards to the distance of 120 yards, a man's wages
being three shillings per day ? First, 120 -7-20 = 6, the number of wheelers ; then, + 2 liUers = 8 men
employed, which, at three shillings per day, gives 24 shilUngs as the price of 30 cubic yards j then
30 : 24 : : 2750 and 24 x 2750 -j- 30 = 110/.

For elementary instructions in this department, see Hutton's Mensuration, Nicholson's Architectural
Dictionary, and the article Canal, in the principal Encyclopsedias.

Sect. III. Of carrying Designs into Execution.

1940. To realise atterations jrrojected or marked out on the ground, recourse is had to the
mechanical operations of gardening. These require to be directed to the following ob-
jects. Removing surface incumbrances, smoothing surfaces, draining off superfluous
water, forming excavations for retaining water, forming artificial surfaces, and forming
walks and roads.

1941. Removing mrface incumbrances is one of the first operations of improvement in
reclaiming neglected lands, or preparing them for ulterior purposes. The obstacles are
generally large blocks of stone, bushes, roots of trees, and sometimes artificial obstacles,
as parts of walls, hedges, buildings, &c. Where the stones cannot ultimately be ren-

Book IV. CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION. 379

dered useful or ornamental near to where they lie, they are to be loosened by levers, and
placed on sledges and dragged off; and to facilitate this, they may be previously blown
in pieces by gunpowder ; or large pits may be dug, and they may be buried near to
where they lie. The other obstacles are easily got rid of; large roots may be split with
wedges, reft with gunpowder, and drawn out by wrenches ; or, the hydrostatic press
applied, as for drawing piles. The use of gunpowder was formerly often attended with
accidents to the operators ; but the risk is now greatly lessened, since it has been dis-
covered that sand may be poured in, instead of ramming clay and stoney matters over the
charge. [Siippl. Encyc Brit. sltU Blasting.)

1942. Smoothing surfaces. Whatever be the nature of the future improvements, this
operation generally takes place to a certain extent after the removal of obstacles. Pits,
quarries, pools, &c. are to be filled up ; banks, dykes, artificial mounds, and excrescences
to be broken down and scattered about, before the natural surface can be duly under-
stood and appreciated, and before drains and other preliminary improvements, as roads,
fences, &c., can be conveniently marked out.

1943. Drawing off superfluous ivater by subterraneous drains. The theory of this sub-
ject has been already noticed (1096.), and as it more properly belongs to agriculture than
gardening, we shall confine our remarks to execution. The designer or director of the
improvements, having, by the aid of levelling, and consideration of the causes of the su-
perfluous moisture, marked out by proper stakes the main drain and lateral cuts, the
lowest point or outlet of the former is first to be begun on, and excavated to the proper
width and depth. If the soil is very soft, the materials for filling in, or forming the
channel, or drain, should have been previously carted there, as this operation, performed
on soft ground after the excavation is made, is apt to damage the sides of the drain. No
part of the drain ought to be filled, till the whole has been completed, and any errors in
the level of its bottom or water-way corrected. The height to which the materials are to
be laid, must be regulated by the use to which the surface is to be applied. For
permanent pastures, as in lawns and parks, they may be brought near the surface, but
in kitchen-gardens, or scenery were digging or trenching are occasionally to take
place, they should not come within six inches of the bottom of the loosened strata. As
to materials for drains, whatever will form a porous or hollow stratum or vein may
be employed ; but round stones are unquestionably the most durable for collecting-
drains ; and tubes of earthenware, or built drains of stone or bricks, for drains of con-
veyance. The most complete description of master-drain, is one with a built cylinder
or barrel of stone or brick below, covered by a vein or vertical stratum of round stones,
terminating near the surface in coarse gravel. Wherever much draining is to be done,
all the various methods should be considered as detailed in the county surveys, and col-
lected in Marshall's Treatise on Landed Proj^erty, and Johnston's System of Draining ;
and those fixed on which may be considered as most suitable to the particular case.

1 944. Draidng off sujierfnons water by surface drains is seldom admissible with good
effect in garden-scenery. Ridges, whether broad or narrow, communicate a vulgar
field-like character to parks or lawns ; and large open gutters are only ditches. Per-
haps the least objectionable mode is to use the mole-plough, or to form underground
gutters with the spade on a similar principle. The blade of the spade should be in the
form of the letter V, rather blunt at the point, and as each spitful is dug out, half
its lower part is to be cut off, and the upper part returned to the gutter, so that no ex-
ternal deformity is produced. Such drains, as well as the channels made by the mole-
plough, required to be renewed every three or four years, especially if cattle and horses
are admitted on the grounds in winter. Hence, many use straw or small faggot-wood
to fill the gutters as in Norfolk, or flints as in Kent, gravel as in Berkshire, or cinders
and scoriae as in some parts of Lancashire.

1945. Forming excavations for retaining water. Previously to commencing this oper-
ation, the levels must be staked out with great accuracy, as well as the places indicated
from which the larger masses of earth are to be moved or to which they are to be taken. Ex-
cavations for water vary in respect to the difficulties and manner of execution, according as
they may be intended for running or stagnated water ; for water already existing on the
spot, or to be brought there, or according to the nature of the soil and surface. For
running water more depends on the design than on the execution ; for a current, if well
directed, will, in a short time, form a suitable bed and banks for itself : but for stagnated
water all depends on art, both in the design of the shape and the execution of the bed
and margin. Water already existing in a body on the spot generally implies a suitable-
ness of soil for retaining it, and the existence of springs for an increased supply, and
these serve as useful guides in the course of execution : but where water is to be brought
to a situation, it generally implies an unsuitableness both of soil and surface to retain it,
and hence requires the greatest attention in the application of art, both as to design and
execution. The most suitable surface for water is a hollow or level, and the best soil
a clay or strong loam. In all these cases the executive part reduces itself to three oper-

S80

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

tttions ; the removal and disposal of the earth, the formation of the bed and margin, and
the formation of the dam or head and sluice.

1946. In the removal and disposal of the earthy regard should be had to preserve the
best soil for what is to be future surface ; and, in poor lands, it may often be advisable
to dig or pare off the surface of the spots to be covered by the excavated earth, and
preserve them for the same purpose. Where the new soil is to be thinly scattered over
the old, fallowing, trenching, or digging may effect the proper mixture. When large
masses of new earth are to be laid down, that of worse quality must be farthest removed
from the probable reach of the roots of future trees ; or, if the roots of trees will pene-
trate the whole mass, then the whole soil should be mixed. Gravelly materials should
be kept at such a distance from the margin of the water, as not to act as a drain
from it ; and, in forming the mass of earth requisite at most dams or heads, the less
gravel or porous matter used alone, the more compact and retentive will be the head.
In every mode in which excavated earth is disposed of, care is requisite to blend its out-
lines with those already existing, so as to avoid all appearance of patches laid on, bumps,
.warts, or excrescences, than which nothing is more disagreeable in surfaces.

1947. In the formation of the bed, where the excavation has been made in a level sur-
face, no farther attention is requisite than attending to the depths indicated in the design,
which will generally be greatest towards the middle, and diminishing to the sides, as
in nature. Few pieces of water require to be deeper in the middle than ten feet, which
will generally deter cattle from wading across them, and prove unfavorable for the
growth of most aquatic plants. Where water is formed by damming up, or throwing a
head across a hollow, of which, perhaps, the most notable instance on record is that of
Blenheim, the bottom does not require any attention, excepting adjoining the head ; the
mass of materials forming which should form an inclined plane under the body of water
for the sake of securing the head ; and to prevent the water from penetrating into this
mass of materials, its surface should be regularly clayed or puddled over, as well as a
part of the firm ground on all sides, and even in the bottom of the excavation. For
if this firm ground is of a sandy or gravelly nature, the water may, by entering it, find
its way to the mass of new and not yet consolidated earthy matters, and by softening
them, speedily ruin the whole mound or head. A safe mode is to leave the head to
consolidate for a year or more before filling with water. This was Brown's practice
at Blenheim, Harewood Hall, and other places.

1948. When water is formed on the side of a hill, the lower part of the excavation must
be raised and clayed with equal care, as in the case of the head or dam, and for the same
reasons. It is almost needless to mention, that claying must never be omitted where
the bottom or sides are either newly formed, or not naturally retentive of water. Where
clay cannot be had, loamy, or calcareous, and even somewhat sandy earth, by abundant
working, becomes retentive of water. This the celebrated engineer Brindley first dis-
covered and practised.

1949. The margin of all water, where nature is imitated, ought, as much as possible,
to be formed of stony or gravelly materials, as most likely to give a dry appearance quite
to the edge of the water, to admit of walking there, of cattle drinking without poaching
and bemiring themselves, and to prevent the growth of such grasses and aquatics as
communicate a morassy or marshy appearance ; and finally as being more natural and
picturesque than banks of mud. For this purpose, during the excavation, all or a suitable
quantity of such gravelly or stony materials as occur, should be reserved for depositing
along the margin, for at least one yard beyond the edge of the water, and two yards down

the slope of the bed. If suitable materials
are not to be had from the excavation, they
should be procured ; for without them
there can be but little beauty in the mar-
gins at least of stagnated water. The
margins of rivers may be left in a great
degree to nature, watching every proper
opportunity after floods or winds, to
heighten indications of picturesque effects,
not materially inconsistent with local cha-
racter and utility.

1 950. In the formation of the head, or
dam {fig. 370. d), the points requiring
particular attention are the clajdng, and
the forming the sluice or valve for empty-
ing the pond. Claying should either be
performed over the whole of the inner
surface of the head, or by a perpendicular
Stratum of clay in the middle of the bank.

370

Book IV.

CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION.

961

The last mode is the most simple of execution; but if the great body of loose
materials are of a sandy or porous nature, the former will be found the safest ; either
however, well executed, will suffice ; and in this point of practice, execution is certainly
of more consequence than design.

1951. The sluice is the stopper or valve to a drain {Jig. 370. e), carried through
the bank of a piece of artificial water at the lowest part of its bed, in order to be able
to empty it at pleasure. There are various kinds, from the simple tube and stopper
{fg. 371. a), to the plank-sluice (c), or grooved frame (b). This last is formed of a plate
of boards, generally two or three feet wide, and six or eight feet high, attached to a stalk,
and worked by means of a pinion and rachet in a frame of timber. Tlie sluice is built
vertically into the drain as a damper is into a flue, and the length of the stalk and frame
is always such as to reach somewhat above the ground's surface for conveniency of work-
ing. ITie grand object as to the sluice is to construct it so as to admit the least possible
escape of water. This will generally be best attained by forming the tunnel, in which
the sluice is to be built, in the solid ground at the side of the head, and not in the new
and loose earth, building it of masonry or brick set in cement, claying it completely on
all sides, and fitting in the sluice with the greatest nicety.

371

JJ=tl

372

1 952. Syphon sluice. As it is practically impossible to form sluices and drains that
do not lose more or less water, owing to the great pressure of the volume in the lake or
pond, it is better, where the supply is very limited, to have no drain or sluice, and to draw
off the water when required by a large syphon, wliich may easily be formed of boards ; or
a drain may be formed, and, instead of a sluice, a well of clay adopted as a stopper. The
power of dra\%-ing off tiie water is seldom
used, and, unless in fishponds, or where
frequent clearing is necessary, sluices are
of little use. The superfluous water
which escapes over the head when abund-
ant, may form a cascade or waterfall ; but
where the waste is small, it may escape
at one side (Jig. 371. a) as a small gur-
gling rill over a bed formed of well-
worked clay, to prevent its working out
hollows, and covered by gravel, stones,
&c., to give it a clear and natural-like ap-
pearance. As the head is generally a
straight mound, destitute of natural
beautj', it should be disguised by small
islands {fig. 372. b, c), or varied by plant-
ing on the margin, or both ; but as our
present business is merely to describe the
operations requisite to the formation of
pieces of water, we must refer, for what
concerns it as a material of landscape, to Landscape-gardening. (Part III. Book IV.)

1953. Surfaces to imitate nature, such as hills, knolls, and all the variety of raised
surfaces in pleasure-grounds, are formed by heaping up materials in the indicated shapes ;
and hollows of equal variety, by hollowing them out ; in both cases, studying to keep the
best earth at the surface, and so to blend the forms with those to which they are united,
that no line of demarcation may ever afterwards be discoverable.

1 954. Surfaces avowedly artificial, as levels, terraces, slopes, banks, beds of earth, or
dung-beds, being once distinctly marked out, are executed with equal facility and greater
certainty of attaining the end or effect. Formerly the geometric style of gardening af-
forded an ample field for the exercise of this class of operations ; but at present they are
chiefly confined to the kitchen-garden, the sites of buildings, and a limited ^ace around

38a SCIENCE OF GARDENING Part II.

the mansion; Whatever may be the surface destined for a court or square of buildings,
as a stable-yard or farmery, it must be reduced to a plane or planes connected in such a
way as not to interfere with utility or effect. It is not essential that the surface be
formed to a perfect level, or to any one slope, but that order and connection should enter
into the choice of the slopes, whatever that may be. In kitchen-gardens it sometimes
happens that a level, or one general slope, may be adopted ; but much more frequently
that different slopes enter into the composition of the enclosed surface. These subordi-
nate planes or surfaces are all so connected as to balance and harmonise, and present to
tlie intelligent eye a work, not of chance, but of design and reflection. In a seemingly level
garden it often happens that not one of the compartments is level ; but each compartment
of itself forms one plane, diverging from the centre, north wall, or some other point of the
garden, and terminating on the same level, at the extreme corners of the compartment, or
at the lower extremity of the garden. Besides these means, the formation of raised bor-
ders, and the furniture of gardens, such as espaliers, bushes, &c. enable the designer
to harmonise forms and surfaces seemingly the most incongruous and unsuitable for a
scene of culture.

1 955. There are two modes of reducing an irregular surface to one plane. The first is
by taking sections of the surface in parallel lines at every ten or twenty feet distance,
according as the surface may be more or less irregular ; laying down these sections on
paper geometrically, and from the whole finding a mean section. The stakes of all the
parallel lines of levels still remaining in the ground, it will be easy to transfer the mean
section by raising these stakes in some places, and lowering them in others, as the scale
of the diagram will direct. The second and more general mode is by approximation, or
trial and correction, which, in all ordinary cases, is sufficiently correct. Suppose an irre-
gular surface, 100 feet square, is to be reduced to a level or plane. The degree of slope
is first ascertained (by tlie American or any other level) from the highest side of the
square tp the lower, and it is found, we shall suppose, that the ground will not easily
reduce to a horizontal surface. It is, therefore, determined to reduce it to a slope ; and
for this purpose a certain height is determined on by the eye for the extremities of the
slope ; in fixing on which, the object is to adjust the slope to the earth, so as the former
may be completed without exterior aid or superfluity. Supposing the lower side of the
plot to be twenty-five inches below the level of the upper side, then the fall is a quarter
of an inch in each foot, and a few lines of stakes can be run across the ground in the
direction of the slope, with their tops adjusted to this declivity. Or this may be omitted,
and the same end attained by borning-pieces used after the ground has been roughly
levelled. But this is one, among many parts of the business of a gardener, which can
more readily be acquired by practice than verbal instruction.

1956. Walks are spaces in gardens formed for the purposes of inspecting the garden,
recreation, and carrying on the operations of gardening. As one great requisite is, that
they should always be dry, the bottom of the walk in most cases forms a drain. There
are three descriptions of walks common to gardens, those of gravel, sand, and grass.
All walks consists of two parts, their substrata and surface-covering. The substratum
is generally placed in an excavation, the section of which is a segment of a circle, or an
inverted pointed arch, being deepest in the centre, where, in wet soils and situations, a
notch or drain is often formed to carry off* the water which oozes from the sides of the
bottom, or sinks through the gravel. In all ordinary cases, however, the water will run
off' without this notch, provided the general levels of the bottoms of the walks or the drains
which cross them, or lead from them, be contrived accordingly. The foundation of the
walks is to be filled with stones, the largest at bottom ; or with rubbish of old buildings,
flints, or any other similar materials, observing always to place the smallest at top. When
tin's is done, before the covering of gravel, sand, or turf is laid on, the substratum
should be well rolled, so as it may never afterwards vary its position, either with the
weight of the covering, or any weight which may pass over it.

1957. The covering of gravel 373

(Jig. 373. a) need seldom be thicker ^ g

than six inches, and generally four ^^^^^^r^J^i^H^;^^ W§/'/^f^^^^^^^
inches will be sufficient. That this ^^^^S^^^^W W/ ' ^^^^^/J^m
gravel may bind in so thin a stratum, ■/ ' ' ''^'^>^^' /f/M «/' ^"^^W^' " ''^'■W
it is requisite that it be free from ' W, m ^ ^ /M

larger stones than those the size of a > ......,.,...,„„:,.^. '^''^^ ^A., '-'.-~/y////-z,/V/M^'^

pigeon's egg, that the general size be

that of large gooseberries or plums, and that there be about a sixth part of rusty sandy
matter to promote its binding. Tlie choice of gravel is seldom within the power of tlie
gardener ; but, in general, pit-gravel is to be preferred to river-gravel, as binding better,
and having a better color. Gravel abounding in oxide of iron, if laid down where it is
finally to remain, when newly taken out of the pit, and well watered and rolled, will often
bind into one compact body like what is called pudding-stone. Such gravels, however,

Book IV. CARRYING DESIGNS INTO EXECUTION. 383

are seldom well colored. The best in this respect in England, and also a good gravel
for binding, is the gravel of Kensington, to which good qualities it adds that of being the
most beautiful in the world. There are some very agreeable sea-gravels, formed chiefly
of small shells, or fragments of larger ones. The way to make a handsome walk with
this gravel is to mix it with about a tenth part of a composition consisting of equal parts
of brickdust and puzzolana earth or Roman cement. This done, and the gravel laid down
in a wet state, and well rolled, it will form a surface like that of shell-marble.

1958. JFhere a covering of sand is adopted, its thickness must depend on its qualities,
and whether sand is taken from preference or necessity. When sand is taken from pre-
ference, the intention is to produce soft walks, which shall yield to the feet like turf, in
which case its thickness may be from three to six inches ; but if sand is used because
gravel cannot be procured, then little more should be laid on than what is sufficient to fill
up the interstices of the upper surface of the substrata. Sometimes an attempt is made
to bind such sand, by mixing it with dried clay in a state of powder, or with the scrapings
of stone roads, and tiien watering and rolling ; but it is not often that this succeeds ; and
it may certaiiUy be considered as unfortunate where the best walks about a residence are
covered with sand.

1959. The covering of turf and earth (Jig. 373. b) should not be less than six inches in
thickness, that there may be sufficient pasturage and moisture for the roots of the grasses
in the dry season. For tliis purpose, the soil laid under the turf should be a medium be-
tween a stiff* clayey and a loose sandy soil, so as more completely to serve as a sponge than
either.

1960. Substitutes for gravel and sand are burned lumps of clay reduced to powder,
pounded bricks, stones, or slates, scoria, ashes, soaper's waste, coal, shells, sawdust, tan-
ner's bark, ferruginous earth, and even moss or peat-earth. Bark and peat-earth are
often used in Holland ; the former, when fresh, has much of the color of Kensington
gravel, and assorts well with vegetation.

1961. Substitutes for turf are green mpsses recently gathered and stuck on mortar or
cement ; the same process with lichens from trees, or with flow-moss or heath-tops.

1962. The form of the surface of gravel, sand, and grass walks, should almost always
be flat ; or, in the case of gravel, gently raised in the middle, so as to throw the water
towards the sides, in approaching which it may sink gently into the substrata. But in
turf walks this should never be attempted ; as it is desirable, on account of equally
watering the plants, and retaining an equal firmness throughout their surface, that the
water should sink in where it falls. It is a common practice to form turf walks of solid
earth, without any regard to the substrata ; and this succeeds very well in dry soils, and
where such walks are little used, excepting in summer ; but whenever turf walks are to
be in constant use, the above is much the best way of forming them. Gravel and sand
have, in like manner, been laid on the surface of the soil in small gardens, and in very dry
sub-soils, and where this can be done with the attainment of the desired objects, it has this
advantage, that the roots of trees may range under the walks, as indeed always happens
in shrubberies and plantations. The scoria; of metals, coal-ashes, the refuse of mines and
glass-works, and other similar matters, are often used instead of gravel ; but their color
seldom harmonises well with that of vegetation.

1 963. The breadth of walks generally depends on the extent or scale of the whole residence,
and not of the particular garden or scene, which may be small, and yet connected with
greater. They should never be narrower than is suflScient to allow a party of two to walk
abreast, the minimum breadth for which is four feet six inches ; but they may be large
enough for a party of half a dozen, or in public walks, or walks in extensive pleasure-
grounds, avenues, &c., for one or two dozen. For the latter number thirty-six feet suf-
fices. T/ie direction of walks depends on their particular use, and connection with the
different scenes or subjects of gardening.

1964. ^Uei/s are smaller walks generally covered with a thin coat of sand, gravel, or
shells. In parterres they are sometimes of various widths, to suit the particular forms
which constitute the design ; and there also they are sometimes covered with different
sorts of gravels, shells, scoriae, &c., or paved with flints, pebbles, &c. ; but the alleys of
separation, in walled gardens, are generally two feet wide, and formed in right Unes,
parallel to the main walks, or borders. Sometimes they are not gravelled, and at otlier
times they are covered with road-grit, or the scrapings of roads ; which, of course, is to be
considered as the powder of the material of which the road is made, mixed with vegetable
matter from the droppings of horses and cattle, and is considered as well adapted for
binding or forming a compact siuface.

1 965. Roads are walks on a large scale ; they are formed on the same general plan ;
but when of fifteen or twenty feet in breadth, and on a wet or retentive soil, they have
generally a drain on each side instead of one in the centre. On the sides of slopes,
where, during heavy rains, these roads intercept the water from the upper grounds, they
should have frequent gratings, or pierced stones, communicating with the drains on

S94

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

sloped part is cut over horizontally near the middle of the slope ; a cleft nearly two inches
long is made with a stout knife or chisel in the crown downwards, at right angles to the
sloped part, taking care not to divide the pith. This cleft is kept open by the knife.
The scion has its extremity for about an inch and half, cut into the form of a wedge, it is
left about the eighth of an inch thicker on the outer or back side, and brought to a fine
edge on the inside. It is then inserted into the opening prepared for it ; and the knife
being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly upon it." If it be intended to graft any pretty
large stocks or branches by this method, two or more scions may be inserted in each. The
stock being prepared by cutting over as above, cleave it across in two places parallel and
at a small distance apart, and insert a scion in each cleft : or by cutting or sawing the
head off horizontally, and smoothing the section, a radiated series of clefts may be made,
and scions inserted in each.

2030. Crown-grafting is another mode adopted for thick stocks, shortened branches, or
headed down trees. It is sometimes called grafting in the bark or rind, from thd scion
being inserted between the bark and wood. This, mode of grafting is performed vrkh
best effect, somewhat later than the others, as the motion of the sap renders the bark and
wood of the stock much more easily separated for the admission of the scions. In per-
forming the operation, first cut or saw off the head of the stock or branch, horizontally or
level, and pare the top smooth ; then having the scions, cut one side of each flat and some-
what sloping, an inch and half long, forming a sort of shoulder at the top of the slope, to
rest upon the crown of the stock ; and then raise the rind of the stock with the ivory
wedge, forming the handle of the budding-knife {Jig' HO.) ; so as to admit the scion be-
tween that and the wood two inches down ; which done, place the scion with the cut side
next the wood, thrusting it down far enough for the shoulder to rest upon the top of the
stock ; and in thi^ manner may be put three, four, five, or more scions, in one large stock
or branch. It is alleged as a disadvantage attending this method in exposed situations,
that the ingrafted shoots for two or three years are liable to be blown out of the stock by
violent winds ; the only remedy for which is tying long rods to the body of the stock or
branch, and tying up each scion and its shoots to one of the rods.

2031. Side-grafting (Jig. 379. c) resembles whip or tongue grafting, but differs in
being performed on the side of the stock without bending down. It is practised on wall
trees to fill up vacancies, and sometimes in order to have a variety of fruits upon the
same tree. Having fixed upon tliose parts of the branches where wood is wanting to
furnish the head or any part pf the tree, there slope off the bark and a little of the wood,
and cut the lower end of the scions to fit the part as near as possible, then join them to
the branch, tie them with bass, and clay them over.

2032. Saddle-grafting is performed by first cutting the top of the stock into a wedge-
like form, and then splitting up the end of the scion and thinning off each half to a
tongue shape ; it is then placed on the wedge, embracing it on each side, and the inner
barks are made to join on one side of the stock, as in cleft-grafting. This is a very
strong and handsome mode for standard-trees when grafted at the standard-height. It is
also desirable for orange-trees, and rose-standards, as it makes a handsome finish, covering
a part of the stock, which by the other methods, long remains a black scar, and some-
times never becomes covered with bark. The stocks for this purpose should not be much
thicker than the scions, or two scions may be inserted.

2033. A local variety of saddle-grafing {Jig. 379. d, e, f) is thus described by Knight, as
practised upon small stocks, and almost exclusively in Herefordshire. It is never at-
tempted till the usual season of grafting is passed, and till the bark is readily detached from
the alburnum. The head of the stock is then taken off by a single stroke of the knife
obliquely, so that the incision commences about a diameter below the point where the me-

Book IV.

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING.

395

duUa appears in the section of the stock, and ends as much above it, upon the opposite
side. The scion, which should not exceed in diameter half that of the stock, is then to be
divided longitudinally, about two inches upwards from its lower end, into two unequal
divisions, by passing the knife upwards just in contact with one side of the medulla.
The stronger division of tlie scion is then to be pared thin at its lower extremity, and in-
troduced, as in crown-grafting, between the bark and wood of the stock ; and the more
slender division is fitted to the stock upon the opposite side. The scion consequently
stands astride the stock, to which it attaches itself firmly upon each side, and which it
covers completely in a single season. Grafts of the apple and pear rarely ever fail in
this method of grafting, which may be practised with equal success with young wood in
July, as soon as that has become moderately firm and mature. 381

2034. A subvariety of saddle-grafting (jig. 381.), applicable
to very slender shoots, is practised by Knight, who gives the
rationale and manipulation in his usual masterly manner. As
this mode has rarely " or never been properly executed, it will
be necessary that I describe the motion of the sap as I conceive
it to be, at the period when grafts are most advantageously in-
serted. The graft first begins its efforts to unite itself to the
stock just at the period when the formation of a new internal
layer of bark commences in the spring ; and the fluid, which
generates this layer of bark, and which also feeds the inserted
graft, radiates in every direction from the vicinity of the me-
dulla, to the external surface of the alburnum. Tlie grafl is of
course most advantageously placed when it presents the largest
surface to receive such fluid, and when the fluid itself is made to
deviate least from its natural course. This takes place most
efficiently, when a graft of nearly equal size with the stock is
divided at its base and made to stand astride the stock, and
when the two divisions of tlie grafl are pared extremely thin, at
and near their lower extremities, so that they may be brought
into close contact with the stock (from which but little bark or
wood should be pared off) by the ligature. I have adopted this
mode chiefly in grafting cherry-trees, and I have rarely ever seen
a graft fail, even where the wood has been so succulent and immature as to preclude
every hope of success by any other mode." (Hort. Trans, v. 147.)

2035. Shoulder, or chink-grafting, is performed with a shoulder, and sometimes also
with a stay at the bottom of the slope. It is chiefly used for ornamental trees, where the
scion and stock are of the same size {fg- 380. a, b, c, d).

2036. Root-grafting (Jig. 380. h) is sometimes performed in nurseries on parts of
the roots of removed trees, when the proper stocks are scarce ; and in which case, the
root of the white thorn has been resorted to as a stock both for the apple and pear. In
general, however, a piece of the root of the tree of the same genus is selected, well fur-
nished with fibres, and a scion placed on it in any of the ordinary ways for small stocks.
Thus united, they are planted so deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only a few
eyes of the scion above ground. Some gardeners have thought, that in this way, the
plant must preserve a near resemblance to the parent tree ; but Abercrombie remarks,
that though it is an expeditious way of obtaining a new plant, such a graft cannot be
materially diflferent from a cutting or layer.

2037. A variety of root-grafting, practised by Knight, is thus described. " Trans-
planting, many years ago, some pear-stocks from a seed-bed, of which the soil was soft
and deep, I found that the first emitted roots of many of them descended a foot or more
perpendicularly into the earth, before they divided into any lateral ramifications : and as
I did not like to replant the young trees, with such an inconvenient length of perpendi-
cular root, I cut off about six inches from each. The amputated parts were then accu-
rately fitted and bound, as in splice or whip-grafting, to scions of pear-trees, wliich were
selected as nearly as possible of the same size ; and the roots, with their attached branches,
were deposited in the ground as cuttings, so deep, that the whole of the root, and about
an inch of the scion, were covered. The soil was then drawn up with the hoe on each
side of the plants, which were placed in rows, so that one bud only of each graft was
above the soil, and another just within it. These grafts succeeded perfectly well ; and I
have subsequently repeated the same experiment with equal success upon the apple, the
plum, and the peach. In the greater part of these experiments, the roots were perfectly
cleansed from mould by washing, before they were fitted to the graft, and were tlien
placed in wet moss, till a sufficient number were ready to be carried to the nursery ; a
common dibber only was employed in planting them ; but the mould was washed into
the holes with water, to close it well round the roots, and to supply the place of the clay
used in other methods of grafting." {Hart. Trans, vol. i. p. 239.) A variation of this

386 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

1 977. Collecting and forming conijwsts for manure is an essential part of the economy
of the garden, no less than of the farm. The following judicious observations on this
subject, by Bishop, merit attention : —

Without enumerating the various means that, with careful economy , may be used for increasing the
stock of garden manure, such as collecting the urine of animals, chamber-lie, soap-suds, or mixing fresh
soils of opposite qualities, I shall confine myself to a plain statement of a method I nave practised for these
several years past with much success. Situated the same as many others, to whom the produce of the
stable-yard is the only allowance of dung that can conveniently be allotted for the garden, which, although
every way advantageous for hot-beds, and other purposes of forcing, yet, to use it as a manure for garden
crops, without having its qualities altered by fermentation, or blended with substances of a heavier nature,
would, in many cases, be more injurious than beneficial ; I therefore, during the summer and autumn,
have all the offals in the garden, such as weeds, leaves of strawberries and other vegetables, short grass,
peas and asparagus haulm, with the foliage of trees and shrubs when newly shed, carefully collected into a
heap. These are all turned over and mixed during the winter, that they may be sufficiently rotted to mix
with the dung against the end of summer. I have also another heap formed with the prunings from goose-
berry and currant bushes, fruit-trees, raspberry-shoots, clippings of box-edgings, and loppings from shrubs ;
also the roots of greens and cabbages, which are generally burnt at two difterent periods in the year, viz. in
spring and autumn ; but previous to each burning, I endeavour to pare up all the coarse grasses around
the garden, with a portion of the soil adhering thereto, and whenever these are sufficiently dried, have
them collected to the heap intended to be burnt. The fire is kindled at a convenient distance from the
heaps, and a portion of such as burn most easily is first applied, until the fire hath gained a considerable
power. After this, the process of burning is continued, by applying lighter and heavier substances alter-
nately, that the one may preserve the action of the fire, and the other prevent it from reducing them too
much to ashes. When the whole are thus consumed, a quantity of mould is thrown over the heap to pre,
vent the fire from breaking through ; and whenever it can be broke into with salety, it is then mixed up
into a dunghill with the rotted vegetables, moss-earth, and stable-yard dung, in such proportions as is
likely to ensure a moderate fermentation, which is generally completed in three or four weeks ; at which
time, I think, it is most advantageously applied, in having it carried to the ground, and instantly dug in.
{Mem. Caled. Hart. Sac. i. 443.)

1978. Liquid manures are highly approved of by many cultivators, and especially by
Knight. TRiey are formed by infusing rich dungs, as those'of fowls, sheep, pigs, &c. or
blood, in three or four times their bulk of water ; and the application of the extract so
procured is made at the usual seasons of watering, taking care to apply it only to the
roots. Knight applies this mode of manuring chiefly to plants in pots, and is convinced,
from experience, that trees and shrubs may grow and bear fruit in very small pots, if
abundantly supplied with nourishment in this manner. (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 127.)
For some plants, as the pine, vine, cauliflower, cucumber, and others which gardeners
consider as gross feeders, liquid manures may be applied during their full vigor of
growth ; but the practice, we think, would be dangerous, if so applied to culinary or
fruit-bearing plants in general, as producing too great excitement.

1979. Collecting and forming conij)osts for mould. Composts are mixtures of several
earths, or earthy substances or dungs, either for the improvement of the general soil
under culture ; or for the culture of particular plants.

1 980. In respect to comjyosts for the amendment of the general soil of the garden, their
quality must depend on that of the natural soil ; if this be light, loose or sandy, it may
be assisted by the addition of heavy loams, clays, &c. from ponds and ditches, cleanings
of sewers, &c. On the other hand, heavy, clayey, and all stubborn soils, may be assisted
by light composts of sandy earth, drift, and sea-sand, the shovellings of turnpike-roads,
the cleansing of streets, all kinds of ashes, rotten tanners' bark, rotten wood, and saw-
dust, and other similar light opening materials that can be most conveniently procured. .

1981. Comjmsts for particular plants may be reduced to light sandy loam from old
pastures ; strong loam approaching nearly to brick-earth from the same source ; peat-
earth from the surface of heaths or commons ; bog-earth from bogs or morasses ; veget-
able earth from decayed leaves, stalks, cow-dung, &c. ; sand, either sea-sand, drift-sand,
or powdered stone, so as to be as free as possible from iron, lime-rubbish ; and lastly
common garden-earth. There are no known plants that will not grow or thrive in one
or other of these earths alone or mixed with some other earth, or with rotten dung, or
leaves. Nurserymen, whose practice may be considered a safe criterion to judge from,
have seldom more than three sorts of earth : loam, approaching to the qualities of brick-
earth ; peat or bog-earth, from heaths or morasses ; and the common soil of their nursery.
With these, and the addition of a little sand for striking plants, some sifted lime-rubbish
for succulents, and some well rotted cow-dung for bulbs and some sorts of trees, they
contrive to grow thousands of different species in as great perfection (taking the dif-
ference between plants in pots and plants in the free soil and air) as in their native coun-
tries, and many, as the pine, vine, camellia, rose, &c. in a superior manner.

1982. Practical limit to ingredients for composts. Gushing, one of the best vmters on
the propagation of exotics, observes, " Loam, peat, and sand, seem to be the three simples
of nature, if I may so call them, most requisite for our purpose ; to which we occasionally
add, as mollifiers, vegetable or leaf mould, and well rotted dung ; from the judicious
mixture and preparation of which, composts may be made to suit plants introduced from
any quarter of the globe." (Exotic Gardener, p. 153. 1814.) Sweet (Botanical Ctdti-
vator, 1820,) concurs in this opinion. See also Haynes On Collecting and Forming
Composts, &c. 1821.

Book IV. OPERATIONS OF PROPAGATION. S$1

1983. PrqKirat'wn of composts. The preparation requisite for the heavy and tightf
composts for general enrichment, and of tlie above different earths, consists in collecting
each sort in the compost-ground, in separate ridges of tliree or four feet broad and as
high, turning them every six weeks or two months for a year or a year and half before'
they are used. Peat-earth being generally procured in the state of turves full of the
roots and tops of heath, requires two or three years to rot ; but, after it has lain one year,'
it may be sifted, and what passes through a small sieve will be found fit for use. Some
nurserymen use both these loams and peats as soon as procured, and find them answer
perfectly for most plants ; but for delicate flowers, and especially bulbs, and all florists*
flowers, and for all composts in which manures enter, not less than one year ought to be'
allowed for decomposition, and what is technically called sweetening. The French
gardeners allow for their rich orange-tree composts from three to six years.

1984. The compost-ground may be placed in any situation concealed from the general
view, but at the same time exposed to the free action of the sun, air, and rain. Its size
will depend on that of the garden, and on the sorts of culture for which the nioulds are
adapted. It should generally form a part of the parallelogram enclosure used as hot-bed.
ground, and where there are hot-houses, both should be situate as near them as possible.

Sect. II. Operatioris of Propagation.

1 985. The operations of jyrojmgation are among the most curious and difficult in gardening.
As already observed (830.), plants are universally propagated by seed, but partially also
by germs or bulbs, suckers, runners, slips, and offsets; and artificially by layers, inarch-
ing, grafting, budding, and cuttings.

SuBSECT. 1. Propagation hy natural Methods.

1 986. By seed. Here the first consideration is to make sure of live seeds ; for some,
as we have seen (717. to 722.) lose their vitality very early after being gathered, while
others retain it only for one or perhaps two seasons ; some seeds also are injured, and
others are improved by keeping. The size of seeds requires also to be taken into con-
sideration, for on tliis most frequently depends the depth which they require to be buried
in the soil ; the texture of their skin or covering must be attended to, as on this often
depends the time they require to be buried in the soil previously to germination. On the
form and surface of the outer coating of seeds sometimes depends the mode of sowing as
in the carrot, and on their qualities in general depends their liability to be attacked by
insects. The nature of the offspring expected and the proper climate, soil, and season
require also to be kept in view in determining how, where, when, and in what quantity
any seed must be sown. Such are the general considerations, their particular applications-
will afterwards occur.

1987. By germs or bulbs. These, whether cauline or radical, require in general to be
planted immediately or soon after removal from the parent plant, in light earth about
their own depth from the surface. Matured bulbs may be preserved out of the soil for
some months, without injury to their vitality ; but infant bulbs are easily dried up and
injured when so treated.

1988. By offsets. This mode is not very easily distinguished from the foregoing and
following, and seems in a strict sense only applicable to young radical bulbs, which, when
separated or taken off from the parent roots, are termed offsets.

1989. By slips. These are shoots (fg. 376. cr) which spring from the collar or the
upper part of the roots of herbaceous plants, as in auricula, and under shrubs, as thyme,
&c. The shoot, when the lower part from whence the roots proceed begins to ripen or
acquire a firm texture, is to be slippedr or drawn from the parent plant so far as to bring
off a heel or claw of old woo^, stem, or root, to which generally some roots, or rudiments
of roots, are attached. The ragged parts and edges of this claw or rough section are
then to be smoothed with a sharp knife, and the slip planted in suitable soil, and shaded
till it strikes root afresh, or appears to have recovered from the effects of amputation.

1990. By division of the plant. This mode is adopted with many species, as most per-
ennial grasses, the daisy, polyanthus, and a great variety of others. The plant is taken

Cc 2

388

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

up, and the earth shaken from its roots ; the whole is then separated, each piece containing
a portion of root and stem, which may be planted without farther preparation.

1991. By runners {fig- 376. c). With certain species this is a very convenient and
sure mode of propagation. All that is requisite, is to allow the plantlet on the shoot or
runner to be well rooted before being separated from the parent. It may then be planted
where it i« finally to remain.

1992. By suckers {Jig. 376. b). These are merely runners under ground ; some run
to a considerable distance, as the robinia, narrow-leaved elm, sea-limegrass, physalis,
&c. ; others are more limited in their migrations, as the lilac, syringa, Jerusalem arti-
choke, saponaria, &c. All that is necessary is to dig tliem up, cut off each plantlet with
a portion of root, after which its top may be reduced by cutting off' from one fourth to
one half of the shoot, in order to fit it to the curtailed root, and it may then be planted,
either in the nursing-department, or, if a strong plant, where it is finally to remain.

SuBSECT. 2. Projxigation by Layering.

1993. Layers, as we have already observed (840.) are indicated by nature, and we
shall here point out the improvements of art and their applications. The roots in natural
layers are produced by the stimulus of the moist earth on which the shoots, from the na-
ture of the tree or plant, or accidental causes, recline ; art increases the natural stimuli,
and adds others, especially that of diminishing the resources of the shoot in the parent
plant, by incision or fracture.

1994. Season. In general, the operation of layering in trees and shrubs is commenced
before the ascent of the sap, or delayed till the sap is fully up, and thence the two seasons
are early in spring or in midsummer. Autumn and winter are resorted to for convenience
in extensive concerns. The shoot, or extremity of the shoot, intended to become a new
plant, is half separated from the parent plant, at a few inches' distance from its extremity,
and while this permits the ascent of the sap at the season of its rising, the remaining half
of the stem being cut through and separated, forms a dam or sluice to the descending
sap, which, thus interrupted in its progress, exudes at the wound in the form of a gra-
nulous protuberance, which throws out roots. If the cut or notch in the stem does not
penetrate at least half way through, some sorts of trees will not form a nucleus the first
season ; on the other hand, if the notch be cut nearly through the shoot, a sufficiency of
alburnum or soft wood is not left for the ascent of the sap, and the shoot dies. In deli-
cate sorts it is not sufficient to cut a notch merely, because in that case, the descending
sap, instead of throwing out granulated matter in the upper side of the wound, would
descend by the entire side of the shoot ; therefore, besides a notch formed by cutting out
a portion of bark and wood, the notched side is slit up at least one inch, separating it by
a bit of twig, or small splinter of stone or potsherd.

1995. Manipulation. Shoots when layered are often cut and mangled at random
{Jig. 377. a, bf c), or buried insuflSciently, or so deep in the soil (rf) that they throw out
but few roots ; or not placed upright (e?) , by which they make unsightly plants. In order
to give some sort of principle to go upon, it should be remembered, that the use of the notch
is to prevent the heel or part intended to throw out granulous matter from being bruised,
which it generally is, by the common practice of performing this operation by one cut
sloping upwards; and that the use of the slit is to render it more difficult for the

377

descending sap to return from the extremity of the heel. In conformity with this idea,
Knight recommends taking up the shoot after it has grown some time, and cutting
off* a ring of bark below the notch and slit, so as completely to hinder the return of the
sap, and tliereby force the shoot to employ it in forming roots. {Hort. Trans, vol. i. 256.)
In burying an entire shoot (/) with a view to induce shoots to rise from every bud,
notches alone are sufficient without either slitting or ringing. The use of the splinter of
wood, or bit of tile or potsherd, is partly to prevent the union of the parts when the bent
position of the shoot is not sufficient, and partly, and in some cases principally, to act as
a stimulus, like the bottom and sides of pots. On what principle it acts as a stimulus

Book IV. PROPAGATION BY LAYERING. 389

has not, we think, been yet determined, but its effects have long been very well known
to gardeners. In all cases the layer must be held firmly in its place by hooked pegs.
The operation of layering is periformed on herbaceous plants as well as trees ; and
the part to become the future plant is, in botli cases, covered witli soil about a third of
its length.

1 996. Layering by twisting, ringing, piercing, and wiring the shoot intended for the
future plant is also occasionally practised.

1997. Piercing is performed with an awl, nail, or penknife, thrust through two or
three times in opposite directions at a joint j from which wounds, first, granulated matter
oozes, and finally, fibres are emitted.

1998. Ringi7ig is cutting off' a small ring of bark and part of the wood, by which the
return of the sap being wholly prevented, it is, therefore, as it were, compelled to form
roots. Care must be taken, however, that the ring does not penetrate far into the wood,
otherwise the sap will be prevented from ascending in the first instance, and the shoot
killed.

1999. Wiring is performed by twisting a piece of wire round the shoot at a joint,
and pricking it at the same time with an awl on both sides of the wire. It is evident
that all these methods depend on the same general principle, that of permitting the ascent
of the sap through the wood, but checking its descent by cutting off" or closing the vessels
of the bark.

2000. Layers which are difficult to strike may be accelerated by ringing. Ringing is
an excellent method for making layers of hard-wooded plants strike root with greater
certainty, and in a smaller space of time than is attained in any other way. The accu-
mulated vegetable matter in the callus, which is formed on the upper edge of the ring,
when brought into contact with the soil, or any material calculated to excite vegetation,
readily breaks into fibres and roots. (Ilort. Trans, iv. 558.)

2001. In layering trees in the open garden, whatever mode be adopted, the ground
round each plant intended for laying, must be digged for the reception of the layers ;
then making excavations in the earth, lay down all the shoots or branches properly
situated for this purpose ; pegging each down with a peg or hooked stick ; laying also
all the proper young shoots on each branch or main shoot, fixing each layer from about
three or four to six inches deep, according as they admit, and moulding them in at that
depth, leaving the tops of every layer out of ground from about two or three to five or
six inches, according to their length, though some shorten their tops down to one or two
eyes. Observe also to raise the top of each layer somewhat upright, especially tongue or
slit layers, in order to keep the slit open. As the layering is completed, level in all the
mould finally, and equally in every part close about every layer, leaving an even, smooth
surface, presenting only the tops of each layer in the circumference of a circle, and the
stems or stools in the centre. Sometimes the branches of trees are so inflexible, as not
to be easily brought down for laying ; in which case they must be plashed, making the
gash or cut on the upper side ; and when they are grown too large for plashing, or that
the nature of the wood will not bear that operation, they may be thrown on their sides,
by opening the earth about their roots, and loosening or cutting all those on one side,
that the plant may be brought to the ground to admit of laying the branches.

2002. Layering plants in jwts. WTien layers are to be made from green-house shrubs,
or other plants in pots, the operation should generally be performed either in their own
pots, or in others placed near that of the stool to receive the layer.

2003. General treatment. After laying in either of the above metliods, there is no par-
ticular culture requisite, excepting that of keeping the earth as much as possible
of um'form moisture, especially in pots ; and watering these in the open air in dry
weather.

2004. Management of stools. When the layers are rooted, which will generally be the
case by the autumn after the operation is performed, they are all cleared from the stools
or main plants, and the head of each stool, if to be continued for furnishing layers, should
be dressed ; cutting oflP all decayed and scraggy parts, and digging the ground round
them. Some fresh rich mould should also be worked in, in order to encourage the
production of the annual supply of shoots for layering.

2005. Chinese laying. The Chinese method of propagating trees by first ringing, or
nearly so, a shoot, and then covering the ringed part with a ball of clay and earth,
covered with moss or straw, is obviously on the same general principle as layering ; and
is better effected in this country by drawing the shoot through a hole in a pot (such a
pot as Jig. 175.) ; ringing it to the extent of three fourths of its circumference, near the
the bottom or side of the pot, and then the pot, being supported in a proper position, and
filled with earth, it may be watered in the usual way. Some plants difficult to strike,
and for which proper stocks for inarching are not conveniently procured, are thus pro-
pagated in the nursery hot-houses.

2006. Removal of the rooted layer or plantlet. Though layers of trees completed early

Cc 3

39G

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Pakt II.

in spring, and of herbaceous plants after the season of their flowering, are generally _^f to
remove from the parent plant the end of the succeeding autumn ; yet many sorts of
American trees require two years to complete their roots. On the other hand, some sorts
of roses and deciduous shrubs, if their present year's wood be laid down when about half
grown, or about the middle of August, will produce roots, and be fit to separate the
succeeding autumn.

SuBSECT. 3. Propagation hy Inarching,

2007. Inarching may be described as a sort of layering, by the common or slit
process, in which the talus or heel intended to throw out fibres, instead of being inserted
in the soil, is inserted in the wood, or between the wood and bark of another plant, so as
to incorporate with it. It evidently depends on the same general principles as layering ;
and all the difference is, that the granulated matter which exudes between the bark and
tlie wood of the talus or heel, instead of throwing out fibres, unites with the wood of the
stock or plant to which it is attached, forming a solid ligneous union, which, when the
layer or shoot is separated from the mother plant, supplies it with nourishment as the
fibres do the common layer. It is the most certain mode of propagation with plants
difficult to excite to a disposition for rooting ; and when all other modes fail, this, when
a proper description of stock or basis is to be found, is sure to succeed. Professor
Thouin {Cours Complet d' Agriculture, &c. art. Greffe) has enumerated thirty-seven
varieties of inarching ; but they may all be reduced to two, crown inarching, in which
the head of the stock is cut off {Jig. 378. a), and side inarching {b and c), in which the
head of the stock is left on. With young hardy trees, the first mode is reckoned the
best, as the whole effort of the stock is thereby directed to the nourishment of the
inarched shoot ; the other is resorted to in propagating delicate trees, and for filling up
blanks in branches, and other purposes.

2008. Preparatory measures. The stocks designed to be inarched, and the tree from
which the layer or shoot is to be bent or arched towards them, and put in or united, must
be placed if in pots, or planted if in the open soil, near together. Hardy trees of free-
growing kinds should have a circle of stocks planted round them every year in the same
circumference, every other one being inarched the one year, and when removed, tlieir
place supplied by others, so that there will always be, by this practice, stocks of one year's
standing ready to receive the shoot. If the branches of the tree are too high for stocks
in the ground, they should be planted in pots, and elevated on posts or stands, or sup-
ported from the tree, &c.

378

2009. Manipulation. Having made one of the most convenient branches or shoots
approach the stock, mark on the body of the shoot the part where it will most easily join
to the stock ; and in that part of each shoot pare away the bark and part of the wood two
or three inche!^ in length, and in the same manner pare the stock in the proper place for
the junction of the shoot ; next make a sKt upwards in that part of the branch or shoot, as
in layering, so as to form a heel, but more of a tongue shape than in layering, and make
a slit downward in the stock to admit it. Let the parts be then joined, slipping the
tongue of the shoot into the slit of the stock, making both join in an exact manner, and
tie them closely together with bass. Cover the whole afterwards with a due quantity of
tempered or grafting clay or moss. In hot-houses, care must be taken not to disturb the
pots containing the plants operated on.

2010. (Seasons /or the operation. Inarching, like layering, \s covamoxAf perforTned in

Book IV. PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 391

sjrring, and in general cases, the union is effected in four or five months, when tlie layer
or inarched shoot may be separated from the mother plant. This must be done with a
^ery steady hand, so as not to loosen or break out the adhering shoot, sloping it off down-
wards, close to the stock j" and if the head of the stock was not cut down at the time of
inarching, it must now be cut off in a sloping direction close to tlie union ; and all the
old clay and bandage cleared away and replaced with new, to remain a few weeks longer
till the adhesion is complete, when it may be finally removed. In some cases, however,
the inarched shoot requires to remain two years, during the whole of which period, it
should be carefully covered to exclude the air from the wounds ; nor must the binding be
removed more than once during that period for fear of distiu-bing the cicatrising parts.

2011. Inarching a branch or shoot on the same tree (Jig. 378. b) is frequently a very
convenient mode of filling up vacancies in trees ; in which case it is generally performed
without heading down. Knight adopted this practice on a peach-tree, for a very in-
genious purpose, that of procuring returning or concocted sap to swell and ripen the fruit.
** In the last season (1812), a jKach-tree in my garden, of which I was very anxious to
see the fruit, had lost, by the severity of the weather, all its blossoms, except two, which
grew upon leafless branches : I was very desirous to preserve these, as well as to ascertain
the cause why the jyer.ch and nectarine, under such circumstances, fail to acquire maturity.
The most probable cause, according to my hj^jothesis, appeared to be the want of return-
ing sap (which tlie leaves, if existing, would have afforded), and the consequent morbid
state of the branch ; I therefore endeavoured to derive the necessary portion of returning
sap from another source. To obtain this object, the points of the branches, which bore
fruit, were brought into contact with other branches of the same age that bore leaves ; and
a part of their bark, extending in length about four times their diameters, was pared off
immediately above the fruit. Similar wounds were then made upon the other branches,
with which these were brought into contact ; and the wounded surfaces were closely
fitted ; and tightly bound together. An union soon took place ; and the fruit, apparently
in consequence of it, acquired the highest state of maturity and perfection. " Inarching,
like grafting, may be applied to various curious and useful purposes (c, d). Harte men-
tions that the hornbeam-hedges, in some parts of the Netherlands, were worked in the
lozenge form 'd), and that by removing the bark at each intersection, the whole had be-
come united as if one tree. Some curious examples of inarching and grafting combined
are to be seen in the Jardin des Plantes.

2012. Inarchifig herbaceoTis vegetables may, in almost all solid or sub-solid stalked
plants, whether annual or of longer duration, be performed with equal certainty as
in ligneous kinds. The vine of the cucumber may be inarched on tliat of the gourd,
the love-apple on the potatoe, &c. (Baron Tschoudi.)

ScBSECT. 4. Propagation by Grajiing.
• 2013. Grafting is a mode of propagation applicable to most sorts of trees and shrubs ;
but not easily to very small under-shrubs, as heath or herbaceous vegetables. It is chiefly
used for continuing varieties of fruit-trees. A grafted tree consists of two parts, the scion
and the stock ; their union constitutes the graft, and the performance of the operation is
called grafting. The scion is a part of the living vegetable, which, united or inserted in
a stock or other vegetable of the same nature, identifies itself with it, and grows there as
on its natural stem and roots.

2014. The end of grafting is, 1st. To conserve and multiply varieties and subvarieties
of fruit-trees, endowed iccidentally or otherwise with particular qualities, which cannot
be with certainty transferred to their offspring by seeds, and wliich would be multiplied
too slowly, or ineffectually, by any other mode of propagation. 2. To accelerate the
fructification of trees, barren as well 5is fruit-bearing ; for example, suppose two acorns
of a new species of oak, received from a distant country ; sow both, and after they have
grown one or two years, cut one of them over, and graft the part cut off on a common
oak of five or six years' growth ; the consequence will be that the whole nourishment of
this young tree of five years' growth being directed towards nourishing the scion of one
or two years', it will grow much faster, and consequently arrive at perfection much sooner
than its fellow, or its own root left in the ground. A French author found the advantage
of this practice in the case of a new species of ash, to be as five to one in point of heighrt.
(Cours Complet d' Agriculture, &c. art. Greffe.') The third use of grafting is to improve
the quality of fruits ; the fourth to perpetuate varieties of ornamental trees or shrubs ;
and the fifth to change the sorts of fruit on any one tree and renew its fruitfulness.

2015. The theory of grafting may be reduced to the following particulars : —

201 6. To graft or unite only varieties of the same species ; species of the same genus ; and
by extension, genera of the same natural family. Unless this imion of natures be attended
to, success will not attend the operation.

2017. 7b oftserre f/ie anfl/o^5 o/*/ree5, as to the periods of the movement of their sap ;
in the permanence or deciduous duration of their leaves: and the qualities of the juices of

Co 4

992 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

their fruits, in order to estimate the probable advantage of grafting a fruit of any parti-
cular flavor on another of similar or different qualities.

201 8. To unite exactly the inner bark of the scion with the inner bark of the stock in order
to facilitate the free course of the sap.

2019. To make choice of the proper season, and perform the operation with celerity.

2020. ylni/ scio7i will not succeed on any stock. Professor Thouin observes, that the
historians and poets of antiquity have written, and the moderns repeated on the faith of
others, that every scion will take on any sort of stock, provided there be a resemblance in
their barks. Thus Pliny, Varro, Columella, &c. speak of apples and vines grafted on
elms and poplars ; and Evelyn mentions, that he saw a rose grafted on an orange-tree in
Holland. The ancients acknowledged, however, that such grafts were but of very short
duration. " The result of numerous experiments which we have made," observes the
professor, " proves that if any one of these grafts seems at first to succeed, they all perish
more or less promptly."

2021. Certain species of trees, and certain varieties of fruits, take more easily on some
stocks than on others. Sometimes the cause is known, and at other times we are ignorant
of it. Thus the platanus-leaved maple will not receive the scions of any species of its
genus ; the reason of which may perhaps be deduced from its milky sap, which indicates
an organisation different from its congeners. In like manner, the common walnut takes
with difficulty on the late walnut ; because the times of the motion of their sap do not
coincide. But why certain varieties of pear succeed better on the quince than on the
seedling, and others better on the seedling than on the quince, cannot so easily be ac-
counted for. Such anomalies are frequent, and make part of the practical science of
gardeners ; of so much the more importance, because less subjected to general laws.
(Cours Complet, &c. art. Greffe.)

2022. Grafting nuiy he performed on all herbaceous vegetables with solid stems. Tlie
dahlia roots are frequently grafted in this country, and sometimes the stems are grafted
or inarched. Baron Tschoudi at Strasbourg, and other physiologists at Paris, have
grafted melons on cucumbers, love-apples on potatoes, cauliflowers on cabbages, &c. and
made other similar unions with perfect success. Many of them are detailed in Essai sur
la Greffe de V Herbe, &c. by the Baron Tschoudi, 1819.

2023. Grafting may be performed with the current years shoot, or with shoots of several
years' growth. This is evident from the general principles of the art, as well as from ex-
perience. Knight, the Baron Tschoudi, and others, have grafted young shoots in leaf;
and Professor Van Mons, at Brussels, has grafted an entire tree, 15 feet high, on the stump
of another of similar diameter. [Neill, in Horticultural Tour, 310.)

2024. Influence of the stock. The stock does not change the character of the species of
tree, which may be grafted on it ; nor even that of the variety, if the connection between
the stock and scion is intimate : but by a particular choice of stocks, the tree is often mo-
dified differently in the dimensions of its parts ; in its general aspect ; in the flavor and
size of its fruit, though perhaps in a very slight degree ; and in the duration of its ex-
istence.

2025. The nature of the fruit is to a certain extent affected by the nature of the stock.
Miller says decidedly, " that crab-stocks cause apples to be firmer, to keep longer, and
to have a sharper flavor ; and he is equally confident, that if the breaking pears be grafted
on quince-stocks, the fruit is rendered gritty or stony, while the melting pears are much
improved by such stocks. This, according to Neill, is scarcely to be considered as incon-
sistent with Lord Bacon's doctrine, ' that the scion overruleth the graft quite, the stock
being passive only ;' which, as a general proposition, remains true ; it being evident, that
the scion, bud, or inarched shoot is endowed with the power of drawing or forming
from the stock that peculiar kind of nourishment which is adapted to its nature, and that
the specific characters of the ingrafted plant remain unchanged, although its qualities may
be partially affected." (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)

2026. Fruitfulness and precocity ]7roduced by grafting. Tlie effects produced upon the
growth and produce of a tree by grafting, Knight observes, " are similar to those which
occur when the descent of the sap is impeded by a ligature, or by the destruction of a
circle of bark. The disposition in young trees to produce and nourish blossom-buds and
fruit, is increased by this apparent obstruction of the descending sap ; and the fruit of
such young trees ripens, I think, somewhat earlier than upon other young trees of the
same age, which grow upon stocks of their own species ; but the growth and vigor of the
tree, and its power to nourish a succession of heavy crops are diminished apparently by
the stagnation in the branches and stock of a portion of that sap, which, in a tree grow-
ing upon its own stem, or upon a stock of its own species, would descend to nourish and
promote the extension of the roots. Tlie practice, therefore, of grafting the pear-tree
on the quince-stock, and the peach and apricot on the plum, where extensive growth
and durability are wanted, is wrong ; but it is eligible wherever it is wished to diminish
the vigor and growtli of the tree, and where its durability is not thought important."

Book IV.

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING.

He adds, " ^Vhen great difficulty is found in making a tree, whether fructiferous or
ornamentol, produce blossoms, or in making its blossoms set, when produced, sucoess
will probably be obtained in almost all cases, by budding or grafting upon a stock
which is nearly enough allied to the graft to preserve it alive for a few years, but not
permanently. The pear-tree affords a stock of this kind to the apple ; and I have obtained
a hea\y crop of apples from a graft which had been inserted in a tall pear-stock', only
twenty months previously, in a season when every blossom of the same variety of fruit in
the orchard was destroyed by frost. The fruit thus obtained was externally perfect, and
possessed all its ordinary qualities ; but the cores were black, and without a single seed ;
and every blossom had certainly fallen abortively, if it had been growing upon its native
stock. The experienced gardener will readily anticipate the fate of the scion ; it perished
in the following winter. The stock, in such cases as the preceding, promotes, in propor-
tion to its length, the early bearing and early death of the graft."

2027. Species and varieties of grafting. The chief modern writers on grafting are,
Quintiney, Du Hamel, Rosier, and Professor Thouin, among the French; Mayer, Die-
derich, Christ, and Sickler, among the Germans ; Clarici and P. Re, among the Italians ;
and Miller, Curtis, and Knight, among the English. Professor Tliouin has refined so
much on the subject, as to have produced or enumerated above forty modes of grafting,
besides a great many kinds of budding and inarcliing, \iamed chiefly after eminent an-
cient and modern botanists and gardeners, as Pliny, Virgil, Quintiney, Miller, Adanson,
&c. Most of these are, however, varieties of the ordinary species, and separated by such
slender shades of difference, or so remotely connected with utility (as the Greffe Banks),
that tliey do not appear of sufficient importance for admission here ; and we shall, there-
fore, chiefly describe such varieties as have been long known and practised ; which form
the basis of all the others ; and which every individual may vary according to his taste.
The reader who would enquire further into the subject, may consult Curtis's Lectures on
Botany, vol. iii. and Xouveau Cours Complet (T jigriciUture, &c. torn, xvi, art. Greffe.

2028. Wliii>-grafting {Jig. 379. a), 379
or, as it is sometimes called, tongue-
grafting, is the most generally adopted
in nurseries for propagating fruit-
trees. To effect this mode in the best
style, it is desirable, that the top of
the stock, and the extremity of the
scions should be nearly of equal dia-
meter. Hence this variety admits of
being performed on smaller stocks
than any other. It is called whip-
grafting, from tlie method of cutting
the stock and scions, sloping on one
side so as to fit each other, and thus

tied together in the manner of a whip- jj^. \^^K Attom^l»^=='--^^^ f

thong to the shaft or handle. The ^^2?^^^^' e J

scion and stock being cut off obliquely a

at corresponding angles, as near as the operator can guess, then cut off the tip of the stock
obliquely or nearly horizontally ; make now a slit nearly in the centre of the sloped face
of the stock downwards, and a similar one in the scion upwards. The tongue or wedge-
like process, forming the upper part of the sloping face of the scion, is then inserted down-
wards in the cleft of the stock ; the inner barks of both being brought closely to unite on
one side so as not to be displaced in tying, which ought to be done immediately with a
riband of bass, brought, in a neat manner, several times round the stock, and which is
generally done from right to left, or in the course of the sun. The next operation is to
clay the whole over an inch thick on every side, from about half an inch or more below
the bottom of the graft, to an inch over the top of the stock, finishing the whole coat of
clay in a kind of oval globular form, closing it effectually about the scion and every part,
so as no light, wet, nor wind may penetrate ; to prevent which is the whole intention of
claying. It may be added, that the whip-grafting of Lawson, and other old horticultural
writers, was then practised without a tongue, which addition gave rise to the latter term.
The French mode of whip-grafting differs from the English in their never paring more
off the stock, however large, than the width of the scion [Jig. 380. e,f, g). In both modes,
the stock is sometimes not shortened down to the graft, but a few inches left to serve as a
prop to tie the shoots proceeding from the scion ; or even to admit of fastening the liga-
tures used in the operation more securely. In either case, if the graft has succeeded, this
appendage is cut off at the end of the season.

2029. Cleft-grafting (fg. 379. b) is resorted to in the case of strong stocks, or in head-
ing down and re-grafring old trees. " The head of the stock or branch (which we may
suppose to be two or three inches in diameter) is first cut off obliquely, and then the

394

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

sloped part is cut over horizontally near the middle of the slope ; a cleft nearly two inches
long is made with a stout knife or chisel in the crown downwards, at right angles to the
sloped part, taking care not to divide the pith. This cleft is kept open by the knife.
The scion has its extremity for about an inch and half, cut into the form of a wedge, it is
left about the eighth of an inch thicker on the outer or back side, and brought to a fine
edge on the inside. It is then inserted into the opening prepared for it ; and the knife
being withdrawn, the stock closes firmly upon it." If it be intended to graft any pretty
laige stocks or branches by this method, two or more scions may be inserted in each. Tlie
stock being prepared by cutting over as above, cleave it across in two places parallel and
at a small distance apart, and insert a scion in each cleft : or by cutting or sawing the
head off horizontally, and smoothing the section, a radiated series of clefts may be made,
and scions inserted in each.

2030. Crown-grafting is another mode adopted for thick stocks, shortened bi-jnches, or
headed down trees. It is sometimes called grafting in the bark or rind, from th^ scion
being inserted between the bark and wood. This, mode of grafting is performed vrkh
best effect, somewhat later than the others, as the motion of the sap renders the bark and
wood of the stock much more easily separated for the admission of the scions. In per-
forming the operation, first cut or saw off the head of the stock or branch, horizontally or
level, and pare the top smooth ; then having the scions, cut one side of each flat and some-
what sloping, an inch and half long, forming a sort of shoulder at the top of the slope, to
rest upon the crown of the stock ; and then raise the rind of the stock with the ivory
wedge, forming the handle of the budding-knife {Jig' HO.) ; so as to admit the scion be-
tween that and the wood two inches down ; which done, place the scion with the cut side
next the wood, thrusting it down far enough for the shoulder to rest upon the top of the
stock ; and in this manner may be put three, four, five, or more scions, in one large stock
or branch. It is alleged as a disadvantage attending this method in exposed situations,
that the ingrafted shoots for two or three years are liable to be blown out of the stock by
violent winds ; the only remedy for which is tying long rods to the body of the stock or
branch, and tying up each scion and its shoots to one of the rods.

2031. Side-grafting {Jig. 379. c) resembles whip or tongue grafting, but differs in
being performed on the side of the stock without bending down. It is practised on wall
trees to fill up vacancies, and sometimes in order to have a variety of fruits upon the
same tree. Having fixed upon those parts of the branches where wood is wanting to
furnish the head or any part x>f the tree, there slope off the bark and a little of the wood,
and cut the lower end of the scions to fit the part as near as possible, then join them to
the branch, tie them with bass, and clay them over.

2032. Saddle-grafting is performed by first cutting the top of the stock into a wedge-
like form, and then splitting up the end of the scion and thinning off each half to a
tongue shape ; it is then placed on the wedge, embracing it on each side, and the inner
barks are made to join on one side of the stock, as in cleft-grafting. This is a very
strong and handsome mode for standard-trees when grafted at the standard-height. It is
also desirable for orange-trees, and rose-standards, as it makes a handsome finish, covering
a part of the stock, which by the other methods, long remains a black scar, and some-
times never becomes covered with bark. The stocks for this purpose should not be much
thicker than the scions, or two scions may be inserted.

2033. A local variety of saddle-grafting {Jig. 379. d, e, f) is thus described by Knight, as
practised upon small stocks, and almost exclusively in Herefordshire. It is never at-
tempted till the usual season of grafting is passed, and till the bark is readily detached from
the alburnum. The head of the stock is then taken off by a single stroke of the knife
obliquely, so that the incision commences about a diameter below the point where the me-

Boor IV.

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING.

395

^

dulla appears in the section of the stock, and ends as much above it, upon the opposite
side. The scion, which should not exceed in diameter half that of the stock, is then to be
divided longitudinally, about two inches upwards from its lower end, into two unequal
divisions, by passing the knife upwards just in contact with one side of the medulla.
The stronger division of tlie scion is then to be pared thin at its lower extremity, and in-
troduced, as in crown-grafting, between the bark and wood of the stock ; and the more
slender division is fitted to the stock upon the opposite side. The scion consequently
stands astride the stock, to which it attaches itself firmly upon each side, and which it
covers completely in a single season. Grafts of the apple and pear rarely ever fail in
this method of grafting, which may be practised with equal success with young wood in
July, as soon as that has become moderately firm and mature. 381

2034. A subvariett/ of sadxUe-grafting {Jig. 381.), applicable
to very slender shoots, is practised by Knight, who gives the
rationale and manipulation in his usual masterly manner. As
this mode has rarely " or never been properly executed, it will
be necessary that I describe the motion of the sap as I conceive
it to be, at the period when grafts are most advantageously in-
serted. The graft first begins its efforts to unite itself to the
stock just at the period when the formation of a new internal
layer of bark commences in the spring ; and the fluid, which
generates this layer of bark, and which also feeds the inserted
graft, radiates in every direction from the vicinity of the me-
dulla, to the external surface of the alburnum. The graft is of
course most advantageously placed when it presents the largest
surface to receive such fluid, and when the fluid itself is made to
deviate least from its natural course. This takes place most
efliciently, when a graft of nearly equal size with the stock is
divided at its base and made to stand astride the stock, and
when the two divisions of the graft are pared extremely thin, at
and near their lower extremities, so that they may be brought
into close contact with the stock (from which but little bark or
wood should be pared off) by the ligature. I have adopted this
mode chiefly in grafting cherry-trees, and I have rarely ever seen
a graft fail, even where the wood has been so succulent and immature as to preclude
every hope of success by any other mode." (Hort. Trans, v. 147.)

2035. Shoulder, or chink-grafting, is performed with a shoulder, and sometimes also
with a stay at the bottom of the slope. It is chiefly used for ornamental trees, where the
scion and stock are of the same size {Jig. 380. a, b, c, d).

2036. Root-grajling {Jig. 380. h) is sometimes performed in nurseries on parts of
the roots of removed trees, when the proper stocks are scarce ; and in which case, the
root of the white thorn has been resorted to as a stock both for the apple and pear. In
general, however, a piece of the root of the tree of the same genus is selected, well fur-
nished with fibres, and a scion placed on it in any of the ordinary ways for small stocks.
Thus united, they are planted so deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only a few
eyes of the scion above ground. Some gardeners have thought, that in this way, the
plant must presence a near resemblance to the parent tree ; but Abercrombie remarks,
that though it is an expeditious way of obtaining a new plant, such a graft cannot be
materially different from a cutting or layer.

2037. A variety of root-grajling, practised by Kjiight, is thus described. ** Trans-
planting, many years ago, some pear-stocks from a seed-bed, of which the soil was soft
and deep, I found that the first emitted roots of many of them descended a foot or more
perpendicularly into the earth, before they divided into any lateral ramifications : and as
I did not like to replant the young trees, with such an inconvenient length of perpendi-
cular root, I cut off about six inches from each. The amputated parts were then accu-
rately fitted and bound, as in splice or whip-grafting, to scions of pear-trees, wliich were
selected as nearly as possible of the same size ; and the roots, with their attached branches,
were deposited in the ground as cuttings, so deep, that the whole of the root, and about
an inch of the scion, were covered. Tte soil was then drawn up with the hoe on each
side of the plants, which were placed in rows, so that one bud only of each graft was
above the soil, and another just within it. These grafts succeeded perfectly well ; and I
have subsequently repeated the same experiment with equal success upon the apple, the
plimi, and the peach. In the greater part of these experiments, the roots were perfectly
cleansed from mould by washing, before they were fitted to the graft, and were then
placed in wet moss, till a suflScient number were ready to be carried to the nursery ; a
common dibber only was employed in planting them ; but the mould was washed into
the holes with water, to close it well round the roots, and to supply the place of the clay
used in other methods of grafting." {Hort. Trails, vol. i. p. 239.) A variation of this

396 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

mode, consists in leaving tliat part of the tap-root not wanted with the removed tree undis-
turbed in the soil, and grafting on it there. Such root-grafts grow with uncommon vigor.

2038. Terebration, or pe^-grafdng {Jig. 380. i), is an old method, in which the stock
being cut off horizontally, a hole was bored in the centre of it ; and the scion being se-
lected to fit the stock, within an inch and a half of its lower end, a circular incision was
made, and the part between that and the end reduced, so as to fit the hole in the stock.
This peg filling the hole was supposed to secure the graft from the eftect of the winds.

2039. Future treatment. In a month after grafting, it may be ascertained whether the
scion has united with the stock, by observing the progress of its buds ; but, in general, it
is not safe to remove the clay for three months or more, till the graft be completely cica-
trised. The clay may generally be taken off in July or August, and at the same time
the ligatures loosened where the scion seems to require more room to expand ; a few
weeks afterwards, when the parts have been thus partially inured to . the air, and when
there is no danger of the scion being blown oflP by winds, the whole of the ligatures may
be removed. If the stock was not shortened down close to the graft or junction of the
scion with the stock at the time of performing the operation, it may be done now, or as
soon as the ligatures can be entirely dispensed with. In particular cases, a ligature
round the graft, or a stake, or other prop, for the shoots of the scion, may be necessary
for a year to come, to protect against winds ; or a bandage of moss kept over the graft,
to preserve moisture, and encourage the expansion of tlie parts, and complete filling up
of the wound.

2040. Choice and treatment of stocks. The stocks on which the operation of grafting is
performed, are most commonly the stems of young trees, raised from the seed, or from
suckers, layers, or cuttings, reared for that purpose. For what are called dwarf-trees,
the stock at the time of grafting must always be headed down within a few inches of the
ground for the insertion of the scion ; and for standards, the heading of the stock for the
insertion of the scion may either be near the ground, the scion inserted accordingly, and
one of the first shoots from it trained up to form a stem, or the scion inserted at the pro-
per height. But if, as is the case with standard cherries, the stock is intended to form
the stem, then it must be suffered to grow six or seven feet high, and be afterwards
headed down at five or six feet for the reception of the scion. The French and Americans
graft and bud tlieir stocks much higher than is practised in Britain, which some consider
to contribute to the durability of the tree. J. Wilmot is of opinion, that, by the oppo-
site practice, the whole of the wild or proper stock, in garden-grounds where the soil is
continually raised by manure, becomes buried in the soil, and reduced to a mere root,
and then, he says, the tree begins to decline in vigor, and soon decays and dies. (Hort.
Trans, vol. i. p. 215.)

2041. The species of stocks for fi'uit-trees are divided into what are caWedifree-gromng
and dwarfing stocks. The free-growing are such as naturally attain the full height of the
species to be grafted on them, as the seedlings of the common apple, common pear, plum,
and cherry. The dwarfing stocks are such as naturally form much smaller trees than
the sorts to be grafted on them, and therefore have a tendency to diminish the magnitude
of the adopted sorts ; as the paradise, doucin, and creeper, for apples ; the quince, for
pears ; buUace, for plums ; and perfumed, and wild red cherry, for cherries.

2042. The s^^ecies of stocks for timber and ornamental trees is generally some hardy spe-
cies or variety of the same genus ; but sometimes, plants of a different genus, but of the
same family, will answer. Tliis, as already observed (2021.), is partly a matter of
theory, and partly of experience.

2043. Scions are generally the young shoots of last summer's growth, and should be
chosen from the outside lateral branches of healthy trees. The outside lateral branches
are preferred, because in them the shoots are not so robust and apt to run to wood as in
tlie centre and toj) of the tree, nor so weak as those which are at its base, and under the shade
and drip of the rest. Such shoots are uniformly found to be the best bearers, and to pro-
duce the truest specimen of the fruit of the tree on which they grow. An exception to this
rule is to be found in the case of debilitated trees, where, of course, the scions should be
taken from the strongest shoots in the centre of the tree. The middle part of each shoot
makes always the best scion, for the same reasons as those given for choosing the shoots
from the middle part of the tree ; but long shoots, and especially where the scion is of a
rare variety, may be cut into several scions of four or six inches in length, reserving not
fewer than two, nor more than five eyes, to form the future head of the tree.

2044. Preparation of scions. Scions should be gathered several weeks before the sea-
son for grafting arrives ; the reason is, that experience has shown that grafting may
most successfully be performed, by allowing the stock to have some advantage over the
graft in forwardness of vegetation. It is desirable that tlie sap of the stock should be in
brisk motion at the time of grafting ; but by this time the buds of the scion, if left on
the parent tree, would be equally advanced ; whereas the scions, being gathered early,
Jthe buds are kept back, and ready only to swell out when placed on the stock. Scions

Book IV. PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. S9T

of pears, plums, and cherries are collected in tlie end of January, or beginning of Fe-
bruary. They are kept at full length, sunk in dry earth, and out of the reach of frost
till wanted, which is sometimes from the middle of February to the middle of March.
Scions of apples are collected any time in February, and put on from the middle to the
end of March. In July grciflhig (2033.), the scions are used as gathered.

2045. The materials iised in grafting are, a strong pruning-knife for cutting off the
heads of the stocks previous to their preparation by the grafting-knife for the scion ; a
small saw for large stocks ; and a penknife for very small scions ; a chisel and mallet
for cleft-grafting ; bass-ribands as ligatures ; and grafting-clay.

2046. Grafting-day is prepared either from stiff yellow or blue clay, or from clayey
loam or brick-earth ; in either case, adding tliereto about a fourth part of fresh horse-
dung, free from litter, and a portion of cut hay, mixing the whole well together, and
adding a little water ; then let the whole be well beaten with a stick upon a floor, or other
hard substance ; and as it becomes too dry apply more water, at every beating turning
it over ; and continuing beating it well at top till it becomes flat and soft. This process
must be repeated, more or less, according as tlie nature of the clay may require to render
it ductile, and yet not so tough as to be apt to crack in dry weather ; for instance, it
should be several times beaten the first day ; and next morning repeat the beating, still
moistening it with water, and by thus repeating the beating several times every day for
two or tliree days, or every other day at least, for a week, it will be in proper order for
use ; observing that it should be prepared a week at least before it is used ; but if a month,
the better, keeping it moist. Some recommend salt to be mixed with the clay, and others
ashes or lime-rubbish, or drift-sand ; the object in these cases being to prevent its crack-
ing with the sun ; which, however, the horse-droppings, if well incorporated, will in
general fully prevent.

2047. The grafting-clay of the French and Dutch, Onguent de St. Fiacre (St. Fiacre
being the patron saint of gardening), is composed of half cow-dung, free from litter, and
half fresh loam, intimately incorporated. They prefer this to all others for exclud-
ing the external air from wounds of every description, and ridicule the idea of certain
complex compositions. Bosc (^N. C d^ ^g. &c. torn. v. art. Englumen) observes of a
noted English composition for healing wounds, that it is so " complicated and ridiculous
in tlie eyes of those who have any knowledge of chemistry or natural philosophy, that it is
a matter of astonishment how it could be proposed in our age."

2048. Substitutes for grafting-clay. Abercrombie and various authors mention resinous
substitutes for clay, the details of which are given in the first edition of Miller's Diet.
These substitutes are recommended for small and delicate trees, as camellias, daphnes, &c.
and are composed of wax and pitch, pitch and tallow, tallow and oil, or a compound of
tuqjentine, bees'-wax, and rosin, at first melted together, and afterwards heated as wanted ;
care being taken not to apply it too hot. A coating laid on with a brush, to the depth of
a quarter of an inch, is said to be less liable to crack tlian clay ; and it is added, that when
the full heat of summer arrives, the composition melts away of its own accord. This last
circumstance, we must confess, appears a sufficient argument against its use, since its re-
moval must depend on the weather, and not on the state of the graft. We have seen its
use in Italy attended by such consequences. D. Powel, Esq. spreads it on shreds of brown
paper; wraps these round the graft, and over them some bass ties. {Hort. Trans, v. 282.)

2049. The use of compositions for covering grafts is threefold; 1st. To prevent the extra-
vasation of the sap from the wounds ; 2d. The too sudden drying of the wood ; and, .jd.
The introduction of rain-water in the wound or cleft. It is evident, therefore, that what-
ever sort of clay or coating is adopted, much will depend on its immediate application,
and instantaneous repair in future, wherever it cracks or falls off. In addition to
claying, some nurserymen cover the clay with a coating of moss, to preserve a moderate
degree of moisture and tenacity ; and others, in the case of dwarf-trees grafted close to
the ground, earth up the grafts for the same purpose. These practices suit particular
cases, but are not generally necessary. - Earthing up is one of the best accompaniments
to claying, and should seldom be omitted when it can be adopted.

SuBSECT. 5. Propagation by Budding.

2050. Budding, or grafting by gems, consists, in ligneous plants, in taking ail eye or bud
attached to a portion of the bark, of different sizes and forms, and generally called a shield,
and transporting it to a place in another, or a different ligneous vegetable. In herbaceous
vegetables the same operation may be perfonried, but with less success. It may also be
performed with buds of two or three years' standing, and on trees of considerable size, but
not generally so. The object in view in budding is almost always that of grafting, and
depends on the same principle ; all the difference between a bud and a scion being, that
a bud is a shoot, or scion, in embryo. In all other respects, budding is conducted on thQ
same principles as grafting.

205 1 . A new application of bvdding has been made by Knight. It is that of transferring^

S98 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

" a part of the abundant blossom-buds from one tree to the barren branches of others."
He tried this first on roses, and afterwards on the pear and peach, with much success. In
this way also he considers that fruit might be produced on yearling trees, not as matter of
utility (as in supplying barren trees with blossom-buds), but as a curious experiment.

2052. Advantages ofbuddmg. Budded trees are generally two years later in producing
their fruit than grafted ones ; but the advantage of budding is, that where a tree is rare,
a new plant can be got from every eye, whereas by grafting it can only be got from every
three or four eyes. There are also trees which propagate much more readily by budding
than grafting ; and others, as most of the stone-fruits, are apt to throw out gum when
grafted. When grafting has been omitted or has failed in spring, budding comes in as an
auxiliary in summer.

2053. Season of budding. The operation of common budding is performed any time
from the beginning of July to tlie middle of August ; the criterion being the formation
of the buds in the axillae of the leaf of the present year. The buds are known to be ready
by the shield or portion of bark, to which they are attached, easily parting with the wood.
The buds preferred are generally those on the middle of a young shoot, as being neither
so apt to run to wood as those at the extremity, nor so apt to lie dormant as those at the
lower end. In some cases, however, the buds from the middle and extremity of the shoots
are to be rejected, and those taken which are at the base of the annual shoots, as Knight
{Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 135.) found in the case of the walnut-tree. - Scallop-budding may
be performed in spring, or at any season.

2054. Stocks for budding may, in general, be much smaller than for grafting, as the
operation may be performed on the same year's shoot. But it may also be performed on
shoots or stems of several years* growth, and in such, by inserting a number of buds, a
complete tree may be formed at once. Scallop-budding may be performed on trees of
considerable age.

2055. Choice of buds. For gathering the shoots containing the buds, a cloudy day or
an early or late hour is chosen, on this principle, that the leaves being at these periods
in a less active state of perspiration, suffer least from being separated from their parent
plant. They are preserved fresh, and may be sent a great distance by inserting their ends
in water or moist moss ; though, in general, they should be used as soon after gathering
as possible ; indeed, as in grafting and inarching, the whole operation ought to be per-
formed with the greatest celerity.

2056. Kinds of budding. Professor Thouin enumerates twenty-three species and va-
rieties of budding ; but we shall here describe only four, of which but one variety is in
general use in Britain.

2057. Shield-budding, or T budding {fig. 382.) is thus performed : — 382
Fix on a smooth part on the side of the stock, rather from than towards
the sun, and of a height depending, as in grafting, on whether dwarf,
half, or whole standard-trees are desired ; then, with the budding-knife,
make a horizontal cut across the rind, quite through to the firm wood ;
from the middle of this transverse cut, make a slit downward, perpendi-
cularly, an inch or more long, going also quite through to the wood.
This done, proceed with all expedition to take off a bud ; holding the
cutting, or scion, in one hand, with the thickest end outward, and with
the knife in the other hand, enter it about half an inch or more below
a bud, cutting near half way into the wood of the shoot, continuing it
with one clean slanting cut, about half an inch or more above the bud,
so deep as to take off part of the wood along with it, the whole about
an inch and a half long {fig. 382. a) ; then directly with the thumb
and finger, or point of the knife, slip off the woody part remaining to
the bud ; which done, observe whether the eye or gem of the bud re-
mains perfect ; if not, and a little hole appears in that part, it is improper, or as gardeners
express it, the bud has lost its root, and another must be prepared. This done, placing
the back part of the bud or shield between your lips, expeditiously with the flat haft of
the knife separate the bark of the stock on each side of the perpendicular cut, clear to the
wood (c), for the admission of the bud, which directly slip down, close between the wood
and bark, to the bottom of the slit (rf). The next operation is to cut off the top part of
the shield (6) even with the horizontal first made cut, in order to let it completely into
its place, and to join exactly the upper edge of the shield with the transverse cut, that tlie
descending sap may immediately enter the bark of the shield, and protrude granulated
matter between it and the wood, so as to effect a living union. The parts are now to be
immediately bound round with a ligament of fresh bass {e), previously soaked in water,
to render it pliable and tough, beginning a little below the bottom of the perpendicular
slit, proceeding upward closely round every part, except just over the eye of the bud, and
continue it a little above the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just sufficient to keep the
whole close, and exclude the air, sun, and wet.

Book IV.

PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.

Cy99

2058. Shiddr-budding reversed, or reversed x budding, differs from tlie former in having
the transverse cut made at the bottom of tlie perpendicular slit, instead of at its top, and
of course the shield is reversed in its position. This mode is represented as preferable to
the other by such as contend that the sap rises in the bark equally with the wood ; but as
this opinion is now generally considered as exploded, the fifst, or T mode, may justly be
considered as the most scientific mode of budding. Professor Thouin describes shield-
budding reversed under the name of Schnenooogth. The advantages attending it, he says,
are, that it is not easily drowned with sap or g^um ; and the disadvantages, that it often
fails when there is a scarcity of sap. It is practised occasionally in the orange-nurseries
near Genoa, as may be seen in the plants imported to tliis country.

2059. Scallo])-budding consists in paring a thin tongue-shaped section of bark from tlie
side of the stock ; and in taking a similar section from die shoot of buds, in neither
case removing the wood. The section or shield containing tlae bud is then laid on the
corresponding scollop in the stock ; its upper edge exactly fitted, as in shield-budding,
and at least one of its edges, as in whip-grafting. After this, it is tied in the usual
way. Tlie advantages of this mode are, that it can be performed when the wood and
bark do not separate freely ; on trees having very stiff, thick, suberose barks, and at any
season of-the year. Its disadvantages are, that it requires longer time to perform tlie
operation, and is less certain of success. The French gardeners often bud their roses in
this manner in spring ; and if they fail, they have a second chance in July by using the
common mode.

2060. Budding with double ligatures is a mode invented by Knight, and described
by him (Hort. Trans, vol. i. 194.) as " a new and expeditious mode of budding." The
operations are performed in the manner first above described ; but instead of one liga-
ture, two are applied, one above the bud inserted upon the transverse section through
the bark ; the other, which had no farther oflSce than that of securing the bud, was
applied below in the usual way. As soon as the buds had attached themselves, the
lower ligatures were taken off; but the others were suffered to remain. " The pas-
sage of the sap upwards was in consequence much obstructed, and the inserted buds
began to vegetate strongly in July (being inserted in June) ; and when these had afforded
shoots about four inches long, the remaining ligatures were taken off, to permit the ex-
cess of sap to pass on ; and the young shoots were nailed to the wall. Being there pro-
perly exposed to light, their wood ripened well, and afforded blossoms in the succeeding
spring ; and these would," he adds, " no doubt, have afforded fruit ; but that, leaving
my residence, I removed my trees," &c.

2061. Future treatment. In a fortnight at farthest after budding, such as have adhered
may be known by their fresh appearance at the eye ; and in three weeks all those which
have succeeded will be firmly united with the stock, and the parts being somewhat
swelled in most species, the bandage must be loosened, and a week or two afterwards
finally removed. The shield and bud now swell in common with the other parts of the
stock ; and nothing more requires to be done till spring, when, just before the rising of
the sap, they are to be headed down close to the bud, by an oblique cut, terminating
about an eighth or a quarter of an inch above the shield. In some cases, however, as in
grafting, a few inches of the stalk is left for the first season, and the young shoot tied to
it for protection from the winds.

2062. The instruments and materials for budding are merely the budding-knife
{Jtg. 110.) and bass ligatures.

SuBSECT. 6. Propagation by Cuttings.

2063. Prvpagation by cuttings has been long known, and is abundantly simple when
applied to such free-growing hardy shrubs, as the willow (fig. 383. a) or the gooseberry
(6) ; but considered as the chief mode of propagating most of the ericeae, myrteae, pro-

teaceae, &c. becomes one of the most delicate and diflScult modes of continuing the
species, and fifty years ago was an operation known to very few of even the first-rate
gardeners. It may be considered, as to tlie choice of cuttings, their preparation, their
insertion in the soil, and their future management.

400 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

2064. In respect to the choice of cuttings, those branches of trees and shrubs which are
thrown out nearest the ground, and especially such as recline, or nearly so, on the
earth's surface, have always the most tendency to produce roots. Even the branches of
resinous trees, which are extremely difficult to propagate by cuttings, when reclining
on the ground, if accidentally, or otherwise, covered with earth in any part, will there
often throw out roots, and the extremity of the lateral shoot will assume the character of a
main stem, as may be sometimes seen in the larch, spruce, and silver fir. Cuttings then
are to be chosen from the side shoots of plants, rather than from their summits or main
stems ; and the strength and health of side shoots being equal, those nearest the ground
should be preferred. The proper time for taking cuttings from the mother plant
is when the sap is in full motion, in order that, in returning by the bark, it may
form a callus or protruding ring of granular substance, between the bark and wood
whence the roots proceed. As this callus, or ring of spongy matter, is generally best
formed in ripened wood, the cutting, when taken from the mother plant, should contain
a part of the former year, or in plants which grow twice a year, of the wood of the
former growth ; or in the case of plants which are continually growing, as most ever-
green exotics, such wood as has begun to ripen, or assume a brownish color. . This is
the true principle of tlie choice of cuttings as to time ; but tliere are many sorts of trees,
as willow, elder, &c. the cuttings of which will grow almost at any season, and even
if removed from the mother plant in winter, when the sap is comparatively at rest. In
these and other trees, the principle of life seems so strong, and so universally diffused
over the vegetable, that very little care is requisite for their propagation. Cuttings from
herbaceous plants are chiefly chosen from the low growths, which do not indicate a
tendency to blossom ; but they will also succeed in many cases, when taken from the
flower-stems, and some rare sorts of florists' and border flowers, as the dahlia, rocket,
cardinal-flower, scarlet lychnis, wallflower, &c. are so propagated.

2065. The preparation of the cutting 'depends on, or is guided by this principle, that
the power of protruding buds or roots resides chiefly, and in most cases entirely, at what
are called joints, or at those parts where leaves or buds already exist. Hence it is that
cuttings ought always to be cut across, with the smoothest and soundest section possible,
at an eye or joint. And as buds are in a more advanced state in wood somewhat ripened
or fully formed, than in a state. of formation, this section ought to be made in the wood
of the growth of the preceding season ; or as it were in the point between the two
growths. It is true, that there are many sorts of cuttings, which not only tlirow out
roots from the ring of granulated matter, but also from the sides of every part of the
stem inserted in the soil, whether old and large (c), or young and small (rf, e), as
willows,' currants, vines, &c. ; but all plants which are difficult to root, as heaths (f)r
camellias, orange- trees, &c. will be found in the first instance, and for several years after
propagation, to throw out roots only, from the ring of herbaceous matter above mentioned ;
and to facilitate the formation of this ring, by properly preparing the cuttings of even
willows and currants, must be an obvious advantage. It is a common practice to cut off
the whole or a part of the leaves of cuttings, which is always attended with bad effects
in evergreens, in which the leaves may be said to supply nourishment to the cutting till
it can sustain itself. This is very obvious in the case of striking from buds (g),
which, without a leaf attached, speedily rot and die. Leaves alone, as in bryophyllum
calycinum, will even strike root and form plants in some instances ; and the same,
as Professor Thouin observes, may be stated of certain flowers and fruits.

2066. Cuttings which are dijjicult to strike may be rendered more tractable by previous
ringing ; if a ring be made on the shoot wliich is to furnish the cutting, a callus will
be created, which, if inserted in the ground after the cutting is taken off, will freely emit
roots. A ligature would perhaps operate in a similar manner, though not so efficiently ;
it should lightly encircle the shoot destined for a cutting, and the latter should be taken
oflf when an accumulation of sap has apparently been produced. The amputation in
the case of the ligature, as well as in that of the ring, must be made below the circles,
and the cutting must be so planted as to have the callus covered with earth. {^Hort.
Trans, vol. iv. 558.)

2067. The insertion of the cuttings may seem an easy matter, and none but a practical
cultivator would imagine that there could be any difference in the growth, between cut-
tings inserted in the middle of a pot, and those inserted at its sides. Yet such is actually
the case, and some sorts of trees, as the orange, ceratonia, &c. if inserted in a mere mass
of earth, will hardly, if at all, throw out roots, while, if they are inserted in sand, or in
earth at the sides of the pots, so as to touch the pot in their whole length, they seldom
fail of becoming rooted plants. Knight found tlie mulberry strike very well by cuttings,
when they were so inserted, and when their lower ends touched a stratum of gravel or
broken pots ; and Hawkins, (^Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 12.) who had often tried to strike
orange-trees, without success, at last heard of a method (long known to nurserymen,
but which was re-discovered by Luscome), by which, at the first trial, eleven cuttings

Book IV. SOWING, PLANTING, AND WATERING. 401

out of thirteen grew. " The art is, to place ihem to touch the bottom of the pot ; they
are then to be plunged in a bark or hot-bed, and kept moist."

2068. The management of cuttings after they are planted, depends on the general prin-
ciple, that where life is weak, all excesses of exterior agency must have a tendency to
render it extinct. No cutting requires to be planted deep, though such as are large
(i) ought to be inserted deeper than such as are small {f, h). In the case of ever-
greens, the leaves should be kept from touching the soil (A) otherwise they will damp
or rot off; and in the case of tubular-stalked plants, which are in general not very
easily struck, owing to the water lodging in the tube, and rotting the cutting, both ends
(/) may in some cases (as in common honeysuckle,) be advantageously inserted in the
soil, and besides a greater certainty of success, two plants will be produced. Too much
light, air, water, heat, or cold are alike injurious. To guard against these extremes in
tender sorts, the means hitherto devised is that of enclosing an atmosphere over the cut-
tings, by means of a hand or bell glass, according to their delicacy. This preserves a
uniform stillness and moisture of atmosphere. Immersing the pot in earth (if the cut-
tings are in pots) has a tendency to preserve a steady uniform degree of moisture at the
roots ; and shading, or planting the cuttings, if in the open air, in a shady situation,
prevents the bad effects of excess of light. The only method of regulating the heat is
by double or single coverings of glass or mats, or both. A hand-glass placed over a
bell-glass will preserve, in a shady situation, a very constant degree of heat. What the
degree of heat ought to be, is generally decided by the degree of heat requisite for the
mother plant. Wliatever degree of heat is natural to the mother plant when in a grow-
ing state will, in general, be most favorable to the gro^vth of the cuttings. There are,
however, some variations, amounting nearly, but not quite, to exceptions. Most species
of the erica, dahlia, and geranium strike better when supplied with rather more heat
than is requisite for the growth of these plants in green-houses. The myrtle tribe and
camellias require rather less y. and in general it may be observed, that to give a lesser
portion of heat, and of every thing else proper for plants in their rooted and growing
state, is the safest conduct in respect to cuttings of ligneous plants. Cuttings of deci-
duous hardy trees taken off in autumn should not, of course, be put into heat till spring,
but should be kept dormant, like the mother tree. Cuttings of succulents like geraniums
will do well both with ordinary and extraordinary heat.

2069. Piping is a mode of jrropagation by cuttings, and is adopted with herbaceous plants
having jointed tubular stems, as the dianthus tribe ; and several of the grasses, and tree
arundos, might be propagated in this manner. When the shoot has nearly done growing,
which generally happens after the blossom has expanded, its extremity is to be separated at a
part of the stem where it is nearly, or at least somewhat indurated or ripened. This se-
paration is effected by holding the root end between the finger and thumb of one hand,
below a pair of leaves, and with the other, pulling the top part above the pair of leaves,
so as to separate it from the root part of the stem at the socket formed by the axillae of
the leaves, leaving the stem to remain with a tubular or pipe-looking termination. These
pipings, or separated parts (k), are inserted without any further preparation in finely
sifted earth, to the depth of the fii-st joint or pipe, gently firmed with a small dibber,
watered, a hand-glass placed over them, and their future management regulated on the
same general principles as that of cuttings.

Sect. III. Operations of Rearing and Culture.

2070. Operations of rearing and cultivation are various, and some of them of the sim-
plest kind, as stirring the soil, cutting, sawing, weeding, &c. hare been already consi-
dered as garden-labors on the soil and on plants (1862. & 1882.) ; we here, therefore,
confine ourselves to the more complex processes of sowing, planting, watering, trans-
planting, pruning, thinning, training, and blanching.

SuBSECT. 1. Somng, Planting, and Watering.

2071. Sowing is the first operation of rearing. Where seeds are deposited singly, as
in rows of beans or large nuts, they are said to be planted ; where dropt in numbers to-
gether, to be sown. The operation of sowing is either performed in drills, patches, or
broad-cast. Drills are small excavations formed with the draw-hoe, generally in straight
lines pju-allel to each other, and in depth and distance apart varying according to the
rize of the seeds and future plants. In these drills, the seeds are strewed from the hand
of the operator, who, taking a small quantity in the palm of his hand and fingers, re-
gulates its emission by the thumb. Some seeds are very thinly sown, as the pea and
spinage ; others thick, as the cress and small salading. For sowing by bedding-in, see
Pedding-in planting {2091.), oTid Cuffing. (1875.)

2072. Patches are small circular excavations made with the trowel ; in these, seeds
are either sown or planted, thicker or thinner, and covered more or less, according to

D d

402 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Paut II.

their natures. This is the mode adopted in sowing in pots, and generally in flower-
borders.

2073. In broad-cast sowing, the operator scatters the seed over a considerable breadth
©f surface previously prepared by digging or otherwise minutely pulverised. The seed
is taken up in portions in the hand, and dispersed by a horizontal movement of the arm,
to the extent of a semicircle, opening the hand at the same time, and scattering the seeds
in the air, so as they may fall as equally as possible over the breadth taken in by the
sower at once, and which is generally six feet ; that being the diameter of the circle in
which liis hand moves through half the circumference. In sowing broad-cast on the
surface of beds, and in narrow strips or borders, the seeds are dispersed between the
thumb and fingers by horizontal movements of the hand in segments of smaller
circles.

2074. Dry iveather is essentially requisite for sowing, and more especially -for the oper-
ation of covering in the seed, which in broad-cast sowing is done by treading or gently
rolling the surface and then raking it ; and in drill-sowing, by treading in the larger
seeds, as peas, and covering with the rake ; smaller seeds, sown in diills, are covered
with the same implement without treading,

2075. Planting, as applied to seeds, or seed-like roots, as potatoes, bulbs, &c. is most
frequently performed in drills, or in separate holes made with the dibber ; in these, the
seed or bulb is dropt from the hand, and covered with or without treading, according to
its nature. Sometimes planting is performed in patches, as in pots or borders, in which
case the trowel is the chief implement used.

2076. Quincunx is a mode of planting in rows, by which the plants in the one row are
always opposed to the blanks in the other, so that when a plot of ground is planted in
this way, the plants appear in rows in four directions.

2077. Planting, as aj)plied to ])lants already originated, consists generally in inserting
them in the soil of the same depth, and in the same position as they were before re-
moval, but with various exceptions. Tlie principal object is to preserve the fibrous roots
entire, to distribute them equally around the stem among the mould or finer soil, and to
preserve the plant upright. The plant should not be planted deeper than it stood in the
soil before removal, and commonly the same side should be kept towards the sun.-
Planting should, as much as possible, be accompanied by abundant watering, in order to
consolidate the soil about the roots ; and where the soil is dry, or not a stiff clay, it
may be performed in the beginning of wet weather in gardens ; and in forest-planting,
on dry soils, in all open weather during autumn, winter, and spring.

2078. IFatering becomes requisite in gardens for various purposes, as aliment to plants
in a growing state, as support to newly transplanted plants, for keeping under insects,
and keeping clean the leaves of vegetables. One general rule must be ever kept in mind
during the employment of water in a garden ; that is, never to water the top or leaves of
a plant when the sun shines. A moment's reflection will convince any one that this
rule is agreeable to the laws of nature, for during rain the sun's rays are intercepted by
a panoply of fog or clouds. All watering, therefore, should be carried on in the even-
ing or early in the morning, unless it be confined to watering the roots, in which case,
transplanted plants, and others in a growing state, may be watered at any time ; and if
they are shaded from the sun, they may also be watered over their tops. Watering over
the tops is perfoi-med witli the rose, or dispenser attached to the spout of the watering-pot,
or by the syringe or engine. Watering the roots is best done with the rose ; but in the
case of watering pots in haste, and where the earth is hardened, it is done with the naked
spout. The compartments of gardens are sometimes watered by a leather tube and muzzle
attached at pleasure to diflferent pipes of supply ; but this depends on local circumstances,
and, in general, it may be observed that the great increase of labor occasioned by
watering compartments renders the practice very limited. In new-laid turf, or lawns of a
loose porous soil and too mossy surface, the water-barrel {Jig. 205.) may be advantage-
ously used.

SuBSECT. 2. Transplanting.

2079. Trans})lanting is the next operation of rearing, and consists in removing propa-
gated plants, whether from seeds, cuttings, or grafts, according to their kinds and other
circumstances, to a situation prepared to receive them. The uses of transplanting lig-
neous plants are cliiefly to increase the number of fibrous roots, so as to prepare or fit
young subjects for successful removal from the places where they are originated to their
final destination ; but in herbaceous vegetables it is partly used to increase the propor-
tion of fibrous roots in plants, relatively to their ramose roots, by which it is found the
size and succulency of their leaves, flowers, and fruit are increased. Transplanting
involves three things: first, the preparation of the soil to which the plant is to be
removed ; secondly, the removal of the plant ; and, thirdly, tlie insertion in tlie pre-
pared soil.

Hook IV. TRANSPLANTING.

403

2080. The preparation of the soil implies, in all cases, stirring, loosening, mixing, and
comminution ; and, in many cases, the addition of manure or compost, according to the
nature of the soil and plant to be inserted, and according as the same may be in the open
ground, or in pots or hot-houses.

2081. The removal of the plant is generally effected by loosening the earth around it,
and then drawing it out of the soil with the hand ; in all cases avoiding as much as pos-
sible to break, or bruise, or otherwise injure tlie roots. In the case of small seedling
plants, merely inserting the spade and raising the portion of earth in which they grow
will suffice ; but in removing larger plants, it is necessary to dig a trench round, or on one
side of the plant. In some cases, the plant may be lifted with a ball or mass of earth,
containing all or great part of its roots, by means of the trowel or trayisplanter (fig. 93.) ;
and in others, as in the case of large shrubs or trees, it may be necessary to cut the roots
at a certain distance from the plant, one year before removal, in oilier to furnish them
with young fibres, to enable them to support the change. In pots, less care is':
as the roots and ball of earth containing them are, or may be, preserved entire.

2082. I7iserti?ig the removed plant in the prepared soil, is performed by making an ex-
cavation suitable to the size of the plant, with the dibber, trowel, or spade, placing the
plant in it to the same depth as before its removal, and then covering its roots with earth
firmly, but not harshly or indiscriminately, pressed to it ; lastly, adding water. There
are various modes of insertion according to the age and kind of plant, tools employed,
object in view, &c. of which the following are the principal species and varieties.

2083. Of sjmde planting there are a variety of different sorts, known by the names of
hole planting, trench planting, trenching-in planting, slit or crevice planting, holing-in
planting, drill planting, bedding-in planting, furrow planting, &c. AH these modes are
almost peculiar to nursery gardening.

2084. Hole planting is the principal method practised in the final planting of all sorts of trees and
shrubs in the open ground; and is performed by opening round holes for the reception of each
plant somewhat larger than its roots, then inserting the plant according to the general principles of
planting. (2077.)

2085. Trench plant ins is practised in nurseries, in planting out seedlings of trees, and plants in rows, also
for box-edgings, small hedge-plants, asparagus, &c. It is performed by opening a long narrow trench with
a spade, making one side upright, placing the plants against the upright side, and turning in the earth
upon their roots.

2086. Trenchine-in planting is practised in liglit pliable-working ground, for planting young trees in
nurseries, thorn-hedges, &c. It is pertbrmed by digging a trench one spit wide, by a line, and planting
from one end of the trench towards the other, as the trench is being dug. Thus, the line being set and
the plants ready, with your spade begin at one end, and standing sideways to the line, throw out a spit
or two of earth, which forming a small aperture, another person being ready with the plants, let him
directly insert one in the opening, whilst the digger proceeds with the digging, and covers the roots of the
plants with the earth of the next spit. Another aperture being thereby also formed, place therein another
plant, and so on.

2087. Another method of trenching-in planting sometimes used for planting certain roots, such as horse-
radish-sets, potatoes, &c. is performed by common trenching, placing a row of sets in each trench or fur-
row. The horse-radish should be planted in the bottom of the open trench, if not above twelve inches
deep, turning the earth of the next over them ; and the potatoe-sets placed about four or six inches deep,
and cover them also with the earth of the next trench.

2088. Slit planting. This method is performed by making slits or crevices with a spade in the ground,
at particular distances, for the reception of small trees and shrub-plants. It is practised sometimes in the
nurserj', in putting out rows of small plants, suckers, &c. from about a foot or eighteen inches or two feet
high, and that have but small roots : it is also sometimes practised where verj- large tracts of forest-trees
are to be planted by the most expeditious and cheapest mode of performance ; the following is the method :
— A line is set or a mark made accordingly ; then having a quantity of plants ready, for they must be
planted as you proceed in making the slits, let a man, having a good clean spade strike it into the ground
with its back close to the line or mark, taking it out again directly, so as to leave the slit open : he then
gives another stroke at right angles with the first ; then the person with the plants inserts one immediately
into the second-made crevice, bringing it up to the line or mark, and directly pressing the earth close to
the plant with his foot ; proceed in the same manner to insert another plant, and so on. A man and a boy,
by this method, will plant ten or fifteen hundred, or more, in a day.

2089. Holing-in planting. This is sometimes used in the nursery in light loose ground ; and some-
times in planting potatoes, &c. in pliable soils. The groimd being previously digged or trenched, and a
line placed, proceed thus : — Let one man^with his spade, take out a small spit of earth, and in the liole so
formed let another person directly deposit a plant ; then let the digger take another spit at a little distance,
and turn the earth thereof into the first hole over the roots ; then placing directly another plant in this
second opening, let the digger cover it with the earth of a third, and so on.

2090. Drill planting. This is by drawing drills with a hoe, from two to four or five
inches deep, for the reception of seeds and roots, and is a commodious method of planting
many sorts of large seeds, such as walnuts, chestnuts, &c. ; sometimes also broad beans,
but always kidneybeans and peas : likewise of planting many sorts of bulbous roots,
when to be deposited in beds by themselves. The drills for all of these purposes should
be drawn with a common hoe, two or three inches deep, though, for large kinds of bul-
bous roots, four or five inches deep will be requisite, and the seeds and roots should al-
ways be covered the depth of the drills.

2091. Bedding-in planting. This is frequently practised for planting the choicer kinds
of flowering buds, such as hyacinths, &c. ; also for larger seeds of trees ; as acorns, large
nuts, and other kinds of seeds, stones, and kernels, and is performed by drawing the earth
from off the tops of the beds, some inches in depth, in the manner of ctiffing, then plant-
ing the seeds or roots, and covering them over with the earth, drawn off for that purpose.

Dd 2

404 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

The following is the mode of performance : — The ground must be previously digged or
trenched, raked, and formed into beds three or four feet wide, with alleys between bed
and bed ; then with a rake or spade, trim the earth evenly from off the top of the bed into
the alleys, from two or three to four inches deep for bulbous roots, and for seeds, one or
two inches, according to what they are, and their size ; then, if for bulbous roots, draw linets
along the surface of the bed, nine inches' distance, and place the roots, bottom downward,
along the lines, six or eight inches apart, thrusting the bottom into the earth. Having
thus planted one bed, then with the spade, let the earth that was drawn off into the alley
be spread evenly upon the bed again, over the roots or seeds, being careful that they are
covered all equally of the above depth, and rake the surface smooth. This method is also
practised in nurseries, for sowing such seeds as require great accuracy in covering, as the
larch, pine, and fir tribes ; and, indeed, for most other tree-seeds.

2092. Furrow planting. This is by drawing furrows with a plough, and depositing
sets or plants in the furrow, covering them in also with the plough. It is sometimes
practised for planting potatoe-sets in fields, and has been practised in planting young trees,
for large tiacts of forest-tree plantations, where the cheapest and most expeditious method
was required ; but it can only be practised advantageously in light pliable ground. It
is thus performed : a fuiTow being drawn, one or two persons are employed in placing
the sets or plants in the furrow, whilst the plough following immediately with another
furrow, turns the earth tliereof in upon the roots of the plants.

2093. Dibble planting. This is the most commodious method for planting most sorts
of fibrous-rooted seedling plants, slips, ofF-sets, and cuttings both of herbaceous and
shrubby kinds ; and likewise for some kinds of seeds and roots, such as broad beans, po-
tatoe-sets, Jerusalem artichokes, and horseradish-sets, bulbous roots, &c. It is expedi-
tiously performed with a dibble or setting-stick ; therewith making a narrow hole in the
earth for each plant or root, inserting one in each hole as you go on, &c.

2094. Trowel planting. This is performed with a garden -trowel, which being made
hollow like a scoop, is useful in transplanting many sorts of young fibrous-rooted plants
with balls of eartli about their roots, so as they may not be checked by their removal.

2095. Planting xmth balls. By removing a plant with its roots firmly attached to a
surrounding ball of earth, it continues in a growing state, without receiving any, or but
very little check from its removal. This mode is often practised, more particularly with the
more delicate and choicer kinds of exotics, both trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants ; and
occasionally to many of the fibrous-rooted flowery plants, both annuals and perennials,
even in their advanced growth and flowering state, when particularly wanted to supply
any deficient compartments, or when intended to remove any sort of tree or plant out of
the proper planting season, as very late in spring, or in summer. The most difficult
tribe of plants to transplant, when in a growing state, are bulbous roots j which succeed
with difficulty, even when removed with balls attached.

2096. Planting hy mudding-in {dnschlajnen) is a German practice in planting fruit-
trees, particularly suitable to the dry sandy soils of that country, and sometimes adopted
in similar situations in this country. The pit being dug out, the mould in its bottom is
watered and stirred so as to form a mass of mud about half the depth of the pit ; the tree
is then inserted, and its roots worked up and down in the mud so as to spread them as
much as possible equally through it. More mud, previously prepared, is poured in till
the pit is full, which is then covered with dry eartli, raised round the stem, but hollowed
in the middle, so as to form a basin round its stem, and finally covered with litter (mtU-
ched), and, if a standard, it is fastened to a stake to protect it from winds. Diel, a
scientific German author already mentioned (224.), assures his readers, that trees planted
in diis way in spring thrive better in cold situations than those planted in the ordinary
way in the preceding autumn ; and, that though it occasions considerable trouble, it should
never be neglected either in spring or autumn. He found it also particularly useful in
the case of planting fruit-trees in pots. (^Obst. Orangerie, &c. vol. ii.) Pontey, alluding
to this mode, says " planting in a puddle occasions the soil speedily to firm, not only
too hard few the roots of tlie plant to spread, but also so far as perfectly to exclude water.*'
{Rural Imjirover, p. 89.)

2097. Planting by fixing with water is an excellent variety of the last species. It has
been successfully practised by Pontey, and is thus described by him : — The hole
being made, and the tree placed in it in the usual manner, the root is then slightly
covered vnth the finer part of the soil ; the tree being at the same time shaken, as is com-
mon, to settle the earth among its roots. Water is then applied by a common garden
Watering-pot, by pouring it upon the soil with some force, in order to wash it close to
and among the roots of the plant. But this can only be done effectually by elevating the
pot as high in the hands as can be conveniently used, after first taking off the rose. It
will be obvious, that for such purposes a large pan with a wide spout is to be preferred.
The hole is then filled up with the remainder of the soil, and that again consolidated with
water as before, which usually finishes the business. The foot is never applied except in

Book IV. TRANSPLANTING. 405

the case of bad roots, which sometimes occasion the plants to b« left a little leaning. In
such cases, the application of the foot slightly, once or twice, after the soil has become
somewhat firm (which generally happens in less than an hour), sets the tree upright, and
so firm as to require no staking. (Rural Imjyrover, p. 89.)

2098. Panning, mulching, and staAing. Panning is an almost obsolete phrase, applied
by Switzer, and ^Titers of his day, to the operation of forming a hollow or basin round
trees, for the purpose of retaining water when given them by art. Mulching consists in
laying a circle of litter round the roots of newly planted trees, to retain the natural humi-
dity of the soil, or to prevent the evaporation of artificial watering. Staking is the oper-
ation of supporting standard-trees, by tying them with straw, or other soft ties, to poles o»
stakes inserted firmly in the ground close to the tree.

2099. Planting edgings. Edgings are rows of low-growing plants, as box, daisy, &c.
planted in lines along the margins of walks and alleys, to separate them from the earth
and gravel. They should always be planted before either the gravel or substratum are
deposited. To perform the operation, the first thing is to form the surfaces for the edg-
ings in planes corresponding with the established slopes or levels of the borders or other
parts of the garden, observing, that a line crossing the walk at right angles, and touching
both of the prepared surfaces, must always be a horizontal Kne, whether the walk be on a
level or slope. Suppose a walk 150 feet long on a gentle declivity, and that the level or
height of both ends are fixed on ; then by the operation of the borning-pieces, any num-
ber of intermediate points is readily formed to the same slope, and the spaces between
tliese points are regulated by the eye or the application of the straight-edge. The earthy
so formed into a regular slope, need not exceed about a foot in breadth, on which the line
being stretched, half is to be cut down, with a face sloping towards the walk, and against
this sloping, or nearly perpendicular face, the box is to be laid as thin and regular as
practicable, and every where to the same height, say one inch above the soil. The box
is to be previously prepared by separation, and shortening the roots and tops. This is one
of those operations, on the performance of which, with accuracy, depends much of the
beauty of kitchen-gardens.

2100. Planting verges. Verges are edgings of turf, generally two feet broad or up-
wards. The turves being cut in regular laminae, with the edges or sides of ea<!h turf per-
pendicular, and the two ends oblique in the same slope, they are to be placed so as the
one may fit exactly to the other. They are next to be beat -wath the beetle, afterwards
watered, and again beat or rolled, and finally a line applied to their edges, and the raser
(Jig. 101.) used to cut tliem off neatly and perpendicularly. If the turf is from loamy
soil, this is readily effected ; but if no turf can be got but from sandy soils, then it must
be cut very thin, and placed on good earth or loam, according to circumstances. Verges
are sometimes, though rarely, formed of chamomile, strawberries, dwarf-thyme, &c. in
which situations the wood-strawberry and chamomile produce abundant crops.

2101. Transplanting or laying doivn turf. Turfing, as this operation is commonly called,
consists in laj-ing down turf on surfaces intended for lawn, in parterres or pleasure-
grounds. The turf is cut from a smooth firm part of an old sheep -pasture, free from
coarse grasses, in performing which the ground is first crossed by parallel lines, about a
foot asunder, and afterwards intersected by others three feet asunder, both made with
a line and the turf-raser. Afterwards, the turf-spade or tiuiing-iron is employed to
separate the individual turves, wliich are rolled up, and conveyed to the spot where they
are to be used. It is to be observed, that, in this case, all the sides of each turf are be-
velled ; by which means, when they are laid down exactly as they were before being
taken up, their edges will fit, and in some degree lap over each other, and thereby, after
rolling, a more compact surface will be formed. The surface on which the turves are
to be laid, ought previously to be either dug or trenched, so as to be brought to one de-
gree of consistency, and then rolled, so as it may not afterwards sink ; the turves being
laid so as to fit, are to be first beaten individually, and then watered and rolled till the
whole is smooth and even.

2102. In trans])lanting in pots, the general practice is to begin with the smallest-sized
pot, and gradually to transplant into others larger, as the plant advances, and as the ob-
ject may be to produce a large or a small plant. In the case of balsams and tender an-
nuals, this may require to be performed three or four times a month, till the plant has
attained its full size ; in the case of heaths, not more than once a year or seldomer.

2103. The operation of potting is thus performed. Having the pots and mould ready for the reception of
the intended plants, observe, previous to planting them, to place some pieces of tile, potsherds, or oysterv
shells, or gravel over the hole at the bottom of the pot, both to prevent the hole from being clogged and
stopped with the earth, and the earth from being washed out with occasional watering ; and also to prevent
the roots of the plants from getting out Having secured the holes, place some earth in the bottom of
each pot, from two or three to five or six inches or more in depth, according to the size of the pot, and the
roots of the plant. This done, insert the plant in the middle of the pot, upon the earth, in an upright
position ; if without a ball of earth, spread its roots equally every way, and directly add a quantity of fine
mould about all the roots and fibres, shaking the pot to cause the earth to settle close about them : at the
same time, if the roots stand too low, shake it gently up, as you shall see occasion ; and having filled the

Dd 3

406 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part If.

I ot with earth, press it gently all round with the hand to settle It moderately firm in every part, and to
steady the upright posture of the plant, raising the earth, however, within about half an inch, or less, or
the top of the pot. It will soon settle lower, and thereby leave a void space at top, which is necessary to
receive occasional waterings. As soon as the plant is thus potted, give directly a moderate watering to
settle the earth more effectually close about all the roots, and promote their shooting into the new earth j
repeating the waterings as occasion requires.

2104. Traiisplanting potted plants from one pot to another is called shifting; and is
performed with the whole ball of earth contained in the pot entire, so as to preserve the
plant in its growing state.

£105. The method of removing them out of the pots voith balls is generally easily effected. Sometimes in small
pla::ts it is performed by turning the pot upside down, and striking the edge against the side of a bench,
or edge of the boards of a wheelbarrow, or the like, when the ball comes out entire ; or occasionally a plant
that is very well rooted, and whose numerous fibres surround tlie outside of the ball, will readily quit
the pot by drawing it by the stem. But if, by either of the above methods, the ball will not readily
quit the pot, thrust a narrow thin slip of wood down all round the pot, when the ball will come
out by the process of striking the edge of the pot, with the greatest facility. Sometimes, however, the
bellied form of the pot, and the luxuriance of the roots which circulate between the pot and earth, pre-
vent the possibility of removing the ball entire; in which case, either that circumstance must be dispensed
with, or the pot be broken.

2106. In replanting in larger pots,the first step regardsthemanagementof the numerous fibres which sur-
round the outside ball. When these are not numerous, the general practice is to leave them untouched ;
but when they are so abundant as to form a sort of matted coat, like the inside of a bird's nest all around,
then the practice is to trim the greater part of them off close to the ball, both on the sides and bottom,
together with some of the outward old earth of the ball ; then having the pots of proper sizes, larger than
the former ones, and having secured the holes at bottom, and put in some fresh compost, deposit the plant
with its entire ball in the pot, taking care that it stands in the centre, erect, and of the same depth as
before. Then fill up all the interstices round the ball with fresh mould, pressing it down, and ramming it
round the sides with a broad stick, adding more mould gradually, and raising it so as to cover the old ball,
and finish with a moderate watering, to settle the new earth close in every part. Hayward has sug-
gested the idea of a moveable bottom for more readily shifting potted plants with matted roots ; and we
have already (1412.) described the orange-boxes used at Versailles, and by Mean at Wormsleybury, by
which fresh earth can be put to the sides of the largest plants with little trouble.

2107. Transplanting with balls is to be avoided in the case of diseased plants, unless it be evident that the
disease has no connection with the ball of earth and the roots. Very frequently, however, the diseases of
plants in pots arise from the want of a proper vent for the water, and from their having had too much
given them ; hence in transplanting such plants, it is eligible to shake the jvhole entirely out of the earth,
in order to examine its roots, and trim off all decayed and other bad parts ; then having a fresh pot, and
some entire new compost, replant as already directed.

2108. In potting plants from the open ground, or beds of earth on dung, or otherwise, if they have been
previously pricked out at certain distances, and have stood long enough to fix their roots finnly, they
may be moved into pots with balls, by the proper use of the trowel, transplanter, or hollow spade. Seed-
lings, however, cannot often be raised with balls, and are therefore planted in the smallest-sized pots first,
and gradually removed into larger ones with their balls entire.

2109. Plants in pots are never shifted directly frorn stnall into large pots, but always into a size only one
gradation larger than that in which they are. Experience proves that this is the best mode, and also that
plants, in general, thrive best in small pots. The reason seems to be that, in large pots, the roots are apt
to be chilled and rotted by the retention of more water than is requisite for their wellbeing.

SuBSECT. 3. Pruning.
2110. The amputation of part of a plant with the knife, or other instrument, is practised
for various purposes, but chiefly on trees, and more especially on those of the fruit-bear-
ing kinds. Of two adjoining and equal-sized branches of the same tree, if the one be cut
off, that remaining will profit by the sap which would have nourished the other, and both
the leaves and tlie fruits which it may produce will exceed their natural size. If part of
a branch be cut off wliich would have carried a number of fruits, those which remain will
set, or fix better, and become larger. On the observation of these facts is founded the
whole theory of pruning ; which, though like many other operations of art, cannot be
said to exist very obviously in nature, is yet the most essential of all operations for the
culture of fruit-trees.

2111. TTie objects of prumng may be reduced to the following : promoting growtli and bulk ; lessening
bulk ; modifying form ; promoting the formation of blossom-buds ; enlarging fruit ; adjusting the stem
and branches to the roots ; renewal of decayed plants or trees ; and removal or cure of diseases.

2112. Pruning for promoting the growth and bulk of a tree is the simplest object of pruning, and is
that chiefly which is employed by nursery-men with young trees of every description. The art is to cut
off all the weak lateral shoots, that the portion of sap destined for their nourishment may be thrown into
the strong ones. In some cases, besides cutting off the weak shoots, the strong ones are shortened, in
order to produce three or four shoots instead of one. In general, mere bulk being the object, upright
shoots are encouraged rather than lateral ones ; excepting in the case of trained trees, where shoots are
encouraged at all angles, from the horizontal to the perpendicular, but more especially at the medium of
'i5 degrees. In old trees, this object is greatly promoted by the removal, with the proper instruments, of
the dead or already scaling off outer bark.

2113. Pruning for lessening the bulk of the tree is also chiefly confined to nursery-practice, as neces-
sary to keep unsold trees of a portable size. It consists in little more than wliat' is technically called
heading down, that is cutting off the leading shoots within an inch or two of the main stem, leaving, in
some cases, some of the lower lateral shoots. Care is taken to cut to a leaf-bud (1885.), and to choose such
from among the side, upper, or under buds of the shoot according as the succeeding year's shoots may
be wanted, in radiated lines from the stem, or in oblique lines in some places to fill up vacancies. It
is evident that this unnatural operation persisted in for a few years must render the tree knotty and
unsightly, and in stone-fruits, at least, it is apt to generate canker and gum.

2114. Pruning for modifying the form of the tree embraces the management of the plant from the
time of its propagation. Almost every tree has a different natural form, and in botanic and landscape
gardening it is seldom desirable to attempt altering these by pruning, or by any other operation. But in
rearing trees planted for timber, it is desirable to throw the timber produced, as much as possible, into
long compact masses ; and hence pruning is employed to remove the side branches, and encourage the
growth of the bole or stem. Where this operation is begun when the trees are young, it is easily performed
every two or three years, and the progress of the trees under it is most satisfactory ; when, however, it i«

Book IV. PRUNING. 407

delayed till they have attained a timber size, it is, in all cases, much less conducive to the desired eni and
sometimes may prove injurious. It is safer in such cases to shorten or lessen the size of lateral branches
rather than to cut them off close by the stem, as the large wounds produced by the latter practice either
do not cicatrise at all, or not till the central part is rotten, and has contaminated the timber of the trunk.
In all cases, a moderate number of small branches, to be taken off as they grow large, are to be left
on the trunk, to facilitate the circulation of the sap and juices. WTiere timber-trees are planted for
shelter or shade, unless intermixed with shrubs or copse, it is evident pruning must be directed to clothing
them from the summit to the ground with side branches. In avenues and hedge-row trees, it is generally
desirable that the lowest branches should be a considerable distance from the ground ; in trees intended
to conceal objects, as many branches should be left as possible ; and in others, which conceal distant
objects desired to be seen, or injure or conceal near objects, the form must be modified accordingly. In
all these cases, the superfluous parts are to be cut off with a clean section, near a bud or shoot if a
branch is shortened, or close to the trunk if it is entirely removed j the object being to facilitate
cicatrisation.

2115. Pruning fruit-trees. The grand art of pruning, not only as to the modification
of form, but in all its other varieties, relates to fruit-trees, of which the leading characters
are standards and wall-trees ; the former including dwarfs and half-standards, and the
latter, dwarfs and ridei*s.

2116. In pruning to form standards (arbres a plein-vent, Ft.), th% first thing to be
detennined on after the plant has been received from the nursery and planted, is, whether
the stem is to be tall (Jiaut-tige) or short {basse-tige) ; and the next, if the head is to be
trained in any particular form, as a cone, globe, semi-globe, radiated pyramid, &c. ; or
left to assume its natural shape. If a cone or pyramid is determined on, then a leading
upright shoot must be carefully preserved, and the side shoots kept at regular distances
from each other, and as far as practicable, equally extended on the one side of the main
stem as on the other, keeping always in view the ultimate figure. If a globe is to be
produced no shoot must be permitted to take the lead, but a number encouraged to ra-
diate upwards from the graft, and these kept as regular as possible, both in regard to distance
from each other, and of tlieir extremities from the centre of the globe. If the tree is to be
left to its natural shape, which in our opinion is by far the best mode, it will, in the ap-
ple, pear, cherry, and most other fruit-trees, assume something of the conical shape, at least
for some years ; but whatever shape it has a tendency to assume, that shape must not be
counteracted by the pruner, whose operations must be chiefly negative, or directed to thin-
ning out weak and crowded shoots, and preserving an equal volume of branches on one
side of the tree as on the other : in technical language, preserving its balance. Knight's
directions for this mode of pruning, both in his Treatise on the Apple and Pear, and in
different papers in the Horticultural Transactions, are particularly valuable. For the apple
and all standard trees he recommends that the points of the external branches should be
every where rendered thin and pervious to the light ; so that the internal parts of the
tree may not be wholly shaded by the external parts : the light should penetrate deeply
into the tree on every side ; but not any where through it. "VVlien the pruner has
judiciously executed his work, every part of the tree, internal as well as external, will
be productive of fruit ; and tlie internal part, in unfavorable seasons, will rather receive
protection than injury from the external. A tree thus pruned, will not only produce
much more fruit, but will also be able to support a much heavier load of it, without
danger of being broken ; for any given weight will depress the branch, not simply in
proportion to its quantity-, but in the compound proportion of its quantity and of its
horizontal distance from the point of suspension, by a mode of action similar to that
of the weight on the beam of the steelyard ; and hence a hundred and fifty pounds,
suspended at one foot distance from the trunk, will depress the branch which supports it
no more than ten pounds at fifteen feet distance would do. Every tree will, therefore,
support a larger weight of fruit without danger of being broken, in proportion as the
parts of such weight are made to approach nearer to its centre. Hitt recommends that
the shape or figure of standards should be conical, like the natural growth of the fir-
tree : and this form, or the pyramidal or sub-cylindrical {en quenouille, Fr.) is decidedly
preferred by the French, and universally employed both by tliem and the Dutch.

2117. In irruning to form dwarf -standards (hasse-tiges, Fr.), the plants being received
from the nursery, furnished witli shoots of one year's growth, are to be cut down to three
or four buds, which buds will throw out other shoots the following year, to form the
bush or dwarf. If these buds throw out, during the second year, more than can grow
the third year without crossing or intermixing with each other, then the superfluous
shoots must be cut off; but if too few to form a head regularly balanced, or projecting
equally beyond the stem on all sides, then one or more of the shoots in the deficient part
must be cut down to three or four eyes, as before, to fill up by shoots of the third year the
vacancies in the bush. In this way must the tree be treated year after year, cutting
away all cross-placed branches and crowded shoots, till at last it shall have formed a head
or bush globular, oblong, or of any other shape, according to its nature, and with tliis
property common to every form, that all tlie slloots be so far distant from eacli other as
not to exclude the sun's rays, air, or rain, from tlie blossoms and fruit. Such is the
most approved modern mode of training fruit-tree bushes or dwarf-standards ; but,

Dd 4

408

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

about a century ago, when dwarfs were in the greatest vogue, they were trained into re-
gular geometrical shapes, without the least regard to the natural shape or tendency of the
branches of the tree. In tlie works of Quintiney and Arnaud d'Andilly are described
concave, conical, fusiform, spiral, and other dwarfs.

2118. Concave or cup-shaped dwarfs (arbonjin boomen, Dut. ; en gobelet or en tonnoiry
Fr.), being trained concave or hollow in the middle, having all the branches ranged cir-
cularly around the stem, in an ascending direction, so as to form the heart of the tree
holLow or concave.

2119. Conical or p7/ramidal dwarfs, tapering like a cone or pyramid from the base to the
summit. When pyramidal trees are so pruned that the horizontal branches form stages
above one another, tliey are termed chandelier-like, or en gira7idole.

2120. Fusiform (en quenouille, Fr.) or convex dwarfs, being trained, bellied out, or
somewhat spindle-shaped in the middle, or like a full distaff.

2121. Horizontal dwarfs, in which all the branches were trained in a flat position, pa-
rallel to the surface of the earth.

2 1 22. Sjnral dwarfs ( fg. 384. ), in which the branches were trained spirally round stakes,
which stakes were ^terwards removed.

384

2123. Fan-dwarfs (palmettes, Fr.) in which the branches were spread out like the
hand, or like a spread fan.

2124. Natural dwarfs or bushes (arbres en buisson, Fr.), in which the branches were
permitted to advance in their natural mode of growth, being only thinned, or shortened,
or deprived of supernumerary side shoots, as already described.

21 25. Estimate of the forms of dwarfs. Some authors observe that all these forms may be
introduced for the sake of variety ; but of all forms which require constraint, as being con-
trary to the natural shape of the bush and tendency of the branches, it may with certainty
be observed, that they can only be maintained by continual exertion ia counteracting
nature ; and that the trees so constrained and cut, generally throv,- out, at particular
parts, such a superfluity of useless wood, as greatly to lessen their tendency to produce
blossom-buds. Each variety of the apple-tree, observes Knight, " has its own peculiar
form of growth, and this it will ultimately
assume, in a considerable degree, in defi-
ance of the art of the pruner." The same
remark, it is obvious, applies to every sort
of tree.

2 1 26. Pruning half standards is conducted
exactly on the same general principles as
pruning dwarfs ; the only difference between
them being that, in the one case, the bush
or head is close to the ground, and in the
other, it is elevated from it three or four
feet. Of the common hardy fruit-trees, it
may be observed, that the apple, plum,
quince, medlar, and mulberry form a forked
irregular head {fig. 385. a), and the pear
and cherry a more regular cone or distaff,
with lateral branches proceeding from an
upright stem (6). The French are particularly expert in pruning their pear-trees into
this last form, assisted sometimes by a rod to train the central shoot.

2127. Crown or umhrella headed standards (kroon boomen, Dut. ) are a sort of half-stand-
ard, formed by the Dutch, and chiefly on dwarfing stocks. The stems are six or seven feet

^=35^V-^

Book IV. PRUNING. 409

high, and terminate in a few branches, which stretch out on all sides horizontally : this
position being given by inclining them downwards by ties.

2128. Balloon-headed standard-trees have been formed by a mode of training adopted
by J. Brookhouse, Esq. at Warwick.

Tlie trees are apples, six feet high in their stems, from the tops of which, the branches, which are of
three or four years' growth, extend outwards, and nearly horizontally in all directions, from five to six
feet from the centre. Round the tree, at about three feet from the stem, and at two feet from the ground,
is placed a hoop, fastened to stakes, and towards this hoop the ends of the branches are directed by worsted
cords fastened to their extremities, and to the hoop. The branches, by this means, assume a curved
direction, straighter near to their origin in the centre, much arched afterwards, and having their ex-
tremities turned inwards. The average distance from the ground tb the ends of the branches thus secured
is about four feet. The general outline of the tree has much resemblance to that of a balloon, and the
cords which are attached all round to the hoop in a slanting direction inwards, increase the similitude.
After the fruit has been gathered, the fastenings are removed; in winter the trees are pruned, the
upright shoots which have been made, are shortened to spurs, except where fresh branches are wanted,
to complete the uniformity and regularity of the whole; and in spring the operation of tying is re-
peated. Sabine observes on this mode, " It is scarcely possible to conceive a row of trees in a garden
more beautiful than one thus arranged, not only from the uniformity in size, and regularity of growth
of the trees ; but from the beautiful display of blossoms and fruit in the different seasons, occasioned by
this peculiar mode of training, which is calculated to exhibit the whole so perfectly. The advantages of
the plan are many and important The downward inclination given to the branches increases the dis-
position to form blossom-buds, and consequently to produce more abimdantly ; the foliage is well exposed
to receive the influence of the light and air ; the fruit is vmiformly distributed over the surface Of the
tree, and does not suffer from being shaded by irregularly placed branches ; whilst the ligatures at the
ends of the shoots keep the whole so steady, that they are never so agitated by wind as to lose their
crop prematurely, nor do the branches suffer like those of other trees, by lashing each other in strong
gales of wind." [Hort. Trans, vol. v. 186.) However fascinating this plan may appear at first sight, and
for a few years while the trees are young, it is, like most of the French and Dutch modes of training just
described, radically bad, and certain of ultimately defeating the object in view. The main effort of trees
so constrained will annually be directed to sending up upright shoots from the apex oT the balloon ;
and though these may be " shortened to spurs" for a year or two, the spurs so formed will only bear
shoots not blossoms, and wiU rapidly increase in size till they present only a deformed mass of knots
sending up a crowd of shoots, and depriving the pendent branches of nourishment. Every gardener
can foresee this. There is only one mode of training that nature approves of, and that is the fan
mode. (2144.)

2129. Pruning, for the modification of fruit-trees trained on walls (en eqwlier, Fr.) or
on esjmliers (en contre-espalier, Fr.), depends on the principle of training which may be
adopted. The selection being made of such shoots as are requisite for carrying on the
form of the training tree ; the others are to be cut off, first on the general principles re-
commended for all cutting (1884.) ; and secondly, according to the particular nature of
the tree. All trees which are much cut or constrained, have a tendency to throw out
over-luxuriant shoots at particular parts of the branches where the sap is suddenly
checked ; such shoots seem to employ the great body of the sap, and thus divert it from
performing its functions in the other parts of the branch or tree. Tlie largest of these
shoots, the French term gourmands, or gluttons ; and the lesser ones, which have their
leaves very distant and tlie wood slender, with hardly any appearance of buds in the
a-T'll.^ of the leaves, they term water-shoots. As soon, in the growing season, as the cha-
ractf of both these sorts of shoots, especially of the latter, is known, they ought to be
pinched '^flT, with the exception of some cases, at the discretion of an intelligent pruner,
where the gourmand may fill up a vacancy, supply a decaying branch, or otherwise be so
situated as to assist in forming the tree. This chiefly happens when they are thrown
out on the sides of wall-trees, so as to admit of being checked by a horizontal or ob-
lique position in training. What are called fore-right and back shoots, or such as are
thrown out nearly at right angles to the training surface, ought to be rubbed or
pinched off, as ill adapted for training, or being applied to the training surface ; but
with the same exceptions as for gourmands. Where the grand object is fruit, however.
it is well remarked by Marshall (Introd. to Gard.), "that in this matter, the end in view
is not to be sacrificed to fanciful precision."

2130. Pruning to promote the formation of blossoms-buds depends on the nature of the
tree. The peach and nectarine, for example, produce their blossoms on the preceding
year's wood ; consequently the great art of pruning a peach-tree is to have a regular
distribution of young wood over every part of it. This the tree has a natural tendency
to effect itself, and all that is required from the pruner is, when these shoots are too
abundant, to rub them off in the summer pruning, and where they are too few, to cut
or shorten some of the least valuable branches or shoots in the winter pruning. In
apples and pears, on the contrary, tlie blossoms are chiefly produced on short leafy
protuberances, called spurs, which form themselves naturally along the sides of the
shoots, chiefly of apples and pears, but also of plums, cherries, quinces, medlars, and
to a certain degree, the apricot, which produces blossoms on last year's wood, and on
spurs and small twigs from the shoots of the second year preceding. The production
of bearing or blossom buds is sometimes promoted by cutting out weak wood, by
which what remains is strengthened ; and shortening or stopping the shoots of the vine
m summer is believed by many to have the same effect. The rose, syringa, spiraea frutex,
and many shrubs, produce their blossoms in the wood of the present year, and to give

410 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

vigor to such plants, it is desirable, when blossoms are wanted in these slirUbs, to cut
down both old and new wood.

2131. Pruning for the enlargement of the fruit is effected either by diminishing the
number of blossom-bearing branches, or shortening them ; both which operations depend
on the nature of the tree : the mode of shortening is particularly applicable to the vine,
the raspberry, and to old kernel fruit-trees.

2132. Pruning for adjusting the stem and branches to the roots is almost solely applica-
ble to transplanted trees, in which it is an essential operation ; and should be performed
in general in the interval between removal and replanting, when the plant is entirely
out of the ground. Supposing only the extremities of the fibres broken off, as is the
case in very small plants and seedlings, then no part of the top will require to be re-
moved ; but if the roots have been broken or bruised in any of their main branches or
ramifications, then the pruner, estimating the quantity of root of which the plant is
deprived by the sections of fracture and other circumstances, peculiar and general, will
be able to form a notion of what was the bulk of the whole roots before tiie tree was
undisturbed. Then he may state the question of lessening the top to adjust it to the
roots thus : — As the whole quantity of roots which the tree had before removal is to' the
whole quantity of branches which it now has or had, so is the quantity of roots which it
now has to the quantity of top which it ought to have. In selecting the shoots to be re-
moved, regard must be had to the ultimate character the tree is to assume, whether a
standard, or trained fruit-tree, or ornamental bush. In general, bearing-wood and weak
shoots should be removed, and the stronger lateral and upright shoots, with leaf or shoot
eyes, left.

2133. Pruning for renewal of the head is performed by cutting over the stem a little
way, say its own tiiickness, above the collar or the surface of the ground. This practice
applies to old osier-beds, coppice- woods, and to young forest-trees. Sometimes also it is
performed on old or ill-thriving fruit-trees, which are headed down to the top of their
stems. This operation is performed with the saw, and better after scarification, as in
cutting off the broken limb of an animal. Tlie live section should be smoothed with the
chisel or knife, covered with the bark, and coated over with grafting clay, or any conve-
nient composition which will resist drought and rain for a year.

2134. Pruning for curing disease has acquired much celebrity since the time of For-
syth, whose amputations and scarifications for the canker, together with the plaster or
composition which he employed to protect the wounds from air, are treated of at large
in his Treatise on Fruit Trees, Almost all vegetable diseases either have their origin in
the weakness of the individual, or induce a degree of weakness ; hence to amputate a
part of a diseased tree is to strengthen the remaining part, because the roots remaining of
the same force, the same quantity of sap will be thrown upwards as when the head and
branches were entire. If the disease is constitutional, or in the system, this practice
may probably, in some cases, communicate to the tree so much strength as to enable it to
throw it off; if it be local, the amputation of the part will at once remove tlie disease,
and strengthen the tree.

For the removal of diseases, whole branches, the entire head, single shoots, or merely the diseased spot
in the bark or wood, may require to be cut off. In the removal of merely diseased spots, care must be
taken to remove the whole extent of the part affected with a part of the sound wood and bark ; and, in
like manner, in amputating a diseased shoot or branch, a few inches or feet of healthy wood should be
taken away at the same time, to make sure of removing every contamination.

Insects^ Tnay be removed, or at least prevented from spreading on trained trees, especially such as are
in houses, and on dwarf-trees, where the whole plant comes readily under tlje eye, either by cutting off,
in the summer season, the young shoots or the individual leaves on which the insects, as the coccus,
aphis, acarus, &c. are found. This is frequently practised on gooseberry-plants, and Sir Brook Boothby
(,Hort. Trans, vol. i.) asserts that he keeps his peach-frees free from the red spider by cutting off every
leaf the moment he sees an insect on it.

2135. Pruning the roots of trees. What effect it would have on the roots of trees, if
they could be exposed to view, and subjected to pruning and training, as well as the
branches, it is not easy in many cases, to determine ; but where they are diseased, or
growing on soil with an injurious substratum, could the pruning-knife be applied to their
descending and diseased roots annually, the advantages would be considerable. Tlie
practice of laying bare the roots of trees to expose them to tlie frost, and render the tree
fruitful, is mentioned by Evelyn and other writers of his time ; but in doing so, it does
not appear that pruning was any part of their object. The pruning of roots can therefore
only take place, according to the present state of things, in the interval between taking
up and replanting ; as such roots are generally small, and some of them broken or in-
jured, all that the pruner has to do, is to facilitate the healing of the ends of broken roots
by a more perfect amputation ; and in fruit-trees he may shorten such roots as have a
tendency to strike too perpendicularly into the soil. The form of the cut in either case
is a matter of less consequence than in the shoot ; but like it, it ought in general to be
made from the under side of the shoot, that only one section may be fractured, and that
the removed section may be the fractured one ; and also that water or sap may rather de-

Book IV. TRAINING. 411

scend from than adhere to the wound. The chief reason for this practice, however, is
the facility of performing it, for a section directly across, as if made witli a saw, will, in
roots, heal as soon, if not sooner, than one made obliquely ; but to make such a section
in even small roots would require several distinct cuts, whereas the oblique section is
completed by a single operation. The Genoese gardeners, in pruning the roots of the
orange-trees, always make a section directly across, which, in one year, is in great part
covered by the protruding granulated matter. (See 1886}.

The roofs of trees might be completely pruned, if done by degrees y say that the roots extended in everv
direction in the form of a circle ; then take a portion, say one eighth, 'of that circle every j-ear till it is
completed ; and remove the earth entirely from above and under the roots ; then cut off the diseased
parts, or those roots which penetrate into bad soil ; and laying belgw them such a stratiun as shall be
impenetrable by them in future, intermix and cover them with suitable soiL

2136. Pruning herbaceous plants, or what is called trimming, consists generally in
thinning the stems to increase the size and flowers of tliose which remain ; but it may
also be performed for all the purposes before mentioned ; and for some other purposes,
such as the prolongation of the lives of annuals by pinching off their blossoms,
strengthening bulbous roots by the same means, increasing the lower leaves of the
tobacco-plant by cutting over the stem a few inches above ground, &c. In trimming
the roots of herbaceous plants, the same general principles are adopted as in pruning
the roots of trees. In transplanting seedlings, the tap-root merely requires to be
shortened ; and in most other cases merely bruised, disused, or broken roots cut off,
and fractured sections smootlied.

2137. The seasons for pruning trees are generally winter and midsummer ; but some
autliors prefer spring, following the brder of the vegetation of the different species and
varieties. According to this principle, the first pruning of fruit-trees begins in Fe-
bruarj' with die apricot, then the peach, afterwards the pears and plums, then the cher-
ries, and lastly the apples, the sap of which is not properly in motion till April. Some
have recommended the autumn and mid--winter ; but though this may be allowable in
forest-trees, it is certainly injurious to tender trees of every sort, by drying and harden-
ing a portion of wood close to the part cut, and hence the granulous matter does not so
easily protrude between the bark and wood, as in the trees where those parts are fur-
nished with sap. For all the operations of pruning, therefore, which are performed on
tlie branches or shoots of trees, it would appear the period immediately before, or com-
mensurate with, the rising of the sap, is the best.

2138. Sumtner pruning commences with the rubbing off of the buds, or disbudding, soon after they have
begun to develope their leaves in April and May, and is continued diuing summer in pinching off or
shortening such as are farther advanced. It is obviously, to a certain extent, guided by the same general
rules as winter or general pruning ; but the great use of leaves in preparing the sap being considered,
summer pruning wisely conducted will not extend farther than may be necessary to maintain as much as
possible an equilibrium of sap among the branches ; to prevent gourmands and water-shoots from depriv-
ing the fruit of their proper nourishment, and to admit sufficient air and light to the fruit. Most authors
are of opinion, that the other objects of pruning will be better effected by the winter operations. Summer
pruning is chiefly applicable to fruit-trees, and among these to the peach ; but it is also practised on forest
and ornamental trees when young, and is of great importance in giving a proper direction to the sap in
newly grafted trees in the niirserj-.

2139. Thinning the branches of indi\adual trees may be considered as included
i n pruning. In herbaceous vegetables, or young trees growing together in quantities,
it consists in removing all such as impede the others from attaining the desired bulk,
form, or other properties for which they are specially cultivated, and is generally per-
formed in connection with weeding or hoeing.

SuBSECT. 4. Training.

2140. By training is to be understood the conducting of the shoots of trees or plants
over the surface of walls, espalier rails, trellises, or on any other flat surface. It is per-
formed in a vaiiety of ways, according to the kind of tree, the object in view, and the par-
ticular opinions of gardeners.

2141. The object of training is, either to induce a disposition to form flower-buds in rare
and tender trees or plants ; to mature and improve the quality of fruits which would not
otherwise ripen in tlie open air ; or to increase the quantity and precocity of the fruit of
trees which mature their fruit in the open air. Such are the principal objects of training :
which are effected by the shelter and exposure to the sun of the surface to which they are
trained, by which more heat is produced, and injuries from severe weather better guarded
against ; by the regular spreading of the tree on this surface, by which the leaves are more
fully exposed to the sun than they can be on any standard ; and by the form of training :
which, by retarding the motion of the descent of the sap, causes it to spend itself in the
formation of flower-buds.

2142. The leading modes of training u^oody-stmnmed trees are the fan, horizontal, and
vertical {Jig. 386. a,f, h). To which may be added the wavy or curvilinear. Their
varieties are, the herring-bone (a), the irregular fan (6), the stellate fan (c), the drooping

412

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

386

fan (d), the wavy fan (e) ; the horizontal, with screw stem (g), and with double stem (k) ;
the vertical, with screw or wavy shoots (A), and with upright shoots (i). Haywood pro-
poses a sort of wavy training (Jig. <j3Y
387.). little different from that of
the wavy fan, but wliich is cer-
tainly superior to some of the other
of the above modes in principle,
as it has no tendency to constrain
the shoots, and produce an irregu-
lar distribution or exhibition of the
sap in gourmands, &c. (Science of
Horticulture, 8vo. 1818.)

2143. Trees with flexible stems,
such as the vine and other climbers,
admit of three other varieties of
training (Jig- 388.), which, as
vines bear the sweetest fruit at the
greatest distance from the root, is
particularly suitable for them.

2144. Fan training, as the name
imports, directs the spreading out
of all the branches like the spokes
of the fan : it is reckoned of universal application and peculiarly suitable for peaches
and other stone-fruits.

•^^

^^

2145. Horizontal training is that in which, from a main stem, lateral branches are led
out horizontally on each side, and is more especially adapted for pear-trees.

2146. Horizontal training
with the screw stem is chiefly
applicable to pears and apples,
and the use of the screw is to
cause buds to push at proper
places for the horizontal
shoots. Where this is not
adopted, tlie annual heading
down of the vertical shoot is
resorted to, by which the same
effect is produced; but the tree
requires in this case a longer
period to fill the wall. It may
be effected either with one or
two main stems ; but, in ge-

Book IV.

TRAINING.

413

neral, the latter mode is piefenble (^. 389. )> as distzibutuDg tlie sap or rigor oi the tree
more equally.

2147. Oblique tramuig resembles the two last, widi tfab difierence, that the ktenl
shoots are trained obliquely to the main stem. It is particularly adapted for cberries.
Thouin remarks, that the slM>ots should not b^raised above an angle of forty-five d^rees,
unless in the case of a verj- weak shoot, which, for one season, may be led perpendicularly ;
nor lowered below the horizontal line, unless in the case of an excessively strong gourmand
or water-shoot. The angle of forty-five degrees indeed is recommended by the Frenda
writers, as the best ftn- all shoots of fruitr-trees to assume, wfaiether by the trainiiig against
walls or the pruning of standards. See the articles EipaBer and TnOle in Omn Con^itt
tT^gricyUure, itc

2148. Perpendicular traimiig is perfcmned by leading one hninmtal shoot frnn cadk
ade of the stem, and within a foot or eighteen inches of the ground ; ffae diools ^lAaA
proceed firom these are led up perpendicularly to the top of the wall ; sometimes sach
shoots are trained in the screw or serpentine manner, particulariy in vines and cuiranfa>,
which bear remarkably well in this fixm. This is the original mode of training practised
by the Dutch, and is still mxxe common in Holland and Flanders dian any where else.

2149. StedaU training rrfers chiefly to standards trained on walls, or what by some are
called ridos. The summit of the stem bong devated six or eight feet from the ground
by its loigth, the branches are laid in like radii from a centre.

2150. The open fan 390
(^.390.) is a mode of
training described by
Professor Thouin, and
exemplified in the Jar^
din des Plantes. It does
not app>ear to differ
much from a mode de-
scribed by Knight, which
he appli«i to the peach,
and considers, with a
little variation, appli-
cable, even with supe-
rior advantages, to the
cherry, plum, and pear-
tree. This form, he
adds, ^ might with much
advantage be given to

trees whilst in the nursery ; and perhaps it is the only form which can be given without
subsequent injury to the tree." There is nothing very peculiar in this form the first and
second year of training (a, 6), after bdng headed down ; but in the third year (c), the
re\ ersing of die lateral shoots (d), becomes a dharacteristic.

2151. IFapy or curviliitear tn^ning, Haywood considers as combining "all the grand
requisites stated to be produced" by the modes recommended by other writers on fruit-
"' The 'sterns {Jig. 391. a) bdng two principal branches through which the sap will

391

I

flow in equal portions from the root, to Ae length of three feet, before it is permitted to
form collaterals, the same effect will be produced as if the whole sap was to pass up a
single stem of a standard of six feet, which is justly observed by Bradley, ' to make
fruit-branches in such plentv, that hardly any barren shoots are to be found upon
them.' It also is conformable to the id^ of Hales, that ♦ Ught, by freely entering
the extended surfaces of leaves and flowers, contributes much to the ennobUng the
principles oi vegetables.* By avoiding the precise iKwizontal positiwi in which Hitt

414 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

directs the branches to be fixed, tlie sap is more regularly and uniformly disposed of,
and there will be no necessity for cutting branches short to form studs for producing
bearers, nor to adopt the method recommended by Forsyth for furnishing bearers, that of
repeatedly pinching off the tops, and shortening the leading shoots. ITie whole of the
sap will, by this mode, be expended in prpfitable and increasing production, and all the
desirable effects which these authors describe to be attainable, will be produced in less
time and with less difficulty. By this mode, also, it is possible to train a tree to its ut-
most extent without ever using the knife for any other purpose than for removing worn-
out branches, or old bearers, nor need a branch ever be shortened. It will be found like-
wise to support Knight's ideas, ' and expose a greater surface of leaf to the light,' in the
shortest possible time. It will also * promote an equal distribution of the circulating
fluids ;' and without cutting off the strongest and weakest branches, ' each annual shoot,
as produced, will possess nearly an equal degree of vigor.' And, as the horizontals will
be formed of the most luxuriant shoots, they will find sufficient space to be trained in, and
thus by ' proper treatment,' will, in due season, be found to ' have uniformly produced
the finest possible bearing wood for the succeeding year,' and this without pinching off
shoots. Thus, also, the same square of walling will be furnished with more bearing
wood, in the third and fourth years, than can possibly be done by any other mode, and
than can be effected by the common mode of practice, in less than eight or ten years."

2152. Preparatory training. Nearly the same routine is gone through when the trees
are young, for all the different modes of training. The shoots of grafted trees newly
received from the nursery {Jig. 392. a) are not shortened by the best modern practi-
tioners : at the end of the first season the side branches are left at an elevated angle (6),
to encourage them to throw out laterals ; afterwards they are brought down (c, d) to an
oblique or nearly horizontal position, and each shoot, placed in its final position, as it
increases in size.

392

2153. Materials used in training. The operation of training on walls is performed chiefly
by means of nails and shreds, on trellises by bass ties, and on espalier rails osier-twigs are
most commonly used. The bass, after being applied, is gently twisted round with the
finger and thumb, in order that it may run into a firm knot without tearing and weaken-
ing the ligament. The osier tie is made fast by twisting the two ends, somewhat in the
manner done by reapers in tying up sheaves of com, and well known in the nurseries.
But the nicety of the operation of training consists in the proper use of nails and shreds
on a wall ; in which business, as Marshall has observed, " ingenuity will evidence itself
in neatness and symmetry." When a shoot requires some constraint to retain it in its
position, the pressure must always be againsT the shred and never against the nail. Of
both nails and shreds there should be two sizes used, the larger for strong, and the smaller
for weak shoots. Trees trained to boards can hardly have nails too small ; and those
trained to stone or old brick walls generally require a larger size.

2154. Shreds should be adapted to the strength of the branches, and the distance of
the buds from each other ; so that with strong shoots, having their buds wide, such broad
shreds may be used as would make weak shoots unsightly, and spoil them by covering
the buds ; many a well cut tree has been made disgusting, merely by irregular and dang-
ling shreds. A uniformity of color can hardly be accomplished, but a regularity of size
may ; scarlet, if all alike, looks best, and white the worst. The general width of shredo
should be from half an inch to three quarters, and the length two inches to three, having
some wider, longer, and stronger, for large branches. In the disposition of shreds, some
must have their ends turned downwards, and some upwards, as best suits, for bringing
the shoots to their proper place, and straight direction. Though some pruners observe a
sort of alternate order, yet the ends hanging chiefly down will look best. Use no more
shreds and nails than necessary to make good work, as the effect is rude and injurious. As
nails are apt to break out pieces of the wall in drawing, it is a good way to give the nail a,

Book IV. INDUCING FRUITFULNESS. 415

tap to drive it a little, which loosening it from its rust, makes it come out easier, and so
saves a wall from large holes, which is a material thing. [Introd. to Gard. )

2155. Herbaceous training is performed by means of poles, rods, branches, and pegs.
Plants that twine and grow high are furnished with high poles, on which to twine them-
selves, as the tamis, convolvulus, &c. Plants with tendrils, as the pea, the bryonia, &c.
are furnished with branches or spray, through which the plant springing up attaches itself
by its tendrils, and is thus better exposed to the sun and air, and not so liable to rot as
when it lies on the ground. Props or poles are used for supporting and leading upright,
tall, slender, growing plants, as the dahlia, tree-lupin, and the like. Creeping and trail-
ing plants, as the melon, gourd, &c. are generally trained in the stellate manner on the
ground by means of pegs ; sometimes also on walls and trellises.

SuBSECT. 5. Blanching.

2156. Blanching is an operation of culture performed by earthing the stems of plants,
by tying up their leaves, or by covering them with utensils from the light.

2157. Blanching by earthing i^-perfoTined on the celery, chardoon, asparagus, &c. In
the case of annuals the earth is generally drawn up so as to press on the leaves of the plant
as it advances in growth ;' in the case of perennials a covering of loose earth is generally
placed over them before the growing season, through which the stalks shoot up, and
are blanched.

2158. Blanching by tying together the leaves is sometimes performed on lettuce, cabbage,
endive, &c. The plant being nearly in its most leafy state, the head or fasciculus of
leaves are gathered together, and tied up with bass ribands. By this operation two effects
are produced : the inner leaves as they grow, being excluded from the light, are blanched ;
and being compressed in proportion to the growth, wliich takes place after tying up the
head, the fasciculus becomes both tender and solid.

21 59. Blanching by overlaying is merely the laying down of tiles, slates, pieces of boards,
&c. on endive and other salading, when nearly full grown, and of which, being thus ex-
cluded from the sun, the future growth is colorless. Covering by the following mode is
preferable.

2160. Blanching by covering with utensils is a recent invention applied to sea^kale,
rhubarb, asparagus, &c. and consists in placing over them the utensils already described
as appropriated to this purpose. (1427.)

Sect. IV. Operations for inducing a State of Fruitfvlness in barren and unblossoming

Trees and Plants.

2161. Various means have been tried to mduce fruitfidness with different degrees of
success. Almost every description of fruit-tree, if planted in a thin stratum of rich loam
on a dry and impervious sub-soil, will come into bearing in regular course, according to
its nature ; but it too frequently happens that the stratum of soil is too deep, or the roots
penetrate into the sub-soil, or by some means, not always obvious, acquire the power of
throwing much superfluous sap into the tree, which spends itself in leaves and branches,
instead of blossoms. Similar circumstances produce similar effects in ornamental trees
and shrubs, whether in the open air or in artificial climates. Attempts are known to have
been made for upwards of a century and a half, to cause such trees to produce blossoms,
attended with different degrees of success ; but the practice was carried on empirically,
without any knowledge of the reason or principle which operated in producing the desired
end, till its true rationale was given by Du Hamel, in his Physique des Arbres, 1758.

2162. Laying bare the roots of trees is mentioned by Evelyn as conducive to fertility.
— Transplanting the tree frequently, by Van Osten. — Boring a hole, and driving in an
oaken plug is mentioned by the same author as the "old way." Every one must
have observed that trees partially blown out of the ground, or with the earth washed
or otherwise removed from their roots in banks or river-sides, or with their trunks or
roots broken, bent, or mutilated in any way, are always more fruitful than others ; and
this, we conceive, has suggested the various modes of artificial mutilation. Mutilation,
both in plants and animals, is attended by a sort of maturity ; and maturity in all living
things is the period of reproduction.

2163. Cutting the roots of trees is an old practice, generally performed in winter or
spring, but recently by Beattie, gardener at Scone, in midsummer. " In the begin-
ning of July 1811, I had a border on the south wall, of 400 feet long, trenched to the
depth of from two and a half to three feet ; in doing this, I had the opportunity
of cutting the roots of all the trees, as the work went on, which I did so completely,
that they in a manner hung by the nails and shreds, with a ball of earth of about two
feet from the stem of the tree. As cutting the roots of fruit-trees has a tendency to
make them fruitful, that may possibly proceed from the small quantity of fibrous roots
produced by the operation." Beattie says, he acted on the principle of depriving the tree
of the means of containing such a great quantity of sap, thereby preventing it from

416 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

growing so much to wood, and of course inclining it to become fruitful. {Caled. Mem.
vol. i. 272.) Nicol suggests the same expedient in his Forcing and Fruit Gardener ^
4th edit. p. 240.

21Q4. Cutting notches in the stem or branches has been tried on many occasions on
the same principle as cutting the roots.

2165. Partial decortication is the removal of the bark already scaling off, covered with
mosses and lichens, or carbonised by the action of the atmosphere. It is only
applicable to old trees, or trees of a certain age, and the effect is to increase the vigor
of the tree, and thus promote the production of young wood and blossom-buds. It
was recommended by Arnaud d'Andilly, in 1650, and has been practised for several
years, by Forsyth, Lyon, and various others, on standard-trees, and by King, a com-
mercial gardener, at Teddington, on the vine.

2166. Stripping off pieces of the bark from the stem and branches is said by Marshall
to check the luxuriance, and promote the fruitfulness of pear-trees. {^Introd. to Gard. &c.
4th edit. p. 156.)

2167. Ringing the stem and branches, circumcision, or excision, &c. was known to
the Romans, and is mentioned by Virgil, Columella, &c. Among the moderns, it
seems to have been revived by Du Hamel in the beginning of the 18th century, more
especially in 1733, when he perfectly succeeded in rendering trees fruitful, and has given
an account of his experiments in the Memoires de VAcademie des Sciences, A. D. 1788.
The subject has since been taken up by Suriray Delarue, and by Lancry ; the former of
whom has given an excellent history and rationale of the practice in the Journal
Pht/sico-(Economique for 1803, It is also ably treated in the Cours Complet d" Agri-
culture, &c. art. Bourrelet. The effect of ringing has been perfectly well known and
acted on in Holland and Germany since Du Hamel's time, as any one may be assured of
by the perusal of the works of Christ, Diederich, and Diel ; and it is remarkable, that
so late as 1815, A. Hempel, a clergyman of Saxony, should have published an account
of his practice in ringing, as new. The use of ringing would be, in all probability,
introduced into England soon after Du Hamel's experiments were published ; but
though it has been known and occasionally practised by some gardeners for upwards of
half a century, it seems not to have been generally known, either in 1817, when, judging
from a paper of Dr. Nohden, the subject was considered new in the Horticultural
Society ; or, in the end of last century, when Dr. Darwin, in his Notes to Phytplogia,
vol. i. p. 393, describes the practice, and accounts for its effects. It is now frequently
practised, both for the purpose of inducing blossoms on trees, or rendering them pro-
ductive; and for accelerating the maturity and increasing the size of fruits. The
former has been termed production-ringing, and the latter maturation-ringing. (Hort.
Trans, iv. 557.) Production-ringing should be performed in the spring, and will pro-
duce its effects in the following year : maturation-ringing when the plants are in blossom,
and it will show its effects the same season.

2168. Maturation-ringing. Ringing has been found not only to induce blossom-
buds, but where these prove fertile, to increase the size and accelerate the ripening of
fruits. In a paper read before the Horticultural Society in 1808, Williams, of
Pitmaston, describes a mode of making annular excisions in the bark of vines.
These were made rather less than a quarter of an inch in width, that the exposed wood
might be covered again with bark by the end of autumn. " Two vines of the
white Frontiniac, in similar states of growth, being trained near to each other on
a south wall, were selected for trial ; one of these was experimented on (if I may use the
term), the other was left in its natural state, to form a standard of comparison. When
the circle of bark had been removed about a fortnight, the berries on the experimented
tree began evidently to swell faster than those on the other, and by the beginning of Sep-
tember showed indications of approaching ripeness, while the fruit of the unexperimented
tree continued green and small. In the beginning of October, the fruit on the tree that
had the bark removed from it was quite ripe, the other only just began to show a dis-
position to ripen, for the bunches were shortly afterwards destroyed by the autumnal
frosts. In every case in which circles of bark were removed, I invariably found that the
fruit not only ripened earlier, but the berries were considerably larger than usual, and
more highly flavored. The effects thus produced, I can account for only by adopting
Knight's theory of the downward circulation of the sap through the bark. It is not of
much consequence in what part of the tree the incision is made ; but in case the trunk is
very large, I should then recommend, that the circles be made in the smaller branckes."

2169. The operation of maturation-ringing should be deferred till the flowers are fully
expanded, or rather till they are passing into fruit, or even till the fruit is set. The sap,
being interrupted in its descent by the annular incision, is held in the bough, and thus
the fruit gains a more ready and uninterrupted supply of nourishment, the consequence
of which is not only an increase of size, but earlier maturity. This operation, besides,
may be serviceable in ripening the seeds of plants, which otherwise would not be per-

Book IV. INDUCING FRUITFULNESS. 417

fected; for as the fruit is sooner ripened, so the seeds will likewise be sooner
matured. When the influence of ringing is limited to three or four months, as in
the case of maturation-ringing, it is obvious that the ring need not be so broad as when
it is to be extended to a longer period ; from which it follows that maturation-ringing, as
it keeps the bark separated for a shorter period, will do less injury to the health of tlie
branch than the other mode. (^Hort. Tram. iv. 557.)

2170. Ringing is said to force young trees to show blossoms. Hempel states as a
consequence resulting from ringing, that you may force young trees to show fruit, before
they otherwise would do. That ruiging may have some effect in this way, we think
highly probable ; but by no means so much as is ascribed to it by Hempel. Trees must
arrive at their age of puberty, like animals, before they can propagate their species.
Abundance of food and heat will, no doubt, induce a degree of precocity in the subjects
of both kingdoms ; and as ringing gives in effect abundance of food to the particular part
above the excision, it must have some effect, but it has not been proved to have much.
Ringing will produce blossoms in all plants, herbaceous or shrubby, propagated by ex-
tension, that is, originated otherwise than from seed, at any age ; but its effects on young
trees raised from seed, or in causing blossoms on any description of tree to set, are much
less certain ; though in all cases where they do set, tlie size of the fruit will be greatly
enlarged for the first year or two.

2171. In peiforming the operation of ringing, a ring of outer and inner bark, not
larger than the tree can fill up in stone-fruit in one, and in kernel-fruit in two, or at
most three years, is cut clean out with a knife, or the ringing shears, (fg. 123.) If larger,
the tree becomes too much excited to fruitfulness, and the part of it separated from the
root by the ring dies, while the stem and parts adjoining the root become too luxuriant.
Wlien the rings are made so wide as that the barks cannot unite for two or tliree years,
tlie result, says the author of the article, Bourrelet, in N. C cC Agriculture, &c. will be
to " accelerate the production of blossoms, and the setting of fruit, and to augment their
size during the first year ; and then, during the following years, to make them languish,
and at last die." "There is a pear-tree," Sabine observes, "against one of the walls
in the kitchen-garden, belonging to his Majesty, at Kew, which underwent the operation
of ringing about fifteen years ago. The part operated on was near the root; and, as it
was a principal arm, about one half of the whole tree became influenced by the operation.
This half has uniformly borne fruit, the other half has been nearly barren. The portion
of stem which was laid bare is about six inches wide, and it has not been again covered
by bark. That part just above the ring is considerably larger than the part below it.
The ends of the branches appear in much decay, and there are but very few young shoots
thrown out from the sides ; whilst, on the other part of the tree, the shoots, as usual,,
proceed from the extremities, as well as from the sides of the main branches. I appre-
hend, from the present appearance of the whole, that the portion of the tree which, by
the separation of the bark, has been deprived in a great measure of supply from the root^
cannot survive many years."

2172. Renewal of the soil about fruit-trees has been found by Hay, of Newliston,^
near Edinburgh, in the case of peaches ; and Maher, of Arundel, in the case of tigs,
and by various others, to renew the fruitfulness of trees. Tliere may be two reasons
given for this, both of which may be concerned in the effect ; the first is the exhaustion
of the soil generally ; and the second is its exhaustion of the particular sort of food pre-
ferred by tlie kind of tree. Though we are not so certain that every species of tree
requires, to a certain extent, a particular sort of food, as we are that herbaceous vegetables,
as wheat, oats, &c. do ; yet analogy renders the fact highly probable. At any rate, it is
clear that a renewal of soil must always be conducted with reference to the state of tlie
plants ; a poor, limy, sandy soil may be substituted for one where the luxuriancy of the
plants shows that it is too rich ; and a rich loamy one for one of an opposite description,
where the plants are unthriving, &;c.

2173. Bending down the branches has been found conducive to fruitfulness; and is
accounted for on the same principle as ringing. It has been well exemplified by
Mayer (Hort. Trans, i.), in fixing clay balls to the extremities of tlie shoots of young
apple-trees after midsummer, which, depressing them, stagnated the sap, and induced the
production of abundance of flower-buds.

2174. To induce the production qfblosso7ns in herbaceous plants, any or all of the above
modes may be adopted widi most species, but on a large scale the first object is to place
the plants in a soil neither too poor nor too rich. A dry soil, not deep, and resting on a
dry firm bottom, is most favorable to fruitfulness, especially when joined to abundance
of air and light. In perennials, the effect can only be produced tlie second year, as in
trees ; but in annuals it will be immediate : in the former class, however, where tlie de-
fect is want of nourishment, the effect may take place even the first year. Knight in-
duced tlie production of blossoms on an early variety of potatoe, by depriving the plant
of its tubers, as soon as they made tlieir appearance ; by which means, the nourishment

Ee

418 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Paut II.

which would have been devoted to their enlargement, was employed by the plant in the
production of blossoms, as the remaining mode which it had of propagating its species.
The reverse of the practice is found proportionally to increase the bulk of the tubers, and
has become an important point of practice in potatoe culture. The Dutch, as Darwin
informs us, were the first to adopt this mode in the culture of bulbous-rooted flowers.
In general, it may be stated, that the art of producing blossoms in perennial herbaceous
plants consists in permitting them to have abundance of leaves, fully exposed to tlie light
and air the preceding year, and in not cutting them over when in a state of growth, as is
too frequently done, but in letting them first begin to decay. By this means, healthy
vigorous buds and roots are prepared for exertion the following year.

2175. General estimate of these jrractices. All these operations may be resorted to oc-
casionally as expedients, but the only permanent and general mode of inducing fruitful-
ness is by supplying judicious soil, exposure, and pruning.

Sect. V. Operations Jhr retarding or accelerating Vegetation.

2176. To overcome difficulties is the last stage in the progress of art. After civilised
man has had every thing which he can desire in season, his next wish is to heighten the
enjoyment by consummation at extraordinary seasons. The merit here consists in con-
quering nature ; and in gardening tliis is done by cold-houses and hot-houses ; and by ex-
cluding or increasing the effects of the sun in the open air. The origin of these practices
is obviously derived from the fact, that heat is the grand stimulus to vegetation, and its
comparative absence, the occasion of torpor and inactivity.

SuBSECT. 1. Operations for retarding Vegetation.

2177. Retarding by the form of surface, is effected by forming beds of earth in an east
and west direction, sloping to the north at any angle at which the earth will stand ; here
salading may be sown in summer, and spinage, turnips, and such crops as shoot rapidly
into flower-stems during hot weather.

2178. Retarding by shade. The simplest mode of retarding vegetation is, by keeping
plants constantly in comparative shade in the spring season. This is either to be done by
having them planted in the north side of a wall or house, or sloping bank, hill or otlier
elevation ; or by moving them there in pots ; or by placing a shade or shed over, or on
the south side of the vegetables to be retarded. Where the object of retarding vegetation
is to have the productions in perfection later in the season, the first method is generally
resorted to; but where vegetation is only retarded in order that it may burst forth with
greater vigor when the shades are removed, then either of the others is preferable.
Trees on an east and west espalier-rail, shaded from the sun from February to the middle
of May, will be later of coming into blossom, and therefore less likely to have their blos-
soms injured by frost.

2179. Retarding by the cold-house, or ice-cold chamber, (fgs. 169. 173.) is more particu-
larly applicable to plants in pots, especially fruit-trees, and might be made a practice of
importance. Vegetation may in this way be retarded from March to September, and the
plant removed at that season, by proper gradations, to a hot-house, will ripen its fruit at
mid-winter. It is even alleged by some gardeners, who have had experience in Russia,
that the vegetation of peach-trees may be so retarded an entire year ; and that afterwards,
when the plant is removed into spring or summer heat, in the January of the second year,
its vegetation is most rapid, and a crop of fruit may be ripened in March or April, with
very fittle exertion on the part of the gardener. The earliest potatoes are obtained from
tubers which have been kept two seasons ; that is, those are to be planted which have
been produced the season before the last j or, the produce of summer 1821, in December
1822.

2180. Retarding the ripening of fruits by excluding oxygen. M. Berard, of Montpelier,
in an essay on the ripening of fruits, which gained the piize of the French Academy of
Sciences in 1821, found that the loss of carbon is essential to the ripening of fruits ; that
this carbon combines with the oxygen of the air, and forms carbonic acid ; and that when
the fruit is placed in an atmosphere deprived of oxygen, this function becomes suspended,
and the ripening is stopped. Hence it results, that most fruits may be preserved during
a certain period, by gathering them a few days before they are ripe, and placing them in
an atmosphere free from oxygen. The most simple process for effecting this consists in
placing at the bottom of a bottle, a paste formed of lime, sulphate of iron, and water ;
then introduce the fruit so as they may rest detached from the bottom of the bottle, and
from each other, and cork the bottle and cover it with cement. Peaches, plums, and
apricots have been kept in this way for a month ; pears and apples for three months.
Afterwards they will ripen perfectly by exposure to the air. (Journal R. Inst. vol. xi.
396.)

Book IV. ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 419

SuBSECT. 2. Operations for accelerating Vegetation.

2181. Accelerating by the form of surface consists in forming beds or banks in an east
and west direction, and sloping to the south, forming an angle witli tlie horizon, the
maximum of which, in garden-soils, cannot exceed 45 degrees. On such beds early
sown crops, as radishes, peas, turnips, &c. will come much earlier, and winter standing
crops, as lettuce, broccoli, &c. suffer less from severe weather than those on a level sur-
face. The north side of such beds or ridges may be used for retarding vegetation, as leeks,
borecoles, &c. (2177.)

2182. Acceleration hy shelter, and exposure to the sun, is the simplest, and probably only
primitive mode of accelerating the vegetation of plants ; and hence one of the objects for
wliich walls and hedges are introduced in gardens. A May-duke cherry, trained against
a south wall, and another tree, of tlie same species, in tlie open compartment of a sheltered
garden, were found, by the late J. Kyle, of Moredun, near Edinburgh, on an average of
years, to differ a fortnight in the ripening of their fruit. In cold, damp, cloudy seasons,
they were nearly on a par ; but in dry, warm seasons, those on the wall were sometimes
fit to be gathered three weeks before the others. It may be here remarked, that though,
in cloudy seasons, those on the wall did not ripen before the others j yet their flavor was,
in such seasons, better than that of the others, probably from the comparative dryness of
their situation. Corn and potatoes on the south and north sides of a hill, all other circum-
stances being equal, ripen at about the same relative distances of time.

2183. Accelerating by soils is effected by manures of all sorts, but especially by what
are called hot and stimulating manures and composts, as pigeons' dung for cucumbers,
blood for vines ; and, in general, as to soils, lime-rubbish, sand, and gravel, seem to have
the power of accelerating vegetation to a much greater degree than rich clayey or loamy
soils, or bog or peat earth.

2184. Accelerating by jrrevious jn'e2)aration of the plant is a method of considerable im-
portance, whether taken alone, or in connection with other modes of acceleration. It has
long been observed l)y cultivators, that early ripened crops of onions and potatoes sprout,
or give signs of vegetation, more early next season than late-ripened crops. The
same of bulbs of flowers which have been forced, which re-grow much earlier next
season, than those which have been grown in the open air. It was reserved to Knight,
however, to turn this to account in the forcing of fruit-trees, as related in a paper, ac-
companied as usual by what renders all the papers of that eminent horticulturist so truly
valuable, —a rationale of the practice.

2185. The period which any species or variety of fruit will require to attain maturity, under any given de-
grees of temperature, and exposure to the influence of light in the forcing-house, will be regulated to a much
greater extent than is generally imagined, by the previous management and consequent state of the tree,
when that is first subjected to the operation of artificial heat Every gardener knows, that when the pre-
vious season has been cold, and cloudy, and wet, the wood of his fruit-:trees remains immature, and weak
alwrtive blossoms only are produced. The advantages of having the wood well ripened are perfectly well
understood ; but those whicti may be obtained, whenever a very early crop of fruit is required, by ripening
the wood very early in the preceding summer, and putting the tree into a state of repose, as soon as pos-
sible after its wood has become perfectly mature, do not, as far as my obser\'ation has extended, appear to
be at all known to gardeners ; though every one who has had in any degree the management of vines in a
hot-house, must have observed the different effects of the same degrees of temperature upon the same
plant, in October and February. In the autumn, the plants have just sunk into their winter sleep : in
February they are refreshed, and ready to awake again ; and whenever it is intended prematurely to ex-
cite their powers of life into action, the expediency of putting those powers into a state of rest, early in the
preceding autumn, appears obvious. {Uort. Trans. voL ii. 368.) Knight placed some vines in pots,,
in a forcing-house, in the end of January, which ripened their fruit in the middle of July ; soon after
which the pots were put under the shade of a north wall in the open air. Being pruned and removed in
September to a south wall, they soon vegetated with much vigor, till the frost destroyed their shoots.
Others, which were not removed from the north wall till the following spring, when they were pruned and
placed against a south wall, " ripened their fruit well in the following season in a climate not nearly warm
enough to have ripened it at all, if the plants had previously grown in the open air." Peach-trees, some-
what similarly treated, unfolded their blossoms nine days earlier, " and their fruit ripened three weeks
earlier" than in other trees of the same varieties. {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 372.) Pots of grapes which had
produced a crop previously to midsummer, were placed under a north wall till autumn : on the 12th of
January, they were put into a stove, and ripened their fruit by the middle of April (flbr/. Trans.
iv. 440.)

2186. By thus inducing a state of rest in plants in pots, say vines or peaches, in
August, and placing them immediately in the ice-cold room till the beginning of January,
which is allowing four months of a winter to them, they would, in all probabiUty, produce
very eai-ly crops of grapes with less forcing than would be required for such as ripen their
wood in October. Such pots might be placed in pine and other stoves, where a certain
degree of heat is kept up at any rate, and might be contrived to produce a succession of
fruit, in the manner practised by W. Marsland, of Stockport, by a vineyard in pots, which
pass in regular succession through his pine-stoves, and furnish ripe grapes the whole
year. A state of rest is readily induced by withholding water from plants under cover ;
and in the open air by covering trees, and a portion of the surface or border around or
before them, with canvass or oil-cloth, to throw off the autumnal and part of the winter
rains.

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420 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

2187. Accelerating hy housing, such as removing plants in pots and boxes, to sheds or
rooms in the night, and exposing them in fine weather to the sun, was practised by the
gardener of Tiberius, to procure early cucumbers ; and by those of Louis XIV. to force
peas. (Benard.) Parkinson and Gerarde describe the practice as applied to raising cu-
cumbers and melons in this country.

2188. Accelerating by artificial heat in ivalls is a very frequent and useful practice. In
general it is accompanied by protecting-covers of canvass or netting (1495.) : but some
gardeners, as Trotter of Alva, a very high and exposed situation on the Ochill hills, never
cover their hot- walls ; but in ripening the wood in autumn, and in saving the blossom and
setting the fruit in spring, keep up such fires as will repel the frost, and evaporate the wet
that might fall on the wall. " No danger," Trotter observes, " is to be apprehended from
the severity of the spring months, even when exposed to all sorts of weather ; every
kind of covering being superseded by the genial heat of the wall." This he has long
experienced, even in England, but especially in Scotland, to be " the best preservative
of the blossom of young fruits." (^Caled. Mem. vol. ii. 113.)

2189. Accelerating by Jlued borders has been occasionally attempted, but can never
succeed by fire heat ; by tubes of steam, perhaps, something might be done, but the heat
can always be more economically applied by means of pits or frames, placed on raised
beds of mould, with arches, or some similar contrivance underneath. (See a description
of a flued border in Keil's Treatise on the Peach Tree, 8vo. 1780.)

2190. Accelerating by covering with glass cases, of different sizes and descriptions, pro-
bably succeeded to housing. The Romans are supposed to have hastened the ripening of
grapes and peaches, by placing them under talc cases (55. ) ; and a French author, Be-
nard, informs us, that the origin of forcing the vine arose from one Gordon observing
that a shoot which had entered his room- window through a crevice, ripened its fruit some
time before those branches of the same tree which remained in the open air. The practice
of forcing peaches in Holland, is said to have originated from a gardener near Haarlem
putting hot-bed lights against his walls to ripen peaches in a bad season. By a mere
covering of glass, without any description of bottom heat, or any auxiliary mode of ac-
celeration, almost all fruits and flowers which grow in the open air in this country, may
be forwarded from one fortnight to one month, according to the season. Fruits may
by the facile means thus afforded of covering and protection, be retained in a ripe and
plump state from one to three months ; so that in general it may be observed, that
cold frames, as they are called, and mere glass cases, will double the ordinary time of
enjoying hardy fruits, and certainly they greatly increase the flavor of such as ripen
late, and especially of the vine and peach.

2191. Accelerating by glass cases and artificial heat combined is effected by hot-beds,
pits, and hot-houses.

2192. Accelerating by the common hot-bed is an ancient, general, but still somewhat pre-
carious and unmanageable mode. The heat being produced by a fermenting mass of ve-
getable matter, over which is placed the earth containing the plants, it becomes difficult
to regulate any excess of heat, and the plants are sometimes, in the empirical phrase,
burnt. When, however, the heat declines, it is readily renewed by linings or a sur-
rounding layer of dung. To remedy the defects of the common hot-bed, and prevent
the possibility of burning the plants, by interposing a stratum of air between the dung
and the mass of earth which contains them, is the object of the vaulted pit and M'Phail's
frame (f,gs. 230. 233.); to which there is no objection, but the greater original cost.
These structures actually save dung, and are more agreeable to the eye of those who
value order and neatness than dung-beds.

2 1 93. Accelerating by means of walled pits is very similar to that of forcing by hot-beds ;
with the advantages of having more room between the surface of the beds and the glass for
the tops of shrubs, and of the glass having a better slope ; but with the disadvantages of a
chance of burning in the first instance, and no power of increasing the bottom heat when
it once declines. Bark is generally used to lessen the first evil, as it does not ferment so
powerfully as dung, and the second is remedied by a surrounding flue. Such pits are
much used in all the branches of garden-culture. Henderson, of Brechin, proposes to
lay on the surface of beds of tan, or on hot-beds, pits, pineries, &c. fine drifted river or
sea sand, three inches deep. " This covering," he says, " possesses many advantages.
It will extirpate the slater or wood-louse (otiiscus asellus), as the nature of the sand pre-
vents the insect from concealing itself from the rays of the sun. In dung hot-beds, it
keeps down the steam. To fruit, it affords a bed as warm and as dry as tiles or slates.
This covering also retains the moisture in the earth longer than any other, and is itself
sooner dry. It gives the houses a clean, neat appearance, and though it cannot be ex-
pected to remove the infection, where already introduced, will be found a powerful pre-
ventive of that great evil, mildew."

2194. Accelerating by means of hot-houses is the master-piece of this branch of culture,
and IS but of modem invention, being unknown till the end of the 17th century. Im-

Book IV. ACCELERATING VEGETATION. 421

provement in the form as well as management of these buildings has, as in every other
case, been progressive ; and there are now a great choice both of the forms adopted, the
materials used in the construction of these forms, and the mode of producing artificial
heat.

2195. There are two leading modes of accelerating plants in hot-houses ; the first is by
placing them there permanently, as in the case of the peach, vine, &c. planted in the
ground ; and the second is by having the plants in pots, and introducing or withdrawing
them at pleasure. As far as respects trees, the largest crops, and with far less care, are
produced by the first method ; but in respect to herbaceous plants and shrubs, whether
culinary, as the strawberry and kidneybean, or ornamental, as the rose and the pink,
the latter is by far the most convenient method, and it is also the best adapted for afford-
ing very early crops. (2185.) Where large pots are used, the peach, cherry, fig, &c.
will produce tolerable crops. Knight has observed, that " vines and other fruit-trees,
when abundantly supplied with water and manure in a liquid state, require but a very
small quantity of mould ;" and he adds, " A pot containing two cubic feet of very rich
mould, with proper subsequent attention, is fully adequate to nourish a vine, which, after
being pruned in autumn, occupies twenty square feet of the roof of a hot-house ; and I
have constantly found that vines in such pots, being abundantly supplied with food and
water, have produced more vigorous wood, when forced very early, than others of the
same varieties, whose roots were permitted to extend beyond the limits of the house."
{Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 373.)

2196. When trees are planted for a permanency within, or close to the outside of a hot-
house, the soil requires to be prepared of depth and quality according to the nature of
tlie tree ; and a principal consideration is to form, if such does not naturally exist, a sub-
soil, which shall be impenetrable to the roots. The depth of soil on such a substratum
need not in general be great, provided it be rich. Formerly a depth of three or four
feet was recommended ; but Hay ward proposes to have his fruit-tree borders only fifteen
or eighteen inches deep ; which is conformable to an observation of Hitt, that the finest
crop of peaches he had ever seen, grew on trees which were nourished from a border not
more than one foot deep, with a compact rock below. Nicol allows from twenty-four to
tliirty inches of soil. Knight is of opinion, that " a large extent and depth of soil seem
to be no farther requisite to trees than to afford them a regular supply of water, and a
sufficient quantity of organisable matter ;" and, he thinks, " the rapid growth of plants
of everj' kind, when their roots are confined in a pot to a small quantity of mould, till
that becomes exhausted, proves sufficiently the truth of this position." {Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. p. 127.)

2197. The operations of forcing chiefly respect the admission of air, the supply of heat,
of light, and of water. The grand effect is produced by heat, and the great art is
just to supply as much as will harmonise with the light afforded by the sun and the
nature of the species of plant to be forced. All the operations of nature are gradual ;
and a good gardener will always follow these as the safest examples. He will never
be anxious to apply artificial heat before buds have naturally swoln ; he will then
increase the temperature gradually for some weeks ; he will in particular guard against
any sudden decrease of warmth, it being most necessary towards success, to con-
tinue the course of vegetation uninterruptedly, through foliation, inflorescence, and
fructification.

2198. Heat and light. An error in hot-house culture in general, of very considerable
importance, and which has prevailed till lately, consists in not adjusting the heat of art
to the light of the sun. In cloudy weather, and during night, the artificial atmosphere
is kept hot by fires and exclusion of the external air, while in clear days and during
sunshine, fires are left off or allowed to decline, the external air is admitted, and the at-
mosphere within is reduced to the temperature of that without. As heat in nature is the
result of the shining of the sun, it follows that when there is most light there is most
heat ; but the practice in forcing is verj- generally the reverse. " A gardener, in forcing,"
Knight observes, " generally treats his plants as he would wish to be treated himself ;
and consequently, though the aggregate temperature of his house be nearly what it ought
to be, its temperature, during the night, relatively to that of the day, is almost always too
high." In one of Knight's forcing-houses, in which grapes are grown, he always wishes
to see its temperature, in the middle of every bright day in summer, as high as 90^ ; " and
after the leaves of the plants have become dry, I do not object to ten or fifteen degrees
higher. In the foUovdng night, the temperature sometimes falls as low as 50^ ; and so
far am I from thinking such change of temperature injurious, I am well satisfied that it
is generally beneficial. Plants, it is true, tlu-ive well, and many species of fruit acquire
their greatest state of perfection in some situations within the tropics, where the tempera-
ture in the shade does not vary in the day and night more itiian seven or eight degrees ;
but in these climates, the plant is exposed during the day to the full blaze of a tropical
sun, and early in the night it is regularly drenched with heavy wetting dews ; and con-

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422

SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

scquently it is very differently circumstanced in the day and in the night, though the tem-
perature of the air in the shade at both periods may be very nearly the same. I suspect,"
he continues, " that a large portion of the blossoms of the cherry and other fruit-trees in
the forcing-house often proves abortive, because they are forced by too high and uniform
a temperature, to expand before the sap of the tree is properly prepared to nourish them.
I have, therefore, been led, during the last three years, to try the effects of keeping up a
much higher temperature in the day than in the night. As early in the spring as I
wished the blossoms of my peach-trees to unfold, my house was made warm during the
middle of the day ; but towards night it was suffered to cool, and the trees were then
sprinkled, by means of a large syringe, with clear water, as nearly at the temperature at
which that usually rises from the ground, as I could obtain it ; and little or no artificial
heat was given during the night, unless there appeared a prospect of frost. Under this
mode of treatment, the blossoms advanced with very great vigor, and as rapidly as I
wished them, and presented, when expanded, a larger size than I had ever before seen of
the same varieties. Another ill effect of high temperature during the night is, that it
exhausts the excitability of the tree much more rapidly than it promotes the growth, or ac-
celerates the maturity of the fruit ; which is in consequence ill supplied with nutriment,
at the period of its ripening, when most nutriment is probably wanted. The muscat of
Alexandria and other late grapes are, owing to this cause, often seen to wither upon the
branch in a very imperfect state of maturity ; and the want of richness and flavor in
other forced fruit is, I am very confident, often attributable to the same cause. There
are few peach-houses, or indeed forcing-houses of any kind in this country, in which the
temperature does not exceed, during the night, in the months of April and May, very
greatly that of the warmest valley in Jamaica in the hottest period of the year : and there
are probably as few forcing-houses in which the trees are not more strongly stimulated
by the close and damp air of the night, than by the temperature of the dry air of the noon
of the following day. The practice which occasions this cannot be right ; it is in direct
opposition to nature." (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 130.)

2199. Air. Knight considers that gardeners often and widely err, " by too freely
admitting the external air during the day, particularly in bright weather. Plants gene-
rally grow best, and fruits swell most rapidly, in a warm and moist atmosphere ; and
change of air is, to a very limited extent, necessary or beneficial. The mature leaves of
plants, and according to Saussure, the green fruits (grapes at least), when exposed to the
influence of light, take up carbon from the surrounding air, whilst the sam.e substance is
given out by every other part of the plant ^ so that the purity of air, when confined in
close vessels, has often been found little changed at the end of two or three days by the
growth of plants in it. But even if plants required as pure air, as hot-blooded animals,
the buoyancy of the heated air, in every forcing-house, would occasion it to escape and
change as rapidly, and indeed much more rapidly, than would be necessary. It may be
objected, that plants do not thrive, and that the skins of grapes are thick, and other fruits
without flavor in crowded forcing-houses ; but in these it is probably light, rather than a
more rapid change of air that is wanting. When fruits approach to maturity such an in-
crease of ventilation, as will give the requisite degree of dryness to air within the house,
is highly beneficial ; provided it be not increased to such an extent as to reduce the tem-
perature of the house much below the degree in which the fruit has previously grown,
and thus retard its progress to maturity. The good effect of opening a peacli-house, by
taking off the lights of its roof, during the period of the last swelling of the fruit, appears
to have led many gardeners to over-rate greatly the beneficial influence of a free current
of air upon ripening fruits ; for I have never found ventilation to give the proper flavor
or coIo* to a peach, unless that fruit was at the same time exposed to the sun without the
intervention of glass ; and the most excellent peaches 1 have ever been able to raise, were
obtained under circumstances where change of air was as much as possible prevented con-
sistently with the admission of light (without glass) to a single tree."

2200. Water. The supplies of water given to plants should be regulated by the sup-
plies of heat, the nature of the plant, its state in regard to growth, and the object for which
it is cultivated. Abundance of heat should generally be succeeded by copious waterings,
unless the nature of the plant, as its succulency, or its dormant state in regard to growth,
render that improper. Plants cultivated for their fruits should be less watered during
the ripening season than such as are grown for their effect ; a dry atmosphere being most
conducive to flavor. Tlie succulent shoots of trees. Knight observes, always appear to
grow luost rapidly, in a damp heat, during the night ; but it is rather elongation than
growth, which then takes place. The spaces between the bases of the leaves become
longer, but no new organs are added ; and the tree, under such circumstances, may with
much more reason be said to be drawn, than to grow ; for the same quantity only of ma-
terial is extended to a greater length, as in the elongation of a wire.

Book IV. OPERATIONS OF EXOTIC CULTURE. 433

Sect. VI. 0 iterations to imitate warm Climates.

2201 . The imitation of luarrn climates by hot-houses must not be confounded with the art
of forcing the vegetables of temperate climates into the premature production of their
flowers or fruit. The former was the first object for which hot-houses were erected, and
conservatories, green-houses, and plant-stoves existed in this country before any descrip-
tion of forcing-house ; even pineries are of subsequent introduction to botanic and orna-
mental hot-houses. The various climates and constitutions of plants require atmospheres
of different degrees of temperature and moisture : but experience has proved, that
the plants of every warm country in the world may be grown in one or other of the three
following descriptions of hot-houses : — 1. The greeti-haiise, of which the varieties are the
Sinarium, or house for Chinese plants ; the Conservatory, in which the plants are inserted
in the soil without pots ; the Cold-frame for bulbs, and Heathery for Cape plants, &c.
2. The dry-stove, for succulent plants, or such as require a dry atmosphere ; and 3. The
moist or hark-stove, for pines, palms, and the tropical plants which require the highest
degree of heat, and an atmosphere moist in proportion.

2202. Treatment common to the three species of artificial climates. ''■ In general, hot-house
exotics are kept in pots ; but in some cases, fruit-bearing plants, as the orange, and plants
with large roots, as the Strelitzia, and luxuriant creepers, as the different Passifloras, are
planted in the ground. The soils are, of course, very various, and can only be treated of
w4th advantage under each species, tribe, or family. There are none of them, however,
that will not thrive either in bog-earth, sand, or loam, or a mixture of these. For pines,
oranges, and large-blossomed plants, rotten leaves or old cow-dung are added with advan-
tage, and to some of these, as to the orange and pine-apple, liquid manures are frequently
applied. Gardeners in general are averse to the application of any thing rich to the soil
of exotic plants which are not cultivated for their fruit, a prejudice evidently contrary to
analogy, and originating, in all probability in the circumstance, that it is in general de-
sirable to keep exotic plants small, both for want of room in ordinary-sized houses, and by
that means to induce a flowering state. Now, however, when tlie facilities of hot-house
building by wrought and cast iron admit of covering several acres of ground with a glass
roof at fifty, a hundred feet, or at any distance from the surface ; and when the mode of
heating by steam readily admits of keeping such a space at any required temperature, all
exotic plants, where expense is not an object, may be planted in the ground duly pre-
pared, cultivated and manured like a shrubbery, and allowed to attain their natural size.
Such a house or scene may be watered after Loddiges' method already described (1689.),
and its temperature regulated, if desired, by the ingenious machine of Kewley. {fig. 217.)
With the exception of temperature, the operations in imitation of artificial climates are
the same as those for forcing ; we shall, therefore, confine ourselves to indicating the
temperature of its three leading departments.

2203. The green-house is freely exposed to the influence of our atmosphere when the
open air is not colder than 48^ of Fahrenheit, and when winds and rains do not prevent the
opening of tlie roofs or other means of ventilation. " As long as the weather continues
fair without frost," says Abercrombie, " open the green-house windows in the daytime an
hour after sunrise, and close at the same time before sunset. Never admit air by the
door or sashes in foggy or damp weather, or when bleak cutting wdnds prevail. The admis-
sion of air in the middle of a clear frosty day will not hurt the plants, if counteracted
by fire heat. Admit air freely when the external temperature is at 42° by Fahrenheit,
or above ; admit it guardedly when between 35 and 42° ; but not at all when under 35°
before the furnace is employed." Green-house plants are generally placed in the open air
during the five mildest months in the year, either by taking off the roofs of the houses
when these are moveable, or by removing the pots, and placing them in the open garden.

2204. Dry-stoves are opened night or day in the summer seasons, but only during sun-
shine in winter and spring, beginning as in the forcing-houses, by opening the top sashes or
ventilators first, by which the external air descends and cools down the temperature,
partly by mixing with the internal air, and partly by forcing it out. Afterwards, when
the temperature of the atmosphere is above 50°, the lower or front sashes or ventilators
may be opened, by which means a regular circulation or breeze is promoted in every part
of the house, if a detached house ; and in most parts of it, if forming part of a range of
connected houses.

2205. Moist or bark stove. The range of temperature which bark-stove plants can endure,
« is from 63* to 81'' of Fahrenheit, the instrument being in the middle of the house, at a
considerable distance from the furnace, and out of reach of the sun's rays." According to
Abercrombie the temperature by artificial heat of the bark-stove " is 58° min. 70^ max.
When meridian summer is felt, the temperature must keep pace with the increase of heat
in the atmosphere ; and therefore will ascend through all the intermediate degrees, to 75°,
80*^, 85°, 90°, 95°, and even 100°. The maximum heat in the house, in July and August,
may in general be kept down to 90°, by free admissions of air, and by evaporation from

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i

424 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

the watei given to the plants ; although the force of the season will sometimes prevail to
95° and 100°." M'Phail, however, found that pines will bear without injury 1 30°, and he
considers that no plant whatever will be injured by 1 20°. " It is not uncommon to give air
to a hot-house only through the day, and to shut it up close at night, perhaps even increas-
ing the temperature in the evening. Judicious horticulturists reverse the practice.
Knowing, for example, that, in the West Indies, chilly and cold nights usually succeed to
the hottest days, they rather imitate nature, by shutting up the house during the day, and
throwing it open at night. This practice, however, can only be followed in our climate in
the summer and autumn seasons." {Neill, in Ed. Ency. art Hort.) This opinion is in
unison with Knight's, who considers excess of heat during the night, as in all cases
highly injurious to the fruit-trees of temperate climates, and not at all beneficial to those
of tropical climates ; " for the temperature of these is in many instances low during the
night. In Jamaica, and other mountainous islands of the West Indies, the air upon the
mountains becomes, soon after sunset, chilled and condensed, and in consequence of its
superior gravity descends and displaces the warm air of the valleys ; yet the sugar-canes
are so far from being injured by this sudden decrease of temperature, that the sugars of
Jamaica take a higher price in the market than those of the less elevated islands, of which
the temperature of the day and night is subject to much less variation." {Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. p. 131.)

Sect. VII. Oi'>erations of Protection from Atmospherical Injuries.

2206. The injuries which plants may receive from the atmosphere, ore as various as its
changes. Many vegetables which flourish in Britain in the open air during the summer
season require protection during some or all of the other seasons of the year. Some also,
from the state of their health, or other circumstances, require to be protected from the direct
rays of the sun, from excessive rains, winds, frosts, and even from heat and evaporation.
From these and other evils the gardener protects by opaque coverings or shelters of different
kmds, and by transparent covers or glass cases, and by other operations and processes.

2207. Protecting by fronds and frond-like branches is performed by sticking in the
foot-stalks of the fronds of any of the ferns, but especially of the pteris aquilina,
branches of fir, whin, or broom, or of any other evergreens, between the branches of wall-
trees and the wall, so as the frond or leafy branches may project, and either retard
the blossom by excluding the sun, as is often done in Denmark and Sweden, or protect it
from the frost and winds, as is generally the object in Britain. This is a very simple and
economical protection for myrtles, camellias, and other tender botanical plants, trained to
walls, or even growing in the open ground as stools, and also for fruit-trees. Archd.
Gorrie (Caled. Mem. vol. i. 276.) formed a frame for the more commodiously containing
the branches of spruce and silver firs, and other evergreens ; and applied frames so
clothed to his fruit-tree walls, on the principle of retarding the blossom. The success
was equal, and even beyond his expectations. He covered them on the 20th of February,
and removed the frames on the 1st of June. During this period, the frames were opened
every fine day, but always shut at night. Adjoining were some trees of the same kinds,
•which were covered night and day, during the above period, with a woollen net. The
shoots of these trees were infected with the curl or wrinkled leaf — a disease peculiar to
peach-trees in exposed situations '; while those protected by the frames of branches were
perfectly healthy ; and what is remarkable, though retarded nearly four weeks in the
period of their blossoming, the fruit ripened one week sooner.

2208. TTie advantage of using frames in covering by fronds and branches is, that the screens or protecting
frames can be removed in the daytime ; whereas, attaching the fronds to the trees, they must, in general
remain till they have effected their object. It is easy to conceive that trees so treated must often suffer
from want of light, and accordingly Nicol, on the whole, rather disapproves of it. " It is," he says, " a
common practice, to screen the blossoms of wall-trees by sticking twigs of larch, or of evergreens as
firs, or laurels, between the branches and the wall, in such a manner as to overhang the blossoms where
thickest ; and some, instead of these, use the leaves of strong fern. These last are certainly fitter for
the purpose than the former mentioned, as being lighter, and less liable to hurt the blossoms, when dashed
by the wind against them. But all these are objectionable, on account of their shading the bloom too
much, and too constantly, from the sun and light, by which it is rendered weak, and the fruit produced
often drop away, before arriving to anylconsiderable size ; so that all this trouble taken goes for nothing,
as there would probably have been as good a crop, had the trees been left to take their chance."

2209. Protecting by straw ropes is effected by throwing the ropes in different directions
over the trees, and sometimes depositing their ends in pails of water. It is a Dutch
practice, and appears to have been first made known in this country by Dr. Anderson, in
his Recreations, &c. in 1804. James Laird appears to have tried it successfully on wall-
trees, and on potatoes and other herbaceous vegetables. His method is as follows :

« As soon as the buds of the trees become turgid, I place poles against the wall, in front
of the trees, at from four to six feet asunder; thrusting their lower ends into the earth,
about a foot from the wall, and fastening them at the top with a strong nail, either to the
wall or coping. I then procure a quantity of straw or hay ropes, and begin at the top of
one of the outer poles, making fast the end, and pass the rope from pole to pole, taking
a round turn upon each, until I reach the end ; when after securing the end well, I begin

'Book IV. OPERATIONS OF PROTECTION 425

about eighteen inches below, and return in the same manner to the other end, and so on,
till I have reached to within eighteen inches or two feet of the ground. I have also
found straw ropes to be very useful in protecting other early crops from the effects of
frost, as peas, potatoes, or kidneybeans, by fixing them along the rows with pins driven
into the ground. Old herring nets, and branches of evergreens, are not so eflScacious
as straw ropes, which, besides being much cheaper, may be obtained in every situation."
2210. Protecting by nets is effected by throwing either straw, hay, bass, hempen, or
woollen nets over standard-trees, the extreme shoots of which will support the net ; or by
throwing it over hooped beds, or hooped single plants of herbaceous vegetables, or fixing
it over the fruit-trees trained against a wall {Jig. 218.), or by placing it over tender
flowers and botanic plants, as auricula and hydrangea, &c. by means of net frames or
portable cases.

2211. The ordinary way of applying nets, Nicol observes, "is to hang them over the trees, close to
the branches ; the flower-buds and spurs often sticking out beyond the net. Instead of being hung on in
so unmeaning a manner, they should be placed out, at the distance of fifteen or eighteen inches from the
tree ; being kept off by hooked sticks, with their buts placed against the wall, and at the distance of
about a yard from each other. In order to make these stand firmly, the net should be first stretched
tightly on, and be fastenetl on all sides. By further stretching it, to the extent of fifteen or eighteen
inches, over the hooked ends of the sticks, it will be rendered so firm that no wind will displace it ; and the
sticks will also be made quite fast at the same time. If the nets were doubled, or trebled, and put on in
this way, they would be the more effectual a screen, as the meshes or openings would, in that case, be
rendered very small." Woollen nets are deemed the best, and are now in general use in Scotland. Bass
nets are used in Sweden, and straw nets at the Duke of Buccleugh's garden at Dalkeith. " In screening
with nets of any kind," Nicol observes, " they are always to be let remain on night and day, till all danger
of frost be over; the trouble of putting them properly on being considerable, and there being no ne-
cessity for repeating such trouble, as they will in nowise injure the health of the trees, being incapable of
shading them very much."

2212. Protecting by canvass or bunting screens is effected either by placing moveable
canvass cases over or around detached trees ; portable hand-cases over herbaceous plants;
tents or open sheds over the florists' productions ; or frames or sheets against trees
trained on walls. In all cases they should be placed clear of the tree or plant, either by
extended, forked, or hooked sticks, or hooping, or any other obvious resource. " For
hot-walls," Nicol observes, " tliey should be placed about the distance of a foot at top,
and of eighteen inches at bottom. In using canvass or bunting screens, in either of the
above-mentioned forms, the trees are always to be exposed to the free air and light, in
good weather, through the day ; screening only at night, and on bad days ; applying
them from the time the buds begin to open, till the fruit is fairly set, or till any fear of
iurther danger from the effects of frost be past."

2213. Protecting by mats is the commonest of all modes for bushes, beds, and single
herbaceous plants. Sometimes also screens of mats sewed together, or bound in frames,
are applied to fruit-trees, either singly or in frames, or on hooks and pegs. Nicol
considers that they are " in no way so good, effectual, or ultimately so cheap screens as
those of canvass."

2214. Protecting by straw and litter is effected in herbaceous plants by laying it
round their roots, as in the artichoke, asparagus, &c. ; or covering the tops of seedlings,
which was formerly done, in cultivating the cucumber and melon, and is still practised
by market-gardeners in raising radishes and other tender salading. Straw is also
formed into coverings of various sorts for frames ; screens for projecting from walls ;
and cones for bushes, herbaceous plants, and beehives.

2215. Protecting by oiled paper frames is effected on exactly the same plan and prin-
ciple as that by bunting or canvass screens. " Frames covered with oiled paper have
been successfully employed at Grangemuir garden in Fifeshire. Tlie frames are of
wood, inch and half square, with cross bars mortised into the sides. To give support to
the paper, strong packthread is passed over the interstices of the frames, forming meshes
about nine inches square. Common printing (or unsized) paper is then pasted on ; and
when this is quite drj', a coating of boiled linseed-oil is laid on both sides of the paper
with a painter's brush. Tliese frames are placed in front of the trees, and made move-
able, by contrivances which must vary according to circumstances. If tiie slope from the
wall be considerable, a few triangular side frames may be made to fit the spaces. At
Grangemuir, the frames are not put up till the blossoms be pretty well expanded ; till
which time they are not very apt to suffer from spring frosts or hail showers. In
this way, it may be remarked, there is much less danger of rendering the blossom
delicate by the covering, than if it were applied at an earlier period. The paper frames,
if carefully preserved when not in use, will endure for a good many years, with very
slight repairs."

2216. Protecting copings and horizontal shelters, mentioned by Miller and Laurence,
are used chiefly with a view of preventing the perpendicular cold. They are projected
generally from the top, but in lofty walls, also from the middle, and remain on night
and day during the cold season. When there is only a temporary coping, it is recom-
mended by Miller and others to be hinged, and to have strings hanging down frona

426 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

every board on each side of the wall, so as the board may be projected or thrown back
to rest on the top of the wall at pleasure.

2217. Protecting hy transparent covers is effected with small plants by placing over
them a hand or bell glass ; with larger ones, by other portable bell or curvilinear shaped
portable cases, and with considerable shrubs or fruit-trees by moveable cases or glass
tents. {Jig. 226.) For culinary seedlings, lierbaceous plants in pots, and young trees
of delicate sorts, timber frames with glass covers are used ; or the plants are placed in
pits dug in the ground, over which sashes are laid. In whichever way transparent
protections are used, they must be partially or wholly removed, or otherwise opened, in
line weather, to admit a change of atmosphere, and a free current to dry up and destroy
the appearance of what are called damps ; and also to harden and prepare such plants for
the removal of the covers.

2218. Transparent screens are made by placing sashes not in use on edge, and thus
forming as it were glass walls or partitions, which, applied to green-house plants, set
out in the open air, have the effect of prbducing shelter without shade, and at the same
time of admitting the fall of rain on the plants. Many plants receive sufficient pro-
tection by being placed near to the south side of a wall, hot-house, or other building,
or under a tree or bush during the winter months, without any covering or guard whatever.

Sect. VIII. Operations relative to Vermin, Diseases, and other Casualties of Plants and

Gardens.

2219. The casualties of gardens, from human enemies, vermin, and diseases, are nu-
merous, and have given rise to a variety of devices and operations.

SuBSECT. 1. Oftlie Kinds of Fermin most injurious to Gardens.

2220. The human enemies of gardens are such as break in secretly to steal clandestinely,
to injure, or destroy ; or, under the guise of regular operators, pilfer and otherwise act as
enemies to the garden and its proprietor. The operations for deterring and detecting
thieves are, watching by men, by dogs, by peacocks and turkeys allowed to sit on high
trees, and by ducks. The dog is most effectual ; but peacocks and ducks are known to
scream or cry on the approach of strangers in the night-time ; as neither of these birds
scratch the earth, they are in some descriptions of gardens, especially nurseries, more
useful in picking up insects than they are injurious. Man-traps, spring-guns, and
alarums, are also set to detect and deter, and the notices of these dreadful instruments, as
well as the fear of the law, have considerable influence.

2221. The brute vermin which injure gardens ajid garden-productions may be classed
as quadrupeds, birds, insects, and worms.

2222. Of the quadruped eiiemies, the larger are excluded by fences, and the smaller
species which are most injurious are, the hare, mouse, mole, and rat. Where the hare
or other similar animals are not excluded by a sufficient fence, they must be caught by
traps or shot. Or where the hare is chiefly injurious by barking trees, smearing the
stem with cow-dung, ordure, tar, or coal-liquor will deter them. Mice may be kept
under by the different domestic traps, or the gardeners' or fourth figure trap, or by an
earthen vessel with a naiTow mouth and bellied out within, sunk in the earth, and a few
leaves or straws placed over it, as is common about Paris. But two or three cats kept
in a garden, are the most effectual destroyers of mice. The mode of setting the common
moletrap is familiar to every countryman ; the true mode however of getting rid of
moles, and one most readily put into execution is, to dig vip their nests in spring.
ITie heaps of earth over these nests are easily known from common mole-heaps by their
size. Field rats are destroyed by dogs ; and house rats, where they are troublesome,
by poison and other well known means.

2223. The feathered eneynies of gardens are numerous but not very destructive, excepting
in very severe winters, when they eat the buds, and during the coming up of small seeds.
To preserve ripening or germinating seeds where birds are numerous, they must either
be covered with a net or watched by man. Scares of different sorts, as mock men or cats,
mock hawks or eagles, miniature windmills, rattles, lines with feathers, the smell of tar
and bruised gunpowder, &c. are of some use ; but the chief dependence must be on watch-
ing, nets, and the frequent use of the gun. P. Musgrave, a practical gardener, who has
treated the subject of vermin in a scientific manner, has the following observation on this
subject. " It is a too common practice amongst gardeners to destroy without discrimination,
the birds which frequent their gardens. This, in my opinion, is bad policy. Although
I am aware some of the kinds of birds are great enemies to some crops, it certainly must
be a trifling crop indeed, that will not bear the expense of a person to watch it, or a
net to protect it, until it is out of danger : thus the gardener preserves the birds to per-
form a double office, — eating up the vermin from the trees, and the seeds of weeds and
eggs of insects from the ground. I have often stood and observed the male bird, while
the female was sitting upon her eggs or her young, fly to the spot with Ins bill full of
caterpillars to feed his mate or young j and when the young ones become so strong as to

Book IV.

OF VERMIN.

427

accompany their parents in quest of food, it is really astonishing the number of cater-
pillars they destroy. I can say, from my own observation, tliat if it was not the case
tliat the birds destroy a vast number of caterpillars, our trees in general would exhibit
nothing but bare stumps, for the insects would become as numerous as the locusts of
Spain and America. It is from that circumstance that we find so few flies in com-
parison of the great number of caterpillars. I one day followed a nest of young ox-
eyes, which had just flown, in order to see how the old ones acted. I saw tliem fly from
branch to branch, and pick from the curled leaves the catei-pillars, with which they flew
to their young to feed them. From these considerations, it is my opinion, that should
the gardener, instead of pursuing a system of indiscriminate warfare against the
feathered tribe, avail himself of the services of these useful allies, he might, with their
exertions and his own united, soon rid himself of those insects that have liitherto set his
eflTorts at defiance." (Cal. Mem. iii. 333.)

2224. The insects u'hich infest plants are almost as numerous as the plants themselves :
almost every species having a particular insect which it seems destined by nature to sup-
port. Insects are distinguished from quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, by their more
numerous feet, being without bones, and by their head being furnished with a pair of
antennae or horns. From the vermes, or worm-like animals, insects are suflSciently dis-
tinguished by their ha\-ing feet.

2225. Taking a general vieiv of insects we find most of them are oviparous ; of course
the first state in which insects appear is that of an ovum or egg. This relates to the
generality of insects, for there are some examples of viviparous insects, as in the genera
aphis, musca, &c. The eggs of insects (Jig. 393.) 393
are of two sorts : tlie first membranaceous, like the
eggs of the tortoise, and the other reptiles ; the other
covered witli a shell like those of the birds. Their
figure varies exceedingly ; some are round, some
elliptical, some lenticular, some cylindrical, some
pyramidal, some flat, some square, but the round
and oval are the most common. As an example of
the various shapes of the eggs of insects, and of
their natural as well as magnified size, we refer to
those of the common slug (a), phalaena nupta (6),
brown-tailed moth (c), currant-moth (d), common
gooseberr)'-moth (e), turnip-butterfly (jf ), spider
[g), house-cricket [h), and common chafer (i).

2226. The eggs of insects seldom increase in size, from the time they have been de-
posited by the parent, till they are hatched ; those of the tenthredo, however, and of some
others, are observed to increase in bulk. At first there is nothing to be perceived in the
eggs of insects but a watery fluid ; after some little time, the head, like an obscure point,
is observable in the centre. The little insect remains in the egg till its limbs have ac-
quired strength to break tlie egg and make its escape ; the diflferent species of insects
remain enclosed in the egg for very different periods ; some continue enclosed only a
few days, others remain for several months. Tlie eggs of many insects remain without
being hatched during the whole winter, and the young insects do not come forth from
them, till the season at which the leaves of the vegetables on which they feed begin to expand.

2227. The insect in its second or caterjrillar state (Jig. 394.) has been usually known by
the name of eruca or larva, being a sort of masked form or disguise of the insect in its com-
plete state. The larva; of insects differ very much from each other, according to the several
tribes to which they belong ; those of the butterfly {Papilio) and moth {Pkaltsna) tribes are
generally known by the name of caterpillars ; those of the beetle {Scarabeeus), except

428

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

such as inhabit the water, are of a thick, clumsy form, called grubs. The larvae of the
locust, or grasshopper (Gry//i<s), do not differ very much in appearance from the com-
plete insect ; except being without wings. The larvae of flies (Musca), bees i^Apu), See.
are generally known by the name of maggots, and are of a thick short form. Those of
water-beetles (Di/tiscus) are of highly singular forms, and differ, perhaps, more from that
of the complete insect than any other, except those of the butterfly tribe. Some insects
undergo no change of shape, but are hatched from the egg complete in all their parts,
and they undergo no farther alteration than that of casting their skin from time to time,
till they acquire the complete resemblance of the parent animal. In the larva state most
insects are peculiarly voracious, as in many of the common caterpillars. In their per-
fect state some insects, as butterflies," are satisfied with the lightest nutriment, while others
devour animal and vegetable substances with a considerable degree of avidity. As an
example of the caterpillar state of some of the commoner insects, we may refer to that of
the privet-moth (^Sphinx ligustri) (a) ; the cabbage-butterfly (Papilio brassica) (6) ; the tur-
nip-butterfly (P. napi) (c) ; gooseberry-moth (PJialcena wavaria) (d) ; the currant-moth
(P/e. grossularia) (e); the dragon-fly (^Libellula virgo) (J") ; the common chafer (Scarabancs
melolontha) (g) ; the phryganea rhombica (Ji) ; the frog-hopper {^Cicada sjrumaria) {%) ; and
the musca pumilionis {k).

2228. Wlien the larva is about to change into the chrysalis or pupa state ( Jig.395) it ceases to
feed, and having placed itself in some quiet situation, lies still for several hours, and then,
by a sort of effort, it divests itself of its external skin, and immediately appears in the dif-
ferent form of a chrysalis or pupa ; in this state, likewise, the insects of different genera
differ almost as much as the larvae. In most of the beetle tribe it is furnished with short
legs, capable of some degree of motion, though very rarely exerted. In the butterfly tribe
it is destitute of legs ; but in the locust 395
tribe it differs very little from the perfect
insect, except in not having the wings
complete. In most of the fly tribe it is
perfectly oval, without any apparent mo-
tion or distinction of parts. The pupa of
the bee is not so shapeless as that of flies,
exhibiting the faint appeara/'ce of limbs.
Those of the dragon-fly {Libellula) differ
most widely from the appearance of the
complete insect ; from the pupa emerges
the image or insect in its ultimate form,
from which it never changes, nor receives
any farther increase of growth. As ex-
amples of the chrysalis of various insects,
we give those of the beetle {Melolontha
vulgaris) {Jig. 395. a), papilio napi (6),
P. lo, (c), phalaena grossularia (d). Ph.
wavaria (e), tipula cornicina (/), phryganea rhombica (g), musca pumilionis, natural size
and magnified [h, k).

2229. The sexes of insects are commonly two, male and female. Neuters are to be met
with among those insects which live in swarms,
such as ants, bees, &c. As examples of the
appearance of different insects in regard to
sex, we refer to the male, female, and neuter
^"*^ if-o- •'596. rt, b, c), and to the male or drone,
female or queen, and neuter or working bee
(d, ^,f).

2230. In duration, the majority of insects
are observed to be annual, finishing the whole
term of their lives in the space of a year or less,
and many do not live half that time ; nay, there
are some which do not survive many hours ;
but this latter period is to be understood only
of the animals when in their complete or ulti-
mate form, for the larvae of such as are of this
short duration have in reality lived a very long
time under water, of which they are natives ;
and it is observed, that water insects in general
are of longer duration than land insects. Some
few insects, however, in their complete state, are supposed to Uve a considerable time, as
bees tor instance ; and it is well known that some of the butterfly tribe, though the major
part pensh before winter, will yet survive that season in a state of torpidity, and again

996

Book IV.

OF VERMIN.

429

appear and fly abroad in the succeeding spring ; spiders are also thought to live a consi-
derable time.

223 1 . The arrangernent of insects^ according to the Linnaean system, is divided into seven
orders. The natural orders and families into which they have been divided by subsequent
naturalists are very numerous ; and therefore, we shall notice only the artificial orders of
Linnaeus, viz. 1. Coleoptera; 2. Hemiptera ; 3. Lepidoptera ; 4. Neuroptera ; 5. Hyme-
noptera ; 6. Diptera ; and 7. Aptera. The leading characters of these orders, and the
names of the genera belonging to them which are most noxious to plants in a state of
culture, will be of some use in enabling the gardener to use a correct nomenclature, as
well as to enlighten him generally on the intricate and little understood subject of insects.

2232. The coleoptera have a hollow horny case, under which the wings are folded when
not in use. The principal genera are — I. Scarabaeus (beetles) ; 2. Lucanus (stag-beetle) ;
3. Dermestes ; 4. Coccinella (lady-bird); 5. Curcuho (weevil) ; 6. Lampyris (glow-worm);
7. Meloe (Spanish fly) ; 8. Staphylinus ; 9. Forficula (earwig). Like other winged insects,
all the beetles live for some time in the form of caterpillars, or grubs. The caterpillars
of the garden-beetle, cockchafer, &'C. lead a solitary life imder ground, and consume the
roots of plants ; those of others feed upon putrid carcasses, every kind of flesh, dried skins,
rotten wood, dung, and the small insects called pucerons, or 307
vine-fretters. But after their transformation into flies, many of
the same animals, which formerly fed upon dung and putrid
carcasses, are nourished by the purest nectareous juices extracted
from fruits and flowers. The creatures themselves, with regard
to what may be termed individual animation, have suffered no
alteration. But the fabric of their bodies, their instruments of
motion, and the organs by which they take their food, are ma-
terially changed. This change of structure, though the animals retain their identity,
produces the greatest diversity in their manners, their economy, and the powers of
their bodies. The beetles {ji^. 397.) produced in the pahn 3-98

called tlie mountain cabbage-tree (^Areca) has a grub or caterpillar

(^.398.) the size of a man's thumb, extremely fat ; "fried

with butter or salt, or spitted on a wooden skewer, they are

esteemed excellent. In taste they partake of all the spices of

India, as mace, cinnamon, cloves, nutmegs, &c. Several species ^l^ V 1T\ H ^^^

are produced in all the palm-trees when beginning to rot, some

larger than otliers, all of a pale yellow color with black heads." (Stedmans Surinam,)

399

2233. Of beetles the scarabaus melolontha (fg. 399. a) is the
most common. The eggs are deposited in the groimd by the
parent insect, whose fore legs are very short, and well calcu-
lated for burrowing. From each of these eggs proceeds, after
a short time, a whitish worm with six legs, a red head, and
strong claws, which is destined to live in the earth under that
form for four years, and there undergoes various changes of
its skin, until it assumes its chrysalid form. These creatures,
sometimes in immense numbers, work between the turf and
the soil in the richest meadows, devouring the roots of the grass
to such a degree that the turf rises, and will roll up with
almost as much ease as if it had been cut with a turfing-knife :
and underneath, the soU appears turned into a soft mould for
above an inch in depth, like the bed of a garden. In this the
grubs lie, in a curved position, on their backs, the head and
tail uppermost, and the rest of the body buried in the mould.
Such are the devastations committed by the grubs of the cock-
chafer, that a whole field of fine flourishing grass, in the sum-
mer time, became in a few weeks withered, drj', and as brittle
as hay, by these grubs devouring the roots, and gnawing away all those fibres that fastened it to the
ground, and through which alone it could receive nourishment. The larvje having continued four years
in the ground, are now about to undergo their next change : to effect this, they dig deep into the earth,
sometimes five or six feet, and there spin a smooth case, in which they change into a pupa or chrysalis.
They remain under this form all the winter, until the month of February, when they become pWfect
beetles ; but with their bodies quite soft and white. In May the parts are hardened, and then they come
forth out of the earth. This accounts for our often finding the perfect insects in the ground. The most
efficacious mode of preventing their increase is to employ proper persons to take the flies in May and June,
before they have laid their eggs; which, though it appears an endless task, may be done with very con-
siderable effect, by shaJcing and beating the trees and hedges in the middle of the day. Children will be
able to do this, and, as has been proved by experiment, will, for a trifling reward (suppose a penny a hun-
dred), bring some thousands per day gathered in a single village. Domestic fowls of all kinds are particu-
larly fond of these beetles, so that the expense of collecting them would be fully compensated by the
quantity of food they would afford in this way. When land is ploughed up in the spring, if the weather
be warm, hundreds of the chafer grubs are exposed, in which case, rooks, gulls, and jays will be sure to
detect and devour them. These birds, therefore, should not be driven away, as the occasional damage
they commit is amply repaid by their unceasing exertions to destroy various insects. The almost sole
employment of rooks, for three months in the spring, is to search for this sort of food, and the havock that
a numerous flock makes amongst them must be very great

2234. The lady-bird (Cocciiiella) feeds chiefly on aphides, and therefore is not considered as injiurious to
gardens.

2235. TTie weevil{Curculio) is a very numerous and splendid genus ; the larvae of some infest granaries, otheri
may be found inside of artichoke and thistle-flowers. All the species feed on the seeds or leaves of vegetables.
One of the most common is the nut-weevil (C. nvcum) {fig. 399. b), of which the larvae (c) and pupa (rf)

430

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

are both nearly of the size of the perfect insect. To this genus also belongs the insect generally known
by the name of diamond beetle.

2236. Dyticus and hydrophilus are aquatic genera, inhabitants of ponds and stagnant waters, they swim
with great dexterity ; their hind legs are particularly fitted for their residence in the water, being thin
and flat, and having the inner edges furnished with stiff hair.like appendages which act as fins or oars ;
the males are distinguished from the females, by having a horny flap or shield on the fore legs, near the
setting on of the feet. The larva (as is common with aquatic insects) remain a long time in the imperfect
state, some two to four years ; they secrete themselves in holes in banks, and devour other insects, worms,
and the young fry of fish, which they destroy by sucking out their juices.

2237. The earivig {Forficula) frequents moist ground, is very injurious to flowers and fruit, and may
easily be taken by suspending any hollow article on a plant or twig, as it retires in the daytime to such re-
treats, and feeds mostly during the night.

2238. The hemiptera are all furnished with wing-covers of a softer texture than the
coleoptera ; these covers do not meet in a direct line as in that order, but the base of the
left wing covers the inner margin of the right ; in some, the wings nearly cross at the
tips ; the mouth is either situated on the breast, or inclining towards it. The principal
genera are — 1. Blatta (cock-roach) ; 2. Gryllus (locust, grasshopper) ; 3. Fulgora
(lantern-fly); 4. Cimex (bug, &c.)

400

9339. Of the coclc-roach [Blatta) many species are
exceedingly injurious, devouring most kinds of provi-
sions, paper, leather, and vegetable substances ; they are
generally nocturnal insects, and are found in great
abundance in bakehouses, and other warm places.
They are all killed without any external injury, by
immersion in boiling water.

2240. The black cock-roach, improperly called the
black beetle {B. orientalis) {fig. 400.), was originally a
native of South America, but is now very generally
spread throughout Europe. It cannot be considered a
British insect, though it frequents kitchens, ovens, and
warm places, and devours meal, bread, and other pro-
visions, shoes, &c. It conceals itself during the day,
and comes abroad in the night ; it runs quickly, and is
very tenacious of life. They are killed by red wafers.
The egg («) is of a considerable size, and the pupa (6)
larger than the perfect insect (c).

2241. The gryllus genus comprehends a number of spe-
cies,some of which are called grasshoppers,others locusts,
and others crickets. The caterpillars of the grylli have a
great resemblance to the perfect insects, and, in general,
live underground. Many of these insects feed upon the
leaves of plants ; others, which live in houses, prefer
bread and every kind of farinaceous substance.

The house-cricket {G. doniesticus) {fig. 401. a) is one

of those busy Little insects that reside altogether in our

dwellings, and intrude themselves on our notice, whether we wish it or not. They are partial to houses

newly built, for the softness of the mortar enables them to form their retreats, without much difficulty,

between the joints of the masonry, and immediately ' 401

to open communications with the different rooms.

They are particularly attached to kitchens and

bakehouses, as affording them a constant warmth.

In some of the warmer countries, this genus of

insects is, of all the pests that mankind are subject

to, the most injurious, destroying \»egetables of

every kind and even from their numbers alone,

constituting one of the heaviest afflictions that can

happen to a country. The mischiefs done by the

blattae, or cock-roaches, is trifling, compared with

those of this destroying tribe, for the dreadful ra-
vages committed by the locusts are such as to reduce

the most fertile fields to the appearance of barren

deserts; they devour the fruits, leaves, and even

the buds and bark of trees, and have even been

known to devour he reeds used in thatching the

human habitations, so unfortunate as to be visited

by these devouring hordes. Jackson depicts their -

ravages in the empire of Morocco, and gives a figure

of the insect {fig. 402.) of half the natural size. In

Abyssinia,China, and other countries, the caterpillar

or larva of certain species of roaches and locusts is,

like that of some beetles (2232.), eaten by the natives.
Tlie frog-hopper, or cuckow-spit insect{ Cicada)feeds,
onvarious kinds of plants ; the grub or larva is without wings ; in the pupa the wings are very short ; but in
both states they are exceedingly active. The males are distinguishable by their loud chirping note, the females
are quite mute. In the fly state, they are found on the leaves and stems of plants, and in the immature state
about the roots of grass and trees. The white froth-
like spittle, which is seen on the leaves and stalks of
many kinds of plants in the summer season, is pro-
duced by the black-headed frog-hopper {Cicada spu.
mafia) [fig. 401. b), and if this froth be wiped off and
examined, it will be found to contain the larva or
young of the cicada : and this matter, which is dis-
charged from its own body, no doubt serves to protect
it from the attacks of other insects.

2242. The plant-louse, vine-fretter, or puceron,
(Aphis) is a very common insect, the numerous species
l)emg denominated from the trees and plants which
they infest. The males are winged, and the females
without wings J they are viviparous, producing their
young alive in the spring: and also oviparous, lay-

Book IV. OF VERMIN. 431

ing^gs in the autumn. As these insects derive their nourishment fVom the Juices of the plants wiiich
they infest, nature has wisely ordained that the females should lay eggs in the autumn, though
they .bring forth their young alive all the spring and summer months. This is to prevent them from
being starved for the want of food in winter. The young burst forth from their eggs in spring as soon as
there are leaves to subsist upon. Their noxious effects are well known to the gardener. They sometimes
migrate, and suddenly fall in showers on spots that were until then free from their ravages. Water
dashed with force from a syringe will prove as destructive to them as any thing when on trees ; and
smaller plants may be washed with lime-water, with tobacco-water, with elder-leaves infused in water, or
with common soap-suds, any of which will destroy the insects. The larva? of the lady-bird eat thousands
of them, some sjxjcies of ichneumon and common ants also destroy them ; and some conjecture that it
would probably prove serviceable to scatter ants, wliich may always be procured in abundance, upon in-
fested trees. The aphides sometimes settle upon the tops of beans, covering them so thickly as to make
them appear quite black : in such cases the crops may often be preserved by cutting off the tops, a practice
which is likewise adopted independently of this pest requiring it, for the purpose of increasing the
yield of beans. {Dr. Skrimshire's Essays Introd. to Nat. Hist., voL i. p. 149.) The rose-tree is, after a
mild sjiring, greatly injured by a species of aphis {A. rosce). The best mode of remedying this evil is to
lop off the infected shoots before the insects are greatly multiplied, repeating the same operation before
the eggs are deposited. By the first pruning a very numerous parent increase will be prevented, and by
the second, the following year's supply may, in a great measure, te cut off. If it were not for the
numerous enemies to which the aphis is exposed, their wonderful fecundity is such that the leaves,
branches, and stems of every plant would be totally covered with them. Mj-riads of insects of different
classes, of different genera, and of different species, seem to be produced for no other purpose than to
devour the aphis. On every leaf inhabited by them we find caterpillars of different kinds. These
teetl not upon the leaves, but upon the pucerons, whom they devour with an almost incredible rapacity.
Some of these larvae are transformed into insects with two wings, others into flies with four wings, and
others into beetles. While in the larva state one of these glutinous insects will suck out the vitals of
twenty pucerons in a quarter of an hour. Reaumur supplied a single caterpillar with more than a
hundred pucerons, every one of which it devoured in less than three hours.

2243. The chermes {Jig. 401. c, d, e) is a genus very generally confounded with aphis ; it also inhabits
the leaves and stems of plants, and by its punctures, produces excrescences and protuberances of various
sizes and shaix?s, which are generally found to enclose either the egg or immature insect, in the larva
state ; it is six-footed, hairy or woolly, and without wings ; and in the pupa are two protuberances from
the thorax, which are the rudiments of the future wings. The winged insects (c) leap or spring with great
agility, and infest a number of different trees and plants : the females (rf), by means of a tube at the ter-
mination of their bodies, insert their eggs under the surface of the leaves ; and the worms, when hatched,
give rise to those tubercles, or galls, with which the leaves of the ash, the fir, and other trees, are some-
times almost entirely covered. The old females, before depositing their eggs, expand to a comparatively
large size (e).

. 2244. T/ie thrips {fig. 401./) genus consists of very small insects, found chiefly on the flowers of plants,
and, excepting when very numerous, are not very detrimental. The natural size is very minute, and there-
fore to search for this insect the gardener should use a magnifying glass.

2245. Of the cochineal or coccus genus {Jig. 401. g) there are several species very injurious in gardens, the
peach, vine, pine, and orange bugs. They are very well known to gardeners, and are almost exclusively
found in hot-houses. The males are active, but the females are very inert, being generally fixed to differ-
ent parts of plants. The eggs, of their natural size, are mere dots, magnified {g) they appear of an oval
shape ; the larva is proportionally small, but magnified [h) is oblong and roundish ; the males {i) only have
wings, and require to be magnified to show their form (A) ; the female attains a considerable size (/), and,
when hatching, becomes enveloped in a case of wool {m). Brushing off these creatures is the only effectual
remedy, and, if set about at once and persevered in, will save the trouble of many prescribed washes and
powders, which are mere palliatives.

2246. Tlie lepidojHei-a contains the butterfly, moth, and hawk-moth ; they have all four
wings covered with scales or a sort of farina ; they have a mouth, vdih palpi, a spiral
tongue ; the body covered with hair. The scales resemble feathers ; they lie over one
another in an imbricated manner, the siiaft towards the body of the insect, and the ex-
pansion towards the end of the wing, reflecting the most briUiant colors.

2247. Of the butferfiy gcnvs {Papiiio, L.) many thousand species are known in Europe, and in England
alone more than eleven nundred have been collected bv a celebrated entomologist.

9248. T9ie larvce, or young, of the different kinds of butterflies and moths, when in that state in which
they come from tlic egg, are called caterpillars. These, which are very minute at first, feed generally on
the leaves of vegetables, and increase in size. They cast their skins occasionally, and sometimes change
in color and markings, but never in their general appearance or in their habits. Eating seems to be their
sole employment; and when they meet with food that suits their palate, they are extremely voracious,
committing great havoc in gardens. But the same cause which restrains the depredations of the aphides
and other insects has also set bounds to the destruction occasioned by the caterpillar, who has myriads of in-
ternal as well as external enemies. Many flies deposit their eggs in the bodies of caterpillars. From these
eggs proceed small maggots, which gradually devour the vitals of the animal in which they reside. WTien
about to be transformed into chrysalids, they pierce the skin of the caterpillar, spin their pods, and remain
on the empty skin till they assume the form of flies, and escape into the air to perform the same cruel
office to another unfortunate larva. Every person must recollect to have seen the colewort or cablwge
caterpillar stuck upon old walls, or the windows of country-cottages, totally covered with these chrysalids,
which have the form of small maggots, and are of a fine yellow color. One of the most formidable ene-
mies of the caterpillar is a black worm, with six crustaceous' legs : it is longer and thicker than an ordinary-
sized caterpillar. In the fore part of the head it has two curved pincers, with which it quickly pierces the
belly of a caterpillar, and never quits the prey till it is entirely devoured. The largest caterpillar is not
sufticient to nourish this larva for a single day ; for it daily kills and eats several of them. These
gluttons, when gorged with food, become inactive, and almost motionless; when in this sadated con-
dition, voung larvEB of the same species attack and devour them. Of all trees, the oak perhaps nourishes
the greatest number of different caterpillars, as well as of different insects. Among others, the oak is
inhabited by a large and beautiful beetle. This beetle frequents the oak, probably because that tree is
inhabited by the greatest number of caterpillars. It marches from branch to branch, and, when dis-
posed for food, attacks and devours the first caterpillar that comes in its way.

2249. Chrysalis state. When full grown, the caterpillar seeks some retreat, to prepare for an important
change, viz. from the soft caterpillar, possessing motion and feeding so voraciously, to the hard chrysalis,
fixed immoveably, and sustained without food. The retreat that is chosen and the preparation that is made
for this important change vary essentially in different species : some retire to the sheltered situations of
houses, walls, and other buildings ; some burv themselves in the ground : some wrap themselves up in leaves ;
others attech themselves to the stalks of plants ; while others again eat into the stems of vegetables, or the
very heart of trees, and there undergo their metamorphosis. Although each kind of caterpillar seeks a
different retreat, yet all of the same species seek the same, and adopt the same means of preservation.

439

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

Such a8 are to He dormant all winter, seek the warmth of our houses, or dig their way into the ground,
below the influence of the expected frosts. Such as are to leave their prisons in a few weelcs, and before
the end of summer, roll themselves up in the leaves of those plants on which they fed. No caterpillar
that is to remain in the state of a chrysalis till the following summer, attaches itself to an annual plant ;
and none that is to enter on its winged state in winter (which some few do) is ever found but upon ever-
greens. In the preparation which is made for their metamorphosis, caterpillars differ as much as in their
selection of a proper place. Some attach themselves by a thread from their tails, and are suspended per-
pendicularly ; while others, among which is the white cabbage butterfly, by another thread across the
body, are suspended horizontally. The silk-worm and several others spin a complete covering or case
for their bodies, some of finer materials and less agglutinated together than others. Some caterpillars form
a ball or nest of the mould in which they are buried, glued together by their saliva, and smoothed within ;
and others fasten two leaves together, or, curling its edges, unite two parts of the same leaf by threads
and bands, and thus form a covering and safe retreat for themselves.

2250. Perfect insect. After the animal has lain dormant its due time in the chrysalis state, the skin or
shell bursts, and the perfect insect, in its winged state, creeps out, gradually expands its wings, and, when
they are dried, becomes a gay inhabitant of the air. It now no longer seeks to satisfy its hunger on the
gross food that it devoured when a caterj'illar, but sips the nectar from the blossoms of the flowers.
Having fulfilled the intentions of nature, they deposit their eggs with care, and, having thus provided for
a future generation, the insect terminates its short but brilliant career. In the deposition of their eggs,
the parent butterflies and moths display wonderful instinct in selecting precisely such places as are best
adapted to their future young; such plants, for instance, as will furnish food for the new-born cater-
pillars, and such parts of plants as are not likely to be removed by decay, or such as will be exactly in
the required stage of maturity at the time when the cater{)illars are to be born. Thus, a little inject {Tinea
pomona) lays its eggs in the blossom, that its caterpillar may tfeed on the fruit of the apple j and several
others act in the same provident way.

403
225 1 . The most remarkable British butter-
flies are — the purple emperor (^Papilio iris),
which appears in July, and is considered
the most beautiful : the peacock butterfly
(P. lo), whose wings are of a brownish-red
color with black spots, is sufficiently
common in the south of England, but
extremely rare in the north : the tor-
toiseshell butterfly {P.urticcs) (Jig. 403.),

which appears in its winged state about 'Y^^'^^l^ ~ ^Ti^i^l^^H^B^^HHiS^ i^4 c
the month of" April, is one of the most
common, and at the same time the most
beautiful of the British lepidoiJtera ; the
upper wings are red, and marked with
alternate bands of black and pale orange ;
the eggs (a), caterpillar (6), and chrysalis
(c) are each elegant in their kind. The
mazarine blue butterfly (P. cymon) is also an admired species. °^

2252. The hawlcmoth^ sphynge, or sphinx, is chiefly seen in the evening. The name sphynx is applied to
the genus on account of the posture assumed by the larv£e of several of the larger species, which are often
seen in an attitude much resembling that of the Egyptian sphynx, with the fore parts elevated, and the
" " " af'Uie most elegant insects of tlii

le most elegant insects of
404

his genus is the privet

rest of the body applied flat to the surface. One of
hawk-moth {Sphinx ligustri) {fie. 40i.), measuring
nearly four inches and a half from wing's end to
wing'send. The caterpillar (j^g'.SW. a), which is very
large, is smooth, and of a fine green, with seven ob-
lique purple and white stripes along each side : at the
extremity of the body, or top of the last Joint, is a
horn or process pointing backwards. This beau-
tiful caterpillar is often found in the months of July
and August, feeding on the privet, the lilac, the
poplar, and some other trees, and generally changes
to a chrysalis {fig. 404. a) in August or September,
retiring for that purpose to a considerable depth
beneath the surface of the ground ; and after cast-
ing its skin, continuing during the whole winter in
a dormant state, the sphinx emerging from it in
the succeeding June. The egg of the sphinx {b) is
very different from that of the papilio. Another
perhaps still more beautiful insect is the sphinx
ocellata, or eyed hawk-moth, which is principally
found on the willow-tree, in its perfect state, in the
month of June. The largest and most remarkable
of the British hawk-moths, is the sphinx atropos,
or death's head hawk-moth. The upper wings are
of a fine dark-grey color, with a few slight va-
riegations of dull orange and white : the under
wings are of a bright orange color, marked by a pair of transverse black bands : the body is also orange-
eolored, with the sides marked by black bars : on the top of the thorax is a very large patch of a S
tnr&lTh'T'lf"'^?' ''''^''^^^ rcseTnbhng the usual figure of a skull, or death's head, and is of a pale gr^,
Zn^<: ^n ,n', "" "''''.''' ''^■^yl''']^ ^^^''^- J"^^""'} '" ^^'^ '^^^^t disturbed or irritated, this insect emits a stri-
fl^^LTark nhLlTvfInT' ^'Y .t^'^squeaking of a bat or mouse ; and from this circumstance, as well as from
ancoToiL roJ.rrr^'° r'', '^^S''* '" "'"''7 ^'^^^ ^y ^^'^ ^"'g^*- i" several parts of Europe, its appcar-
?Ms rur on/^fhlf^ ' ^ ,'"^ ""I'l °'"^"' ?' ^.^arbinger of approaching fate, the caterpillar from which
&eo iZ.t.'f.n^v,^'"*'''-'^^^ prmc.pally found on the poUtoe and the jessamine, is in the highest

mfl&^^lr^^.^?''^''^-''^,^''^?^^''''^ ^^'^ '.".''''•'" '" >^"^^^ -' '*« ^o'""^ i* a l^^i^ht yellow, and its sides are
^f S^Som'^^,or^^nH .t^'''"'/u°'''^ ^"1 sky-blue color. It usually changes into a chrvsklis in the month
ehaSeIn Jui'vnr a™P 'J'*' complete insect in June or July following : some individuals, however,
enange in July or August, and produce the moth m November.

Book IV.

OF VERMIN.

4SS

22^. The moths {Phaltetus) are a numerous genus like the sphinges. They fly abroad only in the evening
and during the night, and obtain their food from the nectar of flowers. The larra U act ive and qu^ck ^
motion and preys voraciously on the leaves of plants. The most remarkable British moths are the S JT
?'"''* ^L^''"i^^^^ ^•^^- ^u "^ ',^5^ ^^ °^ ^^''^'^ are deposited on woollen clothes, furs, &c on which th^
larva feed and change to chrysahda, appearing in the imago state in August. The most troublesome to
^rdens are the cabbage-moth (P. o/^flce-a) (6), the gooseberry-moth {P^wavaria) (c), the cuiW-moth
(P. grossulana) {d), and the codling-moth, common on fruit-trees, hedges, and oak-tre^ {P. pomoneiuTnej

2254. T/te neurojytera, or nCTve- winged insects, have four naked membranaceous w-ings,
but no stings ; and they differ from the last order, as their wings are without their minute
scales or down. Most of the insects in this family are aquatic, residing in the water
during their immature state, and resorting thereto in their perfect state.

2255. The dragon-fly {Libellula) is well known as frequenting rivers, lakes, pools, and stagnating waters, in
which the females deposit their eggs. The egg, when deposited by the parent in the water, sinks to the
bottom, and remains there till the young insect has acquired sutBcient maturity and strength to burst
from its confinement. The larva, at first small, increases to nearly half the size of the perfect fly, by
changing its skin at different intervals, like the caterpillars of moths and butterflies. The slender-bodied
dragon-fly (L. virgo) {Jig. 406. a) is the most common.

406

2256. The day-fly {Ephemera) differs in many respects from all other insects. The larvas live in water
(where earth and clay seem to be their only nourishment) for three years, the time they consume in pre-
paring for their change, which is performed in a few moments. The larva, when ready to quit that state,
rises to the surface of the water, and, getting instantaneously rid of its skin, becomes a chrysalis. This
chrysalis is furnished with wings, which it makes use of to fly to the nearest tree or wall ; and there set-
tling, it in the same moment quits a second skin, and becomes a perfect ephemera. In this state all the
species live but a very short time, some of them scarcely half an hour, having no other business to per-
form than that of continuing the race. They are called the insects of a day ; but very few of thera ever
see the light of the sun, being produced after sunset, during the short nights of summer, and dying long
l)efore'the dawn. All their enjo\-ments, therefore, excepting coition, are confined to their larva state.
The K vulgata {fig. 406. b) is the largest British species.

2257. The spring-fly {Phryganea) in the caterpillar state, lives in the water, and is covered with a silken
tube. The caterpillars or larva have a very singular aspect ; for, by means of a gluten, they attach to the
tubes in which they are enclosed small pieces of wood, sand, gravel, leaves of plants, and not unfrequently
live on testaceous animals, all of which they drag along with thera. They are very commonly found on
the leaves of the water-cress ; and, as they are often entirely covered with them, they have the appear-
ance of animal plants. They are in great request among fishermen, by whom they are distinguished by
the name of stone or cod-bait. The fly, or perfect insect, frequents running water, in which the females
deposit their eggs. P. rhombica {fig. 406. c) is common.

2258. The hymenoptera, or four-winged insects with stings, includes tlie gall-insect,
wasp, bee, ant, &c. At the extremity of the abdomen, the females of several of tiie ge-

Ff

434

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

manifestator

nera have an aculeus or sting, that lies concealed within the abdomen, which is used as
a weapon, and instils into the wound an acrid poison : those which want the sting are
furnished with an oviduct that is often serrated, and with which the eggs are deposited,
either in the bodies of the caterpillars of other insects, or in wood. From these eggs the
larva? are produced, which in some have no feet, in others more than sixteen. They
change to ;>«;>« incompletcB, which are enclosed in cases. Some of the insects of this
order live in societies, others are solitary.

225q The eall-fiv (Cmips) pierces the leaves, &c. of plants with its sting, and deposits its eg^ in the
w^d • the Ixtravasated juices rise round it, and form a gall {Jig. 407. a) which becomes hard ; and in this
thP lar^a (b) lives and feeds, and changes to a pupa (c, c), and afterwards to the imago, or perfect insect {d).
The C quercus folii (Jig. 407. d), and C. glechomatis, or ground-ivy gaU-fly, are very common.

2260. The saw-fly (Tenthredo), in the \aTva state 407
(fie. 407. e), bears a strong resemblance to some of
the cateniillars of the lepidopterous insects ; but
is distinguishable by the number of the feet,
which are never fewer than sixteen, exclusive
of the thoracic pairs; the larva; feed on the leaves
of plants, and the pupa is enclosed in a strong
gummy case (/), retiring in the autumn, and the
perfect fly (g) emerges early in the ensuing spring
The serrated sting is used by the female m the
manner of a saw, to make incisions in the twigs, or
stems of plants, where it deposits its eggs. T. rosffi
(Jig. 407. e, f, g) is a common species. The T. gros-
sulariae (h) is also frequent in gardens : both are
very troublesome species of this genus.

2261. The Ichneumon is a very numerous genus,
there being upwards of 800 British species. The
eggs, in most kinds, are deposited in the bodies of
caterpillars or pupje, which are there hatched :
the larvffi have no feet ; they are soft and cylin-
drical, and feed on the substance of the caterpillar ;
this last continues to feed and even to undergo its
change into a chrysalis, but never turns to a per-
fect insect: when the larvs of the ichneumon
are full grown they issue forth, spin themselves

a silky web, and change into a pupa incompleta, and in a few days the fly appears.
{Jig. 407. i) is common in woods.

2262. The bee (Apis), wasp (Vespa), and ant (Formica) are well known. All the species of ant are of
three sorts, male, female, 'and neuter. The neuters alone labor ; they form the ant-hill, bring in the
provisions, feed the young, bring them to the air during the day, carry them back at night, defend them
against attacks, &c. The females are said to be retained merely for laying eggs, and as soon as that is
accomplished they are unmercifully discarded. The males and females perish with the first cold ; the
neuters lie torpid in their nest, and thus nature compensates them by duration, what it denies them in
intensity of enjoyment.

2263. The diptera, or two-winged insects, have two wings, and behind or below them
two globular bodies, supported on slender pedicles, called halteres or j^oisers. At the
mouth they have a proboscis, sometimes contained in a vagina, and sometimes furnished
at its sides with two palpi, but no maxilla. Their eyes are reticulated and large. The
females, in general, lay eggs, but some are viviparous ; the larva; of the insects of this
order are as various in their appearance ae the places in which they are bred. In general
they do not cast their skins, but change into a pupa state. Flies, strictly so called, gad-
flies, and gnats belong to this order.

2264. The gad-Jly (CEstrus) \s a. germs e^ceeAmgXy 408
troublesome to horses, cattle, and sheep, in the skins
of which they deposit their eggs {fig. 408. a), which
soon change into larvae, that feed under the skin of
living animals (ft), and often line the stomachs of
horses under the name of bots {Clarke, in Linn.
Trans, vol. iii.) ; the larvje are soft, smooth, annu-
late, without feet, and in most species furnished
with hook-like appendages : the chrysalis (c) differs
little in form from the larvte. The O. bovis {d) in-
fests oxen ; O. ha;morrhoidalis (e), horses; and O.
ovis, sheep.

2265. The crane-fly (Tipula) resembles the gnat, it
feeds on various substances; the larvae are without
feet, soft and cylindrical; pupa cylindrical, horned;
some species reside amongst the roots of aquatic vege-
tables, others amongst grass ; but by far the greater
number are aquatic. The perfect flies are found in
abundancein the autumnal months. TheT. oleracea,
or long-legs, feeds on the roots of the cabbage ; and
the T. crocata {fig. 409. a) and other species inhabit
meadows, and are common from spring to autumn.
The wheat-fly, T. tritici (6), twelve of which have
been observed at one time, laying their eggs in a
single ear of wheat, would soon become of serious
injury to mankind, were not their race kept within
due bounds by several natural enemies, particularly the ichneumon tipulae. The well-known gaffer long-
legs, so frequently seen in houses in the autumnal evenings, flying about the flame of the candles and often
perisiimg in the blaze, is the T. rivosa (c), one of the larger species of the genus. The eggs of the wheat-
fly Cd) are very small ; when magnified they appear roundish (e) ; the larva also (/), and the perfect insect
(6), to be studied, should be magnified (g, h).

DooK IV.

OF VERMIN.

4S5

410

2266. Thefiy genus {Musca) presents many curious species. The common flesh-fly (3f. mrnit&rta) {fig. 410.a)
deposits its eggs on the meat in our shambles and larder*. These eggs ip) speedily become larvas (r), aresooa

full grown (d), change to the chrysalis state (^), and in

a month the fly appears {a). The rapid multiplication
of the fly is thus calculated by Leuwenhocck. " Let us
suppose, that in the beginning of June there shall be
two flies, a male and a female, and the female shall lay
144 eggs, which eggs, in the beginning of July, shall be
changed into flies, one half males and the other half
females, each of which females shall lay the like num-
ber of eggs ; the number of flies will amount to 10,000 :
and, supposing the generation of them to proceed in
like manner another month, their number will then be
more than 700,000, all produced from one couple of flies
in the space of three months." The Hessian fly (M.pu-
pilionis) {/^ is very destructive to wheat and rye, and has
occasionally been a source of great alarm to our agri-
culturists. Tlie cheese-fly {M.putris) {g), well known to
housewives under the name of hopper, deposits its eggs
in the crevices or holes of the cheese, whence those nu-
merous maggots (A), that so much amuse us by their
agility and surprising leaps. One of these insects, not a
quarter of an inch in length, has been known to leap
out of a box' six inches deep. The chrysalis (i) is
straight and crusty.

2267. The gnat '{Culex) is frequent in the neighbor-
hood of waters and marshy places. In southern re-
gions there is a larger species, which is known by the
name of musquito. Its bite is painful, raising a

considerable degree of inflanunation, and its continual piping note is exceedingly irksome where it abounds,
especially during the night. When it settles to inflict the wound and draw the blood, it raises its hind
pair of feet. In Lapland, the injuries the inhabitants sustain from it are amply repaid by the vast num-
bers of water-fowl and wild-fowl which it attracts, as it forms the favorite food of their young. The
fecundity of the common gnat (Cpipiens) (fig. 410. A) is as remarkable as that of the flesh-fly.

2268. The tabanus genus greatly resembles musca, and produces some species troublesome to men and
other animals on whose blood they feed. The spider fly {Hippobosca) inhabits woods. The species know?!
as the forest-fly {H. equina) {fig. 410. /) is particularly tormenting to the horse.

2269. Tlie aptera, or insects without wings in both sexes, is composed of genera of such
varied forms, that no other general characters can be affixed. Linnaeus comprehended in
this order spiders, lice, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, &c. which Leach and most other modem
naturalists class separately.

2270. The louse {Pedicvlus) and flea {Pulex) are well known : the only genera of this order which aie trou-
blesome in gardens are the mite-spider {Acarus), the common spider {Aranea), and the woodlouse {Oniscus.)

411

2271. The red spider is the Acarus telarius, L. {flg. 411. a), and
the same name is also applied by gardeners to the scarlet acarus
{A. holosericeus, L.) {b], the only two British species of the genus
which infest plants, and to \Chich perhaps they do more injury
than all other insects put together. Watering over the leaves is
the well known preventive and remedy : the wafer should be
applied to both sides of the leaf in a finely divided state, and with
great force, so as to dash the insects to the ground. For this
purpose Read's syringe is the most efficient implement at present
in use. Tlie sheep-tic {A. reduvius) [c), the dog-tic {A. ricinus)
(rf), the cheese-mite {A. siro), and the itch-mite (mite de la gale,
Ft.) {A. erulcerans, L.) tvhich inhabits the ulcers of the itch, are
the principal species mentioned by Linneeus ; but some naturalists
consider that every animal, and most plants, have their peculiar
species of acarus. The harvest bug is by some considered an
acarus, and by others a phalangium.

2272. The common spider {Aranea) is a numerous genus, and
very prolific : as they live entirely on insects they cannot be con-
sidered as otherwise injurious in gardens than by their unsightly appearance.

2273. The wood-iouse (Oniscus) is of retired habits, shunning the light and the heat of the sun. R
lives on leaves, fruit, and also on animal substances, and casts its crust or skin like the spider. In

. gardens it is easily caught by bundles of reeds or beans, or other hollow stalks, like the earwig. The
O. aquaticus {fig. e) is common in springs and clear ponds, or cisterns of water. The dog-tic and water ouis.
cu3 both require to be magnified to be studied properly (/, g).

Ff 2

436

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

2274. Of worms (class Vermes, L. ), there are only a few genera which are materially in-
jurious in gardens, the earth-worm (^Lumbricus), the slug {Umax), and the snail {Helix).

2275. The slug {Limax) is without a shell, and distinguished by its la^"^^! POJ-f' J^ere are 16^^^^^^^^^^
snecies • the L ater {fis. 412. b), alba, and hyalinus are the most common m gardens ; and the L. agrestis
gn conSion bSh iirfirdens ind fields, an^ is the species recommended to ^^^.^^^i^l^^" i^^ fa^^^^
persons. The snail {Helix) is a numerous genus, and. like the slug, very destructive 'oplant. and fruit
both snails and slugs are hermaphrodite, having both sexes ""^ted in each mdmdual; they l^y th^i^^ggs
with great care in the earth, and the young ones are hatched, the slugs without sheUs, and the snails
with shells completely formed. They are most troublesome m spring and autumn ^nd during mild
weather in winter. In dry warm weather, and during frosts, they retire into the earth and remain there
in a torpid state. The most common species is the H. hortensis {fig. 412. c), or garden-snail, of which it is

412

remarked, that having once attacked a leaf or fruit, it will not begin on another till the first is wholly
eaten. Snails, slugs, and worms, may be annoyed by caustic substances scattered over them, or by water-
ing with bitter infusions, acids or alkalis, as vinegar, or what is equally effectual and cheaper, lime-water ;
but the only effectual way of getting rid of snails in gardens is by hand-picking. They may be collected
under decaying leaves or haulm, laid down on purpose to attract them. In this way a garden may soon,
and at little trouble and expense, be effectually cleared of the worm class of enemies.

SuBSECT. 2. Operations for subduing Vermin.

2276. The operations for deterring the human, quadruped, and feathered enemies of
gardens are few, and have been already noticed. (2220. 2222, 2223.)

2277. Tlie operations for destroying insect vermin, or counteracting their injurious
effects, are of three kinds, preventives, palliatives, and efficient processes.

2278. The preventive operations are those of the best culture in the most extensive sense of the term,
including what relates to choice of seed or plant, soil, situation, and climate. If these are carefully at-
tended to, it wiU seldom happen that any species of insect will exist in gardens to an injurious degree.
But some parts of culture, such as climate, are often beyond our control ; as, for example, when a very dry
spring and east winds prevail, in which case many insects increase, or rather their larvse are hatched and
reared under such favorable circumstances that few of them die, and all of them become strong in pro-
portion as the plants on which they live, in consequence of the dry weather (favorable to the insects),
become weak. In such a case as this, or its reverse, that of a series of cold moist weather, the gardener
cannot apply good culture to plants in the open air, and therefore cannot prevent the increase of insects.
In artificial plant-habitations of every kind, however, properly constructed, his power in regard to culture
IS complete, and therefore he may always prevent, not the existence, but the injurious increase of insects.

2279. The palliative operations are various. Artificial bad weather will annoy every description of organised
being, and especially animals. Excessive waterings, stormy applications of water with a syringe, violent
wind produced by shaking the plant or tree in the air instead of moving the air round the tree, as in natural
wind ; these and similar operations will materially injure and annoy insects, both in their common func-
tions and in the work of generation, hatching, and rearing. Insects may be farther annoyed by throwing on
them acrid waters or powders, as tobacco- water, lime-water, powdered quick-lime, soot, ashes, barley-awns,
&c. &c. The smell of tar is particularly offensive to various moths and butterflies ; and it is said, if a little of
it is placed under plants, or if they are watered with tar-water, these insects will not lay their eggs on them.
It is also said that if shreds of flannel are hung on trees or plants, moths and butterflies will lay their
eggs on the shreds, in preference to the leaves of the plant. The effect of the fumes of tobacco, sulphur,
urine, &c. are well known. Saline substances mixed with water are injurious to most insects with tender
skins, as the worm and slug ; and hot water, where it can be applied without injuring vegetation, is
equally, if not more powerfully, injurious. Water heated to 120 or 130 degrees will not injure plants
whose leaves are fully expanded and in some degree hardened ; and water at 200 degrees or upwards
may be poured over leafless plants. There are various other ways in which insects may be annoyed, and
often in part destroyed, which will be pointed out in treating of the plants which particular species
inhabit. The efffects of insects may also be palliated on one species of plant, by presenting to them
another which they prefer : thus wasps are said to prefer carrots, the berries of the yew, and the honey
of the hoya, to grapes ; honey or sugared water to ripe fruit, and so on. One insect or animal may also
be set to eat another, as ducks for slugs and worms, turkeys for the same purpose, and caterpillars, and
ants for aphides, and so on.

2280. The operations for the utter removal or destruction qf insects are few, and chiefly that of hand-
picking, or otherwise removing or killing by manual operations with a brush, sponge, or net Destruction
by hand-picking should, if possible, commence with the parent insect in its fly or perfect state before it
has deposited its ova. Thus the gathering of moths, butterflies, and large wasps may save the gathering
afterwards of thousands of caterpillars and the drowning of hundreds of wasps, as preventing weeds from
seeding in a garden will soon eradicate them altogether. It is no small proof of the advantages of a
knowledge of natural history to gardeners, and also of the progress of knowledge among this ingenious
and useful class of artisans, that a practical gardener has actually practised for several years the catching
of moths, to prevent them from laying their eggs on his treei. P. Musgrove, gardener, at May-field near

Book IV. OF DISEASES 437

Edinburgh, has ahmost completely cleared his trees of caterpillars by the following mode; " I examine," he
says, " the trees I wish to clear, in the beginning of June, that being the time the moths begin to leave the
chrysalis state. When I find one of those of a dark color, I am aware the insect will make its appearance
in the course of a few days. That chrysalis I examine daily until the insect comes out ; and although I do
not see the insect emerging from the shell, yet I am sure to find it in the neighborhood of the covering
which it has left, exhausted with fatigue in consequence of the exertion in extricating itself from
confinement. At first I put a few of the chrysalids into paper bags, which gave me an opportunity
of examining them minutely. I also watched some of the chrysalids of the bore-worm, which causes
gooseberries to fall ofi" in great quantities by boring into the berry, and I found that fly to be of the same
class with those which infest the apple, pear, and cherry trees. I was also able to prove decidedly, that
the females come into existence full of the rudiment of eggs, which I found by dissecting several of them,
and examining the ovarium. I also found, by carefully noticing every insect which I caught, that the
greater number were females."

Having made himself completely acquainted with the enemy with which he had to contend, he con-
tinued his labors : "going over a number of wall-trees which I fixed upon for the experiment, with a
branch of a willow-tree in my hand, with which I switched the leaves and branches, for it is amongst the
leaves and branches of the trees the insect secretes itself ; but in order that it may be done with more ex-
pedition and success, I would recommend a birch-besom to be used in preference. There should be two
persons, one to go over the leaves and branches of the trees, in order to make the insect leave its retreat,
and one with a net attached to a pole to catch the fly, or to destroy it if it should alight on the ground, as it
will be apt to do, if the day is clear and sunny, for these insects cannot bear the bright rays of the sun, which
is the cause of their remaining amongst the leaves during the day ; but should the day be dull, the net
will be highly necessarj- to catch the insect, as it will then likely fly to some distance before it alights.
This operation must be continued until all the insects are destroyed ; but it is not needful that it should
be performed every day, but every other day, as the insects are some days from the chrysalid state before
they are ready to deposit their ova, which is done during night

The method followed with standards is as follows : — The time for going over them is generally two or
three weeks later than the wall-trees. It is a singxilar fact, that the insect keeps pace with the leafing of
the tree. With the standards nothing will be required but the net, as the branches can be gently shaken,
which is sufficient to cause the fly to leave its nestling-place ; but as it might be the means of bringing too
many down at one time, if the tree was shaken all at once, care must be taken to shake the branches one
by one. \Miere the trees are lofty, a pole with a hook attached to the end may be used.

The net used is made of strong black gauze, that color being best for the purpose. It is a yard and a
half in circumference, a foot deep, and attached to a whalebone rim. The handle is made of common
wood, about a yard and a half long. With regard to the manner in which it should be used, all I have
to say is, that I kept the net in my right hand ; and the moment an insect was driven from its place, I
swung the net in the direction opposite to that in which it flew. If I missed in the first attempt, the
second generally succeeded.

The success of this plan of destroying moths has succeeded equal to my expectations ; indeed it carries
conviction on the face of it It is not only simple, and can be performed at very little expense ; but it is
sure, and can be acted upon in the most extensive orchards. WTien we consider the great nvunber of
eggs one destroys by killing a single female in the beginning of the season, the utility of the plan I think
will at once appear. Supjwsing, then, that any person, by going over twenty or thirty trees each day,
which can be done easily in a few hours, kills 200 insects ; there wiU be no fewer than 10,000 eggs destroyed
or prevented. If the oi>eration be carried on for a month only, every alternate day over this number of
trees, the amount of eggs destroyed will be 150,000. This is actually what I have done myself: there
is surely, then, very little reflection necessarj-, to convince any unprejudiced person, that by following
the same plan, he might soon be able to bid defiance to such a formidable foe. When we also take
into consideration how much the success of the crop depends upon an uninjured foliage, and a free and
strong expansion of blossom, the propriety of adopting this method must be obvious : hitherto all the
plans of liming, oiling, peeling, &c. have failed." {Caled. Mem. iii. 333.)

2281. Catching the winged insect, or hand-picking the eggs, or larvje, are the only certain modes of pre-
venting the ravages of the gooseberry caterpillar. As soon as the eggs which are white, and no thicker
than hairs, appear on the under side of the leaf, they should be rubbed oft; or the entire leaf gathered.
It is true, watering the leaves well, and then dusting them with powdered quick-lime, will destroy all
those eggs which arc wet at the time the lime falls on them ; but will it fall on the under sides of the leaves ?
Watering with lime-water is better ; but even that operation is less certain, more troublesome, and not much
more expeditious than hand-picking taken in time. In extreme cases, both modes may be combined.

2282. The aphides may be destroyed by the fumes of tobacco from the fumigating bellows, or by
excessive watering.

2283. TTie red spiiler and most insects may be destroyed by the fumes of sulphur, produced by flues, the
tops of which have been washed with it ; or from hot plites, or by burning sulphurated paper and rags,
or distilling it with a retort Ammoniacal gas, produced either from urine, recent stable-dimg, or dis-
tillation from bones, or other substances, is also, where the air is charged with it for sometime together,
an effectual mode of destroying all animals. Watering, and a moist and warm atmosphere, will destroy
the red spider and keep under all insects. Heat and moisture combined, indeed, are what the gardener
has chiefly to depend on, especially in every descriotion of plant-habitation. This will appear more fully
in the practical parts of this work, where the particular application of these general remarks is made to
the culture and treatment of particular plants.

2284. Snails and slugs, as already observed, are most cflfectually destroyed by lures of decayed leaves or
haulm and hand-picking. (2275.) ' „ ,. . ,

The earth-worm is most effectually kept under by watering with lime-water. Salt, vinegar, alum, or
other acrid waters, will have the same effect, but are injurious to vegetation, and besides less economicaL
The lime-water, as Forsvth directs, is to be prepared by pouring water on quick-lime, and letting it stand
till it settles clear, the ground infested with worms should have their casts scraped off, and then the water
should be applied from the rose of a watering-pot The evening, and early in the morning, or on ap-
proaching rain, are the best seasons. .-. i-

2285 The young gardener should carefully and assiduously study the nature, names, and classification
of insects ; and make himself acquainted with aU the species he can pick up, either in gardens, houses, or
fields. Besides being of material use to him in his profession, he will find it a never failing source of
interest and enjo\-ment, at least equally so with the study of botany. For this purpose let him read the
articles on insects in such Encyclopaedias as come within his reach, and borrow, or otherwise procure, a
readmg of the Essays and Works of Dr. Skrimshire, of Wood, Kirby and Spence, Donovan, SamoueUe, and
other authors that he will find quoted and referred to in this and other books which mention the subject

SuBSECT. 3. Operations relative to Diseases and other Casualties.
2286. The subject of the accidents ayid diseases to ivhich plants are liable has been
treated at length in the " study of the vegetable kingdom" (Part II. Book I. Chap. IX.) ;
and it there appeared, that very little could be done by art in curing diseases ; but that
much might be done to prevent them by regimen and cultiure, and something to the
healing of wounds by amputation and exclusion of air.

438 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

2287. Tha operations for the cure of accidents are chiefly cutting off injured parts, sup-
porting, and coating over. Amputation must be performed with suitable instruments,
and so as to leave a smootli section calculated to throw ofF tlie water. In cutting out
large wounds which are deep, the chisel will require to be used ; and in cutting off dis-
eased or injured parts from small and delicate plants, a very sharp knife. . Supporting
the stem or trunk of bruised and wind-shaken trees, or such as are otherwise injured or
rendered less secure in their general structure, is an obvious operation, and requires to be
done promptly and effectually. It is also requisite in the case of cutting out such deep
wounds as may endanger the stems or branches of trees or plants exposed to the free air.
Coating over wounds to exclude air is a useful practice ; and though it may be dispensed
with in the case of small wounds on healthy plants, ought never to be neglected in the
case of large wounds on any description of plants, or small ones made on such as are
sickly. The usual application is now clay and loam made so thin as to be laid on with
a brush, and two or three coats may be given. On large wounds paint, or putty and
paint may be used; and in the case of deep hollow wounds, the part may be filled up
with putty, or putty and small stones, for the sake of saving the former, and then made
smooth and well painted.

2288. The operations for curing diseases are few, besides those for the cure of accidents.
Washes are applied by the sponge, brush, syringe, or watering pot, for filth, mildew, and
blight ; and for the two latter diseases sulphur, or powdered lime is sometimes added by
dredges or the hand while the plant is wet. Slitting the bark is the operation for hide-
bound trees ; and peeling off the outer, rough, and already separating bark by scraping-
irons and bark-sealers, is resorted to in the case of old trees, as cutting out is in the case
of canker. In scaling off care must be taken not to injure the inner bark ; and in cutting
out for canker sharp instruments must be used, and a coating applied. (See 873. to 901 . )

Sect. IX. Operations of Gathering, Preserving, and Keeping.

2289. Gctliering, preserving, and keejnng vegetable productions, form an important part
of the horticultural division of gardening. Some productions, after being reared and
perfected, are to be gathered for immediate consumption ; but a part require to be pre-
served in a state fit for culinary purposes ; or for sowing or dispersing ; or sending to a
distant market, family or friend.

2290. Gathering vegetables or their different parts is, in part, performed with a knife, as
in cutting off some fruits, as the cucumber, or heads of leaves, as the cabbage ; and in
part by fracture or torsion with the hand, as in pinching off strawberries between the
finger and thumb, gathering peas, with one hand applied to retain the stem firm, and the
other to tear asunder the peduncle, &c. In all cases of using the knife, the general
principle of cutting is to be attended to, leaving always a sotmd section on the living
plant. Gathering with the hand ought to be done as little as possible, as there are now
garden-pincers for all such purposes, which do the work quicker, with far less injury to
the plant, and more regard to cleanliness. Sometimes the entire plant is gathered, as in
celery and onions ; and at other times only the root or tuber, as in potatoes and carrots.
In taking up these, care must be taken not to injure' their epidermis, as on the preserv-
ation of this depends their retention of juices, beauty, and keeping.

2291. The gathering of hardy fruits should take place "in the middle part of a dry
day ; not in the morning before the dew is evaporated, nor in the evening when it begins
to be deposited. Plums readily part from the twigs when ripe : they should not be much
handled, as the bloom is apt to be rubbed off. Apricots may be accounted ready when
the side next the sun feels a little soft upon gentle pressure with the finger. They ad-
here firmly to the tree, and would over-ripen on it and become mealy. Peaches
and nectarines, if moved upwards, and allowed to descend with a single jerk, will separate,
if ready ; and they may be received into the peach-gatherer {fig. 148.) or any tin funnel
lined with velvet, so as to avoid touching with the fingers or bruising. The old rule for
judging of the ripeness of figs, was to observe if a drop of water was hanging at the end
of the fruit ; a more certain one is, to notice when the small end becomes of the same
colour as the large end. The most transparent grapes are the most ripe. All the
berries on a bunch never ripen equally ; and it is therefore proper to cut away unripe
or decayed berries before presenting the bunches at table. Autumn and winter pears
are gathered, when dry, as they successively ripen. The early varieties of apples
begin to be useful for the kitchen in the end of June ; particularly the codlins and
the jenneting; and in July they are fit for the dessert. From this time till October or
November, many kinds ripen in succession. Tlie safest rule is to observe when the
fruit begins to fall naturally. Another easy mode of ascertaining, is to raise the fruit
level with the footstalk ; if ripe, it will part readily from the tree : this mode of trial is
also applicable to pears. A third criterion is to cut up an apple of the average ripeness
of the crop, and examine if its seeds have become brown or blackish ; if they remain
uncolored, the fruit is not ready for pulling. Immature fruit never keeps so well

Book IV. GATHERING AND TRESERVING. 439

as that which nearly approaches maturity ; it is more apt to shrivel and lose flavor.
Winter apples are left on the trees till there be danger of frost : they are then gathered
on a dry day." {Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.) In no case should fruit be gathered with the
hand when any of the different descriptions of fruit -gatherers {f^s. 141. to 153.) can be
used. With one or other of these, and the use of proper ladders (Jigs. 206. to 209.), every
kind of fruit, from the gooseberry to the walnut, may be gathered without bruising,
soiling, or fingering the fruit, and witliout injuring the tree.

2292. The gathering of seeds should take place in very dry weather, when the seed-
pods, by beginning to open, give indications of perfect rijjeness. Being rubbed out with
the hand, beat with a stick, or passed through a portable threshing-machine, they are then
to be separated by sieves and fanners from their husks, &c. and spread out in a shaded
airy loft till they are so dry as to be fit for putting up in linen or paper bags, or putting
in drawers in tlie seed-room till wanted.

2293. Preserving heads or leaves of vegetables is effected in cellars or sheds, of any
temperature, not lower, nor much above the freezing point. Thus cabbages, endive,
cliiccory, lettuce, &c. taken out of the ground with their main roots in perfectly dry
weather, at the end of the season, and laid in, or partially immersed in sand or dry
earth, in a close shed, cellar, or ice-cold room, will keep through the winter, and be
fit for use till spring, and often till the return of the season of their produce in the
garden. The German gardeners are expert at this practice ; and more especially in
Russia, where the necessities being greater have called forth greater skill and attention.

2294. Floivers and leaves for decoration may be preserved by drying between leaves of
paper, or in ovens ; or imbedded in their natural position in fine dry sand, placed in that
state in an oven. In tliis pot of sand they will keep for years ; but they must not be
taken out till wanted. When at a little distance it will be diflficult to distinguish them from
such as are fresh gathered. A rose is cut when the petals and leaves are perfectly dry,
a little sand is put in the bottom of the flower-pot, the rose is stuck in the sand, and sand
is then slowly sprinkled in till the rose be covered and the pot filled. At Paris and
Milan the more popular flowers are frequently preserved in this way.

2295. Roots are preserved in different ways, according to the object in view. Tuberous
roots, as those of the dahlia, paionia, tuberose, &c. intended to be planted in the suc-
ceeding spring, are preserved through the winter in dry earth, in a temperature rather
under than above what is natural to them. So may the bulbous and tuberous roots of com-
merce, as hyacintlis, tulips, onions, potatoes, &c. ; but for convenience, these are kept either
loose in cool dry shelves or lofts, or the finer sorts in papers, till the season of planting.

2296. Potatoes, turnips, and all similar roots which it is desired to preserve in a dor-
mant or unvegetating state beyond the season of planting, have only to be sunk in pits
to such a depth as that vegetation will not take place. A pit filled with these roots
to vriChin five feet of the surface, and the remainder compactly closed with earth, and
kept quite dry, will keep one or more years in a sound state, and without vegetating.
(Farmers' Mag.) For convenience of using, there should be a number of small pits, or
rather of large pots of roots, so buried at a little distance from each other, as that no
more may be taken up at a time than what can be consumed in a few days. The mould
or compost ground will, in general, be found a convenient scene for this operation ; and,
for a small family, pots contrived with covers, or witli their saucers, used as covers, may be
deeply immersed in a large shaded ridge of earth, to be taken up, one at a time, as
wanted. Grain, apples, and potatoes are kept the whole year in deep pits, in sandy soil,
formed in the village-greens of some parts of Gallicia and Moravia, and in banks and
rocks in Spain. Oldacre informs us, in his account of his mushroom-house {Hort. Tr.
vol. ii. ), that he preserved broccoli in it through the winter ; and Henderson, of Brechin,
makes use of the ice-house for preserving " roots of all kinds till the return of the natural
crop." " By the month of April," he says, " the ice m our ice-house is found to have
subsided four or five feet ; and in this empty room I deposit the vegetables to be pre-
served. After stufiing the vacuities with straw, and covering the surface of the ice with
the same material, I place on it case-boxes, dry ware casks, baskets, &c. ; and fill them
with turnips, carrots, beet-roots, celery, and, in particular, potatoes. By the cold of the
place, vegetation is so much suspended, that all these articles may be thus kept fresh and
uninjured, till they give place to another crop in its natural season."

2297. Green fruUs are generally preserved by pickling or salting, and the operation
is performed by some part of the domestic establishment ; but in some countries it is
made the province of the gardener, who, in Poland, preserves cucumbers and khol-
rabbi by salting, and then immersing them in casks at the bottom of a deep well, where
the water, preserving nearly the same temperature throughout the year, impedes their
decay. It must be confessed, however, that vegetables so preserved are only fit to
be eaten with animal food, as preserved cabbage (t. e. sour-crout,) or other salted
legumes.

2298. Such rijte fruit as may be preserved is generally laid up in lofts and bins, or

Ff 4

440 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

shelves, when in large quantities, and of baking qualities ; but the better sorts of apples
and pears are now preserved in sets of drawers {fig. 279.)> sometimes spread out in
them, at other times wrapt up in papers ; or placed in pots, cylindrical earthen vessels,
among sand, moss, paper, chaff, hay, sawdust, &c. or sealed up in air-tight jars or casks,
and placed in the fruit-cellar. (1704.) The finest pears, as the crasanne and chaumou-
telles, should have their footstalks previously tipped with sealing-wax, as practised in
France and the isles of Jersey and Guernsey.

2299. Hilt's method of keeping pears may be here mentioned. Having prepared a
number of earthenware jars, and a quantity of dry moss (different species of hypnum
and sphagnum), he placed a layer of moss and of pears alternately till the jar was
filled ; a plug was then inserted, and sealed round with melted rosin. These jars were
sunk in dry sand to the depth of a foot ; preferring a deep cellar for keeping them to
any fruit-room.

2300. Miller, after sweating and wiping pears, in which operations he says great care
must be taken not to bruise the fruit, packs them in close baskets, having some wheat-
straw in the bottom and around the sides to prevent bruising, and a lining of thick soft
paper to hinder the musty flavor of the straw from infecting the fruit. Only one
kind of fruit is put in each basket, as the process of maturation is more or less rapid
in different kinds. A covering of paper and straw is fixed on the top, and the basket
is then deposited in a dry room, secure against the access of frost, " and the less air
is let into the room, the better the -fruit will keep." A label should be attached to each
basket, denoting the kind of fruit j for the basket is not to be opened till the fruit be
wanted for use.

2301. James Stewart preserves his choice apples and pears in glazed earthenware jars,
provided with tops or covers. In the bottom of the jars, and between each layer of fruit,
he puts some pure pit-sand, which has been thoroughly dried on a flue. The jars are
kept in a dry airy situation, as cool as possible, but secure from frost. A label on the
jar indicates the kind of fruit ; and when this is wanted or ought to be used, it is taken
from the jars, and placed for some time on the shelves of the fruit-room. The less ripe
fruit is sometimes restored to the jars, but with newly dried sand. In this way he pre-
serves colmars and other fine French pears till April ; the terling till June ; and many
kinds of apples till July, the skin remaining smooth and plump. Others who also em-
ploy earthenware jars, wrap each fruit in paper, and, in place of sand, use bran.
{JEd. Encyc. art. Hort.)

2302. Ingram, at Torry, in Scotland, finds that for winter pears two apartments are
requisite, a colder and a warmer ; but the former, though cold, must be free from damp.
From it the fruit is brought into the warmer room, as wanted ; and by means of increased
temperature, maturation is promoted, and the fruit rendered delicious and mellow.
Chatunontelles, for example, are placed in close drawers, so near to a stove, that the tem-
perature may constantly be between 60° and 70^ Fahr. For most kinds of fruit, how-
ever, a temperature equal to 55° is found sufficient. Tlie degree of heat is accurately
determined by keeping small thermometers in several of the fruit-drawers, at different
distances from the stove. The drawers are about six inches deep, three feet long, and
two broad ; they are made of hard wood, fir being apt to spoil the flavor of the fruit.
They are frequently exanuned in order to give air, and to observe the state of the fruit, it
being wiped when necessary. Ingram remarks, that, in Scotland particularly, late
pears should have as much of the tree as possible, even although some frost should
supervene ; such as ripen freely, on the other hand, are plucked rather before they reach
maturity.

2303. Winter apples are laid in heaps, and covered with mats or straw, or short
or grass well dried. Here they lie for a fortnight or more, to sweat, as it is called, or
to discharge some of their juice ; after which the skin contracts in a certain degree.
They are next wiped dry with a woollen cloth, and placed in the fruit-room. Sometimes,
when intended for winter dessert fruit, they are made to undergo a farther sweating ;
and are again wiped and picked : they are then laid singly on the shelves, and covered
with paper. Here they are occasionally turned, and such as show any symptoms of decay
are immediately removed.

2304. The sweating of fruit is entirely disapproved by some, who affirm, that it thereby
acquires a bad flavor, or, at any rate, that the natural flavor of the fruit is deteriorated,
and that it gets dry and mealy. They consider it better to carry the fruit directly from
the tree, carefully avoiding all sort of bruising, and to lay it thinly on the shelves of the
fruit-room ; afterwards wiping each fruit, if necessary. The room, they say, should be
dry, and the only use that should be made of a stove, is to take off the damp. Such
is the prevailing practice at the present time. From what we have observed in the
practice of such as are successful in preserving bread corn, and other seeds, as acorns,
nuts, &c. we are inclined to think that sweating, by getting rid of a quantity of moisture,
must, to a certain extent, be a beneficial practice. Marshall, and most French gar-

Book IV. GATHERING AND PRESERVING. 441

doners, and English gardeners of the last century, are in favor of the practice, and those
of the present day are against it.

2305. Jihigkt's experience in jrreservingJruitSj with the rationale of his practice, is given
in the following valuable extract : —

Fruits which have grown upon standard-trees, in climates sufficiently warm and favorable to bring them
to maturity, are generally more firm in their texture, and more saccharine, and therefore more capable
of being long preserved sound, than such as have been produced by wall-trees ; and a dry and warm
atmosphere also operates very favorably to the preservation of fruits, under certain circumstances, but
imder other circumstances, very injuriously : for the action of those elective attractions which occasion
the decay and decomposition of fruits, is suspended by the operation of different causes, in different
fruits, and even in the same fruit, in different states of maturity. When a grape is growing upon the vine,
and till it has attained perfect maturity, it is obviously a living body, and its preservation dependent upon
the powers of life ; but when the same fruit has some time passed its state of perfect maturity, and has
begun to shrivel, the powers of life are probably no longer, or at most very feeble, in action ; and the
fruit appears to be then preserved by the combined operation of its cellular texture, the antiseptic powers
of the saccharine matter it contains, and by the exclusion of air by its external skin ; for if that be de-
stroyed, it immediately perishes. If longer retained in a dry and warm temperature, the grape becomes
gradually converted into a raisin ; and its component parts are then only held in combination by the
ordinary laws of chemistry. *

A noripareille apple or a catillac, a d'auch, or bergamotte de bugi pear, exhibits all the characters of a
living vegetable body long after it has been taken from the tree, and appears to possess all the powers of
other similar vegetable bodies, except that of growing, or vitally uniting to itself other matter ; and the
experiments which I shall proceed to state, prove that the pear is operated upon by external causes nearly
in the same manner after it has been detached from the tree, as when it remains vitally united to it.

Most of the fine French jxars, particularly the d'auch, are much subject, when cultivated in a cold and
unfavorable climate, to crack before they become full grown upon the trees, and, consequently, to decay
before their proper season or state of maturity ; and those which present these defects in my garden are
therefore always taken immediately from the trees to a vinery, in which a small fire is constantly kept in
winter, and they are there placed at a small distance over its flue. Thus circumstanced, a part of my
crop of auch pears ripen, and will perish, if not used, in November, when the remainder continue soimd ~
and firm till March or April, or later ; and the same warm temperature which preserves the grape in a
slightly shrivelled state, till January, rapidly accelerates the maturity, and consequent decay of the pear.
By gathering a part of my swan's egg pears early in the season (selecting such as are most advanced
towards maturity), and subjecting them, in the manner above mentioned, to artificial heat, and by retard-
ing the maturity of the later part of the produce of the same trees, I have often had that fruit upon my
table nearly in an equal state of prfection from the end of October to the beginning of February ; but the
most perfect, in every respect, nave been those which hav6 been exposed in the vinery to light and arti-
ficial heat, as soon as gathered.

2306. The most successful method of preserving pears and apples, which I have hitherto tried, has been
placing them in glazed earthen vessels, each containing about a gallon (called, provincially, steens), and
surrounding each fruit with paper ; but it is probable that the chaff" of oats, if free from moisture or any
offensive smell, might be used with advantage instead of paper, and with much less expense or trouble.
These vessels, being perfect cylinders, about a foot each in height, stand very conveniently upon each
other, and thus present the means of preserving a large quantity of fruit in a very small room ;
and if the spaces between the top of one vessel, and the base of another, be filled with a cement
composed of two parts of the curd of skimmed milk, and one of lime, by which the air will be
excluded, the later kinds of apples and pears will be preserved with little change in their appearance,
and without any danger of decay from October till February and March. A dry and cold situation, in
which there is little change of temperature, is the best for the vessels ; but I have found the merits of the
pears to be greatly increased by their being taken from the vessels about ten days before they were wanted
for use, and being kept in a warm room ; for warmth at this, as at other periods, accelerates the maturity
of the pear. The same agent accelerates its decay also ; and a warmer climate cannot contribute to the
superior success of the French gardeners ; which probably arises only from the circumstance of their fruit
being the produce of standard or espalier trees.

2307. Preserving ripe fruit hy retaining it on the tree, or on detached shoots. Some
fruits may be preserved through the winter by allowing them to hang on the tree in a
moderate climate, somewhat above the freezing point. Vines are sometimes so preserved ;
and Diel mentions that frequently on the nonpareil pippin, planted in pots, and kept under
glass, without any fire-heat, he has had the fruit hanging on the tree till the ripening of the
succeeding crop. Arkwright (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 97.), by late forcing, retains plump
grapes on his vines till the beginning of May, and even later, till the maturity of his
early crops. In this way he gathers grapes every day in the year. By covering some
sorts of cherry, plum, gooseberry, and currant trees, either on walls or as bushes, with
mats, the fruit of the red and white currant, and of the thicker-skinned gooseberries,
may be preserved to Christmas and later. Grapes, in the open air, may be preserved in
the same manner ; and peaches and nectarines may, in Uiis way, be kept a fortnight hang-
ing on the trees after they are ripe.

2308. Presennng ripe fruit in air-tight vessels, in a lotv temperature, is perhaps the most
effectual and certain mode, at least with the more hardy fruits. Apples and pears, placed
in jars or pipkins in which butter had been kept, have been closely sealed up, and placed
in a cellar, in a temperature never below 32*', and not exceeding 42", for a year, and
found in perfect order for eating. (Braddick, in Hort. Trans, vol. iii. ; Encyc. Brit.
Sujyp. art. Food.) ,. . . .

2309. Preserving fruU, by gathering it before it is ripe, and then retarding its npemng.
Retarding the wasting or decay of fruit or vegetables gathered for use, is effected by
burjing them in boxes in the soil, immersing them in deep wells, or, as already stated,
placing them in an ice-house, or an ice-cold room. Ripe peaches may thus be kept a week,
and other fruits longer ; pears, cauliflowers, salads, &c. preserved in a fresh state for
some days, and potatoes and other tubers and bulbs for a long period, both fresh and
without growing.

443 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

' 2310. Seeds. When seeds are to be preserved longer than the usual period, or when
they are to be sent to a great distance, various devices have been adopted to preserve their
vitality. Sugar, salt, tallow, cotton, sawdust, sand, clay, paper, &c. have been adopted
with different degrees of success.

2311. Livingston, who, from a long residence in China, is well informed on the horticul-
ture of the Chinese, states that, " from April to October, rain is so frequent in China, and
the air is generally so moist, that it is nearly impossible to preserve seeds. If excluded
from the air they are quickly covered with mildew, and when exposed, no less certainly
destroyed by insects." He proposes to dry Chinese seeds by means of sulphuric acid, in
Leslie's manner, which he found dried " small seeds in two days, and the largest seeds
in less than a week. Seeds thus dried," he observes, " may be afterwards preserved in
a vegetating state for any necessary length of time by keeping them in an airy situation
in common brown paper, and occasionally exposing them to the air in a fine day, espe-
cially after damp weather. This method will succeed with all the larger mucilaginous
seeds. Very small seeds, berries, and oily seeds may probably require to be kept
in sugar, or among currants or raisins." (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 184., and the article
Cold, in Suj)]). Encyc. Brit. ) It is probable many seeds might be preserved and sent to
a distance with safety, if, after being thoroughly matured and dried, they were enveloped
or baked into a large ball of loam. Such a mode, at all events, being suggested by na-
ture, deserves a trial.

2312. Nuts sent from the East Indies, compactly packed in a barrel of clay, and the head of the cask firmlv
put on, have made a partial developement of their parts during the voyage, and still grown after their arrival.

Linmeus, writing to John Ellis says, " Fresh seeds may be conveyed in the following manner : — Fill
a glass vessel with seeds, so deposited in dry sand as not to touch each other, that they may freely
perspire through the sand, laying a bladder or piece of paper, over the mouth of the vessel. This glass
must be placed in one of larger dimensions, the intermediate space, of about two inches all round, being
quite filled with three parts nitre, one of common sea-salt, and two of sal-ammoniac, all powdered and
mixed, but not dried. This mixture will produce a constant cold, so as to prevent any injury to the
seeds from external heat, as has been proved by experience." {Corresp. TV. Linn. 110.) Ellis very cor-
rectly answers Linnasus, that salts of no kind will generate cold air during dissolution, and that
afterwards the mixture, whether dry or fluid, will soon acquire the same temperature with the sur-
rounding air. He imagines the true use of salts to be to prevent putrefactive fermentation in the
seeds. After trying a great variety of experiments on seeds and nuts sent to America, and even China,
he found that sweating acorns, then letting them become perfectly . dry, and enveloping them in
melted tallow, or a mixture of melted tallow and wax, was the best mode. The tallow must not be hotter
than blood heat when the seeds or nuts are bedded in it ; each must be kept separate ; and the greatest
care had that they are thoroughly dried before being enveloped. Wax alone and gum he also found suc-
cessful ; but, on the whole, he found tallow best. Acorns kept a year in it, grew vigorously when taken
out and planted. {Corresp. of Linn. p. 119. et seq.)

2313. J. Howeson, when in Bengal, wrought a variety of seeds into a thick mucilage of gum Arabic, in
the same way that caraway seeds are wrought into dough in making gingerbread. These he afterwards
divided into small cakes, and placed them in the sun, until perfectly dry ; but as a number of the seeds
still appeared on their surface, he dipped the cakes in a thin solution of gum, until the whole were com-
pletely covered. On looking into a trunk, twelve years after his return to this country, he found a cake
containing babul, or gum Arabic tree seeds, which, having separated, by dissolving the cake in water, he
sowed on a hot-bed, when the proportion of three out of four seeds became healthy plants. He adds,
" while I was in India, none of the methods then in use were effectual for bringing out garden-seeds from
England in a sound state, even although enclosed in varnished cases, and sealed bottles. It appeared to
me, that the air which occupied the spaces between the seeds contained a sufficient quantity of water in
solution to produce, during the ship's passage through the warm latitudes, a musty fermentation, which
inevitably destroys the living principle in seeds. It was from this view of the subject, that I was led
totally to exclude air, by giving to each its own envelope." {Caled. Mem. iii. 238.)

2314. Roots, cuttings, grafts, and 2yeren7iial plants iti general are preserved, till wanted,
in earth or moss, moderately moist, and shaded from the sun. The same principle is
followed in packing them to be sent to a distance. The roots or root-ends of the plants
or cuttings are enveloped in balls of clay or loam, wrapped round with moist moss, and
air is admitted to the tops. In this way orange-trees are sent from Genoa to any part
of Europe and North America in perfect preservation ; and cuttings of plants sent any
distance which can be accomplished in eight months, or even longer with some kinds.
Scions of the apple, pear, &c. if enveloped in clay, and wrapt up in moss or straw, and
then placed in a portable ice-house so as to prevent a greater heat than 32* from pene-
trating to them, would, there can be little doubt, keep a year, and might thus be sent
from England to Australasia or China. Knight found that the buds of fruit-trees might
be preserved in a vegetating state, and sent to a considerable distance, by reducing the
leaf-stalks to a short length, and enclosing the shoot in a double fold of cabbage-leaf,
bound close together at each end, and then enclosing the package in a letter. " It was
found advantageous to place the under sui-face of the cabbage-leaf inwards, by which the
enclosed branch was supplied with humidity, that being the perspiring surface of the
leaf, the other surface being nearly or wholly impervious to moisture." {Hart. Trans.
vol. iv. p. 403.)

2315. Packing and conveying plants inpots. Plants in pots are packed among moss
in boxes, with their tops covered with a net, and sent to any distance where the climate
will not injure them, and where water is supplied. Where the climate is severe, they
are covered with a glazed tegument, and thus glass cases or temporary hot-houses are
employed in ships to carry tender plants from this country to the colder colonies, and to

Book IV. FINAL PRODUCTS DESIRED OF GARDENS. 443

bring plants from the warmer colonies home. Stove-plants are also transported from
France, Holland, and Hamburgh, into Germany and Russia, in waggons with glass
covers.

2316. In packing plants for importation, much more care is requisite than has in general been bestowed
on the subject. ''^It is thought enough," Ldndley observes {Hort. Trans, v. 192.), " to tear a plant from its
native soil, to plant it in fresh earth, to fasten it in a wooden case, and put it on board a vessel." Nothing
can be more erroneous : preparatory for packing, the plants sliould have their roots well established in
pots or boxes, which may, in woody kinds, require from one to three months. Boxes with proper per.
forations in the bottom are better than pots, because less liable to break, and of less weight When the
period for embarking them arrives, they should be placed in wooden cases, the tops of which must be
capable of being opened, and should slope both ways, like the roof of a double green-house. These cases
must be furnished with a tarpawling, fixed along their tops, and sufficiently large, when unrolled, to cover
them completely, so as to protect the plants from being damaged by the salt-water dashing over them in
rough weather. It cannot be expected that heavy cases should meet with very gentle treatment on ship-
board J and it is certain they mil be handled in the roughest manner by watermen, carters, and custom-
liouse officers, after they have arrived in port. The materials, therefore, of which they are made, ought
to be of a very strong description, and the joints of the lower part either secured by iron bands, or well
dovetailed together. The person in charge of the cases on board should have directions never to ex-
clude them from air and light in fine weather, unless to protect them from the cold, as the vessel makes
the land, and after she is in port, or during high winds, or especially when the seamen are washing the
decks ; but in foul weather to close the lids down, and to unrol the tarpawling over the latter, so as to
exclude the sea-spray effectually. If, notwithstanding these precautions, saline particles should become
encrusted upon the leaves and stems of the plant, it is necessary that the former should be removed as
soon and as carefully as possible, with fresh water and a sponge, otherwise the salt will soon kiU
them. The quantity of water the plants receive must be determined by what can be spared ; so that no
other direction for its application can be given, than to keep the mould just moist The requisite supply
of water must also depend much upon the way in which the cases are drained. The best manner in
which this can be effected, is by causing holes about half an inch in diameter to be bored through the
bottom of the cases and pots. Much mischief being occasionally done to collections by monkeys and
parroquets on board the vessels, it is highly necessary that means should be taken to guard against their
attacks.

2317. Collections are not unfrequently injured after they arrive in this country, by the pots being shaken so
violently as to be deprived of a large portion of their mould. Nothing can well be more destructive of
vegetable life than this, which should be prevented by the pots being made square, so as to fit accurately
into the bottom of the outer case. There then could be no difficulty in keeping them steady ; and if they
were fasktened down by cross pieces of wood, they would be secured still more completely. In addition,
the surface of the mould ought to be covered deeply with coarse moss, or other similar substance (not
grass), which might be secured by packthread passed frequently across the box from its sides, or by slender
laths, which would be less Ukely to become rotten than packthread. By this means, evaporation of the
watery particles which are necessary to the existence of the plants, proceeds much less rapidly than when
the mould is exposed ; and the latter has an additional security against being shaken out of the pots.
When it happens that pots are not to be procured, the want of them must be supplied by the collection
being planted in earth in the cases themselves, their bottom being previously strewed to the depth of all
inch or two with fragments of earthenware or bits of wood. In such cases, it is particularly necessary
that the mould should be securely fastened down.

2318. Parasitical orchidece, or, as they are commonly called, air plants, may be transported safely to any
distance, by being packed loosely in moss, and put into boxes so constructed that the plants may be ex-
posed to a free admission of air,"but protected from the sea-water.

2319. Bulbs travel most securely if they are packed in paper or canvass bags, they having been previously
dried, till all the moisture in their outer coats is evaporated. Dry sand is a good medium for placmg
them in, if opportunities should not have occurred of giving them the necessary exposure to the sim.
But minute bulbs, such as those of ixias, gladioluses, oxaUses, and others of a similar kind, only require
to be folded in separate little parcels without any previous preparation. Terrestrial orchidese should be
transplanted when in flower, and not when their roots are in a state of rest

2320. Any woody or bony seeds, or capsules, that may have been procured should be buried among the
mould in which plants are potted ; or any of those seeds, the juices of which become rancid soon after
gathering, such as those of the guttiferese, magnoliacea;, sterculiace^, &c. Camellia-seeds which are not
readily transported, if sown in mould in China, will have become seedling plants before they reach this
country. Acoms and walnuts may be conveyed from hot countries much better in this way than in any
other. Palms, too, are better sent in this way than in bags or paper. The plants in all cases, if possible,
should have numbers punched upon small pieces of thin sheet-lead, and fastened round the subjects to
which they belong with fine iron or copper wire. When such lead is not to be procxured, little wooden
tallies should be used instead. {Hort. Trans, v. 194.)

2321. Packing and transporting roots of plants, or entire plants in a dormant state, is a
very simple operation. When the distance does not exceed a week's journey, tliey are
packed in straw, and covered with mats : if a longer period is required, the roots are en-
veloped in earth or moss ; but very moist moss is not desirable, as it occasions mouldiness,
and rots off the bark of the roots when it begins to dry. Regard in all cases must be had
to the kind of plant, season of the year, distance, time, and mode of carriage.

Chap. IV.

Opo-nlions relative to the final Products desired of Gardens, and Garden-scenery.

2322. The object of gardening is certain vegetable productions, and certain beauties and
effects in respect to design and taste. We now propose to notice the general principles
by which the gardener ought to be guided, in directing the operations for the attainmeirt
of these ends ; the mode of conducting the business of a garden in an orderly manner ;
and the leading points of attention, requisite to ensure the beauty and order of garden-
scenery.

Sect. I. Of the Vegetable Products desired of Gardens.

2323. The vegetable productions of gardens are fruits, seeds, roots, stems, and stalks,
Icavts, flowers, barks, woods, and entire plants.

444 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

2324. Fruits. All plants require to attain the age of puberty, before they will pro-
duce fruits or seeds. In annuals, as in the melon, this happens in a few weeks or
months ; in trees, as the pear, it requires several years. The first object is to induce the
production of blossom-buds ; the next, to induce the blossoms to set or fecundate ; and
the third, to swell and ripen the fruit. New fruits are procured from seeds properly pro-
duced and selected ; continued in trees by grafting or budding ; in perennials, by slips or
runners ; in annuals, by seeds. The quality of fruits is improved by abundant supplies
of nourishment, by increased air, light, and heat, by pruning, thinning, and other
means ; their bulk by moisture ; and their flavor by withholding moisture and increasing
light, heat, and air. Fruit is preserved by placing it in a low dry temperature, burying
it in the earth, or drying it in the sun.

2325. Seeds are the essential part of fruits, or constitute the entire fruit, and are pro-
duced on the same general principle. Tliose produced for culinary purposes in garden-
ing are chiefly from annuals, and used green, as the pea, bean, Indian cress, &c. ; but
seeds of almost all garden-vegetables are occasionally produced for the sake of propagat-
ing the species. Here attention is requisite to make choice of a proper stock, and to
place it so as not to be in danger of impregnation from other allied species, which might
hybridise the progeny ; to thin out superfluous blossoms ; to remove leafy or barren exuber-
ances, or bulbs, tubers, or other productions which might lessen the nourishment devoted
to the production of the seed. Seeds of common forest-trees are not generally subjected
to so careful management as those of herbaceous vegetables or rarer trees ; but, wherever
the best progeny are desired, the same practices are applicable. Light, air, and a free
exposure, with dry, warm weather, are essential to the proper ripening of seeds. They
are preserved in dry, cool temperatures, like fruits ; and, if perfectly excluded from air
and moisture, will never vegetate ; but the vital principle of most seeds is but of short
duration.

2326. Roots, to be produced in perfection, require a deep, well pulverised, pliable,
porous soil, and moderate moisture. The plants should, in all cases, be prevented from
bearing seeds, should have their roots thinned where practicable, and their leaves care-
fully preserved, and fully exposed to the sun, air, and weather. Roots are preserved by
burying in the earth ; by being placed in low, dry temperatures, like fruits; or by being kept
dry, or dried by art ; or having their buds scooped out, when not intended for vegetation.

2327. Leaf-stalks are increased in size in the same way as roots, by a rich, deep, well
pulverised soil, by preventing the plant from producing blossoms, or even flower-stalks,
and by thinning out weak or crowded leaves. Leaf-stalks are blanched to lessen their
acrimony, as in the celery, asparagus, and chardoon, or used in a green state, as in the
rhubarb and angelica. They are preserved to a certain extent in cool, dry, but well ven-
tilated situations ; some sorts, as celery, similarly to roots. The stems of some plants, as
the asparagus, are used like leaf-stalks.

2328. Leaves. Abundant nourishment supplied by the usual means ; abundant
moisture, and room for expansion of growth ; free exposure to light and air ; thinning, and
preventing the appearance of flower-stalks, will in general ensure large succulent leaves,
which are sometimes used separately and green, as in the spinage and white beet ; in tufted
or compact heads, as in the cabbage and lettuce, or blanched, as in the endive. Leaves
of the headed or tufted sorts may be preserved similarly to leaf-stalks ; others, as those of
most salads, require to be used immediately ; while most herbs are dried, before being
used, either on small kilns or ovens, or in the sun, at the lime the plant begins to blossom.

2329. Flowers. These are produced for culinary purposes, medicine, and ornament.
The principal of those grown for culinary purposes are the cauliflower and broccoli, and
here the first object is to produce a large and vigorous plant, by abundant nourishment
and moisture in a temperate, moist, but not over-warm climate. Free room for the roots
and leaves to extend on every side must be given, and the situation should be open and
exposed to the full light of the atmosphere ; though, if in very hot weather the direct in-
fluence of the sun's rays be impeded by a screen at a moderate distance, there will be less
risk of over-rapid growth. "When the plant is fully grown, the flower appears, and, in
the case of the sorts mentioned, is gathered whilst the fasciculus of blossom is in embryo.
Such flowers may be preserved, on the same principle as stalks and headed leaves, for a
moderate period. Other flowers, used for culinary purposes, as those of the nasturtium,
caper, &c. for pickling, require less attention, the object being flavor rather tban magnitude.

2330. Flowers for medical jmrposes should have no culture whatever ; for, in proportion
as they are increased in bulk they are diminished in virtue. For ornament, flowers are
enlarged, increased in number, rendered double, and variegated in a thousand ways, by
excess of nourishment, peculiar nourishment, and raising from selected and curiously im-
pregnated seed : these are called florists' flowers. Other flowers are grown for ornament,
with a moderate degree of culture, which enlarges their parts generally : such are border-
flowers. Others are grown, as much as possible, without producing any change in their
parts, as in botanical collections, whether hardy or exotic.

Book IV. SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS. 445

2331. Barks produced by British gardening are applied only to one purpose, that of
tanning. Little or no culture is ever given expressly to increase or improve the bark ;
but abundant nourishment and all the requisites of vegetable growth will increase that
part of the plant in common with others. Moss, or any other cortical parasites, should be
removed. Bark is best separated from the wood, when the sap is ascending with the
greatest vigor, late in spring.

2332. Woods. The production of timber, and coppice-wood or small timber, is an
important and extensive branch of gardening. Timber is propagated in various ways,
but the principal sorts generally from seed, either sown where it is finally to arrive at
maturity, or in nurserj^-gardens, and transplanted into prepared or unprepared ground.
Tlie growth of all timber may be greatly increased by culture, and especially by deeply
turning over, and pulverising the soil previously to planting or sowing, and stirring it,
and removing weeds afterwards. The timber is also produced in the most useful, or in
any desired form, as in trunks or branches, straight or crooked, or in spray or small shoots,
by pruning. But as it is chiefly desired in the form of a straight stem or trunk, pruning
is particularly useful in this respect, especially when joined to judicious thinning, to al-
low of the beneficial effects of air, and the motion produced by wind. Though pruning
and pulverising the soil are undoubtedly of great use in hastening the growth of trees
when young, and consolidating their timber as they grow old, yet planting trees in a more
rich, warm, and moist soil than is natural to them, is to be avoided. The timber of the
Scotch pine and the oak, grown in deep fertile valleys, or in alluvial depositions, is found
to be less hard, tough, and durable, than when grown in colder situations and thinner
soils. This doctrine applies more especially to tlie resinous tribe of timber-trees, which,
as everj' one knows, thrive best in cold regions, produced by elevation in warm countries,
as in the Alps of Italy, or by high latitudes, as in Russia and Sweden. Where timber
is growii for fuel, the more rapidly it is made to grow, whether by culture or the choice
of species (as the willow, robinia, &:c.), the greater will be the produce and profit witliin
a given period. The preservation of timber from fungi, insects, dry rot, and natural de-
cay is best effected by immersion in water or in earth, or complete desiccation in the open
air. (Sujyj). Encyc. Brit. art. Dry Rot.)

2333. The entire plant is produced in gardening, for ornament, in herbs, shrubs, and
trees, but especially in exotics; sometimes for culinary purposes, as in the fungi and
fuci ; for purposes of general economy, as in hedge-plants ; for shelter and shade, in
hardy trees ; and for picturesque effect in trees and shrubs, in parks and pleasure-
grounds. In general, the object of culture for this purpose ought to be to give each in-
dividual plant sufficient nourishment and space fully to expand itself, and, as it were,
show and express its nature or character : but though this will often apply in hot-houses
and artificial gardens, it is in general but partially accomplished, even in picturesque scenery,
in the open air, where the object is connection and grouping of different objects, rather
than the display of single ones j and it is inconsistent with the formation of hedges, rows,
strips, and masses.

Sect. II. Of the Suj)erirUendence and Management of Gardens.

2334. Whenever the culture and management of a garden requires more than the labor
of one man, one of those employed must necessarily be appointed to arrange the labors of
the rest, and, in fact, to establish a general system of management. It is only under such
a system that the performance of operations can be procured in the proper season, and the
objects in view successfully attained, and at a moderate expenditure.

2335. On being appointed to a situation as head gardener, the first thing to be done,
in that capacity, is to survey the extent of the field of operations, and to ascertain any
peculiar products or objects desired by the master, so as to determine tlie number of per-
manent hands that will be required. Then the number of implements of every kind must
be fixed on and procured, and an estimate formed of the occasional hands, men or women,
that may be necessary as extraordinary assistants at particular seasons. If only two or
three permanent men are required, then one of them should be appointed foreman, to act
as master during absence or sickness, and to have constantly the special charge of the hot-
houses, or forcing and exotic departments. If, however, the situation is of such extent
as to require a dozen permanent hands or upwards, then it will generally be found best
to appoint a foreman to each department ; as one to the artificial climates of the kitchen-
garden, another to the open garden, one to the flower-garden and shrubbery, pleasure-
ground, &c. (when there are plant-stoves and collections of florists' flowers, these de-
partments should be divided), and one to the woods and plantations, unless there is a
regular forester directly under the control of the master. To each of these foremen a
limited number of permanent men should be assigned, and when occasion requires,
assistance should be allowed them, either by common laborers or women, or by a
temporary transfer of hands from any of the other departments from which they can be
spared.

446 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part II.

2336. Economical an-angements. The next thing is to fix on the hours of labor and
of rest, the amount of wages, and regulations as to board, lodging, tc. Tlie hours of
labor ought to be at least one hour per day less than those for common laborers (who
require no mind), in order to allow time for studying the science of the art to be
practised. The amount of fines should also be fixed on at the same time : as for absence
at the hours of going to labor ; for defects in the p>^rformance of duty of various sorts,
as putting by a tool without cleaning it, being found without a knife or apron, or not
knowing the name of a plant, &c. ^ A set of general maxims and rules of conduct
should be drawn up by the master (for which the succeeding section will afford some
hints), and printed, and the amount of fine specified at the end of each rule. The fines
may either be applied to some general purpose, or returned by equal distribution quarterly.

2337. The system of keejnng accounts may next be determined on, and this, in gar-
dening, is very simple. The books necessary are, the time-book, the cash-book, and the
forest or jylantation book,

2338. The time-book is a large folio volume, ruled so as to read across both pages,
with columns titled, as in the specimen in the next page. In this the master inserts the
name of every hand ; and the foreman of each department inserts the time in days, or
proportions of a day, which each person under liis care has been at work, and tlie par-
ticular work he or she has been engaged in. At the end of each week the master sums
up the time from the preceding Saturday or Monday, to the Friday or Saturday inclu-
sive ; the sum due or to be advanced to each man is put in one column, and when the
man receives it he writes the word received in the column before it, and signs his name
as a receipt in the succeeding column. The time-book, therefore, will show what every
man has been engaged in during every hour in the year for which he has been paid,
and it will also contain receipts for every sum, however trifling, which has been paid by
the gardener for garden-labor. In short, it would be difficult to contrive a book more
satisfactory for both master and servant than the time-book, as it prevents, as far as can
well be done, the latter from deceiving either himself or his employer, and remains an
authentic indisputable record of work done, and of vouchers for money paid during the
whole period of the head gardener's services. In laying out grounds in a distant part
of the country, where upwards of two hundred men were employed under one foreman,
we have had their tiine, employment, and payments recorded, and receipts taken, in this
way, and found it an effectual bar to every thing doubtful or disagreeable. .

2339. The next book is the cash-book, (see next page,) which may be a common quarto or octavo book,
with horizontal lines running across both pages ; Dr. and Cr. columns for cash on the left-hand page ; and
the right-hand page left blank for signatures. The cash-book may be finally balanced once a-year, or
oftener, and, if requisite, the sums received from the woods and plantations can be taken out and added
together, to show the amount of profit by that department. In small gardens, this is the only book that
gardeners in general require to keep ; but our business here is to show what belongs to first-rate gardens.

2340. The forest-book, (see next page,) where that department is not an entirely separate concern, may
be simply what, in Italian book-keeping, is called a waste-book. The size may be quarto, with a column
for cash to each page, and the intention of the book is to serve as a record for all bargains for the sale of
timber, fuel, bark, or the felling of timber, grubbing, planting, &c. "When the money is received for any
such sale, it is entered in the cash-book ; as paid for work done, it is entered in the time-book. In very
extensive concerns it may be necessary to open accounts for particular woods or plantations, as well as for
individuals who become purchasers of timber, bark, fuel, charcoal, &c. j in such cases it is hardly
necessary to observe, that recourse is to be had to the common ledger of merchants.

2341. Substitutes for books. "VVTien a man acting as gardener, forester, or foreman over
a number of laborers, can neither read, nor write, he may keep an account of their time,
money, and a journal of work done, in various ways, and among others as follows : —

For men's time he may take seven small flower-pots for the seven days of the week and set them in order
on a shelf. In each pot put as many bits of sticks as there are men employed, and a different kind of
wood for each man ; and then cut each stick with four edges or sides. To prevent mistakes as to the in-
dividual men the different woods represent, apply the names of the woods to the men, and this from
first hiring them, (" John Davies, I shall call you Lime-tree, and here is your stick," &c.) and always after-
wards when speaking to them. To note their time on the sticks, let a corner notch denote one entire day ;
a cut on one face, one quarter; on two faces, or half round the stick, two quarters ; or three sides, four
quarters; and on four sides, or a single notch and one side, five quarters, and so on. When pay night
comes, take one kind of wood out of each of the pots, reckon the notches and cuts, and adding them
together, call the man — " Lime-tree, your time is five days," &c.

To keep a cash-account, have three bags for gold, silver, and copper, and diffbrent-colored stones or
shells, &c. in each, to represent sovereigns, shillings, &c. Then have three pots for payments, answering
to the Cr. /. s. d. columns in a cash-account ; the bags answering to the Dr. columns. Then, for every
real transaction make a counter-transaction between the bags and pots, &c. The rest is obvious.

To keep a ledger, for each man as represented by a sort of wood, or each object as represented by a bit of
itself, &c. keep bags and pots, and effect counter-transactions, &c.

To keep a journal of operations, for each man devote seven pots for a week, or twenty-eight for a month,
&c. Then suppose you wish to note what Lime-tree is doing on Monday, put in his pot a bit of some-
thing taken from the place where he is at work, or the things he is at work with ; thus, if he is at work with
tan or gravel, a little of each in a paper ; pruning, a twig ; mowing, a little grass ; watering, a bit of
ins or other water-plant; or on a journey, a leaf of wayfaring-tree or a little road-grit; digging, a leaf or
twig from some noted tree in that compartment, &c. &c. These visible memoranda will, to a man whose
memory is unencumbered by written signs, readily recall operations, and enable him after months to
recount, in the order in which it was executed, the work done by himself or the men under his care. As
farm-bailiff's are often very iUiterate, it might also be tried with them, and would at all events serve to
occupy and amuse some descriptions of masters and mistresses.

Book IV.

SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS.

447

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Agreed with B. Bulhead and
A. Swan to stock up White
Knight's copse, and to stack
the roots, and to \>c paid for
every hundred of poles 2s., for
every hundred of faggots .Ts.,
and for every cubic yard of
rcHits neatly ])ut into stacks
2s. Gd. Acfvances to be ma<le
at my option. The work to be
completed by the 1st of Feb.
under a penalty of 51. 5s.
(Signed) B. BULHEAD.
A. SWAN.

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Sold Eben. Woodward 500
poles of popliir and bircli
from Rook's Nest copse, to bi'
taken away by him, and then
paid for at the rate of 25».
per hundred, amount

Sold Widow Layabout for her
oven, a lot of rotten spray in
Maiden's Dingle copse, to be
removed in three months;
credit nine months, and tlien
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448

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part II.

2342. The titne, cash, and forest books, and, in common cases, the two first, will answer
every purpose as to money matters in private gardens : where gardening is practised as a
trade, as in nurseries, &c. of course the routine books common to trades become necessary.

2343. The additional books which a gardener may require as official records in his office
are a journal of sowing and reaping, trenching-book, produce-book, and weather-book ; or
some of these books may be very well supplied by tables of common folio or quarto size.
The sowing and reajnng-book may be an octavo blank book, with a column for the date
on each page. On the left hand page, the time and place of sowing or planting is
recorded, and when the crop is fit to gather, that circumstance is noticed in the opposite
page, and in an opposite line, thus —

1821.

Sowing or Planting.

1821.

Gathering the Crop.

AprU 4.

Planted Mazagan beans in Q. No. 1. A.

Sowed spinage between the rows of beans in ditto.

July 23.
May 29.

Gathered the first dish of beans.
Gathered part of the spinage.

2344. Or a cropping table may be used 413

for this purpose (fig. 4 1 3. ) in which there
may be two vertical columns for each of
the principal crops sown in gardens, and
horizontal lines for each month. Then
suppose frame peas, sown in Novem-
ber, begin a line on the left hand co-
lumn, headed j^eas, opposite November,
and write the variety y*rame in the right
hand column ; and when the peas are
fit to gather, trace the line diagonally
down to the horizontal line representing
the month {May, in the figure) in which
they ripen. This is a very simple mode,
as it presents the sowing and reaping
<rf the whole of the principal kitchen-
garden crops at one view. A few large sheets, ruled in this manner, might be bound
together ; one page would serve for a year, and when a few years were recorded, the
whole would present a rich assemblage of facts to suggest ideas as to cropping.

234.5. The trenching-book. Another very requisite book in extensive gardens is the
trenching-book, which is simply a thin octavo volume, in which a page is devoted to each
compartment of the kitchen-garden or nursery, or to any ground frequently trenched; and
in this column the date of the trencliing and the depth is recorded. The object is to
ensure fresh soil at the surface, by never trenching twice in succession to the same depth.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

March

AprU

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

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1817 to
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Compartment, No. 2. A.

1817 to
1820.

Compartment, No. 2. B.

1817
April.
1§18
September.
1819
January.

1820
October.

Trenched two spits after asparagus for turnips.

1817

February.

1818

1819

1820
August.

Trenched two spits, and dunged for stKawbenies.

Strawberries.

Strawberries.

Trenched three spits, and weU dunged.

2346. Or a trenching-table may be easily arranged thus : —

Com. No. 1.

Com. No. 2.

Com. No. 3.

Com. No. 4.

Slip, No. 5.

A

B

C

D

A

B

C

D

a|b

c

D

A

B C

1

D

A

B

c

D

1817.

4

3

2

1

1

3

1

1

4

1

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

3

1

1

1818.

3

2

3

2

4

_

4

2

_

2

4

3

1

2

3

3

4

2

3

1819.

2

1

4

3

2

_

2

3

_

3

3

4

2

_

_

2

3

1

4

2

1820.

1

4

1

4

-

-

1

4

1

4

2

-

3

-

-

1

3

-

4

2347. Plan of the kitchen-garden. For the two last books or tables, as well as for a
variety of other purposes, it is necessary that a plan of the kitchen-garden should be made,

Book IV.

SUPERINTENDENCE OF GARDENS.

449

and the compartments numbered, and their subdivisions lettered ; and this plan, as well
as another exhibiting every scene under the gardener's care, should be framed and hung
up in the office for constant reference.

2348. The produce-book may be either a quarto or octavo volume, ruled with blue
lines across both pages, with a column for the date on the left-hand page, and the other
blank for signatures. In this book is to be entered daily, on the left-hand page, the disposal
of produce gathered or taken from the garden or garden-stores, as the fruit-room, ice-
cold room, &c. On the right-hand page the name of the party in the family of the
master receiving it is to be signed by the receiver as a receipt. Such books are not
uncommon in first-rate gardens ; and, like the game-book and cellar-book, are of very
considerable use.

1821.

Garden Produce.

Signatures.

June
20

22

Sent peas, onions, parsley, cabbage, spinage, and some

Received by me, Leah Fry, cook.

Received by me, Joseph Tomcat, butler.
Received by me, Juliet Flirtwell, for my Lady A.

Two bunches Sweetwater grapes, two cucumbers, a
pottle of strawberries, and a pme, bv J. Twigg

Sent a fine fruit of the blood pine to the Horticultural
Society in London ; and also a seedUng mango plant,
and some seeds of the new red lettuce. Booked them,
per mail at Reading, and directed them to J. Sabine,
Esq. Horticultural Society, Regent Street, London.

2349. A iveat/ier-book is very useful, and may be either of the folio or quarto size, with
columns for the

1821.
June

Thermo-
meter.

M. N. E.

Baro-
meter.

Rain
and
Hail.

Wind.

General

character

of the

daVs

weather.

Trees in
Leaf, or defo-
liated. Fungi
apjiear, &c.

Plants in

Flower or

Fruit.

Birds and
Insects ap-
pear or dis-
appear.

Observ.

ations as to

Fish and
other Ani-
mals.

Miscellane-
ous. Bodily
Pains, pre-
vailing Dis-
eases, &c.

21
22

•23
24

50
52

51

71
69

65
,0

60
58

59

58

28.90
28.8

28.8
28.7

0.
0.02

0.00
0.01

S. S.W.
S.W.

8.
S.W.

Fair.
Showers.

Cloudy.
Windy.

Marchantia

polymorpha

mperfec-

Uon.

LiUum can-

didum in full

blow.

Nuphar adve-
na in flower.

Sphinx
elpenor
appears.

Spawn of

the Carp

hatched In

breeding

pond.

Dull and
sleepy.

Ditto
Bream.

Rheumatic
pains.

There is a very good model of tliis description, called the Naturalist's Calendar, by the
Honorable Daines Barrington, in quarto, which may be procured and filled uj). Indeed
every apprentice ought to be made to keep such a kalendar, for the sake of inducing habits
of observation. For further instruction, see the A^aturalist^s Kalendar, of White, and
Naturalist's Pocket-book, of Graves. It has been judiciously remarked {Farm. Mag.
1820.), that in all kalendars of nature, particular attention should be paid to the in-
florescence of aquatics, as these are much more regular in their times of foliation and
flowering than land plants. The comparative denseness of the medium in which tliey
live, prevents their being affected by winds or rains, and probably also by electrical and
other atmospherical changes.

2350. For keeping a register of the temperature of hot-hotcses and the open air, a book
with columns may be adopted, or a table {fg. 414.) may be fixed on, in which the ver-

414

August 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19;

^^•r i i 1,4-1 n — ~T1 i I "

20,21,22,23,24,26,26;

,27,28,29, 30 Days.

Pinery.

South wall.
Open air.

tical lines representing days of the month, and the horizontal ones degrees, the variations
of each house, and the open air, may be shown by wavy lines made by daily increments
or raised, according to the rise or fall of the thermometer in each separate

450

SCIENCE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

^-V

house or place. Twelve tables, or twelve pages of an oblong folio book ruled in this way,
would keep a register of all the hot-houses, frames, and the open air of a garden for a year.
A very beautiful graphic mode {Jig. 415.) of recording the variations of temperature of
the open air, or of any one hot-
house during a year, is given 415
by Howard, in his Climate of
London, a simplification of
which may be adopted by the
curious gardener. Here the
indicating line waves upon a
circular zone, composed of ra-
diating lines, representing time,
and concentric circles repre-
senting degrees of heat. One
line j-epresents the average tem-
perature of the year : all the
degrees exceeding the average
temperature are projected be-
yond this line towards the ex-
tremity of the zone ; and all
the degrees under the average
are projected from the average
line towards the inner circum-
ference of the zone. A series
of tables of this sort might
prove useful to the gardener, by
enabling him at all times, by
a simple glance, to compare the
present weather with that of se-
veral past years. Howard's nomenclature of clouds, already given (1235.), deserves
also the study of the gardener desirous of scientifically registering tlie weather. {Encyc,
Brit. Sup. vol. iii. art. Cloud.)

2351. Records of the groivth of plants are sometimes kept to show the comparative
warmth and congeniality of seasons to vegetation. When that is to be done, a table
(fg. 416.) may be composed of horizontal lines,
the distance between which shall represent space j
in feet or inches, and vertical lines, the dis-
tance between which shall represent time by
months or days. Then supposing a plant
(briony) beginning to push in the middle of
March, make a mark on the lowest line in the
middle of the column for that month, and trace
the line as the plant grows, ascending diago-
nally through the other months, according to
the progress of the shoot in feet. If a kidney-
bean germinates in the beginning of April, and
attains the height of ten feet by the first of Sep-
tember, then the indicatory line will pass through five vertical columns or months, and
through ten feet, or spaces, between the horizontal lines (as in the figure). All these books,
tables, and records must be kept in the oflSce as a part of its library ; by which means,
when the head gardener is changed, the new-comer will the sooner become acquainted
with the situation and climate, his duties, and a variety of other useful circumstances.

2352. Memorandum books. Besides the above books and tables, it is almost unnecessary
to add, that varioits small blank books for inventories of tools, memorandums of agree-
ments, out of door entries^ lists of names, &c. will be required both by the head gardener
and by his different foremen. Models of all these books may be had at Harding's
Agricultural Library, St. James's Street, London.

2353. The reading library of the gardeners office should at least contain the following
works. One of the best Encyclopcedias, and whichever one is adopted, add the Siippl. to
the Encyc. Brit., the best work of its kind hitherto published. The Agricultural Survey of
the County, and statistical account of the parish. If convenient, the surveys of all the
counties in the empire should be procured. The best modern Systema Natures of the
time ; Turton's Linnaeus, is very imperfect, but the only one to be had at present. The
best Introduction to Botany, say that of Sir J. E. Smith, for technical or systematic bo-
tany ; and that of Keith for physiology. The best catalogues of plants, say those of
Sweet and Page. The best Flora Britannica for the time, say Galpine's, or the Translation
of Flora Britannica, by Sir J. E. &nith. Sowerby's British Botany ; his Mineralogy;^

416

Feb. Marcbi April. May. June. July. Aug.

1

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Book IV. BEAUTY AND ORDER OF GARDEN-SCENERY. 451

and Zoology, wlien published. Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology ,- and
Samouelle's Entomologist's Useful Companion. The best Dictionary of Botany and Cul-
ture, say that of Miller, enlarged by Martyn. MarshaU, Poiitey, and Sang, on planting.
Wheatley, Girardin, Price, and Bepton, on laying out grounds. The Transactions of tlie
London and Edinbargh Horticultural Societies. The best Gardener s Kalendar for the
time, say that of Abercrombie for England, and Abercrombie or Nicol, for Scotland and
Ireland. All new works on practical gardening, if possible, as they appear. Eng-
lis/i, Latin, French, and Geographical Dictionaries, and as many other works as the
master may be pleased to deposit in the gardener's office, or lend from the library of the
mansion.

2354. These books ought to be considered as for tlie use of journeymen and ajrprenticcs, as
u'ell as the master ; but tlie latter ought to be responsible for their being kept clean and
perfect. Where the head gardener is of a humane and kind turn of mind, he may as-
semble the men and also the women, and read aloud, and expound to, or answer ques-
tions put by them ; or he may cause them to read aloud to and question one another, in
such a way as to blend entertainment with instruction. In short, he ought to consider it
as a part of his duty to improve their minds, as well as to render them habile in his art,
and by all means to ameliorate their condition and manners as much as is in his power.
Neill, one of the best modern writers on gardening, and obviously a humane and bene-
volent man, states of tlie late Walter Nicol, that " he observed a praiseworthy practice,
too much neglected by head gardeners, — that of instructing his young men or assist-
ants, not only in botany, but in writing, arithmetic, geometry, and mensuration. He
used to remark, tliat he not only used to improve .his scholars, but taught himself and
made his knowledge so familiar, that he could apply it in the daily business of life."
The same practice, as already observed (235.), is still carried on in Germany.

Sect. III. Of the Beauty and Order of Garden-scenery,

2355. To unite Vie agreeable with the useful is an object common to all the departments
of gardening. The kitchen-garden, the orchard, the nursery, and the forest, are all in-
tended as scenes of recreation and visual enjoyment, as well as of useful culture ; and
enjoyment is the avowed object of the flower-garden, shrubbery, and pleasure-ground.
Utility, however, will stand the test of examination longer and more frequently than any
scene merely beautiful, and hence the horticultural and planting departments of gar-
dening are, in fact, more the scenes of enjoj-ment of a family constantly residing at their
countrj'-seat, than the ornamental or picturesque departments. It has been a very common
assertion since the modern style of gardening became prevalent, and absorbed the attention
of gardeners and their employers, that beauty and neatness may be dispensed with in a
kitchen-garden ; but this is to assign too exclusive limits to the terms beauty and neatness ;
and, in truth, may be considered as originating in the vulgar error of confounding
beauty with ornament, which latter quality is unquestionably not essential to scenes of
utility. Every department of gardening has objects or final results peculiar to itself ;
and the main beauty of each of these departments will consist in the perfection with
which these results are attained ; a secondary beauty will consist in the display of skill
in the means taken to attain them ; and a third in the conformity of these means to the
generally received ideas of order, propriety, and decorum, which exist in cultivated and
well regulated minds. It is the business of this section to offer some general observ-
ations, with a view to the attainment of the beauties of order, propriety, and decorum.
The entire work is devoted to the former beauties.

2356. Order, it has been well observed, is " Heaven's first law." It is, indeed, the
end of all law . Without it, nothing worth having is to be attained in life, even by the
most fertile in resources ; and with it much may be accomplished with very slender
means. A mind incapable of an orderly and regular disposition of its ideas or inten-
tions, will display a man confused and disorderly in his actions ; he will begin them
without a specific object in view : continue them at random, or from habit, without
kno^^^ng well why, till some accident or discordant result puts an end to his present
progress, unmans him for life, or awakens reflection. But a well ordered mind reflects,
an-anges, and systematises ideas before attempting to realise them, weighs well the end in
view, considers the fitness of the means for attaining that end, and tlie best mode of em-
ploying tliese means. To everj' man who has the regulation and disposal of a number
of servants, this mode of orderly arrangement is essentially necessary in order to reap the
full effects of their labors ; and to no men is it of more importance than to master-
gardeners, whose cares are so various, and the success of whose operations, always con-
nected with, and dependent on, living beings and weather, depends so much on their
being performed in the fitting moment.

2357. Propriety relates to what is fitting and suitable for particular circumstances ; it
is the natural result of an orderly mind, and may be said to include that part of order
which directs the choice and adaptation of means to ends, and of ideas and objects to

G- 2

452 SCIENCE OF GARDENING. Part XL

cases and situations. It belongs to order for a master to allow workmen proper periods
for rest and refreshment ; propriety dictates the time and duration of these periods ;
prudence suggests the wisdom of departing as little as possible from established
practices.

2358. Decorum is the refinement of propriety. It is in order to procure stable-dung
for hot-beds, and to cart it into the framing-ground ; it is jrrojKr to do this at all times
when it is wanted, but it is decorous to have the work performed early in the morning,
that the putrescent vapors and dropping litter may not prove offensive to the master of
the garden, should he, or any of his family or friends, visit that scene.

2359. Neatness, as opposed to slovenliness, is well understood ; it consists in having
every thing where it ought to be ; and in attending to the decorum of finishing operations,
and to minute things in general. Tliese abstract hints may be considered as more parti-
cularly directed to master-operators ; the following practical directions apply both to
masters and their journeymen or laborers.

2360. Perform every operation in the jn-oper season. The natural, and therefore tlie
best indications for the operations of sowing and reaping, transplanting, &c. are given by
the plants themselves, or by the progress of the season as indicated by other plants. But
there are artificial kalendars or remembrancers, the use of which is to remind the master
of the leading crops and operations of culture throughout the year. But, even if such
books were made as perfect as their nature admits of, still they are only calculated to
aid the memory, not to supply the place of a watchful and vigilant eye, and habits of
attention, observation, reflection, and decision. Unless a gardener has these, either na-
turally, or partly natural and partly cultivated, in a considerable degree, he will be but
little better than a common laborer as to general management and culture of garden-
scenery.

2361. Perform every operation in the best manner. This is to be acquired in part by
practice and partly also by reflection. For example, in digging over a piece of ground,
it is a common practice with slovens to throw the weeds and stones on the dug ground,
or on the adjoining alley or walk, with the intention of gathering them off afterwards. A
better way is to have a wheelbarrow, or if that cannot be had, a large basket, in which
to put the weeds and extraneous matters, as they are picked out of the ground. Some per-
sons, in planting or weeding, whether in the open air or in hot-houses, throw down all
weeds, stones, and extraneous matters on the paths or alleys, with a view to pick them
up, or sweep or rake together afterwards ; it is better to carry a basket or other utensil,
either common or subdivided ( 1 400. ) , in which to hold in one part the plants to be planted,
in another the extraneous matters, &c.

2362. Complete every j)art of an operation as you jrroeeed. This is an essential point
in garden-operations, and though it cannot ahvays be attended to, partly from the nature
of the operation, partly from weather, &c. yet the judicious gardener will keep it in view
as much as possible. Suppose a compartment, or breadth of rows of potatoes, containing
one tenth of an acre, required to have the ground stirred by the Dutch hoe, the weeds raked
off, and then the potatoes earthed-up with the forked hoe ; the ordinary practice would
be, first to hoe over the whole of the ground, then to rake it wholly over, and, lastly, to
commence the operation of earthing-up. If the weather were certain of holding good
two days, this, on the principle of the division of labor, would certainly be somewhat
the most economical mode. But supposing the weather dry, the part left hoed and not
raked will, for a time (and one hour ought to be an object in a fine garden), appear unfi-
nished ; and if rain should happen to fall in the night, the operation will be defeated in
most soils. Better, therefore, to hoe, rake, and earth-up a small part at a time : so
that leave off where you will, what is done will be complete.

2363. Finish one job before you begin another. This advice is trite, but it is of great
importance ; and there are few cases where it cannot be attended to.

2364. In leaving off^ working at any job, leave your work and tools in an orderly manner.
Are you hoeing between rows, do not throw down your hoe blade upwards, or across
the rows, and run off the nearest way to the walk the moment the breakfast or dinner
hour strikes. Lay your implement down parallel to the rows, with its face or blade to
the ground ; then march regularly between one row to the alley, and along the alley to
the path. Never drop your tools and leave off work before the hour has well done
striking ; and above all, never run on an occasion of this kind ; it argues a gross bru-
talised selfishness, highly offensive to well regulated minds.

236-5. I7t leaving off work for the day, make a temporary finish, and carry your tools
to the tool-house. In general, do not leave off in the middle of a row ; straighten your
trenches in digging, because, independently of appearances, should a heavy rain of a
week's duration intervene, the ground will have to be re-dug, and that will be more
commodiously done with a straight than with a crooked, and consequently unequal
trench.

2366. In passing to and from your work, or, on any occasion, through any part of what

Book IV. BEAUTY AND ORDER OF GARDEN-SCENERY. 45S

is considered under the charge of the gardener, keep a vigilant look out for weeds, de-
cayed leaves, or any other deformity, and remove tliem, or some of them, in passing
along. Attend to this particularly on walks, edgings, and in passing through hot-
houses, &c. In like manner take off insects, or leaves infected by them. Much in large
as well as in small gardens may be effected by this sort of timely or preventive attention,
which induces suitable habits for a young gardener, and occupies very little time.

2367. In gathering a crop or any ^mrt of a oroj), remove at the same time the roots, leaves,
stems, or whatever else belonging to the jilant of which you have crojjped the desired jmrt is of
no further use, or may ajrjyear slovenly, decaying, or offensive. In cutting cabbage, lettuce,
borecoles, &c. pull up the stem (with exceptions) and roots, and take them at once
with the outside leaves, to the compost-heap. Do the same with the haulm of potatoes,
leaves of turnips, carrots, celery, &c. Do not suffer the haulm of peas and beans to re-
main a moment after the last gathering of the crop.

2368. Let no crop of fruit, or herbaceous vegetables, or any part thereof, go to waste on
the spot. Instantly remove it when decay or any symptom of disease appears, to the
compost-yard, or to be consumed by pigs or cattle.

2369. Cut down the foiver-stalks of all flowering plants, with the proper exceptions, the
moment they are fully done flowering, unless seed is an object. Cut off decayed roses,
and all decaying double flowers, with their foot-stalks, the moment they begin to decay ;
and tlie same of the single plants, where seed is not wanted. From May to October, the
flower-garden and shrubbery ought to be looked over by apprentices or women, every
day, as soon as the morning dews are evaporated, for this purpose, and for gathering
decayed leaves, tying up tall-growing stems before they decline or become strag-
gling, &c.

2370. Keep every part ofivhat is under your care perfect in its kind. Attend in spring
and autumn to ivalls and buildings, and get them repaired, pointed, glazed and painted,
where wanted. Attend at all times to machines, irnplemenls, and tools, keeping them
clean, sharp, and in perfect repair. With an imperfect tool, no man can make perfect
work. See particularly that they are placed in their proper situations in the tool-house.
House every implement, utensil, or macliine not in use, both in winter and summer.
Allow 710 blanks in edgings, rows, single specimens, drills, beds, and even where prac-
ticable in broad-cast sown pieces. Keep edgings and hedges cut to the utmost nicety.
Keep the shapes of your ivall-trees filled with wood according to their kind, and let
tlieir training be in the first stjle of perfection. Keep all walks in perfect form, whether
raised or flat, free from weeds, diy, and well rolled. Keep all the lawns under your
care, by all the means in your power, of a close texture, and dark-green velvet appear-
ance. Keep ivater clear and free from weeds, and, if possible, let not ponds, lakes, or arti-
ficial rivers, rise to the brim in winter, nor sink very far under it in summer.

2371. Finally, attend to personal habits and to cleanliness. " Never perform any oper-
ation without gloves on your hands that you can do with gloves on ; even weeding is
far more effectually and expeditiously performed by gloves, the fore-fingers and thumbs
of which terminate in wedge-like thimbles of steel, kept sharp. Most other operations
may be performed with common gloves. Thus, no gardener need have hands like bears'
paws. Always use an iron tread fastened to your shoe when you dig ; and generally a
broad-brimmed, light, silk or straw hat, to serve at once as a parasol and umbrella. You
will thus save the use of your feet, les5.en the wear of your shoes, and avoid the rheu-
matism in the neck. Let your dress be clean, neat, simple, and harmonious, in form
and color : in your movements maintain an erect posture, easy and free gait and mo-
tion ; let your manner be respectful and decorous to your superiors ; and conduct fair
and agreeable to your equals. Elevate, meliorate, and otherwise improve, any raw,
crude, harsh, or inharmonious features in your physiognomy, by looking often at the
faces of agreeable people, by occupying your mind with agreeable and useful ideas, and
by continually instructing yourself by reading. This also will give you features if you
have none. Remember that you are paid and maintained by and for the use and plea-
sure of your employer, who may no more wish to see a dirty, ragged, uncouth-lookingi
grinning, or conceited biped in liis garden, than a starved, haggaud, untutored horse in
his stable." (Traugott Schwamstapper.)

2372. He who undertakes the profession of a gardener, says the Rev. W. Marshall,
takes upon himself a work of some importance, and which requires no small degree of
knowledge, ingenuity, and exertion, to perform well. There are few businesses which
may not be learned in much less time than that of a gardener can possibly be. It often
happens, however, that a man who has been very little in a garden, and that only as a
laborer, who can do little more tlian dig, or put out cabbage plants, will call himself a
gardener ; but he only is worthy of the name who having had much practice in the various
parts of horticulture, possesses a genius and adroitness, fitting him for making experi-
ments, and for getting through difficulties that the existing circumstances of untoward
seasons, &c. may bring him into. He should possess a spirit of enquiry into the nature

Gg 3

454 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

of plants and vegetation, and how far art (in his way) may be made successfully u^ftil,
or at least probably so. The mode of growth, the pruning, the soil, the heat, and the
moisture that suits particular plants, are not to be understood without a native taste, and
close application of the mind. Whoever will give himself the pains to trace a good
gardener through the several stages of his employ, in all the seasons of the year, wdl find
it to be one continued circle of reflection, labor, and toil. Gardening depends more upon
the labor of the brain than of the body : there is no such thing as always proceeding with
certainty and ensuring success. Plants will die, and that sometimes suddenly, under the
very best management. There are few things to be done in a garden which do not re-
quire a dexterity in operation, and a nicety in hitting the proper season for doing it.
A gardener should be a sort of prophet in foreseeing what will happen under certain cir-
cumstances, and wisely cautious to provide, by the most probable means, against what
may happen. A man cannot be a good gardener, except he be thoughtful, steady, and
industrious ; possessing a superior degree of sobriety and moral excellence, as well as
genius and knowledge adapted to his business. He should be modest in his manners and
opinions. It too often happens, with those who have much practical skill, that they slight
what is written upon subjects of their profession ; which is a fastidious temper that the
man of real merit will liardly entertain.

2373. The character of a gardener is here set high; but it is the goal of respectability
at which he ought to aim who presumes to call himself a professed one. A gardener
has reason, indeed, to love his employment, as he meets with health and tranquillity in the
exercise of it ; but considering what he is, and what he does, in his proper capacity, be
may justly claim a superior degree of estimation and reward. A true gentleman is of
a liberal siiirit, and I would plead for his gardener as a proper person to be generous
towards, if his manners be good. {Introd. to Gard. p. 447.)

PART III.

GARDENING AS PRACTISED IN BRITAIN.

2374. The art of gardening in the earlier ages of society would be practised without those
local subdivisions, or technical distinctions, which its progressive improvement has since
rendered necessary ; and being then carried on in one enclosure, called a Garden, the
terra Gardening was then sufficiently explicit for every purpose. But at present the
local subdivisions and technical distinctions of this art are various ; we have the kitchen,
fruit, flower, forcing, and exotic gardens, the pleasure-ground, shrubbery, park, and
timber-plantation, all within the province of Gardening ; and the terms culinary gardening,
fruit-gardening, flower-gardening, planting, &c. as technical distinctions for them. The
vague manner in which so rhany terms have been used by gardeners and authors, has led
to some confusion of ideas on the subject, which it is much to be wished could be avoided
in future. Taking the word gardening as a generic term, we have arranged its ramifi-
cations or divisions, in what we conceive to be permanent or specific distinctions. The
principle of classification which we have adopted, is that of the use or object in view ; and
applying it, we think all the varieties of gardening may be included under the four foU
lowing species : —

2375. Horticulture, the object of which is to cultivate products used in domestic economy.
It includes culinary and fruit gardening, or orcharding ; and forcing or exotic gardening,
as far as respects useful products.

2376. Floriculture, or ornamental gardening, the object of which is to cultivate plants
ornamental in domestic economy. It includes flower, botanic, and shrubbery gardening ;
and forcing and exotic gardening, as far as respects plants of ornament.

2377. Arboriculture, or planting, the object of which is to cultivate trees and shrubs, useful
in general economy. It is practised in forests, woods, groves, copses, stripes, and rows.

2378. Landscape-gardening, the object of which is to produce landscapes; or, so to
arrange and harmonise the external scenes of a country- residence, as to render them orna-
mental, both as domestic scenery, and as apart of the general scenery of the country. This
branch is by some called picturesque, rural, ornamental, or territorial improvement ; rural
ornament, ornamental gardening, pictorial improveinent, new ground work, ornamental
planting, &c. It includes the ancient, formal, geometric, or French gardening, and the
modern, natural, picturesque, or English gardening.

Book I. FORMATION OF A KITCHEN-GARDEN. 455

2379. There are other terms a})j)lied to gardens and gardening ; as" nursery, market,
physic, &c. gardens, and nursery-gardening, market-gardening, &c. ; but these concern
gardening as a trade, rather than as an art^ and their discussion is referred to the succeeding
part of this work, in which gardening is considered statistically.

BOOK I.

HORTICULTURE.

2380. In treating of horticulture, some, as Nicol and Abercrombie, have neglected its
local unity, and adopting its technical subdivisions, treated of the culinary fruit and
forcing departments, as if they were separate gardens. But as tliese departments are all
generally carried on within the same ring-fence, and as it is impossible to form and ar-
range a kitchen-garden, without at the same time forming and arranging the walls and
borders destined to receive the most valuable part of the fruit garden, and equally so to lay
out the area enclosed, without determining the situation and extent of the forcing-depart-
ment, we deem it preferable to treat of Horticulture as actually carried on, and in the fol-
lowing order : viz. — The formation of the kitchen-garden. The distribution of the fruit-
trees. The forming and planting of a subsidiary orchard. Tlie general culture of the
kitchen-garden. The general culture of the orchard. The construction of buildings used
in the forcing-department. The general culture of the forcing-department. Catalogue of
plants and trees used in horticulture. A monthly table of horticultural productions.

Chap. I.
The Formation of a Kitchen-garden.

2381. The arrangement and laying out of a kitchen-garden, embraces a variety of con-
siderations, some relative to local circumstances, as situation, exposure, soil, &c. ; others
depending on the skill of the artist, as form, laying out the area, water, &c. : both require
the utmost deliberation ; for next to a badly designed, ill placed house, a misplace(^
ill arranged, and unproductive kitchen-garden is the greatest evil of a country-residence.

Sect. I. Situation.

2382. The situation of the kitchen-garden, considered artifidaUy or relatively to the other
parts of a residence, should be as near the mansion and the stable-offices, as is consistent
with beauty, convenience, and other arrangements. Nicol observes, " In a great place,
the kitchen-garden should be so situated as to be convenient, and, at the same time, be con-
cealed from the house. It is often connected with the shrubbery or pleasure-garden, and
also placed near to the house. There can be no impropriety in this, provided it be kept
in good order, and that the walls be screened by shrubbery from the inunediate view of
the public rooms ; indeed it has been found, that there is both comfort and economy in
having the various gardens of a place connected, and placed at no great distance from
the house. In stepping from the shrubbery to the flower-garden, thence to the orchard,
and lastly to the culinary garden, there is a gradation both natural and pleasant. With
such an arrangement, in cases where the aspect of the ground is answerable, and the
surface, perhaps, is considerably varied, few faults will be found."

2383. Sometimes we find the kitchen-garden j)laced immediately in front of the houscy
which Nicol " considers the most awkward situation of any, especially if placed near, and
so that it cannot be properly screened by some sort of plantation. Generally speaking,
it should be placed in the rear or flank of the house, by which means the lawn may not
be broken and rendered unshapely where it is required to be most complete. The neces-
sary traffic with this garden, if placed in front, is always offensive. Descending to the
consideration of more humble gardens, circumstances are often so arbitrary with respect
to their situations, as that they cannot be placed either so as to please, or give satisfaction
by their products. There are cases where the kitchen-garden is necessarily thrust into %
corner, and perhaps is shaded by buildings, or by tall trees, from the sun and air; wl^re
they are placed on steep hangs in a northern aspect, the sub-soil is a till or a cankering
gravel, and the site cold and bleak. Such situations as these are to be avoided, and
should be considered among tlie worst possible. Next are open, unsheltered plains. But
even there, if the soil be tolerably good, and the sub-soil be not particularly bad, shelter
may be reared, so as that in a few years the garden may produce a return for the expense
laid out in its improvements." {Kalendar, p. 8.)

2384. To piece the fruit and kitchen gardens at perhaps half a mile's distance or more from

Gg4

456 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

the house was formerly the prevailing taste. In many cases, Neill observes, « tliishas been
found inconvenient, and it can seldom happen that the garden- walls may not be effectually
concealed by means of shrubs and low growing trees, so as not to be seen, at least from
the windows of the public rooms, and the garden yet be situated much nearer to the
house. It is scarcely necessary," he adds, " to observe that an access for carts and wheel-
barrows, without touching the principal approach, is indispensable." {Ed. Encyc art.

2385. With respect to the natural situation of a garden, Nicol and Forsyth agree in pre-
ferring a gentle declivity towards the south, a little inclining to the east, to receive the
benefit of the morning sun. " If it be situated in a bottom, the wind will have the less
effect upon it ; but then damps and fogs will be very prejudicial to the fruit and other
crops ; and if situated too high, although it will in a great measure be free from damps
and fogs, it will be exposed to the fury of the winds, to the great hurt of the trees, by
breaking .their branches, and blowing down their Wossoms and fruit." {Tr. on Fruit
Tree«, p. 286.) .

2386. The situation should not be so elevated as to be exposed to boisterous and cutting
winds ; nor should a very low situation be chosen, if circumstances afford any choice.

. It should be situate conveniently for access from the house. {Abercrombie' s Practical
Gardener, ip. 1,2.) ^

2387. Avoid loiu situations and bottoms of valleys, say Switzer, Darwm, Bradley,
and Lawrence, " because there is often a sourness in the earth that cannot be eradicated,
and in this uncertain climate of ours, such heavy fogs and mists that hang so long on the
fruit and leaves in low situations, that not only vegetation is retarded, but also the fruit."
{Pract. Fruit Gard. 2d edit. p. 19.) "The greater warmth of low situations," Dr.
Darwin observes, " and their being generally better sheltered from the cold north-east
winds, and the boisterous south-west winds, are agreeable circumstances ; as the north-
east winds in this climate are the freezing winds ; and the south-west winds being more
violent, are liable much to injure standard fruit-trees in summer by dashing their branches
against each other, and thence bruising or beating off the fruit ; but in low situations the
fogs in vernal evenings, by moistening the young shoots of trees, and their early flowers,
render them much more liable to the injuries of the frosty nights, which succeed them,
which they escape in higher situations." [Phytologia, sect. xv. 3. 6.) Professor Brad-
ley " gives a decisive fact in regard to this subject. A friend of his had two gardens,
one not many feet below the other, but so different, that the low garden often appeared
flooded with the evening mists, when none appeared in the upper one ; and in a letter to
Bradley he complains that liis lower garden is much injured by the vernal frost, and not
his upper one. A similar fact is mentioned by Lawrence, who observes, that he has
often seen the leaves and tender shoots of tall ash-trees in blasting mists to be frozen, and
as it were singed, in all the lower parts and middle of the tree ; while the upper part,
which was above the mist, has been iminjured." (Darwi?i's Phytologia, sect. xv. 3. 6.)

2388. Main entrance to the garden. Whatever be the situation of a kitchen-garden,
whether in reference to the mansion or the variations of the surface, it is an important
object to have the main entrance on the south side, and next to that, on the east or west.
The object of this is to produce a favorable first impression on the spectator, by his viewing
the highest and best wall (that on the north side) in front ; and which is of still greater
consequence, all the hot-houses, pits, and frames in that direction. Nothing can be more
unsightly than the view of the high north wall of a garden, with its back sheds and
chimney-pots from behind ; or even getting the first coup d'ocil of the hot-houses from a
point nearly in a parallel line with their front. The effect of many excellent gardens
is lost or marred for want of attention to this point, or from peculiarity of situation.
Even the new garden of the London Horticultural Society, when finished according to
their engraved plan, will be obnoxious to it : the Chelsea garden is liable to the objec-
tion, and those of Oxford and Liverpool particularly so.

2389. BircVs-eye view of the garden. When the grounds of a residence are much varied,
the general view of the kitchen-garden will unavoidably be looked down on or up to from
some of the walks or drives, or from open glades in the lawn or park. Some arrange-
ment will therefore be requisite to place the garden, or so to dispose of plantations that
only favorable views can be obtained of its area. To get a bird's-eye view of it from the
north, or from a point in a line with the north wall, will have as bad an effect as the view
of its north elevation, in which all its " baser parts" are rendered conspicuous.

Sect. II. Exposure and Aspect.

2390. Exjyosure is the next consideration, and in cold and variable climates is of so
much consequence for the maturation of fruits, that the site of the garden must be guided
by it, more than by locality to the mansion.

2391.^ The exposure shoidd be towards the south, according to Nicol, and the aspect at
some point between south-east and south-west, the ground sloping to these points in

Book I.

EXTENT.

457

an easy manner. If quite flat, it seldom can be laid sufficiently dry ; and if very steep,
it is worked under many disadvantages. It may have a fall, however, of a foot in twenty,
without being very inconvenient, but a fall of a foot in thirty is most desirable, by which
the ground is sufficiently elevated, yet not too much so. {^Kalendar, p. 6.)

2392. An exjMsure declining towards the south, is that approved of by Switzer, " but not
mp- ~ than six inches in ten feet. Two or three inches he considers better." {Pract.

<^ruit Card. 2d edit. p. 17.)

2393. An ojien aspect to the east, Abercrombie observes, " is itself a point of capital
importance in laying out a garden, or orchard, on account of the early sun. WTien the
sun can reach the garden at its rising, and continue a regular influence, increasing as the
day advances, it has a gradual and most beneficial effect in dissolving the hoar frost, which
the past night may have scattered over young buds, leaves, and blossoms or setting fruit.
On the contrary, when the sun is excluded from the garden till about ten in the morning,
and then suddenly darts upon it, with all the force derived from considerable elevation,
the exposure is bad, particularly for fruit-bearing plants, in the spring months ; the
powerful rays of heat at once melt the icy particles, and immediately acting on the
moisture thus created, scald the tender blossom, which drops as if nipped by a malignant
blight ; hence it happens, that many a healthy tree, with a promising show of blossoms,
fails to produce fruit ; the blossoms and thawed frost sometimes falling together in the
course of a morning. The covering of the hoar frost, or congealed dew, is otherwise of
itself a remarkable preservative of the vegetable creation from frosty winds." (^Pract.
Gard. p. 1.)

2394. An exiwsure in tvhich is a free admittanee for
the sun and air, is required by Forsyth, who rejects a
place surrounded by woods as very improper, because
a foul stagnant air is very unfavorable to vegetation ;
and it is also observed that blights are much more fre-
quent in such situations than in those that are more
open and exposed. Such an exposure will generally
be to the south (fg. 417. d, e), but much depends on
the surrounding scenery. For this reason the northern
boundary of a garden, where the hot-beds are gene-
rally placed, will admit most sun and air, in proportion to the open space, when

417

a rounded (as in fg. 417. d,
plantation (fg, 418. a), which
surrounds the garden gradu-
ally decline in height as it
approaches the hot-bed ground
(6) , on the north, and the sur-
rounding walk (c), on the other
sides.

2395. If there be any sbpe
in the area of a garden, Mar-
shall considers " it should be
southward, a point to the east
or west not much signifying;
but not to the north, if it can
be avoided, because crops come
in late, and plants do not
stand the winter so well in
such a situation. A garden
with a northern aspect has,
however, its advantages, being
cooler for some summer pro-
ductions, as strawberries, spring-
sown cauliflowers, &c. ; there-
fore, to have a little ground
under cultivation, so situated, is
desirable, especially for late suc-
cession-crops." (^Introd.toGard»
5th edit. p. 8.)

e).

rather than an angular form ; especially if the
418

f

\m^^^

Sect. III. Extent.

2396. The extent of the kUchen-garden must be regulated by that of the place, of Ae
familv, and of their style of living. In general, it may be observed, that few country-
seats have less than an acre, or more than twelve acres in regular cultivaUon as kitchen-
garden, exclusive of the orchard and flower-garden. From one and a half to hve acres

458 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

may be considered as the common quantities enclosed by walls, and the latter size, under
proper management, with abundance of manure, is capable of supplying a respectable
establishment. Where a farm is cultivated by the proprietor, it is found a desirable prac-
tice to have part of the more common kitchen-crops, as cabbages, turnips, peas, potatoes,
carrots, &c. grown in the fields ; the flavor of vegetables so grown being greatly superior
to that of those raised in a garden by force of manure. Where a farm is not kept in
hand, by aimually changing tlie surface of tlie garden by trenching (2343.), this effect of
enriched grounds is considerably lessened.

2397. To assist in determining the extent of a garden, Marshall observes, that an
acre with wall-trees, hot-beds, pots, &c. will furnish employment for one man, who,
at some busy times, will need assistance. The size of the garden should, however,
be proportioned to the house, and to the immber of inhabitants it does, or may contain.
This is naturally dictated ; but yet it is better to have too much ground allotted than too
little, and there is nothing monstrous in a large garden annexed to a small house. Some
families use few, others many vegetables ; and it makes a great difference whether the
owner is curious to have a long season of the same production, or is content to have a
supply only at the more common times. But to give some rules for the quantity of
ground to be laid out, a family of four persons (exclusive of servants) should have a rood
of good-working, open ground, and so in proportion. But, if possible, let the garden be
rather extensive, according to the family ; for then a useful sprinkling of fruLt-trees can
be planted in it, which may be expected to do well under the common culture of the
ground about them ; a good portion of it also may be allotted for that agreeable fruit the
strawberry in all its varieties ; and the very disagreeable circumstance of being at any
time short of vegetables will be avoided. It should be considered also that artichokes,
asparagus, and a long succession of peas and beans, require a good deal of ground. Hot-
beds will also take up much room, if any thing considerable be done in the way of raising
cucumbers, melons, &c. (Introd. to Gard. p. 25.)

2398. For a small family, two acres of ground will do ; but if for a great family, it should
be six or eight acres. (Justice's Brit. Gard. Direc. p. 1.)

2399. The size of a garden may be from one acre to six or eight within the wall, according
to the demand for vegetables in the family. (Forsyth.)

Sect. IV. Shelter and Shade.

2400. To combine adequate shelter, with a free exposure to the rising and setting sun,
is essentially necessary, and may be reckoned one of the most difficult points in the form-
ation of a garden.

2401. The kitchen-garden should be sheltered by plantations ; but should by no means be
shaded, or be crowded by them. If walled round, it should be open and free on all sides,
or at least to the south-east and west, that tlie walls may be clothed witli fruit-trees on
both sides. (Nicol, Kal. p. 6.)

2402. T1ie garden shoidd be sheltered from the east, north, and west winds, by hills,
rising grounds, high buildings, or plantations of trees, at such a distance on the east and
west sides, as not to prevent the sun from shining upon it. (M'Phail, Gard. Rem.
2d edit. p. 12.)

2403. A garden ought to be sheltered as much as can be from the north aird east winds.
These points of the compass, Marshall observes, should be guarded against by high and
good fences, by a wall of at least ten feet high ; lower walls do not answer so well for fruit-
trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated as to be as much
warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made
warmer by the ring and subdivision fences. This advantage is essential to the expectation
■we have from a garden locally considered. As to trees planted without the wall, to break
the wind, it is not to be expected to reap much good this way, except from something
more than a single row ; i. e. a plantation. Yet the fall of leaves by autumnal winds is
troublesome ; and a high wall is therefore advisable. Spruce firs have been used in close
shorn hedges ; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single
row, though not very near to the wall ; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the
evergreen oak and the cork-tree. The witch elm, planted close, grows quick, and has a
pretty summer appearance behind a wall ; but is of little use then, as a screen, except to
the west ; when still it may shade too much (if planted near) as it mounts high. In a
dry hungry soil, the beech also is very proper, and both bear cutting. The great maple,
commonly called the sycamore, is handsome, of quick growth, and being fit to stand the
rudest blasts, will protect a garden well in a very exposed situation ; the wind to be
chiefly guarded against as to strength, in most places, being the westerly. (Introd. to
Gard. p. 27.)

2404. To shelter an elevated garden on a steep declivity (fig. 41 9. )» it ™ay require to be
surrounded on all sides by high woods (n), and even to have groups of evergreens, as
pines and hollies (e), and hedges of trellis or lattice- work (;>,;>), within the garden. The

Book I.

SHELTER AND SHADE.

459

hot-houses (d) and hot-beds (/) may be placed, and more delicate culinary crops (h) cul-
tivated, in an artificial basin or hollow, which will have the advantage of being sheltered
both naturally and artificially, and on a steep exposed to the south, will have a powerful
influence in accumulating heat in winter from the sun's rays. The south borders of such
gardens (I, m), and the walls heated by furnaces (q), will frequently be found to produce
earlier crops than gardens placed on level surfaces and in low Weltered situations.

419

2405. Shelter mat/ in part be derived from the natural shape and situation of the ground.
Gentle declivities, Neill observes, at the bases of the south or south-west sides of hills, or
the sloping banks of winding rivers, with a similar exposure, are therefore very desirable.
If plantations exist in the neighbourhood of the house, or of the site intended for the
house, the planner of a garden naturally looks to them for his principal shelter ; taking
care, however, to keep at a reasonable distance from them, so as to guard against the evil
of being shaded. If the plantations be young, and contain beech, elm, oak, and other tall-
growing trees, allowance is of course made for the future progress of the trees in height.
It is a rule that there should be no tall trees on the south side of a garden, to a very con-
siderable distance ; for, during winter and early spring, they fling their lengthened
shadows into the garden, at a time when every sunbeam is valuable. On the east also,
they must be suflSciently removed to admit the early morning rays. The advantage of
this is conspicuous in the spring months, when hoar-frost often rests on the tender buds
and flowers : if this be gradually dissolved, no harm ensues ; but if the blossom be aU at
once exposed to the powerful rays of the advancing sun, when he overtops the trees, the
sudden transition from cold to heat often proves destructive. On tlie west, and particu-
larly on the north, trees may approach nearer, perhaps within less than a hundred feet,
and be more crowded, as from these directions the most violent and the coldest winds
assail us. If forest-trees do not previously exist on the territory, screen-plantations must
be reared as fast as possible. The sycamore {Acer pseudo-platamis) is of the most rapid
growth, making about six feet in a season ; next to it may be ranked the larch, which
gains about four feet ; and then follow the spruce and balm of Gilead firs, which grow
between three and four feet in the year. (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.)

2406. A garden should be well sheltered from tlie north and east, to jrrevent the blight-
ing ivindsfrom affecting tlie trees ; and also from the westerly winds, which are very hurt-

460 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

ful to the gardens in the spring or summer months. If a garden be not naturally
sheltered with gently rising hills, which are the best shelter of any, plantations of forest-
trees, made at proper distances, so as not to shade it, will be found the best substitute.
(Forsi/th, Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 286.)

2407. A garden should be ivell " guarded with wood," on the north-east, south-west, and
north-ioest ; the south and south-east being the only aspects that should be open. This,
Svvitzer says, is of " great import." There is great danger as to the easterly exposition,
inasmuch as all blighting winds come from that quarter ; so also the south-west is sub-
ject to the violent concussions of those winds that come off from the Atlantic or western
ocean. But, it may be observed, the sun acting in an oblique manner, and the winds
fluctuating horizontally, the garden may be planted all round with wood, between ten
and fifteen yards' distance, provided you keep your trees on the south side to about fifteen
feet high, for security from winds, without any danger of depriving it of the benefit of
the sun. (Pract. Fruit Card. 2d edit. p. 18.)

2408. Shade as well as shelter are attended to by Abercrombie, who observes, *' that
competent fences are serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm
borders for early crops and winter standing plants ; while in another direction some part
of the line of fence will afford a shady border in summer, which is required by the pecu-
liar constitutions of many small annual plants. Where a kitchen-garden encloses two,
three, or four acres, it will admit cross walls at proper distances, by which the advantages
just mentioned may be multiplied." (Prac. Gard. 2d edit. p. 3.)

Sect. V. Soil.

2409. T/ie soil of a garden is obviously of the greatest consequence in its culture. It
is, however, a subordinate consideration to situation and exposure, for the soil may be
changed or improved by art ; but no human eflPorts can remove the site, or change the
exposure of a plot of ground. This subject was much more attended to about a cen-
tury ago, in the days of London and Wise, Switzer and Hitt, than it seems to be at
present. Gardeners, in general, depending too much on manures, and other adventitious
aids, for securing large, though sometimes ill-flavored, culinary crops. Jethro TuU has
some coarse, but to a certain extent just remarks on this subject. As an auxiliary argument
in support of his delusive doctrine of rejecting manure in culture, he affects to " wonder
that gentlemen who are so delicate in other matters should make no scruple to eat vegetables
and fruits grown among the vilest filth and ordure." (^Treatise on the Horse-hoeing Hus-
bandry, 3d edit. p. 30.)

2410. The best soil for a garden, M'Phail observes, " is a sandy loam, not less than
two feet deep, and good earth not of a binding nature in summer, nor retentive of rain
in winter; but of such a texture, that it can be worked without difficulty, in any season
of the year. It should be remembered, that tliere are few sorts of fruit-trees, or esculent
vegetables, which require less depth of earth to grow in than two feet to bring them to
perfection ; and if the earth of the kitchen-garden be three or more feet deep, so much
the better; for when the plants are in a state of maturity, if the roots, even of peas,
spinage, kidneybeans, lettuce, &c. be minutely traced, they will be found to pene-
trate into the earth, in search of food, to tlie depth of two feet, provided the soil be of a
nature that allows them. If it can be done, a garden should be made on land whose
bottom is not of a springy wet nature. If this rule can be observed, draining will be
unnecessary ; for when land is well prepared for the growth of fruit-trees and esculent
vegetables, by trencliing, manuring, and digging, it is by these means brought into such
a porous temperament, that the rains pass through it without being detained longer than
necessary. If the land of a garden be of too strong a nature, it should be well mixed
with sand, or scrapings of roads, where stones have been ground to pieces by carriages."
{Gard. Rem. p. 12.)

2411. A hazel-colored loam, or a blackish vegetable earth, according to Abercrombie,
" may be regarded as good ; or if it be a fat loam mixed with silvery sand, or a moder-
ately light mellow loam. A bed of very light sand or gravel is to be rejected, unless
the alternative would give you a soil still more difficult to improve. The worst of all
soils for a kitchen-garden is a strong clay. Nevertheless, as both clay and chalk have
an attraction for fluid and volatile solutions of oil, a limited proportion of those earths
contributes to form a rich and generous soil. Chalk may abound in a higher proportion
than clay, and sand in a higher proportion than either clay or chalk, without causing
barrenness. The soils best adapted for moderating the excesses, and compensating the
deficiences of lieat and moisture in different seasons, are compositions of sand, pulverised
chalk, and finely divided clay, with a proportion of animal or vegetable matter. If the
soil be not naturally good to the depth of thirty inches, and thence to three feet, proper
earths and composts should be incorporated with it, to make it so, where the tenure does
not render the expense unadvisable. It should be done where it is intended to found a

Book I. SOIL. 461

complete kitchen-garden ; not, indeed, because many esculent plants require more than
eighteen inches' depth of good earth, in order to flourish in perfection ; nor that even
fruit-trees generally will not thrive for a considerable course of time in a suitable soil,
full two feet in depth, although three feet on their account is better ; but, in order that
the gardener may have it in his power to give rest to alternate portions of the soil, with-
out keeping the surface out of crop, by trenching in successive years to different depths,
so as to bring any given layer, measuring a spit in thickness, by turns to the bottom, the
middle, and the surface, in proportion as the natural soil is unfavorable, it should
receive improvement, till it be gradually brought to the desired state. Where some-
thing intractable must be taken away, as in the case of a very stony bed, let tlie ground
be trenched, and thp larger stones screened or raked out : ameliorate the residue
by such earths, manures, and composts as its defects may require. To give heart to
excessively light, sandy, and unstable ground, incorporate with it substantial loam and
well rotted dung. To correct a cold stubborn clay , add drift sand, shell marl, sea-
weed, warm light earth, and well-rotted dung. To qualify soot for application in a
garden, mix a tliirty-sixth part with a heap of compost. If the soil has been rendered
cold and wet by the passage and lodgment of water, it is requisite to have the ground
effectually drained." {Pract. Gard. p. 2.)

2412. The soil that suits general cultivation best is a loajn, rather the red than the Mackj
Marshall observes ; " but there are good soils of various colors, and this must be as it
happens ; the worst soil is a cold heavy clay, and the next a light sand ; a moderate
clay, however, is better than a very light soil, though not so pleasant to work. If the
soil is not good, i. e. too poor, too strong, or too light, it is to be carefully improved
without delay. Let it first, at least, be thoroughly broken, and cleaned of all rubbish, to
a regular level depth at bottom as well as top, so as to give about eighteen inches of
working mould, if the good soil will admit of it ; none that is bad should be thrown up
for use, but rather moved away. This rule of bottom-levelling is particularly neces-
sary when there is clay below, as it will secretly hold up wet, which should not stand in
any part of the garden. When a piece of ground is cleared of roots, weeds, stones, &c.
it would be of advantage to have the whole thrown into two-feet wide trenches, and lie
thus as long as conveniently may be. The ground cannot be too well prepared ; for
when this business is not performed to the bottom at first, it is often neglected, and may
not be conveniently done afterwards ; so it happens, that barely a spade's depth (or less)
is too often thought sufficient to go on with. There is this great advantage of a deep
staple, that in the cultivation of it the bottom may be brought to the top every other year,
by double-trenching ; and being thus renewed, less dung will do, and sweeter vegetables
be grown. Tap-rooted things, as carrots and parsneps, require a good depth of soil."
(Introd. to Gard. p. 28.)

2413. The soil of a new garden should be two or three feet deep, according to Forsyth,
" but if deeper the better, of a mellow pliable nature, and of a moderate dry quality ;
and if the ground should have an uneven surface, by no means attempt to level it, for by
that unevenness, and any little difference there may be in the quality, you will have a
greater variety of soil adapted to different crops. The best soil for a garden is a rich
mellow loam ; and the worst, a stiff heavy clay. A light sand is also a very unfit soil
for a garden. Sea-coal ashes, or the cleanings of streets and ditches, will be found very
proper to mix with a strong soil ; and if the ground should be cold, a large quantity of
coal-ashes, sea-sand, or rotten vegetables should be laid upon it, in order to meliorate
and loosen the soil, and render it easy to work. Lime-rubbish, or light sandy earth
from fields and commons, will also be found of great service to stiff clayey ground. If
the soil be light and warm, rotten neat's dung is the best dressing that you can give it.
If horse-dung be ever used, it must be completely rotted, otherwise it will bum up the
crop the first hot weather." {Tr. on Fr. Trees, p. 290.)

2414. Different soils are required in the same garden. This is Nicol's opinion, who has
had more experience in the formation of gardens than any of the authors from whom we
are quoting ; his remarks " on soils, and how to improve them," merit every attention,
and will be duly valued by those who have seen any of the excellent kitchen-gardens he
has formed in Fifeshire, Perthshire, and other northern counties. It is a happy circum-
stance, he says, " that in many instances we meet with different soils in the same acre."
In the same garden they should never be wanting ; and where nature (or natural causes)
has been deficient, recourse must be had to art ; inasmuch as the variety of fruits and
vegetables to be cultivated require different soils to produce them in perfection. It
would be absurd, however, to imagine, that for every particular vegetable there is to be a
particular soil prepared.

2415. The vm-ietks of soU in any garden may, with propriety, be confined to the foUowing : — Strong
clayey loam, light sandy loam (which are the two grand objects), a composition of one fourth strongwith
three fourths light loam, half strong and half light, and one fourth light and three fourths ^ong. "niese,
by a proper treatment, and with the proper application of manures, may be rendered proQUCtive of any
of the known and commonly cultivated vegetables in the highest degree of perfection.

462 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

2«6. In order to improve a soil, we must be guided much by its nature, so as, if possible, to render it ser.
viceable for general purposes. And hence our duty is to endeavour to hit on that happy medium which suits
the generality of esculents, in the formation or improvement of the soil in the kitchen-garden. Such a
soil should be sufficiently tenacious to adhere to the roots of plants, though not so much so as to be bind-
ing, which would certainly retard their progress and extension in quest of food. Hence a loam of a
middle texture, rather inclining to sand, may be considered as the most suitable soil for the puri)ose here
in view, and that on a double account, viz. the greater part of the valuable kinds of kitchen-vegetables
delight in such soU, and it is worked at less expense than a stiff one ; neither in severe droughts is it apt
to crack or be parched, nor in hard frosts is it so apt to throw out tender plants or seeds.

2417. If soils be too strorig, the tender roots of plants push weakly in them, sicken, canker, and perish ; and
if a soil be too light, and if it be poor withal, plants deposited in it will push their roots far, and in vain, in
quest of that stability and nutriment which is necessary and essential to their support. So that if the butt
of our aim be perfection in the production of wholesome and well matured vegetables, we must put aside
careless indifference in the formation of a proper soil, nor trust entirely to the force of dungs, were they
even to be had in the greatest plenty ; for dungs, by too free an application, have an effect on the quality
of esculents not altogether salutary. Wherefore, that our efforts may be attended with success, let us
bestow a moderate and prudent expense in the first outset, on composing or so improving the soil to be
appropriated to this purpose, as that, in our best judgment, it may fully answer the intention.

2418. JVhere the bottom is wet and the sub-soil of a cankering nature, it may be improved by judicious drain,
ing; where the soil is stubborn, by the addition of small gravel, sea-sand, wherein is a considerable quantity
of small pebbles and shells, coal-ashes, lime, gravel, pounded brick-bats, brick-kiln ashes, &c.,and, aboveall,
by being carefully laid up in ridges in the winter months, and, indeed, at all times when not in crop, in
such a manner as to give the greatest extent of surface for the weather to act upon ; where the soil is a
poor sand, or gravel, by the addition of clay, or strong clayey loam, scourings of ditches which run
through a clayey sub-soil, pond-mud in a like situation, or scrapings of roads which lie in a clayey
district, &c.

2419. Soils that abound with metallic substances, and which generally make them appear of an iron color,
are termed fox bent or till. These substances are often found to be intimately mixed, or rather consoli-
dated with the soil, in considerable masses, which are adhesive and very ponderous. Such soils are the
most unfavorable to vegetation of any, and are quite ineligible for the purpose here in view, without
being much improved. For this purpose, lime will be found the most serviceable of all things, if judici-
ously applied, and the soil be frequently turned over by digging or trenching, so as that the soil and the
lime may be intimately mixed together, and that the atmosphere may have full effect upon them ; for
without this, the lime will not operate so effectually, nor will the tilly particles of the soil be divided or
meliorated so well. It may seem unnecessary to observe, that, according to the quantity of irony matter
contained in the soil, lime will be required to reduce it. In order to ascertain this quantity, a magnet
will be found useful, and one of the masses being calcined, and then reduced to a powder, the magnet
will separate the irony particles from the soil, showing the proportion of iron and of earth. Thus we may
fertilise the soil, taking for the extremes in ordinary cases, and supposing the lime of a middling quality,
150 and 400 Winchester bushels an acre ; applying the lime in a quick or powdered state, and properly
working the soil, being careful, in the first place, to drain it of superabundant moisture.

3420. Ridging up of soil, as above hinted at, has the happiest effect, especially for stiff soils, and should
never be omitted when the ground is not under crop. In dead sandy loams also, and in cankering gravels,
it is of incalculable advantage, and greatly meliorates them. For it is a fact proved by experience, that
exposing soil to the sun's rays in part, by throwing it into a heap, whereby it is also partly shaded, and
trenching it once a month, or in two months, will sooner restore it to fertility than any other process,
exclusively of adding fresh matter. And thus, if any ingredient noxious to vegetation abound in the
soil, it may be expelled, or be exhaled by the action of the atmosphere, more particularly if the soil
undergo a summer and also a winter fallow. In the latter case, however, care should be taken to have
the surface encrusted by frost, as often as possible, by turning it, and giving it a new surface each succeed-
ing thaw. {Gard. Kalend. p. 19.)

2421. The soil intended for a garden may he known by its jn-oductions. " In selecting
ground for a garden," Neill observes, " the plants growing naturally on the surface
should be noted, as from these a pretty correct opinion may be formed of the qualities of
the soU. The sub-soil should also be examined. If this be radically bad, such as an iron
till mixed with gravel, no draining, trenching, or manuring will ever prove an effectual
remedy ; if, on the contrary, the sub-soil be tolerably good, the surface may be greatly
meliorated by these means. In every garden two varieties of soil are wanted, a strong
and a light one, or, in other words, a clayey loam and a sandy loam ; different plants
requiring these respective kinds. For the general soil, a loam of middling quality,
but partaking rather of the sandy than the clayey, is accounted the best." (Ed. Encyc.
art. Hort.)

2422. General jiractice. It appears to be generally agreed on by practical men, that
there ought to be between two and a half and four feet of good soil over the whole sur-
face of the kitcl\en-garden. This depth will rarely be found to exist naturally ; or, if it
does in some places, it will be deficient in others. The proper heights for the borders and
compartments being fixed on, and the whole thoroughly drained, the next thing is to trench
the soil to the proper depth from the level or levels of the intended surface, whether these
run under or over the present surface, removing all unfavorable sub-soil, either to such
hollows within the ring-fence of the garden as require to be filled up to a greater depth
than that fixed on for the good soil ; or, what is preferable, placing it without the
garden. This done, the next thing is to introduce as much good soil as will raise the
surface to the thickness required. The strongness or lightness of this additional soil
must depend on the nature of that already there, and on the object in view. In com-
plete gardens, it may be desirable to have three qualities of soil, viz, a strong loam or
light loam, and a loam of tnedium quality ; the latter occupying the borders and about
half of the compartments. The soils introduced therefore must be such as, with what is na-
turally there, will effect these objects. If, for example, the local soil is every where light
or sandy, then one part, say that destined for strong loam, should receive as much of
clayey loam as will bring it to the temperament desired ; that for medium loam a lesser
portion, with as much light earth as will bring it to the required depth: and if the

Book I.

WATER.

463

420

natural soil is deemed too light, to that also must be added a portion of y/
cohesive, &c. It may be observed, however, that tlie
general object in selecting, forming, or improving the
soil for a kitchen-garden, is to obtain, as Nicol
expresses it, " a loam of a middle texture rather
inclining to sand," such soil being easy to work, little
affected by either droughts, rains, or frosts ; and the
greater part of the valuable kinds of kitchen-vegetables
delighting in it. All the authors we have quoted
above may be said to agree in desiring such a soil for
the whole of the kitchen-garden. In peculiar situ-
ations, as where villas are built on rocky steeps, and
other romantic situations, it may become a matter of
great ditficulty and expense to bring soil from a
distance ; and it may also be found equally difficult
to find a bed for it, by tlie removal of rock, &c. In
such cases, all tliat can be done is to select the most
favorable spots (Jig. 420. a, a) ; cultivate them to the
utmost, connect them by walks and shrubbery ; and
place the economical buildings attached to the garden
(6), and hot-houses, &c. (e), in the most commodious
situations, and where they will not interfere with
general effects. There are many very productive
gardens of this description in the nortli of Scotland,
and in the territory of Genoa.

hat if

Sect. VI. Water,

2423. yi co])ious supply of water is essential to a good kitchen-garden, and, from
whatever source it is furnished, should be distributed either in reservoirs or open cistern^
or in pipes, properly protected, over the garden, and in hot-houses. If the supply is
from a pond or river, a system of lead or cast-iron pipes may be adopted, and the
delivery effected by cocks at proper distances ; but if from wells or springs, the delivery
should be into open stone or cast-iron cisterns ; or, in default of Uiese, into tubs or
butts sunk in the earth. In Tuscany, where the inhabitants excel in the manufacture of
pottery, immense jars of earthenw^are are frequently adopted ; in the Royal Garden at
Paris, sunk barrels ; and cisterns of masonry, lined with cement, are general in the best
gardens on the continent. In these gardens, a system of watering is adopted, which,
though rendered more necessary there by the climate, than it can possibly be in this
country, yet in various respects deserves imitation,

2424. Many kitchen-crops are lost, or produced qf very inferior quality for want of watering. Lettuces
and cabbages are often hard and stringy ; turnips and radishes do not swell, onions decay, cauliflowers
die off, and, in general, in dry seasons, all the crucifereee become stinted, or covered with insects, even in
rich deep soils. Copious waterings in the evenings, during the dr>' seasons, would produce that fulness
and succulency which we find in the vegetables produced in the Low Countries, and in the Marsh Gar-
dens at Paris ; and in this country at the beginning and latter end of the season. The vegetables brought
to the London market from the Neat's Houses, and other adjoining gardens, where the important article
of watering is much more attended to than in private country-gardens, may be adduced as aflTording
proofs of the advantage of the practice.

2425. The watering the fofiase of fruit and other trees to destroy or prevent the increase of insects,
and of strawberries and fruit-shrubs to swell the fruit, is also of imi>ortance ; and though the climate of
Scotland is less obnoxious to great droughts, than that of the southern counties, yet we find that excellent
horticultural architect, John Hay, adopting a system of watering in various gardens lately formed by him
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh.

242a The contrivance for ivatering or washing the foliage qf the wall-trees in Dalmeny garden, laid out
by this artist, deserves particular notice. Water is supplied to the garden from a reservoir, situated on
an eminence, a considerable height above the garden-walls. Around the whole garden, four inches below
the surface of the ground, a groove, between two and three inches deep, has been formed in the walls,
to receive a three-quarter inch pipe for conducting the water. About titty feet distant from each other
are apertures through the wall, two feet and a half high, and ten inches wide, in which a cock is placed,
so that on turning the handle'to either side of the wall, the water issues from that side. The nozzles of
the cocks have screws on each side, to which is attached at pleasure a leathern pipe, with a brass cock
and director ; roses, pierced with holes of different sizes, being fitted to the latter. By this contrivance,
all the trees, both inside and outside the wall, can be most effectually watered and washed in a very short
space of time, and with very little trouble. One man may go over the whole in two hours. At tho same
time the borders, and even a considerable part of the compartments, can be watered with the greatest ease
when required. The conveniency and utility of this contrivance must at once be perceived by every
practical horticulturist. The same plan of introducing water is adopted in a garden which J. Hay
planned and executed for Lord V. Duncan, at Lundie-House, near Dundee ; and after the experience of
several years, it has been greatly approved of. The water at Lundie is conveyed to the garden from a
considerable height, and is thrown from the point of the director with great force, and to a good distance.
{Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.)

2427. Water in a garden is absolutely necessary, according to Justice ; well-water is
far from being proper, but t^mt which is impregnated by the sun's rays is highly cpndu-

464 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

cive to vegetation. He recommends forming a large pond or basin in the centre of the
garden, which shall at the same time contain fish. (Brit. Gard. Direct, p. 2.)

2428. Gardens should be near a river or brook, that they may be well supplied with water.
From these, Forsyth observes, " if the garden does not lie too high, the water may be
conducted to it by drains ; or, which is much better, by pipes, taking care to lay them
low enough to receive the water in the driest season, which is the time when it will be
most wanted. If there be no running water near the garden, and if the latter lies on a
declivity near a public road, I would advise to make a hollow drain, or a cut, from the
most convenient part of the rosd, to receive the water that washes the road in rainy
weather, and convey it to a large cistern, or tank, in the upper part of the garden ; this,
if the road be mended with limestone or chalk, will prove an excellent manure. The water
from the cistern, or from the river, may be conducted to the different compartments by
means of pipes, which, having cocks at proper places, the water may be turned upon the
different compartments of the garden at pleasure. Or the water may be conveyed in proper
channels, and turned on the compartments in the same manner as in watering meadows.
These pipes, channels, &c. will be a considerable expense at first ; but they will soon
repay it, by saving a great deal of time, which would otherwise be spent in pumping
and carrying water. The most convenient time for turning the water on is, in general,
during the night ; and in dry weather it would then be of the most essential service.
If the situation be such that you are obliged to pump the water from deep wells,
there should be a large reservoir, in which it should be exposed to the sun and air
for some days before it is used; it may then be turned on as above. If the ground
be wet and spewy, it will be proper to make a basin of the most convenient place to re-
ceive the water that comes from the drains, and to collect the rain that falls on the walks."
(Tr. onFr. Trees.)

2429. Water is the life and soul of a garden. Switzcr observes, " it is one of the most
essential conveniences of a country-seat, and especially useful to kitchen-crops ; for,
indeed, what can be made of any ground without it ? Anhna mea sicut terra sine aqua,
is a good metaphor to express it, as it really is the soul and life of all vegetation ; and
whoever does not make that one of his principal considerations, deserves blame or pity."
Describing his design for tlie garden of Spy Park as to water, the same author observes,
** The square basins are not only designed for little stews for fish, but at each corner
there are clay and elm pipes, with plugs to them that go under the alley, and commu-
nicate themselves with the adjacent divisions or compartments, which will, in an instant,
float the same, because the little basins are designed to lie six inches higher than those
divisions or compartments ; and then the whole is so contrived by other larger elm pipes,
that the said little basins are filled by the canal and other conveniences."

2430. A source of ivater is considered essential to a garden by most writers. London
and Wise, Evelyn, Hitt, and Lawrence are warm in recommending it. M'Phail ob-
serves, that a garden to bring the produce of the soil to the greatest perfection, " should
be well supplied with water, to water the plants in dry seasons." (Gard. Rem. 2d edit,
p. 13.) If water can be introduced, observes Marshall, "and kept clean with verdant
banks around it, it would be very useful where a garden is large ; but let it be as near
the centre as possible, being the most convenient situation. It should be fed from a
spring, and (if it could) be made to drip in the reservoir, because its trickling noise is
agreeable music in a garden to most ears." (Introd. to Gard. p. 42.) " If there be no
natural stream that can be conducted through a garden," observes Nicol, " water should
be conveyed from the nearest river, lake, or pond ; soft water being most desirable for
the use of the garden." (Kalcndar, p. 7.)

Sect. VII. Form.

2431. In regard to form, almost all the authors above quoted agree in recommending
a square (fig. 421. a) or oblong, as the ^2i

most convenient for a garden ; but
Abercrombie proposes a long octagon,
in common language, an oblong with
the angles cut off (b) ; by which, he
says, a greater portion of the wall in
the slips behind will be on an equality
with the garden as to aspect.

2432. A geometrical square is recom-
mended by Hitt, " set out in such a
manner, that each wall may have as

much benefit of the sun as possible," that is, with reference to the compass, set out as a
rhomboid (c).

2433. A square or oblong form, M'Phail considers as the most convenient. A square
with a semicircular projection on the north side (fig. 417. d), or a parallelogram with a

Book I.

WALLS.

465

northern projection in the form of a semicircle (Jtg. 417. e), were favorite forms with
the late W. Nicol. These opinions, it is to be considered, refer more properly to the
space enclosed by walls than to the whole garden, which ought to be considered as com-
prehending the entire space included in the ring-fence ; which fence, choice or accidental
circumstances may produce in any shape from the circle {Jig. 424.) to the most irregular
figure. (Jigs. 420. 422.)

2434. The oral, polygonal, and trapezium forms have been adopted for the walls of a
garden, in order to procure a more equal distribution of sun and shade ; but the incon-
veniences attending the culture and management of the compartments of such gardens
are considerable ; nor does it appear an equal distribution of sun is so suitable, as that
of having some walls as advantageously exposed as possible for the more delicate fruits ;
and others less so for hardier sorts, for retarding fruits, and for growing plants to which
shade is congenial in the borders. No figure whatever can add to the quantity of sun's
rays received by the whole form, but merely vary their distribution.

2435. Even

422

irre-
gular Jigures are ad-
missible, such figures
(Jig. 422.) being
surrounded by wood
(i), and interspersed
with fruit-trees, will
form very agreeable
shapes in walking
through them ; and
while the compart-
ments are thrown in-
to right-lined figures
to facilitate culture,
the angles can be
occupied with fruit-
trees or shrubs, per-
manent crops, as

strawberries, asparagus, &c. with the hot-houses (e), or other buildings (b), or with
ponds (y), and other adjuncts. Some of the walks raay be wavy (a), as a direction
indicated by tlie outline of wood, and one main walk (rf, d) may be formed, broad and
straight, to display the whole.

Sect. VIII. IFalls,

2436. Jralls are built round a garden chiefly for the production of fruits. A kitclien-
garden, Nicol observes, considered merely as such, may be as completely fenced and
Sieltered by hedges as by walls, as indeed they were in former times, and examples of that
mode of fencing are still to be met with. But in order to obtain the finer fruits, it be-
comes necessary to build walls, or to erect pales and railings.

2437. Placing, jrroportioning, and construct- 423
mg the walls of a kitchen-garden, is a matter in
which the artist may display a degree of taste
as well as fitness and propriety. " If these,"
Nicol continues, " be properly set down, so as to
answer the cast of the ground (Jig' 423. ), and be
raised to proper heights, according to its extent,
the rest is easy, and follows as a matter of course.
In this particular branch of gardening, utility
and simplicity ought to go hand in hand, other-
wise true taste will be wanting. It is not in
curves, circles, and ogees, we shall find satis-
faction. The walls, if the ground admit of it,

should all run in direct lines, corresponding to the slopes on which they are placed (a, b,
c, d ; they may be built level, or they may be inclined, so as to suit the general cast of
the ground ; but tlie nearer to a level' the better they will please. The mind is dissatis-

fied and distracted in beholding any building apparently unstable. We can look upon
a mast placed oblique, or on a tree growing aslant, with firmness and satisfaction, because
we know the one is supported by ropes, and the other by roots; but on a wall running
much off the level, we look with a degree of distrust or of fear. If the north wall can be
Dlaced quite level, and also the south wall on a lower level, and so as that the east and
frest walls shall fall, from north to south, a foot in thirty or in twenty-five; and if the
ground be lengthened from east to west, in the proportion of three to two, the extent be-
ing two or three acres, on such a spot may be formed a garden that will not fail to pleas*.

Hh

^466 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Next, on a spot of the above, or of similar dimensions, sloping to the south, and not level
from east to west, but sloping a few feet, perhaps one in fifty, to the east, in this case the
opposite walls should run directly parallel to each other, both with respect to latitude and
to inclination, otherwise the eye will be displeased by tlie distorted appearance of the cop-
ing when at the full height. Next, all as here described, and the ground sloping to the
south and to the west. And next, a dead level spot, in which case particularly the walls
should be of different heights. But ground falling to tlie north, or much distorted, should
be avoided, as being very unfit for erecting walls or other buildings upon, on which a com-
plete modem garden cannot be formed without considerable difficulty, and a great addi-
tional expense." (ITalend. p. 142.)

2438. Walls with a south aspect, as Switzer observes, " have been all along reckoned
the best for fruits, though later observation and experience have not confirmed it ; for
when the days are something long, and the heat of the sun in its greatest strength, it is
late before the sun shines upon them, and it leaves such a position as early in the after-
noon. Besides, when it is mid-day, the sun is so much elevated above the horizon, that
it shines but faintly and very slopingly upon them, which makes the heat to be much the
less, inasmuch as a smaller quantity of rays fall upon such a wall, it being visible, that
both before and after noon the sun shines hotter than when it is in its highest meridian.
From whenccj'tis natural to infer, that a little inclination, either to the east or west, are
the best aspects ; but which of the two will maintain its precedence may be now enquired
into. And in this enquiry, I shall venture to affirm, that the east, or rather south-east,
are to be preferred to tiie west or south-west, though they are as much exposed to the sun
as east walls are. Though it should be argued that the sun shines stronger in the after-
noon than the morning, because it continues to act on air already warmed with the influ-
ence of the morning sun, yet, inasmuch as the rays of the sun are more healthy and cheer-
ful then than after, and dispel the cold dews and vapors as before, it is more than equi-
valent to the extraordinary heat of the afternoon sun, as experience shows, which is generally
languid and unhealthy. From whence I infer as before, that the south-east maintains its
post against either the south or south-west. 'Tis from reasonings of this kind I would
venture to establish it as my humble opinion, (and I think I have the suffrage of most
eminent planters and gardeners to second me,) that a south wall, inclining about twenty
degrees to the east, is preferable to any of the others, inasmuch as the sun shines as early
on it as on a full east wall, and never departs from it till about two o'clock in the after-
noon ; besides, it is something removed from those destructive winds that come from the
west and north." {Pr. Fr. Gard. p. 312.)

2439. Equality of aspect. Hitt proposes to have no south wall, but by the position of
the four sides of his garden (^Jig. 421. c ) endeavors to obtain a comparatively equal dis-
tribution of solar heat. The plan he recommends contains two acres, the ground descend-
ing from the south-west side. *' In respect to the aspect of the walls," he says, "the
sun's rays continue no longer upon the north-west wall than three in the afternoon, which,
I think, is the most proper aspect for grapes, peaches, nectarines, and all other kinds of
fruit that require the most regular heat to bring them to perfection, and soonest to matu-
rity, for though the sun leaves this wall so soon in the afternoon, yet in the morning this
aspect will be of advantage to the trees and fruits ; for, as apricots, peaches, and nectarines
blossom early in the spring, at which time our climate is frequently attended with frosty
nights, destructive of both blossoms and fruit, the sun's rays darting in lines at right
angles upon the wall at nine o'clock, dissolve the congealed moisture much sooner than if
they darted upon it at right angles at noon, which they must consequently do if the wall
stands due south. 'Tis true, a south wall will receive more sun by three hours, that is,
from about three in the afternoon till near six, (in the vernal equinox,) but that is no great
advantage, for before that time of the day the air will be sufficiently warmed. Besides, if
the wall is built full south, it will not be so proper for fruit-trees as a south-east aspect;
for in the middle of the day the sun will cause the trees to exhale their juices faster than
their roots can absorb them, which will render the fruit smaller and the pulp harder, and
worse flavored, than those which receive the heat more regular. The south-east wall re-
ceives the sun about nine o'clock, which is a proper situation for some of the best kinds
of winter pears, and which they well deserve, for they afford fine juices and rich flavors,
when other fruits of the same quality are wanting. Some kinds of grapes, peaches, and
nectarines will ripen well against it ; and this has one equal advantage with the south-west
wall, viz. of the sun's rays striking obliquely upon it at noon. The north-west aspects of
these walls receive but little sun, for he shines not upon them till three in the afternoon,
but they will serve for fruits which ripen in summer, as cherries, plums, and some kinds
of pears." (Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 33.)

2440. A full south asjyect is recommended by Marshall, for a wall designed for the best
fruits ; or, it may be somewhat inclining to the east, by which it will catch the sun's rays
at its rise, the cold night dews will be earlier and more gently dissipated, and the scorch-
ing rays of the afternoon summer's sun are sooner off. By thus having the walls of a

Book I. WALLS. 467

garden not directly to the four points, the north wall is greatly advantaged by having
more sun. °

2441. The best asjtectfor ajruit-wall in Scotlandy Nicol observes, " is about one point
to the eastward of south, such walls enjoying the benefit of the morning sun, and beino-
turned a little from tlie violent west and south-west winds. South-east is, for the same
reasons, accounted by many a better aspect than south-west." Dr. Walker, on the
other hand, with reference to tJie same country, states, that the six hottest hours of
the day are from eleven to five o'clock, and that it is not a wall of a south-east, but
of a south-west aspect, which enjoys this heat. {Essays on Nat. Hist. p. 258.)

2442. The height of walls for traijiing f nut-trees generally approved is from ten to
twelve feet ; but it is more commonly determined by the size and form of the garden,
and the inclination of its surface. The following judicious observations of Nicol are
the best which have appeared on this subject. The irregular surfaces on which gardens
are often obliged to be formed in Scotland, require the greatest attention and nicety
from the designer, and hence tlie fulness of his remarks.

2443. With respect to the height of fruit-walls, considered merely as such, the matter might easily be
determined. I would say, twelve feet, that height being very convenient for the operations of pruning
watering, gathering the fruit, &c. and admitting of a sufficient expansion of the branches of most treek*
But the height of garden-walls should be regulated by the extent, or by the apparent extent, of the ground
enclosed by them. I say by the apparent extent, as well as by the real extent, because much depends on
the form and cast of the ground, in how much the eye shall be pleased. If it be a square, it will seem less
than it really is j and if a lengthened parallelogram, larger ; and according to its flatness or its elevation,
the eye will be deceived.

2444. A small pot surrounded by high walls has a bad ^ect and a gloomy appearance. The walls being
of different heignts give relief. In a garden of an acre, being a parallelogram of the best proportion, and
gently elevated, the north wall may be raised to the height of fourteen feet ; the east and west walls to
twelve ; and the south wall to ten feet above the ground level If the ground slope considerably, the
breakings in the respective heights of the walls may be less ; they may be only a foot ; and the relief will
be the same, or nearly the same, to the eye, in ranging along their surfaces. In a garden of greater
extent, the walls may be raised to a greater height ; but by no means in proportion, if it extend to several
acres. The extreme height of the north wall of any garden should not exceed eighteen feet ; and containing
suppose four acres, the east and west walls should be fifteen, and the south wall only twelve feet high, in
order that it may give the necessary relief to the eye. In a garden four hundred feet long and three
hundred feet broad, which forms a handsome parallelogram, and contains something above two English
acres, if the ground lie on an easy slope, a very eligible height for the north wall is sixteen feet ; for the
east and west walls fourteen ; and for the south wall twelve. But if the ground be quite level, or nearly
so, the north wall being the same height, the east and west walls should only be thirteen and a half feet,
and the south wall eleven feet in height ; or the east and west walls may only be thirteen, and the south
wall ten feet high, if it be a dead level (A'a/. p. 145.)

2445. Fruit-walls Jive or six feet high, Hitt observes, will do very well for peaches,
cherriesj vines, and figs, but he would not advise tlie planting of plums, apricots, or
pears, on such walls, they requiring more room, and to stand longer before they
bear.

2446. Fruit-wails ten feet Idgh are preferred by Forsyth, but he says they may extend
to fourteen feet.

2447. Many low walls, or stout ranges of paling, Abercrombie observes, "will pro-
duce a greater total of eflfect in accelerating fruit, than the same expenditure in high
walls."

2448. T/ie situation of the garden-doors in the walls demands attention. We have
already shown the importance of entering the garden from the south, south-east, or south-
west sides ; and tliis circumstance must not be lost sight of for main entrances. Doors in
the north wall, or north ring-fence, should be considered as exclusively for the operators
of the garden. Doors, in short, should be so contrived, as never to invite visitors to the
north slip, or so as to get behind the hot-houses. The width of doors depends on the
extent of the garden, and whether the melon-ground and compost-ground are within the
walls, or in the external area. In general the doors in the ring-fence, and the walk round
the outside of the garden, should be such as to admit a one-horse cart for bringing in
manure and soils.

2449. The sloping or bevelled icalls, recommended by the author of Fruii WaUs
improved by inclining them to the Horizon, are disapproved of by Switzer, because,
** though the author's very curious calculation is, perhaps, no whit inconsistent with
truth, yet experience has taught (and that in a sloping wall at Belvoir Castle, I think, of
the author's own directing), that though the sun may act with more vigor in its solstitial
capacitj' on a sloping than on a perpendicular wall, yet it is as deficient in its performances
in the morning ; and by the author's own arguments, as well as the observations of
almost every body that has made any obser\ation at all, that dews are expelled at least an
hour in tlie morning sooner from a perpendicular wall than a sloping one ; so that what
is gained at one time is lost at another." ( Pract. Fr. Gard. p. 314, 315.)

2450. Other modifications of kitchen-garden icalls. Hitt observes, " I have seen some
walls stuck with tiles projecting, called horizontal shelters, some buik with large pillars,
and others with cur\es ; all these are attended with evils of one kind or other ; for the
horizontal shelters are great receptacles of noxious insects, particularly of the small green

H h 2

'168

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

and variegated caterpillars. These insects devour the leaves and eat deeply into tlie
fruit when grown to a good size ; so that it perishes and drops off the trees. The shelters
are likewise very prejudicial to both fruit and branches, by depriving them of the descend-
ing dews, from which they imbibe great nourishment. Large pillars or piers have almost
the same ill effects ; besides, they shade the rays of the sun from the trees part of the day,
more or less, in proportion to their size. Though walls built with curves have, m calm
seasons, the benefit of more heat than others ; yet, in windy weather, the wmds from
some point -or otlier rebounding from side to side, break and destroy the tender branches
and blossoms of trees, whereby they are much more injured than the heat reflected from
one wall to the other can be of advantage to them. I have found by experience, that
walls built straight and upon arches, as mentioned before, are preferable to all others,
having a coping which projects about two inches to shoot off the rain, in order to preserve
.the wall." (Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 40.)

2451. With respect to the con-
struction of walls for kitchen -gardens,
the common upright, straight wall
is now generally preferred to the
sloping, angular, or curved walls,
tried in several places about a cen-
tury ago, and criticised by Justice,
Miller, Switzer, and other authors
of that day. There may occur cases,
however, in which these uncommon
forms, and others which we have no-
ticed (1556 to 1575.), may be adopted
with propriety. A very good applica-
tion of the angular wall, when formed
of boards, may be made in the ease
of a circular garden, {fig- 424. ) At
each angle (a, 6) a light cast-iron
post with grooves is to be inserted
in the ground ; and in these grooves,
the ends of the boards, say in six or
eight feet lengths, are to be inserted,
and left without any fastening. If

they shrink during summer, being loose, they will only drop a little, but never show any
crevice ; and, in order to let the trees be fully exposed to the weather in winter, or to
paint, repair, or renew the boards, all or any part of the latter may easily be
taken out, leaving the cast-iron props in the grounds, and the trees as entirely detached
as if they were standards or border bushes (d). In this way, a large surface of cheap
and n«at walling might be obtained in very little space, and on the whole an agreeable
effect produced. A walk, shrubbery and hedge (c) may surround the whole.

2452. Fruit-walls, according to Hitt, should be founded on piers, " placing them at such
distances as to admit one tree of the sort proper for the aspect between, and forming them
of dimensions suitable to the size of the walls, and the nature of the foundations. The
.advantages he states to be a saving of material and intended pasturage for the root. If,
'however, the wall is to be planted with fruit-trees on both sides, the latter advantage is
imaginary ; and, indeed, the construction might often prove injurious by admitting the
hardy roots of trees, fit for a northern exposure, to intermix with the more delicate ones
of such as are planted on a south aspect. Justice, having disapproved of curved and
angular walls, says, " and as to the other methods of arching walls at their bottoms, that
is still worse ; for when the roots go out at the back sides of the walls at their freedom,
fliey draw all the rapcid juices from the earths at the backs of the walls : in consequence
of which, the fruit infallibly falls off, after it has acquired its magnitude, &c." (Brit.
Gard. Direct, p. 5.) A late writer, J. Robertson (Hort. Trans, iv. p. 95.), recommends
such walls for peach-trees, but obviously on the supposition that no use is made either of
the north side of the wall, or north border.

2453. The foundation of a garden-wall, according to M'Phail, should be dug out no
deeper than the thickness of good earth on the surface, in order that as little wall may be
Jost as possible.

2454. Fruit-walls Tuay he strengthened by jriers, according to Forsyth, placed from forty
to sixty feet apart, and projecting half a brick beyond the wall. Such piers are now
inade round, or rounded ofl^ as the technical term is, which is more convenient for train-
ing trees.

2455. Projecting stone buttresses are, in some places, set at intervals in the walls,
Neill informs us, in order to strengthen them, and break the force of the winds when
sweeping along. From the external angles of the walls of Dalmeny Park gardens,

^'^^ffi-Iris^it^'^'

•169

^ooK I. WALLS.

where they meet at right angles, a wall (Jig. 425. a), is extended
diagonally about seventeen feet. Tills extension is found very
useful in breaking the force of the wind when ranging along
the walls. At the same time it does away, in a considerable
degree, the formal box-shape of the garden when viewed from
the higher grounds in the neighborhood. (Ed. Encyc. art.
HorL)

2456. With respect to the coping of garden-walls, Nicol ob-
serves, " much has been said, and opinions are at variance.
Some insist that the cojiing should not project beyond the
face of the wall ; and others, that it should project several
inches, in order to throw the drip off the foliage. Others,
again, give it a slope to the north, or to the west side, in
order to throw all the water to the first aspect, or to that
not covered with trees. It may be right to throw the whole
of the water to the side not covered with fruit-trees ; but it is wrong to throw it all
to the worst aspect, if that aspect be planted, by being disadvantageous to the trees trained
on it, if there be any disadvantage in the rains falling upon them ; which, indeed, is ques-
tionable, except, perhaps, just when the fruit is ripening off. The quantity of rain that
falls on an ordinary wall, is but trifling ; and if even a light breeze of wind prevail at the
time, it is generally dashed against the foliage in dripping, or is scattered and dissipated.
In short, it is quite as well for the trees that there be no projection at all, if the coping be
fixed. A temporary coping of boards, projecting perhaps a foot or eighteen inches, may
be of service to the trees in spring, while in bloom, in repelling the perpendicular frosts,
that are often injurious to them at that time, and to the tender fruit. But such frosts are
less hurtful than baneful frosty winds, which fall not perpendicularly, and which are better
warded off' by screens." {Kal. p. 146.)

2457. Fired copitigs are disajyjyroved of by Forsyth, especially when they project so far
as they are generally made to do. " I would rather advise to have a moveable wooden
coping, fixed on with iron hooks, fastened to pieces of wood, built into the top of the wall ;
these copings would also be found very convenient to fasten the nettings, &c. to in spring,
for sheltering the fruit-trees. If, however, any should prefer fixed copings, they should
not project above an inch on each side of the wall ; this small projection will be sufficient
to preserve the wall, and will not prevent the dew and rain from falling on the upper part
of the trees, which is of great service to them."

2458. Cojnngs rohich project nearly afoot are approved of by the Comte Lelieur, and the
Rev. T. G. Cullum. In the best peach-gardens at Montreuil they project four or five
inches ; and at Thomery, where the finest grapes are raised, the copings project ten or eleveA
inches over walls wliich do not exceed eight feet in height. (Ponu Franfaise, p. 78.) T. G.
Cullum has built, in Suffolk, a nine-inch wall with rounded piers, and copings of slate
supported by oaken brackets, projecting a foot from the wall. The result answered his
expectations. (Hort. Traits, iv. 269.)

2459. Estimate of opitiio7is as to copings. On the whole, it appears both from the ex-
perience of a number of gardeners, and the most correct theories of dew ( IFells on Dew,
1819, see 1243.) and cold [Leslie, in Supp- Encyc. art. Cold), that projecting copings are
of use in spring to protect the blossoms from descending cold and dews ; but as the
copings must be injurious in summer by excluding light, rain, and air, and harboring ver-
min, we should prefer the temporary coping of boards recommended by Miller, Forsyth,
and Nicol.

i;460. With respect to the materials for kitclien-garden ivalls, brick is almost universally
preferred ; Forsyth says, " Where brick cannot be got, it is better to dispense with walls
alto'^ether, or to'adopt wooden ones." " Brick," Nicol states, "is best for the superstruc-
turet and stone for the foundation and basement. Bricks give more warmth, and answer
better for training trees to than stone. South, east, and west aspects should therefore be
faced with brick, if the wall be not entirely built of it. If the wall be built entirely of
stone, or be backed with stone, or be faced with bricks, and if trees are to be trained
against such backing, the stones should be run in regular courses of from four to seven
or eight inches thicl^ and each fifteen or twenty inches in length, by which there may be
a frequency in joints, and that the trees may be properly trained against the wall."

o-kr. Dark-colored wMnsf one (greenstone or basalt) is the next best material to brick, when properly
SQufr^ and hammer-dressed, as it absorbs heat; and next to that, a kindof blu.sh-grey stone (*andf pne
flagTor.ln pa^of the countrV consisting of primitive rocks, clay-slate that rises m na ural flags the thick-
nlS' or nearlvVhe thickness, of bricks, and which require but little dressmg, or trouble ui buildmg. The
Ser the stone approaches to black, the more valuable it is for the pun>ose ; the prefeience bemg given to
?1^ dirkest whfnstonermerely because it absorbs and retains heat more than light-coloretl stones and by
Jefson of Us close texture or |rain, rei^els moisture better, or retains less of it than other stones But good
durTle freestone Lnd-stone), being properly squareil, hammer-dressed, and run in courses as above, makes
a^eirSwru for training the more common kind of fruiU to ; such as apples, cherries, pears, and plums.
LTdmSswer very weU for east, west, and north as,>ects. But the better aspects, as south, south east,or
' , ■ H h 3

470

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

south-west, on which are to be trained apricots, figs, nectarines, peaches, and the finer sorts of pears and
plums.should.if at all convenient, be faced with brick, or be built of dark whinstone. ^, . ^ .

2462. The basement of the wall should universally be buUt of durable stone, if it can be obtained, in pre-
ference to brick ; whether the superstructure be of brick, or of stone in courses. In many cases it is cheaper
than brick : in any case more solid and durable. Supposing a ground-level line to be determined on, the
foundation or basement should be sunk at least a yard below it. If for a stone superstructure, it should be
thirty inches thick ; for a brick and a halfbrick thick wall, twentyinches ; and if for a wall faced with brick,
and backed with free-stone, two feet, or twenty-six inches thick, according to the size of the stones ; that is
to say the basement should generally be six inches thicker than the superstructure, there being a shelf or
scarcement of three inches thick on either side of the wall. If the basement be built with bricks, in order to
save materials, the scarcement need not be made more than two inches ; that is, the half breadth of a brick
on either side: so allowing four bricks to the basement, and three to the superstructure. {Kalend. p. 144.)
The foundation and basement of walls, Neill observes, are often made of common building sand-stone,
while the superstructure is brick ; and sometimes the back part of the wall is of sand-stone, and the front
only of brick Sand-stone, which rises in flags, is the best substitute for bricks. Both kinds of materials
admit of the branches of the trees being nailed in regulariy, and without difficulty. Where brick is scarce
and dear. Justice builds the foundation of stone, and lays one course ofbricksonthat side of the wall which
has the best aspect, carrying up the other with stone.

2463. Trellises against stone walls. " Where the walls are of common rubble building,"
Neill observes, " a trellis of spars is sometimes placed against them, and to this trellis the
branches are tied with osier twigs or rope-yam. This is regarded as a very good plan ;
but the expense is considerable, as, to prevent the lodging of insects, the trellis must be
smooth and painted. The trees thus enjoy the shelter and regular heat of the wall, with-
out being injured by its dampness in rainy weather ; and as the wall is not injured by the
driving and drawing of nails, there are fewer lurking places for the wood-louse and the
snail. The rails of the trellis are made closer or wider according to the nature of the tree
to b6 trained against it. In a few instances in Scotland, walls have been built of different
kinds of whinstone, chiefly green-stone and basalt." (Edin. Encyc. art. Hon.)

2464. The courses of bricks in kitchen- garden walls, some artists require to be laid hori-
zontally, or on a level ; but Hitt, Nicol, and most modern designers, prefer them laid in
lines parallel to the surface of the border, which, besides presenting a more agreeable effect
to the eye, answers better for lateral or horizontal training, in which, when adopted on such
walls, the shoots are laid in parallel to the courses of brick and the surface of the ground.
Were they laid in horizontally, tliere would necessarily be an unsightly blank at the top
and bottom of each tree. This is a matter deserving attention, both on account of
economy and the effect produced.

2465. Different descriptions of wooden walls have been described (1565.), and one or other
of them may be adopted in small gardens, or in particular situations. Nicol affirms
(Xal. p. 148.) that fruits may be produced on wooden walls, in as high perfection as on
those of brick. He acknowledges them, however, to be less durable. Switzer describes
a wooden fruit-wall, made from the boards or sides of " old shipping, which may be had
at sea-port towns, and is, indeed, some of the best for fruit of any, not excepting brick
walls ; for, being pitched and tarred, on account of its preservation before it goes to sea,
time and the salt-water, and the different climates through which the vessel sails, so
harden and incrustate the planks, that the heat of the sun strikes upon it to a degree not
to be borne withal, as all that make voyages at sea can testify. These kind of wooden
walls are generally made at half the expense of brick, and will last many years j and you
may nail tolerably well into them."

2466. Mud tvalls. A sort of walls to save bricks are made of mud ; " but I do not,"
says Switzer, " thereby mean such as were in old times made of those coarse materials,
though I have, I confess, often seen good fruit on them, but such as they make at this
time in Dorset and Wiltshire (dry climates), chalk and
mud mixed together, with a proportionable quantity of
old hay or straw mixed with it; of which, when
the foundations are laid of brick, or stone, or chalk,
two or three feet high, which they often do, it is a very
good wall for fruit, not disagreeable, nor of less use and
concern for fruit-trees, than stone, brick, or wooden
walls." (Pract.Fr. Gard. Tp. 300.)

2467. Open railings, or lattice-work of timber or cast-
iron, are sometimes used as substitutes for walls. The
garden of the Duke of Chandos (Pope's Timon), at
Edgeware, was surrounded by a wrought-iron rail
twelve feet high. We have, in the case of a garden
of a north aspect, employed an open railing {Jig. 426.
b) instead of the south wall, and a boarded wall (a) as
the fence on the north side. The advantage of this
plan is, that the south border (c) of the north wall is
sheltered at all times, and the north border and walk of
the south rail {e, i) is exposed to the sun during winter
and spring, when the trees trained against the rail are <|__

I

Book L

WALLS.

471

defoliated ; while in summer, the same border is shaded by the foliation of the trees, ahd
thereby as well adapted for salading and late crops, as the north border of any opaque
wall. This garden had round ends ; the semicircular compartments {f, g) formed by
which were devoted to fruit-shrubs ; and the other compartments (Jc), being rectangular,
to the culture of the ordinary annual crops : at one end was a building (A) serving
as a tool-house and watching-lodge.

2468. Hot or fined walls have been in use in kitchen-gardens for more than a century ;
but till lately they were confined to walls with southern aspects. At present, however,
it is not uncommon, where all the four walls of a quadrangular kitchen-garden are of
brick, to flue the whole of them. The expense of a flued wall is exactly the same as that
of a solid one, what is lost in labor being gained in materials ; and it is found of great
advantage, in cold and late autumns, to apply fires for even two or three weeks, as well to
ripen the wood, as the remaining fruit. In spring also, such walls, either with or
without some of the different sorts of protecting covers (1492.) are found of great use
in forwarding vegetation, especially in all the northern counties of England, and in
Scotland. Flued walls are certainly not much recommended by Abercrombie, M'Phail,
Marshall, or Forsyth, probably from the climate in which these authors gained their ex-
perience not requiring such aids. It is acknowledged also, that " this species of forcing
is practised by many in a very injudicious way, and much mischief done through error to
thousands of fine trees. " Nicol, however, the author of this remark, subjoins, that " flued
walls are certainly eminently useful, particularly in the northern parts of these kingdoms,
and are often necessary to the production of peaches and nectarines in bad seasons."
Switzer seems to have been the first to recommend them, giving various plans for hollow-
arched and flued walls in his Practical Fruit Gardener, some of which had been executed
and found to succeed in Lincolnshire, and at Buckingham House. Abercrombie says, " We
mention the hot wall without glass work, as among the projects for forcing, an old tried
onej but not to recommend it. The expense of glass work is saved by a false economy :
the plants are thus excited, on one side, by a strong artificial heat ; and exposed to fi-<»t
and damp violent winds, and heavy rains on the other. Many practical men have found
this contrivance calculated to produce an untimely show of blossoms, while the counter-
acting effect of their situation exposes both plant and blossom to perish. If not applied till
the decline of summer, it may do some good in assisting fruit to ripen." {Pr. Gar. p. 596.)

2469. Flued tualls for the climate of Scotland are
highly approved of by Justice ; and, as they cost
no more in erection than solid walls, it may be ad-
visable in many cases to build them, whether steam
or smoke heat should be applied or not. The fa-
cility with which the former is applied to walls
through recent improvements (1561.) is certainly a
great argument in their favor. Our opinion is,
that in all complete gardens, the w hole of the walls
should be flued or cellular {fig. 238.), to admit of
the application of artificial heat at pleasure. One
boiler and furnace may easily be contrived to sup-
ply heat to both the hot-houses and walls.

2470. Cross avails (fig. 427. a, b) are introduced
where the boundary wall is not suflSciently exten-
sive to produce the desired quantity of fruit, and
also to produce shelter to the garden. They are
very generally flued walls in all modem gardens
north of London, and are not unfrequently wholly
or in part covered with glass. The direction of
these walls is almost universally east and west, and
their height is determined by the surrounding walls
to which they are joined. These cross walls, Nicol
observes, are not placed nearer to each other than
one hundred feet ; if they be two hundred feet se-
parate, it is perhaps better.

2471. Hedges are sometimes introduced instead
of cross walls; but it is obvious they possess only two
of their advantages, that of affording shelter and
shade. Where they are adopted for these purposes,
evergreens, as the holly, box, laurel, spruce, &c.
are to be preferred to deciduous trees ; as from their
surface being, at all seasons of the year, more com-
pact than that of deciduous hedges, they are less
liable to harbor birds and vermin. No hedge has

H h 4

472 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

a finer effect than one of shining green holly, decorated with its coral berries. (See
Hort. Trans, ii. S54.)

2472. Color of walls. Garden- walls are generally left of the native color of the mate-
rial of which they are constructed ; hut they have been also colored white or black, and
the latter color frequently preferred as absorbing and giving out more heat than anj
other, and thereby accelerating the maturity, and improving the quality of fruits. {H.
Dawes, in Hort. Trans, iii. 330.) From various trials, it appears that fruit- walls of every
description, in the open air, may be blackened with advantage; but under glass, M'hite
is preferable, as reflecting light, which is there obtained with more difficulty than beat.

Sect. IX. liing-fence and Slip.

2473. The ring or outer fence of a garden is generally placed at some distance from the
fruit or main walls. The object is to admit the use of these on both sides as well as to
obtain a portion of ground in addition to what is enclosed. This fence may either be an
evergreen hedge, paling, low wall, or sunk fence, and with or without a wire fence to
exclude hares and rabbits. It may be placed at any distance from the walls, according as
accidental circumstances, or tlie purposes to which it is intended to devote the intervening
space, may determine. This space is technically called the slip, and, according to M'Phail
and most authors, should not be narrower than thirty feet, nor so wide as to throw the
plantation for shelter too far off to produce its effect.

2474. The breadth of the slip, according to Nicol, should be at least twenty feet, in
order to afford a sufficient border for the trees, and a walk ; but it may be as much more
in breadth as may be necessary to give ground without the space enclosed by walls for the
supply of the family, and it may be enlarged on all sides, or on any particular side, for
that purpose. {^Kal. p. 6.) The garden, Forsyth states, sliould be surrounded with a bor-
der, or slijh from forty to sixty feet wide or more, if the ground can be spared ; and this
again enclosed with an oak paling, from six to eight feet high, with a cheval-defnze at top
to prevent the people's getting over : it will also strengthen the paling. By making slips
on the outside of the garden-wall, you will have plenty of ground for gooseberries, cur-
rants, strawberries, &c. You may allot that part of the slips which lies nearest to the
stables (if well sheltered and exposed to the sun) for melon and cucumber beds ; and you
can plant both sides of the garden- wall, which will give a great addition to the quantity
of wall-fruit. (Tr. on Fr. Trees, p. 294.)

Sect. X. Placing the Culinary Hot-houses and Melonry.

2475. The situation of the hot-houses of a kitchen-garden is as various as the size and
form of gardens. In very extensive establishments, as at Kew, and the Royal Gardens,
Kensington, a garden or walled enclosure is entirely devoted for this department, in-
cluding also the framing or melonry. In ordinary cases, however, the culinary hot-
houses are either placed against the north wall of the garden, or against one or more of
the cross walls. Sometimes they are placed in the slip, which is made wider on purpose,
either on the east and west sides of the garden, or to the north, when it is situated on a
considerable declivity. Their effect, however, is almost always best when situated
within the walls of the garden, either attached or on the north or cross walls. In this
way they are sources of greater interest to the proprietor, and come more naturally into
the general course of promenade : for it must not be forgotten, that the pleasure or satis-
faction derived from even culinary hot-houses, does not wholly consist in being put in
possession of certain fruits of excellent quality, (for if so, recourse need only be had to
public markets,) but in marking the progress of the trees or plants on which these fruits
are grown, in all their different stages ; and, as Nicol observes, in being able to say
," these are the products of my own garden."

2476. Placing the hot-houses in a range with a directly south aspect, or one inclining to
the east, is recommended by Nicol ; and it may be here observed, that what is a desir-
able aspect for the north and best walls of a garden, will also be the best for the hot-
houses. By placing them in a range, " there will be an evident saving in the division
or end lights, besides the saving of trouble and work to those who attend to them.
Being properly arranged according to their different lengths, breadths, and heights, very
much beauty and variety may be given to the whole appearance." {Kal. p. 272.)

2477. The hot-houses occupy a considerable part of the south wall, Niel observes, "in
many gardens. In the area behind tliem are sheds for tanners' bark, rich mould, and
other requisites ; while there is a cart-access to the doors of the furnaces, and these with
tiie rubbish necessarily attending the operations of forcing, are completely hid from view.
In some places all the forcing-houses form a continuous range ; but generally the pine-
stove and succession pit, being of different dimensions, are placed separately." (Hdin
Encyc. art. Hort.) tr j k

2478. Culinary hot-houses should not be mixed with houses for 2)lants of ornament. In some
old Hi-arranged places, the greenhouse and plant-stove, or botanic hot-houses, are united

Book I.

LAYING OUT THE AREA.

473

with those destined for culinary products, and this is very suitable, or is rather a matter
of necessity in places on a moderate scale; but where variety and effect are taken pro-
perly into consideration, the ornamental or curious productions of gardening will be
kept separate from those whose beauty consists chiefly or entirely in their utility. In
this way two distinct and strongly marked characters are produced, instead of scenery of
a mixed, and as it were neutralised character.

2479. Tlie situation of the melonry is generally in the slip, and where the range of
hot-houses are placed on the north wall, and the ground sloping so as to shorten the
shadow thrown by this wall in winter when the sun is low, the melonry is with great
propriety placed in what may be called a bay of the slip beliind the north wall {Jig.
427. c). This may almost always be the case when the compost-ground and melonry
are placed adjoining each other, as the part most liable to be shaded may be devoted to
the former. " The reasons," Forsyth observes, " for allotting part of the outside slip
next the stable for hot-beds for raising melons and cucumbers, are, first, because there
will be no litter to carrj- in witliin the walls to dirty the walks ; secondly, the beds will
not be seen from the garden, and lastly, the convenience of carrying the dung, by which
a great deal of time will be saved in carting and wheeling. It will be necessary,
especially in exposed situations, to enclose the melon -ground with either a wall or
paling from six to eight feet high. It was formerly a practice to enclose melon-grounds,
with reed-fences ; but, although they are tolerably warm, and easily removed from one
place to another (being made in separate panels), they are very apt to harbor vermin."
{Tr. on Fr. Tr. p. 295.) In Dalmeny garden, Neill informs us, the melon-ground is
situated on the east side of the garden, the garden-wall being extended on the north of
it to the same height as the other walls, and flued like the rest of the walls which have a
souUi aspect. The pine-stoves and pits are placed in this melon-ground.

2480. Tlw mould and compost ground, as above suggested, should generally be com-
bined with the melonr) , and will be most convenient, if placed between the pits and hot-
beds, and the garden-wall on wiiich the range of hot-houses is placed ; and thus, when
the melonry is placed in the bay behind the north wall, the compost-ground occupies a
space that would otherwise be too much shaded for hot-beds or pits.

Sect. XI. Laying out the Area.
2481. The area, or space
enclosed by the garden-
walls {Jig. 428. a, b), is
usually formed into com-
partments, very common-
ly called quarters {d, d),
and borders, or narrow
slips {a), running pa-
rallel to the walls (6) and
Malks (c). The mag-
nitude and number,
both of compartments
and borders, as well as
of the walks, depend
on the size of the gar-
den, and partly also on
the taste of the de-
signer. Rectangular
figures are almost uni-
versally preferred for both. Wall-borders are generally formed of the breadth of the
height of the accompanying wall ; they may be broader, but do not produce a good effect
when narrower. In a garden of an acre within the walls, the walks are never less than
six feet broad, the surrounding or wall border from ten to thirteen feet, and the marginal
borders from seven to eight feet wide. In the latter, an espalier rail is frequently
fiAcd about five feet from the edging of the wall ; in other cases, the trees are planted
along the middle of the border, and trained as dwarfs ; an alley or path, commonly
two feet wide (o), separates the borders from the compartments. In the slip may be
formed irregular compartments or borders {q), the gardener's house {g), and the compost
and melon ground {f ]. The fence on the south side may be an open railing (;>),
and on the north a wall or close holly-hedge, the whole surrounded by a plantation
nearer or more distant, according to circumstances. The hot-houses being placed
against the nortli wall (6), behind them are placed the sheds, and on a moderate
scale these may contain a working-room (A), fruit and seed-room (e), tool-houses {k),
and the furnaces (t). To the open space behind (/), for composts and hot-beds,
there should always be a carriage entrance («), for bringing in earth, fuel, dung,- &c.

1 . 1

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1 II

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474

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

429

In the centre of the garden may be a fountain or
basin of water (nt), and in the gardener's house an
upper bedroom to overlook the whole. In smaller
gardens {jig. 429. ) the same general plan is adopted
as far as their extent admits. Where ornament is to
be combined with use, the standard fruit-trees and
shrubs may be planted in borders accompanying the walks
(c, c) ; but where economy of ground is the object, the
ti-ees and shrubs may be collected together in compart-
ments (a, 6), and borders altogether omitted.

2482. In laying out the compartments of a garden,
Forsyth observes, " you must be guided, in a great
measure, by tlie form and size of the garden ; but do
not lay them out too small, as in that case a great part
of the ground will be taken up with walks and bor-
ders. The best figure is a square, or oblong, when
the garden is of that form ; but if not, they may be
laid out in any other figure that is thought to be most
convenient." Some of the compartments, in some
of our best gardens, Neill observes, are laid out in
beds four feet wide, with narrow alleys. So many
alleys, no doubt, occupy a deal of room ; but advan-
tages of conveniency and neatness, in enabling the

workmen to clean and gather the crop, without trampling the ground, seem to compen-
sate the sacrifice of space. For currant, gooseberry, and raspberry bushes, the compart-
ments are, of course, reserved undivided ; and narrow beds are unnecessary in the case of
large perennial plants, such as artichokes or rhubarb.

2483. Laying out the borders. Abercrombie recommends the borders next the walls to
be made of prepared soil, " from eight to twelve feet wide, and the same description of
soil extended under the walks, in order to allow a liberal width for the roots to spread
without impediment. Next to the borders, leave a space for a walk entirely round the
garden, from four to six feet wide. Some persons also choose to have a border on the
inward side of the walk, for the cultivation of espaliers, and esculents of dwarf growtli ;
others divide the central parts at once into main compartments or divisions. The walks or
alleys must be regulated by convenience of access. Where the ground is extensive, the
centre should be traversed by a walk, with parallel borders, from which cross walks may
branch, if necessary." (T'r. Gard. p. 4.) The borders under the walls, Forsyth
observes, should, in the inside, be from ten to twenty feet wide, according to the size of
the garden, to give full liberty to the roots of the trees to spread. Tliere should be a
foot-path, about two feet and a half from the wall, for the greater convenience of nailing
the trees, gathering the fruit, &c. This walk should be from two, to two feet and a half
wide, (to admit a barrow or barrow-engine for watering the trees,) and covered with
sand ; or, which is better, coal-ashes, about two or three inches thick, but without any
gravel or rubbish below. ( TV. on Fruit Trees, p. 294. ) The borders for wall-trees,
according to Nicol, should not be less than twelve feet in breadth ; but fifteen
or eighteen feet is not too much. That is to say, the soil should be prepared for these
breadths, if it be not naturally good, and perfectly answerable for the different kinds of
trees to be planted.

2484. Preparation of fruit-tree borders. It is not enough, Nicol observes, that the
upper soil of a border only be improved. The sub-soil must also be attended to, and be
laid comfortably dry ; otherwise success in the rearing of fruits will be precarious and
doubtful. Draining is the basis of every improvement in horticulture, being the basis
of improvement in the soil. In this particular case, of preparing fruit-tree borders, it
is indispensable. It is also necessary that the roots of the trees be kept out of the sub-
soil, if it be of a cankering quality, as till, or corroding sand. This matter has appeared
evident to many, and various means have been taken to prevent them from getting down
to a bad substratum, at much trouble and expense. I shall here submit a method, the
least expensive and most effectual of any, which has been successfully practised for
several years.

2485. Forming an impervious hotto7nto borders. If the sub-soil be wet and cankering,
let the border be cleared out its whole length, to the depth and breadth before-
mentioned. Lay the bottom in a sloping manner from the wall to the walk, giving it a
fall of six or eight inches. Run a drain along by the conjunction of the border and
walk, a few inches lower than the bottom thus formed, which shall be capable of com-
pletely draining off both under and surface water. It may be a rubble-drain, or a box-
drain, according to necessity. Now, lay over t!ie bottom, thus formed and smooth, two
inches of good earth, if clayey so much the better, which pulverise and pass the roller

Book I. LAYING OUT THE AREA. 475

over ; then an inch of clean pit or river gravel, which also pass the roller over ; another
inch of earth, as above, which also roll ; and, lastly, an inch of gravel, also, as above.
This should be done with the materials rather in a dry state ; but now moisten the whole
moderately with a watering-pot, and roll until the surface acquires a hard shining con-
sistency. Keep rolling and watering alternately, till the whole becomes firm and
glazed, and till the earth and gravel be intimately mixed and incorporated. Thus may
a bed be formed for the roots of fruit-trees, much superior to one of stone or brick, and
at an expense greatly less ; of a nature more kindly, and which no root will penetrate.

2486. Prepared soil for borders should be thrown in, having been previously laid up in
a ridge, along the outer edge of the border, before the floor thus made get damaged by
wet, or other accidents ; and care must be taken that at no future period it be disturbed
in digging or trencliing the border.

2487. A Jit composition for apples, ajrricots, cherries, and Jigs is, three fourths rich
lightish earth, and one fourth strong loam ; being properly composed, and moderately
enriched with cow-dung, or a mixture of cow and hog dung, or of cow and stable dung ;
avoiding the latter, however, if the two former can be obtained, for the cooler dungs
answer best for fruitrtrees. The average depth of the borders for these kinds sliould be
thirty inches.

2488. A very Jit soil for jyeaches, pears, and plums is, three fourths loam, and one
fourth sandy earth, being well mixed, and moderately enriched, as above. The depth
for peaches and nectarines may be thirty inches, as above ; but for pears and plums, it
should not be less than three feet on the average, that is, two feet nine inches at tlie walk,
and three feet three inches at the wall, or thereby. (An/, p. 153.)

2489. Where the erj)ense of formijig proper soils for fruit-tree borders is not incurred, it is
necessary to adapt the kind of trees to the soil. On soils, Neill observes, "naturally very
light, gravelly, and sandy, peach and nectarine trees do little good ; it is better to plant
apricots, figs, or vines, which agree with such soils, and, when trained against a
wall having a good aspect, will, in the southern parts of the island, afford excellent crops
of fruit. On such soils, even espalier and dwarf standard apple-trees are short-lived,
subject to blight, and produce only stunted fruit. Next to renewing the soil, the best
remedy is to engraft and re-engraft frequently, on the best wood of the trees, giving the
preference to grafts of those kinds which experience has shown to be the most productive
and healthy in that particular place. In shallow soils, some have been in the practice of
making troughs or hollows, and filling them with rich earth, for the reception of the trees;
but this is not to be approved of; the roots of the trees will probably be confined to the
trough, and it is possible that water may be retained in it." {Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.)

2490. The number and breadth oficalks, Marshall observes, " must, in a great measure,
be determined by the quantity of allotted ground, exceeding in these particulars where
there is room. But few and wide walks are preferable to many contracted ones. If the
garden is small, one good walk all round is sufficient ; and if long and narrow, the cross
walks should not be many : six or eight-feet walks are not too wide for a moderate-sized
garden." The middle walk, according to Forsyth, "should be about seven feet, which
is wide enough to admit a cart ; and the others about three or four feet broad, with a
border on each side, five or six feet wide, at least, between the walk and the fruit-trees."
"If tlie garden be very extensive," Neill observes, "the centre is traversed by a
broad walk. If it be of the largest dimensions, and possess a cross wall or cross walls,
the arrangement of the walks falls to be altered accordingly ; a main walk proceeding
directly to the door, in tlie centre of the cross walls."

2491. A ii-alk should always proceed from the main entrance to the main object of the
garden. Tlie entrance, as already observed (2388.), should either be in the centre
of the south-east or west walls. Where there are hot-houses, it should, if possible, be in
the south wall, and from tlience a broad walk with suitable borders should proceed direct
to the centre of the garden, and across it to the centre of the range of hot-houses. Main
walks in square or parallelogram gardens, entering from whatever point, should, in
general, proceed to the centre ; but in long octagons or irregular gardens, diagonal walks,
though they occasion a little more trouble in culture, have a noble effect. It is almost
needless to observe, that no main walk ought ever to terminate abruptly, or look to a
mere blank, a defect, or an unsightly object. These and various other points of the
greatest consequence as to future effect, must be left to the taste of the designer.

2492. Grarel is almost universally considered the best material for walks; but tliere are
various substitutes. " Sand," Marshall observes, " may be adopted for walks, and there is a
binding sort of it that does verj- well ; but lay not any of it too thick, as it is the less
firm for it. Drift-sand is a good substitute for gravel. Coal-ashes, strewed thinly in
tlie alleys, are better tlian nothing, as they at least serve to keep the feet dry and clean.
If the garden be a strong soil, these ashes (when worn down) should be thrown out of
the walks, with a little of tlie earth, and will prove a good manure for tlie compartments."
{Inlroil. to Gard. p. 35.) A binding sand, Foreyth says, " makes good walks, and they

476 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Tart HI.

are easily kept ; for when moss or weeds begin to grow, they may bj cleaned with a
horse-shoe, or scuffled over with a Dutch hoe, in dry weather, and raked a day or two
after, by which they will be made always to look neat and clean. I, however, give the
preference to sea-coal ashes, which, in my opinion, make the best walks for a kitchen-
garden, and they are easier kept than any others, being firm and dry, and cleaner to walk
on than sand, especially after frost,"

2493. Grass xvalks maij do loliere gravel is scarce ; but the latter is so clearly preferable,
that, except for a little variety in large gardens, where there are many walks, grass walks
will hardly be made choice of, as they are troublesome to keep in order; and if much
used are apt to get bare, and out of level, especially when narrow ; they are also fre-
quently damp to the feet. Chamomile has been used also to form green or carpet
walks, planting it in sets about nine or ten inches asunder; which, naturally spreading,
the runners are fixed by walking on them, or rolling.

2494. Edgings to ivalks are essential to the beauty and completeness of a kitchen-garden,
though, in some cases, verdant edgings are dispensed with. According to Marshall, the
borders should have their outer edges, in contact with the walks, made up firm and even.
"Where the design or intimate communication with the hoube requires edgings, box is
superior to every thing else. In extensive kitchen-gardens, edgings of vegetables,
particularly of box, are dispensed with as inconvenient, and apt to harbor slugs. At
the same time the margins of the beds and main walks should be kept even and
well defined ; for this purpose, nothing is more neat and lasting, or better fitted to save
trouble, tlian narrow edgings of brick a single course wide. In the interior compartments,
parsley may be sown for an edging ; so slips of thyme, winter savory, hyssop, and other
aromatic herbs, may be planted ; as long as such herbs flourish, or remain ungathered,
tliey form a verdant edging, in character with the kitchen-garden. (Introd. to Gard.
p. 5.) Border-edgings, Neill observes, are not in use, excepting for the walks next
the walls, and the cross walks in very large garder^s ; for these, dwarf-box is almost
universally employed.

2495. In laying out the slip or exterior area, of the kitchen-garden, those parts not occu-
pied as the melonry or compost-ground are disposed of in two borders : the one for fruit,
surrounding the wall, and of suitable breadth and composition as to soil ; the other next
the boundary, of such breadth as the width of the slip allows. The walk between these
borders should, in gardens of one or more acres, be made of sufficient width to admit a
one-horse cart, to make the circuit of the garden so as to bring in manures, soils, fuel,
&c. to any of the wall-doors, for the purpose of being wheeled into the inner garden.
The outer border is commonly occupied by low fruit-shrubs, or common kitchen-crops ;
but in small places, and where the garden is of a mixed character, it is arranged as a
shrubbery, and, where Forsyth's advice is taken, the shrubs are mixed with the more
liardy fruit-trees.

2496. ^ reserve and nursery department should always be formed in the slip, at
least in gardens where any thing like beauty or perfection is aimed at. The use of this
compartment is to preserve or raise plants, some in pots, others in the open ground, to
supply vacancies within the walls. Whatever crop is sown or planted in the garden, a
small portion of it should, at the same time, be sown or planted in the nursing dfepart-
raent, some in pots, and others in the open ground, by which means, when any blanks
occur in the former, they can be filled up from the latter. One part of this department
should be devoted to propagating fruit-trees and fruit-shrubs for the same purpose, and
also for giving away to poorer neighbors, and for stocking and encouraging cottage and
farm gardens.

2497. The best seasons for forming a garden are the spring and summer; but, at
all events, at whatever time the operations are begun, they should be arranged so as to
be finished early in autumn to admit of planting the fruit-trees and laying the edges of
the walks at that season, or very early in the spring.

Chap. II.

Of the Distribution of Fruit-trees in a Kitchen-garden.

2498. To select and arrange a proper collection of fruit-trees, and plant them in their
appropriate situations, is the next step in forming a kitchen-garden. This subject
naturally comprehends, 1. Wall-trees ; 2. Espaliers and diva^f-standards for the borders ;
3. Standards for the compartments ; 4. Fruit-shrubs. As a point of practice common to
each of these divisions of fVuit-trees, we may mention that of registering their names either
m series (1388.) on a plan of the garden, or by reference to numbers attached to the
trees, cut jn tallies placed by them, stamped in lead and hung on them, or nailed to the

Book I.

ARRANGEMENT OF WALL FRUIT-TREES.

477

wall or espalier-rail, &c. Forsyth, Abercrombie, and others, agree in recommending
the placing the names of the sorts on tablets, with the time of ripening, and fixing tliem
by, or what is better, hanging them on, the lower part of the stem of each tree. '^ With
respect to the varieties of fruits recommended in the sections of this chapter, those who
consider them as too limited, will find ample choice in tlie horticultural catalogue.
Chap. II.

Sect. I. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Wall Fruit-trees.

2499. Fruit-trees adapted for walls may be considered in regard to the sort of fruit,
sort of plant, distance, and planting.

2500. With respect to the sorts of fruit and their dislributioji on the different asj)ects of the
iimls, the first general principle is, that the more delicate species of trees, as the grape, fig,
and peach, are planted against the warmest walls ; the next is, that th6 more delicate va-
rieties of the more hardy fruits, as the cherry and pear, are placed against warm walls ;
and the last, that such varieties of the hardy fruits as it is desired to ripen very early, find
a place there. « The best border and wall," says Abercrombie, " should be allotted to the
vine, the peach, nectarine, fig, and apricot : let the vine take the first place for aspect, as
it is difficult to bring it to ripen out of doors north of London. Where the peach, nec-
tarine, fig, and apricot cannot have a south aspect, the south-east and south-west are tlie
proper alternatives. Some early sorts of the apricot will ripen on an east or west wall.
The west is the middling exposure, and by no means on a par with the east. The
cherry in general may have an exposure looking to any point of the compass, except full
north, yet choice early kinds deserve a south border, nor do they attain the climax of
perfection without. Tlie morello cherry, the pear in general, the plum in general, the
apple in general, and the mulberry will do on any wall ; but all late fruit is universally
improved in proportion to the goodness of the aspect from the west and east through all
the intermediate points to the south, and some of the high-flavored French pears require
a fine wall to grow here in perfection. Tlie end of a building is a good site for a free-
growing pear-tree ; which, if a garden-wall is not uncommonly high, will require a deal
of lateral room. A long and high wall is also fittest for a fig-tree. The mulberry,
medlar, quince, filbert, currant, gooseberry, and raspberry answer well on espaliers."

2501. The sorts or varieties of fruit that may be procured at the nurseries are so nume-
rous, as to puzzle an inexperienced person in making the selection. After all, much is
generally, and with propriety, left to the nurserymen, who recommends the sorts most in
repute at the time. " 1 have long made it my business," says Nicol, "to persuade my
employers, in the planting of new gardens and orchards, to limit the varieties of fruit, in
the firm conviction that I was acting for their interest ; for certainly the rage for mul-
tiplying them, and of having a numerous collection, has too much prevailed of late. It
V ere better to be contented with a few good kinds that produce well in most seasons,
than to plant many sorts (even of those reckoned the finer) for the sake of variety, of
which a crop is obtained, perhaps once in three, or in seven years. It is no doubt of very
much importance to select and adapt tlie kinds to the climate, soil, and aspect, and in
some cases, a greater variety may be planted with propriety than in others. This
matter must be determined by existing circumstances, by the fancy of the proprietor, and
by the discretion of the gardener. The following list exhibits a collection, in my opinion,
ample enough in any case, though, perhaps, according to better judgment, certain kinds
may be substituted for some here named, that may be equally valuable. Certain kinds
may also be placed differently witli respect to aspect, as may be thought proper, according
to the climate and local situation." Those marked with an asterisk (*) Nicol considers
the most valuable kinds, and such as should be preferred in the planting of small gar-
dens, where the walls are of little extent.

.E.,orS.W.

Apyles.
*Golaen Pippin, S., S.
Oslin Pippin, E-orW.
*Ribston Pippin, Ditto.
*Golden Russet, Ditto.
Roval Russet, E., W., N. E., or N. W.
*.N'on}.areil, S., S. E., or S. \V.
Hawthomden, E., \V; or N.
Yorkshire Greening, Ditto.

Peart.
*JarKonelle, S., E., W.
Crasame, S.E., S.,or S.A^',
Colmar, Ditto.

*Beurre du Roi, . S., E.,W.
Gansell's Kergamot, E.or W
*Autumn Bergamot, Ditto..
Swiss Bergamot, - Ditto.
*.\chan, • - - Ditto.
Yair, ... Ditto.
St. Germain's, - Ditto.
Summer Bonthrstien, Ditto.
*ChaumonteUe, S.

Cherries.
*Maj-duke, S.,E.,W.

Arch-duVe, S., E.,W.
*BIack Heart, - Ditto.
A\'hite Heart, - Ditto.
*Harrison s Heart, Ditto.
*More)lo, E., \V., N.

Plhtmi.

*Green Gage, S. E., S.,or S.W.
Yellow Gage, Ditto.
Blue Gage, E.orW.
*Fotheringham, Ditto.
La Royale, .S. E. or W.
*AMiiie Ulagnum Bonuni, E.orAV.

Apricoft.

*MoorPark. E.,W.,orN.

Oranfie, - Ditto.

*Breda, . Ditto.

*Bnissels, • Ditto.

Roman, - Ditto.
Masculine, S., E., W.

Peadiet.
*Red Masdalen, S E 5. ct S.W.
\Vhite Ma2ii=»iBi, iKtto.

IMtU.

*Royal George,
Montauban, -
Admirable, -
*Teton de Venus
LalePuri>le -

S.E.,S.,orS.W.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Kedarinet.
*ElruKe, S.E., S., or S.W

nucdeTello, - Ditto.
*Fairchild'!i early. Ditto.
*.Murrav, - - Ditto.
.Scarlet,' - - Ditto.
Temple, - - Ditto.

Fig*.
*Blue, or Black Ischia, S.E.,S., or S.W.
*\V'hite, or Brown Ischia, Ditto.
Black Genoa, - - Ditto.

Uliite Genoa, • - Ditto.

Other Sortt.
The Alulberry is sometimes introduced as
a wall-tree, and planted on a western
exposure.

{Kalend. V.ISX

478 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

2502. The sorts of plants made vsc of for planting against walls arc dwarfs and riders,
and these may be of the age of one year frosn the graft, or they may be several years
trained. Dwarfs are understood to be tlie permanent trees, and riders merely temporary
phmts introduced to fill up the upper part of the wall. With both sorts it is the practice
to make choice of trees that have been two or more years trained ; or if they have been
moved in the nursery every second year, they may be of five or six years' training, in
M'hicli case they come into immediate bearing. Some gardeners, however, prefer young
plants. Marshall says, trees to be planted against walls, should not be older than two
years from the graft or bud. '* Much disappointment lias been the consequence of
planting old trained trees, through their being accustomed, perhaps, to a contrary soil,
or by damage done the roots in taking the trees up, and thus, instead of saving time, it
has frequently been lost, being obliged, after some years, to be replaced with young
ones. But if trained trees are to be made use of, let them be planted as early, and with
as full roots as possible, and in a right good soil."

2503. jnth respect to the age of the plants, Nicol observes, *•' maiden, or one year
trained trees, are to be preferred, especially of apples and pears. Even of the stone-
fruits, such will succeed best ; though two or tliree years' trained are often planted. I
here allude to the dwarfs. Riders of greater age than dwarfs may be planted, in any
case, with propriety ; they being considered temporary, and it being desirable to obtain
fruit of them as soon as possible." A safe mode is, to plant partly maiden, and partly
trained plants, by which means, those which come early into fruit, should they prove
bad sorts, may be replaced by others ; meanwhile, those sorts which are approved of, will
afford an early return for the labor and expense incurred.

2504. The distance at xvhich wall-trees should be planted from each other, depends jointly
on the sort of tree, and the height of the wall. For a wall nine or ten feet high,
Marshall plants apricots, peaches, and nectarines, twenty feet apart. Nicol, for a
wall of twelve feet in height, indicates the following distances : — Apples, eighteen or
twenty feet ; apricots, twenty to twenty-four ; figs, fifteen or eighteen ; cherries, twelve
or fifteen ; nectarines and peaches, twelve or fifteen ; pears, twenty-four to thirty ; and
plums, eighteen or twenty feet. For low walls, of five or six feet : — apples, thirty ; cherries,
pears, thirty to thirty-five ; and plums, twenty to twenty-four feet. The distances at
which wall-trees ought to be planted, according to Abercrombie, depend on the general
growth of the species, connected with these other things : — whether the individual plant
has been dwarfed by the mode of propagation, or is a free grower ; whether the species
will bear to be kept in bounds by the knife ; and, lastly, on the height of the wall : thus,
a higher wall is a compensation for a reduced distance, and a lower will make it necessary
to increase the intervals. Supposing the wall to be twelve feet high, the following are
good average distances for planting the kinds named : — Vines, from ten to fifteen feet
asunder, or in vacant spaces between other walls where the distance is less, because the
vine bears pruning well, and can always be reduced to the prescribed limits. Peach-
trees and nectarines, from fifteen to twenty feet. Fig-trees, eighteen to twenty
feet, or more, as the bearers are not to be shortened. Apricot-trees, fifteen feet for the
dwarf early sorts, eighteen to twenty-four for the free-growers, as the plant does not
bear the knife well. Cherry-trees, from fifteen to twenty feet. Pear-trees, twenty
feet, if on dwarf stocks ; tliirty feet, if on free stocks. Plum-trees, from fifteen to
twenty-four feet. Apple-trees, if on dwarf stocks, fifteen feet ; if on free stocks, twenty-
five or thirty. Mulberry-trees, fifteen or twenty feet. Along the line of the walls only
nine feet high, increase the intervals to one fourth as much again ; and of walls six feet
high, to one half.

2505. Tlie distance of the stem of the tree from the wall at the ground's surface, should,
according to most authors, be nine inches ; cherries, apples, and pears may be soimewbat
more ; and peaches, nectarines, and vines somewhat less.

2506. The intermediate species between divarf wall-trees are commonly filled up with
riders, or some other temporary fruit-bearing plant. According to Marshall, "the
intermediate spaces between peaches, nectarines, and apricots may have a vine, a dwarf-
cherry, or currant, or gooseberry tree, of the early sorts, as the smooth green and small
red gooseberry, to come in early, and improved in the beauty, size, and flavor of their
fruit, by the advantage of situation. But wheresoever grapes can be expected to ripen,
there let a young plant or cutting be set, though the space be confined ; for the vine,
freely as it shoots, bears the knife well to keep it within bounds. If the wall be high,
the cherry or plum may be half-standards or riders, which being after a while kept above,
will be more out of the way of the principal trees, though dwarfs may be trained so as
not to interfere. Some have planted half-standards of the same kind of fruit as the
dwarfs, but whichever way is used, let the intermediate trees be pruned away below in
good time, in order to accommodate the principals freely as they mount and extend.
The better way however is, when the wall is tolerably covered, to extirpate the inter-
mediate trees, as, when large, they impoverish the border, and too much rob the principals

Book I. ESPALIERS AND DWARF-STANDARDS. 479

of nutriment : if taken up well, in season, and pruned properly, they may be planted
elsewhere." WTiile the principal wall-trees are making progress, Abercrombie observes,
"riders may be introduced between them; these should be confined to sorts which are
the quickest in coming into bearing, for else, as soon as the trees become productive, it
will be time to remove them. Against low walls, currants, gooseberries, and raspberries
may be placed instead of riders. Plant a wall-tree nine inches from the wall, to give the
root some room behind ; detach or shorten the roots pointing towards the wall, so that the
parts left on that side may not be cramped." {Pr. Gard. p. 189.) " On walls ten feet
in height or upwards, Nicol plants riders between the dwarf or principal trees, in order
the sooner to furnish the wall ; but for low walls it is not worth the while, as goose-
berries, currants, or raspberries, answer better, and produce fruit more immediately.
Riders of all or most of the kinds in the foregoing lists can be had in the nurseries ; but
they should consist chiefly of apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches and plums ; as few
kinds of apples or pears would begin to produce crops before it would be necessary to
root them out in order to give place to the dwarfs."

2507. Jnthres])ect to the mode of planting, the roots of each plant should be trimmed,
previous to being planted, by pruning off the points of those bruised in the taking up,
and moderately thinning them out, if thought too thick, or too much crowded. This is
seldom necessary for maiden trees, but it is often so with respect to plants that have
stood several years in the nursery, or that have been trained against walls or pales, and have
made strong roots. ITie roots should be, in some measure, rendered proportionate to
the tops ; and as the shoots and branches are to be headed down, or to be well shortened
and thinned out, it follows that the roots should also be moderately thinned and pruned.
In doing this, however, be careful to retain those most promising and best furnished
with fibres. The surface level being determined on, prepare tlie pit so as that the plant
may be placed just as deep in the ground as it was before, and not deeper ; spreading
out the roots and fibres, and carefully bedding them in the compost prepared for that
purpose, as hinted at last month. Fill in the common earth, gently tread it round the
stem, keeping it a few inches clear of the foundation, and secure the plant from the
bad effects of high winds, by tacking it to the wall. Proceed thus, tree by tree, till all
be planted. They require no further care till March, when it will be proper to head
them down. (iS^/co/.) Most writers agree in recommending November as the best time
to plant on absorbent soils, March for tieavy or wet land, and February for medium soils.

Sect. II. Of the Selection and Arrangement of Esjxiliers and Dwarf-standards.

2508. Espaliers or dwarf-standards are planted in the borders of the principal walks
in all complete kitchen-gardens. Besides the value of their fruit, they form a sort of
counterpart to the trees on the walls, and add much to the general effect of the garden,
by increasing the appearance of design ; and much to its beauty in detail by the variety of
the blossoms in spring and the fruit in autumn. Some gardeners, however, disapprove
of them, or do not consider them of much consequence. " If espaliers are planted,"
says Marshall, " let them be only fruit of the best sorts, and in spacious gardens,
where they may have a good length and height allowed them to grow freely ; and let it
be resolved to do the business neatly." M'Phail disapproves of espaliers, as hurtful to
crops of vegetables in the kitchen-garden. Forsj-th is silent on the subject. Aber-
crombie says, " Espaliers may be planted in some of the borders, in a row along the
inner edge." Nicol observes, " Espaliers, if well managed, are both ornamental and
useful in the garden, affording a deal of fruit, yet taking up little room." " Of late
years," Neill observes, " some have proposed to banish espalier-trees altogether, alleging
that they injure the kitchen-garden compartments, by depriving them of sun and air. But
in point of fact, they exist in the greater number of kitchen-gardens, and are not likely
soon to be laid aside. If they are sometimes injurious, by depriving the plants of air, they
are at other times very useful, acting as a hedge in protecting the young crops from the
violence of strong winds. Espalier-trees generally produce excellent fruit, the sun and
air having access to both sides of the tree ; they commonly afford abundant crops, and
the fruit is not apt to be shaken by high winds. Further, they tend to hide the crops of
culinary vegetables from the eye, and to render the walk of the kitchen-garden as pleasant
as an avenue in the shrubbery. " Espalier-trees, like wall-trees, maybe considered in
regard to the kind of espaUer-rail, sort of fruit, sort of plant, distance, and planting.

2509. The jmyj)€r situation for an es^mlier-rail, according to Nicol, is in the border,
by the principal walks, and at three or four feet distant from the walk. They may be
placed on each side of the cross walks, if the garden be not very small ; but in that
case, they would both confine and overshadow the kitchen-crops too much. The railing
ought to be plain and neat, four or five feet high, and the upright spars to which the trees are
trained, nine inches apart. The posts should be set on blocks of stone, and shmild be run
in with pitch, or, which is a better way, set in blocks of stone, in an iron hose batted into
the stone. These blocks, in either case^ should be sunk under the suifaee of the ground.

490

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

2510. Espaliers, Abercrombie states, " may be inserted three feet from the edge of the
border ; but if the ground under the walks has not been prepared, five feet will be
better. The stem or head of a wall-tree or espalier must be planted with a little in-
clination to the fence or trellis ; and nailed or tied to prevent the wind from shaking it.
Espaliers have the branches trained to an upright superficial trellis, standing detached,
and thus bear on both sides. Occupying little room, th«y drip and shade less than
standards, but are more troublesome to manage. While young, they may be rendered
in some degree ornamental ; but as the plants get old, the most skilful pruning can
hardly keep the espaliers fruitful, or prevent them from looking formal, unless the order
of bearing will allow the old wood to be freely cut out. Not having the benefit of re-
flected heat from a wall, there is a distinct motive for training them with a short stem,
and with the branches laid horizontally, rather than in a fan-like expansion, and with the
highest branches at four feet, or not exceeding six from the ground ; for thus they receive
a stronger reflection of sun from the earth. At planting, it is easy to set them to the
best aspect."

2511. The proper kinds of fruU Jbi" espaliers and dwarf-standards, according to Nicol,
are included in the following list, in which those marked with an asterisk (*) are deemed
the most valuable. For small gardens the apples ought to be grafted on paradise, and
the pears on quince stocks.

Apples.

*Royal codline, kentish ditto, *carlisle

ditto, *grey leadmgton, royal pearmain,

*ribston pippin, gogar pippin, *oslin

pippin, golden rennet, *rojaI russet.

Pear*.
* Jargonelle, *summer bergamot, *grey
chan, *swan egg, *moorfowl egg, yair.

*camock,*warden, scots bergajnot, lon-
gueville.

*May-duke, holman's duke. *black
heart, white heart, *morello, *kentish.

Plurru.
*Green gage, Orleans, *fotheringham.

Other Sorte.
The mulberry, quince, medlar, and ser-
vice are sometimes introduced as espalier,
trees, or dwarf-standards, especially when
there is no orchard.

25 1 2. Dwarf-standards are hy some preferred to es])alier-trees. Hitt and Switzer approve
of them, and Forsyth and Marshall prefer them. Abercrombie approves of dwarfs ia
common with espaliers, but seems, with M'Phail, to prefer them planted by themselves
in the compartments. This we conceive to arise from the peculiar notions that many gar-
deners have, that the kitchen-garden ought to be a mere place of culture, without any
of that neatness, or of those beauties wliich would render it a scene fit to be included in
the course of walks for recreation. Where different ideas are entertained, and that order,
regularity, and neatness are attempted, which is to be found in an eminent degree in
the kitchen-gardens of Scotland, espaliers and dwarfs will be valued as forming the
chief furniture of the borders. Abercrombie obsei-ves, '* Dwarf-standards are raised
with low stems, of one, two, or three feet in height, and with round heads propor-
tionately diminished. Tliese are the earliest bearers compared with other standards, and
produce large fruit in great abundance for the size of the tree. In small gardens
the same benefits and conveniences which recommend the half-standards are attached
to these in a superior degree." Marshall observes, that " dwarf-standards occasion
less trouble to keep them in order than espaliers, and are generally more productive ;
planted at eight or nine feet distance, pruned and kept in an easy manner, they make
a fine appearance, and produce better fruit and in greater quantities, than when they
are in espaliers." [Introd. to Gard. p. 37.)

2513. The sort of jtlants, as far as respects age, are chosen on the same principle as in
choosing wall-trees ; but such as are grafted on dwarfing stocks are generally preferred :
apples on paradise, creeping apple, or doucin stocks ; pears on quince-stocks ; and
cherries on the perfumed cherry or small wild cherry stocks.

2514. The distances at which to plant espalier-trees, according to Nicol, are, "for apples,
on crab-stocks, thirty ; cherries, twenty ; pears, on free stocks, thirty to tliirty-five ; and
plums, twenty to twenty-four feet. Pears on quince-stocks are planted from twenty
to twenty-five feet asunder. Dwarf standard apple-trees, on paradise-stocks, may be
planted very closely, as they occupy but little room ; they do not require more than ten
or fifteen feet."

Sect. III. Of tall Standard Fruit-tires in a Kitchen-garden.

2515. Though tall standard fruit-trees ate more generally confined to orchards, yet
diey were formerly common in the kitchen-garden, and are still occasionally introduced
in the circumferential portion, called the outer border of the slip. Tliey cannot, how-
ever, be recommended, on account of the extent of their drip and shade, which renders
it impossible to grow culinary vegetables to any degree of perfection, either in size or
flavor ; and also to the too orchard-like character which they in time give the garden.

2516. According to Marshall, " The fewer standard-trees in a garden the better, as they
take up much room, and by their shade prevent the proper growth of vegetables that are
any thing near them."

2517. M'Phail considers them as hurtful to crops of vegetables.

Book I. FRUIT-SHRUBS. <81

2518. ^bercronibie says, " full standards are only or chiefly adapted for orchards and oUier
grounds not occupied with esculents as principal crops. In the interior compartments,
some full and half standards may be introduced ; being thinly scattered towards the angles
of the compartments, not to overspread the ground, nor placed nearer together than forty
feet ; indeed, many designers of horticultural plantations would restrict the full standards
to the orchard and pleasure-ground, as plants cultivated underneath them are apt to suffer
from drips." {Pr. Gard. p. 5.)

2519. Forsyth recommends their being mixed with otlier trees in the shrubberies which
surround gardens.

2520. Nicol concurs in this opinion ; and in general prefers standards in the outer
border of the slip, or in the orchard.

2521. For the sorts of fruit-trees 2)roper for standards, see Chap. III. on OrcJiards.

Sect. IV. Fruit-shrubs.

2522. Bi/ fruit-shrubs are to be understood the gooseberry and currant tribes, rasp-
berry, cranberry, &c. They are almost universally planted in the walk borders, at re-
gular distances of from six to ten feet. Plantations of them are also formed in the
compartments,, and in the outer border of the slip. " Some of those useful shrubs,
gooseberries and currants," Marshall observes, "should grow in every aspect of the gar-
den, in order to have a succession of their fruits as long as may be. Raspberries may
be set in plantations, in rows. Though these shrubs are best by themselves, yet here
and there, by the walks, a detached bunch may be kept, or here and there one Jigainst a
warm wall. Currants, gooseberries, and raspberries," he adds, " do well, espaliered, as
to a production of early and fine fruit." Abercrombie observes, " Gooseberry and cur-
rant bushes may be planted in single rows, in cross rows, or in plantations by tliem-
selves : — plant some near the outward edge of the main compartments ; others along
the borders where there are no espaliers ; others again in cross rows, to divide large com-
partments. Raspberries may occupy other borders and compartments. " (Pract. Gard. 5.
189.) Forsyth recommends planting gooseberries *' in a compartment by themselves,
or round the edges of the compartments, about three feet from the path. Never plant
them under the shade of other trees, as it will injure the flavor of the fruit." " Currants
and gooseberries," Nicol observes, " are often planted in lines by the sides of the walks
or alleys of the garden ; but in that way, especially if not well managed, they are gene-
rally more cumbersome than useful. It is a better method to plant them in compartments
by themselves, and to make new plantations everj' sixth or seventh year, as young plants
are found to produce more handsome fruit, and also more plentifully than old ones.
The same thing may be said of raspberries, which produce the finest fruit when young ;
that is, about tlie third or fourth year after planting, if properly managed. It is proper
to plant some of all the above fruits on a north border, or other shaded situation, in
order to prolong the season of them, if that be an object, besides planting them out in
compartments, as hinted above. Some may also very properly be planted against vacant
places on any of the walls, pales, or espaliers. An Antwerp raspberry in particular, and
some of the kinds of gooseberries, are highly improved in size and flavor, if trained to a
south wall. " The cranberry was first introduced as a garden-finit by Sir Joseph Banks,
and is grown to most advantage in bog-earth, kept moist. The margins of ponds, or
other reser\'oirs, in the slip, are good situations for this plant : but when the dewberry,
bilberry, and other fruit-bearing bog-earth plants are introduced, we would recommend
a border or other compartment in a shady situation, furnished with bog-earth ; and to
which water could be readily applied, either by the watering-pot, engine, or by means of
under-ground channels.

2523. With resjtect to the sorts of fniit-shrubs, the following list is given by Nicol,
those to be preferred being marked with an asterisk (*).

Gooseberriet, Green,
Earlv, *gascoigne, *walnut, goUah,
globe. ■

Gcoteberrie$, Red.

Gooseberries, Yellow. I Curranfs.

♦Golden drop, upright, *charapaigne, The red, white dutch, black, cham-

♦goldoi knap, *conqueror, *sulphur, paigne or grizzly,
♦amber idobe, ♦honeycomb.

Raspberries.

GoosAerries, White. The common reil, common wliite, re<l

♦ Royal geoige, Orleans, ♦ crvstal, an twerp, white an twerp, red cane, and

♦ Ironmonijer, ♦ nutmeg, ♦ walnut,
V^^Ai^^^r^^^' *""~'^' I matchT^. — • - ' twic-e-b^ing, are aU good sorts.

2524. The sorts of plants are commonly such as have been grown two or three years
from the cuttings, or in the case of raspberries, suckers of the preceding year. Older
gooseberry and currant trees, where they can be procured, should be preferred, to a cer-
tain extent, as they bear immediately, and when they grow old can readily be renewed.
Raspberries, from their nature, can never have stems of more than a year in age.

2525. In resjyect to distance, according to Nicol, " from four to six feet square, ac-
cording to the quality of the soil, may be deemed sufficient ; that is, in good land, six
feet ; in middling land, five ; and in poor land, four feet.

2526. The mode and season of planting is regulated on general principles. (2071. to
2098.)

I i

482

PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Chap. III.

Of the Formation and Planting of an Orchard^ subsidiary to the Kitchen-garden.

2527. An orchard, or separate 2>lantation of the hardier fruit-trees is a common ap-
pendage to the kitchen-garden, where that department is small, or does not contain
an adequate number of fruit-trees to supply the contemplated demand of the family. Some-
times this scene adjoins the garden, and forms a part of the slip ; at other times it forms
a detached, and, perhaps, distant enclosure, and not unfrequently, in countries where the
soil is propitious to fruit-trees, they are distributed in the lawn, or in a scene, or field
kept in pasture. Sometimes the same object is effected by mixing fruit-trees in the plant-
ations near the garden and house.

2528. As to the situation, exposure, soil, and shelter of orchards, most of the observations
submitted as to these properties in kitchen-gardens will equally apply to them ; but
there is this difference, that as orchards are not generally surrounded by walls, and
not always under the spade, the surface may be much more irregular ; and, in regard to
form, it is a matter of no great consequence. Size will of course be regulated by the
quantity of produce desired, and nothing can be more simple than the arrangement of
the trees which, in regard to position, is almost always that of the quincunx, the distances
between the plants being greater or less according to the sorts made choice of.

2529. As to the site of an orchard, Abercrombie observes, " land sloping to the east or
south is better than a level ; a sheltered hollow, not liable to floods, is better than an
upland with the same aspect, and yet a gentle rising, backed by sufficient shelter, or the
base of a hill, is eligible. A good loam, in which the constituents of a good soil predo-
minate over those of a hot one, suits most fruit-trees : the sub-soil should be dry, and the
depth of mould thirty inches or three feet. Before planting, drain if necessary ; trench
to the depth of two feet ; manure according to the defects of the soil ; and give a win-
ter and summer fallow ; or cultivate the site for a year or two as a kitchen-garden, so
that it may be deeply dug, and receive a good annual dressing."

2530. I?i a situation much exposed, plant shrubs or wilding fruits, as screens, or as
nurses : forest-trees may be planted as an outer screen, but on a distant line, whence
their roots will not draw the soil to be occupied with fruit-trees. Where ornamental
grounds present a good aspect, as well as prepared shelter, fruit-trees are distributed
in them to great advantage.

2531. As to the size of an orchard, Forsyth observes, " it may be from one to twenty
acres, or more, according to the quantity of fruit wanted, or, the quantity of ground that
you may have fit for the purpose."

2532. That soil will do for an orchard which produces good crops of corn, grass, or
garden-vegetables ; but a loamy soil is to be preferred ; though any of a good quality,
not too light or dry, nor wet, heavy, or stubborn, but of a moderately soft and pliant
nature, will be found to answer the end. Sliingly and gravelly soils disagree very much
with fruit-trees, unless there be loam intermixed. They will succeed much better on a
chalk bottom. On such a soil, I have seen roots twelve feet deep, and trees thrive well.
The soil should be trenched from two to three feet deep.

253S. The sorts of fruits adapted for orchards are the more hardy apples, pears, cherries,
and plums ; the medlar, mulberry, quince, walnut, chestnut, filbert, barberry, and some
others. According to Forsyth, a complete orchard ought to have, besides apple, pear,
plum, and cherry trees, quinces, medlars, mulberries, service-trees, filberts, and barber-
ries ; as also walnuts and chestnuts ; the two latter of which are well adapted for
sheltering the others from high winds, and should therefore be planted in the bound-
aries of the orchard, a little closer than ordinary, for that purpose. In an orchard for
raising crops for sale, Abercrombie says, that fruit is the most profitable for which there
is the greatest demand. Apples are first in utility ; but pears, cherries, plums, and
most other fruits in the subjoined alphabetical list, are acceptable, for dressing in paste,
for preserving, or for pickling, as well as in the dessert. According to the extent and
nature of the ground, mulberries, medlars, quinces, services, walnuts, chestnuts, and all
the sorts which will ripen their produce sufficiently on standards, may be introduced.

2534. The varieties of the common orchard-fruits recommended by Nicol, are as follows,
the sorts marked wjth an asterisk (*) being preferable : —

*Ribston pippin, *oslin ditto, *gogajf
ditto, *kentish ditto, *royal couling,
*kentish ditto, * Carlisle ditto, *royal
russet, wheeler's ditto, *royal pearniciin,
*Ioan's ditto (Rood), *golden rennet,
*kentish ditto (good), «grey leading-
ton, scarlet ditto, summer queening,
winter ditto, * yorlcshire greening,
*margUI (very good), margarat apple
teood), * white bawthomden.' * nor-

folk beafing (good), strawberry, *purse-
piouth (very good).

Peart.
* Jargonelle, crawford or lammos,
*carnock or drummond, *grey achan,
*swan egg, *moorfowl egg, *yair, *gold-
en knap (good), longueville, * summer
bergamot, *autumn ditto, *»cots ditto,
musk robin (good), saffron, *hanging
leaf (vei7 good), the pound pear, caoilac,
ward^ (for baldng).

Cherriei.
* May-duke, *holman's duke, *black
heart, *moreUa, *kentish, *large gemi.
Plums.
*Orleans, *damask (black, good), dam-
son (black, ditto), white perdrigon, *blue
ditto, blile gage, *white magnum bonum,
red ditto or imperial, white buUace,-
*black ditto, *drap d'or (yellow, good),
*queen dauda (ditto, ditto).

(KiUend. p. 179.»

Book I. FORMATION OF AN ORCHARD. 48S

2535. The sorts of plants made choice of for orchards are invariably standards, and half-
standards, and commonly such as are not more than one or two years from the graft. Aber-
crorabie and Nicol prefer " maiden plants, or such as are only two years from the bud or
graft, of all the above kinds, to older trees : having boles or stems of three or four feet
in length; the apples being worked on crab, and the pears on free stocks."

253a The ultimate distance at which apple and pear trees should stand in an orchard is, according to
the same author, from thirty to forty feet, less or more, according to the quality of the soil j taking as the
medium thirty-six fL'ct. In a poor soil, and a bleak exiwsurc, wiiere the trees may not be expected to grow
very freely, thirty foot is sufficient ; whereas in good soil, and in a sheltered situation, forty may not be too
much. Cherries and plums may be planted at from twenty-four to thirty-six feet, according to soil and
situation, as above ; taking, as a medium, thirty feet for the ultimate distance at which they are to stand
clear of one another. But it would be advisable, in the Mrst instance, to plant four trees for one that is
intended ultimately to remain ; planting the proper kinds at the above distances first, and then temporary
plants between them each way ; which temporary plants should be of the free-growing sorts that begin to
bear early, such as the nonsuch and hawthomdean apples, the mav-duke chcrrv, and the Crawford and
yair pears ; or any others better known to produce fruit soon after planting. These should be considered,
and be treated as temporary plants from the beginning, and must give place to the principal trees as they
advance in growth, by being pruned away by degrees, and at last stubbed up entirely. If orchard-trees be
planted among shrubbery, &c. they may be planted at any distance, exceeding forty feet, that may be
thought proper ; but they should not be planted nearer, otherwise they will too much confine the shrubs.
In this case it will not be necessar>- to plant temporary trees, as the principals will be nursed by the shrubs.
In bleak situations, if forest and other hardy trees be planted among the fruit-trees, it mav not be necessary
toplantsomany ;if any] temporary fruit-trees; or these may chiefly consist of the hardier" sorts, such as the
hawthomdean apple, the may-duke and morella cherries, and the 'Scotch geans, which produce fruit the
soonest " In a good soil," Abercrombie observes, " the final distances at which the plants should stand
is twenty or twenty-five feet for full standards ; of those kinds which reach but a moderate size as trees,
and thirty or forty feet for the larger-growing sorts. Temporary plants of such kinds as bear fruit soon
may be planted at half the final distances, in order to be pruned down, and at last removed, when the prin-
cipals reqixire it"

2537. The mode of planting best adapted for standard-trees is unquestionably that
of mudding in, and next that of fixing by water (2096". 2097.); one or other of
these methods should be adopted, where success and immediate growth is an object,
and should be succeeded by staking, panning, mulching, clothing the stems, and
watering.

2538. Staking and protecting. " If the stem of a tree is rocked by the wind, the root is prevented from
shooting new fibres ; the ground is also opened, so that in winter frost penetrates, and in summer hot
drying winds. Having set up a firm stake to each high standard newly planted, twist a part of a hay band
round the tree to prevent it from galling, and with the remainder tie it securely to the stake." {Al>er.
crotnbie.) Forsyth and Nicol agree in recommending staking to prevent the trees from being wind-waved.
In respect to protection, Nicol observes, " If the orchard be not completely fenced, every care should be
taken to guard the plants from hares, by properly bushing them round with thorns ; which I think is the
most effectual method, and that least injurious to the trees."

2559. Panning and mulching. Let a small basin or hollow be made round the stem of each tree, a foot or
eighteen inches in diameter, and two or three inches deep, according to the extent of its roots. Fill this
basin with littery dung, to the thickness of five or six inches, over which sprinkle a little earth just
enough to keep it from being blown about. This both nourishes the young fibres, and keeps the ground
about them moist in hot weather, if wetted freely once a-week. {Xicol's Kal. 220.) To protect the roots
of autumn-planted trees from the frost of the succeeding winter, and from drought in the summer, Aber-
crombie directs to " lay mulch about the stem, to the distance of two feet round, and six inches in thick-
ness ; or substitute dry litter, or a thin layer of turf in summer." Forsyth says, " if it prove dry the spring
after planting, dig up some turf, and lay it round the stem of the young trees with the grassy side down-
wards; this will keep the ground moist, and save a deal of watering; if the trees have taken well this
need not be repeated, as they will be oat of danger the first year. The turf should be laid as far as the
roots of the trees extend ; and when it is rotted, it should be dug in, which will be of great service to
them."

2540. Clothing the stems of standard-trees by an envelope of moss, or short grass, or litter wound roimd
with shreds of matting, is of great use the first year after planting, to keep the bark moist, and thereby aid
the ascent and circulation of the sap in the alburnum. This operation should be performed at or soon
after planting, and the cloth ing may be left on till by decay it drops off of itself ; it is of singular service in
very late planting ; or when, from unforeseen circumstances, summer planting becomes requisite.

Soil. Watering. Newly planted orchards must be attended to in respect to watering, which should be re-
peated the oftener as the season advances, till the trees strike into the soil. " If the planting is performed
early in autumn," Abercrombie observes, " while the weather is yet hot and dry, a little water may be given
to assist the roots to strike ; but they ought not to be soaked with water, nor need watering be repeated.
At planting late in spring, should the ground be dry, give a moderate watering ; which repeat about once
a fortnight during the hot months. Supposing the plantation to have been made in winter, should a very
dry q>ring follow, a few waterings may be necessary until the plants strike."

2542. The best season for planting an orchard is the autumn, as soon as the trees have
ripened their wood and dropped their leaves. The work properly executed at this sea-
son, the trees will push out fresh fibres the same year, and be ready and able to push out
shoots of considerable vigor in spring. When autumn planting is impracticable, the
next best is in the beginning of Februarj', or as early as the season will permit.

2543. In a design recently composed, for combining an extensive kitchen-garden with a
flower-garden and orchard i flg. 430.), the last surrounded the two former, and served to

shelter them. The kitchen-garden {d, ?/, u) occupied a parallelogram in the centre ;
the flower-garden {q, </), with its botanic hot-houses {g, h, i), a semicircular area at the
south end ; the gardener's lodge (6), gardener's house and garden-oflices (c), and
nursing departments ( p, p), a similar area at the north end ; and the orchard it, r) sur-
rounded the whole. The south and north ends (6, e) were approached by carriage-roads
(a, a, a), and the sides by walks (t). The hot-houses were partly in north and south

112

484

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Pakt III.

ranges, glass onf all sides, for main crops of grapes and peaches (m, m, k), and partly
placed against walls (n, n), for more early forcing. The pine-pits and melonry
(m, /, k, n), and the compost-ground (m, w), were within the walls, and approached by
carts by a subterraneous road from the concealed part of the orchard (s). The hot-
houses, pits, and walls were heated by steam from a central tower (f), two ponds (r, r)
supplied water to a system of pipes, which distributed it over the open garden, and the
hot-houses were supplied from a cistern under the glass roof of the tower (f): a room
for eating fruit, or repose (rf), occupied a situation which overlooked the whole. The
main entrance for the master and his friends was at the southern extremity (e), and
that for the head gardener and liis operatives at the other end of the garden. (6)

430

may be asserted, that the central range of hot-houses, when the grapes and peaches are

Book I. CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE SOIL. 435

in full b^ing, will, to the spectator within, present a vault of fruit and foliage, such as
has not hitherto been displayed in any British garden.

2544. The subject of cyder and ]>eny orchards we consider as belonging more to
agriculture than horticulture. (See Encyc. of AgricuUnret part m,)

Chap. IV.
Of the general Cultivation and Manageinent of a KUclien- garden.

2545. The cultivation of a garden includes the performance of all those things that are
requisite, in order to a reasonable and prolific production of the various vegetables and
fruits grown therein. By the management of a garden, is to be understood the keeping
it in such order, as that it may not fail in those impressions of pleasure it is calculated to
afford. A kitchen-garden, as well as a garden professedly ornamental, may and ought
to be agreeable to walk in, as well as profitably cultivated. A gardener may be well
acquainted with the culture of individual vegetables and fruits, and yet very deficient in
the general cultivation and management of his garden. The following sections relate
entirely to general practices conducive to these objects, and they deserve to be carefully
studied by the young gardener who aspires at any degree of eminence in his art.

Sect. I. Culture and Management of t/ie Soil.

2546. The soil, Marshall observes, " must be first attended to, always to keep the
fruit-borders in heart, and the compartments in a proper state for use, when called upon to
receive either seeds or plants. Ground should never lie long without stirring ; for the
soil of a garden should be in a free, sweet, and rich state, by proper digging, &c. or no
great things can be done, as to early, handsome, or well flavored productions. It
should be free, that the roots of plants may not be impeded in the quest of food ; sweet,*
that the food may be wholesome ; and rich, that there may be no defect of nutriment.

2547. Trenching the vacant ground in a garden does good to all soils in the autumn
and winter seasons, and that in proportion to its strength, being indispensably necessary
for clays to separate and ameliorate the parts. Tlie light soils may do by being only
rough dug, which is a method that stronger soils will be also benefitted by. The soil
would be still farther improved, by re-trenching, or rough-digging, once or twice more
in the winter, if the opportunity offers, particularly if strong or stubborn. Let the
ridges lie E. and W. except the ground be a slope, when they may correspond.

2548. The trenching of vacant ground, Abercrombie observes, " should be forwarde^d
as much as possible in winter, and early in spring. By repeatedly exposing a new sur-
face to the action of the frost, a greater quantity of the soil is ameliorated. In every
case where it is intended tliat the ground shall lie fallow any time, it is advisable, in
digging trenches, to turn up the earth roughly in ridges ; forming, parallel to each
trench, a single ridge of the same width, in order that the soil may be the more
effectually mellowed, pulverised, and renovated by the weather. These ridges can be
expeditiously levelled, for the reception of seeds and plants ; which is a further improve-
ment of the ground."

2549. To conserve the fertility of kitclien-garden soil, the mode adopted by Nicol and
practised by the best Scotch gardeners, is the most scientific of any. Nicol observes,
that, as kitchen-vegetables do best on what is termed new land, it is a common complaint
among gardeners that their ground, by being, as it were, worn out, will not produce
certain lands of vegetables j not that it is poor and hungry, or altogether unfitted to the
production of them, having formerly produced them in great abundance, but that the
surface has become tired of these crops, in the same way as a field sown with the same
sort of grain for two or three years in succession, ceases to produce that grain in perfec-
tion. Tlie method which he practised with success is as follows : —

255a First, it is necessary fa have a depth qf soil from twenty-four to thirty-six inches: in which
case it is obvious, that whatever the depth of the natural soil is deficient of, twenty-four inches must be
made good by carrying in soil from fields of good quality. Then take three crops oft'the first surface, and
then trench three s,^\t deep, by which the bottom and top are reversed, and the middle remains in the
middle. Take three crops offthis surface, and then trench two spit ; by which the top becomes the middle,
and the middle the top. And take also three crops offthis surface, and then trench three spit ; whereby
that which was last the middle, and now top, becomes the bottom ; and that which is now the bottom,
and was the surface at first, now becomes surface again, after having rested six years. Proceed in this
manner alternately ; the one time trenching two spit deep, and the other three; by which means the sur-
face will always be changed, and will rest six years, and produce three.

Hence there ivill always be new soil in the garden for the production of wholesome tvgetables ; and
hence also will much less manure be required, than when the soil is shallow, and the same surface con-
stantly in crop He adds, that he would not advise the soil to be more than three feet deep, as the sur-
face might be buried too deep from the action of the weather, and influence of the sun. Where the soil is
only so deep as to allow of trenching two spit, by trenching every third or fourth year the ground will rest
half its time • and if judiciously managed, and cropped in proper rotation, wholesome vegetables may te

lis

486 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

produced on it for many years successively. It is not intended that the whole garden should be trenched
over the same season, " one half, or a third part at a time may be more advisable, and also more con-
venient" {Kal. p. 16.)

Sect. II. Manure.

2551. When manure is applied the ground is not to be glutted with dung ; for, as
Marshall observes, " a little at a time, well rotted, is sufficient, so that it comes often
enough, as opportunity and the nature of the cropping may dictate. It is indeed a sort
of rule with gardeners, that ground should be dunged every second year ; but circum-
stances may make more or less of it necessary, and rules should never be indiscriminately
applied. If dung is pretty well reduced much less will do, and let it not be buried too
deep ; but if it is otherwise, lay it low, to be dug upwards another time, when it is more
consumed. It is an excellent way of manuring, where the superficial soil is much ex-
hausted, to dig slightly, and spread over rotten dung, late in autumn, in the winter, or
early in spring, and so let it remain, till the ground is wanted, before it is dug in; which
should, however, be slightly dug before the manure is put on, or forked in a little after-
wards. This method is particularly to be recommended where crops of onions, leeks,
and such superficial rooting plants are to be."

2552. Dung used in great quantities, and lying in lumps, harbors worms, grubs, and
insects, and makes plajits grow too rampant and rank-flavored. Carrots it cankers, and it
disagrees with many things ; is apt also to make the ground parch, and burn the crops sown
upon it in a hot summer. On these accounts some persons have been induced to dress
their gardens only with rich fresh earth ; which, if they do not overcrop, will do very
well, being accompanied with good tillage ; which alone is of much use, and is essential
to due cultivation. Vegetables are always sweeter the less dung is used, and little need
be used when the natural soil is good and deep ; for the earth may be so dug, that what
is at the top one year may be at the bottom the next : which is a manoeuvre evidently
advantageous, as a good part of the strength of the top soil washes downwards. The
method just recommended, of letting dung lie on the surface for a time, is good also, as
it abates the rankness of it. Lime sweetens.

2553. The periods for appli/ing manures necessarily depends on the soil and the mode
of cropping. If the original soil be poor, it may require aid from dung every year ; but,
in general, the compartments in which annuals and biennials are cultivated will want to
be thus recruited at least once in two years, when the last autumn crops are off the
ground. Beds occupied by perennials cannot sometimes receive any material accession
of new earth or compost for a number of years ; and therefore, when the stools are
worn out, the repairs of the soil should, in proportion, be substantial, and go deep.
Dung is fit to manure beds for receiving many sorts of plants, when it has lain in a heap
from three to six months, and is beginning to be well rotted. But for particular pur-
poses, it should lie from one to two years. Apply it for annuals, two or three inches
thick ; for perennials that are to stand long, six or eight inches thick ; spreading it
equally, till the bed into which it is to be dug is covered : tlien trench it in a moderate
spade deep, that it may be within easy reach of the roots of the plants. In preparing
ground for perennial stools, a portion of the dung should be deposited six inches deeper.
(Abercrombie.)

2554. Manures are to be applied either as simjyles or compounds ; but the latter method
Nicol considers the most eligible. He agrees with Jethro Tull in stating, that if they
have not undergone a proper fermentation, their effects are, giving a rank and disagree-
able flavor to fruits and vegetables ; and if an immoderate quantity be applied, of
producing a considerable degree of unwholesomeness, and tainting the juices of all
plants.

A mixture of stable-dung, sea.wecd, lime, and vegetable tnould, which has lain in a heap for three
or four months, and has been two or three times turned during that period, will make an excellent manure
for most kinds of garden-land. Also, cow-dung, hog-dung, and sheep-dung, mixed with soot or with
wood-ashes. Pigeon-dung and vegetable mould, well mixed, will also make an excellent manure for heavy
land ; or even for lighter soils, provided the pigeon-dung be used sparingly.

Neats.du7ig and hog-dung, slightly fermented, are very fit and rich manures for light hot soils. For
those of a dry, absorbent nature, none answer better, or last longer ; by reason that they retain moisture
for a greater length of time, and also ferment more slowly than other dungs.

Pigeott-dung, lime, soot, ashes, &c. should never be applied as simples ; the quantity required being com-
paratively small, and the regular distribution of them difficult, without the admixture of otlier matter.
But these should generally be applied to compost of good earth, turf, or sward, or of cow, or other dung
of a cool nature ; applying them in quantity according to the cold or the hot nature of the soil to be ma-
nured, allowing the compost a sufficient time to incorjiorate, and mixing it thoroughly.

Marl is a good manure for almost any soil : and it may be applied as a simple, with as much propriety
as any of the kinds of cattle-dung, or even of vegetable earth. The kind called sheU-marl, is much to be
preferred, and should be freely applied to strong lands, but more sparingly to light : the loamy kind being
best adapted to light lands.

Stable-dung, if used as a simple, should not be applied in too rank a state, nor should it be much fermented.
It should generally lie in a heap for four or five weeks ; during which time it should be turned over once
or twice. A ton of it in this state is worth three that has been used in the hot-bed, and is a year old. This
manure, and indeed dung of any kind, when applied as a simple, should never be carried from the heap to
the ground, till it is to be digged in 3 as, by exposure to the air, part of its virtues evaporate, and it is the
less enectuaL

Book I. CROPPING. 487

Sea-weed should be applied instatitly after landing. If used as a simple, is even greater than the above ; as
it instantly corrupts, and its juices flow downwards, and are lost If this manure be used as a compound,
the heap in which it is compounded should be more frequently turned on its account; that none of the
juices may be lost, but that the other part of the compost may absorb them.

Horse-dung, and tlie dung of sheep, deer, and of rabbits are mast eligible for cold wet soils ; and all
these, or any of these in compost with lime, will be found beneficial For such soils also, a compost of
coal-ashes, pigeon-dung, and lime ; or of wood-ashes, whin-ashes, fern-ashes, and stable-dung; or of deer-
dung, rabbit-dung, soot, and burnt sward, will make a good manure.

Manures are to be applied in quantity according to their quality. Hence the dung of pigeons should be
applied in much smaller proiwrtions than that of horses, it containing a greater quantity of volatile salts ;
and so the ashes of vegetables containing a portion of fixetl alkaline salts, being more powerful, are to be
applied in still smaller quantity. So also, lime being the most powerful of the calcareous kind, should be
applied, in ordinary cases, in much smaller quantity than marl.

Vegetable mould may either be used as a simple, or as a compound, and may be applied with equai pro-
priety to all soils. None can be hurt by it in any degree, since almost every plant will grow luxuriantly in
it alone, without the aid of any soil or manure whatever. It seems to be the ambrosia, and the dimghiU.
drainings the nectar, of vegetable life. The latter, however, if too freely indulged in, is rather of an in-
toxicating nature. (A'a/.)

2555. Where economy, rather than the flavor of culinary crops, is an object, recent dung
is unquestionably to be preferred (1156.), and, in fact, is so by most market-gardeners :
John Wilmot, an extensive market-gardener at Isleworth, bears testimony to tliis fact. A
given weight of recent stable dung, he says, will not only go farther than the same weight
of rotten dung from old hot-beds ; but will serve as a manuring for the succeeding crop,
which, with old dung, is not the case. [Hort. Trans, iv. 55.)

Sect. III. Croji^nng.

2556. A change of crops is founded on the generally acknowledged fact, that each sort
of plant draws a somewhat different nourishment ; so that after a full crop of one thing,
one of another kind may often be immediately sown. " Nothing tends more to relieve the
soil," Abercrombie observes, "than a judicious succession of crops ; for plants of dif-
ferent constitutions not only strike to different deptlis, and in different directions, with
their roots, but the terminal fibres or feeders of the roots appear to take up separate and
peculiar constituents of tlie soil, and to be indebted for support to some property imparted
by the earth in very different degrees. The duration of the vegetable, its short or pro-
tracted existence, is a great cause of diversity of effect as to the quantity of aliment drawn
from the soil. Another mark of distinctness in constitution is the character of the root,
as it may be fibrous and tender, or fibrous and woody, — or bulbous, or tuberous, — ex-
tended or compact ; another, the form and magnitude of the herb, and tlie proportion of
fibrous or ligneous substance in the stem and branches. A fourth index of a separate
nature is the succulency or hardness of the leaves, and the quantity of pulpy or
farinaceous matter in the parts of fructification, — as the leaves may be the edible
part, before the plant is matured ; or the seed-vessels, as in pulse, may hold tlie
produce for the table ; or the esculent part may consist of fruit-enclosing seeds. To
apply this practically : — we will suppose a strawberry-plantation requires to be re-
newed ; and the stools seldom continue fully productive more than three or four years ;

— instead of introducing young strawberry-plants into the same bed, entirely eradicate
the old plantation, and let it be succeeded by a crop of beans, or of some other esculent as
different as may be in constitution and habit. In the same manner, let the new plant-
ation of strawberries follow some light crop which left the ground in a good state, or
which allowed it to be trenched and followed for an interval, whether it were an annual
or biennial. It is a rule, from which only extraordinary circumstances can warrant a de-
parture, never to plant a new set of perennial stools on the ground whence a plantation
of the same or a similar species, having worn itself out, has just before been removed.
On the contrarj', crops which strike deep, and occupy the ground long, should be suc-
ceeded by plants which pierce but a little way under tlie surface, are drawing in the least
degree, and soon come off from the short term of their vegetable life."

2557. A studied rotation is advisable, in all cases, according to Nicol ; so as that no crop
of the same class may immediately follow another. To facilitate this measure, the kitchen-
ground should be divided into a number of portions, and a journal or note-book
should be kept, with a reference to their numbers. In this journal, whatever relates to
their cropping, manuring, trenching, or fallowing should he recorded, for reference and
guidance as to future cropping. Nicol, while practising as head gardener at Raith,
Wemyss Castle, and other places, kept a regular journal of this sort; he published it in
bis Kitchen Gardener in 1802, and he tells us, in 1816, that it had been approved and
adopted by many practical gardeners. (See the model, 2345.)

2558. By planting out currants, gooseberries, and raspberries in compartments, instead of
growing them in single lines, particularly if these be properly managed, an opportunity
of changing crops might further be afforded ; as these should not stand longer than
seven or eight years togetlier, before the plantations are renewed.

2559. Slrawberry-phnUalions, under proper management, should be renewed every four
or five years : and thus likewise might an opportunity of changing crops be afforded.

•^ I i 4

488 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Also, by the renewal of artichoke and asparagus plantations, which should be done every
seven or eight years. In managing all the above-named articles on a large scale, new
plantations should be made every year, to a certain extent, which would throw a certain
proportion of ground regularly into the rotation.

2560. Esculents might be cultivated in classes, and thus a sort of rotation, though not
very complete, might be produced; and the brassica tribe, the leguminous family,
the tuberous and carrot-rooted kinds, the bulbous or onion kinds ; and the lighter
crops, as salads and herbs, might succeed each other.

2561. Close crops, as onions, leeks, carrots, &c. are conveniently and neatly cultivated in
beds of from four to five feet widths, with alleys of a foot to eighteen inches between them.

2562. Resting garden-ground. Market-gardeners, Nicol observes, who are generally
good managers, and must of necessity make the most of their ground, in order to main-
tain their families, and be able to pay high rents, have found out the utility of resting
their land, and of following a regular rotation in cropping it, at least in the culture of
the principal articles, and as far as the nature of the thing will admit. The best man-
agers sow out a portion of their ground every season in grass, clover, or barley, which
is used as green food for their horses and cows. Very generally the barley is sown along
with the clover, merely to nurse and shade it, being cut down and not allowed to ripen.
The clover is sometimes dug up after the first season, if land for market-crops be scarce,
but more generally it is allowed to lie a second year. By good managers, the ground is
never sown down in a hungry state. Land that has been under esculent crops for many
years together, and is, perhaps, glutted with manure, may be cleansed, as it is termed,
by a scouring crop of oats, wheat, or rye, which, if thought necessary, may be repeated.
If trenched to its full depth afterwards, it will again be fit for the production of culinary
crops in great perfection.

2563. The seasons j^roper for furnishing the ground with every jmrticular vegetable should
be well attended to, that each may be obtained as early as its nature will permit ; and of
the seeds and plants we use, care must be taken to procure the best of the kind, lest after
all the trouble of cultivation, disappointment as to vegetation or quality sliould ensue.
The principal time for sowing and planting the articles raised in the kitchen-garden falls
in the spring months. It is necessary to lodge some sorts in the ground as early as Ja-
nuary ; but February, March, and April are the months in which the principal supplies
from summer crops are provided for. From April till September, and even October,
many sorts are sown and planted, in smaller portions, for successive crops. -Particular
hardy esculents are also sown or transplanted principally in autumn, for a supply as
well in winter as in spring and early in summer. Other kinds are inserted occasionally
as late as November and December, to stand wholly over the winter, in rising growth,
for early crops and for main crops the following summer ; such as peas, beans, cabbages,
and cauliflowers. To obtain early crops of favorite esculents which are more tender,
several kinds are sown and planted in hot-beds in winter and spring.

2564. The quantity soivn arid planted is to be determined jointly by the demands of the
family and the portion of ground that can be spared : but it should be always a rule, to sow
and plant more than probably enough for the family, as more may happen to be wanted
than expected, and a cross season or other accident may occasion a failure. As exact
rules cannot be laid down, tlie exercise of a little judgment will be necessary, in order to
proportion crops alike ; for to have too much of one thing, and too little of another, is
disagreeable and discreditable. Respect should be paid to the natural duration of crops,
some going off soon, and others being lasting, and that too according to the season they
are propagated in. The pea requires the greastest breadth of surface ; and next to this the
cabbage tribe. The spaces for asparagus, artichokes, strawberries, sea-kale, &:c. are in
some degree fixed from the comparative permanency of these crops. Pot and sweet
herbs require the least space, and ascending from these to breadths necessary for the pea
and cabbage tribe, the proportions are as various as the kinds to be grown ; and these
can only be acquired properly by experience, and observation of what takes place in dif-
ferent gardens.

2565. Seeds and plants should be adapted as much as possible to the soil and situation which
best suits them ; for in the same garden some difference will be found, not only as to sun
and shelter, but the earth ; as some will be richer, some poorer, some deeper, some
shallower, and some perhaps heavier, some lighter, in due attention to wliich, advantage
is to reaped. (Marshall.)

2566. The ordering of seeds from the seedsman is generally a matter of some difficulty
to the young gardener, and Abercrombie is almost the only author who has endeavored
to remove it. The information afforded by his work, entitled The Seed Estimate,
will be found in the Horticultural Catalogue ; where under every culinary vegetable
raised from seed, will be found the quantity, either stated in weight or measure, requisite
for a certain space of ground ; and this space generally that which is deemed sufficient
for a considerable garden.

Book I. THINNING. 489

Sect. IV. Thinning.

2567. The thinning of seedling crops, Marshall observes, " should be done in time, be-
fore the young plants have drawn one another up too much. All plants grow stronger,
and ripen their juices better, when the air circulates freely round them, and the sun is not
prevented from an immediate influence ; an attention to which should be paid from the
first appearance of plants breaking ground. In thinning close crops, as onions, carrots,
turnips, &c. be sure that they are not left too near, for instead of reaping a greater produce,
there would be a less. ^VTien they stand too close, they will make tall and large tops,
but are prevented swelling in their roots : better to err on the wide side, for though there
are fewer plants, they will be finer and better flavored."

2568. Thinning the leaves of fruit-trees. " The leaves," Abercrombie observes, " have
too essential an office as organs of growth to the entire plant, to be lightly parted with ;
and where the climate is not deficient in heat, compared with the habitat of tlie plant, or
the portion of the year in which its season for vegetating falls, their shade is more likely
to be serviceable than detrimental, even in the last stage of fruiting. Thus, cherries, rasp-
berries, strawberries, currants, and other species whose full term of fructification is more
than comprehended in our summer, reach perfect maturity, and acquire the color proper
to each, though ever so much covered with leaves : whereas for those kinds which ripen
with difficulty here, because the direct rays, and most intense reflection of the sun, is
scarcely equal to the heat in the shade during the full summer of their native climate, —
it is proper, when the fruit has nearly attained its full size, and is naturally losing its ab-
solute greenness, to remove ^ome of the leaves which shade it too much. Were the leaves
thinned sooner, it would prejudice the growth of the fruit ; and should they even now be
swept off" unsparingly, the growth of the year's shoots might be arrested. The leaves
which cover the fruit, whether peaches, grapes, late pears, or other exotics, must be re-
moved gradually ; that is, at two or three times in the course of five or six days ; other-
wise the unusual full heat of the sun darting upon the fruit, would occasion the rind to
crack,"

2569. Nicol says, " My practice has been, as the fruit begin to color, to pick off every leaf that may over-
hang them; thus very much enhancing their beauty and flavor. In late seasons, if the leaves of wall-
trees hang longer than usual, they may be brushed off; in order to let in the stui and air the better to ripen
the wood. This brushing, however, should be cautiously performed, never brushing much at a time. The
leaves should not be forced off violently. Some use a common stable -broom for this purpose ; but a better
instrument is a hazel, or strong willow withe, or a small smooth cane. The shoots from which the leaves
are to be displaced, should be gently stroked upwards, and outward ; but never the reverse way, else there
is danger of hurting the buds. Trees exposed to the wind seldom require this care ; but sometimes espa-
liers may, and if so, the same course is to be pursued as above."

2570. Thinning stonefruits. Thinning the over-abundantly set fruit on apricot, nec-
tarine, peach, and plum trees, is a necessary duty ; as many of these, in good seasons,
set more than they can nourish or bring near to perfection. This thinning, however, must
be cautiously performed, and by degrees. If the trees have set their fruit very thick in
particular parts only, such parts should be moderately thinned out now, and the other
parts not yet. But if the fruit be very quickly set all over tlie tree, let it be generally
thinned off to half its extent at this time ; deferring the final thinning till the stoning be
over ; that is, till the shells be quite hard, and the kernel be formed. For most trees,
especially tliose anywise unhealthy, drop many of their fruit in the time of stoning ; so
that tlie thinning had better be performed at two or three different times ; always observ-
ing to reserve the fullest, brownest, and best-formed fruit. Stone-fruits must be again
looked over in June, and a few more fruit thinned off where too thick ; and the final
thinning must take place in July, when the stoning of stone-fruits is over, and previously
to their beginning to swell off for ripening. (N'icol.)

2571. mth respect to the quantity or number of fruit proper to be left on a' tree, " much," according to
Nicol, " must depend on its size and strength, and whetner it be full grown, or be yet in training. A full-
grown tree, in a healthy state, may be allowed to produce considerably more than one in a weak condition.
And if a tree yet in training, that is, one not having filled the space allotted to it, be allowed to ripen all
the fruit it may set, its extension will be much retarded in consequence. On the More-park apricot, and
the larger kinds of peaches, in a healthy full-bearing state, a fruit to every foot square of the superficial
content, or surface of the tree, may be taken as a good medium ; that is to say, a tree covering a space fif-
teen feet by twelve, may be allowed to ripen about two hundred fruit. The smaller kinds of apricots and
peaches, and of nectarines in general, may be allowed to produce a third part more, if in a healthy state.
The larger and better sorts of plums may be thinned in proportion, and according to their sizes ; and may
be thinned out to from three to six inches apart, if on the shoots of last year, or so as to hang quite free of
one another, if on spurs. I am aware, that many will think thinning to this extent an extraordinary mea.
sure ; but I would have such be convinced of the propriety of doing so, by comparison. If they have two
trees of a kind, both healthy and well loaded, let the one be thinned as above, and allow tlie other to pro-
duce as it has been wont ; or thin it even to half the extent. It will be found, that the tree fuUy thinned
will produce an equal, if not a greater weight of fruit, and these incomparably more beautiful, and higher
in flavor. Observe, the comparison must be made the same season, else it would not be fair ; as the size
and flavor of the fruit might be very different, according to the goodness or badness of the weather in dif-
ferent years."

2572. Apples and pears should he moderately thinned, and good account would be found
in the practice. This should be done when the fruit is about half grown, or when all ap-

490 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

prehension of its dropping is over. Nothing tends more to keep fruit-trees in good health
than regularly to thin their over-abundant crops, and that always before they begin to
swell off for ripening ; for if this be delayed till they are nearly full grown, the mischief
is, in a great measure, already done, both to the tree and to the fruit left. (Alcol.)

Sect. V. Pruning and Training.
2o75. Pi-uning and training being frequently practised together, and in aid of each
other, may be advantageously treated of under the same head.

2574. Pruning netvly planted trees. Trees planted one year from the graft, or two from
budding, must be pruned as though still in the nursery, in order to furnish them with a
head. At the end of March, or the beginning of April, as the wood-buds begin to shoot,
one of these courses must be taken ; either shorten the shoots of the preceding summer ;
or head down the tree to two, three, or four eyes, taking all those shoots off. The latter
course is most commonly expedient on the peach-tree, or nectarine, or apricot. If the
first shoots happen to be unexceptionably placed for beginning the figure, instead of head-
ing down the stem, cut these into two or three eyes. On wall-trees and espaliers, rub off
the fore and back wood-buds.

2575. Seasons for pnming newly planted trees. On all trees during the tender stage of
infancy, spring Is the fittest time of pruning, even for wood, and for proceeding in the
formation of a head, as successive sets of new branches are yearly obtained by shortening
the last. Something may also be done in summer to promote this object. If between
the end of May and the end of June, a pair of shoots have not started as desired, one on
each side from a stem headed down, or from the mother branches shortened ; and in lieu
of such, one solitary shoot has arisen, or two, both on one side, or not equally proper to be
retained, the desired end may yet be attained, and a season saved. Pinch down the soli-
tary shoot two or three eyes : this will force out new shoots in the course of summer. In
the case of two shoots, one of which is evidently unfit for beginning the head, take off
the one rejected without delay, and pinch down the other to two or three eyes. Of two
shoots on the same side equal in regard to strength and direction, to preserve the lower
on wall-trees and dwarfs is a rule to which an exception can scarcely be imagined. The
summer pruning of heads progressively forming, will afterwards fall in with that of esta-
blished trees.

2576. Summer pruning of trees in bearing. The buds and shoots to be preserved claim,
the first attention ; for if the precious germs of future fruit or wood are carelessly de-
stroyed, the work of reparation is diflicult and tedious : whereas the removal of spray not
of service as branches or bearers, though necessary to prevent confusion, and to strengthen
the plant, is to be conducted in subservience to the vital object of fertility. For the pre-
sent retain all the fruit-buds and fruit-shoots, and as many well placed wood-shoots as
Avill afford a selection for winter pruning : but rub off ill placed and superfluous wood-
buds, as they can be certainly discriminated, or after waiting till appearances are no longer
doubtful, pinch off the shoots from such wood-buds before they are above three inches
long. In some kinds, to avoid the destruction of wood-buds, or the germs of fruit-spurs,
the disbudding ought to be postponed until the wood-shoots can be distinguished from
spurs, and pinched off without injuring the fruit-buds. The species which alternately
produce spurs on the one-year-old shoots, are, the apple, pear, apricot, cherry, and plum.
The peach and nectarine rarely emit spui-s. AVhile you avoid displacing infant spurs on
plants which bear on such, be as careful to discourage the wood-buds and shoots on old
spurs, for shoots from these are cumbersome and unprofitable. If any spray that wants
displacing has got woody, use the knife, lest the bark of the mother branch be torn.

2577. The mode of bearing, and the duration of the l)earers, is the first thing to be adverted to for regu-
lating the proportion of new wood to be retained. Thus, in the kinds which bear on spurs, a less quantity
of advancing wood is necessary for future supply, according to the time that a bearing branch continues
fruitful ; but as the fruit-shoots on some of these kinds are two, three, four, and even five years in coming
into bearing, the diflficulty of exercising a proper foresight is increased. On the sorts which bear on the
shoots of last year, although a great reserve, and constant annual succession are wanted, it is more easy to
suit the provision to the expected vacancy. In both classes, the leader to a stem yet under training as a
wall-tree is to be carefully preserved : also a surplus number ot buds to the right and left must be suffered
to sprout, till it can be known whether shoots will spring at the desired places ; and afterwards a selection
from these for forming the tiee : further, the leading shoot to each side branch should be always left, if
the limits admit. Well placetl shoots, between the origin and the extremity of a lateral, are to be retained
in pairs, until a good leader has sprung, and is sufficiently established to be laid in ; when they are to be
cut away close, unless a vacancy requires their permanent cultivation. As the new laterals fit to be pre-
served extend, lay them close to the wall in a straight easy direction, at a convenient average distance :
nailing them farther onward as the extremities want support.

2578. Three revisions are included in a summer s jrruning ; one beginning at the end of
April, another in July, and the third in September : all which have a preparatory re-
spect to the winter pruning. Stone-fruit trees, if much wounded in summer, are apt to
gum ; so that if superfluous shoots have not been removed before they get woody, it is
best to defer the retrenchment of these to the winter pruning. A weak tree is strength-
ened by reducing its spray ; let it, however, be low and compact, rather than naked. To

Book I. PRUNING AND TRAINING. 491

keep a luxuriant tree full of wood tends to make it less rampant : but a crowded intricacy
is to be avoided ; for the air stagnates in a thicket of spray and foliage, while the sun
cannot penetrate it : hence the new shoots grow long-jointed, and do not ripen thoroughly ;
and the blossom-buds forming on the bearers for the following year will be fewer and
less plump. All the shoots rising after midsummer are to be displaced, unless a va-
cuitj' cannot be furnished without reserving some of them ; or unless the excessive luxu-
riance of a plant makes it proper to cut it as little as possible, and to let the sap expend
itself in numerous channels. The spring shoots laid in are generally to be preserved at
full length, as far as the limits will permit, until after the fall of the leaf ; because to stop
them in summer would cause them to shoot from almost every eye, and fill the wall with
spray ; hence, when a vacancy wants several branches to furnish it, it is a good resource
to shorten a strong contiguous shoot to three or four eyes. Tliis is the exception to the
rule.

2579. Winter jyruning of trees in bearing. Now a final selection is to be made from
the last year's shoots retained as candidates during the summer. On established trees
which have fully ripened tlieir shoots, and of which the young wood is not succulent,
and therefore susceptible of injury from frost, there is a wide latitude of time for the
capital or winter pruning, extending from the fall of tlie leaf to the time of the sun's
rising, or just before. To prune in autumn strengthens a plant, and will bring the
blossom-buds more forward : to cut the wood late in spring, tends to check a plant, and
is one of the remedies for excessive luxuriance. At the opening of spring, the blossom-
buds can be certainly distinguished, which is a great guide to the judgment in many
critical cases ; but on the other hand, if the blossom-buds get much swelled, they are
liable to be bruised or knocked off, in the various operations of untacking, cutting, and
re-nailing the branches. Supposing the common course of winter pruning to be divided
into three periods — autumn, the cold months of winter, and the beginning of spring
— the plants to be excepted from the first two, are, uniformly the fig, when not in
a forcing-house, the vine for the most part, because the autumn is seldom hot and fine
sufficiently long to ripen the year's shoots. Some except the peach and nectarine from
the middle period, but not from the first ; because they say, that if a severe frost happen
immediately to follow the pruning, the points of the unripened shoots, and particularly
the wood-bud next to the cut, are generally so much hurt, that there must be a second
shortening, farther in than was intended to furnish these shoots with leaders.

2580. T%^ number of good shoots to be retained is limited by the character of the tree, the size to which
the fruit grows, and the compass to be given to the head. The branches of a wall-tree may be from five
to ten inches asunder, according to its strength and the size of the fruit Of fruit-shoots those are the
best which are short-jointed, and show a competent number of blossom-buds, and on which the series of
blossom-buds commences nearest to the origin of the shoots, especially on that class which must have the
bearers annually shortened. Spongy or disproportionately large and gouty shoots are bad alike for
wood and fruit ;' but good shoots for wood may be above the middle size, if the buds are well defined ;
and the best shoots for fruit may inclme to sleiidemess, if not wiry and sapless ; disproportionably large
shoots are seldom fruitful. In choosing large supplies for wood, other things being equal, the lowest new
branches on the tree, and the last year's laterals nearest to the origin of a branch, are to be preferred.
Begin at the bottom and middle of the tree ; keep these furnished without intricacy ; and the ex-
tremities will be easily managed. Such shoots as are preserved, whether to come in immediately as
bearers, or to furnish naked parts in the figure, or future supplies of wood, are to be treated according to
the mode of bearing.

Class f>earing on distinct branches. On those species which bear at the ends of the branches, or on
spurs for several years in succession, the leading shoot of a fruit-branch is always to be retained, on a
double account ; and the fruit-branches are not to be shortened where they do not exceed the assigned
limits for the tree ; because, if stopped, these would send out strong wood-shoots, where blossom-buds or
fruit-spurs had otherwise been produced. . . ■, . i.

2581. Exceptions to this rule : on young trees under training, to be furnished with a head, shorten the
branches until the designed figure is complete ; again, though a tree be estabUshed, occasionaUy shorten
a branch, to bring out wood to fill a vacancy. The surplus of the last year's shoots, which would crowd,
or disfigure, or too much weaken the tree, or occupy It without promise, are to be cut out clean to the
parent branch ; also cut away any old branches which appear decayed, or of which the spurs begin to get
l)arren. Finally, take oft" close the naked barren stumps left at previous amputations.

2582. Class bearing on last year's wood only. On trees which bear on the last year's wood, there is a
necessity for annuaUv shortening alternate divisions of the branches, in order to provide a supply of new
shoots for bearing the next season. We prune the longer branches of a luxuriant plant, and the shorter
of a weak plant in an inverted proportion. Were the strong tree much cut in, it would produce only the
more wood ; while the weak tree, unless relieved by short pruning, would not long continue to bear.
Very strong shoots may be left eighteen inches long, or lose but a fourth of their length ; extremely weak
shoots retrench to half their length, whether that be five, six, eight or ten inches ; prune shoots of medium
growth to the extent which best consults the double object of leaving as many blossom-buds as may be on
the shoot, and of forcing out new wood at a weU placed eye. In shortening cut at a leaf or wood-bud
that is likely to yield a leading shoot Leaf-buds are distinguished by being oblong, narrow, and de-
pressed : blossom-buds by being rounder and bolder. If a leaf-bud at a suitable distance is found between
twin blossom-buds, so much the better. A leading shoot at the point of a bearing branch draws nourish-
ment for the intervening fruit The thinning of rejected shoots, and decayed or worn-out bearers, is
nearly as for the other class. ' /. , ,

2583. yiixed class. There is a smaU anomalous class which bears frequently on spurs of several years
continuance as well as on annual shoots, but chiefly on the latter. Shoots of this class are to have a mixed
treatment, preserving the fertile spurs as much as may be. Having finished pruning a wall-tree, lay m the
branches and shoots directly ; tacking them in a neat manner to the wall or trellis. (^AbercronUne.)

2584. mntei- pruning to be revised. Revise the pruning when a sufficient time has
elapsed to see it with another eye ; or when the expansion of the blossoms decides the

492

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

competition between probationary fruit-shoots which have been laid in too close. In
those stone-fruit trees which bear on tlie last year's shoot, such as the peach and most
kinds of the apricot, it is particularly necessary to revise the winter pruning at the
time of blossoming ; because, if on any branch the blossoms are observed to have been
spoiled either by gum, by blight, or spring frost, that branch is quite useless as a bearer,
and unless it has made some shoots which may prove bearers the following year, is to
be entirely cut away : but if the blighted branches have made well placed shoots, shorten
them to these. (^Abercrombie.)

2585. Methods of training. The two principal methods of training wall-trees which
are followed in this country, Neill observes, are called the fan and the horizontal modes.
In the former, the branches are arranged like the spokes of a fan, or like the hand opened
and the fingers spread. In the other way, a principal stem is carried upright, and
branches are led from it horizontally on either side. The Dutch style consists in taking
a young tree with two branches, and leading these horizontally to the right and left, to
the extent, perhaps, of twelve feet each way, and in then training the shoots from these
perfectly upright to the top of the wall. This is now seldom practised here, excepting,
perhaps, with fig-trees, or white currants. In some places, a few of the wall-trees are
trained in a stellate form, the stem being led upright for about six feet, and then some
branches trained downwards, others laterally, and others upwards. When walls exceed
seven feet in height, the best gardeners seem to concur in giving the preference to the
fan training, variously modified : in this way they find that a tree can much sooner be
brought to fill its allotted space, and the loss of a branch can much more easily be sup-
plied at any time. For lower walls, the horizontal method is preferred ; and the same
plan is adopted almost universally on espalier-rails. Hitt strongly recommends this
mode for most sorts of wall-trees ; and for pears he adopts what is called tJie screw
stem, or training the stem in a serpentine manner, the branches going off horizontally as
in tlie ordinary straight stem. (Edin. Encijc art. Hort.) Nicol agrees with most ex-
perienced gardeners, in preferring Jan training to all other methods ; and it may be ob-
served, that this form comes nearer to that mode recommended by Knight, as affording
" evidence of a more regular distribution of the sap," than any other mode. It agrees
with the excellent general principles of pruning laid down by Quintiney, who first re-
duced this branch of gardening to scientific principl.es — and to the practice of the cele-
brated growers of peaches at Montreuil, near Paris.

2986. Knight remarks, that when trees are, by any means, deprived of the motion which their branches
naturally receive from the winds, the forms in which they are trained operate more powerfully on their
permanent health and vigor than is generally imagined. '" In this sentiment," says Nicol, " I perfectly
agree ; and I may be allowed to add, that I have been engaged in the training of fruit-trees these twenty-
five years, and have trained them in a great variety of forms. Some in the Dutch style, running out two
branches first, perfectly horizontal, right and left, to the extent of three or four years each way, and
from these training shoots perfectly upright, at nine inches apart, to the top of the wall ; some with
screwed stems and horizontal branches ; some with upright stems and horizontal branches ; some with
stems six feet high, with pendent, upright, and horizontal branches, so as to appear like a star ; and others
in the fan manner ; which last, I confess, 1 prefer to all other methods of training wall-trees. I have
altered many from the above forms to this both on walls and espaliers."

2587. Modes of training to check over
vigorous growth are various ; but all of
them depend on depressing the shoots
either throughout their whole length or
operating on the young shoots only. When
opportunity admits, or want of space on
one side of a wall requires, it is found
conducive to moderation of growth and
the production of fruit to train the
branches of trees over the wall and down
the other side. (Jig. 431 .) This is found
to increase the prolificacy of vigorous
growing kinds, as the pear ; and it also
succeeds well with the apple, cherry, and vine.
_ 2588. Modes of training to encourage the growth of shoots proceed on the opposite prin-
ciple, and while over-luxuriant shoots are depressed, weak ones, which it is deemed proper
to encourage, are elevated and brought nearer to the perpendicular.

2589. Pruning and training, as applied to edgings and hedges, is performed by clipping
or cutting en masse, with the hedge-bill. (1328.) Hedges must be cut in autumn
when the wood is ripe : sometimes it is done in summer, which is admissible, as far as
respects the health of the plants, and consequent durability of the hedge when the lower
ends of the shoots are nearly ripe. If this is not the case, the operation is in-
jurious. The judicious gardener will weigh the circumstances of the case, and decide
accordingly.

431

Book I. WATERING. 493

Sect. VI. Weeding, Stirring t/ie Soil, Protecting, Supjwrting, and Shading.

2590. Eradication of weeds. The means of removal, are hoeing and weeding ; and
of destruction, exposing them, when hoed or pulled up, to the sun and air ; or, what is
in all cases better, taking them at once to the dunghill or compost-yard, to be destroyed
by fermentation. These operations require to be performed almost every month in the
year ; but more especially in the beginning of summer, when the earth is teeming with
vegetable life. Weeding in time, Marshall observes, is a material thing in culture, and
the hand is generally more certain than the hoe.

2591. Stirring thegrotind among crops is nearly as essential as weeding, and is in some
degree performed by the operation of hoeing. But the most effectual mode of stirring,
and that now adopted by the best gardeners, is by the two-pronged fork or two-
pronged hoe. {Jigs. 86. 97.) Every crog, whether planted in rows, or sown broad-
cast, ought to be subjected to this operation once or oftener in the course of its progress
to maturity. Small crops, where the distances between the plants are not wide, ought
to be stirred by a fork of two prongs, or even one prong. A narrow hoe is the
usual instrument, but this always tends to harden the ground below, and form a sort of
sole, which in many soils is impervious to air or rain. Besides, the operator is generally
obliged to tread on and harden the ground stirred. " Breaking the surface," Marshall
remarks, " keeps the soil in health ; for when it lies in a hard or bound state, enriching
showers run off, and the salubrious air and solar heat cannot enter. Ground," he adds,
" should be frequently stirred and raked between crops, and about the borders, to give
all a fresh appearance. There is a pleasantness to the eye in new-broken earth, which
gives an air of culture, and is always agreeable." This last observation is particularly-
meant to apply in autumn, that the garden may not become dreary too soon, and so bring
on winter before its time.

2592. Earthing up ought to go hand in hand with stirring in many cases ; but rarely
in the case of those plants which form their bulbs above the surface, as turnips and
onions. Tliis operation supports the stems of some crops, as the bean, cabbage, &c.
and encourages the fertility or improves the quality of others, as the potatoe, leek, celery,
&c. In winter also it protects them from the frost, and may then be applied to the
turnip as no longer in a state of growth.

2593. Protecting, supporting, and shading. These operations are too little attended to,
or attempted in a slovenly manner, by many gardeners. The grand subjects of pro-
tection are fruit-trees; and we have already (2206, &c.) given an enumeration of the
various modes to which recourse is had. The simplest, and perhaps the best protection
for general purposes, is that of throwing a net, either an old fishing-net or one formed
on purpose of woollen yarn, over the whole tree, if a standard, or placing it against it,
if trained to a wall, before it begins to blossom, and letting it remain there till the fruit
is set. Marshall recommends this mode, justly observing, that after much expense and
trouble to preserve blossoms from inclement weather, the business is often done to no
purpose, or a bad one. Nicol's opinion is not materially different. Single plants, as
the raspberry, are to be supported by sticks or rods, and rows of climbers, by rods, spray,
or branches, as peas, kidneybeans, &c.

2594. Shading is but little attended to, excepting in the case of transplantation ; but
it is of great importance in the fruiting season to certain plants which naturally grow
in shady situations, as the strawberry and raspberry ; and properly applied and accom-
panied with watering, tends to swell these fruits and others, as the gooseberry, and heads
and roots of certain vegetables in hot weather, as the cauliflower, turnip, onion, radish ;
and the whole vegetable, as in the case of lettuce and other salads. The advantages of
shading small fruits have been pointed out by Haynes {On the Culture of the Straivberry,
Raspberry, and Gooseberry, 8vo. 1812.), and are very strikingly displayed in the gardening
of the south of France and Italy.

Sect. VII. Watering.

2595. Watenng, Marshall observes, " is a thing of some importance in cultivation,
though not so much as many make it. It is a moot point, whether more harm than good,
is not on the whole done by it. In a large garden it is a Herculean labor to water
every thing, and so the temptation generally prevails, either wholly to neglect it, or to
do it irregularly or defectively. To water nothing is too much on the dry side ; but
watering too much spoils the flavor, and renders esculents less wholesome." It may be
observed, that the practice of the market-gardeners near London and Paris, and many
private gardeners who practise in the southern counties, is somewhat at variance with the
opinion of this experienced and very judicious author. The reason may probably be,
that the region of his experience, Northamptonshire, is high and moist. He adds,
however, that « strawberries and cauliflowers should generally be watered in a dry sea-
son ; strawberries more particularly when in bloom, in order to set the fruit ; and the

494 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

cauliflowers when they show fruit, in order to swell the head : in a light soil this ought
unremittingly to be done. In very dry weather seedlings, asparagus, early turnips,
carrots, radishes, and small salads, will need an evening watering." He adds, " Water
to the bottom and extent of the roots, as much as may be. The wetting only the surface
of the ground is of little use, and of some certain harm, as it binds and cracks the earth,
and so excludes the benefit of showers, dews, air, and sun, from entering the soil, and
benefiting the roots as they otherwise would do. By wetting the surface of the ground,
however, in a summer's evening, as it makes a cool atmosphere, a dew is formed, which
pervades the leaves, and helps to fill their exhausted vessels." He recommends " water-
ing the roots of wall-trees in dry weather effectually ; watering wall-trees with an
engine in the evening refreshes them much, and helps to rid the trees and wall of insects
and filth. Late in the summer, when the nights begin to get cold, it is time to leave off
all watering, except things in pots and frames, which should have it then only in the
morning. As watering is apt to make ground hidebound and unsightly, let the
surface be occasionally stirred and raked, which will make future waterings enter the
ground better : when the ground is hard on the top, the water runs away from its proper
place, and half the labor is lost. Many things are impatient of being kept wet about tlie
stalks, and therefore watering such plants should be generally at a little distance."

2596. Watering over the leaves of wall-trees and espaliers is essentially necessary, because
these trees by their position are deprived in a great degree of the natural showers which
would fall on them, if their branches were freely diverged in the open garden.

Abercrombie, Forsyth, and Nicol strongly recommend watering the leaves of wall fruic-trees in dry
weather every other day in the evening. Forsyth recommends watering infected trees with clear lime-
water over the leaves, which he says soon destroys the red spider. Nicol uses water only ; leaves oft' when
the fruit approaches to maturity ; and after it is gathered, recommences.

2597. Substitutes for watering can only be found in contrivances to lessen evaporation
from the soil. Mulching is much used for this purpose in all the departments of the
gardens of Italy and Spain. Even the Paris nurserymen cover the spaces between their
lines of young trees with litter or leaves, as do the orange propagators at Nervi and the
market-gardeners at Rome and Naples. In this country similar practices are sometimes
tried. Maher, at Arundel Castle, during one very hot and dry summer, " sowed his seeds
in drills, and covered the intervals between tlie drills with tiles, letting the edges of the
tiles approach within an inch of the drills, and pressing them close into the earth. The
tiles effectually preserved the roots from the scorching rays of the sun, and by preventing
tlie evaporation of the moisture under them, afforded support as well as protection."
(Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 51.)

Sect. VIII. Vermin, Insects, Diseases, atid Accidents.

2598. Such vermin as moles, mice, and birds are to be caught by some of the traps or
snares before described. (1473. to 1486.) After all the various devices that have been
suggested and practised for keeping under the grub, caterpillar, and snail, the most
certain is gathering them by hand at their first appearance every season. The grub,
wire- worm, and maggot must be sought for by removing the earth from the roots of
the plants where it is in action. The caterpillar gathered from the leaves beginning
early in the season. The snail picked«from the leaves or stalks of plants ; or, in the case
of new-sown crops, by strewing the ground with cabbage-leaves, or decaying leaves or
haulm of any sort, (the process of decay inducing a degree of sweetness in the vegetable,)
the snails will attach themselves to their under surface in the night, and may be picked
off in the morning. Where the earth-worm is too abundant, they may be gathered in
digging ; or their casts removed, and the ground watered with clear lime-water. Ear-
wigs, wood-lice, and similar insects, may be caught in hollow stalks of vegetables, or in
the beetle-trap. Wasps are best destroyed by suffocating them in their nests ; when this
cannot be done, recourse must be had to bottles of honied water, or other common modes.
Watering is an effectual mode of destroying tlie red spider. Fumigation is generally
resorted to in the case of the aphis and thrips ; but in the open garden, watering and
rubbing, or brushing them off, will effect their destruction.

2599. Diseases in the vegetable kingdom are rather to be prevented than cured. A good
soil on a dry sub-soil is the grand foundation of health, both in trees and herbaceous plants ;
and, on the supposition of proper culture, the judicious use of the knife to thin out
superfluous, diseased, or injured branches, shoots, or leaves, and of the scraper, to re-
move mosses and rough bark already cracked and separating, are all that can be done to
be depended on. Various unctions, oils, washes, compositions, and plasters, have been
tried and recommended for curing the canker, mildew, blight, blotches, barrenness, gum,
&c. ; but few or none of them can be depended on. For the mildew, strewing with pow-
dered sulphur is considered a specific; for the canker, &c., the most effectual mode of
procedure is to correct the faults of tlie sub-soil and soil, renewing the latter entirely, if
necessary ; to cut out as far as practicable the diseased or wounded part; and in the case

Book I. GATHERING AND PRESERVING VEGETABLES, &c. 495

of barrenness, to cut in or shorten even the healthy wood. Wherever amputation takes
place, the wound will heal, if the air is excluded by prepared clay or any adhesive mix-
ture, provided always, that tlie principle of life exists in tolerable vigor in the tree.
Every thing, indeed, in plants as in animals, depends on the vis ineUicatrix naluree.

Sect. IX. Gatlieritig ami Preserving Vegetables and Fruits, ajul sending them to a

Distance.

2600. Gathering should commence as early and continue as late as possible with all
kitchen-crops. At tlie same time, no vegetable ought to be gathered till it has attained the
requisite degree of maturity, nor offered for use when it has begun to decay. What this
degree is, often depends on the particular tastes of families, or their domestics : thus
cabbages are most Esteemed in Edinburgh when fully headed and blanched ; while, in
London, they are preferred open and green, &c. Equal differences in taste as to peas,
celer)', lettuce, and indeed most other kitchen-crops, might be noticed. The operations
of gathering kitchen-crops are either cutting off tlie part desired, breaking or pulling it
off, as in the case of peas, beans, &c. or pulling or rooting up, as in the case of onions,
turnips, potatoes, &c. Each of these operations ought to be performed with, due regard
to the plant, where that is to remain, as in the case of the pea ; and to the adjoim'ng
plants of the same sort, as in the case of pulling turnips, onions, &c. As soon as any
plant has furnished its crops or produce, the root and other remains ought to be immedi-
ately removed to the dung or compost heap. (See 1977.)

2601. Gathering fruits. Tliis operation in the case of the small fruits, as the goose-
berry, strawberrj', &c. is generally performed by the under-gardeners ; but wall and
espalier fruit ought to be gathered by the head gardener. Where the utmost delicacy is
desired, the berry-gatherer (Jig. 149.) ought to be adopted for the small fruits, and also for
plums, apples, and other fruits on espaliers. For the finer fruits, as the peach, nectarine,
&c. the peach-gatherer (Jig. 148.) lined with velvet, ought always to be adopted.

2602. Preserving esculents. The ice-house, as we have repeatedly observed, is found
particularly useful for preserving esculent roots, and likewise celery during winter.
" Where parsneps and beet-roots are left in the ground over winter," Neill observes, " they
must be lifted at the approach of spring, as they become tough and woody whenever there
is a tendency to form a flower-stalk. These roots may, therefore, at this season, be placed
in the ice-house, and preserved there for a considerable time in excellent order. In the
summer season, during hot weather, various kinds of vegetables, as peas, kidneybeans,
cucumbers, &c. can be kept fresh in it for several days ; fruits gathered in the morning,
which is the most proper time, may be here kept cool, and with all their freshness and
flavor, until required for the dessert in the afternoon." (Svjtj). to Encyc. Brit. art. Hort.)

2603. Packing fruit and vegetables to be sent to a distance frequently forms a part of the
gardener's duty. Fruits of the most delicate sorts, it is well known, are sent from Spain
and Italy to England, packed in jars with sawdust from woods not resinous or otherwise
ill tasted. One large bunch of grapes is suspended from a twig or pin laid across the
mouth of the jar, so as it may not touch either the bottom or sides ; sawdust or bran is
then strewed in, and when full, the jar is well shaken to cause it to settle : more is then
added, till it is quite full, when the supporting twig is taken away, and the earthen
cover of the jar closely fitted and sealed, generally with fine stucco. In this way grapes
may be sent from the most remote parts of Scotland or Ireland to the metropolis. When
the distance is less, they may be sent enveloped in fine paper, and packed in moss. For
extraordinary large bunches of grapes, the mode adopted by the Jewish spies {Numbers
xiii.), and afterwards by Speechly, may be followed ; that of carrjdng it suspended on a
pole or staff resting on men's shoulders. The simplest mode for short distances is to wrap
each bunch In fine soft paper, and lay them on a bed of moss in a broad flat basket with
a proper cover.

2601. The more common f>-uifs, cherries, and plums may be packed in thin layers, with paper and moss
between each. Peaches, apricots, and the finer plums, may each be wrapped separately in vine or other
leaves, or fine paper, and packed in abundance of cotton, flax, fine moss, or dried short grass. Moss, it
will be recollected, is apt to communicate its flavor to fine fruits, and so is short grass, if not thoroughly
dried and sweetened. Cotton best preserves the bloom on peaches and plums.

2605. Common culinary vegetables are seldom sent to a great distance. The great art is to preserve them
fresh, for which purpose they ought to be laid loose in a close box, in the manner of botanic specimens;
or closely packed in hampers, so as to exclude the air. The brassica and lettuce tribes, if pulled up by the
roots, and as it were replanted in a box of sand with a wicker-work cover, may be sent a journey of two
or three weeks without injury, as practised in Russia. Celery, turnips, &c. may l)e packed in sand ;
potatoes and other roots, loose. Legumes and other summer crops generally in moss.

Sect. X. Miscellaneous Operations of Culture and Management.

2606. The miscellaneous operations and duties of the gardener are numerous, and in

the foregoing general view of kitchen -garden culture many particulars are necessarily

omitted. Among these may be mentioned propagation of various kinds for the renewal

of crops, mulching perennials, blanching leaves and stalks, roiling walks, preparing

496 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

composts, regrafting trees to introduce better sorts, or a variety of sorts on one tree, per-
forming operations on their roots or stems to render them more fruitful, &c. These and
other practices described in Part II. Book IV. of this work must be applied according
to the judgment of the practitioner.

2607. A garden may be managed so as to jrroduce good crops, and yet not so as to be
agreeable to the eye. In general it may be observed, that the English gardeners excel in
the former, and the Scotch in the latter part of practice. The Dutch and Flemish seem,
in some degree to combine both, and this ought to be attempted, and persevered in till
perfection is attained, by every British gardener.

£608. The first requisite to good management is a proper establishment qf laborers, and resources, as to
manure, seeds, repairs, &c. adequate to the extent and character of the garden. The next thing neces-
sary is the entire independence of the gardener, as far as respects his province. The constant irksome
interference of masters and mistresses, stewards, or others, is justly complained of by every gardener who
understands his business. Where the proprietor is as it were head gardener, in that case he ought to
make use of mere workmen, or of such gardeners as are not over-ambitious in their profession. In
general it may be observed, that gardens so managed are ill managed, and often not well cultivated.

2609. T/ie next requisite is a taste for order and neatness. This taste is generally acquired in youth
from the instruction or imitation of parents or masters ; but it may be greatly increased in grown-up
persons, when they perceive its advantages, and in head gardeners, when a demand for it is created by
their employers.

£610. Industry and steadiness are perhaps in no kind of life more necesssary than in that of a gardener.
Whole crops may be easily ruined by a day's neglect ; and not only whole crops, as in the case of ne-
glecting cucumber-frames, for example, but the whole produce of a year, or of several years, as in the case
of neglecting a peach-house for one hot day.

£611. Unremitting attention and application. Unless a man is endowed with, and has well cultivated
the faculty of attention, he can never excel in any thing. Without an ever-active attention, a gardener,
will not see what is out of order, or unsightly in his garden, and of course will not think of correcting it.
Many people are so deficient in this respect, that their knowledge is entirely confined to the few objects
with which their mode of procuring a living obliges them to be conversant. Something more than this
is wanting in a gardener who would be master of his business ; and it must be confessed, to thehonor of
many gardeners, that they excel in point of general observation and knowledge.

£612. The management of a garden, Marshall observes, consists in attention and application ; the first
should be of that wary and provident kind, as not only to do well in the present, but for the future ; and the
application should be of so diligent a nature, as " Never to defer that till to-morrow which may be done
to-day." Procrastination is of serious consequence in gardening; and neglect of times and seasons is
fruitful of disappointment and complaint. It will often happen, indeed, that a gardener cannot do what
he would; but if he does not do what he can, he will be most justly blamed, and perhaps censured^ by
none more than himself. {Introd. to Gar. p. 59.)

Chap. V.

Of the general Management qf Orchards.
2613. A jrrivate orchard is, sometimes, treated entirely as a kitchen-garden, in
which case the foregoing chapter contains the general outline of management. Vege-
tables and small fruits, however, are seldom well flavored when grown under the shade
and drip of trees, and, therefore, orchards are commonly either but slightly cropped, or
laid down in pasture, after the trees are a few years established.

Sect. I. General Culture.

2614. Stirring the soil. " Many orchards would bear much better," Marshall observes,
*' if the ground were, before winter, dug over every second or third year, and dressed,
by digging in some rotten dung, or sprinkling over the whole soot and pigeons' dung,
or that of any other poultry ; this will wash in by rains and snows, and do much good.
Or, if an orchard were ploughed, or rough dug, every year, immediately after the fall of
the leaf, without manuring, it would be very beneficial."

2615. The taking of light, green crops near and ajnong fruit-trees, according to Aber-
crombie, tends to keep the ground more effectually stirred and recruited, than if
periodical diggings or hoeings were prescribed merely for the sake of the trees, because
labor, for which the recompense is not direct, is constantly liable to be neglected.
Nevertheless circumspection must be exercised, neither to dig too near, nor too deep
among garden-trees, lest the roots should be loosened or injured. Digging the ground,
Forsyth observes, provided it be not done so deep as to hurt the roots, by admitting the
sun and rain to meliorate the ground, will keep the trees in a healthy flourishing state.
When the surface of the ground is wet, and has a little descent, it may be formed into a
kind of ridges, by making a furrow, from one to two feet deep^ between every two rows,
sloping the ground regularly on each side, from a reasonable distance to the bottom of the
furrow. These hollows will carry off the water, and render tlie surface dry and healthy.
If pasture, the turf may be first pared off, and afterwards relaid when the furrow is
made. {Forsyth on Fr. Trees, p. 305.)

Nicol directs the whole ground of an orchard to be dug in the autumn, and laid up in a rough state for
the winter, giving it as much surface as possible, in order that the weather may fully act upon and meliorate
the soil ; thus fallowing it as far as the case will admit. Observe to dig carefully near to the trees, and so
as not to hurt their roots and fibres. If the soil be shallow, and if these lie near the surface, it would be
advisable to dig with a fork instead of the spade. (Kal. p. £62.)

Book I. PRUNING ORCHARD-TREES. 497

2616. Manuring. The natural defects of the soil, the habits of fVuit-trces, and the
preference of a species for a particular soil or manure, are to be considered. Tlie hotter
dungs are not liked by fruit-trees ; and those of the horse and the sheep, if not wanted
where they would be beneficial alone, should be mixed with twice as much of the cooler
dungs, and three times as much fresh earth or road-drift ; or with twice the bulk of
eartliy matter, if the cooler dungs are not to be obtained. The residuum of neats' dung,
properly reduced by keeping, is a good simple manure for most fruit-trees, and excellent
in a compost ; but where the soil is naturally cold, a little ashes of coals, wood, straw, or
burnt turf, or a minute proportion of soot, ought to be incorporated with it. Hog-dung
is accounted to have a peculiar virtue in invigorating weak trees. Rotted tiirf, or any
vegetable refuse, is a general manure, excellent for all soils not already too rich. One
of the best correctives of too rich a soil is drift sand. For an exhausted soil, where a
fruit-tree that has been an old profitable occupant is wished to be continued, a dressing
of animal matter is a powerful restorative ; such as hog's or bullock's blood, offal from
the slaughter-house, refuse of skins and leather, decomposed carrion : also urine diluted
with water. The drainings of dung laid on as mulch are highly serviceable. In a soil
which does not effervesce with acids, a little lime, dug in a spit deep, is beneficial to
fruit-trees. ( Abercrombie. )

Forsyth says, " Orchards ought to be dunged once in two or three years." Marshall allows of some rotten
dung being dug in, or of sprinkling the whole over with soot and pigeon' s dung ; he adds, " It is not ad-
visable to give trees much dung ; a little lime, only surface-dug, is good."

2617. Cropping. Marshall, Abercrombie, and Forsyth allow of moderate cropping
among standard fruit-trees ; but the following observations of Nicol are the most definite
on the subject : —

It is proper to crop the ground among new-planted orchard-trees for a. fevr years, in order to defray the
expense of hoeing and cultivating it ; which should be done until the temporary plants are removed, and
the whole be sown down in grass. But it is by no means advisable to carry the system of cropping with
vegetables to such an excess as is frequently done. If the bare expense of cultivating the ground, and
the rent, be paid by such cropping, it should be considered enough. As the trees begin to produce fruit,
begin also to relinquish cropping. When by their productions they defray all expenses, crop no longer.
I consider these as being wholesome rules, both for the trees and their owners.

Rule. " Crop to within two feet of the trees the first year ; a yard the second ; four feet the third ; and
so on until finally relinquished ; which of course would be against the eighth year, provided the trees
were planted at thirty or forty feet apart with early bearing sorts between. By this time, if the kinds
have been well chosen, the temporary trees will be in full bearing, and will forthwith defray every neces-
sary expense while they remain, or until the principal trees come into a bearing state, and it become
necessary to remove them ; after which, the ground should be sown down in grass. But until then, the
ground should be properly cultivated, though not cropped close to the trees ; and a moderate quantity of
manure should be digged in every second or third season." {Kal. 262.)

Sect. II. Pntning Orchard-trees.

2618. In pruning a newly planted orchard or standard tree, the first object is the form-
ation of a head. According to Abercrombie, this ought in most kinds to be " circular,
compact, and proportioned to the strength of the stem, with the branches well distributed,
and sufficiently open in the centre to admit the free circulation of air."

In the first spring " after a young standard has been planted, examine the primary branches, to see
whether they will be sufficient, with the secondary laterals to be forced out by shortening, to form a good
head. The primary branches should be so placed as to balance each other, and be equally distributed
round the tree. Thus, three in a triangle ; four at right angles ; five, six, and even seven, shooting at
pretty equal distances, might be retained : but it is seldom that more than four well placed offer, which
is a good number. These first branches, if there be no secondary laterals, or none well placed, should be
shortened down to two or four eyes each ; or reduce a strong shoot to one third of its length, and a
weak- shoot to two thirds. The second spring, again revise the branches and secondary shoots, and re-
serve only so many as are vigorous and well distributed. Afterwards leave the head to form of itself,
cutting out superfluous and ill placed shoots, and shortening for the production of new laterals only to fill
a vacancy. Luxuriant limbs, which are likely to be disproportionally large, should be rejected as weakly
shoots. In the third or fourth year after planting a maiden tree, the foundation of a good head having
been obtained by judicious shortening, and the plant sufficiently strengthened, it will become proper to
let the tree proceed to bearing with no greater check from the knife than is unavoidable. To this end,
the lower branches should not be shortened at all, and the upright leaders very little. But where two
shoots cross, let the worst be cut out. Moderate-sized and slender shoots are more fruitful than strong
luxuriant wood."

2619. The object of jrmning young standard-trees, Nicol observes, " is to form a proper
head. Generally speaking, the shoots may be pruned in proportion to their lengths,
cutting clean away such as cross one another, and fanning the tree out towards the ex-
tremities on all sides ; thereby keeping it equally poised, and fit to resist the effects of
high winds. When it is wished to throw a young tree into a bearing state, which
should not be thought of, however, sooner than the third or fourth year after planting,
the leading branches should be very little shortened, and the lower or side branches not
at all ; nor should the knife be used, unless to cut out such shoots as cross one another,
as above hinted." >

2620. Pruning bearing trees. " After an orchard-tree is come into bearing,"
Abercrombie observes, " continue at the time of winter pruning, either every year, or
every two, three, or four years, as an occasion is perceived, to cut out unproductive

K k

498 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Pari III.

wood, crowded spray, and decayed parts. Also reduce long and outrunning ramblers,
and low stragglers, cutting them to some good lateral that grows within limits. Where
fruit-spurs are too numerous, then cut the strongest and most unsightly. Also keep the
tree pretty open in the middle. If it be necessary to take off large branches from aged
trees, use a chisel or saw, and afterwards smooth the wound with a paring-knife. In
case old wood is to be cut down to young shoots springing below, to make the separation
in summer will be of more advantage to those young shoots, though it is not a common
practice, on account of the liability of many stone-fruit bearers to exude gum, when a
large branch is lopped in the gTOwing season. Observe to keep the stem clear from all
lateral shoots, and eradicate all suckers from the root."

2621. In pruning aged trees, that have run into a confusion of shoots and branches,
and whose spurs have become clustered and crowded, the saw and the knife may be ex-
ercised with freedom ; observing to cut clean away all useless spray, rotten stumps, and
the like excrescences. Thin out the spurs to a moderate consistency, so as to let the air
circulate freely among the leaves and fruit in the summer season, and to admit the rays
of the sun, so as to give the fruit color and flavor.

Marshall strongly recommends " thinning the branches of orchard-trees for the same objects," adding,
" that it is in general much neglected." He recommends " a little pruning of standards every year;
and a general one (rather free) every three or four years, to cut out what is decayed, and some of the
older wood, where a successional supply of young may be obtained to succeed, as the best way to keep
the trees in vigor, and have the best of fruit ; for that which grows on old wood gets small and austere."
The same author judiciously remarks, that trees with heavy fruit, as the apple and pear, should have, if
possible, their branches rather upright ; but that light-fruited trees, such as the cherry, will admit of
drooping branches.

2622. The season for pruning orchards is generally winter or early in spring — not
later than February, according to Abercrombie and Nicol. Quintiney says, " A weak
tree ought to be pruned directly at the fall of the leaf." And Abercrombie, " To prune
in autumn strengthens a plant, and will bring the blossom-buds more forward ; to cut
the wood late in spring tends to check a plant, and is one of the remedies for excessive
luxuriance."

2623. Treatment of deformed or diseased trees. Where a tree is stinted, or the head ill shaped, from
being originally badly pruned, or barren from having overborne itself, or from constitutional weakness,
the most expeditious remedy is to head down the plant within three, four, or five eyes (or inches, if an
old tree) of the top of the stem, in order to furnish it with a new head. The recovery of a languishing
tree, if not too old, will be further promoted by taking it up at the same time, and pruning the roots ; for
as, on the one hand, the depriving too luxuriant a tree of part even of its sound healthy roots will moderate
its vigor ; so, on the other, to relieve a stinted or sickly tree of cankered or decayed roots, to prune the
extremities of sound roots, and especially to shorten the dangling tap-roots of a plant, affected by a bad
sub-soil, is in connection with heading down or very short pruning, and the renovation of the soil, and
draining, if necessary, of the sub-soil, the most availing remedy that can be tried. {Abercrombie.)

2624. A tree often becomes stinted from an accumulation of moss, which affects the
functions of the bark, and renders the tree unfruitful. This evil is to be removed by
scraping the stem and branches of old trees with the scraper ; and on young trees a hard
brush will effect the purpose. Abercrombie and Nicol agree in recommending the
finishing of this operation by washing with soap-suds, or a medicated wash of some of
the different sorts for destroying the eggs of insects. In our opinion lime-water, or even
water alone, is better than any of these applications.

2625. Wherever the bark is decayed or cracked, Abercrombie and Forsyth direct its removal.
Lyon, of Edinburgh, has lately carried this practice to so great a length as even to
recommend the removal of a part of the bark on young trees. Practical men, in general,
however, confine the operation to the cracked bark which nature seems to attempt throw-
ing off; and the effect, in rendering the trees more fruitful and luxuriant, is acknow-
ledged by Neill in his Account of Scottish Gardening and Orchards, and by different
writers in the London and Edinburgh Horticultural Transactions.

2626. The other diseases to which orchard-trees are subject, are chiefly the canker, gum,
mildew, and blight, which, as we have already observed, are rather to be prevented by
such culture as will induce a healthy state, than to be remedied by topical applications.
Too much lime. Sir H. Davy thinks, may bring on the canker, and if so, the replacing
a part of such soil with alluvial or vegetable earth, would be of service. The gum, it is
said, may be constitutional, arising from offensive matter in the soil ; or local, arising
from external injury. In the former case, improve the soil ; in the latter, apply the
knife. The mildew, it is observed by Knight and by Abercrombie, " may be easily
subdued at its first appearance, by scattering flour of sulphur upon the infected parts."
As this disease is now generally considered the growth of parasitical fungi, the above
remedy is likely to succeed. For the blight and caterpillars, Forsyth recommends burn-
ing of rotten wood, weeds, potatoe haulm, wet straw, &c. on the windward side of the
trees when they are in blossom. He also recommends washing the stems and branches
of all orchard-trees with a mixture of " fresh cow-dung with urine and soap-suds, as a
white-washer would wash the ceiling or walls of a room." The promised advantages
are, destruction of insects, and " fine bark;" he adds, " when you see it necessary take
all the outer bark off."

Book I. OATHERING AND STORING ORCHARD-FRUITS. 499

Sect. III. Of gathering and storing Orckardfhiits.
2627. Tlie gathering of orchard-fndtSy and especially apples, from standards, should
be performed in such a manner as not to damage the branches, or break off the spurs.
Too frequently the fruit is allowed to drop, or they are beat and bruised by shaking the
tree, and using long poles, &c. Nicol directs that « they should never be allowed to
drop of themselves, nor should they be shaken down, but should be pulled by the
hand or apple-gatherer. (1347.) This may be thought too troublesome a method; but
every body knows that bruised fruit will not keep, nor will it bring a full price. The
expense of gathering, therefore, may be more than defrayed, if carefully done, by savino-
the fruit from blemish." (A«/. 257.) **

Fursyth sap, " As apples shaken or boaten down with a pole never keep in winter, they ought all to be
hand-pjcketl by a person standing on steps made on purpose. The step-ladder should be light, in two
pieces, to disengage the back at pleasure, by drawing the bolt ; and they should have a broad step at ton
for a man to stand on, and to place a basket by his feet. In the larger baskets or hampers, in which the
truit IS to be placed to be wheeled away, lay some short grass mowings, perfectly dry (which ought to be
providedmsununer, and kept dry), to prevent the fruit from being bruised." "'■''' e tu ue

2628. In respect to the time of gatherings Nicol recommends " that pears and apples
should not be pulled till their seeds be of a dark brown, or blackish color." The
criterion of ripeness, adopted by Forsyth, is their beginning to fall from the tree. He
says, « Observe attentively when the apples and pears are ripe ; and do not pick them
always at the same regular time of the year, as is the practice with many. A dry season
will forward the ripening of fruit, and a wet one retard it ; so that there will sometimes
be a month or five weeks difference in the proper time of gathering. The method that I
have practised is, to observe when the fruit begins to fall (I do not mean what we call
windfalls, or the falling of such as are infested with the caterpillar, &c., but sound
fruit) ; I then put my hand under it ; and if it comes off without any force being used, I
take it for granted tliat the fruit is perfectly ripe ; unless the tree be sickly, which is
easily known by the leaves or fruit being shrivelled. If the foregoing observations are
attended to, the fruit wiU keep well, and be plump j and not shrivelled, as is the case
with all fruit that is gatliered before it is ripe."

Marshall says, " Gather pears of the summer sorts, rather before they are ripe, as when thoroughly so
they eat mealy, if kept above a day or two ; even when gathered as they ought to be, in a week or less
they will begin to go at the core. They should not, however, be gathered while they require much force
to pull them off. Autumn pears must also not be full ripe at the time of gathering, though they will keep
longer than those of the summer. Winter pears, on the contrary, should hang as long on the trees as
they may, so as to escape frost, which would make them flat in flavor, and not keep well. Generally they
may hang to the middle of October on full standards, a week longer on dwarfs, and to the end of the
month on walls ; but yet not after they are ripe. The art of gathering is to give them a lift, so as topress
away the stalk, and if ripe they readily part from the tree. Those that will not come off easv, should hang
a little longer ; for when they come hardly off, they will not be so fit to store, and the violence done at the
footstalk may injure the bud there formed for the next year's fruit. Let pears be quite dry when pulled,
and in handling avoid pinching the fruit, or in any wav bruising it, as those which are hurt not only decay
themselves, but presently spread infection to those near them : when suspected to be bruised, let them
be carefully kept from others, and used first: as gathered lay them gently in shallow baskets."
— " The jargonelle pear," Forsyth observes, " keeps best on the tree, as if gathered, it rots almost
immediately."

2629. With regard to keqring of orchard-fruits, the old practice, and that recommended
by Marshall and Forsyth, commences with sweating. Nicol, and most modem
gardeners, omit this process, and spread the fruit thinly on shelves, or the floor of the
fruit-room. As to the keeping of apples, Marshall observes, " those which continue
long for use should be suffered to hang late, even to November, if the frost will permit,
for they must be well ripened, or they will shrink. Lay them in heaps till they have
sweated a few days, when they must be wiped dry. Let them then lie singly, or at least
thinly, for about a fortnight, and be again wiped, and immediately packed in boxes and
hampers, lined with double or treble sheets of paper. Place them gently in, and cover
them close, so as to keep air out as much as possible. Preserve them from frost through
the winter. Never use hay for the purpose. Some of the choicest table sorts of apples
may be treated as directed for the best pears."

2630. Sweating and storing tvinter pears. Winter pears, according to Marshall,
" should be laid in a dry airy room, at first thinly for a few days, and then put them in
heaps to sweat ; in order to which, a blanket thrown over them will help. The ferment-
ation must be watched, and when it seems to have passed the height of sweating, wipe
the fruit quite dry gently with fine flannel, or clean soft linen, and store them carefully.
The storing is thus : those to be used first, lay by singly on shelves, or on the floor, in a
dry southern room, on clean dry moss, or sweet dry straw, so as not to touch one another.
Some, or all tlie rest, having first lain a fortnight singly, and then nicely culled, are to
be spread on shelves, or on a dry floor. But the most superior way is, to pack in large
earthen, or China or stone jars, witli very dry long moss at the bottom, sides, and also
between them, if it might be. Press a good coat of moss on tlie top, and then stop the
mouth close '^ith cork, or otherwise, which should be rosined round with about a

Kk 2

.500 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

twentieth part of bees' wax in it. As the object is effectually to keep out air (the cause
of putrefaction), the jars, if earthen, may be set on dry sand, which put also between,
round, and over them, to a foot thick on the top. In all close storing, observe, there
should be no doubt of the soundness of the fruit. Guard, in time, from frost those that
lie open. Jars of fruit must be soon used after unsealing."

2631. Sweating and storing apj)les and pears as j^ractised by Forsyth. " When the
fruit is carried to the fruit-room, lay some of the dry short grass on the floor, in the area
of the room ; then take the fruit gently out of the baskets, and lay it in heaps on the top
of the grass, keeping each sort in a separate heap ; the heaps may be from two to three
feet high, or according to the quantity of fruit that you have. When the heaps are com-
pleted, cover the tops at least two inches thick with short grass, in order to sweat them.
Let them lie a fortnight, then open the heaps and turn them over, wiping each apple or
pear with a dry woollen cloth, which should be frequently dried during the process,
observing now to lay in the middle the fruit which before was at the top. Let the heaps
now remain eight or ten days, covered as before ; by that time, they will have thrown out
the watery crudities which they may have imbibed during a wet season ; then uncover the
heaps, and wipe the fruit carefully one by one, as before, picking out every one that is
injured, or has the least spot, as unfit for keeping. During the time that the fruit is
sweating, the windows should be left open, except in wet and foggy weather, to admit the
air to carry off the moisture which perspires from the fruit. The perspiration will some*
times be so great, that, on putting your hand into the heap, it will come out as wet as if
it had been dipped into a pail of water : when in this state it will be necessary to turn and
wipe the fruit."

2632. In laying up fruit, the common practice has been, to lay it on clean wheat-straw ; but I find, by
experience, that, when any of the fruit begins to decay, if it be not immediately picked out, the straw,
by imbibing the moisture from the decayed fruit, will become tainted, and communicate a disagreeable
taste to the sound fruit. " The fruit on shelves," he adds, " should be turned two or three times during
the winter ; as delicate and tender fruit, by lying long without turning, is apt to rot on the underside,
even if perfectly sound when laid up. Be particularly careful, however, to pick out all the damaged fruit.
When the fruit is laid in, put the earliest sorts on the lower shelves, or in the lower drawers, according to
their time of coming in, beginning with the nonsuch, golden rennet, and jenneting apples, and bergamot
and beurre pears ; thus, by proper management, you may have a constant succession of fruit from one
season to the other. Those who keep their fruit in storehouses, for the supply of the London and other
markets, as well as those who have not proper fruit-rooms, may keep their apples and pears in baskets or
hampers ; putting some soft paper in the bottoms and round the edges of the baskets, &c., to keep the fruit
from being bruised ; then put in a layer of fruit, and over that another layer of paper ; and so on, a layer of
fruit and of paper alternately, till the basket or hamper be full : cover the top with paper three or four
times double, to exclude the air and frost as much as possible. Every different sort of fruit should be
packed separately ; and it will be proper to fix a label to each basket or hamper, with the name of the
fruit that it contains, and the time of its being fit for use."

2633. But tke best way of keeping fruit, is to pack it in glazed earthen jars. " The pears or apples must
be separately wrapped up in soft paper ; then put a little well-dried bran in the bottom of the jar,
and over the bran a layer of fruit ; then a little more bran to fill up the interstices between the fruit, and
to cover it; and soon, a layer of fruit and bran alternately, till the jar be full ; then shake it gently,
which will make the fruit and bran sink a little ; fill up the vacancy at top with more bran, and lay some
paper over it, covering the top with a piece of bladder to exclude the air; then put on the top or cover
of the jar, observing that it fits as closely as possible. These jars should be kept in a room where you can
have a fire in wet or damp weather."

2634. 2^icoVs opinion as to the sweating of fruits is thus given : *' I consider it an error
to sweat apples, as it is termed, previous to storing them, either in the common way, with
straw or hay, or as recommended by Forsyth, by the use of short grass. The fruit ever
after retains a bad flavor. It should never be laid in heaps at all ; but if quite dry
when gathered, should be immediately carried to the fruit-room, and be laid, if not
singly, at least thin on the shelves ; the room being properly fitted up with shallow
shelves on purpose, being well aired, and having a stove in it, that damp may be dried
off when necessary." He adds, " If the finer fruits are placed on any thing else than a
clean-shelf, it should be on fine paper. Brown paper gives them a flavor of pitch. The
finer large kinds of pears should not be allowed even to touch one another, but should
be laid quite single and distinct. Apples, and all pears, should be laid thin ; never
tier above tier. Free air should be admitted to the fruit-room always in good weather, for
several hours every day ; and in damp weather a fire should be kept in. Be careful
at all times to exclude the frost from the fruit, and occasionally to turn it when very
mellow."

2635. Gathering and storing nuts. Walnuts are generally beat off the tree with poles ;
but it does not appear that any harm would result to the fruit from leaving them to drop,
or be shaken off by winds, or in part shaking them off. Sweating may be applicable to
them, in order to the more ready separation of the outer or soft skin from the hard shell.
This effected, they are to be spread thin till quite dry, when they may be preserved in bins,
or boxes, or heaps.

2636. Walnuts for keeping, Forsyth observes, " should be suffered to drop of themselves, and afterwards
laid in an open airy place till they are thoroughly dried ; then pack them in jars, boxes or casks, with
fine clean sand, that has been well dried in the sun, in an oven, or before the fire, in layers of sand and
walnute alternately j set them in a dry place, but not where it is too hot. In this manner, I have kept

Book I. PACKING FRUITS FOR CARRIAGE. 501

them good till the latter end of April. Before you send them to table, wipe the sand clean off; and, if
you find that they have become shrivelled, steep them in milk and water for six or eight hours before they
are used ; this will make them plump and fine, and cause them to peel easily."

2(537. The chestnut is to be treated like the walnut, after the husk is removed, which, in the chestnut,
opens of itself. Knight {Hor. Tr. i. p. 247.) preserves chestnuts and walnuts during the whole winter'
by covering them with earth as cottagers do potatoes.

2638. Filberts may always be gathered by hand, and should afterwards be treated as recommended for
walnuts Forsyth recommends packing nuts, intended for keeping, in jars or boxes of dry sand.

2639. Other fruits. The barberry and cornel., or dog-wood bern/y are used immediately,
when gathered, as preserves. The medlar is not good till rotten ripe. It is gene-
rally gathered in the beginning of November, and placed between two layers of straw, to
forward its maturation. " Others," Marshall observes, " put medlars in a box on a three-
inch layer of fresh bran, moistened well with soft warm water ; then strew a layer of
straw between them, and cover with fruit two inches thick ; which moisten also, l>ut not
so wet as before." In a week or ten days after this operation, they will be fit for use.
Quinces are gathered in November, when they are generally ripe. After sweating in
a heap for a few days, they are to be wiped dry, and placed on the fruit-shelf at some
distance from each other. The service, or sorb apple, never ripens on the tree in Eng-
land. Where grown, it is gathered late in autumn, in a very austere state, and laid on
wheat-straw to decay. It thus becomes eatable in a month.

Sect. IV. Of packing Orchard and other Fruits for Carriage.

2640. In packing fruit to be sent to a considerable distance, great care is requisite. It
should not, Forsyth observes, be packed in baskets, as they are liable to be bruised among
heavy luggage, and the fruit, of course, will be injured. I would, therefore, recommend
boxes made of strong deal, of different sizes, according to the quantity of fruit to be
packed. The following are the dimensions of the boxes in which we send fruit by the
coach to Windsor and Weymouth, for the use of his Majesty and the Royal Family ;
viz. : The larger box is two feet long, fourteen inches broad, and the same in depth.
The smaller box is one foot nine inches long, one foot broad, and the same depth.
These boxes are made of inch-deal, and well secured with three iron clamps at each
comer : they have two small iron handles, one at each end, by which they are fastened to
the roof of die coach ; in these boxes we send melons, currants, pears, peaches, nectarines,
plums and grapes, packed so as always to liave the heaviest fruit at bottom. The melons
are wrapped up in soft paper : the pears, peaches, nectarines, plums, and grapes are first
wrapped up in vine-leaves, and then in paper. The cherries and currants are packed in
a flat tin box, one foot four inches long, ten inches broad, and four deep.

2641. In packing, proceed thus : — First, put a layer of fine long dry moss in the bottom of the tin box,
then a layer of currants or cherries, then another layer of moss, and so on, alternately, fruit and moss,
until the box is so full, that, when the lid is hasped down, the fruit may be so firmly packed as to preserve
them from friction. Make a layer of fine moss and short, soft, dry grass, well mixed, in the bottom of the
deal box ; then pack in the melons with some of the same, packing it tight in between all the rows, and
also between the melons in the same row, till you have finished the layer ; choosing the fruit as nearly of
size as possible, filling up every interstice with the moss and grass. When the melons are packed, lay a
thin layer of moss and grass over them, upon which place the tin box with the currants, packing it firmly
all round with moss to prevent it from shaking ; then put a thin layer of moss over the box, and pack the
pears firmly (but so as not to bruise them) on that layer, in the same manner as the melons ; and so on
with the peaches, nectarines, plums, and lastly, the grapes, filling up the box with moss, that the lid may
shut down so tight as to prevent any friction among the fruit. The boxes should have locks, and two keys.

with the peaches, nectarines, plums, and lastly, the grapes, filling up the box with moss, that the lid may
shut down so tight as to prevent any friction among the fruit. The boxes should have locks, and two keys,
which may serve for them all ; each of the persons who pack and unpack the fruit having a key. The

moss and grass should always be returned \n the boxes, which, with a little addition, will serve the
whole season, being shaken up and well aired after each journey, and keeping it sweet and clean. After
the wooden box is locked, it will be necessary to cord it firmly. My reason for being so particular on
packing of fruit is, that I have known instances of its being totally spoiled in the carriage from im-
proper packing. By pursuing the above method, we have never failed of success ; and if fruit be packed
according to the foregoing directions, it may be sent to the farthest parts of the kingdom, by coaches or
waggons, with iierfect safety.

2642. Miscellaneous points of orchard cidture. As in treating of kitchen-garden
culture, so here various lesser points of culture and management are omitted, which
the judicious gardener will not overlook in practice ; provided he has, or ought to have,
the whole art and science of gardening, as it were, stored up in his mind, and ready to
apply on every occasion. Among these points may be named the occasional grafting
of orchard-trees, with a view either to introduce new or preferable sorts, or to fill up
the head of a tree. Thinning out temporary trees ; introducing young trees in intervals
of old orcliards to succeed the old; guarding from thieves; and a variety of other
matters, which circumstances will always suggest to the observing eye and fertile mind
of a gardener attached to his profession. Among these things, one of the first conse-
quence is attention to order and neatness.

2643. In regard to Tieatness and order, see 2355. to 2373. ; and with respect to recent
improvements, which have not been fully sanctioned by extensive adoption, they have been
already enumerated in Part II. Book IV. On the Operations of Gardening.

Kk 3

5C2

PIIACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

432

Chap. VI.^
Construction of the Culinary Forcing Structures and Hot-houses.

2644. The getieral principles of design in forcing and hot-house structures have been already
laid down (1591. to 1692.); and, therefore, the object, in this chapter, is to detail the
most approved practice in regard to the particular construction of such as belong to
the culinary and fruit gardens. Tliese are the pinery, vinery, peach-house, cherry-house,
fig-house, cidinary pits, frames, and mushroom-house^

Sect. I. Of the Construction of the Pinery.

2645. The external form of a pineiy varies less than that of any other description of
hot-house. The necessity, in glass stjuctures, of placing all plants intended to thrive
near the glass, and a bed of bark or leaves for plunging pots, being most convenient,
when flat or gently sloping, have led, in almost all cases, to a low and rather flat roof,
nearly parallel to the bark-bed. This gave rise, many years ago, to the growing of
pines in pits, as practised by the Dutch, and generally on the continent, and as recently
adopted in this country by most commercial gardeners ; by Nicol, in giving designs
for this class of buildings ; and by Baldwin, one of the best pine-growers of the present
day.

2646. The pinery of Nicol consists of tliree pits in a range ; one for crowns and
suckers, one for succession, and one for fruiting plants. The fruiting-pit to be placed
in the centre, and the other two, right and left ; forming a range of a hundred feet in
length ; which would give pine-apples enough for a large family. The fruiting-pit to
be forty feet long, and ten feet wide, over walls ; and each of the others to be thirty
feet long, and nine feet wide, also over walls. The breast- wall of the whole to be on a
line, and to be eighteen inches above ground. The back wall of the centre one to be
five feet, and of the others, to be four and a half feet higher than the front. The front
and end flues to be separated from the bark-bed by a three inch cavity, and the back
flues to be raised above its level.

2647. The furnaces may either be placed in front, or at
the back, according to conveniency ; but the strength of the
heat should be first exhausted in front, and should return in
the back flues. Tlie fruiting-pit would require two small
furnaces, in order to diffuse the heat generally, and keep up a
proper temperature in winter ; one to be placed at each hand ;
and either to play, first in front, and return in the back ; but
the flues to be above, and not alongside of one another ; as in
the latter way they would take up too much room. The under
one to be considered merely as an auxiliary flue, as it would
only be wanted occasionally. None of these flues need be
more than five or six inches wide, and nine or ten deep. Nor
need the furnaces be so large, by a third or fourth part, as
those for large forcing-houses ; because there should be proper
oil-cloth covers for the whole, as guards against severe wea-
ther, which would be a great saving of fuel. The depth of
the pits should be regulated so as that the average depth of the
bark-beds may be a yard below the level of the front flues ;
as to that level the bark will generally settle, although made as
high as their surfaces, when new stirred up. If leaves, or a
mixture of leaves with dung, are to be used instead of bark,
the pits will require to be a foot, or half a yard deeper.

2648. Large jmieries should be tmmed to other jmrposes, and
such erected as are described above. Tliere cannot be a doubt
respecting the satisfaction that would follow, if to have good
fruit at an easy rate were the object. I have given designs for
no other kinds of new pineries these six years past, but such
as these ; with some variations respecting extent, however, in
order to suit different purses.

2649. The pinery of Baldwin consists of two structures, the
succession-bed and fruiting-house.

2650. T/ie succession-beds or frame (fg. 432. ), in M'hich the
young plants are to remain botli winter and summer, should
be constructed of timber, seven feet wide, and seven feet three
inches high at the back, the front being in the same proportion.
The method of preparing the bed is as follows : — " Sink your

Book I.

PINERY.

503

434

pit (2) three feet three inches deep, as long as you require, and sufficiently broad to
admit of linings on each side (1,3); make a good drain at the bottom of the pit to keep
it dry ; then set posts, about the dimensions of six inches square, in the pit, at conve-
nient distances (say about the width of the top lights), and case it round with one inch
and a half deal wrought boards above the surface, and below with any inferior boards
or planks. The dimensions of my succession-beds or frame are thirty-nine feet long,
and seven feet wide ; containing two hundred and seventy-three square feet, which will
hold three hundred and fifty suckers, from the end of September till the seventh of
April." [Cult. ofAnan. p.' 11.)

2651. The fruit ing-hotise (Jl^. 433.) is a pit with a walk behind; " in it the glass
should be closely puttied, to keep out the cold air, and to retain the warm, and in the
back there should be three lids (6), to admit air , the dimensions of each to be three feet
long and one foot deep. The flue makes only one course in the passage behind." {Ctdl.
of Anan. p. 19.)

2652. ^i7o7i's ;«we-7«75 at Kensington (^^. 434.)
are constructed exactly in Baldwin's manner, -with
this difference, that the sub-soil at Kensington being
moist, they are raised on a small platfonn (a, 6) above
the surface, instead of being sunk under it, as Bald-
win's are. They have, also, the addition of a gutter
in front (c), which, though at first sight it may appear
trifling, yet, in practice, is of verj- material consequence, by keeping the lining dry, and
not chilling and interrupting the heat in the very part where it shoidd penetrate to the
interior of the pit. Occasionally some plants are fruited in these pits, especially at Kew,
but in general they are removed to a low house
(^. 435.) of a most economical and judicious
construction, and calculated both for the growth
of pines and vines. This house is fifteen ffeet
wide within walls ; the pit (a) is nine feet wide ;
the back path (6) forms a border for the roots of
the vines ; the pit is surrounded by a flue (c, d) ; .
the curb is two feet three inches from the glass ^|
in front (e), and four feet eight inches from it
behind (/) ; tlie \anes are planted in the back
border (6), and trained under the roof directly over it and over the back flue ; and others
are planted in tlie front border (^) ; and trained up the rafters. The length of the
houses in the royal gardens at Kensington varies from fliirty-three to fifty feet (^.436.) :

436

each house has two furnaces, one for constant use, and another for giving an extra supply
of heat in very severe weather. The first (a) proceeds directly to the front comer(6), thence
along the front to the opposite end (c), then along the back of the pit (rf,e), passing
under tlie back path, or border, and terminating in a chimney (/) beside the furnace.
The other furnace is placed at the opposite end of the house (g) ; has a short flue iinder
the back path, which conducts it to the back coui-se of the principal flue (at d), which it
^ Kk 4

504

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

joins, and the smoke of the two fires moves in the same tunnel (from d to e), and passes
out by the same chimney. When this second furnace is not in use, its connection with
the flue of the first is cut off by a damper at the point of junction (rf). A very small fire
made in this furnace, in severe weather, not only adds to the heat of the house by its own
power, but by increasing the draught, or rate of burning, of the fire in the other furnace.
In addition to the fire heat, a steam-apparatus has been lately erected, and the tubes
conducted round tlie houses on the tops of the flues (Jig. 436. d, e) ; this is found to give
a great command of heat ; and also to admit of filling the house with vapor at pleasure.
The height of the house from the ground to the top of the back wall, is only nine feet
{f^. 437.) ; the rafters of the roof are placed about four feet apart, centre from centre;

5 c

or about twenty-four sashes are given to every hundred feet ; the front sashes (a) are
only eighteen inches high, and slide past each other ; the middle end sash (6) also slides ;
the sill of the door (c) and the back path, or border, are on a level with the outer sur-
face of the ground, to admit the easy wheeling in of tan, &c. ; the front border (d) is
raised considerably above it, on account of the wet bottom ; the back sheds are low
and neat ; and the furnaces sunk three feet below the surface {Jig. 436. h, h) to give them
a better draught ; and this also serves to drain the back border. The houses are placed
in pairs, the furnaces for general use at the extreme ends of the range, and the auxiliary
ones in the middle, where the steam-boiler is also placed, but worked by a fire apart ;
on the whole, no plan of pine-stove that has yet appeared is more simple, neat, economical,
and complete than this ; the only objection we have to them, is, that owing to the great
thickness of wood employed in the bars of the sashes, they are rather dark and gloomy
within ; but this might easily be remedied by the substitution of light iron rafters, with
wooden-framed sashes sliding in them, but the bars of the sashes formed of iron. It is
true, gloomy as these houses are, the pines thrive in them as well as can be wished ; but
probably by having more light, they might thrive so as to surpass all expectation.

2653. The pinery of Knight may be described as a pit forty-five feet long, nine feet nine
inches wide, the front parapet eighteen inches, and the back wall nine feet high. The
roof is constructed of iron sash-bar, fixed, and the bars curved, so that the versed sine of
the segment is about twelve inches. Air is given by horizontal openings immediately
under the copings of both walls. More light is admitted into such a pit in March, than
into a common flat-roofed pit with wooden sashes in May or June.

438

2654. As an example of a pinery and grapery corAbined, •ive refer to a
structure {fg. 438.), erected from our designs, at Langport in Somersetshire.

439

curvilinear
This house

Book I.

PINERY.

505

is fifty feet long by sixteen feet wide, contains 370 superficial feet of bark-pit for
pine-plants ; 1400 superficial feet for training vines ; and space for 500 pots of straw-
berries or French beans ; quantities greater in proportion to the glass roof, than have
hitherto been obtained in any hot-house of the common form and similar dimensions.
This structure is entered by lobbies at each end(j^g. 439. l), which communicate
with a back passage, having a glass roof and trellis for vines (2) : in the back wall of
this passage, and also in the front of
the house, are glazed ventilators open-
ing outwards (^Jig. 440. 3), through
which the vines (5) are introduced and
withdrawn at pleasure. The pine-pits
(7) are raised so as to be as near the
glass as is desirable, by vaulting them
beneath (6) ; against the front of these
pits, shoots of vines are brought down
from the roof, and trained (9), and pots
are placed over the front flue (8). The
vines, close under the roof, are trained
on moveable trellis-rods, composed of a centre and two side wires, and placed five feet
apart ; these rods are hinged to the front props, and supported in the middle of the roof,
and at top, by chains and hooks, and in this way can be raised or lowered at pleasure.
This house, since its erection, in 1817, has given the greatest satisfaction, and already pro-
duces considerable crops of grapes.

2655. The pbie-jnt of Scott
{Jig. 441.) will fruit 120
plants, with tlu-ee or four
chaldrons of coals. The
bed for the plants is fifty feet
long, and seven feet six inches
wide ; its peculiarities are tliat
there is only a flue in front
{jig. 441. a.), which returns
on itself, and requiring no
glass over it, is covered with
flag-stone (6), supported by
props of brick work (c). Co-
vering the flue with flag-
stone, Scott considers a great saving ; it is less costly than glass, and as the part that it
covers requires no heating, by using it, instead of glass, the Ughts are reduced to a more

442

' ■ ■ ' ■ ' ' ' ' ' ' ' f""^

506

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

convenient length. If there were no stone, the lights must be in two lengths, and the
rafters would necessarily be considerably larger, so that there would be more shade on
the centre of the bed, if the flue was within the glass. The back elevation in the lower part
is formed of open brick work (rf), to admit the heat of a lining of dung, and the wall (e)
enclosing this lining is bevelled, so that the dung as it sinks may not shrink and allow the
heat to escape in the air. In both back and front walls are ventilators (f), for use in winter
and severe weather. There are two fires (Jig. 442. g, g) the pit being constructed in. two
divisions [h, h), in order to keep up a succession of fruit. A drain (i) frees the whole
from subterraneous water. In the use of this pit, the dung is thrown into the cavity be-
hind, fresh from the stable : " when the weather is dry," Scott observes, " and a moist
heat is required, I turn the dung once a week ; but if the weather be wet, I use the fire,
and let the dung lie undisturbed, so that I have either a damp or dry heat at pleasure. I
consider that no expense is caused by the use of the dung in this way, because, after being
turned two or three times, it answers the same purpose, as it would after having been
thrown up in heaps to sweeten it for cucumber or melon beds." [Hort. Trans, y. 221.)
This appears to us the best plan of a pine-pit, that has yet appeared. The flue, by being
situated in front, will have a perfect command of the air of the house, and the dung be-
hind, which should be covered in wet or very dry weather, comes conveniently in aid both
of the flue and tan-bed.

Sect. II. Of tlie Construction of the Vinery.

2656. The vinery affords the greatest latitude of construction ; for the fruit-tree the most
easily cultivated of all that are grown under glass, is the vine. For a crop which is to
be forwarded by the natural influence of the sun, chiefly or alone, almost any form will
suflSce, provided the plavits are trained near the glass. For very early crops, small
houses with steep roofs {figs. 443, 444.), in order freely to admit tlie sun in the winter
and spring months, are most desirable, and the section {fig. 443.) of 443

the steep-roofed house used by the Dutch, is not surpassed by any form
adopted in this country. It is commonly supposed that pits are the
best buildings for early forcing, and as far as respects artificial heat,
they are not much inferior to the Dutch vinery ; but as to light, with-
out which forced productions are not worth using, they are, from the
low angle of their roof, greatly deficient. A house for early forcing
{fig. 444.) may be thirty feet long, eight feet wide ; the glass (a) twelve
feet high, placed at an angle of \5^ to the perpendicular; the flue en-
tering at one end (/) may pass under the front glass (6), and afterwards make two or
three returns in the back wall {d) ; the vines may be trained on a trellis nearly parallel to
the glass, between the flue and the back wall (c), and the shed behind may be fitted up
with shelves {e), and used as a mushroom-house. Such a house, being small, will l>e very
easily managed in the most severe winters.

444

2657. The vineries made use of by the Dutch for early forcing are generally about twenty-
five or thirty feet long, about five feet wide at bottom, and at the top about three feet.
The height generally about ten feet, which is that of the wall against which they are placed.
The fire-place is at one end, and the flue runs along the bottom to the opposite end, and
generally returns to a chimney built in the middle of the frame. The vines are brought
down from the wall, and nailed all along the front close to the glass frames, and are
securely covered at nights. The black and white sweet- water are the kinds preferred for
this early forcing. As this kind of forcing spoils the vines, it is necessary to have the
vine- walls at least five times the length of the frame, in order to furnish a succession of
well-perfected wood. After the crop is over, therefore, the vines in the course of the en-
suing winter are cut down nearly to the bottom, and they require a term of four or five
years to recover themselves for another early crop. {Tr. on the Vine, p. 127.) Similar
fol-cjng-frames heated by a bed of dung within, have been adopted by P. Lindegaard,
gardener to the king of Denmark. {Neiu Method of forcing Grapes, &c. 8vo. 1817.)

Book I.

VINERY.

507

2658. The vinery of Speechly consista of a roof, and glass lights covering a border of about ten feet wide
on the south side of a flued wall, about 14 feet high. Upright glasses, two feet and a half or three feet
high in front, to support the roof, are proper for vinps to be forced at an early season, because it admits
the sun and light to the border ; but when grapes are not wanted at an early season, a considerable ex-
pense may be saved by adopting a low wall in front. The shade of this wall would be injurious to the
l)order, if the vines were to be forced early in spring; but the meridian altitude of the sun, in the begin-
ning of summer, renders it noway prejudicial at that season. Supposing a flued wall, twelve feet high,
the breadth of the border ten feet, and the height of the upright glass frame, or wall in front, three feet,
the roof will then form an angle of about forty-three degrees. Experience shows this to be a proper pitch
for vines forced after the vernal equinox. I mention this circumstance, because some persons who give
designs for buildings of this kind, lay so great a stress on this point, as to pronounce a vinery or peach-
house incapable of answering the intended purpose, should the pitch of the roof happen only to vary a de-
gree or two from tlieir favorite angle. In Holland, the frames for winter forcing are almost perpendicular,
but for those forced in summer, they are almost as flat as those made use of for melons. Hence it follows,
that the construction of different frames or buildings, for the purpose of producing grapes, should not
only vary according to the quantity required, but also according to the season in which that fruit is in-
tended to be produced. The roof should be steep for early forcing, and flatter for the summer. (TV. on
the Vine, p. 99.)

2659. The vinery of Nicolfor early forcing, to be commanded by one furnace, should not much exceed
thirlv feet in length. If it were forty or forty-five feet long, it would require two furnaces to be placed,
and the flues to run as described below. The width of the house may be ten or eleven feet, and the
height thirteen or fourteen ; the front, including parajiet and glass, not exceeding four feet in height.
But, if the roof were made to rest on the parapet, without having any upright glass, and if the parapet
were about eighteen inches high, it would have a better pitch, and there would be a longer run for the
vines. The front flue should be two feet clear of the parapet, should return in the middle of the border,
and double by the back wall, being separated from it by a three-inch cavity ; that is, in the case of there
being but one furnace for the house. But if the house be much above thirty feet in length, and require
two furnaces, one should be placed at each end, in the shed behind, and the power of both should be
brought to the front, the flue of the one to be placed within two feet of the parapet, and of the other close
behind the first, being separated by a two-inch cavity only, and both to stand on a common foundation.
The one may return in the middle of the house, and the other by the back wall ; but it will be unnecessary
to have a double return to either of them ; as a house of the above-mentioned width and height, to the
extent of fifty feet in length, may thus be fully commanded.

2G60. The vinery of Nicolfor late forcing niay be of any convenient length, from thirty to fifty feet ;
fourteen feet wide, and fifteen or sixteen feet high ; with or without front glass, as above hinted. But if
it have upright glass, both glass and parapet should not exceed five feet in height ; as it is but seldom that
any fruit grows below the angle of the rafter ; and, if it do, it is never so well ripened as the fruit growing
under the sloping sashes. The flues may be conducted, in every respect, as above directed for the early
house, and the number of furnaces must'be regulated by its length. If under thirty-five feet, one furnace
may do ; but if longer, it will require two furnaces, in order to have a perfect command of the temper-
ature necessary for grapes. The parapet and front flue of both these houses should stand on pillars, three
and a half feet deep under the ground-level, in order that the roots of the plants may have free scope to
run to the border without the house ; as the intention is to plant them inside, and train them, imder the
roof, to a trellis fixed to the rafters.

2651. Vineries of other horticultural architects. Hay seems to make very little difference in the slopes
of glass roofs for whatever purpose the house may be intended. In his very extensive designs for Lundie
and Dalmeny {fig. 445.) the difference is inconsiderable. The same may be remarked of most of the
ranges of houses built by G. Tod. {Ed. Encyc. art Hart. ; Tod's Plans for HoUhouses, &c. foL 1812.)

445

2662. A vinery for a crop to ripen in July, Knight recommends to be roofed atan angle of 35°, W ilkmson
(Hort. Trans.) and MiUer {Diet, in loco,) 45", which is that adopted most commonly for summer crops,
both of grapes and peaches. Abercrombie savs, " The diagonal side of a glass case, designed for a short
periodical course of forcing, to begin the 21st of December, may be 55° ; 22d January, oO" ; 21st Febru-
ary, 46° : 21st March, 43°." He adds, " Too much importance must not be attached to the angle ot in-
clination in the glass work." It is of some consequence to remark, that the rooft of vmenes may be
fixed, provided there are shutters in the front and back wall for ventilation, though for these, as for every
description of house, gardeners prefer a roof in which the sashes shde, are raised up, or take off.

26c53. A vinery on the curvilinear principle, with a fixed roof (resembling^^. 163.), was erected from our
designs at Finchlev, in 1818 ; no form or manner of construction can admit more light. The vines are
trained within a foot of the glass ; ventilation effected by shutters in the front and back walls, and the
whole is managed by one fire. It is a beautiful object, the vines have grown admirably, and in 1820
produced a small crop (their first) of highly flavored fruit. Several other curvilinear-roofed vincnes have

508

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

been recently erected with iron roofs, and from their decided superiority in admitting light, we have no
doubt of curvilinear iron roofs being ultimately adopted, not only for vineries, but for every description
of hot-house, as soon as the great importance of light to vegetation, and especially to the flavor of fruits,
is fully understood by practical men.

Sect. III. Co7istruction of the Peach-house.

2664. A peach-hotise not intended for early forcing, may be of any shape, provided that
the trees are either standards or trained near the glass. Knight and many practical
gardeners are of opinion, that the roofs of all peach-houses should be made to lake off,
in order to color the fruit, and afterwards expose the trees to the weather for the sake of
destroying insects.

2665. In Holland, peaches are often forced in deep frames {fig. 446.), filled within a

foot or eighteen inches of the glass with tan (a), and heated by an exterior lining if ne-
cessary. The tree is planted in a box {b), by which its roots are confined so as to be-
nefit by the heat of the tan, and the branches are trained on a trellis (c), close on the bed.
Instead of tan, dung may be used, covered in the flowering season with earth, or tan
and earth. In such pits peaches are ripened in Holland, by the middle of May. (Hart.
Trans, v. 325.)

2666. In Denmark, peaches are forced by dung-
heat : the tree is planted against the back wall
(fig. 447 a.) which is heated by a lining of dung
(6), as are its roots, and the area of the house by
another lining (c). (Lindegaard in Hort. Trans.
V. 320.)

2667. The peach-house of Nicol for the earliest
forcing, to be commanded by one furnace, may be of

any length, between thirty and forty feet ; eight or

nine feet wide, and twelve feet high. It should

have no upright glass. The parapet may be about

eighteen inches in height, and the rafters should

rest immediately upon it. The intention here is,

to train the peaches and nectarines up the roof, in

the same manner as vines, only a little nearer to

the glass, and none against the back wall. The

front flue may run within two feet of the parapet, and should return by the back wall^

being separated from it by a three-inch cavity. The parapet and front flue must stand

on pillars, three feet deep under the ground-lQvel, in order to give full scope to the roots of

the plants.

2668. A succession peach-house to the above, that is, not to be forced so early, may be
of a like length, ten or eleven feet wide, and thirteen or fourteen feet high ; also without
upright or front glass, and otherwise may be constructed in all respects as above.

2669. A late 2>each-house, to be managed by one furnace, may be forty or forty-five feet
long ; thirteen or fourteen feet wide, and fourteen or fifteen feet high. It may either have,
or not have, upright glass in front ; which should not, however, exceed four, or four and a
half feet in height, including the parapet. The flues may be conducted as above specified
for the early houses. The intention here is, to train plants on trellises against the back
wall, and likewise half way up the roof, in the manner of vines ; so that it may be termed
a double peach-house.

2670. The peach-house of M'Phail was made sixty-four feet long, ten feet wide ; the height of the back
wall was four feet, and that of the front five feet, in pillars of brick work four feet each in length,
which supported the sill to support the frame for the lights to rest upon ; so that there were in the front
eight vacuities in width, four feet each between the said pillars, for the roots of the trees to extend into
the border. " In the inside of the pit, I had a wall built the whole length of the pit, and thirty inches
distance from the front pillars. The wall was nine inches thick, and three feet six inches high, about one
foot lower than the pillars of brick. I then made a border of good loamy earth, mixed with some very
rotten dung, four feet deep, which left a vacancy between the pillars and the sill of nearly one foot, which
was hUed up with the earth of the border, which reached to the nine-inch wall within the pit, so that

Book I.

PEACH-HOUSE.

509

thirty inches wide of the border was in the inside of the pit I had the border made fourteen feet wide."
" I got the floor of the pit paved with bricks, and in the back side, between the pavement and the trees,
there was between five and six feet, so that a person had room to walk under to prune and manage the
trees." The door was made in the back wall, at the west end ; and at the east end a fire-place was made
in the back wall, about three feet high, without a return. M'Phail began to force in the middle of March,
and^ipened abundant crops of fruit in the month of July.

2o/l. As a suitable peach-house, for early forcing, we would suggest a length of forty feet, width eight
feet, and height twelve feet : the glass in two planes, each plane forming an angle with the perpendicular
of fifteen degrees, and formed into sashes ( Jig. 448. a) hinged at their upper angles, and opening outwards.
The flue (d) entering the house at one end {c), passing under the front glass, and making two turns in the
back wall ; and the trellis {e, b) placed between the flue and back wall Such a house will be easily
managed, and, like the early vinery, may be covered by mats in front during the most severe nights o£
winter.

448

2672. As a peach-house for a main cropf we would suggest a polyprosopic roof, with
the sashes (Jig. 449. a) opening on the principle of Venetian blinds ; the flue (d) may
pass round the house, and the trellis (c) be placed between the flue and front glass ;
both the flues and front glass may be supported on cast-iron props (e). The length
may be forty feet, breadth and height twelve feet,

449

2673. Peach-houses and vineries combinea. it is a common practice to combine the
vinery and peach-house, and to train the \-ines close under the glass, and the peach-trees
against the back wall (fg. 450. a) ; or to train the peach-trees against the back wall, and
also on a flat or table trellis, in the middle of the house (b) ; but if the house be wide,
neither modes are advisable, on account of the distance of the plants from the glass ;
and even in narrow houses, it can only be considered as a temporary expedient dll the

450

vines cover the roof. So important is light to every kind of plant, that, in our opinion, the
vine should be very sparingly introduced even in pineries, where some plants are generally
trained close under the roof (c), and where some gardeners think their shade beneficial.

510

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

Sect. IV. Construction of the Cherry-house and Fig-house.

2674. Any form will answer for a cherry-house. Some market-gardeners grow them,
in houses placed south and north, glazed on all sides, as Andrews at Lambeth ; others
in pits, and some in moveable glass cases.

2675. The cherry-house of Nicol, to be worked by one furnace, may be from thirty to
forty feet in length ; from ten to twelve feet wide, and twelve or fourteen feet high.
The parapet a foot or eighteen inches, and the front glass two feet, or two and a half feet
high. The front flue to stand on the same foundation with the parapet, and its return
to be by the back wall ; but both flues to be separated from the walls by a cavity of
three inches. The front parapet and flue to stand on pillars ; which pillars should be
thirty inches deep under the surface ; the depth, or rather more than the depth requisite
for the border. I'he back wall to be trellised for training cherries to ; and the border
to be planted with dwarf-cherries, or with dwarf apricots and figs, or with all three.
The front and end flues to be crib-trellised, {i. e. shelves of lattice-work to be placed
over them,) for pots of strawberries, kidneybeans, or the like. »

2676. The Jig-house may be of any form not very loffy. One constructed like tlie
cherry-house, Nicol considers, will answer " perfectly well. The figs might be trained
to the trellis at back, and either dwarf figs, apricots, or cherries, or all of these, might
be planted in the border." As figs are not a popular fruit in Britain, a suflficient num-
ber for most families may be grown in pots and tubs, placed in the other hot-houses.

Sect. V. Of Constructing Hot-houses in Ranges.

2677. The culinary hot-houses are very foequently ^ilaced in a range, by which it is sup-
posed something is saved in the expense of the ends, some heat gained, and greater conve-
nience of management obtained. Nicol practised this mode, and Hay, as we have seen
{Jig. 445.) has adopted it at Dalmeny Park, Lundie, and other places. The same plan
seems to be followed by Tod, of which, as an example, we may refer to a very substan-
tial range {Jig. 451.), constructed for the Honorable Champion Dymoke, at Scrivelsby.
One of the most ornamental ranges of this sort in the neighborhood of London, is that
of the Duke of Devonshire at Chiswick ; but it is also the most gloomy within, of any
we have seen. If we may submit our opinion, we should, in most cases, recqmmend
detached houses (as in Jig. 262.), in which opinion, we may add, Knight coincides.

451

Sect. VI. Construction of Culinary Pits, Frames, and Mushroom-houses.

2678. Culinary pits may be constructed either with or without flues ; and either of
such a height behind as to admit of a walk ; or, so low, as to be managed like a common
hot-bed frame. The intention of tliese pits, as far as culinary gardening is concerned, is
first to force fruit-trees, as peaches, grapes, cherries, figs, apples, &c. in pots ; and in
this case the design which admits of a passage behind from which to water and manage
the plants, will be found preferable ; and secondly, to force strawberries, kidneybeans,
potatoes, asparagus, sea-kale, rliubarb, &c. for which a pit sunk in the ground, and to be
managed from without, will suflSce, and is even preferable, because the plants may be
brought close under the glass.

2679. The pit for fruit-shrubs may be forty feet long, eleven feet wide, within walls ;
the angle of the roof from 15° to 20"^ ; the back path two feet wide, the furnace placed
at one end, and the flue passing along the front, separated by a three-inch vacuity from
the tan-bed, and returning close under the back wall. These dimensions will give a

pit IS raisea, tne back of tlie pit

always be at least three and a half feet higher tlian the front, which will admit of different
sizes of trees. The sashes for this pit may be in two lengths, one sliding over the other, as
m hot-house roofs ; but a better plan is, to have them to rise in the manner recommended
for an early peach-house, (fg. 449.)

BtxjK r.

CONSTRUCTION OF CULINARY HOT-HOUSES.

;ii

2680. The pit for forcing herbaceous vegetables may be in all respects of the same di-
mensions as above, but with the angle of the glass not more than 15°. On this plan and
angle, the back of the pit will be two feet higher than the front : but the simplest plan
is to omit the passage, and lessen the width of the pit two feet, retaining the slope of 15°,
and the compound, or double sashes, between each rafter.

2681. Pits without Jire heat, to be worked by that arising from the bed of bark or
dung, may be of any length, six or seven feet wide within, and with the glass at an
angle of fifteen degrees.

2682. M'Phail's pit is approved of by many gardeners for growing cucumbers and
melons, and may be considered as coming into general use. Abercrombie, after de-
scribing it as a " flued pit without a furnace," says, " some persons approve of this kind
of frame, and others disapprove of it j but when the management of the air-chamber is
understood, it may be applied very successfully to the forcing of early melons and choice
esculents. It allows new stable-dung, even before any of the fiery particles are exhaled,
to be used without any danger of burning the roots of the plants." (Pr. Gard.
p. 662.)

2683. Other pits and fired frames. West's pit {fi^. 1547.) and the Alderston* fixed
frame {fig. 1549.) are both structures deserving introduction where neatness is an object,
and it is to be hoped that these and similar structures (see Hort. Trans, vol. iv. and v.)
will soon come into more general use, and elevate the melon-ground from a disorderly
dung-yard, to a scene fit for general inspection.

young

452

6/tet

2684. Kniefit's melon-pit (Jig. 452.), and which may also be applied to the ciilture of cucumbers
pines, or other low vegetables, is surrounded by a cellular
wall, (see 1561.) The front wall is four feet, and the back
wall five feet six inches high, enclosing a space of six feet
wide, and fifteen feet long, and the walls are covered with
a wall-plate, and with sliding lights, as in ordinary hot-
beds. The space included may be filled to a proper
depth with leaves or tan, where it is wished to promote the
rapid growth of plants ; Knight, however, did not use dung
internally, but grew the melon-plants in large pots, and
trained them on a trellis at a proper distance from the
glass. The wall is externally surrounded by a hot-bed
composed of leaves and horse-dung, by which it is kept
warm, and the warm air contained in its cavity is per-
mitted to pass into the enclosed space through many small
perforations in the bricks. At each of the lower comers is
a passage (a), which extends along the surface of the
ground, under the fermenting material, and communicates
with the cavity of the wall, into which it admits the ex-
ternal air, to occupy the place of that which has become
warm and passed into the pit. The entrances into these
passages are furnished with grates, to prevent the ingress of
vermin of every kind The hot-bed is moved and renewed in small successive portions, so that the
temperature may be permanently preserved, the ground being made to descend a little towards the wall
on every side, that the bed in shrinking may rather fall towards than from the walls ; and Knight enter-
tains " no doubt, but that the perpetual ingress of warm air, even without an internal leaf-bed, will
prove sufficient to preserve pine-apple plants withoat the protection of mats, except in very severe
weather." {Hort. Trans, v. 224.)

26&5. The Edmonstone pine or 7nclon
pit {Jig. 453.) is eighteen and a half
feet long, by six feet in breadth ; the
height of the back is five feet, the
height of the front three feet nine
inches ; the declivity for the glass one
foot three inches. The pits for the
dung are on the outside of the frames,
and sunk level with the surface of
the earth, or gravel, on the outside.
The height of these pits is three feet,
their breadth two feet The outside
of the pits for the dung is built with
a nine-inch wall up to the surface,
with one course of hewn stone on the
top. One inch is cut out for the
boards that cover the space allotted
for the linings to rest upon : that appearance of litter and dung, which is so offensive in ordinary hot-
beds is thus prevented. The boards that cover the dung are one inch thick, by two feet two inches in
breadth. Thev are of the length of the pit, and have rings at each end for lifting them with. The
pits should be well drained, to carry off the under water, and a small grate should be made at the end of
the drains. The kind of matterwhich is generally employed to fill these pits, is a mixture of new horse and
cow dung : sometimes we use tree leaves and short grass, which do very well, provided they be duly pre-
pared, by throwing them up in a high heap, to remain eight or ten days, that they may ferment to an
equal temperature. To maintain seventy degrees of heat with horse and cow dung, or leaves of trees is
no difficult matter, and it is easy to preserve the plants in health, and in a fruitful state during the
severest winter, by covering the pits with mats in time of frost. {Caled, Hort. Mem. iii. 336.)

2686. The common hot-bed frame is generally from four to five feet wide within, and
from nine to twelve feet long, divided into three or four lights or sashes. The back is
generally double the height of the front, so that the slope of the glass is seldom more
than ten degrees. Knight, with great correctness of principle, considers this as too flat
to admit the sun's rays in the winter season, and recommends a basis of earth sloped to

512 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

an angle of fifteen degrees, then forming on it the dung-bed, by which means its surface
will be at the same angle as the base ; and, lastly, he constructs the frame equally high,
both in front and behind, and placing it on the dung, still retains the above angle.
{fig. 375.)

2687. The common form of the mushroom-house and that recommended by Oldacre
have been described. (1694. and 1^95.) The latter plan, though adopted in several places,
does not appear to be so generally countenanced by practical, and especially by market-
gardeners, as to justify our giving it a preference in this part of our work. In the
greater number of cases where mushrooms are grown for the London market, they are
raised in the open air on dung-ridges ; and a number of gentlemen's gardeners make use
of back sheds, either closed, or open, and some of old cucumber-beds.

Sect. VII. Details in the Construction of Culinary Hot-houses.

2688. There are certain details of construction in glazed structures, on which from their
novelty or rarity there is considerable difference of 6pinion among gardeners. These are
chiefly metallic roofs, steam, furnaces, flues, trellises, and ventilators.

2689. Materials of the roof. In the construction of the roof, iron and copper, and
other metals, have been lately introduced, in order to admit more light, and be more
durable. This improvement, Abercrombie observes, " is at present too new to afford
ground for a decisive opinion ;" and Nicol says, " On account of the high price of tim-
ber, some are now constructing the framing of hot-houses of cast-iron. I would beg
leave to remind such, that there is nothing so prejudicial to vegetation as the dripping of
rusted iron ; and would advise, that the frames be well and frequently painted, in order
to prevent the bad effects of irony water falling on the foliage and fruit. I am of
opinion, however, that iron-framed hot-houses will soon get out of fashion. From the
quantity of water that must be used, in order to keep the plants in health, the frames
must be often moistened, and will corrode." Not only cast-iron rafters, but roofs entirely
of iron have wonderfully increased since Nicol's time.

2690. The mode of heating hy steamh becoming very general in the neighborhood of the
metropolis, and especially by such commercial gardeners as have extensive forcing depart-
ments, as Loddiges, Gunter, Grange, Andrews, Wilmot, &;c. and wherever there is a range
of any extent, this mode seems far preferable to heating by smoke-flues. Nicol gives no
opinion on this point ; but M'Phail says, " At present, I must freely own, that I have
some doubts both of the cheapness, and superiority in other respects, of this new scheme
of forcing by the influence of hot water, over the generally adopted methods of the in-
fluence of fire, dung, and tan heat." Even " if found to answer better than fire alone,
which I much doubt, it will only, I apprehend, be adopted in gardens where there is
much forcing, and therefore, of course, the more simple methods of forcing by fire, dung,
and tan heat, will be continued in moderate-sized gardens and in small ones." {Gard.
Item. p. 122.) Experience confirms the propriety of these remarks.

2691. The furnace used by Nicol is simply an oven, capable of containing less or
more fuel, according to the kind of hot-house to which it may be attached, and the kind
of fuel to be used, with a grate in front, just large enough to kindle the mass of fuel,
and keep it alive. In one of a middle size, the oven is thirty inches long and twenty
inches wide ; the grate eighteen inches long and ten broad ; the furnace-door ten inches
square ; the ash-pit door ten inches wide but fifteen inches deep, both with circular
valves in their centres. The grate is placed close to the furnace-door. (ITal. p. 280. ) Others
have been tried, but none answer better for the general purposes of fliued hot-houses.

2692. Flues. Nicol gives the decided preference to flues constructed of brick and
tiles, thus — " The sole of two-inch thick tiles, each fifteen inches long, by twelve broad ;
jointed on cross bricks on edge, or pillarets, to keep them about four inches clear of the
surface. The walls of well-moulded, or stock bricks, six inches clear of each other, and
the height of two bricks placed on edge, covered with inch and half thick tiles, each
twelve inches long and ten broad, laid the length to the run of the flue, by which means
the covers will not be flush with the sides of the flue, but each edge will he champhered
or bevelled, which makes the flue look very light and neat. The open or void of the
flue will thus be (with the height of two bricks on edge, and two joints of lime,) ten by
six inches, or thereby. It is clear, and detached on all the four sides, except the in-
terruptions of the pillarets ; and is the most effectual flue of many different sizes I have
tried." — Of air -flues, the same author observes, " I think I have ascertained the use-
lessness of air-flues." Our opinion is that air-flues in most cases are more injurious
than useful, and we believe there has been no mode yet discovered for issuing a current
of heated air into a hot-house that is not liable to the most decisive objection on account
of the risk of heating to excess. A mode of heating air by steam and then intro-
ducing it to the house is now disseminating by some London tradesmen under the name
of caloriferes, and which is particularly obnoxious to these objections.

2693. Trellising. " Roof-trellising," Nicol observes, " is now universally of wire,

Book I. GENERAL CULTURE IN FORCING STRUCTURES. 5is

and often also that against back walls. It is cheaper than wood, Mid, on account of its
lightness, fitter for the purpose, especially when placed on the roof, or against the end
lights. The distance at which the wires should be placed apart for grapes, is ten or
twelve inches ; for cherries or peaches, four or five. The distance of the wires from the
glass, for grapes, a foot ; for peaches and nectarines, nine inches. But tliere should be
a lower trellis, with the wires placed at two feet apart, and a foot under the proper
trellis, on which to train the summer shoots of vines tiiat are in a full-bearing state, in
order that there may not be too great a confusion of fruit, shoots, and foliage. When
vines are trained up the rafters in a stove or green-house, they should not be nailed to
the beam ; but three rows of wire should be extended for them, at the distance of four
or five inches from each other, and three from the rafter ; befng set out with studs of
wire, or of iron, made to screw into it, and with eyes to take in the wire. "

2694. Ventilators. " The hot-house may require to be ventilated at times, when it
may be improper to open the sashes for tliat purpose. Ventilators are then useful.
They may be contrived in different forms, and may be placed in different situations.
If tlie hot-house have a shed behind it, they might be made to open, in the manner of a
common window, near to the top of the back wall ; and three in an ordinary-sized house
would be enough. I lately made four ventilators in a house that had no shed behind
it, in this manner : when the wall was raised to within a yard of its full height, aper-
tures were formed in the manner of a common chunney or fire-place, eighteen inches
wide, and two feet high, from which a small vent was carried through the coping. On
the top was fixed a horizontal tube, three inches square, and two feet long, with a
centre pipe fixed into the vent. The aperture or chimney was filled in front, with two
moveable panels or boards hung in the manner of common sashes, the one to move up
and the other down, for the admission of air tlirough the tube at top, thus diverting or
breaking a strong current, which might be prejudicial to the grapes. Ventilators in
front, at the distance of six or eight feet from one another, may be made thus : Pierce a
hole an inch diameter, through the bottom rail of the under sash if the house have no
upright glass, or through the upper rail of the upright sash, if it have. In this hole
insert a tift tube to fit, having a funnel mouth outwards, and a fine rose, like that of a
watering-pot, to fit to it inside. The tube should be made in lengths of two feet each,
that the air may be either diffused as it enters tlu-ough the front, or be carried to the
centre of the house, or farther if thought necessary. "When not in use, it should be
stopped with a cork or plug. "When a full stream is wished, the rose need not be put
on ; but it should if the air be keen. In order the better to collect the air, the funnel
should be pretty large ; that is, about seven or eight inches diameter. With these and
with the ventilators at or near to the top of the back wall, as mentioned above, any hot-
house may safely be aired or ventilated, even in the severest weather ; and also when it
may be improper to open the glasses, as during rain."

2695. Annual repairs. The best gardeners clean the flues, white-wash tlie walls, and
paint the wood -work of hot-houses every year, or paint eveiy other year. In general,
once in four or five years may sufiice ; but every thing will depend on the purpose to
which the house is applied ; a system of early and severe forcing being evidently much
more trying for the roof than moderate sun-heat, aided by occasional fires. The breakage
of glass from frost amounts frequently, in the northern counties, to five per cent, on the
surface of the roof, especially in flat green-houses, and others, where there is not a sufficient
heat kept up to prevent the water from freezing in the unputtied interstices ; but we know
instances of pineries and other stoves where, for ten years, as many panes have not been
broken. A roof at an angle of not less than 45*^, diagonal or fragment glazing, or a
closed lap, seem preventives to breakage in cold-houses : Stewart's copper lap is still
more effectual, but produces a dark, heavy effect, not at all suitable to hot-houses of
any sort, and with difficulty admits of repairs. Our opinion is, that by using the best
crown glass, small panes, and a lap of not more than one eighth of an inch, no breakage
from frost will take place in any description of roof. If the work is performed in a
masterly manner, closing this lap by putty, lead, or copper, will be unnecessary even for
pineries or winter forcing.

Chap. VII.
Of the general Culture in Forcing Structures and Culinary Hot-houses.

2696. By general culture, we are here to understand the formation of the soil, the
arrangement of the trees or plants, and their general treatment when planted, in regard
to temperature, air, water, training, and other points of management.

L 1

514 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Faat III.

Sect. I. Culture of the Finery.

2697. The pine-apple is a native of the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and South
America ; and thus, from its original habitation and nature, it requires a higher degree of
heat than any culinary or fruit-bearing plant at present cultivated as such. It is by no
means, however, so delicate as many imagine ; for as it will bear a higher degree of heat
continued for a length of time than either the vine or the peach, so, at any period of its
growth, it will bear, without injury, a degree of cold for a space of lime v/hich, though
short, would have destroyed the foliage of a vine or peach-tree in a state of vegetation.
« This incomparable fruit," Weeks observes, " can be obtained even in frames without
fire-heat, having only the assistance of tan and dung ; and is more easily brought to ma-
turity than an early cucumber." Though liable to the attacks of insects, it is less so than
the peach, and less speedily injured by them than the common cabbage. Diseases it has
almost none. The pine is generally grown in pots, and plunged in a bed of tanner's bark,
or other matter in a state of fermentation ; recently, however, it has been grown without
bottom heat, and even with a lower atmospherical temperature than it has been accustomed
to receive, at least, during winter; but as the experience of gardeners is very limited on
this mode of treatment, we shall reserve whatever we have to offer on it, till we have
brought into view the established practices. The fruit being reckoned the most delicious
of all others, and gardeners being valued by the wealthy in proportion to their success in
its cultivation, we shall here lay before the reader a copious view of the present modes of
culture, from the works of the most rsputable practical men who have written on the
subject ; noticing also, occasionally, the practices of those who grow them for the London
market.

SuBSECT. 1. Varieties of the Pine and General Mode of Culture.

2698. The most esteemed varieties of the jnne-apple for general cultivation are, accord-
ing to Speedily, the following, here arranged in the order of their merits : —

The queen pine I Providence I Sugar-toaf I Harannah I Silver striped

Brown antigua S. Vincent's, or Montserrat Ripley Gold striped

Antigua queen | green olive | Black Jamaica I King | Stripei^ queen.

According to Abercrombie, they are the following : —

Queen I Prickly striped sugar-loaf 1 Havannah I Black Jamaica.

Brown sugar-loaf I Silver striped | Black Antigua |

M'Phail says, the pines most worthy of cultivation are —

The black Antigua | Ripley | Black Jamaica ; and | Montserrat.

Nicol States, the kinds most generally cultivated in hot-houses to be —

The king I Black Antigua I Pricklv striped sugar-loaf I Montserrat I Harannah ; and

The queen \ Brown sugar-loaf | Smooth striped sugar-loaf | Silver striped | New Providence.

Griffin recommends —

, The oval, or queen | Pyramidal, or sugar-loaf; and | New white ProTidence.

Baldwin, for expeditious forcing, on which alone he treats, recommends —

The old queen ; and | Ripley's new queen.

2699. Plan of culture. As the.pine-plant is a triennial, bearing fruit once only, unlike the peach and
vine, and other fruit-bearing plants, its propagation, rearing, and fruiting are necessarily all carried on
in every garden where it is cultivated. Its culture generally commences in a common hot-bed frame, heated
by dung; at the end of a period varying from six to nine months, it is removed to a larger framed hot-
bed, or pit, generally called a succession bed or house ; and after remaining there from eight to tw^elve
months, according to circumstances, it is removed to its final destination, the fruiting bed, pit, or house.
Here it shows its fruit, continues in a growing state during a period varying from six to twelve months,
according to the variety grown, mode of culture, &c. ; and finally ripens its fruit and dies, leaving the
crown or terminal shoot of the ft-uit, and one or more suckers or side-shoots as successors. The produc-
tion of a single pine-apple, therefore, requires a course of exotic culture, varying from eighteen months to
three years, and generally not less than two years.

SuBSECT. 2. Soil.

2700. The pine-apple soil of Speechly is as follows : " In the month of April or May, let the sward or
turf of apasture, where the soil is a strong rich loam, and of a reddish color, be pared off", not more than
two inches thick : let it then be carried to the pens in sheep-pastures, where sheep are frequently put for the
purpose of dressing, which places should be cleared of stones, ^c. and made smooth ; then let the turf be
laid with the grass side downwards, and only one course thick ; here it may continue two, three, or more
months, during which time it should be turned with a spade once or twice, according as the pen is more
or less frequented by the above animals, who, with their urine and dung, will enrich the turf to a great
degree, and their feet will reduce it, and prevent any weeds from growing. After the turf has lain a suf-
ficient time, it should be brought to a convenient place, and laid in a heap for at least six months (if a
twelvemonth it will be the better), being frequently turned during that time ; and after being made pretty
fine with the spade, but not screened, it will be fit for use. In places where the above mode cannot be
adopted, the mixture made by putting a quantity of sheep's dung (or deer's dung, if it can be got) and turf,
together. But here it must be observed, that the dung should be collected from the pastures when newly
fallen ; also, that a larger proportion should be added, making an allowance for the want of urine. 1. Three
wheelbarrows of the above reduced sward or soil, one barrow of vegetable mould from decayed oak-leaves,
^"dhalf a barrow of coarse sand make a compost-mould for crowns, suckers, and voung plants ;
2. Three wheelbarrows of sward reduced as above, two barrows of vegetable mould, one barrow of coarse
sand, and one fourth of a barrow of soot, make a compost-mould for fruiting plants. The above composts
should be made some months before they are wanted, and very frequently turned during that time,
that the different mixtures may get well and uniformly incorporated. It is observable, that in hot-
houses, where pine-plants are put in a light soil, the young plants frequently go into fruit the first season

Boor I. ARTIFICIAL HEAT. 515

(and are then what gardeners term runners) ; on the contrary, where plants are put in a strong rich soil
they will continue to grow, and not fruit even at a proper season : therefore, from the nature of the soil
from whence the sward was taken, the quantity of sand used must be proportioned : when the loam is
not strong, sand will be unnecessary in the compost for young plants."

2701. Abercromlie's compost for the pine-apple " is formed of the following articles : 1. vegetable
mould ; 2. the top-spit earth from an upland pasture, loamv, friable, and well reduced ; 3. hard-fed dung
rotten and mellowed by at least a year's preparation ; 4. small, i)early river-gravel ; 5. white sea-sand •
6. shell-marl. If no vegetable mould has been provided, light rich earth, from a fallowed part of the
kitchen-garden, may be substituted : there is no difference of any account between one and the other,
further than this : the vegetable mould is sure to l)e virgin earth, from which no aliment has been ex.
t/acted ; the mould from the kitchen-garden, however you mav trench, and rest, and enrich it, cannot but
contain many particles which have given out their fertilising qualities to previous crops. Dung perfectly
decomposed comes to the same thing as vegetable mould; therefore that one of them which is most aU
lainable, or best prejiared, may fitly serve instead of the other. Of the first three take equal quantities ;
making three fourths of the intended compost. Constitute the remaining fourth thus : let river-gravel
and shell-marl furnish each a twelfth part. The small gravel is to afford something for the roots to lay
hold of; the sea-sand, to promote lightness and dryness ; the shell-marl, the better to support the growth
of fibres and integuments and parU not pulpy. Mix with the whole a fortieth part soot, to offend and
repel worms. Incor^>orate the ingredients fully ; and turn the heap two or three times before using it."

2702. The soil for the pitie -apple, recommended by M'Phail, " is any sort of rich earth taken from a compart-
ment of the kitchen-garden, or fresh sandy loam taken from a common, long pastured with sheep, &c. If
the earth be not of a rich sandy quality, of darkish color, it should be mixed well with some perfectly
rotten dung and sand, and if a little vegetable mould is put among it, it will do it good, and also a little
soot. Though pine-plants will grow in earth of the strongest texture, yet I have found by experience
that they grow most freely in good sandy loam not of a binding quality."

2703. The soil for the pine, used by Nicol. " In this, vegetable mould being a chief ingredient, a stock of it
should be provided wherever the culture of the pine is followed. The kind to be used here is that from
decayed tree-leaves, and those of the oak are to be preferred; but when a sufficient quantity of them
cannot be had, a mixture with those of the ash, elm, birch, sycamore, &c., or indeed anv that are not
resinous, will answer very well. In autumn, immetliately as the leaves fall, let them be gathered, and be
thrown together into an heap ; and let just as much light earth be thrown over them as will prevent them
from being blown abroad by the wind. In this state let them lie till Mav, and then turn them over and
mix them well. They will be rendered into mould tit for use by the next spring ; but from bits of sticks, &c.
among them, they will require to be sifted before using. Strong brown loam is the next article. This
should consist of the sward of a pasture, if possible ; which should, previous to using, be well reduced, by
exposing it a whole year to the action of the weather. Pigeon-dung, also, that has lain at least two whole
years in a heap, has been frequently turned, and well exposed to the weather, is to be used. Likewise
shell-marl. And, lastly, sea or river gravel, which should be siftetl, and kept in a dry place ; such part of
it as is about the size of marrowfat peas is to be used. This is the proportion : for crowns and suckers,
entire vegetable mould, with a little gravel at bottom, to strike in ; afterwards, three fourths vegetable
mould, and one fourth loam, mixed with about a twentieth part gravel, and two inches entire gravel at
bottom, till about a year old. For year-olds, and till shifted into fruiting-pots, one half vegetable mould,
one half loam; to which add a twentieth part gravel, and as much shell-marl, with three inches clean
gravel at bottom. For fruiting plants, one half loam, a fourth part vegetable mould, and a fourth part
pigeon-dung; to which add marl and gravel as above, and lay three or four inches of clean gravel at
bottom. Ihe above compositions are what I formerly used for pine-plants with much success; and are
what may be reckoned good medium soils for the production of pine-apples."

2704. Griffin's pine-apple soil is free from many different strange ingredients for composts recommended
by others ; for after " numerous experiments made with mixtures of deer's, sheep's, pigeons', hens', and
rotten stable-dung, with soot, and other manures, in various proportions and combinations with fresh
soil of different qualities from pastures and waste lands, I can venture with confidence to recommend the
following: Procure from a pasture, or waste land, a quantity of brown, rich, loamy earth, if of a reddish
color the better, but of a fattish mouldy temperature ; that by squeezing a handful of it together, and
opening your hand, it will readily fall apart again : be cautious not to go deeper than you find it of that
pliable texture ; likewise procure, if possible, a quantity of deer's dung : if none can be conveniently got,
sheep's dung will do, and a quantity of swine's dung. ' Let the above three sorts be brought to some con-
venient place, and laid up in three different heaps ridge-ways, for at least six months ; and then mix
them in the following manner, covering the dung with a little soil before it is mixed : four wheelbarrows
of the above earth ; one barrow of sheep's dung, and two barrows of swine's dung. This composition,"
he adds, " if carefully and properly prepared, will answer every purpose for the growth of pine-plants of
every age and kind. It is necessary that it should remain a year before applied to use, that it may receive
the advantage of the summer's sun and winter's frost ; and it need not be screened or sifted before using,
but only well broken with the hands and spade, as when finely sifted it becomes too compact for the roots
of the plants." {Tr. on the Pine-apple, p. 26.)

2705. Baldwin's soil for the pine-apple is still more simple than Griffin's. " From old pasture or meadow
ground strip off the turf, and dig to the depth of six or eight inches, according to the goodness of the soil ;
draw the whole together to some convenient place, and mix it with one half of good rotten dung ; fre-
quently turn it over for twelve months, and it will be fit for use. This is the only compost-dung for
young and old plants." {Cult, of Ananas, p. 8.) Weeks's soil agrees with Baldwin's : he takes unex-
hausted earth and some rotten dung, and gives them a twelve month's preparation, by turning and mixing
previously to using. {Forcer's Assistant, p. 50.)

SuBSECT. 3. Artificial Heat.

2706. Bottom heat. The pine, when originally introduced in England, was cultivated,
without bottom heat, on stages, like other succulents. Ingenuitj', however, soon sug-
gested, and experience approved the advantage of the latter, first in preserving a moist
equable heat ; and, secondly, in preventing the plants from feeling so much as they other-
wise would any casual declension in the fire-heat, or sudden vicissitude in the temperatiire
or moisture of the external air. " Pines," Nicol observes, " do certainly not require
so strong a bottom heat as many keep them in ; yet there is something in a mild tan
heat, so congenial to their natures, that they tlirive much better in pots plunged in a bark-
bed, if properly managed, than when planted out on a bed of earth that is heated, and
often scorched, by under flues." The tan or bark pit is therefore considered essential to
the pinery.

2707. Bark-pits are filled with tan which has previously undergone a course of draining
and sweating. Tlie heat thus produced, will last from three to six months, when it is
sifted and again put into a state of fermentation, by replacing the deficiency occasioned

LI 2

516

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

by decay, and separation of the dust by sifting with new tan. In thii way the bark-bed is
obliged to be stirred, turned, refreshed, or even renewed several times a year, so as to
produce and retain at all times a bottom heat of from 75 to 85 degrees in each of the
three departments of pine culture. These operations being common, we have placed a
summary of management under the head of General Directions for the Bark-pit, at the end
of this section. (See Subsect. 8.)

2708. Dung-heat. Pines are grown to the greatest perfection by many gardeners with-
out either bark or fire heat simply by the use of dung. A frame double the usual depth
and also about a third part broader than the common cucumber frames, is placed on a bed
of dung, or of dung and tan, or dung and ashes, or even dung and faggots mixed or in
alternate layers. ITiis bed of itself supplies heat for a while, and when it begins to be
exhausted, linings are applied in the usual way, and continued for a year or more, reviv-
ing and renewing them as may become requisite, till the bottom bed becomes too solid
for the ready admission of heat. The frame and pots are then removed to a prepared bed,
and this old bottom taken away, or mixed up with fresh materials. In this way, as
Weeks observes, every one that can procure stable-dung may grow pines. In a tract
On the Ananas and on Melons, by A. Taylor, printed in 1769, the author tells us
that he both rears and fruits pines in a pit formed of boards or of brick-work three
feet deep, and of any convenient length and width ; and on the walls or boards which
enclose the tan, he places a frame two and a half feet deep in front, and four feet high
beliind. The ends and front are of glass, and the latter is formed into small sashes,
which slide in a groove. The back is formed of inch boards ; and against these he places
a powerful lining of dung. The pit he fills with tan, or dung, as may be most convenient ;
" dung," he says, " does as well as tan and only requires a little more trouble, which is
amply repaid to the gardener by the value of the dung to the garden, when no longer in
active fermentation. " An anonymous annotator (to the copy of Taylor's book, in the library
of the Horticultural Society) says, " I find by experience, that the dung of four horses is
sufficient to work two frames twenty-six feet each in length, and six in breadth ; one for the
fruiting-house, the other for succession plants ; and that it may be reasonably expected to
cut forty fruit yearly after the first year, and tliat dung as valuable for the field or garden,
as if this use had not been made of it." (^J'aylor on Ananas, &c. p. 3. ; Diff. Modes of
Cult. P. App. &c. p. 47.)

2709. Fire-heat for the atmosphere. The high temperature requisite for the pine in
every stage of its growth, renders it necessary to have recourse to fire-heat for eight or
nine months in «very year ; unless indeed the plants are grown in pits heated by linings
of dung ; in which case, these linings become necessary every month in the year in order
to keep up the bottom heat. What respects the management of fires being also common
to the culture of this plant in all its stages, we have placed the directions as in the case
of bark-pits under such as are general. (See Subsect. 8.)

2710. Dung-heat and fire-heat com-
bined. Jenkins, of the Portman nur-
sery, London, grows his pine-plants in
large hot-beds, and fruits them in a
house (j^^. 454.), which " though fut.
nished with flues, yet these have been
very little used. The heat imparted to
the plants is produced by the ferment-
ation of stable-dung in a pit below the
plants, the top of which is covered by
tiles supported by iron rafters, with the
joints closely cemented, to prevent the
passage of steam into the house. The
pots are neither bedded in tan, nor in
mould, but stand on the tiles, and the
interstices between them warm the air of
the house." The dung is managed as in
"West's pit, but with the addition of being
watered after it is thrown in, which is
found to promote fermentation, and the

intensity of the heat. {Hooker, m Hart. ■ ,,„^.^^^^-— -^-, - ^^ .^. -, ,^

2Va«s. iv. 363.) '''^^^////yyy/X////''c//,////'/i.v-'/^^^^^

2711. Sleam-heat, with or without any of the other modes of heating, has been tried
extensively as far as respects heating the air of the house, and with the most perfect suc-
cess. As a bottom heat it has also been tried in different places by turning it into vaults
of air, or cisterns of water, or chambers of large rough stones (which imbibe the heat and
give it slowly out to the bed abovej with different degrees of success, but not such as to
induce cultivators to relinquish fermenting substances in its favor, where they can be
procured at a reasonable expense.

Subsect. 4. Propagation of the Pine-apple.

2712. The pine is generalli/ propagated by crowns and suckers, though, in common with
every other plant, it may be propagated by seed. Speedily prefers suckers, because ge-

Book I. PROPAGATION OF THE PINE-APPLE. 517

nerally larger tlian crowns, and those produced near the middle of the stem, he consi-
ders the best. He does not, however, reject crowns ; but selects the largest, which he
says, when nine inches in circumference at their bottoms, equal any suckers. ( Treatise on
the Pine- Apple, 2d edit. 22.) Abercrombie says, " Suckers which rise from the extre-
mities of the roots, at a distance from the stem, though tliey have radical fibres, are apt to
to have ill-formed hearts. Witli Speechly, he prefers stalk-suckers and strong crowns."
{Pract. Gard. 621.) Andrews uses suckers only, not from any objection to crowns, but
from the difficulty and trouble of getting them returned from the fruiterers, and the risk
of different kinds being mixed through the carelessness of servants. M'Phail, Nicol,
Griffin, and Baldwin, do not express any preference.

2713. Separation qf crowns and suckers. Speechly and Abercrombie concur in the following directions :
" When the fruit is served to table, the crown is to be detached by a gentle twist, and retiuned to the gar-
dener, if it be wanted for a new plant Fruit-stalk suckers are taken off at the same period. Suckers at
the base of the herb are commonly fit for separation when the fruit is mature; though, if the stool be vi-
gorous, they may be left on for a month after the fruit is cut, the stool receiving plentifiil waterings on
their account ^he fitness of a sucker to be removed is indicated, at the lower part of the leaves, by a
brownish tint there ; on the appearance of which, if the lower leaf be broken oft', the sucker is easily dis-
planted by the. thumb." Speechly says, " Suckers cannot with saftty be taken from the plants, till they
are grown to the length of twelve' or fourteen inches, when their Ijott'oms will be hard, woody, and full of
small round knobs, which are the rudiments of the roots. It would endanger their breaking, if they were
to be taken off sooner. When the suckers are taken off, the operation should be performed with great
care, that neither plant nor sucker may be injured. To prevent which, one hand should be placed at the
bottom of the plant to keep it steady ; the other as near to the bottom of the sucker as conveniently can ;
after which, the sucker should be moved two or three times backwards and forwards in a sideway direc-
tion, and it will fall off with its bottom entire, ^^"hereas, when a sucker is bent downwards immediately
from the plant, it frequeptly either breaks off in the stem, or splits at the bottom." Andrews allows the
suckers to remain on tlie parent plant till they have attained a large size ; sometimes even till they are fit
to occupy a large pot at once.

2714. Season of separating crowns and suckers. Crowns and suckers taken off from the parent plant later
than October, should not be planted before the month of February or March ; for, in the winter time, pro-
bably, they would not strike root, but rot : they may be hung or laid in a dry part of the hot-house. Un-
matured young suckers and crowns should lie u'nplanted, till their natural juices be so exhausted that there
may be no danger of their rotting after being planted ; but if they are grown to such a size as to be easily
separated from the parent plant, they may be planted immediately. [Gard. Rem. 83.)

2715. To generate suckers. If the old fruiting-plant offers only small bottom-suckers, or fails to furnish
any, you may bring out good suckers thus : Having waited till the fruit is cut, take the old plant in its pot
out of the bark-bed ; strip off the under leaves near the root, and with the knife cut away the leaves to
six inches from the bottom. Take out some of the stale mould from the pot, fill up with fresh, and give a
little water. Plunge the old plant into a bed with a good growing heat Let the routine culture not be
neglected, and the old plants wiU soon send out good suckers. Allow these to grow till they are four
inches long, or more ; and on the signs of fitness, detach them.

271& Preparation of crowns or suckers. As soon as either crowns or suckers are detached, twist off some
of the leaves about the base ; the vacancy thus made at the bottom of the stem is to favor the emission
of roots. Pare the stump smooth ; then lay the intended plants on a shelf in a shaded part of the stove,
or of the green-hOTse, or of any dry apartment Let crowns and fruit offsets lie till the part that adhered
to the fruit is perfectly healed ; and root-suckers in the same manner, till the part which was united to the
old stock is become dry and firm. They will be fit to plant in five or six days. As to the prolonged period
for which they remain out of culture, pine-plants have been kept six months without mould, in a mode-
rately warm dry state, and the only injury has been loss of time. Crowns or suckers coming oft" before Mi-
chaelmas should be planted, without any unnecessary delay, to get established before the winter. When
late-fruiting plants do not afford offsets till after Michaelmas, it is best to keep them in a dormant state
during the months least favorable to artificial culture ; therefore, as you obtain these late offsets, hang
them' up in the house, not too near the flues, to rest till March. Some think it necessary to drj-, or win,
all crowns and suckers before potting them, and for that purpose lay them on the shelves, &c. of the stove
for a week or ten davs. Bv this treatment, they certainly may be hurt, but cannot be improved, provided
they have b*!en fullv' matured before being taken from off the fruit or stocks, and that these have previ-
ously had no water'for about ten daj's. They will succeed as well if planted the hour they are taken off, as
if treated in any other way whatever ; and I only advise their being laid aside as above, as being a matter
of conveniency. {Sicol.)

2717. Planting crowns and suckers. Nicol plants his suckers in summer and autumn as the fruit is ga-
thered, sticking them into the front part of the bark-bed, " where thev will strike root as freely as any
where. ■ If a large proportion of the crop come off early, the crowns and suckers may be potted at once,
and plunged into the nursing-pit ; or they may be twisted from off the stocks, and may be laid by, in a dry
shed or loft for a few davs, till the other operations In the pinery be performed, and the nursery-pit be
ready to receive them and the crowns (collected as the fruit have been gathered) ; which, if rooted, may
be potted, and may be placed for the above time, either in a frame, or in a forcing-house of any kind, as
they will sustain no injure', though out of the bark-bed for so short a time. Such crowns as have not struck
root, may be laid aside w'ith the suckers." Griffin generally plants his crowns in the bark tUl they have
struck root ; but the suckers he pots at once, unless they are smaU and green at bottom, when he treats
them like the crowns. Baldwin says, " Towards the end of September, take off the suckers from the
fruiting-plants, and lay them in any warm place for about three days ; then strip off a few of their bottom
leaves, and thev will be ready for planting. Plant them in the old tan, on the surface of the bed, without
pots, about four or five inches apart, according to the size of the plants ; observing, that the tallest be
placed at the back of the frame, and the shortest in the front. In this state let them remain till the fol-
lowing April." iCuif. ofAnan. p. la) Andrews pots his suckers in September, and plunges them ma bark-
bed during the winter.

SuBSECT. 5. Of rearing tlie Pine apple in the Nursing Department.

2718. The rearing of the pine-aj^tle requiring different modes of treatment at different
stages of its progress to maturity, established practice has adopted three houses or
pits, through each of which the plants pass in succession. Tliey are usually named
the nursing, succession, and fruiting houses, or pits. The nursing-pit is used for bringing
on crowns and suckers until they are established in growth, and for this purpose they ge-
nerally remain there one year.

LI 3

Sm PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Fart III.

2719. Nursing.pU wUhflre-heat. The nursing-pit is generally flued, but some adopt a common dung hot-
bed, and others the flued pit or bed recommended by M'Phail, and which answers extremely well. The
minimum depth of the bark-bed in the nursing-house, Abercrombie states, to be three feet ; " the maximum
three and a half. The less depth is the right, when bark alone is employed to produce the bottom heat ;
and the greater, when tree-leaves are substituted on account of their weaker influence. In either case,
the pit may be six inches shallower than that in the fruiting-house ; because the requisite altitude ui flie
different pits partly depends on the peri)endicular dimension of the pots, and on the thickness to whuth a
layer of old bark must reach from the surface, to keep the iK)ts from contact with the new bark, that the
roots may not be burnt. In the nursery-pit, the neutral layer need not be deeper than eight inches." " If
the bark-bed has been in action to bring forward a previous set of plants, now removed to the succession-
pit, recruit it by taking awav the wasted bark, to the extent of a sixth, fourth, third, or half part, and by
substituting an equal quantity of fresh. A lively bottom heat is requisite to make pine offsets strike
freely.

^20. So?ne growers of pines, he adds, " who cannot command higher moans, choose to cultivate
crowns and suckers in pits without flues. As the aid of the furnace, however, allows a freer admission of
air, and prevents the necessity of covering the glasses in very cold days, it is not to be deliberately rejected
from the nursing-pit, when new buildings, or fundamental alterations, are in agitation — unless the vici-
nity of some large establishment for horses should offer a regular supply of dung, without much expense of
c;arriage. When dung is employed, it is proper to force with that alone. The bottom heat from tan-bark
or tree-leaves is always to be preferred, in combination with flues."

2721. Speechli/ adopts the flued pit, and occasionally the frame, but generally a part of the succession -
pit. Nicol the nursing-house. Griflin adopts three houses, the two last diminutives of the first, which is
the common pine-stove of Nicol and Abercrombie. Baldwin makes use of a succession or nursing bed,
without lire-heat, and of a fruiting-stove, both small.

2722. 2^'^u7-sing-pit, without Jtre-heat, " Hot-beds used for growing suckers," Speechly
observes, " should be well prepared, and the violence of the heat allowed to be fully
over before the suckers are taken off. It is then to be levelled and covered with eight
or ten inches of tan, into which to plunge the pots."(Tren?. on the Pine, 34.) M'Phail,
who, when gardener to the Earl of Liverpool, was reckoned one of the best pine-growers
in England, recommends the brick bed of his invention as answering well for small suc-
cession-plants. " A pit," he says, " built on the same construction, but of larger
dimensions, without cross flues, is a suitable one for growing pine-apple plants of any
size ; for by linings of dung the air in it can be kept to a degree of heat sufficient to
grow and ripen the pine-apple in summer, as well as it can be done with fire-heat ; only
it will require a little more labor and plenty of dung." Baldwin, as already observed,
grows both his nursery and succession plants in a bark-bed excited by external linings
of dung.

272S. Culture of nursing-jilants. Whether pits or hot-beds be adopted, the potting,
temperature, air, water, &c. are nearly the same.

2724. Pottingby Speechly. For full-sized crowns and suckers, Speechly employs pots six inches diame-
ter at top, and five and a half inches deep. Less-sized suckers and crowns, he puts in less-sized pots. He
pots ripe or knobby-bottomed suckers immediately after taking oflf", letting the others lie* few days to har-
den. He inserts the end of the sucker no farther into the earth than what is necessary to hold the plant
fast. They are to remain ten or twelve days without water, and afterwards be watered twice a week.
{Treat, on the Pine, 31.)

2725. Potting by Alter or omljie. " The pots, to receive unstruck crowns and suckers, should be three
inches in diameter, inside measure, and four inches and a half deep, for the smaller plants, four inches in
diameter, and six inches deep, for the larger. Lay at the bottom of each pot dry shivers, or clean gravel,
to an inch in depth. Fill the pots with the compost before described, not pressing it too close. With a
dibble make a hole, for the smaller plants, two inches deep ; and two inches and a half, for the larger. Set
the plants, and level the surface of the mould, leaving a vacancy half an inch deep from the rim. Plunge
the pots in the bark-bed down to their rims, leaving between each an interval equal to the diameter of the
pot. After planting; shut the house; and withhold water and admissions of air for some time."

2726. M'Phail's mode of potting. " The fruit being partly over, and a cucumber brick bed prepared for
inistruck crowns and suckers, towards the end of August of in September, I planted them in rich earth in
pots suitable to the size of the plants ; I then had the pots plunged to their rims in the tan-bed in which
there was a good growing heat ; the lights were then shut down close, and as great a heat kept among the
plants as the heat of the tan and sunshine could raise, and when the sun shone long and very bright, the
plants were shaded a few hours in the m.iddle of the day. The plants were thus managed till they had
struck root and begun to grow, when a gentle watering was given to them, and a little air admitted daily.
About the end of October, or beginning of November, if the state of the bed required it, a little fresh tan
was added, and if the plants by growth had become crowdetl, some of them were removed into another
place, and the remainder plunged into the tan-bed, in which they continued till February or March, when
of course the bed required an addition of fresh tan, which was given it, and the plants plunged again into
it at such distances one from the other as to give them room to grow."

.^'P:/"tii"S by Nicol. Twist oflTa few of the bottom leaves, and pare the end of the stump smooth with
the knife. 1 hen fill pots of about three or four inches diameter, and five or six inches deep, (the less for the
least, and the large for the largest plants,) with very fine, light earth, or with entire vegetable mould of
tree-leaves, quite to the brim ; previously placing an inch of clean gravel in the bottom of each, and ob-
serving to lay in the mould loosely. Thrust the large suckers down to within two inches of the gravel, and
the srnall ones and crowns, two inches into the mould ; firming them with the thumbs, and dressing off the
mould, half an inch below the marghi of the pots. Then plunge them into the bark-bed, quite down to, or
rather below the bnm, especially of the smaller pots. If the pots be placed at the clear distance of three
or tour inches from each other, according to the sizes of the plants, they will have sufficient room to grow
till next shifting. "

^728. Potting by Griffin and Baldwin. Griffin plants suckers and crowns in pots five inches diameter,
ana lour inches deep ; and very strong ones in pots seven and a quarter wide by six and a half deep. Bald-
wm plants his nursing plants in the bark-bed, without pots.

2729. Temperature of nurdng-plants. Speechly does not mention his summer tem-
perature for nursing-plants, farther than referring to a peculiar thermometer which he
used, and "made for sale ;" but he .says, after the beginning of November, " the house
should be kept m a cold state, and little or no water given the plants till the middle or
latter end of Januar)^" ( Treat, on the Pine, p. 39.)

Book I. PINERY. — NURSING DEPARTMENT. 519

2730. ^6ercro»M6/e Is more definite : "The artificial heat in the nursing-pit is 55? for the minimum.
This will keep the plants, in winter,, secured from a check, and a few degrees above a dormant state. It is
enough to aim at this minimum, when dung-heat is employed ; for as its decline is never abrupt, there is no
danger in going pretty close to the lowest extreme. When fire-heat is applied, it is better to aim at 60*>,
as the charge in the flues is more liable to fluctuate suddenly. The maximum artificial heat, in winter
need not go beyond 65° : but as the season for excitement advances, this becomes the minimum. When the
plants are growing vigorously in autumn, or spring, the artificial maximum is 70". In winter, the maxi-
mum, with the aid of sunshine, should not be allowed to rise higher than 10°, because the benefit of airing
would be lost : in summer, the maximum, under the effect of strong sunshine, may rise to 85° ; to keep it
down to this, give, in July and August, the l)encfit of air freely."

2731. M'Phail says, " The heat of the air in the nursing-pit, exclusive of sun-heat, is not required to be
greater than from 6<J° to 65°." But at first planting of crowns and suckers, he gives them " a great heat
and no air till they begin to grow." {Gard. Rem. 81. 319.)

2732. yicol directs the temperature of the nursing-pit in January with fire-heat, to be kept, as near as
possible, to 65°, mornings and evenings ; and in sunshine, on good days, it may be allowed to rise about
/0°. In March, from 70° to 80°, and after newly letting and plunging unstruck crowns and suckers, to 80"?
or 85°.

2733. Covering at nights. One great advantage of growing pines in pits is, that they
may easily be covered with mats, or by other means, in winter. Abercrombie considers
covering not positively indispensable to flued pits, in which the minimum degree of
fire-heat is regularly maintained; but it will add to the security of the plants, and
admit of some retrenchments in fuel, if some warmer screen, in addition to that of the
glass, is applied at night, during all the season when frost prevails, or may be expected.
For this purpose, provide either double mats, or a strong canvass cover. The latter is
commodious, because it can be mounted on rollers, and let down at will, or drawn up
under a weatlier-board. Remove the covering at sunrise, that the essential benefit may
not be obstructed.

2734. M'P/iaii covers his pits during the colder months. In January, he " covered up about three or
four o'clock in the afternoon, and uncovered in the morning about eight or nine. In very cold weather,
it may be necessary, sometimes, not to uncover them in the day-time, only as far as to give them a little
light"

2735. Xicol says, " The pit should be carefully covered up soon after sunset every evening, either with
double mats, or with a proper thick canvass cover, made on purpose for it, and mounted on rollers. Tfie
cover should be removed by sunrise in the morning, and should never be kept on through the day, except
occasionally, in very severe weather. For if all the light possible be not admitted to the plants, they lose
color, and become sickly. By using a proper cover, however, in the night, and only in very severe weather
in the day, at particular times, a considerable deal of fuel may be saved."

2736. Griffin, Baldwin, and Weeks offer nothing on covering any description of pine frame or pit.

2737. Air. When the weather is warm, Speechly admits " a great deal of air" to
nurse-plants. Having potted unstruck offsets, Abercrombie admits little or no air until
tlie plants begin to grow ; but as soon as the leaves show that the root has struck, he
gives plenty of air, in order to make the leaves expand, and the entire plant robust.
{^Pr. G. p. 628.) Speaking of the winter treatment of pines, M'Phail says, " Admit
air in fine days into everj' place where pine-plants are." In warm summer weather, he
admits some all night. (G. Rem. p. 142.)

2738. Nicol says, " Air should be admitted to the nursing-pit every good day to a certain extent;
dividing the quantity admitted equally, that there may be a regular circulation in all parts of the pit. Even
in hard frost, when the sun shines, two or three of the lights should be slipped down, to let the rarefied air
escape at top." After potting unrooted offiets, he gives no air till the heat begins to rise in the bark-bed ;
but " as the plants take on grov^hs, it must be given in larger portions, especially in sunshine, so as to
keep down the thermometer to 85° or 80°." GrifiSn gives air at all favorable opportunities. Baldwin from
the back and ends, but not from the roof, either in summer or winter.

2739. Watering the nursing-pit. Speechly waters offsets over the leaves after they
have begun to strike, but gives to all pines much less water in a moist than a dry season,
depending on the humidity of the air. (Tr. on Pine, p. 37.) He waters once a week or
fortnight in September and October, and then leaves off till the middle or end of
January, depending on the moisture of the tan, and the state of inaction of the plants.
In frosty weather, he sometimes plunges the pots so deep in the tan that their rims
may be covered two or three inches in order to give heat, and prevent the surface of
the mould from becoming too dry. In March, he waters once in a week or ten days,
and advances to twice a week in summer. (Tr. on Fine, p. 47.)

2740. ^6ercmw6i^, after planting crowns and suckers, gives no water till " the heat of the bark has
risen, and the plants show signs of striking. Then water moderately at the root ; but give none over the
herb until the heart-leaves begin to grow. Meanwhile repeat watering at the root every four days.
After the plant is established, water freely at the root, and give sprinklings over the leaves from a fine

2741. M'Pkail says, " No certain rule can be laid down for the exact quantity of water that must be
given to the pine-apple plant, or how often ; nor is it necessary to be particular. These and many other
matters must be left to the gardener who has the care of the plants." In July, " besides watering the
earth in the pots in which the roots of the plants grow, when it begms to get dry, the leaves and fruit
should be watered now and then, till they are all wetted, with clean water out of a fine-rosed pot ; the
water should be as warm as the medium heat of the air in the house. The best time to water over the
leaves, is about eight o'clock in the morning, or about four in the afternoon ; though it will do them no
harm to water them at any time of the day, if you keep the air in the house sweet, and up to a heat
strong enough for the growth of the pine-plant. The plants in this month will want water about once a
week; and if the weather be hot, perhaps oftener. However, it is rare that pine-apple plants require
water oftener than twice a week." . ,, . ,.^, , ...

2742. Nicol says, nurse-plants require very little water in winter ; perhaps a little only once ui eight

L 1 -1

520 PRACTICE OF GARDENING Part III.

or ten iters, or even at greater intervab, if the weather be moist and hazy. It is safer i" winter, to give
?oo mS'^r'alLr ti,an too much ^vater th pine-plants nor ^ho^'d they be watered over h«ad|;th'S season^
Thev should be watered in the forerjoon of a sunny day, at this time of the year, in order tnat any water
J&n thTba?kT or in the helrts of the plants, ma'y bl' exhaled by the heat of the «"" and by an extra
oViantitvof airnurnoselv admitted. This precaution, however, is only necessary for the sake of such
^roTns^and sucC a'have been struck late last season, and are not very well ^^^ed ; such being more
aptto damp oft'than otliers that are better established." In summer he supplies water jegular ly and
plentifully once in three days; giving the proper quantity at root, and then a dewing over the leaves.
Water frequently with the draining of the dunghill.

2743. Temperature of the water. M'Phail says, « Eighty degrees is the medium
heat of the water with which pines should be watered." He adds, " I would advise
never to water them with water under seventy, unless in very warm weather, when the
earth about their roots will soon regain its natural warmth." {G. Rem. p. 128.)

2744. Steaming. M'Phail obtains this in summer " by sprinkling the flues and paths
now and then with clean water in the afternoon, and shuts up the houses with a strong
heat in them." {G. Rem. p. 240.)

2745. Shading. This, all the authors quoted, agree in recommendmg durmg bnght
sunshine, after newly potting offsets. Abercrombie says, " shade them with thin mats
in the middle of hot days ; dividing the hours before and after twelve, so as to amount
to a fourth of the morning, and a third of the afternoon." {Br. G. p. 629.) Speechly
approves of shading, and effects it in an ornamental and useful manner by training vines
on the rafters.

2746. Shifting nurse-plants. " Offsets planted early in the season," Speechly says,
"should be carefully looked over in September, and all the forward crowns and
suckers that are grown large, and with an appearance of being under-potted, should
be removed into larger-sized pots, witli their roots and bulbs entire." (Tr. on Fine,
p. 38.)

■ 2747. Abercrombie says, " When offsets have been potted in July or August, remember by October to
examine the roots of the most vigorous plants. Should any have filled the pots, shift them into larger ;
but new roots will not often have filled the pots at that inconvenient period." {Pr. G. p. 625.)

2748. M'Phail does not shift unstruck crowns and suckers, planted in the end of August or September,
till the following March or April, and pots with entire balls like Nicol.

2749. Nicol new-pots offsets planted in summer in the following March. " Let them be shaked out
entirely ; the balls be quite reduced ; the roots be trimmed of all straggling and decayed fibres ; and let
them be replaced in the same, or in similar pots. The proper size of pots, however, in which to put
crowns and suckers struck last season, is about four inches inside diameter at top, and six inches deep.
A little clean gravel should be laid at the bottom of each pot, in order to drain off extra moisture, and
this should be observed in the potting of pine-plants of all sorts. I have generally observed, that if the
bark-heat be not violent, the plants will push very strong fibres into this stratum of gravel, in which they
eeem to delight. I therefore generally make it two inches thick in small pots, and three or four in larger
ones, less or more, according to their sizes. From the time 1 first adopted this mode of potting, I hardly
ever had an instance of an unhealthy plant ; and this very particular, together with that of keeping the
plants always in a mild bottom heat, is of greater importance in the culture of pines, than all the other
rules that have been given respecting them, out of the ordinary way. The roots of pines seem to delight
in gravel ; and 1 have been careful to introduce it into the mould for plants of all ages. I generally
useti small sea-giavel, in which was a considerable proportion of shells, or chips of shells, with other
jjarticles of a porous nature ; and I have uniformly observed the finest fibres cling to these, and often
insinuate themselves through the pores, or embrace the rougher particles. Therefore, if sea-gravel can
be obtained, prefer it ; and next, river-gravel ; but avoid earthy pit-gravel, and rather use sharp sand, or
a mixture of pounded stone, chips, and brick-bats. The plants being repotted, plunge them in the
bark-bed again, quite down to the rims of the pots, keeping them perfectly level. Eight or nine
inches from centre to centre will be distance sufficient. When they are all placed, give a little aired
water, to settle the earth about their roots. This need not be repeated till the heat in the bed rise to the
pots, after which, as the plants will now begin to grow freely, they must be watered at the root once in
four or five days j and they may have a dewing over head, from the fine rose of a watering-pot, occasion-
ally, if the weather be fine."

2750. In May, Nicol again shifts, " but the plants are not to be shaken out at this time, but are to be
shifted, balls entire, into pots of about six inches diameter, and eight inches deep. If the roots be any-
wise matted at bottom, or at the sides, they must be carefully singled out ; and in potting, be sure that
there be no cavity left between the ball and' the sides of the "new pot. In order the more effectually to
prevent which, use a small, blunt-pointed, somewhat wedge-shaped stick, to trindle in the mould with ;
observing that it be in a dry state, and be sifted fine ; and also to shake the pot well (potting on a bench
or table), the better to settle the earth about the ball. Pots of this size should be filled to within half an
inch of their brims (the balls being covered about an inch with fresh earth), as the whole will settle
about as much, and so leave a full inch for holding water, which is enough. In preparing the i)lants for
potting, observe to twist off a few of the bottom leaves, as they always put out fine roots from the lower
|)art of the stem. Also, before letting the plant out of hand, trim off the points of any leaves that may
nave been bruised or anywise injured in the shifting. Replunge the pots to the brim, as before, observing
to keep them quite level, at the distance of fifteen inches from centre to centre of the plants on a medium ;
then give a little water, which need not be repeated till the heat rise to the pots."

2751. Nicol, in November, shifts such others whose roots have filled their pots, and have become any-
wise matted. " Examine any you suspect to be so, and let them be shifted into pots of the next size im-
mediately above those they are in ; keeping the balls entire, and only singling out the netted fibres at
bottom. The rest should be trimmed of any dead leaves at bottom of their stems, and should have a
little of the old mould taken from off the surface of the pots ; which replace with fresh earth ; filling the
pots fuller than usual, as but little water will be required till next shifting time in the spring. The
whole should then be replaced in the bark-bed as before, and should be plunged quite to the rims of the
pots ; giving a little water to settle the earth about their roots, which need not be repeated till the heat
rise in the bed."

2752. Insects and diseases. See this article under Getiero? 2)iVfcfjo?i5. (Subsect. 8.)

Book I. PINERY. — SUCCESSION DEPARTMENT. 5si

SuBSECT. 6. Succession Z)epartment,

2753. TTie culture of succession jrine-plants necessarily coincides in many particulars
Trith that of nurslings ; but less heat is generally allowed the former in order not to
draw them ; and they are allowed plenty of room in the bed, frequently shifted, and
abundance of air admitted, in order to make them broad-bottomed and bushy : thus
strengthening the heart or root part, in order that it may throw up a strong fruit tlie
second or third year.

2754. Grounng succession jilants without fire-heat. M'Phail says, « Succession pine-
plants grow exceedingly well in pits covered with glazed frames, linings of warm dung
being applied to them in cold frosty weather. The north wall of a pit for this purpose
had best be only about four feet above the ground ; and if about two feet high of it, the
whole length of the wall, beginning just at the surface of the ground four feet below the
height of the wall, be built in the form of the outside walls of my cucumber bed, the
lining will warm the air in the pit more easily than if the wall were built solid. The
linings of dung should not be lower in their foundation than the surface of the tan in the
pits in which the plants grow (for it is not the tan that requires to be warmed, but tlie
air among the plants) : and as during the winter the heat of the air in the pit among the
plants, exclusive of sun-heat, is not required to be greater than from sixty to sixty-five
degrees, strong linings are not wanted : one against the north side, kept up in cold
weather nearly as high as the wall, will be sufficient, unless the weather get very cold in-
deed, in which case a lining on the south side may be applied. In cold, frosty weather,
a covering of hay or straw, or of fern, can be laid on the glass above mats in the night-
time."

2755. Most nursery?nen and growers of pines for the London tnarket employ dung-beds of the common
kind, keeping up the heat by powerful linings. The same practice is successfully adopted by Miller and
Sweet, of Bristol. Baldwin combines the nursing and succession beds, growing both on tan with dung.

2756. Shifting and potting. The middle of INIarch Speechly considers the most eligi-
ble time for shifting and potting such nurse-plants as are to be removed to the succession-
house. " If the work is done sooner," he says, " it will prevent the plants from striking
freely ; and if deferred longer, it will check them in their summer growth." — In this
shifting, he '* always shakes off the whole of the ball of earth, and cuts off all the roots
that are of a black color, carefully preserv-ing such only as are white and strong. He
then puts the plants into pots eight inches and a half diameter at the top, and seven
inches deep, in entirely fresh mould. The bark-bed is renewed, the pots plunged to
the rims, the house is kept pretty warm, till the heat of the tan arises ; the plants are then
sprinkled over the leaves with water, and watered first once a week and afterwards twice
a week, till next shifting in the beginning of August, when they are shifted into fruiting-
pots with tlieir balls entire. The size of these pots is eleven inches and a half at top by
ten inches deep."

2757. Abercrombie observes, that most of the remarks on the nursing-house will apply to the succession-
pit. " Sometimes the plants, originated in the nursing-pit in August or September, will be fit to bring into
the succession-house in March or April following; and sometimes not till the anniversary season. Those
from late fruiterers, originated in March, will be most established by the end of summer."

2758. Introductory shijiing. Where at the first shifting of rooted plants, they are
transferred to this department, proceed as in nursing-pit, except in regard to the size of
the pots, which should be twenty-four inches, or about seven inches across, and nine
deep. When tlie plants are a year old, and the shifting for culture here is the second or
third, begin as before : — make arrangements to complete the business in one day. Be
prepared with a bed of lively tan, tlie number of pots, the compost for pines, and some
clean sea-gravel or shivers. As each plant is taken from the nursing-pit, tie the leaves
together. Turn them out of the old pots singly. Then proceed as follows : — Shake off
the ball of mould. Strip off a few of the lower leaves. Cut the roots off entirely : fur-
ther, if the roots are scanty, or decaying, prune away a small portion of the stem, cutting
into the quick. Pot the plants ; plunge them in tlie tan, not entirely to their rims, till
the new heat rising from the bark can be ascertained. Leave about five inches space
between each. Keep them under a strong heat ; and forbear to give water, or to admit
cold air, till the plants have struck root.

2759. Intermediate shifting. When plants are to remain in the succession-house a
year, shift them in the March following their introduction. Let the fresh pots be. full
eight inches in diameter, and ten inches deep. It is one of the most availing precau-
tions against the premature fruiting of pines, to allow rising plants a capacious bed, and
free space for the herb to expand. In turning healthy plants, now, out of the old pots,
endeavor to preserve the ball of earth entire. But where plants appear to be sickly,
to be infested with insects, or to have bad roots, brusli away the old earth entirely : then
Avith a long knife trim the longest fibres ; and if any part of the main root be unsound,

522 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

cut it away. Strip off some of the lower leaves. Replant in the new pots. Set tlie
plants in the bark-bed, leaving the pots partly out, lest the first heat should be too
strong. There should be a distance of seven inches from pot to pot. Water full-rooted
plants gently, to settle the mould. Plants divested of roots are not at present to receive
Avater.

2760. Second intermediate shifting. The roots of large plants which were shifted in
March should be examined at the end of May, or in June. If they have filled the pots,
it will be necessary to shift them into pots of an increased size, so as to admit new com-
post to the extent of an inch ail round the old ball. The diameter of the cradle at top
should be nine inches ; the depth twelve, including an inch of pearly gravel at the bottom.
If the roots are matted, carefully disentangle them : prune off old fibres, or not, ac-
cording as the root has been spared or retrenched. In all cases, cut away unsound parts
of the root, and slip off a few of the oldest leaves. After replanting, distribute the pots
eight inches apart over the surface of the bed, without plunging them to their full depth,
till the heat of the renewed tan is ascertained.

2761. M'Phail says, " If in March you have any nurse-pines a year old, shift and repot them at this sea-
son. Having a bed prepared for them, strong enough to raise a good heat, take the plants and tie their
leaves together carefully; then turn them out one after another, and cut all their roots off close to the
stem ; and if the stems of them be bare of roots, or apjiear rotting or black, cut a part of them off up to the
quick. Rub the mould clean from the stems, divest them of a few of the lower leaves, and pot them in
good rich mould, in small pots suitable to the size of the plants, and plunge them in the tan up to their
rims. Let all this work be done in one day, if it be convenient. Keep a strong heat about them, and give
them no air nor water till they have struck root and begin to grow ; but remember, the earth should be
moist in which they are potted, for no plants can make shoots without moisture. When large succes-
sion plants have been divested of their roots, and potted in the month of March, they will probably by this
time have tilled the pots with roots ; if so, they ought to be shifted into pots a size larger, just large
enough to admit of mould falling easily round their ball. If they were not shifted when the roots begin to
get matted, it would check them, and probably make them fruit in August or September. In August or
September, the plants are again shitted into pots large enough to admit earth easily round their balls be-
tween their roots and the sides of the pots." In these ix)ts, he lets the plants remain in general till the
fruit is over. (Gard. Rem. 82.)

2762. M'Phail and Speec/i/y agree in remarking, that " some large kinds of pine-apple plants require
three seasons to grow before they can bring large-sized fruit, such as the black Antigua, the Jamaica, the
Ripley, &c. ; therefore, in the month of April or May, after they have been planted upwards of a year, it
is best to take them out of the pots, and to cut off all their roots close to the stem, or leave only a few
which are fresh and strong, and then plant them again in good earth in clean pots, and plunge the pots in
a tan-bed with a lively heat in it. After this process a stronger heat than usual must be kept in the house,
till the plants have made fresh roots and their leaves be perceived to grow, when a little water may be
given to them, which, together with a good bottom and top heat, will make them grow finely."

2763. Nicoi recommends a general potting of the succession plants in August, when the fruit are all or
nearly all cut ; removing the old stocks from which the fruit had been cut to make room for them in the
fruiting-pit. " The nurse-plants now become the succession ; the succession the fruiters for next season,
and the crowns and suckers produced by the plants whose fruit have been cut, occupy the nursing.pit."
(Ka/. 410.) The succession plants, before removal into the fruiting-pit, must be shifted into pots of about
eleven or twelve inches diameter, and fourteen or fifteen inches deep. The plants should be plunged en-
tirely in old tan to within an inch or two of their brims, keeping them quite level, and eighteen or twenty
inches centre from centre. Great care must be taken to keep the heat of the bark-bed moderate and
steady, lest the plants should start into fruit, which, if they did, tliey would be next to lost. I would
rather have a one-year-old than a two-year-old plant show now, as the loss would evidently be less; but
frequently the former will bring a better fruit than the latter in the end of the season. Some of the succes-
sion plants, potted from the nurse-pit in August, may require repotting in November ; but, in general, not
till March, when the plants are to be shaken out of their pots, and replaced in the same or similar pots
(seven or eight inches diameter, by nine or ten deep) in fresh mould, placing some gravel at bottom. The
plants are then to be replunged (the bark-bed being refreshed, &c. agreeably to the general mode of man-
agement laid down in Subsect. 8.) at the distance of fifteen inches from each other. In this state they re-
main till May, when they are reshifted with their balls into pots a size larger (nine or ten inches diameter,
and twelve deep), and plunged till August, when they are shifted into fruiting-pots (eleven or twelve
inches diameter, and fourteen or fifteen deep) and removed to the fruiting-pit as above described.
(Kai. 413.)

2764. Griffin shifts his succession plants for the second time, in March, into pots nine inches in dia-
meter, by eight inches deep, " turning each singly out of its present pot, with the ball of earth entire
around its roots, unless any appear unhealthy or any ways defective, when it is eligible to shake the earth
from the roots, and trim off all the parts that appear not alive. He plunges them in the bark (refreshed
as at each shifting) eighteen inches from plant to plant in the row, and twenty inches' distance row from
row." It is to be observed here, that Grittin's practice, in not divesting the plants entirely of their balls of
earth at this shifting, agrees with Baldwin's, but differs from that of all the other authors quoted. Griffin,
it is alleged, obtains larger fruit ; and Baldwin, by his practice, fruits the plants a year sooner, that is,
in fifteen and eighteen months.

2765. Baldwin takes up the crowns and suckers planted in the tan in September in the succeeding April •
divests them of all their roots, which " must not," he says, « be taken off at any future transplanting,'*
and put mto pots of five, six, or seven inches' diameter, according to the size of the plant. About the mid-
dle of the following June, when the pots are beginning to be filled with roots, take out the plants with
their balls entire, and put them into ix)ts about nine inches in diameter ; replunge them into your bed, and
let them remain till the end of September. {Cult, of Anan. p. 15.)

2766. The practice of shaking of the balls of earth, and cutting off the lowe?- roots of pines
in the second year's spring shifting, has at first sight an unnatural appearance, and vari-
ous theorists, and some gardeners, recommend shifting the plants from first to last with
their balls entire. On attentively examining the pine-plant, however, it will be found, that,
in its mode of rooting, it may be classed with the strawberry, vine, and crowfoot, which
throw out fresh roots every year, in part among, but chiefly above the old ones. This
done, the old ones become torpid and decay, and to cut them clear away, if it coidd be
done in all plants of this habit, would no doubt be assisting nature, and contribute to the

Book I.

PINERY. — SUCCESSION DEPARTMENT.

523

growth of the new roots. At the same time, it is to be observed, that encouraging, in an
extraordinary degree, the production of roots, though it will ultimately increase the vigor
of the herb and fruit, will retard their progress.

2767. On shifting with the balls entire, Speechly has the following judicious observ-
ations, which coincide with those we have above submitted : —

2768. First, It is observable, that the pine-plant begins to make its roots at the very bottom of the stem,
and as the plant increases in size, fresh roots are produced from the stem, still higher and higher ; and the
bottom roots die in proportion : so that, if a plant in the greatest vigor be turned out of its pot as
soon as the fruit is cut, there will be found at the bottom a part of the stem, several inches in length,
naked, destitute of roots, and smooth : now, according to the above method, the whole of the roots
which the plant produces being permitted to remain on the stem to the last, the old roots decay and
turn mouldy, to the great detriment of those afterwards produced. Secondly, The first ball which
remains with the plant full two years, by length of time will become hard, cloddy, and exhausted of its
nourishment, and must, therefore, prevent the roots afterwards produced from growing with that free-
dom and vigor, which they would do in fresher and better mould. Thirdly, The old ball continually re-
maining atiter the frequent shiftings, it will be too large when put into the fruiting-ixit, to admit of a suffi-
cient quantity of fresh mould to support the plant till iU fruit becomes ripe, which is generally a whole
year from the last time of shifting.

2769. Temperature. Speechly approves of ratlier a lower top and bottom heat for
pines in the winter season than what some later authors recommend. " There is nothing
so prejudicial to the pine-apple plant, (insects and an overheat of the tan excepted,) as
forcing them to grow by making large fires, and keeping the hot-house warm at an im-
proper season, which is injudiciously done in many hot-houses. It is inconsistent with
reason, and against nature, to force a tropical plant in this climate in a cold, dark season,
such as generally ha^jpens here in the months of November and December ; and plants
so treated, will in time show the injury done them ; if large plants for fruiting, they
generally show very small fruit-buds with weak stems ; and, if small plants, they seldom
make much progress in the beginning of the next summer." *' In the hot regions,"
Abercrombie observes, " to which the pine-apple is indigenous, the growth of the herb
and fruit proceeds, at all times of the year, as the new plant may happen to spring, and as
the advancement of the herb, and the expansion of the organs of fructification follow at
natural intervals. Thus the rising and intennediate pines have, at home, the same heat
as fruiting plants. As the force of the climate is always equal to conduct tlie plant to
the next stage, whatever the present may be, nature's plants always show their blossoms
opportunely ; and the fruit is swelled to perfection, however different periods of growtli
in plants of one family fall together. But, under a course of artificial culture, although
a similar promiscuous succession may go on, and be cherished to the end of fruiting with-
out miscarriage ; yet to let the critical periods of growth fall in winter, without any failure
of the crop, or debasement of the fruit, requires so much additional expense and attend-
ance, that our cultivators of pines endeavour to keep the 7nain stock of established plants
just vegetating in winter, and to bring the time of full expansion in the herb, and as
much as may be of the long and trying time of fructification, to coincide with the spring
and summer of this climate. The dependence of the plant on artificial excitement is
then so much less. Hence, though it is contrary to the free progress of nature, the suc-
cession pines are kept under a temperature ratlier lower than that of the nursing -pit, in
order that while the complete developement of the herb is provided for, the plant may not
be excited into fruit prematurely in regard to its age, nor unseasonably as to the course of
the natural climate during the period which the fruit will take to ripen."

2770. Tfif viinimum tempirature for succession plants,
on which the preservation of a gentle course of growth de-
pends, cannot be safely reduced lower than that which is
specified under Temperature in Nursing Department. But
it is important to carry the maximum, as it respects both
fire-heat, and the accumulation of sun-heat in the cham-
ber, no higher in this than is fixed for that department,
and rather to aim at a maximum from two to five degrees
less intense. Thus the double object, of avoiding to excite
the plants too strongly, and of giving air at a good oppor-
tunity, will be consulted. {^See the Table.)

Till. M'P/iait &ays, " Let the succession pine-plants have
about the same degree of heat to their roots in the tan-bed,
and in the air of the house about them, as I have recom-
mended for the fruiting plants ; viz. from 80 to 100 at the
bottom of the pots, and from 65 to 80 in the atmosphere of
the house. Some writers," he says, " recommend that a
less heat be given to succession plants than to fruiting ones.
I can see no reason for making the difference, nor did I
make a practice of doing it, except to young plants in
winter, in pits without fire-heat, which at that season could
not at all times be kept to that degree of heat which might
be done by the influence of fire. When succession plants
are kept in a less degree of heat than that necessary for fruiting them, they require a longer time to bring
them to a proper size for producing large fruit ; and of course the expense of rearing them is greater
than when they are kept in a vigorous growing state. Nothing better suits a pine-apple, nor any fruit-
bearing plant, than to keep it in a vigorous growing state, from the time it is planted till it ripen its fruit."

Standard for the Thcrmomel
Succession - House.

MINIMUM. 1

MAXIMUM. 1

From the

From the

Climate

From Ar-

From

Climate

and Tan

tificial

Sunshine

andDung-

with Fire

Heat.

and con-

heat.

when ne-
cessar)-.

linedAir.

Sept.

65

65

68

75

Oct.

58

62

64

70

Nov.

55

60

62

68

Dec.

55

60

62

65

Jan.

55

60

62

66

Feb.

58

60

65

70

Mar.

60

65

68

70

.-Vftiy

62

65

68

70

64

66

68

72

June

66

66

68

75

July

68

68

68

80

Aug.

70

70

80

{Oard.Rem. 126) „ . , ,. ^ ,

2772. Kicol says, " The temperature in January by fire-heat should be kept as near to 60* as possible,
and even in sunshine, should not be allowed to pass 65°, lest the plants start into fruit." In May, he in-

j52;* PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

creases the heat to between 65" and 70° in the night. In August, he keeps down the thermometer to 75®
or 80" in the day-time. In September, he returns to 65° in the night, and 70" or 72" with air in the day.
In October, he descends to 60" mornings and evenings, and 65" in sunshine.

2773. Griffin differs from the above authors in recommending 60" as the heat proper for the pine in every
stage, not exceeding five or six degrees over or under. The bottom heat he considers proper, is from
90 to 100 degrees ! {Tr. on the Pine, p. 60. 66.)

£774. Baldmin does not mention at what temperature hekeej>s his succession-pit.

2775. Covering at nights. Where succession plants are grown in pits or frames, this is
allowed on all hands to be most'advantageous, by saving fuel, and preventing the risk of
an injurious cooling, which in pits and houses warmed by fire, and unprotected but by
the glass, will sometimes happen under the best management. Practical men recommend
mats, canvass, litter, &c. laid on the frames ; but a great improvement consists in keep-
ing the covering of whatever nature, and especially if of mats or canvass, at not less than
six inches on the principle experimentally illustrated by Dr. Wells in his Essay on Dew ;
Leslie, in his experiments on concentric cases (Essai/ on Heat), and derivable from the
fact known to scientific men (See Young's Lect.), that heat follows the same general laws
as light.

2776. Speechly and Nicol complain of the great breakage of glass, by covering with mats, litter, &c.

2777. Seton adopts portable covers of straw, arranged in the manner of thatch, and which may be com-
pared to the panels of reed fences or screens. They are formed on four laths, fixed at the same width as
the pit or frame one way, and not more than four feet apart the other. The chief advantage is, that as the
water runs off the thatch, the interior remains perfectly dry, so that there is no consumption of heat by
the creation of vapor in those parts which are near the glass ; " whereas mats, cloth, loose straw, and
other similar coverings become impregnated with moisture every night from dew, rain, or snow, and the
evaporation which is thereby constantly generated, and greatly augmented by the contact of the warm
glass, causes a vast and continued drain of heat." Another advantage is the facility with which thev may
be put on and taken off, and the little risk there is of breaking glass during these operations. {Hort.
Tra'.is. iii. 296.)

2778. Air. Speechly considers a due proportion of air as essential to the goodness of
pine-plants. The want cf it will cause them to grow with long leaves and weak stems ;
and too great a quantity, or air given at improper seasons, will starve the plants, and cause
them to grow yellow and sickly. Little air will be wanted in winter ; but letting down
the glasses, even for a few minutes in the middle of the day, should never be neglected in
fine weather, to let out the foul air. This will cause the plants to grow with broad leaves,
and stiff and strong stems, provided they have room in the bed. Air may be admitted
all night in the hot season, care being taking that the glasses are left in such a manner as
to prevent the rain, in case any falls, from coming on the plants. ( Tr. on the Pine,
p. 75.)

2779. Abercrombie gives abundance of air in July and August, but with due caution the rest of the year.

2780. M'Phail admits more or less air every fine day during spring and autumn, and abundance in the
summer months, which is also the practice of Nicol, Griffin, and Weeks. Baldwin seems to admit air
rather more sparingly than these gardeners.

2781. Water. Speechly disapproves of ever giving a great quantity of water at one
time to the pine-apple plant, in any stage or at any season. Too much causes the mould
in the pot to run together and become hard and cloddy ; and, independently of this,
glutting a plant with water will rob it of its vigor, and reduce it to a weak state.
Hence, though keeping of plants too dry is certainly an error, it is not attended with the
same fatal consequences as the contrary practice. Watering the walks and flues, &c.
in an evening, in order to raise a kind of artificial dew, is in imitation of what takes
place in the West Indies, where no rain falls in the summer for many months together,
and the plants are wholly supplied with moisture from the dews. Gentle summer
waterings over the top are founded on this principle. " Plants lately shifted into the
pots, till their roots get matted, do not require so much water as before their shifting.
Plants that are in large-sized pots, in proportion to the size of the plants, do not require
so much water as plants that are under-potted. Plants that are in hard-burnt pots, made
of strong clay, do not require near so much water as plants in pots less burnt, and made
of clay with a good proportion of sand intermixed. The latter are greatly to be preferred.
Plants in a vigorous growing state require very frequent and gentle waterings. But
plants with fruit and suckers upon them require most of all. When plants are watered
over their leaves, it should be sprinkled upon them only till every part is made wet,
which may easily !>e distinguished, as the water immediately changes the color of them
to a sad green. As the leaves stand in different directions, the best method is to dash
the water upon them backwards and forwards, on every side of the bed. Summer
waterings should always be given late in an evening ; but in the spring and autumn, the
forenoon is tlie proper time. Less water should be given in moist than in dry weather,
for reasons already given. In winter, when water by accident falls into the centres of
the fruiting plants, it should immediately be drawn out, which may easily be effected by
tlie help of a tin pipe of about three feet in length, one end of which should be no bigger
than the small end of a tobacco-pipe." Pond or river water, or water collected from
the roof of the hot -house, and retained within the house till it has attained its tempera-
ture, is to be prefened. (Tr. on the Pine, 81, 82.)

Book I. PINERY. — FRUITING DEPARTMENT. 525

2782. Abercrombif^ from March to September, gives most water, "keeping the mould during this season
constantly a little moist." In the other months he diminishes the quantity according to the season and
circumstances of the temperature, plants, &c. He uses soft water at TJ'', and gives it through a tube
composed of jointed pieces, so that it may be shortened at will, to prevent its falling into the hearts of
the plants. He also steams the flues occasionally,' and waters with drainings of the dunghill in the
growing season. {Pr. G. 627, 628.)

2783. M'P/iail says, " Of two evils, it is better to give pine-plants too little water than too much." He
gives little in the winter months, but more freely in summer. He sprinkles the leaves occasionally with clean
water, not less than 70 degrees warm, and shuts them down in the afternoon with a strong heat in the
house. He judges of the temperature of the water by taking a mouthful of it ; and if it feel neither hot
nor cold, it is in a good state, being upwards of 85 degrees. {Gard. Rem. 2.59.) " When you water your
pines, recollect that some sorts require less water than others ; the sorts called the queen and the sugar-
loaf require rather more water than those called Antigua, black Jamaica, and some others of the large-
growing sorts. In July succession pines require frequent waterings. It is a good sign to see plants
growing broad-leaved, and the water standing constantly in their hearts in the summer months, nor will
it hurt them at any time, if there be a sutficient degree of heat kept in the house. Water them
plentifully about once a-week all over their leaves with clean water, from 70 to 85 degrees warm.
The quantity of water pines require, depends somewhat on the condition of the tan in which the pots
are plunged. If the tan be in a dry state, and a strong heat in it, they will require more water than
when it is moist, and a less heat in it ; so that, in giving water, the person who manages them must be
able to conclude how often and what quantity of water the plants will need." {Gard. Rem.)

2784. Nicol waters succession plants once in eight or ten days in January, the quantity moderate, and the
time the forenoon of good days. He gives a little more in Februarj' and March, till August, when " the
waterings are to be forthwith regular and moderate, as it is not intended to force the plants into much
growth, it being supposed that they are now very healthy and strong." In October he lessens and retracts
the waterings, and during winter waters very moderately once in four, five, or six davs : but at the root
only. {Kal. 429.)

2785. Griffin waters moderately in winter, and more liberally in the growing season, from March till Oc-
tober ; want of water to keep the plants moist being one of the reasons of their premature fruiting.

2786. Baldwin gives no water to the young suckers planted in the tan, from September till April; but
after potting, waters two or three times a week during the summer, according as the temperature
maybe.

2787. Shading. " Succession pine-plants," Speechly observes, " do not make half
the progress in violent hot weather in the middle of summer, that they do later in the
season. In order to obviate the above inconveniencies, some persons cover their hot-
houses in the middle of the day, when the heat of the sun is violent, with bass mats
fastened to a rope, wliich may be moved up and down with great ease. But a better
mode, and which is frequently practised, is, to cover the glasses with a large net, which
admits the air to pass freely, and at the same time breaks the rays of the sun, and retards
their force, especially if the meshes of the net be not large. But if vines were judi-
ciously trained up to the rafters of tfie hot-house, there would be no need of either of the
last-mentioned coverings. The vdnes should be planted in the front of the hot-house,
and not more than one shoot trained to each rafter, part of which should be cut down t(f
the bottom of the rafters every season, by which means the roof of the hot-house may con-
stantly be kept thinly covered with young wood, and by having only one shoot to each
rafter, the vine-leaves will afford a kindly shade, and never incommode the pines ; for
the leaves fall, and the vines are pruned at a season when the hot-house most requires
sun."

2788. Abercrombie only shades new-potted plants till they have struck root He uses thin mats as in
the nursing.pit. [Pr. Gr. 629.)

2789. M'Phail uses no screens or covers for shades, but supposes his succession plants grown in houses
in which vines are trained under the rafters.

2790. Dressing tlie plants, &c. Most of the authors quoted agree in recommending
decayed or casually bruised leaves to be twisted off, if they are at the bottom of the
stem ; or such as grow on it carefully trimmed off with the knife. In the season of
free excited growth, Abercrombie says, " Midway between the times of shifting, take off
about two inches of the upper mould, and replace it by fresh compost." Remove all
fungi which grow out of the tan, and in general keep every part of the pinery at all
times clean and sweet.

2791. Insects and Diseases. See General Directions. (Subsect. 8.)

SuBSECT. 7. Fruiting DejmrtmerU.

2792. The culture of the fruiting dejmrtment embraces much of the culture of the
nursing and succession pits : but little difference, for example, is made in temperature,
air, and watering, till the last stage of the maturation of the fruit.

2793. Abercrombie observes " that the pine-apple can be carried even through the last stage without fire-
heat : but the fruiting-house is a department in which the aid of the furnace should least of all be
relinquished, unless some very great facilities for employing dung-heat, or some obstacles to the working
of a stove, attend the situation." This is frequently practised by nurserymen and market-gardeners, and
is quite practicable where abundance of dung for linings can be procured.

2794. Speechly savs, " Both the growth and size of the pine depend much on the construction and condition
of the stove in which they are cultivated. In many places small stoves of a particular construction (in
the which the pines stand very near the glass) are erected solely for the purpose of fruiting-houses.
These, from their being always kept up to a high degree of heat, are by gardeners usually termed
roasters. When there is such conveniency, it is customary, when any pine-plants show fruit m the large
stoves, to remove such plants (esi>ecially the most promising) directly into the fruiting-house ; where, from
the high degree of heat kept, they generally swell their fruit astonishingly."

2795. Griffin's house corresponds nearly with the roaster or small house of Speechly ; but Baldwin s seems

526 PKACTICE OF GARDENING Part III.

an improTcment, as being much smaller, losing less room in paths, and being comparatively easily
heated.

2796. Shifting and jmtting. Speechly shifts into fruiting-pots in August (see this
article under Succession Department), and afterwards, in the following March, divests
the plants of a few of their bottom leaves, renews the mould on the tops of the pots as
deep as can be done without injuring the roots, and fills up with fresh compost earth.
He says, " It is very injurious to the plants, and greatly retards the swelling of the fruit
to remove them after this season." (Tr. on Pine, p. 49.)

2797. Abercrombie diflfers from this author, in shifting in the spring after the plants show fruit : he says,
" The main set of plants from the succession-pit will usually be ready for the fruiting-hbuse in the course
of August. As to a criterion for removing full-grown pines ; shift them just as the roots have filled the
pot, so as to turn out whole. Late plants may not be in this state till October. The bark-bed, here,
must be renewed, as on every occasion of repotting plants : but to guard against an untimely show of
fruit, the strength of the new bark must be kept considerably below the extreme limit, and there should
be a layer of old bark to the full depth of the pots. For the large sorts, provide pots twelve inches in
diameter and fifteen inches in depth. For forward plants also, which you are apprehensive require free
space for the root and herb, to prevent them from fruiting too early, provide pots two inches wider and
three inches deeper than those out of which they are to be turned; but the additional room in the pots
should be no more than you may calculate the roots will fill up by the time at which you propose to have
them fruit. On the other hand, if you have any reluctant fruiters, when you transfer them to the
fruiting-house, postpone shifting them into new pots, in order that the impletion of the pot by the roots
may accelerate their fruiting ; or shift them into pots barely large enough to receive the roots, putting
them into mould rendered, by an increased quantity of river-sand and fresh loam, somewhat less rich
than the compost for pines in general : wiiichever of these courses may have been taken, as soon as they
show fruit in the spring, shift them into large pots, without disturbing the ball of earth ; and then fill
the side of the pot with the best mould. I^:iy in the bottom of the fresh pots clean shivers, or sea-gravel,
to the thickness of two inches, and as much compost as will keep the ball, or root, to be received, level at
top with the rim. At the shifting of plants that come from the succession-pit, twist off some of the
bottom leaves, as far as the ripened stem is ready to send out new roots. Turn out each plant with the
ball of earth entire ; set it in the new pot, fill the vacancy with compost, and raise the mould to the
lowest leaves by spreading compost over the ball ; leaving a hollow descent to the depth of the rim to
holdwater. Plunge the pots in the tan-bed, distributing those in the same range eight inches apart."

2798. Second shifting. " There is in general no second shifting ; but the plants remain
in the pots assigned at their coming from the succession-pit till the fruit is ripened.
But, 1. In the case mentioned above, there is sometimes a spring shifting. 2. When
plants which were regularly shifted, come into fruit early, and it is wished to retard them,
you may give them a second shifting in February', or at any time before the fruit has
attained half the full diameter ; putting them into pots one size larger, and proceeding, in
other respects, as at the introductory shifting. Though this acts as a temporary check,
the advantage of fresh mould contributes to swell the fruit. 3. To plants which are
sickly, or growing out of shape, the best remedy is, to shift them as soon as this is per-
ceived, changing the mould, and pruning away decayed parts of the roots as there may
be occasion. ' ' {Abercrombie. )

2799. M'Phail, with Speechly, shifts finally in August or September ; gives a dressing in March, and, in
general, does not move them again till they have ripened their fruit, unless to give more bottom heat.
Sometimes, however, plants intended for fruiting the following year, when shifted late in the autumn into
pots which their roots do not fill well before the month of Januarv, do not show fruit till late in the spring
or summer months. For this reason it is advisable, when they cannot be shifted early enough in the
month of August or begmning of September, so as to fill the pots with roots before the winter come on
to let them remam unshifted tdl the fruit appear, and the stem of it be grown to its full height and
then shift the plants mto larger pots, in the manner before directed, disturbing the roots of the plants
as httle as can be helped. After the plants are shifted, they must not get much water till the fresh
growth of the roots has somewhat exhausted the moisture of the fresh earth put round them. {Gard.

2800. A7co/ shifts finally in August, and top-dresses in February ; but plants that are imhealthy, feeble and
do not stand firm m their pots, should be shaken out entirelv, and be replaced in the same pots • trimminK
their roots according as they may need, but retaining all fresh healthy fibres. Any plants that have
already started into fruit, should also be shaken out, and be fresh potted, as above ; which, by the check
they receive, will keep them back to a better season of ripening, and bv the force of fresh earth make
them swell their fruit larger than they otherwise would have done. "l have thus new-potted 'plant«
even in flower, with very much success, and have swelled the fruit to a size far beyond my expectations'^'
of which fact any one may easily satisfy himself, by fresh-potting a few plants, and comparing their prol
gress with others treated in the ordinary way Let the plants be replunged to the brim as before, keep-
ing the pots quite level. If the plants be full-sized, and strong, they will require to be set at about
twenty inches apart from centre to centre, on a medium. Eut thev" should be sorted : the smallest
placed in front, and the largest at back, as in arranging plants on a stage, that they mav have an equal
share of sun and light As soon as replaced in the bark-bed, let them have a little water, to settle the
earth about their roots. In May he again top-dresses, « reducing an inch or two of the earth from off
the surface, and adding some fresh mould, which will invigorate the plants, cause them to push sur-
face radicles, and so keep, them the more firm and steady. This needs not be done, however to plants
whose fruit are nearly ripe ; but chiefly to healthy plants iiew-shown in flower, past the flowed, or^wfth
h«tf Z ^^"t'^f [ ^r."\ '^^I^^.'^.'k^ '■^'P,^'^^ •*" any that are unhealthy, and whose fruit are less than
^f u^K '''!.k' "^^ not hesitate to shift them, shaking them out, trimming their roots, and retaining only
healthy fibres. This is a very great improvement in the culture of pines, which I formerly praftised
have since advised, and have seen followed with much success." (Kal p 394 ) »"""eriy praciisen,
uJr\ ^J^" ''!'"-^' ^u"" ^^^ ^^^* *^"^^' ^" October, with the balls entire as before, allowing them in the bark
StP^n\n*r"^^'"'ijf%^^r P^^"* *°uP'^"*' ^"'^ *^° ^'^^ ^i^tance from row to row ; «X fTrst row
dlf mltTr! aXSch'el S '"^'"^ *^'"^ "^ '^""^ "^ ^"^ ^° °"-" "^^^ P°^« '^^ ^^^ ^'^ ^-^'^^^ '"-he'I

to?^at^mtLunhfnS thf nnlf t^/"H^^?*T^^^ ?"-*°uP°*' " °^^^°"^ f«"rteen inches diameter, at the
lop, ai nrst naif plunging the pots till the heat diminishes to a safe temperature He afterwards fill«

IS^n.'p 170 ""' '^"' ^"'^ ^'*' *^^ ^'^"*' '° '''"'^" ""*" ^^^^ '"•■" fruUed Sfor the table (ct«^

Book I.

PINERY. — FRUITING DEPARTMENT.

527

2803. Temperature. Speechly is not definite oa this subject ; but observes generally
that nothing is so prejudicial to fruiting plants as making large fires to force them to
grow in the winter season; the fruit-buds they send up are small, and the stems
weak. (Tr. on Pine, p. 41.)

Standard Temperature for the Fruiting.
House.

MINIMUM. 1

MAXIMUM.

From the

From

From the

Climate

From Ar-

SunUnne

<'limate

and Tan,

and con.

and Dung

with Fire,

tificial
Heat.

W

heat.

if neces-

Heated

Aug.

sary.

Air.

66

66

80

Sept.

62

62

m

75

iQct.

60

62

65

70

Nov.

55

68

60

65

Dec.

65

58

60

65

1 Whenever the Plants i

1 show Fruit, the Mini- (

mum should be 63 deg. 1

Jan.

60 63 '

65

70 1 75

Feb.

63

66

68 1

82

Mar.

65

67

70

84

^F^

65

67

72

86

65

68

76

88

June

68

68

75

90 1 96

July

70

70

75

100

Aug.

70

70

_

100

Sept.

66

66

72

98

Oct.

63

66

70

94

Nov.

63

66

68

86

Dec

63

66

68

82

Average Monthly Temperature qf M'FhatTs
Frmting-Houae.

280*. AbercriTmbie observes, "As long as it would be danger-
ous, or at least not desirable, to have the plants show fruit,
the temperature should be kept reduced to that of the suc-
cession-pit But a capital elevation, in the course of beat
maintained here, must be made for about eight of the last
months which the plants will remain in the house;
that is, just as it becomes fit to excite them mto fruit,
and during the whole period of fructification. In the an-
nexed Table, it will be observed, that August, September,
October, November, December, are set down twice.
Against the first series of these months is marked the
temperature at which it is proper to aim when the plants
have been transferred to the fruiting-house in the July
preceding, or the current August or September, in order
that they may not start into fruit at the beginning or
middle of winter. Contrasted with this, the second scries
respects a distinct pit appropriated to late fruiters ; plants
which have been removed from the succession-house
some months, and in which the object of culture is nearly
finished : however the decline of the natural season pro-
ceeds, a high course of heat must be continued, to ripen
the fruit on these. As to the maximum of artificial heat
for plants already in fruit, the degrees expressed are merely
to indicate, that it would be an unnecessary expense to go
higher ; but should the natural climate not supply a greater
heat, to go five or ten degrees higher, so far from being at-
tended with danger, would be beneficial to ripening pines,
particularly in allowing air to be given with greater security.
So the maximum in the last column is chiefly to be ob-
served for the sake of fresh air, which will do more good

than a greater heat. He adds : " The fruit will not swell off fine, if the heat from the flues be too
languid to support the prescribed minimum temperature, imtil the full dominion of siunmer sux>ersede
the aid of the furnace altogether."

2805. ypPhail has given tables of the temperature in
his hot-house, or fruiting-pinen.-, for every day in the
year, from which we annex the accompanying monthly
average. In January the thermometer stood at from
63 to G6 degrees in the morning ; from 68 to 85 de-
grees at noon ; and from 64 to 74 degrees in the even-
ing, and so on. On the tables from which the above is
extracted, M'Phail observes, " that the thermometer
was hung in the middle of the hot-house, shaded from
the direct rays of the sun." He does not oflTer these
tables as exact rules to be followed ; nor deny that the
pine-apple can be ripened in a different degree of
heat than that described; but he asserts, that such
heat and management as he recommends will bring the
pine-apple to good maturity. " Had I kept a register
of the thermometer another year, and compared it
with that which I kept for twelve months, and have herein given, there would have been a difference;
the heat of every day, week, or year, would not have been alike ; nor to cultivate the pine-apple, or any
other plant, is it necessary that it should be so."

2806. Sicol, in January, keeps the fruiting-pit at the same temperature as the succession department,
(from &J° tu 65",) lest the plants should start into fruit. In February, he requires a " lively, but not
violent bottom heat, in order to start the plants into fruit :" the temperature of the air he raised gradually
to 15°, not allowing the thermometer to pass 80". From 72" to 75" is his temperature for March and
April. In May, June, July, and August, he requires 75" mornings and evenings, and 80" or 85" at noon.
In September, after fire-heat becomes necessary, he keeps as nearly to 65" as possible, and in sunshine,
by the free admission of air, to about 70" or 72". In October, November and December, he lowers the
temix'rature to CO" mornings and evenings, and 65" in sunshine.

- 2807. Griffin, as before observed, endeavors to keep the air of his fruiting and succession houses as
near as possible to 60".

2808. Baldwin says, " The fruiting-house, during the winter, should be kept at about 70" ; it may be
left in the evening at about 75°, and it will be found in the morning at about 65", so that no attendance
during the night will be required." {Cult, of Anan. p. 19.)

2809. Covering at nights. Speechly observes, that many small hot-houses are covered by large sheets of
canvass, by the help of a roller and pulleys ; " but where hot-houses are large, this mode of covering
cannot so well be adopted ; therefore the most general method is to use light covers of wood, or frames of
wood, covered with painted canvass : the covering the whole of the roof of a hot-house in this manner is
very troublesome, and attended with great expense ; nor indeed is it absolutely necessary, as 1 have ob-
served above. When either of the above methods are practised, it should be done with discretion. In
many places the covers of the hot-houses are sometimes, in a snowy, dark, severe, or rainy season, per-
mitted to remain on for many days together, which is verj- detrimental to the plants, as they will in time
draw themselves weak by the continuance of such a practice ; for it is observable, that plants grow much
fa.ster in the dark than in the light ; and this is manifest from the progress of plants when first they arise
from seed, in the open ground, in tJie spring of the year, when they do not grow half so much in the day
as in the night. But here it must be observed, that the sun and light give maturity to the nightly pro-
gress of plants, and the want of them soon causes the plants to grow languid, weak, and, in time, to die.
It is also a bad practice to continue to cover hot-houses late in the spring of the year, which is injudici-
ously done in many places, even so late as the middle of the month of May ; for as the covers are seldom
taken off till after six o'clock in the morning (the hour' that laborers come to their work at most places),
it makes the hot-house night too long at that season of the year, when generally there are great numbers
of the fruit of the pine in blossom ; for it should be remembered that light, as well as warmth, is essen-
tially necessary to promote the growth of plants. In large double-pitted hot-houses, the covering of the
lower lights may be effected with great ease, and this is found to be of use on a double account ; first,
because the pine plants in the front pit, by standing very near the glass, are in the most need of covering in

weather ; and, secondly, because the front pit is generally used for succession plants, which require

Mom.

Even

Jan.

from

63 to 66

from

68 to 85

from

&lto74

Feb.

fiom

58 to 65

68 to 90

61to7C

Mar.

fiom

61 to 71

from

65 to 90

from

62 to 72

April

eOto78

from

66 to 96

from

65 to 72

.v'av

62 to 73

from

7.5 to 94

66 to 75

June

from

65 to 75

from

83 to 100

from

68 to 82

July

62 to 75

80 to 100

68 to 78

A.ip.

from

60 to 74

from

76 to 100

from

69 to 78

Se,.t.

from

62 to 78

from

75 to 100

from

67 to 79

oWr.-

69 to 74

from

63 to 96

60 to 72

Nov.

from

57 to 67

from

66 to 85

from

62 to 67

Dec.

from

52 to 65

from

55 to 68

from

5Sto65

528 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part IIL

to be shaded, after being shifted in the spring, whenever the weather U warm and clear, as I have before
observed in treating upon that head." , , . .^ j ^ • x... e

2810. In Biissia, the pine-stoves are frequently kept covered with boarded shutters day and night for
several weeks, and even as long as three months together. As the plants are then as nearly as possible
in a dormant state, it does not appear to injure them so much as a native of a more gemal climate would
imagine.

2811. ^ir. In Mdrch, when the plants are showing fruit, Speechly " admits a great
quantity of air into the hot-house, the want of a due proportion of which causes the stems
to draw themselves weak, and grow tall, after which the fruit never swells kindly."
{Tr. on Pine, p. 50.)

2812. Abercromble says, " Give plenty of air to plants in fruit, without a daily supply of which, they will
not swell to a handsome full size, nor acquire the elevated flavor which belongs to the pine-apple when in
perfection." (Pr. Gard. p. 64'i.)

2813. M'PkaU admits air whenever it can be done consistently with attention to the temperature. In
June, if the nights be cold, and the days cloudy, " you will have occasion for fires, otherwise you will
not be able to give air enough, and keep up the temperature." In July and August, abundance of air is
given, and some often left at the houses all night.

2814. A'ico/ admits air at all seasons, in fine sunshine weather, " freely, as the fruit approaches maturity,
ill order to enhance its flavor."

2815. Griffin gives air to the fruiting-house, " discretionally, in fine, mild, sunny days, from ten till about
two o'clock," and more freely in the summer season.

2816. Baldwin gives air " when the weather will permit, winter and summer, from the back and ends,
but never from the roof"

2817. Water. Speechly says, " As the fruit and suckers begin to advance in size, the
plants will require plenty of water to support them, which may be given them at least
twice, and sometimes three times a-week ; but too much should not be given them at
one time ; it is better to give them less at a time and oftener." As soon as the fruit
appears full swelled, tlie watering such plants as produce them should cease ; but it is
a general practice (in order to have the fruit as large as can be got,) to continue the
watering too long, which causes the fruit to be filled with an insipid, watery, and ill
flavored juice. ( Tr. on Pine, p. 52. )

2818. Abercromhie, between the times of watering plants in fruit, sprinkles the flues, but " suspends
watering over the herb till the olossoms are fairly set. Afterwards, while the fruit continues green, it
will be beneficial to give water now and then, over the herb, from a fine rose-pan : even departing winter
is some restraint upon this ; but after March has commenced, wash the herb perfectly clean every eight
days. Use soft water that has been warmed to the temperature of the house ; and, for two or three hours
after, have a maximum heat from the flues to exhale superfluous moisture. Moderate humidity and the
suitable degree of heat will make the young fruit swell apace. At seasons when the mid-day sua
has much power, it is best to water over the leaves as soon as the morning-sun is felt on the house, or two
hours before sunset The fruit will not swell off fine, if there be any deficiency in giving water. When
the fruit is well swelled, forbear to water over the fruit or leaves ; but it is still necessary to keep the earth
about the roots a little moist. Nor, when the fruit is pretty large, should water be poured into the
crowns so copiously as to stand in them more than one day. The different degrees in which the varieties
stand in need of water must not be forgottert. As the pine-apples begin to ripen, put them on short al-
lowance of water, for excessive humidity spoils the flavor of the fruit : begin the reduction by decreasing
the quantity ; for, in hot weather, frequent small supplies should be given on account of the suckers on
the plant, till consideration for the fruit forbid even sparing waterings, lest it should be rendered
insipid."

2819. WPhail says, " Let it be remembered, that while the fruit is in blossom, and for some days
afterwards, the plants should not be watered all over their leaves, neither should the plants be watered
all over their leaves nor fruit after the fruit is fully swelled, nor should the earth, in which the roots are,
be after that time kept very moist, for they do not require it, because the plant has nearly performed
its office, which it never has to do a second time." To water the fruiting pine-plants in winter; in
gloomy weather, when it is best not to water over the leaves, a small-sized watering-pot, with a long tin
pipe and a flat nose on the end of it, should be in readiness : the water should be at S^°, and never under
70". In January, they may require to be watered two or three times. The same in February. In March,
wash them once or twice over the leaves, till every part be perfectly clean. They may require to be
watered three or four times at root. In April and May, water over the leaves with water from 80*" to
90", and at bottom perhaps four or five times. In July, " when any of the fruit are full-swelled, do
not water them over the fruit or leaves ; but it is necessary even then to have the earth about their
roots moderately moist, otherwise the fruit would flag for want of nourishment. It should also be ob-
served, that after the fruit is swelled to a pretty good size, water should not be poured into the crowns
of the fruit so plentifully as to stand in them above a day or two." In August, when the fruit are
ripening, give no water.

2820. Nicol waters seldom in January, and not oftener than once in six or eight days in February.
In March, " water may be given oftener than heretofore advised, and also in larger quantities ; generallv
a moderate watering at root once in three or four days, and a dewing over head occasionally, to refresh
the leaves, and keep them clean from dust. From the time the plants are out of flower, and the fruit
begins to swell, water must be applied in a very liberal manner once in two or three days, alwavs giving
the necessary quantity at root, and then a dewing over head. Watering to this extent, however, if the
fruit be not in too forward a state, will seldom be necessary before the end of the month, or till April."
In April, " water must be given in a plentiful manner, once in two or three days, in order the better to
swell off the fruit. The roots have now much to do in sustaining it, and also the suckers, which will be
fast advancing in growth. For this reason, water frequently with dunghill drainings, or with water of
dung, soaked on purpose ; and after each watering at root, give a dewing over the leaves, as directed
above." In May, June, and July, " from the time the fruit begin to color, however, begin also to lessen
the quantity of water ; and towards its being fit for cutting, withhold water entirely, else the flavor will
be very much deteriorated I shall here observe, with respect to the difiterent kinds of pines, that the
queen and the sugar-loaf sorts require considerably more water than the king or Havannah, and the
Antigua. The difference in the manner of watering should be more particularly attended to as the
fruit approach to maturity ; as the latter-named kinds are naturally more juicy and watery than the
former." In August, the plants that have done fruiting being removed, the succession stock which re-
place them are to be watered freely at root, and occasionally dewed over top. In October and Novem.
ben the waterings are gradually lessened j and in December, once in eight, ten, or twelve days, will be
tutncient. (^a/.)

[

Book I. PINERY —FRUITING DEPARTMENT. 529

2821. Griffin never waters pines over the leaves in any stage, nor gives much at root in damp weather.
In other respects his practice agrees with that of Abercrombie and Nicol.

2822. Baldwin waters the plants in the fruiting-house cautiously till towards February ; but as tlie spring
advances, gives a larger supply. He adds, " Never water your plants in the common broad-cast method
over their heads and leaves." ^Cult. qf Anan. p. 21.)

2823. Treatment of the phmts in fruit. "Sticks," Speechly says, " should be provided t|
support the fruit before it is grown too large ; and in laying tliem, care should be taken
to leave bandage room sufficient, making allowance for the swelling of the fruit. When
the suckers are grown to about a foot in length they should be taken off, and from that
time the fruit will swell very fast." (Tr. on Pine, p. 51.) " Large fruiting plants," he
adds, " will sometimes show their fruit in the months of August and September, but
these are generally thought of no value, and consequently thrown away. To prevent
this, I frequently take such plants out of the hot-house as soon as their fruits begin to
appear. I then set them in a shed or out-house for five or six weeks ; at the ex-
piration of which time I pot them as in the month of March, after shaking off their balls.
After this I plunge them into the tan ; and in the month of March following put thena
into larger-sized pots, with their balls and roots entire. By this means I have sometimes
cut tolerably good fruit from such plants in the months of May and June following.
Such forward plants generally produce very fine suckers. Whenever the pine-plants are
removed after they are grown large, it will be of service, before they are taken out of
the tan-bed, to mark the side of tlie pots which stands next the sun ; for it is observable,
that the centres of the plants generally tend that way : so that the plants, when replaced,
may stand as they did before tliey were removed. I do not mean that it is at all neces-
sary for the plants to be put into the very identical places in which they stood before,
but, in point of position, it will be proper, and the plants will be benefited by being so
placed. This may as easily be done as placing them in a random manner, which is the
common metliod."

■ 2824. Abercrombie directs, " to keep the plants growing gently, and to have the pots, in general, com-
pletely filled with the roots by the time at which you intend to excite them into blossom. From the midc.le
of February to the 1st of March is a good time to have the main crop in flower ; as the prosi)ective season is
the finest About a month before you expect to see fruit, dress the plants by taking away two inches in
depth from the top of the mould. Twist off some of the lower leaves. FiU up with fresh compost, round
the stem, to the remaining leaves. The bark-bed should be revived at the same time, so as to make it
lively ; but no new tan should be added, till the time for the fullest heat arrives."

2825. M'Phail says, " It frequently happens that pine -apple plants designed to bear fruit, do not show
their fruit early enough in the spring or fore-part of summer, to ripen their fruit before winter, when there
is not sunshine enough to give the fruit any flavor. This may happen because the plants have not come to
a proper growth, or their roots may have been injured by too violent a bottom heat, or by being over-
watered, or they may have been shifted too late, or been put into pots too large for their roots to have filled
them before the end of the growing season. To make pine-plants show their fruit at an early time in the
spring, some authors have recommended the cutting off some of the roots at the autumn shifting; but
long experience has convinced me, that cutting off the roots, or destroying them by any means, instead of
making them show fruit, is an effectual mean to prevent them from showing fruit till they have again made
long roots. The fruit of the pine-apple is formed probably not less than seven or eight weeks before it
appears among the leaves ; and if a plant be divested partially or totally of its roots, its growth is stopped
till it has made roots of considerable length, when it will grow quickly. And, if before the roots were de-
stroyed, the fruit had been formed in the hidden secret centre of the plant, the fruit will grow and show
itself when the leaves of the plant, excepting those on the stem of the fruit, will make no appearance of
growing. This, perhaps, may be the reason which induces some persons to think that cutting off the roots
of the plant causeth it to fruit sooner than it would do were the roots suffered to remain. If pine-apple
plants, intended for fruiting the following year, be shifted late in the autumn into pots, which their roots
do not fill well before the month of January, they probably will not show fruit till late in the spring or
summer months." He top-dresses the pots, and trims plants in February, and uses every means to heat
water, &c. to keep them in a growing state during that month and March. If more than two or three
suckers begin to grow out of the stem, they should be destroyed, imless they are so near the earth as to
make roots into it, which will strengthen them without robbing the fruit " In June, the fruit, when it
gets large, should be supported with sticks to prevent it from falling, and to make the crowns grow up-
right on the fruit Were the fruit permitted to lean to one side, the crown in growing would force itself
upright, and when the fruit was ripe, the crown would stand crooked on it. If any of the fruit that
showed early are ripe, set the plants out of the fruiting-house, and replace them by any that may have
shown fruit among the succession plants." If in August you have any plants among your succession
pines which have shown fruit, as your fruiting plants are now ripe, set out the pots, and take those in
fruit from among your succession plants, to replace them. In November it may be well to have a few
plants start into fruit, which may come in at an early and very acceptable season. Some may yet be
green or not fully ripe, and should get no more water than what is necessary to keep them from flagging.
(G. Rem.)

2826. Nicol, in February, top-dresses and trims such of the plants as have not then shown fruit " Some
kinds of pine-apples put out suckers on the fruit-stalk, at the base of the fruit, which should be rubbed off
with the thumb as they appear, because they rob it of nourishment to a certain extent. If the object be to
have large fruit, aH suckers of the root, and all but two or three of the best of those rising from between the
leaves, should be destroyed. Those of the root may easily be twisted off, and the others may be destroyed,
or be prevented from growing further, by breaking out their heart-leaves, which is no difficult matter
while they are young, being then brittle. But if the increase of the stock be the object, all suckers of the
stem should be encouraged, and even some of the best of those from the root." (Kal.)

2827. Time required to fruit the jrine. All the authors quoted, excepting Baldwin,
and almost all cultivators of the pine-plant, require from two and a half to four years
from the planting of the crown or sucker to perfecting its fruit. The general period is
from two and a half to three years ; a fruit of the queen pine being gathered in August,
1819, and its crown planted a few days aftenvards, will, in the July, August, or Sep-
tember, 1 822, produce fruit. A strong sucker from the same plant taken off, as is fre-

INIra

530 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

quently the case, a month before the fruit ripens, and planted, will, in the end of 1821,
or early in the spring of 1822, ripen its fruit.

2828. Baldwin, however, accomplishes this by both crowns and suckers in a shorter period, and appears
to have great merit, not only in that, but in growing his succession plants without the aid of fire-heat. The
following are his observations on both subjects. " The New Providence, black Antigua, Jamaica, Enville,
and the other large sorts of ananas, will require the cultivation of three years to bring them to perfection ;
but the old queen and Ripley's new queen may be brought to perfection in fifteen months. To effect this
it must be observed, that some of the plants will fruit in February or the beginning of March, and conse-
quently that the suckers may be taken off in June, or the beginning of July. Make then a good bed of
tan with lining of litter round the outside, to keep in the tan ; make the bed to fit a large melon-frame ;
nut the suckers into pots of about nine inches diameter, filled with the compost ; plunge them in the bed,
prepared in regular order, and throw a mat over them in hot weather, for shade, till they have taken
root ; let them remain till the end of September, and then shift them into pots of about twelve inches dia-
meter, and plunge them in the fruiting-house. I have had fine crops of pines raised from these suckers,
many of them four pounds each, from plants only fifteen months old. This method, in point both of time
and expense, has greatly the advantage of the common plan of raising pines, in three years, by fires ; when
the fruit at last is frequently small and ill- flavored." It is a peculiar recommendation of this plan, that the
plants reared in frames, without fires, the first year seldom or never run to fruit ; whereas, on the con .
trary, where stoves are used, first for the nursery, next for the succession, and lastly for the fruiting
house, it is seldom that one third of the plants come to the fruiting-house, because so many of them have
run to fruit ; and even those that stand are necessarily dried and stinted, being subject to the attacks of
various insects ; not to mention the enormous care and expense attendant upon a three years' cultivation.
By this plan, "one third of the coals are sufficient, and less than one half of the usual labor and build-
ings." (Cult, of A7ia7i. p. 28.)

2829. Growing the fruit of an extraordinary size. Speechly and M'Phail say, " In March, to make some
of your fruit swell very large, prevent all suckers from growing on the plants. You may destroy them by
twisting out their hearts with a sharp-pointed stick, or a piece of iron about eighteen inches long. This,
however, should not be made a general practice."

2830. Abcrcrotnbie concurs in this practice, and adds, " A yet further advantage may be given to the swell-
ing of the fruit, by having a few of the lower leaves of the plaht taken off, and by putting a rim of tin, or
?ny thing else in the form of a hoop, round the top of the pot, sufficient to raise' the mould three or four
inches. The mould should be of the best quality, and constantly kept in a moderate moist state : this
may be done by having the surface kept covered with moistened moss. The roots of the pine-plant, es-
pecially those produced from the part of the stem just under the leaves, will then make a surprising pro-
gress, and the fruit will be greatly benefited by this expedient."

2831. W. Hogg, who has grown the largest pines next to Baldwin and Buchan, " in March, 1820, had several
of different sorts, which had been suckers taken from the parent plants in 1816, and which, under the usual
treatment, had become too large to receive proper sustenance while remaining in pots. To provide a fit place
for them, he cut a deep trench along the back of the bark-bed, into which he put a quantity of good earth,
and then turned the pines out of the pots into it, and filled up round the balls with mould of the same qua-
lity, which he covered lightly with tan. At the time a few only of the plants were showing fruit, but
they all (with the exception of one plant of the New Providence) fruited immediately, and extremely well,
yielding fruit from 3 lbs. to 5f lbs. each in weight. The plant of the New Providence continued growing
luxuriantly till the following February, when it showed fruit, which was cut in June, and weighed 91b.
4 oz. During the growth of this pine, it was twice nourished by a supply of fresh earth to its roots. " {Hort.
Trans, iv. 555.)

2832. Cutting ripe pines. " It is easy to know," Speechly observes, " when the pine
becomes ripe by its yellow color, yet they do not all change in the same manner, but
most generally begin at the lower part of the fruit ; such fruit should not be cut till the
upper part also begins to change, which sometimes will be many days after, espe-
cially in the sugar-loaf kinds. Sometimes the fruit will first begin to change in the
middle, which is a certain indication of its being ripe ; such fruit should be cut imme-
diately."

2833. Abercrombie says, " The indications of maturity are, a diflfhsive fragrance, accompanied by a change
in the color of the fruit ; most sorts becoming yellow, or straw-color ; others, dark-green, or yellowish tinged
with green. Cut pine-apples before they are dead-ripe, or the spirit of the flavor will be dissipated. Bring
away, with the fruit, above five inches of stalk ; and leave the crown adhering to the top."

2834. Nicol, " If pine-apples be not cut soon after they begin to color, that is, just when the fruit is of a
greenish.yellow, or straw-color, they fall greatly off in flavor and richness ; and that sharp luscious taste,
so much admired, becomes insipid."

2835. Retarding and keejnng fruit. " It sometimes happens," Speechly observes, " that
great part of a stove of plants will show their fruit at or near the same time, and with
the same treatment, would consequently become ripe too nearly together. To prevent
this, and bring them into a regular succession, when the fruit is nearly ripe, part of
the plants may be taken out of the stove, and set in a dry shady place ; as, for instance,
the stove-shed, where the pots should be covered with moistened moss, but no water
given them ; it must be observed, that every one of the plants must be taken into the
hot-house again, and set in the tan-bed for a week or ten days before the fruit is cut,
to give it a good flavor. When there is a variety of hot-houses, this caution is not
necessary."

2836. Abercrombie says, contrivances for retarding fruit, are sometimes resorted to, that plants which have
started too soon into fruit, may have a better season to ripen in ; and sometimes in order that a whole
crop may not come in at once. The former may be provided for by shifting early in spring, or at any time
before the fruit has attained half the full diameter ; and the latter inconvenience mav be thus obviated :

If you perceive the fruit ripening too fast, or advancing too nearly together, set as many plants as you
intend to retard into a dry airy place, affording both shade and shelter. Give no water as long as you
wish to suspend their progress. For the same purpose, others may be set out green j while the excite-
™ent of these is lowered, they must be kept in a growing state."

^37. M'Phail observes, " If pines ripen too fast after one another, set the pots out of the house with the
mnt on them, mto an airy, cool, dry shade, and the fruit will keep a fortnight or longer, if it be set out
Detore it is fuU ripe. The plants, while in this situation, should have no water given them : and it may be
necessary sometimes, in order to have a succession, or constant supply of fruit for a long time, to set some of

Book I. PINERY.— GENDER AL CULTURE. 531

them out green, into a cooler place, to keep them back : and when you wish to ripen them, take them into
the house, and plunge them in the tan again." » i <-

2838. Size qf the fruit. Three jwunds may be considered the average size of the queen pine-annles
brought to market or sent to table, but occasionally they grow much larger, attaining four and tivc
iwunds ; and the Providence, with Specchly and Griffin, has weighed seven and nine pounds. Griffin aiu
pears to have been particularly successful in growing large fruit. At Kclham, near Nottingham, while
gardener to J. C. Girardot, Esq. he cut, in the year 18(>2, twenty queen pines, which weighed together
eignty-seven pounds seven ounces ; in 1803, one weighing five ixjunds three ounces; in Julv, 1804, one of
the New Providence kind, weighing seven pounds two ounces ; in August, 1804, one of the same kind,
weighing nine pounds three ounces ; and in 1805, he cut twenty-two queen pines, which weighed together
one hundred and eighteen ix)unds three ounces.

2839. Batdwin, at a meeting of the Horticultural Society of London, held in October, 1817, presented a
queen pine ot great beauty and superior flavor. It measuretl sixteen inches in circumference, seven inches
m length, and weighed four pounds. The plant on which it was produced was little more than fifteen
months old. {Hort. Tr. iii. 118.)

2840. At the anniversart/ dinner of the society on the ith of June, 1822, four New Providence pines were re-
ceivetl from Baldwin, which together weighetl 32 lbs. 10^ ounces ; the largest 8 lbs. 14| oz. : the next 8 lbs.
5 oz. ; the third 8 lbs. 2 oz. ; and the fourth 7 lbs. 5 oz. (Hort. Trans, v. 206.)

2841. On the 11 th July, 1821, W'm. Buchan, gardener to Lord Cawder,at Stackpool Court, Pembrokeshire,
produced a pme which weighed 10 lbs. 8oz. and was 10| inches high, exclusive of the crown and stalk.
This was larger than any pine which had been exhibitetl to the society, and with the exception of a few
which have been grown by Baldwin, is the heaviest, as far as has been ascertained, that has been
fruitetl in this country. Buchan fruitctl three other Providence pines, of extraordinary weight, in
the same season ; one weighed 10 lbs. 6 oz. ; another 10 lbs. 2 oz. : and a third 9 lbs. 8 oz. makinK the total
weight of the four, 40 lbs. 8 oz. {,Ho7t. Trans, v. 2G4.)

SuBSECT. 8. General Directions common to the Three Departments of Pine-ajrple

Culture.

2842. That which is goieral in the C2ilture of the jnne-a]ij)le chiefly respects the bark-pit,
air, water, and insects.

2843. Management of the bark-pit. The first point deserving attention here is the
jn-eparation of the tan, after it is brought from the tan-vats ; but this has been already
described. (See 1974.)

2844. Formation of the bed. M'Phail says, " Pits for tan need not be made deeper
than three feet six inches ; if they be very wide, three feet will do ; and to admit large
fruiting pine-plants, the surftxce of the tan-bed will require to be five or six feet from the
glass above it. When a pine-pit is to be filled wholly with new tan, if it be late in the
autumn or winter, the tan had best lie in a state of fermentation for some time before
the pots be plunged in it. If pine-plants in pots be plunged in wet tan, it is apt to aifect
their roots, and if the roots be hurt, the plant must suffer."

2845. Abercromhie says, " It is desirable on the first formation of a bed, to mix new and old tan together j
in which case the quantity of new bark to be brought into the pit will depend upon the goodness of the bark
and the bottom heat required. As much new tan as will fill two third parts of the bark-pit, with a mix-
ture of old, rotten almost to earth, will produce a bottom heat of about 85°. When old tan with higher
remains of strength is used to modify the new, the same heat may be produced, if the quantity of new be
not more than half the capacity of the pit. This is said of a new pit. After a bark-bed has been in ac-
tion, partial renewals of bark, to keep up the heat, are frequently sufficient in the reduced proportion of
one third, one sixth, one twelfth, or less. At intermediate stages between the partial renewals, the bed re-
quires only to be excited into a brisker fermentatron by forking-up. About five sevenths of the pit from
the bottom should be occupied by the new and old tan as a fermenting body of bark : and about two
sevenths from the top, or a little more than the depth of the pots, whatever that may be, should consist
of old tan incapable of heating so as to bum the roots of the plants ; at least such should be the ordinary
distribution of the tan ; but where peculiar circumstances require a speedy augmentation of heat, without
displacing the pots, as when fruit is to be swelled oft" in the last stage, the earthy tan at top may be taken
away, and new tan substituted."

2846. M'Phail has found, " that when a tan-pit is about six feet wide, and three feet deep, filled with good
new and old tan in nearly equal quantities, it is enough to raise and retain a sufficient heat for the growth
of the pine-apple for about half a year, with the addition of as much new tan as will keep it up to its ori-
ginal height ; at the expiration of which time, the exhausted part of the tan is to be taken out, and the
lied recruited with new bark. When tan get» too dry, pour water into it now and then between the
pots J this will cause a fine moist heat to arise among the plants to help to nourish them, and it will like-
wise enable the tan to retain its heat longer than if it were suffered to become dry, for no body of veget-
ables will continue to ferment and generate heat after the moisture in them is evaporated." {Gard.
Ilcmem.)

2847. Temperature qf the bed. The general practice is to keep this from five to ten
degrees higher than tliat of the air of the house in the winter months ; somewhat higher
in spring and autumn ; and about the same temperature in summer. M'Phail and Griffin
prefer rather a higher degree of bottom heat. One hundred degrees, these authors re-
commend, or " about milk-warm, at the bottom of the pots, is heat enough for the roots
of the pine-apple plant to grow in ; therefore the depth, whether of tan, leaves of trees, or
dung put into the pit, should be proportioned according to the qualities of the materiaJj
in regard to raising heat. If the air in the house be kept up to a proper degree of heat,
the roots of the plants will grow in a heat of eighty degrees, so that it is safer to have the
pots stand for a time in such a gentle heat than in a heat of upwards of a hundred ; but
let it be remembered, that the heat of the bed, especially from its surface to eight or nine
inches downward, is liable to increase and decrease in a uniformity, though not so
quickly, with the variations of the heat kept up in the atmosphere of the house. But be
this as'it may, the heat of the tan at the bottom of the pots when the roots are there, had
best not be warmer than about milk-warm, especially in winter, when, if the roots at the
bottoms of the pots be destroyed, there is not at that season of the year a kindly natural

IM m 2 -

532 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

warmth. in the house to cause young. roots to.spring from the stems of the plants to draw
into them sufficient nourishment to sustain them ; and farther, if the roots of fruiting plants
be destroyed in winter, it will probably hinder them from sliowing fruit in time to ripen,
or make them show weak." {Gard. Rem.)

2848. Abercrombie and Nicol agree in the following standard for the different classes of pines, allowing a
latitude of from five to eight degrees, below or above :— Nursing bark-bed 15" ; Succession bark-bed 72° ;
Fruiting bark-bed 82°. The standard for the succession-pit is fixed lower than that for the nursing-pit, to
guard against the chance of starting the plants into untimely fruit. Abercrombie observes, that when the
bottom heat of a bark-pit is as high as 80°, with a layer composed of old and new tan at top, that layer will
scarcely exceed 65°. " Many persons," he adds, " work pine-stoves with a bottom heat five or ten degrees
higher than the maximum standard set down for each house above. These, on the one hand, and the
theorists, on the otlier, who censure the application of any bottom heat to exotics as unnatural, both seem
to be in extremes. In tropical climates, the earth itself about the roots of plants is frequently so pene-
trated with the violent heat of the atmosphere, as to maintain a temperature of 80 degrees, or more, in the
shade ; consequently, for the roots of exotics from such climates to be plunged into a bed heated to that
degree is not unnatural : still it should be recollected, that the heat of the air there has a proportionate
elevation above that of the earth. During our winter, therefore, instead of keeping the roots of
pine-plants in a factitious heat of 80°, while the artificial temperature of the air is, in some cases, let
down to 55° and 60°, perhaps a better relation of the bed with the atmosphere would be supported by
having the bark-bed at 60° or 65°, and the air of the pit at 70°, at least never les« than the heat at the
roots."

2849. The measurement of bottom heat is effected by keeping trial-sticks in the bed,
which M'Phail considers sufficient for any experienced person ; but the most accurate
mode is, to plunge the bulb of the thermometer about a foot into the bed, till it reach that
depth where the layer of old bark into which the pots are plunged, and the fermenting
mass may be supposed to join. Tliis will give the heat at the bottom of the pots.

2850. Renewal of the bark-bed. When the decline of the bed below a given temper-
ature requires it to be renewed, take out the pots, tie the leaves carefully with bass, to
protect them from being broken, and set them in a place where the plants will receive no
check. If the top layer be earthy and decayed, so as to run through the screen, take it
entirely off. Let the rest of the old bark be screened, and that which passes through be
carried out of the house. Bring in new bark equal to the quantity taken away ; but, be-
fore mixing it with the retained portion of the old, separate the least efficient of the old to
serve as a top layer. -Proceed then to mix the new bark equally with the soundest part
of the old, turning over the bed from the bottom with a fork. Tread this part equally.
To receive the pots, spread on lightly at top a layer composed tliree fourths of old bark,
extending at least to the depth of the pots. Dress the surface of the bed full up to the
sides of the pit, making it rather higher in tlie middle. After renewing a bark-bed, if
there has been a great proportion of new tan introduced, or if there is any probability that
the heat may rise excessively, plunge tlie pots but one third of tlieir depth into the bark,
or set them merely on the surface, till tlie full heat has risen and been found not in ex-
cess ; then plunge them to the rims.

2851. Reviving tan ivith the fork. If it be not requisite to take off the top, begin at one
end of the bed, and dig out as much bark as will allow the remainder to be loosened, and
completely forked over, without spilling any into the house. Fork it accordingly ; return
the bark taken out, level the top, and replunge the pots to their rims.

2852. Times of renewing and reviving the bark-bed. After the bark-bed has been re-
Bewed by the substitution of new bark for that which is quite wasted, it may be expected
to last in good action, with the help of an intermediate forking up, for ten or eleven weeks ;
consequently, it will require renewal about five times in the year. As a gradual decline
must take place between one renewal and another, the heat can scarcely be kept by any
management from -fluctuating less than ten degrees ; and therefore, in planning the busi-
ness of the year, it is a desirable thing to distribute the times of renewal so that they may
just precede those periods when something critical depends on having the bark-bed at a
maximum heat. The principal occasions seem to be these : —

'2853. The time of the principal annual potting and repotting, when established plants are advanced to the
last and intermediate stages, and new plants are brought into the nursing-pit. This will commonly fall in
the first week in August ; but let it fall when it will, one of the fundamental reparations of the bed must
be adapted to it ; because the plants want a good growing heat to strike them, and the successive clearance
of one pit after another affords the easiest opportunity for shifting the bark.

2854;. That crisis of autumn when the weather is declining, yet not cold enough to light fires. This hap-
pens about the beginning of October, and may commonly follow too close after the entire restitution of the
bed to admit of timing the second renewal exactly to it; the bed maybe, however, well forked up, when
the season is on the turn. The second renewal will scarcely be demanded by the state of the bed till eleven
weeks after the first. As it respects the fruiting-house, it should be particularly sound and complete, to
allow of timing the third to a critical period in the culture of the pine. Rather protract the interval be-
tween the second and third renewal to three months or more, than precipitate the third, which might start
the plants too soon into blossom. In the fruiting-house, accordingly as you calculate that the plants
will show fruit at the end of January or later, renew the bed just before, in the proportion of one third,

oscr ^^r^^' ^" ^^ *" ^^^^ *^^ ^^^^ steadily up to 80° when the plants come into flower.

.«i5o. In March. A shifting of the roots into larger pots is frequently requisite for plants in the nursery
and succession pits about the middle or end of March. Whenever repotted plants are to be struck, the
^^^ should be prepared for yielding the approved degree of heat.

28j6. In May. The same principle prescribes a renewal at the partial repotting, which is commonly made
f f K e ^^' ^ '^'^ '"^y ^^ combined with another object : —contrive to have the pit in lively action

^ust belore you discontinue fire-heat. As to forking up merely : if this be done at the end of six weeks

Book T. PINERY. — GENERAL CULTURE. 533

after renewal, there will be four or five weeks to run, while the heat is to be sustained on the old mate-
rials, which will be generally found a convenient distribution of this business. In the continued hot
weather of full summer, the fermentation in the bed mav decline faster than the strength of the tan is
given out, from the mass of tan getting excessively dry. In this case, ymur as much water on the surface,
between the iwts, as, in addition to that passing through the pots in common waterings, will restore suffi-
cient moisture to the bed. With a smaU fork, keep the surface of the bark free from fungi, or crusty
qmwn, which are apt to generate there.

2857. Substitutes for tan. Tan is in many places scarce and dear, and in others not to
be got; in either case it becomes an object to know the best substitutes, and their manage-
ment. Horse-dung alone, as already observed, is used by some ; and, by others, mixed
with bark, with ashes, witli leaves, sawdust, shavings, clippings of leather, chopped
spray, and such other durable substances as can be brought to ferment along with it, and
prolong its duration as a fermenting mass,

2858. Nicolj when tanners' bark is difficult to be procured, recommends a mixture of leaves with stable-
Utter, using only a little bark (fifteen or eighteen inches), in which to plunge the pots. But in using leaves,
or leaves mixed with litter, they must always be well fermented, and the rank heat extracted out of them
before they are made up into a bed for the plants.

2859. yei^l ot)scrves, that flax-dressers' refuse ferments very slowly and regularly, and that, used instead
of stable-dung, it will keep up a steady heat longer than almost any other substance.

2860. Oak-leaves. Speechly used oak-leaves with great success, and gives tlie follow-
ing directions for their preparation : — ■

2861. After being raked into heaps, they should immediately be carried to some place near the hot-house,
where they must Tie to couch. I generally fence them round with charcoal-hurdles, or any thing elae to
keep them from being blown about the garden in windy weather. In this place we tread them well, and
water them in case they hapjjen to have been brought in dry. We make the heap six or seven feet in
thickness, covering it over with old mats, or any thing else, to prevent the upper leaves from being blown
away. In a few days the heap will come to a strong heat For the first year or two that I used these
leaves, I did not continue them in the heap longer than ten days or a fortnight ; but in this I discovered a
considerable inconvenience, as they settled so much when got into the hot-house, as soon to require a
supply. Taught by experience, I now let them remain in the heap for five or six weeks, by which time
they are properly prepared for the hot-house. In getting them into the pine-pits, if they appear dry, we
water them again, treading them in layers exceedingly well, till the pits are quite full. We then cover
the whole with tan to the thickness of two inches, and tread it well, till the surface become smooth and
even. On this we place the pine-pots in the manner they are to stand, beginning with the middle row
first, and filling up the spaces between the pots with tan. In like manner we proceed to the next row, till
the whole is finished ; and this operation is performed in the same manner as when tan only is used.

2862. Thus prepared, they will retain a constant and regular heat for twelve months without either
stirring or turning; and if I may form a judgment from their appearance when taken out, (being
always entire and perfect,) it is probable they would continue their heat through a second year j but,
as an annual supply of leaves here is easily obtained, such a trial with us is hardly worth the trouble
of making. However, as a saving in leaves may be an agreeable object in places where they are less
plentiful, I was induced to make the following experiments : — In 17//, one of the pine-pits was filled
with one part of old, and two parts new leaves well mixed together ; and the next year, 1778, one
pit was filled with old and new leaves in equal quantities : — ^^in both these experiments, I had the
satisfaction to find the pits so filled to retain a heat through each season, equal to the other pits that
were filled entirely with new leaves; and since that time we have always used the whole of the
undecayed leaves mixed along with the new ones. I also have constantly used the leaves after
they were taken out of the hot-house in the early-made hot-beds, and always found them to answer
quite as well as fresh leaves. I must beg leave to observe, that when the leaves are intended to be used
a second time, it will be proper at the taking them out of the pits to remove some few at the top, as also
on each side ; because the leaves at the top and outside of the pit approach most to a state of decay.
After this the pines will have no occasion to be moved but at the stated times of their management ; viz.
at the shifting them in their pots, &c. when at each time, a little fresh tan should be added to make up
the deficiency arising from the settling of the beds ; but this will be inconsiderable, as the leaves do not
settle much after their long couching. During the two first years of my practice, I did not use any tan,
but plunged the pine-pots in the leaves, and just covered the surface of the beds when finished, with a
little sawdust, to give it a neatness. This method was attended with one inconvenience ; for, by the
caking of the leaves, they shrunk from the sides of the pots, whereby they became exposed to the air, and
at the same time the heat of the beds was permitted to escape. Many powerful reasons may be given
why oak-leaves are preferable to tanners' bark. I believe that oak-leaves are preferable to those of any
other sort ; but I have found, by repeated trials, that the leaves of beech, Spanish chestnut, and horn-
beam, will answer the purpose very well. It seems, that all leaves of a hard and firm texture are very
proper ; but soft leaves that soon decay, such as lime, sycamore, ash, and of fruit-trees in general, are
very unfit for this mode of practice.

2863. Superiority of oakdeaves. They always heat regularly; for, during the whole time that I
have used them, which is near twenty-five years, I never once knew of their heating with violence ; and
this is so frequently the case with tan, that I affirm, and indeed it is well known to- every person convers-
ant in the management of the hot-house, that pines suffer more from this one circumstance than from all
other accidents put together, insects excepted. When this accident happens near the time of their fruit-
ing, the effect is soon seen in the fruit, which always comes ill-shaped and exceedingly small. Sometimes
there will be little or no fruit at all ; therefore, gardeners who make use of tan only for their pines, should
be most particularly careful to avoid an over-heat at that critical season — the time of showing fruit

2861. The heat of oak-leaves is constant ; whereas tanners' bark generally turns cold in a very short
time after its furious heat is gone off. This obliges the gardener to give the tan frequent turnings, in
order to promote its heating. These frequent turnings, not to mention the expense, are attended with
the worst consequences ; for, by the continual moving of the pots backwards and forwards, the pines are
exposed to the extremes of heat and cold, whereby their growth is considerably retarded ; whereas, when
leaves are usetl, the pines will have no occasion to be moved but at the times of potting, &c. The pines
have one particular advantage in this undisturbed situation ; their roots grow through the bottoms of
the pots and mat amongst the leaves in a surprising manner. From the vigor of the plants, when in this
situation, it is highly probable that the leaves, even in this state, afford them an uncommon and
agreeable nourishment

2865. There is a saving in point of expense, which is no inconsiderable object in places where tan
cannot be had but from a great distance, as is the case here, the article of carriage amounting to ten shih-
lings for each waggon-load. Indeed, this was the principal reason that first induced me to make trial of
kaves.

Mm 3

.534 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

2866. Decayed leaves make good manure ; whereas, rotten tan is experimentally found to be of no value.
I have often tried it both on sand and clay, also on wet and dry lands, and never could discover, in any of
my experiments, that it deserved the name of a manure ; whereas, decayed leaves are the richest, and
of all others, the most suitable for a garden. But this must only be understood of leaves after they
have undergone their fermentation, which reduces them to a true vegetable mould, m which we experi-
mentally know that the food of plants is contained. This black mould is, of all others, the most proper to
mix with compost-earth, and I use it in general for pines, and almost for all plants that grow in pots : for
flowers it is most excellent. The remainder of this vegetable mould may be employed in manuring the
compartments of the kitchen-garden, for which purpose it is highly useful.

2867. Leaves mixed with dung make excellent hot-beds; and beds compounded in
this manner, preserve their heat much longer than when made entirely with dung. In
both cases, the application of leaves will be a considerable saving of dung, a circum-
stance very agreeable, as it will be the means of preventing the contests frequently
observed in large families, between the superintendant of the garden, and the directors
of the husbandry.

2868. Steam as a bottom heat, Speechly observes, " seems to stand forward among the
modern improvements of gardening." Speechly knew, in 1796, only two instances in
which steam was applied as bottom heat ; and, with M'Phail, does not think it will
finally answer as a substitute for tan. Instances in which it is adopted, are now much
ftiore numerous ; but time sufficient has not elapsed, and the opinions of gardeners are
yet too unsettled on its merits to enable us to recommend it for adoption in general
practice. For heating the atmosphere of hot-houses, there seems little (or at least much
less) doubt of its being preferable to fire-heat.

2869. Gunter, of Earl's Court, tried the application of steam as a bottom heat, by introducing the vapor
into a chamber in the bottom of the pit, over which were laid cross bars covered with brush-wood, and, in
some places, oak-planks, pierced with holes. On these the mould was placed in which the pines were
planted. The quantity of heat imparted to the earth was very great, but, contrary to his expectation, no
vapor ascended into the mould, which became excessively dry and husky ; nor was he able, by frequent
waterings, to keep it in a state fit for vegetation ; the roots of the plants in it, in spite of every precaution,
becoming shrivelled and dry. {Hort. Trans, iv. 408.)

2870. J. Hay, of Edinburgh, gives three examples {Caled. Mem. vol. iii.) of steam having been adopted as a
bottom heat in Scotland. It is there introduced under vaulted pits, or chambers covered with rafters and
slates laid close in mortar, and has been found to succeed. iDifferent Modes of cultivating the Fine
Apple, &c. 174.)

2871. Hot water as a bottom heat. Count Zubow, at St. Petersburg, employed steam
to heat a pit or cistern of water, over which, at about three inches' distance, a frame,
covered with faggots, was placed, and on this was laid the earth, in wliich his pines and
other exotics were planted without being in pots. The plan is said to have succeeded,
and a wholesome temperature to have been obtained and communicated to the mould
above the faggots. (^Fischer, in Hort. Trans, iii. 4S0.)

2872. Fire-lieat. Recourse must be had to the furnace whenever the temperature of
the house, from the natural heat of the season, aided by the bark-pit, falls below 60".
At 55° the decline of atmospheric heat will not be got so far as to hurt pines and stove-
plants in general ; but, if you light no fires till the thermometer fall to 55^, it may
happen that, before tlie flues can be brought into full action to affect the house, a
sudden retrocession in the natural season may sink the air at once five or six degrees
lower — then, the tenderest exotics will be in a hazardous situation. It is not advisable
to expose a plant that has been lately potted even to the extreme, 55°, lest it should be
checked in making new roots. To refuse the aid of the furnace till the latest moment
will also restrain the gardener from admitting fresh air, in the meantime, so as to have
always pure air in the house. The maximum heat to be caused by fire alone in abso-
lute winter, is 68°. Tliis should be thrown to the middle of days not enlivened by
sunshine ; also, to periods when the heat of the bark-bed is from any cause deficient.
The medium, 64°, for mere fire-heat, should be interposed on preparing to air tlie
house in the forenoon ; and in the evening, between three and eight.

2873. Pit-coal is the best kind of fuel, mixed with cinders of the same, on account of
the duration of the fire and regularity of the heat : cinders are lasting in the next de-
gree : peat may be resorted to under a deficiency of either of the others ; it will require
more attendance : wood blazes off so rapidly, that to maintain and regulate a furnace fed
by it is very troublesome. (Pr. G.)

2874. Coal-dust, formed into bricks, with one third of its bulk of clay or pond-mud,
has been tried by Knight. With these he found he could sustain a high and regular tem-
perature in his pinery witli little expense or trouble, and that the burnt clay and ashes
were valuable as manure. (Hort. Trans, iv. 156.)

2875. Time of the day for lightiyig fires. As soon as fires become necessary, Aber-
crombie says, " the attendant on the furnace should set it at work every afternoon, at
five, four, or three o'clock, according to the time of year, beginning an hour before sun-
set. His last examination of the furnace for the evening should not be earlier than ten
o'clock, when as much fuel should be added as will support the proper heat till the
morning, while the front of the fire is smothered with ashes to prevent too consuming a
draught. He ouglit to-be again at the fire, to refresh it with fuel in the morning, witliin

Book 1. PINERY. — GENERAL CULTURE. .535

seven hours after leaving it : when tlie nights are longest, the decline of the fire will
thus be repaired three hours before sunrise."

2876. IVie season for Jire-heat falls mostly witliin the limits of eight months, specified
below. Fire-heat is first resorted to in evenings ; and is extended to mornings when
the weather is cloudy and damp, or frosty. The lateness or forwardness of the seasons
will require occasional deviations from any outline drawn from the practice of a single
year : the following outline is given to assist, and not to fetter, the director of the
stove : —

£877. October. As soon as cold nights or foggy days occur, fires will be wanted in bouses where the stand,
ard temperature marks a high minimum. The pinery first demands the aid of the furnace, on account of
all the plants having been recently potted. Gentle fires made in the evening, to last only for the night,
will siipply the few degrees of heat in which the natural climate is defective. Artificial heat is not ap-
plied to excite the pines to grow in tlie herb at this time ; but merely to prevent any check to the.new
roots from cold and damp. If the tan-bed send up a good heat, the use of the stove in the pinery may be
deferred till the middle or end of the month. One object is, to keep the temperature up to a given mini-
mum ; another, to interfere with fire-heat when the declension in the natural climate is unseasonably
abrupt. Thus 62 degrees at the end of September, is more severe than 58 degrees at the end of October.

2878. November. Work regular fires every evening, and occasional fires on cold mornings, and through-
out severe days. A violent heat would be pernicious. The maximum to aim at for the day-time, in rigorous
frosts, is 65 degrees, indei^endent of any rise in the thermometer from occasional sunshine.

2879. December. Attend punctually to the furnace in the afternoon, late at night, and timely in the mom
ing. Between five and nine in the forenoon, never let thecourse of the fire-heat relax : but if, between nine
and three, the sun should shine sufficiently to raise the thermometer to 70 degrees, the furnace may
be stopped, and need not work again till three in the afternoon.

2880. January. Recruit and regulate the stove evening and morning. To have the heat defective, or in
excess, would be alike prejudicial.

2881. February. The furnace must be carefully attended as the three principal hours of daily regulation
come round. Maintain fires all day in rigorous weather.

2882. March. From the returning influence of the sun.andthegenlleimpulseof the stove, the plants will
l>e excited strongly into growth. To conduct them by an equal progression, the fire-heat should be regu-
larly sustained morning and evening, and raised, as noon approaches, to 70, 72, and 75 degrees, in case the
power of the sun alone has not elevated the thermometer, by ten in the morning, at least to 70 degrees.
To make the continuation of fire in a hot-house during the day depend merely upon the presence or al)-
sence of frost, is to treat a stove like a green-house. According to the climate to he imitated, the tenor
of artificial heat ought to bear some analogy to the revolutions of temperature caused by the sun, as it
respects both the historj- of a day, and the rise and acme of a growing season.

2883. April. Continue fires regularly while the sun is down ; and when the weather is chilly and gloomy,
work the furnace all day.

2884. May. Go on with the evening fires : have a gentle heat in the early part of the morning, at lca.st till
appearances promise a fine warm day. Some managers, to spare fuel, dispense with the stove as soon as
the thermometer can be kept, by the shelter of the house and the influence of the bark-bed, from sinking
below 60 degrees at the coldest time between sunset and sunrise. But, on the principle laid down in
March, the heat ought to he progressive where pines are grown, and, indeed, where any fruit is forced
that will repay the cost : in the pinery, then, the minimum for May is frt degrees at the beginning, and
68 at the closa

2885. June. If the weather be seasonable, no fire-heat will he wanted. But, if it be midsummer, ac-
cording to the kalendar, resume fires in unseasonably cold intervals, in order to give sufficient air, without
checking plants that have been excited by a higher temperature than that at which the natural climate
may happen to be during an anomalous day or two. (Abercrombie.)

2886. Air. The following monthly directions on this subject by Abercrombie cor-
respond with the practice of the other authors quoted : —

2887. July and August. You can scarcely give air without restraint, even in the day-time, at any other sea-
son than the last weeks of July and the course of August When the nights are warm, leave openings for
a gentle interchange with the unconfined atmosphere, so as not to expose the pines to casual rain. A con-
stant circulation of pure air will always invigorate growing plants, and heighten the flavor of ripening fruit.
In the middle of sultry days, keep down the heat to the maximum under Temperature^ by a very free
circulation of air.

2888. In September commences the necessity for caution in admitting air, so as not to lower the temper-
ature bevond the minimum for the house. When air is given in reduced quantities, divide it equally to all
parts of the pit. The atmosphere at the autumnal is not equally cool as the vernal equinox, because the
heat from the past summer is not at once dissipated. The 23d of September will more often correspond
with the middle of May than with the 21st of March, as to the influence on the glass of the withdrawing
&ad returning heat in the natural climate. Proceed in September as in June and May below.

2889. October. To give air without hazard, see Temperature for the house, and the directions in April
and March.

2890. November. In calm fine days, give moderate admissions of air from about ten till two. Be careful
to shut the sashes, if the atmosphere turn cloudy or excessively cold.

2891. December. In the middle of a clear sunny day, when such occurs, though the air be frosty with it,
slide down a light alternately a little way. Meanwhile keep up a maximum heat by the flues ; and shut
the glasses by two o'clock, or sooner, if the weather or the thermometer requires.

2892. January. As in December.

2893. February. As in November ; rather freer : in order to which keep good fires.

2894. March. Watch for favorable opportunities to give air. In warm cheerful days, with a little wind,
draw open some of the glasses al)out three hours before twelve, and close again by four in the afternoon ;
or reduce the interval, as the suitable hours may be few.

2895. April. Every fair warm forenoon, as soon as the sun's influence will prevent the house from being
chilled, admit fresh air by opening the sashes a little. From nine till noon, gradually widen the aperture
for the air. Close again two hours before sunset, or before the thermometer is below 60 degrees, or
the highr?r minimum prescribed by the forced advancement of the plants in particular houses. Whenever
the weather is gloomy, raise the fire-heat preparatory to giving air.

2896. May. Fresh air maybe admitted, in bright warm mornings, an hour sooner than in April ; and, on
fine afternoons, the sashes may be kept open proportionally later, so as the thermometer be watched, and
the exceptions after shifting plants, or renewing the bark-bed, be attended to.

2897. June. Give air liberally from seven to six, if the weather has attained a seasonable settled
warmth. When the thermometer is down to 66 degrees, shut the glasses for the evening.

2898. Water. Tlie same agreement is observable in Abercrombie's general instruc-

M m 4

536 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

tions for watering. " Use soft water ; in winter, let water that is to be given to plants
stand in the house to acquire the same temperature, or warm the water to 75 degrees
before applying it."

2899. Frorr November to February, or as long as the deficiency of a strong exhaling heat in the natural cli-
mate makes it unsafe to let water fall into the hearts of the plants, give the water through a tube, composed
of jointed pieces, so that it may be shortened at will, and having a funnel into which you may pour water.

2900. From March to October it is proper to water over the leaves, excepting in the last stage of fruit and
plants ; let the water be warmed to 80 degrees before it is applied, which will contribute to kill several tribes
of insects.

2901. From the middle of October to the end of February the plants will require to be moderately watered
only once in eight or ten days. When they have been recently potted, they require less than at other times.
Under a continuance of moist and hazy weather, the plants may be kept without water for a lengthened
interval, without any privation : in the beginning of October and March, once a-week may be sufficient.
During the course of September and April, they may require watering every five days ; August, May,
June, and July, every three or four. If, by accident, water fall into the heart of a plant in winter, the
best remedy is, to shut the house close, and raise the heat something above the customary standard, that
the water may go off in vapor before it can injure the plant.

2902. From the first of March to September is the season of free-excited growth, though this must commence
sooner, or be continued later, according to the forwardness or delay of the plant, and the desired time of
fruiting. During this season, the mould in the pots should be kept constantly a little moist. Maintain
the bark -bed in good action, when you begin to water at the root in an increased degree ; heat the air of
the chamber nearly to the maximum, before you at any time dew the herb, and raise it fully afterwards;
for moderate humidity, corrected and exhaled by heat, will make the plants thrive.

2903. From May to August, the time of day for watering must recede more and more from the hour of
noon to ten, nine, and eight in the morning ; or to three, four, or five in the afternoon, according to the
power of the sun. When July and August happen to be sultry, the pine, as a plant, will flourish the better
for a little water once in two or three days : but from pines in fruit withhold water, as the signs of ripe-
ness appear. In the height of summer, pour the water over the leaves, and into the centre of the plant.
It promotes the health of the herb, to have water standing continually in the heart of the plant, under a
well-sustained heat, never fluctuating more than ten degrees below 80". Shut the house close after water-
ing, which will cause a dewy exhalation.

2904. Watering with drainings of the dunghill. In the growing season, about mid-day,
between the times of shifting the plants, pour every six or eight days a quantity of dung-
hill drainings on the mould, which is a compendious way of applying manure. Plants
making new stalks and leaves may tlius be invigorated ; but after fruit is shown, only pure
water should be given even at the root.

2905. Steaming the jiues. Having the flues at a maximum heat, sprinkle them occa-
sionally with water from a rose-pan. The steam thus raised is congenial to vegetation,
and destructive to insects. It is a fine resource when you cannot water over the leaves.
{^Ahercromhie.^

2906. Insects. The white scaly coccus, or mealy pine-bug, is the most injurious in-
sect to pine-apples. It adheres closely to the leaves ; and, if not removed, will in time
consume them, though in appearance it seems almost inanimate. It infests the vine, the
orange, and many plants besides the pine ; and lurking in the pots of earth plunged in
the bark-bed, insinuating itself into every crevice of the walls and wood-work, is not to
be extricated without extreme difficulty.

2907. The brown turtle insect, or brown scaly coccus, or bug, also infests the pine. It is nearly allied in
form to the white scale, but is much less injurious in its eflfects.

2908. The white mealy crimson-tinged insect is also enumerated by Speechly ; and by some is thought to
be the same as the white scale, with which it is equally injurious, " wedging itself in between the protu-
berances of the fruit in the most surprising manner," so as not to be got out without great difficulty, ren-
dering the fruit unsightly, robbing it of its juices, and rendering it deficient in flavor, and ill tasted. (Tr.
on Pine, p. 133.)

2909. Destroying insects. So many different processes have been recommended for destroying these in-
sects, that Abercrombie justly observes, " To devise any remedy new in principle would be difficult and
altogether superfluous. Of the recipes and specified methods which have fallen into disuse, or were at
once rejected by men of business, we shall avoid quoting any merely to say, that this is too simple to be ef-
fective, that too elaborate to be of practical use, and a third as fatal to the plants as to the insects. It
will be enough to select one or two remedies, which are safe, with a little qualification, and certainly effi-
cacious. The ingredients of the first prescription are met with in many recipes : to Nicol belongs the
credit of mixing them in the proportion recommended below. We shall previously observe, however,
that many experienced growers of pines concur in the opinion, that a chemical preparation is not to be
resorted to till the effects of a sound, cleanly course of culture have been tried."

2910. Nicol's recipe. Take soft soap, one pound ; flowers of sulphur, one pound ; tobacco, half a pound ;
nux vomica, an ounce ; soft water, four gallons ; boil all these together till the liquor is reduced to three
gallons, and set it aside to cool. In this liquor immerse the whole plant, after the roots and leaves are
trimmed for potting. Plants in any other state, and which are placed in the bark-bed, may safely be wa-
tered over-head with the liquor reduced in strength by the addition of a third part water. As the bug
harbors most in the angles of the leaves, there is the better chance that the medicated water will be effec-
tual, because it will there remain the longest, and there its sediment wiU settle. The above is a remedy
for every species of the coccus ; and for most insects, on account of its strength and glutinous nature. Its
application will make the plants look dirty ; therefore, as soon as the intended effect may be supposed to
nave followed, whatever remains of the liquor on the leaves should be washed off with clean water. It
would be improper to pour a decoction charged with such offensive materials over fruiting plants. Further,
this peculiar dose for a tenacious insect is not to be applied indiscriminately to exotics in a general stove,
as It might make the more delicate leaves of shrubs drop off.

2911. M'Phail's mode consists in the application of a powerful moist heat. Of this method we have
already given an account, and shall only here observe, that it proceeds on the fact experimentally proved,
that a degree of heat and moisture, which is speedily fatal to animals, will not immediately destroy or in-
jure vegetable life, and this the more especially of plants of such a robust nature as the pine.

^912. Griffin's recipe. To one gallon of soft rain-water, add eight ounces of soft green soap, one ounce of
tobacco, and three table-spoonfuls of turpentine ; stir and mix them well together in a watering-pot, and
let them stand for a day or two. When you are going to use this mixture, stir and mix it well again, then
•tram it through a thin cloth. If the fruit only is mfestcd, dash the mixture over the crown and fruit.

Book I. COMPENDIUM OF A COURSE OF CULTURE. 537

with a squirt, until all is fairly wet ; and what runs down the stem of the fruit will kill all Hie insects that
are amongst the bottom of the leaves. When young plants are infested, take them out of their pots, and
shaking all the earth from the roots (tying the leaves of the largest plants together), plunge them into
the above mixture, keeping every part covered for the space of five minutes ; then take them out, and set
them on a clean place, with their tops declining downwards, for the mixture to drain out of their centre.
When the plants are dry, put them into smaller pots than before, and plunge them into the bark-bed,
{Tr. on the Pine, p. 84.)

2913. Baldwin's recipe. Take horse-dung from the stable, the fresher the better, strfficient to make i^
a hot-bed three feet high to receive a melon-frame three feet deep at the back ; put on the frame and
lights immediately, and cover the whole v/ith mats, to bring up the heat When the bed is at the strong-
est heat, take some faggots, open them, and spread the sticks over the surface of the bed on the dung, so
as to keep the plants from being scorched ; set the plants or suckers, bottom uppermost, on the sticks j
shut down your lights quite close, and cover them over well with double mats, to keep in the steam ;
let the plants remain in this state one hour, then take out the plants, and wash them in a tub of cofd
water, previously brought to the side of your bed ; then set them in a dry place, with their tops down-
wards, to drain, and afterwards plant them. This treatment is sure to kill every insect. You will observe
likewise, that the crowns and suckers in the beds heated by linings of dung without fire-heat, wiQ have
all their insects killed, or be kept freeofthem, if they were clean when planted, by the effluvia of thedtuig,
{Cult. ofAnan. 33.)

2914. Miller's recipe. Miller recommends turning the plants out of the pots, and cleaning the roots;
then keeping them immersed for four-and-twenty hours in water in which tobacco-stalks have been in-
fused : the bugs are then to be rubbed off with a sponge, and the plants, after being washed in clean water
and dripped, are to be repotted. Muirhead, a gardener in the north of Scotland, has described a similar
mode {Caled. Hort. Soc. Mem. i. p. 209.), only in the place of tobacco-juice, he directs flowers of sulphur to
be mixed with the water. With a bit of bass mat fixed on a small stick, and dipt in water, he displaces as
many of the insects as he can see. He then immerses the plants in a tub of water, containing about 1 lb.
of flowers of sulphur to each garden-potful. They remain covered with the water for twenty-four hours,
as described by Miller. They are then laid with their tops downward to dry, and are repotted in the usual
manner. What share of the cure in either of these ways may be due to the sulphur or to the tobacco-
liquor does not clearly appear ; the rubbing off or loosening the insects is evidently important ; and it is
not unlikely that immersion in simple water, so long continued, may alone be sufficient to destroy them.
Indeed, the experience of one of the best practical gardeners in Scotland (Hay), leads him to conclude,
that even moderate moisture is destructive to these insects. During many years, he regularly watered
his pine-plants over head with the squirt, during the summer-months : this was done only in the
evening ; it never injured the plants ; and the bug never appeared upon them. {,Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)

2915. Knight's suggestion. " Baldwin recommends the steam of hot fermenting horse-dung : I con-
clude the destructive agent, in this case, is ammoniacal gas ; which Sir Humphry Davy informed me he
had found to be instantly fatal to every species of insect ; and if so, this might be obtained at a small ex-
pense, by pouring a solution of crude muriate of ammonia upon quick-lime ; the stable, or cow-house,
would afford an equally efficient, though less delicate, fluid. The ammoniacal gas might, I conceive, be
impelled, by means of a pair of bellows, amongst the leaves of the infected plants, in sufficient quantity to
destroy animal, without injuring vegetable fife : and it is a very interesting question to the gardener,
whether his hardy enemy, the red spider, will bear it with impunity."

2916. Cleansing and rejitting the house. Every department of the pinery must be kept
at all times sweet and clean. At the period of removing sets of plants (or oftener, if
necessary) that have completed specific stages, purify the house thoroughly, and have
the flues swept, the plaster white-washed, the wood-work and glass washed at all
events, and the latter painted, if necessary, all broken glass mended, and every other
substantial, or casual reparation effected. If insects are supposed to be harbored in
the building, the following wash is to be introduced with a brush into the cracks and
joints of tlie wood-work, and the crevices of the wall : " Of sulphur vivum, take 2 oz. j
soft soap, 4 oz. Make these into a lather, mixed with a gallon of water that has l)een
poured in a boiling state upon a pound of mercury. The mercury will last to medicate
fresh quantities of water almost perpetually." (Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 9. Compendium of a Course of Culture.

2917. Thefolloumig judicious summary of practice^ from the planting of the crown to
the cutting of the fruit, is given by Abercrombie. The dates are arbitrary j but
specific days or months must be assumed to mark anniversary and other periods.

2918. Nursing.jnt. Aug. 15. 1813. Crowns and suckers planted.

Ck;t. 30. 1813. If the plants, from forward growth, require more room, some are removed to another
nit and the remainder set at increased distances.

March 30 1814 Such plants as want it are shifted. Plants of the same standmg are now sometimes
distributed to houses where the treatment differs, as the plant is expected to fruit ^^t *'l^„f "J„f^^wo or
tliree vears 1 The large black varieties require three years' culture. 2. Crowns and fruit-suckers are
seldom so forward as suckers from the stem. The last, indeed, commonly grow too vigorously, and do
best under a moderate excitement during the first two stages. • tu-

%l^Thref:^ar fruiting plants. Nursing-pit. May, 1814. Plants intended to complete a year m this
nit are renottwl ; having the baU of earth shaken away, and all the old root-fibres pruned off.
^ S sXS»-pi^ Aug. 15. 1814. Plants that have been in the nursing-pit the previous year, are
shifted and transferred to this house. . „„..e:n„ rrff on<i o

2921. Fruiiing-house. Aug. 1815. Plants which have consumed one year m the nursmg-pit, and a
second year in the succession-house, are removed to this department.

«►"! ■ TlSyca^JYuitTng'planfs. Succession-pit. March 30. 1814. Plants from the nursing-pit are put
into larger iwts ; and brought for culture here, as directed under this division. .,. ^ ,. ^ , - ,u
May or Juiie, 1814. Succession pines are sometimes intermediately shifted, without disturbing the

*^"4f F^uUins-house. Aug. 15. 1814. Plants from the succession -pit, having consumed one year in the
first and seconl stages, are shifted into the largest-sized pots, to be treated as under this head.
Aug 1 1815. Having been cultivated as under fruiting-house, the ripe fruit IS fit to cut

538

PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

SuBSECT. 10. Recent Improvements in the Culture of the Pi7ie-apple.

2924. The most recent imj)rovements in the culture of the pine-apple consist chiefly of some
attempts by Knight and others to grow this fruit, as well without the aid of bottom heat
as with it. Knight also employed a much higher degree of solar heat during smnmer, and
much less fire-heat during winter, than is generally done by practical gardeners. Some
lesser improvements, such as nourishing the suckers on the parent stem after the fruit is
cut, are less recent, and though not mentioned in the popular manuals of gardening, are
yet'frequently practised by the best cultivators. With respect to growing pine-plants by
the heat of dung or tan without fire-heat, there is nothing new or extraordinary in the
practice, as may be seen in the foregoing subsections, by the quotations from M'Phail
and others.

2925. The ^ect of a vert/ high temperature during the day, in bright weather, and of comparativelp low
temperature during the night, and in cloudy weather, was tried by Knight in 1819. " A fire of sufficient
power only to preserve in the house a temperature of about 70", during summer, was employed ; but no
air was given, nor its escape facilitated till the thermometer, perfectly shaded, indicated a temperature of
95° ; and then only two of the upper lights, one at each end, were let down about four inches. The heat
of the house was consequently sometimes raised to 110", during the middle of warm and bright days, and
it generally varied, in such days, from 90° to 105°, declining during the evening to about 80°, and to 70° in
the night Late in the evening of every bright and hot day, the plants were copiously sprinkled with
water, nearly of the temperature of the external air. The melon, water-melon, Guernsey lily, fig-tree,
nectarine, orange and lemon, mango, Avocado pear, Mamme-tree, and several other plants, part of them
natives of temperate climates, grew in this hot-house so managed " through the whole summer, without
any one of them being drawn, or any way injured, by the very high temperature to which they were
occasionally subjected ; and from these and other facts," Knight continues, " which have come within
my observation, I think myself justified in inferring, that in almost all cases in which the object of the
cultivator is to promote the rapid and vigorous growth of his plants, very high temperature, provided it
be accompanied by bright sunshine, may be employed with great advantage ; but it is necessary that the
glass of his house should be of good quality, and that his plants be placed near it, and be abundantly sup-
plied with sand and water." In the above case liquid-manure was employed. It is added,

2926. My house contains a few pine-apple plants j in the treatment of which I have deviated somewhat
widely from the common practice ; and I think with the best effects, for their growth has been exceed-
ingly rapid, and a great many gardeners, who have come to see them, have unanimously pronounced them
more perfect than any which they had previously seen. But many of the gardeners think that my mode
of management will not succeed in winter, and that my plants will become unhealthy, if they do not
perish in that season ; and as some of them have had much experience, and I very little, I wish, at
present, to decline saying more relative to the culture of that plant. {Hort. Trans, iii. 465.) The above
information, the result of Knight's experiments in 1819, was communicated to the Horticultural Society
in the autumn of that year. On the 7th of March following, a paper was read to the Society on the same
plants, of which the following is a transcript : —

2927. Gf those gardeners who doubted whether the plants would stand the winter, it is stated, — The same
gardeners have since frequently visited my hot-house, and they have unanimously pronounced my plants
more healthy and vigorous than any they had previously seen : and they are all, I have good reason to
believe, zealous converts to my mode of culture. I had long been much dissatisfied with the manner in
which the pine-apple plant is usually treated, and very much disposed to believe the bark-bed, as Kent
has stated {Hort. Trans, iii. 288.), " worse than useless," subsequent to the emission of roots by the crowns
or suckers. I therefore resolved to make a few experiments upon the culture of that plant ; but as I had
not at that period, the beginning of October, any hot-house, I deferred obtaining plants till the following
spring. My hot-house was not completed till the second week in June (1819), at which period I began my
experiment upon nine plants, which had been but very ill preserved through the preceding winter by the
gardener of one of my friends, with very inadequate means, and in a very inhospitable climate. These, at
this period, were not larger plants than some which I have subsequently raised from small crowns, (three
having been afforded by one fruit,) planted in the middle of August, were in the end of December last ;
but they are now beginning to blossom, and" in the opinion of every gardener who has seen them, promise
fruit of great size and perfection. They are all of the variety known by the name of Ripley's queen
pine

2928. Upon the introduction of my pine-plants into the hot-house, the mode of management, which it is
the object of the present communication to describe, commenced. They were put into pots of somewhat
more than a foot in diameter, in a compost made of thin green turf, recently taken from a river-side,
chopped very small, and pressed closely, whilst wet, into the pots ; a circular piece of the same material,
of about an inch in thickness, having been inverted, unbroken, to occupy the bottom of each pot. This
substance, so applied, I have always found to afford the most efficient means for draining off superfluous
water, and subsequently of facilitating the removal of a plant from one pot to another, without loss of
roots. The surface of the reduced turf was covered with a layer of vegetable mould obtained from
decayed leaves, and of sandy loam, to prevent the growth of the grass roots. The pots were then placed
to stand upon brick piers, near the glass; and the piers being formed of loose bricks (without mortar),
were capable of being reduced as the height of the plants increased. The temperature of the house was
generally raised in hot and bright days, chiefly by confined solar heat, from 95 to 105 degrees, and some-
times to liO degrees, no air being ever given till the temperature of the house exceeded 95 degrees ; and
the escape of heated air was then only in a slight degree permitted. In the night, the temperature of
the house generally sunk to 70 degrees, or somewhat lower. At this period, and through the months of
July and August, a sufficient quantity of pigeons' dung was steeped in the water, which was given to the
pine-plants, to raise its color nearly to that of porter, and with this they were usually supplied twice a-day
in very hot weather; the mould in the pots being kept constantly very damp, or what gardeners would
generally call wet. In the evenings, after very hot days, the plants were often sprinkled with clear water,
of the temperature of the external air; but this was never repeated till all the remains of the last sprink-
ling had disappeared from the axillae of the leaves. It is, I believe, almost a general custom with
gardeners, to give their pine-plants larger pots in autumn, and this mode of practice is approved by
Baldwin. {Cult, of Anan. IG.) I nevertheless cannot avoid thinking it wrong ; for the plants, at this
period, and subsequently, owing to want of light, can generate a small quantity only of new sap ; and con-
sequently, the matter which composes the new roots, that the plant will be excited to emit into the fresh
mould, must be drawn chiefly from the same reservoir, which is to supply the blossom and fruit : and I
have found, that transplanting fruit-trees, in autumn, into larger pots, has rendered their next year's
produce of fruit smaller in size, and later in maturity. I therefore would not remove rny pine-plants into
larger pots, although those in which they grow are considerably too small. As the length of the days
diminished, and the plants received less light, their ability to digest food diminished. Less food was in
consequence dissolved in the water, which was also given with a more sparing hand ; and as winter ap-
proached water only was given, and in small quantities.

Book I. IMPROVEMENTS IN PINE-APPLE CULTURE. 539

2929. During the months of Kovetnber and December, the temperature of the house was generally little
above 50 degrees, and sometimes as low as 48 degrees, and once so low as 40 degrees. Most gardeners
would, I believe, have been alarmed for the safety of their plants at this temperature ; but the pine is a
much hardier plant than it is usually supposed to be ; and I exposed one young plant in December to a
temperature of 32 degrees, by which it did not appear to sustain any injury. I have also been subsequently
informed by one of my friends. Sir Harford Jones, who has had most ample opportunities of observing
that he has frequently seen, in the East, the pine-apple growing in the open air, where the surface of the
ground, early in the mornings, showed unequivocal marks of a slight degree of frost

2930. My plants remained nearly torpid, and without growth, during the latter part of November, and
in the whole of December ; but they began to grow early in January, although the temperature of the
house rarely reached 60 degrees ; and about the 20th of that month, the blossom, or rather the future fruit
of the earliest plant, became visible ; and subsequently to that period their growth has appearetl very ex-
traordinary to gardeners who had never seen pine-plants growing, except in a bark-bed or other hot-bed
I believe this rapidity of growth, in rather low temperature, may be traced to the more excitable state of
their roots, owing to their having passed the winter in a very low temperature comparatively with that of
a bark-bed. The planU are now supplied with water in moderate quantities, and holding in solution a less
quantity of food than was given them in summer,

2931. In planting suckers, I have, in several instances, left the stems and roots of the old plant remaining
attached to them ; and these have made a much more rapid progress than others. One strong sucker was
thus planted in a large pot u\ion the 20th of July (1819^ and that is (March 1820) beginning to show fruit.
lU stem is thick enough to produce a ver>- large fruit ; but its leaves are short, though broad and numer-
ous ; and the gardeners who have seen it, all appear wholly at a loss to conjecture what will be the value of
its produce. In other cases, in which I retained the old stems and roots, I selected small and late suckers,
and these have afforded me the most perfect plants I have ever seen ; and they do not exhibit any symp-
toms of disposition to fruit prematurely. 1 am, however, still ignorant whether any advantage will be
ultimately obtained by this mode of treating the queen pine : but I believe it will be found applicable with
much advantage in the culture of those varieties of the pine, which do not usually bear fruit till the plants
are three or four years old.

2932. Some remarks are next made upon the facility of managing pines in the manner recommended, and
upon the necessary amount of the expense. " My gardener is an extremely simple laborer, he does not know
a letter or a figure ; and he never saw a pine-plant growing, till he saw those of which he has the care. If I
were absent, he would not know at what period of maturity to cut the fruit ; but in every other respect he
knows how to manage the plants as well as I do ; and I could teach any other moderately intelligent and
attentive laborer, in one month, to manage them just as well as he can : in short, I do not think the skill ne-
cessary to raise a pine-apple, according to the mode of culture I recommend, is as great as that requisite to
raise a forced crop of potatoes. The expense of fuel for my hot-house, which is fortv feet long, by
twelve wide, is rather less than sevenpence a day here, where I am twelve miles disUnt" from coal pits :
and if I possessed the advantages of a curved iron-roof, such as those erected by Loudon, at Bavswater,
which would prevent the too rapid escape of heated air in cold weather, I entertain no doubt, that" the ex-
pense of heating a house forty-five feet long, and ten wide, and callable of holding eighty fruiting pine-
plants, exclusive of grapes or other fruits upon the back wall, would not exceed fourpence a-day. A roof
of properly curved iron bars, appears to me also to present many other advantages : it may be erected at
much less cost, it is much more durable, it requires much less 'expense to paint it, and it admits greatly
more light." (Hort. Trans, iv. 12.) The president has since (in June, 1820) had such a house as he has
hinted at erected, and roofed with our bar ; and in a long paper (Hort. Trans, iv. 5^.) read in November,
1821, and two others {Uort. Trans, v. 142. 227.) he has given some account of it, and of his experience
in pine-apple culture. The first paper is quoted at length in The different modes of cultivating tlie
pine-apple from its first introduction to Europe, to the improvements of T. A. Knight, in 1822, (a work
which should be in the hands of every pine grower,) and the following remarks are from that
work : —

2933. To draw any conclusions in the present stage of Knight's experiments would be premature,
and might excite prejudice to anticipate the final result. That the pine-plant will grow and thrive, with-
out what is technically called bottom heat, is an obvious truth, since no plant in a state of nature is found
growing in soil warmer than that of the superincumbent atmosphere. But to imitate nature, is not always
the best mode of culture ; for the more correct the imitation, the less valuable would be the greater part
of her products, at least as far as horticulture is concerned. What would our celery, cabbage, and apples
be, if their culture were copied from nature? Though the pine-apple will grow well without bottom heat
it may grow with bottom heat still better ; and though the heat of the earth, in its native countrj-, may
never exceed that of the surrounding atmosphere, it does not follow that earth heated to a greater degree
may not be of service to it, in a state of artificial culture. But admitting for the sake of argument, that
the pine-plant could be grown equally well with, as without bottom heatj still it appears to us that the
mass of material which furnishes this heat, will always be a most desirable thing to have in a pine-stove, as
being a perpetual fund of heat for supplying the atmosphere of the house in case of accident to the flues or
steam-apparatus. Besides it appears from nature, as well as from observing what takes place in culture,
that the want of a steady tenii)erature and degree of moisture at the roots of plants is more immediately
and powerfully injurious to them than atmospheric changes. Earth, especially if rendered porous and
sponge-like by culture, receives and gives out air and heat slowly ; and while the temperature of the air of
a country, or a hot-house, may varj- twenty or thirty degrees in the course of twenty-four hours, the soil at
the depth of two inches would hardly be found to have varied one degree. With respect to moisture, every
cultivator knows, that in a properly constituted and regularly pulverised soil, whatever quantity of rain
may fall on the surface, the soil is never saturated with water, nor, in times of great drought, burnt up
with heat. The iwrous texture of the soil, and sub-soil, being at once favorable for the escape of super-
fluous water, and adverse to its evaporation, by never becoming so much heated on the surface, or con-
ducting the heat so far downwards as a close compact soil. These properties of the soil relatively to plants
can never be completely attained by growing plants in pots, and least of all by growing them in pots sur-
rounded by air. In this state, whatever may be the care of the gardener, a continual succession of
changes of temperature will take place in the outside of the pot, and the compact material of which it is
composed being a much more rapid conductor of heat than porous earth, it will soon be communicated to the
web of roots within. With respect to water, a plant in a pot surrounded by air is equally liable to injury.
If the soil be properly constituted, and the pot properly drained, the water passes through the mass as soon
as poured on it, and the soil at that moment may be said to be left in a state favorable for vegetation. But
as the evaporation from the surface ar.d sides of the pot, and the transpiration of the plant goes on, it be-
comes gradually less and less so, and if not soon resupplied, would become dry and shrivelled, and either
die from that cause, or be materially injured by the sudden and copious application of water. Thus the
roots of a plant in a pot surrounded by air, are liable to be alternately chilled and scorched by cold or heat,
and deluged or dried up by superabundance or deficiency of water, and nothing but the perpetual care and
attention of the gardener, to lessen the tendencies to tfiese extremes, could at all preserve the plant from
destruction. To lessen the attention of the gardener, therefore, to render the plant less dependent on his ser-
vices, and, above all, to put a plant in a pot as far as possible on a footing with a plant in the unconfined soil,
plunging the pot in a mass of earth, sand, dung, tan, or any such material, appears to us a most judicious
part of culture, and one that never can be relinquished in fruit-bearing plants with impunity. Even if no
neat were to be afforded by the mass in which the pots were plunged, still the preservation of a steady
temperature which would always equal the average temperature of the air of the house, and the re-

540 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

tention, by the same means, of the steady degree of moisture, would, in our opinion, be a sufficient argu-
ment for plunging pots of vigorous-growing, many-leaved, or fruiUbearing plants.

2934. Had Knight's j^lan been brought forward by a less eminent horticulturist, it
would have claimed but little attention, as the plan of growing pines without bottom
heat, is generally considered to have been tried, — first by M. Le Cour, and subsequently
by various others, and abandoned. In Knight's hands, however, whether it fail or suc-
ceed, it is certain of doing good, by the observations it will elicit from the fertile and
ingenious mind of so candid and philosophical a horticulturist. (^Tlie different Modesy
&c. p. 170.)

2935. Estimate of Knight's efforts as to the culture of the jrine-apple. Knight's two
subsequent papers contain merely incidental observations of little consequence ; but in
so far as they go, rather adverse than otherwise, both to the plan of house, as well as
the mode of culture. On the whole, it may safely be asserted that no light has been
thrown on the culture of the pine-apple by this eminent horticulturist, notwithstanding
his assertions respecting the great facility of its culture by the most ignorant laborer ;
that the culture in the bark-bed, or other hot-bed, if the pots be plunged into it, is worse
than useless (Hort. Trans, iv. 544.) ; and that every one of a very great number
of gardeners who visited the garden, declared himself a zealous convert. (lb. 545).
The truth is. Knight commenced his operations a perfect novice in that depart-
ment of gardening ; and it is most curious to observe, from his own accounts, that he
has only succeeded in so far as he has approached to the modes in common use. Very
large pots were adopted (Hort. Trans, v. 144.), which served as an approach to plunging
smaller pots in a mass calculated to preserve a uniform degree of moisture : a house
with a fixed roof is found less suitable for ventilation than one with sliding sashes (Hort.
Trans, v. 287-8-9.) ; and this circumstance, and that of the iron bars admitting so much
light, render the risk of over-heating such, that it was " thought best" to be " provided
with a net" to shade in hot weather. In short, notwithstanding the ** many converts"
among the " practical gardeners," and the confident assertions in the communications to
the Horticultural Society, the failure may be considered as not only complete, but as
having been attended by nothing useful or new on the subject. It is but rendering

' justice to practical gardeners to state this freely ; and Knight is too sensible a man to
be offended at us for having done so. We, therefore, recommend all those who wish
to grow the pine-apple in the first style of excellence, and at a moderate expense, to
adopt the pits and houses of Baldwin, Alton, or Scott ; and to imitate their practice,
or that of M'Phail and Griffin. See the useful treatise above (2932.) referred to for
more minute details.

2936. The mode qfetnploying the vigor remaining in the old stock or plant after the fruit is ctit,
to nourish, for a certain time, the sucker or suckers which may be growing on it, was prac-
tised by Speechly ; but scarcely to the extent to which it has been carried lately. Tliis
we think, a considerable improvement, if kept within certain limits ; but, if carried too
far, what might be gained by the sucker coming earlier into fruit, would be lost by the
retardation of its own suckers.

2937. A queen pine, grown by Peter Marsland, of Woodbank, near Stockport, was exhibited to
the Horticultural Society, on Nov. 3. 1818. " It weighed three pounds fourteen ounces, measured seven-
teen inches in circumference, and was peculiarly well-flavored. The singularity of this pine was its being
the produce of a sucker which had been removed from the parent root only six months previous to the
time the fruit was cut The plant on which the sucker grew had produced a fruit, which was cut in
October, 1817 ; the old stem, with the sucker attached, was allowed to remain in the pine-pit till May,
1818 ; at that time the sucker was broken off, potted, and plunged into a fresh pit ; it soon after showed
fruit, which, in the course of four months, attained to the weight and size above stated. P. Marsland is in
the practice of producing pines in this way with equal success and expedition. His houses are all heated
by steam." (Hort. Trans, iv. 52.)

2938. Specimens of the New Providence, globe, black Antigua, and Enville, were exhibited on the 17th of
October, 1819, aU which were produced in a similar manner to the above. P. Marsland considers, that
** though not of the largest description, yet as far as beauty of form and richness of flavor are concerned,
they would not yield to fruit of more protracted growth." The success which has attended this gentle-
man's mode of " treating the pine, so as to ensure the production of fruit within twelvemonths from the
cutting of their previous produce, has been perfectly satisfactory ;" and the following is his account of it
" In November, 1819, as soon as the fruit had been cut from the pine-plants, which were then two years
old, all the leaves were stripped off the old stocks, nothing being left but a single sucker on each, and that
the strongest on the plant ; they were then placed in a house where the heat was about sixty degrees,
and they remained till March, 1820. At this period the suckers were broken off from the old stocks, and
planted in pots from eight to twelve inches in diameter, varying according to the size of the sucker. It
may be proper, however, to observe, that the length of time which the young sucker is allowed to remain
attached to the mother plant, depends in some degree upoa the kind of pine : the tardy fruiters, such as
the black Antigua, and others, require to be left longer than the queen, and those which fruit readily.
After the suckers had been planted, they were removed from the house, where they had remained while
on the old stock, to one in which the temperature was raised to seventy-five degrees. Immediately upon
their striking root, the largest of the suckers showed fruit, which swelled well, and ripened between
AugTist and November, being, on the average, ten months from the time the fruit was cut from the old
plant, and seven months from the time the sucker was planted. The fruit so produced, though, as may
be expected, not of the largest description, I have invariably found to be richer and higher flavored than
that grown on older plants. The suckers of inferior strength will not show fruit in the same season, but
m the foUowmg they will yield good fruit, and strong suckers for a succeeding year's supply. Those
suckers are to be preferred which are produced on plants that have ripened their fruit in November, for
those taken from plants whose fruit is cut in August or earlier, arc apt to show fruit in January, or

Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 541

February, while yet remaining on the mother plant But whenever this happens, the sucker should he
broken off immethatcly upon being perceived, and planted in a pot so as to form a root of its own to
mamtain its fruit." {Hort. Trans, iv.392.) ' ^

2939. This experiment shows what can be done ; though it must be obvious that a considerable part of the
saving in time is lost by the small size of the fruit. Baldwin, in our opinion, has hit on the proper use of
this mode, the principle of which, as already observed, consists in the employment of the otherwise lost
vigor of the old stock. He contrives to produce tolerably sized fruit, and to have such a degree of vigor
in his suckers, as that they are able, in their turn, to throw out other vigorous suckers to succeed them
In aid of this, he often earths up the old stock, so as to cover the lower end of the sucker ; and partially
wrenching it off, he, by these means, obtains for it a good stock of roots before he renders it an in-
dependent plant.

Sect. II. Of the Culture of the Vinery.

2940. On the culture of so important a fniit as the grape, it is not surprising that there
should be a great variety of opinions. Without quoting those of the earlier, and of
foreign authors, neither of which are of much value as to the hot-house culture of this
plant, we shall give those of the best modern British gardeners ; on the general modes
of culture adopted in ordinary vineries ; in regard to particular modes of culture ; as to
gathering and preserving tlie fruit ; and as to insects and diseases.

SuBSECT. 1. Of the General Culture of tlie Grape in Vineries.

2941. Tiie culture of the grape in ordinary vineries embraces the subject of soil, sort of
grapes, sort of plants, pruning, training, bleeding of the shoot, culture of the borders,
time of beginning to force, temperature, air, water, ripening and resting of the wood.

2942. Soil. Tlie kind of compost Speedily made use of for the vine border of the hot-
he use at Welbeck, was as follows, viz. " One fourth part of garden mould (a strong
loi m) ; one fourth of the swarth or turf, from a pasture where the soil is a sandy loam ;
ore fourth of the sweepings and scrapings of pavements and hard roads ; one eighth of
rotten cow and stable-yard dung, mixed ; and one eighth of vegetable mould from
reduced and decayed oak-leaves. The swarth or sward should be laid on a heap, till the
grass roots are in a state of decay, and then turned over and broken with a spade ; then
put it to the other materials, and work the whole well together." {Tr. on Vine, p. 25.)
Speechly covdrs his vine border vrith a coat of gravel two inches thick.

2943. Abercrombie says, " materials and proportions of a good compost are of top-spit sandy loam from an
upland pasture, one third part ; unexhausted brown loam from a garden, one fourth part ; scrapings of
roads, free from clay, and repaired with gravel or slate, one sixth part ; vegetable mould, or old tan
reduced to earth, or rotten stable-dung, one eighth part ; shell-marl or mild lime, one twelfth part."
The borders he recommends to be from three to five feet in depth, and, where practicable, not less than
four feet wide in surface within the house, communicating with a border outside the building, of not less
than ten feet wide.

2^14. M'Phail directs as follows : " To make a suitable border where it is required for the grape-vine,

Erovide a large quantity of earth of a loamy nature; that from arable land, or from a ridge in which a
edge-row of hazel, maple, elm, &c. have grown many years, and have been grubbed, is good ; or a spit
deep from the surface of a common, long pastured ; or from the head or end lands of a corn-field ; either
of these will do very well." For forcing early, he adds, " vines do best in a strong deep loam,
not destitute of a mixture of sand, and well manured with rotten dung, on a dry bottom of hard
clay."

SS45. Nicd, after premising that the bottom of the border is to be made perfectly dry by draining and
paving, says, " the average depth of the border should not be less than a yard. If four feet, so much the
better. It is not easy to say how broad it should be ; but it should not be narrower, outside and inside of
the house taken together, than thirty feet. The soil should be thus composed : one half strong hazelly
loam, one fourth light sandy earth, an eighth part vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves, and an eighth
part rotten dung ; to which may very properly be added, a moderate quantity of lime, or of shell-marL These
articles should be perfectly decomposed, and intimately mixed, before planting."

2946. Griffin, who has received the medal of the Horticultural Society for his skiU in cultivating grapes at
Woodhall, in Hertfordshire, forms his vine borders as follows : After being completely drained, the
whole bottom is covered with brick, stone, or lime rubbish, about six inches thick, and on this is laid a
compost of " half good loamy soil with its turf, one quarter of rich solid old dung, and one quarter o
brick and lime rubbish ; the turf well rotted, and the whole well incorporated." {Uort. Trans. voL ir.
p. 100.)

2947. Judd uses half of rich gritty loam from a common ; a quarter of rich old dung ; and a quarter of
lime rubbish, tan, and leaf mould, mixed together. These materials were kept separate, and frequently
turned during winter, and when afterwards well mixed were not sifted, but laid on a prepared bottom to
the depth of three feet He says he does not use so much dung as is usually done, because, though the
vine will bear an extraordinary quantity of manure, yet its growth is thereby retarded, especially when
young. He recommends the addition of old tan, from having experienced (with Speechly, MitcheU,
and others'! that the vine will root in that more freely than in any other substance. (,Hort. Trans.
voL iv. p. 4.)

2948. Sort of grapes. In the horticultural catalogue will be found a description of the
best sorts of grapes for forcing, or the open wall, from which a selection may be made,
according to the taste of the party.

2949. For a mere glass case, in which the fruit is to be ripened by the heat of the sun,
the following, which are the hardiest sorts, will succeed best, viz. white muscadine, white
Sweetwater, black sweetwater, black Hamburgh, large black cluster, black July, miller
grape, and black St. Peter's.

2950. For a small house to be forced, or to which fire-heat is to be applied in spring and autumn, the
following sorts are wliat experienced gardeners recommend, as sure bearers and high-flavored grap^ :
black and red Hamburgh, black and grizzly Frontignac, black prince, white muscat of Alexandria,
Sitwel's white sweetwater, and early white Teneriffe. „ , . ,, • , ,

2951. M'FhaU, for general forcins, recommends, as " the best sorts of grapc-vincs for forcing, the black

sin, *flame tokay, *Lombardy.

542 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Hamburgh, red Frdntignac, black prince, black muscadel, red Lombnrdy, royal muscadine, white
muscadine, white Frontignac, white muscat, white Sweetwater, white muscadel, and white Syrian."
{Gard. Item. p. 77.) , ,..,.,. i. *u w *

2952. Nicol, for general forcing, names twenty-four sorts, as under, markmg those he esteems the best
with an asterisk (*).

White Grapes. Black Grapes.

*Sweetwater, *rauscadine, *royal mus- Muscadine, *Fronti^ac, *Hamburgn,

cadine, *Frontignac, JIamburgh, raisin, *muscat of Alexandna, cluster, *Con-

*tokay, *passe musque,' *muscat of Alex- stantia, St. Peter's,
andria, *Constantia.

2953. SpeecMy, Forsyth, and Abcrcronibie give long descriptive lists, and leave the reader to choose from
their descriptions.

2954. Sort of plants. Vines are to be had in the nurseries, propagated either from
layers, cuttings, or eyes ; and provided the plants be well rooted, and the wood ripe,
many are of opinion that it is a matter of indifference from which class the choice is
made. Justice prefers plants raised from cuttings, as likely to have ripened roots ; but
where they have to be sent from a distance, he prefers to plants, cuttings containing an
inch or two of the old wood, and twelve or fourteen inches of the new. These he plants
at once where they are to remain, as practised in France. Speedily prefers plants which
have been raised from the eye, for the following reasons : " They have more abundant
roots, grow shorter jointed, arc more prolific, and will, if permitted, come into bearing
the second year." Abercrombie takes indifferently plants raised from cuttings or eyes ;
and M'Phail does not direct any preference. Nicol approves of " plants raised from
cuttings that have been two seasons in pots, and have been properly treated and trained
to a single shoot." The shoot of the first year should have been headed down to within
six or eight inches of the pot ; and that of last season to four, or, at most, five eyes.
f* The plants should have been fresh potted into good earth last season, and should be
now in pots of nine or ten inches diameter, well rooted, and healthy. Such plants are
much to be preferred to those raised from layers that are seldom well rooted, and never
grow so freely as plants raised from cuttings. "

2955. Cuttings and eyes. It may be remarked, that the most general mode of pro-
pagating the vine at present, in the best nurseries, is from buds or eyes ; and that, both
as the cause and effect, such plants are made choice of by most gardeners. The great ob-
jection to layers is, that being propagated in the open air, they grow till checked by frost,
and then do not ripen their roots, which generally die off, so that the plants make very
weak shoots the first year after planting. Layers kept in the nursery one year after being
separated from the mother plant, are, of course, not so liable to this objection. Plants
raised from cuttings or eyes, having no adventitious support, produce no more roots than
what the shoot and leaves enable them to ripen, and at two years' growth, may be justly
considered as the best description of plants for stocking a house.

2956. Expeditious propagation. Neill (Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.) describes ** an in-
comparably more speedy mode of storing a new grape-house," than that of employing any
description of plants to be procured from a nursery.

2957. This mode is only to be adopted " where a vinery previously exists in the garden, or where there is
a friend's vinery in the neighborhood. It is practised frequently at the gardens of Dalkeith House, by
James Macdonald, head gardener there, and a distinguished member of the Caledonian Horticultural So-
ciety ; and Neill has been an ocular witness of • its complete success.' In the end of June or beginning of
July, when the vines have made new shoots from ten to twelve feet long, and about the time of the fruit
setting, he selects any supernumerary shoots, and, loosening them from the trellis, bends them down so as
to make them form a double or flexure in a pot filled with earth, generally a mixture of loam and vegetable
mould ; taking care to make a portion of last year's wood, containing a joint, pass into the soil in the pot.
The earth is kept in a wet state ; and at the same time a moist warm air is maintained in the house. In
about a week or ten days, roots are found to have proceeded plentifully from the joint of last year's wood,
and these may be seen by merely stirring the surface of the earth ; or sometitaies they may be observed
penetrating to its surface. The layer may now be safely detached. Very frequently it contains one or two
bunches of grapes, which continue to grow and come to perfection. A layer cut off in the beginning of July
generally attains, by the end of October, the length of fifteen or twenty feet. A new grape-house, there-
fore, might in this way be as completely furnished with plants in three months, as by the usual method,
above described, in three years. Supposing the layers to be made on the 1st of July, they might be cut,
and removed to the new house on the 9th : by the 9th of October, the roof would be completely covered
with shoots, and next season the house would yield a full crop of grapes. It is not meant that they should
be allowed to do so, if permanently bearing plants be wished for ; on the contrary, they should be suffered
to carry only a v«ry moderate crop, as it is pretty evident that the roots could not sustain the demand of a
full one, or at any rate, that the plants would necessarily show their exhausted state, by barrenness in the
following season. By this means the more delicate kinds, as the Frontignac, may be quickly propagated ;
we have seen layers of the Gibraltar or red Hamburgh made in the beginning of July, reach the length of
thirteen feet before the end of the month, yielding at the same time two or three bunches of grapes. The
more hardy, such as the white muscadine, form still stronger plants in that space of time. Little difficulty
is experienced in removing the plants from the pots into the holes prepared for them : if there be fears
of preserving a ball of earth to the new roots, the pots may be sunk with them, and then broken and re-
moved ; or the plants may be kept in the pots till autumn, when they may very easily be taken out of them
without detriment. Macdonald 's experience does not lead him to think that plants propagated in this
way are less durable than those procured by slower means, and where the roots and branches bear a rela-
tive proportion to each other. But supposing they were found to be less durable, it is evident that one may
thus very easily keep grape-houses constantly stored with healthy fruit-bearing plants, and that the kinds
may be changed almost at pleasure. When it happens that too much bearing wood has been trained in,
the plants are relieved, and sufficient sun and air admitted, by thus removing two or three shoots ; and
supposing these to contain each several bunches of some fine sort of grape, they are not lost, but may be
ripened, by setting the pots on the side shelves, or flue-trellis, of the pinery, or any hot-house." We have
tried this mode with success, and find it greatly aided by ringing the larger at or below the tongue.

Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 543

2958. Choice by anlicijxiHon. A mode of very general utility is to select the plants in
the nursery a year before wanted, and to order tliem to be potted into very large pots,
baskets, or tubs, filled with the richest earth, and plunged in a tan-bed. ITiey will thus
make shoots, which, the first year after removal to their final destination, will, under or-
dinary circumstances, produce fruit.

2959. Planting inside or outside the house. Vines are commonly either trained against
the back wall, or on a trellis under the glass roof. In the former case, the plants are al-
ways placed inside the house ; but in the latter, there are two opinions among practical
men, one in favor of planting them outside, and the other inside the parapet wall. Where
the vines are to be drawn out when in a dormant state, as is generally the case with those
trained under the rafters of pineries, there can be no question that outside planting must
be adopted ; but for vineries, where this practice is not requisite, it seems preferable to
plant tliem inside. This is Nicol's practice, who places one plant " behind the parapet,
and between it and the front flue, in the centre of each light."

2960. Mode of ])lanting. Abercrombie says, " Let them be carefully turned out of
the pots, reducing the balls a little, and singling out the matted roots. Then place them
in the pits, just as deep in the earth as they were before, carefully spreading out
the fibres, and filling in with fine sifted earth, or with vegetable mould. Settle all with
a little water ; and let them have plenty of free air every day, defending tliem from very
severe frost or much wet ; which is all the care they will require, till they begin to push
young shoots."

2961. JudeTs mode of planting seems to be excellent in its kind ; it is founded on the princirle of
increasing the number of mouths or feeders of the roots of plants (740.), to enable them to search for,
and take up food, rather than gorging such as they may have with too much food, or with food of too
rich a quality. The vines being raised from single eyes in March, were in the March of the following year
cut down to one eye, and put in bottom heat till they produced shoots of sufficient length to draw through
the holes in the parapet of his vinery, or about two feet ; afterwards they were hardened in the green-
house, where a temperature was kept of about 60°, and there they grew two feet more. Holes were opened
in the vine border in the beginning of May, and in about a fortnight after, a wheelbarrow full of old tan,
or earth of tan, was put in each hole, in the middle of which the roots of the pine-plants remained after
being treated as follows. " The leaves were cut off from the lower part of the plant, about two feet and
a half of its length ; the end of the shoot was then drawn very carefully through the hole, so that the
pot being removed, the ball was placed two feet distant from the front of the house, upon its side, so that
the stem lay in a horizontal position, about six inches below the level of the surface of the border. When
thus placed, the whole of the stem which was to be covered was slit, or tongued, at each eye, like a
carnation laver, by passing a sharp penknife at three quarters of an inch below each eye, and on the side
of the eye, about one third of the thickness into the wood, and then upwards to the centre of the joint
This being done, the stem was covered with about four inches of old tan, and the other two inches were
filled up with the mould of the border." It is essential to the safety of the shoot, that the slitting be done
the last thing, and whilst it is laid in its position, lest the stem should be broken. By slitting the stem,
he adds, " abundance of roots are produced from every eye : the progress of the shoot is not very
great until the roots begin to push out ;" after which, however, it is so surprising that those under Judd's
management were from twenty-five to thirty feet in length, and of proportionate strength. {Uort. Trans.
iv. 4.)

2962. Season of planting. As the plants are generally in pots, and may be turned out
with balls, they may be planted in almost any month in the year ; but the autumn or
spring months are of course to be preferred. Nicol says, " I have planted grape-houses
in May, and in June, that have succeeded so well, as tliat the plants have reached the top
of the house before November in the same years. They were kept in pots, and so care-
fully turned out of them in transplanting, as that the plants experienced no check, although
sprung many inches. I have also done the like with peaches."

2963. Distance. Speechly disapproves of the common practice of planting all the dif-
ferent sorts of grapes at the same distances, and advises a larger or less space to be allowed,
in proportion to the natural character and qualities of the plant. Vines planted at three
or four feet apart he considers as crowded ; for though by tliis mode a house will soon
get furnished, and tolerable crops of grapes be produced in a few years ; yet after remain-
ing many years so close together they will be cramped in their growth for want of room,
and thereby rendered less productive. On a wall or trellis twelve feet high, he recom-
mends six feet between plant and plant for the weak and delicate kinds, and twelve feet
for those that grow robust and strong. But in order to obtain a crop of grapes as soon
as possible, he proposes to introduce temporary plants between the principals ; such tem-
porary plants to have been grown two or three years, in large pots, so as to come imme-
diately into bearing, and to be trained so as to occupy the upper parts of the wall, wliile
the principals are furnishing it below. (Treat, on Vine, 102.)

2964. Temporary plants. " At first planting a house," Abercrombie observes, « some
of the vines may be introduced as temporary plants. After the wood from a good stool is
able to cover the space between two or more lights, plants less vigorous, or which bear
fruit not so well approved, may be taken quite away. A viaer)' is better adapted for cul-
tivating a single plant to a considerable extent than a hot-house."

2965. Pruning and training. Tlie opinions of authors and practical men on this sub-
ject are very various ; and each, as M- Phail observes, lays " much stress on his own mode ;"
be adds, « but I am of opinion, that to have good crops of grapes much more depend*

544

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

on the soil diey ore planted in, and the climate in which they are kept, than on any me-
thods of pruning or training tliat have been, or ever can be, adopted. In this sentiment,
everv person of observation who has seen a number of the vinenes in this country, or
vineyards on the continent, must entirely concur: but as every operation of art is,
or ought to be, conducted in a manner suitable to the end in view it is nghly necessary
that system should enter into this as into every thing else. We shall, therefore, give
the various opinions of practical men as to training vines m vineries, in chrono ogical
series, beginning with Speedily, the Moses, as he may be called, of modern British
vine-dressers.

lortenea )) L (

X^ iiJUJ

2966. Speedily' s mode of pnin- ^^^
ing and training. Speedily, hav-
ing planted a vine against a wall
or roof-trellis, cuts it down to
two eyes or buds {Jig. 455. a) ;
the next winter the shoots of the
preceding summer are shortened
each to one eye {b) ; two '
shoots are produced, trained
right during summer, and in the
following winter headed down to
from three to five feet each, and
laid in horizontally parallel to the
ground, and about a foot above
it (c) ; these main stems pro-
duce shoots from every eye, but
only a few are selected, which
stand from a foot to fifteen inches
apart, and these are trained up-
wards during summer, and in
winter every other one is cut out
to within two or three eyes of
the main stem, and the rest
shortened to one third of the
length of the trellis (rf). The
following summer, the third, a
moderate crop will be produced
from the side shoots of the wood
of the preceding year, and from
the spurs on the main stem. In
the winter following, the shoots
which have produced the fruit
are shortened down to two eyes,
excepting the leaders to the long
shoots, which are left with four
or five eyes (e). Next summer, the fourth, the top of the roof, or wall, will be reached
by the leading shoots, and the spurs are now allowed to produce each one leader. In
winter, both of these leaders are headed down to four or five eyes, and the side shoots,
from the old wood, to one or two eyes (/). In the following summer, tlie fifth, a full
crop of grapes is produced in every part of the house. This constitutes one course or
rotation ; and the next, and all the future courses, extend only to four years, in which
the object is to renew the upright bearers every fourth year, the intervening spurs fur-
nishing shoots to succeed them. This method is called perpendicular, spur, or Dutch
training : but few who adopt it pursue it so regularly as to renew the old upright shoots
every fourth year, by which, and for other causes, and chiefly the small quantity of fruit
produced during the first four years, it has fallen into disrepute.

2967. Abercrombie's " methods of pruning established vines'"^ admits of much diversity of method, as the
plants are in difFerent situations. Without reckoning the cutting down of young or weak plants, alter-
nately, to the lowermost summer shoot, which is but a temporary course, three different systems of prun-
ing have their advocates.

2968. Hie first method is applicable only to vines out of doors; but it maybe transferred to plants in a
vinery without any capital alteration. In this method, one perpendicular leader is trained from the stem, at
the side of which, to the right and left, the ramifications spring. When the plant is established, the imme-
diate bearers, or shoots of the growing season, and the mother bearers, or shoots of the last year's growth,
are thus managed. Soon after the growing season has commenced, such rising shoots as either are in fruit
and fit to be retained, or are eligibly placed for mother bearers next season, are laid in, either horizontally
or with a slight diagonal rise, at something less than a foot distance, measuring from one bearing shoot to
the next : the rising shoots, intended to form young wood, sliould be taken as near the origin of the
branch as a good one offers, to allow of cutting away, beyond the adopted lateral, a greater quantity of
the branch, as it becomes old wood ; the new-sprung laterals, not wanted for one of these two objects, are
pinched off. The treatment of those retained, during the rest of the summer, thus differs. As the shoots
ih bearing extend in growth, they are kept stopped about two eyes beyond the fruit : — the connate shoots.

JLl.

Book I.

CULTURE OF THE VINERY.

545

cultivated merely to enlarge the provision of wood, are divested of embryo bunches, if they show any :
but are trained at full length as they advance during the summer, until they reach the allotted bounds :
were they stopped in the middle of their growth, it- would cause them to throw out troublesome laterals
In the winter pruning, there will thus be a great choice of mother bearers. That nearest the origin
of the former mother bearer, or most commodiously placed, is retained, and the other or others on the
same branch are cut away; the rest of the branch is also taken off, so that the old wood may terminate
with the adopted lateral : the adopted shoot is then shortened to two, three, four, or a greater number of
eyes, according to its place on the vine, its own strength, or the strength of the vine. The lower shoots
are pruned-in the shortest, in order to keep the means of always supplying young wood at the bottom of
the tree.

2969. The second method is to head down the natural leader, so as to cause it to throw out two, three,
or more principal shoots ; these are trained as leading branches ; and in the winter pruning are not
reduced, unless to shape them to the limits of the house, or unless the plant appears too weak to
sustain them at length. Laterals from these are cultivated about twelve inches apart, as mother bearers ;
those in fruit are stopped in summer, and after the fall of the leaf are cut-in to one or two eyes. From
the appearance of the mother bearers, thus shortened, this has been called spur-pruning.

2970. The third method seems to flow from taking the second plan as a foundation, in having more than
one aspiring leader ; and from joining the suijerstructure of the first system immediately to this, in
reserving well placed shoots to come in as bearing-wood. Thus, supposing a stem, which has been
headed, to send up four vigorous competing leaders, two are suffered to bear fruit ; and two are divested
of such buds as break into clusters, and trained to the length of ten, twelve, fifteen feet, or more,
for mother bearers next season. In the winter pruning, the leaders which have borne a crop are cut
down to within two eyes of the stool, or less, according to the strength of the plant; while the reserved
shoots lose no more of their tops than is necessary to adjust them to the trellis.

2971. M'Phail also describes three modes of 2>runing the mne ; the first, or fruit-tree
manner, he calls the old method, the general shape of the plant when pruned and trained
being like that of a trained peach 456

{Jig. 456.) ; the second he agrees

with Abercrombie in calling » V \ %\}ii

spur-2)runitig(Jig. 455.); and the V. .V ScFfA

third he calls the lo7ig or neio
method (Jig. 459.) ; " though,"
he adds, " I understand by
books (Switzer and T/ie Retired
Gardener), that it was in practice
nearly one hundred years ago,
and I saw it in practice forty years
since." It is singular that this
old method of M'Phail should
liave been recently described and
figured by a German horticul-
turist, as a new and " experi-
mentally proved superior method of vine culture ;" Varsuch einer durch Erfahrung
erprobten met hade den Weinbau zu verbessem, von J. C. Kecht, Berlin, 8vo. 1813.

2972. Forsyth'' s method of vine train- 457
ing nearly resembles that of Speechly ;
but instead of laying-in the shoots in a
straight direction, either upright or ho-
rizontal, he bends and attaches them
in a serpentine form (Jig. 457.), which
has some effect in the open air, or
under gentle forcing, of making them
break more regularly ; though even
this is denied by some, who contend
tliat, so treated, they break only at the
angles or bends.

2973. I^lcoPs opinion, as to the dif-
ferent modes of training, is in unison with

M'Phail's and Our own. He says, " With respect to the manner in which vines should be
trained, opinions are at variance. Some advise training the shoots in a straight and
direct maimer ; others in a horizontal manner ; and otliers in a serpentine form. If
grapes be otherwise well managed, they will do well in any of the above ways ; and I
have just to observe, with respect to the last-mentioned method, that it necessarily leads
to more confusion, particularly with regard to the training-in of the summer wood, than
eitlier of the preceding methods. On dwarf-walls or trellises, the horizontal or zigzag
manner of Hitt (fg. 386. g.), or Forsyth (fg.457.), maybe very proper; but in a
properly constructed and properly planted grape-house, the most sensible manner of
training, in my opinion, is directly up the roof."

2974. Thefirst year after planting, " after the buds have sprung an inch or two, it will be proper to single
out those to be trained, and displace the others with the thumb. Three shoots only should be trained on
each plant ; that is, the two lowermost, and the uppermost, if it be vigorous ; but otherwise displace it,
and train the next below it. As the shoots advancCj they should be trained at the distance of ten or
twelve inches from each other ; allowing them sufficient room in the ties to swell without being bound.
Pinch off all laterals as they appear, except one or two nearest to the point of the shoot, lest by any acci-

Nn

546

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

dent it be broken, and in that case, that a substitute may readily be found ; which, however, is never
equal to the main shoot ; so that great care should be taken in the training of principal leaders. One
side shoot of each plant may be stopped when it is five or six feet m length, and the other when nine or
ten, (as they are to be cut well down in the winter pruning,) which will throw in the more strerigth to
the middle shoots, that are only to be headed down to about six or eight feet, and which, if well
ripened, may yield a few fruit next season. These should be encouraged, therefore, and be carefully
trained, as long as they will grow." . . „ vt- i i «

2975. In the end of the season, say in the month of November, " these shoots," Nicol observes, are to
be pruned thus : the side shoot, stopped first, to three eyes ; the other to five or six feet ; and the middle
shoot, to seven, eight, or ten feet, according to its strength : from which may be expected a good deal of
fruit next season, and a shoot from its extremity, to be stopped at the top of the house, this time twelve-
month. From the side shoot, pruned to five or six feet, may be expected a few fruit ; and from its ex-
tremity, a shoot to be headed at this time next year, at nine or ten feet in length, wh>ch will, the season
following thereafter, produce a full crop. From the side shoot, shortened to three eyes, are to be expected
two shoots ; the one to be trained to the height of about nine or ten feet (to be pruned to five or six at
this time next year) ; and the other to four or five only, as it is again to be pruned back to two or three
buds this time twelvemonth ; thus providing for wood to fill the under part of the trellis."

3976. Bearing shoots. In a properly constructed grape-house, the plants trained up the roof, and the house
filled with wood, "there should be," Nicol observes, "three ranges of bearing shoots; viz. one range, at
bottom of the trellis, from end to end of the house, reaching from within two feet of the ground, five or
six more feet upwards ; a second, reaching from a foot, or perhaps two feet under the tops of these, that
is, from within seven or eight feet of the ground, to the distance of fourteen or fifteen feet upwards from
it ; and a third range, reaching from a foot or two under the tops of these last, to the uppermost row of
wires on the trellis : the shoots of the first, or lower range, being headed at alxjut five or six feet ; those
of the second, or middle range, at about seven or eight ; and those of the third, or uppermost, at about
nine or ten feet in length ; all a foot or two, more or less, according to circumstances, according to their
strengths, how low or hew high upon the plants they have issued, and how far they have sprung, and are
fully matured. The distance at which these shoots should be placed from each other, in their respective
ranges, is about thirty inches ; which distance is necessary to give room to the stubs of next year, on which
the clusters are to hang, as in this season ; and which distance may be varied a few inches, according to the
kinds of grapes, some growing stronger than others. The undermost shoots on the trellis, or those placed
nearest to the ground, and which were only trained to the height of a few feet, must t)e shortened back
to two or three joints ; it being a principal point in the training of vines, always to provide for a supply of
bottom wood, and to keep young wood as near to the ground, or lower parts of the plants, as possible."

2977. Cutting and laying in the shoots. " In pruning, cut generally at two inches above the bud. Some cut
nearer, even as near as half an inch, which is apt to weaken the shoot of next season, and sometimes to
prevent its vegetating at all ; the buds being very susceptible of injury, on account of the soft and spongy
nature of the wood. In the cutting out of old wood, be careful to cut in a sloping direction, and to
smooth the edges of the wound, in order to prevent its being injured by moisture. The pruning being
finished, let the loose, shreddy, outward rind on the old wood be carefully peeled off, observing not to
injure the sound bark, and clear the treUis and branches of leaves, tendrils, &c. Let the shoots
and branches be afterwards regularly laid in, at the distances above specified, particularly the young
shoots that are expected to bear next season. As to the others, it is not so material ; nor is it ma-
terial how near the young shoots be placed to the old, or even though they sometimes cross them.
Choose strands of fresh matting, or packthread, to tie with ; and observe to leave sufficient room for the
swelling of the shoots and branches next season, as often already cautioned."

2978. General treatment after pruning. " The house should be shut up at nights, for ten days or a fortnight,
after being pruned, particularly if there be any appearance of frost ; admitting air freely through the day.
It is proper to keep the plants from the extremes of heat or cold for some time, in order that their pores
may contract, and the wounds may heal gradually ; as otherwise they are apt to bleed now, and to break
out afresh on the application of fire-heat in the spring. When they are judged to be safb, expose the
house night and day."

2979. HaywarcVs pruning and 458
training proceeds on the opinion,
*' that the greater length the sap has
to pass through the body of the vine,
the more abundant, fine, and high-
flavored will the fruit be ;" he re-
commends introducing only one plant
in a vinery, and training it over the
whole trellis, either in horizontal
shoots from two main leaders (Jig.
458. a) ; or in his wavy manner (6) ;
and he can, as -the tree advances in
growth, gradually convert the latter
into the former mode.

2980. Selons training. A very scientific mode of training vines under a glass roof,
has been adopted at Stamford Hill, by A. Seton, Esq. one of our most enlightened horti-
culttirists, and practised by him for several years with considerable success. It is thus
described : —

2981. The vine having, like other trees, a tendency to produce its most vigorous shoots at the extremities of the
branches, and particularly so at those which are situated highest, it generally happens, when it is trained,
as is most frequently done, across and upwards, from the front to the back of the house, that the greater
portion of the fruit is borne near the top, while the lower parts are comparatively barren. This takes
place, whether the branches be made to consist chiefly of vigorous terminal shoots, preserved at con-
siderable length, or the leading shoots be kept short, and lateral spurs be left for the production of the
fruit ; but in the latter case, the evil exists in a smaller degree : for the spurs, or short lateral branches,
divert the sap in its ascent, producing, by means of its flowing to their extremities, an approximation to
the effect of long branches. The same inconvenience would occur, to a certain extent, if the vines were
trained in a like manner in the open air, but it is greatly augmented in a house, in consequence of the
air being much hotter, as every one knows, at the top than beneath. Having observed that the fruit pro-
duced on the vigorous shoots, which usually grow it the extremities of the long branches, is, generally,
more abundant, and of a finer quality, than that produced on the short lateral ones, I was desirous to
promote the growth and preservation of the former ; but the usual mode of training the branches across
the house and upwards, being subject to the objection before-mentioned, and little scope being afforded for

Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY.

547

it In a house of small dimensions, I thought I should obviate these inconveniences, in great part and
attain another object, presently to be mentioned, by training the branches in a horizontal direction* and
keeping the whole of the fruit-bearing part of each tree nearly on the same level. '

2982. Five vines u>ere planted at the ends of a house, twenty-five feet in length, for this purpose, provided
with rods placed horizontally under the glass of the roof, twenty inches asunder, and extending from end
to end. The first vine, placed at one end, being trained up to the two lower rods, a shoot of it was laid
along each of them, and continued successively from year to year, till it reached the other end : then the
shoot on the lower rod was turned upwards to the next, and led back upon it towards the stem of the
tree ; while that on the upper rod was tunied down, and led back, in like manner, on the lower one.
During this process, a sutticient number of spurs, or short branches, was left annually on the old wood'
to produce fruit. When the leading shoots, which had been thus trained in a retrograde direction, ap!
proached towards the end, whence the original branches proceeded, preparation was made for a succession
of young wood, bringing forward two fresh shoots from the stem of the tree, and leading them along
close to the preceding ones. As these, and the leading shoots of the first branches, which were then on
their return, advanced, the spurs on that part of the old wood, to which they had reached, were cut out
to make room for them, the naked stem only being left When the second series of branches had re-
turned nearly to the end, at which the trunk was situated, the first series, on which there was then but
little of the herbage remaining, was cut out at the trunk. Fresh shoots were then brought forward to
succeed the second series ; and so on without end. It would be superfluous to dwell on the mode of
managing the other trees ; as it will be perceived that, following the same principle, they must be laid
along the higher rods in succession, two rods being allowed to each tree ; and when the stem is not at the
end of the house, two branches are to be trained eastward, and two westward, along the rod. Thus, in a
house of twenty-five feet in length, instead of having only fifteen or sixteen feet, to admit of the length
of a branch, as would be the case under the usual mode of training across the house, we have a range of
thirty feet, which affords ample scope for the long shoots at the extremities ; and these, I find, when laid
on in the horizontal position, and letl from three to five feet long, according to their strength, usually bear
fruit at all their buds, while the spurs on the old wood are also very productive. By these mean's, the
tree possesses the double advantage of no part of it being robbed of its nourishment, by means of any other
vegetation, which is supplied from the same root, being situated either in a higher position or warmer
atmosphere. To what extent the former of these circumstances alone may operate, I cannot determine
from any actual experiment ; but, from the general observations I have made, that the growth of the
vine, as well as of other trees, is most luxuriant in the parts that are situated highest, I am inclined to
think, that its effects are very considerable. Others, who have made the same observation, have recom-
mended the training of the shoots in a zigzag manner, advancing upwards, with the view of retarding the
ascent of the sap through the inclined parts : this, however, I have found to have little or no effect, the
general direction of the shoot being upwards, through all the bondings. But whatever may be the effect
produced by the horizontality of the position, in equalising the luxuriance of the growth, I conceive that
no doubt will be entertained, in regard to that of a uniformity of temperature; and this is fully
obtained by the method in question. I now come to the other object to be attained by the mode o'f
treatment, which will be stated in a few words, as the effects produced in regard to it will be very
evident

2983. In the usual mode of management, each tree is under the influence, in its different parts, of all the
degrees of temperature in the house^ but under the mode now proposed, each tree has its own peculiar
climate, to which alone all its parts are exposed. This affords us the command of a most convenient variety,
in regard to earliness in the ripening of fruit. For example, if there be a wish to save fuel, and yet to have
grapes of several varieties, which ripen at different seasons, of the late sorts there will, under the common
method, be only a few brought to perfection at the tops of the trees, whilst those that are near the bottom
will not ripen, and that part of those trees will accordingly be useless. But in the arrangement above de-
scribed, the early and late sorts may be procured at the same time in equal abundance and perfection, by
training the early sorts, let us suppose the Sweetwater, at the bottom ; the middling ones, such as the black
Hambro', next ; and the late, such as the muscat of Alexandria, at the top. Again, if it be wished to have
some very early, and others very late, the order may be reversed, by placing the early varieties at the top,
and the late at the bottom ; in which ease more fuel will be required. This method, it will be perceived,
may be varied in many ways, and will operate under all the degrees of forcing. {Hart. Trans. voL iii.
p. 9. to 13.)

2984. In Griffin's mode of training and pruning, only a single shoot is led up under each rafter. The
vine is planted outside, close to the parapet, and introduced through a hole immediately under the rafter
up which it is trained. On planting, it is cut down to one eye ; about Christmas, the shoot formed during
the preceding summer is cut down to two or three feet ; the second year one shoot only is trained from
the extremity, and it is again headed down in winter, so that the joint length of the two years' wood is
from ten to fifteen feet ; and at the Christmas of the third year, the shoot is cut off at the end of the rafter.
The fruit, it is obvious, is to be obtained from the side shoots, or spurs, proceeding from this main shoot.
The spurs are cut down to single eyes every winter, till the main shoots get coarse and rugged, which
will happen in about ten years ; it is then cut away entirely, a young stem having been previously trained
up the two preceding years from the bottom to substitute in its place. As soon as the plants become suf-
ficiently strong to furnish wood, from the point where they enter the house, for a second and third branch,
then a proper number must be fixed on as permanent plants, and their side branches brought successively
forward and trained to the contiguous rafters, " one bearing branch being applied to each rafter, and the
plants which originally belonged to these rafters taken away entirely." The weight of grapes produced by
the vine under each rafter by this mode of pruning is generally about forty pounds, two bunches to each
•pur, or from fifty to a hundred bunches, averaging half a pound each. When the house is ia forcing, the
branches are suspended from the rafter by strings from two to three feet long, fastened to nails or hooks
on each side the rafter ; by this means they are let down from the glass when danger from frost is appre-
hended, in the manner effected by the hinged rafter-trellis. (1677.) " I also contrive," adds this very
successful cultivator, " to spread the branches, when in bearing, on either side of the rafters, under the
glass, but so as not to occupy the whole space under the glass with the foliage, for I consider that very great
advantage arises to the fruit from giving free admission to the sun from the centre of each Ught" It will
be asked by some gardeners, what is done with the leading shoot at the end of every main stem ? This
Griffin " stops during its growth in the summer, leaving three or four joints at the utmost ; and these must
be cut away, at the time of pruning, down to the old wood, or nearly so : sometimes, to prevent the top of
the house being crowded, a little of the old wood at top may be cut off also, and replaced by the next year's
shoot" {Hort. Trans, iv. IW.)

2985. The long, or succession mode of pruning vines, may be exemplified in the practice
of Meams of Shobden Court, Herefordshire. The vinery there, as at Wood Hall, is of
the common form, with wooden sashes and rafters ; the vines are planted inside the house,
at two feet and a half apart, nearly close to the front wall, and are headed down to
within a foot of tlie soil {f^. 459. a). One shoot only is allowed to proceed from
each plant, which at the end of the first season is cut down to the second or third eye
(b). Next year, two leading shoots are encouraged, the strongest of which is stopped

N n 2

548

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

when It has groten three or four joints beyond
the middle of the roof, and the weaker after
having grown three or four feet, for the purpose
of strengthening the eyes. At the fall of the
leaf, the leading shoots are reduced, the main
one to the length of the middle of the roof (c),
and the lower one to the third eye (d). In the
third season, one leading shoot is trained in from
each shoot (c and d), and from the bearing shoot
(c), fruit-bearing side shoots are produced, one
bunch is left on each, and the shoot stopped at
one or two joints above it : no side shoots are
allowed to proceed from the spur (rf), the lead-
ing shoot from which is to become the bearing
wood for the next year. Tlius in the autumn of
the third season the lower part of the house is
furnished with a crop of grapes from shoots pro-
ceeding from wood of the preceding year (e), and
parallel to this bearing shoot on each vine is the
young shoot for next year's crop. In vsdnter,
the shoot from the extremity of the bearing
branch (e) is cut off at the top of the roof, or
within twelve or fifteen inches of it (g), and the
shoot (f) from the spur (d) is cut down to the
middle of the roof, and all the spurs (on e) which
had borne the grapes are now cut out. Each vine
is now furnished with two shoots of bearing wood
(g,y), a part of old barren wood (e), and a spur
for producing a young shoot the following year (A).
In the fourth summer a full crop is produced
bbth in the upper and lower half of the house ;
the longer shoot bearing on the upper half of its length, and the shorter on its whole
length ; a leading shoot is produced from the short shoot, and another from the spur.
In the pruning season of the fourth year, the centre shoot is entirely removed, and re-
placed by the side shoot (i), now the whole length of the roof, and this side shoot is in
its turn supplanted by the shoot (A:) from the spur, while a spur (I) is prepared to suc-
ceed it. This constitutes one rotation or period of the system of Mearns, which he has
followed since 1806, attended by abundant crops of large-sized bunches; and he con-
siders it may be continued for any length of time. {^Hort. Trans, iv. 246.)

2986. In the garden of Marie Leerne, at Client, the vines are planted in front, on the
outside of the house. Every year a new set of wood is taken into the vinery : the
wood produced this year, is trained upright on an exterior trellis, and is next season
laid down to a sloping trellis, and made to yield its fruit within the house. The wood
which has once been forced is cut entirely out, and, from the same roots, new upright
shoots are annually required ; but unfortunately for the success of this plan these
shoots do not always ripen. {Hort. Tour. 62.)

2987. Summer jmining. This depends generally on the necessity of admitting light
and air. to the fruit and young wood ; and particularly on the sort of winter pruning to
be adopted. " The gardener, therefore," as Nicol observes, " must have a predesti-
nating eye to the following season." " Wliatever methods of pruning are used,"
M'Phail remarks, " the grape-vine, through the whole course of the growing season,
requires constant attendance, so as not to suffer the plant to be crowded in any part
with superfluous shoots or leaves, and no more fruit ought to be suffered to swell on the
plant than it is well able to bring to perfection. The berries also on each bunch
should be thinned, so that they may have room to swell, without pressing too hard
upon each other."

2988. Ahercrombie and M'Pka'd agree in directing, that " as the shoots of newly planted vines advance, they
must be kept regularly fastened to the rafters. Divest them of their wires, and also take off their laterals
as they appear. The vines in general may be permitted to run twenty feet, and the most vigorous thirty-
five feet, before they are stopped, if the rafters extend so far. Sometimes a vigorous shoot, having ex-
tended the width of the house, is conducted either in a returning direction down a contiguous rafter, or
laterally along the top of the stove, as may be most convenient. Stop the shoots by pinching off their
tops. After they have been stopped, they usually send out laterals from three or four of the upper eyes.
If these laterals are at once taken off, the sap will be merely diverted to the lower part of the shoot ;
permit them, therefore, to proceed about twelve inches, and then pinch off their tops. These shortened
laterals will, in their turn, send out others, which should be stopped at the second joint."

2989. In the second season, " as soon as the shoots are half a span long, the rudiments of the bunches will
be perceptible. The bunch is produced on the naked side of the shoot, opposite the leaf-bud. Having
ascertamed the most promising shoots, divest the vines of supernumerary branches as they rise. Fruitful
laterals will sometimes show two or three bunches at each eye ; and this is apt to tempt the pruner to
retain too many. On the leading shoot, retain of the best laterals, to the right and left, a number pro.

Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. <549

portioned to the vigor and age of the plant : one on each side, as near the bottom as It offers, with a
second, third, fourth, up to seven, at the distance of three feet, if the plant is in its fourth summer, but
only five, at the distance of four feet, if this be the third summer since the plant was struck. Train the
shoots reserved on each side the rafter, tying them' to the trellis with strands of matting. Leave on each
branch two bunches, or a single bunch j according as the plant is in the fourth or third season from its
origin : pinch off the others. Afterwards stop the bearing laterals at the second joint above the fruit
Rub off water-shoots from the older wood. Pinch off inferior laterals and tendrils."

2990. Xicol observes that most of the summer pnming of vines may be performed with the fingers, withl
out a knife, " the shoots to be displaced being easily rubbed off, and those to be shortened, being brittle,
are readily pinched asunder." After selecting the shoots to be trained for the production of a crop next
season, and others necessary for filling the trellis from the bottom, which shoots should generally be laid
in at the distance of a foot or fifteen inches from each other, rub off all the others that have no clus-
ters, and shorten those that have at one joint above the uppermost cluster. For this purpose, go over the
plants every three or four days, till all the shoots in fruit have shown their clusters ; at the same time
rubbing off any water-shoots that may rise from the old wood.

2991. Train in the shoots to be retained, as they advance ; using strands of fresh matting, and allowing
sufficient room in tne ties for the swelling of the shoots. Likewise pinch off all laterals and tendrils, every
time you go over the plants, as these only tend to confusion, and take greatly from the strength of the
clusters.

2992. If there be an under trellis, on which to train the summer shoots, they may, when six or eight feet
in length, or when the grapes are swelling, be let down to it, that the fruit may enjoy the full air and light,
as it advances towards maturity. Such of these shoots as issue from the bottom, and are to be shortened
in the winter pruning to a few eyes, merely for the production of wood to fill the trellis, may be stopped
when they have gro^Ti to the length of four or five feet Others that are intended to be cut down to
about two yards, and which issue at different heights, may be stopped when they have nm three yards or
ten feet, less or more, according to their strength. And those intended to be cut at, or near to, the top of
the house, should be trained a yard or two down the back wall (a trellis being placed against it purposely) ;
or they may be run right or left a few feet on the uppermost wire.

2993. In order to be a good trainer of vims, and be able to provide for a crop the following
season, a man must have some forethought, and be capable of making his selections, as the plants shoot,
even at this distance of time. He must predetermine how he shall prune, and where he shall cut, at
the end of the season ; and so, as it were, fashion the plants to his mind. He has thi»more effectually
in his power, with respect to the vine, than any other fruit-tree, on account of its rapid growth and
docility.

29&i. The stubs, or short shoots, on which the clusters are placed, will probably push again afler being
stopped, if the plants be vigorous. If so, stop them again and again ; but after the fruit are half grown,
they will seldom spring. Observe to divest the shoots, in training, of all laterals as they appear, except
the uppermost on each ; in order to provide against accidents, as hinted at above, in training the new-
planted vines. WTien these shoots are stopped, as directed above, they will push again. Allow the lateral
that pushes to run a few joints, and then shorten it back to one; and so on, as it pushes, until it stop
entirely. When the proper shoot gets ripened nearly to the top, the whole may be cut back to the origi-
nally shortened part, or to one joint above it, if there be reason to fear that the uppermost bud of the pro-
per shoot will start.

2995. Divest the plants of all damped or decayed leaves, as they appear, as such will sometimes occur in
continued hazy weather ; and some may be bruised by the glass, in moving the sashes for the admission
of air, or by other accidents.

2996. Hayward, in the summer prunings, takes off all collaterals as they arise, and any shoots which,
though laid in for fruit, turn out unproductive, that the whole strength of the tree may be properly ap-
plied. {Hort. Trans, vol. i. 172.)

2997. Mearns in his summer pruning stops the bearing branches at the bunch, instead of the next joint
above it, which is the usual practice ; " for I found that the fruit did equally well, and it divested the
branch of an incumbrance, while it allowed a much larger portion of light to come into the house, together
with a more free circulation of air among the fruit and young wood. I blind all the eyes on each fruit-
spur as soon as they push, except the uppermost, which I retain, to draw up the sap to nourish the fruit :
I never suffer them to push above a joint or two before I pinch them back, always cautiously retaining an
eye, and am particularly cautious that nothing should happen to injure the leaf that accompanies the
bunch, for if that is lost, the fruit of course will come to nothing." {Hort. Trans, iv. 255.)

2998. Thinning the leaves and fniit. " Every one of penetration and discernment,"
Nicol observes, " will admit the utility of thinning the berries on bunches of grapes, in
order that they may have room to swell fully ; and further, tliat of supporting the
shoulders of such clusters of the large-growing kinds as hang loosely, and require to be
suspended to the trellis or branches, in order to prevent the bad effects of damp or
mouldiness in over-moist seasons. Of these, the Hamburgh, Lombardy, royal mus-
cadine, raisin, St. Peter's, Syrian, Tokay, and others, should have their shoulders sus-
pended to tlie trellis, or to the branches, by strands of fresh matting, when the berries
are about the size of garden-peas. At the same time, the clusters should be regularly
thinned out, witli narrow pointed scissors, to the extent of from a fourth to a third
part of the berries. The other close-growing kinds, as the Frontignacs, muscats, &c.,
should likewise be moderately thinned ; observing to thin out the small seedless ber-
ries only of the muscadine, sweetwater, and flame-colored Tokay. In this manner,
liandsome bunches and full-swelled berries may be obtained ; but more so, if the clus-
ters on over-burdened plants be also moderately thirmed away. Indeed, cutting off
the clusters, to a certain extent, of plants over-loaded and pushing weak wood, is the
only means by wliich to cause them to produce shoots fit to bear fruit next year ; and
this should be duly attended to, so long as the future welfare of the plants is a matter
of importance."

2999. Remedies for bleeding. " If the pruning has been timely, the vine is not liable
to bleed. When the sap rises before the wound is healed, bleeding ensues, and is not
easily stopped. This retards the plant ; and, out oft doors, the loss of a few days is,
in some seasons, irreparable : but in other respects, the consequences of bleeding are
not so disastrous as many seem to apprehend ; and a gardener is sometimes surprised
by a subsequent crop of uncommon goodness. Innumerable remedies for bleeding have
been proposed : the follo\dng rank among the best. Sear the place, and cover it with

Nn 3

550 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

melted wax, or with warm pitch spread upon a piece of bladder, or peel ofF the outside
bark to some distance from the place ; and tlien press into the pores of the wood a
composition of pounded chalk and tar, mixed to the consistence of putty." (Abercrovibie.)
3000. Nicol's remedy. Vines " will bleed in autumn, as well as in spring, though not so copiously at the
former season. The best preventative is timeous or early pruning in spring ; and not pruning tiU the
wood is thoroughly ripe in autumn. Plants that have been pruned too late m the spring, and forced too
soon afterwards (a great mistake), will bleed, and the best remedy I know of is searing the end of the
shoots by a hot poker, or rod of iron, in order to dry it, and then to apply hot wax."

t 3001. Suiitzer, to stop bleeding, opens a hole at the roots with a spade, and pours in a few pailfuls of cold
water, which he says will have a sure and immediate effect. As this must be by chilling the roots and
weakening the vital functions, it seems questionable whether the remedy may not be worse than the

3002. Speechly's remedy for bleeding is to peel off or divest that part of the branch adjoining the wound of
all the outside bark ; then with a sponge dry up the moisture, and immediately wrapt round the wounded
part a piece of an ox's bladder, spread over with tar, or pitch made warm, in the manner of a plaster.
Then tie the whole securely with a strong thread, well rubbed with bees' wax. These must remain for
three weeks or a month. (Tr. on the Vine, 145.)

3003. Kniglit's retiiedy consists of four parts of scraped cheese to be added to one part of calcined oyster,
shells, or other pure calcareous earth, and this composition pressed strongly into the pores of the wood.
" This done," he says, " the sap will instantly cease to flow." {Hart. Tram. vol. i.) When the vine is
in full leaf, it is not liable to bleed when cut ; therefore the largest branches may be cut off during the
growing season with perfect safety.

3004. Stirring the soil, and culture of the borders. " The borders," Abercrombie
observes, " should be kept at all times clear from weeds. In winter and spring, the
surface of an open border should be turned with a three-pronged fork, not digging deep
so as to injure the roots. The design is merely to revive the surface. When it is ne-
cessary to recruit the soil, dig the exhausted part carefully up, and work in such a com-
post as has been described under Soil, or similar. The dung out of a cow-house, per-
fectly rotted, is a fine manure for the vine." He adds, " From the time the buds rise
till the fruit is set, manure the border once in ten days, with the drainings of the dung-
hill, poured over the roots of the plants."

3005. M'Phail recommends digging in rotten dung, and watering with dung-water from the melon-beds,
or with that which has run from a dunghill in a state of fermentation. Forking over, and working a little
short dung or compost, if thought necessary, is Nicol's preparation for the winter. A week or two pre-
viously to commencing to force, say about the middle of January (forcing to begin the first of February),
he directs the border to be pointed or forked over carefully ; and let it be watered all over with the
drainings of the dunghill ; which repeat at the end of four or five days, and also again at a light interval ;
giving as much as will sink down to the deepest-placed roots and fibres. The border on the outside should
also be covered, or rather should already have been covered, to a good thickness, with stable-yard dung ;
not, however, mere litter, but good fresh dung, the juices of which may be washed down to the benefit
of the roots. The intention of this covering is to answer as a manure ; and also to keep severe frost
from the roots, from the time the sap is put in motion, till the spring be so far advanced as that the plants
shall sustain no injury. Previous to laying on the dung, the border should be pointed or forked over,
that the juices may descend the more readily to the roots, and not be washed off.

3006. Speechly covered the vine-border in front of his hot-house with gravel ; the best gardeners do not
crop them at all, or only with the most temporary crops of vegetables.

3007. Time of beginning to force. " The growing season of our climate," Aber-
crombie remarks, " does not last long enough to bring out, swell to full size, and per-
fectly ripen, the fruit and summer shoots of the vine. Hence, when the artificial ex-
citement, applied to this plant, begins just before the natural spring, and is continued
till the leaves fall, the plant is beneficially assisted under a deficient climate rather than
forced. The best time to begin to force is the first of March, if the object be simply to
obtain grapes in perfection moderately early. In proportion as the start is accelerated
before this, the habits of a deciduous plant, and the adverse state of the weather, leave a
greater number of obstacles and discouraging contingencies to intercept final success.
Managers, however, who work a number of houses, and who have to provide, as well as
they can, against demands for grapes in early succession, begin to force about the 21st
of December, and, successively, in other houses, the 1st of January, 1st of February,
and so on. Attempts are even made, by bold speculators, to lay forward for a crop in
March, by beginning to force in August, and getting the fruit set before November :
but such labor and expense is often lost. The period of ripening is not early in pro-
portion to the time of beginning : when the course of forcing coincides nearly with the
natural growing season, ripe grapes may be cut in five months or less ; when short days
compose a third part of the course, in about six months ; when the course includes full
half the winter, it will last nearly seven months."

3008. M'Phail, in case grapes be not wanted very early, considers the month of February the best time
to begin to force. On the subject of very early forcing, this author remarks : " On the supposition that
the earliest crop of grapes was over by the end of June, and the glasses laid aside, or left open on the
house day and night, you may, if it is desired to try to have grapes early in the spring, prune your vines
in August, and put your house in order ; and if it is necessary to dig in manure about the roots and stems
of the vines, let it be done. If your border be dry, give it a good watering ; and if with dung-water, at
this time, it will help to enrich it. When this is done, draw on your glasses, and keep the air in the
house to a moderate degree of heat, and your vines will afterwards shoot out, and if they are in a fit
state for bearing, they will show fruit. If you have not plenty of vines in other liouses to succeed these,
it would not be advisable to begin to force at this season of the year, for there are several things that
might reasonably be urged against the probability of the success of this attempt to ripen grapes early in
the spring; but it may succeed, and therefore, it is worth giving it a trial. By custom, the vines can
be brought, as it were naturally, to shoot forth in the autumn, and their fruit may be set before the
shortest days ; the greatest art will then, after that, be to preserve them through tiic dead of winter in

Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 551

a lively growing state. This can be done only by much attention, in making gentle fires, and admitting
an easy circulation of fresh air in the house every favorable opportunity."

3009. Nicol says, " Those wlio have two or three grape-houses, generally begin to force the earliest by
the first of the year, and sometimes even in November or December."

3010. In Holland, Speechly observes, " they begin to force the vines in November, in order to have
ripe grapes in April, and sometimes they succeed in producing them by the end of March, in pretty
good perfection."

3011. Griffin puts on the sashes and commences forcing early in January ; no fire is used the first week ;
in the second week a little fire is made every other night ; the third week the heat is kept from 50^ to
520, but not allowed to exceed 55^ till the vines begin to break ; from that time, until they blow, the
heat is kept between 52^ and oi^; and whilst they are in bloom the heat is raised to between
57" and 65<^. " Air is regularly given plentifully through all these stages, until the bloom appears,
when the house is kept close, except the sun be very powerful. When the bloom is past, attention
is paid to thinning the grapes, a regular heat is then kept up, and air in due quantity, as the weather
permits, is admitted, observing to give a larger proportion when the heat of the sun is strong, and always
shutting up the house early in the afternoon." The crop so treated generally ripens in July. {Hart.
Trans, iii. 106.)

3012. Care of outside stems. " At whatever season forcing commences, the stems of
vines planted outside the house should be guarded from the stagnating effects of cold,
by a bandage of hay, or moss and bass matting, round the bole, and a mulching of dry
litter over the root. The excluded stems must be protected in the same way at the com-
mencement of the forcing season. "WTiile the vines are young, it will also be advisable
to cover the outside border, in winter, with strawy dung taken from the outside of old
hot-beds." (Abercrombie.)

3013. Griffin keeps the stems of his vines inside the house moist, from the time of beginning to force
till the bunches show themselves, by daily watering them with a syringe. This, he says, contributes
materially to the production of vigorous shoots. Some gardeners wrap the stems round with moss, which
they keep moist for two or three months, for the same purpose. In hard forcing, practices of this sort are
particularly

3014. Temperature. "Begin,'/ Abercrombie says, " at 50° min. 55° max. In- a
week, raise the minimum to 55", and the maximum to 60®. Till the time of budding,
the temperature should not exceed 60° from artificial heat, and 64° from collected sun-
heat. After the buds are in full motion, it may be raised to 60° min. 64. max. from
fire, and 68° from sun-heat. By the time the bloom expands, tlie lowest effect from
the flues should be 66° : the highest may be 72° ; and when the sun's influence is strong,
let it be accumulated, by confining tlie interchange of air to the ventilators, till the
heat rise to 80^. After the fruit is set, the minimum should be 75°, and fresh air co- .
piously admitted."

3015. irPhail says, in beginning and continuing to force the vine, " nature should be imitated, by in-
creasing the heat as the days lengthen ; but it should be remembered, that to ripen the best sorts of
grapes, they require as great a heat as the pine-apple does to ripen it in the simimer; for the vine has no
artificial heat to its roots."

3016. Xicol's directions, supposing the forcing to commence on the first of February, are as follow :
" Make the fires so moderate as that the thermometer may not pass 50", or at most 55Q, mornings and
evenings, untU every bud in the house have begun to spring. This is a point of very great importance in
the forcing of grapes. If the forcing be commenced with a dash, as some fast-growing gardeners term it, and
if a high temperature be kept up from the beginning, the chance is, that a third or fourth part of the
buds will not push, and of course there wiU be a great falling off in the expected crop. After the whole
of the shoots and buds are in an evident state of vegetation, the temperature may be gradually raised to
60", 65Q, and 70o, at which it may continue till the bloom begin to open. This rise from 50° to.TOQ must
not be sudden : it should not be effected in less time than a fortnight ; or, if the plants be not in a very
strong state, three weeks, otherwise the shoots will push weakly." After the plants come into bloom, he
directs the heat to be raised to 75o. M'Phail and Abercrombie allow it to be a little higher " with the
sun heat, and if there be air at the house. When the fruits are ripening, the air of the house ought to
rise from 750 to 85Q, with sun-heat and plenty of air." {Pr. Gr.) ^ ^ ». ^

3017. Meams, in forcing the vine, considers it of the utmost importance to the bold breakmg of the buds,
and to the strength of the wood, not to force vines hard until the first leaves arrive nearly at their full
size " After thai period," he savs, " I give them a much less portion of air, suffering the sun to raise the
thermometer to 90" or 100° before I give anv. There is no danger of drawing the wood after that stage of
growth, and if the thermometer sinks at night to 60", the vines will do better in a higher temperature in
the day." {Hort. Trans, iv. 234.)

.3018. jiir. Abercrombie directs this to be given pretty freely by the sashes till the
leaves unfold. Before the foliage is fully made out, begin to keep the house close, ad-
mitting air only by the ventilators ; and particularly observe to have a sultry, moist cli-
mate while the blossom is coming out, and until it is off and the fruit set. While the
fruit is swelling and ripening, the plants will want abundance of heat and air." (Pr.
Gr. 651.)

3019. M'PhaU recommends a little air to be given during a part of the day while the thermometeris
above 65°, and the sun shines in the winter months, and abundance in the summer season when the heat

^^am'.\Co?in beginning to force, admits air freely every day, by opening the sashes in the ordinaiy way,
until the foliage belin to Ixpand ; and to an extent that the thermometer may not rise to more than five
degrees above the fire-heat medium in sunshine ; thus bringing away the buds strong and vigorous. But
after the foliage begins to expand, except in fine weather, the house should be chiefly aired by means
of the vlnSators, until theblossom'is over, and the fruit begin to set ; or at least untU the season become
mild.

3021. TVTien grapes are setting
in a high moist heat. " A mod

iierhaos in clear sunshine ; whenitmay utud-toocj-ij ,.^^1^ — -~". ; — : ',''^'^i_ j .i,

fi^ Kscape, and keep the temperatilre within due bounds. Air is to be increased a^ the season and growth
onhe plantVind fruit advance. When the fruit is ripening, it should be admitted more freely than here-

N n 4

5J2 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

tofore, in order to give the fruit flavor j for on this, and on the withholding of water, as advised above,
that matter entire depends." (Kal.)

3022. A dry atmosphere for vines is strongly recommended by Williams (^Hort. Trans, i.), because m it
" the wood, though of slower growth, is more compact, and the fruit more saccharine. Hence vines grow-
ing on the sides of mountains in the south of Europe, and in the dry warm province of La Mancha in
Spain, yield richer grapes, and make stronger wine, than when cultivated in the neighboring valleys,
where, however, they experience greater warmth, and the fruit arrives sooner at maturity. From the be-
ginning of July till the middle of October, he generally leaves several of the upper lights of his vinery open
about two or three inches all night."

3023. Watering and steaming. Abercrombie says, vines require a plentiful supply of
water from the time the fruit is well set till it begins to color, particularly when the ber-
ries become transparent at the last swelling. Withhold water entirely when the grapes
approach maturity.

' 3024. M'Phail says, " If the vines be planted in the inside of the house, care should be taken to keep
them sufficiently watered, and in dry weather, in the spring and summer, the border in the outside of the
house in which the roots of the vines run, should get plentiful waterings. In order to keep the leaves and
fruit clean, let the plants be washed occasionally with clean water, thrown on them by a tin squirt or en-
gine, but take care that the decaying paint on the rafters be not washed down on the leaves and fruit,
which would stain and hurt them. Should there be any danger of that, it will answer the purpose fully as
well by filling the house full of steam now and then, by sprinkling water on the flues when they are warm."
Alluding to the first stage of early forcing, the same author observes : " In some houses, the border, or
part of the border in which the vine is planted, is in the inside of the house ; where that is the case, let it
be watered and sprinkled now and then to keep it in a moist state. Water the flues sometimes when they
are hot, which will produce a fine steam, very beneficial to the plants in promoting their growth, and in
preventing them from being infested by the red spider. Steam, however, should not be used too copiously.
If the border for the vines be in the house, or if there be plenty of plants in pots of earth in it, the evapor-
ation arising from the moist earth is generally sufliicient to moisten the air properly ; and besides, there is
a continual draught of external air coming into the house among the plants ; and it is known that the
common atmosphere contains moisture at all times, especially in cold weather, when the ground is full of
rain from the clouds." In March, the fruit being set and swelling, he says, " Water the borders in the
house, and sprinkle them and the flues now and then with sweet clean water. If this be attended to, and
air given in fine days, the house will be kept in a sweet state. The vines may sometimes be watered all
over; but if this kind of watering is practised, it should be done carefully; fori have seen grapes much
hurt with the decaying paint having been driven from the rafters and other parts of the house on them,
by the force of the water. If the paths, flues, and borders in the house be sprinkled and watered occa-
sionally as I have directed, grape-vines will do without giving them water over their leaves and fruit, at
this season of the year ; though I by no means disapprove of washing them well, now and then, all over,
leaves and fruit; provided it be done with clean water, and no filth driven on them from any part of the
house." From the time that grapes are swelled to a size that you can hardly perceive them to grow
larger, till the black sorts begin to change color, and the white ones to appear of a more bright color than
at an earlier period of their swelling, let the borders be watered plentifully, and the flues sprinkled now and
then with clean water. The border outside the house may, probably, in the summer months, require a
good watering now then. (G. Rem.)

3025. Nicol, after the commencement of forcing, " has the border duly and freely refreshed with water,
generally once in two or three days; and if occasionally watered with the drainings of the dunghill, it
would add much to the vigor of the plants. The branches should be watered once in two days by the en-
gine, with a considerable degree of force, in order to keep the plants clean, and prevent the breeding of the
red spider and thrips, which are often very troublesome in the grape-house." As vines advance in growth,
" they must be liberally supplied with water. The vine, when in a free-growing state, requires more water
than is generally imagined ; and many, very many gardeners, half ruin their plants, and very much injure
their crops of fruit by withholding this element. I know some who do not give as much water to a vinery
in a whole season as itought to have in a month. But what is the consequence ? Wood as large as wheat-
straw, and berries the size of garden-peas !" Increase the supplies of water with the advances of the season
and growth of the plants. " As the fruit begin to color and swell ofFfor ripening, the quantity of water
hitherto liberally given, must be lessened by degrees ; and, towards its coming to full maturity, must be
entirely withheld, that it be not rendered insipid. The operations of the engine on the foliage must also
cease ; but previously, be particularly severe, and be careful to scourge it well, that no vestige of the red
spider be left. This is a matter of very great importance, and but too little attended to : and for want of
taking this care, I have more than once seen a whole crop of grapes very much spoiled, and the berries ren-
dered dirty, nauseous, and bitter."

3026. Ripening the wood. Abercrombie directs, " If the fruit be not off by the middle
of August, the continuation of fine dry weather, or of the heat dependent on the natural
climate, will hardly be sufficient to ripen the wood ; and therefore, as soon as the external
air declines to 68^, resume gentle fires, morning and evening, so as to keep the minimum
temperature of the house to 70°. The maximum need not exceed 75° in sunshine ; for
fresh air should circulate at eveiy proper opportunity. Proceed thus until the shoo'ts of
the season have ceased to grow, and turn brownish at bottom, and the leaves begin to fall,
indications that the wood is ripe, when the first and last are not caused by a deficiency of
heat." He adds, " If the weatlier continues warm after the fruit is cut, take oflT the
glass frames ; as the shoots will ripen the better under full exposure to it. In October,
however, it will be advisable again to put on the frames, as well by shelter to assist the
ripening of the wood, if that is not complete, as to protect the house from injury, when
rough wintry weather may be expected."

3027. Nicol says " If the lower part of the shoots be not, by the beginning of August, turning brownish,
then It IS advisable to apply a little fire-heat, in order to further the growth of the plants, and the perfec-
tion ot the wood. Some would put this matter off. perhaps another month ; but if the application of fire-
heat be at all necessary less trouble and expense for fuel will attend the process of ripening the shoots in
September than m October Another consideration is, that, as it were, you take up vegetation on the way,
™,1^ ^"^ *^°'"Tard to the end of her journey, instead of allowing her to lag behind, and then forcibly
?^»ilnc ^f k"»^^^'"^^ ^^t inclinations ; a matter of the very first consideration and importance in every
KnLc ^^''"""^^"J^-, ^* Z^""^ moderate fires be made at first, increasing their strength as the season
^\Z^^Vu »^ ^° ^^ .*u ^?^^ ^^? temperature, mornings and evenings, at about 70°. I'his should be con-
tinued till the growth of the i)lants begin to stop, and till the part of the leading shoots whereat you would

Book I.

CULTURE OF THE VINERY.

553

cut, that is, about six or eight feet upwards, become brownish. The portions of air, hitherto freely ad-
mitted, must be lessened by degrees, as the weather turns cooler ; and so as that, in sunshine, the mercury
may not fall below To**. When the growth of the plants is over, expose the house day and night, except in
rain. Water must also be withheld, as the growth of the plants abates, and somewhat in the proportion in
which you would have vegetation stop ; not all at once, but gradually. Continue the operations of the en-
gine to the latest ; not merely to subdue the enemy at present, but, as far as possible, to prevent his ap-
|)earance next campaign."

3028. Exposure and resting of the loood. " Some managers," Abercrombie observes,
" leave the house quite exposed when the vines have done growing ; and whether it be
covered or not, there should be constantly a circulation of air through it. Vines which
have been exposed to the weather, or freely to the dry air, in a state of rest, when forced
after a proper interval, generally break at almost every eye." The rest proper to a de-
ciduous plant cannot be given to vines where the branches are kept subject to the influ-
ence of a permanent heat after the 'leaves are fallen, as in the case of vines grown in pine
or otiier stoves. The top of its stem, with its branches, must tlierefore be withdrawn
from the house immediately after the fall of the leaf, to remain on the outside till it be
proper again to force the plant. Abercrombie says, " the branches will require no cover-
ing in this climate ;" but many gardeners lay them down, or tie them to stakes, and cover
them with litter or mats.

3029. iPPhail says, " Some modem writers on gardening recommend that the glass frames of the
grape-house be taken off the vines as soon as the vines are all cut ; and also to take the vine-plants out of
hot-houses appropriated to the culture of the pine-apple when the grapes are over. This they tell us is to
ripen the wood, and give the plants rest, &c. I do advii?e that the glass frames of grape-houses be suffered
to remain over the vines all the year, excepting in July and August, and that grape-vines in hot-houses
for the pine-apple should not be taken out to remain for any length of time at any season of the year. If
fruit-trees ripen their fruit well, the wood for bearing the following year will be sufficiently matured ; but
the plants, whether they be the grape-vine, peach, &c. had best remain in that artificial climate made for
them all the year, for though the fruit be over, the wood of the plant requires protection. As well,"
he adds, " might they expect the cherry-tree to blossom in September and October; which months are
some years warmer than the month of April, when the cherry-tree is in full IHow, or that the ChrisJmas-
rose may be excited by summer heat to blossom in July or August It is natural for the grape-vine to
produce only one crop in the year ; and when it is accustomed to grow in a hot-house appropriated for the
pine-apple, its nature is not changed ; nor will it offer to put forth its bud before January in hot-houses
kept to a heat sufficient for growing the pine-apple, when the pine pots are plunged la a bed of warm
tan."

3030. Knight, as we have seen (2185.), is highly favorable to putting the vine into a state of repose, as early
as possible in the autumn preceding the season in which it is to be forced.

3031. ]<:kol, after the growing season, and when the wood is ripened, " exposes the house day and
night, except in rain." After an autumn pruning, he
shuts up the house for ten days or a fortnight, particu-
larly if there be any appearance of frost ; admitting air
free'ly through the day. The object in thus keeping
the plants from the extremes of heat and cold, is, in or-
der that their pores may contract, and their wounds heal
gradusjlly ; as otherwise they are apt to bleed now, and
to break out afresh on the application of fire-heat in
the spring. When they are judged to be safe, expose
the house night and day, as before {Kal. 428.)

3032. S. Galton describes a plan of exposing the
branches of vines growing in a stove to the external
air, without the necessity of suspending the forcing or
heat in the stove, or of drawing the stems back through
apertures by which they are introduced into the house.
This was put in practice at Derby, in the garden of
Joseph Strutt, of that town, where it has been in suc-
cessful use, for above fifteen years. The foundation wall in
front of the house is cappetf with a stone sill !Jig. 460. a);
the front upright lights,6)move on centre pins, and can be
taken out from their places without disturbing the rafter-
plate (c), or the uprights which support the plate; these
lights, when taken out, can be fixed by the lower ends
to the inner side of the stone sill, the spaces of the
uprights being filled by other pieces, whilst the tops are
held by a board (rf) longitudinally fixed to the rafter by
hinges (e), and capable of being raised and let down at
pleasure. When the vines are to be exposed they are
unfixed from their places between the rafters, and laid
down on the stone sill (a) ; the front upright lights (6)
are then taken out and fixed on the inner side of the
sill (/ ), thus leaving the whole of the vine on the out-
side of the house, and under cover, protected from rain,
until it is desired to put it again into heat, when the
situation of the upright lights is changed, and they are
replaced in their former situation. {Hort. Trans, iv. 567.)

SuBSECT. 2. Of particular Modes of cultivating the Grajje, adapted to particular Situations.

3033. The particular modes of cultivating the grape which we shall now enumerate, re-
fer to its culture in pineries, green-houses, and other plant structures, by dung-heat, in
hot-bed frames, temporary frames and glass covers, hand-glasses, and cultivating for re-
tarding maturation.

3034. Forcing the vine in a jnne or other stove. Abercrombie, in a comparison between
the hot-house or general stove and vinery, justly observes, that the former " has many cir-
cumstances of inferiority to the vinery ; and, although its shades of inconvenience or im-

554 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part IIJ.

perfect accommodation are not weighty enough to forbid the dedication of any spare room
to the vine, yet they are sufficient to confer very great credit on the manager who obtains
a good crop of fine-flavored grapes under them." [Pr. G. 657.)

3035. Speechly considers, that the vine and pine may be advantageously grown together ; but subse-
quent experience having led to the culture of pines in pits, most gardeners, and among these Nicol, prefer
growing them separately.

3036. M^PliaU, without giving a decided approbation of their union, gives the following directions on
the subject, which are to be taken in connection with his opinion as given above, on the impropriety of
withdrawing the wood to rest it in the open air. To manage the grape in a hot-house appropriated for

f rowing the pine-apple, and for ripening its fruit, treat them in the following manner : in the month of
fovember or December, cut down all the old wood to about the height of the pit, leaving only two young
shoots, the strongest that can be got, the strongest one to shoot from the buds and bear the fruit, the other
to be cut short and to grow long shoots to bear the fruit the succeeding year. This is to be done succes-
sively year after year, leaving the old stem of the vine to grow, as the older the plant is the better. After
the vines are pruned, tie them up nearly close to the glass, with matting, to iron rods or laths fixed to the
rafters of the house. As soon as they begin to swell in their buds and show themselves ready to break, let
them down about a foot from the glass, so that they may receive the benefit of the warm air round about
them, and not be liable to be affected by the frosts. If the buds burst strong and bushy, it is a good sign
that they will show fruit ; but if weak, the contrary; and, if they miss showing fruit on the fourth or
fifth joint, they will show none at all ; and in that case the young shoot that does not show fruit should be
cut off, as it would only take the nourishment from the others which have shown fruit. Do not let more
than one or two bunches grow on one bud, for if too many are left on the plant, they will not swell well.
If the vines be planted in the inside of the house, care should be taken to keep them sufficiently watered ;
and in dry weather, in the spring and summer, the border on the outside of the house, in which the roots of
the vines run, should get plentiful waterings. In order to keep the leaves and fruit clean, let the plants
be washed occasionally with clean water, thrown on them by a tin squirt or engine, but take care that the
decaying paint on the rafters be not washed down on the leaves and fruit, which would stain and hurt
them. Should there be any danger of that, it will answer the purpose fully as well by filling the house full
of steam now and then, by sprinkling water on the flues when they are warm.

3037. Growing grapes in green-houses and other houses. Vines are grown under the rafters in green-
houses, conservatories, and in most kinds of forcing and other hot-houses ; but, as the gardener who un-
derstands their culture in the vinery and pine-stove, can be at no loss in any case of that sort, we do not
consider it necessary to introduce here any thing farther on the subject. The excellence of the fruit, and the
grateful nature of the plant, than which none is more certain of rewarding the gardener's care by abund-
ant crops, will, we trust, justify our having brought together the practice of so many cultivators.

3038. Forcing vines by dung-heat. Justice, Lawrence, and Switzer state instances of
this being done on wooden walls in their time. Fletcher, a market-gardener near Edin-
burgh, has practised it with great success in a glass case, keeping constantly, till the fruit
is about to ripen, a heap of dung, or dung and weeds, in a state of fermentation in the
area of the house. But the most systematic and extensive forcing of this kind is that
which has for fifteen years been practised by J. French, Esq. a gentleman farmer of East
Hornden, in Essex, and which has been thus described by a late intelligent fellow of the
Horticultural Society.

3039. French's mode of forcing vines by dung-heat. About the beginning of March, French commences
his forcing, by introducing a quantity of new long dung, taken from under the cow-cribs in his straw -yard :
being principally, if not entirely, cow-dung, which is laid upon the floor of

his house (fig. 461.), extending entirely frem end to end, and in width
about six or seven feet, leaving only a path-way between it and the back
wall of the house. The dung being all new at the beginning, a profuse
steam arises with the first heat, which, in this stage of the process, is found
to be beneficial in destroying the ova of insects, as well as transfusing a
wholesome moisture over the yet leafless branches ; but which would prove
injurious, if permitted to rise in so great a quantity when the leaves have
pushed forth. In a few days the violence of the steam abates as the
buds open, and in the course of a fortnight the heat begins to diminish ; it
then becomes necessary to carry in a small addition of fresh dung, laying it
in the bottom, and covering it over with the old dung fresh forked up ; this
produces a renovated heat and a moderate exhalation of moist vapor. In S^;^
this manner the heat is kept up throughout the season, the fresh supply of ^'
dung being constantly laid at the bottom in order to smother the steam, or rather to moderate the tiuantitv
of exhalation ; for it must always be remembered, that French attaches great virtue to the supply of a rea-
sonable portion of the vapor. The quantity of new dung to be introduced at each turning, must be regu-
lated by the greater or smaller degree of heat that is found in the house, as the season or other circum
stances appear to require It. The temperature kept up is pretty regular, being from 65 to 70 degrees.
French contends, that the moist vapor which is transfused through the house is essentially beneficial not
onlybecauseitdiscourages the existence of insects, and destroys their ova, but it likewise facilitates the
setting and swelling of the fruit. I ought to observe, that I am not offering any opinion of mv own in the
present statement, but merely recording, as faithfully as possible, the remarks made to me by a person of
ingenuity and observation, whose extraordinary success is, in my mind, the best test that can be given of
the merits of his practice, (^rtrfersow, in //or^ r;-a?is. vol. ii.)

3040. Mearns « approves greatly of applying the steam and heat of dung to the forcing of grapes, and
uses It in the earliest part ot forcing with great advantage, forming a large ridge of it in the back part of

IseT""^' int'"oducing the additions of recent litter always under the old dung." {Hort. Trans, iv.

3041. Advantages of using dung-heat. The practice of applying the heat of horse-dung, and of other fer-
menting substances, to the forcing of vines and the growing of pines and other plants, usually excited or
preserved by means of fire-heat, is becoming very general, and is attended with this advantage, that the
ammoniacal and carbonic gas, which is disengaged during the decomposition of the dung, is highly noxious
fonmS' T'',' ^•*- ^■"'^' ^""-^^'^ the buds protrude themselves, and to pine-plants at most sLsons, it is
h^« «ln?' ''J' injurious. These things known, every farmer might have an excellent vinery attached to
trLnPoT/fr^i'.?''/ '''''^ over or near to his dung-pit, at very little expense, and with very little con-
ot^rtLrP nr. iH h^ "^n'^'' ^ ^^"^ apertures along the upj^er part of the house being kept at aU times
S%!}3;.?. ■ ^"""^^^ °?^"'' """y mjurious accumulation of steam, and the same openings would render
wh ch thPanpr/.^/cT^ air unnecessary ; for there is abundant experience to prove that a vinery in
that sta?ff nTh? «nH I"'' ^?,f '"'ng air at bottom and top are opened in spring, mAy be left with them in
that state night and day till autumn, without the smallest injury. AU that the farmer would have to do

Book I. CULTURE OF THE VINERY. S55

would be to water the plants two or three times a week with a syringe or engine, and to tie up the shoots
as they grew, to the trellis. As m this way the enjoyments of a numerous class of men might be increased
at very little expense and labor, we intreat the attention of head gardeners and proprietors to the subject
as calculated, like the dissemination of every other rational luxury, to be conducive to the general good!
Opulent, or proprietor farmers, who have extensive farmeries, and probably two or three separate straw-
yards ifie. 462. a and 6), might raise all the fruits grown in first-rate gardens by the same means, and add
not a little even to the elegant appearance of their establishments. A pinery, for example, might be
formed over a large dung-pit, and the side walls, being hollow, like those of Silverlock (Hort. Trans.
IV. 244. and ^g. 238.), or of West (Hort. Trans, iv. 220. and our yi^. 230.), would preserve the air within
perfectly pure, so as to admit the growth even of ornamental exotics, &c. The additional expense of
management to the farmer, in this case, would be chiefly the difference between keeping a half-bred
gardener and a common laborer.

1^^fmmmmM<ii^^^m^3^^^^

S042. Forcing the vine in hot-bed frames, and other glass cases. Knight, after de-
scribing his inclined hot-bed and frame, and its advantages in respect to cucumbers and
melons, adds, " I have often used, with great success, a frame and hof>-bed thus formed,
for forcing grapes, by placing the bed at three feet distance from the wall, to which the
vines were trained, and introducing their branches into the frame, through holes made at
the north end of it (the vines having been trained to a south wall), as soon as the first
violent heat of the bed had subsided. The white Chasselas grape, thus treated, ripens in
July, if the branches of the vine be introduced in the end of April ; and a most abundant
crop may be thus obtained ; but the necessity' of pruning very closely renders the
branches which have been forced unproductive of fruit in the succeeding season ; and
others from the wall must consequently be substituted. I have always put a small
quantity of mould in the frame, and covered it with tiles. If an inclined plane of earth
be substituted for the hot-bed, and vines be trained in a frame adapted to it, the grapes
(the Chasselas) ripen perfectly in August ; and if small holes be made through the sides
of the frame, through which the young shoots of the vines can extend themselves in the
ojien air, a single plant, and a frame of moderate size, will be found to yield annually a
very considerable weight of grapes. For this purpose, the frames should not be more
than eight or ten feet long, nor more than five or six in breadth, or the young shoots
will not be so advantageously conducted out of them into the open air ; and the depth
of the frame, either for the hot-bed or inclined plane of the earth, should not be less
than eighteen inches. The holes in the side of the frame, through which the young
shoots are to pass, should of course be closed during the spring, and till wanted ; and if
the weather be cold, it will be necessary to cover the frames at night. When the grapes
are nearly full-grown, and begin to ripen, it will also be highly advantageous to draw off
the glasses during the day, in fine weather, by which means the fruit will be exposed to
the full influence of the sun, without the intervention of the glass, and will attain a
degree of perfection that it rarely acquires in the vinery or hot-house."

3043. Mean, gardener to Sir A. Hume, has practised a mode very similar to that of Knight, for a num.
ber of years ; and, as such simple modes of obtaining early or well ripened grapes are within the reach of
every one who has a grape-vine trained against a wall or house, we shall quote his account of it. " This
method is particularly applicable in cases where vines are trained to walls, and do not ripen their fruit, nor
bear well. The frame must be high enough in the sides, to admit of the vines being trained horizontally
on a trellis, to keep the pendent bunches clear of the dung, and to give free room for the leaves between
the vine branches and the glass. The frames used at Wormleybury have either one or two lights ; the
latter are nine feet long and six feet wide ; the fronts of the frames are eighteen inches high, and the backs
are fro feet high ; the trellis is fixed nine inches from the glass, which gives sufficient space above and
below. The upper board at the back of the frame, being nine inches wide, lifts up or slides off", so that the
branches are laid in without suffering the injury they would sustain in their buds, if they were drawn
through holes. In the first or second week in April, just before the vines begin to move, you make up a
common dung hot-bed at a convenient distance from the wall, or from the place where the shoots of the
vines are ; lay your frame on the bed, with its back towards the vine, and fronting the sun, as it would
naturally be if placed against a south-wall : the branches must then be introduced into the frame ; these
you train along the trellis already mentioned, with their points directed downwards, towards the front of
the frame. By these means, through the heat of the dung, and that of the sun from tlie glass, your vines
produce an abundant crop ; and it is found, that the ripening of the fruit is accelerated, by laying slates or
tiles all over the dung. At the end of the season, those shoots which have borne their crop are cut
entirely away, and a fresh supply introduced of young shoots, which have been making and ripening their
wood on the wall ; these are treated in the same manner, the wall annually yielding a successive supply
of young wood to be taken into the frame." {Hort. Trans, ii. 230.)

3044. Temporary frames and glass cases have been constructed by Lindegaard, Tor-
bron, and various gardeners, foreign as well as British, but more especially those of
Holland and Flanders, against walls of vines. Sometimes a temporary furnace and
flue is built, and at other times a dung-bed is resorted to, and very excellent crops are
obtained.

3045. Ripening grapes under hand-glasses. About twenty years ago, a market-
gardener at Bath published a plan of ripening grapes under common hand-glasses. He
planted the vines in a soil composed in great part of lime rubbish ; placed a glass over
each plant, taking out half a pane in its summit, through which the leading shoot of the

556 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

vine protruded itself, and grew in the open air. The bunch or bunches of grapes
remained within the hand-glass, and enjoyed the advantages of protection from cold
winds, dews, and rains, during night, and of a high degree of confined solar heat during
the day.

S046. Forcing vines in ]}ois. This is not a very common practice, because the vine
requires a greater extent of pasturage for the roots tlian any other fruit-tree. It has,
however, been occasionally attempted by gardeners in pits and stoves, and three or four
bunches are sometimes thus obtained from one plant. The soil must be as rich as pos-
sible, and every attention paid to keeping the plants regularly supplied %vith water and
jiquid manure. Knight employed water impregnated with pigeons' dung to the color of
porter, and found, in consequence, the most vigorous growth. He states, that a pot
containing two cubic feet of very rich mould, properly supplied with water and manure
in a liquid state, is fully adequate to nourish a vine, which, after being pruned in
autumn, occupies twenty square feet of the roof of a hot-house. Such vines he con-
stantly found to produce more vigorous wood when forced very early, than others of the
same varieties, whose roots were permitted to extend beyond the limits of the house.
(Hort. Trans, vol. ii. 373.)

3047. Marslandy of Woodbank, near Stockport, has a succession of grapes during eleven months
in the year, by forcing vines in pots. The pots are jjlaced on stages, and as the fruit is cut, they are
removed and replaced by others ; the plants are from one to four years old, and at the latter age they
bear abundantly, and produce large bunches. (Ilort. Trans, vol. ii. 373.)

3048. Buck finds this method of obtaining grapes answer particularly well, and by removing the pots
in the winter months, when the fruit is fidl ripe, into a dry airy situation, he can preserve it fit for
the table much longer than he can in the vinery, when cloudy and damp weather prevails. {Hort.
Trans, vol. iv. 561.)

3049. Cultivating for retarding maturation, so as to obtain a supply in the winter
season, is thus described in the Transactions of the Horticultural Society, as practised by
Arkwright, of Willersley.

The sorts cultivated for this late crop are the white muscat of Alexandria, the black Damascus, the
black TenerifFe, the St. Peter's, the black raisin, the Syrian, and the white Nice. They are grown in
houses alternately used as pineries and vineries. About the second week in February, the pine-plants are
always removed into another vinery. The grapes which remain on the vines are all cut, and the house
thrown open for the free admission of air at all times, till the end of April, when the vine-buds begin to
swell, when a gentle fire is applied in the night, and in dark and cold days ; but air is admitted freely
when the thermometer is up at 708. At this period, a proportion of the pine-plants is again brought into
the house, where they remain till the succeeding February. The treatment from this time is quite in the
common way ; and by this late and slow process, the grapes do not begin to ripen till towards the end of
October, and the very late sorts, such as the St. Peter's, are scarcely ripe at Christmas. The following
note is added to this paper by the secretary : —

Specimens of grapes ripened in this manner were exhibited by Arkwright to the society on the 3<l of
February, 1819, and were as rich, perfect, and fresh, as if they had been produced at the usual season : and
the leaves of the vine, which were sent at the same time, were in an undiminished state of vegetation.
These leaves, Arkwright has since stated, were from the late sorts of vines, viz. the Syrian, the Nice, and
the St. Peter's ; those of more early kinds, such as the muscat and the Damascus, begin to assume their
- yellow tinge about Christmas, but their fruit continues quite fresh and good for a considerable time after-
wards. The conclusion is obvious, that the vines made to produce these late grapes had acquired the
habit of late bearing, and this habit, Arkwright states, has been brought on gradually. Whenever he
introduces a young vine into the house, where his late grapes are grown, it is treated exactly like the
vines which are in bearing, and in the second or third year after planting, when it begins to yield fruit
it is found to have lost its disposition to break into leaf at the accustomed season. Arkwright began to
practise his present plan of growing late grapes about twelve years ago, at which time he also used to
force early grapes ; and so successful was his plan of retardation, that, on the Ut of May, 1810, he had on
his table fresh-gathered fruit, the produce of two years, viz. of the late crop of the past, and the earlvcrop
of the present year. He has now ceased to force any vines for early fruit, and confines his cultivation to
that of late grapes alone.

SuBSECT. 3. Of Gathering and Keeping forced Grapes.

3050. With respect to the gathering of grapes, Nicol observes,'^ " they should be
allowed to hang till fully matured and ripened ; especially the thick-skinned and fleshy
sorts. Even the thin-skinned and juicy kinds, as the white Sweetwater, white Frontig-
nac, and muscadine (that are often cut before nearly ripe,) are much improved in flavor,
by being allowed to remain on the plant till the skin become transparent, and of a russet
or yellowish color." The grapery, when the fruit is ripe, ought to be kept dry and cool
in order to preserve the fruit as long as possible on the branches, and thus to prolong the
grape season. Covering the border an inch or two witli dry sand, ashes, or gravel, Nicol
says, contributes to dry the air and dispel damps. The leaves round the bunches are
\o be picked oflf for the same end, and a fire to be made in the day-time in gloomy
weather. ^

3051. Thompso7i, gardener to Earl Cowper, at Panshanger, preserves grapes in his vinery till February, by
lighting fires in the day-time, and giving plenty of air; but putting them out in the afternoon, and shut-
ting the house close up at night. " The fire in the day, aided by the circulation of the air, renders the
wfiole interior of the houses perfectly dry, so that no damp exists in them when shut up: a night fire, on
tne contrary, with the houses closed, creates a vapor, which causes the fruit to become mouldy, and to
\^lv 132 ) ^^^^ "^^ "^^^^ ^^^ Frontignacs, sweetwater, and black Damascus." {Hort. Trans.
<:„^o^' ^'-P^««'' observes, "there are some sorts of grapes, such as the black muscat of Jerusalem, the
houTe be lSift^dr^'and°c!SoL'' "' ^^^*^^ ^'" ^^^^ °" *^^ *'^^ ^ ^^"^ time after they are ripe, provided the

CULTURE OF THE VINERY. 557

S053. Bradilick covers the floors of his vinery in autumn about three inches thick with coal-ashea
which, by preventing any damp from rising, to mildew or injure the fruit, enables him to preserve
the grapes hanging on the tree in a very perfect state till the end of January, or later. (Hort Trans
vol. iv. 143.)

3054. Torbron, in a temporary vinery, or a glass case placed against a wall on which grapes were trained
has ripened a late crop, and kept the fruit on the trees in a state fit for use till February. {Hort
Trans, vol. iv. 118.) j \ •

3055. Various modes for drying the air in a grapery. Decayed granite or trap, which
has been discovered by Professor Leslie to be powerful absorbents of moisture, where
they can be obtained, would be excellent substitutes for ashes ; or oatmeal might be
used (being swept up and dried occasionally), were the harboring of vermin not to be
dreaded. (See Siqrp. Encyc. Brit. art. Cold.)

3056. To preserve grapes by removal from the tree, Forsyth directs, *' Where there are
several bunches in one branch you may cut it off, leaving about six inches in length, or
more, of the wood, according to the distance between the bunches, and a little on the
outside of the fruit at each end ; seal both ends with some common sealing-wax, such
as wine-merchants use for sealing their bottles with, which you may buy at the wax-
chandler's ; then hang them across a line in a dry room, taking care to clip out, witli a
pair of scissors, any of the berries that begin to decay or become mouldy, which, if left,
would taint the others. In this way I have kept grapes till the 6th of February ; but, if
they are cut before the bunches are too ripe they may be kept much longer."

3057. Grapes may be kept by jmcking them in jars, " every bunch being first vvrapped
up in soft paper, and covering every layer with bran, which should be well dried before
it is used ; laying a little of it in the bottom of the jar, then a layer of grapes, and so on,
a layer of bran and of grapes alternately, till you have filled the jar ; then shake it gently,
and fill it to tlie top with bran, laying some paper over it, and covering the top with a
bladder tied firmly on to exclude the air ; then put on the top or cover of the jar, observ-
ing that it fits as close as possible. These jars should be kept in a room where you can
have a fire in wet or damp weather." (Tr. on Fr. Tr.)

SuBSECT. 4. Of the Insects and Diseases attendant on forced or Hot-house Gra])es.

3058. The insects and diseases of the vine are not numerous : of the latter there are
few or none, unless bleeding may be excepted, the remedies for which we have already
given. (2999.) The insects which infest the vine, are chiefly the red spider and coccus.
To remove these, Speechly and Abercrombie recommend washing the stem and all the
shoots with soap and water ; the stem being previously divested of the loose bark.
Abercrombie adds, give the border two or three soakings over the roots with soap-suds.
If the plants get infested with the pine-bug or turtle insect, it is to be extirpated by
syringing tlie leaves with a strong infusion of tobacco-stalks. Watering is the best pre-
ventive of the red spider, and aphis or green fly, and fumigation keeps down, and in
part destroys the latter and the tluips.

3059. M'Phail observes, that the red spider, the mealy white bug, and the brown turtle insect are the
most injurious to the vine. " These insects lodge upon the wood of the trees, and upon their leaves, and
upon their fruit. To prevent accidental infection, care should be taken not to introduce infected plants into
the house ; keeping the air in the house among the plants sweet, and to a strong degree of heat, with
constant admission of fresh air, are good preventives against insects. To help to destroy insects on the
vine, peel off, in the autumn, winter, or spring, before the plants begin to grow, all the loose outside bark,
and wash, with soap- water mixed with sulphur, the stem and all the branches, rubbing them well with a
sponge or brush, which will destroy the insects, and the spawn of them that have been deposited thereon.
If they happen to be infested very much, after they are well washed with clean water, let the stem and all
the branches be smeared with a mixture of sulphur, soot, and water, put upon them with a painter's
brush." Rotten and decayed berries or leaves are to be removed, that they may not spread their
infection.

3060. Kicol considers the red spider as the grand enemy to the vine. After every winter pruning and re-
moval of the outward rind on the old wood, he directs to anoint the branches, shoots, and trellis, with the
following composition, the object of which is the destruction of their eggs or larvas.

3061. Nicol's recipe. " Soft soap, two pounds; flowersof sulphur, two pounds; leaf or roll tobacco, two
pounds ; nux vomica, four ounces ; and turpentine, an English gill ; boiled in eight English gallons of soft or
river water, to six." This composition is to be laid on, milk- warm, with a painter's brush, " then with a
sponge carefully anoint every branch, shoot, and bud ; being sure to rub it well into every joint, hole,
and angle." If the house is much infected, the walls, flues, rafters, &c. are also to be painted over with
the same liquor. Watering over the leaves and fruit at all times, except the ripening season, is the pre-
ventive which he proposes, and which all gardeners approve.

3062. Birds, ivasps, flies, &c. several gardeners direct to be excluded by gauze frames,
calculated to fit the openings by which air is given. Some recommend putting bags of
gauze over each bunch ; others hang up bottles, boiled carrots, &c. M'Phail says, " Fix
nets on the parts of the house where you admit air, and fix them in such a way as that
the sashes will slide backwards and forwards either in the outside or inside of the nets.
The net should be as thick in the meshes as that a wasp cannot fly through them." It
may be noted, that a flying wasp (the wings being distended) will not require meshes
smaller than an inch square.

558 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Sect. III. Culture of the Peach-house.
3063. Soil. Abercrombie recommends three parts of mellow unexhausted loam, and
one part of drift-sand moderately enriched with vegetable mould, or the cooler dungs.
The border or bed to be thirty inches or three feet deep. The nectarine wants the
warmer, richer, and deeper soil, if any difference be made. {Pr. G. 292.)

3064 M'Phail recommends the soil for peach-trees which are to be forced, to be " fine loamy well-
prepared earth of a medium texture, neither very light, nor of a strong bmdmg quality, well mixed with
some good manure. The border to be four feet deep, and so broad, that the roots cannot get mto a
bad soil." (Gr. Rem. 18.) , . .,,,„,

3065 Nicol. The bottom being made " comfortable by draining and paving, if not naturally dry,
directs the breadth of the border to be the width of the house within, and to the extent of ten or twelve
feet without. The average depth tliirty inches at the least ; but if a yard, it would not be too much. The
soil to be thus composed : three fourths strong loam, an eighth part light sandy earth, and an eighth part
rotten stable-yard dung, with a competent quantity of lime and marl ; all being properly mixed before
planting." (-^'«/- P- 291.) „ „^, ^ .^ ,

3066. Flanagan, for peaches and nectarines, whether in houses or on open walls, uses the top-spit of a
pasture of rich yellow loam, if it can be procured, without adding to it any manure whatever ; if poor and
sandy it should have a little rotten dung added to it, and the whole should be laid up on ridges, and
turned over for six months previously to using." {Uort. Trans, vol. v. 57.)

S067. Choice of sorts. The following list is given by Abercrombie as the most proper
for forcing : —

PEACHES,

Clijie Stoiiet.
Late admirable. Al id. Sq
Old Newinjrton. Late in Sept
" En'"

Portugal. End Sept.
Golden. Sept.
Catharine. Early in Oct,

Free Stones,
White nutmeg. End of July.
Large Mignonne. Mid. Aug.
Belle Che\Teuse. Late in Aug.
White Magdalen. End Aug.

Chancellor. End Aug.

Early admirable. Beginn. Sept.

Malta. Early in Sept.

Koyal George. Mid. Sept.

IS'oblesse. Mid. Sept.

Le Teton de Venus. Late in Sept.

I/Ste purple. Late in Sept.

Red Magdalen. End Aug.
Monstrous pavie." End Oct. | Montauban. End Aug.

NECTARINES.
Cling Stones. I Golden. Sept. I Free Stones. I Temple. Sept.

Bed Roman. Late in Aug. Bnignion. Late in Sept. Scarlet. End Aug. White. Aug. and Sepfc

Newmgton. End Aug. | I Murray. Early in Sept. |

3068. M^Phail says, " The names of peach-trees fit for forcing are the Magdalen,
Montanban, royal George, and noblesse ; of nectarines, the scarlet, temple, Murray, and
red Roman." (G. Rem. p. 18.)

3069. Nicol recommends the following : —

PEACHES.
Red Magdalen I Royal George I Montauban I Teton de Venus I French Mignonne I Early purple ; and

White Alagdalen | NoDlesse | Admirable | Late purple | Smith's Newington I OrangiB.

NECTARINES.
Elruf^ I Due de Tello | Scarlet 1 Murray | Temple | Roman I Newington ; and | Brugnion.

3070. Choice of plants. " Before a house for forcing peaches and nectarines be built,"
M'Phail observes, " trees to plant in it had best be got in readiness ; and if they be
growing on the premises it will be an advantage. If it can be avoided, no tree should
be planted in a forcing-house until the fruit of it have been seen and tasted. Tlie trees
should be well trained ones, four or five feet high : indeed it is of no consequence what
their age be, provided they be healthy, well rooted, and in a bearing state : and if they
have been transplanted several times since they were budded, they will be the fitter for
transplanting again ; and if the work of taking them up and of planting them in the
peach-house be carefully and methodically done, the trees by their removal will be but
little retarded in their growth. When every thing in a forcing-house is got in readiness
for the reception of the trees, loose them from the wall to which they were fastened with
nails and shreds, and dig a wide semicircular trench four feet distant from the stem of
each tree, and a little deeper than their spreading roots ; then by little and little with a
pointed stick work the earth out among their roots, taking care to break as few of them
as possible : in this manner the roots of the plants are to be divested of earth in a careful
manner, so as to undermine the stem, that the tree may be lifted out of its place without
straining the roots of it. Having holes previously prepared about eight or ten inches
deep, and four feet wide, set the trees into them one after another, training their roots
out in a regular horizontal manner at full length, and after the ends of the roots be cut
so as to take the raggedness off, cover them no deeper than about six inches at their
extremities, and at the stem of the tree about four inches."

3071. Nicol prefers clean, healthy dwarfs, that have been one or two years trained, to older plants ; and
riders three or even fowr years trained ; because, being temporary, it is desirable to have them produce
fruit as soon as possible, for if the dwarfs thrive, the former will have to be removed in three, or, at most,
in four years. In a house thirty-five feet long, three dwarfs should be planted, and in a house thirty-five
or fojty feet long, four dwarfs ; in both cases with riders between them. (Kal. p. 323.)

3072. P. Flanagan prefers plants that liave been grown in stiff loam and three years trained.

3073. Situation of the plants in the house. Permanent occupants, intended to be forced early, Aber-
crombie plants in a front border, training them on a trellis just under the roof. In late forcing-houses, he
trains them to an upright trellis near the back wall.

2ffl^. M'Phail plants so as to train under the glass j and Nicol 's practice concurs with that recom-
mended by Abercrombie.

Book I. CULTURE OF THE PEACH-HOUSE. 559

3075. For a late peach-house, dwarfs should be planteil in front, to be trained about half way up the roof;
and dwarfs, with riders between them, against the back wall, to be trained to the top. In this case, the
trees on the back trellis would not be shaded by those in front, provided they be not trained to more than
half way up the sloping glass ; and thus the greatest possible extent of unshaded surface, and the greatest
quantity of unshaded fruit may be obtained. A house planted in this manner, about forty or forty-five
feet in length, may have four dwarfs in front, and four dwarfs and five riders at back ; and when in a
full-bearing state, would produce a large quantity of nectarines and peaches. If only thirty or thirty-five
feet in length, three dwarfs in &ont, and three dwarfs and four riders at back, would be trees enough to
fill it {Pract. Gard,)

3076. For an early peach-house many consider the plants as safer when trained against
the back wall, or on a trellis not nearer the glass than three feet. Tliis is the Dutch
practice, and was that of Speechly, and Kyle, of Moredun.

3077. Season of Planting. Abercrombie recommends November and December as
preferable ; or otherwise February and Blarch : M'Phail, • " any time when the weather
is open, between October and March ;" which practice is also agreeable to that of Nicol.
Flanagan plants in the latter end of autumn, or beginning of spring, placing a compost
of three parts loam and one of dung immediately round the roots, in order to encourage
the plants to strike more freely into the general soil of the border. (Hort. Trans, v. 58.)

3078. Trainirig. All seem agreed in recommending fan-training for peaches and nec-
tarines ; which being the simplest and most natural of all training, we deem it urmecessary
to quote opinions at lengtli.

3079. Pruning. This, according to Abercrombie, may be performed at the fall of
the leaf; but should be completed before the blossom-buds are considerably advanced.
M'Phail says, the best season is the spring, when the blossom-buds can be distinguished.

3080. Nkot, in the case of a newly planted house, heads down the maiden plants, or cuts in the trained
trees, about the end of March or beginning of April " With respect to the dwarfs, the shoots on the
lower branches should be cut back to two or three buds, that the trellis may be funiished from the bottom
with young wood. The shoots on the upper or farther extended branches may be shortened back to half,
or one third of their lengths, according to their strength, provided they have been well ripened, and are
free from canker ; but if the tree be anj-wise diseased, let them be cut so far back as to get rid of the can-
kered or mildewed part I mention this as a matter of precaution, but would rather advise that no dis-
eased tree be planted, unless of a particular kind, that cannot be easily obtained. The riders need not be
headed so much in as the dwarfs ; the object being rather to throw them into a bearing state, than to
cause them to push ver>' strong shoots, which would not be fruitful. If they make moderately stroM shoots,
and if these be well ripened in autumn, a good crop may be expected on them next year. Let the
young shoots be laid in, as they advance, at the distance of about nine inches from each other ; that
is, of the dwarfs. Those of the riders may be laid in considerably closer, it not being intended they shall
grow so vigorously as those of the dwarfs."

3081. Flanagan says, " If the trees appear to make luxuriant shoots in any part where bearing wood
is wanted, the shoots should be stopped at the third or fourth leaf, and if they are still inclined to
grow strong, they must be stopped a second time ; this will obtain kindly wood. Two or three times in
the spring the whole should be looked over, and the shoots moderately thinned out, leaving those
which are most kind and well placed at regular distances for the next year's bearing. The first
thinning of the young shoots should be just after the fruit is set, and when they are eight or ten inches
long ; when at that length, they must be laid in at such distances as to admit the sun and air to ripen the
wood destined to bear in the ensuing season. The principal business of the first season is to keep the young
wood regularly laid in, to attend to the top and bottom waterings, and to the free admission of air
at all opportunities. If all this has been done, and the plants have been kept clean, they will in this
season have made plenty of good bearing wood for the next year, and they will have nearly covered half
the extent of trellis within the house." {Hort. Trans, v. 59.)

3082. The winter pruning in a bearing-house is supposed to take place in November; and if the summer
shoots have been regularly trained, and laid in at the distances of nisie inches in the dwarfs, and
rather less in the riders, they will not require much pruning at this time. A few of the shoots may
be shortened about the lower and middle parts of the tree, for the purpose of providing a supply of
young wood in these parts, and thinning out such shoots here and there as have been left too thick;
for others should not be shortened, but should be laid in at full length ; that is, such as are short, stout,
nearly of an equal thickness, and have a bold wood-bud at the extremity ; as from these may be expected
the best fruit next season. " In some parts of the tree, P'Crhaps, or in some particular trees, it may be
expedient to cut out such old branches as have but few young shoots on them, provided there be
neighboring branches better furnished, whose shoots may be spread out, so as to fill, or nearly to fiU,
the vacancy occasioned by such lopping. In this case, the shoots, borrowed as it were for this purpose,
must be shortened more or less, according to the size of the vacancy to be filled up, and accorduig
to their strengths, in order that the plant may appear complete in all parts as soon as possible."

3083. The summer pruning consists in pinching off all fore-right shoots as they appear, and all sucn as
are ill placed, weakly, watery, deformed, or very luxuriant, leaving a leader to every shoot of last
year, and retaining a plentiful supply of good lateral shoots in all parts of the tree. If any blank is to be
filled up, some conveniently placed strong shoot is shortened in June to a few eyes, in order that it may
throw out laterals.

3084. The fruit is thinned after the stoning season, as already described in treating of
thinning of wall-fruit, (2570.)

3085. Abercrombie says, " There should be a preparatory thinning before the time of stoning, and a
final thinning afterwards, because most plants, especially such as have overborne themselves, drop many
fruit at that crisis. Finish the thinning with great regularity, leaving those retained at proper distances,
three, four, or five, on strong shoots ; two or three on middling, and one or two on the weaker
shoots ; and never leaving more than one peach at the same eye. The fruit on weakly trees thin more
in proportion." . . , .,„,..

3086. Sicol concurs with these remarks. " If," he savs, " the trees set an immoderate quantity of fruit,
which plants not in a healthy and vigorous state will ot'ten do (that is to say, such will frequently set more
than they are able to sustain or nourish^ they should, in that case, he moderately thinned at this time. Also,
theTruit' on trees in a more vigorous condition should be thinned; thinning most where health is most
wanting, and least where it prevails over sickness. And observe, that for want of timely and judicious
thinning' sickness is often induced, and the whole crop lost In a peach-house in a state of bearing,
when the fruit is swelling off, in order that it may attain a greater degree of perfection, such leaves and
summer shoots as overhang and shade the fruit are taken off or thinned."

560 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III

S087. FaU of the leaves of forced peach-trees. Nicol says, the leaves of peach-trees " may be dressed oflf,"
Vvhen the wood is ripened, by the use of a withe or small cane, which is more necessary in a house than if
the trees were growing in the open air, where the wind or frost might make them tumble down fast.

3088. Stirring the soil. The borders are to be pointed and forked up after pruning,
and a little well rotted dung or compost added where deemed necessary. The part of
the borders on the outside may, in addition, be covered with dung ; and after forcing is
commenced, those in the inside may be occasionally watered with the drainings of the
dunghill. (ITal. 324. 438.)

3089. Time of beginning to force. " From the rise of the sap," according to Aber-
crombie, " it occupies, in some sorts, about four months to make mature fruit ; in the
later varieties, five months ; and when much of winter is included in the course of forcing,
the time is proportionally lengthened. To ripen moderately early kinds by the end of
May, begin to force on the 21st of December. Little is gained by commencing sooner.
But you may put on the glasses a week before, and make gentle fires, admitting a con-
stant stream of fresh air, to get the house ready."

3090. M'Phail says, " Those who wish to have peaches and nectarines ripe in May should begin to force
them about the beginning or middle of December." For a general crop, Nicol, Weeks, and most gar-
deners, recommend forcing to begin the month of February. Nicol offers " a word to the novice in forcing :
Be diffident, and drive too slow rather than too fast Most new beginners in this business make haste to
outdo, or to eclipse their neighbors ; and so drive on at a p. ice they cannot long keep up, but founder their
steed, and stop short by the way."

3091. Temperature. Abercrombie directs to "begin at 42" min. 45° max. from sun-
heat ; and rise in a fortnight to 45° min. 50" max. from sun-heat, giving plenty of air ;
in the progress of the second fortnight, augment the temperature from three to eight de-
grees, so as to have it at the close up to 53° min. 56° max. from sun-heat, admitting air
in some degree daily. When the trees are in blossom, let the minimum heat be 55° min.
60° max. Continue to aim at this till the fruit is set and swelling. When the fruit is
set, raise the minimum to 60°, the artificial maximum to 65°, in order to give fresh air :
when the sun shines, do not let the maximum, from collected heat, pass 70°, rather em-
ploying the opportunity to admit a free circulation of air."

3092. M'Phail, beginning in February, keeps the thermometer to about 55°, increasing it as the days
lengthen ; when set and swelling, raise it to 60" with fire -heat ; when the sun shines, let it rise to 65'^ or 70"-
with air. A short time before the fruit begins to ripen, from 53° to 70° is not too much, with fire-heat,
and in sunshine days a little above 73*^.

3093. Flanagan begins to force a new-planted house in the second week of February, by putting on the
lights, and begins fire-heat at the end of the month. The second season he puts on the lights in the latter
end of January. {Hart. Trans, v. 58,59.)

3094. Nicol, in a house begun to force on the 1st of February, begins with 45° for the first fortnight, and
then increases the heat to 50° or 52°. The times of regulation are supposed to be at six or seven in the
morning, and at eight or nine at night. At the end of a month the temperature is to be kept as steadily as
possible to 55°. In two months, keep it to about 65°, seldom allowing it to pass 70°, which, if it does, it will
nave the effect of drawing the shoots up weak, and may cause the setting fruit to drop. He recommends
60° by fire-heat, mornings and evenings, as proper atler the fruit is fairly stoned.

3095. Flanagan, the first season of forcing a peach-house, "attains a temperature of from 53° to 55° from
fire the last week of February, and does not allow the sun-heat to exceed 65°. The second season of forcing,
fires are made in the second week of February, just to keep the heat by fire from 45° to 50°, not exceeding
70° of sun-heat ; in the third week the fire-heat is gradually increased from 50° to 55°, and not exceeding
75° sun-heat. In March, particular attention must be paid to the regularity of heat, which may be pro-
gressively increased a degree or two as the season advances, but I do not allow it to exceed the last-named
temperature until the fruit is perfectly stoned, when I increase it from 55° to 60° at night, and from 77° to
80° of sun-heat. At the medium of these the temperature should continue during the remaining part of
the season." {Hort. Trans, v. 60.)

3096. ^ir. A constant stream of fresh air is to be admitted before beginning to force,
and plenty of air during sunshine throughout the whole progress of forcing. M'Phail says,
when the fruit is set and swelling, *' give the house air every day, whether the sun shine
or not." Give plenty of air, and keep the house dry, when the fruit begins to ripen.
When the intention is to begin to force on the 1st of February, Nicol shuts up the house
from the middle of January, admitting plenty of free air through the day. During the
first month of forcing, he admits air freely " every day, even in frosty weather, by the
sashes, till the flowers begin to expand ; after which time by the ventilators, except in fresli
weather, till the season become mild. Air should be admitted all this month, to such ai\
extent as to keep down the temperature, in sunshine, to within five degrees of the fire-heat
medium ; and this in order to strengthen the buds as they break, and that the young shoots
may spring in a vigorous manner." Admit large portions of air every day when the fruit
is swelling off, except in damp weather, from seven or eight in the morning to five or six
in the evening ; opening the sashes to their fullest extent from ten till two or three o'clock,
giving and reducing gradually, &c.

3097. Watering and steaming. " While the fruit is in blossom," Abercrombic ob-
serves, " steaming the flues must be substituted for watering over the herb ; at the same
time, you may water the roots now and then gently, avoiding such a copious supply as
might risk the dropping of the fruit to be set. Let the water be warmed to the air of the
house."

Book I. CULTURE OF THE PEACH-HOUSE. 561

3098. JiPPhaU directs to keep the border moist by watering ; and alter the fruit are as big as nuts gt>rlnkte
the flues now and then with water to raise steam, and wash the trees about once a-week with clean water
not too cold. It IS better not to wash all over the top till the fruit are set. A sunshine morning is to be
preferred, and the water may be about 65". Do not water after the fruit begui to ripen, but re-commence
when all are gathered. {Gard. Rem. 148. 191.) "icct;

3099. yicol says, " newly planted peach-trees should be freely supplied with water at the root throughout
the season, m order to promote their growth ; and the engine must be applied with force to the branches for
the suppression of the red spider, and refreshing tiie foliage, generally once in two or three davs." In a
fruit-bearing house, after the fruit is set, " water should be given pretty freely to the plants at root, once
m two or three days ; increasing the quantity as the fruit begins to swell, and as the shoots advance in
growth. Also, continue the operations of the engine regularly ; and do not be sparing, or be a/raid to hurt
the foliage, if the red spider appear on it. Hit hardest at, or near to the top of the house ; as it is there he
preys most, being fostered by the extreme heat, in which he delights. In looking out for this enemy, there-
fore, keep your eye particularly on this part. Withhold water from the border, and cease to exercise the
engine on the foliage when the fruit is swelling off." {Kal. 358. 401.)

3100. Flanagan, whiUt the trees are in bloom, neither sprinkles nor steams the house, for he " considers
that sufficient moisture arises from the earth in the house at this stage of forcing." {Hort.Trans.v.dO.)
When the fruit is set, he gives the trees a gentle syringing on a fine morning with clean water, and
waters the borders within the house occasionally after the stoning, until the fruit is arrived at full size and
begins to change color, then all watering should be left off both with the syringe and on the borders. '

3101. Insects and diseases. The red spider is the grand enemy to peach-trees; but
they are also attacked by blight, mildew, the aphis, thrips, and sometimes even the coccus.
" The blight," Abercrombie says, " is caused by small insects, very jjemicious both to
the trees and fruit in their growth ; this is apparent by the leaves curling up, and often
by the ends of the shoots being bunched and clammy, wliich retards their shooting. In
tliis case, it is advisable to pick off" the infected leaves, and cut away the distempered part
of the shoots. Further to check tlie mischief, if the weather be hot and dry, give the trees
a smart watering all over the branches. A garden-engine will perform the watering much
more effectually than a common watering-pot, as it discharges the water' in a full stream
against tlie trees. Apply it two or three times a week ; the best time of the day is the
afternoon, when the power of tlie sun is declining. These waterings will clear the leaves,
branches, and fruity from any contracted foulness ; refresh and revive the whole consider-
ably J and conduce greatly to exterminate the vermin."

310^. iPPhail directs, when the plants have begun to expand their blossoms and leaves, and the aphis, or
green insect, makes its appearance, to fill the house full of tobacco-smoke once a week, or oftener. If there
be any appearance of mildew, dust a little sulphur on the infected parts ; and if the gum or canker be seen
on the snoots on any part of the trees, open the bark, and cut out the dying wood. Inspect the trees in
every part mmutely, and if you perceive the bark dying, or the gum oozing out of any part of them, cut ofT
the bark as far as it is dead or decaying ; and if the branches be strong, that you cannot well effect it with
your knife, take a chisel with a semicircular edge, and a mallet, and cut out the wood as far as you see it is
affected ; you need not be afraid of hurting the tree, even if the branches or main stem are cut half away.
I have cut sometimes more than half of the stems of standard trees away from the ground farther up than
where the branches began to separate, which was the means of saving them alive. This method exposes
the old wood to the sun and air, by which it is dried, and the tree is thereby assisted in casting off the
unwholesome juices, or those kept in it too long for want of a more dry, genial climate. [Gard. Bern. 131.)

3103. Mitchel, of Montcrieff House, Perthshire, hangs on his peach-trees, when the fruit are ripe, " large
white glass phials, with a little jam or jelly in them, in order to entice large black flies, which he finds
very destructive to peaches. "Wasps he destroys by finding out their nests in the day, marking them with
a stick ; and going in the evening with a lantern and candle, he introduces a burning stick, smeared with
wet gmiijowder, which stupifies the wasps. He then pours water over them, and with a spade works up the
nest, earth, and water, into a sort of mortar. Nests on trees or hedges he stupifies by the wet gunpowder,
which causes the wasps to fall nearly de^d, when he crushes them, &c." (Caled. Hart. Trans, vol i. 194.)

3H>i. Nicol strongly recommends watering for keeping down insects, especially the red spider. If the green
fly or thrips make' their appearance, recourse must be had to fumigation. Shut the house close up at
night, and till it so full of tobacco-smoke that one person cannot see another. If this should be repeated
the next evening, they will be completely destroyed. Calm weather is most favorable for this operation.
*' The coccus andchermes," he says, " are not so immediately hurtful, and unless very numerous, need
not be much minded at this season ; but they must be more particularly attendetl to at the time of pnming
in November. The males, which have wings, and are active, will be dislodged by the operations of the
engine ; and the females, which are stationarj', and adhere to the shoots and branches, if very numerous,
may readily be crushed by the finger, or by a small flatfish stick, that can easily be insinuated into the
angles of the branches, where they often lodge." {Kal. 340 — 358.)

3105. Nicol and Abercrombie recommend that in November, when the winter pnming is finished, the
plc.nts and trellis should be anointed with the composition recommended for vines. (3061.)

310G. Ripening the fruit. Knight finds that neither peaches nor nectarines ac-
quire pel fection either in richness or in flavor, unless tliey be exposed to the full in-
fluence of tlie sun during their last swelling, without the intervention of the glass. In
consequence, he says, some gardeners take off* the lights wholly before the fruit begins
to ripen ; but he recommends taking them off" only in bright sunshine, and putting them
on during rain, and at night to protect the fruit from dews, &c. " "Wlien the fruit
begins to ripen, which will be about the second week in July, I gradually expose the
house to the open air on fine and dry days, by drawing down the lights as much as
convenient in tlie day, and shutting them again in the evening. It is tliis which gives
the fruit both flavor and color. " (Hort. Trans, v. 61.)

3107. Gathering the fruit. M'Phail advises laying moss or some soft material over
the borders, to save those which drop off" of themselves. Nicol recommends the peach-
gatlierer. (Jig. 148.) Sir Joseph Banks, quoting from a French author, states, that
" Peaches are never eaten in perfection, if suff"ered to ripen on the tree ; they ^ould
be gathered just before they are quite soft, and kept at least twenty-four hours in

O o

562 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Paht III.

tho fruit-chamber." {Hort. Trans, vol. i. App.) Williams, of Pitmaston, says,
« Should the season prove wet when the peaches are ripe, they should be gathered, and
placed for about two days in a dry airy room before they are eaten." {Hort. Trans.

vol. ii. p. 113.) , e • n

3108. Ripening tfie wood. Abercrombie says, " On account of tlie fruit of most sorts
of peaches ripening somewhat earlier than grapes, and the growth of the shoots stoppmg
sooner than the summer- wood of vines, it is not so often necessary to assist the plant,
in September or October, by artificial heat ; but in some of the late kinds, if, by the
time the external air is down to 60 degrees, the shoots have not taken a greenish-brown
tint as high as several eyes from the origin, and if the blossom-buds on these, round
when full swelled, are not distinguishable from the oblong wood-buds, apply a little
fire-heat, and continue it till the leaves fall."

3109. Nicol directs attention to be had to the ripening of the wood of peach-trees in September. A little
fire-heat may be necessary fully to mature the shoots, especially of young trees. lire-heat should be
continued till the growth of the smaller and middle-sized shoots stop, their bottom parts become greenish-
brown, and tlie buds upon them, that is, the flower-buds, appear turgid, and be distinguishable from the
wood-buds The stronger and more extreme shoots of the dwarfs in particular will continue to grow
later than the above shoots ; which, as they are to be considerably shortened back in November, for the
production of wood to fill the trellis next season, is not very material, provided the bottom part be pretty
well hardened."

3110. Resting the wood. The management of the peach-house, when at rest, Aber-
crombie says, " Should be nearly the same as for the grape-house, except when there is
but one set of frames to serve both an early peach-house and late grape-house j in which
case, as soon as the young wood of the vines is perfectly ripened, the glasses should be
brought back to the peach-house ; for although the fruit of the grape is to be set and
ripened in a higher heat, the peach-tree, as a plant, is more tender than the vine ; and
independently of forcing, comes into blossom about two months sooner."

Sill. WPhail keeps on the glasses from the time the fruit is gathered till he begins to force, in order to
keep the wood dry ; but gives them all the air he can. {Gard. Remem. 36].)

3112. Nicol exposes the house fully day and night, only shutting up in the time of heavy rains.
{Kal. 420.)

3113. Forcing peaches and nectarines b^ dung-heat. The following mode is practised
at Dagnam Park : — " The house is seventy feet long by eleven feet wide, the front wall
being five feet and a half deep from the bottom of the lights, the depth from the roof
(there being no upright lights in front) to the ground : about three feet and a half of
the bottom of this wall in open brick -work, with a flue in the inside, the top of which
is covered with plain tiles. The inside of the house is filled up with earth to within two
feet of the bottom of the lights, and the trees planted as near as possible to the front
wall, and trained under the lights or wires, in the same way as vines. The back wall of a
pine-pit is built of the same height as the front of the peach-house, and three feet distant
from it ; this of course forms a space three feet wide for the hot dung. As soon as I wish to
begin forcing, this space is filled with hot dung : the roots being near the flue, soon begin
to feel the warmth, and I sometimes take off a few tiles from the top of the flue, so as to
admit the steam from the hot dung into the house ; I find this of great advantage, and
productive of no ill eflfects, until the leaf-bud begins to expand, and if the stream is not
then perfectly sweet and moderate, the places left to admit it must be secured. You
will of course observe, that while this hot dung lining is forcing the peaches and nec-
tarines, it is assisting to work the pines in the pine-pit at the same time, and without any
additional expense, there being also a lining at the front of the pine-pit, as well as this
one at the back ; and when it has become cooled by frequent turnings, I either make
cucumber-beds of it, or take it inside the peach-house or vinery. For these five years
past, I have never failed in producing an abundant crop of peaches and nectarines by
the above method." {Breese, in Hort. Trans, v. 219.)

3114. Forcing the j)each-tree in pots. " All the varieties of the peach and nectarine,"
Abercrombie observes, " are extremely well suited for forcing in large pots or tubs.
Small plants, intended to come in before or after those in the borders, may be excited,
in the first stage, in a distinct house ; so as the temperature of that in which they are
brought to finish fruiting be suited to their progress. The compost for plants in cradles
ought to be lighter and richer than the mould in the borders." The pots or tubs should
be such as not to contain less than a cubic foot of earth ; the soil should be lighter and
richer than that recommended for the borders, and liquid manure should be plentifully
supplied, to make up, in some degree, for the confinement of the roots. They are best
forced in a peach-house, but succeed in a vinery or succession-stove ; best of all, how-
ever, in a pit or Dutch frame (Jig. 446.), where the temperature can be regulated at
pleasure, and where they are near the glass. Great care must be taken to supply them
regularly with water, for which purpose some place saucers under the pots ; others cover
their surface with moss, or, what is better, fresh cow or rotten horse dung. Casing the
pots with ropes made of moss, is also a very good method, as it not only preserves a uni-

Book I. CULTURE OF THE CHERRY-HOUSE. 36S

form degree of moisture, but also of temperature. Of course the moss must be kept
watered. Peach-trees, in pots, are sometimes trained to small fan-trellises attached to
the pot ; but in general they are pnmed as dwarf-standards, in wliich fdrm they bear
fully better than when trained. When the fruit is nearly ripe, the pots ought to be re-
moved from the hot-house or vinery to a cooler and more airy situation ; or, if in pits,
the sashes may be taken off a part of every fine day. In oJier respects, the treatment
of peach-trees in pots is similar to that of trees in borders.

3115. Williams, of Pilmaston, observes, that in respect to the quality of fruit from peach-trees in pots,
" by far the best-flavored peaches I have ever tasted, were from trees planted in large pots, and kept in a
vinerj- from February tiU the first week in June ; when the trees were removed into the open air, and
after being shaded a little from the sun for the first ten days, were placed in the most open part of the
garden till the fruit became ripe. Treated in this way, the peach becomes beautifuUy colored on the out-
side, and of a most exquisite flavor." Occasionally, in very warm seasons, peach-trees in pots, when
forced very early in the season, and afterwards plunged in the open air, will produce a second crop late
in autumn ; but this is more matter of curiosity than of utility. It frequently happens with forced
cherries and strawberries. {Hort. Trans. iiL 367.)

3116. Peach-trees as standards. The peach bears remarkably well in the standard
form, planted in the middle of a house ; and the flavor of the fruit is universally ac-
knowledged to be preferable to that grown on the trellis, from the comparatively free cir-
culation of air. The glass tent, or moveable house (Jig. 226. ), might be most advan-
tageously applied in diis way ; and when tlie fruit began to ripen, the sashes could be
removed, and applied to ripening a late crop of grapes against a common wall, or
to cover pits or houses which had not been forced.

Sect. IV. Oftlie Culture (fthe Cherry^hmtse.

3117. Nofndt is more difficult to force than the cherry. The blossoms of forced trees
are apt to fall oft" before the fruit is set, and the fruit will keep falling off" before and
after they are as large as peas. Gardeners think this occasioned by a kind of stagnation
of air about them, which affects the tender blossoms and young fruit.

3118. Soil. M'Phail says, " Take light, sandy, rich, mellow earth, and make a border
of it the whole width of the house, and four feet deep." Nicol — " Tlie border should be
from twentj'-four to thirty inches deep ; the bottom, if not naturally mild and dry, to be
drained and paved. The soil should be a sandy loam, or light hale garden-earth, made
moderately rich with stable-yard dung well reduced, or with other light compost. If a
small portion of lime, or a moderate quantity of marl were mixed with it, so much the
better. The soil for cherries to be forced in pots or tubs, should be considerably richer
than the above." Torbron uses fresh virgin soil and rotten dung. (Hort. Trans.
iv. 116.)

3119. Clioice of sorts. M'Phail, Nicol, and all gardeners, agree in giving the prefer-
ence to the May-duke. Nicol says, " None of the other kinds set so well, except the
IVIorello, wliich I do not hesitate to say w ell deserves a place : it is a good bearer, and
the fruit, when forced, acquires a superior size and flavor." (Aa/. 295.)

3 1 20. Choice of plants. IM'Phail takes standards of different heights in a bearing state ;
Nicol, clean, healthy, young plants, tliat have been one or two years in training against a
wall. Torbron trees, eight or ten years from the bud, and selected of such various
heights as best suited the size of the house.

3121. Situation of the lylants in the house. M'Phail and Torbron plant in rows, be-
ginning with the tallest in the back side, reserving the shortest for the front, letting tliem
slope to the south gradually, somewhat in tlie form in which plants are set in the green-
house. (G. Rem. 146. ; Hort. Trans, iv. 116.)

3122. Kicol has a trellis against the back wall for wall-trained trees, and a border in front, in which he
plants dwarf-standards. The dwarfs against the back trellis, he plants eight or ten feet apart. Kiders that
have been three or four years trained, and are well furnished with fruit-spurs, may be planted between the
dwarfs. They may probably yield a few fruit the first season ; and will hardly fail to produce plentifully in
that following. " In the border may be planted, as dwarf-standards, to be kept under five feet in height,
some well furnished plants that have been kept in large pots or tubs for a year or two ; such being more
fruitful, and less apt to grow to wood than plants tliat have grown in the open ground. In plantmg these,
the ball of earth should not be very much reduced ; only a few of the under roots should be spread out ;
for if the ball were reduced, and the whole roots spread out, as in the ordinary way of planting, when it is
wished that a plant may push freely, the intention here wpuld be thwarted ; which is, to have the plant
dwarf and fruitful, growing little to wood. Along with these may be planted in the same way, an apricot
or two, or figs, or both, that have been dwarfed in pots or tubs, as above. If they succeed, it would give a
pleasant variety ; of which there need be little doubt, as the temperature, soil, and general treatment for
cherries will suit apricots, and not far disagree with figs. These little standards may be allowed a space of
about four feet square each, which is sufficient, as they must not be suffered to rise high, or spread far, on
account of shading the trees on the trellis. In planting of the principal dwarfs and riders, let the work be
carefully performed. They should be raised with as good roots, and be kept as short time out of the
ground as possible ; placing them just as deep as they have been before ; spreading out their roots and
fibres, and filling in with fine earth. The whole should have a moderate quantity of water, and have air
freely admitted every day ; defending them, however, from snow or much rain. The house should not be
forced the first year ; and it will be better to defer heading in the plants till the middle or end of March,
than to prune them now. I shall, therefore, take no further notice of them till then, supposing they are to
be attended to with respect to air, and moderate waterings. It is necessary, however, to remark, that the
plants should be carefully anointed with the liquor, either just now, or some time in the course of the
month."

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564 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

3123. Time of planting. According to Nicol and M'Phail, January and February ; to
Torbron, early in the autumn.

31 24. Pruning. " Trees planted in January may be pruned about the middle or end of
March. 'Vhe dwarfs, planted against the trellis, should be well cut in ; that is, each
shoot of last year should be shortened back to three or four buds, that the plants may
throw out a sufficiency of young shoots to fill the rail from the bottom. The dwarfs,
planted in the border as little standards, need not be headed in so much ; as the intention
is to have them fruitful, and that they may grow little to wood from the beginning. Their
short stubby shoots need not be touched, unless bruised or hurt in transplanting ; shorten-
ing back the longer and weaker ones only, a few inches, according to their strengths. The
riders, planted against tlie back trellis, may be treated very much in the same manner ;
the sole intention being to obtain a few crops of them while the dwarfs are making wood
and filling their spaces. In November following, the trees may be pruned for the suc-
ceeding season. In order to produce wood to fill the trellis as soon as possible, the dwarfs
should be pretty much headed in. The shoots may be pruned very much in the manner
of the trees in the early house, shortening no shoots that are fully ripened, except a few of
those at the extremities of the tree, in order to make them throw out others for its full
extension upwards next year. November is also the proper time for pruning an esta-
blished cherry-house, preparatory to forcing for next year. As cheny-trees which have
been forced make very little wood, very little pruning is required ; probably nothing
further than moderately to thin out the spurs, and to prune off any accidental breast- wood
or water-shoots that may have risen since the crop was gathered. The leading slioots,
except for the purpose of producing wood to fill up any blank or vacancy, need not be
shortened ; nor need those in the lower parts of the tree, except for the same reason. But
if it be necessary to shorten these, let them be cut pretty well in, as otherwise they will
push very weakly. Shoots on the extreme parts of the tree, that should be shortened for
the above purpose, need not, however, be cut so closely in. If they be headed back one
third, or to half their lengths, it will generally be found sufficient."

3125. Summer pruning. Very little of this is requisite, such water-shoots or breast-
wood as arise among the spurs are to be pinched off as they appear ; laying in such
shoots only of this description as may be wanted to fill an occasional vacancy. Train in
the summer shoots of the dwarfs as they advance, at the distance of about eiglit or nine
inches from each other ; and otherwise observe the general rules for pruning cherries on
walls and espaliers.

3126. Stirring the soil. After pruning, the borders are to be forked up, and a little
well rotted dung, mixed with sand, worked in, if thought necessary. In summer, they
may be slightly stirred on the surface, and weeded to keep them fresh, clean, and neat,
and where a part of the border is outside the house, cover with horse- dung or litter in the
early part of the season.

3127. The time of beginning to force is sometimes December, but more generally Janu-
ary or February. " Newly planted trees," Nicol observes, " will bear gentle forcing
next spring, from the first or middle of March ; which ought to be considered merely as
preparatory to forcing them fully, from about the first of February, the third year."
Torbron, if the trees have been removed with good balls, admits of gentle forcing the first
spring, but prefers deferring it till the tliird year. He says, " I have had an abundant
crop of fine cherries, from trees which had been planted only a few months before forcing,
but would not recommend the risking a whole crop, unless the trees have been longer
established." Where cherries are to be ripened early in the season, he " shuts in about
the beginning of December, and lights the fires about the third or last week of that month. "
{Hort. Trans, iv. 116.)

3128. Temperature. Abercrombie begins at 40°, " and throughout the first week,
lets the minimum be 40°, and the maximum 42", giving plenty of air. By gradual ad-
vances in the second, third, and fourth week, raise the course to 42^ min. 45^ max. In
strong sunshine, admit air freely, rather than have the temperature above 52°, by collect-
ing the warm air. In the fifth and sixth week, the artificial minimum may be gradually
elevated to 45°, but the maximum should be restrained to 48° from fire-heat, and to 55^
from sun-heat, until the plants are in flower. After the blossoms are shown, and until
the fruit is set, aim to have the heat from the flues at 48° min. 52 - max. At this stage,
maintain as free an interchange of air as the weather will permit ; and when the sun-heat
is strong, do not let the temperature within exceed 60*^. As the fruit is to be swelled and
ripened, the requisite heat is 60 min. QS^ max."

3129. M'PhaU, in January, does not let the clierry-house rise higher than 50*'. In February, " If the
therraometer in a morning is as low as 35°, there is no danper ; but it should rise in the course of the day,
to imitate nature as near as possible. In the month of March, the thermometer in the open air in the
shade seldom rises above 55"^ . In the month of April, it seldom rises above QB'^. But it is observed, that
when the sun shines on a cherry-tree or other trees in the open air, the heal on them iS higher than in the
shade. The cherry-tree is of such a delicate nature to force, that it is impossible for any person to write
down the exact temperature of the air, which would ensure a croi) of fruit from it in the forcing way "

Book I. CULTURE OF THE CHERRY-HOUSE. 565

3im Kicol does not force the newly planted cherry-house the first season. The established house he
begins in January, making fires so moderate for the first ten or twelve days, as that the thermometer shall
not rise by the force of the fire-heat to more than 40* j afterwards increase the fire-heat gradually, and so
as to raise it to id" ; at which keep as nearly as possible for the remainder of the month. In sunshine, in
good weather, the thermometer may be allowed to rise to 50« or 55", but not more. In February, continue
to regulate the temperature of the house, so as that the thermometer may not rise, by the force of fire-
heat, to more than 50" ; and by the free admission of air in sunshine, keep it down to 60'=' or 55*". In
March the fruit will be setting, and the temperature of the house must therefore be kept as steadily as
possible to about 50", lest the fruit drop ; this being the most critical period of the forcing with all stone-
fruit In April the fruit will be beginning to color and swell off for ripening, when the temperature may
be raised four or five degrees.

3131. Torbron says, " For the first three, four, or five weeks of lighting fires, if the weather be so
severe as to depress the thermometer in the open air from twenty-two to twelve degrees ; then let the
thermometer inside the house be kept from thirty-five to forty degrees, or just suflBcient to exclude the
frost. If the weather be not severe during the above period, the thermometer may be kept to forty-five
degrees inside the house. As the season advances and becomes more mild, and the days longer, prol>ably
about the first or middle of February, the thermometer may he raised to fifty degrees, and then it is expe-
dient to give gentle sprinklings by an engine or syringe, two' or three times a week, in the evening. Whilst
the trees are in bloom, no sprinkling must be used ; but the flues, when only raotlerately hot, are to be
steamed morning and evening, and every day and hour of sunshine, and calm and mild weather, fresh air
must be copiously admitted. When the i)etals begin to drop, and when the fruit is set, the temperature
may be raised to fifty-five degrees, the house being engined three or four times a week in the evening;
but never till the bloom is all down. When the cherries are completely stoned, the thermometer may be
raised to sixty degrees by fire-heat, sprinkling every evening by engine, till the fruit is nearly ripe ; the
house may be kept higher by day, as well as by night, after stoning." i^Hort. Trans, iv. 119.)

3132. Watering. M'Phail waters occasionally at root and over the top, till the trees
are in blossom ; but when the stones in the fhiit are become hard, the trees may be
washed all over occasionally with clean water, not too cold. " Let this be done in a fine
simny morning, and take care not to spatter the fruit with any kind of dirt. In April,
when the cherries are grown large, give the border a good watering now and then, which
will enable the trees to swell their fruit to a good size : by keeping them in a healthy
growing state, the fruit will be fine-flavored, and the trees will make strong flower-buds
for the ensuing season. If the fruit are not ripening, wash the trees occasionally, in a
fine sunshine morning, with sweet clean water."

3133. Nicol, after he begins to force in January, " gives moderate supplies of water at the root ; and
once in two days, let them be well scourged with the engine ; first right and then left. This is done to re-
fresh the branches and infant foliage ; but chiefly, at this time, for the suppression and prevention of in-
sects that are as troublesome here as in any other forcing-house, and are easier kept down than brought
down." In February, " the plants must have regular and moderate supplies of water at the root till the
fruit be set, and then more freely, as the season, and as their growth advances. The engine may be ex-
ercised upon their branches, in a moderate manner, once in two days; generally in the afternoon, about
sunset ; using always well aired soft water. But from the time the flowers begin to open, until the petals
Xxgm to drop again, desist from using the engine. At this interval, the foliage must be refreshed by
steam, which may be produced plentifully every evening, by pouring water on the flues when the fire is at
the strongest. A very fine dew might be thrown on the plants by a soft syringe ; but as soon as the fruit
is set, the engine is the instrument we sliould trust to for the suppression of insects." In March, the
fruit will be setting, and till this is completed, " the border should be kept rather in a drier state than here-
tofore ; as if it be kept too moist, it may occasion their dropping ; but afterwards, let it be regularly and
freely watered, in order to promote thegrowth of the plants, and the swelling of the fruit. Now again re-
sume the use of the engine ; and exercise it with force upon the branches, every second day, for the sup-
pression of the red spider, and to keep the plants clean." In April, " when the fruit begins to color and
swell off", withhold water from the border by degrees, and towards their being ripe, entirely. At this time
also, watering with the engine must be withheld ; but previously exercise it with force, and often, for a
week or two, so as completely to subdue the red spider, if he have gained any ground lately. After the crop
is gathered, these waterings must be resumed, and should be continued till the foliage begin to drop ; not,
however, so much on account of the cherry-trees, as on account of other plants that may be placed in the
house ; for if the enemy be allowed a footing on the former, he will soon show himself on thejatter, where
perhaps he may be less vulnerable, especially if the plants be of a tender kind. The border may be kept in
a moderately moist state till the leaves fall, or till the house be exposed, or be uncovered."

3131. Torbron says, " From the time the flower begins to open, till the fruit is completely stoned,
the soil should be but sparingly watered ; but when the stoning is effected, water may be applied to the
roots freely, till the fruit is nearly ripe." {Uort. Trans, iv. 119.)

3135. Air. " In forcing the cherry, it is essential to continue a free renovation of
air ; always sustaining the minimum heat in the different stages. The blossoms will
sometimes fall abortive, or the young fruit drop off after setting, from no other cause
than a stagnant atmosphere. " At first beginning to force, M'Phail gives plenty of air
night and day. In February, when the trees are in blossom, " let air be at tlie house
day and night ; and as much as you can when the fruit are swelling off."

3136. Kicol says, the airing of the cherry-house may be performed by the sashes, with every safety, till
the buds begin to expand ; and after that, in frosty or bad weather, air may be admitted by the ventilators.
In Februarv, nothing is more conducive to the health of the plants, and the setting of the fruit, than a
regular and'free circulation of air ; and if this be denied them for many days together, the eflTect will soon
be visible. The foliage will become languid, and the flowers will drop away. Therefore a day should not
pass in which less or more air is not admitted. As the fruit ripen, give as large and regular portions of air
as possible ; opening the sashes by eight or nine in the morning ; giving full air about ten ; reducing about
two or three ; and shutting up about four or five, sooner or later, according to the state of the atmosphere.
In conducting this matter, however, regard must be had to the temperature ; but air may be admitted, in
sunshine, to such an extent as to keep down the mercury or spirits in the thermometer to 65'', and at other
times to 60". {Kal. p. 339.)

3137. Torbron says, " The cherry, in forcing, requiring more fresh air than most other fruits, particular
attention must be paid to its admission, by the gardener having it in his power occasionally to make as
many inlets or openings as convenient. It will be conducive to this end, that the roof, and the upright or
front sashes, if any, be moveable, and all with little ditficulty ; because in changeable weather, the current
of air may be required to be augmented or reduced many times in one day. Air must be admitted freely and

O o 3

S66 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Paut III.

oo{NOUsIy when the weather is mild and calm, and accompanied with sunshine, during the time the cherries
are in bloom, an^ also near the time of their ripening." (Hort. Trans, iv. 119.)

3138. Insects, diseases, and depredators. " The cherry is liable to be infested by a
small grub- worm, which rolls itself up in the leaves, and extends its ravages to the fruit.
As soon as this insect is perceived, the trees should be searched daily, that it may be de-
stroyed by tlie hand, and prevented from spreading. It usually shows itself first about
the time of flowering. Cherries set, or in blossom, require great attention. Like rose-
buds, they are liable to be destroyed by a small grub-worm, which rolls the leaves round
itself, occasionally, for a covering : it preys on the leaves as well as the fruit. The trees
should be searched once or twice a-day, to destroy them with the hand as soon as they
can be observed. Whenever a leaf appears to begin to curl, be sure there is an insect in
it, or the embryo of one. The cherry-house, as the season advances, may be smoked oncQ
a-week or ten days, wliich will prevent the trees from being infested with a blackish kind
of insect, frequently very pernicious." (Gard. Remem. 161. 191.) When the fruit
are ripe, it is likely the birds will fly in and eat them, if you do not contrive nets, or some
other method, to keep them out. If the meshes of the nets which you employ are narrow,
the wasps and flies, as well as the birds, will be prevented from getting in ; for, as tliese
insects generally fly in, they therefore require room for their wings extended, otherwise
they are repulsed in their attempt. (Gard. Remem. p. 246.)

3139. Nicol, after every winter pruning, washes the trees over with the mixture of soap, sulphur, &c.
already mentioned (3061.) ; and in spring and summer waters over the leaves, picks off grubs, and fumi-
gates, like M'Phail.

3140. Torbron fumigates for the black fly, and picks off the gntb.

3141. Gathering and keeping the fruit. If it be found necessary, cherries will keep for
some time on the trees, provided the birds can be kept from them. Keep the house, for
this purpose, dry, cool, and well aired. (Gard. Remem. 246.)

3142. Exj)osing the wood. This, according to all the authors quoted, may be done from
the time the fruit is gathered, till within a week or ten days of the recommencement of
forcing. The glass should be entirely taken off, unless the cherry-house is in part used
for some other purpose, to which this practice would be injurious.

3143. Forcing cherry-trees in j^ots. M'Phail and Nicol concur in approving the very
general practice of planting cherry-trees in pots ; in which, or in tubs of a foot or fifteen
inches diameter, they may be successfully forced. " Three or four dozen good plants,
well managed in this way, would give a deal of fruit ; which might be had in succession
for a considerable length of time, by dividing the plants into three or four classes or divi-
sions, and shifting them from one compartment to another. In January, the first twelve
trees may be placed (from the open air, of course,) in the green-house or conservatory, if
there be one, or in a peach-house now at work ; placing them in the coolest part of the
house, but in the full light, and where they may have plenty of air. They must be duly
attended to with water at the root, and be frequently syringed at top, generally once in
two days. The pots being occasionally watered with the drainings of the dunghill, would
add much to the vigor of the plants : there is no method of manuring more eflfectual, or
so easily accomplished. The plants may remain here till the fruit be fairly set, the stoning
over, and all danger of dropping be passed. They may then be placed in a vinery or
stove to ripen off, where they would come in early, and be very high-flavored, if placed
near the light, and so as that they might have free air daily. In February, a second and
third dozen should be taken in, and a fourth in the beginning of March, and each simi-
larly heated." {ICalend.) " It is very common with early forced cherry-trees to bear a
second crop late in the same season." (Hort. Trans, in. 367.)

3144. Forcing hj a temporary sti-ucture. Torbron observes, that, " where a portion of
wall (especially with a southern aspect), already well furnished with May-dukes, perfectly
established, and in a bearing state, can be spared for forcing, a temporary glass case may be
put up against it ; the flue maybe built on the surface of the border, without digging, or sink-
ing for a foundation ; neither will any upright glass or front wall be requisite ; the wooden
plate on which the lower end of the rafters are to rest may be supported by piles, sunk or
driven into the soil of the border, one pile under every, or every alternate rafter. The
space between the plate and the surface of the soil should be filled by boards nailed
against the piles, to exclude the external air, for the plate must be elevated above the level
of the surface from eighteen to thirty inches, or whatever height may be suflicient to let
the sashes slip down, in order to admit fresh air. I believe this to be an uncommon struc-
ture, and it may perhaps be objected to : but I am confident that it will suit well for
cherries, for I have constructed such places even for forcing peaches with good success, as
well as for maturing and preserving a late crop of grapes. " {Hort. Trans, iv. 117.)

Sect. V. Of the Culture of the Fig-house.
3145. A house for forcing tlie fig is seldom built expressly for that purpose; partly
from there being no great demand for the fruit in most families, and partly because figs

m

K I. CULTURE OF THE FIG-HOUSE. 567

are generally forced in pots or tubs placed in the peach or cherry-house, and managed as
these trees. The fig-tree, when forced, is very apt to cast its fruit before it is half
swelled. " A separate hot-bouse," Neill observes, " is but seldom erected for the cul-
tivation or the forcing of the fig ; a few dwarf-trees, such as the brown Italian, and
purple Italian, introduced into the peach or cherry house, being by most people thought
sufficient. It has been found by experience, that dwarf-standard fig-trees, planted in the
middle of a vinery, between the flues, and thus under the shade of the vines, bear fruit
plentifully, ripening both the spring and autumn crops. Tliis may be seen in the vinery
erected by Hay, at Preston Hall, near Edinburgh. " (Ed. En. art. Hort.) Sabine
recommends training fig-trees on the back walls of vineries, where he has seen them
answer well, the vines being trained immediately under the roof. He says, " It is ad-
visable not to train the vines entirely under the whole of the glass, but to leave a space in
the centre of each light, its whole length, for the admission of the sun's rays;" judici-
ously adding, « the grapes will be perhaps as much benefited by this practice as the figs.'*
(Hort. Trans, iii. 410.)

3146. The soil for fig borders, or plants in pots, is in all respects the same as that for
the cherry.

3147. Choice of sorts. Abercrombie recommends the

White G«noa | Chestnut 1 Black Ischia 1 Brown Ischia | Black Genoa ) Malta.

3148. To which I^^icol adds the brown Italian, and black and purple Italian.

3149. Choice of plants. Such as are two or three years trained, either as wall or dwarf
standards, are to be preferred.

3150. The situation of the 2)lants in the house is generally against a back wall trellis.

3151. Pruning. Figs are to have a spring and summer pruning ; both of wliich,
Nicol observes, may be comprised in one, by rubbing or pinching oft' the infant shoots,
thought necessary to be displaced, in order to give the tree air, and strengthen such ^s
remain. The summer pruning, or ratlier thinning, consists chiefly in keeping them
moderately thin of leaves, so as not to overshadow the fruit. Sabine's trees are pruned
in the autumn, after their wood is well hardened ; but as " the object is to get the trees
to the largest possible size, in which state they will produce more of the short fruit-bearing
shoots, they are cut but little, except it be occasionally necessary to tl)in them, by taking
out a strong limb." (Hort. Trans, in. 410.) Fig-trees, intended to bear fruit abund-
antly, should never be allowed to produce suckers, or any shoots from the main stem,
within eighteen inches of tlie ground ; fan-training is in general the best method, and the
points of the young shoots may be turned downwards, where it can be done without pro--
ducing fracture, or inducing them to throw out shoots by the strain requisite for this
purpose.

3152. Stirring tlie soil, &c. After the gathering of the fruit, the borders are to be
forked up and manured, if necessary, as in the cherry-house, and in summer weeded and
refreshed.

3153. The time of beginning to Jbrce is generally the same as that for the cherry or
peach house : December, January, or February. Sabine, in the case above referred
to, where the trees are planted against tlie back wall, says, " the time of beginning to
force is in the middle of April ; the first crop of figs ripens in June, and the second crop
in August." (Hort. Trails, iii. 410.)

3154. Temperature. " From the leafing time," Abercrombie observes, " till the
ripening of the fruit, the fig requires a temperature between that scale which is proper
for the peach, and that for the cherry." M'Phail says, " They require a greater degree
of heat than the cherry." When bringing forward their fruit, they will bear a good
strong heat, if care be taken to keep a free circulation of air moving out of and into the
house. (G. Rem. 147.)

3155. Water. Fig-trees in a house, and especially those in pots, require abundance of
water in the stages suitable for watering fruit-trees. (Abercrombie.) M'Phail says,
" The border in which fig-trees grow, should be kept suflSciently watered, till May, when
watering over the leaves may be commenced."

3156. Air. When the figs are planted under glass, Miller observes, « The heat
should not be too great, nor the glasses or other covering kept too close, but at all times,
when the weather is favorable, a good share of free air should be admitted. In tliis
respect the fig does not greatly differ from the vine, though it will thrive with less air
than any other fruit-tree." (Diet, in loco.) In summer, as tlie fruit advances, water
even in that part of the border wliich is without the house. Refrain from watering over
the leaves and fruit, when the latter begin to ripen. (G. Rem. 192.)

3157. Insects. Very much pains, Nicol observes, should be taken to suppress the red
spider on the foliage of figs ; whether by the engine, syringe, or by frequently brushing with
a painter's sash-tool, tlie under sides of the leaves, " in order to destroy liis webs, which
are there thickly woven." Few other insects annoy the fig, except sometimes the coccus

Oo 4

.(568 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

or scaly insect ; which is destroyed by washing with soap-suds and sulphur ; or the
liquor recommended for destroying that insect on pines. (Aa/. 319.)

3158. Gathering the fruit. Figs begun to be forced in January, Nicol states, will be
ripe about the end of June and July. " If fig-trees in a forcing-house," Miller ob-
serves, « are properly managed, the first crop of fruit will be greater than upon those
which are exposed to the open air, and will ripen six weeks or two raonths earlier, and a
plentiful second crop may also be obtained, which will ripen early in September." To
preserve the bloom, gather with tlie peach-gatherer. They may be preserved a short
time on the trees, by covering with mats from the sun, and admitting abundance of air
among the branches. This alludes to what is called the second crop, or that produced
from the wood of the current year. Sometimes a few of the first crop ripen, but in
general it is not to be relied on. Alton, Sir Joseph Banks informs us {Hort. Trans, i.
253.), " has for several years practised the forcing of figs in the royal gardens of Kew,
with great success, and his chief dependence is on the second crop."

3159. Exposure of the wood. After the fruit is gathered, the glasses may be removed,
till winter sets in, when they must either be put on, or the trees covered with mats or
straw, to protect them from the frost.

3160. Forcing the fig in pots. M'Phail says, figs may be ripened at an early season,
by planting them in pots, and setting them into a hot-house or forcing-house. " The
plants should be low and bushy, so that they may stand on the curb of the tan-bed, or
they may be plunged in a gentle tan-heat, or in a bed of leaves of trees. The best way
to propagate plants for this purpose is to take layers or slips which have good roots : plant
them in pots in good earth, one plant in each pot, and plunge them in a bed of tan or of
leaves of trees, in which is a very gentle heat : a brick bed will answer the purpose very
well ; or they will do in the forcing-house, if there be room for them. Let them be put
into the house in the latter end of February or beginning of March, and keep them suffi-
ciently watered. When they are two years old, they will be able to bear fruit ; the pots
in that time having become full of roots. In the month of November or December, turn
the plants out of the pots, and with a sharp knife pare off the outside of the ball, by which
the plant will be divested of its roots matted against the inside of the pot : then place
them into larger pots, filling up the vacancy round the balls with strong loamy earth.
During the winter, let them be kept in the green-house, or in a glazed pit of a like tem-
perature, till the month of February ; then set them into the forcing-house, where it is
intended they shall ripen their fi-uit. In this manner let them be treated every year,
which will be a means of preventing the fruit from falling off before it come to matu-
rity." (G. Rem.) Nicol says, fig-trees kept in pots or tubs, may be treated very much
as directed for cherries. Two dozen, or thirty plants, would be a good stock for that
purpose. The first division might be placed in a cherry or peach-house about the middle
or latter end of January, (^ffalendar, 319.)

3161. Culture of the fig-tree in the stove. The fig formed one of the dJflTerent species
of trees which Knight subjected to a very high temperature during bright weather, and a
comparatively low temperature during the night. (Hart. Trans, iii. 459. 1212.)

3162. The large white fig-tree succeeded perfectly, " just ripening its spring figs, (those which usually
ripen in the open air in this country), and afterwards its summer figs. The trees then produced new
leaves and branches ; and the fruit, which would have appeared in the next spring, ripened in high per-
fection in September. Subsequently also, a few of those, which, in the ordinary course of the growth of
the tree, would have appeared as the summer crop of next year, have ripened, and these, though inferior
to those of the preceding crops, :have not been without merit." At the time this communication was
made, th\s fourth crop was only beginning to ripen, and was thought of inferior quality : but Knight
informs us, in a subsequent communication (read July IS. 1820), that " the subsequent portion of it
proved most excellent ; and some figs which were gathered upon Christmas-day, were thought by myself,
and a friend who was with me, much the best we had ever tasted. The same plants have since ripened
four more crops, being eight within twelve months ; and upon a ringed branch of one year old, and about
an inch in diameter, a ninth crop, consisting of sixty figs, will ripen within the next month. I possess only
two plants, each growing in a pot, which contains something less than fourteen square inches of mould,
and occupying together a space equal to about sixty-four square feet of the back wall of my pine-stove :
from which space the number of figs that have been gathered within twelve months has been little, if any,
less than 300 : and 1 see every prospect of a succession of crops till winter. I therefore send the following
account of the mode of culture, which has been employed, in the hope that it may prove useful to those
who are sufiSciently admirers of the fig, to think it deserving a place in the forcing-house. My trees
grow, as I have stated in the communication to which I have above alluded, in exceedingly rich mould,
and are most abundantly supplied with water, which holds much manure in solution. They consequently
shoot with great vigor, notwithstanding the small space to which their roots are confined; and they re-
quire some attention to restrain them within the limits assigned to them ; but I have found the following
mode of treatment perfectly efficient and successful. Whenever a branch appears to be extending with
too much luxuriance, its point, at the tenth or twelfth leaf, is pressed between the finger and thumb,
without letting the nails come in contact with the bark, till the soft succulent substance is felt to yield to
the pressure. Such branch, in consequence, ceases subsequently to elongate ; and the sap is repulsed to bo
expended where it is more wanted. A fruit ripens at the base of each leaf, and during the period in
which the fruit is ripening, one or more of the lateral buds shoots, and is subsequently subjected to the
same treatment, with the same result. When I have suffered such shoots to extend freely to their natural
length, I have found that a small part of them only became productive, either in the same, or the ensuing
season, though I have seen that their buds obviously contained blossoms. I made several experiments
to obtain fruit in the following spring from other parts of such branches, which were not successful :
but 1 ultimately found that bending these branches, as far as could be done without danger of breaking
them, rendered them extremely fruitful ; and in the present spring, thirteen figs ripened jHirfcctly upon a

Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 569

branch of this kind, within the space of ten inches. In training, the ends of all the shoots have been
made, as far as practicable, to point downwards." {Hort. Trans, iv. 202.)

3163. For various opinions and practices^n pruning and training the fig in the open
air, which may also deserve attention in the forcing department, see the Horticidtural
Catalogue.

Sect. VI. Of the Culture and Forcing of the Cucumber.

3164. To produce cucumbers at an earli/ season^ is an object of emulation with every
gardener ; and there is scarcely any person, not even the humblest tradesman, as M'Phail
observes, wlio has not his cucumber-bed in his garden. We shall follow our usual plan,
and lay before the reader a systematic view of the practices of the most approved gar-
deners in the culture of this plant. Cucumbers are forced in hot-beds, pits, and hot-
houses ; and the heat of fire, and steam, and dung, have been applied to their culture ;
but dung, as the author last quoted observes, is the only thing yet found out, by the heat
of which the cucumber may be advantageously cultivated.

3165. Soil. Cucumbers, like every other plant, will grow in any soil, though not with
the same degree of vigor, provided they be supplied witli a sufficiency of heat, light,
water, and air.

3166. Abercrombie, for early forcing, recommends a mould or compost of the following materials : —
*' One third of rich top-spit earth, from an upland pasture, one half of vegetable mould, and one sixth
of well decomposed horse-dung, with a small quantity of sand."

3167. M'Phail used vegetable mould, made from a mixture (accidental) of the leaves of " elm, lime,
beech, sycamore, horse and sweet chestnut, spruce and Scotch fir, walnut, laurel, oak, evergreen oak,
ash, &c." and among them withered grass, and weeds of various sorts. " This vegetable mould," he
says, " without a mixture of any thing besides, is what I used for growing cucumbers in, and, by ex-
perience, I found it preferable to any other moulds, earths, or composts whatever, either in my new
method of a brick bed, or in the old method of a bed made of hot dung."

3168. Nicol says, soil thus composed will produce cucumbers in great abundance : " Three foxulhs light,
rich, black earth from a pasture, an eighth part vegetable mould of decayed tree leaves, and an eighth
part rotten cow-dung." (A'a/. p. 393.)

3169. AUon gives the following as the compost used in the Kew-garden : " Of light loam, a few
months from the common, one third part ; the best rotten dung, one third part ; leaf-mould and heath-
earth, of equal parts, making together one third part : the whole well mixed for use." {Hort. Trans.
vol.ii. p. 282.)

3170. Mills (Horf. Trans. voL iiL p. 148.) states, ttiat the soil he uses " is half bog or black mould,
got from a dry heathy common, and half leaf-mould ; after lying twelve months in a heap, the compost
is fit for use."

3171. Time of beginning to force. Abercrombie says, " Managers who have to pro-
vide against demands for early cucumbers, must raise the seedlings from twelve to ten
weeks before the fruit will be required, according to the length of the days in the interval.
In proportion as tlie entire course embraces a greater part of midwinter, the liability of
failure from obstacles in the weather will be greater. The last fortnight in January, or
first week of February, is a good time for beginning to force the most early crop. In
the subsequent months, both main and secondary crops may be started as required ; and
will come forward more freely. To have a constant succession, seedlings should be
originated twice a-month. As the course of forcing more coincides witli the natural
growing season, the length of it will be reduced to eight, seven, or six weeks."

3172. M'Pfiail says, " Those who are desirous of having cucumbers early, had best sow the seeds about
the 20th of October ; they may be sown at any time of the year, but the spring and autumn are the best
seasons. Cucumber-plants may be made to bear fruit plentifully from about the middle of March till the
middle of September ; but from the middle of September till the middle of March their produce will be
but scanty. Cucumber-plants raised from seed in October, will begin to produce fruit in February or
March, and will continue to bear till the following month of October, provided they be kept in frames,
and get plenty of heat and water."

3173. Nicol recommends the middle of January. He says, " Some begin sooner, but it is striving hard
against the stream to little purpose. If the dmig be prepared, and the l)ed be got ready, so as to sow about
the 1st of February, the success will often be greater than by sowing a month earlier ; the grow^th of the
plants being frequently checked by bad weather, and sometimes they are entirely lost."

3174. Alton, in the paper above quoted, sowed on the 12th and 20th of August, with a view to cultivate
in stoves ; a regular supjjly of this vegetable being annually required for the royal tables.

3175. Mills sows on the 14th of October.

3176. Sorts. Abercrombie recommends " the short prickly for very early fruit ; and
the long prickly kinds for the chief early and main summer crops." M'Phail prefers
" the green cucumber with black prickles, as best for forcing. "When fit for table, it runs
from six to nine inches long, and, when ripe, runs to about eighteen or twenty inches
long." Nicol says, " Every gardener has his favorite sort of cucumber, and it is no
easy matter to advise. He names, as early sorts generally known, the early short
prickly as the earliest ; the early smooth green, a long fruit ; the long green prickly,
and the white prickly, a white fruit." Alton and Mills do not mention the varieties
they used.

3177. Choice of seed. " It is advisable," Abercrombie observes, « to have that from
two at least to four years old, in preference to newer seed, which is mere apt to run
luxuriantly in vine, and the plants from it do not show fruit so soon, nor so abundantly
as those from seed of a greater age. But when seed has been kept more tlian four
years, it is sometimes found to be too much weakened."

570 ^ PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Pakt III.

3178. Forming the seed-bed. " A one-light frame," Abercrombie says, "will be large
enough for ordinary puqioses. Choose a dry sheltered part of the melon-ground, and
form a bed for a one-light frame. When high winds are suffered to blow against a
cucumber-bed, they have a very powerful effect on it ; for, in that case, the heat in a
short time will not only be greatly abated, but also forced and driven into the corners
of the frames, and, consequently, some parts thereof are rendered too cold, whilst other
parts are made too warm ; and, of course, tlie plants are all equally endangered, retarded
in their growth, and perhaps some, if not all of them, totally destroyed. Therefore,
when a cucumber-bed is about to be built, the first object of consideration should be, to
have it, as well as possible, sheltered from the high winds and boisterous stormy weather.
Having put on the frame, and waited till the bed is fit for moulding, lay in five or six
inches depth of the proper earth or compost."

3179. M'Phail makes up a bed of good dung, four feet high, or a one-light boX.

3180. Nicol builds a bed of dung, carefully fermented, to the height of five feet at back, and four at
front, keeping it a foot larger all round than a one-light frame, or about five or six feet by three or
three and a half. He then covers with turf; and on that lays fine sand, as free from earth as possible,
to the depth of about six inches ; laying it in a sloping manner, corresponding with the glass, and to
within six inches of it ; over which he lays an inch or two of dry light earth.

3181. Alton and Mills also prepare a bed for a one-light box ; the latter forms it on a stratum of wood
one foot high for drainage, and eight inches higher in the middle than at the sides, " as the sides are liable,
from the weight of the frame, to settle faster than the middle," which causes the hills of earth to crack i
by which, in fruiting-beds more especially, the roots of the plants are greatly injured.

3182. Sowing. Abercrombie sows some seeds in the layer of the earth, which he
spreads over the bed, putting them in half an inch deep. He also sows some seeds in
two, three, or more small pots of the same kind of earth, which may be plunged a little
into that of the bed.

3183. M'Phail sows in a pot filled with rich earth, covers about two inches thick, and sets the pots on the
surface of the naked dung on the bed.

3184. Mco^ sows immediately after the bed is made, without waiting till the heat arise, which, he says,
is losing time, and the opportunity of bringing on vegetation by degrees as the heat rises. He sows in a
broad pan four inches deep, or in small pots four or five inches diameter, and as much in depth. These
he fills with " fine light earth," or vegetable mould, and covers the seeds two inches. He plunges these
to the brim in the back part of the bed (which it will be recollected contains a stratum of earth six inches
thick over one of sand, and another of turf), puts on the light, and lets the frame be matted at night in
the ordinary way.

3185. Raising plants from cuttings. M'Phail says, " Instead of raising cucumber-
plants from seed, they may be raised from cuttings, and thus kept on from year to year in
the following manner : " the method of striking them is this ; take a shoot which is just
ready for stopping, cut it off just below the joint behind the joint before which the shoot
should have been stopped, then cut smooth the lower end of the shoot or cutting, and
stick it into fine leaf or other rich mould about an inch deep, and give it plenty of heat,
and shade it from the rays of the sun till it be fairly struck. By this method, as well as
by tliat of laying, cucumber-plants may readily be propagated."

3186. Meams, gardener at Shobden Court, near Leominster, propagates his cucumber-plants for a win-
ter crop in this way, and " finds, that the plants raised from cuttings are less succulent, and therefore do not
so readily damp ofF, or suffer from the low temperature to which they are liable to be exposed in severe
weather ; that they come into bearing immediately as they have formed roots of sufficient strength to
support their fruit, and do not run so much to barren vine as seedlings are apt to do." He takes the
cuttings from the tops of the bearing shoots, and plants them in pots nine inches deep ; half filled with
mould. He then waters them, covers the tops of the pots with flat pieces of glass, and plunges them into
a gentle bottom heat. " The sides of the pot act as a sufficient shade for the cuttings during the time
they are striking, and the flat glass, in this and in similar operations, answers all the purposes of bell-glasses.
The cuttings form roots, and are ready to pot off in less than a fortnight." (Hort. Trans, iv. 411.)

3187. Temperature of the seed-bed. Abercrombie says, " The minimum heat for the
cucumber is 58 degrees at the coldest time of night ; in the day-time 65 degrees is suffi-
cient for the maximum ; because air admitted when the sun has great influence, will do
more good than a higher heat."

3188. WPhail says, " If it were possible to keep the heat in the frames alwavs to 80 degrees, with the con-
currence of proper air and moisture, I am of opinion that that would be a suiiicient heat for the production
of the cucumber."

3189. Nicol keeps the air in the bed to about 65 degrees in the night, allowing a few degrees of a rise in
sunshine.

3190. Alton rears and fruits his plants in a stove, and therefore we shall take no farther notice of his prac-
tice at present.

. 3191. Mills says, " The heat I wish to have in the seed-frame is from 65 to 15 degrees."

3192. Treatment till removed to the fruiting-bed. " After sowing, Abercrombie con-
tinues the glasses on the frame ; giving occasional vent above for the steam to evaporate,
that the bed may keep a moderate heat, and not become too violent. The plants will
be up in a few days, when it will be proper to admit air daily, but more guardedly, at
the upper ends of the lights, which may be raised from half an inch to an inch or two,
according to the ternperature of the weather, that the plants may not draw up weak, or
be injured by the steam. In frosty weather, hang part of the mat over the aperture.
When the plants are a little advanced, with the seed-leaves about half an inch broad,
take tbem up, and prick some in small pots of light earth, previously warmed by the

Book I. CULTURE OP THE CUCUMBER. 571

heat of the bed. Put three plants in each pot, and insert them a little slopingly, quite
to the seed-leaves. Plunge the pots into tlie earth ; and you may prick some plants also
into the earth of the bed. Give a very little water just to the roots : the water should be
previously warmed to the temperature of the bed. Draw on the glasses ; but admit air
daily, to promote the growth of the plants, as well as to give vent to the steam rising in
the bed, by tilting the lights behind, from half an inch to an inch or two high, in projwr-
tion to the heat of the bed and temperature of the weather. Cover the glasses every
night with garden-mats, and remove them timely in the morning. Give twice a week,
once in two days, or daily, according to the season, a very light watering. Keep up a
moderate lively heat in the bed, by requisite linings of hot dung to the sides."

3193. WPhaU, having sown and placed the pots on the naked bed, says, the plants will come up in a few
days J and when they have fully expanded their two seed-leaves, transplant them into small pots, three
plants in each pot ; set them on the surface of the dung in the bed, and let a little air be left at the light
day and night, to let the steam pass off freely. " When the seedling plants have one or two joints, stop
them, after which they generally put forth two shoots, each of which let run till they have made one or
two clear joints, and then stop them ; and afterwards continue throughout the season to stop the plants at
every joint."

319*. Atco/ directs to guard the seeds from mice, which generally swarm about hot-beds, by laying a
pane of glass over the pot or pan till they have come up; and afterwards, at night, by covering with a pot
of equal size, till the seed-leaves have expanded, ^and the husks have dropped : for, until then, the plants
are liable to be destroyed. The cover, however,* should always be removed by sunrise, and replaced in
the evening. It is at night these vermin generally commit their depredations. ' No air need be admitted
till the heat begin to rise, and steam begin to appear ; but after that, the light should be tilted a little
every day, in whatever state the weather may be, until the plants break ground- Air must then be ad-
mitted with more care ; and, if frosty or very chill, the end of a mat should be hung over the opening,
that the air may sift through it, and not immediately strike the plants. A little aired water may be given
ouce a-day, from the time the seeds begin to chip ; and if a very strong heat rise, the pots should be raised
a little, to prevent the roots from being injured. They should be frequently examined on this account,
and if the heat be violent, should be set loosely in the sand, or be placed entirely on the surface. The air of
the bed should be kept to about 65 degrees in the night ; allowing a few degrees of a rise in sunshine If
the weather be severe, therefore, the mats must be doubled or tripled ; and if mild, perhaps a single one
may suffice. But, unless in very bad weather, they should ;al ways be removed by sunrise, in order to
admit all the sun and light possible to the plan^, which is very essential to their welfare.

3195. Pricking out. When the plants are about an inch and a half high, they are then fit to be pricked
out into nursing-pots. These pots should be about three and a half or four inches diameter at top, and as
much in depth. The mould to be used should be the same as that the seeds were sown in, and should be
laid in the frame a few hours previous to potting, in order to bring it to a proper degree of warmth, that
the tender fibrils be not chilled by it. Let the pots be filled about one half with the earth ; turn the
plants carefully out of the seed-pot; place three in each against the side of the pot, and so as that their
leaves may be just above its margin ; then cover the roots with the mould, rubbing it fine between the
fingers, and filling the pots nearly to the brim. Work over the sand in the frame to its full depth ;
plunge the pots to within an inch of their rims ; and cover the whole surface with a little dry earth as at
first, making it level with the tops of the pots. Then give a little aired water, in order to settle the earth
to the roots of the plants.

3196. Second sowing. As these tender seedlings, at this early period, are liable to many accidents,
it will be proper to sow a little more seeds of the same kinds at this time, in order to provide a supply of
plants. If they should not be wanted, the trouble is not much ; and they may be given to a neighbor, or
be thrown away.

3197. Routine culture. Let air be admitted to them as freely as the state of th? weather will allow ; and
supply them moderately with water once in two or three days. Examine the pots frequently, if the heat
be violent, lest the roots be scorched ; setting them loosely, or pulling them up a little in that case ; or, if
thought necessarj-, placing them entirely on the surface. If much steam abound in the bed at this time,
it may be proper to leave the light tilted half an inch in the night ; observing to hang the lap of a single
mat two or three inches over the tilt. But if the bed was carefully turfed over, as directed at making up,
this will seldom be necessary ; never but in thick hazy weather. Mat up carefully at night ; but make a
point of admitting all the sun and light possible to the plants ; therefore uncover always by sunrise, and
frequently wash or wipe the glasses clean, outside and inside, as they are often clogged by a mixture of
steam and dust. Also, occasionally stir the surface of the sand or earth in the frame with the point of a
stick, in order to extirpate vapor that hovers on the surface, and so purify the internal air of the bed. If
the heat begin to decrease, and particularly if the weather be severe, it may be necessary to line one or
more sides of the bed, that the plants may receive no check in their growth. If it be a one-light box,
both back and front may be lined at the same time ; and, if necessary, in ten or twelve days, the two sides j
and if much steam arise from the linings after they come into heat, be careful, in matting at night, to
tuck up the edges of the mat, lest it be thrown into the bed.

3198. Mills, as soon as the seed-leaves of the plants are fully expanded, transplants them singly into pots
of the 48th size, gives a little water and air night and day. . His temperature for seedlings, as already stated,
is ft'om 65.to 75 degrees. With this heat, and water, as the earth in the pots becomes drj-, and a little air
night and day, so as to keep the internal air in the frame sweet, and fluctuating between the degrees
of heat above mentioned, the plants will be fit for finally transplanting out in one month, that is, by
the 14th of November, into the fruiting-frames. {Hoii. Trans, vol iiL)

3199. Forming the fruiting-bed. Abercrombie directs, "When the plants are ad-
vanced in some tolerable stocky growth, that is, when the first rough leaves are two
or tlu-ee inches broad, or when the plants have been raised about five weeks, transplant
them to a larger hot-bed, with a two-light or three-light frame, sometimes called the
ridging-out bed." Form the bed on general principles, of superficial extent according
to the frame it is to support, leaving from four to six inches all round, and fixing the
height according to the season. Thus, in January, Abercrombie directs the bed to be
" three feet nine inches high in front ; four feet six inches at the back ; and six inches
larger than the frame all round : in February, three feet three inches high at the front ;
four feet at the back ; and four inches to spare round the frame : in March, three feet
high in front ; three feet six inches at back ; and four inches beyond the frame every
way. Put on the frame and glasses presently after the body of dung is built up, to
defend it from the weather. At the same time raise the glasses a little at the uppci'

572 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

end, in order both to draw up the heat sooner, and to give vent to the rising steam, until
the bed is reduced to a regular temperature. In connection with the thermometer, the
cultivator may be assisted to form a judgment of this, by trying-sticks^ that is, two or
more sharp-pointed smooth sticks, thrust down in different parts of the bed ; which at
intervals may be drawn up, and felt by a quick grasp of the hand. The smell of the
vapor is also a criterion : it should not be strong and fetid, but mild and sweet. While
taking care that the heat is not so intense as to burn the mould when applied as below,
let it not be suffered to evaporate unnecessarily by delay. If the temperature appear
not sufficiently high, take off the frame, and add another course of dung."

3200. iPPhail, when he fruits the cucumber on dung-beds, begins to make preparations for the fruiting,
bed, about three weeks before the plants are ready to be planted out for good. The dung collected, after
being well worked, is " made up into a bed of about four or five feet high, and the frames and
lights set upon it. It is afterwards suflfered to stand for a few days to settle, and until its violent lieat be
somewhat abated ; and when it is thought to be in a fit state for the plants to grow in, its surface is made
level, and a hill of mould laid in just under the middle of each light, and when the mould gets warm, the
plants are ridged out in it. After this, if the bed has become perfectly sweet, and there be heat enough
in it, and the weather prove fine, the plants will grow finely."

3201. Nicol builds his fruiting-bed about four feet and a half high at back, and three feet and a half in
front, keeping it fully a foot looger than the frame all round. He turfs it, and lays on sand as in forming
the seed-bed, if the dung has not been well fermented " But otherwise, placing a thick round turf, a yard
over, in the middle of each light, so as that its centre may be exactly under the plants, will generally be
found sufficiently safe." The frames are now put on j and the beds matted up at night to make the heat
rise the sooner.

3202. Mills says, " Well preparing the dung, is of the greatest importance in forcing the cucumber,
and if not done before it is made into a bed, it cannot be done after, as it requires turning and watering
to cause it to ferment freely and sweetly ; fresh dung from the stable will require at least six weeks' pre-
paration before it will be fit to receive the plants. A month before it is made into a bed, it should be laid
into a heap, turned three times, and well shaken to pieces with a fork, and the outsides of the heap
turned into the middle, and the middle to the outsides, that the whole may have a regular fermentation ;
and if any appear dry, it should be made wet, keeping it always between the two extremes of wet and
dry. A dry spot of ground should be chosen to prepare the dung on, that the water may drain away
from the bottom of the heap. The dung having been a month in heap, I make the bed as follows : I form
a stratum one foot high, of wood of any kind, but if large the better (old roots of trees, or any other of
little value will do) ; this is to drain the water from the bottom of the bed ; for, after a month's prepar-
ation, with every care, it will frequently heat itself dry, and require water in large quantities, which, if
not allowed to pass off freely, will cause an unwholesome steam to rise, in which the cucumber-plant will
not grow freely : on this bottom of wood I make the bed, four feet high, with dung, gently beating it down
with a fork : this is done about the 1st of November, and by the month of February the four feet of dung
will not be more than two feet thick, which, with the foot of wood at the bottom, will make the bed three
feet high ; this I consider a good height, for if lower, it cannot be so well heated by linings, which is the
only method of warming it in the months of February and March, as by that time the first heat of the
bed will have quite declined. Having made the bed, I put on the frames and lights, which I shut close
till the heat rises. I then give air night and day, sufficient to allow the steam to pass off, and once in two
days I fork the surface over, about nine inches deep, to sweeten it, and if, in the operation, I find any
part dry, I carefully wet it. The bed being quite sweet, I prepare it for the mould, by making tlie middle
about eight inches lower than the sides, as the sides are liable, from the weight of the frames, to settle
faster than the middle, which often causes the hills of earth to crack, by which the roots of the plants are
greatly injured." (Hort. Trans, vol. iii. p. 147.)

3203. Moulding. " As soon," Abercrombie observes, " as you deem the bed to have
a lively, safe, well tempered heat, which may be in a week or ten days after building,
proceed to mould it. Earth the middle of each light, laying the mould so as to form a
little hill, from six to ten inches in height, according as seed is to be sown, or plants
from the seed-bed inserted. Then earth over the intervals between the hills and the
sides of the frame only, from two to four inches, as a temporary measure, until the heat
is ascertained to be within safe limit. After the whole bed has been some time covered,
examine the mould : if no traces of a burning effect appear, discoverable by the mould
turning of a whitish color and caking, it will be fit to receive the plants. But if the
earth appears burnt, such part should be replaced by fresh, and vacuities made to give
vent to the steam, by drawing away part of the hills from the centre. When the bed is
in fit order, level the mould to six inches deep, to receive seeds ; but to receive plants
in pots, tlie hills of earth should be kept ten inches deep or more. If tliere be any
motive for haste while an excess of heat is to be suspected, the danger from burning
may be obviated by leaving vacancies in the top mould ; by placing patches of fresh cow-
dung or decayed bark to receive the pots of seeds or plants ; and by boring holes in the
bed with a round pole sharpened at the end, which holes should be filled up with hay
or dung when the heat is sufficiently reduced. Some persons place a layer of turf with
the sward downwards between the dung and the mould : but this, if ever expedient, is
only in late forcing ; for in winter the full effect of a sweet well tempered heat is wanted,
much of which, by being confined at top, may be forced out at the sides."

3204. M'Phail, in moulding common hot-beds, also raises hills in the centre of each light in the usual
way. {Gard. Remem. p. 51.)

3m Nicol gathers up from the surface of the beds a sufficient quantity of earth to raise hills whereon
to plant ; one exactly in the middle of each light, about a foot broad at top, and to within six inches of
,^ ? o^; s ^^ *^^ frames be of a proper depth, they should be twelve or fifteen inches higli above the turf.
\Kal. Joo.)

3206. Mills puts under the centre of each light one solid foot of earth, the top of which is then within
ElaM."*'^ * ^^^* ^"** ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ plants, when planted in it, will bo within three inches of the

CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 573

3207. Planting out. Abercrombie, when the temperature is ascertained to be right,
brings the plants in their pots ; turns over the hills of mould, forming them again pro-
perly, and then proceeds to planting. " Turn those in pots clean out, one pot at a time,
with the ball of earth whole about the roots ; and thus insert one patch of three plants
which have grown together, with the ball of earth entire, into the middle of each hill,
earthing them neatly round the stems. Also any not in pots, having been pricked into
the earth of the bed, if required for planting, may be taken up with a small ball of earth,
and planted similarly. With water warmed to the air of the bed, give a very light water-
ing about the roots, and shut down the glasses for the present, or till next morning.
Shade the plants a little from the mid-day sun a few days, till they have taken root in
the hills, and cover the glasses every evening with large mats, which should be taken off
in the morning."

3208. Nicol, before planting, if the beds have settled anywise unequally, rectifies and sets level the
ames, by placing boards, slates, or bricks, under the low comers, so as to make them correct He
en makes up the outsides of the bed with dung, a few inches higher than the bottoms of the frame;
over which he lays some dry litter, or fern fronds, and planks at top to walk on. He then takes the pots
of plants, each of which is supposed to have got two or three rough leaves, and making a hole in
each full large enough to receive the balls, turns them out of the pots as entire as possible, placing them
level with the surface of the hill, fitting the earth round their sides, and settling all with a little water.
In the case of planting older plants than the above, at a farther advanced period of the season, or such
as have quite filled their pots with roots, the balls may be reduced a little, and the fibres should be singled
out, if anywise matted. But the above plants are supposed to have barely filled the pots with roots, and
then the balls should be kept entire, that they may not receive a check in the transplanting.

3209. Temperature for fruiting plants. Abercrombie's minimum is fifty-five degrees,
and maximum in the day-time sixty-five degrees, the same as for the seed-bed.

3210. ^PPhail says, " It appears, that during the winter and spring months, the medium heat of the
air in the frames should be seventy-five degrees, and the medium heat of the mould eighty degrees. But
when the sun shines, the heat of the air in the frames is often raised to a much higher degree ;
so that reckoning this heat, the medium for that of the air of the frames may be eighty degrees."
{Gard. Remerti. p. 59.)

3211. Nicol's medium heat for cucumbers is sixty degrees ; in sunshine he admits as much air as will
keep down the thermometer to sixty-fiva {KaJen'd. p. 366.)

3212. Mills, in the fruiting-frames, wishes " to have at all times from seventy to eighty degrees of heat,
which I regulariy keep up by applying linings of hot dung, prepared one month previously, in the same
manner as that for the beds. For the first month I cover the glass with a single mat only ; and as the
nights become cold, I increase the covering, using hay, which I put on the glass, and cover that with a
single mat. I regulate the heat at night by the warmth of the glass under the hay, for when the glass is
warm, which should be in two hours after covering up, a little air is required. \Vhen the glass and hay
covering are warm, which is easily known by putting the hand under the hay on the glass light, the
internal heat of the bed will be about seventy-eight degrees, in which degree of heat, the cucumbers
shown to the society have grown in length, in sixteen hours, one inch and a quarter. I give a litlie water
round the insides of the frame as often as I find them dry, which causes a fine steam to rise, and I think
it better than watering the mould, for if this latter practice is often repeated in winter, when the sun's
power is insufficient to absorb the moisture, and the glasses can be but little open, to allow the damp to
pass off, the earth, in a few weeks, will lose its vigor, and the roots of the plants wiU perish. Great care
should also be taken, at this season, not to injure the roots by too much heat, which is not less detrimental
than too much moisture ; they can only be secured by keeping up a regular warmth, just sufficient to
expel the damp which arises in the night from the fermenting dung."

3213. Linings. The requisite degree of heat Abercrombie is careful to support in
the bed, when declining, " by timely linings of hot fresh dung, which may be applied to
the sides, fifteen or eighteen inches in width, and as high as the dung of the bed.
Generally line the back part first, and the otlier in a week, or from ten days to a fort-
night after, as may seem necessary by the degree of heat in the bed. Sometimes, if the
heat is fallen abruptly below the minimum degree, it may be proper to line both sides
moderately, at once, to recover the temperature sooner and with better effect : but be
particularly careful never to over-line, which would cause a too violently renewed heat
and steam in the bed. The dung for linings must be fermented, as in first building a
bed."

3214. Nkol, when the heat decreases, cuts away the old dung perpendicularly by the frame, and adds
new linings (generally beginning with the back first), two feet broad, to the height of six inches above the
bottom of the frame. As it will sink considerably in heating, he adds to it in a few days.

3215. Mills applies linings of hot dung prepared a month previously.

3216. Covering. This must be nightly performed till June ; proportioning the warmth
of the cover to the heat of the air in the bed, and that of the external air. Mats are laid
next the glass ; on these a layer of hay, and over this mats, made fast by boards, but
not hanging over the linings, is the usual mode, early in the season. M'Phail says,
" My method of covering up was as follows : in the first place, I laid clean single mats
on the lights, in length and breadth, just or nearly to cover the sashes, taking care not
to suffer any part of the mats to hang over the sashes on or above the linings, for that
would be the means of drawing the steam into the frames in the night-time. On these
mats was spread equally a covering of soft hay, and on the hay was laid another
covering of single mats, upon which were laid two, and sometimes three or four, rows
of boards, to prevent the covering from being blown off by the winds. The mats laid on
next to the glass are merely to keep the seeds and dust which may happen to be in the
hay from getting into the frames among the plants. If the bed be high in covering up.

574 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Pari III.

steps or short ladders musi be used by those whose office it is to cover and uncover ;
and great care must be taken not to break or injure the glass."

3217. Air. Abercrombie directs to "admit air every day, when the weather is mode-
rate, without much wind ; and always more freely in sunny days, than when cloudy and
cold, or frosty. Open the lights behind, only a little at first, sooner or later in the day,
according to the temperature of the season ; increasing the opening, from about half an
inch, to one, two, or three inches, or very little more ; (decrease the opening occasionally,
if the weather, in the early part of the season, changes very cold ;) and shut closer in
the same gradual order towards afternoon ; generally shutting close in the evening,
unless, in the early state of the bed, a considerable heat and steam continue. In this
case, you may occasionally leave open about half an inch, hanging the end of a mat
before each opening."

3218. M'Phail says, " A cucumber-plant delights to grow in a strong heat, and in sweet wholesome air;
but if the air in which it grows be contaminated, unhealthy, or impure, the plant will not continue long
in a healthy flourishing condition. Whatever is disagreeable to the smell becomes in time hurtful to the
cucumber-plant ; therefore, whoever would wish to know if the air in a cucumber-frame be of a healthy
nature for the plants should smell to it." He adds, in giving and taking away the air, do it gradually,
that is, by little and little at a time, which, without doubt, is the best way ; for sudden changes are always
attended with unpleasant consequences. A due proportion and continual supply of fresh air is at all
times necessary, and more or less is required according to the heat of the linings, the temperature of the
weather, and the thickness of the coverings put on a^ nights. {Gard. Bern. p. 42.)

3219. Nicol admits air regularly in as large portions as the state of the weather will allow; being careful
to let off" rank steam, if it abound, by leaving a tilt (wodge), even in the night.

3230. Mi/Is says, " My usual times of giving fresh air to the frames, and permitting the foul to escape,
in the winter months (that is, from the middle of November to the middle of February), is as follows :
between eight and nine in the morning, I raise the lights, and let the confined air pass ott', shutting them
again ; about ten I give a little air ; at eleven more ; at one I lower the lights a little, and between three
and four I close them entirely. About two hours after the covering of hay has been put on, I give a little
air for the night. Should the weather be changeable, the lights must be raised or lowered more or less,
as circumstances may require ; but some air about the times of the day above mentioned is absolutely
necessary to keep the plants in a free-growing state."

3221. IVater. Give necessary waterings, with water warmed to the air of the bed,
mostly in the forenoon of a mild day, in early forcing ; and in a morning or afternoon,
in the advanced season of hot sunny weather. (^Abercrombie.)

3222. M'Phail says, "The quantity of water requisite to be given to the plants depends upon the heat of
the bed, the strength and age of the plants, and also on the temperature of the weather. When the
weather is cold, wet, or gloomy, and the air moist, they require less water than when the weather is clear,
and the air more dry. If too much water be given, or if water be given too often, it will hinder the fruit
from setting and smelling kindly ; and if too little water be given, the plants wiU grow weak, and the
fruit hollow. I seldom watered the plants with water warmer than 85 degrees, nor colder than 65 ;
although, in general, I tried by the thermometer the warmth of the water I used, yet it is not necessary so
to do. A good way to know if the water be of a proper temperature is to take a mouthful of it, and when it
feels neither hot nor cold, then it is in a fit state for accelerating the growth of the plants, or for making
them grow fast. I made it a constant rule never to water the plants but with clean sweet water; and if
the water be clean and sweet, I am of opinion it makes little or no difference whether it be pump- water,
spring-water, rain-water, or river- water. However, it is a good quality in water to bear soap, and make a
lather therewith, which rain and river waters readily do ; but the pump and spring waters are found too
hard to do it ; yet this may easily be remedied in them, by letting them stand a few days in the open air
and sun's rays. With regard to the time of the day in which the watering of the plants ought to be per-
formed, I think it is not material, nor did I ever make any rule with respect to the time, but give them
water at any hour of the day when I saw they stood in need of it, and when it best suited my conveniency.
Those who have hot-houses may get their water wanned there, and those who have no hot-houses may
get some from the house, or from some other place where water is frequently heated. One gallon of hot
water will properly warm several gallons of cold water. Late in spring and in the summer months the
water may be warmed by exposing it to the rays of the sun."

3223. Nicol airs his water "by some means or other;" waters once in two or three days after planting,
and liberally from the rose of the watering-pot as the plants advance. The time chosen is the afternoon,
about four or five o'clock, in order not to scorch the plants, which, he says, often happens when, after
morning waterings, the sun's rays suddenly dart on the plants. {Kal. p. 366. 385.)

3224. Mearns, already mentioned (3186.), uses water impregnated with sheep's dung, as does Knight.
Mearns tried this water first "on some cucumber-plants in the pine-stove, which had been planted in
January, but which, in consequence of dull weather, had become weak, and of a pale green color ; he ap-
plied the liquid to the roots, and in a few days a great change in the appearance of the plants was pro-
duced ; the foliage assumed a hardy green, the shoots acquired an unusual degree of strength, with short
joints, and although the stove had scarcely any air given to it, yet the fruit swelled off rapidly, and
attained a large size." These plants continued in bearing till May," and were then cut back to within six
inches of the root, when they started again with vigor. " No water was ever given over the leaves, but a
continual supply of the liquid pigeon-dung manure to the roots." {Hort. Trails, iv. 412.)

3225. Earthing. " Observe," says Abercrombie, "in proper time, when the first heat
of the bed is moderated, to begin adding more earth between the hills, as the extending
roots require to be covered, or the runners to be supported with mould ; raising it by
degrees equal with the tops of the hills, all in level order, from eight to ten inches
thick." (Pr. Gard. p. 72.)

3226. Nicol, by the time the plants have sent out runners, and the roots spread quite over the hills, en-
larges them; beginning by stirring up the earth in the other parts of the fVame to its full depth with a
hand-fork, or weeding-iron, breaking it fine if anywise caked by the heat. To this, add fresh mould sifted
or finely broken, and in a dry state, so as to raise the surface nearly to the level of the hills ; laying it in
a sloping manner from back to front. Previously, he rectifies the position and level of the frames, and
raises it so that the glass may be eight or nine inches above the mould in the centre. (^Kal. p. 367.)

3227. Training. To force the cucumber into early fruit, Abercrombie directs to " stop
the runners as soon as the plants have made two rough leaves, as the bud that produces

Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 575

the runner is disclosed at tlie base of the second rough leaf, it may be cut off or picked
out, or, if the runner has already started, it may be pinched off close. This is called
stopping at the first joint, and is necessary to promote a stronger stocky growth, and an
emission of fruitful laterals; and from these, other prolific runners will be successively
produced. The vines, without the process of stopping, would generally be both weaker,
and so deficient in fertile runners, that they would sometimes extend two or three
feet without showing fruit. When plants which have been once stopped, have extended
the first runners to three joints without shownng fruit, they are to be again stopped for
the purpose of strengthening the plant, and disposing it for bearing. As fertile run-
ners extend, train them out regularly along the surface, fastening them do\m neatly with
pegs."

3228. ^PPha^l stops his plants when they have two joints ; and " when the plants shoot forth again after
the second stopping, they seldom miss to show fruit at every joint, and also a tendril; and between this
tendril and the showing fruit may clearly be seen the rudiment of another shoot ; and when the leading
shoot has extended itself fairly past the showing fruit, then with the finger and thumb pinch it and the
tendril off just before the showing fruit ; so that in pinching off the tendril and the shoot, the showing
fruit is not injured. Thus stopping the leading shoot stops the juices of the plant, and is the means of
enabling the next shoot (the rudiment of which was apparent when the leading shoot was stopped) to push
vigorously, and the fruit thereby also receives benefit. When the plants are come into bearing, if the
vines are suffered to make two joints before they are stopped, at the first of these joints, as I before said
will be seen showing fruit, a tendril, and the rudiment of a shoot ; but at the second joint there is seldom
to be seen either showing fruit or the rudiment of a shoot, but only a tendril and the rudiments of male
blossoms. It is therefore evident, and but reasonable, that the shoot should be stopped at the first of these
joints ; for were the shoot to be let run past the first joint, and stopped before the second, perhaps no shoot
would ever spring forth at the said second joint, but only a cluster of male blossoms or leaves, which would
serve for no good purpose, but would rather exhaust the juices of the plant, which ought to be thrown
into the productive parts of it If the plants are suffered to bear too many fruit, that will weaken them,
and in such case some of the shoots will lose their leaders, that is, the rudiment of some of the shoots will
not break forth, the numbers of fruit having deprived them of their proper share of the vegetative juices.
The rudiments of some of the shoots may also be injured by accident, which sometimes prevents their
pushing ; but from whatever cause this hapi>ens, it matters not ; for by the losing of its leader the shoot
is rendered unfruitful, and therefore should be cut entirely off. In the course of the spring and summer
months several shoots break forth here and there from the old ones. WTien too many break out, cut off
the weakest of them close to the old shoots, and those which remain with regard to stopping, ser\'e nearly
in the same manner as young plants. If the old shoot from which the new one bursts forth, lie close to
the mould, it sometimes sends forth roots from the same joint from which the young shoot proceeded, by
which the young shoot is much invigorated, and the old plant, in some measure, renovated. \Mien this
young plant is fairly formed on the old shoot, it somewhat resembles a young plant formed and struck root
on a strawberry runner ; and if the shoot were to be cut off on each side of the newly, formed plant, and no
part of the plants left in the frame but itself, by proper treatment it would soon extend itself all over the
frame. In winter, when the plants are young, and before they come into bearing, it sometimes happens
that they send forth too many shoots : in that case cut the weakest of them off, not suffering them to be-
come crowded and thick of vines, for that would weaken and prevent the plants from bearing so early as
they ought to do. Keep the leaves of the plants always regularly thin. The oldest and worst of them
cut off first, and cut them off close to the snoot on which they grow. This is necessarj' and right j for if
any part of the stem of the leaf were to be left, it would soon putrify and rot, and perhaps destroy by damp
the main branch from which it proceeded."

3229. Nicol says, " Cucumber-plants will put out runners or vines, whether the heart-buds be picked
out or not, which is a matter of trivial concern, although much insisted on by some, as being necessary
to their doing so at all. For my own part, I never could discover any difference, and I have repeatedly
made the comparison in the same bed, which otherwise of course could not be fair. When the vines have
growTi to the length of four or five joints, and fruit appear on them, they may be stopped at one joint above
the fruit ; but otherwise they may be allowed to run to the length of seven or eight joints, and may then
be stopped, which will generally cause them to push fertile shoots. These should be regularly spread out,
and be trained at the distance of eight or ten inches part"

3230. Upright training. " Cucimiber-plants being climbers by means of their ten-
drils, some branchy sticks being placed to any advancing runners, they will ascend and
produce fruit, at a distance from the ground, of a clean growth free from spots, and
well flavored."

3231. Setting tlie fruit. " The cucumber," Abercrombie observes, " bears male and
female blossoms distinctly on the same plant. The latter only produce the fruit, which
appears first in miniature, close under the base, even before the flower expands. There
is never any in the males ; but these are placed in the vicinity of the females, and are
absolutely necessary, by tlie dispersion of their farina, to impregnate the female blossom ;
the fruit of which will not otherwise swell to its full size, and the seeds will be abortive.
The early plants under glass, not having the full current of the natural air, nor the as-
sistance of bees and other winged insects to convey the farina, the artificial aid of the
cultivator is necessary to effect the impregnation. At the time of fructification, watch the
plants daily ; and as soon as a female flower and some male blossoms are fully expanded,
proceed to set the fruit the same day, or next morning at furthest. Take off a male
blossom ; detaching it with part of the footstalk. Hold this between the finger and
thumb ; pull away the flower-leaf close to the stamens and anthera or central part, which
apply close to the stigma or bosom of the female flower, twirling it a little about, to dis-
charge thereon some particles of the fertilising powder. Proceed thus to set every fruit,
as the flowers of both sorts open, while of a lively full expansion ; and generally perform
it in the early pait of the day ; . using a fresh male, if possible, for each impregnation, as
the males are usually more abundant than the female blossoms. In consequence, the
young fruit will soon be observed to swell freely. Cucumbers attain the proper size for

57« PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

gathering in about fifteen, eighteen, or twenty days from the time of setting ; and often
in succession, for two or three months or more, in the same bed, by good culture. The
above artificial operation will be found both necessary and effectual in forcing the cucum-
ber, between the decline of autumn and May, while the plants are mostly shut under
glass. In plants more freely exposed to the free air, in the increasing warmth of spring,
and in having the full open air in summer, from June or July till September, the im-
pregnation is effected mostly or wholly by nature. The male flowers, being by some ig-
norantly denominated false blossoms, are often plucked wholly off as useless, under a
notion of strengthening the plant : but this should not be generally done. Where crowded
too thick in clusters, some may be tliinned out moderately ; but their agency being abso-
lutely necessary in fertilising the females, they should only be displaced as they begin to
decay, except where they are superabundant."

3232. M'Phail observes, " It is the female blossoms or flowers that bear the fruit ; but if they were not
to be impregnated by the male flowers, they would prove barren and unfruitful. The female blossoms are
easily to be distinguished from the male ones, for the rudiment of the fruit is apparent at the bottom of
the female flowers, and the flowers have no stamina, but have three small-pointed filaments without sum-
mits : whereas the male blossoms have not any rudiment of fruit about them, but in the centre of the
flower are three short stamina, which are inserted in the impalement When the female or fruit blos-
soms are in full blow, take a male blossom which is in full blow, and holding it in one hand, with the other
split, and tear off the flower-leaves or petals, taking care not to hurt the stamina or male part. Then hold
the male blossom thus prepared between the finger and thumb of the right hand, and with the left hand
gently lay hold of the female blossom, and holding it between two fingers, put the prepared male blossom
into the centre of the female blossom, and there the farina, pollen, or dust of the anthera, clings or sticks to
the stigma, and thus the impregnation of the fruit is effectuated, and the plants are thereby rendered fruit-
ful, which, being in frames in a climate by art made for them, would otherwise in a great degree be ren-
dered barren and unproductive ; and which I have frequently known to have been the case, even when at
the same time the plants were in a vigorous flourishing state. Generally leave the prepared part of the
male blossom sticking in the centre of the female one, and take a fresh male blossom to every female blos-
som. But if male blossoms run scarce, which seldom or never happens, make one male blossom do for two
or three female ones."

3233. Nicol states, that cucumbers will grow and will arrive at full size without the female flowers
being impregnated ; the seeds, however, will prove abortive. The directions he gives for impregnating
are in substance the same as those of M'Phail. The fruit being set and swelling, some lay fragments of
glass or slate beneath it, in order to keep it clean, and to admit as much air and light as possible to the
under side, so as to cause its approach in greenness to the upper.

3234. Gathering the crop. Cucumbers are used green or unripe, and before they have
attained their full size. They are cvit and gathered when four, five, six, or eight inches
long, according to the kinds. To this size they attain in ten days, or a fortnight, in the
best part of the season.

3235. To save seed. " Select some best summer fruit, from good productive plants ;
which permit to continue in full growtli till they become yellow. Then cut them from
the vine, and place them upriglit on end, in the full sun, for two or three weeks ; when
they may be cut open, and the seed being washed out from the pulp, spread it to dry
and harden : then put it up in papers or bags for future sowing. It will remain good
many years: and seed of three or four years' keeping is preferable for early frame
crops."

3236. Cultivation of the cucumber in a Jiued pit. Nicol says, " Those who would
have cucumbers on the table at Christmas, (a thing sometimes attempted,) will find it
more practicable, and less troublesome, if the plants be grown in a flued pit, in the
manner of late melons, than if they grow on a common hot-bed. In this case the
cucumbers should take place of the melons planted in this compartment in July, and
which will, by the middle or end of the month, have ripened off all their fruit of any
consequence.

3237. Sow the seeds of some of the early sorts (those best for early being also best for late,) " in small
pots, about the first of July, and place them in the pit along with the melons, or under a hand-glass on a
slow dung-heat ; where let the plants be nursed, and be prepared for planting about the second or third
week in the month. Observe to sow old seeds, not those saved this season, which would run more to
vines than to fruit. Let the pit be prepared for their reception, by trenching up the bark or dung, and by
adding fresh materials, in so far as to produce a moderate growing heat ; observing the directions given
for preparing the pit for the melons in July, and moulding it (however with proper cucumber earth) all
over, to the depth of a foot or fourteen inches. The plants may be placed closer in planting them out,
than is necessary in a spring hot-bed. They may be planted at the distance of a yard from one another,
and two rows lengthwise in the pit, as they will not grow very vigorously at this late season. Tliey
should be moderately supplied with water once in four or five days, and should always be watered over
the foliage ; the more especially when strong fire-heat becomes necessary, as cucumbers naturally like a
moist rather than a dry heat. The temperature should be kept up to about 64 or 65 degrees in the night,
by the aid of the flues, and by matting, or otherwise covering the pit. Air should be as freely admitted as
the state of the weather will allow ; and so as to keep the mercury down, in sunshine, to about 70 degrees.
The plants will require little other pruning than to stop the vines, as they show fruit, at a joint or two
above it ; for they will not push many superfluous shoots. Observe to pick off aU damped leaves as they
appear ; and otherwise carefully attend to them, as above directed, while they continue to flourish, or to
do any good worthy of such attendance."

3238. Cultivation of the cucumber in M'Phail's brick-bed or frayne. " When I used,"
observes M'Phail, "to cultivate cucumbers on a dung -bed, the fruit were sometimes
watery and ill-tasted ; but after I began to cultivate them on a brick-bed, the fruit were
constantly firm and well-flavored ; which is certainly occasioned by the goodness and
wholesomeness of the food with which the plants are fed or nourished." Besides this ob-
jection, M'Phail mentions several others, the principal of which are —

Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 577

The risk qf burning the plants at first, as weU as on the application of every fresh linkig. In a few
days after a cucumber-bed has been planted, the "heat of the dung begins to decline, and perhaps the
weather changes from fine, and becomes cold, wet, and gloomy; and in that case a lining of fresh duna
to enliven the heat of the bed is undoubtedly required. When this fresh lining is applied, it seu the bed
into a fresh fermentation, and very frequently gives too much bottom heat, and it even often happens that
the heat becomes too great under the plants before a lining is applied ; for the heat of a dung-bed is change-
able, and is raised and lowered by the changes of the weather. There is no necessity for having heat di-
rectly underneath the roots of the plants ; for if the air in the frames be kept up to a proper degree of heat,
that is sufficient. In climates where the cucumber naturally grows, I apprehend there is no heat in the
earth but what is raised in it by the heat of the sun and the circumambient air, which seems to be warmed
by the reflection of the sun upon the earth."

The risk of destroying the plants by impure air, and steam from the bed. " It is not only necessary
that in the frames the air be kept up to a sufficient degree of heat, but it is absolutely necessary that nothing
pernicious or unwholesomfe be conveyed into, or caused to arise in, the frames among the plants by means
of that heat. If the steam of the linings get in, it will hurt the plants : and if there be any thing which
smells disagreeably in the mould, or underneath the mould in the frames, the heat of the linings will cause
unhealthy vapors to ascend from it, which in time will prove injurious to the plants. So that, although
there may be a degree of heat in the frames strong enough for the growth of the plants yet, through means
of that heat, something m^y arise in the frames which will become progressively, if not almost instanta-
neously, destructive of the plants, esiiecially when they are young and tender. Care, therefore, must be
taken that nothing be introduced into the frames among the plants but what is of a sweet wholesome nature."

The difficulty of keeping up the proper heat in udiiter.

The great attention and expense attending the formation and general management of dung-beds in
winter.

3239. The chief advantages of M'PhaiVs frame are stated to be : — '

That the coldest place in the bed is exactly in the centre of each pit, from which centre the heat in-
creases on each side to the hnings where the heat begins. The plants being planted, he says, in thi«
centre, or coldest part of the bed, their roots can never be hurt by the heat increasing on each side gra-
dually, being in every respect suitable for their increase and extension. The heat in the centre of each
pit, just where the plants are first planted, seldom rises higher than to about eighty or eighty-five degrees,
nor does it ever rise higher in any part of the pits than about ninety-six or ninety-seven degrees ; nor do I
believe it ever can be raised higher than that, without scorching the plants by top heat or heated air :
whereas, in a bed made of dung, the heat in the centre of the bed, under the mould in which the plants are
planted, frequently rises to above 120 degrees, when, at the same time, the air in the frames can scarcely be
kept up to a proper degree of heat : this frequently hapjiens in cold weather in winter. The scorching
heat of a hot-bed of horse-dung, when too hot for plants, is equal to 130 degrees and more, and hereabout is
probably the heat of blood in fevers.

The dung requires no more vwrk-ing than what is necessary to bring it to and keep it in a proper degree qf
heat, and to let some of its more rancid qualities pass off by evaporation ; and as soon as the heat rises in
the linings, it circulates in the flues, and warms every part of the bed ; whereas the dung for making a
common cucumber-bed must be turned and worked, and lie, till, by fermentation, its rank qualities
be evaporated, and its violent heat be somewhat diminished. This, as already noticed, is a very great
advantage.

The linings retain the heat longer than the linings qf a dung-bed do, and that because the flues are con-
stantly full of steam ; but a dung-bed having little or no vacuity for the retention of the steam, the steam
of the linings of it is perhaps more immediately evaporated, and consequently the heat of the linings is
sooner exhausted than the heat of the linings of the brick-bed.

In the course of the winter a dung-bed sinks so tow, that it becomes difficult sometimes to get a
proper heat raised in the linings j but my brick-bed being always of the same height, such difficulty can
never happen.

A brick-bed may be built and set to tvork immediately ; the heat of the linings will dry the lime of
the joints of the bricks. The evaporation in the frames, from the moist lime of the joints of the brick-
work, has no bad effect on the plants ; but when a bed is set to work before it be dry and steady, great
care must be taken not to injure the brick-work in filling up the pits.

All the materials of the brick-bed are clean and sweet ; and the flues being made perfectly close, no
tainted or bad-smelling air can get through them into the bed, so that it is of little or no concern whether
the dung of the linings be sweet or otherwise, or whether the linings be made of dung, or of any thing
else, provided there be a sufficient heat kept in them, and no pernicious steam be drawn in among the
plants by the current of air.

3240. The plan of M'PhaiVs frameh2& already been given and described. (1551. and
fig. 233.) It is almost needless to repeat that a sheltered dry situation for placing it is
of the first consequence. The bed being built, " when tlie frame is about to be set upon
it, a layer of mortar is spread all round upon the upper course of brick-work on which the
bottoms of the frames are to rest. Thus the frames are set in mortar on the bricks ;
and the flues are, with a bricklayer's brush, well washed, and rubbed with a tliick grout
made of lime and water, which stops every crack or hole, and prevents the steam of the
linings from getting inio the frames. This washing of the flues I had done once a-year,
for no crack or hole must ever be suffered to remain unstopped in the flues. I found little
or no trouble in keeping the flues perfectly close, nor is it indeed likely that they should
become troublesome if the bed stands on a sound foundation, for the heat of the dung has
not that powerful eflfect on the flues, as fire-heat has on the flues of a hot-house ; because
the heat of dung is more steady, and not so violent as the heat of fire ; and besides, the
flues of the cucumber-bed are almost always in a moist state, which is a preventive in
them against cracking or rending. When the bed is first built, the pits are about three
feet in depth below the surface of the flues. These pits I had filled up about a foot high,
some of them with rough chalk, some of them with small stones, and some of them with
brick-bats : this is to let the wet drain off* freely from the mould of the beds. After this
filling up with chalk, stones, and broken bricks, there is a vacancy in the pits about two
feet deep below the surface of the flues ; this vacancy I had filled to a level with the
surface of the flues with vegetable or leaf mould ; and in putting it in, it was gently
pressed, to prevent it from sinking too much afterwards."

S241. On the surface of the mould uith which the pUs tivre fiUcd, "under the middle of each Ught, and

578 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

which is just in the centre of the mould in each pit, make hills of mould in the same form as is commonly
done on a dung-bed. These hills are to set the plants in, and are to be raised at first nearly close to, or
within a few inches of the glass. Raising the mould at first pretty nigh the glass is necessary, on account
of the sinking of it ; for as the frames are set on bricks, they cannot sink, but mould newly put m js sure
to settle and the measure of settlement will ever depend upon the lightness and texture of the mould with
which the pits are filled. Therefore, these and such like matters must be left to the discretion of those
who are entrusted with the direction and management of the frames. When the bed is thus finished,
and ready for the reception of the plants, if the flues be strewed over with mould, so that their surface be
just covered, to a stranger it is altogether a deception, for in every respect it has the appearance of a

"3242. The sashes of the frames " which I used were glazed in lead ; but if any person who rears early cu-
cumbers have lights which are not glazed in lead, but are slate-glaze<l, the vacancies between the glass had
best be filled up close with putty, to prevent too much air from getting into the frames in the cold days
in winter. The frames under my management were constantly kept in good repair, and painted over once
every year. This method, I am clearlv of opinion, is more profitable than if the frames were neglected tor
two or three years, and tlien have a thorough repair with two or three coats of paint When frames are
new painted, they should be suffered to lie and sweeten for some time, at least for two or three weeks, or
until the disagreeable smell of the paint be somewhat lessened. Although the frames I used were of a
very good size, yet if they were a little smaller or larger, they would answer the purpose very well. There-
fore those who intend to build abed after my plan, havs no occasion to make new frame.^ merely for the
purpose, but they may get the bed built to fit the frames they are already in possession of."

3243. Linings of dung. " The linings are to be applied to the bed a few days before the plants are ready for
finally planting out, in order that the mould and every thing in the frames may be properly warmed for their
reception. The dung of which the linings are to be made may either be cast together m a heap, to bring it to
a heat before it be laid round the bed, or it may be laid round the bed as it is brought from the dung- yard ;
but whichever of these methods be taken, when the linings are making up, the dung should be well shaken,
and laid up lightly, so that the heat of it may come up freely. As it takes some days before the linings are able
to warm the earth in the bed sufficiently for the reception of the plants, the rank steam of new dung-linings
is evaporated, unless the dung came immediately from the stables, which seldom is the case. The linings
are to be made nearly three feet broad in their foundation, and tapered up to about thirty inches at the
top, by which they will retain their heat long, and in sinking will keep close to the bed, which is what
should at all times be paid proper attention to. In the winter and spring months the linings should be
trodden upon as little as possible, for treading on them would be the means of stagnating their heat.
But should it at any time, in managing the plants, be found necessary to stand or kneel upon them,
boards should be laid on their tops for that purpose ; which will prevent the weight of a person from
taking that effect on them which it otherwise would do."

3244. Refreshing the linings. " As the linings sink they are to be raised with fresh dung ; but they should
seldom be raised higher than about the level of the mould in the frames in which the plants grow, espe-
cially when there is a strong heat in them ; for, when there is a great heat in them, if they are kept
higher than the level of the mould, the heat dries the air in the frames too much. Nor should they be
suffered to sink much below the level of the mould in the frames ; for that, on the contrary, would cause
too much moisture in the frames, especially in the winter and spring months. When the heat begins to
be too little, notwithstanding the linings being kept to their proper height, the fresh unexhausted dung
on the top or upper pari of them is to be laid aside, and the exhausted dung underneath to be taken away,
and that which was laid aside put in the foundation, and fresh dung laid above it in lieu of that which
was carried away."

3245. Renewing the linings. " Both the side linings may be raised at one time, but both of them should
never be renewed togetlier ; for if both were to be renewed at the same time, it would for a time cool the
frames too much, and when the heat of both came to its full strength, it would probably be too powerful
for the roots of the plants when extended to the flues. I seldom or never renewed the end linings, be-
cause I found the heat of the side ones fully sufficient ; for as there are flues or vacuities in every part of
the bed, the steam being fluid, circulates in, and warms every part thereof. And for the very same
reason there is no occasion for having a strong heat in both the side linings at one and the same time,
except in very cold weather. In making up and pulling down the linings, care should be taken not to in-
jure the brick-work."

3246. The covering the lights in the winter and sp7-ing is absolutely necessary ; " for, notwithstanding the
heat of the linings, it would be impossible to keep up a proper degree of heat in the frames for the plants
without coverings. Therefore the covering up in the evenings, and uncovering in the mornings, must
be particularly attended to, and more or less put on according to the heat of the linings and the temper-
ature of the weather."

3247. After the bed is set to work, heat and sweet moisture are the two principal agents required for pro-
moting the growth and vigor of the plants ; " therefore, if there be a heat kept in the linings strong
enough to keep the heat in the centre of the pits of mould fluctuating between 80 and 90 degrees, cold
water may be poured on the flues twice or thrice a-week. There is no danger of creating damps or im-
pure air in the frames by watering the flues ; for the water is no sooner poured on them, than it runs
down their sides, and passes clear off through the drains of the bed; consequently water being poured
upon the flues, gives only a momentary check to the heat of the frames; for the flues being at all times
full of hot steam, when the watering is finished, the heat quickly resumes its former vivacity, and raises
a warm vapor in the framis, well adapted for promoting vegetation, and for increasing the growth, and
invigorating the plant in all its parts. The mould round about the sides of the pits close against the inner
sides of the flues, should be kept nearly on a level with the surface of the flues ; and as it is the mould
that joins to the flues which receives the first and greatest heat from the linings, it should continually
be kept in a moist state ; for if the mould against the flues be suflfered to become dry and husky, air will
be generated in the frames disagreeable to the plants."

3248. Tetnperature of ArPhaiVs frame. M'Phail has, in his Gardener's Remembrancer, as well as in his
Treatise on the Cucumber, given the temperature of one of his beds for every day in the year, of which the
annexed table shows the extremes for every month. By the heat described in this table, and plenty
of water, the cucumber-plants, the seeds of which
were sown on the 22d day of October, were maintained
in a healthy fruit-bearing state, in the brick-frame,
from the month of January to the beginning of
December. The melon-plants were kept in about
the same degree of heat given for the culture of the
cucumber in the forcing-frames ; and it may be pre-
dicted, that if any person keep melon or cucumber
plants in nearly the same degrees of heat as are set
down in the table, and manage the plants well in
other respects, the way to do which has been clearly
pointed out, they will not fail of having success.
M'Phail adds, that notwithstanding the objections
of some who have not been successful in making
trial of his bed, " it is now generally approved of, and in practice by numbers of the best' gentlemen'*
gardeners in the kmgdom j and by various market-gardeners in the neighborhood of London."

Mom.

Noon.

Even.

Jan.

from 58 to 86

from 56 to 86

from 54 to 77

Feb.

from 68 to 88

from 66 to 90

from 58 to 84

Mar.

from 62 to 83

from 65 to 90

from 62 to 85

April
May

from 69 to 84

from 68 to 9.'5

from 64 to 90

from 67 to 79

from 70 to 90

from 66 to 95

June

fiom 62 to 85

from 80 to 98

from 67 to 90

July

from 61 to 79

from 72 to 105

from 69 to 95

Aug.

from 60 to 78

from 80 to 96

from 70 to 89

Sept.

from 69 to 80

from 74 to 100

from 72 to 97

Oct.

from 64 to 81

from 71 to 101

from 68 to 89

Nov.

from 62 to 82

from 65 to 92

from 61 to 80

Dec.

from 65 to 88

from 64 to 77

from 58 to 71

Book I. CULTURE OF THE CUCUMBER. 579

In ail other respects, the culture of the cucumber or mel<Mi, on M'Phail'e tNick-bed, corre^onds with thte
culture of these fruits on common dung-beds.

3249. The cultivation of tlie cucumber in West's frame (ftg. 230.), differs from the
common mode ; but it being attended with less risk, in our opinion, this frame or pit
is superior to M'Phail's, as requiring much less dung, presenting a much more neat
and orderly appearance, and giving a greater command of temperature.

3250. Cultivation of the cucumber in a common ])it without f ties. Some form a narrow
dung-bed along the middle of such a pit, leaving room for adding a lining on each side
when the heat declines. This method succeeds very well late in the season ; but at an
early period the sinking of the bed from the glass leaves the plants at a great distance from
the light.

3251. Cultivation of the cucumber f?i stoves. " Cucumber-plants," M'Phail observes,
*' will grow in a hot-house where the pine-apple is cultivated ; but they will not be very
long-lived there, for that is not a healthy climate for Uiera." In August, sow the seeds
in boxes filled witli vegetable or other light earth, and place them on shelves in the back
side of the hot-house, where the sun may not be interrupted from shining on tliem in the
short days. They may, perhaps, produce a few fruit in the month of December or
January. (Gard. Rem. p. 301.)

3252. Abercroynble says, " Some gardeners, ambitious of early fruit, tiy a sowing in the stove imder the
disadvantages of December. For fruiting this plant in the house, narrow boxes, three feet long, and
full twenty inches deep, may be found more commodious than pots. The boxes may stand upon the crib-
trellising over the flues, or be suspended near the back wall eighteen inches from the upper tier of lights,
so as not to shade the regular house-plants : this is the best situation for a very early crop. The plants
may be originated in small pot5, plunged into the bark-bed, in order to be transplanteti with a ball of
earth into the boxes. Those who aim to have fruit at Christmas, introduce seedlings about the middle of
August. The chief deviation from the course of the hot-bed is, that the plants must be trained in the
house upright ; for which purpose form a light temporary trellis of laths. Give water every other day
at least." (Pmc/. Garrf. p. 618.)

3253. Alton's method of raising cucumber-plants in August, with a view to their being fruited in the stove
through the winter, has been already given. (3174.) We now subjoin the remainder of that excellent paper.

3254. The plants Iteing raised on a well-prepared one-light hot-bed ; when the cotyledons or seed-
leaves became nearly of full growth, the plants were potted out two into each pot, known to gardeners
about London by the name of upright thirty^twos. When these pots became filled with roots, the plants
were again shifted into larger ones, called sLcteens, and removed from the seed-bed into a three-light
frame, with a sufficient bottom-heat to allow a considerable portion of air being given day and night,
both in the front and back of the frame. About the middle of September, the plants having again filled
their pots with roots, and become stocky, were taken from the frame to the stove, and after a few days
received the last shifting into larger pots' of the following dimensions : — at the top fourteen inches over ;
the bottom ten inches across, and twelve inches deep, all inside measure; each pot at equal distances
apart, having three side drain-holes near the bottom, and a larger one in the centre of the bottom, and
containing about three pecks of solid earth.

3255. The plants ivere fruited in a pinery. On the front edge of the back flue of this stove, a fascia-
boarding, six inches deep, was affixed, the whole length of the building, forming all along a trough or
enclosure for a reserve of compost after the exhaustion of the mould in the pots had taken place The
pots were now placed in regular order upon the mould-trough over the flue, at three feet apart, and re-
mained in this station for good, for succession. A setting of the second sowing was placed upon the end
flues of the house ; underneath each pot was set an upright circular garden-pan, six inches deep, and
fourteen inches diameter, which being filled with earth, the pots were plunged therein about two inches
deep, and the drain-holes being sufficiently covered with mould, served as outlets to the roots.

325d Temperature. The fire-heat of the stove was kept day and night at sixty to sixty-five degrees
Fahrenheit's thermometer, varying only a few degrees when the sudden influence of sun or steam pro-
duced an additional glow of climate. The plants being now estabUshed and vigorous, required stopping
for laterals and fruit ; and these second and third lateral shoots in their turn were stopped also, and the
blossoms from time to time set, as usual, for succession of supply.

3257. Waterings were necessary only when the surface of the earth was evidently dry, and light
sprinklings of soft water, tempered in the stove, were occasionally given over the leaves of the plants and
path with good effect

3258. Stea?n from a well regulated flue was considered always favorable to the cultivation, but applied
sparingly on account of its scalding effect upon the leaves when the vapor proved over-heated.

3259. Diseases and Insects. For the mildew, flower of brimstone, colored leaf-green by a little soot, has
been applied with the best success in all stages of the disease, and copious fumigations of tobacco were
used for the destruction of the several species of the aphis tribe.

; 3260. Result. Under this simple practice, winter cucumbers have been produced abundantly in the
months of October, November, December, and part of January, in all the royal gardens of His Majesty
during a series of years.

3261. Cultivation of the cucumber in Weeks' s patent frame. (1553.) We know only of
two instances in wliich this ingenious invention has been tried, both of which are men-
tioned at the end of Weeks's Forcer s Assistant. The chief objection to the plan is, that the
bed or stratum of earth in which the plants are grown being but of moderate depth, and
surrounded by air above and below, is extremely difficult to retain at an equable
moisture.

3262. Growing the cucumber tinder hand-glasses. TTie following method is given by
M'Phail as that generally practised : " The seeds are sown some time about the middle
of April in a cucumber or melon bed, and when they come up, they are potted out into
small pots, two or three plants in each pot, and are kept properly watered, and stopped
at the first or second joint. About the middle of May, a warm situation where the
mould is very rich is pitched on, and a trench is dug out about two feet deep, three feet
broad, and the length is proportioned according to the number of lights it is intended
for. This trench is filled with good warm dung, and when the dung is come to its full

Pp 2

580 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

lieat, it is covered over with eight, ten, or twelve inches deep of rich mould. The
glasses are then set upon it about three feet distant from each other, and when the
mould gets warm under them, the plants are turned out of the pots with their balls
whole, and plunged in the mould under the glasses, and a little water given them to
settle the mould about their roots, the glasses set over them, and after they have made
roots, and begin to grow, in fine days they are raised a little on one side to let the plants
have the free air ; and as the weather gets warmer and warmer, air is given more
plentifully, to harden the plants, so that they may be able to bear the open air, and run
from under the glasses. When the plants begin to fill the glasses, they are trained out
horizontally, and the glasses are set upon bricks or sixch like, to bear them from the
plants. After this the plants require nothing more but to be supplied with water when
the summer showers are not sufficient, and to stop them when they run too thin of
branches, and thin them of leaves or branches when they are likely to become over-
'Crowded. In warm summers and in warm situations, by this mode of management, the
-plants will bear plentifully for about two montlis, provitled they be not attacked by insects
or weakened by diseases."

3263. jfbercfombie describes a practice somewhat different, but with his usual attention to detail and
order. He says — To have a general summer crop, to fruit in hot-bed ridges under hand-glasses, sow
some seed of the long prickly kind in a hot-bed, under a frame or hand-glass, or in any cucumber hot-bed
in cultivation, about the middle of March, or thence till the middle of April. When the plants have been
up three, four, or five days, prick some in the same or another hot-bed, three or four inches asunder. A
portion may be put In small pots, three plants in each, and plunged in the bed. Give water, and shade
from the sun, till they take root ; and manage as for the frame-crop. In three or four weeks, when
advanced in the first rough leaves, about two inches broad, and stopped at the first joint, as directed in
the early crop, the plants should be ridged-out, that is, transplanted into hot-bed ridges, under hand-
glasses, to remain for fruiting. The period for this may fluctuate from the middle of April to the begin,
ning of May.

3264. Having a sug^cient quantity of prepared dung, make a hot-bed on the level ground, three feet
and a half or four feet wide, and two and a half high, the length as required, according to the number of
hand-glasses intended. Earth it at top, six or eight inches thick, and place the hand-glasses along the
middle, at three feet and a half distance. Sometimes the bed is made in a moderate trench, twelve or
fifteen inches deep, in some good soil in the kitchen-garden, in order to have the excavated earth of the
trench ready at hand for moulding the bed. When the earth under the glasses is warm, proceed to put
in the plants, removing them from the nursery-bed, with as much earth as will adhere about the roots. If
you have any plants in small pots, turn them out with the balls entire, and plant three plants under each
glass. Give a light watering; put down the glasses; and shade the plants from the sun, till they have
taken root ; after which, let them enjoy the sun and light fully, only covering the glasses and bed every
night with mats till June, or commencement of warm weather. Admit air every mild day, by propping up
the southward side of the glasses one or two inches ; moderate waterings will be necessary twice a week or
oftener,

3265. As the plants push runners of considerable length, train them regularly. When extended to the
limits of the glasses, and when the weather is settled warm, about the beginning or middle of June, they
should be raised upon three props, two or three inches high, and the runners trained out in regular order ;
but cover them in cold nights with mats, for the first week or two. Continue the glasses, and circum-
spectly water in dry weather, as may be necessary; the plants will produce fruit in June, July, August,
&c. in plentiful succession.

3266. In default of plants raised in a previous nursery-bed for transplanting, sow seed under the hand-
glasses in April or in May, inserting several seeds in the central part under each glass. When the plants
have been up a few days or a week, thin them to three or four of the strongest in each patch, managing
them afterwards as the others. They will come into bearing towards the end of June or July, and thence
till September. ^T

3267. Should there be a scarcity of dung to make a regular bed, in the last week of April, or in May,
you may dig circular holes two feet wide, a spade deep, and four or five feet asunder ; fill them with hot-
dung, trodden down moderately firm, and earthed over six inches. In these put either plants or seed j
and place on the glasses : the plants will produce fruit in June or July till St-ptember.

3268. In default of hand-glasses : make a hot-bed, or holes of dung, as above, in May : put in plants or
seed, and defend with oiled-paper frames to remain constantly, day and night, till settled warm weather
in June or July. Give the additional protection of mats over the paper frame in cold nights and bad
weather.

3269. In the culture qf all the crops, give proper supplies of water in dry warm'weather, two or
three times a week, or every day in the hottest season of June, July, and August. In the hot-bed ridges
made above ground in April or May, if in three or four weeks or more after making the heat be much
declined, and the nights, or general season, remain cold, let a moderate lining of hot-dung be applied to
the sides ; which will both throw in a reviving heat, and widen the bed for the roots and runners of the
plants to extend. (Abeicrombie.)

3270. Insects and diseases. The thrips sometimes attacks early cucumbers, and is to be
destroyed by fumigation. The red spider rarely makes its appearance ; when it does,
water must have been improperly withheld. Some soils produce canker in the shoots,
especially where they branch from the main stem. When this is the case, the only
resource is to renew the soil and the plants.

Sect. VII. Of the Culture of the Melon.

3271. The melon requires the aid of artificial heat the greater part qf the year, and
even in the warmest months it cannot be brought to perfection without the protection of
glass. Its culture is an object of emulation among gardeners ; and the fruit of the best
sorts have a peculiarly rich flavor, thought by some to bear some resemblance to that
of the pine. Ripe fruit, Abercrombie observes, " may be had by forcing at any season ;
but the main crops raised for the general demand, are seldom cut, at the earliest, before
May, and the last succession mostly ceases to yield fruit after October." To ripen the

Book I.

CULTURE OF THE MELON.

581

best, largest, fine kinds, M'Phail observes, " as great an atmospherical heat, and a bottom
heat to its roots also, is required as is sufficient to ripen tlie pine-apple in this country ;
but as the melon is produced from an annual plant, the seeds of which must be sown
every year, it requires a different mode of culture. Different methods of treatment and
various kinds of earths and of manures have been recommended, and used successfully
in rearing of melons. The great thing after planting is to give them plenty of atmo-
spherical heat, and a sufficiency of external air and water. Those methods which are most
simple and the least expensive, and best calculated to assist in making a suitable climate
for the melon-plant to grow in and ripen its fruit well, should be preferred."

3272. Soil. Abercrombie says, " The melon will succeed in any unexhausted loam,
rich in vegetable rudiments, with a mixture of sand, but not too light. The following
is a good compost : two thirds of top-spit earth from a sheep common, adding sl)arp
sand, if the earth contains little or none, till half is sand ; one sixth of vegetable mould ;
and one sixth of well consumed horse-dung. Or, if the earth is not obtained from a
pasture, rotted sheep-dung may be substituted for the l?ist. Th^ ingredients should have
been incorporated and pulverised by long previous exposure and turning over. The
compost should be dried under shelter before it is used, and warmed in the frame for
potting."

3273. ypPhaU says, " Melons will grow and produce fruit of a good flavor, if they be planted in any
kind of earth not of too light a texture, whether it be taken from a compartment of the kitchen-
garden or from a corn-field mixed well with good rotten dung ; but earth of a loamy nature is the best,
because it retains moisture longer than light earth. Earth dug from the surface of a common, where
sheep and cattle have long been pastured, is excellent for the melon. It should be broken well, and lie
a few months before it be used ; and if it be exposed to a winter's frost, it will do it good. This sort of
earth, if it be taken from the surface of the common, will require no manure the first year of using. I
would here mention, that unless the earth which I used for the melon-plants was very strong, I made it
a practice, when the melon-beds were whoUy earthed up, to tread the surface all over, which makes the
earth retain its moisture longer than if it were left loose."

3274. Sicol says, " Soil for melons may be thus composed : one half strong brown loam from apasture;
a quarter light sandy earth: an eighth part vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves ; and an eighth part
rotten stable-yard dung. The mould for melons should be well incorporated j should be exposed to the
frost, and be frequently turned over to meliorate."

3275. Sorts. The following list is given by Aba-crombie : —

•lone,
>uiia,

Early small black rock cantaleupe
Carbunded rock cantaleupe,

shaped
Green cantaleupe (oblong rock)
Orange cantaleupe
£arl> golden cantaleupe

Scarlet cantaleupe

Silver cantaleupe

Small romana, OTal

Lai^er netted roraana, oval

FoUJ^ac

Musk, or oblong ribbed, iietted.rinded

Round, smooth.

Oblong, smooth-rinded
ereen-r
Round white-rinded
Green-fleshed
Water-melon,
green fruit.

a very lai^ roundith

3276. iS7co^ enumerates the following, in the order in which they ripen: —

I

The early ^Iden cantaleupe
The orange cantaleupe
The netted cantaleupe

The silver cantaleupe
The black rock cantaleupe
The carbuncled rock

3277. Estimate of sorts. " Tlie cantaleupes are in high estimation for their general
sup>erior flavor, although not uniformly such great bearers as some others in the list; they
are besides admired for their handsome and curious shapes, some of them growing very
large. The netted cantaleupe is a good bearer; the fruit above the middle size, round,
heavj', full of juice, and high flavored. The early small black rock cantaleupe is a good
bearer : but there is a large black rock which holds an inferior rank, both for bearing
and the flavor of the fruit. Of the carbuncled rock there are two sorts : the smaller is
by far the best. The green cantaleupe has a dark green rind, witli a pale pulp, grows
rather larger than the early black rock, and vies with it in flavor. The orange canta-
leupe is an excellent early variety, a great bearer ; the fruit under the middle size, but
juicy, and of the most generous flavor. The early golden, and the prolific, set speedily,
and soon ripen ; the fruit middle-sized, the flavor not so elevated as might be expected
from a cantaleupe. The silver cantaleupe bears freely ; the fruit middle-sized, and for
flavor ranking with the finest. Tlie small romana is one of the most plentiful bearers,
either for an early or main crop ; the fruit not abundantly juicy, but good-flavored. The
larger netted romana bears more freely than large sorts in general; the fruit is sub-
stantial and heavj', a single melon sometimes weighing ten pounds, not so juicy as the
best cantaleupes, but the flavor high and grateful. The polignac is also a rich-flavored
fruit. The old oblong-ribbed is generally a good bearer, and the fruit agreeably flavored.
The other kinds also will ripen here in good perfection, except the water-melon, which
does not always ripen freely with a good full flavor. The principal culture, however,
the cantaleupes, romanas, and polignac, are indisputably preferable : any of the others
may be adopted in secondary crops, or for variety."

3278. WPhaH says, " Several sorts of melons are not worth propagating, that is, in the estimation of
some persons ; but there are some kinds of them, such as the early canUleupes and the rock cantaleupes,
which, when well ripened, are delicious in flavor, and very wholesome in quality. Of the varieties, there
are those called the rock cantaleupe, the earlv small black, large black, the orange, the golden, the silver,
the green, the carbuncled, the netted, the Roman, the musk, and the scarlet cantaleupes, and likewi««
the oblong.ribbed, the smooth-rind, the round white, the green-fleshed, the water-melon* &c."

P p 3

5dd PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

3279. Time of beginning to force. From the time of sowing, ripe fruit may be cut
in about fifteen weeks, as an average period : when many short and wintry days fall in
the course, it may last eighteen weeks ; but when the forcing is not commenced till the
days are nearly twelve hours long, and continually lengthening, ripe fruit is sometimes
cut in ten weeks. The period also depends upon the sort. Little time is gained by
beginning excessively early. The early and main crops are commonly originated from
the middle of January to the first week of February ; the latter or succession crops, at
the beginning of March j and late crops intended to fruit at the end of summer, in the
middle of April.

3280. M'Phail and 'Steal sow in January. The latter says, " I formerly cut melons, for three years
successively, on the 15th, 12th, and 10th of May, and never sowed before the last week of January, or first
of Februarj'. In 1788, when at Rainham Hall, in Norfolk, I sowed melons on the 12th March, and cut
ripe fruit on the iOth May. The kiiid was the early golden cantaleupe. This shows how little is to be
gained, or rather, how much may be lost, by early forcing."

3281. Forming the seed-bed. The plants may be originated in a cucumber-bed, and
this is the general practice ; but Abercrombie prefers a separate bed, built a slight degree
higher than that for the cucumber, at the same season, and adapted to a one or two light
frame, according to the quantity to be raised. Nicol raises the melon almost exactly in
the same way as the cucumber, and there is very little difference in his subsequent culture
of these plants.

3282. Choice of seed. " Seed under the age of two years is apt to run too much to
vine, and show only male flowers ; but new seed may be mellowed by being carried in
the pocket a fortnight or more, till the heat of the body has dried and hardened it. Seed,
twenty years old, has been known to grow and make fruitful plants ; but seed, which
has been kept three or four years, is quite old enough, and less likely to fail than
older."

3283. WPhail says, " It is best not to sow melon-seed till it be two or three years old. It cannot be
too old if it be sound and grow well. Young seed is apt to run too much to vine, and to show more male
than female blossoms. "

3284. Nicol says, *' I have sown melon-seeds twenty years old, from which I have raised very healthy
and fruitful plants." [Kal. p. 396.)

3285. Miller and Nicol say, young melon-seeds may be worn in the pocket, near the body, for several
months previous to sowing, which has the effect of fully maturing them. " If seeds of the last season,"
Nicol observes, " be sown without taking this precaution, or something similar, the plants will not be
fruitful; but will run much to vines, and show chiefly male blossoms."

3286. Sowing. Abercrombie says, " Having moulded the bed, and proved the heat,
sow in pans three inches, or pots four inches, deep, rather than in the earth of the bed.
Sow a second portion in five or seven days, to provide against failure. Do not at once
plunge the pots to the rims;" (Pr. G. p. 108.)

3287. Treatment till removed to the fruiting-pit. ** As soon as the plants appear, give
air cautiously ; guarding the aperture with matting at night, and on frosty or gloomy
days. At favorable opportunities, wipe the condensed steam from the glasses. When
the seed-leaves are about half an inch broad, prick the plants into small pots five inches
in diameter, three in each pot, giving a little aired water just to the roots ; then plunge
the pots into the earth of the hot-bed partially, or to the rims, according to the heat.
Admit fresh air, every day in moderate weather, at the upper end of the lights, raised an
inch or two, according to the temperature of the external air ; more freely when sunny
than cloudy ; shutting closer, or quite close, as the afternoon advances towards evening,
or sooner, if the weather changes cuttingly cold ; and cover the glasses every night with
mats, and uncover in the morning, as soon as the sun is high enough to reach the frames.
Give occasionally a very light watering, when the earth appears dry. As the plants
advance into the first rough leaves, the first runner-bud in the centre should be stopped,
by cutting or pinching the top off, close to the first or second joint ; an operation which
strengthens the plants, and promotes the lateral issue of fruitful runners. Be careful to
support a regular tenor of heat in the bed, by laying, first, an outward casing of straw-
litter round the sides, to defend it from the weather ; afterwards, if the heat declines,
remove the above casing ; and apply a moderate lining of hot dung to one or more of
the sides. In matting at night, be careful not to drive the rank stem of the linings into
the beds, by letting the ends of the mats hang down."

3288. Fruiting-bed. Form it as directed for the cucumber-bed, but six inches deeper ;
M'Phail says, " four feet high, and after it has stood about a week, tread it down and
make it level, and set the frames upon it."

3289. Moulding the bed. Abercrombie directs to " mould it by degrees to eight, ten,
or twelve inches' depth ; first laying the compost in little hills of that thickness, one under
each light, with the intervals earthed only, two or three inches, for the present, till the
general heat is moderated." M'Phail lays in under each light a small hill of earth about
one foot high.

3290. Planting. "Wlien the earth of the hills is warmed by the heat of the bed, and
the plants have leaves two or three inches broad, or have begun to push lateral runners,

K

K I. CULTURE OF THE MELON. 583

turn them out of tlie pots, " with the ball of earth entire : set a ball containing one
plant, in the middle of each hill, inserted clean over the ball ; or set at most two plants
under the centre of a large light. After planting, give a gentle watering over the hills
and round the roots, avoiding to wet the shanks of the plants : shut down the glasses
close, till the heat and steam arise ; then give air moderately. Extend a slight shade
over the glasses in the middle part of warm summer days, if the plants shrink or flag
their leaves, before fully rooted in the hills ; which they will be in two, three, or four
days after planting."

3291. Temperature. The melon requires a minimum heat of about 65° from the
time of germination till that of fructification, and a heat of about 75"* to fruit in.
{Abercrombie. )

3292. M'Phail, as appears from the tables in his Gardener's Remembrancer, kept his melon and cucum-
ber frames at the same temperature ; stating, that if anv person keep melons or cucumber-piants in the
same degrees of heat, they will not fail of success. (3248.)

3293. Nicol's medium heat for melons is 70°.

32^. Heat from linings of dung. The proper temperature must be kept up by repeated linings, at least
till the middle of July. After that, sun-heat may suffice to ripen the crop. Till this season, the greatest
care must be taken not to bum or over-heat the plants. M'Phail says, " Examine daily with your hand
the heat of the bed, pushing your fingers into the dung immediately under the hills of earth in which the
plants grow ; and if you find the heat likely to be too powerful, pour cold water all round the bottom of
the hills of earth, to lower the heat of the bed. Remember this must be daily attended to till the heat
of the bed be so declined in the middle, that the roots of the plants be in no danger of being hurt by
the heat of the dung under them. In case this necessary precaution has been neglected till the heat
immediately under the stems of the plants has become too hot, pour plenty of water, 80° warm, round
about on the sides of the hills in which the plants grow, and among the stems of the plants, which will
bring the earth and dung immediately under the plants to the same degree of heat as the water which
is poured into it. When the heat in the middle of the bed becomes so cool, that there is no fear of its
being too great for the roots of the plants, watering that part of the bed to keep the burning heat down,
of course, must cease, and as the roots of the plants extend, earth may be added to the hills. As soon
as the heat of the bed declines, linings must be applied to it, which will set it into a fresh fermentation,
and then the surface upon the bed must be examined occasionally, by pushing the hand into it in
different parts, and when a burning heat is felt, pour in some water as before directed. In this way you
should persevere, still keeping a strong heat in the linings. Remember that the surface of the bed all
round about the hills should be left uncovered with earth, and the dung should be loosened occasionally,
to let the heat rise freely to nourish the plants. Melons will do without heat in the linings in July ;
but I found by experience, that they do better by keeping a heat in the linings all the summer. If a
heat be kept on constantly in the linings, and the plants watered sufficiently, they will continue to pro-
duce fruit till the middle of October."

3295. Air. As long as weak steam is perceived to rise from the bed, leave an aper-
ture, even at night, for it to escape ; guarding against the influx of cold air by a curtain
of matting. Admit fresh air to the plants by tilting the glasses more or less at the most
favorable hours in a mild dry day. After the bed has come to a sweet heat, shut down
close at night. As the fruit enlarges, it becomes more necessary to seize every proper
opportunity of admitting air ; raising the lights from one to four inches, according to the
season, the heat of the bed, and temperature of the external air ; shutting close, if that
should turn cold, and always timely towards evening. As confirmed sumifter approaches,
admit air still more freely.

3296. Nicol says, " Air should be freely admitted, though not in such quantity as for the cucumbers,
which do not require so high a temperature as melons do. In sunshine, however, the mercury in the
thermometer should be kept down, by the admission of air, to about 80° or 75°."

3297. M'Phail says, " Look into your melons in the morning, and if there is a dew on them standing
like little beads round the edges of the young leaves, it is a good sign ; but if there is no dew on them, in
the form I have described, they are not in a very prosperous condition. The air in the frames is not
sweet : they either want water, or sprinklings of water, or else the heat of the air in the frames is too
great in the night. In hot weather, melons are better to have air left at them all night, and in very warm
weather to take the glasses entirely off in the evening, and put them on again in the morning: by thii
means the planu will get a refreshment from the dew in the night"

3298. Water. After the plants are placed on the hills, give opportunely gentle wa-.
terings, increasing them as the season and the growth of the plants advance. " Water
circumspectly and scantily while the fruit is setting or young in growth, as too much
moisture would make it decay. Take a warm morning for watering, before the middle
of May ; in summer, the afternoon, or evening. Use soft water warmed to the air of
the frame ; and let as little as possible fall on the setting or new-set young fruit ; nor
much near the main head of the plants, for fear of rotting that part. Shut down the
lights after watering, for a short time ; and if in the morning, and a strong sun,
spread a mat over, to prevent the sun from injuring the plants by acting on the water
lodged on the spray and leaves. As a strong steam will now arise, remove the mats in
an hour or two, and raise the glasses at the top, to give vent to the steam and admit air
to the plants. As the fruit becomes nearly ripe, lessen the quantity of water given,
barely keeping the plant from flagging ; and withhold water when the fruit begins to
turn color."

3299. Nicol says, water once in four or 5ve days in the afternoon, watering over the foliage. Repeat
them oftener as the season and the growth of the plants and fruit advance, in order to swell it off the
better. {Kal. p. 387.)

3j<.'0. iPP/iail savs, " If the weather is warm and dry, the melons will probably sometimes reouire
water twice a-week: if the weather is set and cloudy, they will not require it so often." (G. litm.

Pp 4

584 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

p. loo.) It Is probable considerable advantage would be obtainetl by the use of liquid pigeons' dung ma-
nure, as in the case of the cucumber. (See 3224.)

33()1. Kiiight, finding that the leaves of melons sustained great injury from the weight of the water
falling from the watering-pot, pours the water on the tiles which cover the surface of the bed.

3302. Earthing. Perform this operation as directed for the cucumber, after tlje heat
of the dung has become moderate, earthing up by degrees the intervals between the hills,
till tlie depth of the earth becomes equal. Eight or ten inches' depth of earth, M'Phaii
states to be enough for the roots of the plants to run in, provided tlie bed, or fermenting
mass beneath, be made of leaves of trees, or of dung well prepared ; for if the bed under
the earth be in a good state, the roots will grow into it, and draw from thence consider-
able nourishment to the plants. The roots of the melon do not naturally run deep ;
they extend horizontally, not far from the surface, especially in forcing-frames, where
the moist warm air is more confined than in the open atmosphere. In early forcing,
leave vmfilled up with earth a space of about seven or eight inches wide against the in-
side of the frames, immediately adjoining the hot linings. " By this method the heat
of the linings does more powerfully warm the air in the frames than if the earth was made
level home to the sides of the boards of the frames to which the linings adjoin. But if
melons be not planted earlier than tlie month of May, this precaution need not be at-
tended to, unless the weatlier prove uncommonly cold, and but little sunshine." (G. Rem.
p. 63.)

3303. Training. As the plants advance into tlie first runners, three or four joints in
length, if no fruit be shown, stop them at the third joint, in order that they may produce
fruitful laterals ; and as tlie runners extend, train them over the surface of the bed with neat
pegs. Many of these runners, as the plant proceeds, will show embryo fruit at the
joints ; but a great many barren ones are occasionally produced, and hence it becomes
necessary to regulate them. Abercrombie says, " Cut out the superfluous, unfruitful,
or evidently useless shoots, especially the very weak and the most luxuriant; for tlie
middle-sized are the most fertile." *

3304. Nicol says, melons should be kept moderately thin of vines, though not so thin as cucumbers,
(the foliage being smaller,) which should never be much lopped at a time, as they are also apt to bleed.
All bruised, damp, or decayed leaves should be carefully picked off as they appear, and the plants
should he cleaned from weeds, and other rubbish that may be conveyed into the frames by the wind, or
otherwise.

3305. M'Phaii directs to "cut out of the melon-frames all superfluous or decaying shoots. Stop the
shoots a joint or two before the fruit, and also cut off the ends of the long running shoots immediately
before a showing fruit, if there is a leading shoot coming out by the side of it ; for you ought to remem-
ber always in pruning melons, that a fruit will not swell well except there be a growing shoot before
it ; and this shoot, which is called a leader, because it leads or draws the sap from the roots to and past
the fruit, should be stopped before a joint that will, if the plant is in good health, sprout out again.
Do not let your plants get too full of leaves ; and cut off the oldest and worst leaves first. This ought
to be done, at least once or twice a-week ; by which method they will be nearly always in one medium
state of thinness, and the plants and fruit will derive advantages which they would be deprived of
were they to be suffered to become over-crowded with leaves and shoots, and tlien a great many cut
out at one time. If melons arc of a large kind, no more than one or two fruit should be left on a plant
to swell off at one time ; if smaller, three or four fruit may be left." (G. Hem. p. 278.)

3306. Knight, in an ingenious and philosophical paper on the culture of the melon, states, that his
crops of melons failed, because watering over the foliage, pruning, weeding, &c. had removed
the leaves on the extended branches, from their proper position, and these leaves being heavy, broad,
slender, and feeble, on long foot-stalks, were never able to regain it. " In consequence a large portion
of that foliage which preceded, or was formed at the same period with the blossoms, and which nature
intended to generate sap to feed the fruit, became diseased and sickly, and consequently out of office,
before the fruit acquired maturity." To remedy this defect, the plants were placed at greater distances
from each other, viz. one plant of the salonica variety, to each light of six feet long by four feet wide. The
earth was covered with tiles, and the branches trained in all directions, and hooked down over them with ,
pegs. They were thus secured from being disturbed from their first position ; the leaves were held erect,
and at an equal distance from the glass, and enabled, if slightly moved from their proper position, to re-
gain it. " I, however, still found that the leaves sustained great injury from the weight of the water fall-
ing from the watering-pot ; and I therefore ordered the water to be poured from a vessel of a proiier con-
struction, upon the brick tiles, between the leaves, without at all touching them ; and thus managed,

I had the pleasure to see that the foliage remained erect and healthy. The fruit also grew with very ex-
traordinary rapidity, ripened in an unusually short time, and acquired a degree of perfection, which I had
never previously seen. As soon as a sufficient quantity of fruit (between twenty and thirty pounds) on
each plant is set, I would recommend the further production of foliage to be prevented, by pinching off
the lateral shoots as soon as produced, wherever more foliage cannot be exposed to the light. No part of
the full-grown leaves should ever be destroyed before the fruit is gathered, unless they injure each other,
by being too much crowded together : for each leaf, when full grown, however distant from the fruit, and
growing on a distinct branch of the plant, still contributes to its support; and hence it arises that when a
plant has as great a number of growing fruit upon part of its branches, as it is capable of feetling, the
blossoms upon other branches, which extend in an opposite direction, prove abortive." {Horf. Trans, vol. i.)
In another paper {Hort. Trans, v. 238.) we find this ingenious horticulturist describing his mode of grow-
ing melons in large pots, and training the shoots on a trellis, fifteen inches under the glass. A mode evi-
dently less certain of success, and more expensive than the common mode : but it is good to try every thing.

3307. Setting. As the fruit-bearers come into blossom, you may assist the setting of
the fruit, by impregnating some of the female blossoms with the male flowers, as de-
scribed for the cucumber. The melon, however, will also set naturally, and produce
fertile seeds, if the time of fructification fall at a season when the glasses can be left almost
constantly open. (^Aber.) Nicol says, he has proved experimentally, that melons not
impregnated will not swell off so fair and handsome as impregnated ones, and, therefore,
considers it more necessary to attend to this operation in melons than in cucumbers.

I. CULTURE OF THE MELON. 585

" Tlierefore, let nature be assisted in this work, considering that she is more under re-
straint here, than if the plants grew in tlie open air, where the wind, insects, and other
casualties, might help." {^Kal. p. 384.)

3308. Care of the fruit. As the fruit increases to the size of a walnut, place a flat tile
or slate under each, to protect it from the damp of the earth ; tlie slab thus interposed
will also assist the fruit to ripen, by reflecting the rays of the sun. {Ahercrombie.')

3309. ypPhail says, " The fruit should lie upon dry tiles, stone?, or slates, and no leaves or shoots
ought to be suffered to lie upon it. When the fruit is young, it is better to have a gentle shade of leaves j
but when it is full swelled, it should be entirely exposed to the sun."

3310. ykol advises placing the fruit on bits of slate or glass some time before it begins to ripen, as the
flavor might else be tainted ; but by no means slate or moss the whole surface of the bed, lest you encourage
the retl spider. " Think on the reflection of the sun upon the slates or tiles, in hot weather particularly,
and of his additional force in shining through glass ! It is more consonant to the nature of the plants that
they be trained on the earth. Ey mossing the surface, the indolent may find a pretext, as it, no doubt, in
some measure, lessens the labor of watering. But it is wrong to do so, in so far as it harbors and encou-
rages the breeding of various insects ; and, as the fruit approach to maturity, taints it by unpleasant
efiluvia."

3311. Time of maturation. The interval between the setting of the fruit and perfect
maturity is generally from thirty to forty days ; but tlie plants in the same bed, and
the vines on the same plant, often show some difference in the time of reaching maturity.
{Abercronibie.)

3312. Cutting the fruit. " Ripe melons are distinguished by their full size ; sometimes
by turning yellowish, more cortstantly by imparting an agreeable odor ; often by the
base of the foot-stalk, close to the fruit, cracking in a little circle. On these indications
of maturity, tlie fruit should be cut, before too mellow or dead ripe, that it naay eat with
a lively sharp flavor. Tlie morning is the time for cutting."

3313. A7co/ observes that " melons, if allowed to remain on the plant till they be of a deep yellow color,
lose much of their flavor. They should, therefore, be cut as soon as they begin to change to a greenish-
yellow, or rather, as soon as they begin to smell ripe. They may lie in the frame for a day or two, if not
immediately wanted, where they will acquire suflicient color. But if they are let remain many days in the
frame, they will become as insipid as if they had been left too long on the plant"

3314. Saving seed. The ordinary mode is to request the seeds of particularly fine
fruits, of approved sorts, to be returned from table. Tlie best way, however, is to pick
some best ripe fruit, take out the seed, clean it from the pulp, and let it be well dried
and hardened ; and then put it up in papers. {Abercrombie. ) Nicol says, wash it very
clean, skimming off the light seeds, as those only that sink in water will grow. (JTo/.
p. 396. ) Great care must be taken that the sorts, from which seeds are saved, are
genuine and distinct. When different sorts are planted in the same frame, tliis cannot
be the case.

3315. Second crop from the same plants. " "NMien the fruit of the first crop is off, a
second crop may be obtained from the stools ; which often proves m«:e productive than
the first. If the first crop is taken before the middle of June, tlie second will come in
at a very good time. For this purpose, as soon as the fruit is cut, prune the plant.
Shorten the vigorous healthy runners at a promising joint, to force out new laterals ;
cutting about two inches above the joint. At the same time take off all decayed or
sickly vines, and all dead leaves. Stir tlie surface of the mould ; and renew it partially,
by three inches depth of fresh compost. Water the plant copiously ; shutting down the
glasses for the night. Shade in the middle of hot days ; and give but little air until the
plant has made new radicles and shoots. Afterwards repeat the course of culture above
described, from the stage when the first runners are sent out till fruit is cut."

3316. Nicol says, " When all the fruit of this crop are cut, suppose in three or four weeks, the plants
may be pruned for the production of a second crop, equal, and perhaps superior to the first They shoizld
be cut pretty much in, in order to cause them to push plenty of new vines, which wiU be very fruitful ;
observing to cut always at a joint of some promise, and to thin out all decayed or unhealthy vines, dead
leaves, &c. Observe, also, to cut at an inch or two above the joint you expect to push, and then to bruise
jheend of the stem so lopped with the thumb and finger ; which will, in a great measure, prevent it from
bleeding. The plants should be shaded from the mid-day sun, for a week or ten days ; exposing them to
Dis full rays by degrees. Now, also, let the mould in the frame be well watered, in order to put the roots
in a stateof active vegetation ; point over the surface, with a small stick, or little wedge ; and cover the
whole with about two inches of fresh mould. This will greatly encourage the plants, and cause them to
make new fibres near the surface. At this period air need not be admitted very freely, especially while
the glasses are covered; but, rather, as it were, endeavor to force the plants into new life. After they
begin to shoot, water, admit air, prune, train, and otherwise manage the plants as Ijefore directed. If the
season be fine they may yield you a third crop, by a repetition of the above rules, coming in in September,
which might be verv gratifying. I once had fifty-two full-sized fruit produced in a three-light frame, a
second crop, and two dozen a third, off the same plants, the early golden cantaleupe. Of the first crop
(twenty-six fruit) two were cut the 10th of May. Thus, a three-light box produced, in one season, 102
full-matured melons."

3317. M'P/uiil says, " If vou intend to have melons as long as there is a sufficiency of sun to ripen them
tolerablv well, you'had best put linings of warm dung to some of your beds. These, if applied in time
and kept on, will cast a fresh heat into the beds, and with other necessary assistance, the plants will grow
as long as you want them."

3318. La'e crop on old hot-beds. To ripen melons, not earlier than the month of
August, M'Phail " generally made beds of dung which had first been used for linings
to the early cucumber and melon beds. For this purpose, tliis kind of dung is better than

586 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

new dung, because it does not heat violently, and for a considerable time keeps its heat.
Leaves of trees make very good melon-beds, but they do not produce heat enough alone
for linings ; but of whatever materials melon-beds be made, the air in the frames among
the plants should be kept sweet and strong, otherwise the plants will not grow freely.
It may be known whether the air be sweet or whether it be not, by putting the head in
under the lights, and smelling it. But it frequently happens to be difficult to bring
dung-beds into a requisite state of kindliness for these delicate plants, for if the dung by
any means get and retain too much water before its noxious vapors pass off by evaporation,
it will stagnate and become sour, and, until these pernicious qualities be removed, which
requires time and patience, the plarlts will not grow kindly ; and besides this, although
corrupted stinking air hinders the growth of plants of the melon kind, it greatly promotes
the health and forwards the breeding of different kinds of insects, which feed upon and
otherways hurt fruits, and plants, and esculent vegetables of various kinds."

3319. Culture of melons in a dung-pit. *' A glazed pit to receive either stable-dung,
leaves, or tanners' bark, is calculated to ripen superior fine fruit. The well of the pit
may be formed either by a nine-inch wall, or by strong planking ; a yard in depth, from
six to eight feet wide, and in length from ten to twenty feet, or more, as required.
A low glass case is to be fitted to it, adapted to the growth of the melon. Having
raised the plants in a small seed-bed as for the frame crop, ridge them out into the pit in
the usual manner. Give the proper subsequent culture ; and when the strength of the
fermenting mass begins to decline, add linings outside the pit, if enclosed by boards ;
but if enclosed by a nine-inch wall, cut away as much of the dung and earth within, and
throw it out, as will admit a lining of well tempered dung." {Abercrombie.)

3320. Culture of melons in afued pit. One such as that proper for the nursing-pinery is
here understood ; and the plants being raised in the usual way, and the bed, whether filled
with dung, tan, or leaves, or a mixture of these, being moulded, plant about the end of July.
Nicol prefers for such late crops " the early golden cantaleupe, the orange cantaleupe, and
the netted cantaleupe, planting a part of the pit with each. A very mild bottom heat is
sufficient for the purpose here in view ; and if the pit have been occupied in th& forcing of
asparagus, French beans, or strawberries, on a bark, or bark and dung, or on a bark and leaf
heat, it will require no other preparation than to be stirred up, and have a little fresh
materials added ; keeping the fresh bark, dung, or leaves well down, and finishing the bed
with some of the smallest and best reduced. When it has settled a few days, let it be
moulded all over to the thickness of twelve or fifteen inches ; previously laying on a little
more of the above small materials, in order to keep the plants well up to the glass, as the
bed will fall considerably in the settling. It should be formed, and the mould should be
laid on, in a sloping manner, from back to front, so as in some measure to correspond
with the glasses. All being ready for the plants, they may either be planted in a row in
the middle of the pit, at two feet apart, or may be planted in two rows at four feet apart;
or, if they have been planted, in nursing, three in a pot, plant in the centre of each light,
as directed for the common hot-bed in March. Let them have a little water, and be
shaded from the sun for a few days ; exposing them to his rays by degrees. The future
management of the plants differs in nothing from that of melons in a hot-bed, till Sep-
tember, when it will be proper to apply fire-heat. About the beginning of September,
it will be proper to apply fire-heat, in order to further the progress of the late fruit,
and to dry off damps. Let the fires be made very moderate at first, however, and
increase their strength, as the season becomes more cold and wet. Keep the mercury
up to about 70° in the night; and in the day, by the admission of air, keep it down to
about 80^ or 75°. Very little water will now suffice for the plants, as their roots will
be fully established, and be spread over the whole bed ; the heat of which will also now
have subsided. They should only, therefore, have a little water once in eight or ten days;
and, as the fruit begin to ripen off, entirely withhold it. Keep the plants moderately thin
of vines and foliage ; be careful to pick off all damped leaves as they appear ; and fully
expose the fruit to the sun as it ripens, in the manner directed for melons in the hot-bed.
In this manner, I have often had melons in October and November, fully swelled, and in
good, but not of course in high perfection, for want of sun to give them flavor. Any who
have a pit of this kind, however, for the forcing of early vegetables, strawberries, flowers,
&c. cannot, perhaps, occupy it to a better purpose in the latter part of the season ; as the
trouble is but little, and the expense not worth mentioning." (Aa/.)

3321. Culture of melons in M^PhaWs brick-bed. The inventor of this pit says, "For
the purpose of raising melons early, for many years I cultivated them on a brick-bed, on
the same construction as that which I invented for rearing early cucumbers, excepting
only that through the pit of each three-light box I carried no cross flues. In each three-
light division I made the pit about three feet six inches wide, and ten feet long, and three
feet deep below the surface of the flues. When this bed was first set to work, I had the
pits filled level with the surface of the flues with well fermented dung, or with the dung
of old linings from the cucumber-beds. On the surface of the dung in the pits, I had

Book I. CULTURE OF THE MELON. 587

laid about ten inches thick of good earth, in a ridge of about twenty inches wide, from
one end of the pit to the otJier. When this was done, I made a lining round the bed, and
as soon as the earth became warm, I set the plants into the ridge of earth, and gave them
a little water, and kept a strong heat in the frames, and filled up the pit gradually as the
roots and plants extended themselves. The dung or leaves of trees in the pit require not
to be changed every year, neither need the earth for the plants be removed entirely every
season, for by experience I found it to do very well by digging and mixing with it some
fresh earth and manure in winter, and exposing it to the rains, the frost, and the snow.
In forcing melons early, the surface of the cross flues, as well as of the surrounding or
outside ones, should be kept bare of mould till the days in spring get long, which will let
the heat pf the linings arise freely through the covers of the flues to warm the air among
the plants. After the cross flues are covered with earth, those which surround each frame
may be left uncovered till the montJi of Mayor June." (G. Ret7i. p. 64.) The culture in
the brick-bed is in other respects the same as that already given for melons in frames, and
cucumbers in brick-beds. (3238.)

3322. Culture under hand-glasses. A succession, or late crop, to fruit in August and
September, may be raised on hot-bed ridges under hand-glasses.

3323. Sow in a hot-bed, from the middle of March to the middle of April. When the plants have been
up a few days, while in the seed leaves, prick some into small pots, two plants in each : water, and plunge
them into the hot-bed ; managing, as directed for the young frame-plants, till the rough leaves are
from two to four inches long, and ready to shoot into runners. From the middle of March to the third
week of May, when the plants are a month or five weeks old, they will be tit to ridge out under hand-
glasses.

3324. Fortrdng the bed. With well prepared stable-dung, or, with a mixture of fermented tree-leaves,
build the hot-bed four feet wide, and two feet and a half thick, the length according to the number of
glasses intended, allotting the space of four feet to each. In a week or ten days, or when the dung, or
dung and leaves, is brouglit to a sweet well tempered heat, mould the bed ten or twelve inches thick j
then place the glasses along the middle, and keep them close till the bed has warmed the earth.

3325. Planting. The same, or next day, insert the plants : turn them out from the ix)ts with the ball of
earth entire ; and, allotting plants for each glass, insert the ball into the earth clean down over the top
cosing the mould about the stems. Give a little water, and place the glasses over close.

33i^. Routine culture. From about nine in the morning till three in the afternoon, of the first two or
three days, shade the plants till they have taken root ; when admit the sun more freely ; yet only by de-
grees from day to day, till they can bear it fully without flagging much. Give air daily, in temperate
weather, by tilting tlie edge of the glasses, on the south side, an inch or two : but in the present stage of
the plants, shut close at night. Cover with mats till morning; constantly keeping the glasses over- Give
occasional moderate waterings, with aired water. Cover in the day-time with mats, in t)ad weather, or
heavy or cold rains ; and continue the night-covering till confirmed summer in July. Meanwhile, attend
to the heat of the bed : if this be declined, so that the minimam temperature be not G3^ at night, with the
aid of matting, line the sides with hot dung, covered with a layer of mould. The revived heat from the
lining will forward the plants in fruiting ; while the earth at top, will enlarge the surface for the runners,
and the bed for the roots. When the runners have extended considerably, and filled the glasses, they
must be trained out. Accordingly, at the beginning of June, in favorable settled warm weather, train out
the runners ; cutting away dwindling and useless crowding shoots : then the glasses must be raised ail
round, two or three inches, upon props, to remain day and night. Cover with mats in cold nights and bad
weather ; having, to support the mats, first arched the bed over with rods or hoop-bands. Apply moderate
waterings, as necessary, in the morning or afternoon. Oiled-paper frames, formed either archwise, or with
two sloping sides, about two feet or two and a half high, and of the width of tlie bed, are very serviceable
in this stage. Some i>ersons use them from the first, under a deficiency of hand-glasses. But the projier
time for recourse to them is when the plants have lieen forwarded in hand-glasses, till the runners require
training out beyond the limits of the glasses, some time in June : then removing the glasses, substitute
the oiled frames. As these paper screens will entirely cover the bed and plants, over which they are to
remain the rest of the season, they will afford protection from heavy rains or tempests, as well as from
nocturnal cold, and also screen the plants from the excessive heat of the sun, while, being jwUucid, tliey
admit its influence of light and warmth efFectually. Give proper admission of free air below, and occa-
sional watering. With respect, however, to the crop, for which no oiled-paper frames have been-i)rovided,
continue the hand-glasses constantly on the bed, over the main head and stem of the plants, throughout
the season, to defend those capital parts from casual injuries by the weather. Throughout June, and
thence to the decline of summer, be careful, if much rain, or other unfavorable weather, or cold nights
occur, to shelter the beds occasionally with an awning of mats or canvass ; i)articularly when the plants are
in blossom. Likewise, turn in some of the l)est full-set exterior fruit under the glasses ; or some spare
glasses might be put over the outside melons, to forward them without check to maturity.

3327. Crop. Some will be ready to cut in July, others in August the more general time, and in Sep-
tember ; they being generally, after setting, from thirty to forty days in rijiening. The crop coming in at
the decline of summer will not r\\^e\\ well, unless guarded from cold at nights, and assisted by linings. The
pomes that do not rii>en may be used as substitutes for mangoes,

3328. Cullure on wide ridges. The fruiting-bed may be made six, seven, or eight feet
wide, for the plants to have an ample surface for their extending runners ; defended
either with a regular frame and glasses of proportionate dimensions, or with a case formed
of inch-and-half boarding, ranged connectedly along both sides of the bed, without any
internal cross divisions other than top cross bars, to stay the sides, and support the
glasses. ■( Abercrombie. )

3329. Cullure on slojnng bayiks. Williams, of Pilmaston, has for several years been
trying to give increased hardiness to the melon, by growing it in the open air. He does
not state what varieties he grows, but his bed {fig. 463.) is placed on the open ground (o,
a), and is formed of a row of wooden posts," three feet six inches high, to the soutli
face of which boards are nailed (6). The surface of the bed is an inclined plane, fronting
the south ; covered with slates laid upon the mould, and not overlapping. There is
another row of posts {d, dj, two feet six inches high, to which boards are nailed on

588

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

4G3

the north face, forming a space (e, e) three feet wide, extending the whole length of
the bed on its north side, and ^^^ i,

this is filled with mowings of
grass, weeds, fallen leaves,
haulm, and other refuse of
the garden. The melon-plants
(/) grow on tlie inclined plane,
beneath which is old spent
tanners' bark trodden hard (^),
and over it nine inches of me-
lon soil. The plants are placed
on this bed in May, under
hand-glasses; the shoots, as
they advance, are pegged down ;
fruit is cut in August, and from that time till the plants are killed by frost in October. -
{Hort. Trans, v. 346.)

3330. Insects and diseases. To prevent melon-plants from being infested with insects,
or injured by disease of any kind, no better method can be adopted than to keep the
plants constantly in a healthy, vigorous, growing state ; for this purpose, M'Phail ob-
serves, " tliey must be constantly attended to, giving them plenty of heat and water. In
warm weather, in the spring and in summer, they should be watered occasionally all
over their fruit and leaves, till the earth in which they grow be thoroughly moistened,
and a stronger heat than usual kept in the frames about the plants for a few hours ; also
the lights should be shut down every afternoon, with a good strong heat among the
plants. If there be sufficient moisture in the earth, the greatest sun-heat in the afternoon
will not hurt the plants, but it might scorch the sides of large fruit exposed to the sun-
beams operating upon the glass, which should be guarded against. The frames and
lights should be kept clean, and painted over once every other year.

3331. Mildew and canker. " Melon-plants are subject to be infected and hurt by the mildew and by
the canker. These diseases come upon them because they are not in a good climate, they have not a
sufficiency of heat, or the dung and earth of the bed is in a stagnated state. Melon-plants are liable
to be greatly injured by the red spider, which increaseth surprisingly in hot dry weather. As I said
before, nothing will prevent plants from the inroads of disease and insects but heat, sweet air, and a
sufficiency of water, which sweetens the atmosphere, and makes it healthy for vegetables as well as for
enimals. And nothing will eradicate disea!se and insects from melon-plants but good management, strong
Heat, and plenty of water given all over them. Diseased plants, or plants much infested with insects, cannot
produce good healthy fruit. The mildew is a most pernicious disease to all sorts of plants. On melons it
generally makes its first appearance on the oldest leaves, and on the extremities of the young shoots.
The cause of it, I apprehend, is unhealthy nourishment comprehended in the elements, or their not har-
monising in the promotion of the growth of the plant; for by practitioners it may be observed, that
when a dung hot-bed gets into a stagnated sour state, the plants do not grow kindly, the air in the frames
is saturated with unhealthy particles, and so also must be the juices drawn into the plants by their roots.
These must breed diseases, if preventive means be not applied. It cannot be reasonably supposed that
plants of a delicate nature will continue in a healthy state, growing upon a heap of stinking dung, and in
confined air."

3332. Red spider. " When melon-plants have become diseased, or much infested with the red spider,
they should either be destroyed or effectual means used to cure them. To destroy the plants is easy ; to
cure them, let the following methods be put in practice : get plenty of horse-dung thrown up in a large
heap, turn it over once or twice, shaking and mixing it well, and let it lie till its rankness be somewhat
evaporated, and if there be linings at the beds, take them entirely away ; examine the dung of the beds,
and if it be wet and has a bad smell, take a sharp-pointed stake, and make holes all round in the sides
of the beds into their centre, in such a slanting way that the water may easily run out of them ; then
make a strong lining of the prepared dung all round the beds, and by occasional augmentations keep up
the linings nearly to a level with the surface of the earth in which the plants grow. As soon as the
linings have cast a strong heat into the beds, scatter some flour of sulphur all over the plants, and keep as
strong a heat in the frame as the plants can bear ; a heat of 120 degrees will not destroy them, if the steam
of the linings be prevented from getting in among the plants. Water the plants all over their leaves about
once a-week with clean water 100 degrees warm, and if the sun shine, keep the lights close shut down all
day, and cover them up in the evening, leaving a little air all night at each light, to prevent a stagnation
of air among the plants. Continue this process till the mildew and the insects disappear, andthe plants
appear to grow freely, and afterwards manage them in the usual way, taking care to keep up a good
strong heat in the linings. This method sets the old stagnated bed in a fermentation, which makes the
moisture run out of it, and dries it so, that water given to the plants has free liberty to pass off. If the
linings do not heat the air in the frames sufficiently, let some of the earth in the inside all round the sides
of the boards be removed, to let the heat from the linings rise freely in the frame."

Sect. VIII. Forcing the Strawberry in Hot-houses, Pits, and Hot-beds.
3333. The strawberry is forced in every description of forcing-house, and also in the
pinery, though the heat of the latter often prevents the setting of tlie blossoms. Where
they are forced in large quantities, it is a good method to apply a pit to their sole culti-
vation. M'Phail says, '* They will occasionally do well in a hot-house for growing the
pine ; but a heat sufficient to force peaches and nectarines is more natural, and likely to
secure tlie obtaining of good crops of fine fruit. A good way of forcing the strawberry,"
he adds, " is to bring them forward in a gentle heat in melon-frames, till the fruit be
nearly about half swelled, and then to give them a stronger heat to ripen them." {Gr,
Mem. 29.) Nicol thinks " the climate of the cherry-house most suitable to the nature

Book I. FORCING THE STRAWBERRY IN HOT-HOUSES, &c. 589

of strawberries ; they will do well in a hot-bed j but the best method is to force them in
flued pits, such as that for nursing pines."

33S4. Soil. All agree that strawberries to be forced in pots require a strong and a very
rich loamy earth.

3335. Choice of sorts. Abercrombie and Nicol recommend the alpine and scarlet
Virginia ; to which Nicol adds the wood strawberry. Morgan (Hurt. Trans, vol. ii.
p. 376.) begins with the alpines j next he takes the Bath scarlets and common scarlets;
and after these the pines.

3336. Potting and preparation of the plants. Abercrombie says, the plants selected
should be two years old, having attained a full bearing state. It conduces to the per-
fection of the fruit, to put as many plants as are intended to be forced into pots, that
they may be previously nursed for a longer or shorter time, according to the age of the
stool.

3337. New runners of the present summer may be potted in July and August and nursed in pots for
io seasons, having the blossoms pinched off in the second. This course of preparation is attended with

most trouble : but the crop repays it. Three offsets may be planted in one large pot

3338. Runners made last year may be potted in April, and then plunged in the earth, to be nursed
throughout the growing season with a view to forcing, having such blossoms as appear pinched off, while
the roots are carefully watered.

3339. Stools of two years' standing, which have borne one crop, may be put into pots in August, Septera-
T or October. They may also be put into pots during any mild interval from the beginning of Novem-
r, till the end of the year ; but they will not be so strong and well rooted. The method of potting established

bearers is this. The pots should be twenty-fours or thirty-twos ; provide at the same time some fresh
and good rich loam. Put some of the earth, well broken with the spade, and free from grubs or hurtful
worms, into each pot, to the depth of three or four inches. Then take up the plants, with a ball of earth
to the root of- each ; pare the ball with a knife till it be pretty round ; and having cleared the stem of the
plant from any withered or rotten leaves, place it in the pot, which fill up to the surface of the ball with
the prepared earth. Water the plants as they are potted, and remove them to a warm situation. On the
approach of winter, all the potted plants, whether established bearers or nmners, should be placed imder
a frame, or other suflBcient shelter, till the hot-bed or forcing-house is ready to receive them.

3340. yrPhail says, " Strawberry-plants intended for forcing should be planted in pots eight or ten
months before they be set into the forcing-house ; or strong plants may be taken up with bal& of earth
about their roots, and be potted and set into the forcing-house immediately."

33tl. Nicol says, " Some force old roots or stools, and others the runners only. Those who force the
old roots generally lift and pot them about October or November ; lifting a bulk from the bed or row,
nearly sufficient to fill a nine or ten inch pot, of plants three or more years old. Others plant runners of
the former year in April, three or four in a large pot, or two in a middle-sized one, and plunge them in
the earth all summer, giving them occasional waterings, and taking proper care of them. These succeed
better than old roots, treated as above. But when I was in the practice of forcing strawberries, I used
to prepare my plants in the following manner : In July or August, I planted runners of that season, three
in a nine or ten inch pot, watered them, and placed them in the shade for a few days ; then plunged
them to the brim, in a freely exposed situation. In October, their leaves were dressed off, and the plants
trimmed ; and before winter, they were covered with a little dry litter, in order to preserve the pots from
the effects of frost. The following spring, any flowers that made their appearance were pinched off; and
throughout the summer, the plants were occasionally refreshed with water, and kept clear from weeds.
In autumn, the leaves were again dressed off as before ; and when taken up for forcing, the pots were
dressed, and fresh earthed at top, previous to being placed in the forcing-house. This method of pre-
paring the plants is no doubt more troublesome than either of the above-mentioned ; but the plants, by
l)eing completely established, and of a proper age, produce better crops. I have tried all the three "ways
repeatedly, and prefer the last."

3342. Morgan raises his alpines from seed, sowing in January in frames or boxes, to be placed in a gentle
heat ; he hardens them atler they come up by removal to a cooler situation ; pots in May in pots six inches
diameter and six inches deep. In October they are in flower, when he puts them under shelter, and in
the latter end of November he places them in the forcing-house or pinery, where they bear fruit through
the winter. The scarlets he pots, three plants in a pot, of the same size as those used for the alpines in
May, or early in June, taking the runners of the previous year ; he picks off the blossoms as they appear,
and keeps them in a shady place till January, when he places them in the forcing-house on shelves eighteen
inches from the glass, each pot in a pan. The pine-strawberries he pots in the same manner, and takes
them into the forcing-house in February or March.

3343. Time of beginning to force. If the fruit be wanted very early, the plants are
put in hot-beds, or pits, in October ; but the crops from strawberries so forced, Nicol
thinks hardly worth the trouble. Abercrombie says, " Begin to force strawberries about
nine weeks before you want to gather fruit. Plants excited before the first of January
seldom repay the trouble ; and in proportion as the time of beginning to force approaches
the vernal equinox, the returns are more abundant. To have a succession, reserve sets
of potted plants for removal into a house, or frame, every three weeks, till the middle of
March." He adds, " Strawberries taken into the house in March, fruit in higher per-
fection than those forced earlier."

3344. 3f*PAa»^anrfA7co/ begin in January. The latter observes, " Those who force 8trawl)erries to a con-
siderable extent, perhaps a thousand pots, bring them in, in different successions, perhaps a himdred or
two at a time ; this is, in places where there are several forcing-houses." {Kal. p. 330.) M'Phail says,
" When the weather begins to get cold in September, strawberries of the alpine kind in pots may be set
in a forcing-house or brick frame ; and if they be in good health, they will produce fruit for a considerable
time. They require only a gentle heat of from 50 to 60 degrees ; give them water occasionally, but as
there is constantly blossom and fruit on them, they need not be watered all over broad-cast. Give them
great plenty of air : they only require protection from heavy rains and cold weather."

3345. Morgan, as we have noticed above (3342.), begins to force alpines in November, the scarlets in
January, and the pines in February and March. Thus ensuring, as he says, a successional supply of fruit
from October till June.

3346. Temperature. Abercrombie says, begin at 40°, and raise the heat as in the cherry-house. When
a pit is employed, Nicol directs the pots to be plunged in a mild bark-heat ; and the temperature, bv the
aid of the flues, to be kept at 50**, and 55° or 66° in sunshine. Such treatment will make the plants thrive,
and the fruit set freely. Morgan prefers beginning with the heat of a frame on dxrng, or a pit, and the

590 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

moves to the peach-house ; and, after the firuit is set, removes his plants to ripen in the vinery or stove.
Scarlets, he finds, bear more heat than the other sorts.

3347. Air and water. The former is to be freely, admitted in good weather; and the
latter plentifully supplied at all times, until the fruit begins to ripen off. Then it is to
be withheld, lest the flavor become insipid. Morgan prefers supplying it from pans, in
order not to rot the hearts of the plants. He gives as little water as possible when the
plants are nearly ripe, this being essential in order to have good-flavored fruit.

3348. Treatment after gathering the fruit. The strawberry, it is generally considered,
will not force the year after like fruit-trees ; but must be rested by plunging in the open
ground for one or two years, pinching off all blossoms as they appear. Williams states,
that ** the scarlet strawberry, after affording a crop of fruit in the hot-house early in the
spring, if carefully removed out of the pots or boxes, and placed in the open ground, will
yield another crop of fruit in September. The second crop is very abundant, the warm
rains of July and August proving highly favorable to the growth of the fruit ; and, as there
is no other straAvberry to be had at this season of the year, except the alpine, the addi-
tion of the scarlet makes a pleasing variety in the dessert." (Hort. Tr. vol. ii. p. 93.)
Morgan observes, without limiting his observation to any one sort, that " after the fruit
has been gathered from the plants, the pots should be plunged into a shady border, giving
them a good watering, and at the same time cutting off the leaves : when thus treated,
they will, in the year following, produce as good crops in forcing as fresh-potted plants ;
if not wanted for this purpose, they may be turned out into the natural ground, and will
then bear a crop in the autumn of the same year, as described by Williams above."

Sect. IX. Forcing Asparagus in Pits and Hot-beds.

3349. Asjmragus is forced with equal, or with greater success, and with less trouble
in flued pits than in dung hot-beds. M'Phail recommends his brick-bed for this purpose.
The roots, Nicol states, may either be forced on bark, or on dung, or on dung and bark.
But old half-rotten bark, in which there is not much heat, is to be preferred. Next to
this he uses well fermented dung underneath, and old bark to the thickness of a foot or
fifteen inches at top. " If dung alone, or a mixture of dung and leaves be used, it
should be carefully fermented, and should be in a state past heating violently before it
is put into the pit. In this case, observe to finish the bed with the smallest and driest
part of the materials." Ross (^Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 361.), instead of a warm stratum
of dung or tan, places his roots on a cold bed of the latter, on which nursing-pines or
melons have been grown, but which has ceased to ferment. He then applies warm
linings to the sides, and thus produces the requisite degree of heat. Sabine, having
seen in Ross's pits, in January, 1817, some of the strongest asparagus he ever noticed at
that season, concludes, " that the weak and drawn state of forced asparagus is occasioned
by tiie action of the dung inamediately on its root." He therefore greatly prefers Ross's
mode.

3350. Choice of plants. M'Phail says, take roots of any age that bear fine grass.
Nicol says they should not be under four years old, nor above eight. Abercrombie takes
plants of two or three years' standing.

3351. Planting. M'Phail says, " Lay on the surface of the bark-bed from six
to eight inches of vegetable mould, or any other sort of light earth that the heat may easily
ascend through, and of such a texture as does not retain water. Take up plants, no
matter what age they are, which produce fine asparagus, trim their roots, and place them
in rows on the beds ; when one row is laid, strew a little fine mould among the roots,
then proceed in the same way with one row after another, keeping them on a level, as the
surface of the bed at first lay, till you have finished planting them ; then lay among the
buds and roots some fine vegetable, or other light rich mould, working it in among them
with your fingers, and cover the buds over about one inch thick, and above that lay three
inches in depth of vegetable mould not very rotten, but such as the water will run quickly
through. If you have not got vegetable mould of this description, old tan, not very fine,
will answer the purpose equally well. If there is a strong heat in the bed, let the glasses
remain off till it begin to decline." Nicol directs, that the roots in the beds in the open
air, which are to be taken up and forced, should be kept covered with litter, so as to be
easy to come at in time of frost.

3352. Time of beginning to force. Abercrombie says, if in mid-winter, begin six
weeks before you propose to have a crop ; when the days are longer, five weeks, or but a
calendar month before. Nicol says, those who wish to have the asparagus on the table
at Christmas, should prepare for forcing it in November, to have a continual succession.

3353. Temperature. The temperature at night should never be imder 50°. In the
day-time keep the maximum heat down to 62°. « If by the heat of the bark or dung,
and the use of mats or canvass covers at night, the thermometer stand as high as 50°, fire-
heat will be unnecessary ; but otherwise recourse must be had to the flues. A very
moderate degree of fire-heat, however, will be sufficient ; and a small fire made in the

Book I. FORCING ASPARAGUS IN PITS AND HOT-BEDS. 591

evening will generally answer the purpose. Sometimes, in dull hazy weather, a fire
may be necessary in the morning, in order to enable you to admit air more freely, and
to dry oflf damp." {Abercrombie and Nicol^

3354. Air must be freely admitted every day in some cases to allow any steam to pass
off; and for the sake of the color and flavor of the plants. As the buds begin to appear,
as large portions of air must be daily admitted as the weather will permit.

3355. Water. "NMien the asparagus-bed has, after planting, stood two or three days,
and when the heat will have begun to warm the root, give the plants a sufficient wa-
tering. Pour it out of a pot with a rose on it, to imitate a shower of rain ; let the bed
have enough to moisten the mould well, and to wash it in among the roots. Repeat such
waterings now and then. Nicol.says, the roots must have moderate supplies of water:
once in three or four days, if the heat be not violent ; and if otherwise, oftener.

3356. Gathering. " By the time tlie buds have come up tliree inches above the surface,
they are fit to gather for use, as they will then be six or seven inches in length. In ga-
thering them, draw aside a little of the mould, slip down the finger and thumb, and twist
them off from the crown. This is a better method than to cut them ; at least it is less
dangerous to the rising buds, which come up in thick succession, and might be wounded
by the knife, if cutting were practised."

3357. Forced roots. The roots, after they have furnished a crop, are considered use-
less for future culture, because no leaves having been allowed to develope themselves, of
course no buds could be formed for the succeeding year.

3358. Successional supplies. If tlie pit in which asparagus is forced, be twenty-five or
thirty feet long, it will be enough, for the supply of an ordinary family, to fill one half
at a time. If the second half be planted when the grass in the first half is fit for use,
and so on, a constant succession may be kept up in the same pit for any length of time
required. In order, however, to forward or protract the growth of the one part or of the
other, the pit may be divided in a temporary way, by fitting a board neatly under the
middle rafter. By this means, one half may be kept cooler or hotter than the other, by
matting or not matting, or by the admission of more or less air, &c. " In filling the
first end of the pit a second time, if bark be used, it will not be necessary to add fresh
materials ; as trenching over the bed will be found to answer the purpose, even a third
time. And in using dung, the stirring up of the old, and adding as much new as will
raise the bed to a proper height, finishing with the smallest and best fermented part, will
generally be sufficient for a second filling. For a third filling, one half new dung may
be necessary, which, however, should be moderately fermented, and be kept well down."

3359. Forcing asjxtragus iti hot-beds. Asparagus may be brought to perfection in
hot-beds at any time from November till it comes in the natural ground. When it
is intended to have a constant supply from hot-beds, M'Phail recommends one to be
made every fortnight, and Abercrombie once a month, from November till April. This
must, of course, be arranged according to the size of the hot-beds and number of the
family.

3360. Forming the hot-bed. M'Phail says, " Get a quantity of good dung well pre-
pared, by putting it together in a heap to ferment, that the rancidity of it may be evapo-
rated, by turning and mixing it several times when there is a strong heat in it ; make it
up into a bed about three feet high, and four or five inches larger all round than the size
of the frames, which are to be set upon it. Wlien it is made, set the boxes and glasses
on, and let it heat and stand till it is sweet, which may be known by the smell of it ;
then tread it level, and loosen up the surface again, that the heat may have free liberty to
arise." In this stage, Nicol covers the whole with " rolls or squares of turf, cut so as
again to join exactly ; which lay green side down, and beat them well with the back of the
spade, that the whole may be close and compact, in order as much as possible to exclude
steam." To this practice M'Phail objects, as preventing the water from sinking freely
into the bed ; and if there be a sufficient heat in it for winter forcing, unless it receive
water, it must become dry and husky. The method, he says, is an old one practised
fifty years ago, and now exploded by every good gardener. Instead of turf, therefore,
M'Phail and Abercrombie, after setting on the frame, direct, with the bed from five to
eight inches thick, to use any sort of light earth. Nicol says, " I have often used old
bark reduced to a fine mould, without any mixture of earth, and have sometimes
mixed it with fine sandy earth, \^'ith little cUfference in the success ; only I have ob-
served, that when the roots were placed in bark entirely, the buds would come a few
days earlier."

3361. Planting. Proceed as directed for planting on a bark-bed. Abercrombie says,
" Provide from five to nine hundred (he elsewhere says six hundred) roots for a hot-bed
under a three-light garden-frame. Having prepared the roots, mark out on the sur-
face of the mould the width of the frame ; then, beginning at one end, raise a small
ridge of earth crosswise, and proceed to planting ; placing the first course of roots nearly
upright, close against the said ridge, and with the crowns in contact, either upon the sur-

592 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

face of the level earth, or with only the lower ends of the roots a little inserted : place
more against these in the same manner, as close together as possible, and extending to
the width of the frame : add successive ranges, as close as they can be set, with the
crowns of an equal height." Where tlie bed is completely planted, the crowns are to be
earthed over regularly. Some, as Abercrombie, cover with two inches of light eartli,
adding, M'hen the buds appear, three or four inches of additional earthing ; others, as
Nicol*and M'Phail, cover at once with four or five inches, adding no more afterwards.
The planting completed, the next thing is to put on the lights, which are to be kept close
shut down till the heat begin to rise in the frame ; which will generally happen the se-
cond or third day, when air is to be admitted, in order to pass off the steam, and dry the
surface of the mould. Air must be given every good day till the buds begin to appear
above ground ; and then more freely admitted to give color and flavor.

3362. Produce in hot-beds. Nicol says, " An ordinary-sized three-light frame, com-
pletely filled with roots, and properly managed, will only yield a dish every day for about
three weeks."

3363. Successional supjilies from hot-beds. On the above estimate, if a constant suc-
cession of asparagus be required, it will be necessary to make up a bed every eighteen
or twenty days till the middle or end of March. Each successive bed may be made a
little lighter; and less trouble will be required as the season advances. {Kal. 347.)

3364. Forcing the roots as they stand in the open ground. Stir the surface of any bed
or beds in full bearing in the general plantation ; then, having raked it fine as in the
usual spring dressing, cover three inches with the siftings of old tan, and on that lay a
layer of fermenting dung, as in forcing rhubarb or sea-kale. This mode has been but
seldom practised ; but we consider it likely to succeed to a certain extent.

3365. Melross " finds, that asparagus may be forced in a vinery, by planting the roots in the border,
behind the flue, where no vine roots are." (Caled. Hart. Mem. iii. 164.)

3366. Sea kale and rhubarb may be, and sometimes are, forced in the same manner as
asparagus ; but the most general mode is to excite them where they stand in the open
garden, by the application of warm dung, with or without earth iii pots, or other covers,
(See the Horticultural Catalogue.)

Sect. X. Forcing Kidneybeans,

3367. The kidneybean may be successfully forced in pits, hot-houses or forcing-houses,
and hot-beds. The more general mode is to force in the pine -stoves ; the same heat
which suits the pine-apple, suiting the kidneybean, which is a native of India. Nicol
prefers a flued pit, such as that used for nursing pines : and Abercrombie says,
" Where tliere are no hot-houses, or where kidneybeans are to be raised in quantities for
the market, the most economical and successful mode will be found a flued pit, prepared
as directed for asparagus, but with a stronger bottom heat."

3368. Soil. All agree in recommending light vegetable earth.

3369. Sorts. Abercrombie recommends the early speckled, early negro, and dun-
colored dwarfs. Nicol says the speckled dwarf is the best sort.

3370. Sowi7ig. Sow in flat boxes or pans of fine light earth thickly, and cover to
the depth of an inch. Let them be placed in a stove or hot-bed, and have moderate
supplies of water, and they will be fit to plant when about three inches in height.
Plant them in rows across the bed of the pit fifteen inches apart, and three inches distant
in the line.

3371. Culture. Water after planting, and afterwards, as required; give abundance of
air every fine day, and earth up the plants as they advance in growth in order to give
them strength.

3372. Time of beginning to force. M'Phail says, "If you wish to endeavor to have
kidneybeans green all the year, you should plant the seeds, and begin to force in
August." Abercrombie observes, " Some forcers, quite in opposition to the season,
raise kidneybeans in August, and thence till the 21st December, which day may be
regarded as the boundary between late and early forcing."

3373. Temperature. The heat by fire in the night need not exceed 50°, according to
Nicol ; but Abercrombie recommends eo*' for a minimum, and 75*^ for a maximum.

3374. Successional siqijilies are to be obtained by sowing every month or six weeks, for
which purpose the pits may be divided by temporary partitions, as recommended under
Forcing Asparagus. (Sect. IX.)

3375. Forcing in hot-houses. " The most early fruit in perfection," says Abercrombie,
"is obtained by culture in a stove, sowing from midwinter till the end of March."
Sow in pots, or oblong boxes, containing a mixture of light fresh earth and vegetable
mould, depositing the seeds either in a triangular or quincunx order, and full an inch
deep. If the plants are to fruit where sown, the cradles should be ten inches deep ; but,
if they are to be transplanted, which admits a greater number in the same space, the seed-
pots or boxes may be shallow. Do not fill the cradles with mould at first, to allow of

Book I. FORCING POTATOES. 393

gradually earthing up. When the beans have germinated, sprinkle the earth with
water; after tiie plants have risen, give moderate waterings every other day — the last
crops may want water every day. Sprinkle also the leaves with water warmed by stand-
ing in the house. Those raised in shallow pans should be transplanted for fruiting when
two or three inches high. It is sometimes proper to stop luxuriant runners. These in-
cidental crops may stand in rows, on the flues, or oft shelves ; but take care they do not shade
the pines and other principal plants. For succession, sow every fortnight or three weeks.

3376. Forcing in a peach or cherry house, Nicol observes, *' French beans may be
successfully planted out in the borders of an early cherry-house or peach-house, so as
that they may not be overmuch shaded by the trees ; but they seldom do much good in a
vinery, where they are shaded by the whole foliage of the vines."

3377. Forcing in a common hot-bed. " Under the deficiency of a house, you may
have recourse to a hot-bed and frame ; but the culture will be attended with more
trouble, the course will be longer,- and the fruit is rarely so fine and plentiful ; nor
without fire-heat can the difficulties of late or very early forcing be so well contended
with. From the middle of February to the beginning of April is the most successful
period for forcing the kidneybean in a hot-bed. The early white dwarf, from its low-
growth, is to be sown in preference to the kinds recommended for a stove, unless it be
intended to fruit the plants in a deeper frame than ordinary. The early yellow and
early black are next, as not growing very high. The temperature for the kidneybean
is 60° for the minimum, and 75° for tlie maximum of the fruiting-bed. In forcing
soon in the spring, raise the plants on a smaller bed, earthed over with light rich com-
post six inches deep. Sow the beans thickly, covering them to the depth of an inch.
The second hot-bed should be earthed over, to the depth of eight or nine inches.
Into this transplant the seedlings as soon as they are two or three inches high ; setting
them in cross rows twelve or fifteen inches asunder, by four or three inches in a line. Or
when the season is so far advanced, that one bed with the help of linings will bring the
plants well into fruit, you may sow at once, at the full distance, in a similar hot-bed, to
continue for podding. Cover the glasses every night with garden-mats ; also partially
in severe weather. Admit fresh air moderately every mild day, and give occasional
gentle waterings. The plants raised in February will come into bearing in April and
May, making moderate returns : a new crop every three weeks will keep up the suc-
cession : those sown at the beginning of April w-ill last till the middle or end of June;
when they will be succeeded by the early half-sheltered crops in the open garden."

3378. Crop raised under glass to fruit in the open garden. " At the end of March, you may sow a small
portion under glass, for transplanting into the open garden in the first or second week of May. It is not
so well to sow in patches on the surface of the ground, as in small pots, because the plants can be turned
out from the latter with less check to their growth when transplanted. Sow three beans in each pot.
When the seedlings are two or three inches high, harden them by degrees to the fuU air ; and plant them
on a good open border as soon in May as the season will suit They will yield fruit about a fortnight
sooner than the earliest raised under exposure to the we£ither."

3379. Crop raised on slight heat. " A crop to fruit early in the open garden may be accelerated with
more certainty by plunging the pots containing the seed-beans into a gentle hot-bed ; or some sown in
shallow pans or boxes may be set on the shelves of a stove. Just at the opening of April will be early
enough to begin ; as the plants will otherwise get too forward for the weather, to proceed well without a
continuance of artificial heat. Having nursed them to the proper stage, plant out imder a south fence,
either three inches apart, if in a single line, and eighteen inches by three, if in two Jines; or it may be
better to set the plants in patches of nine or seven, to receive the temporary shelter of a hand-glass, lest
the transition from a hot-bed, all at once, to the fluctuating air of spring be too violent" {Abercrombie.)

3380. Insects. Nicol observes, that " the thrips often attacks French beans in the
hot-house ; and, therefore, the plants should be fumigated with tobacco, which destroys
that insect."

Sect. XI. Forcing Potatoes,

3381. Thepotatoe is forced in a great variety of ways ; but, " for a fair crop of tubers,
which shall be somewhat dry and flowery, and of the size of hens' eggs ; plant sets of the
ash-leaved variety in single pots, filled one tliird pa.t with light earth, in January. Place
tiiem in a hot-house or hot-bed, earth them up as they appear, and about the middle or
end of February transplant them with their balls entire into a pit prepared as for
asparagus. Distance from plant to plant one foot each way. Give water occasionally,
and admit as much air as possible at all times. Potatoes so managed will produce a
crop the end of March or beginning of April." {Abercrombie.)

3382. Forcing potatoes in hot-beds. Abercrombie says, " A young crop is easily
obtained soon in spring, by planting the early dwarf, or the sort called mules, on a slight
hot-bed. Put in the sets pretty thickly, at six or eight inches square distance, as the
potatoes are not to grow large. If planted successively in January and February, they
will produce young crops for use in April and May, to be taken up in small portions as
wanted for present eating. During tlie growth of the plants, open the lights fully in the
middle of fine dry days ; but mat at night to guard against frost. Water attentively as
the mould and weather may require."

Q q

594 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part IH.

3383. Nicol says, " Plant some of the early sorts of potatoes thickly, on slight hot-beds, in February, to
be covered with a frame and lights j or to be hooped over, and be covered witli mats or canvass at
night, and in bad weather, which is a very good method of obtaining early potatoes, as they are not so
much drawn, as if kept close under glass. A moderate dung-heat is sufficient for the purpose ; and the
plants, after they have come up, should be exposed from morning till night in good weather, but should
be carefully covered at night for fear of frost. Even in using frames and lights, they should be fully ex-
posed in good weather, and should not be kept so closely shut up as is commonly done ; by which they are
drawn entirely to tops, and do little good at root. In either case they should have moderate and regular
supplies of water."

3384. Hogg, a market-gardener, describes " a method of growing early forced potatoes," by using an
old cucumber or melon bed, in which the dung has long lost all its heat. The sets of a very early sort, a
variety of Foxe's yellow seedling, known by the name of this grower, are cut a fortnight before they are
planted, to prevent their damping, or being injured by worms. The bed is prepared by removing all the
earth from the top of the dung, and covering it about one inch deep with fresh mould, on which the sets
are planted, in rows six inches apart, and the same distance from each other in the rows ; they are then
covered four inches deep with mould, and the frames and glasses are placed upon the bed, which must be
carefully protected from frost. The covering best adapted for this purpose, is the second crop of short hay,
called rowen, in the neighborhood of London. At the end of the fifth day, the outsides of the old
dung shouldbe cut away, from near the edge of the frame to*rhe bottom of the bed, in a slanting direction
inwards, of about fifteen inches from the perpendicular ; strong linings of hot dung must be applied to the
space so made, and renewed, if necessarj', at the end of three weeks. Air must be given to the plants,
by sliding down the lights at noon every day that the weather will permit, and water in the mornings,
leaving about one inch of the light open for the admission of air after watering. The potatoes wiU be fit
for use in about seven weeks from the first planting of the sets, and the average crop to each light, if well
managed, is usually about five pounds." {Hort. Tr. vol. ii. p. 144.)

3385. Knighfs mode of forcing potatoes in hot-beds is as follows : " The varieties of potatoes, which
are well calculated for early forcing, begin to vegetate before Christmas ; and it is of consequence to pre-
serve the germs and roots first emitted from injury, where a crop of good potatoes is required before the
end of May.. I therefore plant my potatoes in pots of about six inches diameter in January (a>ingle
potatoe in each), and the pots are then placed in the ground, and covered with litter, to protect' them
from frost ; and in this situation they remain till the hot-bed is ready to receive them. In the mean time,
the roots extend themselves through the mould within the pots, and the germs reach its surface ; whilst
the excitability of the plants is not all expended on account of the low temperature in which they vegetate :
and, therefore, when plunged into the hot-bed, they instantly shoot with excessive rapidity, and in a fewf
days begin to generate tubers. One stem alone should be suffered to grow in each pot ; for where more
remain, the tubers are smaller, and the crop is not increased in weight. When the jjlants grow in small
pots, the gardener will have apparently the advantage of being able to take out the largest potatoes by
inverting the pots, without materially injuring the fibrous roots ; but this practice will rarely be found
eligible, because the plants, having the range of their roots confined to the limits of the pot, soon
occupy the whole of their pasture, and therefore do not produce their tubers in succession as they will
under common circumstances. The lights should be drawn off during the day, when the spring is far
enough advanced to permit this to be done without injury to the plants ; and early in May the pots may
be taken out of the hot-bed, which may be employed for other purposes ; and as it must necessarily have
been kept very dry during the latter period of the growth of the potatoes, it will generally afford a strong
heat on being well watered. I confine my plants (which are naturally of a very dwarfish growth) to
small pots, because under this mode of culture the tubers acquire maturity sooner, and are better ; but
the crop is not so heavy as when their fibrous roots are permitted to extend more widely ; and therefore,
where a larger, but rather later crop, is required, the best plan is to put the tubers to vegetate in small
pots, and from these to remove them, with their roots and germs uninjured, to the hot-bed. I tried the
effect of placing a few tubers (half a dozen only) on the floor of my cellar, disposing them just in contact
with each other ; and as soon as the germs were about four inches long, a hot-bed was made ready to re-
ceive them. This experiment succeeded perfectly ; and as it is not attended with so much expense and
trouble as either of the preceding methods, it will be found, in many cases, the most eligible. All that
appears necessary to obtain an early crop, is to advance the growth of the plant, as much as convenient,
under low temperature, so as to avoid all unnecessary expenditure of its excitability ; and subsequently,
to preserve its germs and roots as much as possible uninjured in transplantation."

3386. Forcing potatoes in pots or boxes. This is sometimes attempted in stoves. One
set is placed near the bottom of a large pot, and gradually earthed up. When nearly
full grovv^n, it is taken to the cherry or peach house for the sake of more air. Another
mode of planting in pans or boxes is thus described by Abercrombie : " Plant potatoes
of the growth of the season before the last; that is, the produce of 1816 to be planted in
December 1817, or January 1818. Potatoes so kept will appear surrounded by a brood of
new potatoes in contact with the seed or parent potatoe. The leaf-buds are removed,
and the potatoes planted in a circle and in layers, in earthen pans or wooden boxes, with
alternations of fine loose earth. Such pans or boxes may be put into sheds, or on shelves
in the kitchen, &c. By this treatment, no leaves will emerge above the soil, and young
potatoes may be reared at any required period." A similar mode is described by
A. Sherbrook, Esq. (Hort. Tr. vol. i. 225.) The boxes, containing alternate layers of
light earth and potatoes of the preceding year, are placed in a dry covered place, free
from frost ; they receive no water, and produce " good, fine, young potatoes in Decem-
ber." For a succession, the process is to be repeated.

3387. Incidental forcing of potatoes. " Small, young, spring potatoes are likewise ob-
tained from some of the winter store of old potatoes, as they lie in tlie house ; especially
where these have been mixed with sand, and pennitted to shoot as they lie, when they
produce a few small button potatoes in spring ; some of which are occasionally brought
to market, but are only proper for immediate use."

3388. ^s^worMadopts.thefollowing method : " In the beginning of April, a quantity of large potatoes are
selected, and laid up in a dry, airy room ; they are turned over four or five times during the summer,
and all shoots which they make, are taken off as they appear. These are used for the seed, and are planted
m succession from the beginning of September to the end of December, in boxes, in the following man-
Pif^* ^" *'^® bottom of each box, a layer of light vegetable mould, four inches deep, is placed, on which
the potatoes are laid, two inches apart, and these are covered with another layer of the same mould, and
ot the same depth. On the surface of this second layer, potatoes are again laid, and then covered as
before i this is repeated untU the box is full. The boxes may be kept in any of the fire-houses, or in a

JBooK I. FORCING PEAS. 39S

warm back shed, and in three months Arom the time of planting, young potatoes fit tot use wAl he formed.
It is to be observed, that the young potatoes thus obtained are much inferior in quality to those pro-
duced by vegetating plants ; but as it is scarcely possible to bring forward potatoes in beds so soon, this
plan is useful, when considered as a means of obtainihga luxury at so early a season." {Hort. Tr. voL iii.
p. 122)

3389. Mqffat {Hort. Trans, vol. iii, p. 123.) thus grows early potatoes : — " A compost, consisting of
equal quantities of loam, sand, and coal ashes, with an addition of lime in powder, equal to about one fifth
of the whole, was formed into a bed, four feet wide, and four inches deep, on the floor of a dark fruit-
room. Upon this bed, early in September, large potatoes, of the preceding year's growth, were laid, three
inches apsirt every way, with their best eyes downwards : these produced young potatoes, which Ijecame fit
for use about Christmas."

3390. Forioarding to raise a crop in the open garden. For this purpose some spread a
layer of sets, on hot dung, or in boxes placed in any warm situation, whether in the
light or the dark. After they have sprung three or four inches, they are to be trans-
planted in tlie open ground, which should not be sooner than May, unless they have some
protection at nights, such as fronds of fern, spruce fir branches, &c. But the best
method is to plant the sets one in each pot, as directed for forcing in a pit, and to plant
out with the balls entire.

3391. Substitutes Jbr forcing potatoes. Dr. Noehden describes Ashworth's mode (3388.),
by leaves and layers of earth, at length, and subjoins a method of preserving young potatoes
as such, for winter use, which we subjoin, as it may possibly lead some ingenious horti-
culturist to make experiments on the subject.

3392. By young potatoes, " I take for granted, are generally understood those tubers, which have not
attained their full age and growth. In this stagc^ the substance is generally finer grained, and more co-
hesive, than when they are farther advanced : they are what is called waxy, and differ, in taste, from
those which are full grown. If they could be preserved in this state, through the winter, for the use of
the table, it would doubtless be an acquisition : and something of this kind I have seen attempted. When
the general crop of potatoes was gathered, at the usual period of their harvest, in autumn, the small tubers,
which are frequently disregarded and left to their chance, were picked out and collected. They were de-
posited in a box, between layers of sand, and thus kept till the month of December. At this time, the
box being opened, they were found in perfect preservation, and fit to be dressed for the table. To give
them all the appearance of young potatoes, in a side dish, the tender skin on them was to be preserved :
for peeling them would have destroyed that effect. It was recommended, for that purpose, when they
were to be used, previously to soak them, for a certain number of hours, in water, and then to toss or
shake them in a piece of rough flannel or baize, between two persons, backwards and forwards, and rub
them between the hands ; by which operation, the coarse outer covering is loosened, and the skin
remains clean and delicate, so as to exhibit all the exterior of young growing potatoes. Upon trying them
on the table, I found, that some had really the fine waxy taste of young potatoes ; but that others, and
perhaps the greater part, though resembling the former m size and looks, had entirely the grain, and
flavor of the old potatoes. That difference is undoubtedly to be ascribed to the different state of maturity,
at which the one and the other had arrived. The mealy ones, though equally diminutive with the others,
had, in fact, reached their full age, and possessed, accordingly, the qualities which that age would give.
Those of a waxy texture were, unquestionably, much younger, and had not come to maturity, when they
were taken from the ground. They were in that condition which, by the taste, determines the name of
young potatoes. If this be so (and every probability seems to attend the reasoning), it may be concluded,
that it is feasible to preserve young potatoes, in the manner described, if they be gathered young : but to
distinguish those which are so, in the common harvest, in autumn, from those which only appear so,
would be difficult. The idea, therefore, presents itself, of planting potatoes expressly for that use ; which
must be done at a later period than this vegetable is usually planted ; let us say two months later, in
June, instead of April When the general crop is matured, and gathered in October, those will be still in
their young state ; their grain will be still fine, and their texture close : and if thus taken up, and pre-
served, according to the method suggested, it can hardly be presumed, that when brought to the table, in
winter, they will be different in quality from what they were when they were reaped : they will, in
every respect, be young potatoes, probably not much inferior, if at all, to those raised on a hot-bed. For
it does not appear, that this mode of keeping them has any effect in promoting their maturity, at least,
not to any perceptible degree. The sand employed should be of as barren a nature ae may be, and, if
possible, contain little or nothing of the vegetative stimulus. When the tubers are takpn out of the
ground, previous to their maturity, they will not readily sprout, or emit roots, which circumstance is a
security for the success of the method in question." (Hort. Trans, vol iii. p. 48.)

Sect. XII. Forcing Peas.

3393. Peas are not easily forced. Nicol, however, states, *' that they are oflen nused
in forcing-houses, and are brought to perfection very early."

3394. The best' sort of pea to force, is the genuine early frame.

3395. The temperature may be progressive, " beginning at 40^ or 50'' and rising to
52° or 66P, from the origin of the plant to the state of flowering, and after flowering in-
creased from 55^ to 70° ; or, in a regular heat between the latter limits. For hot-beds,
the standard temperature may be 50^ — 55° for the nursery-bed; and 55° — 65° for
fruiting."

3396. For forcing peas in a pit, sow as directed for French beans in pots or boxes;
and transplant them, when an inch and a half or two inches high, -into tlie pit, at nearly
the same distances as those recommended for tlie kidneybean.

3397. Forcing in a peach or cherry house. For the earliest crop, some of the true
early frame sort may be sown in October in the borders of a cherry-house, peach-house,
or vinery, intended to be forced from the beginning of the year. By the time the forcing
commences, they will be fit for transplanting, which is to be done in the same borders,
eitlier in a single row, or in more rows, according to the room. The distance between
the rows may be fifteen or eighteen inches ; and two inches in the line. " In forcing
peas," Nicol observes, " they should always be transplanted. They become more pro-

Qq 2

Soe PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Hfic, and run less to straw by that management, than when thdy are sown where they
are to remain. Indeed, it would be very well worth while to transplant the earliest crops
in the open ground." (Xal. p. 29.)

3398. Beans may be forced in a similar manner, though this is seldom attempted.

Sect. XIII. Forcing Salads, Pot-herbs, ^c.

3399. Salads, pot-herbs, and various other culmary plants, are, or mat/ be forced i but
the practice in Britain seldom extends beyond pot-herbs and salads ; though some have
forwarded cabbages, cauliflowers, turnips, carrots, &c., in this way, as is occasionally
done in Russia and the north of Germany.

3400. Cauliflower, lettuce, radish, carrot, and onion, M'Phail obsei-ves, may be planted
or sown in February, " on gentle hot-beds of dung or leaves, to bring them in before
those in the open ground. They should have glass frames set over them in cold, frosty,
or rainy nights ; which may be taken off in fine days, or a great deal of air given to
them." Nicol says, " The early horn carrot may be sown in January on a slight hot-bed,
or on a border, close by the parapet in front of a pinery, early grape-house, or peach-
house. The seeds should be sown in fine light earth, in either case, and should not be
covered more than to the depth of a quarter of an inch. If sown on a hot-bed, the seeds
may be defended by a frame and lights, or by hoops and mats, from bad weather, and
should be covered always at night. If sown on a border in front of a forcing-house
of any kind, they may be covered with hand-glasses. When the plants come up in
either situation, they should have plenty of free air, as they do no good if they be drawn ;
they also should have moderate supplies of water. A thin sprinkling of radish or lettuce
may be thrown in along with the carrot."

3401. Pot-herbs, such as mint, marjoram, chervil, &c., are planted or sown in pots or
boxes, and placed in any house, pit, or frame, in a state of forcing, near the glass, and
where they will receive abundance of air in fine weather. They require little or no far-
ther attention, but occasional watering. They may also be planted in rows in hot-beds
or pits.

3402. Small salading, such as cresses, mustard, rape, chiccory, &c., to be cropped
when young, may be treated as pot-herbs ; the three first will thrive at a greater distance
from the light, and may be sown as practised by the market-gardeners on the floors or
borders of cherry and peach houses.

3403. Radish. Abercrombie says, " To obtain the earliest spring radishes, sow on a
hot-bed of diuig or leaves some early dwarf short-tops in December, January, or the be-
ginning of February. Having made a hot-bed two feet, or two and a half high, in dung,
place on the frame. Earth the bed at top six inches deep ; sow on the surface, covering
the seed with fine mould, about half an inch thick ; and put on the glasses. When the
plants have come up, admit air every day, in mild or tolerably good weather, by tilting
the upper end of the lights, or sometimes the front, one, two, or tlu-ee inches, that the
radishes may not draw up weak and long-shanked. If they have risen very thick, thin
them in young growth, moderately at first, to about one or two inches apart. Be care-
ful to cover the glasses at night with garden-mats or straw-litter. Give gentle waterings
about noon on sunny days. If the heat of the bed declines much, apply a moderate
L'ning of warm dung, or stable-litter, to the sides ; which, by gently renewing the heat,
will forward the radishes for drawing in February and March. Remember, as they
advance in growth, to give more copious admissions of air daily ; either by tilting the
lights in front several inches, or, in fine mild days, by drawing the glasses mostly off ;
but be careful to draw them on again in proper time. Small turnip-radishes, of the
white and red kinds, may be forced in the same manner. For raising early radishes on
ground not accommodated with frames, a hot-bed, made in February, may be arched
over with hoop-bends, or pliant rods, which should be covered with mats constantly at
night ; and during the day in very cold weather. In moderate days, turn up the mats
at the warmest side ; and on a fine mild day, take them wholly oflT." Any sort of radish-
seed may be sown occasionally for salad-herbs, to be taken while in tlie seed-leaves, to
mix with cresses and mustard. Sow about once a-week in spring, summer, or any
season when radish-salad is required, managing it as other small salad-herbs."

Sect. XIV. Culture of the Mushroom.

3404. The edible mushroom (^Agaricus camjyestris, L. ) has long been held in esteem in this
country. Its peculiar habits, and the method of propagating it, are so unlike tliose of any
other culinary vegetable, that gardeners, till lately, seem not to have generalised on its
culture. For a long period back, it seems never to have been produced in any other way
than on ridges of warm dung ; no one appearing to advert to the circumstance of its being
indigenous, and that it may be grown in the open ground in the wanner months.

3405. The cultivation of mushrooms, Nicol observes, *' is a process in gardening, per-
haps the most singular and curious of any. In the culture of any other vegetable, we

Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 597

either sow or plant something material, — a seed, slip, or root, which we both see and
handle ; but in the culture of the mushroom, we neither sow nor plant any thing visible,
at least to the naked eye. Yet it is certain, that mushrooms are produced by seeds,
which naturally vegetate in the fields at certain seasons, and which may be made to
vegetate artificially at any season, by a certain process, and by a composition, in which
the dungs of certain animals form the chief ingredient. The droppings of horses are
found to produce mushrooms more plentifully, and with greater certainty, than the dungs
of other animals. Hence it would appear, that their stomachs have less power to hurt
or to destroy the vegetative quality of these seeds, which being collected along with their
food, must pass through their intestines, than the stomachs of other animals ; or, that
the dung of horses is a better nidus for tlie seeds than other dungs. The food of horses,
consisting mostly of com and hay, may, no doubt, be more replete with the seeds of
mushrooms than that of cows and other stock, which consists chiefly of green vegetables ;
but even the droppings of horses while at grass, or on tares, produce few or no mush-
rooms, as more particularly noticed below. This fact would seem to prove, either that
the seeds are collected in greater numbers, and are better preserved by hay or the straw
and chaff of oats, than by green food ; or, that green food may have the cflTect of de-
stroying them by its moistness in tlie stomach, or after having passed through it. It may
be further observed, that animal matter seems necessary to the vegetation of the seeds, or
the spawn of mushrooms. Hence we find them produced plentifully in old pastures,
and in cattle-sheds, whether these be frequented by horses, cows, or sheep, or by all of
them ; but the eatable kinds are never found in woods or fields from which cattle are com-
pletely excluded, though the herbage be ever so old. From the stubs of cut or decayed
trees, and about such as have fallen and are rotten, many species of fungi spring ; most
of which are nauseous, poisonous, or unwholesome. The seeds, too, may lie concealed
and dormant in various other matter, till put into a state of active vegetation by a proper
temperature, and a proper degree of moisture."

3406. JHiat spawn is. Spawn is a white fibrous substance, running like broken
threads, in such dry reduced dung, or other nidus, as is fitted to nourish it. These
threads produce, when planted, tubercles in the manner of potatoes. Tlie true sort has
exactly the smell of a mushroom. Spawn, when once procured, may be extended or
propagated as spawn, without producing mushrooms. (Neill ; Abercrombie.)

3407. Producing spaum. This vegetable may be produced by first making lumps, or
what are sometimes called cakes of spawn, and afterwards placing them on a slight dung
hot-bed, where the spawn vegetates into complete mushrooms ; in which process of
making tlie spawn (as it is termed) different ingredients are used, but cliiefly the dung
of horses, as said above. This has so far become a branch of trade, as that mushroom-
spawn may be had of most of the nursery and seedsmen about all the great towns in the
kingdom.

3408. Originating inushrooms luithout planting simiviu Nicol says, " I have formerly
been in the practice of producing mushrooms, however, most successfully, without using
spawn, and by a very simple process : I might rather say, without transplanting spawn
in the common way, but by making the bed a whole mass of spawn at once, and never
disturbing it till done bearing. Beds that are built in the common way, ^ and spawned,
seldom produce long ; perhaps only a few weeks or months. I have had them continue to
yield large crops the year round, and sometimes for two years. But mushroom-beds, in
whatever way made, are subject to many misfortunes ; and the spawn is of a nature so
delicate, that it is quickly destroyed either by too much wet or drought. By making up
a bed in the ordinary way, that is, of stable-dung, moderately fermented, to the thickness
of about a yard ; spawning it over when the strong heat has subsided, and tlien covering
it with light earth, mushrooms may be obtained sooner than by the process I shall
recommend. But if this process be more slow, it has the advantage of being more sure ;
and the time of reaping may be reckoned upon with equal certainty. The difierence of
time, from first proceeding to make the beds to gathering mushrooms, will generally be
three or four weeks. By the first method, you may reap in six or eight weeks j and by
the latter, in ten or twelve."

' 3409. Proceed thus : " After having laid a floor, as hinted at above, of ashes, stone-chips, gravel, or
brick-bats, so as to keep the bed quite dry, and free from under-damp, lay a course of horse-droppmgs six
inches thick. These should be new from the stable, and must not be broke ; and the drier the better.
They mav be collected every day, until the whole floor or sole be covered to the above thickness ; but
they must not be allowed to ferment or heat In the whole process of making up, the bed should be as
much exposed to the air as iKwsiblo ; and it should be carefully defended from wet, if out of doors.
AVhen this course is quite dry, and judged to be past a state of fermentation, cover it to the thickness of
two inches v/ith light dry earth ; if sandy, so much the better. It is immaterial whether it be nch or
not : the only use of earth liere being for the spawn to run and mass in. Now lay another course of
droppings, and earth them over as above, when past a state of fermentation ; then a third course, which
in like manner earth over. This finishes the bed, which will be a very strong and productive one, if
properlv managed afterwards. Observe, that in forming the bed it should be a little rounded, m order
that the centre may not Ix; more wet or moist than the sides. This may be done m forming the sole or
floor at first, and the bed would then be of equal strength in aU parts. If it be made up against a wall
in a cellar, stable, or shed, it may have a slope of a few inches from the back to the front, less or more,

Qq 3

598 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

according to its breadth. I have sometimes been contented with two courses, as above, instead of three ;
and often, when materials are scarce, have made them up slighter, thus : three four-mch courses of
droppings, with one incli of earth between each, and a two-inch covering at top. Such a bed as this I
have had produce for ten or twelve months together; but very much depends on the state of the
materials, and on the care taken in making it up ; also on the after-management. The droppmgs of hard-
fed horses only are useful. Those of horses on green food will, of themselves, produce few or no mush-
rooms This I have proved in more than one instance, much to my disappointment. And I have,
moreover, found, that the richer the keep of the horses, the more productive are their droppings. I
have made up beds from farm-horses, fed partly on hard, and partly on green food ; and from carriage
or saddle horses, fed entirely on corn and hay; treated them in the same way m every respect ; and
have found, not once, but always, those made from the latter most productive. Droppmgs from corn-fed
horses may be procured at the public stables in towns, or at inns in the country, any time in the year j
and if the supply be plentiful, a bed of considerable dimensions may be made and finished within five or
six weeks. In as many more weeks, if in a stable, or dry cellar, or a fined shed, it will begin to produce,
and often sooner ; but if the situation of the bed be cold, it will sometimes be two or three months of
producing mushrooms."

3410. Where indigenous spawn may be collected. September is the month in which the
mushroom comes to perfection in the open air ; and this is the time to look for it in
its native habitats. Downs and upland pastures are the primitive situations, whence
the seeds seem to be carried by horses and cattle, to what are called secondary situations.
Thus " it is found in strength and purity, in the path of a bark-mill worked by a horse,
in any other horse-mill track under shelter, in covered rides for horses, in dry half-rotted
dung-heaps, and in hot-beds. It is found in a less degree in various other situations."
(^Abercrombie.)

3411. 3PPhail says, " The best of mushroom-spawn is frequently to be found in dunghills which have
lain a long time without turning, and which had been formed of horse-dung, scrapings of roads, and
turf cut up about the sides of roads and commons. The heat of the summer months having dried the
dunghill, when rain comes about the latter end of August or in September, mushrooms of a good quality
may often be seen beginning to form themselves on the surface, like large peas. When these are ob-
served, it is time to take out the spawn, which is generally in hard dry lumps of dung, the spawn having
the appearance of whitish coarse pieces of thread."

3412. To preserve indigenous sjmwn. "Having found cakes of dung which contain
the desired spawn, take them up as entire as possible, with the earth adhering, and lay
them carefully in a basket or any other conveyance. Tliese are to be stored till used
as below, in a dry covered place ; and if they were found in a damp state, should be
dried in hollow piles, before they are laid together in a mass. The dry spawn may be
presei'ved three or four years. To preserve alike from perishing, and from running
before it is planted, a dry shed furnished with a current of air, is indispensable."

3413. Procuring spawn artificially. Wales thus procures spawn : " For this purpose,
the month of March is the fittest time, the cattle not being then upon grass, but chiefly
upon dry food of one sort or other. Take two barrow-loads of cow-dung, one load of
sheep and one of horse dung ; dry them well ; then break them quite small, so as they
may go easily through a coarse garden-sieve. When well mixed together, lay them up
in a round heap, finishing at top in a point. It is to be understood, that the operation
is to be conducted in a dry shed. Observe to tread the heap as it is put up, which will
greatly save it fi-om heating too much. If a stick were thrust into the heap as a proof,
and when taken out, if it feels very slightly warm in the hand, the heat is doing
well ; for, in the whole mode of raising mushrooms, it should be particularly observed
to take great care of the heat, as the mushrooms are imj)atient of either too much heat
or cold : the best adapted, and most productive heat I have ever found, was from
55 to 60 degrees of Fahrenheit, and the nearer the beds are kept to this heat, the
greater will be the success. The heap is to be covered with horse-litter, in a state of
fermentation, to the thickness of four inches all over. If the shed be warm when the
heap is put up, I would recommend old bass-mats rather than dung, as the least over-
heat would spoil the heap. In this state let it lie for one month ; then throw the litter
a little aside, thrust the hand into the heart of the heap, and take out a handful. If the
spawn has begun to run, you will observe numerous small white fibres or threads
through the dung. If not begun to run, let another covering be put on above the old
one of the same thickness as the first ; and after a month more, you will undoubtedly
find the heap to abound with spawn. I have had it running in three weeks, and some-
times it has required ten weeks, much depending on the state of the dung. The spawn
thus procured is of the very best quality, far exceeding what is got in fields or in old
hot-beds. I write from experience, and have not borrowed this mode of procuring
spawn from any one. The spawn in this state is not fit for keeping long ; and I shall
next give directions how to form spawn-bricks, when as many can be made at one time,
as will serve for the season, or even for a number of years if required, provided the
spawn be kept dry." {Mem. Caled. Hart. Soc.)

3414. Preserving artificial spawn by forming spawn-bricks. The author last quoted says,
*• Take of horse-dung without litter, three barrow-loads ; two barrow-loads of the mould
of rotten tree-leaves ; two barrow-loads of cow-dung ; one barrow-load of old tan-bark,
such as is thrown out of the pine-pit ; with one barrow-load of sheep's dung ; mix all
these well together, till the mixture seem to be one compost, and to be as fine and soft as

Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 599

common mortar, or as the clay used in grafting, as otherwise it would not come easily
out of the mould. Then take a small frame, such as brick-makers use for moulding
their bricks, — the size six inches long, four broad, and three deep. A portion of the
mixture should then be forced into the mould or frame, and the sides of the mould being
a little wetted beforehand, the spawn-brick will easily come out without breaking. After
the bricks have stood two hours or so, take a blunt or rounded dibble, and make three
holes in the middle of each brick, an inch from each other, and about half through the
brick ; these holes are for receiving the spawn. I find it is the best way to lay the bricks
as they are made upon boards, that they may be carried out of doors in a good day to
dry. The bricks should be rendered perfectly dry, as the least damp would spoil the
spawn. They will often seem dry on the outside, while they continue wet in the
inside. The best way to prove them, is to break a brick, and observe how dry it is in the
inside. It is to be observed, tliat great care must be taken in the turning them upon the
boards, for fear of breaking, they being very apt to go to pieces, till nearly fit for re-
ceiving spawn. When fit, they are firm, and quite dry on the outside : this happens in
the course of three weeks, if the weather be dry and the bricks be rightly attended to.
Now, take fresh horse-litter, which has been laid up in a heap to sweeten as when for
hot-beds ; lay a bottom course of this six inches thick, whereon to lay the bricks. The
horse-litter which is to be prepared for covering the spawn-bricks ought to be rank, be-
cause tlie drier and sweeter the heat, the spawn will work the freer ; and, as I stated
before, if the weather be warm, the less covering will serve ; also, if there be any heat in
the old covering at the expiration of three weeks, add no more new covering, as the old
will perfectly serve the end. Every hole in the bricks must next be filled quite close
up with the spawn ; and as the bricks are laid one upon another, the upper side of the
brick when laid, must also be covered with spawn : at the same time observing, as the
bricks are laid, to keep them as open between one another as possible, so as to let the
heat and steam of the dung go through all parts of the heap. The heap is to be ter-
minated at top by a single brick. When all are thus laid, place round the sides and top
six inches of the hot dung, which will soon raise a fine moderate heat ; observing, that
all this must be done in a shed, or where rain cannot enter to cool the dung. After
two weeks, add three inches thick of additional fresh dung upon the old j this will renew
the heat, and make it work forcibly for the space of two weeks more, when the litter
may be taken off, and cleared all out from the spawn-bricks. Before the cover is taken
off, it will be proper to lay a little of it aside, and take out a few of the bricks, to see
whether the spawn has rim all through each brick or not ; if not, replace the bricks
again, and the cover, and let them remain for ten days longer, when they will be found
to be every one, as it were, a solid mass of spawn. They may be allowed to stand and
dry for a few days in the heap : they are then to be laid up in some dry place till wanted
for use, where they wdll keep good for many years."

3415. Propagation of mushroom-spawn. M'Phail offers two modes, as follows : " About
tlie beginning of the month of May collect a heap of nearly equal quantities of cow,
horse, and sheep dung ; add to it some rotten fern-leaves, or rotten dry dung, somewhat
resembling spawn, from the linings of hot-beds ; mix the whole well together, in the
way a bricklayer's laborer makes mortar ; spread it on a floor in a cool dry shed, where
it cannot dry too hastily, making it about five or six inches thick ; beat or tread it firm ;
and as soon as it is in a fit condition, cut it with a sharp spade into pieces in the form
of bricks ; set the pieces to dry till they can be conveniently handled ; then with a knife
make a hole in the middle of each, and put a little piece of good mushroom-spawn
into each hole, closing it up with a bit of that which was taken out ; then pile tlie im-
pregnated pieces up in a heap in a hollow manner, so that the air may pass through the
heap freely among the pieces, to dry tliem gradually ; and if the shed be light, cover the
heap with mats, or any other light covering to keep it dark. When the spawn has ex-
tended itself through every part of tlie prepared pieces of the mixture, lay tliem out se-
parately, that they may be perfectly dried, wliich will prevent mushrooms from growing
out of them ; which, if suffered, would exhaust the spawn so, tliat it would be much
weakened. In a dry state, the spawn, thus propagated, may lie till it be wanted in the
autumn or following spring. If such pieces of spawn be continued in a dry state, the
spawn will remain good for a long time."

3416. Another way, similar to the preceding, to make mushroom-spawn, is as follows : " Some time in the
month of May or June, collect about two cart-loads of dung from the fields, or take it from the stables ;
separate it entirely from the straw ; add to it six barrows of fresh loam, two barrows of soil scraped from
the road, and one barrow of coal-ashes sifted fine : mix these weU together ; then spread the mixture on
the floor of a dry shed, give it a gentle watering, and spread over it a quantity of spawn from an old
mushroom-bed ; after this, tread it as firm as possible, and continue to do so two or three times a-week.
In this situation let it remain till it is turned into a solid mass of spawn, which generaUy is about the end
of August ; then cut it into lumps, and lay them up edgewise to dry."

3417. Abercrombie says, " Pieces of it may be laid along the ridge of a cucumber-bed raised in spring.
Plant them about a foot apart. In about two months, the surface of the spawn will assume a mouldy
appearance ; it is then to be taken up with the earth adhering thereto, broken into pieces, and laid upon
the shelf of a dry shed."

Qq 4

coo PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part IIL

3418. Oldacre''s mode of propagation is as fbllows : " Take any quantity of fresh horse-dropplngs mixed
with short litter (as recommended for the beds), add one third of cows' dung, and a small portion of
earth to cement it together ; mash the wliole into a thin compost, and then spread it on the floor of an
open shed, and let it remain till it becomes firm enough to be formed into flat, square bricks, which being
done, set them on edge, and frequently turn them until half dry ; then, with a dibble make one or two
holes in each brick, and insert in each hole a piece of good old spawn, the size of a common walnut ; the
bricks should then remain until they are dry. This being completed, level the surface of a piece of ground
three feet wide, and of length sufficient to receive the bricks, on which lay a bottom of dry horse-dung
six inches high ; then form a pile, by placing the bricks in rows one upon another (the spawn-side upper,
most) till the pile is three feet high ; next cover it with a small portion of warm horse-dung, suflScient in
quantity to diffuse a gentle glow through the whole. When the spawn has spread itself through every
part of the bricks, the process is ended, and they must be laid up in any dry place for use. Mushroom-
spawn, made according to this receipt, will preserve its vegetative power many years, if well dried before
it is laid up ; if moist, it will grow, and soon exhaust itself."

3419. NeiU mentions an original method of propagating spawn, practised by Hay, in Scotland.
" A quantity of cow-droppings is to be gathered from the pastures ; some rotten wood, or spray from the
bottom of a hedge, is to be collected, with a little strong loam. These are mixed, and formed into a moist
ductile sort of mortar or paste, of such consistence that it can be cut into pieces hke bricks. "When these
are so far dried that they can conveniently be lifted, a row is laid in some dry place under cover, perhaps
in a shade at the back of a hot-house ; a little spawn is placed upon the layer ; then another layer of the
spawn-bricks, and so on. In a few weeks the whole mass is penetrated by the spawn. The spawn-bricks
may then be laid aside for use ; they will keep many months ; and the drier they are kept the more
certainly do they afford a crop of mushrooms when placed in favorable circumstances for doing so."

3420. iZo^er's mode of preparing spawn is as follows : — I collect pure cow-dung, not fresh, but such
as I happen to find in the park, the fields, or the farm-yard ; with this I mix the scrapings of roads, in the
proportion of one half to one, adding to it about one third or a fourth of vegetable mould, obtained from
leaves or decayed stacks. These ingredients being well worked up together, the compost is formed into
bricks about nuie inches long, three and a half broad, and two thick. The bricks are exposed to the air
and sun, and suffered to attain such a degree of solidity, as to bear a considerable pressure, but not to dry
hard. They are then removed to a shed for the purpose of being laid up in strata. Three or four rows are
first placed on the ground with interstices of about one inch in width between the rows and the bricks ;
into these interstices, or spaces, loose spawn, such as is found in the litter of old mushroom-beds, is scat-
tered ; and over the whole surface of the layer such spawny litter is likewise spread. Should there be no
old mushroom-beds at hand to furnish the scatterings, some spawn-bricks must be broken to pieces in
order to supply them. The first layer having been thus treated, another is put upon it, and likewise in-
terspersed and covered with spawn and litter from old beds. A third and fourth stratum may be laid on,
or more, and regulated in the same manner. The whole pile being completed according to the quantity
that is required, it is covered over with hot stable-dung and litter ; and in two, three, or more weeks, ac-
cording to the state of the weather, the bricks are filled with spawn, and may be laid by for use. I will
not hazard an opinion, whether the cow-dung itself contains the elements of spawn, or only acts the part
of a matrix, or receptacle ; but this I can state, that mushroom-spawn is generated in other dung besides
horse-dung ; for I once found it plentifully in pigeon's dung. As I have used this preparation of spawn
for a length of time, the essence of cow-dung must entirely preponderate in my composition ; though the
origin of the spawn should at first have been derived from horse-dung. I may add, that, when managed
in the manner 1 have described, it yields spawn as productive as any that can be obtained. I was formerly
taught to believe that it was essential to mix a portion of horse-dung in the bricks, but my experience
has since convinced me, that cow-dung alone answers the purpose. The spawn is generated in it plenti-
fully, and of good quality.

3421. Care qf the bricks. It is of importance that the bricks alluded to should not be left in a situation
which would cause the spawn to work, an effect which would be produced by moisture, combined with
warmth. Therefore, when the spawn is bred, the bricks must be laid in a dry place to prevent the process
of germination. The spawn must not be suffered to advance towards the rudiments of the mushroom,
which consist in little threads or fibres, for in this state it ceases to be useful in spawning a bed. As soon
as those rudiments are formed, they must be left undisturbed, or they perish. They will grow into a
mushroom on the spot where they are developed ; but when removed or torn up, they are destroyed. A
piece of spawn which appears in filaments or fibres is no longer applicable to a mushroom-bed ; it may
produce a mushroom in itself, but can serve no other purpose. The spawn that is to be inserted in a bed,
and to receive its developement there, must not be gone so far, but should only have the appearance of
indistinct white mould. {Hort. Trans, vol iv. 472.)

3422. The importance qf keeping spaivn dry is attested by Miller, who found, that
spawn which had lain for four months near the furnace of a stove, yielded a crop in less
time, and in greater profusion, than any other.

- 3423. The methods of rearing mushrooms are still more various than those of propa-
gating the spawn. They are most commonly grown in ridges in the open air, covered
with litter and mats ; and next in frequency in ridges of the same sort under cover, as
in the open sheds of hot-houses. They are also grown in close sheds behind hot-
houses ; in flued sheds built on purpose, or mushroom-houses ; on shelves in flued mush-
room-houses ; in pots, boxes, hampers, baskets, placed in any warm situation ; in
cucumber or melon beds ; in old hot-beds of any sort ; in pits with glass frames ; and
in dark frames or pits.

3424. Ridges in the open air. M'Phail says, «' Some think that mushrooms do better
in the open air than in covered sheds, which I have frequently experienced to be the
case. In sheds, mushroom-beds are apt to become too dry ; in the open ground, the
humidity of the air, and a little wet sinking through the covering, keeps them in a damp
state." (G. Rem. p. 110.)

3425. Preparing the dung.. Provide good horse- dung, purged of its fiery heat by the
usual preparation ; with which some old linings from a melon-bed may be mixed, if it is
not winter. {Abercrombie.) M'Phail says, " Take two cart-loads of fresh stable-dung,
to which add an equal quantity of old dry linings from melon or cucumber beds, mixing
them well together in a heap ; and after letting it lie about a fortnight, it will be in a fit
state to make into beds. To make a mushroom-bed of new dung, let the same be well
prepared, by laying it together in a heap to ferment, and by turning and mixing it
well, shaking the outside of the heap, which is cold, and the inside, which is hot, to-

Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. (JOI

getber, so that every part of it may be equally fermented, and deprived of its noxious
quality."

3426. Forming the bed. Abercrombie says, " Mark out the ground-line of a bed
four feet wide at bottom, the length to be governed by the quantity to be raised ; from
this, work with an inward slope, so as to terminate with a narrow roof-shaped ridge
along the centre, three feet or more in height. In building the bed, shake and mix
the dung well together : beat it down with the fork, but do not tread it : leave it to set-
tle, and to expend the first heat in vapor. When the dung is in a fit state to make into
a bed, which it will be in about three weeks or a month after it has been put together to
ferment, let the bottom for it be marked out about seven feet wide, and as long as you
choose to make it ; let the foundation on which it is made be dry, and let it be worked
up in a sloping manner, so as to terminate with a narrow roof-shaped ridge along the
centre, about four feet or more in height. In making the bed, shake and mix the dung
well together; beat it down well with the fork ; and if the dung be long and dryish,
tread it down as you proceed." (M'Phail.)

3427. Moulding the bed. " Having proved by trial-sticks left some days in the bed,
that the heat is become moderate, you may cover two thirds of the sloping bank with
mould two inches thick, leaving the top of the ridge open for the steam to evaporate
as it gradually rises. When the exhalation is finished, the top may also be earthed
over ;" or, eartli round the bed four inches high, forming a ledge of mould two inches
thick.

3428. Planting the sjmivn. " Divide the large cakes of spawn into small lumps.
These may be planted in rows six or eight inches asunder. Place the lumps of spawn
about six inches apart in the same row, inserting them through the mould close down to
the surface of the dung : or, the dry spawn may be broken or scattered over the bed ;
being covered with earth to the depth specified above." (Abercrombie.)

3429. yPPhail directs, " WTien the bed has been some time made, and' the heat sufficiently declined,
the spawn may be put into it ; but, for fear of the heat being too great in the upper part of it, it had best
be at first spawned only half-way up all round. Take the spawn in small pieces, and stick it into the sides
of the bed, in rows about three or four inches, piece from piece, so that the spawn and earth about to be
laid on, may meet. When the bed is spawned as high up as it is thought the heat of the bed will not in-
jure it, take good, strong, rich earth, of a loamy quality, and cover the spawned part of the bed with it,
about two inches thick, beginning to lay it at the bbttom of the bed, beating it firm with the spade. The
earth should be in a pliable state ; not wet, nor over dry."

3430. Covering the ridges. " The inconvenience of a bed exposed to the w^eather,
is, that it is sometimes necessary to cover it from wet, where there is danger of thus ex-
citing a fermentation, ^\^^en the bed is even under a shed, it is necessary to apply a co-
vering from three to twelve inches thick, as the strength of the dung declines, or as the
bed may be exposed, at the sides, to rain, snow, or frost. Tlie covering may be either
clean straw and long dry stable-litter, or sweet hay and matting ; the latter is to be pre-
ferred. Lay it thin at first, and increase it as circumstances demand."

3431. Ridges in open sheds are formed and planted exactly in the same manner.

3432. In rearing in close sheds behind hot-houses, where the temperature approaches to
50 or 55 degrees in the winter months, from the heat arising from the hot-house furnaces,
the ridge mode above may be adopted, or a flat bed similarly composed and planted.

3433. Injlued sheds, or mushroom-houses on the common plan, the method of forming
tlie dung-bed, earthing, and planting is the same as in the tlu-ee last modes : sometimes,
however, the beds are formed in a walled pit, and flat, or sloping, on the surface, like a
cucumber-bed.

3434. German mode of cultivating the mushroom. The culture of mushrooms on
shelves, in flued sheds or houses, is a German practice, introduced to this country by
Oldacre. The plan of Oldacre's house has been already given [figs. 279. to 281.)
M'Phail describes a similar one, "as a good method of propagation." (Gard. Rem.
p. 108.) To either houses the following directions will apply : —

343j. Compost for the beds. Collect a quantity of fresh horse-dung, that has neither been exposed to
wet nor fermentation, clearing it of the long straw, so as to leave one fourth, in quantity, of the shortest
litter, when incorporated with the horse-droppings ; then add a fourth part of tolerable dry turf-mould, or
rather maiden earth, and mix it well with the dung before mentioned : the advantage derived from the
mould or maiden earth is the union of the whole into one compact solid substance, so congenial to the
growth of mushrooms. If dung from the rides of a livery-stable, or the round of a horse-mill, can be
procure<l, and mixed with a fourth part of short litter, and added to as many fresh horse-droppings as will
cause a gentle warmth, when made into beds, it will be found superior, for the production of mushrooms,
to horse-dung that is gathered from the stables.

343a The method of making the beds. Form the beds on the shelves and ground-floor by placing a
layer about three inches thick of the prepared mixture. Then, with a flat mallet, beat it as close together
as possible, next add another layer of the compost, repeating the same process as before, and so on until
the beds are formed into a solid body, seven inches thick, making the surface of the beds as smooth and as
even as possible. The reducing the beds into a very solid body is a most essential point ; for, without it,
you cannot expect success : and the thickness of them must also be particularly attended to ; for, where
there is a much greater body, the beds will be subjected to a strong fermentation, and will be prevented,
bv evaporation, from retaining that consistency in the dung, which is absolutely necessary for the produc-
tion of a good and plentiful crop. On the contrary, if a much less quantity be laid together, the heat and
fermentation will be insufficient to prepare the beds for the nourishment of the spawn ; but the assistance

602 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

of both, to the extent prescribed, cements the materials together, which, in addition to beating, increases
greatly their solidity. The proper , vegetation of the spawn, and the consequent crop of mushrooms, de-
pend entirely upon a moderate genial heat and fermentation, neither too strong nor too slight. As soon
as the degree of heat in the beds is a little more than that of milk from the cow, (say from eighty to ninety
degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer,) beat the beds a second time, to render them more solid, if possible ;
then make holes with a dibble, three inches in diameter, and nine inches asunder, through the compost in
every part of the beds : these holes will be a means of cooling the beds, and preventing that excess of heat
from taking place, which would produce rottenness, and render them unproductive. If the beds do not
attain the heat required, in four or five days after they are put together, (which you will know by plunging
a thermometer into one of the holes,) add another layer of the compost, two inches thick, which will pro-
bably increase the heat sufficiently ; if not, a part of the bed should be taken away, and the remainder
mixed with fresh horse-droppings, and wrought together in the same way as before, in order to pro-
duce the proper degree of heat. Beds made after this manner readily generate natural spawn in summer,
and frequently in the winter months.

3437. Of spawning the beds. In three or four days after the holes have been made, by observing the
thermometer, it will be found that you have the desired degree of heat, and the inside of the holes will also
have become dry ; the beds are then in a gooii state for spawning, which should be done while the heat is
on the decline. If this operation be deferred until the heat is quite exhausted, the crop will be late, and
less plentiful. Fill every hole full of spawn, which must be well beaten into them, and then make the
surface of the beds solid and level ; it is of no consequence whether the spawn put into the holes be in one
lump or in several small pieces, it is only necessary that the holes should be well filled. About a fortnight
after the spawn has been introduced, examine the holes, and if the spawn has suffered any damage from
over-heat, or too much moisture, in the beds, introduce fresh spawn in the same way as before. On the
contrary, if the spawn be found good, and vegetating freely into the compost, such beds (if required for
immetliate production,) may be covered with mould agreeable to the rules hereafter laid down ; and the
beds intended for succession should remain unearthed, in the summer, three weeks or a month before you
wish them to produce, and in the winter a month or five weeks. If the spawn be introduced in hot wea-
ther, air must be admitted as freely as possible into the shed, till the spawn has spread itself through the
beds ; for if the place be kept too close, the beds will become soft and siwngy, and then the crop will nei-
ther be abundant, nor of good quality.

3438. Of earthing the beds. Such beds as are intended to be put into work, must be covered with a
coat of rich maiden earth, wherein its turf is well reduced. Then spread it regularly over the surface of
each bed, two inches thick ; and beat it as solid and level as possible. The earth used should be neither
too dry, nor yet wet, but so as to become compact together, and take, when beaten, a smooth face. If too
moist, it will chill the beds, and injure the spawn. On the contrary, if too dry, it will remain loose, and in
a state by no means favorable to the growth of the mushrooms : but when solid, it produces not only finer
mushrooms, but in greater quantities, as the earth from soils of lighter texture invariably grows them
weaker, and of inferior quality, and such beds cease bearing much earlier.

3439. Of the subseqiient treatment. From the time of covering with earth, the room or shed should be
kept at fifty to fifty-five degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and the light must be excluded. If the heat
be suffered to exceed, to any considerable degree, it will cause the beds to ferment a second time, and
weaken, if not totally destroy, the spawn ; but should a much lowor degree of temperature than the one
prescribed be permitted to prevail, the mushrooms will advance slowly in their growth ; and if watered in
that state, numbers of the small ones will be prevented from attaining perfection. In watering them, ex-
treme caution is necessary, as well in the mode of application, as in the temperature of the water, which
should be nearly as warm as new milk, and very lightly sprinkled with a syringe, or a small watering-pot ;
otherwise the mushrooms are sure to sustain damage. If cold water be used, and given plentifully at one
time, it will not only destroy the existing crop, but the spawn also, and render the beds so treated of no
further utility. If the beds have been suffered to become very dry, it is better to give them several light
waterings than one heavy supply. In gathering the mushrooms, great care should be taken not to disturb
the small ones that invariably, with good management, surround the stems of those which are more early
matured. The best method is to twist them up, very gently, in all instances where you can. But where
you are obliged to cut them, great care should be taken to divest the beds of the stomi of those that are
cut, as they would rot, to the great injury of those that surround them. If the preceding directions are
properly attended to, in the management of the beds, they will contiinie to bear several months, and a
constant supply may be kept by earthing one bed or more, every two or three months, according to the
quantity of mushrooms required at one season. When the beds are in full bearing, if the mushrooms
become long in their stems, and weak, it is certain the temperature of the building is too high ; conse-
quently, air must be admitted in proportion to the heat.

344(). Of renovating the old beds. As your beds begin to decline in bearing, and produce but few mush-
rooms, take off the earth clean from the dung, and if you find the latter decayed, destroy the beds and re-
place them by new ones, being careful to select any good spawn that may present itself ; but if, on taking
away the earth, you find the beds dry, solid, and full of good spawn, add a layer of fresh compost, as be-
fore recommended, three or four inches thick, mixing it a httle with the old, and beat it as before. By ad-
hering to this mode of renovating the old beds, a continual supply may be kept up. (OldacrCy in Hori.
Trans, vol. ii.)

3441. Estimate of the merits of the German mode of cultivating mushrooms. Neill ob-
serves, ** In vi^hat particulars the advantage of Oldacre's plan over former modes chiefly
consists, does not very clearly appear. Beds made up in the usual way are much less
compact, and are more damp ; compactness and dryness may therefore be considered as
important." {Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.) Rogers remarks that " the quantity of mush-
rooms depends upon the manner in wliich they are nourished : if they are meagerly fed,
their flavor and svibstance will be poor in proportion. Hence artificial mushrooms are,
generally, richer and higher flavored than those which grow naturally ; and again,
among the artificial produce, those will surpass which are reared on large and deep
beds." It is a fact, that in Covent Garden market, mushrooms grown on ridges are
greatly preferred to those grown on shelves, or in boxes, in the German manner :
they are considered heavier and more juicy. {Hort. Trans, iv. 475.)

3442. Grovnng mushrooms, in pots, boxes, ^c. with dung, by Wales. " Having given an
account how to procure the spawn, which is the principal point, I shall next proceed to
state how mushrooms are to be raised from the spawn with dung. I raise the mushrooms
in boxes, hampers, or, in short, in any thing which will hold the dung and the soil toge-
ther. These boxes or vessels are placed in the back sheds of the hot-houses, or in any
house whatever, where no damp nor frost can enter. There should be several boxes, a
part only being filled at a time, so as to keep a rotation of them, and have mushrooms

Book I. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 603

at all times ready for the table. I shall suppose three boxes to be filled at one time.
Each box may be three feet long, one and a half broad, and seven inches in depth. Let
each box be half filled with horse-dung from the stables (the fresher the better, and if
wet, to be dried for three or four days before it be put in the boxes) ; the dung is to be
well beat down in the boxes. After the second or third day, if any heat has arisen
amongst the dung, it is then a fit time to spawn : break each spawn-brick into three
parts as equal as possible ; then lay the pieces, about four inches apart, upon the surface
of the dung in the box ; here they are to lie for six days, when it wUl probably be found,
that the side of the spawn next to the dung has begun to run in the dung below ; then
add one and a half inch of more fresh dung upon the top of the spawn in the box, and
beat it down as formerly. In the course of a fortnight, tlie box wUl be ready to receive
the mould on the top ; this mould must be two and a half inches deep, well beat
down with the back of a spade, and the surface made quite even. But before the box
be eartlied over, it will be proper to take up a little of the dung, as far down as near the
bottom of the box, to see if the spawn has run through the dung ; if not, let the box
stand unearthed for some days longer, for, were it to be eartfied before the spawn had
run through the dung, there would be put a poor crop. In the space of five or six weeks
the mushrooms will begin to come up ; if then the mould seems dry, give a gentle wa-
tering, the water being slightly heated in any warm place before applied. This Mater-
ing will make the mushrooms start freely, and of a large size. I cut tliree myself, which
weighed IS^ oz. from a box treated as above. The boxes will continue to produce for
six weeks, and I have had them productive sometimes for two months, if duly attended to,
by giving a little water when dry, for they need neitlier light nor free air. I have had
thirty-two pretty well-sized mushrooms in one cluster. If cut as button-muslwooms,
each box will yield from six to twelve Scots pints (24 to 48 Eng. pints), according to
the season and other circumstances. The plan now described, I prefer for yielding
numbers of mushrooms, and where a great many are required ; but when reared without
dung, tiiey are best flavored. They are not then to be distinguished from those which
grow naturally in the fields, but comparatively few are in this way produced. I have
lately found it very useful to add to every three barrow-loads of horse-dung, one of per-
fectly dry cow-dung, beat down to powder as it were, and well mixed among the horse-
dung, after the horse-dung has lain under cover for four or five days to dry. The reason
I tried the cow-dung dry was, that I still found the horse-dung to have a strong damp,
after having lain in the boxes for some time ; but the cow-dung, when beat down to
powder, has the efiect to dry up this damp, and also to make the horse-dung lie in the
box more compactly ; and the more it is pressed down, the finer the spavm will run
amongst it." [ Wales, in Caled. Hort. Mejn.)

3443. Growing mushrooms, in pots, boxes, ^c. Tvithout dung. " Take a little straw, and
lay it carefully in the bottom of the mushroom-box, about an inch tljick, or rather
more. Then take some of the spawn-bricks, -and break them down, each brick into
about ten pieces, and lay the fragments upon the straw, as close to each other as tliey
will lie. Cover them up with mould, three and a half inches deep, and well pressed
down. When the surface appears dry, give a little tepid water, as directed for the last
way of raising them ; but tiiis method needs about double the quantity of water that the
former does, owing to having no moisture in the bottom, while the other has the
dung. Tlie mushrooms will begin to start in a month or five weeks, sometimes sooner,
sometimes later, according to the heat of the place where the boxes are situated. They
do not rise so tiiick nor of so large a size, nor do they continue to be produced so long,
as in tiie other plan with dung." {Wales.)

3444. Compost or mould for grouing mushrooms in boxes. " Take a quantity of horse-
dung from the stable-yard fresh, and for every layer of dung, six inches in depth, lay
three inches of fine earth from any light soil ; these alternate layers may be repeated till
tiiere be as much as will probably be wanted for the course of a year. After this mix-
ture has lain about six months or so, the dung will be sufliciently rotten : it should then
be well broken with a spade, and passed through a garden-sieve. Two inches of this
compost laid upon the top of the box, and well pressed down with the back of a
spade, will be found to answer. It is to be understood, that the same compos^ made of
the dung and earth, is used for going on the top of the beds formed with dung,
as well as on those without it, observing to have it sifted fine, and well dried, for
if it be damp, the spawn would not run freely amongst it." (Oldacrey in HortictUtural
Transactions. )

3445. Culture of the mushroom in melon-beds. The following mode has been prac-
tised by the Rev. W. Williamson, for several years, with great success. Reconsiders
it more economical and generally practicable than the plan of Oldacre. " Having made
my melon-bed in the usual manner, when the burning heat is over, and the bed is ready
to be earthed to a sufficient thickness, I place spawn on the sides of the bills, and also on
the surface of the bed, and then cover the whole with mould, as usual, managing tlie

604 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

melons exactly in the same manner as if the spawn were not there, not omitting even to
tread it, as I find that a compact loam is more congenial to the growth of the mushroom,
than the light rich compost of the cucumber-bed. The heat will soon cause the spawn to
run, and extend itself through the dung, to the surface of the ground. In September or
October following, when the melon-bine is decaying, the bed is carefully cleaned, the
glasses are put on, and kept close; and when the mould becomes dry, it must be fre-
quently watered, but not immoderately, as too much wet would destroy the spawn ; ad-
vantage should also be taken of every gentle shower, for the same purpose. The moisture
coming up on the dry earth produces a moderate heat, which soon causes the mushrooms
to appear in every part of the bed, in such abundance as even to prevent each other's
growth. I have frequently, at one time, gathered two bushels from a frame ten feet by
six, and have produced individual mushrooms of nearly two j)ounds' weight. The mould
being kept warm by the glasses, and properly watered, the mushrooms will continue to
spring till the frost of winter prevents their further growth. I then leave the bed, frame,
&c. just as they are, and early in spring, as soon as tlie frost may be supposed to be over,
I take off the frame and glasses, and cover the bed lightly with straw ; when the wanii
enlivening showers of spring cause the mushrooms to be again produced in every part,
till the drought of summer renders it difficult to keep the bed sufficiently moist for their
growth. Sometimes I suffer the bed to remain, in order to produce a crop in the second
autumn, but more generally take the bed to pieces, for the sake of the dung, and also
for the purpose of procuring and drying the spawn, against the return of spring. When
I first thought of raising mushrooms in the manner above described, I was apprehensive,
lest the spawn, by running among the roots of the melons, might injure their growth.
I therefore planted it in one light only, but the result convinced me that it did no injury,
as, on the only plant in that light I grew a melon, of the black rock kind, weighing
eight and three quarters pounds, for tlie first crop, and another six and a half pounds for
the second crop ; both of which ripened well. Since that time I have always placed the
spawn over the whole of the bed, and have never failed to produce a good crop of both
melons and mushrooms. Should it be thought advisable to have a supply of mushrooms
during the depth of winter, I am confident (though I have not tried the experiment,)
that tliey might be obtained, at a trifling expense, by lining the bed with hot dung, and
using other precautions to keep out the cold air." (^Hort. Trans, v. iii.)

3446. Oldacre, at the end of his paper on growing mushrooms on shelves, &c. says, " They may be growir.
also plentifully, in hot-bed frames, by the same process as is recommended for the sheds. In this latter
practice, as soon as the beds are earthed, they should be covered with hay or litter under the lights, until
they are in full bearing, then remove the covering to the outside of the lights, to exclude the sun and air
as much as possible. In cold weather, if they advance slowly in their growth, the frames may be covered
with hot dung, which will greatly encourage them. It must be recollected, that when these beds are
made in hot weather, air must be admitted as freely as possible into the frames, during the time of
spawning, as directed for the management of this part of the process, in cellars or sheds."

3447. In old hot-beds. A good crop of mushrooms is sometimes obtained without
making a bed on purpose, by introducing lumps of spawn along the margin of late
cucumber-ridges, just into the top of the mould. This may be done from March to
May. (Abercrombie.)

3448. In pits. Jeeves has adopted this practice, and thus describes it. " To make
my bed, the dung was placed in the bottom of the pit, and rammed tightly down, to
about the thickness of eighteen inches; the dung itself producing sufficient heat to set
the spawn running, after it had been introduced in the usual manner. The bed was
made up last September, and came into bearing in six weeks ; it has continued to pro-
duce regularly to the present time, and requires no more heat than is collected by the
effect of the sun on the air within the house, except on frosty nights, when a little fire
is put into the flue. The mushrooms come up uniformly over every part of the bed,
which is covered very slightly with straw, (not sufficient to exclude the light,) for the
purpose of preserving moisture on the surface."

3449. In dark frames. Nicol says, " If you have no mushroom-house, and yet are
anxious to have mushrooms in winter, a cover or frame, capable of defending the bed
from rain, snow, or frost, may be made at a small expense, thus : first, make a frame
of inch-and-half deal, nine or ten inches deep, six feet wide, and of any convenient
length, from ten to twenty feet. Then fit a roof to it, three feet in the pitch, made of
thin boards, imbricated, which lay over with two or three coats of pitch or paint.
The roof part to be fixed down to the wooden frame by hooks and eyes, or by bolts, so
as that it may be removed at pleasure, and to have two moveable boards on each side, of
about a foot square, to slip for the admission of air. Tliis sort of frame being placed in a
dry warnn situation, and being insulated by a drain or trench, would completely defend
the bed from wet ; and by being covered, in severe weather, with straw or mats, from
frost. If the ground be not perfectly dry, a sole or floor must be formed of ashes,
gravel, or stone-chips, for the bed ; a thing necessary in any situation which is the least
damp, either within or out of doors."

I

Book T. CULTURE OF THE MUSHROOM. 60S

3450. In a cellar. " Mushrooms may likewise be produced in a cellar, or any other
vaulted place, with equal success, and not unfrequently to greater advantage as to crop,
than in a slied, or other building, that is Idvel with the surface of the earth. The same
rules of management are to be observed as directed for the shed. The peculiar advan-
tage of a cellar is, that no fire is necessarj', and less water, tlie application of which so
frequently proves injurious, is wanted."

3451. On hollow ridges. Hogan says he has devised an easy mode of growing
mushrooms under shelter, and tried it one season with great success. " The exterior
form of my bed resembles tlie old ones as built against a wall ; but instead of building it
solid, it is hollow ; strong stakes are inclined against the wall, at an angle of about 65° y
on which are placed hurdles to support the bed. By this means a cavity is formed under
the stakes, between tliem and the wall and floor, for the purpose of receiving dung,
which being readily changed, an opportunity is thus afforded of keeping up a permanent
moist heat in the bed, the absence of which, together with an insuflBcient depth of mould
for the spawn to run in, is the great defect of all other modes of raising mushrooms with
which I am acquainted. On this structure fourteen inches of rotten dung and four
inches of loamy earth were laid, and beat firm, and the spawning and other processes and
results were the same as usual." (Hort. Trans, v. 305.) We fear two things from this
mode — occasional overheating and overdrying, either of which are as ruinous to the
mushroom, as they are to cape-heaths in pots.

3452. The following details of culture are common to each of the above modes of rearing
the mushroom : —

3453. Season for commencement. Mushroom-beds or boxes may be formed and planted at any time of
the year ; but the month of September is the most natural season ; and the time next to be recommended
is early in spring. In June, July, and August, the weather is rather too warm ; and in the depth of
winter, it is not equally easy to excite and cherish the spawn. {Abercrombie.) Nicol "makes up a bed in
March to last tQl September, and another at that time to last through the winter, till the bed to be again
made in March comes into bearing. He adds, however, that there is no rule for making up these beds, as
it may be done at any day of the year with nearly equal propriety. {Kalcndar, p. 50.)

3454. Time qf growth. In autunui and spring, common ridges will often begin to produce plentifully in
four, five, or six weeks. In summer or winter they are much longer before they become productive.
{Abercrombie.) In Wales's method of growing in boxes, they come up in five weeks. Abercrombie says,
mushroom-beds have been known to lie dormant for five or six months, and yet afterwards produce
abundant crops. Where a bed is cold, Nicol observes, it will be sometimes two or three months of pro-
ducing mushrooms.

3455. Symptoms of progress. Nicol says, when you would know whether the spawn has begun to run,
thrust your hand a few inches deep into different parts of the bed, and examine what you bring up. If it
smells exactly of mushrooms, and has the appearance of bits of thread, then the spawn is in action.
"But generally you will be forewarned of the spa\*-n's running, by a previous crop of spurious fiingi,
which rise more or less abundantly, according to the fineness or grossness of the materials of which the
bed is composed. These fungi generally are either what are called pipes or balls ; and sometimes a kind
of mushroom, of a verj- bad sort, thin, flat, with white or pale yellow gills. They have all, however, a
nauseous, sickly smell,' and may readily be distinguished from the true mushroom, which is thick,
hemispherical, with brown or reddish gills."

, 3456. Duration of a crop. Six months is the ordinary duration of a common bed or ridge, made in the
open air or in a flued shed. Oldacre says, his beds will continue to produce for several months. To have
a succession, he earths a bed every two or three months. Wales's boxes (34-42.) continue to produce
for six weeks, and sometimes two months.

3457. Temperature. Nicol says, if the bed be placed in a flued shed, the temperature
in winter should be kept steadily to about 55 degrees. This is also Oldacre's
temperature.

3458. Wales says, " I have ever found the best adapted and most productive heat to
be from 55 to 65 degrees, and the nearer the beds are kept to this heat the greater will
be the success."

3459. Air is essentially necessary to the flavor of mushrooms. Oldacre says, air
must be admitted in proportion to tlie heat, otherwise the mushrooms become long in
their stems, and weak. The same thing takes place in ridges when the coverings are
too thick.

3460. Water. Abercrombie and Nicol agree in recommending no water to be given till
the spawn begins to run.

3461. Abercrombie says, " In autimin, the bed will want no water until the first crop is gathered. Then
a sprinkling will help to excite a fresh vegetation. In spring, should a drying air long prevail, it may be
necessary to moisten the bed a little. In summer, the bed maybe now and their exposed to gen^Je
showers, or otherwise watered according to the dryness and heat of the season. In order to give water,
without wetting the bed excessively or unequallv, scatter a thin layer of short hay over the ridge ; and let
a small quantity of water be gently distributed,', to all parts alike, from a rose-pan. Leave it to filter
through the hay, and cover the bed up with litter. In winter, the substitute for watering must be some
warm mulch from a dung-heap, laid over the dry litter ; the moisture evaporating from this will promote
the growth of the mushrooms. Excessive moisture is not only apt to destroy the spawn, but it debases
the flower of such fungi as can be produced under it It is also supposed to render the salutary sorts less
so, and to make the unwholesome kinds more acrimonious."

34«i2. Nicol says, " When the spawn is fully formed, give the bed two or three hearty waterings, in
order to set it a growing ; for, otherwise, it will lie dormant, and show no sjTnptom of vegetation. Give
just as much water (but by no means at once) as will fairly reach to the bottom of all the materials, and
afterwards keep the t)ed in a state neither wet nor dry, but rather inclining to the latter, this being the
safe side to err on, as it is more easy to make it damp than to dry it When a bed has been, as it were,
tired of producing, I have sometimes desisted from watering for several months ; then by examination I
have foimd a new net of spawn formed all over the surface, the threads beiag deep-rooted, even to the

e06 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

bottom. By a hearty watering, as above, a most plentiful and lasting supply has been ctotained. The
idea of treating my beds so, arose by observation of the manner in which field-raushrooms are often pro-
duced. We frequently see the crop suddenly disappear, and as suddenly appear again, according to the
state of the weather, with respect to wet or drought ; and that too, in the same field."

3463. Oldacre waters with extreme caution, using water nearly as warm as new milk, sprinkling very
lightly with a syringe, or a small watering-pot. Cold water destroys the bed and the spawn, and thus
renders the whole useless.

3464. Some old authors advise to take a few full-grown mushrooms, and breaking them down in the
watering-pot, to water the beds with the infusion. This, Neill observes, is plainly nothing else than
sowing mushroom-seed.

3465. Light. Abercrombie, Nicol, and most gardeners and authors, consider light as
quite unnecessary for the production of the mushroom. It is very probable, however, that
it contributes in some way to their perfection, since in their natural situation, they enjoy
a considerable portion of it. Our opinion is, that it should not be entirely excluded from
mushroom-houses or beds on whatever plan they may be constructed. See an interest-
ing proof of value of light in Chaptal's ^gr. app. h Cliimie, vol. i. p. 180.

3466. Gathering the crop. When the bed is in full production, and the season fine,
mushrooms may be gathered two or three times a-week. Turn off the straw covering,
and return it carefully, at each gathering. {Abercrombie.) " In gathering mushrooms,"
Nicol observes, " they should always be cut, and never be pulled ; as by pulling, many
young ones might be destroyed. There are always a number of these forming or clus-
tering about the roots of the old ones, which should not be disturbed. If the spawn be
deeply situated in these beds, mushrooms will often form and come to full maturity, en-
tirely under ground. They may easily be recognised, however, as they are generally
large, and push up small hills above their heads. They ought to be uncovered with care,
ihat the spawn about them may be as little disturbed as possible." Oldacre says, in ga-
thering mushrooms, avoid disturbing the small ones, that invariably, with good manage-
ment, surround the stems of those which are more early matured. Twist them up very
gently in all instances where you can ; and when obliged to cut them, take care to divest
the beds of those that are cut, as they would rot and injure those around them.

3467. Poisonous mushrooms. For the characters of the true mushroom {Agaricus
campestris), and the other species and varieties, edible and deleterious, see the follow-
ing chapter. Their duration is too fugitive to admit of their being much injured by
insects.

Chap. VIII.
Horticultural Catalogue. — Hardy Herbaceous Culinary Vegetables.

3468. The various jylajits and trees grown in the different departments of hortictdture
shall now be more particularly enumerated and characterised, and some account given
of their history, use, and culture. We shall commence with the hardy herbaceous ve-
getables ; and the most suitable arrangement for this class of plants seems to be, that
arising from a combined view of their habits, culture, and uses, in domestic economy.
Though no such arrangement can be absolutely perfect, from the circumstance of some
of the plants being used for different purposes, yet, by bringing together such as present
most points of union, something better- than a mere alphabetical catalogue is formed, of
which the following is the outline : —

3469. The cabbage tribe ; comprehending the white and red cabbage, cabbage-colewort.
Savoy, Brussels sprouts, borecoles or winter greens, cauliflowers, and broccolis.

3470. Leguminous jylants ; comprehending the pea, bean, and kidneybean.

3471. Esculent roots ; comprehending the potatoe, Jerusalem artichoke, turnip, carrot,
parsnep, red beet, skirret, scorzonera, salsify, and radish.

3472. Spinaceoiis jilants ; comprehending the garden-spinage, white beet, orache, wild
spinage, New Zealand spinage, sorrel, and herb-patience.

3473. Alliaceous 2}lants ; comprehending the onion, leek, chives, garlic, shallot, and
rocambole.

3474. Asparaginous j)lants ; comprehending asparagus, sea-kale, artichoke, cardoon,
rampion, alisanders, hop, bladder-campion, cotton tliistle, and milk-thistle.

3475. Acetarious plants or salads -, comprehending small salads, lettuce, endive, suc-
cory, dandelion, celery, mustard, rape, corn-salad, garden-cress, American cress, winter
cress, water-cress, brook-lime, scurvy-grass, garden-rocket, burnet, buckshorn plantain,
ox-eye daisy, and some of those included in other sections, as the sorrel, tarragon, Indian
cress, &c.

3476. Pot-herbs and garnishings ; comprehending parsley, purslane, tarragon, fennel,
diU, chervil, horse-radish, Indian cress, marigold, borage, and some others included in
other sections.

Book I. THE CABBAGE TRIBE. 607

3477. Sweet herbs ; comprehending thyme, sage, clary, mint, balm, marjoram, savory,
basil, rosemary, lavender, tansy, costraary, and some of those in the preceding section.

3478. Plants used in tarts, confectionary, and domestic medicine ; comprehending rhu-
barb, gourd, angelica, anise, coriander, caraway, rue, hyssop, chamomile, elecampane,
licorice, blessed thistle, wormwood, and some others.

3479. Plants used as preserves and jrickles ; comprehending love-apple, egg-plant, cap-
sicum, caper, samphire, and the red cabbage, Indian cress, radish, kidneybean, marsh
marygold. Sec. included in other sections.

3480. Edible indigenous plants neglected, or not in cultivation ; comprehending the sea-
beet, nettle, sea-peas, and a variety of other natives.

3481. Edible British fungi ; comprehending the mushroom, truffle, and morel.

3482. Edible British fud ; comprehending the dulse, tangle, &c.

Sect. I. The Cabbage Tribe.

3483. The cabbage tribe i5 of all the classes of cultivated culinary vegetables, the most
ancient as well as tlie most extensive. The Brassica oleracea, Tetrad, siliq. Linn., and
Cruciferee, Juss. figured in Eng. Bot. t. 637., being extremely liable to sport, or run
into varieties and monstrosities, has in the course of time, become the parent of a numer-
ous race of culinary productions, so very various in their habit and appearance, that to
many it may appear not a little extravagant to refer them to tlie same origin. Besides
the different sorts of white and red cabbage, and Savoys, which form the leaves into a
head, tliere are various sorts of borecoles, which grow with their leaves loose in the natural
way, and there are several kinds of cauliflower and broccoli, which form their stalks or
flower-buds into a head. All of these, with the turnip-rooted cabbage and the Brussels
sprouts, claim a common origin from the single species of brassica above mentioned.
Cabbage of some sort, WTiite, in his History of Selbome, informs us, must have been
known to the Saxons ; for they named the month of February Sjrrout kale. ' Being a
favorite with the Romans, it is probable the Italian cabbage would be introduced at an
early period into South Britain. To the inhabitants of the north of Scotland, cabbages
were first made known by the soldiers of the enterprising Cromwell, when quartered at
Inverness. {Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.)

3484. Tlie original cabbage-plant grows naturally on the sea^shores in different parts of
England, but it has not been observed in Scotland. It is a biennial plant ; the stem-
leaves are much waved and vai'iously indented ; the color is sea-green, with occasionally
a tinge of purple. Early in the spring, the wild cabbage or colewort, from the sea-coas^
is said to be excellent, but it must be boiled in two waters to remove the saltness. The
roots may also be eaten, but they are not very tender. {Neill, in Ed. Encyc. and Martyn,
in MiU. Diet.)

3485. A new arrangement of the cultivated sjyedes of brassica has been made by
Prof. Decandolle (Hort. Trans, vol. i., and in his Ji^o^. Veg.), but as many of the va-
rieties which the brassica oleracea assumes on the continent are little known here, and as
some of Qur varieties are omitted in Prof. Decandolle's enumeration, there does not
seem at present any sufficient reason to deviate from the usual British arrangement of this
genus. Prof. Decandolle's varieties, or races, of B. oleracea, are —

I sylvestris, or wild cabbage I B. oleracea canitata, headed or leaved cabbage

acephala, open cabbage, or borecole caulo-rapa, turnip cabbage, and

bullata, blistered cabbage, or Savoy | botrj tis, flowery cabbage, or cauliflower, and brocccdL

TTie colza of the Dutch, he makes a distinct species (J5. campestris), and also the turnip {B. Rapa), tbe
rape {B. Napus), and the summer rape of the Germans {B. prcecox).

3486. The sjiace occupied by this tribe in m^st kitchen-gardens may be estimated at one
eighth part of the open compartments, taking the whole year round ; and in cottage-gardens,
the heading cabbages and borecoles generally occupy one half of the whole space. We
shall take the varieties in the order of wliite cabbage, red cabbage, Savoy, Brussels
sprouts, borecole, cauliflower, and broccoli.

SuBSECT. 1. JFhite Cabbage. — Brassica oleracea, var. a. capitata, L. and Dec. Chou
pomme, or cabus, Fr. ; Kopfkold, Ger. ; and Cavolo, Ital.

3487. The common or white garden-cabbage is too well known, and its uses too
universal, to require any description. It produces firm, compact heads, glaucous, green,
or greenish-yellow externally, but blanched within, and varying in different sorts from
three to twelve or fifteen inches' diameter, and from two to fifteen or twenty pounds'
weight.

3488. Subvarieties. These are very numerous : the sorts chiefly cultivated are —

Small early dwarf
Early dwarf York
Large eailv York
Early dwarf sugar-loaf
large sugar-loaf
Ea&tHam
Early Battersea
Early Imperial

Penton . Large round

head ; leaves white and
fleshy, wrinkled like the
Savoy, very delicate and
fine : in perfection dur-
ing the latter summer
months, when other cab
bagesare of strong flavor.

Antwerp
Russian

Early London hollow
I>arge hollow sugar-loaf
Large oblong hollow
Large round winter
(white)

Great drum-head flat-
topped

Great round Scotch, or
white Strasbourg : from
which the German soar
krout is chiefly made.

60e PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

3489. Estimate of sorts. The first five or six sorts are suitable for the earliest and secondary summer
crops ; and the middle-sized and large kinds for the principal summer, autumn, and winter supplies.
Thus, 1. For the earliest crops, allot some of the small early dwarf York, East Ham, and sugar-loaf, for
cabbaging in April, May, and June. 2. Raise more considerable quantities of the middle-sized kinds, par-
ticularly the large York, and large sugar-loaf, or the Battersea, Penton, Imperial, Antwerp, Russian, &c.
for general summer crops. 3. Choose the larger later sorts for succession, summer, and general autumn
cabbages. The large hollow sugar-loaf, oblong hollow, long-sided hollow, and large round winter (white),
are excellent for full cabbaging in August, September, and October, till Christmas : or any of the middle-
sized varieties may be eligibly sown for latter succession crops in summer and autumn, to cut in light young
growth ; also to cultivate for cabbage-coleworts, either with small hearts, or as open greens for family and
market supply in autumn, winter, spring, and returning summer. 4. The large round winter cabbage,
great drum, Scotch, and American kinds, all reaching a very expanded bulk in autumn and winter, are
not usually so well fitted for family consumption as the foregoing, being more commonly adopted for field-
culture, to feed cattle in winter, &c.

3490. Propagation. All the kinds are raised from seed annually, of which, according to Abercrombie's
seed estimate, " for a seed-bed to raise the early York, and similar varieties, four feet wide by twenty in
length, two ounces" will be required. For a seed-bed to raise the large sugar-loaf, and other luxuriant
growers, four feet by thirty-six in length, two ounces. Sow at three different seasons, that is, spring,
summer, and autumn, and cover from an eighth to a quarter of an inch. Under a deficiency of winter-
standing young plants, for final transplanting in spring, or, in order to have some spring-sown plants as
forward as possible, a moderate portion of some best early sorts may be sown between the middle of
February and the middle of March, in a slight hot-bed or frame, to nurture the plants till the leaves are
an inch or two in length. Then prick them into intermediate beds in the open garden, there to gain
strength for final transplanting. (Abercrombie.)

3491. Soil and situation. The soil for seedlings should be light, and, excepting for early sowings, not
rich. "Where market-gardeners raise great quantities of seedling-cabbages to stand the winter, and to be
sold for transplanting in spring, they choose, in general, the poorest and stifl'est piece of land they have
got, more especially in Scotland, where large autumnal sowings of winter drum-head and round Scotch
are annually made, and where the stiffness of the soil gives a peculiar firmness of texture and hardness of
constitution to the plants, and prevents their being thrown out of the soil during the thaws which succeed
a frosty winter. Transplanted cabbages require a rich mould, rather clayey than sandy ; and, as Neill and
Nicol observe, it can scarcely be too much manured, as they are an exhausting crop. Autumnal plant-
ations, intended to stand the winter, should have a dry soil, well dug and manured, and of a favorable
aspect. The cabbage tribe, whether in the seed-bed, or final plantation, ever require an open situation.
Under the drip of trees, or in the shade, seedlings are drawn up weak, and grown crops are meagre, worm-
eaten and ill-flavored.

3492. Earli/ and main summer crops. The cabbage being a biennial, the largest crops
are obtained by sowing the year previous to that in which you expect to reap. Sow,
therefore, at the beginning of August, to raise plants to stand over the winter in young
open growth, for cabbaging early, and in succession, the following year. A nice atten-
tion should be paid to the time for sowing this crop, which is the first or second week
in August, being that most conducive to ultimate success, though some sow at the close
of July, to have the plants stronger before the approach of winter ; but of a crop so
forward, many generally run for seed in the spring ; therefore be careful to make the
principal sowing neither sooner than about the fifth, nor later than the twelfth, of that
month. For, if sown earlier, many of the plants are apt to run in the spring, as just
stated ; and, if sown later, they would not acquire sufficient strength before winter,
to enable them to stand severe weather so effectually as those a little advanced in firmer
growth.

3493. Sow each sort separately in an open free situation, in beds of rich mellow earth, broad cast,
moderately thick, and rake in the seed evenly, lengthwise each bed. Give occasional watering, if dry hot
weather; or sometimes shade with mats, in hot sunny days, till the plants come up fully; after which,
continue necessary moderate watering, if a dry season, to forward and strengthen the crop.

3494. IV/ien the plants have two or three leaves an inch or two broad in September, or beginning of
October, lift some considerable portion from the seed-beds, and prick into beds of good earth, about four
inches apart, giving water : all these are to remain in the intermediate bed during winter, to gain strength
for transplanting in the spring. Those left in the seed-beds will thus have more room to advance equally
for transplanting the most forward of the early sorts in the same year, towards the end of October, or in
November and December, and the principal supply in the spring," the last fortnight of February, or in
March and April

3495. In transplanting, continue to keep each sort separate, allotting the whole good ground; and, if
dunged, it will be repaid in the crop. Plant some of the dwarf early in rows, from a foot and a half to two
feet asunder, to admit of thinning for use in a young cabbaged state : those of the middle-sized, intended
for main crops, plant at two feet, or two and a half distant. The large autumnal kinds plant at least
from two feet and a half to a yard asunder, giving water at planting in dry warm weather.

3496. Jn their subsequent growth, \f any fail or run to seed, be careful to pull them up directly, and
supply the deficiencies with fresh plants. As the crop proceeds, give it two or more timely hoeings, both
to cut down all rising weeds, and to loosen the ground between the plants, drawing some earth round the
stems, which will strengthen and forward them considerably.

3497. The different sorts will cabbage in succession from April till October. Some may be forwarded in
cabbaging by tying the leaves together, moderately close, with osier twigs, or strings of bass. The succeed-
ing main crops will not need that assistance, but will head spontaneously in due time. Of the earlier
dwarf kinds, some probably will be fit for cutting, in small cabbagy heads, at the close of April or begin-
ning of May ; and the others in full growth from May till July ; and the succeeding main crops in full
heads from July till October.

3498. Early spring-sown crop. To succeed the crops of the preceding autumn sowing, it is requisite to
sow in the spring, to raise plants for use the same year, partly as young summer cabbages, and partly with
full heads, in autumn and winter. For this purpose, sow at the close of February, or in March, and the
beginning of April. A fewfor early summer use may be sown in the third week of February on a slight hot-
bed, or on a warm border under glass. In case no plants were raised the preceding autumn, or if the young
crop which has stood the winter be much cut by severe weather, there is an additional motive for sowing
a competent portion in the spring, of dwarf, middle-sized, and large kinds, according to the above estimate
of sorts. Sow the different kinds separately, and in the same method as directed for the crop to stand the
winter. Manage the plants in the seed-bed, and prick a proportion into an intermediate bed in the same
manner. When of suitable growth for final transplanting, in May, June, or July, (taking opportunity of
moist weather, if it occurs,) plant them out in rows traced from one to two feet asunder for the dwarf and
middle-sized, and for the larger kinds from two feet and a half to a yard distant. Give water at planting.

Book I. WHITE CABBAGE. 609

In their subsequent growth, give occasional hoeing to kill weeds, and to draw earth round the stems, as
advised for the August-sown plants.

St99. Late spring or sinnmer sown crop. For late young summer and autumn cabbages and wintei
plants, you may sow small portions at any time from May to July, principally of the quick-hearting kinds;
plant out finally in summer and autumn to produce young heads, and small cabbage- hearted coleworts ia
August, September, October, and thence till midwinter. The large late family cabbages, which make
returns for autumn, winter, and early spring, also the largest kinds usually adopted for field-culture, are
to be excluded from this sowing, as they are only properly raised as part of the principal crops sown in
August and early in spring. {Abercrmnbie.)

3500. Watering cabbages. During long continued droughts in June and July or later, cabbages are apt
to become stinted in their growth, and covered with aphides. To prevent this apply copious waterings
every evening ; water so abundantly supplied is supposed to injure the flavor of some plants, but it is
found to have no effect of that kind on cabbages.

3501. Cabbage-coleworts. The original variety of cabbage called colewort (if ever the
plants which passed by that name were a distinct variety) is, or seems to be, lost, and is
now succeeded by what are called cabbage-coleworts. These, Abercrombie observes, are
valuable family plants, useful in three stages : as young open greens, as greens with
closing hearts, and as greens forming a cabbage growth.

3502. Sorts proper for coleworts. Procure seed of some middle-sized early variety of the cabbage,
quick-hearting, and of close growth ; such as the early and large York, East Ham, and large sugar-loaf.
Occasionally, for larger coleworts, you may adopt some Battersea, imperial, Antwerp sorts, or early-
London hollow; but avoid the larger late kinds of cabbage, which, in a colewort state, are too spreading
and open j the others grow close, stocky, and full in the heart, and boil most tender and sweet for the
table.

3503. Times of sowing. To have a good supply of coleworts for autumn, winter, spring, and returning
summer, it is proper to make three or four sowings in summer and autumn : that is, one sowing toward
the middle of June, a second about the same time in July, with a third in the last week. These
supplementary crops are for transplanting in August, September, and October, and will amount to a con-
tinued provision of autumn, winter, and early spring coleworts, from September till March or April. At
this time the plants of these sowings will mostly start for seeding. To succeed these, effect a very con-
siderable sowing in the beginning from about the third to the sixth of August. Having been transplanted
in autumn, the forwardest of the August-raised plants will be fit for gathering in the course of winter, if
the weather be mild ; but the principal supply should he set apart for a continuing spring crop to increase
in growth from March till June, without running to seed, as would generally be the case, if sown before
the time just specified. What are not used in their colewort state in spring, will advance in cabbaging, to
be cut either with small hearts, or with middling, or full heads, in the early part of summer and autumn.
If it be required to have coleworts in a younger state in summer and autumn, you may sow at the time of
raising the spring-sown crop of cabbages.

3504. Sowing, thinning, and transplanting. Sow in some open compartments of light mellow ground,
in one or more beds, distributing the seed evenly on the surface ; and rake it regularly into beds length-
wise. If the weather be dry, give occasional waterings, both before and after the plants are up. WTien
the young plants have two or three leaves, if thick in the seed-bed, prick out a portion into intermediate
betls, to increase in growth three or four weeks. When these and those in the seed-beds have several
leaves two or three inches broad, transplant them finally into open compartments of ground, in rows
twelve or fifteen inches asunder, by eight or twelve inches in the lines, as it may be intended to gather
them in smaller or larger growth. If the weather be dry and warm, a watering at planting would be of
much advantage. In their subsequent growth, keep them clear from large weeds by occasional hoeing ;
at the same time, loosen the ground about the plants, drawing a little earth to the stems, which
will forward and strengthen their growth ; the hoe will also wound and kill many of the slugs which
sometimes annoy these plants in their young state, about the end of autumn and beginning of winter.
(Abercrombie.)

3505. Taking the cabbage crop. After cutting off the head, never n^lect immediately to pull up the stalk,
and carry it off with all the refuse leaves to the compost-heap. This practice is enjoined as well to prevent
the stem from pushing out shoots, and needlessly exhausting the ground, as to promote neatness and order.
It is necessary, however, to make an exception in favor of the practice of some, who, instead of removing
the roots and'stems of the main summer crop, leave them in the ground deprived of their injured leaves,
and with the intervals between the rows stirred and perhaps manured, allow them to stand till spring.
Thus treated, they push out in autumn, and in January or February abound in fine cabbage-sprouts, not
much inferior to young cabbages. Sometimes this practice is appUed to the earliest spring or summer
crop in which case the sprout-cabbages come into use the following autumn.

3506. Cabbage-coleivorts are gathered when the leaves are as broad as a man's hand. The largest are
drawn up by the root, which is generally allowed to remain attached to those taken to pubUc markets, as
it retains the sap, and tends to preserve them succulent a longer period, than if they were wounded close
to the succulent leaves.

3507. Preserving cabbages. WTiere this is thought necessary, the plants are laid down on their sides,
and the stems covered with earth close to the head, the outer part of the more exposed side of which may
be sometimes injured, but the inside remains sound.

3508, To save cabbage-seed. The raising of the seed of the different sorts of cabbage,
Neill observes, affords employment to many persons in various parts of England. It is
well known that no plants are more liable to be spoiled by cross breeds than the cabbage
tribe, unless the plants of any particular variety, when in flower, be kept at a very
considerable distance from any other ; also, in flower, bees are extremely apt to carry
the pollen of the one to the other, and produce confusion in the progeny. Market-
gardeners, and many private individuals, raise seed for their own use. Some of the
handsomest cabbages of the different sorts are dug up in autiunn, and sunk in the
ground to the head ; early next summer a flower-stem appears, wliich is followed by
abundance of seed. A fiiw of the soundest and healthiest cabbage-stalks, furnished with
sprouts, answer the same end. When the seed has been well ripened and dried, it will
keep for six or eight years. It is mentioned by Bastien, that the seed-growers of Auber-
villiers have learned by experience, that seed gathered from the middle flower-stem
produces plants which will be fit for use a fortnight earlier than those from the seed of
the lateral flower-stems : this may deserve the attention of the watchful gardener, and
assist him in regulating his successive crops of the same kind of cabbage.

R r

610 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

SuBSECT. 2. Bed Cabbage. — Brassica olemcea^ var. )8, inibra. L. Chou jmnme
rouge, Fr. ; Roth KopfJcold, Ger. ; and Camlo rosso, Ital.

3509. The red or purple cabbage is similar in form to tlie white, but of a purple or
brownish-red color,

3510. Use. The red cabbage is chiefly used for pickling ; and the dwarf red variety,
Neill observes, " certainly does make one of the most beautiful pickles that can be pre-
sented at table." Both the dwarf and large sorts are sometimes shredded down in
v'inter, in salads, like red beet-root ; and the Germans prepare sour krout from all or
any of the varieties.

3511. Subvarieties. Tliere are three principal varieties of red cabbage, viz.

The large red, or reel Dutch; with a Iar»re, I The dwarf red; with a small, round, firm, I The Aberdeen retl; with an open leafy
firm, round head, usuallj cultivated in delicate head, less common than the heail, chiefly found in cottaire gardens

niarket-sardens | other | in the norUi of Scotland.

351 2. T/te propagation, solving, arid culture are in all respects the same as for the white
cabbage ; excepting that the heads are not used when imperfectly formed, or as cole-
worts ; but the plants should, in all cases, be allowed to stand till they have formed
close finn heads. Sow in August for a crop to stand the winter, and to come in at the
close of next summer, and thence till the end of autumn. Sow early in spring for re-
turns in the following winter and spring.

SuBSECT. 3. Savoy. — Brassica oleracea, var. y. sabauda, L. ; B. o. var. y. bullata, Dec.

Chou })onime frise, Fr.

3513. The Savoy is distinguished from the other close or hearted cabbages by the ru-
gosity of its leaves ; and from the Brussels sprouts, by its cabbaging in large full heads.
The Brussels sprouts is considered a subvariety.

3514. Use. The Savoy is in use as a table-vegetable from November till spring, un-
less destroyed by frost, in which case, it is succeeded by the borecoles or winter greens.
These two classes of the cabbage tribe generally supply the table from November to
May.

3515. Subvarieties, These are —

Thefnreen t The yellow Savoy ; and of each of these I The oblonpt, and

The dwarf, and are— The conical, or sugar-loaf headed.

I The round I

3516. Estimate of sorts. The green Savoy is the least hardy, and must be used first. Tlie London
market is generally supplied with it through the month of November, and until the plants are injured by
frost. The dwarf Savoy is hardier than the preceding, bearing well the attack of the first winter frosts,
by which the delicacy of its flavor is materially improved ; and from its small size, it is better adapted to
the tables of private familes. Where the whale class is cultivated, this must be considered the second
sort in succession. The best plants grow close to the ground, not exceeding a foot in height The yellow
Savoy, by its hardiness, enables us to continue the use of Savoys till mid-winter. It does not yield to any
of the others in goodness, and by many persons it is preferred, being considered much sweeter. (Hart.
Trans, vol. ii. p. 309.)

3517. Propagation. The Savoy is always raised from seed, and for a seed-bed four feet and a half by
eight feet, half an ounce of seed will be sufficient.

3518. Soil and situation. This esculent answers best on a light rich soil : poor or exhausted ground
should be manured according to the defects of it. Allot an open compartment in the full air, that the
seedlings and advancing plants may grow stock> , and not draw up weak and long stemmed, as they are
liable to do in close situations, or narrow borders, under walls.

3519. Times of sowing. A sufficient succession is obtained by three, or at most, four sowings, made from
the last week of February till the second week in May ; for planting out, from May till September. A
small crop may be sown at the end of February, or the beginning of March, to plant out for early autumn
Savoys, to cabbage in August or September. Sow a larger portion in the last fortnight of March for a first
considerable autumn and winter crop. Nor omit to sow a full supply in the second or third week of April,
for a main crop to be planted out in June, July, and the begiiming of August, to attain a full cabbaged
growth late in autumn, and to stand partly over the winter. Furthermore, it would be eligible to make
a moderate sowing at the beginning, or towards the middle of May, in order to plant out the seedlings in
July, August, or September, for smaller heading, to come in towards the spring, and to stand longer
before they run ; or, some to use occasionally in winter, as Savoy coleworts.

3520. Culture. The ground should have been previously trenched to a good depth. Four feet is a con-
venient width for the beds. Sow broad-cast ; and rake in a quarter of an inch deep. As soon as the
plants have two or three leaves, an inch or two in width, if they stand too crowded, tliin the seed-beds, by
drawing out a quantity regularly ; and prick them into other beds four inches asunder. Should the
weather be dry, water those left, as well as those removed. Permit both divisions to remain three, four,
or five weeks, to gain a good stocky size for final transplanting. When the plants, both in seed-beds and
those pricked out, are advanced with several leaves, two or three inches broad, or more, transplant them
finally into the most open compartments of ground, where they will be less annoyed by caterpillars, that
they may cabbage with large full heads ; planting them at different times as ground becomes vacant.
Remove the most forward in May or June, for early autumn heading in August or September. But plant
the princii>al crops in June or July, and from the beginning to the middle of August ; taking all possible
advantage of showery weather. In drawing the plants, observe if any are clubbed or knotty at the root,
and cut off the protuberances close. Plant in rows those removed in May, June, or July, two feet and a
half, or not less than two feet asunder, by the same distance in the rows ; others late planted in August
and September, two feet by eighteen inches. In scarcity of vacant ground, some Savoys may be occa-
sionally planted between wide rows of previous standing crops, such as beans, cauliflowers, and early
cabbage, that are sufficiently forward to be gathered off by the time the Savoys will want the entire
ground. Before and after i)lantings made in dry weather, watering would be of essential service. As
the plants of the different successions advance, keep them from weeds by occasional broad hoeing. At
the same time, loosen the surface of the earth, and draw some about the stems of the plants : let
this be done twice or oftener, to forward them in a free enlarging growth. They will gradually heart,
fully cabbaging in September, October, November, December, &c, as they are the crops of tlie forward, or

Book I. BORECOLE. fill

later sowings : they may be cut for use accordingly, and during the winter. The Savoys left standing
will continue good till the middle or end of February^ when, or in the course of Mai-ch, they open and
send up seed-stalks.

3521. To save seed. See Cabbage. (3508.)

SuBSECT. 4. Brussels Sjn-outs. — Brassica oleracea, a subvariety of var. y. sabaudoy L.,
and of ^. 0. var. y. buUata, Dec. Chou de Bruxelles, or a jet, Fr.

3522. The Brussels sprotUs produce an elongated stem, often four feet high, from the
alae of the leaves of which sprout out shoots which form small green heads like cabbages
in miniature, each being from one to two inches in diameter, and the whole ranged
spirally along tlie stem, the main leaves of which drop off early. The top of the plant
resembles that of a Savoy planted late in the season ; it is small, and with a green
heart of little value. Van Mons says {Hort. Trans, vol. iii.), "If this vegetable be
compared with any other which occupies as little space, lasts as long, and grows as well
in situations generally considered unfavorable, such as between rows of potatoes, scarlet
runners, or among young trees, it must be esteemed superior in utility to most others."
Nicol considers it as deserving more general culture in Scotland ; and Morgan (Hort.
Trans, vol. ii.) says, it is an excellent sort of winter green for the table, but not
sufficiently hardy to last through tlie winter in England.

/ 3523. Use. The sprouts are used as winter greens ; and at Brussels they are sometimes served at table
with a sauce composed of vinegar, butter, and nutmeg, poured upon them hot after they have been
boiled. The top. Van Mons says, is very delicate when dressed, and quite different in flavor from the
sprouts. I

3524. Culture. The plants are raised from seed, of which an ounce may be requisite for a seed-bed, four
feet by ten feet. Van Mons, in the paper already referred to, says, " The seed is sown in spring under a
frame, so as to bring the plants forward ; they are then transplanted into an open border with a good
aspect" By thus beginning early and sowing successively till late in the season, he says, " we contrive to
supply ourselves, in Belgium, with this delicious vegetable, full ten months in the year; that is, from the
end of July to the end of May." The plants need not be placed at more than eighteen inches each
way, as the head does not spread wide, and the side leaves drop off. In this, as in every other respect,
the" culture is the same as that of the borecole.

3525. Gathering the crop. Morgan says, the sprouts must have some frost before gathered ; but this
Van Mons assures us is an erroneous opinion. In Belgium, the small cabbages are not esteemed if of more
than half an inch in diameter. It is usual to cut off the top about ten or fifteen days before gathering
from the stem. In spring, when the sprouts are disposed to run to flower, their growth is checked by
taking up tLe plants, and laying them in the ground in any shaded spot.

3526. To save seed. Van Mons says, it is usual to save the seeds indiscriminately
from plants which have or have not been topped ; but that he intends to save from the
tops only, hoping thereby to improve tlie progeny. Whatever mode be adopted, the
grand object is to place the plants where they will be in no danger of receiving the farina
of any other of the brassica tribe.

SuBSECT. 5. Borecole. — Brassica oleracea, var. 5. sabeUica, L. ; B. o. var. j8. acejTihala, Dec.
Chou vert, Chou cavalier, or Chou non jwmmi, Fr.; KolU, Ger. ; Kale, Sax» ; and
Green Kale, Scotch.

3527. The borecole contains several subvarieties, the common characteristic of all
which is an open head, sometimes large, of curled or wrinkled leaves, and a peculiar
hardy constitution, which enables them to resist the winter, and remain green and fresh
during the season. Morgan says, it is impossible to find a plant of more excellence for
the table, or more easily cultivated than the common borecole. Sinclair recommends
the Woburn perennial kale, which has been grown six years at Woburn Abbey. It
shoots up yearly from the stool, like a true perennial plant, scarcely ever flowers, and is
considered as producing more than thrice the produce of any other borecole, with a very
great saving of manure and labor. It is considered by Sinclair as peculiarly adapted for
farm and cottage gardens.

3528. Use. The crown or centre of the plant is cut off so as to include the leaves which
do not exceed nine inches in lengtli. It boils well, and is most tender, sweet, and deli-
cate, provided it has been duly exposed to frost.

3529. Subvarieties. These are —

1. The green borecole, Scotch kale> or Siberian borecole

2. The purple or brown kale

3. The German kale, German greens, or curlies

4. The variegated borecole

6. The thousand-headed cabbage
6. 'T\\e chtiu de MiUin

9. The Jerusalem kale

10. The Buda kale, Russian kale, Prussian kale, and by some

called the Manchester kale

1 1. The palm -borecole, or chou-palmier

12. The turnip-cabbage, or tumip-borecole, (B. o. rar. ^, eaulo-
rapa, Dec.) cfuyu-navet, Fr.

7. The Egj-ptian kale, rabi kale, or kolU robe 15. The Portugal or large-ribbed borecole

8. Ragged Jack 111. The Woburn perennial kale, with finely cut leaves.

S530. Estimate of sorts. The three first sorts are the most valuable, and the mostgeneraUy cultivated:
the third sort is almost universally preferred in Britain. The seventh, eighth, and ninth sorts, being
dwarf, stemless plants, resist black frosts, and come in for a late supply ; the third, fourth, fifth, and tenth
sorts are merely curious plants, and the others are of little merit

3531. Propagation of the first thirteen sjKcics. All the sorts are propagated by seed, which is sold by
weight : and for a seed-bed four feet by ten, Abercrombie says, one ounce of seed is necessary. Sow in
the last fortnight of March, in April, in the beginning of May, and in August The first week in April
for the principal crop of German kale ; and the first week in August for the latest spring crop of Buda kale,
and which will be ready to transplant in September.

R r 2

612 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

3632. Subsequent culture. " When the plants have leaves one or two inches broad, take out some from
the seed-bed, and prick into other open beds, six inches apart, giving water : in which let them have four
or five weeks' growth. Those left in the seed-bed, as well as these, will all acquire proper strength for
final transplanting in May, or thence till August. Taking the opportunity of rain, if possible, plant them
in an open compartment, in rows two feet and a half asunder, for the first forward plantings in summer;
the others two feet ; allotting the whole similar distances in the rows. Give occasional water, if dry
weather, till they have struck root. In their advancing growth, hoe the plants once or twice, to cut down
rising weeds, and to draw earth about the bottom of the stems, to encourage their growth in the produc-
tion of large full heads in proper season, September, October, &c." At the approach of winter, the stems
should be earthed up, especially of the taller sorts. "When the distances between the plants are such ag
have been recommended, the hills round each plant will be of such a size and breadth as to cherish the
roots of the dwarf varieties, and serve as a protection to the tall sorts in stormy weather.

3533. Gafhering. The heart is to be gathered of all the tall sorts, after which, with the exception of the
German kale, and the choii de Milan, the stalks should be pulled up, and taken to the compost-heap or
dunghill ; but the terms of the two sorts excepted are to be left for the sake of their side shoots or sprouts.
Of the dwarf sorts, the heart may either be cut off, for which the Buda kale and coleworts are well suited ;
or the leaves gathered when the plant begins to grow, which corresponds with the habits of the Egyptian
and Jerusalem kale.

3534. Projyagation of the Woburn kale is effected by cuttings of six or seven inches,
which readily take root, and may be planted at once where they are finally to remain : the
best season is March and April.

3535. Culture of the Woburn kale. ** About the beginning of April, or as soon as
winter greens are out of season, the stems are cut down near to the ground, within two
buds of the roots, the soil is then slightly forked over, and afterwards kept clear of
weeds by the hoe. This is all that is required." {Hort. Trans, v. 299.)

3536. Blanching the Buda or Portugal kale. "VVedgewood writes to the Horticul-
tural Society, " I have been trying an experiment with Buda kale, which has an-
swered completely ; this is blanching it as you do sea-kale, by turning a pot over it, and
letting it remain covered till it is quite blanched. When cut and dressed in that state it
is excellent, and one advantage will be, that the same plant will furnish two cuttings, for
the sprouts are more delicate than even the original heart of the plant. I used no dung
to force it ; but this might be applied with great advantage ; and I think it would be an
excellent substitute for sea-kale." (Hort. Trans, iv. 570.)

3537. To save seed. Tliis can seldom be done of more than one or two sorts in the
same garden, on account of the risk of promiscuous impregnation by bees, the wind, &c.
As the seed, however, will keep for several years, good specimens of one or two sorts
may be selected every year in rotation, and placed in spots distant from each other, in
autumn, or early in spring. Trench the root and stem into the ground, at nearly double
the distance at which they stood in the plantation. This will allow abundance of air to
circulate round the blossoms and seed-pods. They will be ripe in August, when they
may be gathered, and threshed out ; and the seed, after being exposed to the dry air in
the shade for a few days, put up in bags till wanted for use.

SuBSECT. 6. Caidijloioer. — Bi-assica oleracea, var. €. botri/tis, L. and Dec, Chou-
Jleur, Fr. ; Blumenkohl, Ger. ; and Cavolijtori, Ital.

3538. The cauliflower is one of the most delicate and curious of the whole of the brassica
tribe, the flower-buds forming a close, firm cluster or head, white and delicate, and for the
sake of which the plant is cultivated.

3539. Use. " These heads or flowers being boiled, wrapped generally in a clean linen
cloth, are served up as a most delicate vegetable dish. Cauliflower is a particular fa-
vorite in tliis country. ' Of all the flowers in the garden,' Dr. Johnson used to say, * I
like the cauliflower.' Its culture, however, had been little attended to till about the close
of the 1 7th century ; since that time it has been greatly improved, insomuch that cauli-
flower may now fairly be claimed as peculiarly an English product. Till the time of
the French Revolution, quantities of English cauliflower were regularly sent to Holland ;
and the Low Countiies, and even France, depended on us for cauliflower-seed. Even now,
English seed is preferred to any other. " For the early supply of tlie London market, very
great quantities of cauliflower are fostered under hand-glasses during winter and the first
part of spring ; and to behold some acres overspread with such glasses, gives a stranger
a forcible idea of the riches and luxury of the metropolis. {Neill, in Ed. Encyc. )

3540. The subvarieties in cultivation are —

Early, for the first early crops | Red cauliflower; having the stalks of the I teemed more hardy than the others, and

later, or large, for principal eftrly, and head of a reddish or purple color, es- good for an early crop,

main crops | I

3541. Propagation and soil. The cauliflower is raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufRcien
for a seed-bed four feet and a half wide, by ten in length. The soil for the seed-bed may be light; hw
for final transplanting, it can hardly be too rich, the cauliflower, like the vine, being reputed a " rougl
feeder." Cleanings of streets, stables, cess-pools, &c. ought therefore to be liberally supplied during tn(
growth of the plants, when very large heads are desired.

3542. Times of sowing. " The early and main superior crop, brought to fruit by the longest nurser;
attendance; the late summer succession crop, raised by the shortest course; and the Michaelmas cror^
obtained at the least expense ; are sown respectively at three different seasons. The principal sowing!
made about the end of the third week in August, or a day or two before or after the 21st, to raise plant
to stand over the winter, under frames, hand-glasses, or half sheltered in warm borders, for the early .

Book 1. CAULIFLOWER. 613

main superior crops next summer. A secondary sowing in February or March, for succession and late
inferior crops the same year in summer and autumn. A final sowing near the close of May, for ordinary
crops, to yield fruit the following autumn and winter." Ball finds, that if cauliflower-seed is not sown
till the last week in August, and that if the seedlings are not transnlanted till the middle or near the end
of November before the hard weather sets in, no sort of covering is necessary, nor any other protection than
that aflbrded by a wall having a south aspect. " In such a border, and without any covering, young
cauliflower-plan'ts have uniformly stood well for many successive winters, and have always proved better
and sounder plants for spring planting than such as have had additional shelter. The seedlings protected
with glass frames generally grow too gross in the stems, which become partly blackened ; and the plants
being thus unhealthy, are not fit for planting out. Late raised seedlings, which spend the winter in the
open border, uniformly become the largest and finest table cauliflowers during the summer, though they
certainly do not come in quite so early. Cauliflower-plants, it is probable, are often killed with too much
attention. Seedhngs raised late in autumn seem to be very tenacious of life." {Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 192.)
" A method of producing cauliflower pretty early, and with great certainty, is this : The plants are set in
small pots in the winter season, and kept in any convenient part of the floor of a vinery or other glazed
house. In the beginning of March, they are taken out of the pots with the ball of earth attached, and
planted in the open ground. If they be here protected against severe frosts with bell-glass covers, they
come into head m the course of April, if the weather prove favorable." t^Scut, in Ed. Encyc.)

Siy^. Sowings to stand the winter. " Time of sowing and first culture. For the early and general crops next
summer, make a considerable sowing in August, about the eighteenth, and thence to the twenty-fourth
day of that month ; or two difierent sowings between those extremes, at three or four days' interval, to
raise young plants to stand the winter under protection ; some being planted out finally the same year in
October or November, under hand-glasses ; and the others pricked into frames and warm borders, for
planting out finally in the spring, into the open ground, to succeed the hand-glass fruit, or for the general
summer crop. Sow in a bed of rich, light, mellow earth. Aft«r sowing, give occasional light waterings in
dry weather, and shade in hot sunny days, till the plants come up. When these have leaves an inch or
an inch and a half broad, in September, prick them into intermediate beds, three or four inches apart;
watering, and occasionally shading from the mid-day sun, till they have taken root; to remain m such
beds to gain strength till October."

3544. Hand-glass division. " Then towards the close of October, transplant a quantity finally into rich
ground, which has been well dunged, under hand glasses, in rows three feet and a half or four feet
asunder (with intervening alleys a foot wide), and three feet apart in the row. Set three or four plants
centrally under each glass, about four inches apart, with the design of retaining only one or two of the best
in the spring. Give a moderate watering at planting, and put on the glasses close till the plants take
root, discoverable in a week or ten days by their showing a renewed growtli ; then raite the glasses on the
warmest side, one or two inches in mild days, to admit free air to the plants. Continue the glasses all
winter ; but in all temperate weather, tilt up the south side daily, two or three inches, to give the requi-
site admission of free air, in order to strengthen and harden the plants ; and sometimes, in fine, mild,
dry days, you may occasionally take the glasses off, especially if the plants appear to draw, or get on too
fast in growth, as they are sometimes apt to run into small button heads in their nursery state, unless for
future culture ; but put on the glasses early towards the evening ; and always keep them on at night,
and during cold rain, snow, and frost, shutting them close down in all inclement weather ; and during ri-
gorous frosts it would be advisable to give some protection, with long, dry, stable-litter, round the glasses,
or to cover with mats, removing the covering when settled mild weather occurs. Thus conforming to the
vicissitudes of the season, continue the glasses till the close of April or beginning of May ; giving larger
admissions of free air as the warmer season of spring advances : and sometimes in fine mild weather,
admit a moderate warm shower of rain. Meanwhile, in March, if all or most of the plants under the
glasses have stood the winter, be careful to leave only one or two of the strongest under each glass;
transplanting the superabundant into the open garden, in a compartment of rich mellow earth, improved
with rotten dung digged in a spade deep : setting the plants two feet and a half asunder, and giving water.
In thinning the plants, be careful to take out those with black shanks : but do not take the trouble to
transplant them, for they will prove abortive. At the same time, to assist those remaining under the
glasses, draw a little earth about the stem of each. To these continue the glasses till the period men-
tioned above, to forward ihem in full growth for the most early production ; but as they expand in the
herb, raise each glass upon three props, three or four inches high, to admit air freely, and to give a larger
scope of room above, for the free grow-th of the plants; or, when further advanced, you may draw a small
-ledge of earth round the bottom of each glass, both to raise the props higher, for an additional upward
cpace, and to contain water when occasionally given in dry weather. Towards the end of April, or the
oeginning of May, when the plants will, in a manner, have filled tlie glasses, remove these from the most
forward, but continue the aid of glass as long as practicable, to accelerate the plants into early heading in
May. Thus the most early crop will produce a supply of flower-heads for gathering in succession in May
and June."

3545. Frame division. " The other plants of the same sowing, designed for wintering in frames, may, in
young growth, at the end of September, or beginning of October, be either pricked at once into the winter
beds, or be, at that time, removed into a preparatory bed in the open garden, to have a month's growth;;
in order to be transplanted into the frame-beds at the end of October or beginning of November, in rows
crosswise the bed, four by three inches apart Give a hght watering, and put on the lights of the frame
close till the plants have taken root ; then prop up the lights behind, two or three inches, or draw them
oflT occasionally to the back of the frame in mild, drj'days, but keep on when very told, and in rain, snow,
frost, and always at night; and m severe frost cover the glasses and round the frames with dry, long,
strawy htter and mats ; but in all mild, dry weather, admit the air fully, as in managing the hand-glasses.
Then in March or beginning of April, transplant the whole into the open garden, in rows two feet and a
half asunder ; and they will come into full production in July and August."

3546. Half-sheltered portion. " In want of frames or hand-glasses, you may, in October, either prick
some plants into a warm south border, close under the fence, three inches apart, to be protected in rigor-
ous frosts, with mats, dry litter, or reed pannels ; or you prick some in a bed arched over with hoops, to
receive a covering of mats during cold nights, or heavy rain, snow, and frosts, in the day-time in winter.
Give the full air in all moderate weather, till March or April : then all to be transplanted finally as
above."

3547. Drummond, of the Cork botanic garden, protects cauliflower-plants during winter by planting
them in excavations made in the common soil of the garden, and covered with frames thatched with long
straight wheat-straw. He uncovers constantly in mild weather, whether nights or days. {,Hort. Trans,
V. 365.)

3548. Secondary solving, or first spring-raised crop. " For late succession summer cauliflowers, to succeed
the autumn-raised, early, and main summer crops ; or, if none were raised to stand the winter ; sow in
the si)ring, February, or beginning of March, in a moderate hot-bed, or, where that cannot be had, in a
warm border under a frame or hand-glass; and when the young plants have leaves an inch broad, prick
them into other beds of the same description, three inches apart, to gain strength by three or four weeks'
growth, in order to be planted out in the open garden, at the end of April or the beginning of May ; where
they will produce tolerable heads in July or August. Sow also in the open garden during the last fortnight
in March, and the first in April for a late succession, with small flower-heads in August and throughout
autumn. Plants of the last crop, removed as late as May, for fruiting the same year, should be planted in
a shady border."

Rr 3

614 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

3649. Second spring-raised crop. " The next and last sowing Is for the late autumn and winter crop,
commonly called the Michaehnas crop : to be made towards the twenty-fourth of May, in a bed of light
earth. Prick out the young plants in June, to remain in the intermediate bed till about the middle of
July ; then to be transplanted two feet and a half asunder. Give occasional watering till they have taken
good root. They will begin to produce heads in October, but the fruit wiU be of superior size in Novem-
ber and December, if temperate weather follow."

3550. Final culture of the three crops. "With respect to the culture of the different crops after being
finally transplanted, it is to hoe the ground occasionally, in order to cut down weeds, and as well to loosen
the earth, and draw some round the stems of the plants. When the early crops are nearly advanced to
full growth, in May and June, one or two good waterings to the roots will contribute to their producing
large heads. In the dry weather of meridian summer, water those not in flower twice a-week ; and those
in flower, every second day. As the flower-heads show themselves, turn down some of the larger leaves,
to defend them from sun and rain, and to preserve them white and close, in perfection." {Abercrombie.)

3551. Crop for winter use. Cockburn sows the seeds of early cauliflower in a south border in the be-
ginning of July, thins to 12 or 14 inches apart, and in November finds heads produced from ten to thirty
inches in circumference. He then removes them with balls, and plants them so as their heads do not
touch in earth, in a shed which will keep out ten degrees of heat. All decayed leaves are taken off, and
when severe frost occurs, the plants are covered with dry short hay. " By this management," he says,
** I have been able to send tliree dishes of the cauliflowers to table every week during the autumn and
winter, and shall be able to continue to do so till February." {Horf. Trans, v. 281.)

3552. Preserving during winter. For this purpose it is usual to pull up the plant entire, and hang it up in
a shed or cellar, or to lay the plants in sand in cellars or sheds, covering the flower with the leaves, and
being careful to remove every decayed part as it appears. When a shed or cellar is not at hand for this
purpose, a mode may be resorted to which has been adopted by Smith, and described by him in the Caled.
Hort. Mem., vol. i. p. 129., and which consists in burying the entire plant in a pit about eighteen inches
deep, dug along the bottom of a wall. On a dry day he takes up the plant, and wrapping the leaves round
the head of the flower, deposits them in the trench, the heads sloping downwards, and the roots extending
upwards, so that the roots of the one layer cover the tops of another. Next, he covers up the whole closely
with earth, sloping it from the wall, and beating it smooth with the back of the spade, so that rain may
run off In this way he preserves it in a good state from November to January. The best mode, however,
of prolonging the cauliflower season, is by raising the plants with balls, and trench-planting them in
frames, or the borders of peach or grape houses not in action, taking care to keep the soil dry, and to re-
move decaying leaves ; or, where frames are in sufficient quantity, to place a few over the plants as they
stand in the compartment.

3553. To save seed. " Mark and leave some of the prime plants of the thoroughly
nursed early and main crops in May and June, when the flower-heads are in highest
perfection ; as those of late production will not ripen seed effectually. The stools will
afford ripe seed in September ; when be careful to watch the chaffinches, green-birds, &c.
and to gather the branches as the seed upon them ripens. Lay them elevated from the
ground, in some sunny, airy situation, to diy and harden to full maturity : after which
let the seed be beaten and rubbed out, cleaned and sifted from the husky parts, spread on
a cloth to diy the whole equally; and then put up for sowing the following year."
(.Abercrombie.) ■

3554. Insects. Cauliflower-plants, when first planted out, are frequently infested
with flies, or their larvae, to attract which, it is not uncommon to sow a little radish-seed
on the cauliflower ground a fortnight before transplanting ; the flies preferring the tender
leaves of the radish to those of the cauliflower, the latter are thus suffered to escape.

SuBSECT. 7. Broccoli. — Brassica oleracea, a subvariety of var. e. botrytis, L. and Dec.
Broccoli, Fr. ; Italienische Kohl, Ger. ; and Broccoli, Ital.

3555. The few broccolis that were known in Miller's time are supposod to have pro-
ceeded from the cauliflower, which was originally imported from the Isle of Cyprus,
about the middle of the 1 6th century. Miller mentions the white and purple broccoli as
coming from Italy ; and it is conjectured, that from these two sorts all the subsequent
kinds have arisen, either by accidental or premeditated impregnations.

) 3556. Use. The same as the cauliflower.

3557. Subvarieties. Neill observes, that " no culinary plant is so liable to sport as broccoli ; so that new
kinds, slightly different, are continually coming into notice or favor, and as speedily sinking into neglect."
The common characteristic of broccoli, as distinguished from cauliflower, is co/or in the flower and leaves,
and a comparatively hardy constitution to stand the winter. Maher observes {Hart. Trans, vol. i.
p. 116.), that as all plants of the brassica tribe become less alkalescent, and more palatable in proportion
as they approach to a pale or white color, such varieties of broccoli will undoubtedly be preferable to pur-
ple ones, if they turn out equally hardy. H. Ronalds, of Brentford, has given {Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) a
Description of the different sorts of Broccoli, with an Account of the Method of cultivating them, from which
we shall chiefly compose this article. The sorts which follow are placed in the order in which they come
in perfection to table.

3558. Purple cape, or autumnal broccoli. This has a close, compact head, of a beautiful purple color;
the leaves are nearly entire, erect, concave, lobed at bottom, and much waved, short, and regularly sur.
rounding the head ; the veins and mid-rib are stained with purple, which stain is a test of its being true ;
the head is exposed to the view in growing ; in general it is not very large ; as it enlarges, the projecting
parts of the flower show a greenish-white, mixed with the purple color. When boiled, the whole flower
becomes green. If the season is showery, and this variety is planted in good ground, it comes as large as
cauliflower.

3559. Culture of the purple broccoli. Sown about the middle of May, and beginning and end of June, it
will produce in regular succession from August to December, or until frost destroy the heads. Sown in
July and August, if the winter is mild, it will bring good heads in spring. When sown in the beginning
of September, and the plants preserved in frames as cauliflowers, fine heads may be expected in the
months of June and July. Thus, by good management, this kind may be in use during the greater part
of the year ; but it is not hardy enough to be depended on for the winter months. The plants grow from
one foot to one foot and a half high, and should be placed about two feet apart in every direction.

3560. Maher's mode of treating the purple broccoli is as follows : " Three crops are sown annually : the
first between the 12th and 18th of April ; a second between the 18th and 24th of May ; the third between
the 19th and 25th of August : these successive crops supply the family from September till the end of May.
The seeds are scattered exceedingly thin, in a border of very rich light earth. Not a weed is suffered to

Book I. BROCCOLI. 615

appear, and when the yonng plants have from eight to ten leaves, which is in about a month, they arc finally
planted out, at the distance of two feet every way, in a piece of sandy loam, which has been well preparctl
for the purpose by digging, and enriching it with a large proportion of very rotten dung, frequently
turned over to pick out every sort of grub, or insect deposited in it The ground is kept constantly clean
by hoeing whenever a seed-leaf of anv weed springs up, and the loose surface is drawn together into a heap
round the stem of each plant The second crop is treated exactly as the first, but the weaker jjlahts left in
the seed-bed are j)ermitted to remain eight or ten days longer to gain more strength. They are then trans-
planted into pots of the size called sixteens, filled with very rich compost, placing them close to each other
in the shade, and duly watering the plants, till they begin to grow freely. After this, the pots are plunged
in the open ground at two feet distance from each other every way, and about three inches under the
general level, leaving a hollow or basin round each plant, to retain any water given to them when neces-
sary. By the time the pots are filled with roots, and that autumnal rains render watering unnecessary,
the basins are filled up by drawing the earth round each plant, at the same time pressing it firmly down,
to prevent the wind trom shaking them. A few of these plants in pots sometimes show flowers too soon ;
and to guard them from early frost, a leaf or two is broken down over them. On the ai)proach of settled
frost in December and Januarv, all the pots are taken up and removed to a frame, pit, or shed, where
they can be sheltered from the'e.xtreme severity of the winter, but have air when it is milder, and by this
method a supply is preserved for the Uble iii the hardest winters. To make broccoli succeed in ix)ts, I
find, by exjierience, that it should be potted immediately from the seed-bed. If it is transplanted oftener,
the head or flower is both less in size, and runs much sooner after it forms. For the same reason, I never
prick out or transplant the general crops j and as the terai)erature of our climate does not suffer vegeta-
tion to go on briskly from October to March, by following this method, the heads of flower will remain a
long time in a state of rest afler they are formed, without bursting, and heads from six to seven inches
diameter are the ordinary produce of our plants. The seeds of the third crop are sown in a frame, or
under hand-glasses, and about the third week in October, the plants become strong enough to remove, as
in the two former crops."

35G\. Green cape, or autumnal broccM. This sort differs but little from the preceding, except in color
and in the heads, as well as the plant, proving in general larger. The leaves are long and narrow, much
like those of a cauliflower ; they are very little waved, and, consequently, have a general apjjearance of
smoothness ; the veins and mid-rib are green. The head, which has some resemblance to a cauliflower,
is of a greenish-white color, and is usually somewhat covered by the leaves. These two soits are very
sportive, running much into each other, and have a strong tendency to degenerate, yet are quite distinct,
and when so, very beautiful. The greatest care should be taken in saving the seeds from the plants which
are perfectly true. This remark applies generally to all the sorts.

35ri2. Grange's early cauliflower broccoli. If this sort is sown at three diflferent times, from the beginning
of May until the end of June, it will bear its heads in succession from Michaelmas to Christmas, if the
weather is not severe. The leaves covering the head, defend it from slight attacks of frost, they have
long naked foot-stalks, are wider and shorter than those of the green cape, are lobed at bottom, but not
much waved ; the veins and mid-rib are whitish green j the head is large and quite white. It should be
planted at about two feet apart.

^&S. Green close-headed winter broccoli. This is a new and good sort, apparently a seedling from the
green cape, which it closely succeeds in coming into use. The plants are dwarf; leaves spreading, and
moderately indented, they are numerous, much waved and large; the veins are white; the flower
grows exposed, nearly resembling that of the green cape in appearance, and does not attain a great size.

3564. Culture, 'i'he peculiarity of this variety is, that it continues to bear during the whole of the
winter, if the weather is mild. A single plantation, from seeds sown in May, Ronalds found to yield
heads fit for use, through the months of November, December, January, and February. Plant from one
footand a half to two feet distance.

35^. Early purple broccoli. This is a very excellent kind, of a deep purple color ; if the true sort, it 5s
close-headed at first ; afterwards it branches, but it is apt to come green, and too much branched, esjieci-
ally in rich ground. The plants are from two to three feet high, growing strong and tall ; the leaves are
much indented, of a purplish-green color, they spread out wide, but not long, though the stalks are so j
the head is quite open from the leaves ; small leaves are sometimes intermixed with the head : the plants
produce sprouts of flowers from the al£E of the leaves.

3566. Culture. ^Vhen sown in April, it begins to produce in November, and continues bearing the
heads and sprouts throughout the winter, in mild seasons ; if sown in June, it produces abundance of
sprouts in March and April. It should be planted three feet apart in rich ground.

35b/. Early white broccoli. The heads of this sort are of a close texture, and of a pure white color.
It grows to about three feet in height ; with erect, concave, light-green, and nearly entire leaves.

3568. Culture. To obtain heads fine and early, the seed should be sown in Februarj', or beginning of
March, on a slight hot-bed. The plants, when about three or four inches high, must be transplanted
into beds of light rich earth, three or four inches apart, and defended from the frost and cold nigfits
by a mat covering ; they will be strong enough to plant out at two or three feet distance by the end of
April : under this treatment, they will produce beautiful heads in November, and continue to do so until
Christmas, if the weather is tolerably mrld. This sort, as well as several others, is sometimes cut in con-
siderable quantities by the market-gardeners, previous to an expected frost, and kept in sheds or cellars for
the supply of the market.

3569. Dwarf brown close-headed broccoli. From its resemblance, I take this to have sprung from the
sulphur-colored broccoli, from which, however, it differs, by coming in earher, as well as in the shape and
color of its head ; the leaves are also shorter and broader than those of the sulphur-colored ; they are
small, not much waved, dark-green, with white veins ; they grow upright, and do not cover the head at alL
Most of the crowns are green on their first appearance, but soon change to large, handsome, brown heads.

3570. Culture. If sown about the middle of April, it is in use through March and Apri.l. Two feet
distgnce is suflJicient for the plants, when put out

3o/I. Tall large-headed purple broccoli. This sort produces large, tall, purple heads, at two and three
feet in height.

3572. Culture. If sown towards the end of March, it will prove a useful kind in March and April The
plants should be three feet asunder, in good ground.

3oi3. Cream-colored, or Portsmouth broccoli. This is a very noble sort, exceeding all the others in size. It
is of a buff or cream color, and has a very compact firm head ; its leaves are large and broad, with white
veins ; they spread out widely, but the small centre leaves cover the flower. A head, sent by Oldacre
from the garden of Sir Joseph Banks, to the Horticultural Society, on the 5th of May, 1819, measured
more than two feet in circumference, although it was quite close.

3574. Culture. Seeds sown in the middle of April will be in perfection during the following February,
March, and April. It bears near the ground. The plants should be planted three feet asunder.

3575. Sulphur-colored broccoli. A hardy and valuable sort ; if sown in April, it produces in the following
April, and beginning of May, fine, compact, conical, sulphur-colored heads, some of them slightly dotted
wiJthpurjJle. The leaves have long foot-stalks, are much indented, and of a bluish-grey color.

3576. Culture. Two feet distance will be sufficient for the plants to grow well

3o/7. Spring white, or cauliflower broccoli. This sort grows very robust, with large leaves, flat and
narrow, with thick veins ; the leaves encompass and compress the' head, so as to render it generally in,
visible when fit to cut, which is a great preservative from the frosty mornings common in the snrine
months. « i •«•

R r 4

616 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

3678. Culture. Sow in March, and pLint out at three feet distance. When in good ground, it will pro-
duce very fine heads, perfectly white, throughout the months of April and May of the following year.

3579. Late dwarf close-headed purple broccoli. This is the latest purple broccoli, being in perfection
throughout April and the greatest part of May. The plants seldom rise above a foot in height ; the
flower at first shows small and green, but soon enlarges, and changes to a close, conical, purple head ; the
leaves are short and small, dark-green, with white veins, much sinuated, deeply indented, and forming a
regular radius round the flower, giving the whole plant a singular and beautiful appearance.

3580. Culture. The seed should be sown in April, and the plants must stand from one foot and a half
to two feet apart.

3581. Latest green, or Siberian, or Danish broccoli. This is the latest and hardiest of all the broccolis, for
the severest winters will not destroy it. The leaves are much undulated and indented, narrow and long,
with a tinge of purple color in the stems.

3582. Culture. If sown towards the end of April, it will produce large, compact, green heads during the
whole succeeding May. Two feet distance is sufficient for the plants.

3583. General obseivatmns on the culture of broccoli. All the sorts are raised from seed ;
and for a bed four feet in width by ten feet, Abercrombie says, one ounce of seed
is sufficient.

3584- Seed-bed. Ronalds, in the paper above quoted, directs the seed-beds to be pre-
pared of rich mould, well dug, and if dry, watered the evening before sowing. The
seeds must be thinly sown, and the beds should be covered with mats or litter till the
plants appear, the covering may then be removed, and the plants watered occasionally as
the state of the weather lequires ; should that continue very dry, the best method is to
transplant, when the plants are about two or three inches high, into other beds about four
inches asunder. Being several times refreshed by sprinklings of water, they will, in a
fortnight or three weeks, be sufficiently strong for a second remove. This mode offers
some advantage in giving time to clear off any crops of peas, &c. thereby obtaining
ground which could not otherwise be conveniently had at the first season of planting out.
The four first sorts on the list, which I consider as congeners, should be only once trans-
planted, as the check their removal occasions is apt to produce the heads prematurely,
which, in that case, will be small, and indifferent in quality. If the season is showery,
it will be needful to cover the beds as soon as sown with netting, to keep off the birds,
also to sprinkle the plants when they appear with lime-water, or to strew on them fresh -
slacked lime, to destroy the slugs. In this case, when the plants are six or eight
inches high, they may be planted at once at the distances recommended for each sort.

3585. Insects and diseases. In old gardens, infested, as is often the case, with an in-
sect which in summer insinuates itself into the roots of all the brassica tribe, and causes
a disease usually called the club, trenching the ground deep enough to bring up four
or six inches of fresh undisturbed loam or earth, will probably bury the insects too
deep for mischief, and provide fresh ground for the benefit of the plants. In gardens
much exhausted by reiterated cropping, if this mode cannot be adopted, a good quantity
of fresh loam from a common or field, dug in, would materially improve the broccoli,
and be of lasting use to future crops. Broccoli, in general, succeeds best in a fresh loamy
soil, where it comes, I think, more true in kind, and is hardier, without dung ; but if tliis
situation cannot be had, deep digging, with plenty of manure, is the only remaining al-
ternative to procure good crops. I believe soap-ashes, dug into the ground in consider-
able quantities, to be a good preservative from the club ; and if the roots of the plants,
just previously to planting, are dipped and stirred well about in mud of soap-ashes with
water, its adherence will, in a great measure, preserve them from attack ; perhaps a mix-
ture of stronger ingredients, sucli as soot, sulphur- vivum, tobacco, &c. would be still bet-
ter. {Hort. Trans, vol. iii.)

3586. Wood, a writer in the Caledonian Horticultural Memoirs, says he has paid a
considerable degree of attention to the culture of broccoli, and has made considerable
progress therein. He finds that manuring with a compound of sea-weed and horse-dung
produced the largest and finest heads he had seen during a practice of fifty-four years.

3587. Culture without transplanting. M'Leod grows cape broccoli in a very superior manner without
transplanting. In the end of May, after having prepared the ground, he treads it firm, and by the assist-
ance of a line, sows his seeds in rows two feet apart, dropiiing three or four seeds into holes two feet dis-
tance from each other in the row. When the seeds vegetate, he destroys all except the strongest, which
are protected from the fly, by sprinkling a little soot over the ground ; as the plants advance they are
frequently flat-hoed until they bear their flowers ; they are once earthed up, during their growth. A
specimen of the broccoli thus grown was exhibited to the Horticultural Society ; the head was compact and
handsome, measuring two feet nine inches in circumference, and weighing, when divested of its leaves
and stalk, three pounds ; the largest of its leaves was upwards of two feet long. M'Leod adopts the same
mode in the cultivation of spring-sown cauliflowers, lettuces, and almost all other vegetables, avoiding
transplanting as much as possible. {Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 559.)

r 3588. Preserving broccoli during winter. Ronalds observes, that, though broccolis come larger and finer
on the spot where they are planted, yet it is prudent to take up a part of the later " sorts in the beginning
of November, disturbing the roots as little as possible, and lay them in slopingly, with their heads towards
the north, only a few inches above the ground, and about eighteen inches asiuider. By this means, the
crown of the plant lying low, is soon covered and protected by the snow, which generally falls previously
to long and severe frosts ; the plant is also rendered tougher in fibre, and hardier, by the check received
in this last removal."

3589. Knight, having practised laying in his broccoli-plants in November in the usual way, found but
small heads produced from them in the succeeding spring ; till he tried trenching or laying them in in the
month of Septeml>er, and " so low as that the centre of the stem at the top of each plant was level with
the surface of the ground." The plants are watered, roots are properly emitted, and the earth drawn

Book I.

INSECTS.

617

roxmd each plant before snow is apprehended. The consequence of this treatment Is, that the plants are
fresh and vigorous in spring, and produce large heads. {Hort. Trans, vol L p. 305.)

3590. Nicol takes up the most forward crops of broccoli in the end of October, and lays them on their sides,
80 as the heads may not touch each other. In a dry soil and open situation, the plants will thus resist the
severest winters.

3591. Gathering. In gathering broccoli, five or six inches of the stem are retained along with the head ;
and in dressing, the stalks are peeled before boiling. Some of the sorts produce sprouts from the sides of
the stems, with small heads, that should be gathered when ready, and are very good when boiled.

3592. To save seed. Wood, already mentioned, selects the largest, best formed,
and finest heads, taking particular care that no foliage appears on the surface of the
heads ; these he marks, and in April lays them in by the heels in a compound of cleanings
of old ditches, tree-leaves, and dung. When the head begins to open or expand, he cuts
out the centre, leaving only four or five of the outside shoots to come to seed. Lifting,
he says, prevents them from producing proud seed, as it is called, or degenerating.
Tlie above method produces seed the most genuine of all the others he has tried. The
sulphur broccoli he finds the most diflicult to procure seed from. (Caled. Hort. Mem.
vol. ii. p. 267. ) Abercrombie says, broccoli-seeds degenerate in this country, and that
the best seed is obtained from Italy.

SuBSECT. 8. Of the Insects which infest the Cabbage Tribe.

3593. The whole of the cabbage tribe are liable to the attacks of the larvae of the Ti-
pula oleracea, L. on their roots, and of the caterpillars of butterflies {Jig- 464.) and
motlis (Jig. 465.) on their leaves, as

well as of aphides, or cabbage-lice, __^ / 464

snails, and slugs. There is no re-
medy for the first, excepting that of
taking up, cleaning, and transplant-
ing in fresh soil, in a different part
of the garden ; and it is in general
easier to plant afresh from the seed-
bed. With respect to cateri^illars,
snails, and slugs, they can only be
gathered by hand, and the way to
do this effectually is to begin as soon
as they appear, employing women
or children to look them over daily
early in the morning. Poultry, and
especially ducks and sea-gulls, are sometimes of use in keeping these and other insects
under ; a hen and chickens will devour caterpillars and aphides greedily, but are apt to
scratch tlie soil afterwards, if not timely removed ; turkey fowls are better. Nature has

li\^'iiin'wTO''MW -

furnished a remarkable insect, which assists man in the destruction of the caterpillar, the
Ichneumon manifestator, L. (Jig. 466.) " The insects of this genus," Samouelle observes,
" lay their eggs in the bodies ' ^

of caterpillars or pupee, which
are there hatched ; the larvae,
have no feet ; they are soft
and cylindrical, and feed on
the substance of the caterpil-
lar, which never turns to a
perfect insect, wliile the larvae
of the ichneumon spin them-
selves a silky web, and change
into a jnijKi incompleta, and
in a few days the fly ap-
pears." (Entomologist's Com-
panion, 68.) Ante, 2661.

618

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Paut III.

3594. Preventive device. " If in a patch of ground where cabbages are to be planted
some hemp-seed be sown all round the edge, hi the spring, the strong smell which that
j)lant gives in vapor, will prevent the butterfly from infesting tlie cal)bages. The
Russian peasantry, in those provinces where hemp is cultivated, have their cabbages
within those fields, by which they are free from caterpillars." (/. Busch, in Hort. Trails.
vol. iv. 569.)

3595. The principal disease to ivhich the cabbage is liable, is the club in the root. The
cause is doubtful, but most probably it proceeds from the puncture of an insect in
depositing its eggs. The part swells and becomes a tubercle as large as a gooseberry,
and sometimes the size of a hen's egg. When it has attacked plants before transplant-
ation, the root on which it appears should be ci^t off before planting ; in the case of
transplanted crops there is no remedy but taking up, cutting off, and re-transplanting.
Some in , planting apply ashes, lime, &c. at the roots, but nothing of this sort has been
found of much advantage. In general, frequent transplanting (as pricking out twice or
oftener before making the final plantation) is a palliative, as it promotes fibrous roots,
and the club attacks chiefly those which are ramose.

Sect. II. 'Leguminous Plants.
- 3596. The leguminous esculents are of great antiquity as culinary vegetables ; the
British islands are supposed to be less favorable to them, than to most others, all the
diadelphous plants of Linnceus, or leguminosae of Jussieu, thriving best in a dry atmo-
sphere, and comparatively arenaceous soil. These, it must be allowed, are more com-
mon in other countries than in ours. The space occupied by this tribe in the kitchen-
garden, during the spring and summer months, is very considerable ; probably amount-
ing to an eighth part of the open compartments, and warm borders ; but towards autumn,
as the crops ripen, it is given up to be succeeded by other crops, chiefly of the cabbage and
turnip tribes. These, independently of other circumstances, having fibrous or surface-
roots, succeed well to the tap-roots of the bean and pea. In cottage gardens, the bean
is very profitably grown among cabbages and potatoes ; and the pea and kidneybean
may occupy a space to be filled up in October with winter greens. We shall take them
in the order of the pea, bean, and kidneybean..

SuBSECT. 1. Pea. — Pisum sativum, Li. (Lam. III. i. 163.) Diad. Decan. L. and
Leguminosce, J. Pois, Fr. ; Erbse, Ger. ; and Pisello, Ital.

3597. The jiea is a hardy annual, a native of the south of Europe, and cultivated in
this country from time immemorial. It was not very common, however, in Elizabeth's
time, when, as Fuller informs us, peas were brought from Holland, and were " fit
dainties for ladies, they came so far, and cost so dear." It is a climbing plant, with the
legumes, or pods, commonly produced in pairs, the seeds contained in which are the part
of the plant used.

3598. Tlie use of the pea is familiar in cookery. In one variety, called the sugar-pea
(]}ois des couches, Fr. ?), the inner tough film of the pods is wanting ; and such pods, when
young, are frequently boiled with the seeds or peas within them, and eaten in the manner
of kidneybeans. This variety is comparatively new, having been introduced about the
middle of the 1 7th century.

3599. The varieties of the pea are numerous : the principal are —

Early Charlton ; an excellent early sort

nearly equal to the genuine frame
Early Eolclen Charlton
Early Nichol's golden Charlton
Common Charlton
Early single-blossomed
Reading Hotspur ; long pods
Dwarf marrowfat ; large, long pods
Tall marrowfat ; most large, long pods
Green marrowfat, Patagonian
Knight's wrinkled, or marrow ; a white-

blossomed, tall, luxuriant grower; the
fruit of excellent flavor, cream-culored,
and shrivelled when ripe Emd dried

Spanish moratto ; largish

Prussian blue ; great bearer

^Vhite rouncival ; large, fine pods

Green rouncival; ditto

Grey rouncival ; ditto

Tall sugar ; large, crooked pods

Dwarf sugar

Crown, or rose ; of tall, strong growth;

E reducing its blossom and fruit in a
unchy tuft at top
Leadman's dwarf; a great bearer, but of
small X)ods ; good for a latter crop, or
as required for succession
Spanish dwarf; of low growth, small pod
Early dwarf frame; for forcing
Nanterre, or earliest French pea.

3600. Estimate of soi-fs. " The varieties, besides differing in the color of the blossoms, height of the
stalks, and modes of growth, are found to have some material differences in hardiness to stand the winter,
time of coming in, and flavor of the fruit. The Charltons are not only very early, but great bearers, and
excellent peas for the table ; and are therefore equally well fitted for the early crop, and forward succes-
sion crops, and inferior to few even for the main summer crops. The frame-pea may, indeed, be raised
without the assistance of heat for a forward crop ; and, if a genuine sort, will fruit a few days sooner than
the Charlton : but it grows low, and bears scantily. The Hotspur is hardy and prolific, and makes returns
nearly as quick as the Charlton, and about a fortnight before the marrowfat. The sorts already specified,
therefore, embrace the best for sowings made from the end of October till the middle of January, and for
late crops raised between the middle of June and the beginning of August. The fine flavor of the marrow-
fat is well known. A few dwarf marrowfats may be sown in December and January, as mild weather
may occur : but the time for sowing full crops of the larger kinds of peas, is from the beginning of
February till the end of April. Knight's pea, one of the newest varieties, is very prolific, and retain^ its
fine sweet flavor when full grown. The egg, the moratto, the Prussian blue, and the rouncivals, the large
sugar, and the crown, are all very fine eating peas in young growth ; and, like the marrowfat, may be
sown freely, according to the demand, from the third week of February, till the close of April, and, in
smaller crops, until the middle of June. For late crojjs, in addition to the early sorts already mentioned,
the dwarf sugar, Leadman's dwarf, and Spanish dwarf, are very suitable. The Leadman's dwarf is a.
■luill delicious pea, a great bearer, and in high request at genteel tables : but as the fruit is long in coming

Book I.

PEA.

619

in, it is not advisable to low it after the third week in June ; rather sow it m March, Apnl, and May,
and then it will be later than the Charltons raised five weeks afterwards. The Charltons and Hotspur,
may be sown in May, for late full crops ; in June for asmaUer supply : and m July, along with the frames
for the last returns." . . , ^ ,, ^- j • ^i. r^ ^- \.

3601 Times of sowing. " Much that relates to this has been incidentally mentioned m the Esttmate
qf sorts. To try for a crop as early as possible, sow, of the sort preferred as hardy and forward, a small
portion on a sheltered south border, or other favorable situation, at the close of October, or rather in the
course of November. Follow with another sowing in December, that, if the lormer should be casually
cut off in winter, this coming up later, may have a better chance to stand ; and if both survive the Irost,
they will succeed each other in fruit in May and June. For more considerable, and less uncertain
returns, either in succession to the above, or as first early and intermediate crops, sow larger portions in
December or January, if open temperate weather. To provide for main crops, make successive sowings
of the suitable sorts Irom February till the end of May. It frequently proves, that the fruit from a sowing
at the beginning of February, is not a week later than that from a crop raised in November ; nay, the
February-sown plants sometimes surpass aU that have stood the winter, in forward returns as well as
quantity. From the middle of February make successive sowings every three weeks m the course of
March, April, and May; or twice a-month in summer, when a continued succession is to be provided fdl
the latest period. At the close of the sowing season, July and the first week of August, sow a reduced
quantity each time; because the returns will depend on a fine mild autumn following, and whatever
fruit is'obtained will be small and scanty." ^ ^ .

3(502. Quantity of seed. Of the small early kinds, one pint will sow a row of twenty yards; for the
larger sorts for main crops, the same measure will sow a row of thirty-three yards.

3603. Process in sowing. " For early sorts, make the drills one inch and a half deep ; and let parallel
drills be two feet and a half, three, or four feet asunder. Peas that are to grow without sticks require the
least room. For summer crops and large sorts, make the drills two inches deep, and four, five, or six feet
asunder. As to the distances along the drill, distribute the peas according to their size and the sea-
son : the frame, three in the space of an inch ; the Charltons, Hotspur, and dwarl marrowfat, two in an
inch ; the Prussian blue and middle-sized sorts, three in two inches ; the large marrow-fat and Knight's,
a full inch apart ; the moratto, rouncivals, and most larger sorts, an inch and a half apart; and the Pata-
gonian, two inches."

3604. Soil and situation. " The soil should be moderately rich, and the deeper and stronger for the
lofty growers. Peas are not assisted, but hurt, by unreduced dung recently turned in. A fresh sandy
loam, or road-stuff, and a little decomposed vegetable matter, is the best manure. The soil for the early
crops should be very dry, and rendered so where the ground is moist, by mixing sand with the earth of
the drills. For early crops, put in from October till the end of January, let the situation be sheltered,
and the aspect sunny. Before the end of December, every one or two rows should stand close imder a
south or south-eastern fence. In January, several parallel rows may be extended under a good aspect
farther from the fence. After January, till the end of May, sow in an open situation. For the late
crops, return again to a sheltered sunny border."

3605. Subsequent culture. " As the plants rise from half an inch high to two or three inches, begin to
draw earth to the stems, doing this when the ground is in a dry state ; and earthing gradually higher as
the stems ascend. At the same time, with the hoe loosen the ground between the young plants, and cut
down rising weeds. Early crops should be protected during hard frosts by dry straw or other light litter,
laid upon sticks or brushwood ; but remove the covering as soon as the weather turns mild. If in April,
May, and the course of summer, continued dry weather occurs, watering will be necessary, especially to
plants in blossom and swelling the fruit ; and this trouble will be repaid in the produce. Kows partly cut
off may be made up by transplanting. This is best done in March. In dry weather, water, and in hot
days, shade, until the plants strike. All peas fruit better for sticking, and continue longer productive,
especially the larger sorts. Stick the plants when from six to twelve inches high, as soon as they begin
to vine. Provide branchy sticks of such a height as the sort will require : for the frame and Leadman's
dwarf, three feet high ; for the Charlton and middle-sized, four or five feet ; for the marrowfat and
larger kinds, six or eight feet ; for the rouncival, and for Knight's marrow-pea, nine or ten feet P\M:e
a row of sticks to each line of peas, on the most sunny side, east or south, that the attraction of the sun
may incline the plants towards the sticks. Place about half the number on the opposite side, and let both
rows stand rather wider at top than at the ground. Some gardeners stop the leading slioot of the most
early crop when in blossom ; a device which accelerates the setting and maturity of the fruit"

360G. To forward an early crop. Sow or plant in lines from east to west, and stick a row of spruce-fir
branches along the north side of every row, and sloping so as to bend over the plants, at one foot or eigh-
teen inches from the ground. As the plants advance in height, vary the position of the branches, so as
they may always protect them from perpendicular cold or rain, and yet leave them open to the full in-
fluence of the winter and spring sun. Some cover during nights and in severe weather, with two boards
nailed together lengthwise, at right angles, which forms a very secure and easily managed covering,
but excludes light A better plan would be to glaze one of the sides, to he kept to the south, and to
manage such row-glasses (Jig. 467.), as they might be called, when over peas, beans, spinage, &c., as hand-
glasses are managed when over cauliflower ; that is, to take them off in fine weather, or raise them con-
stantly or occasionally by brick-bats, or other props, as tbe weather,and the state of the crop might require.

3607. Knight sowed peas in the open air, and peas in pots on the first day of March. In the last week
of the month those in pots were transplanted in rows in the open ground ; on the 29th of April the trans-
planted plants were fifteen, and the others four inches high, and in June, the former ripened twelve days
before the latter. {Hort. Trans, v. 341.) Had a single, or even two peas only been planted in each pot,
and the plants turned out with their balls entire, the crop, no doubt, would have ripened still earlier.

3608. Managenient of a late crop. The best variety for this purpose is Knight's marrow-jjea, which
may be sown at intervals of ten days from the beginning to the end of June. " The ground is dug over
in the usual way, and the spaces to be occupied by the future rows of peas are well soaked with water.
Tlie mould upon each side is then collected, so as to form ridges seven or eight inches above the previous
level of the ground, and these ridges are well watered. The seeds are now sown in single rows along the
tops of the ridges. The plants grow vigorously, owing to the depth of soil and abundant moisture. If
dry weather at any time set in, water is supplied profusely once a-week. In this way the plants continue
green and vigorous, resisting mildew, and yielding fruit till subdued by frost" {Hort. Trans, ii.)

3609. Taking the crop. " The early crops are generally gathered in very young growth, often too
young, when the pods are thin and the pease small, for the sake of presenting some at table as soon as
possible. In the main crops there is no cause for precipitation : take them as they become pretty plamp.

620 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

while the peas are yet green and tender. Leave some on to grow old ; the young pods will then fill in
greater perfection, and the plants will continue longer in bearing."

3610. To save seed. « Either sow approved sorts in the spring, for plants, to stand
wholly for seed, to have the pods ripen in full perfection ; or occasionally leave some
rows of any main crop ; let all the early podded ripen, and gather the late formed only
for the table, as the last gleanings of a crop seldom afford good full seed. For public
supply extensive crops are commonly rai ed in fields. Let the seed attain full maturity,
indicated by the pods changing brown, and the peas hardening : then to be hooked up
and prepared for threshing out in due time, cleaned, and housed."

3611. For the method oi forcing peas, see Chap. VII. Sect. XII.

SuBSECT. 2. Garden-Bean. — Vicia Faba, L. I>iad. Dec. L. and Leguminosee, 3.
Feve de marais, Fr. ; Bohn, Ger. ; and Fava, Ital.

3612. The garden-bean is an axmu^X plant, rising from two to four feet high, with a
thick angular stem, the leaves divided, and without tendrils ; the flowers white, with a
black spot in the middle of the wing ; seed-pods thick, long, woolly within, and enclosing
the large ovate flatted seeds, for the sake of which the plant is cultivated in gardens. It
is a native of the east, and particularly of Egypt, but has been known in this country
from time immemorial, having, in all probability, been introduced by the Romans.
" Crops of beans," Neill observes, " are very ornamental to the kitchen-garden, and
render it a pleasant walk, the flowers having a fragrance not unlike those of the orange."

3613. Use. The seeds are the only part used in cookery; and are either put in
soups, or sent up in dishes apart.

3614. Varieties. The following are the principal sorts planted in British gardens : —

Early small Mazagaw
Early long-pod
Early small Lisbon
Large long -pod
Larger sword long-pod

Broad Spanish I Toker; middling large

Windsor broad I Wliite-blossomed ; smallish middling
Large Kentish Windsor Green nonpareil ; smallish

Largest Taylor's Windsor Mumford ; smallish middling

Sandwich ; largish \ Dwarf cluster, or fan : smallest.

3615. Estimate of sorts. " The Mazagan is one of the hardiest and best flavored of the small and early
sorts. Mazagan is a Portuguese settlement on the coast of Africa, near the Straits of Gibraltar ; and it is
said that seeds brought from thence afford plants that are more early and more fruitful than those which
spring from home-saved seed. The Lisbon is next, in point of earliness and fruitfulness ; some, indeed,
consider it as merely the Mazagan ripened in Portugal. The dwarf-fan or cluster-bean is likewise an
early variety, but it is planted chiefly for curiosity ; it rises only six or eight inches high ; the branches
spread out like a fan, and the pods are produced in small clusters. The Sandwich bean has been long
noted for its fruitfulness ; the Toker and the broad Spanish are likewise great bearers. Of all the large
kinds, the Windsor bean is preferred for the table. When gathered young, the seeds are sweet and very
agreeable ; when the plants are allowed room and time, they produce very large seeds, and in tolerable
plenty, though they are not accounted liberal bearers. There are several subvarieties, such as the broad
Windsor, Taylor's Windsor, and the Kentish Windsor. The long-podded bean rises about three feet high,
and is a great bearer, the pods being long and narrow, and closely filled with oblong middle-sized seeds.
This sort is now very much cultivated, and there are several subordinate varieties of it, as the early, the
large, and the sword long-pod. The white-blossomed bean is so called, because the black mark on the
wing of the blossom is wanting. The seed is semi-transparent ; when young it has little of the peculiar
bean flavor, and is on this account much esteemed ; it is at the same time a copious bearer, and proper for
a late crop. It may be mentioned, that Delaunay, in Le ban Jardinier, describes as excellent a new
variety cultivated at Paris, which he calls the green bean from China ; it is late, but very productive ; and
the fruit remains green even when ripe and dried."

3616. Times of sowing for early and successional crops. " For the earliest crop, plant some Mazagans
in October, November, or December, in a warm border, under an exposure to the full sun. Set them in
rows two feet or two and a half asunder, about an inch and a half or two inches deep, and two or three
inches apart in the rows ; or some may also be sown in a single drill, under a south wall." The most
successful plan for nurturing a crop over the winter, is to sow the beans thickly together in a bed of light
earth, under a warm aspect, for the intermediate object of protecting the infant plants the better from
rigorous weather ; and with the view of transplanting them at the approach of spring, or when the size of
the plants (two or three inches in height) require it, into warm borders, at the distances at which the
plants are to fruit. For this object, the width of a garden-frame is a convenient width for the bed, which
should slope a little to the south. Sow two inches deep, either in drills, or by drawing oft' that depth of
the earth with a hoe or spade, scattering in the beans at the distance of about a square inch. At the ap-
proach of frost, protect the rising plants with a frame, hand-glasses, or the half-shelter of an awning of
matting. In February or March, as soon as mild weather offers, transplant them into a warm south bor-
der, placing one row close under a protecting-fence as far as that advantage can be given. Ease them out
of the seed-bed with their full roots, and with as much mould as will adhere : pull off the old beans at
bottom, and prune the end of the tap-root. Then plant them at the proper final distances, closing the
earth rather high about the stems. Besides the benefit of previous protection, the fruiting of the beans is
accelerated about a week by transplanting. Further, if severe frosts kill the early advanced plants, or if
it was omitted to sow an early crop at the general season, a quantity may be sown thick in a moderate
hot-bed, in January or February, or in large pots placed therein, or in a stove, to raise some plants quickly,
for transplanting as above ; previously hardening them by degrees to the full air. In all cases, as the
young plants come up, give occasional protection in the severity of winter ; and hoe up a little earth to
the stems. Plants which can have no otlier shelter should be covered lightly with dry haulm or straw ;
but such a covering must be carefully removed as often as the weather turns mild. To succeed the above,
plant more of the same sort, or some of the early long-pod or small Lisbon, in December or January,
when mild weather, for larger sujjplies, in more open exposures. And in order to obtain either a more
full succession, or a first general crop, plant some early and large long-pods, and broad Spanish, at the end of
January, if open weather, in some warmest compartment of good mellow ground. Some of the larger sword
long-pod, Sandwich, and Toker beans, may also be planted in fuller crops in February, if the weather
permit, both for succession and principal supplies. You may likewise plant any of the preceding kinds, as
well as Windsors and other sorts, in full and succession crops in February, March, and April."

3617. For the main summer crops, " adopt principally the Windsor, Sandwich, and Toker, large long-pod,
and broad Spanish ; all to be assigned under a free exposure, in the main com.partments. The Windsor ranks
first in regard to flavor ; but proves, on common soils, not so plentiful a bearer as the other late sorts.
Plant also full succession crops, in March and April, and smaller portions in May and June, for late pro-

Book I. KIDNEYBEAN. 621

duction. especially the long-pod, broad Spanish, and Toker ; also any of the early sorts, which are more
successful in late planting, than the larger broad varieties. The white-blossomed bean, though the
smallest of the middle-sized, is a very desirable sort to plant as secondary croi)s, botli m tne general and
late planting seasons, from March till June and July ; being a great bearer, and a tender and sweet
eating bean, if gathered young. Any of the other sorts named in the above list may also be planted oc-
casionally, to increase the variety. For sowings in June and July, the small or early kinds again become
the most proper, as their constitution fits them for standing late as well as early. Thus regular supplies
may be providetl for in succession, from June till September." {Abercrombie.) . ,. , ^

3618. Quantity of seed. For early crops, one pint of seed will be requisite for every eighty feet of
row ; for main crops, two quarts for every 240 feet of row ; and for late croi>s, nearly the same as the
early. For the main crops, the quantity cultivated in proportion to that for early or late crops, is gene-
rally treble or quadruple, as to the extent of ground : but a less quantity of seed is requisite for the same

^^3619. Method of smving. " Plant all the sorts in rows, two feet and a half apart, for the smaller, or
verv early, or very late kinds ; and three feet for the larger : the smaller beans two inches deep, and
three inches disUnt in the row ; the larger three inches deep, and four inches distant in the row."

S6'20. Transplanting. Speechly constantly transplants his early bean-crops, and considers that this
plant may be as easily transplanted as cabbage, or any other vegetable. It is a practice with him to
plant beans alternately with potatoes in the same row ; the rows three feet apart, and the potatoes eigh-
teen inches apart in the row, so that the beans arc nine inches from tlie potatoes. The beans are
transplanted, by which means they have the start and advantage of the iwtatoes and weeds, and as they
come in early, may be gathered before they can possibly incommode or injure the jwtatoes. {Practical
Hints, &c. p. 17.)

3621. Manual process. " The work of sowing is most generally effected by a dibble, having a thick
blunt end, to make a wide aperture for each bean, to admit it clean to the bottom, without any narrow
hollow part below : strike the earth fully and regularly into the holes, over the inserted beans. Or the
planting may be performed occasionally in drills drawn with a hoe the proper depth and distance as
above : place the beans at intervals along the bottom of each drill, and earth thera over evenly; which
method, though suitable to any kinds, may be more particularly adopted in sowing the early and other
small sorts."

3622. Soaking seed in sumyner. " In planting late crops in June and July, if the weather be dry, it is
eligible to give the beans a previous soaking for several hours in soft water ; or, if they are to be sown in
drills, water the drills beforehand, then directly put in the beans, and earth thera in while the" ground
remains moist"

3623. Subsequent culture. " As the plants come up, and advance from two to four or six inches high,
hoe up some earth to the stems on both sides of each row, cutting down all weeds. Repeat the hoeing
as future weeds arise, both to keep the ground about the plants clean, and to loosen the earth to encou-
rage their growth. In earthing up, great care must be taken that the earth do not fall on the centre of
the plant so as to bury it ; for this occasions it to rot or fail. After earthing up, stir between the rows
with a three-pronged fork. As the different crops come into full blossom, pinch or cut off the tops, in
order to promote their fruiting sooner, in a more plentiful production of well filled pods." {Abercronibie.)
Nicol says, " Topping is unnecessary for any but the early crops ; being practised to render them more
early." Most gardeners, however, are of opinion, that topping improves the crop both in quantity and
quality. It might be worth an ingenious young gardener's while to try the effect of ringing at the bot-
tom of the stalk, against cutting oflthe top.

3624. To forward an early crop, see this article under Pea. (3606.)

3625. To produce a very late crop. Neill mentions an expedient sometimes resorted to to produce a late
crop. A compartment of beans is fixed on ; and when the flowers appear, the plants are entirely cut over,
a few inches from the surface of the groimd. New stems spring from the stools, and these produce a
very late crop of beans.

3626. Gathering. For table use, gather only such as are tender, the seeds decreasing in delicacy after
they attain about half the size which they should possess at maturity. When they become black-eyed,
they are tough, and strong tasted, and much inferior for eating.

3627. To save seed. " Either plant some of the approved sorts, in February or
March, wholly for that purpose ; or leave some rows of the different crops ungathered,
in preference to the gleanings of gathered crops. The pods will ripen in August,
becoming brown and dry, and the beans dry and hard : then pulling up the stalks, place
them in the sun, to harden the seed thoroughly, after which thresh out each sort
separately. ' ' (Abercronibie. )

3628. To force the bean, see Chap. VII. Sect. XII.

SuBSECT. 3. Kidneybean. — Phaseolus, L. ZHadel. Decan. L. and Leguminosce, J.
Haricot, Fr. ; Sckminkbohne, Ger. ; and Fagiuolo, Ital.

3629. The common dwarf kidneybean, the haricot of the French, and erroneously
termed French bean, is the P. vulgaris, L. (Lob. Ic. 2. p. 59.) It is a tender annual, a
native of India, and introduced in 1597, or earlier. Flowers from June to September.
The species called the runner is the P. multiflorus, Willd. (Sclik. Han. 2. 7. 199. a.) a
half hardy annual, and a native of South America, introduced in 1633. It is rather
more tender than the other ; produces flowers from July to September. Tlie stem of
both species is more or less twining, though little of this propensity is shown in the
dwarfish kinds. ITie leaves are ternate, on long foot-stalks; the flowers on axillary
racemes ; the corolla generally white, sometimes yellow, red, or purple. The pods are
oblong, swelling slightly over the seeds, which are generally Icidney-shaped, smooth, and
shining, when ripe, varying in color according to the variety, and either white, black, blue,
red, or spotted. The fruit of both sorts may be had in perfection from the open garden,
by successive crops from June to October. Speechly suggests {Practical Hints on Domestic
(Economy, p. 15.), that the culture of the kidneybean might become an object of national
or field culture in this country, and be particularly useful in times of scarcity ; " more
especially, as on good land it will flourish and grow luxuriantly, even in a dry parching
season ; in which respect it differs from most other culinary vegetables." It is an article
of field-culture in most warm countries, especially France and America.

3630. Use. The unripe pods are chiefly used in Britain as a legume, for which they

622 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

are in great estimation throughout the year ; being produced by forcing when tliey can-
not be grown in the natural ground. They are also used as a pickle. On the continent,
the ripe seeds are much used in cookery ; forming what are called karicols, of differejit
kinds, and entering into some sorts of soups. In the end of the season, when frost is
expected, the haulm of the kidneybean crop is gathered and dried like that of the pea in
this country, and the ripe beans afterwards threshed out, and preserved for use through
the winter.

3631. Varieties of the dwarf species : —

Karly yellow tlwarf j Early white I B!ack.si»ecklecl I Streaked, or striped

Jbarly re<l-sj)ecklecl Battersea white Brown-speckled Tawny

Karly black, or negro | Canterbury white | Dun-colored | Large white dwarf.

3632. Varieties of the runner or climbing species: —

Scarlet runner ; the most plentiful and
lasting; bearer, preferable for the main
crop of runner

I>arge white runner; a variety of the
scarlet. The seed and blossom white.

but the pods similar to the scarlet
kind
■\Vhite Dutch runner ; bears very long
smooth pock, but does not continue
so long in flower as the two former

Canterbury and Battersea small white
Variable runner.

3<>33. Constitution and habits. Both the above classes of kidneyboans, dwarfs, and runners, are tender
in their nature, unable to grow freely in the open garden before April or May ; the seed being liable to
rot in the ground from the effects of wet, if planted before the beginning of the former month, even in a
dry soil. The plants are also affected by sharp cold, and make but little progress till settled warm wea-
ther. However, when sown in the proper season, from April or May through the course of summer,
till the beginning of August, they succeed well, making liberal returns of fruit from June or July till
October. The dwarfs require no support ; but the runners, ascending eight or ten feet high or more,
require tall sticks or poles to climb uiwn, or lines suspended from a contiguous building or fence. They
produce pods their whole length. It deserves. notice, that in their voluble habit of growth, the tendrils
turn to the right, or in a direction contrary to the apparent diurnal course of the sun : this aberration
from the common habits of plants has been accounted Sox by supposing that the native climate of the
scarlet runner will be found to lie south of the equator, and that the plant, although removed to the
northern hemisphere, is still obedient to the course originally assigned to it, turning in a direction which,
in its native climate, would be towards the sun. {Abercrombie.)

3634. Estirnate of sorts. The dwarfs bear sowing a little sooner, and make returns quicker than the run-
ners. They are, besides, more convenient to cultivate on a large scale j and the smaller pods which they
produce, are esteemed by many to have more delicacy of flavor. On these accounts, it is usual to raise the
larger supply from the dwarf species. The early yellow, early black, and early red-speckled, are among
the most hardy and most forward ; the early white comes in a few days later, but is of superior flavor. The
Canterbury, Battersea, bladk-speckled, brown-speckled, dun-colored, striped, and tawny, are plentiful
lasting bearers. Growers for sale, in general, depend on the Canterbury and Battersea for main crops ; but
the others just named are also profitable sorts, and acceptable to the consumer. The dwarf kidneybean
continues to ))roduce young pods in abundance, and in perfection only about three weeks or a month. The
runners yield a succession of fruit from the same sowing a much longer time than the dwarfs. The scarlet
runner ranks first for its prolific property and long continuance in fruit; the pods are thick, fleshy, tender,
and good, if gathered while moderately young. The white variety is equally eligible for a principal crop.
The Dutch runner grows as luxuriantly as hops, and is also a great bearer, in fine long pods, but not so
lasting as the former. As to the smaller runner kinds : these are rather degenerate varieties of the Can-
terbury and Battersea white dwarfs ; casually shooting into runners : they bear, in tolerable abundance,
slender neat pods, which are very good and tender eating ; though not so eligible for a principal crop of
runners as the scarlets.

3(i35. Quantity of seed. Half a pint will sow a row eighty feet in length, the beans being placed from two
and a half to three inches apart.

3636. Soil. The soil for both species should be light and mellow, inclining to a dry sand for the early
sowings, and to a moist loam for the sowings in summer.

3637. Separate culture of dwarfs. About tha beginning of April, if the weather be temperate, fair, and
settled, make the first sowing, or in a dry south border, or other sheltered compartment with a good aspect,
or sow in a single row close under a south fence ; beginning with a small proportion of the most hardy early
sorts. It is a good method to follow in a week with a second sowing in case the former should fail. You
may sow for a larger crop about the middle, or twentieth of April. J'or the early crops, make the drills two
feet asunder. The common depth is an inch and a half for the smaller-sized beans. Drop the beans in
each row at this season pretty close together, as many may fail ; from one to two inches apart. Cover them
in evenly the full depth of the drill. For the main crops, you may sow more fully towards the end of April ;
and in full crops in May and June; a portion once every fortnight or three weeks, of the Canterbury ^nd
other sorts, approved for a main supply. Draw drills, two feet or two and a half asunder, an inch and a
half or two inches deep. Drop the beans therein, three inches apart, and earth iu the full depth of the
drills. For supplies in succession, sow in July once or twice ; and make a moderate sowing at the begin-
ning of August for a late and last crop. In the drought of high summer, it is advisable to accelerate the
germination of the seed, by laying it in damp mould, till it begins to sprout, or by soaking it in soft water for
six or eight hours previous to sowing ; and by watering the drills to receive it. Crops sown after the middle
of July should be favored in situation, or the time of their bearing will be much shortened by the decline of
summer. From this course of sowings, a regular succession of young green pods will be produced from
June and July till October. As the plants of the different crops advance in growth, occasionally hoe and
stir the ground between the rows. Cut down all weeds as they spring. Draw some earth to the stems of
the plants as they rise to height, which will strengthen and forward them considerably. When advanced to
full bearing, it is advisable to gather the pods in moderately young or medium growth.

3638. Culture of runners. The runner kidneybeans may be sown in a small portion, towards the end
of April, if tolerably warm dry weather; but as these beans are rather more tender than the dwarf sorts,
more liable to rot in the ground by wet and cold, especially the scarlets, the beginning or middle of May
will be time enough to sow a considerable crop ; and you may sow a full crop about the beginning of June.
Allot i)rincii)ally the scarlet and large white runners. Some Dutch runners are very eligible as a se-
condary crop. The first crops should have the assistance of a south wall. Intermediate crops may be
sown in any open comj)artment, or against any fence not looking north. The latest sown will continue
bearing the longer under a good aspect and shelter. In sowing, draw drills about an inch and a half, or
not more than two inches deep. Let i)arallel rows be at least four feet asunder, to admit in the intervals
tall sticks or jwles for the plants to climb upon. Place the beans in the drills four inches apart, and earth
them in evenly, the dci)th of the drills. A row contiguous to a fence or building may ascend upon lines.
Some may be sown in a single row along a border, or on each side of a walk ; and have the support of a
slight trellis of laths and lines ; or they might be arclied over with similar materials, to form a shady walk
or bower. In a cold wet season, or when requisite to have a few plants more forward tlian the general
crop, some scarlets may be sown in Ai)ril, either in a slight hot-bed, or in pots, under frames or hand-
glasses, to raise and forward the plants till two or tliree inches high : then, at the end of May, transplant

Book I. ESCULENT ROOTS. C23

them into the open garden. As the plants come up, and advance from three to six inches in growth, boe
some earth to the stems, cutting down all weeds. When they begin to send forth runners, place suiUble
supports to eacli row ; and conduct the tendrils to the sticks or lines, tummg them in a contrary di-
rection to the sun. The ascendmg plants will soon come into flower, podding at the jomts in long
succession. They are so prolific that the returns from three sowings, in May, June, and July, will last from
JulT till October. ^ ^ ... .

3639. Taking the crop. Gather the pods, both from dwarfs and runners, while they are young,
fleshv, brittle, and tender ; for then are they in highest perfection for the table ; and the plants will
bear more fully, and last longer in fruit, under a course of clean gathering, not leaving any superabundant
pods to grow old. , „ .. , - ^,

SGtO. To save seed. Either sow a portion for that object, or leave rows wholly ungathered of the mam
crops, or preserve a sufficiency of good pods promiscuously. The beans saved should be the first-fruits of
a crop sown at a period which throws the entire course of growth into the finest part of summei. L«t
them hang on the stalks tiU they ripen fuUv in August and September ; then let the haulm be pulled up,
and placed in the sun, to dry and harden the seed, which should be afterwards cleared out of the husks,
bagged up, and housed. ' , . ,

S6tl. FonvardJng an, early crop. • The kidneybean is often partially forced in hot-houses or frames,
with a view to its fruiting in the o^ien garden ; and supplies of green pods are also kept up throughout
the winter and spring months, by forcing in hot-houses and pits ; for the details of both practices, see
Ch. VII. Sect X.

3Gt2. Insects. The pea, bean, and kidncvbean are liable to the attacks of various insects, 4^3
especially the aphides in dry seasons. The Bruchus Pisi {Jig. 468.) is particularly destructive to
the pea, and its larva ,a] is often found in the ripe pod. In gardens, the only mode of keeping ^«*»
them under, is to cut off the part infested, and remove it with the insects attached. \Vhen *^s^
early crops are newlv sown or planted, mice will burrow for and eat the seed, and when it be- ,^Sa
gins to penetrate the soil, it is attacked by snails and slugs, and sometimes by burds. The usual ^4^V
means of defeating the attacks of these and other enemies, must always be early resorted to by
the gardener.

Sect. III. Esculent Roots.

3643. Tfie esculent-rooted culinary plants delight in a light, rather sandy, deep, and
well stirred soil. It must be dry at bottom ; but a moist atmosphere and moderate tem-
perature are greatly favorable to the growth of almost the whole of the plants we have in-
cluded in this section. Hence the excellence of the potatoe crop in Ireland, and the size
to which turnips, carrots, parsneps, &c. attain in Britain and Holland, compared to what
they do in France and Germany. The space occupied in the kitchen-garden by this class
of vegetables is considerable ; but as it is regulated in some degree by the quantity of the
more common roots grown in the farm for culinary use, it is less subject to estimation.
In most gardens, however, the esculent roots taken together may occupy as much space
as the legumes. In cottage gardens, they may be considered as occupying one half of
tlie whole, to be in part succeeded by winter greens.

SuBSECT. 1. Potatoe. — Solatium tuberosum, L,. (Batih. Prod. 89. t. 89.) Pent. Dig. IL.
and Solanecey B. P. Poinvie de Terre, Fr. ; Kartoffel, Ger. ; and Porno di Terra, Ital.

3644. The potatoe is a perennial plant, well known for the tubers produced by its roots.
The stem rises generally from two to three feet in height, with long and weak branches,
furnished with leaves interruptedly pinnate. The flowers are white or tinged with purple.
The fruit is a berry of the size of a plum, green at first, but black when ripe, and con-
taining many small, flat, roundish, white seeds. It is supposed to be a native of South
America, but Humboldt is very doubtful if that can be proved : he admits, however, that
it is naturalised there in some situations.

364.'}. Sabine and Lambert consider it as satisfactorily proved, that it is to be found both
in elevated places in the tropical regions, and in the more temperate districts of the western
coasts of South America. {Hort. Trans, v. 250. ; Jour. P. Instit. x. 25.) Some
tubers, said to be of the ■wild potatoe, have been received by the Horticultural Society, and
grown by them ; they differ so little from those of the cultivated potatoe, that Sabine con-
jectures, " that the original cultivators of this vegetable did not exercise either much art
or patience in the production of their garden-potatoes." (Hort. Trans, v. 257.)

3646. Sir Josejth Banks (Hort. Trans, i. 8.) considers that the potatoe was first brought
into Europe from the mountainous parts of South America, in the neighborhood of
Quito, where they were called papas, to Spain, in the early part of the sixteenth century.
From Spain, where they were called battatas, they appear to have found their way first to
Italy, where they received the same name with the truffle, taratoujii. The potatoe was
received by Clusius, at Vienna, in 1598, from the governor of Mons, in Hainault, who
had procured it the year before from one of the attendants of the Pope's legate, under the
name of taratoujii, and learned from him, that it was tlien in use in Italy. In Germany -
it received the name of kartoffel, and spread rapidly even in Clusius's time. To England
the potatoe found its way by a different route, being brought from Virginia by the colon-
ists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584, and who returned in July 1586, and
" probably," according to Sir Joseph Banks, "brought with them the potatoe." Thomas
Herriot, in a report on the country, published in De Bry's Collection of Voyages (vol. i.
p. 17.), describes a plant called openaivk; with "roots as large as a walnut, and others
much larger ; they grow in damp soil, many hanging together, as if fixed on ropes ; they
are good food, either boiled or roasted."

3647. Gerard, in his Herbal, published in 1 597, gives a figure of the potatoe, under

624 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Tart III.

the name of the potatoe of Virginia, whence, lie says, he received the roots ; and tliis ap-
pellation it appears to have retained, in order to distinguish it from the batatas, or sweet
potatoe (Omvolvuhis batatas), till the year 1640, if not longer. " The sweet jwtatoe,"
Sir Joseph Banks observes, " was used in England as a delicacy long before the intro-
duction of our potatoes : it was imported in considerable quantities from Spain and the
Cananes, and was supposed to possess the power of restoring decayed vigor. The kissing
comfits of Falstaff, and other confections of similar imaginary qualities, with which our
ancestors were duped, were principally made of tliese and of eringo roots."

3648. Gough, in his edition of Cavidens Britannia, says, that the potatoe was first
planted by Sir Walter Raleigh on his estate of Youghall, near Cork, and that it was
" cherished and cultivated for food" in that country before its value was known in
England ; for, though they were soon carried over from Ireland into Lancashire, Gerarde,
who had this plant in his garden in 1597, under the name of Baltata Virginiana, recom-
mends the roots to be eaten as a delicate dish, not as common food. Parkinson men-
tions, that the tubers were sometimes roasted, and steeped in sack and sugar, or baked
with marrow and spices, and even preserved and candied by the comfit-makers.

3649. T/ie Royal Society, in 1663, took some measures for encouraging the cultivation
of potatoes, with the view of preventing famine. Still, however, although their utility
as an article of food was better known, no high character was bestowed on them. In
books of gardening, published towards the end of the seventeenth century, a hundred
years after their introduction, they are spoken of rather slightingly. " They are much
used in Ireland and America as bread," says one author, "and may be propagated with
advantage to poor people." " I do not hear that it hath been yet essayed," are the words
of another, " whether they may not be propagated in great quantities, for food for swine
or other cattle." Even the enlightened Evelyn seems to have entertained a prejudice
against them : " Plant potatoes," he says, writing in 1699, "in your worst ground.
Take them up in November for winter spending ; there will enough remain for a stock,
though ever so exactly gathered." The famous nurserymen, London and Wise, did not
consider the potatoe as worthy of notice in their Coinplete Gardener, published in 1719;
and Bradley, who, about the same time, wrote so extensively on horticultural subjects,
speaks of them as inferior to skirrets and radishes.

3650. The use of potatoes, however, gradually spread, as their excellent qualities became
better understood. But it was near the middle of the eighteenth century before tliey
were generally known over the country : since that time they have been most extensively
cultivated. In 1796, it was found, that in the county of Essex alone, about 1700 acres
w^ere planted with potatoes for the supply of the London market. This must form, no
doubt, the principal supply ; but many fields of potatoes are to be seen in the other
counties bordering on the capital, and many ship-loads are annually imported from a dis-
tance. In every county in England, it is now more or less an object of field-culture.
The cultivation of potatoes in gardens in Scotland was very little understood till about
the year 1740; and it was not practised in fields till about twenty years after that pe-
riod. It is stated in the General Report of Scotland (vol. ii. p. 111.), as a well ascer-
tained fact, that in the year 1725-6, the few potatoe-plants then existing in gardens about
Edinburgh, were left in the same spot of ground from year to year, as recommended by
Evelyn ; a few tubers were perhaps removed for use in the autumn, and the parent-plants
were then well covered with litter to save them from the winter's frost. Since the middle
of the eighteenth century, the cultivation of potatoes has made rapid progress in that coun-
try ; so that they are now to be seen in almost every cottage garden. The potatoe is now
considered as the most useful esculent that is cultivated ; and who, Neill asks, " could, a
jmori, have expected to have found the most useful plant among the natural family of the
Luridce, L., several of which are deleterious, and all of which are forbidding in their aspect."

3651. Use. The tubers of the potatoe, from having no peculiarity of taste, and con-
sisting chiefly of starch, approach nearer to the nature of the flower, or farina of grain,
than any vegetable root production ; and for this reason it is the most universally liked,
and can be used longer in constant succession by the same individual without becoming
unpalatable, than any other vegetable, the seeds of the grasses excepted. " So generally
is it relished, and so nutritious is it accounted," Neill observes, " that on many tables it
now appears almost every day in the year. It is commonly eaten plainly boiled, and in
this way it is excellent. When potatoes have been long kept, or in the spring months,
the best parts of each tuber are selected, and mashed before going to table. Potatoes are
also baked, roasted, and fried. With the flour of potatoes, puddings are made nearly
equal in flavor to those of millet ; with a moderate proportion of wheat-flour, bread of
excellent quality may be formed of it ; and potatoe starch, independently of its use in
the laundry, is considered an equally delicate food as sago or arrow-root." As starch and
sugar are so nearly the same, that the former is easily converted into the latter, hence the
potatoe yields a powerful spirit by distillation, and a strong wine by the fermentive process.

3652. Varieties. Tliese are very numerous, not only from the facility of procuring new

Book I. POTATOE. 625

sorts by raising from seed; but because any rariety cultivated for a few years in the
same soil and situation, as in the same garden or farm, acquires a peculiarity of cha-
racter or habit, which distinguishes it from the same variety in a different soil and situ-
ation. The varieties in general cultivation may be distinguished in regard to jirecocUt/,
tardUt/,form, size^ color, and quality.

3653. Precocity. Tlie earliest varieties are —

Hog's early frame ; a small watery pota-

toe, fit only for very early forcing
Royal dwarf; a mealy potatoe, much grown

at Perth
Early Manchester ; waxy and red

Common early frame; wasy

Foxe's yellow seedling ; similar, but rather

larger, waxy
American early; much esteemed at

Edinburgh

Early dwarf; waxy
Early ash-leaved ; dry
Early champion ; large
M'Cree's early; dry.

3654. No blossoms are jrroduced by any of the above sorts : they are roundish in form
small-sized, white, and not of the best quality.

3655. Tardily. Tlie latest sorts are —

The round pun)le I The speckled purple, or tartan ; comraofnly grown in

The oblong purple I mossy soils in Scotland.

3656. The form of potatoes is either round, oblong, or kidney-shaped.

3657. Of the round, the most esteemed are —

The champion; late and earlv varieties I Round red; middle-sized, smooth

The oxnoble ; ven. large, and of a jieculiar flavor Round rough red ; or Lancashire,

not generally esteemed 1

3658. The oblong are —

The red-nosed oval; often confounded I The American red; long and not thick I tatoe; ovate, with smaU full eyes,

with the red kidney The Irish red, or pink ; oblong and en- much grown m Cheshire and Lan-

The oblong red ; varied with white tirely red, with hollow eyes cashire, mealy and agreeably flavored.

The oblong white I The bright-red, blood-red, or apple-po- |

3659. The kidney-shaped are —

The oommon white kidney ; of a pecuUar flavor esteemed by many 1 The red kidney ; reckoned somewhat more hardy.

3660. In size, the early sorts are the least, and the oxnoble and late champions the
largest.

3661. In color, the early sorts are in general white, the oblong sorts red, and the latest
sorts purple.

3662. In quality, potatoes are either watery, as the very early sorts ; wajcy, as the
American and Irish reds ; or mealy, as the ash-leaved early, the champion, the kidney, &c.

3663. The following list is recommended by the principal London seedsmen at the
present time : — •

For forcing in frames, or for the first crop in the open garden.
Fox's seedling | Early manley I Early mule I Bronghton dwarf.

For general cultivation in tlie open garden or field.
Early kidney; good flavor, and very early, keeps well | Nonsuch; early, prolific | Early shaw ; good early sort for goneral use.

For main crops, arranged in the order of their ripening.
Early champion; very generally ciflti- I Bread-fhiit; originated about 1810, pro-

vated, prohfic, and mealy lilic, white, and mealy

Red nose kidney ) Lancashire pink-eye ; good

Large kidney I Black skin ; mealy, white, and good

3664. In general, every to ion and district has its peculiar and favorite varieties, early
as well as late, so that, excepting as to the best early kinds, and the best for a general crop
in all soils, any list, however extended, could be of little use. Dr. Hunter, in his
Georgical Essays, has supposed the duration of a variety to be fourteen years ; and
Knight (Hort. Trails, vol. i. ) concurs with him in opinion. There are some excellent
sorts of party-colored potatoes in Scotland, which degenerate when removed from one
district to another ; and most of the Scotch and Irish varieties degenerate in England.
Tlie best mode, therefore, to order potatoes for seed is to give a general description of
the size, color, form, and quality wanted, and whether for an early or late crop.

3665. Propagation. The potatoe may be propagated from seed, cuttings or layers of the green shoots,
sprouts from the eyes of the tubers, or portions of the tubers containing a bud or eye. The object of the
first method is, to procure new or improved varieties ; of the second, little more than curiosity, or to mul-
tiply as quickly as possible a rare sort ; and of the third, to save the tubers for food. The method by por-
tions of the tubers is the best, and that almost universally practised for the general purjwses, both of field
and garden culture.

3666. By seed. Gather some of the ripest apples in September or October, take out and preserve the
seed till spring, and then sow it thinly in small drills. When the plants are up two or three inches, thin
them to five or six inches' distance, and suffer them to grow to the end of October, when the roots will
furnish a supply of small potatoes, which must then be taken up, and a portion of the best reserved for
planting next spring in the usual way. Plant these, and let them have the ensuing summer's full growth
till October, at which time the tubers will be of a projier size to determine their properties. Having con-
sidered not merely the flavor of each new variety, but the size, shape, and color, the comparative fertility
and healthiness, earliness or lateness, reject or retain it for permanent culture accordingly. [Abercrombie.)

2&S1. To produce seeds on early potatoes. The earliest varieties of potatoes, it has been already re-
marked, do not produce flowers or seed. Knight, desirous of saving seed from one of these sorts, took
a very ingenious method of inducing the plants to produce flowers. " I suspected the cause," he says,
" of the constant failure of tlie early potatoe to produce seeds, to be the pretematurally early formation of
the tuberous root; which draws oft" for its support that portion of the sap which, in other'plants of the
same species, affords nutriment to the blossoms and seeds : and experiment soon satisfied me that my con-
jectures were perfectly well founded. I took several methods of placing the plants to grow, in such a
situation, as enabled me readily to prevent the formation of tuberous roots ; but the following 'appearing
the best, it is unnecessary to trouble the Society with an account of any other. Having fixed strong stakes

S s

Purple ; very mealy, productive, and keeps

well
Red apple J mealy, keeps the longest of

any.

62C PRACTICB OF GARDENING. Part III.

in the ground, I raised the mould in a heap round the bases of them, and in contact with the stakes : on
their south sides I planted the potatoes from which I wished to obtain seeds. When the young plants were
about four inches high, they were secured to the stakes with shreds and nails, and the mould was then
washed away, by a strong current of water, from the bases of their stems, so that the fibrous roots only of
the plants entered into the soil. The fibrous roots of this plant are perfectly distinct organs from the run-
ners, which give existence, and subsequently convey nutriment to the tuberous roots ; and as the runners
spring from the stems only of the plants, which are, in the mode of culture I have described, placed
wholly out of the soil, the formation of tuberous roots is easily prevented ; and whenever this is done,
numerous blossoms will soon appear, and almost every blossom will afford fruit and seeds." Knight, con-
sidering that the above facts, which are more fully explained in the Philosophical Transactions for 1806,
were sufficient to prove, that the same fluid or sap gives existence alike to the tuber, and the blossom, and
seeds, and that, whenever a plant of the potatoe affbrds either seeds or blossoms, a diminution of the crop
of tubers, or an increased expenditure of the riches of the soil, must necessarily take place, succeeded in
producing varieties of sufficiently luxuriant growth, and large produce for general culture which never
produced blossoms. {Hort. Trans, vol. i. 188.)

3668. By cuttings, or the layers of the stalks, or suckers. Make cuttings of the young stalks or branches,
of five or six inches in length, in May or June ; attending to the general directions for forming cuttings.
Choose, if possible, showery weather; or strike them under a hand-glass, or in a half empty pot covered
with a pane of glass, as in striking cucumber-cuttings.

3669. Layers. In June or July, when the potatoe-stalks are advanced one or two feet long, choose such
plants as stand somewhat detached, and lay down the shoots on the ground with or without cutting, in the
common mode of layering. Cover them with earth about three inches, leaving the points of the shoots
exposed. These shoots will emit roots at every leaf, and produce full-grown potatoes the same year, attain-
ing perfection in autumn.

3670. Suckers. Remove in June, off-set sucker shoots, with a few roots to each ; plant them carefully,
and they will produce a late crop like the layers.

3671. By sprouts or shoots from the tubers. In default of genuine early sorts ; or, to save the tubers for
use in seasons of scarcity, the sprouts which are generally found on store-potatoes in spring, and picked off
and thrown away as useless, will, when carefully planted in loose well prepared soil, yield a crop ; and this
crop will be fit for use a little sooner than one produced from cuttings or sections of the same tubers, in
which the buds are not advanced. Almost every thing, however, depends on the fine tilth, and good state
of the ground.

3672. By portions of the tubers. This is the only method fit for general purposes. In making the sets or
sections, reject the extreme or watery end of the tuber, as apt to run too much to haulm, and having the
eyes small, and in a cluster ; reject also the root or dry end, as more likely to be tardy in growth, and pro-
duce the curl. Then divide the middle of the potatoe, so as to have not more than one good eye in each
set. Where the potatoe scoop is used, take care to apply it so as the eye or bud may be in the centre of
each set, which this instrument produces, of a semi-globular form. The larger the portion of tuber left to
each eye, so much the greater will be the progress of the young plant. The scoop is only to be used in
seasons of scarcity, when the portion of tuber saved by it may be used for soups for the poor, or for feeding
cattle. The best scoop is that described and figured in Supp. Encyc. Brit. art. Agr.

3673. Size of the sets. Knight has found that for a late crop small sets may be used, because the plants of
late varieties always acquire a considerable age before they begin to generate tubers ; but for an early crop
he recommends the largest tubers, and he has found that these not only uniformly afford very strong plants,
but also such as readily recover when injured by frost : for being fed by a copious reservoir beneath the
soil, a reproduction of vigorous stems and foliage soon takes place, when those first produced are destroyed
by frost, or other cause. He adds, "when the planter is anxious to obtain a crop within the least possible
time, he will find the position in which the tubers are placed to vegetate by no means a point of indiffer-
ence ; for these being shoots or branches, which have grown thick instead of elongating, retain the dis-
position of branches to propel their sap to their leading buds, or points most distant from the stems of the
plants, of which they once formed parts. If the tubers be placed with their leading buds upwards, a few
very strong and very early shoots will spring from them ; but if their position be reversed, many weaker
and later shoots will be produced ; and not only the earliness, but the quality of the produce, in size, will be
much affected." {Hort. Trans, iv. 448.)

3674. Quantity of sets. In respect to proportioning the quantity of sets to the space to be planted,
Abercrombie directs, " For a plot of the early and secondary crops, eight feet wide by sixteen in length ;
planted in rows fifteen inches asunder by nine inches in the row, a quarter of a peck of roots or cuttings.
Yor full-timed sorts and main crops, a compartment, twelve feet wide by thirty-two in length, planted in
rows two fiket distant by twelve inches in the row, half a peck of roots or cuttings will be required."

3675. Soil and manure. The best soil for the potatoe is a light, fresh, unmixed loam,
where they can be grov^^n without manure. Here tliey have always the best flavor. In
a wet soil, they grow sickly, and produce watery tubers, infected with worms and other
vermin. To a poor soil, dung must be applied ; littery dung will produce the earliest
and largest crop ; but mellow dung, rotten leaves, or vegetable earth, will least affect the
flavor of the tubers.

3676. Season for planting. " The last fortnight of March, and first fortnight of April, is the most
proper time for planting the main crops ; a little earlier or later, as the spring may be forward or late, the
ground dry or wet. Occasional plantings may be made in May, or even the beginning of June." {Aber-

3677. Methods of planting. The sets of whatever kind, or the plants forwarded in pots, to be turned out
with their balls entire for producing an early crop in the open air, should always be inserted in regular
rows ; the object of which is to admit with greater facility the stirring the earth between, and the earthmg
up of the plants. The rows may be fifteen inches apart for the small early sorts ; and for the larger, twenty
inches or two feet, according to the poorness or richness of the soil. In the lines traced, make holes for
the sets at eight, twelve, or fifteen inches' distance, letting their depth not be less than three, nor exceed
fivG incFics

3678. Planting on a level surface will answer on a light soil. In small gardens, the planting may be per-
formed by a common large dibble with a blunt end. For planting considerable crops, a strong larger dibble,
about a yard long, is used, with a cross handle at top for both hands, the lower end being generally shod
with iron, and having a short cross iron shoulder about four or five inches from the bottom, as a guide to
make the holes of an equal depth ; one person striking the holes, and a boy directly dropping a set into each
hole. Strike the earth in upon them fully with a dibble, hoe, or rake, either as each row is planted, or when
the whole planting is finished. Sometimes the process is to open a smaU hole with the spade, and to drop
in a set, which set is covered in by the opening of the next hole.

3679. On strong heavy land, the planting ought to be on raised beds with alleys, or in drills on tfie crown
of parallel ridges. The beds may either be raised by previous digging, throwing on good CMth till the
terrace rise to the desired height, or in the different method described below. To plant in drills, trace
them at the medium distance above specified : form them to the proper depth with a narrow spade or large
hoe : in these place the sets a foot or fifteen inches apart, and earth over. To avoid the inconveniences of

Book I. POTATOE. 627

low wettish ground, whether it be arable or grass land, or a cultivated garden, potatoes are planted ki
raised beds four feet wide, with alleys half that width between. The beds are thus raised :-- V\ ithout dig-
Ring the surface, lay some long loose litter upon the intended beds. Upon this litter place the sets about a
foot apart; and upon the sets apply more litter, equally distributed over the whole: then digging the alleys,
turn the earth thereof upon the beds five or six inches deep ; or, if grass, turn Uie sward downward, level,
ling in the top-spit to the same depth. The plants will produce very good crops. , „ . ,,

mo. Subsequent culture. " From the March or April planting, the stems generally rise fully in May.
After the plants have appeared, give an effectual hoeing on dry days, cutting up all the weeds, and stir the
ground about the rising stalks of the plants. When advanced from six to twelve inches high, hoe up some
earth to the bottom of the stems, to strengthen their growth, and promote the increase below : continue
occasional hoeing to eradicate weeds, till the plants cover the ground, when but bttle further care will be
required. Permit the sUilks to run in full growth, and by no means cut down, as is sometimes practised ;
the leaves being the organs for transmitting the beneficial influence of the sun and air to the roots, which is
most necessarv to the free and perfect growth of the tubers." {Abercrombie.) ...

3681 Pinching off the hlosso?ns. It is now generally admitted, that a certain advantage, in point of pro-
duce, is obtained by pinching oflfthe blossoms as they appear on the plants. The fact has been repeatedly
proved, and satisfactorily accounted for by Knight, who imagines, that it Ynay add an ounce m weight to the
tubers of each plant, or considerably above a ton per acre. {Hoit. Trans, vol. i. 190.)

3682 Taking the crop. " Clusters of roots in the early planted crop will sometimes by June or July be ad-
vanced to a sufficient size for present eating, though still small. Only a small jiortion should be taken up at
a time, as wanted for immediate use, as they will not keep good above a day or two. In August and Septem-
ber, however, they will be grown to a tolerably good size, and may be taken up in larger supphes, though
not in quantities for keeping a length of time. Permit the main winter crops to continue in growth till
towards the end of October or beginning of November, when the stalks will begin to decay — an indication
that the potatoes are fullv grown : then wholly dig them up, and house for winter and spring. Let them
then be taken up, before any severe frost sets in ; having, for large crops, a proper potatoe-fork of three or
four short flat tines, fixed on a spade-handle. Cut down the haulm close, and clear off forward : then fork
up the potatoes, turning them clean out of the ground, large and small; and collect every forking into
baskets."

3683. Housing and p7-esermng the crop. Abercrombie recommends "housing potatoes in a close, dry,
subterranean apartment, laid thickly together, and covered well with straw so as to exclude damps and
frost." There they are to be looked over occasionally, and any that decay picked out. In spring, when
they begin to shoot, turn them over, and break off the sprouts or shoots from each tuber, perfectly close,
in order to retard their future shooting as much as possible. Potatoes so stored, will continue good all the
winter and spring, till May and June.

3!l84. Pi/ing (as it is called in some places) is a good method of preserving potatoes in winter. They are
piletl on the surface of the ground, in a ridged form, of a width and length at pleasure, according to the
quantity^ but commonly about five or six feet wide. This is done by digging a spit of earth, and laying it
round the edge, a foot wide (if turf the better), filling the space up with straw, and then laying on a course
of potatoes, dig earth from the outside, and lay upon the first earth. Put straw a few inches along the inside
edge, then put in more potatoes, and so on, keeping a good coat of straw all the way up between the potatoes
and the mould, which should be about six inches thick all over ; beat it close together, and the form it lies
in, with the trench all round, will preserve the potatoes dry ; and the sharpest frost will hardly affect them ;
in a severe time of which, the whole may be covered thickly with straw. In the spring, look over the
stock, and break off the shoots of those designed for the table, and repeat this business to preserve the pota-
toes the longer good.

3685. Curl disease. Tlie disease called curl, has in many places proved extremely
troublesome and injurious. It has given rise to much discussion, and to detail all the
various opinions would be a useless task. It may, however, be remarked, that tlie expe-
riments of Dickson (Caled. Hort. Mem. i. 55.) show, that one cause is the vegetable
powers in the tuber planted, having been exhausted by over-ripening. Tliat excellent
horticulturist observed, in 1808 and 1809, that cuts taken from the waxy, wet, or least
ripened end of a long flat potatoe, that is, the end nearest the roots, produced healthy
plants ; while those from the dry and best ripened end, farthest from the roots, either did
not vegetate at all, or produced curled plants. This view is supported by the obsei-vations
of a verj' good practical gardener, Daniel Crichton, at Minto, who, from many years' ex-
perience, found {Id. p. 440. ) that tubers preserved as much as possible in the wet and
immature state, and not exposed to the air, were not subject to curl. And Knight
[Hort. Trans. 1814), has clearly shown the beneficial results of using, as seed-stock, po-
tatoes whicli have grown late, or been imperfectly ripened in the preceding year. Dickson
lays down some rules, attention to which, he thinks, would prevent the many disappoint-
ments occasioned by tlie curl. He recommends, 1. The iJrocuring of a sound healthy
seed-stock of tubers for planting from a high part of the country, where the tubers are
never over-ripened : 2. The planting of such potatoes as are intended to supply seed-
stock for the ensuing season, at least a fortnight later than tho.se planted for a crop, and
to take them up whenever the stems become of a yellow-green color, at which time the
cuticle of the tubers may be easily rubbed ciF between the finger and thumb : 3. The
preventing tliose plants that are destined to yield seed-stock for tlie ensuing year, from
producing flowers or berries, by cutting oflf the flower-buds ; an operation easily per-
formed by children, at a trifling expense. SiiirrefF (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. i. p. 60.,
and in the Farmer s Magazine) controverts Dickson's opinion, and accounts for the curl
disease as the effects of old age, on the hypothesis that plants like animals will not live
beyond certain periods, &c. The essay is ingenious, but totally speculative. Young,
who has paid much attention to the subject, has brought forward a variety of facts to show
that the " curl on the young stem rising weakly arises chiefly from the two causes men-
tioned by Dickson and Crichton, over-ripe tubers, or the employment of seed-stock that
has been improperly kept during winter, that is, kept exposed to the light and air instead
of being covered with earth or sand, or straw, so as to preserve tlieir juices." (Caled. Hort.
Mem. in. 278.) The same view, it may be remarked, had occurred to Dr. Hunter. A

Ss 2

628 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

fact ascertained by Knight deserves to be particularly noticed : it is this ; that by plant-
ing late in the season, perhaps in June, or even in July, an exhausted good variety may
in a great measure be restored ; that is, the tubers resulting from the late planting, when
again planted at the ordinary season, produce the kind in its pristine vigor, and of its for-
mer size.

3686. Crichton, who has made a variety of experiments on the effects of exposure
to the air in hampers and open floors, and on exclusion of the air by covering with earth
(Caled. Mem. vol. i. 440.), concludes, " That the curl in the potatoe may often be occa-
sioned by the way the potatoes are treated that are intended for seed. I have observed,
that wherever the seed-stock is carefully pitted, and not exposed to the air in the spring,
the crop has seldom any curl ; but where the seed-stock is put into barns and out-houses
for months together, such crop seldom escapes turning out, in a great measure, curled ;
and if but few curl the first year, if they are planted again, it is more than probable the
half of them will curl next season."

3687. For forcing potatoes^ see Ch. VII. Sect. XI.

SuBSECT. 2. Jerusalem Artichoke. — Helianthus tuberosus, L. (Jac. Vind. 2. t. 161.)
Syng. Polyg. Frust. L. and Corymbifercv, J. Poire de Terre, Fr, ; Erde Apfel, Ger. ;
and Girasole, Ital.

3688. The Jerusalem artichoke is a hardy perennial, a native of Brazil, and introduced
in 1617. It has the habit of a common sun-flower, but grows much taller, often rising
ten or twelve feet high. The season of its flowering is September and October ; but
though its roots endure our hardest winters, the plant seldom flowers with us, and it never
ripens its seed. The roots are creeping, and are furnished with many red tubers, clus-
tered together, perhaps from thirty to fifty to a plant. Before potatoes were known, this
plant was much esteemed. The epithet Jerusalem is a mere corruption of the Italian word
Girasole (from girare, to turn, and sol), or sun-flower j the name Artichoke is bestowed
from the resemblance in flavor which the tubers have to the bottoms of artichokes.

3689. Use. The roots are esteemed a wholesome, nutritious food, and are eaten
boiled, mashed with butter, or baked in pies, and have an excellent flavor. Planted in
rows, from east to west, the upright herb of the plant affords a salutary shade to such
culinary vegetables as require it, in the midsummer months, as lettuce, turnips, strawber-
ries, &c.

3690. Propagation. It is raised by planting, either some small offset tubers of the main roots, or middling-
sized roots cut into pieces for sets, which is more eligible. Preserve one or two full eyes to each cutting.

3691. Quantity of sets. For a row 120 feet in length, the sets being inserted two feet apart, half a peck,
or sixty roots, will be sufficient. {Abercrombie.)

3692. Culture. It will grow in any spare ordinary part of the garden ; but to obtain fine large roots, give
it an open compartment of pretty good mellow ground. The season for planting is February, March, or be-
ginning of April. Having digged the compartment, plant them, either by dibble, in rows two feet and a half
asunder, about eighteen inches in the lines, and three or four inches deep ; or, in drills by a hoe, the same
depth and distances. The plants will come up in April and Ma)'. In their advancing growth, hoe and cut
down all weeds, drawing a little earth to the bottom of the stems. The root will multiply into a progeny of
tubers, in a cluster, in each plant, increasing in size till September and October : you may then cut away the
stems, and dig up the produce as wanting. Or, in November, when they are wholly done growing, it will be
proper to take up a quantity, and lay in dry sand under cover, to be ready as wanting, in frosty weather, when
the others are frozen up in the ground, or affected by the frost. As the roots of this plant are very prolific,
the smallest piece of a tuber will grow. In taking up the produce, you should therefore clear all out as well
as possible ; as any remaining part will come up the following year "disorderly, and pester the ground ; a«d
would thus continue rising for many years, but not eligible to cultivate for a good crop. Therefore, to an-
swer a demand, make a fresh plantation every year. {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 3. Turnip. — Brassica Rapa, L. and Dec. (Eng. Bot. 2176.) Tetrad.
Siliq. L. and Cruciferce, J. Navet, Fr. ; Steckriibe, Ger. ; and Navone, Ital.

3693. The turnip is a biennial plant, growing in a wild state in some parts of Eng-
land ; but better known as an inhabitant of the garden and the farm. In its wild state,
the root-leaves are large, of a deep-green color, very rough, jagged, and gashed ; in the
second season it sends up a flower-stalk, with leaves embracing the stem, smooth, glau-
cous, oblong, and pointed.

3694. Use. The use of the root, boiled and mashed as a dish, in broths, soups, and
stews, or entire, is familiar over all Europe. The top-shoots, from such as have stood
the winter, are gathered whilst tender, and dressed as spring greens or spinage. The seed
is also sometimes sown as small salading. " The navet, or French turnip, is considered a
distinct species, and is the B. Napus, L. and B. N. var. /3. esculenta,Dec., or edible rape.
It is a different plant from the navet of Decandolle, which he calls B. campestris, var.
y. napo-brassica. " Of the true navet or French turnip cultivated in England, Dickson
observes {Hort. Trans, vol. i. ), " that it enriches all the foreign soups. Stewed in gravy,
it forms a most excellent dish, and being white, and of the shape of a carrot, when mixed
alternately with those roots upon a dish, it is very ornamental. In France, as well as in
Germany, few great dinners are served up without it in one shape or other." In using
it, there is no necessity to cut away the outer skin or rind, in which, indeed, the flavor

Book I. TURNIP. 629

chiefly resides ; scraping it will be quite sufficient. Justice observes, that it is neither fit
to be eaten boiled alone nor raw ; but that two or three of them in seasoning will give a
higher flavor than a dozen of other turnips. {British Gardener s Directory p. 159.)
3695. Varieties. Those in general cultivation are the

Green-topped large round white; skin of
hite

Early vhite Dutch
Earl; stone
Common round white
Large round white
Yelfow Dutch
AberdetMi yellow

Maltese golden ; an excellent and beauti-
ful root

the crown gre
larc

French (B. h'aptu,y?a. esculeida),navei

de Meatuc, Fr. ; small oblong
Small round French, pdit Berlin, Fr.,

teliarv, Ger.

Swedish (B.campairu,yai. napo-brattica,

Dec), iVat-rf <fc Svedt, Fr.; large round,

t, more valued

in gardens for

S696. Estimate of sorts. Tlie first three sorts are the fittest for early, first succession, and main summer
crops for the table. 'J he early white Dutch is proper both for the most early and first succession crops, as
is also the early stone. The common round white is highly eligible for the main crop ; and the large round
white stands nearly on a par with that, and, if not sown to come in with it, should at least succeed it, as a
late summer and autumn crop. In large grounds, portions of the large white green-topped, and the large
white red-topped, mav be sown for autumn and winter ; but the surest plant for winter consumption is
the yellow Dutch ; although constituted to stand intense frost unhurt, it has a fine flavor, and is very nu-
tritive. Small portions of any of the other sorts may be cultivated in secondary crops for variety, or to
answer a particular demand. The French, or navet, is of excellent flavor. It was anciently used
throughout the south of Europe, and was more cultivated in this country a century ago than it is now. It
is still in high repute in France, Germany, and Holland. It is grown in the sandy fields round Berlin,
and also near Altona, from whence it is sometimes imported to the London market Before the war, the
queen of Geo. II I. had regular supplies sent to England from Mecklenburgh. The Swedish, for its large size
and hardy nature, is extensively cultivated in fields for cattle : it is also occasionally raised in gardens for
the table, to use in winter and spring like the yellow Dutch.

3697. Seed estimate. For a seetl-bed four feet and a half by twenty -four, the plants to remain and be
thinned to seven inches' distance, half an ounce.

3698. Time of soiling. This root can be obtained most part of the year, by sowing every month in spring
and summer. Make first, a small sowing in the last fortnight of March, or the first days of April, for early
turnips in May and June; but, as these soon fly up to seed the same season, adopt a larger early sowing
about the middle of April. The first main sowing should follow at the beginning, or towards the end of
May, for roots to draw young about the end of June, and in full growth in July and August. Sow full
crops in June and July, to provide the main supplies of autumn and winter turnips. Make a final smaller
sowing in the second or third week of August, for late young crops, or to stand for the close of winter and
opening of spring : the turnips of this sowing continue longer than those of the previous sowings before
they run in the spring. As the crops standing over winter shoot up to seed-stalks in February,
March, or April, the root becomes hard, stringy, and unfit for the table. Make the sowings a day or two
before or after the prescribed times for the opportunity of showery weather j or, if done at a dry time,
give a gentle watering.

3699. Soit and situation. The turnip grows best in a light moderately rich soil, broken fine by good
tilth. Sand or gravel, with a mixture of loam, produces the sweetest- flavored roots. In heavy excessively
rich land, the plant sometimes appears to flourish as well ; but it will be found to have a rank taste, and
to run more speedily to flower. A poor, or exhausted soil, ought to be recruited with a proportion of
manure suited to the" defect of the staple earth. Dung, when requisite, should have been laid on the
preceding autumn ; for when fresh, it affords a nidus for the turnip-fly. Let the early crop have a
warm aspect, and the lightest driest soil. Sow the crops raised after the first of May in the most
open exposure.

3700. Process in sowing, and precautions against the fly. Let the ground be well broken by regular dig-
ging, and neatly levelled to receive the seed. Procure bright well-dried seed. At a season when the
tumip-fly is not apprehended, the seed may be put into the ground without any preparation, either alone
or mixed with a little sand ; but in the hot weather of summer, it is advisable to use some cheap and eflTec-
tual preventive of the fly. It appears from a trial of Knight, at the suggestion of Sir Humphrey Davy,
that lime slacked with urine, and mixed with a treble quantity of soot, if sprinkled in with the seed at the
time of sowing, will protect the seeds and germs from the ravages of this pernicious insect; but this anti-
dote cannot be conveniently applied unless the sowing be in drills. A yet simpler remedy, found by Mean
to be perfectly successful, is, to steep the seed in sulphur-water, putting an ounce of sulphur to a pint of
water, which will be sufficient for soaking about three pounds of seed. {Al)ercromlrie.)

3701. Arch. Gorrie, a Scottish gardener of merit, tried steeping the seed in sulphur, sowing soot, ashes,
and sea-sand, along the drills, all without eflTect. At last, he tried dusting the rows, when the plants were
in the seed-leaf, with quick-lime, and found that effectual in preventing the depredations of the fly. " A
bushel of quicklime," he says, " is sufficient to dust over au acre of drilled turnips ; and a boy may soon be
taught to lay it on almost as fast as he could walk along the drills. If the seminal leaves are powdered in
the slightest degree, it is sufficient ; but should rain wash the lime off" before the turnips are in the rough-
leaf, it may be necessary to repeat the operation if the fly begin to make its appearance." {Cat. Hort.
Mem. vol. i.)

3702 Minng equal parts of old seed with new, and then dividing the mixture, and steeping one half of it
twenty-four hours in water, has often been tried with effect, and especiaUy by farmers. By this means,
four different times of vegetation are procured, and consequently four chances of escaping the fly. Radish-
seed is also frequently mixed with that of the turnip, and the fly preferring the former, the latter is allowed
to escape.

3703. Neitl says, " one of the easiest remedies, is to sow thick, and thus ensure a sufficiency of plants
both for the fly and the crop." But the most eflfectual preventive on a large scale is found in sowing late,
where that can be done ; the fly in its beetle state having fed on other herbage, and disappeared before the
turnip comes into leaf.

3704. Altercromlne directs to " sow broad-cast, allowing half an ounce of seed for every 100 square feet,
unless some particular purpose will be answered by drilling. In the former method, scatter the seed regu-
garly and thinly ; in dry weather, tread or roll it in lightly and evenly ; but after heavy showers, merely
beat it gently down ; rake in fine. Let drills be an inch deep, and twelve or fifteen inches asunder. In
the heat of summer it is of great importance to wait for rain, if the ground be too extensive to be properly
watered ; for the fermentation caused by copious rain and heat gives an extraordinary quick vegetation to
the seed, which in a few days will be in the rough leaf, and out of all danger from the fly. This insect is
weakened or killed by drenching showers, and does no injury to the turnip when much rain falls. It is de-
sirable to have the last sowing finished by the twentieth of August."

3705 Reparation of a destroyed sowing. "VN'hen a crop is destroyed by the fly, the necessary reparation is
immediately to dig or stir the ground, and make another sowing ; watering soon, and occasionally after-
wards, unless rain falls.

3706. Subsequent culture. " As soon as the plants have rough leaves about an inch broad, hoe and thin
them to six or eight square inches' distance, cutting up all weeds. As the turnips increase in the root, a
part may be drawn young by progressive thinnings, so as to leave those designed to reach a full size ulti-
mately ten or twelve square inches. 'Water garden-crops sometimes in hot weather. One great advantag*

630 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

attending the cultivation of the navet is, that it requires no manure whatever ; any soil that is poor and
light, especially if sandy, suits it, where it seldom exceeds the size of one's thumb or middle finger ; in
ricji manured earth, it gfows much larger, but is not so sweet or good in quality." [Justice and Dickson.)

3707. Taking the crop and preserving it by housing. " In the successive crops, begin to draw as above
in a thinning order, that such others as are coming forward may have room to enlarge in succession ; by
which means a regular supply will be procured till March or April of the second season ; specific sorts
being sufficiently hardy to continue good throughout our ordinary winters. But of the winter crops for
the table, draw a portion occasionally in November, December, or whenever there is an appearance of
the frost setting in severe. Cut the tops off close, and house the roots in some lower shed or cellar, laid in
sand, ready for use while the ground is frozen." Instead of cutting the top and roots close off, some prefer
leaving about an inch of the top, and the whole of the root ; and, when the bulbs are kept in a sufficiently
cool store, this seems preferable, as more likely to retain the sap. {Abercrambie.)

3708. Turnip-tops. These are to be gathered from among the earliest spring-produced leaves, either
from the crown, or flower-stalk. They are equally good from any of the varieties, and less acrid from
those of the Swedish. Sometimes very late sowings are made in September and October, which never
bulb, but which are preserved entirely for thin produce, as greens in spring.

3709. Field-turnips. Where a family can be supplied from the field, the roots will always be found of a
better flavor than those produced in the garden ; and the same remark applies to aU the brassica tribe,
excepting the cauliflower and broccoli, and to potatoes and most tuberous roots.

3710. To save seed. " Either leave, in the spring, some of the best sound roots of the
winter-standing crop, or leave, in May or June, a part of the spring-sown crop of the
same year : or, to be more certain of good kinds, transplant, in November or February,
a quantity of full-grown well-shaped roots of the autumn or winter crop, into large,
deepish drills, two feet asunder ; inserting the bottom fibre into the nether ground, and
the main root fully to the bottom of the drill ; and earth well over. The plants will
shoot in large branchy stalks in summer, and ripen seed in July or August."
i^Abercrombie.) It is preferable, however, to procure turnip-seed, as indeed that of
most other vegetables, from the regular seedsmen ; as the seed-farmers have oppor-
tunities of keeping the sorts distinct, which cannot be had within the precincts of a
walled garden.

3711. Insects and diseases. (See Process in Son<ing,^\npYa.) The club or anbury is the
principal disease to which turnips in gardens are liable, for which we know of no palli-
ative but good culture, as turnips cannot be transplanted like the cabbage tribe. (See
Sect. I. Subsect. 8.)

SuBSECT. 4. Carrot. — Daucus carota, L. (Eng. Bot. t. 1174.) Pent. Dig. L.
and Umbellifene, J. Carotte, Fr. ; Gelbe Riibe, Ger. ; and Carota, Ital.

3712. The carrot is a hardy biennial, and common in many parts of Britain, in sandy
soils, and by road-sides. It is known in many places by the name of bird's nest, from
the appearance of the umbel when the seeds are ripening. The leaves are pinnatifid
and much cut : the plant rises to tlie height of two feet, and produces wliite flowers in
June and July, succeeded by rough, hispid seeds, which ripen in August. The root of
the plant, in its wild state, is small, dry, sticky, of a white color, and strong-flavored ;
but the root of the cultivated variety is large, succulent, and of a red-yellow, or pale
straw-color.

3713. Use. It is used in soups and stews, and as a vegetable dish. Parkinson
informs us, that in his day, ladies wore carrot-leaves in place of feathers. In winter, an
elegant chimney ornament is sometimes formed, by cutting off a section from the head or
thick end of a carrot containing the bud, and placing it in a shallow vessel with water.
Young and delicate leaves unfold themselves, forming a radiated tuft, of a very hand-
some appearance, and heightened by contrast witli the season of the year.

3714. The varieties of the carrot in common cultivation are —

Large reil, or field carrot; grows to a . Orange carrot; large, lone root, of an I smaU early crop. Also for shallow

large siie, and is chiefly cultivated 1 orange color ; best sort for the main I soils

in fields and in farmers' gardens for crop | Late horn ; same chaxftcteristics ; but

coloring butter 1 Early horn ; short, smaller root ; for a » suited for a late crop.

3715. Christie enumerates the following varieties, as having been grown in the garden
of the Horticultural Society, some of which are foreign sorts newly introduced : —

Bom carroti. Early red, common early, long horn I red, purple ; and the altringham, or superb, originally

Long carrots. White yellow, long yellow, long orange, long | from Cheshire. (Hort. Traru. vol. iv. p. 388.)

3716. Soil. The carrot requires a light mellow soil, mixed with sand, which should be dug or trenched
one or two spades deep, breaking well all the lumpy parts, so as to form a porous bed, and an even sur-
face. The orange and red sorts, on account of their longer roots, require a soil proportionally deeper than
the horn. , u- i.

3717. Seed estimate, and sowing. The seeds have numerous forked hairs on their borders, by which
they adhere together, and therefore should, previously to sowing, be rubbed between the hands, and
mixed with dry sand, in order to separate them as much as possible. They are also very light, and there-
fore a calm day must be chosen for sowing ; and the seeds should be disseminated equally, and trodden in
before raking. Previously to sowing, if convenient, the seed should be proven, by sowing a few in a pot,
and placing it in a hot-bed or hot-house, as it is more frequently bad than most garden-seeds. For a bed
four and a half feet by thirty, one ounce will be requisite, and the same for one hundred and fifty feet of
drill-row. . . • ■

3718. Times of sowing. To have early summer carrots, sow on a warm border in the beginning of
February ; or, to have them still more forward, sow in a moderate hot-bed, giving copious admissions of
air. In the open garden, " begin with the early horn in the last fortnight of February, or first week of
March, as dry, fine, and open weather may occur. The first-sown beds should be assigned a favorable
situation, and covered for a time with haulm. Follow with the orange in the first fortnight of March,

Book I. PARSNEP. 6S1

and make successive sowings thence till the 20th of April, for main crops. Add smaller sowings twice in
May, for plants to draw young late in summer : also sow a few at the commencement of July for a later
succession of young carrots in summer and autumn. Lastly, in the beginnmg of August, two separate
small sowings may be made, for plants to stand the winter, and afford young roots early in spring, March
and April."

3719. Culture. ♦* When the plants are up two or three inches in growth, in May and June, they will
require thinning and clearing from weeds, either by hand or small hoeing. Thin from three to five
inches' distance such as are designed for drawing in young and middling growth. But the main crop,
intended for larger and full-sized roots, thin to six or eight inches' distance. Keep the whole clean from
weeds in their advancing young growth. Some of small and middling growth will be fit for drawing in
June and July ; large sizeable roots, in August and September ; and those of full growth, by the end of
October." {Abercrombie.)

S>i20. Preserving during tvinter. " Carrots are taken up at the approach of winter, cleaned, and stored
among sand. They may be built very firm, by laying them heads and tails alternately, and packing with
sand. In this way, if frost be excluded from the store-house, they keep perfectly well till March or
April of the following year. Some persons insist that the tops should be entirely cut off at the time of
storing, so as effectually to prevent their growing; while others wish to preserve the capability of veget-
ation, though certainly not to encourage the tendency to grow."

3721. To save seed. Plant some largest best roots in October, November, or the last
fortnight of February, two feet apart ; insert them a few inches over the crowns. They
will yield ripe seed in autumn, of which gather only from the principal umbel, which is
likely not only to afford the ripest and largest seed, but the most vigorous plants. A
considerable quantity of carrot-seed for the supply of the London seedmen is raised near
Weathersfield, in Essex ; and much is imported from Holland.

3722. Insects. Carrots, when they come up, are apt to be attacked by insects like the
turnips ; the most approved remedies for which are thick sowing, in order to afford both
a supply for the insects and the crop ; and late sowing, especially in light soils, thus per-
mitting the grubs to attain their fly state before the seed comes up.

ScBSECT. 5. Parsnq). — Pastiiiaca sativa, L. (Flor. Dan. t. 1206.) Pent. Dig. L.
and UmbellifercB, J. Panais, Fr. ; Pastiiiake, Ger. ; and Pastinaca, Ital.

3723. The parsnep is a biennial British plant, common in calcareous soils by road-sides
near London. The wild variety is figured in English Botany, t. 556. The garden-
parsnep has smooth leaves, of a light or yellowish-green color, in which it differs from the
wild plant, the leaves of which are hairy and dark -green ; the roots also have a milder
taste : it does not, however, differ so much from the native plant, as the cultivated does
from the native carrot.

3724. Use. The parsnep has long been an inmate of the garden, and was formerly
much used. In Catholic times, it was a favorite Lent root, being eaten with salted fish.
** In the north of Scotland," Neill observes, " parsneps are often beat up with potatoes
and a little butter;" of this excellent mess the children of the peasantry are very fond,
and they do not fail to thrive upon it. In the nortli of Ireland, a pleasant table beverage
is prepared from the roots, brewed along with hops. Parsnep wine is also made in some
places ; and an excellent ardent spirit, distilled after a similar preparatory process, to
that bestowed on potatoes destined for that purpose.

3725. Varieties. There is only one variety in general cultivation in Britain ; but the
French possess three, tlie Coquaine, the Lisbonaise, and the Siam.

The Coquaine, Dr. Maculloch informs"

! Coqi
Uded.

much cultivated in Guernsey and Jer-
sey. The roots run sometimes four feet
deep, and are rarely so small in circum-
ference as six inches, having been known
to reach sixteen. The leaves of this

variety grow to a considerable height,
and proceed from the whole crown of
the root
The Lisbonaise does not extend to so great
a depth as the co<iuaine ; but the root
is equally good in qualitv, and what is
lost in length is gained in thickness.

The leaves are small and short, and
only proceed from the centre of the

The Siam has a root of a yellowish color,
not very large, but tender, and mora
rich in taste than the other varieties.

3726. Soil. The soil most proper for the parsnep should be light, free from stones,
and deep. It should be dug or trenched before sowing at least two spits deep ; and the
manure should either be perfectly decomposed, or, if recent, deposited at the bottom of
the trench. '

3727. Seed estimate, andsounng. Sow in the end of February, or in March, but not later than April;
and for a bed five feet by twenty, the plants to remain thinned to eight inches' distance, half an ounce of
seed is the usual proportion. Having prepared either beds, four or five feet wide, or one continued plot,
sow broad-cast, moderately thin, and rake the seed well into the ground.

3728. Culture. When the plants are about one, two, or three inches high, in May or June, let them be
thinned and cleared from weeds, either by hand, or by small hoeing ; thinning them from eight or twelve
inches distance. Keep them afterwards clean from weeds till the leaves cover the ground, after which no
further culture will be required. The roots will be pretty large by the end of September, from which time
a fc\v may be drawn for present use : but the parsnep is far best at full maturity, about the close of

October, indicated by the decay of the leaf The root will remain good for use till April and Mav
following. . '

3729. Preserving during winter. The parsnep is not so liable as the carrot to be hurt by frost, if left in
the ground. But it would be proper, in the beginning of November, when the leaves decay, to dig up a
portion of the roots, and to cut the tops off close, laving them in sand, under cover, ready for use in hard
frostv weather. The rest will keep good in ground till they begin to shoot in the spring : then, in February
°5 ...» "'S ^"^"^ "P' ^^^ ^^^ ^°y^ o^i 2nd, preserved in sand, the root will remain till about the end
of April.

3730. To save seed. " Transplant some of the best roots in February, two feet asunder,
inserted over tlie crowns ; they will shoot up in strong stalks, and produce large umbels
of seed, ripening in autumn." (Abercrombie.)

Ss 4

632 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III

SuBSECT. 6. Red Beet. -^ Beta vulgaris, L. {Schk. Han. i. t. 56.) Pent. Dig. L. and
aienojwdeeE, B. P. Betlerave, Fr. ; /?o^/ie ilufte, Ger. ; and Barba Biettola, Ital.

3731. The red beet is a biennial plant, rising with large, oblong, thick, and succuleni
leaves, generally of a reddish or purple color; the roots often three or four inches in dia^
meter, of a foot or more in length, and of a deep-red color. It produces greenish flowers
in August. The red beet is a native of the sea-coast of the south of Europe ; it was
cultivated in this country by Tradescant, the younger, in 1656, and then called beet rave
(or beet-radish), from the French name betteruve.

3732. Use. The roots are boiled and sliced, and eaten cold, either by themselves, or
in salads ; they also form a beautiful garnish, and are very much used as a pickle. Some
consider the green-leaved variety as more tender in the roots than the red-leaved sort ;
other prefer those with a few small dark-red leaves. From one variety, having a red
skin, but white flesh, sugar is prepared in some parts of France and the Netherlands ;
but this manufacture, introduced under Buonaparte's reign, is now almost entirely given
up in favor of West India produce. The roots, dried and ground, are sometimes used
as " a supplement to coffee," and dried in an oven in thin slices : they are also used in
comfitures. (iV. Cours d' Agricultur, art. Bette.)

3733. Varieties. These are numerous, but the principal are —

The common long-rooted; which suits! The short, or turnip-rooted; suited to 1 The green-leaved ; red-rooted, suited to
light, deep, nch soils, and grows very shallow soils soU?of light open texture,

large |

3734. Morgan has enumerated the following sorts of red beet, as having been culti-
vated in the garden of the Horticultural Society : —

Large-rooted I Turnip-rooted ; and early va- in France, and said to have rates some vellow-rooted

lyong-rooted riety the flavor of a nut. sorts, none of which are in

JJwarf ; one of the best Small-red Green-topped ; much grown in general cultivation.

I Castlenaudari; much esteemed Scotland. — He also enume- (Hort. Tra/w. v. iii. p. 277.!

3735. Seed and soil. The beet is always raised from seed, and for a bed four feet and a half by twelve
feet, one ounce is requisite. The soil in which it naturally delights is a deep rich sand, dry and light
rather than moist. Sowing in seed-beds and transplanting has been tried ; but though it may answer for
the spinage or pot-herb beets, (white and its varieties,) it will not answer where the object is a large clean
root.

3736. Sowing. The beet is sown annually in the last week of March, or beginning of April. If sewn
earlier, many of the plants are apt to run into flower, and so become useless. " The ground on which it
is sown should have been previously enriched by mellow compost and sea-sand ; but rank dung is not to
be laid in, as it is apt to induce canker. For the long-rooted kind, trench to the depth of eighteen inches.
Sow either broad-cast on the rough surface, and rake well into the earth ; or, as the seed is large, sow in
drills an inch or two deep, and a foot asunder ; or dot it in with a thick blunt-ended dibble, in rows that
distance, making holes ten or twelve inches apart, about an inch and a half deep ; drop two or three seeds
in each hole, but with the intention to leave only one best plant."

.3737. Subsequent culture. " When the young plants are advanced into leaves, one, two, or three inches
in growth, they must be thinned and cleared from weeds, either by hand or small-hoeing, especially those
sown promiscuously broad-cast and in drills : thin the latter to twelve inches' distance; and those holed
in by dibble, to one in each place. They will acquire a large full growth in the root by September or
October, to take up for use as wanted, and in continuance all winter and spring following : or in Novem-
ber, it may be proper to dig up a quantity, cut off the leaves, and deposit the roots in dry sand, under
cover, ready for use in winter, in case of hard frosty weather, which would fix them fast in the ground ;
or the rest may be digged up at the same time, and trenched in close together in some dry compartment,
to be covered occasionally in severe frost, to prevent their being frozen in, that they may be readily taken
up as wanted. Towards spring, in February or the beginning of March, if any remain in the bed where
raised, their removal then, being trenched in close together over the root, will, in some degree, check
their shooting, and preserve them from running, so as to keep them good all the spring till May and
June." (Abercrombie.)

3738. Housing. In the northern counties, the winter stock of beet is commonly lifted and housed in
sand, in the manner of carrots. In digging up the roots for this purpose, great care must be taken that
they be not in anywise broken or cut, as they bleed much. For the same reason, the leaves should be
cut off, at least an inch above the solid part of the root.

3739. To save seed. Either leave a few strong roots standing in the rows ; or select a
few, and transplant them to a spot where they will be in no danger, when in flower, of
being impregnated with any other variety. They will shoot up the second year, when
their flower-stalks should be tied to stakes, to prevent their breaking over.

SuBSECT. 7. Skirret. — Siu?n Sisarum, L. (Schk. Hand. i. t. 69.) Pent. Dig. L. and
Umbellifercs, J. Chervis, Fr. ; Zuckerw'drzel, Ger. ; and Sisaro, Ital.

3740. The skirret is a perennial tap-rooted plant, a native of China, known in this
country since 1548. The lower leaves are pinnated, and the stem rises about a foot -
high, terminated by an umbel of white flowers, in July and August. The root is com-
posed of fleshy tubers, about the size of the little finger, and joined together at the crown
or head ; they were formerly much esteemed in cookery. In the north of Scotland, the
plant is cultivated under the name of cru7nmock.

3741. Use. The tubers are boiled, and served up with butter ; and are declared by
Worlidge, in 1682, to be " the sweetest, whitest, and most pleasant of roots."

.3742. Culture. This plant grows freely in a lightish soil, moderately good. It Is propagated both from
Bced, and by offsets of established roots. The better methoil is to raise seedlings, to have the root in
perfection, young and tender.

Book I. SCORZONERA, SALSIFY. 633

S743 By seed. " Sow between the 21st of March and the 15th of April ; a fortnight later rather than any
earlier for a full crop, as plants raised forward in spring are apt tc> start for seed in summer. Sow on an
open compartment of light ground, in sraaU drilU eight inches apart. W hen the planu are one or two
inches highVthin them to five or six inches asunder. They will enlarge in growth till the end of autumn :
but before the roots are full grown, in August, September, or October, some may be taken up for con.
sumption as wanted : those left to reach maturity will continue good for use throughout wmter, and m

^^t"^'. Bii slips. " Having some plants of last vear's raising, furnished with root-offsets, slip them off;
taking onlv the voung outward slips, and not leaving any of the larger old roots adhering to the detached
oflfsets • which plant by dibble, in rows from six to nine inches asunder. They will soon stnke, and en-
large, and divide into offsets : which, as well as the main roots, are eatable and come in for use m
proper season.'

3745. To save seed. Leave some old plants in the qpring : they will shoot up stalks,
and ripen seed in autumn.

SuBSECT. 8. Scorzonera, or Vijier's Grass. — Scorzonera Hispanicaj L. {Lam. lU.
t. 647. f. 5.) Syng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and CichoraceeB, J. Scorzonere, or Salsajis
(CEspagne, Fr. ; Scorzonere, Ger. ; and Scorzonera, Ital.

3746. The scorzonera is a hardy perennial, a native of Spain, the south of France, and
Italy, cultivated in this country since 1576. The stem rises two or tlu-ee feet high, with
a few embracing leaves, and is branched at top ; the lower leaves are linear, eight or
nine inches long, and end in a sharp point ; the flowers are yellow, and appear from
June to August. The root is carrot-sliaped, about the tliickness of one's finger ; taper-
ing gradually to a fine point, and thus bearing some resemblance to the body of a viper.

3747. Use. The outer rind being scraped off, the root is steeped in water, in order to
abstract a part of its bitter flavor. It is then boiled or stewed in the manner of carrots
or parsneps. The roots are fit for use in August, and continue good till the following
spring.

3748. Culture. " To have an annual supply, sow every year ; for although the plant, as to its v^etable
life, be perennial, tlie root continuing only one season useful, must be treated merely as a biennial. The
quantity of seed for a bed four feet and a half by ten feet, to l)e sown in drills fifteen inches asunder, is
one ounce. Sow every spring, at the end of March, or in April : follow with a secondary sowing in May.
'ITiis root likes a deep, light soil. Allot an open comijartmenL Sow either broad-cast, and rake in evenly ;
or in small drills, twelve or fifteen inches asunder, and earth over half an inch or an inch deep. When
the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them to six or eight inches' distance. Clear out all
weeds as tliev advance in growth. The plants having a free increase all summer, the roots will, some of
them, be of a moderate size to begin taking up in August, others in September, but will not attain full
growth till the end of October, when, and during the winter, they may be used as wanted ; or some may
be dug up in November, and preserved in sand under cover, to be ready when the weather is severe. The
plants left in the ground continue useful aU winter till the spring; then those remaining undrawn, ghoot
to stalk in April and May, and become unfit for the table."

3749. To save seed. " Leave some old plants in the spring ; which will shoot up in
tall steins, and produce ripe seed in autumn." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 9. Salsify, or Purple Goafs Beard. — Tragopogon porrifolius, L. (^Eng. Bot.
638. ) Syng. Polyg. jEqu. L. and Cichoracece, J. Salsifis, Fr. ; Bocksbart, Ger. ;
and Sassijtca, Ital.

3750. The sniffy is a hardy biennial, a native of England, but not very common. The
root is long and tajiering, of a fleshy white substance ; the herb smooth, glaucous, and
rising three or four feet high. Tlie leaves, as the trivial name imports, resemble those of
the leek ; the flowers are of a dull purple color, closing soon after mid-day ; the seed, as
in other species of goat's beard, is remarkable for having attached to it a broad featliery
crown. It has taken place in gardens of the T. pratensis, which was cultivated in Ger-
rard's and Parkinson's time, but is now entirely neglected.

3751. Use. The roots are boiled or stewed like carrots, and have a mild, sweetish
flavor; the stalks of year-old plants are sometimes cut in the spring, when about four or
five inches high, and dressed like asparagus.

3752. Culture. " Salsify is raised from seed, annually, in the spring, and for thirty feet of drill, one
ounce of seed is sufficient. Allot an open situation. The soil should be light and mellow, full two spits
deep, that the long tap-root may run down straight Sow in March, April, and in May, for first and suc-
cession crops, either broad-cast in heAs, and rake in the seed, or in small drills, eight or ten inches asun-
der. The plants are to remain where sown. When they are two or three inches high, thin them about
six inches apart. In the dry hot weather of summer, water now and then till the ground be soaked.
The roots having attained a tolerable size in August and September, may be taken up occasionally for
present use. Those remaining, perfect their growth in October, for a more general supply ; and will
continue good all winter, and part of the following spring. For winter use, take up a portion before frost
hardens the ground, and preserve in sand. Such year-old plants as remain undrawn in the following
spring, shoot up with thick, fleshy, tender stalks: these are occasionally gathered young to boil; the
roots continuing good till the plant runs to stalk in April or May."

3753. To save seed. " Leave or transplant some of the old plants in spring • wliich
\\\\\ shoot, and produce ripe seed in autumn." (^Abercrombie.)

634

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

SuBSECT. IQ. Radish. — Baphanis sativus, L. [Lam. III. t. 568.) Tetrad. Siliq. L. and
Cruclferce, J. Radis and Rave, Fr. ; Rettig, Ger. ; and Rafano, Ital.

3754. The radish is an annual, a native of China, and mentioned by Gerrard in 1584.
** The leaves are rough, lyrate, or divided transversely into segments, of which the infe-
rior less ones are more remote. The root is fleshy, and fusiform in some varieties, in
others sub-globular ; white within, but black, purple, yellow, or white, on the outside ;
the flowers pale-violet, with large, dark veins ; pods long, with a sharp beak."

3755. Use. Formerly the leaves were often boiled and eaten ; but now the roots are
chiefly employed. These are eaten raw in spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The
young seedling leaves are often used with cresses and mustard, as small salad ; and radish
seed-pods, when of plump growth, but still young and green, are used to increase the
variety of vegetable pickles, and. are considered a tolerable substitute for capers.

3756. Vai-ieties. These may be divided into the spring, autumn, and wdnter sorts.
Spring radishes may be subdivided inLo the long or spindle-rooted (Rave, Fr.); and the
round or turnip-rooted (Radis, Fr.); the autumn sorts are chiefly oval or turnip-rooted,
and the winter radishes are ovate or oblong, and dark-colored. " The character of a
good long-rooted radish," Strachan observes, " is to have its roots straight, long, free from
fibres, not tapering too suddenly, and especially to be fully formed on the top, or well
shouldered, as it is called, and without a long neck ; the roots should be ready to draw
whilst the leaves are small, whence the name short-top radish, and if they soon attain a
proper size, and also force well, they are then called early an6. frame radishes." (Hort.
Trans, vol. iii. p. 438.)

Autumn Kinds. i Winter Radishes,

White Russian ; the root larger than any White Spanish ; root large, oval, outsid<!
of the long-rooted kinds, white, taperinp white tinged with green, flesh hot, firm,
like a carrot, flavor nutty, like that of | solid, and white

the rampion. (Hort. Trans, iii. 115.) ' Oblong brown; root middle-sized, pear-
Yellow turnip ; root large, ovate, yellow, shaped, outside coat rough and browiij
or dusky-brown, and rough without, marked with white circles, flesh hot,
but the flesh white firm, solid, and white, i>lant very hardy

Round brown ; root large, shape irregu- —■■■-- -

lar, externally matt
brown, and the flesh
greenish-white. | very hardy

Purple Spanish ; a subvariety of theblackj
-"'"" ~ purple skin.

(Christie, in Hort. Trans, iv. 13.]

, i>lant very hardy
Black Spanish ; root large, irregularlj
with greenish- pear-shaped, rough and black externally,
soft, and of a and the flesh hot, firm, solid, and white:

with:

Spring and Summer KiTids.

Long sorts. Scarlet, or salmon-colored,
and its subvarieties —

Short-topt scarlet, and

Early frame scarlet : which are the two
sorts most generally cultivated

Purple ; an early sort of good flavor, but at
present neglected

Long white; the original variety cultivated
in Gerrard s time, white, semi-transpa-
rent, and delicate.

Turnip-Radishes.

"White ; root globular like a turnip

Early white ; a subvariety

The pink ; rose-colored, scarlet, and crim-
son are names applicable to one sort
which approaches to the pear-shape.

3757. Estimate of sorts. The spindle-rooted kinds are cultivated in the largest proportion for the first
crops. The small turnip. rooted sorts may be sown in spring as secondary crops, and in summer and au-
tumn for more considerable supplies. The winter sorts have a coarser flavor than the other kinds ; but
being of a hardy nature, are frequently sown. They are sliced in salads, or occasionally eaten alone with
salt, vinegar, and other condiments.

3758. Propagation. All the varieties are raised from seed.

3759. Soil and situation. The soil should be light and mellow, well broken by digging : for sowings be-
tween the middle of October and the middle of February, let the site be a dry sheltered border, open to
the full sun. From the middle of February to the end of March, any dry open compartment will be suit-
able. As spring and summer advance, allot cooler and shaded situations. A scattering of the smaller
growing sorts may be sown among some broad-cast crops of larger growth, such as spinage, lettuce, and
onion ; it may be also drilled between wide rows of beans, or on ground intended to be sown with a late
spring crop.

3760. Times of solving. " The crops raised between the middle of October and the middle of February,
are usually confined to the spindle-rooted kinds. Of the early short-top red, a first small saving may be
made at the end of October, another in November, and a third in the last fortnight of December, if open
temperate weather ; respectively to stand over the winter : but make the principal early sowings in January,
or the beginning of February. From this time sow every fortnight or ten days, in full succession crops
till the end of May ; as well the white and red small turnip-rooted as the autumn sorts. The winter sorts
are sometimes raised at the beginning of summer ; but the fittest season to sow them is from the end o)
June to the end of August; that is, in July for use in autumn, and in August, to provide a supply through,
out winter."

3761. Seed, process in sowing, and common culture. " Sow each sort separate ; and for a bed four feet
six inches by twelve feet, two ounces of seed will be required of the spring sorts, and an ounce and hall
for the autumn varieties. All the kinds may be sown either broad-cast or in drills ; but the latter is pre-
ferable, as allowing the roots to be drawn regularly, with less waste. If you sow broad-cast, it is a good
method to make beds four or five feet wide, with alleys between, a foot wide, the earth of which may bt
used to raise the beds, or not, as the season may make it desirable to keep the beds dry or moist. Avoid
sowing excessively thick, as it tends to make the tops run, and the roots stringy. Rake in the seed well
full half an inch deep, leaving none on the surface to attract the birds. If you trace drills, let them b{
for the spindle-rooted kinds half an inch deep, and about two inches and a half asunder ; for the smal
turnip-rooted, ti)ree quarters of an inch deep, and four or five inches asunder ; and for the black turnii
or Spanish, six or eight inches asunder, because the root grows to the size of a middle-sized turnip. Ai
the plants advance in growth, thin them so as to leave the spindle-rooted about two inches square distance
and the other sorts three, four, or five, leaving the most space to the respective sorts in free-growing wea-
ther. In dry warm weather, water pretty frequently : this swells the roots, and makes them mild anc

3762. Occasional shelter. " The crops sown between the end of October and the end of February, be.
sides being favored in situation, will want occasional shelter, according to the weather. On the first ap
proach of frost, whether the seed is just sown, or the plants have appeared, cover the ground, either witl
clean straw, dry long haulm, or dried fern, two or three inches thick, or with mats supported on shor
stout pegs. The covering will keep off the birds, and by its warm effect on the mould, forward the ger
mination of the seed. The time for removing or restoring it must be regulated by the weather ; as th(
plants should be exposed to the full air whenever it can be safely done. If the season be cold withou
frost, take off the covering every morning, and put it on towards evening; and if the weather be shari
and frosty, let it remain on night and day, till the plants have advanced into the first rough leaves, and af

Book I. SPINACEOUS PLANTS. 655

terwards occasionally, till the atmosphere is settled and temperate. Replace it constantly at night till there
U no danger of much frost happening ; then wholly discontinue the covering."

3763. Pods for pickling. " Radish seed-pods should be taken for pickling when of plump growth, in July
and August, while still young and green."

3764. To save seed. " Transplant a sufficiency of the finest plants in April or May,
when the main crops are in full perfection. Draw tliem for transplanting in moist wea-
ther, selecting the straightest, best-colored roots, with the shortest tops, preserving the
leaves to each ; plant them, by dibble, in rows two feet and a half distant, inserting each
root wholly into the ground, down to the leaves. Keep the red and salmon-colored kinds
in separate situations, to prevent a commixture of their farina, and to preserve the kinds
distinct. With proper watering, they will soon strike, and shoot up in branchy stalks,
producing plenty of seed ; which will be ripe in September or October. In transplanting
for seed the turnip-rooted kinds, select those with the neatest-shaped roundest roots, of
moderate growth, and with the smallest tops. They, as the others, will yield ripe seed in
autumn. To obtain seed of the winter sorts, sow in the spring to stand for seed ; or
leave or transplant, in that season, some of the winter-standing full roots. As the diflPerent
kinds ripen seed in autumn, cut the stems ; or gather the principal branches of pods j
and place them in an open airy situation, towards the sun, that the pod, which is of a
tough texture, may dry, and become brittle, so as readily to break, and give out the seed
freely, whether it be threshed or rubbed out."

3765. For forcing the radish, see Chap. VII. Sect. XIII.

Sect. IV. Spinaceous Plants.

3766. As the excellence of sjyinaceous plants consists in the succulency of the leaves,
almost every thing depends on giving them a rich soil, stirring it frequently, and sup-
plying water in dry seasons. The space they occupy in the garden is not considerable,
say a tliirtieth part ; more especially as some of them, the common spinage for example,
often comes in as a temporary crop between rows of peas, or beans, or among cauliflowers
and broccolis, &c. The plant of this class the most deserving of culture in tlie cottage
garden, is the Swiss chard, which produces abundance of succulent, and most nutritious
foliage. It is to be found in every cottage garden in Switzerland and the north of
France.

SuBSECT. 1. Spinage. — Sjnnacia oleracea, L. {Schk. Hand.ux. t. 324.) Dioec. Hex. L.
and Chenopodece, B. P. E'pinard, Fr. ; Spinat, Ger. ; and Spinaci, Ital.

3767. The common spinage is an annual plant, cultivated in this country since 1568,
and probably long before ; but of what country it is a native is not certainly known ;
some refer it to Western Asia. The leaves are large, the stems hollow, branching, and,
when allowed to produce flowers, rising from two to three feet high. The male and fe-
male flowers, as the name of the class imports, are produced on different plants ; the
former come in long terminal spikes; the latter in clusters, close to the stalk at every joint.
It is almost the only dioecious plant cultivated for culinary purposes.

3768. Use. Tlie leaves are used in soups ; or boiled alone, and mashed and served
up with gravies, butter, and hard-boiled eggs. The leaves maybe obtained from sowings
in the open ground at most seasons of the year, but chiefly in spring, when they are
largest and most succulent.

3769. Varieties. These are —

The round-leaved, or smooth-seeded | The oblong triangular-IeaTed, or prickly seeded.

3770. Estimate of sorts. " These varieties of spinage are adapted for culture, principally, at two differ-
ent seasons. The round-leaved sort, of which the leaves are larger, thicker, and more juicy, is mostly
sown in spring and summer, for young spinage in those seasons : the triangular-leaved is chiefly sown in
autumn, to stand for winter and the following spring} for the leaves being less succulent, it is hardier to
stand the inclement weather : but a portion of this is acceptable, when the other sort is principally
raised."

3771. Summer crop. " Begin in January, if open weather, with sowing a moderate crop of the rounds
leaved. Sow a larger quantity in February ; and more fully in March. The plants presently fly to seed in
summer, especially if they stand crowded ; it is therefore proper to sow about once in three weeks, from the
beginning of March to the middle of April : then, every week till the middle of May: from which time,
till the end of July, sow once a fortnight. Small crops, thus repeated, will keep a succession during the
rest of summer and throughout autumn. A portion of the prickly seeded spinage may be sown as thought
proper, to come in among the successive summer crops; and if drilled between lines of other vegetables,
will encroach less than the smooth-seeded, a thing to be considered where the spare room is not of a liberal
width."

3772. Soil and situation. " The soil which suits any of the general summer crops will do for spinage ;
that for the early crop should be lightest and driest For a January sowing, allot a warm border, or the
best-sheltered compartment. Afterwards, for all the supplies during summer, sow in an open compartment.
Where it is necessary to make the utmost of the ground, the spring sowings, in February, March, and
April, may be made in single drills between wide rows of young cabbages, beans, peas, or other infant
cro|M of slow growth ; or they may be made still better on spots intended to receive similar plants, including
caijiflowers and horse-radish ; and the spinage will be off before the slower-growing crops advance consi-
derably ; or spinage and a thin crop of radishes may be sown together ; and the radishes will be drawn in
time, to give room for the spinage."

3773. Seed and process in sowing. " When raised by itself, spinage is generally sown broad-cast, and
two ounces will sow a bed four feet and a half by thirty feet : but in drills one ounce will sow the same
space. In drills, it i» easier to weed and gather : let the drills be from nine to twelve inchei apart. Beds

636 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. PaJit III.

four feet wide, with small alleys, are convenient of access. Let the ground be thoroughly dug. Whether
broad-cast or in drills, sow thinly ; and rake or earth in about an inch deep."

3774. Subsequent culture. " When the plants are up, showing leaves about an inch broad, clear them
from weeds, either by hand or small hoeing ; and thin the plants where crowded (especially the broad-cast,
crops) to three inches apart ; and when advanced in growth, every other may be cut out for use, increasing
the distance to about six inches, that the remainder may grow stocky, with large spreading leaves. The
plants of the early and succession crops attain proper growth for gathering in April, May, and June. Whea
the leaves are from two to five inches in breadth, cut the plants clean out to the bottom, or sometimes cut
only the larger leaves. But as soon as there is any appearance of their running to seed, they may be
drawn out clean as wanted."

3775. fVinier crop. " The prickly seeded, or triangular-leaved, is alone constituted to stand a severe
winter, and the quantity of seed is the same as in the spring sowings. The main winter crop should
be sown in the first or second week of August, and a secondary one towards the end of that month,
to stand later in the spring, until the round spinage comes in. The plants of these sowings will acquire
proper growth and strength, and will not run the same year, nor very early in the spring, which is
apt to be the case with crops sown sooner."

3776. Site. " Allot a compartment of dry-lying mellow ground, with an open aspect to the winter's
sun ; and let it be digged regularly."

3777. Process in sowing. " In general, sow broad-cast, treading the seed down, and raking it well
into the ground. The bed may be one continued space ; or the garden may be divided into
beds three or four feet wide, with spade-wide alleys between them, which are convenient both in the
culture and the gathering of the crop A portion may be sown thinly in broad shallow drills, from
six to twelve inches asunder. When the plants are advancing with leaves an inch broad, in September,
they will require thinning and clearing from weeds ; which may be done either by hand or by small,
hoeing: thin the plants to two or three inches' distance. If by October and November the plants are
forward in growth, with leaves two or three inches broad, some may be gathered, occasionally, in the
larger leaves ; or, where most crowded, plants may be cut out to give the others room for a strong
stocky growth, so as to be more able to endure the cold and wet in winter, and produce larger and
thicker leaves. In this stage, clear out all weeds by hand, as any left in hoeing would grow again,
especially in a moist season. During the winter, if the spinage advances in i)retty free growth, some
may be partially gathered as wanted, taking the larger outward leaves : the others will increase in suc-
cession. At the end of winter, thin the plants to seven inches by seven, ten by five, or twelve by four.
On a dry day, stir the surface of the mould, if it has been much battered by rough weather. The plants
will reach full growth in February, March, and April, bearing, for frequent gathering, numerous clusters
of large leaves. In April and May, the larger plants may be cut out fully for use, clean to the bottom, or
drawn, if the ground be wanted ; as they will then soon go to seed-stalks, past useful growth ; and will
be succeeded in May and June by the young spring-sown crops of round spinage."

3778. To save seed. " To obtain seed of the round-leaved, leave a sufficient quantity
of established plants in April, May, or June, to run up in stalks; or transplant in autumn
some of the spring-sown which have not run. To save seed of the triangular spinage,
transplant in March some good strong plants, of the winter crop. For large supplies,
a portion of each may be sown in February, or the first fortnight of March, to stand
wholly for seeding. Sow each sort separate. Respecting both sides, observe, that
they are of the class Dicecia, the male and female flowers growing separately, on two
distinct plants. When the plants are flowering for seed, the cultivator should examine
whether the male plants, distinguishable by the abundant farina upon the blossoms,
stand crowded or numerous to excess ; in which case he should pull up the superfluous
plants, leaving a competency for fertilising the female blossoms, which else would
prove abortive. And when the female blossoms are set, it is best to dispose of all the
male plants, drawing them by hand ; which will give more room to the females to grow
and perfect their seed. The plants rejected may be profitably given to young pigs. The
seed ripens in July and August." (Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 2. White Beet. — Beta Cicla, L. Pent. Dig. L. and Chenopodeee, B. P
Bette, or Poirce, Fr. ; Mangold Kraut, Ger. ; and Biettola, Ital.

3779. The ivhite beet is a hardy biennial plant, with leaves larger than the red beet, and
very thick and succulent. It is a native of the sea-coasts of Spain and Portugal, and
was introduced in 1570, and cultivated by Gerrard and Parkinson. It produces greenish
flowers in August and September.

3780. Use. The wliite beet is cultivated in gardens entirely for the leaves, which are
boiled as spinage, or put into soups. Tliose of the great white, or sweet beet are
esteemed for the midribs and stalks, Avhich are separated from the lamina of the leaf, and
stewed, and eaten as asparagus, under the name of chard. Tlie variety called the Man-
gold Wiirzel, Ger. (^Mangold-root), is reckoned a valuable agricultural plant for feeding
cattle, and affording sugar.

3781. Varieties. The principal of those known in this country are —

The common green-leaved small rooted i leaves whiter, and with white ribs and i strong white ribs and veins ; grown
beet; the roots not tliicker than a man's I veins in many parts of the continent for

thumb j The great white, or Swiss chard ; large the chard, wliich in taste nearly equals

The common white small-rooted ; the • stalks, smaller erect leaves, with 1 asparagus.

3782. Propagation and soil. It is raised from seed ; and, for a bed four feet and a half by twelve sown
in drills, one ounce is requisite. The soil for the varieties to be used as pot-herbs, may be considerably
stronger and richer than for the red or yellow beets, and need not be quite so deep. The plants endure
for two years, shooting the autumn of the second ; but it is best not to depend on the shot or shoot leaves
of the second year, but to sow at least annually.

3783. Sowing. The white beet is generally sown in gardens in the beginning of March, and sometimes
also in September, to furnish a supply of tender leaves late in the season, and early next spring. Sow
either broad-cast, and rake in the seeds ; or in drills, six or eight inches apart for the smaller kinds, and
ten or twelve for the larger. For the mangold, eighteen inches are not too much.

3784. Culture. When the plants have put out four leaves, they are hoed and thinned out to from four
inches to a foot, according to the sort. A second thinning should take place a month afterwards, and the
ground should be kept clear of weeds, and stirred once or twice during the season with a fork or pronged

Book I. NEW ZEALAND SPIN AGE. 637

hoe In cultivating the Swiss chard, the plants are frequenUy watered during summer, to promote the
succulency of the stalks ; and in winter they are protected by litter, and sometimes earthed up, partly for
this purple, and partiv to blanch the stalks. Fresh chards are thus obtained from August to May.
The maiWd is often transplanted, especiaUy in field-culture, but this being foreign to our present purpose,
we Uke leave of it. When the garden sorts of white beet are transplanted, the proper time is during
moist weather in May or June. The distance from plant to plant may be from ten to fourteen inches
much of the advantage of transplanting depending on the room thus afforded the plants ; together with
the general disposition of transplanted tnnuals, with fusiform roots, as the turnip, carrot, &c. to throw out

^^^^GatlTrhig^^ The^'most succulent and nearly full-grown leaves being gathered as wanted, others
will be thrown out in succession. The root is too coarse for table use.

3786. To save seed. Proceed as in growing tlie seed of red beet.

SuBSECT. 3. Orac/ie, or Mountain Spinage. — Atriplex hortensis, L. (Blackw. t. 99.)
Poli/g. Montec. L. and ChenopodeiB, B. P. Arroche, Fr. ; MeldekraiU, Ger. ; and
Atrepice, Ital.

3787. The orache is a hardy annual, a native of Tartary, and introduced in 1548. The
stem rises tliree or four feet high ; the leaves are oblong, variously shaped, and cut at the
edges, thick, pale-green, and glaucous, and of a slightly acid flavor. It produces flowers
of the color of the foliage in July and August, There are two varieties, the white or
pale-green ; and the red or purple-leaved.

3788. Use. The leaves are used as spinage, and sometimes also the tender stalks.
The stalks are good only while the plant is young ; but the larger leaves may be picked
off in succession throughout the season, leaving the stalks and smaller leaves untouched,
by which the latter will increase in size. The spinage thus procured is very tender, and
much esteemed in France.

3789. Culture. The orache is raised from seeds, which should be sown on a rich deep soil in August or
September ; sow in drills from one foot to eighteen inches asunder, keep the ground clear of weeds during
the autumn, and in spring thin the plants to four or six inches in the row. Stir the soil occasionally till
the plants come into flower in July, when the crop may be considered over. Spring sowings, however,
are made in places where this soft of spinage is in demand. In the market-gardens round Paris, the
plant is often cultivated in the broad-cast way, like common spinage.

3790. To save seed. Leave a few plants of the most tender and succulent constitutions
to blossom, and they will produce abundance of seeds in August.

SuBSECT. 4, jrUd Spinage. — Chenopodium bonus Henricus, L. (Eng. Bot. 1033.)
Pent. Dig. L. and Chenopode<s, B. P. Anserine, Fr. ; Henkelkraut, Ger. j and
AnserinOf Ital.

3791. T/je tt-i/rf s/n«flge is an indigenous perennial, common byway-sides in loamy
soils. Tlie stem rises a foot and a half high, is round and smooth at the base, but up-
wards it becomes grooved and angular, 'llie leaves are large, alternate, triangular,
arrow-shaped, and entire on the edges. The whole plant, but especially the stalks, is
covered witli minute transparent powdery particles.

3792. Use. While young and tender, the leaves are used as a substitute for spinage,
for which purpose, Curtis observes, it is cultivated in Lincolnshire, in preference to the
garden sort. Withering obsei-ves, that the young shoots, peeled and boiled, may be eaten
as asparagus, which they resemble in flavor.

3793. Culture. The plant may be propagated by dividing the roots ; or the seed may be " sown in March
or April, in a small bed. In the course of the following September, in showery weather, the seedlings
are transplanted into another bed which has been deeply dug, or rather trenched to the depth of a foot
and a half, the roots being long and striking deep, while at the same time they are branched ; so that
each plant should have a foot or fifteen inches of space. Next season the young shoots, with their leaves
and tops, are cut for use as they spring up, leaving perhaps one head to each plant, to keep it in vigor.
The bed continues productive in this way for many successive years. The first spring cutting may be got
tomewhat earlier, by taking the precaution of covering the bed with any sort of litter during the severity
of winter." {Neitl.) . .

SuBSECT. 5. JSfem Zealand Spinage. — Tetragonia expansa. (Playit. grass. 113.) Icos.
'T>i-Pentag. L. and Ficoidece, J.
3794. I^eiu Zealand sjnnage is a half hardy annual, with numerous branches, round,
succulent, pale-green, thick, and strong, somewhat procumbent, but elevating their ter-
minations. The leaves are fleshy, growing alternately at small distances from each
other, on shortish petioles ; they are of a deltoid shape, but rather elongated, being from
two to three inches broad at the top, and from three to four inches long ; the apex is al-
most sharp-pointed, and the two extremities of the base are bluntly rounded ; the whole
leaf is smooth, with entire edges, dark-green above, below paler, and thickly studded
with aqueous tubercles ; the mid-rib and veins project conspicuously on the under sur-
face. The flowers are sessile in the alae of the leaves, small and green, and, except that
they show their yellow anthera; when they expand, they are very inconspicuous. The
fruit when ripe has a dry pericarp of a rude shape, with four or five hornlike processes
enclosing the seed, which is to be sown in its covering. It is a native of New Zealand,
by the ^des of woods in bushy sandy places, and though not used by the inhabitants, vet
being considered by the naturalists who accompanied Captain Cook, as of the same

638 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Paut III.

nature as the chenopodi jm (see Foster, Plant, esculent., &c.), it was served to the sailors,
boiled every day at breakfast and dinner. It was introduced here by Sir Joseph Banks in
1772, and treated as a green-house plant ; but has lately been found to grow in the open
garden as freely as the kidneybean or nasturtium. As a summer spinage it is as valuable as
the orache, or perhaps more so. Every gardener knows the plague that attends the frequent
sowing of common spinage through the warm season of the year ; without that trouble
it is impossible to have it good, and with the utmost care it cannot always be obtained
exactly as it ought to be (particularly when the weather is hot and dry) from the rapidity
with which the young plants run to seed. The New Zealand spinage, if watered, grows
freely, and produces leaves of the greatest succulency in the hottest weather. Anderson,
one of its earliest cultivators, had only nine plants, from which he says, " I have been
enabled to send in a gathering for tlte kitchen every other day since the middle of June,
so that I consider a bed with about twenty plants quite sufficient to give a daily supply,
if required, for a large table."

3795. Use. It is dressed in the same manner as common spinage, and whether boiled
plain, or stewed, is considered by some as superior to it ; there is a softness and mildness
in its taste, added to its flavor, which resembles that of spinage, in wliich it has an advan-
tage over that herb.

3796. Culture. The seed should be sown in the latter end of March, in a pot, which must be placed in
a melon-frame ; the seedling plants while small should be set out singly, in small pots, and kept under the
shelter of a cold-frame, until about the twentieth of May, when the mildness of the season will probably
allow of their being planted out, without rislc of being killed by frost. At that time a bed must be pre-
l)3red for the reception of the plants, by forming a trench two feet wide, and one foot deep, which must
be filled level to the surface with rotten dung from an old cucumber-bed ; the dung must be covered with
six inches of garden-mould, thus creating an elevated ridge in the middle of the bed, the sides of which
must extend three feet from the centre. The plants must be put out three feet apart ; I planted mine at
only two feet distance from each other, but they were too near. In five or six weeks from the planting,
their branches will have grown sutRciently to allow the gathering of the leaves for use. In dry seasons
the plants will probably require a good supply of water. They put forth their branches vigorously as soon
as they have taken to the ground, and extend before the end of the season three feet on each side from
the centre of the bed.

3797. In gathering for use, the young leaves must be pinched off the branches, taking care to leave the
leading shoot uninjured ; this, with the smaller branches which subsequently arise from the. alee of the
leaves which have been gathered, will produce a supply until a late period in the year, for the plants are
sufficiently hardy to withstand the frosts which kill nasturtiums, potatoes, and such tender vegetables.
{Anderson, in Hort. Trans, vol iv. 492.)

3798. To save seed. Place a plant or two in a poor soil, or train one up a wall, or
stunt one or two in lime rubbish, or in pots sparingly watered, as in growing the pea-plant
for seed. Or a few cuttings may be struck in autumn, and preserved through the winter
in tlie green-house.

SuBSECT. 6. Sorrel. — Rumex, L. Hex. Trig. L. and Poli/gonece, J. Oseilie, Fr. ;

Satierampfer, Ger. ; and Acetosa, Ital.
' 3799. French sorrel, Rojnan sorrel, or round-leaved sorrel, is the R. Scutatus, L. ; a
perennial plant, a native of France and Italy, and cultivated in this country since 1596.
Tlie leaves are somewhat hastate, blunt, and entire ; glaucous, smooth, soft, and fleshy.
The trailing stems rise from a foot to a foot and a half high, and the flowers, of a greenish-
White, appear in June and July.

3800. Garden-soi-rel is the R. acetosa, h. [Eng. Rot. 127.), an indigenous perennial,
common in meadows and moist situations. The root-leaves have long foot-stalks, are
narrow-shaped, blunt, and marked with two or three large teeth at the base ; the upper
leaves are sessile and acute. There are two varieties of this species, the broad-leaved,
and the long-leaved, both in cultivation, and the former esteemed the most succulent.

3801. Use. Both sorts are used in soups, sauces, and salads ; and very generally by
the French and Dutch, as a spinage ; in the latter way it is often used along with herb-
patience, to which it gives an excellent flavor, as well as to turnip-tops.

3802. Culture and soil. " The finer plants are propagated from seed, but good plants can be obtained by
parting the roots, which is the most expeditious way. The native varieties flourish both in humid meadows
and sandy pastures : their roots strike deep. The trailing round-leaved requires a dry soil."

3803. By seed. " Sow in any of the spring months, best in March. Drop the seed in small drills, six or
eight inches asunder. When the plants are one or two inches high, thin them to three or four inches
apart: when advanced to be a little stocky, in summer or autumn, transplant a quantity into another bed,
from six to twelve inches apart, if of the first two sorts : leaving those in the seed-bed with the same
intervals. But leave almost double that distance for the round-leaved creeping kind. They will come
in for use the same year." ^ ^ . .. .,

3804. By offsets. Part the roots in spring or autumn. Either detach a quantity of otTsets, or divide
full plants into rooted slips : plant them at a foot distance, and water them.

3805. General treatment. As these herbs, however originated, run up m stalks m summer, cut them
down occasionally ; and cover the stool with a little fresh mould, to encourage the production of large
leaves on the new stem. Fork and clean the ground between the plants every autumn or spring ; and
keep it clear from weeds. If, in two or three years, they have dwindled in growth, bearing small leaves,
let them be succeeded by a new plantation.

3806. To save seed. « Permit some old plants to run up in stalks all the summer :
they will ripen seed in autumn." {Abercrombie.)

Book i.

ALLIACEOUS PLANTS.

«39

It

SuBSECT. 7. Herb-Patience, or Patience-Dock. — Rumei Patwntia, L. (Blacho, 349.)
Hex. Dig. L. and Polygonece, J. Rhubarbe des Moines, Fr. ; Gartenampfer, Ger. ;
and Romice, Ital.

3807. TAe herb-patience is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Italy, introduced in
1573. The leaves are broad, long, and acute-pointed, on reddish foot-stalks; the stems,
where allowed to spring up, rise to the height of four or five feet. It produces its
vk'hitish-green flowers in June and July.

3808. Use. " In old times, garden-patience was much cultivated as a spmage
is now very much neglected, partly perhaps on account of the proper mode of using it
not being generally known. The leaves rise early in the spring ; they are to be cut
while tender, and about a fourth part of common sorrel is to be mixed with them. In
this way patience-dock is much used in Sweden, and may be safely recommended as
forming an excellent spinage dish." {Neill)

3809 Culture Garden-patience is easily raised from seeds, which may be sown in lines in the manner
of common spinage, or white beet, and thinned out and treated afterwards like the latter plant If the
plants be regularly cut over two or three times in the season, they continue in a healthy productive state
for several years.

Sect. V. Alliaceous Plants.

3810. The alliaceous esculents are of great antiquity and universal cultivation. No
description of useful British garden is without the onion ; and few in other parts of the
world, without that bulb, or garlic. Tliey require a rich, and rather strong soil, and
warm climate, tliriving better in Spain and France than in England. Tlie onion and
leek crops may occupy a twentietli of the open compartments in most kitchen-gardens j
and a bed of five or seven square yards in those of the cottager.

SuBSECT. 1. Onion. — Allium Cqm, L. Hexandria Monogynia, L. and Asphodele<e, J.
Oignon, Fr. ; Ziviebel, Ger. ; and Cipola, Ital.

381 1. The common bulbous onion is a biennial plant, supposed to be a native of Spain ;
though as Neill observes, " neither the native country, nor the date of its introduction
into this island, are correctly known." It is distinguished from other alliaceous plants
by its large fistular leaves, swelling stalk, coated bulbous root, and large globular head
of flowers, which expand the second year in June and July.

3812. Use. The use of the onion, in its different stages of growtli, when young, in
salads, and when bulbing and mature, in soups and stews, is familiar to every class of
society in Europe ; and for these purposes has been held in high estimation from time
immemorial.

3813. The varieties ascertained to be best deserving of culture are as follows : —

The sUver-skinned ; flat, middle sized, and
shining ; chiefly used for pickling

Early silver-skinned ; a subvariety of the
other, smaller, and excellent for pick-
ling

Yellow ; small, globular, strong-flavored,
and good for pickling

Two-bUded ; flat, small, brownish-green,
has few leaves, ripens early, and keeps
well ; one of the best for pickling

True I'ortugal onion of the fruiterers ;
large, flatly globular, mild; does not
keep well

Spanish, Reading, white Portugal, Cam-
bridge, Evesham, or sandy onion ; large,
flat, white tinged with green, mild,
but does not keep very well ; good for
a general crop, much cultivatwl round
Reading

Strasburgh, Dutch, or Flanders onion, the
seed being generally procured from
thence.; or Essex onion, when the seed
is saved in that county; oval, large,
and light-red, tinged with green ; har-
dy, keeps well, but of strong flavor ;
much the most generally cultivated in
Britain

Deptford onion; middle-sized, globular,
pale-brown ; a subvariety of the Stras-
burgh, and very generally cultivated

Globe ; large, globular, pale-brown, tinged
with red, mild, and keeps well ; very
popular among gardeners

James's keeping ; large, pyramidal, brown,
hardy, strong in flavor," and keeps well :
originated some years aijo by James, a
market-gardener,' in Lai;ibeth Marsh.

Pale-red ; middltr-sized, flattened, globe
shape, pale-red, strong flavor, keeps

Blood-red, Dutch blood-red, St. Thomas s
onion ; middle-sized, flat, very hardy,
deep red, strong flavor, and keeps par-
ticiilarly well ; much grown in M ales
and Scotland: in the London market
it is esteemed for its diuretic qualities

Tripoli ; the largest onion grown ; oval,
light red, tinged with green and brown,
soft and mild, but does not keep long
after it is taken jp

Lisbon ; large, globul "r, smooth, bright,
white, and thjn skin, tardy in ripemng
but hardy, much used for autumnal
sowing; seed generally obtained from
the south of France

Welsh onion, or ciboule {All turn jptiulotum,
L ) ; a native of Siberia, hardy, strong in
flavor, but does not bulb ; sown in
autumn for drawing in spiing

Underground or potatoe onion ; multiplies
itself by the formation of young bidbs
on the parent root, and produces an
ample crop below the surface ; ripens
early, but does not keep beyond Feb-
ruary ; flavor strong

[Tree or bulb-bearing onion {Allium

cepa,vaT.viiipannn), Oignon d'Egypte,

Fr. ; originally from Canada, where the

climate being too cold for onions to

flower and seed, when they are al.

1 lowed to throw up flower-stalks, the

flower becomes viviparous, and bears

! bulbs instead of flowers ; here it re.

' tains the same habit. It is more an

I object of curiosity than use, though,

in some parts of Wales, Milne informs

j tis {Hort. Traiu. iii. 419.); the cauline

I bulbs are planted, and produce ground')

I onions of a considerable size, while

the stem supplies a succession of

bulbs for next year's planting. It is

considered stronger, ana to go farther

as seasoning than other onions. (Hort.

Trans iii. 369.

Scjdlion ; a term generally given to the

strong green tops of onions in the

spring which do not bulb, or to the

shoots from bulbs of the preceding year.

iMiller mentions it as a distinct sort;

some consider it the Welsh onion ; and

Milne thinks it may not improbably

be the hollow leek, a species of Allium

grown in Pembrokeshire and other

parts of South Wales, with roots in

clusters like (hat of shallots.

(Hort. Trans, iii. 416.)

3814. Estimate of sorts. The Strasburgh is most generally adopted for principal crops, and next the
Deptford and globe. The Portugal and Spanish yield large crops for early use, and the silver-skinned
and two-bladed are reckoned the best for pickling. The potatoe-onion is planted in some places as an
auxiliary crop, but is considered inferior to the others in flavor : the Welsh onion is sometimes sown
for early spring-drawing.

3815. Soil. The onion, " to attain a good size, requires rich mellow ground on a dry sub-soil. If the
soil be poor or exhausted, recruit it with a compost of fresh loam and well consumed dung, avoiding to
use stable-dung in a rank unreducetl state. Turn in the manure to a moderate depth ; and in digging
the ground, let it be broken fine. Grow picklers in poor light ground, to keep them smalL" The mar-
ket-gardeners at Hexham sow their onion-seed on the same ground for twenty or more years in succes-
sion, but annuaUy manure the soil. After digging and leveUing the ground, the manure, in a very
rotten str^e, is spread upon it, the onion-seed sown upon the manure, and covered with earth from the
alleys, and the crops are abundant and excellent in quality. (Hort. Trans, i. 121.)

640 PRACTICE OF GARDENING Part III.

3816. Seed and times of sowing. When onions are to be drawn young, two ounces of seed will be re-
quisite for a bed four feet by twenty-four ; but when to remain for bulbing, one ounce will suffice for a
bed five feet by twenty-four feet.

3817. The course of culture recommended by Abercrombie for the summer, and what he calls winter-
laid-by crops, is as follows : " Allot an open compartment, and lay it out in beds from three to five feet in
width. Sow broad-cast, equally over the rough surface, moderately thick, bed and bed separately, and
rake in the seed lengthwise each bed, in a regular manner. When the plants are three or four inches
high, in May and June, let them be timely cleared from weeds, and let the principal crop be thinned,
either by hand, or with a small two-inch hoe ; thinning the plants to intervals of from three to five inches
in the main crops designed for full bulbing ; or, some beds may remain moderately thick for drawing
young, by successive thinnings, to the above distance. For the Spanish, from seed obtained immediately
from Spain, the final distance should be six or seven inches. Keep the whole very clear from weeds, in
their young and advancing state. The plants will begin bulbing a little in June ; more fully in July ;
and be fully grown in August to large bulbs. In July or August, when the leaves begin to dry at the
points and turn yellow, lay the stems down close to the ground, bending them about two inches up the
neck, which promotes the ripening of the bulb, particularly in wet or backward seasons. Tiie crop of
full bulbers will be ready to take up towards the middle of August. When the necks shrink, and the
leaves decay, pull them wholly up in due time : spread them on a compartment of dry ground, in the
full sun, to dry and harden completely, turnuig them every two or three days ; and in a week or fort-
night they will be ready to house. Clear off the grossest part of the leaves, stalks, and fibres ; then
deposit the bulbs in some close dry apartment, in which sometimes turn them over, and pick out any
that decay ; and they will thus keep sound and good, all winter and spring, till May following."

3818. Transplanting onions. This practice was recommended by Worlidge in his Systemu Horticultur<e,
published early in the 17th century, and has lately been revived by Knight, Warre, Macdonald, and
others. It may be observed, that it has been practised, for an unknown period, in some of the market-
gardens near London, known by the name of the " Gardens of the Neat's Houses." Knight observes,
that every bulbous-rooted plant, and indeed every plant that lives longer than one year, generates in one
season the sap or vegetable blood which composes the leaves and roots of the succeeding spring. " This
reserved sap is deposited in, and composes, in a great measure, the bulb ; and the quantity accumulated,
as well as the period required for its accumulation, varies greatly in the same species of plant, under
more or less favorable circumstances. Thus the onion, in the south of Europe, acquires a much larger
size during the long and warm summers of Spain and Portugal, in a single season, than in the colder cli-
mate of England; but under the following mode of culture, which I have long practised, two summers
in England produce nearly the effect of one in Spain or Portugal, and the onion assumes nearly the form
and size of those thence imported. Seeds of the Spanish or Portugal onion are sown at the usual period
in the spring, very thickly, and in poor soil ; generally under the shade of a fruit-tree ; and in such situ-
ations the bulbs, in the autumn, are rarely found much to exceed the size of a large pea. These are
then taken from the ground, and preserved till the succeeding spring, when they are planted at equal dis-
tances from each other, and they afford plants which differ from those raised immediately from seed,
only in possessing much greater strength and vigor, owing to the quantity of previously generated sap
being much greater in the bulb than in the seed. The bulbs, thus raised, often exceed considerably five
inches in diameter, and being more mature, they are with more certainty, preserved in a state of perfect
soundness, through the winter, than those raised from seed in a single season."

3819. JfW/ has tried the above mode, and found it perfectly successful. {I lor t. Trails, \v.\o9.) Brown, of
Perth, has practised transplanting onions for upwards of twenty years ; all the difference between his mode
and that of Knight and the Neat's Houses' gardeners, is that, instead of sowing under the shade of trees,
he picks out all the small onions, from the size of a pea to that of a filbert, from his general crop. If the sown
crops fail, he can always trust to the transplanted crop as a reserve. (Neill, in Encyc. Brit. art. Hort.) .

3820. James transplants either autumn-sown onions, or such as are forwarded by a hot-bed in spring,
in drills which have been dunged, by which he considers a larger crop may be obtained with less dung than
by the broad-cast mode of dunging. {Hort Trans, iv. 130 )

3821. Warre states that the onion is also transplanted in Portugal, and the general practice is as follows :
the seed is sown " very thinly, in November or December, on a moderate hot-bed, in a warm situation,
with a few inches of rich light loam upon it, and the plants protected from frost by mats and hoops. In
April or May, when they are about the size of a large swan's quill, they are transplanted on a rich light
loam, well manured with old rotten dung. The mode of transplanting is particular. The plants are laid
flat, about nine inches asunder, each way, in quincunx, the board of the root, and part only of the plant,
lightly covered with very rich mould, well mixed with two thirds of good old rotten dung. This compost
is slightly pressed down on the plant ; water is given when the weather is dry, until the plants have taken
root. Subsequently, the earth is occasionally broken around them, by slight hoeing, in which operation
care is taken not to wound the bulb. Weeding is diligently attended to, and the watering continued, ac-
cording to the state of the weather. In Portugal, the means of irrigation are easy, the effects of which
are particularly beneficial to the onion ; for, by letting the water filter, or pass through small heaps of
dung, placed in the alleys of the beds, a very rich liquid flows in upon the jjlants. The dung, as it is
exhausted, or washed away, should be renewed ; and the water must be checked in its current, so that
it may gently spread over the surface." {Hort. Trans, iii. 68.)

3822. Macdonald's practice is noticed and approved of by Warre. " He sows in February, sometimes
on a slight hot-bed, or merely under a glass frame ; and between the beginning of April and the middle
of the month, according to the state of the weather, he transplants in drills about eight inches asunder,
and at the distance of four or five inches from each other in the row. The bulbs thus enjoying the great
and well known advantages of having the surface-earth frequently stirred, swell to a much larger size than
those not transplanted; while in firmness and flavor they are certainly not inferior to foreign onions."
{Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 68.)

3823. Whatever plan of transplanting spring-sown onions may be adopted, care should be taken to keep
the incipient bulb above ground ; and in the case of planting autumn-formed bulbs in spring, they should
be covered as slightly and loosely as possible, otherwise, in neither case, will the bulbs attain a satisfactory
magnitude.

3824. Culture of a winter-standing crop to be drawn for use the succeeding spring. " Allot a soil
rather more light and sandy for the summer crop, on a sub-soil at least equally dry. The compartment,
especially for any of the biennial kinds, should lie warm and sheltered. The beds may be three or four
feet wide, running parallel to the best aspect. The medium time for the principal sowing falls about the
seventh of August ; and for a secondary crop, near the 25th. Sow the bulbing sorts and the Welsh peren-
nial separately ; distribute the seed pretty thickly. If the soil be dry and light, tread down the seed evenly
along the surface of each bed, and then rake it in neatly. When the plants are come up, one, two, or
three inches, carefully hand-weed in time, before any rising weeds spread; not thinning the plants,
because they should remain thick, for their chance in winter, and to be by degrees drawn thinningly for
use in salads and otherwise ; but reserve a principal supply to remain till spring. Observe, the W^elsh
onion, in particular, commonly dies down to the ground about mid-winter; but the root-part, remaining
wholly seimd, sends up a new vigorous stem in February and March. At the opening of spring, let the
whole of both sorts be well cleared from weeds ; they will continue fit to draw young, during all the
spring months, till May ; then let some of the bulbous kinds be thinned, to remain for early bulbing in
June and July ; but as they will soon after shoot up in stalk, they are chiefly for present use.jiot being
eligible as keeping-onions."

Book I. LEEK. 6 1]

3825. lAfting and preserving the general crop of onions. This, according to Nicol, should not be delaye d
after the beginning or middle of September. When taken up, they are to be spread thin on the ground ;
*' but if the weather be wet, they had better be removed to a gravel walk, or a space purposely covered
with sand or gravel, in the full sun. Turn them over once or twice a-day, until they are thoroughly dried,
and then store them in a well aired loft, &c. ; here still turn them occasionally, if they lie anywise thick ; or
may string them up by the tails, or hang them in nets. If they are not intended to be strung, the tails
and outer husks should be displaced before housing them, and the latter at all events ; that is, just as
much as comes easily off in rubbing. The manner of stringing them is this : take in your hand three or
four by the tails ; tie them hard with a new strand of matting, or a bit of packthread ; place on two or
three more onions ; lap the thread once or twice round their tails ; place more onions, which also lap
hard, and so on. In this manner may be made a string (as it is called), or bunch, of a yard in length, or
more ; which by being hung up in a dry well aired place, free from froit, is an excellent way of keeping
onions." In Portugal, " when the onions are ripe," Warre observes, " they are drawn up out of the
ground, and a twist is given to the top, so as to bend it down. They are left on the ground to season,
before they are housed ; then, immediately platted with dry straw into ropes or strings, of twenty.five
each, and hung up to dry ; they are not permitted to sweat in a heap. Their keeping well depends
greatly upon the weather being dry and favorable, when they are brought into the house, and also upon
their being carefully handled, and not bruised. In this country, I have practiseii, with much success,
searing the roots with a hot iron, for the purpose of preserving the onions, which checks their sprouting,
and they should be kept in a dry airy place."

3826. To save seed. " Select some of the largest, well housed, sound, firm bulbs,
either in October, the beginning of November, or in February. Draw drills three or
four inches deep, either a single row, or two or three rows together, a foot asunder ; in
which plant the onions, six, ten, or twelve inches apart, and earth in about three inches.
In planting double or treble rows, allow an interval of two feet between each bed of two
or three rows, to admit of going in, botli to place stakes and horizontal lines for the sup-
port of the seed-stems, and to cut down weeds. Tlie plants will shoot up in stalks two
or three feet Iiigh, producing each a large head of seed, which will ripen in August or
September."

3827. Culture of the potatoe-onion. This variety, erroneously supposed to have been
brought from Egypt by the British array about 1 805, was grown in Driver's nursery in
1796, and has been known in Devonshire for upwards of twenty years. It is thus cul-
tivated at Arundel Castle, by Maher. Having thoroughly prepared the ground, and
formed it into beds four feet wide, " I draw lines the whole length, three to each bed, and
with the end of the rake handle, make a mark (not a drill), on the surface ; on this mark
I place the onions, ten inches apart; I then cover them with leaf-mould, rotten dung, or
any .other light compost, just so that the crowns appear exposed. Nothing more is neces-
sary to be done until they shoot up their tops ; then, on a dry day, they are earthed up,
like potatoes, and kept free from weeds until they are taken up. In the west of England,
where this kind of onion is much cultivated, I understand that it is the practice to plant
on the shortest day, and take up on the longest. The smallest onions used for planting
swell, and become very fine and large, as well as yield offsets ; the middle-sized and
larger bulbs produce greater clusters." {Hort. Trans, iii. 305.)

3828. Dymond states {Hort. Trans, iii. 306. ), that in Devonshire it is planted in
rows twelve inches apart, and six inches' distance in the row ; that the plants are earthed
up as they grow, and that the smaller bulbs yield a greater increase tlian the larger. A
similar practice is adopted by some Scotch cultivators. {Caled. Hort. Mem. i. 343. and
iv. 216.)

3829. Wedgexvood does not earth up, and finds his bulbs acquire a much larger size
tiian when that practice is adopted. {Hort. Trans, iii. 403.) Tlie fact is, as we have
observed in generalising on the subject of earthing up (8233.), surface-bulbs, as the onion,
turnip, &c., are always prevented from attaining their full size by that operation, what-
ever they may gain in other respects.

SuBSECT. 2. Leek. — Allium porrum, L. {Blackw. t. 421.) Hexan. Monog. L. and
Asphodelecc, B. P. Poireau, Fr. ; Lauch, Ger. ; and Poiv, Ital.

3830. The leek is a hardy biennial, a native of Switzerland, and introduced in 1562.
The stem rises three feet, and is leafy at bottom, the leaves an inch wide. The flowers
appear in May, in close, very large balls, or purplish peduncles. Tlie leek is mentioned
•by Tusser ; but was, no doubt, known in this country long before his time. Worlidge,
speaking of Wales, says, " I have seen the greater part of a garden there stored with leeks,
and a part of the remainder with onions and garlic."

3831. Use. The whole plant is used in soups and stews ; but the blanched stem is
most esteemed. Leeks formerly constituted an ingredient in the dish called porridge,
which some suppose to be derived from the Latin ;;orrMW.

3832. The varieties are —

The narrow-leaved, or Flanders leek I The .Scotch, or flag, or Musselburgh I The broad-leaved, or tall London leek

I leek I

383a Propagation. From seed ; and for a bed, four feet wide by eight in length, one ounce is requisite.

3834. Soil and site. The soil should be light and rich, lying on a dry sub-soil. A rank soil does not
suit it, so that when manure is necessary, well reduced dung, mixed with road-drift, is better than dung
alone. The situation should be open. Let the ground be dug in the previous autumn or winter ready for
•owing in spring. For the principal crop, allot beds four or five feet wide. A small crop may be sown

642 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

thinly with a main crop of onions, and when the latter are drawn off, the leeks will have room for fuU
growth.

3835. Times of sowing. A small first crop, or the subordinate crop in the onion-bed, may be sown at
the end of February, if the weather be mild, and the ground in a dry state ; but it is better not to sow the
main supply till the course of March ; or first week of April. It is eligible to sow a secondary crop at the
end of April or beginning of May, for a late succession in winter and the following spring.

3836. Course of culture. When the plants are three or four inches high, in May or June, weed them
clean, and thin where too crowded. Water well in dry hot weather, to bring the plants forward. The
leek is much improved in size by transplanting; those designed for which will be fit to remove when from
six to ten inches high, from June till August. For this jjurpose, thin out a quantity regularly from the
seed-bed, either in showery weather, or after watering the ground : trim the long weak tops of the leaves
and the root-fibres ; and plant them, by dibble, in rows from nine to tweJve inches asunder, by six or eight
inches in the row ; inserting them neaily down to the leaves, or with the neck-part mostly into the ground,
to whiten it a proportionate length. Press the earth to the fibres with the dibber, but leave the stem as
loose as possible, and as it were standing in the centre of a hollow cylinder. Give water, if the weather
be dry. Those remaining in the seed-bed, thin to six or eight inches' distance. Keep the whole clear
from weeds. In hoeing, loosen the ground about the plants, to promote their free vigorous growth. Some
plant in hollow drills, and earth up as in celery-culture, which produces very large stems. The main
crops will attain a mature useful size in September, October, and November ; and continue in perfection
all winter and the following spring. Wlien frost is expected, a part may be taken up, and laid in sand.
The late-sown crop will continue till May, without running to stalk.

S837. To save seed. Transplant some best full plants, in February or the beginning
pf march, into a sunny situation, or in a row near a south fence. They will shoot in
summer, in single tall seed-stalks. Support them, as necessary, with stakes ; and they
will produce ripe seed in September. Cut the ripe heads with part of the stalk to each ;
tie two or three together, and hang up under cover, to dry and harden the seed thoroughly,
when it may be rubbed out, cleaned, and put by for future service. {Abercrombie. )

SuBSECT. 3. Chive. — Allium Schcenojrrasum, L. (Eng. Bat. 2438.) Hex. Mo7iog. Li,
and Asphodelece, B. P. Civette, Fr. ; Binsenlanchf Ger. ; and Cipoletta, Ital.

3838. The chive, or cive, is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Britain, and found in
meadows and pastures, though but rarely. The leaves rise from many small bulbous
roots connected in bunches ; are awl-shaped, thread-like, and produced in tufts. The
flowers are white, tinged with reddish-purple, and appear on round stalks in June.

3839. Use. Chives, when gathered, are cut or shorn by the surface, and on this ac-
count are generally named in the plural. The foliage is employed as a salad ingredient
in spring, being esteemed milder than onions or scallions. Occasionally the leaves and
roots are taken together, slipped to the bottom singly in small separate cibols, in lieu of
young onions in the spring for salads. They are also used as a seasoning to omelets,
soups, &c.

3840. Culture. Chives may be planted in any common soil and situation. The plant is propagated by
slips ; or by dividing the roots in the spring or autumn. Plant them in any bed or border, from eight to
twelve inches apart ; they will soon increase into large bunches. In gathering the leaves for use, cut
them close, and others will shoot up in succession. A bed lasts three or four years j after which period
it must be renewed, by dividing the roots.

SuBSECT. 4. Garlic. — Allium sativum, L. [Moris, s. 4. t. 15. f. 9.) Hexandria Monogy-
nia, L. and Asphodelece, B. P. AH, Fr. ; Knoblauch, Ger. ; and Aglio, Ital.

3841. The garlic is a hardy perennial bulbous-rooted plant, growing naturally in
Sicily and the south of France. The leaves are linear, long, and narrow. The bulb is
composed of a dozen or fifteen subordinate bulbs, called cloves. It flowers in June and
July, and has been cultivated in this country since 1548.

3842. Use. It is cultivated for the sake of the bulb, which is used in various kinds
of dishes, being in general introduced only for a short period into the dish while cooking,
and withdrawn when a sufficient degree of flavor has been communicated. It is. much
more used in foreign, and especially in Italian, cookery than in ours. It is occasionally
also prescribed in medicine.

3843. Culture. Garlic is propagated by planting the cloves on subdivisions of the bulb, and prefers
•* a light dry soil, rich, but not recently dunged. In February, March, or beginning of April, having
some large full bulbs, divide them into separate cloves, and plant them singly in beds, in rows lengthwise.
Set them from six to nine inches asunder, two or three inches deep, either in drills or in holes made with
a blunt-ended dibble. In placing the cloves in drills, thrust the bottom a little into the ground, and earth
them over the proper depth. The plants will soon come up: keep them clear from weeds. The bulbs
will be full-grown in July or beginning of August."

3844. Taking the crop. " The maturity of the bulbs is discoverable by the leaves changing yellowish,
in a decaying state ; when they may be taken wholly up. Continue the stalky part of the leaves to each
root : spread them in the sun to dry and harden, and then tie them in bunches by the stalks, and house
them to keep for use, as wanted ; they will remain good till next spring and summer. If, in their ad-
vancing growth, some are required for present use, before attaining maturity, a few of the early planting
may be drawn in May or June; but permitting the general supply to attain full growth as above." {Aber-
crcmbie.)

SuBSECT. 5. Shallot. — Allium ascalonicum, L. (Mor. His. s. 4. t. 14. f. 3.) Hexan-
dria Monogynia. L. and Asjyhodeleee, B. P. Echalote, Fr. ; Schalotte, Ger. ; and
Sctxlogni, Ital.
3845. The s/joZ/oi is a bulbous-rooted perennial, a native of Palestine, found, as the

trivial name imports, near Ascalon. Some old authors denominate it the barren onion,

Book I. ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS. 645

from the circumstance of its seldom sending up a flower-^talk. Tlie roots separate into
cloves, like tliose of garlic ; and the leaves rise in tufts like those of the chive, but larger.
The flavor of the bruised plant is milder than any of the cultivated alliaceous tribe.

3846. Use. The cloves are used for culinary purposes, in the manner of garlic and
onions. In a raw state, cut small, it is often used as sauce to steaks and chops ; and
sometimes a clove or two is put in winter salads. The roots become mature in July and
August, and, dried and laid in store, are in season till the following spring.

3847. Culture. The shallot is propagated by dividing the clustered root into separate offsets. These
are to be planted in February, or early in March, or in October and November. Planting m autumn is
generally preferred as producing the best bulbs ; but great care must be taken that much wet do not reach
the roots in winter. Abercrombie directs to " lay out some light rich ground, in beds four feet wide,
and in rows extending along these, to plant the offsets six inches apart, either in drills two inches deep,
or inserted to that depth by the dibber, or with the finger and thumb." Nicol advises not to dung land
intended for shallots, as rendering them liable to the attacks of maggots and insects : a very common
complaint of gardeners.

3848. Machray, at Enrol, {Cal. Hort. Mem. i. 275.) finds soot mixed with the manure given to shallot-
l)eds effectual in preventing the appearance of maggots ; while the roots were improved in size.

3849. Henderson, of Delvine, {Caled. Mem. vol. i. 199.) to prevent the maggot, picks out the very
smallest shallot-roots for planting ; manures the ground with well rotted dung or house-ashes. He plants
about the middle of October, as recommended by Marshal, and never has had the roots injured by the
maggot in the smallest degree. " Autumn planting," he says, " is the whole secret." To prove this, he
planted some roots in spring, only seven feet distance from those planted in autumn ; and while the latter
were untouched, the former were destroyed by these insects. The smallness of the roots planted, prevents
them from growing mouldy. The most intense frost does not hurt them. From 204 cloves planted ia
October, 1810, he lifted, in August, 1811, above 5000 good clean roots, measuring in general about three
and a half inches in circumference.

3850. Knight, to guard against the maggots in shallots, tried planting the bulb on the surface, instead
of burying it two or three inches in the soil ; and the experiment was attended with such perfect success,
that he confidently recommends this mode of culture. He places a rich soil beneath the roots, and raises
the mould on each side to support them tiU they become firmly rooted. This mould is then removed by
the hoe and water from the rose of a watering-pot, and the bulbs, in consequence, are placed wholly out
of the ground. " The growth of those plants," he adds, " now so closely resembled that of the common
onion, as not to be readily distinguished from it ; till the irregularity of form, resulting from the nume-
rous germs within each bulb, became conspicuous. The forms of the bulbs, however, remained perma-
nently different from all I had ever seen of the same species, being much more broad and less long; and
the crop was so much better in quality, as well as much more abundant, that I can confidently recommend
the mode of culture adopted to every gardener." {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 98.)

3851. Taking and preserving the crop. When the leaves begin to decay, the bulbs are fit to be taken
up, when they should be dried and housed, either on the floor of the root-loft, in nets hung from the
roof, or in strings, as recommended for onions. Should any roots be wanted during the growth of the
crop, a few may be taken up young in June and July for immediate consumption.

SuBSECT. 6. Rocambole. — Allium Scorodoprasiim, L. {Plenck. Ic. t. 256.) Hexan.
Monog. L. and Asphodelece, B. P. Ail d'Esj)agne, Fr. j RockenboUun, Ger. ; and
Scorodopraso, Ital.

3852. The rocambole is a perennial plant, a native of Denmark, and mentioned by
Gerrard as cultivated in 1596. It has compound bulbs, like garlic, but the cloves
are smaller. These are produced at the roots, and also, though of a smaller size, on the
stem, which rises two feet high, and produces the bulbs in the axillae of the leaves in
July and August-

3853. Use. The cloves, both of the stalk and root, are used in the manner of garlic
or shallot, and nearly for the same purposes. It is considered milder than garlic.

3854. Culture. It is propagated by planting the separated cloves of the root-bulb, or occasionally the
cloves of the head, in February, March, or April. A small bed, or a few rows, will be sufficient for a
family garden. Plant it either by dibble, or in drills, in rows six inches apart, and two inches deep. The
plants shoot up, each in a slender stalk, contorted at top, and terminated bva small head of cloves, which,
as well as the root, will acquire full growth in July or August, for immediate use j or to be taken up, and
spread to dry, tied in bunches, and housed for future consumption.

Sect. VI. Asparaginous Plants.

3855. The asparaginous class oj" esculents may be considered as comparatively one of
luxury. It occupies a large proportion of the gentleman's garden, often an eighth part ;
but does not enter into that of the cottager. A moist atmosphere is congenial to the chief
of them, especially to asparagus and sea-kale, which are sea-shore plants, and are brought
to greater perfection in our islands than any where else, excepting perhaps in Holland.

SuBSECT. 1. Asparagus. — Asparagus officinalis, L. {Eng. Bot. t. 339.) Hex. Monog. L.
and AsphodelecE, B. P. Asperge, Fr. ; Spargel, Ger. ; and Asparago, Ital.

3856. The asparagus is a perennial plant, found in stony or gravelly situations near
the sea, but not very common. It grows near Bristol, in the Isle of Portland, and
sparingly in Seaton Links, near Edinburgh. The roots consist of many succulent
round knobs, forming together a kind of tuber, from which numerous erect round
stems arise with alternate branches, subdivided into alternate twigs, not unlike a
larch fir-tree in miniature. The leaves are very small, linear, and bristle-shaped ; the
flowers nodding, of a yellowish-green, and odorous, are produced from June to August ;
and the berries of a yellowish-red : the whole plant has a very elegant appearance.
Many of the steppes in the south of Russia and Poland are covered with this plant, which

Tt 2

644 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

is there eaten by the horses and oxen as grass. In its native state, it is so dwarfish in
appearance, even when in flower, that none but a botanist attending to tlie minute struc-
ture, would consider it as the same species with our cultivated plant. This vegetable is
cultivated extensively for the London market ; and it is estimated, that in the parish of
Mortlake alone, there are generally about eighty acres under this crop. One grower
there. Biggs, has sometimes had forty acres under asparagus at one time. A great deal
is also grown near Deptford, and one grower there, Edmonds, has had eighty acres en-
tirely under this crop ; — a thing, Neill observes, which must appear almost incredible to
those who have not witnessed the loads of this article daily heaped on the green-stalls of
the metropolis for the space of nearly three months. Asparagus, this author adds, was
a favorite of the Romans ; and they seem to have possessed a very strong-growing variety,
as Pliny mentions, that, about Ravenna, three shoots would weigh a pound ; with us, six
of the largest would be required. It is much praised by Cato ; and as he enlarges on the
mode of culture, it seems probable that the plant had but newly come into use. In this
country, Dutch asparagus was preferred in the end of the 17th century ; and this variety
is still distinguished for affording the thickest shoots. In a garden formed at Dunbar,
in the very beginning of the 18th century, by provost Fall (a name well known in the
mercantile world), asparagus was for many years cultivated with uncommon success.
The variety used was the red-topped, and it was brought from Holland. Ilie soil of the
garden is little better than sea-sand. Tliis was trenched two feet deep, and a thick layer
of sea-weed was put in the bottom of the trench, and well pressed together and beat down.
This was the only manure used, either at the first planting, or at subsequent dressings.
There was an inexhaustible supply of the article generally at hand, as the back-door of '
tlie garden opens to the sea-shore. (Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)

3857. Use. The esculent part is the early shoots or buds, when three or four inches
high, and partially emerged from the ground in May and June. They are in great
esteem in Britain, and on the continent ; and this plant has, in consequence, been culti-
vated for an unknown period. In Paris it is much resorted to by the sedentary' operative
classes, when they are troubled with symptoms of gravel or stone.

3858. Varieties. There are two varieties cultivated : viz.

[ The red-topped ; rising with a large head, full, close, and I The Battersea, Dept&rd, Large Gravesend, Large Reading,
of a reddish-green Dutch, Cork, and Earlj Mortlake are subvarieties.

The sreen-topped ; rising with a smaller head, not generally

so plurap and close, but reckoned better flavored | *

3859. Estimate of sorts. Both varieties are in great estimation : the red-topped is most
generally cultivated by market-gardeners, and the green-topped in private gardens. Both
succeed by the same mode of culture.

3860. Propagation. Asparagus is propagated only from seed, though the roots might
be divided like those of the garden-ranunculus, if thought necessary. It is best, however,
to raise the plant from seed ; and it is of considerable importance to gather it from the
strongest and most compact shoots ; such seed, as might naturally be expected, yielding
by far the best plants. Seed, as well as one and two year-old plants, may be purchased
from nurserymen and market-gardeners : and when a new garden is formed, the latter
practice is generally adopted for the first plantation, in order to gain time.

3861. Quantity of seed or roots. If sown to transplant, for a bed four feet and a half
wide by six feet in length, one quart of seed will be requisite. If sown to remain, for
a bed four feet and a half wide by thirty feet in length, one pint is necessary. If plants
a year old are wanted for a plantation, then, for a bed four feet and a half wide by thirty
feet in length, to contain four rows of plants, nine inches distant in the row, one hundred
and sixty plants will be requisite.

3862. Sowing, and culture in seed-bed. It is generally sown broad-cast on a four-feet
bed, in March, not very thickly, often with a thin sprinkling of onions or radishes. The
seed being slightly trodden in, the bed is raked smooth, and after the plants make their
appearance, they are to be kept as free from weeds as possible, and the ground stirred with
a narrow hoe once or twice during the summer. In the end of October following, the
roots are protected from the frost by spreading over the ground some rotten dung or litter,
which remains till March or April, according to the season, when the plants are trans-
planted to a compartment prepared for their final culture.

3863. Judd {Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) sows in drills eighteen inches apart, burying the seed two inches :
the object is to admit of stirring between. He keeps the plants thin, and if the weather proves dry, waters
once a week or fortnight.

3864. Soil and jirqyaration. " Asparagus-ground should be light, yet rich ; a sandy
loam, well mixed with rotten-dung or sea-weed, is accounted preferable to any. The
soil should not be less than two feet and a half deep ; and before planting a bed, it is
considered good practice to trench it over to that depth, burying plenty of dung in the
bottom, as no more can be applied there for eight or ten years. It can scarcely, there-
fore, be too well dunged ; besides, although the plant naturally grows in poor sandy soil,
it is found that the sweetness and tenderness of the shoots depend very much on the

Book I. ASPARAGUS. ^^-^

rapidity of Uie growth, and this is promoted by the richness of the soil. Damp ground,
or a wet sub-soil, are not fit for asparagus : indeed, the French consider wetness as so
prejudicial to this plant, that they raise their asparagus-beds about a foot above the alleys
in order to tlirow off the rain. " (Neill.)

3865. Abercrambie savs, "For planting asparagus, aUot a plot of sound brownish loam, mixed with
sand, in an open compartment, full to the sun. Having trenched it thirty inches deep, or as n^r that
depth as the sod will allow, manure the bed with well reduced dung, six inches thick, or more, digging
in the dung regularly one spade deep. Then lay out the ground in regular beds four feet and a halt wide,
with intervening alleys three feet wide. If the soil is naturally too light and poor improve it with a httle
vegetable mould, or pulverised alluvial compost, after the bottom has been dunged.

§866. Judd (who laid before the Horticultural Society, in 1816, " a specimen of asparagus pro-
nounced, by those who saw it, to be the fine.-^t they had ever seen,") says, Prepare a piece of good land,
unencumbered with trees, and that lies well for the sun ; give it a good dressing of well reduced horse-
dung from six to ten inches thick, all regularly spread over the surface ; then proceed wnth the trenching
(if the soil will admit) two feet deep; after this first trenching, it should lie about a fortnight or three
weeks, and then be turned back again, and then again in the same space of time ; by this process, the dmig
and mould become well incorporated; it mav then be laid in small ridges till the time of planting. Ihis
work should all be performed in the best weather the winter will afford, that is, not while it rams, or
snow is Iving on the ground, as it would tend to make the land heavy and sour : all this is to be particu-
larly attended to, as the preparation of the soil is of more consequence than all the management after-
wards. At the time of planting, I always spread over the ground another thin coat of very rotten dung,
and point it in half a spade deep, making my beds three feet wide only, with two feet of alleys ; so that three
rows of grass, one foot apart, are all I plant on each bed : I find this to be the best method, as by this plan
there is not the least trouble in gathering, whereas you are obliged to set a foot on one of the wide beds,
before you can get at all the grass, to the great injury of the bed and the buds under the surface."

5867. Dr. Mitcculloch gives the following mode of preparing an asparagus bed, as practised in France ;
and which, it is stated, has been adopted by a gentleman in Peebleshire with success. " A pit, the size of
the intended plantation, is dug five feet in depth, and the mould which is taken from it, must be sifted,
taking care to reject all stones, even as low in size as a filberd-nut : the best parts of the mould must then
be laid aside for making up the beds. The materials of the bed are then to be laid in the following proper-
tlons and order : six inches of common dunghill-manure, eight inches of turf, six inches of dung as before,
SIX inches of sitYed earth, eight inches of turf, six inches of very rotten dung, eight inches of the best earth.
The last layer of earth must then be well mixed with the last of dung. The compartment must now be
divided into beds five feet wide, by paths constructed of turf, two feet in breadth, and one foot in thick-
ness." {Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii.)

3868. Dr. Forbes describes the Vienna mode of making an asparagus-bed to last 25 years. It is deeply
'•enched, and in the bottom is placed a layer of bone, horn, chips of wood, or branches of trees a foot
thick. Over this is placed good mould, cow-dung, and river mud, &c. {Hort. Trans, v. 335.)

3869. Removal and planting. Take up the plants carefully with a fork, to avoid
cutting the roots, exposing theip to the air as short a time as possible ; and at the time of
planting, place them among a little sand in a basket covered with a mat,

3870. Nicol says, " It is of very great importance for the ensuring of success in the planting of aspara-
gus, to lift the roots carefully, and to expose them to the air as short time as possible. No plant feels a
hurt in the root more keenly than asparagus ; the fibrils are very brittle, and if broken, do not readily
shoot again." {Kai. 47.)

3871. Smith has proved experimentally, that though the common season for planting is March and April,
yet, that it may also be successfully performed in June, without any extraordinary care. Judd, already
inentioned, transplants when he observes the plants beginning to grow, which, he says, is " the best time
for the plants to succeed. If moved earlier, they perhaps have to lie torpid for two or three weeks, which
causes many of them to die, or if not, they shoot up very weak." In France (according to Dr. MaccuUoch),
they plant even as late as July, cutting off such young shoots as the plants have made before the operation.
{Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. i.)

3872. The distance at which asparagus is cotnmanlt/ planted is nine inches ip the row, and one foot be-
tween the rows; in general, between every fourth row so planted, a double distance is left for an alley.
Many asparagus-farmers, however, consider it better to plant in single rows at two feet and a half or three
feet distance, than to adopt the bed form. The crowns of the plants are generally covered two inches with
soil.

3873. Method of planting. " Stretch a line lengthwise the bed, nine inches from the
edge, and with a spade, cut out a small trench about six inches deep, perpendicular next
to the line, turning the earth displaced along by the other side the trench ; and, having
the plants ready, set a row along the trench, nine inches apart, with the crowTi of tlie roots
two inches below the surface, drawing some earth just to fix them as placed. Having
planted one row, directly cover them in fully with the earth of the trench, raking it back
regularly an equal depth over the crown of the plants. Proceed then to open another
trench a foot from the first ; plant it as above ; and in the same manner plant four rows
in each bed. Then lightly raking the beds lengthwise, draw off any stones and hard
clods, and dress the surface neat and even. Then let the edges be lined out in exact order,
allowing three feet for each alley. But sometimes in planting large compartments of aspara-
gus, a first trench having been made, and the roots planted as above, then a second trench
is opened, of which the eartli is turned into the first over the plants. So proceed in
planting the whole ; making allowance between everj' four rows for an alley of three feet.
In a dry spring or summer, water the roots from time to time, till the plants are esta-
blished. ' ' (^Abercrombie. )

3874. Judd strains the line, and cuts down a trench, sloping in the usual way for planting box, and
making choice of all the finest plants, puts them in one foot apart, and one inch and a half below the sur-
face. This done, he lets the alleys and beds lie level till autumn, and then digs out the alleys deep enough
to get from four to six incties of mould all over the bed ; over this he lays a good coat of rotten dung and
fills in the alleys with long dung. '

3875. In France, they plant in beds five feet wide, separated by paths constructed of turf, two feet in
breadth, and one foot in thickness. The plants are placed eighteen inches asunder, spreading out the roots
as wide as possible in the form of an umbrcUa, and keeping the crown one and a half inch under grouncL

Tt 3

646 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

A pin is put to each plant as a mark ; and as soon as the earth is settled and dry, a spadeful of fine sand
is thrown over each pin in the form of a mole-hill.

3876. Extent of the plantation. An asparagus-compartment should not contain less than
a pole of ground, as it often needs this quantity to furnish a good dish at one time. For a
large family, about sixteen roods are kept in a productive state, which are calculated to
furnish, on an average, between two hundred and three hundred shoots every day in the
height of the season. {Neill, in Ed. Encyc. )

3877. Abercrombie says, when the buds come to be fully productive, five square poles of ground, planted
with 1600 plants, will yield from six to eight score heads daily.

3878. Progressive culture. Permit the eijtire crop the two first years, and the greater
part of it the third year, to run up to stalks ; keeping the beds free from weeds, and stir-
ring the surface. It is a common practice to sow onions, lettuce, &c. the two first years
over the beds ; and to plant cauliflower in the alleys between them. The advantage of
this practice is questionable ; and, at all events, it should not be continued after the plants
are in full bearing. Judd, having dug out the alleys the first season, instead of repeating
that operation the next, lays on a coat of good dung three inches thick, and forks it evenly
into the beds and alleys, and so on every season after, *' never digging out the alleys
any more, as it is known the asparagus-plant forms a fresh crown every season ; and
sometimes it happens, that in a few years the crown will increase almost into the alley ;
so, that by digging out this, you must inevitably spoil that plant : if this is not the case
when the beds are in good condition, the roots will be sure to work out at the sides into
the alleys, and by digging out the latter, these roots must be cut off, and you will often
see them exposed all the winter before dung can be got to fill them up ; rather than be
treated in this way, they had better be without any thing all the winter, as asparagus does
not suffer generally by frost. The first two years I have a very thin crop of celery-plants
or lettuce upon the beds, but nothing afterwards ; nor do I plant any thing in the alleys
after the same period, for I think the asparagus is injured thereby."

3879. Autumn dressing. The following is the usual practice, as described by Aber-
crombie : " Towards the end of October or beginning of November, the stalks which have
run up to seed, having done growing, or begun to decay, cut them down close, and carry
them away ; then hoe off all weeds from the beds into the alleys : this done, proceed with
the line and spade to mark out the alleys the prescribed width ; then dig each alley
lengthwise, a moderate spade deep, and spread a good portion of the earth equally on each
side over the adjoining beds ; digging down the weeds as you advance, clean to tlie bot-
tom of the alleys, imder a proper depth of earth. Form the edges of the beds full and
straight, and the alleys of an equal depth ; and thus let them remain till spring."

3880. Judd, on the above practice, observes, " rather than treat them in this way, they would be better
without any thing." He fills up the alleys with litter or dung, to exclude the frost

3881. Nicol recommends covering asparagus-beds with good dung, and not mere litter, as frequently is
done, in the idea that the roots would otherwise perish. Fresh dung mixed with sea-weed, he considers
the very best manure for asparagus. (Xa/. 129.) _ .....

3882. The French cover in autumn, with six inches of dung, and four of sand ; and m performmg this
operation, as well as every other, great care is taken not to tread on the beds, so as to condense the earth.
In planting and cutting, a plank is always used to tread on ; and the turf-divisions of the beds which are
intended to prevent the condensation of the earth below, in consequence of walking among the beds, are
removed every three years. . «...

3883. Neill mentions a very proper precaution before covering, which is, to stir the surface of the beds
with a fork, in order that the juices of the manure washed down by the rains, may be readily imbibed.
He adds, that some cover the manure with a thin layer of earth from the alleys, which is called
landing up.

3884. Spring dressing. About the end of March or towards the middle of April, be-
fore the buds begin to advance below, proceed, with a short three-tined fork, to loosen the
surface of the beds ; introducing the fork slanting two or three inches under the mould,
turn up the top earth near the crown of the roots, with care not to wound them. Tlien
rake the surface lengthwise the bed, neatly level, drawing off the rough earth and hard
clods into the alleys ; also, trim the edges of the beds and surface of the alleys regularly
even. Thus to loosen the bed, enables the shoots to rise in free growth, admits the air»
rains, and sunshine, into the ground, and encourages the roots to produce buds of a hand-
some full size. (^Abercrombie.)

3885. Time of coming to a bearing state. In general, transplanted asparagus comes
up but slender the first year ; it is larger the second ; and the third year some shoots
may he fit for gathering ; in the fourth year the crop will be in good perfection.
{Abercrombie. )

3886. Judd begins to cut the third season, but not generally. By the French method before mentioned,
" in three years the largest plants will be fit to cut for use."

3887, Blanching. No attempt at blanching the tops is made m tliis country, otherwise
than by having abundance of loose earth on the surface through which they spring ; but
Lasteyrie informs us {Col. de Machines, &c.) that joints of cane are placed separately
over each stalk in Spain : and Bauman of Vienna, in a communication to the Horticultural

Book I. ASPARAGUS. 647

Society on the culture of asparagus in Austria, says, " to give asparagus-shoots growing
in the open air as much length and tenderness as possible, there is inserted over each stem
destined to be gathered, as soon as it shoots above ground, a woe len tube or pipe eigh-
teen inches high, and one inch in diameter." (Hort. Trans, v. 334.) Dr. Forbes, on the
same subject, says, « in order to preserve the whiteness of the asparagus-shoots, they
should be covered with a wooden or earthen pipe of twelve or fifteen inches in height, with
a hole in the top." (Hart. Trans, v. 336.)

3888. Cutting and gathering. " In new plantations, be careful not to begin cutting
till tlie stools are advanced to mature age, having been planted three or four years, and
become of competent strength for producing full-sized shoots. Likewise obsene, both in
new and old beds, to gather all the produce in a regular successive order within the proper
limits of the season specified above. As the rising shoots project two, three, four, or five
inches at most above ground, while the top bud remains close and plump, they are in the
best condition for gathering. Cut them oflf within the ground, with a narrow sharp-
pointed knife, or small saw, nine inches long ; thrusting the knife, or saw, down straight,
close to each shoot separately, cut it off slantingly, about three inches below the surface,
with care not to wound the younger buds advancing below. Observe, in a new plant-
ation, in the first year's gathering, if the shoots come up of irregular sizes, to cut only
some of the larger for a fortnight, or three or four weeks, and then permit the whole to
run ; but other^vise, when in strong production, gather all as they come, two or three
times a-week, or as required, during the season, till the 21st of June; then, at farthest,
terminate the cutting, and permit the after-shoots to run up in stalk till October. If from
a particular inducement you cut later than the 21st of June, be careful to leave two or
more shoots to each stool, in order to draw nourishment to it ; for the stools left without
growing shoots will perish, and by negligence in this respect many vacuities or unpro-
ductive spots are left in beds." (Abercrombie.)

3S89. Nicol savs, the best method of cutting is to scrape away an inch "or two of the earth from the shoot
you would cut, and then slip the asparagus-knife (figs. Ill, 112.) down another inch or two, taking care not
to wound the crown, or any adjoining shoot Shoots two inches under the ground, and three or four above
it, make the handsomest dishes.

3890. Xci/l observes, " after the beds are in full bearing, aU the shoots are gathered as they advance, till
the end of June or beginning of July ;" a common rule being to " let asparagus spin (grow up), when green
peas come in." Dr. Macculloch states that the same practice is pursued in France.

3891. Jiidd says, " I never make a practice of cutting very much after the first week in June : I then
begin to let it nui j in fact, I never cut the very small grass at all. Asparagus being so valuable a vege-
table, some persons continue to cut indiscriminately till the latter end of June, but this practice is of very
great injury to the next year's produce." {Hort. Trans. voL ii. 237.)

3892. Buratitm of the crop. Generally, three months ; from the middle of April to the
middle of July. (Neill.)

3893. Duration of the plantation. Abercrombie says, " A plantation of asparagus,
under good culture will mostly continue for ten or twelve years to afford plentiful crops ;
after which, the stools usually decline in fertility, and the shoots in quality ; so that to
provide a permanent annual supply, some fresh beds diould be planted a sufficient time
beforehand, allowing four years for their advancing to a productive state."

38^. Dr. Macculloch says, the French beds which he describes "will generally last thirty years; but, if
they be planted in such abundance as to require cutting once in two years, half the bed being always in a
state of reservation, it will last a century or more." {Caled, Mem. veil iL 250.)

3895. To save asitaragus-seed. " Select some of the finest and earliest heads as they
make their appearance in the spring ; tie tliem to stakes during summer, taking care not
to drive the stake through the crown of the plant. In autumn, when the berries are ripe,
wash out the seeds, if for the market, or to be sent to a distance ; but, for home-sowing, keep
them in the berry till the time of sowing, the pulp being a great nourishment to theJ
seed, which ought to be kept in a dry place during the winter." (Judd^ in Hort. Trans.
vol. ii. 234.)

3896. Forcing asparagus. Meager, writing in the middle of the 17th century, men-
tions, that the London market was, at that period, supplied with forced asparagus early in
the year. " Some having old beds of asparagus, which they are minded to destroy, and
having convenience of new or warm dung, lay their old plants in order on the dung, and
the heat doth force forward a farewell crop." (English Gardener, 188.) Where much
asparagus is forced, it becomes necessary to form plantations on purpose for an annual
supply. The plants are raised from seed in the usual way ; but when transplanted, as
they are not intended to remain longer than three years in the bed or plantation, they need
not be planted wider than seven or nine inches. When of three years' standing in the bed,
they are eligible for removal to the forcing pit or frame, or to be excited by a super-
stratum of tan and warm dung, in the manner of sea-kale or rhubarb. As some guide to
proportion the forcing plantations to the demand, 600 plants are required for an ordinary-
sized three-light frame, which, Nicol says, will yield a dish every day for about three
weeks.

3897. JFor the details of/orcing asparagus, see Cb. VIII. Sect. IX.

Tt 4

«548 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

SuBSECT. 2. Sea-hale. — Crambe marithna, L. {Eng. Bot. 924.) Tetrad. Siliq. L.
and Cruciferce, J. Choii marin, Fr. ; Meerkohl, Ger. ; and Crambio, Ital.

3898. The sea-kale is a hardy perennial, found in various parts of our shores. The
whole plant is smooth, of a beautiful glaucous hue, covered with a very fine meal ; oc-
casionally, hovv^ever, it varies like the vv'allflovver-leaved ten-week stock, with quite green
leaves. The radical leaves are large, more or less sinuated and indented, containing in
the axil a bud or rudiment of next year's stem. The flower is of a rich white appear-
ance, and smells strongly of honey. The common people on the western shores of
England have, from time immemorial, been in the practice of watching when the shoots
begin to push up the sand or gravel, in March and April ; when they cut off the young
shoots and leaf-stalks, then blanched and tender, and boil them as greens. The precise
period of its introduction to the garden is unknown. Parkinson and Bryant state, that
the radical leaves are cut by the inhabitants where the plant grows wild, and boiled as
cabbage ; and Jones, of Chelsea, assured the late Curtis, that he saw bundles of it, in
a cultivated state, exposed for sale in Chichester market in 1753. Maher states
(Hort. Trnns^ i.), that the crambe maritima was known and sent from this king-
dom to the continent more than two hundred years ago, by Lobel and Turner ;
but Miller, in 1731, was the first who wrote upon it professionally. About the
year 1767, it was cultivated by Dr. Lettsom, at Grove Hill, and by him brought
into general notice in the neighborhood of London. In the Gardener's Dic-
tionari/, published in 1774, by Gordon, at F'ountain-bridge, near Edinburgh, di-
rections are given for the cultivation of tliis vegetable, and for blanching it, by covering
the beds four inches deep with sand or gravel. Professor Martyn has printed some
valuable instructions for its cultivation, from the MS. of the Rev. M. Laurent ; and the
late Curtis, by a pamphlet on its culture, has done more to recommend it, and diffuse
the knowledge of it, than any of his predecessors. Sea-kale is now a common vegetable
in Covent Garden market, and Neill observes, has even begun to appear on the green-
stalls of the Scottish metropolis. But in France it is nearly unknown. Bastien
(^Manuel du Jardinievy 1807) describes the cAom marin d' Angleterre, but he appears to
have tried to use the broad green leaves, instead of the blanched shoots. Disgusted with
his preparation, he denies the merits of sea-kale ; and resigns the plant, with a sneer, to
colder climates. When the French gardeners, however, have learned to cultivate it, and
especially to force it at mid-winter, it will doubtless soon become a favorite with the
Parisians. {Ed. Encyc. art. Hort.)

3899. Use. The young spring shoots, and the stalks of the unfolding leaves, blanched
by rising through the natural ground in a wild state, or by earthing up in gardens, are
the parts used ; and when boiled, and dressed like asparagus, are not inferior to that
vegetable. They form also an excellent ingredient in soups. Sometimes the ribs of the
large leaves are peeled and dressed as asparagus, after the plant has ceased to send up
young growths. By forcing, sea-kale may be had in perfection from November till May,
a period including all the dead months of the year. It is remarked by Nicol, that vege-
tables are seldom improved by forcing, but that sea-kale forms an exception, the forced
shoots produced at mid-winter being more crisp and delicate in flavor than those procured
in the natural way in April or May. Sir George Mackenzie {Caled. Hort. Mem. vol.
i. 313.) observes, that sea-kale cannot easily be overdone in cooking, and that after being
well boiled, it should be thoroughly drained, and then suffered to remain a few minutes .
before the fire, that a farther portion of moisture may be exhaled.

3900. Propagation. Sea-kale is generally and best raised from seed ; of which, if
sown to transplant, for a seed-bed four feet by nine, sown in drills a foot apart by eight
inches in the row, two ounces will suffice ; if sown to remain, then the same quantity
will serve for a plot five feet by fifteen, sown in drills two feet apart. Plantations may
also be formed by detaching rooted offset-shoots from established plants, or by cuttings
of the roots, leaving about two eyes to each cutting. Tlie last fortnight of March, and
the first of April comprises the best time for putting in seed, or cuttings, and removing
plants.

3901. Soil. The native soil of sea-kale is deep sand, sometimes covered or partially
interlaminated with alluvial matter from the sea. "Hence," says Abercrombie, " a
light, dry, moderately rich mould, of a loose texture, suits it best. A fit soil for it," he
adds, " may be composed of one half drift sand, two sixtlis rich loam, and one third small
gravel, road-stuff, or sea-coal ashes. If the loam be not rich, add a little rotten dung."
Barton {Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 99.) cultivates sea-kale in "a pretty strong
loam, on a loose till-bottom, which he previously prepared by trenching, and mixnig
with it a good portion of vegetable mould from decayed leaves, adding a quantity of
river sand." .

3902. Cidlure. Maher pursues the following mode : " Prepare the ground in De-
cember or January, by trenching it two feet and a half deep ; if not that depth naturally,

SEA-KALE. 649

and light, it must be made so artificially by adding a due proportion of fine white sand,
and very rotten vegetable mould ; if your ground is wet in winter, it must be eflfectually
drained, so that no water may stand within a foot at least of the bottom ; for the strength
of your plants depends on tlie dryness of the bottom, and richness of your soil. Then
divide the ground into beds, four feet wide, with alleys of eighteen inches, after which
at the distance of every two feet each way, sow five or six seeds two inches deep, in a
circle of about four inches in diameter : this operation must be performed with strict
care and regularity, as the plants are afterwards to be covered with blanching-pots,
and both the health and beauty of the crop depend upon their standing at equal dis-
tances. In the months of May and June, if the seeds are sound, the young plants will
appear. When they have made three or four leaves, take away all but three of the best
plants from each circle, planting out those you pull up (which by a careful hand may be
drawn with all their tap-root,) in a spare bed for extra forcing, or to repair accidents.
The turnip-fly and wire-worm are great enemies to the whole class of tetradynamia
plants. I know no remedy for the latter, but picking them out of the ground by hand ;
the former may be prevented from doing much damage, by a circle of quick-lime strewed
round the young plants. If the months of June and July prove dry, water the whole
beds plentifully. In the following November, as soon as the leaves are decayed, clear
them away, and cover the beds an inch thick with fresh light earth and sand, that has lain
in a heap and been turned over at least three times the preceding summer ; this, and
indeed all composts, should be kept scrupulously free from weeds, many of which nourish
insects, and the compost is too often filled with their eggs and grubs. Upon this dress-
ing of sandy loam, throw about six inches in depth of light stable-litter, which finishes
every thing to be done the first year. In the spring of the second year, when the plants
are beginning to push, rake off the stable-litter, digging a little of the most rotten into
the alleys, and add another inch in depth of fresh loam and sand. Abstain from cutting
this year, though some of the plants will probably rise very strong, treating the beds the
succeeding winter exactly as before. The third season, a little before the plants begin to
stir, rake off the winter covering, laying on now an inch in depth of pure dry sand or
fine gravel. Then cover each parcel with one of the blanching-pots, pressing it very
firmly into the ground, so as to exclude all light and air ; for the color and flavor of the
sea- kale is greatly injured by being exposed to either."

3903. Barton, in the autumn, covers all the sea-kale beds, excepting the roots intended to be taken up
for forcing, with leaves, as they are raked up from the pleasure-grounds ; covering each bed in thickness
according to the strength and age of the roots, giving the greatest covering to the oldest, upon an average
from five inches to a foot when first laid on : over this, I place a slight covering of long dung, just suffi-
cient to keep the leaves from being blown about The covering is suffered to remain on the beds until
the whole is cut for use the following spring ; after which the dung and leaves may be removed, and the
ground dug regularly over. By this treatment, the heads will be found free and well blanched, and, from
the sweetness of the leaves, free from any unpleasant flavor. As the heads become ready for use, they
will raise the covering, by which means they will be easily perceived, without removing any more of the
covering than the part where those heads are that are intended to be cut Those beds which have had
the thickest covering of leaves in autumn, come first into use, and the others in rotation ; so that the
last cutting is from what Was sown the spring before. Aware that cutting from one-year-old plants
is generally disapproved of. Barton defends the practice from his experience of its not proving injurious,
and because thereby the sea-kale season is prolonged, as the one-year-old plants " come in much later in
spring than the old-established roots." (Caled. Hort. Mem,)

3904. Taking the crop. Cut the young stems, when about three inches above ground,
carefully, so as not to injure any of the remaining buds below, some of which will
immediately begin to swell. A succession of gatherings may be continued for the space
of six weeks, after which period the plants should be uncovered, and their leaves suffered
to grow, that they may acquire and return nutriment to the root for the next year's
buds. The flowers, when seeds are not wanted, ought to be nipped off with the finger
and thumb, as long as tliey appear. {Hort. Trans, vol. i. )

3905. Forcing sea-kale. No vegetable is more easily or more cheaply forced than sea-
kale, whether the operation be performed in beds or drills in the open air, or in hot-bed
frames or fined pits.

3906. Abercrombie, Nicol, and Maker recommend forcing in beds in the open air. " Seven weeks,"
the former observes, " before the time at which you wish to cut shoots for the table, begin to prepare
the plants for forcing, and to ferment a sufficient quantity of fresh stable-dung. Having trimmed the
leaves from the plants, carefully point the surface of the ground ; and over the tops of the roots, spread
fresh light earth, mixed with dritt-sand or coal-ashes, two or three inches in depth. When the dung is
well prepared, which will be in about three weeks, proceed to the forcing. If you mix tree-leaves with
the dung, begin to ferment them a week or a fortnight sooner. Cover each of the plants, either with a
regular blanching-pot, or with a garden-pot of the largest size. When the latter is employed, stop the
hole with a cork, and cement it with clay, to keep out both the weather and the rank steam from the
lining. Then lay a portion of prepared dung alone or mixed with tree-leaves, about and over each pot,
pressing it down firm, extending it eight or ten inches all round, and raising the bank six or eight inches
above the pot It will be necessary to examine the plants frequently, and to measure the heat within
the covers now and then, lest, by some inadvertency, the quantity of litter should not have been well-ap-
portioned, or rightly prepared. If the heat be under 50«, there is not enough heat to excite the plants;
and if above 60*, it is too fiery and may injure them. In about three weeks or a month after being
covered up, the first shoots will be from six to ten inches long, and fit for the teble. If the plant send up
a flower-stalk, cut it away ; and successive supplies of shoots will be produced, till perhaps the end of the
third month from begiiming to force."

650 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

3907. Maker observes, that the only thing necessary in forcing sea-kale, is to be very particular in
guarding against too much heat, using trial-sticks, and never if possible, exceeding 55°. So much mis-
chief ensues when this is violent, that it is far better to begin time enough, and force slowly, rather than
quickly. Like Abercrombie, Maher covers with dry sea-coal ashes, sifted neither very small nor very
large. These are the best remedies against worms, which, after forcing is commenced, often spring up on
the surface, and spoil the delicacy of the young shoots. Salt, he adds, also effectuaUy destroys worms,
and will not injure the sea-kale.

3908. Abercrombie says, unless the weather be unusually rigorous, it will not be necessary to renew the
linings of hot litter oftener than once in seven or eight weeks. Take away the exhausted part, and mix
the remainder with fresh dung and leaves. Maher says, after the sea-kale is gathered, the dung will be
found in the finest possible state for spring hot-beds. When the stools will produce no more shoots,
remove the litter and the covers, and dress the ground, in order, as observed by Maher, that their leaves
may be suffered to grow, and acquire and return nutriment to the root, for the next year's buds.

3909. Nicol says, he knows an instance of a row of sea-kale having been forced in the above way every
season for seven years, in which the plants in it are as vigorous and healthy as others in the same com-
partment that are forced only every second year.

3910. Barton forces sea-kale on dung-beds, under frames, exactly in the manner generally adopted for
asparagus. The advantages he considers to be the certainty of having the latter vegetable fit for use at
any particular time, and the saving of dung and labor. The latter saving, he says, " must appear obvious
to every practical gardener, when he considers the difficulty attending the keeping up a proper and
regular degree of heat, by covering with dung over pots and other similar methods, (as generally prac-
tised,) at so inclement a season of the year ; requiring three times the quantity of dung to produce an
equal number of heads, to what will be necessary when the roots are placed in a frame ; for a com-
mon melon-frame will contain as many heads as are capable of being produced in two drills of twenty
yards each, by covering with hot dung. He finds two frames, of three lights each, quite sufficient for a
large family ; the first prepared about the beginning of November, and the second about the last week in
December j and by the time the second frame is exhausted, sea-kale will be ready for use in the open
ground." {Caled Hort. Mem.)

3911. W. Gibbs, of Inverness, {Caled. Mem. vol. i. p. 388.) also forces in frames, blanching by keeping
the bed covered with mats. Economy and certainty he considers to be the advantages attending this
mode. As the plants are no longer of use after being forced, a succession is kept up by annual sowings,
and the plants are allowed to attain three years' growth before taking up for forcing.

3912. Baldwin forces sea-kale where it stands in the open garden in the following manner : " On each
side of a three-feet bed, in which the sea-kale has been planted, trenches are formed two feet deep, and
eighteen inches wide at bottom ; the side of the trench next the bed is perpendicular, and the other side
is sloped, so as to make the top of the trench, at the surface-level, two feet and a half wide : this trench
is filled with linings of hot dung, on the inner edges of which, garden-lights are placed, and the glass
kept covered with mats until the kale is fit to cut. The same plan," he adds, " is applicable to asparagus,
and also to rhubarb, or any other perennial vegetable intended to be excited where it stands, and a
covering of boards, canvas, or mats, might be substituted for the glass lights." {Hort. Trans, iv. 63.)

3913. Melross, of Ardgowan, forces sea-kale in a vinery. He plants " along the back of the flue where
no vine-roots are, places covers on the plants, and in two weeks, when the heat for forcing vines is kept
up," he has " as fine sea-kale as could be desired. When a dish is cut, he lifts the roots, and supplies
their places by others from the open ground. He considers this a very easy and certain method, espe-
cially in a wet climate." (Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 164.)

3914. Gathering. Remove a part of the earth, leaves, or whatever is employed in
blanching ; cut off the heads or shoots, and slip off the stalks of the leaves.

3915. Produce. From four to six heads, according to the size, tied together like
asparagus, make a dish : and, Maher says, a blanching-pot which contains three plants,
will afford a dish twice in a season. Hence, from sixty to a hundred pots will suffice
for forcing sea-kale for a large family. From the above data, it is easy to form an esti-
mate of the breadth of ground requisite for plantations of this plant to come in naturally.

3916. To save seed. Let a stool which has not been cut, run in spring ; and seed will
be produced on every stem.

SuBSECT. 3. Artichoke. — Cynara Scolymus,'L. {Blackw. t. 458.) Syn. Polyg. jEqu. L.
and Cynaroce])halce, J. Artichaut, Fr. ; Artischoke, Ger. ; and Carcioffolo, Ital.

3917. The artichoke is a perennial, with numerous large pinnatifid leaves, three or
four feet long, covered with an ash-colored down ; the mid-rib deeply channelled and fur-
rowed. The time of flowering is August and September. It is a native of the south
of Europe, and was introduced in England in 1548.

3918. Use. Tlie flower-heads in an immature state contain the part used, which is
the fleshy receptacle, commonly called the bottom, freed from the bristles and seed down,
vulgarly called the choke, and the talus or lower part of the leaves of the calyx. In
France, the bottoms are very commonly fried in paste, and they form a desirable ingre-
dient in ragouts. They are occasionally used for pickling; and sometimes they are
slowly dried and kept in bags for winter use. In France the bottoms of young arti-
chokes are frequently used in the raw state as a salad ; thin slices are cut from tlie bot-
tom with a scale or calyx leaf attached, by which the slice is lifted, and dipped in oil
and vinegar before using. The chard of artichokes, or the tender central leaf-stalk
blanched, is by some thought preferable to that of the cardoon. The flowers possess the
quality of coagulating milk, and have sometimes been used in the place of rennet.

391 9. Varieties. There are three varieties cultivated : —

Conical, French, or oval Artichoke, with I Globe, or largest, with dusky vuri>Iish i The dwarfish globe; a prolific variety,

ereen head. The head is oral, the scales head. The scales are turned m at I and valuable as occupying htUe room

open, and not turned in at the top as in top, and the receptacle more succulent j with its head,

the globe sort I than the other I

3920. Estimate of sorts. The globe sort is generally preferred for the main crop ; but the conical, or
French, is generally considered as possessing more flavor, as the flower-heads arc cut off for use when in
an immature state : both soits continue producing them from July to November.

Book I. CARDOON. 651

3921. Projmgaturn. This esculent is propagated by rooted suckers or young shoots,
" rising in the spring from the roots of the old plants ; these are fit to slip off for plant-
ing in March and April, when from five to ten inches high. Opening the ground to the
old stool, slip them off clean to the root, leaving the three strongest on each mother-
plant to advance for summer production. Those slipped off, prepare for planting, by
pulling away some of the under and decayed or broken leaves, and by pruning any
straggling long tops of the leaves remaining ; also cut off casually hard or ragged parts
at the bottom of the root. Then, having an open compartment, with a light rich soil of
good depth, well dunged and dug, plant the sets by dibble, in rows four feet asunder,
and two feet apart in each row. Give each plant some water : repeat this once or twice,
if very dry weather, till they have taken root."

3922. Subsequent culture. *' All spring and summer keep them clear from weeds by occasional hoeing
between the plants : this, with regular waterings in the dry weather of summer, is all the culture which
they require, till the season of production is terminated. They will produce some tolerable heads the
same vear, in August, and thence till November : next year they will head sooner, in full perfection. By
having fresh stools planted everv year or two, the old and new plantations together furnish a production
of heads from June or July till November. Besides the main head, several smaller lateral heads gene-
rallv spring from the sides "of the stem in succession ; but, in order to encourage the principal head to
attain the full size, most of the side suckers should be detached in young growth, when their heads are
the size of a large egg, which in that state are also prepared for some tables. As to the continuing main
heads, permit them to have full growth till the scales begin to diverge considerably, but gather them
before the flowers appear, cutting to each head part of the stalk. \\'hen the entire crop on a stem is
taken, cut off the stem close to the ground, to give the plant more strength for new shoots." {Aber.
crombie.) " To encourage the production of large main heads, some detach all the lateral heads in a
young state. These are commonly in a fit state for eating raw, having attained about one third of their
proper size ; and they are for this purpose frequently sold in Covent Garden market, chiefly to foreigners.
Another thing practised with the same view is the shortening the ends, of the large leaves." (Neiil, in
Ed. Encyc.)

3923. Nicol mentions, that the strongest crops he ever saw, grew in rather a mossy earth that had been
trenched fully a yard in depth, and had been well enriched with dung, and hned ; and that the plants were
generally covered before winter with a mixture of stable-litter and sea-weed. This last article, we believe,
is one of the verv best manures for artichokes. In no place is the plant to be seen in greater perfection than
in gardens in the Orkney Islands ; and we know that the luxuriance of the plants in these is to be ascribed
to the liberal supply of sea-weed dug into the ground every autumn. It was long ago remarked by a hor-
ticultural writer, that " water drawn from ashes, or improved by any fixed salt, is very good for arti-
chokes," (Sffstema Agriculture, 1682.)

3924. JVinter dressing. Abercrombie says, " First cut down all the large leaves, but without hurting the
small central ones, or the new shoots. Then dig the groimd between and along each row ; raising it gra-
dually from both sides, ridgeways over the roots, and close about the plants. In rigorous frosty weather,
cover also in the litter, a foot thick, and close about each plant."

3925. Spring dressing. In spring, the litter and earth being removed in March or April, according to the
kind of season, the stocks are examined ; and two or three of the strongest or best shoots being selected for
growing, the rest are removed by pressure with the thumb, or by a knife, or wooden chisel. Those shoots
or suckers are used for new plantations. Dig the whole ground level, loosening it close up to the crown of
the roots of everv plant

3926. Duration of the plants. " Artichoke-plants continue productive for several years j but, every
season, some well rotted dung or fresh sea-weed, should be delved into the ground at the winter dressing.
It is certain, however, that after a few years, the plants begin to degenerate, the heads becoming smaller
and less succulent. It is therefore a general rule not to keep an artichoke-plantation beyond four or at most
«ix years. Scarcely any kind of grub or wire-worm ever touches the roots of artichokes : they form, there-
fore, an excellent preparative for a crop of onions, shallot, or garlic. In many gardens, a small new plant-
ation is formed every year ; and in this way the artichoke season, which begins in June, is prolonged till
November ; those from the old stocks continuing till August, when those from the new stxx:ks come in. If
the last gathered be cut with the stems at full length, and if these be stuck among moist sand, the heads
may be preserved a month longer." ,

3927. Culture/o^r producing thecliard. "When the artichoke compartment is to be shifted,
and the old stocks are at any rate to be destroyed, the plants may be prepared, after mid-
summer, when the best crop of heads is over, for yielding chards against winter. The
leaves are to be cut over within half a foot of the ground ; the stems as low as possible.
In September or October, when the new shoots or leaves are about two feet high, they are
bound close with a wreath of hay or straw, and earth or litter is drawn round the stems of
the plants. The blanching is perfected in a month or six weeks. If the chards are
wished late in winter, the whole plants may be dug up before frost sets in, and laid in
sand in their blanched state; in this way they may be kept for several weeks."

3928. Seed. The heads when suffered to remain ten days or a fortnight, after the season
of cutting, expand the calyx leaves, and display an aggregation of jagged purple florets,
producing a fine appearance. WTien ripe seed is wanted, those heads in flower are to be
bent down and retained in that position, so as that the calyx may throw off the autumnal
rains. In general, however, the seed is not perfected in our climate.

SuBSECT. 4. Cardoon, or Chardoon. — Cyiiara Cardunculus, L. [Tabem. Icon. 696.)
Sj/ng. Polyg. uEqu, L. and Cynarocephal<Sy J. Cardoon, Fr., Ger., and Ital.

3929. The cardoon is a hardy perennial plant, a native of Candia, introduced to Eng-
land in 1658, and known in all the European languages under the same name. It "•reatly
resembles the artichoke, but rises to a greater height ; and becomes a truly gigantic her-
baceous vegetable of four or five feet in height. It produces flowers like those of the
artichoke in August and September. " In France," Neill observes, " the native prickly
plant is sometimes cultivated under tlie name of Cardoon of Tours, and is accounted pre-
ferable to the common garden variety. So formidable are its spines, that great care is

652 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

necessary in working about it, to avoid personal injury ; a strong leather dress, and thick
gloves, are therefore worn. This prickly sort has not yet been introduced into Britain."
3930. Use. The tender stalks of the inner leaves of the cardoon, rendered white and
tender by earthing up, are used for stewing, and for soups and salads, in autumn and
winter. When the plants are large, the inner leaves and stalks are rendered by blanching
white, crisp, and tender, to the extent of two or three feet. The plant is not in much re-
quest, and is only cultivated in some particular family-gardens, and a few market-grounds.
On the continent, it is in considerable repute, as indeed are many of salad and pot-herbs,
which are comparatively neglected in this country.

S931. Propagation. Though a perennial, it often dies in the winter, and therefore requires to be raised
from seed ahnost every year ; and for a bed four feet wide by eight feet, two ounces are sumcient. Formerly
the plants were raised on hot-beds, and transplanted in May and June, but now the seed is generally sown
where the plants are to remain.

3932. Soil. The best soil for the cardoon is one that is light, deep, and not over rich.

3933. Times of sowing. The chief sowings are made in the spring ; for a small early crop, in the last
fortnight of March ; and for the main crop, in the first or second week of April. Further, for a late full
crop, you may sow towards the close of June.

393-i. Sowing for transplanting. Sow in a bed of common light earth, moderately thin ; and rake in the
seed evenly. When the plants nave risen, thin them to three or four inches' distance, to give them room
to acquire stocky growth for transplanting. When they have been raised about eight weeks, transplant
them ; allotting an open compartment of well digged ground, and taking an opportunity of rain falling.
Having lifted the plants, trim any long straggling tops of the leaves and fibres of the roots. Plant them
either in the level ground, or in drills, or form a hollow patch for each plant ; in all cases at four feet and
a half distance. Thus you will have ample scope for their growth, and considerable space of ground to land
them up. Give water at planting, and occasionally till they take root. In their advancing growth, hoe
and loosen the ground about the plants, cutting down all weeds.

3935. Sowing to remain. A crop may be raised by sowing where the crops are to remain, not to have any
check by removal. Sow in small hollow patches, at the distance specified above, two or three seeds in each.
Thin the plants to one strongest in each patch.

3936. Landing up. When the plants are advanced in large growth, two or three feet high or more, in
August, September, and October, proceed to land them up for blanching. First tie the leaves of each plant
together with hay or straw bands ; then digging and breaking the ground, earth up round each plant a foot
or more high or two thirds of the stem. As the stems rise higher, tie and earth them up accordingly,
giving them a final earthing in October.

3937. Watering in autumn. Regular waterings in the dry weather of August and September will pre-
vent the plants from seeding.

3938. Taking the crop. When they are blanched a foot and a half, or two feet in length, or more, they
may be digged up, as wanted, in September, October, and throughout winter.

3939. Occasional shelter. Protect the plants in severe frost with long litter, either as they stand, or
turned down on one side.

3940. To save seed. Leave some full-grown plants in the spring, to shoot up in stalk. (Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 5. Rampion. — Campanula Rapunculvs, L. (Eng. Bat. 283.) Pent. Monog.
L. and Camjyanulacees, B. P. Raiponce, Fr. ; Rajmnzel, Ger. ; and Raperonzo, Ital.

3941. The rampion is a biennial plant, a native of England, but rare. The root is
long, white, and spindle-shaped ; the lower leaves oval-lanceolate, and waved ; the flower-
stalk is about two feet high, and furnished with a panicle of blue flowers in July and
August. The whole plant abounds with a milky juice.

3942. Use. The root is eaten raw like a radish, and has a pleasant nutty flavor ; it is
also sometimes cut into winter salads, and then the leaves as well as the root are used.

3943. Culture. The seed should be sown in the latter end of May, on a shady border of rich earth, not
over stiff, the mould being made as firm as possible : it is better not to rake in the seed, which, being so
very fine, may, by that operation, be buried too deep. If the sowing is earlier than May, the plants will
sometimes run to flower in the autumn, and so become useless. Moderate waterings must be given as they
come up, through a fine rose of a watering-pot, and it is necessary that they be kept, at all times, tolerably
moist. When the plants are of sufficient size, they must be thinned out, to the distance of three or four
inches apart ; those drawn will bear transplanting well, if put into a border similar to the seed-bed, but
care must be taken to insert the roots straight into the earth, and not to press the mould too close ; the
roots which become forked are not so good as the straight ones. In November, the plants will be fit for
use, and will continue so until April. {Dickson, in Hort. Trans.)

3944. To save seed. Leave or transplant some of the best plants in spring, and they will produce flowers
and abundance of seed in autumn. ,

SuBSECT. 6. Hop. — Humulus Lupulus, L. (Eng. Rot. 427.) Dicec. Pent. L. and
Urticece, J. Houblon, Fr. ; Hopfen, Ger. ; and Lupolo, Ital.
3945. The hop is a perennial plant, a native of Britain, and well known as being
cultivated for its flowers, which are used in preserving beer. It rises with a rough shoot,
and rough tripartite leaves, the former climbing round whatever comes in its way to a
considerable height, and producing flowers of a peculiar odor in July.
• 3946. Use in cookery. The young shoots, when they have risen three or four inches
from the root, were formerly gathered and boiled like asparagus, to which they are very
little inferior ; these shoots are still occasionally to be found in the market, under the name
of hop-tops. A pillow filled with hop-flowers will induce sleep, unattended with the bad
effects of soporifics which require to be taken internally.

3947. Culture. The hop is propagated by dividing the roots in autumn or spring. It requires a deep
rich soil, which should be frequently stirred and kept qu'te free of weeds, and the plantation should be
renewed every seven or ten years according to circumstances. In field-culture, it is planted in hills or in
groups of three or four plants, at six or eight feet centre from centre ; but in growing a few for hop-tops,
they may be planted in single rows at three feet distance, and one foot asunder iu the row.

Book I. ALISANDER, BLADDER-CAMPION, THISTLE. 653

SuBSECT. 7. Alisamler, or Alexanders. {Jig. 469.) — Smymium Olusatrunty L.. {Eng.
Bot. 230.) Pent. BIq. L. and UmbelUferce, J. Maceron, Fr. ; Smymerkrant,
Ger. ; and Macerone, Ital.

3948. The alisander is a biennial plant, rising about
two feet high, and flowering in May and June ; the
leaves are of a pale-green color, and the flowers
yellowish. It grows naturally near the sea in several
places, and may often be observed naturalised near old
buildings.

3949. Use. It was formerly much cultivated, its
leaf-stalks having been used when blanched, as a pot-
herb and salad. It somewhat resembles the celery in
flavor, by which vegetable it has been almost entirely

.supplanted. Some consider the leaves and stalks of
the S. perfoliatum, a native of Italy, as preferable to
those of this plant.

3950. Ctdture. " Where the plants are in demand, sow a pro-
portionate crop at the close of March, in the course of April,
or beginning of May : either broad-cast, raking in the seed ;
the plants, when between three and six inches high, to be trans-
planted into drills, eighteen inches or two feet asunder, by five
or six inches apart in each row ; or sow at once in drills that
distance, to remain, thinning out the superfluous plants in proper time. The seed is sold by weight, and
if sown to transplant, for a bed three feet and a half wide by six feet in length (21 superficial feet),
half an ounce will suffice ; if sown to remain, then for a bed four feet by twenty-four, containing two
drills, two feet apart, or for fortv-eight feet in length of drilling, then one ounce will be requisite.
When the plants are well advanced in growth, earth them up several inches on each side the rows,
to blanch the lower parts white, for use in summer, autumn, &c. You may likewise sow a moderate por-
tion in August, to stand over the winter for a supply in spring and the early part of the summer, till the
spring-sown plants come in."

3951. To save seed. The alisander produces nothing fit for the table after the second year ; and as it
ripens plenty of seed in autumn, it is proper to save some every year for sowing as above. {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 8. Bladder- Campion. — Silene inflata, H. K. {Eng. Bot. t. 164.); Cucubalus
behen, L. Dec. Trig. L. and Caryojihyllece, J.

3952. The bladder-camjnon is a perennial, growing naturally by the sides of corn-
fields and pastures ; and also on the sea-shore. The stems are smooth and erect, rising
from a foot to eighteen inches high. The leaves are smooth, glaucous, and the flowers in
nodding panicles.

3953. Use. Our kitchen- gardens, Bryant observes, scarcely aflTord a better-flavored
vegetable than the young shoots of this plant when boiled. They ought to be gathered
when not above two inches long. The sprouts are to be nipped oft' when of a proper
size, and the plants will produce a succession of fresh ones for at least two months.

3954. Culture. A similar culture to that given to the asparagus, or sea-kale, would answer, and probably
highly improve this plant. 3ryant says, its culture would well reward the gardener's trouble. Seeds may either
be procured from wild plants, or the roots, which run very deep, may be transplanted into deep light soil.

Slbsect. 9. Thistle. — Carduus and Onopordum, L. ; and CynarocephalcBf J.

3955. There are tiuo sorts of thistle, which are, or were formerly, used as asparaginous
plants, viz. the milk-thistle, and cotton-thistle.

3956. Tlie milk-thistle, or our lady^s thistle, is the Carduus Marianus, L. {Eng. Bot.
t. 976.) It is a biennial plant, a native of Britain, and found in church-yards and
near ruined buildings. The plant rises from four to six feet high, furnished witli large
leaves, covered with an irregular network of beautiful milky veins.

3957. Use. When very young, the leaves are used as a spring salad ; and blanched, are
used in winter salads ; stripped of their spines, tliey are sometimes boiled and used as greens ;
and the young stalks peeled, and soaked in water to extract a part of their bitterness,
are said to be excellent. Early in the spring of the second year, the root is prepared like
salsify or skirret ; the receptacle of the flower is pulpy, and eats like that of the artichoke.

3958. Culture. The seeds are sown in a good dry soil, early in February ; and when the plants come up,
they are thinned out to one foot and a half distance from one another. The intervals are to be kept free
of weeds, and stirred occasionally during the summer ; and ir. autumn the leaves are to be tied up like
those of endive, and the earth drawn round to blanch them. The blanched herb being cut off for use
during winter, the roots remain to be used in spring.

3959. To save seed. Leave one or two plants untied up the first season, and iv« the second they will
produce flowers in July, and seed in August

3960. The cotton-thistle is the Onopordum acanthium, L. {Eng. Bot. t. 977.) It is a
biennial plant, indigenous in various parts of Britain, and remarkable for its large downy
leaves and lofty stem, often rising ten feet high, and covering a circle of six or eight feet
diameter.

3961. Use. It was formerly used like the artichoke and cardoon ; the receptacle and
the tender blanched stalks, peeled and boiled, being the parts used.

S962. Culture. The same as the Cardoon. See Subsect 4.

654

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

5963.

Sect. VII. u4cetarious Plants.
The acetarious vepetahles are a numerous class, of various culture, habits, and

use, and of which but little that is general can be here observed, excepting that they are
all articles of comparative luxury, or condiments, rather than food ; and consequently,
that though they occupy a moderate portion, perhaps a fortieth of tlie kitchen-garden, yet'
excepting a few of the sorts, as the lettuce, radish, cress, &c. they are seldom found in
those of the cottager.

SoBSECT. 1. Lettuce. — Lactuca sativay L. Syng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and Cichoracece, J.
Laitue, Fr. ; Gartensalat, Ger. ; and Lattziga, Ital.

3964. The lettuce is a hardy annual, introduced or cultivated in 1562, but from wliat
country is unknown. Some authors consider it as merely a variety of one of the three native
species ; one of which, the L. virosa, seems very likely to be the parent plant. The
leaves are large, milky, frequently wrin! led, usually pale-green, but varying much in
form and color in the different varieties. Though of but a few months' duration in the
same individual, yet, in gardens, by successive sowings in spring, summer, and autumn,
it is obtained most part of the year.

3965. Use. The use of lettuce as a cooling and agreeable salad is well known ; it is
also a useful ingredient in soups. It contains, like the other species of this genus, a
quantity of opium juice, of a milky nature, from wliich, of late years, a medicine has
been prepared by Dr. Duncan, senior, of Edinburgh, under the title of Lactucorium,
and which he finds can be administered with effect in cases where opium is inadmissible."
(Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. i. 160. 259. ; vol. ii. 314. ; and vol. iv. 153.)

3966. Varieties. These are very numerous ; and, from the names, many of them
appear to have come to us from the Greek islands and the coast of the Levant. The
best are ■—

Green Cos
White Cos
SUver Cos
Btted Cos
jtian early Cos
JBiack-seeded green Cos
Lap

Spot

Egyi

Brown Silesia

Green Silesia

Common -white cabbage

Large white cabbage

Brown Dutch cabbage

Imperial cabbage ; large and fine

Grand admiral, or admirable; a very

large fine cabbage-lettuce
Large Roman

Hardy green cabbage (capuchin)
Tennis-ball cabbage
Prussian.

3967. Estimate of sorts. In their general growth, all the Cos lettuces are more or less upright, of an
oblong shape. The cabbage-lettuces are round-leaved, growing in a compact full head of squat form,
close to the ground. Both have white, close, firm heads when in perfection ; the varieties reach ma-
turity from June till September. Meanwhile they are occasionally used in young open growth. In a
very young state, the cabbage-lettuces have a milder, more agreeable taste than the Cos : but when both
classes are full grown, the flavor of the Cos is preferred for salads, while the cabbage kinds are more used
for soups. The Silesia, of a nature between the other two, is much admired by some, but is less culti-
vated than formerly. The lap is drawn young, and cut with small salads. For principal summer and
autumn crops, the white, the silver, the green, the spotted, the Egyptian, with the other kinds of Cos,
are eligible in the first degree. Next to these are the common and the large white cabbage, the brown
Dutch, the imperial, the grand admiral, the Roman, and both sorts of the Silesia. Those kinds should
be reserved for the end of summer which are the most backward in starting for seed, among which are
the hardy green, the brown Dutch, and the tennis-ball. Any of the other kinds may be resorted to for
secondary crops, or to answer a local preference for particular names. For a very early crop, or for a late
sowing, to stand the winter, the fittest of the Cos kinds are the white, the green, the black-seeded, and
the Egyptian ; the latter is hardy, forms a close head, and comes early : of the cabbage class, the
brown Dutch, the hardy green, the common white, and the tennis-ball are much relied upon for
their hardiness in standing severe weather.

3968. Propagation. From seed ; of which, for a seed-bed four feet wide by ten feet in length, a quarter
of an ounce is sufficient, and will produce upwards of four hundred plants. > - ■'

3969. Soil and situation. " All the sorts grow freely on any rich mellow soil, where the sub-soil is dry
For the most part, raise this vegetable as a principal crop, on beds set apart for it ; and keep the varieties
separate, but to multiply the supplies throughout summer, portions may be sown, thinly intermixed with
principal crops of leeks, onions, carrot, and spinage, which will come off before the lettuces are full
grown ; also, with any young perennials which stand at wide intervals."

3970. Times of sowing. " To obtain a constant supply of good lettuces, it is advisable to sow every
month, from February to July, for the main summer and autumn crops ; and to sow distinct sorts in
August and September, to produce late* autumn and winter plants, of which a reserve is to stand for
spring and early summer heading lettuces in the following year. For the first early crops, you may begin
to sow at the end of January or beginning of February, if mild dry weather ; or, more generally, later in
February, or in the first week of March, on a sheltered south border. Some choice kinds may be sown in
a frame, and forwarded by forcing. But for the main summer crops, sow in March and April, in any
open situation. Follow with secondary sowings twice or oftener every month, from May till about the
seventh of August ; to provide for a succession through the summer, till October, as the plants sown early
in the year, after heading fully, soon fly up to seed-stalks. The sowing in the midst of summer should be
on shady borders. For a crop to come in during winter, and stand over partially till spring, make two
late sowings, in the third week of August and last fortnight of September."

3971. Process m sowing. " The ground should have been broken in the previous digging. Sow broad-
cast, moderately thin ; rake in lightly, and very even."

3972. Management of t/ie summer crops. " In the successive crops raised from the opening of spring
till the close of summer, when the plants reach about two, three, or four inches' growth, they should be
thinned ; of those removed let a requisite number be planted out, from a foot to fifteen inches asunder,
to remain for cabbaging. Such as continue in the seed-beds may be either gathered thinningly, in pro-
gressive stages, till the final reserve advance in close heading ; or as they increase in size, be planted out at
the square distance specified above, especially those designed to stand till of stocky growth. In dry wea-
ther, water well at transplanting. Also weed and hoe the beds thinned, and water them, if necessary.
In the first heading crop of Cos lettuces, when about three parts grown, and beginning to close the inner
leaves, a number may be forwarded in cabbaging, by tying the leaves together, moderately close, with
strings of bass; the remainder will head and whiten, in due time, without this assistance. Under the

Book I.

ENDIVE. 655

above culture, the successive crops wiU advance freely to a stocky growth : the eariiest wiU cabbage mo-
ilerately in May, but more fully in June, and in perfection m July and August.

3973. Crop raised on heat. " For an accelerated crop, some may be sown in the
beo-inning or middle of February on a gentle hot-bed. When the plants are one or two
■ inches high, in March or April, prick a portion either into a warm border, if a mild
season, and let tliem be shielded with mats, during nights and bad weather ; or into a
frame or slender hot-bed, to bring them more forward. According to their progress, in
April or May, transplant them into the open garden, from six to twelve inches asunder,
toTemain for heading."

3074 Winterstandins crop. " To have lettuces for drawing in minor growth for use, during winter,
and to" stand over in part for returns in a muture stage, early next spring and the beginning of summer,
sow in the third week of August and in the first fortnight of September, the suitable hardy sorts, "iou
may further towards the close of September, sow a smaller portion on a warm border or sloping terrace ;
the plants to remain and take the chances of the weather : if these survive, they will be acceptable in the
sprin" • some to thin out for use voung, and the remainder to transijlant for larger growth, early in sum.
mer, without running. The plants of the August and September sowing, will soon appear, and will be
readv to transplant the same season. Some may remain where sown, and a good portion may be trans-
planted to warm borders ; a quantity of the choice Cos may be planted in beds of light drj' earth, under
frames or hand-lights, or under awnings, to have the protection of mats in cold nights, and partially on
inclement davs. Accordingly, about the middle or end of September, and in October, when the plants
are two or three inches high, prick out a quantity (taking first those of the August sowing^ from the
seed-beds into prepared warm-lying ground, in rows six inches by four apart From such as remain in the
seed-beds, you may conveniently thin out some young plants, for occasional use in the winter, but so as
to leave a competency to remain for spring. As October advances, let some considerable quantity of
choice lettuces of the September sowing he pricked out from the seed-bed into dry sheltered south borders,
three or four inches asunder, wholly to continue for spring and early summer lettuces. Through October
to the beginning of November, it is advisable to prick a quantity of the Cos kinds thickly, in frames or
under hand-lights, to have protection during the night, and in all bad winter weather ; or, if deficient
in frames and glasses, you may transplant a part into a south border, to be arched over with hoops, and
covered occasionally with mats j or, as tlte young plants are tender in winter, protection, afforded in
some of these ways, will preserve them more ellcctually in rigorous weather. During the winter, let
those in frames, and the others under occasional shelter, have tlie free air on all mild dry days ; but let
them be defended always at night with the glasse-s and with mats or other additional co%ering in uitense
frost or very rigorous weather : in the day-time, protect them from heavy rain, snow, and frost, but so
as to admit the light ; also, in a severe season, you may cover the choicer plants in the open borders with
mats, light straw-litter, or fern ; or occasionally with reed panels, or wattled hurdles, placed slantingly
over to the walL Thesecoverings should be continued only in rigorous frosts, and removed when the weather
is open. Then in the spring, about March or April, the plants in open borders, which have survived the
winter, should be thinned, so as to stand from six to twelve inches apart ; and those thinned out may be
planted in another compartment at the same distance. At the same period, aU the lettuces w^hich have
wintered under frames, hand-glasses, or mats, should be transplanted into the open garden. In their
final stations, the whole will advance to useful sizes in the course of April, or will reach full growth with
stocky hearts about May : thus the table may be supplied tiU the early crops of spring succeed. The
plants first sown in the current year come to have good heads in June and July. Winter and early spring
lettuce may be further accelerated by transplanting some of the strongest autumn-raised plants, interme-
diately protected, as above, by frames or glasses, into hot-beds, or the borders of forcing-stoves : trans-
plant the lettuces to be thus forced, with balls of earth about the roots, in December, Januarj', and
February. Those excited by heat in December, will have cabbaged hearts by the beginning of March."

3975. To save seed. " Leave or transplant either some of the early winter-standing plants, in March
or April, or of the forwardest spring-sown crops, in May or beginning of June, fifteen inches asunder.
They will produce ripe seed in August and September." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 2. Endive. — Cichorium Endivia, L. Si/ng. Polyg. JEqu. L. and Cicho-
racece, J. Chicoree des Jar dins, Fr. ; Endivie, Ger. ; and Endivia, Ital.

3976. The endive is a hardy annual, a native of Cliina and Japan, and introduced in
1548. The root-leaves are numerous, large, sinuate, toothed, and smooth ; the stem
rises about two feet high, is branched, and produces pale-blue flowers in July and
August.

3977. Uie. It is cultivated for the stocky head of leaves, which, after being blanched
to take away the bitter taste, are used in salads and stews in autumn, winter, and spring.
It is in great repute both in England and on the continent,

3978. The varieties are —

Green CTirled-leaved ; principal sort for the main crops I Broad-leaved Batavia ; of largest uprigfat growth.
White curled-learcd | = r -= =

3979. Estimate of sorts. " All the sorts are eligible for culture; but allot, principally,
the green curled for the main crops of autumn and winter endive, tliis being of the most
stocky full growi;h, and hardiest to stand severe weather. As to the others, allot a smaller
portion of the white curled for early summer and autumn use : of the broad-leaved kind,
provide a moderate crop for autumn, till November or December ; being by some
esteemed preferable for stews and soups, though not much used in salads."

3980. Propagation. All the varieties are raised from seed, of which, for a seed-bed
four feet wide by ten in length, half an ounce is sufficient.

3981. Times of sowing. The proper seasons are. May for a smaller early crop ; and principally June and
July to the beginning of August ; for full and succession crops, all autumn and winter, till the following
wring. For, if souni earlier than the middle of May or beginning of June, they will mostly run to stalk
the same season, before attaining mature useful growth. If any are required for earlv voung summer
endive, sow only a small portion of the white curied, in April or May, as the plants will 'soon run to seed.
In the midiUe or towards the end of May, you may begin sowing moderately of the different sorts ; but do
not sow fully till neariy the middle of June, that the plants may stand without running the same year.
About the twelfth and twenty-fifth of that month, also at the beginning and middle of Julv, sow the main

^S6 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

and succession crops for autumn and winter ; and a finer smaller sowing about the beginning of August,
for late supplies m the end of winter and following spring. & e K"»'.

3982. Culture in the seed-bed. Sow each sort separately in beds of rich mellow earth, in an open situ-
ation ; scattermg the seeds thmly, and rake in the seed. When the plants are up an inch or two in growth
thm them moderately, where m clusters, that they may have room to grow stronger and stocky for trans-
planting. But if a portion are sown in soil of sufficient depth, and thinned to the distances mentioned
under transplanting, instead of being moved, they may be expected to yield heads of the finest kind, under
the same culture as is given to the others.

3983. Transjdanting. As the plants attain a sufficient growth, being from four to six
inches high, or in a month or five w^eeks from the time of sowing, proceed to transplant
the successive crops. The ground should be light and rich on a dry sub-soil. Dig it a
full spit deep ; set in shallow trenches, or drills the depth of a hoe, endive blanches with
less trouble than if inserted on a level surface. The lines may be fifteen inches asunder ;
the plants ten or twelve inches distant in the line. Drawing the strongest first, plant out
portions from June till October ; but the principal removals will fall in August ; in
which months three different plantings may be made for succession ; also for a general
winter crop, at the beginning of September. While the plants are in hand, trim the ex-
tremities of the leaves, and shorten the top roots a little. Water at planting ; and moder-
ately afterwards once in two days, if the weather be dry, till the plants take root. At the
end of September, and in October, likewise plant some in a warm dry border, to stand
the winter more effectually. Also, in the last fortnight of October or beginning of
November, it would be proper to insert some stout plants thickly on a bank of dry light
soil, raised a foot or two behind, sloping to the south. Thus they will remain drier in
winter, and will be preserved more securely from rotting in that season. The bed might
be also defended in severe weather with frames and glasses, or with an occasional awning
of mats or sail-cloth.

3984. Grange, of Kingsland, transplants in October, on sloping banks, at the base of hedges or walls ; or
if these are not to be had, he forms banks with a slope of 45 degrees facing the south. The width of the
face of the bank measures five feet ; along it he places four rows of pantiles stuck more than halfway into
the earth with the convex side to the sun. A plant of endive is then placed opposite the concave side of
each tile, the latter serving to keep its leaves dry. In winter these banks are covered with dippings of
hedges or straw to keep them dry, and to exclude the frost.

3985. Blanching. As the transplanted crops advance to full growth, stocky and full in the heart, some
should have the leaves tied up every week or fortnight, to blanch or whiten, and to render them tender,
crisp, and mild-tasted. Perform this in dry days ; and in winter, when the weather is dry without frost.
Using strings of fresh bass, or small osier twigs, tie the leaves regularly together a little above the middle,
moderately close. If the soil be light and dry, earth them up halfway ; but if moist, merely tie them.
The two curled sorts, if neatly earthed up, will branch pretty well without being tied. The Batavian, from
its loftier, looser growth, in every case hearts and blanches better with a bandage. The blanching will be
completed sometimes in a week, when the weather is hot and dry ; at others, it may take a fortnight or
three weeks ; after which the endive should be taken up for use, or it will soon rot, in six days or less,
especially if much rain fall. To save the trouble of tying, this esculent is also occasionally blanched by
setting up flat tiles or boards on each side of the plants, which, resting against other in an angular form,
and confined with earth, exclude the light. Further, endive may be blanched under garden-pots, or
blanch ing-pots, in the manner of sea-kale. In the heat of summer and autumn, tying up is best j but in
wet or cold weather, to cover the plants preserves while it blanches them.

3986. Occasional shelter. At the approach of severe frost, cover some thickly with straw-litter. Also
plunge a portion into a raised bank of light dry earth, under a glass-case, or covered shed, open to the
south. Protect with litter in rigorous weather ; but uncover, and give plenty of air on mild days.

3987. To save seed. " Allot some of the strongest old plants in February or March, if any remain j other-
wise, sow seed in March or April, and transplant or thin the plants to twelve or fifteen inches' distance.
They will shoot, and the seed ripen in autumn."

SuBSECT. 3. Succory, or Wild Endive. — Ckhoriwn Intyhus, L. {Eng. JBot. 539.) Syn-

genesia 2'olygamia jEqualis, L. and CichoracecB, J. Chicorie Sauvage, Fr. ; Gemeine

Cicliorie, Ger. ; and Cicoria, Ital.

.^988. The succory, or chiccory, is a hardy perennial not uncommon in calcareous wastes
and by road sides. The whole plant greatly resembles the common broad-leaved endive ;
the leaves are runcinated ; the stem rises from two to four and five feet high, producing
blue flowers from June to August. The plant is but little cultivated in gardens in this
country, though it is in much repute on the continent, and especially in Italy. It has
been grown in the fields, in France and England, as a fodder for cattle, when coming into
flower ; and is at present much cultivated in Holland and Flanders, for the roots, which
are dried, and ground, and used on almost every part of the continent, partly along with,
and partly as a substitute for coffee, by those who cannot afford to use that article
genuine : but Miller and other English authors on horticulture do not notice it as an
article for the garden.

3989. Use. The leaves are blanched and used as those of endive, or during winter
forced in the dark, and so blanched. In this state it is the JBarbe de Cajmdn of the
French. It is also sown thick in frames, and in the open air, and when it has produced
two rough leaves, cut as a small salad. When lettuce or garden-endive is scarce, chic-
cory can always be commanded as salading by those who possess any of the most
ordinary means of forcing. The roots cut in pieces, dried and ground, afford a powder,
which Dr. Howison {Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 132.) thinks preferable to that of coffee ; and
Dr. Duncan {Disc, to Caled. H. S. 1820) is of opinion that the plant might be cultivated
with great national advantages, as a substitute for that exotic berry. About Bruges, the

Book T. DANDELIOF. CELERY. 657

roots are scraped and boiled, and eaten along with potatoes, or with a sauce of butter and
vinegar. , ^

3990. Varieties. The French have the common large-leaved, the ducoree a jiavet, or
ca/e-c/iicoree, with large white Heshy roots, and tlie variegated chiccory.

3991. Culture. Isaac Oldacre, an excellent practical gardener, who experienced the advantages of cul-
tivating this plant in the Imperial gardens near Petersburgh, gives the following directions. It should
be sown in the end of June or beginning of July, on a rich piece of ground, broad-cast, in the same manner
af IXve ; when the leaves begin to cover the ground, thin out the plants, leaving those that remain on
the beds from three to four inches apart; those pulled out may be planted into other beds, at the same
distance as those which are left to remain ; kec]. them clear from weeds, and if the leaves grow very
strong, and shade the roots much, cut them oft" within one inch ot the ^.^^^^^^^S^^ 470
ground The end of September or beginning of October is the proper "= ~^^
time to shift the roots ; the leaves should be first cut oft" with care, so as
not to destroy the hearts of the plants, then dig up the roots, shorten
them, and plant them in jxits or ixjrtable boxes, with a dibble, very close
together, in rich mould ; give them water when dry, and shelter them in
severe frosts, by a light covering of litter. After they are well rooted,
the i>ots or boxes, as wanted, are to be removed into the mushroom-house
or cellar, where they must be entirely excluded from light, in order to
blanch the leaves, which will be effected in six or seven days. SuccOry
will thrive in a heat of sixty degrees, but it is best to keep it m a lower
temperature. If the roots are strong, each pot or box will bear cutting
twice, after which they should be removed, and changed for the succes-
sion, as the leaves of the future growth become bitter. {Hart. Trans.
vol. iii. p. 139.)

3992. Crop in cellars. On the continent, the roots are taken up on the
^proach of winter, and stacked in cellars in alternate layers of sand, so
as to form ridges with the crowns of the plants on the surface of the ridge.
Here, if the frost be excluded, they soon send out leaves in such abund-
ance as to afford a supply of salad during winter. If light is excluded,
the leaves are perfectly blanched, and in this state are known under the
name o( Barbede Capucin. On ship-board it is customary to use a barrel of sand with numerous holes
{Jig. 470.), or a hamper, for the same purpose.

^>93. To save seed. Proceed as directed for endive.

SuBSECT. 4. Dandelion. — Leontodon Taraxacum, L. {Eng. J3ot.) Syngen. Polygam.
JEqu. L. and Cichoracece, J. Dents de Lion, or Pisse-en-lit, Fr. ; Lowenzalm, Ger. ;
and Piscia in letto, Ital.

3994. The dandelion is a hardy perennial, a native of Britain, well known among gar-
deners as a troublesome weed, but which may also be used as a salad, and as a substitute
for coffee.

3995. Use. The leaves in early spring, when just unfolding, afford a very good in-
gredient in salads. The French sometimes eat the young roots, and the etiolated leaves,
with thin slices of bread and butter. When blanched, the leaves considerably resemble
those of endive in taste. The root is considered an equally good substitute for coffee as
chiccory, and may, like that plant, be stored in cellars or barrels for producing winter
salad. [Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 138.)

3996. Culture. Though regularly produced in the London market, it is seldom or never cultivated, being
generally to be found in sufficient luxuriance by the sides of hedges and dry ditches. It might easily be
propagated either by seeds or roots ; and, if introduced as a garden-plant, should have a rich deep soil, and
be carefully tied up, and earthed round, to blanch it effectually. Cut off all the flowers as they appear, to
prevent the dispersion of the seed, and the weakening of the plant. When salad is scarce, the dandelion
might be dug up from road sides in winter, and forced in pots, like succory.

SuBSECT. 5. Celery. — Ajnum graveolens, L. (JEng. Bot. 1210.) Pent. Dig. L. and
Umbelliferce, J. Ache, Fr. ; JEpjnch, Ger. ; and Ajipio, Ital.

3997. Tlie celery is a hardy biennial plant, a native of Britain, and known in its wild
state by the name of smallage. It is frequent by the sides of ditches, and near the
sea, where it rises with wedge-shaped leaves, and a furrowed stalk producing greenish
flowers in August. The whole plant has a rank coarse taste, and the effects of cultiv-
ation in producing from it the mild s^veet stalks of celery are not a little remarkable.
A head of celery, we are informed (^Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 297.), was dug up on
the 4th of October, 1815, at Longford, near Manchester, which weighed 9 lbs. when
washed, with the roots and leaves still attached to it, and measured four feet six inches in
height. It was of a red sort, perfectly solid, crisp, and firm, and remarkably well flavored.

3998. Use. The blanched leaf-stalks are used raw, as a salad, from August till
March ; they are also stewed, and put in soups. In Italy, the unblanched leaves are
used for soups, and when neither the blanched nor the green leaves can be had, the seeds
bruised, form a good substitute. The root only of the variety called the celeriac is used,
and Sabine informs us {^Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) "it is excellent in soups, in which, whether
white or brown, slices of it are used as ingredients, and readily impart their flavor.
With the Germans, it is also a common salad, for Avhich the roots are prepared by
boiling, until a fork will pass easily through them ; after tliey are boiled, and become
cold, they are eaten witli oil and vinegar. They are also sometimes served up at table,
stewed with rich sauces. In all cases, before they are boiled, the coat and the fibres

Uu

658 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

of tlie roots, which are very strong, are cut away j and the root is put in cold water, on
the fire, not in water previously boiling."
3999. Varieties. These are —

The common upright Italian I The tumip-rooted, or celeriac, the cele- I longer in spring. It is grown to a

The larpe hollow upright ri-rave, of the French, and the knott- large size in the neighborhood of

The sohd-stalked upright ce//eWe,of the Germans. This is hardier Hamburgh, and sometimes imported

The large red-stalked upright | than the other kinds, and will continue | for the London market.

4000. Estimate of sorts. The first three sorts are preferable for general culture. The red variety is
rather coarse for salads, but it is hardy to stand the winter, and well adapted for soups and stews. The
turnip-rooted is cultivated on account of its root, which is fit for use in September and October, and may
be preserved in sand through the winter.

4001 . Propagation. All the sorts are raised from seed ; and half an ounce is reckoned
sufficient for a seed-bed four feet and a half wide by ten feet in length, of the upright
sorts ; but for celeriac, a quarter of an ounce will be enough for a bed four feet
square.

4002. Soil. Celery delights in a soil rather moist, rich in vegetable mould, but not
rank from new unrotted dung.

4003. Times of sowing. The most forward crop is slightly forced: any of the
varieties may be sown in the spring, in the open garden, at two or three different times,
from the 21st of March till the first week in May ; but the principal sowing should be
made in the first fortnight of April.

4004. Earlt/ crop. " For early summer and autumn celery : sow a small portion towards the end of
February, in a moderate hot-bed. When the young plants are about two inches high, prick out some
into a warm border, two or three inches apart, or rather into a second slight hot-bed, if before the 21st of
March, as well to protect the plants as to expedite their growth for final planting. As soon as the leaves
are six inches high, in May or June, transplant them into trenches for blanching, as directed below for
the main crops, but as these early-sown plants will not continue long in full growth, before many of them
will pipe or run, you should plant only a moderate crop, for a temporary supply : when they are advanced
in the trenches from eight to twelve inches in growth, begin to earth them up several inches on both sides
each row ; continue earthing up by degrees as they rise higher, till they are whifened from six to twelve
inches in length ; when they may be digged up as wanted."

4005. Main crops. " To raise the main crops for summer, autumn, and winter,
make a considerable sowing at the commencement of April. Sow in beds of light mellow
earth, and rake in the seed lightly and regularly. In very dry weather, give moderate
watering both before and after the plants come up. When they are two, three, or four
inches high, thin the seed-bed, and prick out a quantity at successive times into inter-
mediate beds, three or four inches asunder. Water those removed, and till they have
struck."

4006. Judd sows about the middle of January in a warm situation, on very rich ground, protecting it by
mats at night. When the plants are from two to three inches high, he pricks out into a nursery-bed,
immersing the plants, as he draws them, in water, so as they may remain moist while out of ground.
The plants remain in the nursery-bed till they become "very strong." {Horf. Trans, vol. ii.)

4007. Walker, a gardener, near Manchester, grows the red celery ; sows for the early crop about the
Ist of March, and for the late crop about the 1st of April " The seed-bed is formed of fresh, dark,
loamy soil, mixed with old rotten dung, half and half, and placed on a hot-bed. The nursery or
" transplanting bed is formed with old hot-bed dung, very well broken, laid six or seven inches thick, on
a piece of ground which has lain some time undisturbed, or has been made hard by compression. The
situation should be sunny. The plants are set six inches apart in the dung, without soil, and covered with
hand-glasses. They are watered well when planted, and frequently afterwards. By hardening the soil
under the dung in which the plants are set, the root is formed into a brush of fibres ; and by thus pre-
venting the pushing of a tap-root, the plant never runs to seed before the following spring." {Caled. Uort.
Mem. vol ii.)

4008. Transplanting into trenches. " When either the plants left in the seed-bed, or
those removed, are from six to twelve inches high, or when the latter have acquired a
stocky growth, by four or five weeks' nurture in the intermediate bed, transplant them
into trenches for blanching. For this purpose allot an open compartment. Mark out
the trenches a foot wide, and from three feet to three and a half distance ; dig out
each trench lengthwise, a spade in width, and a light spit deep, that is, six or eight
inches. Lay the excavated earth smoothly in the intervals, making the edges of the
trenches equally full and straight ; also loosen the bottom moderately, in a level order, to
receive the plants. Before inserting them, it would essentially strengthen the soil to
apply some good rotten dung in each trench two or three inches thick, and let it be
digged in at the bottom regularly, a moderate depth. Then having lifted the plants, just
trim any long straggling tops of the leaves and fibres of the roots ; also slip off side
shoots ; plant a single row along the bottom of each trench, four or five inches apart.
Give a good watering directly ; and occasionally after, if the weather be dry, till the
plants take root and show a renewed growth. Continue planting out a monthly succes-
sion in June, July, August, and September ; thus providing for a supply from July and
August of the present summer throughout the course of autumn and winter, till May in
the following spring."

4009. Judd prepares his ground for transplanting, by trenching it two spades deep, mixing with it in the
operation a good dressing of well reduced dung from the old forcing-beds. He says, " I give it a second
trenching, tnat the dung may be the better incorporated with the mould, and then leave it in as rough a
state as possible, till my plants are ready to be put out. In the ground thus prepared, 1 form trenches
twenty iaches wide, and six inches deg), at six feet distance from each other, measuring from the centre

Book I. CELERY. 6.59

of each trench. Before planting, I reduce the depth of the trenches to three inches, by dicing in suf-
ficit^t dung to fill them so mucfi up. At the time of planting, if the weather be dry, the trenches are
weKate?ll in the morning, and t^he plants arei>utin, six inches apart, in the row, m the evening, care
telng token by the mtSe above mentioned, to keip the fibres quite wet whilst out of ground ; as they are
Knirom ?he nurTery-bed, the plants are dressed for planting, and then laid regularly ,n he garden-pa.i^
The trenches in which ray rows of celery are planted, being so very shallow, the roots of the plants grow
nekrlyonf level with the surface of the ground : thL. I consider particularly advautogeous ; for as con-
S^?e (^^vitl^ Tre n«;essarily formed on each side when the moulding takes place, all injury from stog-
nant water or excesf of moisture is prevented. The trenches, when planted, are watered as may be
requi^/' He adds, » that he prepares his ground for celery during the winter, and avoids puttmg much
of a ci^ in the space between the trenches, Ispecially one that grows tall, as he finds celery does best, when

" 1ST TvS ma^Si'trenches at four feet distance, and eighteen inches wide twelve deep and filled
nine inches with a compost of fresh strong soil, and weU rotted dung ; three fourths dung, and one fourth
ToPl Old hot-bed dung is the best The planU should be token up with as much dung as wil conveniently
adhere to the roots, and the side shoots are removed from the stems ; they are then set with the hand at
nine or ten inches apart in the centre of each trench ; it is necessary to water well until they are ready to
be earthed up, but not afterwards.

401 1. Landing np. As the plants in the trenches rise from ten to fifteen inches high,
Abercrombie begins to land up for blanching, observing " to trim in the earth gently,
when first raised to the stems, with a hoe or spade, but mostly the latter. When the
plants are of more advanced growth, earth them up equally on both sides each row,
three, four, or five inches, according to the strength and height of tlie different crops.
Repeat this once a week or fortnight, till by degrees they are landed up from twelve
inches to two feet, in order to blanch them of some considerable length. Continue tlius
landing up the different crops from July till February. As the autumnal and main
winter crops attain full growth, give them a final landing up near the tops, which will
increase the length of the blanched part, and also protect the latter crops more effectually
during the winter."

4012. Judd, in landing up celery, does " not think it well to load the plants with too much mould at first ;
the two first mouldings, therefore, are done very sparingly, and only with the common draw-hoe, forming
a ridge on each side of the row, and leaving tlie plants in a hoUow, to receive the full benefit of the rain
and waterings. When the plants are strong enough to bear six inches height of mould, the moulding is
done with the spade, toking care to leave basis enough to support the mass of mould which will ultimately
be used in the ridge, and still keeping for some time the plants in a hollow, as before directed. The process
of moulding is continued through ilie autumn, gradually diminishing the breadth of the top, until at last
it is drawn to as sharp a ridge as possible to stond the winter. In the operation of moulding it is necessary,
in order to prevent the earth from felling into the heart of the plant, to keep the outer leaves as close
together as possible; for this purpose, before I begin the moulding, I take long strands of bass matting,
tied together till of sufficient length to answer for an entire row ; and I fasten this string to the first plant
in the row, then pass it to the next plant, giving it one twist round the leaves, and so on, till I reach the
other end, where it is again fastened ; when the moulding is finished, the string is easily unravelled, by
beginning to untwist it at the end where it was last fastened.'!

4013. Walker " having removed the lateral shoots, the leaves of each plant being held together with
one hand, the soil, pulverised, is drawn round with the other, taking care not to earth up too high at once,
nor too close. The heart should always be left quite free. This may be repeated about once a fortnight,
until the plants are ready for use."

4114. Late crop. " For late spring celery to stand till tlie end of May in the returning
spring, without running considerably, it is expedient to make a small late sowing at the
commencement of May. Tlie plants when six weeks old may be pricked on interme-
diate beds in rows, six inches by three asunder ; to remain till September or October ;
then transplant them into moderate trenches ; as they advance in growth, earth them up
a little in winter ; and, finally, in the spring, in February or March."

4015. Occasional shelter. " On the approach of frost, take up a part of the crop, and
lay it by under dry sand for winter use. To preserve the plants left in the bed, lay some
long dry litter over the tops; which remove in every interval of mild weather." It is a
common complaint that very fine looking celery is often found to be rotten at the base
of the leaf-stalks ; the fact being, that when celery is full grown and the blanching com-
pleted, it begins to decay, and will not keep good in the ground for more than a month
at most. Some, therefore, take up and preserve in dry sand ; but in that situation it
soon becomes tough and dry. The best mode seems to be that of forming successive
plantations."

4016. Taking the crop. " It is best to begin at one end of a row, and dig clean down
to the roots, which then loosen with a spade, that they may be drawn up entire without
breaking the stalks."

4017. Cultivation of celeriac. The times of sowing are the same as for tlie other sorts.
Celeriac requires a rich well manured soil, and, according to an account communicated
by Lord Stanhope to Sabine [Hart. Trans, iii.), the plants are raised on a hot-bed
under glass, and transplanted when two or three inches high to another hot-bed, and set
one inch and a half apart. " In the beginning or middle of June they are transplanted into
a flat bed in the open air, at the distance of fifteen inches from each other, and not in
trenches like other celery. Tliey must be abundantly watered as soon as they are set
out, and the watering must be repeated every other day, or, if the weather should be
warm, every day. As they increase in size, they wiU require a greater quantity of
water, and they must be occasionally hoed. The roots wiU be fit for use in September
or October." In a note to this paper, Sabine states, that he has been informed, that

Uu 2

660 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

the plan of giving excess of water is peculiar, and that the vigorous growth of the
plant is more dependent on richness of soil than on any other cause. Abercrombie
directs to earth up the bulbs four or five inches, to blanch them when they are full
grown.

4018. To save seed. " Either leave some established plants in the spring where grow-
ing ; or in February or March dig up a competent number, cut down the top leaves, and
set the plants in the ground, full two feet asunder. They will produce seed in autumn."

4019. Walker gro^s only red celery; and in preparing plants for seed, chooses the most solid, of the
reddest color, and the smallest size. When taken out of the transplanting-bed, the lateral shoots being
removed, they should be planted in a dry warm situation, where the seed will ripen well.

SuBgBCT. 6. Mustard. — Sinapis, L. Tetradynamia SUiquosa, L. and CrutHferee, J.
Seneve, Fr. j Sen/, Ger. ; and Senapa, Ital.

4020. Of mustard there are two species in cultivation, tlie black and the white ; an-
nuals, and natives of Britain.

4021. The white mustard is the Sinapis alba, L. [Eng. Hot. t. 1677.) It grows na-
turally in corn-fields, and flowers in June and July. The leaves are pinnatifid, the
pod round and rough, and abruptly terminated. The seed is yellow, and, as well as
the flowers, is larger than those of the black species.

4022. Use. This species is cultivated chiefly as a small salad, and is used like cresses
while in the seed ; when these are newly expanded, they are mild and tender ; but when
the plants have advanced into the rough leaves, they eat rank and disagreeable.

4023. Culture. For spring and summer consumption, sow once a week, or fortnight, in dry warm situ-
ations, in February and March ; and afterwards in any other compartment. " In summer, sow in shady
borders, if it be hot sunny weather; or have the bed shaded. Generally sow in shallow flat drills, from
three to six inches apart ; scatter the seed thick and regular, and cover in thinly with the earth, about a
quarter of an inch. To furnish gatherings in winter, or early in spring, sow in frames or under hand-
glasses ; and when the weather is frosty or very cold, in hot-beds and stoves, as directed for cress."

4024. To save seed. Either sow a portion in March or April, to stand for that purpose ; or, for small
supplies, leave some rows of the spring sowing, grown too large for salads ; they will ripen seed in
autumn.

4025. The black mustard is the S. nigra, L. {Eng. Bot. 969.) the sSneve of the French.
It is frequent in corn-fields. It is altogether a larger plant than the white, with much
darker leaves, and their divisions blunter. The flowers are small, the pods smooth, and
lying close to the stem.

4026. Use. Black mustard is chiefly cultivated in fields for the rain, and for medicinal purposes. It is
sometimes, however, sown in gardens, and the tender leaves used as greens early in spring. The seed-
leaves, in common with those of the cress, radish, rape, &c. are sometimes used as a salad ingredient ; but
the grand purpose ibr which the plant is cultivated is for seeds, which, ground, produce the well known
condiment. If the seeds. Dr. CuUen observes, betaken fresh from the plant, and ground, the powder
has little pungency, but is very bitter ; by steeping in vinegar, however, the essential oil is evolved, and
the powder becomes extremely pungent. In moistening mustard-powder for the table, it may be re-
marked, that it makes the best appearance when rich milk is used; but the mixture in this case does not
Aeep good for more than two days. The seeds of both the black and white mustard are often used in an
entire state medicinally.

4027. Culture for the mill. " To raise seed for flower of mustard, and other officinal occasions sow,
either in March or April, generally the black sort, or occasionally the white, in any open compartment :
or makelarge sowings in fields, where designed for public supply. Sow moderately thick, either in drills
from six to twelve inches asunder, or broad-cast, and rake or harrow in the seed. When the plants are
two or three inches in the growth, hoe, or thin them moderately, where too thick, and clear them from
weeds. They will soon run up in stalks j and in July or August return a crop of seed, ripe for gather. .
ing." {^Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 7. Rape. — Brassica Najms, L. var. oleifera, Dec. (Eng. Bot. t. 2146.)
Tetrad. Siliq. L. and Cruciferce, J. Navette, Fr. j Bepskokl, Ger. ; and Najyo sal-
valico, Ital.

4028. The rape is a biennial plant, a native of Britain, and distinguished by its glau-
cous root-leaves, and yellow flowers, which appear in April.

4029. Use. Rape is cultivated in gardens as a small salad herb, to be gathered
young in the seed-leaves, and used in cresses and mustard. Like these, it has a warm
flavor, and is recommended as a stomachic. The plant is also much used in agriculture.

4030 Culture for small salading. Sow at the same time with cresses, mustard, &c. in winter and
spring'; or at any season when small salading is required. Sow in drills or beds, and follow the culture
directed for White Mustard. .. j . .. ^ x,. •„ ^

4031. To save seed. Transplant two or three plants any time during the summer, and they will flower
and seed the second year abundantly.

SuBSECT. 8. Corn-Salad, or Lamb-Lettuce. — Valeriana Locusta, L. ; Fedia olitoria,
Willd. (Eng. Bot. 811.) Triandria Monogyn. L. and Bijisacea, J. Mdche, Fr. j
Ackersalat, Ger. ; and Valerianello, Ital.

4032. The corn-salad is a diminutive annual plant, common in corn-fields or sandy
soils. The leaves are long and narrow, of a pale glaucous hue, the lower ones rather
succulent. The flowers are very small, pale-bluish, and collected into a close little
corymb ; they appear in the open fields in April. When cultivated, it rises a foot high,

Book I. GARDEN-CRESS, AMERICAN CRESS. 661

and flowers in March. Gerrard tells us, tliat foreigners using it while in England, led
to its being cultivated in our gardens. , u ♦,•* ♦

4033 Use. It is used in salads through winter and early spring ; both as a substitute
for common lettuce in those seasons, and to increase the variety of small salads. For
these purposes it has long been a favorite plant in France, under the denomination of
mdche, doucette, salade de chanoine, and poule grasse.

4034. Propagation. It is raised from seed, of which a quarter of an ounce is sufficient for a bed four

*^^4a§^ ^Thkes of sowing " To answer the common demand, two or at most three sowings wiU be suffi-
cieT^ vizTpri43^wing at the beginning or towards the middle of August ; a secondary sowing early
in S^k^ml^r^ to mniish together crops in winter and early spring; and a smaller sowmg m spring, the
c"oS of February ""course of March, if the plants are required in continuation throughout that season
Si^h thiy are apt to get rank-tasted in warm dry weather. If wanted throughout summer, sow once

^ 'S'''c^?ure"'''''V^Z''ai^^ mellow earth, broad-cast, and rake in the seed. When

thepTants are up, thin them tWo or three inches asunder, that they may have room to acquire some smaU

'*^.^rrsflS'iei.^*'«"L^ve some plants in spring; they will produce seed in July or August"
(Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 9. Garden-Cress. — Lepidium sativum, "L. {Zom. Ic. 16.) Tetrad. Silic. 1j,
and Cruciferce, J. Cresson, Fr. ; Gemeine Kresse, Ger. ; and Crescione, Ital.

4038. The garden-cress is a hardy annual plant, cultivated since 1548 ; but its native
country is un\novvn. The cultivated plant rises with numerous small long leaves,
curled or plain ; from which proceeds a stalk from fifteen to twenty inches high, fur-
nished with white flowers, which blossom in June and July. The whole plant partakes
strongly of the pungent smell and acrid taste which distinguish the Crucifera:.

4039. Use. It is cultivated in gardens for the young leaves, which are used in salads,
and have a peculiarly warm and grateful relish. It ranks among gardeners as the prin-
cipal of the small salads.

4040. Varieties. Tliese are —

The common plain-leafed; principaUy I Curled-leaved; equally good as a salad, 1 Broad-leaTed; less cultivated for salad-
cultivated 1 and preferable as a garnish ing, but grown for rearing tur-

I keys, &c.

4041. Propagation. All the varieties are raised from seed, of which one ounce or
one eighth of a°pint will suflSce for a bed four feet by four feet.

4042. Times of sowing and site of the crop. " Cress should be raised three or four times every month,
as it may be in demand, to have crops delicately young in constant succession. For culture in the
open garden, begin in the first, second, or third week in March, as a forward spring may bring mild
weather or otherwise : allot some warm situation for the early spring sowings ; and if the weather take a
cold turn, either put on a spare frame, or cover with matting between sunset and sunrise. When spring
is confirmed, sow in any open compartment. At the beginning of summer, the same ; but, in hot dry
weather, either sow in a shady border, or if the situation be open, shade with mats in the middle of the
day. For autumn sowings, when cold weather is approaching, allot some warm borders, and give occa-
sional protection. When crops are in demand throughout winter, either sow in a moderate hot-bed, or in
cradles to be placed in a stove ; pans filled with rotten tan are to be preferred to pots or boxes with mould.
From the last fortnight of October till the first of March, it will be mostly fruitless to sow in the open
garden ; but a terrace, sloping south under a frame, may be used at the decline of the year and most
early part of spring, as the intermediate step between the open garden and hot-bed, if more within the
means at command. During this interval, some market-gardeners sow it just within the glasses which
cover larger plants." The cress is often raised on porous earthen-ware vessels, of a conical form, having
small gutters on the sides, for retaining the seeds. These are called pyramids, are somewhat ornamental
in winter, and afford repeated gatherings.

4043. Process in sowing and subsequent culture. " Having allotted a fine mellow soil to receive the seed,
dig the surface, and rake it finally preparatory to sowing, which mostly perform in small, flat, shallow
drills, four, five, or six inches asunder. Sow the seed very thick, and earth over very lightly, or but just
thinly cover. Give occasional waterings in warm dry seasons."

4044. Taking the crop. " To gather cress in perfection, cut them while moderately young, either clean
to the root, or only the tops of advanced plants. They will shoot again for future gathering, but the
leaves will be hotter, and not so mild and tender as those of younger plants."

4045. To save seed. " Either sow a portion in the spring for that purpose ; or leave some rows of any
overgrown old crop in April and May. The plants will yield seed in autumn."

SuBSECT. 10. American Cress.-— Barharea ]rr(Xcox, D. C. {Eng. Bat. t. 1129.)
Tetradynamia Siliquosa, L. and Cruciferce, J. Cresson d^Amenqtie, Fr. ; and Ameri-
kanisher Kresse, Ger.

4046. The American cress is a native of Britain, and found in watery places ; and
was formerly considered as a variety of the common winter cress ( B. vulgaris ) ; but, as
observed by Neill, it is only biennial ; while the common winter cress is perennial.
It has smaller leaves, more frequently sinuated; the lower are lyre-shaped, and those on
the stalk pinnatifid. It is often called black American cress, and sometimes French
cress.

4047. Use. It is generally liked ?s a winter cress and early spring salad, resembling
in flavor the common winter cress, but rather more bitter. It is in demand in some
families throughout the year.

4048. Culture. It is raised from seed, which is sold by weight, and for every ten feet of drill, a quarter
of an ounce will be requisite. " Sow in a bed of light dry earth, rather in drills nine inches apart, than
broad-cast. For winter and spring use, make a cowing in the last fortnight of August, or beginning of
September, on a warm sheltered border. If wanted throughout summer, sow every six weeks from March
to August, giving a sunny or shady situation according to the advancement of the season. Water occa-

Uu 3

662 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Bionally in dry hot weather. At the approach of winter, shelter the plants, by laying a few light twigs
among them so as not to interfere with their growth ; and upon these, a covering of fern, reeils, or dry
litter. The plants being cut, or the outside leaves stripped off, shoot again for another gathering."

40*9. To save seed. " Let a few choice plants, raised in spring, run ; and they will ripen seed before
the decline of summer." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 11. Winter Cress. — Barbarea vulgaris, H. K. {Eng. Bot, 443.); Erysi-
7num Barbarea, L. and Smith. Tetrad. Siliq. L. and Crucifei^ce, J. Barbare, Fr. ;
Winter Kresse, Ger. ; and Erba di Santa Barbarea, Ital.

4050. The winter cress is a well-known perennial plant, common in moist shady
situations. The lower leaves are lyre-shaped, and the upper obovate and indented. The
flower-stalk rises about a foot high, and produces yellow flowers from April to August.
The whole plant is bitter and somewhat aromatic. Neill observes, " Some still con-
sider the American cress of gardeners as a variety of this ; but after cultivating both
for several years, we have found those to be riglit who regard them as distinct." A
double variety o{ Barbarea is well known in the flower-border as the yellow rocket of gar-
deners.

4051. Use and culture. The same as the American cress.

SuBSECT. 12. Water-Cress. — Nasturtium officinale, H. K. {Eng. Bot. t. 855.); Sisym-
brium Nasturtium, L. Tetrad. Siliq. L. and CrupifereB, J. Cresson de Fontaine, Fr. ;
Briinnenkresse, Ger. ; and Cressione di Sorgenti, Ital.

4052. Water-cress is a creeping amphibious perennial, growing in wet ditches and
slow running streams. The stems are spreading, declining or floating, if in water. The
leaves are alternate, pinnate, and somewhat lyre-shaped. The flowers are white in a
corymb, soon lengthened out into a spike in June and July. The plant, when growing
in a rapid current, has its leaves lengthened ; and in this state, Martyn remarks, is some-
times mistaken for the water-parsnep {Sium nodiflorum, L.), which commonly grows with
it, and is deleterious.

4053. The cultivation of the watcr-cress is said to have been first attempted in 1808, by Bradbury, at
Northfleet-Spring-Head, near Gravesend. This cultivator now grows five acres at W^est Hyde, near
Rickmansworth : he sends the cress in hampers, each containing eight dozen hunches, to the London
markets every day throughout the year, excepting Sundays, and in consequence of (his and other supplies
from artificial sources, the wholesale price of the article is reduced one half. There are now several culti-
vators of water-cress at Hackney, Bayswater, Uxbridge, and other places. Water-cresses are also culti-
vated near Paris. {Neill, in Hart. Tour, 490.)

4054. Use. It forms an excellent spring salad either alone or with brook -lime or
scurvy-grass. It is a popular favorite in spring in most places ; and is eaten fasting,
<jr with bread and butter, by those who have faith in its antiscorbutic virtues. The juice
is decocted with* that of scurvy-grass and Seville oranges, and forms the popular remedy
called spring juices.

' 4055. Varieties. Bradbury considers that there are three, the green-leaved, the small brown-leaved, and
the large brown-leaved. The green-leaved is the easiest cultivated, the small brown-leaved the hardiest,
and the large brown the best for cultivation in deep water, and that preferred by this cultivator.

4056. Culture. The' most suitable description of water is a clear stream, and not more than an inch and
half deep, running over sand or gravel ; the least favorable, deep still water on a muddy bottom. It is highly
advantageous to make the plantations in newly risen spring-water, as the plants not only thrive better in
it but in consequence of its being rarely frozen, they generally continue in vegetation, and in a good state
for pathering through the whole winter season. Tlie plants are disposed in rows parallel with the course
of the stream. In shallow water the distance between the rows is not more than eighteen inches, but in
deep water it is as much as from five to seven feet. V/hen the plants begin to grow in water one inch
and a half deep, they soon check the current so as to raise the water to the height of three inches about
the plants, which is considered the most favorable circumstance in v/hich they can be placed. Where the
plants are not in rows, the water is impeded in its course, and the plants are choakcd up with weeds and
the different matters which float down the stream ; and when the cress is grown in deep water, the roots
are easily drawn out of the soil in gathering. The cress will not grow freely in a muddy bottom, nor will
it taste well when there is mud about the roots ; which should be carefully removed, and replaced by
gravel or chalk. It is absolutely necessary to have a constant current, as where there is any obstruction'to
the stream or flow of water, the plants cease to thrive. After the plants have been cut about three times,
they begin to stock, and then the oftener they are cut the better ; in summer it is necessary to keep them
very closely cut ; and in water of a proper depth, and with a good soil, each bed supplies a gathering
once a-week. In winter the water should be rather deeper than in summer (four or five inches) ; to
obtain this the plants are left with more head, that the water may thus be impeded.

4057 Replanting. The most expensive part of the cultivation is the necessity of cleaning out and re-
planting the beds twice a-year ; as the mud quickly collects about the roots, and the duck-weed and other
plants become intermixed with, and choak up the cress ; it is almost impossible to pick it in a fit state for
market after the plantation has been made five or six months. The mode of replanting is to remove all
th" roots of plants, beginning at the stream head, and then clear the bed of the stream from mud and rub-
bish which however, it should be remarked, make excellent garden manure. From the crop ot plants
thus' taken out the youngest, and those with most roots, are selected ; these are placed on the gravel m
rows at the requisite distance, with a stone on each plant, to keep it m its place. The tmties of renewmg
the beds are in May and June, and from September to November. The plantmg is done in succession, so
that the crops may come regularly into cutting. Those planted in May are fit to cut m August, and those
planted in November are ready to gather in the spring. ,„./.»

4058 Culture in water-beds. Some market-gardeners who can commaJid a small stream of water, grow
the water-cress in beds sunk about a foot in a retentive soil, with a very gentle slope from one end to the
other. Along the bottom of this bed, which may be of any convenient breadth and length, chalk or gravel
is deposited, and the plants are inserted about six inches' distance every way. Then, according to the
slope and length of the bed, dams are made six inches high across it, at intervals ; so that when these dams
are full, the water may rise not le&i thau three inchco on all the plants included in each. Ihc water being

Book I. SCURVY-GRASS, BURNET. 663

turned on will circulate from dam to dam ; and the plants, if not allowed to run to flower, will afford
abundance of young tops in all but the winter months. A stream of water, noiarger than what will fill a
pipe of one inch bore, will, if not absorbed by the soil, suffice to irrigate in this way an eighth of an
acre. As some of the plants are apt to rot off in winter, the plantation should be laid dry two or three
times a-year, and all weeds and decayed parts removed, and vacancies filled Up. Cress grown in this way,
however, is far inferior to that grown in a living stream flowing over gravel or chalk.

4059 Taking the crop. The shoots are cut for market, not broken off, which is the usual mode of ga-
thering the wild cress, and which latter practice is found to be very injurious to the plants in the beds.
{Hort. Trans, iv. 510.)

SuBSECT. 13. Brook-liine. — Veronica beccabunga, L. (Eng. Bot. 655.) Diandria
Monogyniay L. and Scrophularitue, B. P. Beccabongue, Fr. ; Bachbunge, Ger. ; and
Beccabv7igia, Ital.

4060. The brook-lime is a perennial plant, a native of Britain, and common in rivu-
lets and wet ditches. It has a trailing or procumbent stem, furnished with smooth, dark-
green, elliptical leaves, from the axillae of which proceed bunches of blue flowers in July.

4061. Use. llie young tops and leaves are used as a salad, like the water-cress, with
which it is often mixed, being milder, more succulent, and only slightly bitterish in taste.
In Scotland the sprigs of brook-lime are brought to market under the name of water-
jmrpie, and sold along with wall-cresses (well, or water-cresses).

4062. Culture. The same as for the water-cress.

SuBSECT. 14. Garden-rocket. — Brassica Eruca, L. {Schk. Hand. 2. t. 186.) Tetrad.
SUiq. L. and Crucifercs. J. Roquette cultivSe, Fr. ; Raukette, Ger. ; and Ruca, Ital.

4063. The garden-rocket is an annual plant, a native of Austria, and known in this
country in 1573. The stem rises two feet high, is upright and branchy, and furnished
with smooth, pulpy, cut and toothed leaves. When in flower in July, it has a strong pe-
culiar smell, almost fetid. This plant is now neglected in Britain^ but is still in use in
several places on the continent.

4064. Use. Tlie leaves and tender stalks are used as salad ingredients, and form an
agreeable addition to cresses and mustard early in spring.

4065. Culture. Sow in a warm border early in February, and again in March and April for successive
crops. Thin the plants after they have produced the first rough leaf to three or four inches asunder, and
keep them clear of weeds. If a supply is desired throughout the year, monthly sowings may be made j and
in autumn, under frames.

4066. To save seed. Allow a few of the strongest plants of the spring sowing to come into flower ; they
will produce abundance of seeds in August.

SuBSECT. 15. Scurvy-grass. — Cochlearia officinalis. L. {Eng. Bot. 550.) Tetra-
dynamia S'diculosa, L. and Cruciferce, J. Cranson officinal, Fr. ; LoffieUcrauty Ger. ;
and Cocleaiia, Ital.

4067. The scurvy-grass is a biennial plant, indigenous to most of our sea-shores, and,
like the sea-j>ink (^Statice), growing also on inland mountains. The root-leaves are
round; those of the stem sinuated; the whole plant is low and spreading, seldom rising
above a foot. The flowers are white, and appear in April and May.

4068. Use. The smaller leaves are occasionally used like the water-cress, and some-
times eaten between slices of bread and butter. The plant is also occasionally used me-
dicinally.

4069. Varieties. A thick-leaved variety, called the Dutch scurvy-grass, is cultivated
in some gardens.

4070. Culture. The plant may either be propagated from se«d, or by dividing the roots. It'delights in a
sandy soil and a moist atmosphere, which it finds alike by the sea-shore and on lofty mountains. It will
grow, however, almost any where, and is often found firmly established on old walls and ruins, sowing
itself, and thus remaining many years. When to be raised from seed, sow about July. Plants from a
spring sowing seldom prosper. Abercrombie says, " Sow in drills eight inches apart; and when the
plants are up, thin them to six inches' distance ; these thinned out, may be transplanted into new beds. In
the following spring, the succulent leaves will be fit for use.

4071. To save seed. Leave some plants in flower in May, and they will ripen abundance of seed in July.

SuBSECT. 16. Burnet. — Poterium Sanguisorha, L. {Eng. Bot. t. 860.) Moncec. Po'
lyan. L. and Rosacece, J. Petite Pimprenelle, Fr. ; Pimpemelle, Ger. ; and Pim-
jnnella, Ital.

4072. The bumet is a hardy perennial plant, indigenous in Britain, and found in dry
upland calcareous soils. The leaves are pinnated, and form a tuft next to the root ; but
are alternate on the stem : the leaflets are partly round-shaped, partly pointed, and much
serrated on the edges. The stem rises fifteen inches high, and the flowers form small
greenish heads tinged with purjile in July.

4073. Use. Burnet-leaves are sometimes put into salads, and occasionally into soups,
and they form a favorite herb for cool tankards. When slightly bruised, they smell
like cucumber, and they have a somewhat warm taste. They continue green through the
winter, when many other salad-plants are cut oiF, or in a state unfit for use. It was for-
merly in much greater repute than at present.

Uu4

664 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4074. Propagation and culture. The plant may be raised from seed ; of which half an ounce will suffice
for a bed three feet by four. It may either be sown in spring or early in autumn. It may also be very
readily propagated by parting the roots early in spring. When the plants are of two or three inches
growth, transplant into rows, or a bed, at six inches plant from plant. Cut down all flower-stalks not
intended for seed.

SuBSECT. 17. Wood-Sorrel. — Oxalis acetosella, L. {Eng. Bot. 762.) Decan. Pentag. L.
and Geraniacece, J. Oseille, Fr. ; Sauerampfer, Ger. ; and Acetosa, Ital.
4075. The wood-sorrel is an indigenous perennial plant, found in woods, and by
hedge-sides, and in moist, shady situations. It has a scaly, bulbous, articulate root, and
ternate, obcordate, hairy leaves. The flowers rise from the root singly, are of a pale flesh
color, and appear in April and May.

4076. Use. The leaves form a very grateful addition to salading, and communicate
an agreeable relish to dishes of mashed greens.

4077. Culture. The plant is readily propagated by dividing the roots, and may be planted in a moist
shady situation in bog earth. Here, by preventing the plants ftrom coming into flower, and cropping the
herb of a part of the plantation two or three times in the season, a supply of fresh young leaves may be
obtained from April to October.

SuBSECT. 18. Small Salads.
4078. By small salads gardeners and cooks understand the small herbs, or very young
plants, which are used in the seed-leaves ; such as cress, mustard, radish, and rape ; also
the lamb-lettuce. Others, such as sorrel, are either pot-herbs or salad-herbs. Some-
times the white cabbage, lettuce, endive, and succory, are also sown, to be cut in the
seed-leaf. The small salads are occasionally used by themselves, when there is a de-
ficiency of the greater salad-plants, the lettuce, endive, celery, &c. But when both kinds
can be had, they are in general combined.

4079. Culture. Sow very thick in drills, or on beds of very finely pulverised soil, watering in dry wea-
ther to accelerate germination and the succulency of the plants. Early in spring sow under glass, or in a
warm sheltered situation, and in winter in pots and boxes to be placed in some of the forcing-houses,
or in the stove ; or sow in the borders of the forcing-houses, or in hot-beds or pits, &c. Observe, that a sup-
ply is wanted in most families throughout the year.

4080. Gathering. Cut off the seed-leaves and about half their foot-stalks, as soon as the former are ex-
panded ; some prefer letting small salading grow till one or two of the proper leaves appear, in which
case it is of a stronger flavor.

Sect. VIII. Pot-herbs and Garnishings.

4081. Pot-herbs and garnishings require but a very small portion of the kitchen-garden,
perhaps not above two or three poles, even in the largest, and with the exception of
parsley, marygold, and Indian cress, they are rarely found in those of the cottager.

SuBSECT. 1. Parsley. — Apium Petroselinum, L. Pe7it. Trig. L. and UmbeWfercEy J.
Persil, Fr. ; Peter sUie, Ger. ; and Petroselino, Ital.

4082. The parsley is a hardy biennial, a native of Sardinia, and introduced in 1548.
It is so common as to be naturalised in several places both of England and Scotland.
Tlie root-leaves are compound, and much curled in some varieties. The flowers are
pale-yellow, and appear in June ; they have usually one leaflet at the origin of the uni-
versal umbel ; and an involucre of from six to eight short folioles, fine almost as hairs,
to the partial umbel. " It may be right to notice, that the poisonous plant called fool's
parsley {JEthusa Cyjiapium), a common weed in rich garden-soils, has sometimes been
mistaken for common parsley. They are very easily distinguished : the leaves of fool's
parsley are of a darker green, of a different shape, and, instead of the peculiar parsley
smell, have, when bruised, a disagreeable odor. When the flower-stem of the fool's
parsley appears, the plant is at once distinguished by what is vulgarly called its beard,
three long pendent leaflets of the involucrum. The timid may shun all risk of mistake
by cultivating only the curled variety. This last, it may be remarked, makes the prettiest
garnish." {Neill, in Ed. Encyc.)

4083. Use. The leaves of the two first varieties are used as pot-herbs at all seasons
of the year ; also as a garnish. The third kind is esteemed for its large white carrot-
shaped root, drawn in autumn and winter, like parsneps, for the table ; and occasionally
to be used in medicine, being considered a remedy for the gravel.

4084. Varieties. These are —

The common plain-leaved ; seldom cultivated I The broad-leaved, or large-roote<l Hamburgh ;

The curled thick-leaved ; most esteemed | cultivated for its carrot-shaped root.

4085 Culture of the pot-herb kinds. " One sowing in spring will mostly furnish young leaves all the
year • though to answer a constant demand, many persons make successive sowings from February to
May. Some also sow early in autumn for young parsley in winter and spring ; but such a supply is bet-
ter provided by cutting down established plants. Sow in a single drill, along the edge of any compart-
ment, or occasionally in rows nine or twelve inches asunder. Draw small drills, something less than an
inch deep; in which drop the seed moderately thick, and coyer a little above half an mch ^heplant»
will come up in three or four weeks, and when two or three inches high may be githered as wanted
all the summer, wbiter, and following spring, till May, when they will go to seed. Have always a young
crop sown timely in the spring, to succeed the declining old plants. In gathering pot-herb parsley, cut
close and regular. In summer, when the i.lants grow rank, yielding more leaves than can l)e "sed cut
them in close to the bottom, and they will shoot up stocky m a regular close growth. Observe also to rio

/

PURSLANE, TARRAGON, FENNEL. €65

the same in autumn, about the end of September, that the plants may form heads of fresh young leaves
before winter. On the approach of frosty weather, protect them with haulm or reed panels, laid upon
branches of birch or other light supports." ^ ^ i. ^i. •, •

%,86 Culture of Hamburgh parsley. "To obtain large roots, aUot a compartment where the soil ig
deep, and has been weU digged. Anv common mould will suit, if dry and not too rich. Sow m Fe-
bruary, March, or earlv in April, in one or more beds ; either in drills nine inches asunder, or broad-cast,
and rake in. The plants should be thinned to nine inches' distance, to give room for proper growth in
the roots : for use in August, September, October, and thence tiU the following spring. On the approach
of frost, take up some roots, and preserve them in .sand. A sowing may be made m the third week in
June, where voung roots are wanted in winter." .,, , , ^ *• j

4087. To save seed. " Permit some old plants to run to stalks in May ; they will produce plenty of seed,
ripening in July or August." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 2. Purslane. — Portulaca oleracea, L. (Plant, grass, 123.) Dodec. Monog. L.
and Portulacece, J. Pourpier, Fr. ; Portulak, Ger. ; and Porcellana, Ital.

4088. The purslane is an annual plant, a native of Soutli- America, and introduced in
1 65-2. It has a round, smooth, rather procumbent stem, and diffused branches ; the
]r:.yes somewhat wedge-shaped and fleshy; the flowers, yellow and sessile, appear in
June and July.

4089. Use. The young snoots and succulent leaves are esteemed cooling, and are
used in spring and summer as an ingredient in salads, and as pot-herbs and pickles.
The plant was formerly much more in request than at present.

4C90. Varieties. There are two varieties of the P. oleracea cultivated, the green and the golden.
The latter is by some considered as a distinct species {P. sativd). It has rather larger leaves, and is less
succulent than the P. oleracea.

4091. Culture. Both sorU are raised from seed, and for a bed four feet by four feet, sown either broad,
cast or in drills, nine inches apart, one eighth of an ounce will suffice. " Each variety is somewhat ten-
der; the green, which is usuallv preferred, is perhaps rather the hardiest. An early crop may be sown
in February or March, on a moderate hot-bed : the planU will require the -id of a gentle heat till^ the
middle of May; when the seed may be sown in a warm border. If a continued succession is required,
sow ever>- month during summer, till August, or while the plant can be raised ; generally in small drills,
from three to six inches asunder. The plants will soon come up : they should remain where sown. In
Tery drv hot weather, water thrice a week. The shoots may t)e gathered for use when they are from two
to five inches in height, and are well furnished with leaves. Cut them off low, and the bottom part will
soon sprout out again."

4092. To save seed. " Leave some of the first open-border plants to run ; they will give ripe seed in
autumn." {Abcrcrombie.)

SuBSECT. 3. Tarragon. — Artemisia Dracuncxdus, 'L. (Blackw. t. 116.) Syng. Polyg.
Super. L. and Compositce, J. L^ Estragon, Fr. ; Dragun, Ger. ; and Dragon-
cello, Ital.

4093. The tarragon is a perennial plant, a native of Siberia, but cultivated in our gar-
dens from the time of Gerrard, in 1548. Its branched stem rises a foot and a half high,
and has narrow leaves, green on both sides. The smell of tlie plant is fragrant, and its
taste aromatic.

4094. Use. Tlie leaves and tender tips are used as an ingredient in pickles. A
simple infusion of the plant in vinegar makes a pleasant fish sauce. In France it is em-
ployed, on account of its agreeable pungency, to correct the coldness of salad-herbs ; it is
also put in soups, and other compositions.

4095. Culture. " Avoid planting tarragon in a wet tenacious soil ; as in that case the root is apt to
perish in a severe winter. This herb may be propagated in the spring, by seed ; or, more expeditiously,
by offset bottom slips, or sections of the root and top, planted in spring or autumn : also plentifully in
summer, from June to August, by slips or cuttings of the spring stalks or branch shoots. The germs are
to be planted in beds or borders from six to nine inches apart, and properly watered. They will quickly
increase in a branchy head, for u<e the same year, to gather green, as wanted ; and a portion may be
dried and housed for winter. When the stems are runnirjg up for flower, if seed is not wanted to be
saved, cut them down ; which will force up fresh young shoots. It would be proper, towards the end of
autumn, to transplant some full plants close un.ler a south fence, to preserve them more effectually
in winter, and cause an earlier production of young tops in spring "

4093. To obtain green tarragon in winter. " Plant some stocky roots in a hot-bed, or in pots placed in
a hot-house." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 4. Fennel. — Anethum Foeniculum, L. (Eng. Bot. t. 1208.) Pent. Trig. L.
and Unibelliferts, J. L'Aneth, Fr. ; Dillkraut, Ger. ; and Aneto, Ital.

4097. 2'he fennel is a perennial plant, naturalised in England, and found in chalky
soils. The plant rises with finely cut leaves, and capillary leaflets, on a smooth, dark-
green, branched, tubular stalk, to the height of five or six feet. On the summit are pro-
duced umbels of gold-colored flowers, in July and August. The whole plant is aro-
matic, and has long been an inmate of the garden.

4098. Use. The tender stalks of common fennel are used in salads ; the leaves
boiled, enter into many fish sauces ; and raw, are garnishes for several dishes. Tlie
blanched stalks of the variety called ^«ocA/o are eaten with oil, vinegar, and pepper, as a
cold salad, and tliey are likewise sometimes put into soups.

4099. The varieties are —

Tery twider. " Owing (

JJark-Kreen-teavcd ._ . ^ ... I ^>•U observes," it U more tender than Uie common fennel, arid

J)wart, or finochio. This vanety is characterised by a often perUies in tlie course of the winter. Slislrd hv this cir-

^ndency m the stalk to swell to a considerable thickness. cumstance, several horticulfural writers describe it "as an an-

I lui thickened part la blanched by earthing up, and is then | nu.J spetiei, under the a^npcllalion ^. te^rium."

666 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4100. Propagation. They are all raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed
four feet by six feet Sometimes also, they are raised from offsets from the old plants, where only a few
are wanted. " Sow in the spring in light earth, either in drills from six to twelve inches apart, or 'broad-
cast and raked in. When the plants are three or four inches high, thin or transplant a quantity fifteen
inches asunder. As the roots of old plants divide into side oflsets, these may be slipped off in spring
summer, or autumn, and planted a foot apart. They will produce immediate leaves for present supply'
and in continuance ; or for an immediate larger supply of leaves, you may procure some established full
roots, and plant as above ; let them be well watered."

4101. Subsequent culture. " The same plants remain several years by the root : but as fennel sends up
strong stems for seed in summer, these, or a part of them, should be cut down, to encourage a production
of young leaves below, in succession. It is apt to spread more than is desirable, if suffered to seed. The
swelling stems of the finochio variety, when of some tolerable substance, should be earthed up on each
side five or six inches to blanch them white and tender. This will be effected in ten days or a fortnight ;
and by successive sowings, or cutting down plants during summer, successive crops of blanched stalks may
be had from June to December."

4102. To save seed. Permit some of the best stalks to shoot j they will produce large umbels of seed
in autumn. (^Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 5. Dill. — Anethum graveolens, L. {Blackw. t. 545.) Pent. Trig. L. and
UmbeUiferts, J. L'Aneth, Fr. ; Dill. Ger. ; Aneto, Ital.

4103. T/ie dill is a hardy biennial plant, a native of Spain, and introduced in 1570.
The plant is of upright growth, somewhat similar to fennel, but smaller. It has finely-
divided leaves, and a slender single stem, bearing an umbel of flowers at top, which ap-
pear in June and July. The whole plant is powerfully aromatic.

4104. Use. The leaves are used to heighten tlie relish of some vegetable pickles,
particularly cucumbers ; and also occasionally in soups and sauces. The whole herb is
also used in medical preparations.

4105. Culture. It is raised from seed, of which half an ounce is sufficient for a bed three feet by four
feet. " Sow annually in February, March, or April, or occasionally in autumn, as soon as the seed is
ripe, to come up stronger in the spring, in any open compartment ; either in drills, six or twelve inches
apart ; or broad-cast thinly, and raked in evenly. The plants should remain where raised ; and may be
thinned moderately, should they rise too thick. They will shoot up in stalks, with leaves and seed-um-
bels in summer and autumn, for use in proper season."

4106. To save seed. " Leave some plants where raised : they will furnish plenty of seed in autumn.
Or, from self-sown seeds, many plants rise spontaneously in the spring." {Abercroinbie.)

SuBSECT. 6, Chervil. — Scandix Cerefolium, L. ; Cheerophyllum sativum of Persoon**
Synopsis Plantarum. {Eng. Bat. 1268.) Pentand. Dig. L. and Umbelliferce^ J.
Cerfeuily Fr. ; Gartenkerbel, Ger. ; and Cerfoglio, Ital. {^g. 471.)

4107. The chervil is an annual plant, a native
of various parts of the continent of Europe, and
sometimes observed naturalised in our gardens
in England. The plant rises from a foot to
near two feet high ; the leaves are of a very
delicate texture, three times divided, and the
flowers, of a whitish color, appear in June.
There is a variety cultivated in the Paris gar-
dens with beautifully frizzled leaves.

4108. Use. The tender leaves are used in
soups and salads ; but are much less in demand
now tlian formerly.

4109. Culture. It is propagated from seed ; and for a
bed four feet by four, a quarter of an ounce is sufficient.
*• Sow a be<l or two in August and September, as well to
come in use at the end of the same autumn, as to stand
for winter and spring. If a continued succession be re-
quired in spring and summer, begin to sow again in the
last fortnight of February, and sow a portion every
month till August, or twice a month in the midst of
summer ; as the plants of the spring and summer sow- . ^ . . u _* a .u .,

ings soon run up for seed. Sow the seed in shallow drills, from six to nine inches apart, and earth in
lijfhtly : or sow occasionally broad-cast, and rake in evenly, just covering the seed. The plants are to
-remain where sown. When the leaves are two, three, or four inches in growth, they are proper for
Kathering. Cut them off close, they will shoot up again, and may be gathered m succession, though the
plants of the spring and summer sowing soon spindle up into seed-stalks, ceasing to produce young leaves,

"^^m^TofalTsTl^^i^ave some plants in the spring: they will shoot to stalks, and give ripe seed in

July or August." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 7. Horse-radish. — Cochlearia Armoracia, -L. {Eng. Bat. 2223.) Tetrad.

Silic, L. and C^mcifera, J. Cranson, or Le Grand Raifort, Fr. ; Merretttg, Ger. ;

and Ramolaccio, Ital.

4111. The horse-radish is a perennial plant, growing naturally in marehy places, and
by the sides of ditches, in some parts of England. The leaves are very large, oblong,
sometimes smooth, and at other times notched at the edges ; on the stem they are some-
times deeply pinnatifid ; the flowers are white, and appear m loose panicles m May and
June. It has been long cultivated in gardens, and forms one of the most profitable
articles raised bv the market-gardener.

Book I. INDIAN CRESS. 6ff7

4112. Use. The root scraped into shreds is a well known accompaniment of English
roast beef. It is also used in winter salads, in sauces, and sometimes eaten raw.

4113. Prooagation and culture. The following excellent instructions are by Knight : " Horse-radish
thrives best'in deep, soft, sandy, loam, that is not very dry in summer, nor inundated m wmter; the
situation must be open. During winter, trench the ground three feet deep, and in the following Fe.
bruary procure your sets, in the choice of which take the strongest crowns or leading buds from old plants,
cutting them about two inches long. Mark out the ground in four-feet beds and one-foot alleys ; then
take from the first bed nine inches of the top soil, laying it upon the adjoining bed ; after which take out
an opening at one end of the bed, in the common way of trenching, fifteen inches deep from the present
surface ; then level the bottom, upon which plant a row of sets across the bed, at nine inches apart each
wav, with tlieir crowns upright ; afterwards dig the next trench the same width and depth, turning the
earth into the first trench over the row of sets : thus proceeding trench after trench, to the end. ^Vhere
more than the produce of one bed is required for the supply of the family for twelve months, the third
betl is next to be planted, which treat as directed for the first, only observing t© lay the earth on the
fourth, and so on for any number of beds. Upon every alternate bed, which is not planted, a dwarf
annual crop may be grown. The plants must be kept clear from weeds during summer : and as soon
as the leaves decay in autumn, let them be carefully raked off with a wooden-toothed rake ; in the fol-
lowing February, eighteen inches of the earth of the unplanted bed must be laid as light as possible,
and equally over the beds that are planted ; then trench and plant the vacant beds exactly in the same
manner as before directed. The following autumn, the first planted horse-radish may be taken up, by
opening a trench at one end of the bed to the bottom of the roots, so that the sticks or roots of horse-
radish may be taken up entire and sound, which for size and quality will be such as have not generally
been seen. The following February the one-year-old crop will require additional earth as tefore di-
rected, which must of course be taken from those beds which are now vacant, which, when done, if the
ground appears poor, or unlikely to produce another vigorous crop, they must have a coat of manure."
{Hort. Trans, i. 207.)

4114. Judd has also written on the culture of horse-radish {Hort. Trans, v. 302.), and his practice, though
very different from Knight's is also excellent, and perhaps preferable. Kniglit takes strong buds from old
plants, while Judd takes about three inches of the top part of each stick or root, and then cuts clean off
about a quarter of an inch of this piece under the crown, so as to leave no appearance of a green bud.
Judd trenches only two feet deep, and if he applies manure, puts it in the very bottom of the trench ; " for
if not so done, the horse-radish, which always puts out some side roots, would send out such large side
roots from the main root, in search of the dung lying contiguous, as materially to injure the crop. In
planting, holes are made eighteen inches apart every way, and sixteen or eighteen inches deep. The root-
cuttings are let down to the bottom of the holes, which are afterwards filled up with fine sifted cinder-dust,
and the surface of the bed is then raked over. The season of planting is the middle of March." The essen-
tial difference between Knight's plan and Judd's is, that the former produces his root from the root-end
of the cutting downwards, and the latter from the bud-end upwards : hence the one plants near the
surface, and the other near the bottom of the trench. Judd's mode seems more certain of proiducing ooe
entire strong root than Knight's.

4115. Preserving. Horse-radish, if dug up in autumn, may be preserved through the winter in sherU or
cellars, among sand or dry earth,

Sl'bsect. 8. Indian Cress, or Kasturtium. — Tropeeolum majus, L. {Bot. Mag. 23.)
Octan. Monog. L. and Trojiceolece D. C. Cajrucine, Fr. ; KapudnerbluTne, Ger. ; and
Fior Cappudno, Ital.

4116. The Indian cress is a hardy annual, a native of Peru, introduced in 1686. The
stalks, if supported, will rise eight or ten feet high ; tlie leaves are peltate, or have their
petiole fixed to the centre of the leaf; the flowers are very showy, of a brilliant orange
color, and continue in succession from July till destroyed by frost. In its native
countiy, it endures several seasons ; but here, being unable to sustain our winter, it is
treated as an annual plant, and requires to be sown every year.

4117. Use. The flowers and young leaves are frequently eaten in salads; they have
a warm taste, like the common cress, thence the name of nasturtium. The flowers are
also used as a garnish to dishes, in which they form a brilUant contrast witli tlie flowers
of borage. The berries- are gatliered green and pickled, in which state they form an
excellent substitute for capers.

4118. Varieties: —

Tho-e is a variety with double flowers,
which is propagated by cuttings, and
requires to be treated as a green-house
plant. The flowers are prefierable fi>r
garnishing.

The Tropao-'um miruu, a natiTe of Pan,
and introduced in 1596, nearly a cen-
tury before the other, is also sometimes
cultivated for culinary purposes ; but is
of weakly growth, and by no means
equal to the common in produce-

There is also a Tariety of this species
with double flowers, propagated by
cuttings, and preserved through the
winter imder glass ; but, like the double

variety of T. majus, it is
mental than useml.

4119. Culture. The smgle vaneties of both sorts are raised from seed, of which one ounce will sow
twenty-five feet of dnIL The plants will thrive in almost any soil, but a light fresh loam is best, as less
likely ..o make the plants grow rank and luxuriant, and produce few berries, which one that is rich is apt
to do. Care must be taken to select good sound seed, berries of the last vear, for those of greater age will
not grow at all, or not freely and regularly, " Sow in March or April, 6r not later than the beginning of
May in one small crop, of one, two, or three rows, for a moderate family. Either allot the large sort a
suuation in a single row, near a vacant fence, treUis, or wall, on which the runners may be trained • or
divide an opei> compartment into rows, three or four feet asunder, to admit sticks for their support. Form
drills an inch and half deep ; in which deposit the seeds two or three inches apart, and earth them over
evenly When the plants begin to advance in runners, let them be trained to a fence or trellis It is
^^X'"<, ^"f^^^^J'"' ^^ ^'■^^' ^ conduct the main runners, but they will afterwards climb unassisted."
green%i?mp!^ind%ender." ^ "^ ^^^ '^^ ^^"'^ J"'* ^**^^" ^'^"'^ ^^ '''^' '^"^ P^"^^' them while

4121. To save seed. "Permit a sufficiency of the berries to remain till mature. In August and Seo-

668 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Paut III.

SuBSECT. 9. Marigold, or Poi-marigold. — Calendula officinalis, L. Si/ng. Poli/g, Ke~
cess. L. and Cmipositce, J. Souci du Jardin, Fr. ; RingelUume, Ger. ; and
Fiorrancio, Ital.

4122. T/ie pot-marigold is an annual plant, a native of France and Spain, and known
in this country since 1573. It has a short divaricated stem, dividing into numerous
branches, from one to two feet in height, and furnished with blunt lanceolate leaves.
The yellow flowers proceed from the ends of the branches, and last from June till killed
by the frost. It is one of the oldest and best known inhabitants of our gardens. " Its
flowers," Gerarde observes, " having been formerly in much repute as comforters of the
heart." Though little faith is now placed in its virtues, it still keeps its place in most
cottage gardens, both in England and Scotland, though rarely applied to any culinary
purpose.

4123. Use. Marshal observes, that " the flower is a valuable ingredient in broths and
soups, however much it may have got into disuse." The dried flowers are also used in
domestic medicine.

4 1 24. The varieties are —

The single oranRe-flowered ; most aromatic and proper for keeping I The childing or proliferous ; sends out small flowers from the
The single lemon-flowered ; rather less aromatic margins of the calyx of the large central flowers, culU-

Uhe double flowered of both varieties j vated chieflj for ornament.

4125. Culture. Sow in February, March, or April, and for a seed-bed four feet by four feet, soirn in
drills a foot asunder, a quarter of an ounce will suffice ; " or you may deposit the seed in autumn (Sep-
tember), to have it come up forwarder in the spring, though the spring sowing will come up in very good
time. Sow on a light dry soil, either in drills a foot asunder, or broad-cast ; and rake in the seed. 'When
the plants are up two or three inches in growth, thin them to about twelve or fifteen inches asunder, or
they may be transplanted with that interval. They will grow freely in either method, and come into
flower the following May or June, and continue flowering iu plentiful succession throughout summer and
autumn ; to be cut for use as wanted. A store for winter should be gathered when in full flower, spread
to dry out of the sun, and afterwards put up in paper bags."

4126. To save seed. " The flowers, as far as they are left to run, will in autumn produce a competency."
{Abercioinbie.)

SuBSKCT. 10. Borage. — JBorago officinalis, L. {Eng. Bat. 36.) Pent. Monog. L. and
BoraginecB, B. P. Pourrache, Fr. ; Porragen, Ger. ; and Porragine, Ital.

4127. The borage is an annual, and sometimes a biennial plant, with the lower leaves
oblong, alternate, and spread on the ground ; the flower-stem rises nearly two feet high ;
and, with the leaves, is rough with white bristly hairs. The light-blue flowers make a
beautiful appearance, and are produced for several months in succession, beginning with
Miay. It is a native, or naturalised in several parts of Britain.

4128. Use. The young leaves and tender tops are used occasionally as salads, and to
furnish a boiled dish in summer and autumn. The plant was formerly in high estimation
as a cordial herb for driving away sorrow ; but " very light surely," says Sir J. E. Smith,
*' were those sorrows that would be so driven away." The spikes of the flowers form
an ingredient in negus and cool tankards, and the blossoms are occasionally employed
as a garnish. The juice of the plant affords nitre, and the withered stalks have been
observed to burn like match-paper.

4129. Course of culture. It is raised from seed, and for a bed four feet and a half by six feet, one ounce
is requisite. " Sow every year in the spring, any time in February or March, till May, &c. for summer
supply ; and in any of the summer months, for young borage in autumn, as the plants of the spring and
early summer sowings soon run up to stalks in the same year ; and in July or August and September, to
furnish young leafy plants for winter and following spring. A small crop of each sowing will be suflficient
for the supply of a family. This herb loves a dry soil. Sow either broad-cast, and raked in, or in small
drills six to twelve inches asunder. Where the plants rise too close, thin them to that distance. Although
this herb will grow when transplanted, it pro.-^pers best when it remains where sown. Where the young
le.'ify tops and flower-spikes are in demand, permit the stem to run up."

4130. To save seed. " Leave some of the plants which first run : they will produce plenty of seed
in autumn : and from self-sown seeds many young plants will come up spontaneously." {Abercrombie.)

Sect. IX. Sweet Herbs.

4131. Of siveet herbs, one or two kinds, as the lavender, peppermint, and some other
mints, are extensively cultivated by market-gardeners for the druggists ; but a very few
square yards of tlie private kitclien-garden will suffice to cultivate as much of each as is
ever wanted by any family. Tlie sage, thyme, mint, and tansy, appear in single plants
in the border of the cottager's garden.

SuBSECT. 1. Thyme. — Thjmus vulgaris, L. I>idi/. Gymnos. L. and Labiatce, J.
Thi/m, Fr. ; Thimian, Ger. ; and Timo, Ital.

4132. Of thyme there are two species cultivated for culinary purposes, the common
and the lemon thyme.

4133. Common or garden thyme is tbe Thi/mus vulgaris, L. ; a low evergreen under-
shrub, a native of Spain and Italy, and cultivated in this country since 1 548, and pro-
bablv long before. It seldom rises above a foot high, has smaller flowers than the
common wild thyme, and is more delicate in its flavor. There are two varieties, the
broad and the narrow leaved, besides the variegated, grown for ornament.

Book I. SAGE, CLARY. 669

4134. Lemon thyme is the T. cifriodorus, P. S. ; a very low evergreen shrub, trailing
and seldom rising above four or six inches in height. It is readily distinguished from
the former, and from wild thyme, of which it has generally been considered as a variety,
by its strong smell of lemons, as the tri\'ial name imports.

4135. Use. The young leaves and tops are used in soups, stuffings, and sauces. For
these purposes, the broad-leaved common is generally preferred ; but the flavor of the
yellow is much liked in peculiar dishes.

4136. Culture. " To raise the plant from seed is the general and most eligible method. It is occasion-
ally multiplied by parting the roots of stocky close plants, and by slips of the young shoots."

4137 Bu seed " Sow in March or AprU in a bed or border of light tine earth, either broad-cast scat-
tered thin, and raked in lightly, which is the general course, or in small shaUow drills, six inches
asunder • the young plants may either remain, or be transplanted in the summer, when two or three
inches high. A portion may be drilled, for an edging to a border. Give occasional light waterings in
dry warm weather, both before and after the plants are up. As soon as they are from three to five
inches in growth, in June or July, taking the opportunity of rain, thin some out, and plant six inched
asunder, and water at planting. Others may t>e planted in a single row to form an edging to a border,
either set close to form at once a full edging, or as far as three inches apart Seedlings thus treated will
come in for use the same year. Those who raise considerable supplies of thyme for the markets, usually
sow large portions thickly in beds, to remain till of useful growth ; then to be drawn ofFroot and top to-
gether, at different seasons, as wanted ; it is then tied in small bunches for market. Some persons also
transplant considerable portions in spring and summer, to six, ten, or twelve inches' distance, to form a
stocky full growth, to be drawn off in large bushy plants."

4138. By offsets. " Thyme is also propagated by slips of the branchy shoots in the spring, or early in
autumn ; but more effectually by sections of the stool, top and root together, or by removing rooted
branches. To make branches quickly root, loosen the mould about any established bushy plants, in spring
or summer, and lay some fresh earth a small depth upon the spreading shoots : they will all be well rooted
the same year for planting off. Plant in light rich earth : shade and water till rooted. In autumn, to
provide against the effects of frost on exotic evergreens, dry and house a store for winter ; either cutting
the tops, or drawing entire plants."

4139. To save seed. " It is produced abundantly, and ripens in summer and autumn. Gather the seed-
spikes, spread them upon a cloth to dry ; rub out clean, and put the seeds up for sowing the following year."
{Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 2. Sage. — Salvia officinalis. L. {Ger. Herb. 623. f. 1.) Dian. Monog.l.. and
LabiatcB, B. P. Sauge, Fr, ; Salbey, Ger. ; and Salvia, Ital.

4140. The sage is an evergreen under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe, and
mentioned by Gerrard, in 1597, as an inhabitant of our gardens. It rises about two
feet high, with wrinkled, green, cinereous leaves, white, or tinged with white or dusky
purple. The flowers are terminal, in long spikes, of a blue color, and appear in June
and July.

414*1. Use. The leaves are used in stuffings and sauces for many kinds of lus-
cious and strong meats ; as well as to improve the flavor of various articles of cookery.
The decoction called sage-tea is usually made from one variety, the small-leaved green,
or sage of virtue ; but any of the others are equally fit for this purpose.

4142. Varieties. These are —

The common, or red | The green | The small-leaved green, or sage of virtue | The broad-leaTed, or balsamic
4143. Estimate of sorts. " The red is the principal sort in culinary use, having the most agreeable and
fullest flavor ; the green is next in estimation with the cook : but the small-leaved is generally preferred
to those to eat as a raw herb, and for decoctions ; while the broad-leaved balsamic species is the most ef-
ficacious in a medical way, and is also a tea-herb. However, any of the sorts may be occasionally used

for those alternate purpos

4144. Culture. " All the varieties may be propag
from March to June ; but most successfully in May and June,"by detaching the youiig shoots of the same

4144. Culture. " All the varieties may be propagated by slips or cuttings of the young shoots, taken

year. The outward shoots are to be preferred ; slip or cut them off five or six inches long, stripping off
the under leaves, and preserving the top leaves entire : plant them in a shady border, six inches asunder,
inserting them quite down to the top leaves, and water them. They will soon take root freely, especially
the young shoots planted in May and June. In the advancing growth, if they spindle up in flower-stalks,
pinch or cut that part down, that the plants may shoot out full and stocky from the bottom in close bushy
growth for use the same year. In gathering sage for use, cut or slip off the young side and top shoots
neatly ; and be careful not to stub too close, especially towards winter, and during that season. In July
and the rest of summer, it is usual to gather some of young top growth to drj- for winter. Keep the plants
in regular bushy heads by cutting away disorderly growths, and the decayed flower-stalks in autumn.
Keep them clear from weeds ; and sometimes loosen the earth between and about the plants, with a hoe,
garden-trowel, or small spade, in spring and autumn. Make a fresh plantation once in two, three, or four
years, or as may be necessary by the plants becoming naked, stubby, and dwindling." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 3. Oary. — Salvia Sclarea, L. {Fl. Greec. i. t. 27.) Dian. Monog. L. and
Labiatee, B. P. Orvale, Fr, ; Scharlachkraut, Ger. ; and Schiarea, Ital.

4145. The clary is a hardy biennial, a native of Italy, introduced in this country in
1 562. The lower leaves are very large, the stem is about two feet high, clammy to
the feel ; the flowers are in loose, terminating spikes, composing whorls, and of a pale-
blue colour.

4146. Use. The leaves are sometimes used in soups, though some dislike its scent.
Its flowers are used for a fermented wine, and the whole plant is, like sage, esteemed
medicinal.

4147. Culture. Clary is raised from seed, and sometimes from cuttings and slips. A small bed will sup-
ply most families ; and, if raised from seed, a quarter of an ounce will suffice for a seed-bed to be trans-
planted from two feet by two. Sow in the last fortnight of March, or the course of April, in any bed or
border thinly, and rake in the seed. In summer, when the plants are advanced two or three inches trans-
plant a portion of the strongest from twelve to eighteen inches apart, to allow competent room for the

670

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

leaves to spread into full growth, when they wiU be fit for use the same year, and in continuation through
winter until the following spring and summer. ^

4148. To save seed. In the spring, allot some old plants to run up into stalk : these will yield ripe seed in

SuBSECT. 4. Mint Mentha, L. Didy. Gymnos. L. and LabiatcB, J. Menthe, Fr. j

MUnze, Ger. ; and Erba Santa Maria, Ital. (Jig. 472.)

4149. Of mint there aie several species cultivated in gardens ; all of them indigenous
perennials. The principal are —

41.50. The peppermint {M. piperita, L.), (Eng. Bot. 687.) (a). Tliis species may
readily be distinguished by its subcamphorated
odor, and blackish-purple flowers, w^hich appear
in August and September. It is found in watery
places.

4151. Use. Almost entirely for distill ation, for
which it is extensively cultivated in low, rich,
soft, marshy lands, especially such as can be
irrigated or flooded.

4 1 52. The spearmint (M. viridis, L. ), (Eng. Bot.
2424.) {b). This sort rises from two to three feet
high, with sessile, lanceolate, naked leaves; the
whole plant has a reddish-green hue ; is occasion-
ally found in marshy situations, and flowers in Au-
gust. There is a narrow and a broad-leaved variety.

4153. Use. The young leaves and tops are
used in spring salads, and form an ingredient in
soups ; they are also employed to give flavor to
certain dishes, as peas, &c., being boiled for a time, and then withdrawn in the manner
of garlic.

4154. The pennyroyal-mint {M. pulegium T,.), {Eng. Bot. 1206.) (c) Pouliot, Fr. ;
Foley, Ger ; and Puleggio, Ital. ; is a trailing plant with small, smooth, ovate leaves. It
is indigenous in watery pastures, and places subject to inundations. It flowers in Sep-
tember.

4155. Use. In different branches of cookery, and also for distilling pennyroyal- water.

4156. Culture. All " the species are raised by the same methods, viz. by parting the roots, by offset
young plants, and by cuttings of the stalks." By the roots. This is performed in spring or autumn. Hav-
ing some full roots from any established beds, divide them as expedient ; and drawing drills with a hoe,
about two inches deep, and six inches asunder, place the roots in the drills, moderately close, and earth
them over to an equal depth. By offsets in the spring. Procure these from established plants, and dibble
them, in rows, six inches asunder. By cuttings of the young stalks in May, June, or advanced summer.
Taking the opportunity of showery weather, cut them into lengths of live or six inches ; and plant the
cuttings by dibble, six inches apart, inserted halfway into the earth.

4157. Soil. Spearmint and peppermint like a moist soil ; pennyroyal a strong loam.

4158. Subsequent culture. " Propagated in any of the above methods, the plants set in spring or sum-
mer will come into use the same year. Water new plants till they take root. Keep them clean from
weeds. At the end of autumn, cut away any remaining stems j at which season, or in spring, spread a
little loose earth thinly over the beds."

4159. Taking the crop. " For culinary use, or salads, gather both when the young green tops are from
one inch to six inches in length, and in their advanced growth, throughout the summer. When nearly
full grown in June, July, or August, or beginning to flower, gather a store for winter. Spread the heads
thinly in some dry place, shaded from the sun, to be well dried : then, tied in bunches, house the store.
When designed for distilling, let them attain full growth, coming into flower ; then cut, and use the heads
immediately. The peppermint, being principally used for distilling, and such of the pennyroyal as is
wanted for the same purpose, should stand till they begin to flower ; being then in highest perfection.
Cut in dry weather and tie in bunches, and carry under cover, ready for immediate use. Cut full-grown
stalks close to the bottom."

4160. New plantation. " All the species continue by the roots many years ; but when the plants shoot
dwindling, or weakly, make a fresh plantation in time."

4161. Forcing spear m$nt. " Mint, in a young green state, may be obtained all winter, and early in
spring, by planting some roots in a gentle hot-bed, or in pots or shallow pans, to be plunged therein.
Plant the roots pretty thickly, and earth over an inch and a half deep ; or some roots, thus planted in
pots or boxes, may be placed in a stove. Plant for succession every three weeks, as forced roots soon decay.
In order to have young leaves and tops all the summer, cut down some advanced stalks every month,
when new shoots will be thrown up ; and to have dried balm for the winter, permit others to complete
their growth, and come into blossom. These last are to be cut as soon as the dew is off in the morning,
for in the afternoon, and especially during bright svmshine, the odor of the plant is found to be much di-
minished. Dry the crop thus gathered in the shade, and afterwards keep it in small bundles, compactly
pressed down, and covered with white paper. By the common mode of hanging up mint and other herbs
In loose bundles, the odor soon escapes. The mint having a travelling root, the bed soon becomes co-
vered, so as not to admit of further culture ; hence, after four or five years' standing, a fresh plantation
will require to be made."

SuBSECT. 5. Marjoram. — Origanum, L. JDidy. Gymnos, L. and Labiatce. J. Mar-
jolaine, Fr ; Marjoran, Ger. ; and Maggiorana, Ital.

4162. Of marjoram four different species are cultivated; the ^)o^, sweet, winter,
and common.

4163. Pot-marjoram is the 0. Onites, L. (Bocc. Mm. t. 38.) ; a hardy perennial un-
der-shrub, a native of Sicily, introduced in 1759. The stem rises more than a foot high.

Book I. SAVORY, BASIL. . «7i

and is covered with spreading hairs ; the leaves are small and acute, almost sessile, and
tomentose on botli sides. Tliough hardy enough to withstand our winters, it seldom ri-
pens its seeds in Uiis country. It is in flower from July to November, and is propagated
from seed, but chiefly from rooted slips.

4164. Sweet marjoram is the 0. Marjarana, L. {Moris, s. II. t. 3. f. 1.); a hardy
biennial, a native of Portugal, and introduced in 157;5. It resembles the 0. Onites, but
the leaves have distinct petioles, and the flowers, wliich appear in June and July, are
collected in small close heads ; and hence is often called knotted marjoram. As the
seed seldom ripens in this country, it is generally procured from France. When in
blossom, the herb is cut over, and dried for winter use, so that a sowing requires to be
made every year. ^r.^ n

4165. The ivinter sweet marjoram is the 0. Heracleoticum, L. {Lob. Ic. 492.;; a
hardy perennial, a native of Greece, and introduced in 1640. The leaves of this species
resemble those of 0. Marjorana ; but the flowers come in spikes. It flowers from June
to November ; requires a sheltered dry soil, and seldom ripening its seeds in this country,
is propagated by cuttings and slips.

4166. The common marjoram is the 0. vulgare, L. {Eng. Bot. 1143.); a hardy
perennial, a native of Britain, and found under thickets and copses on chalky soils. It
bears a considerable resemblance to the last-named species. The flowers arise in subrotund
panicles, in smooth clustered spikes, of a reddish color, in July and August. This
species is only used in cookery in default of one of the others.

4167. Use. All the species, but especially the three first, are aromatics, of sweet
flavor, much used as relishing herbs in soups, broths, stuflSngs, &c. Tlie young tender
tops and leaves together are used in summer in a green state ; and they are dried for
winter.

4168. Culture. The three first species prefer a light dry soil ; the other, a calcareous soil and shady
situation. Though the O. Marjorana, or sweet marjoram, be a biennial in its native country, and here,
when it receives the aid of a green-house through the winter, yet, in the open garden, it requires to be
treated as an annual, and sown and reaped the same year. For a seed-bed three feet by three feet, a quarter
of an ounce of seed is sufficient. Sow in April on a compartment of light earth, either in small drills, or
broad-cast ; or sow a portion in a hot-bed, if requisite to have a small crop forwarded. When the plants are
one, two, or three incheshigh, thin the seed-beds ; and plant those thinned out in a final bed, six inches apart,
giving water ; or, where larger supplies are required, some may remain thick where sown, to be drawn
off by the root as wanted. The pot, winter, and common marjoram maybe propagated from offsets by
parting the roots in spring and autumn. Plant in rows or in beds, allowing a square foot for each plant

4169. Gather the tops of all the sorts as wanted for simmier use; and when in full blossom, in July or
August, for preservation through the winter.

SuBSECT. 6. Savory. — Satureja, L. Didynamia Gymnosjyermia, L. and Labiat^j J.
Sariette, Fr. ; Saturei, Ger. ; and SatoreggiOi Ital.

4170. Of savory two species are cultivated, the winter and summer savory.

4171. JFinter savory is the S. Montana, L. {Sab. Hort. 3. t. 64.) ; a hardy under-shrub,
a native of the south of France and Italy, and known in this country since 1 562. The
shoots are furnished with two narrow stiflf leaves, an inch long, placed opposite at each
joint, and from the base of these a few small leaves proceed in clusters. It produces
whitish flowers in May and June.

4172. Summer savory is the S. hortensis {Lam. III. iL 504. f. 1.) ; a hardy annual, a
native of Italy, and known in- this country since 1652. The branches are slender, erect,
and about a foot high ; leaves opposite^ and about an inch in length. It flowers in June
and July.

4173. Culture. " The perennial is generally propagated by slips, or cuttings, of the young side shoots,
in April, May, June, or July ; planted in a shady border, and watered ; also by dividing the bottom off.
set rooted shoots, the root and top-part together, planted as above. "When the plants are a little advanced
in branchy top growth, they may be transplanted : set some in single plants, a foot apart ; others, to form
a close edging. Keep the ground clear of weeds : in spring and autunm loosen the earth a little about
the plants, and trim off decayed and irregular parts. This herb may also be occasionally raised from seed
in the spring, as directed below, for the summer savory. It continues useful summer and winter : and
some may be gathered, when of full growth, in autumn, to dry for winter use. The annual is always
raised from seed. In March or April, sow either in small drills, nine by six inches apart ; or, on the
smoothed surface, and rake in lightly. The plants may either remain, to be thinned, or some maybe
transplanted in June, nine by six inches asimdei. This herb comes in for gathering from June until Octo-
ber. When a store is to be dried, draw it by the roots." {Al)ercrombie.)

ScBSECT. 7. Basil. — Ocymum, L. Didyn. Gymnos. L. and Labiatte, J. Basilic^ Fr. ;
Basilikujn, Ger. ; and Basilico, Ital.

4174. Of basil two species are cultivated as culinary aromatics. The sweet, or larger
basil, is the 0. Basilicum, L. {Blackw. t. 104.) ; a tender annual plant, highly aro-
matic, rising from six to twelve or fifteen inches high, and thickly covered with small
oval leaves. It produces small white flowers in June and July ; is a native of the East
Indies, and was introduced to this country in 1548.

4175. The bush, or least basil, is the 0. Minivium, L. {Schk. Hand. 2. t. 166.) ; an
annual aromatic plant, a sort of diminutive of the other, forming a round orbicular bushy

672 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

head, not half the size of the larger basil. It is a native of the East Indies, flowers in
June and July, and was introduced to this country in 1573.

4176. Use. The leaves and small brachije, or leafy tops, are the parts gathered ; and
on account of their strong flavor of cloves, they are often used in highly seasoned dishes.-
A few leaves are sometimes introduced into salad, and not unfrequently into soups.

4177. Culture. Both species are raised from seed, and for a seed-bed of three feet by one and a half to
furnish plants for a final plantation four feet by twelve, a quarter of an ounce will be sufficient. Sow on
a hot-bed in the end of March, and plant out in a warm border of rich soil, the larger at eight or ten inches
every way, and the lesser at six or eight inches square. Sometimes both sorts are sown in the open border •
but so treated, they come up late and small. In transplanting from the hot-bed, take care to raise the
plants m small tufts, or smgle plants, with balls attached ; by which they receive no check, and if watered
after planting, and in dry weather, will soon produce abundance of tops.

4178. Seed can only be saved in England in warm dry seasons, and under the most favorable circum-
stances of situation and precocity. In general it is procured by the seedsmen from Italy.

SuBSECT. 8. Rosemary. — Rosniannus officinalis, L. (JYor. Gra:c. 1. t. 14.) Dian-
dria Monogynia, L. and Labiatce, B. P. liomarin, Fr. ; Eosmarin, Ger. ; and
Rosmarino, Ital.

4179. The rosemary is a hardy under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe, intro-
duced in, or before, 1548. The plant is evergreen, rising sometimes six or eight feet
high, though rarely. The leaves are sessile, linear, dark-green above, and greyish or
whitish underneath ; the blossoms are of a pale-blue color. The whole plant is highly
aromatic.

4180. Use. The flowers and calyces form a principal ingredient in the distillation of
Hungary water. Infusions of the leaves are made in some drinks. Sprigs of rosemary
are used as a garnish ; and were given in Shakspeare's time as tokens of remembrance :
" There's rosemary ; that's for remembrance," says the distracted Ophelia. In some
parts of the west of England and in Wales, the sprigs are still distributed to the company
at funerals, and often thrown into the grave upon the coflin of the deceased.

4181. Varieties. These are —

The green, or common | The gold-striped. | The silver-striped.

4182. Culture. " The green is hardiest as a plant, and is the sort generally used. The finest plants are
raised from seed. Sow either broad-cast or in small drills, six inches apart. The green is also raised by
planting slips or cuttings of the young shoots in spring and summer, in a shady border. Let these be taken
off five, six, or seven inches long, detaching the under-leaves. Set them in a row from six to twelve inches
apart, nearly two thirds into the ground : water at planting, and occasionally afterwards, tiU they have
struck. The plants will be strong and well rooted by autumn, when they should be transplanted at proper
distances. A light sandy soil assists exotic evergreens, that retain some of their original delicacy, to stand
the winter ; partly by preventing them from growing too luxuriantly, and partly by not being a conductor
of frost. In their final situations, train the plants, either with a bushy head, of moderate growth ; or, if
near a fence, in a fan-like order. The stript>d sort may be propagated as above ; or with most success, by
layers of the young wood, as it is not so free to grow from cuttings. Being a little tender, it must be planted
in a warm situation. It is retained chiefly as ornamental, on account of the variegation of its leaves.
Rosemary is of several years' duration, continuing in full foliage at all seasons where the exposure is net
too severe." (Abercro7nbie.)

SuBSECT. 9. Lavender. — Lavandula spica, L. (Schk. Hand. 2. t. 157.) Didyn. Gym^
nos. L. and Labiatte, J. Lavande, Fr. ; Spiklavendel, Ger. ; and Lavendula, Ital.

4183. The lavender is a hardy under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe, and intro-
duced in 1658. The plant rises from two to four feet high, with hoary linear leaves,
slightly rolled back at the edges ; the flowers form terminating spikes, of a blue color,
and appear from July to September. Tlie leaves and flower are powerfully aromatic.

4184. Use. It is rather a medicinal plant than one used in cookery ; though a few
plants are kept in every garden. Imitation scent-bottles are made by the ladies of the
fragrant spikes. They are also put in paper-bags, and placed among linens to perfume
them. Lavender-water, a well known perfume, is distilled from the flowers ; for which
purpose the plant is extensively cultivated in different places, but more especially at
Mitcham in Surrey, and Maidenhead in Berkshire.

4185. Varieties. The narrow-leaved and the broad-leaved, both equally good.

4186. Propagation and culture. " It is propagated by cuttings and slips like rosemary : it likes a dry
soil, and may be planted either in distinct plants two feet asunder, or to form a sort of hedge-row, m one
or more lines, especially where large supplies of flowers are required for distillmg. The plants wiU advance
m a close branchy growth, from a foot and a half to two feet high, or more ; and, when established, will
produce plenty of flowers in July and August : gather them while in perfection, cutting the spikes off close
to the stem Then give the plants occasional trimming, taking off the gross and rampant shoots of the
vear. and the decayed flower-spikes." Neill observes, " If lavender be planted in a dry, grave ly, or poor
soil its flowers have a powerful odor, and the severity of our winters has little effect on it ; while m a rich
garden-soil, although it grows strongly, it is apt to be kiUed, and the flowers have less perfume."

SuBSECT. 10. Tansy. — Tanacetum vulgare, L. (Eng. Rot. 1229.) Syng. Polyg. Sujyer.
L. and Compositcc, J. Ta«amV, Fr. ; Rheinfarm, Ger. ; and Tanaceto, Ital.
4187. The tansy is a perennial plant, growing in many parts of Britain on the sandy
banks of rivers. The stem rises to the height of two or three feet in its wild state, richly
furnished with deep-green finely divided leaves ; the flowers are yellow, and appear in
terminating corymbs in July and August. The leaves and flowers are aromaUc.

Book I. PLANTS USED IN TARTS, &c. 673

4188. Use- The young leaves are shredded down and employed to give color and
flavor to puddings ; tlicy are also used in omelets and other cakes, and were formerly in
much repute as a vermifuge. r j j u

4189. Varieties. These are, the common; the curled, generally preferred ; and the
variegated, cultivated chiefly for ornament.

4190 Culture. Tansy may be propagated in spring or autumn by rooted slips, or by dividing the roots
into several sets : plant them in aiiv compartment of the kitchen er physic garden, from twelve to eighteen
inches asunder. The plant continues for several years, producing abundant tufts of leaves annually. As
they run up in strong stalks in summer, these should be cut down to encourage a production of young leaves
low on the stem. ... , . , . ^ , j ^i. •

4191. To have young tansy in winter. Plant some roots either in a hot-bed or in pots placed therein, or
in a pinery or forcing-house, at any time from November to March. {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. il. Costmaryi or Alecost. — BaJsariula vulgaris, H. K. ; Tanacetum SaU
samita, L. {Schk. Hand. 3. t. 240.) Syng. Polyg. Superf. L. and ComposUcBt J,
Coq-des-jurdins, Fr. j Frauenmiinze, Ger. ; and Costo ortense, Ital.

4192. The costmaryis a hardy perennial plant, a native of Italy, and introduced in this
country in 1568. The lower leaves are large, ovate, of a greyish color, and on long foot-
stalks ; the stems rise two or three feet high ; they are furnished with leaves of the same
shape, but smaller and sessile. The flowers are of a deep yellow color, and appear in
corymbs in August and September. In indifferent seasons, or in cold situations, they
scarcely expand, and the seeds very seldom come to maturity in this country. The whole
plant has a peculiarly agreeable odor, and its name, costmary, intimates that it is the
costus, or aromatic plant of the Virgin. There is a variety witli deep-cut, hoary leaves,
but it is less fragrant than the other.

4193. Use. In France it is used in salads ; and was formerly put into ale and negus ;
and hence the name of alecost. In this country, at present, it is but little used in
the kitchen.

4194. Propagation aiid culture. It is a travelling-rooted plant, and readily propagated by division after
the flowering season, or in spring. It delights in a dry soil, and a plantation once made will remain good
for several years.

Sect. X. Plants used in Tarts, Confectionary, and Domestic Medicine.

4195. Of confectionary plants, excepting the species of rhubarb used as a substitute for,
or addition to, gooseberries, this class occupies only a few yards of the largest kitchen-
garden. Almost the only species worthy of introduction in that of the cottager, unless
we except the chamomile, is the rhubarb.

SuBSECT. 1. Rhubarb. — Rheum, L. Enneandria Trigynia, L. and PolygonecB, J.
Rhubarbe, Fr. ; Rabarber, Ger. ; and Rubarbaro, Ital.

4196. Of rhubarb there are three species in cultivation, the rhaponticum, hybridum, and
palmatum, all perennials.

4197. Rheum Rhaponticum, L. {Sabb. Hort. i. t. 34.) is a native of Asia, and was
introduced in 1573. The leaves are blunt and smooth, veins reddish, somewhat hairy
underneath ; petioles grooved above and rounded at the edge. This species has been
longest in cultivation.

4198. R. hybridum, L. {Murr. Com. Gott. t. 1.) is also a native of Asia, introduced in
1778. The leaves are large, somewhat cordate, smooth, and of a light green. ^Vhen
under good cultivation, they often measure four or five feet in length, the foot-stalk in-
cluded. This sort was first introduced as a culinary rhubarb by Dickson, V.P.H. S.,
about twenty years ago, and is esteemed more succulent than the R. Rhaponticum.

4199. R. palmatum, L. {Mill. Ic. 2. t. 218.) is a native of Tartary, distinguislied from
all the others by its elegant palmate leaves. It has been known in this country since
1758, and is generally considered as the true Turkey or Russian rhubarb.

4200. Use. The two first species are cultivated entirely, and the third in gardens,
principally for the petioles of the root-leaves, which are peeled, cut down, and formed into
tarts and pies in the manner of apples and gooseberries. The R. hybridum affords the
most abundant and succulent supply for this purpose.

4201. Propagation and culture. All the sorts may be raised either from seed or by dividing the roots.
If from seed, which is the l)est mode, sow in light deep earth in spring ; and the plants, if kept eight or
nine inches asunder, will be fit for transplanting in autumn, and for use next spring. ^Vhen the roots
are divided, care must be had to retain a bud on the crown of each section : they may be planted where
they are finally to remain. WTien a plantation is to be made, the ground, which should be light and
rather sandy, but well manured, should be trenched three spits, or as deep as the sub-soil will admit,
adding a good manuring of well-rotted hot-bed dung. Then plant in rows three feet wide by two feet,
in the rows for the R. rhaponticum and palmatum, and five feet wide by three feet, in the rows for the
R hybridum. No other culture is required than keeping the ground free of weeds, occasionally stirring it
during summer with a three-pronged fork, and adding a dressing of well rotted manure every autumn or
spring, stirring the earth as deep as possible. Such a plantation will continue good many years. Some
never allow the flower-stalks to produce flowers ; and others cut them over as soon as they have done
flowering, to prevent the plants from being exhausted by the production of seeds. The former seems the

X X

C74 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

preferable method, as the flower-stalks of plants cannot, like the leaves, be considered as preparing a re-
serve of nourishment for the roots.

4202. Blanching. The advantages of blanching the stalks of rhubarb for culinary purposes have been
pointed out by T. Hare, Esq. (Hort. Tram. vol. ii.) " These are twofold, namely, the desirable qualities
of improved appearance and flavor, and a saving in the quantity of sugar necessary to render it agreeable
to the palate, since the leaf-stalks, when blanched, are infinitely less harsh than those grown under the
full influence of light in an open situation." It may either be blanched by earthing up the roots early in
spring, or earthen pots or covers may be used, as in blanching sea-kale.

4203. To force rhubarb. Tm^o methods are described in the Hort. Trans, vol. iii. The
first is by Judd, of Edmonton, who states, that his first attempt was made by covering
plants of the rheum hybridum with common garden-pots, number twelves, having their
holes stopped. These were covered with fermenting dung ; and the plants came very
fine and quickly; but were much broken by the sides and tops of the pots. " After it
was all well up, the dung and pots were entirely taken off, and large hand-glasses were
substituted in their stead, thickly covered with mats every night, and in dull weather.
This process I found greatly to improve their flavor, and it gave me a regular supply
till that in the open air was ready for use. The following year I had large pots made
on purpose, without holes, but these broke the shoots almost as much as the first, for this
sort of rhubarb grows so very luxuriantly, that it is impatient of such confinement."
He afterwards enclosed and covered his bed with open frame-work, around and on
which, he placed the dung, and with this treatment, he says, " the rhubarb has come up
very regularly, of excellent quality, and wants far less attention than was required by my
former method ; for the frame- work renders hand-glasses, or any other cover, unnecessary.
Care should be taken to lay the dung in such a manner that the top may be partly or
wholly taken off at any time for the purpose of gathering or examination, without dis-
turbing the sides. That this is a superior method of forcing the rheum hybridum, this
year's experience has satisfied me ; but still the forcing by pots will answer very well for
any of the smaller growing species. I have never found any difference between using
dung fresh from the stable, and that which had undergone fermentation, provided it was
not suffered to heat violently after its application to the frame. I do not permit the in-
ternal heat of the hollow space, above the plants, to rise above 60°, between 55° and 60**
being the proper medium. To those who dislike the trouble of either frames or pots, it
may be useful to know that rhubarb will come in much quicker, by being covered about
six inches thick, with light litter ; care should be taken, in putting it on, and removing it,
that no injury be done to the plants."

4204. Knight has forced the rhubarb, and gives the following rationale of the principles on which his
practice is founded. " The root of every perennial herbaceous plant contains within itself, during win-
ter, all the organisable matter, which it expends in the spring in the formation of its first foliage and flower-
stems ; and it requires neither food nor light to enable it to protrude these, but simply heat and water : and
if the root be removed entire, as soon as its leaves become lifeless, it will be found to vegetate, after being
replanted, as strongly as it would, have done, if it had retained its first position. These circumstances led
me, in the last winter, to dig up the roots of many plants of the common rhubarb (which I had raised
from cuttings in the preceding spring), and to place them in a few large and deep pots, each pot being
made to receive as many as it would contain. Some fine sandy loam was then washed in, to fill entirely
the interstices between the roots, the tops of which were so placed as to be level with each other, and
about an inch below the surface of the mould in the pots, which were covered with other pots of the same
size, inverted upon them : being then placed in a vinery (in a situation where nothing else could be made
to thrive on account of want of light), and being copiously supplied with water, the plants vegetated rapidly
and strongly ; and from each pot I obtained three successive crops, the leaf-stalks of the two first being
crowded so closely as nearly to touch each other over the whole surface of the pots. As soon as the third
crop of leaves was broken off, and a change of roots became necessary, those taken from the pots were
planted in the open ground, their tops being covered alwut an inch deep with mould, and I have reason to
believe, from present appearances, that they will live and recover strength, if given a year of rest to be fit
for forcing again. Should they, however, perish, it is of very little consequence ; as year-old roots, raised
from cuttings or even from seeds, sown in autumn in rich soil, will be found sufficiently strong for
use. The heat of a hot-bed, a kitchen, or other room, and, on the approach of spring (probably at any
period after the middle of January), a cellar, will afford a sufficiently high temperature ; and the advan-
tage in all cases will be that of obtaining from one foot of surface as much produce as in the natural state
of growth of the plants would occupy twenty feet ; and in the shady space of the vinery or peach-house,
not applicable to other purposes, and without incurring any additional expense in fuel, or doing injury to
the soil, a succession of abundant crops may be raised."

4205. Taking the stalks. Remove a little earth, and bending down the leaf you would remove, slip it off
from the crown, without breaking or using the knife. The stalks are fit to use when the leaf is half-
expanded ; but a larger produce is obtained by letting them remain till in full expansion, as is practised
by the market-gardeners. The stalks are tied in bundles of a dozen and upwards, and thus exposed
for sale.

4206. To save seed. Leave one or two of the strongest flower-stalks to perfect their seeds, which they
will do in July and August

SuBSECT. 2. Pompion and Gourd. — Cucurbita, L. Moncec. Monad. L. and Cticur-
bitacete, 3. Potiron and Patisson, Fr. ; Kiirbiss, Ger. ; and Popone^ Ital.

4207. Of the pomjnon and gourd tribe there are six species in cultivation, natives of
India and the East, all tender or half-hardy annuals, but producing fruit in the open air
in Britain in the warmest period of our summers.

4208. The pumpkin, pumpion, or, more correctly, pompion, is the C Pepo, L. ( Patis-
son, Fr.) ; a native of the Levant, and introduced in 1570. This is the melon or millon
of our early horticulturiste, the true melon being formerly distinguished by the name of

Book I.

POMPION AND GOURD.

675

rausk-melon. Though commonly cultivated in gardens for curiosity, yet, in some of
the country villages of England, the inhabitants grow it on dunghills, at the backs of
their houses, and train the shoots to a great length over grass. When the fruit is ripe,
they cut a hole in one side, and having taken out the seeds, fill the void space with sliced
apples, adding a little sugar and spice, and then having baked the whole, cat it with
butter. (Neill.) Pumpkin-pie, Abercrombie says, is very common. On the continent,
the fruit is a good deal used in soups, and also stewed and fried in oil or butter.

4209. The water-rnehn is the C. citrullm
{Rumph. Am. 5. t. 146. and our Z^. 473.), Pas-
tiqne, Fr. ; Wassemielone, Ger. ; and Cocomero,
Ital. It is a native of the south of Europe, and
introduced in 1597. It is rather more tender
than the C. Pepo. This plant forms both the food
and tlie drink of the inhabitants of Egypt for se-
veral months in the year ; and is mucli used in
the south of Italy. It requires nearly the same
treatment as the common melon, but a larger frame
to admit its more extended shoots to spread them-
selves. The fruit is large, green externally, white -
fleshed, reddish towards the centre, succulent, and
refresliing, but not high-flavored. It is generally
considered as the melon of the Jews, mentioned
in various parts of the Bible.

4210. The squash is the C Melo])epo (Potiron,
Fr. ; Pfebin Kiirbiss,- Ger. ; and Popone, Ital. ) ; a
native of the Levant, and introduced in 1 597. It is cultivated like the pompion, and
the fruit is used in pies, or gathered when of the size of a hen's egg, dressed in salt and
water, and sliced and served on a toast. It is also used for pickling. In North America
it is cultivated as an article of food.

4211. Tfie warted gourd (C. verrucosa) is a native of the Levant, and introduced in
1658. Its nature and uses are the same as tliose of the squash, and like it, it is cultivated
in North America as an article of food.

4212. The bottle gourd, or false calabash (C. lugenaria), (Rumph. Am. 5. t. 144.) is a
native of India, and introduced in 1597. Its culture and uses are the same as those of
the two last sorts.

4213. The orange-fruited gourd [C. aurantia) is a native of India, introduced in 1802,
and rather more tender than the common pompion. It has been hitherto cultivated chiefly
for curiosity, and when trained spirally round a pole, or against a wall, and loaded with
its yellow fruit, it is very ornamental. The fruit may be uSfed like those of the other
sorts.

4214. The vegetable viarrow (Cjyepovar.) (fg. 474.) was in-
troduced within these few years from Persia, where it is called
deader. " The fruit," Sabine observes (Hort. Trails, vol. ii.
255.), "is of a uniform pale-yellow, or light sulphur-color ; when
full grown, it is about nine inches in length, four inches in dia-
meter, of an elliptic shape, the surface being rendered slightly
uneven by irregular longitudinal ribs, the terminations of which
imiting, form a projecting apex at the end of the fruit, which is
very unusual in this tribe. It is useful for culinary purposes in
every stage of its growth ; when very young, it is good if fried
with butter ; when large or about half grown, it is excellent either
plain, boiled, or stewed with rich sauce ; for either of these purposes
it should be cut in slices. The flesh has a peculiar tenderness and
softness, from which circumstance it has, I suppose, received its
name, much resembling the buttery quality of the Reurre pears,
and this property remains with it till it is full grown, when it is
used for pies. It is, however, in its intermediate state of growth
that I conceive it likely to be most approved. Compared with all

the other kinds which I had growing, its superiority was decided ; there were one or two
which, in cooking, might be considered nearly as good, but these are bad bearers, and
more difficult to cultivate, so that I consider the vegetable marrow without a rival."
The culture of this species is the same as that of the others.

4215. Culture applicable to all the species. They are propagated from seeds which are large, and require
to be covered nearly an inch. " Sow in April in a hot-bed under a frame or hand-glass, to raise plants for
transferring to the open garden at the end of May under a warm aspect ; or for planting out in the middle
of May on a trench of hot dung under a hand-glass or half-shelter: otherwise sow, at the beginning of
May, under a hand-glass without bottom-heat, for transplanting into a fevorable situation • or sow three
weeki later (after the 20th) at once in the open garden, under a south wall, for the plante to' remain The

X X 2

474

676 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part Hi.

smaller-fruited kinds do best trained to an upright pole or trellis. From time to time earth up the shanks
■of the plants. As the runners extend five feet or more, peg down at a joint, and they will take root
Water copiously wherever warm weather without showers makes the ground arid." {Abercrmnbie.)

SuBSECT. 3. Angelica. ■ — Angelica Archangelica, L. {Fl. Dan. t. 206. ) Pent. Dig. L.
UmbellifercB, J. Angelique, Fr. ; Engeliviirtz, Ger. ; and Angelica, Ital.

4216. The angelica is a biennial, a native of England, being sometimes found in
moist situations, and is also common in Lapland and Iceland. It was cultivated in
Britain in 1568, and probably more early. It rises from three to five feet high, with
very large pinnate leaves, the extreme leaflet three-lobed. The flowers are greenish,
and produced in September ; the roots long and thick, and tliey, as well as the whole
plant, are powerfully aromatic. Though the plant is only a biennial, it may be made
to continue several years, by cutting over the flower-stem before it ripens seed ; in which
case it immediately pushes out below.

4217. Use. It was formerly cultivated on account of its leaf-stalks, which were
blanched and eaten as celery : now they are used only when candied ; and the young and
tender stalks are for this purpose collected in May. Sometimes also the seeds and leaves
are used in medical preparations.

4218. Propagation and culture. It delights in moist situations, or the banks of running water j but will
grow freely in any soil and exposure. The plants are raised from seed, and, for a bed four feet and a half
by six feet, sown in drills a foot apart, to be transplanted, half an ounce of seed will be requisite. " Sow
in August, or as soon as the seed is ripe, as the plants will come up earlier and stronger than from a sow-
ing in the spring. When the plants are advanced from four to six inches high, transjJant them into rows
two feet apart. They will soon strike root, and advance quickly in strong growtli. In the second year,
their strong erect branchy stalks will be several feet high, producing large umbels of seed, ripening in
autumn, which, as well as the leaves of the plant, are used in medicine. But, for candying, the young
shoots of the stems and stalks of the leaves are the useful parts : being cut, while green and tender, in
May and June, they are made by confectioners into the sweetmeat called Angelica. In the second year,
if seed is not wanted, cut the plants down in May, and the stool will send out side-shoots ; by repeating
this practice every year, the same plant may be long continued. Cuttings will also grow." {Abercrombie?)

SuBSECT. 4. Anise. — Pimpinella Anisum, L. (Blackw. t. 374.) Pent. Trig. L. and
Umbellifene, J. Anis, Fr. and Ger. ; and Anice, Ital.

4219. T/ie anise is ^n annual plant, a native of Egypt, and introduced to this coun-
try, according to Turner, in 1551. The lower leaves are divided into three lobes, deeply
cut on the edges ; the stem is a foot and a half high, dividing into several slender
branches; the umbels large and loose, on rather long peduncles ; the flowers are small,
of a yellowish-white, and appear from June to August.

4220. Use. It is cultivated in Malta and Spain for its seeds, which are annually im-
ported as medicinal, and for distillation and expression. In this country, it is occasionally
grown in the garden to be used as a garnish, and for seasoning, like fennel.

4221. Culture. The seeds require to be sown in April, in a warm border, in a dry light soil ; or raised
in pots on heat, and removed t«»a warm site in May, where it will blossom and ripen seeds in August in
favorable seasons. It does not bear transplanting, but the plants, when too thick, are to be thinned out
to three or four inches' distance.

SuBSECT. 5. Coriander. — Coriandrum sativum, L. (Eng. Bot. 61.) Pent. Dig. L.
and UmbellifercB, J. Coriandre, Fr. ; Coriander, Ger. ; and Coriandro, Ital.

4222. The coriander is a hardy annual plant, originally introduced from the East, but
now naturalised in Essex, and other places, where it has long been cultivated for drug-
gists and confectioners. The plant rises about a foot high, with doubly pinnated leaves,
and produces an umbel of white flowers in June. The whole plant is highly aromatic.

4223. Use. In private gardens, it is cultivated chiefly for the tender leaves, which are
used in soups and salads. On a large scale, it is cultivated for the seed, which is used
by confectioners, druggists, and distillers, in large quantities.

4224. Culture. The plant delights in a sandy loam. It is raised from seeds, which may be sown in Fe-
bruary, when the weather is mild and dry ; and the quantity requisite for a bed four feet wide by six in
length, to be sown in rows, is half an ounce ; and when sown in drills, they may be nine inches apart,
and the seed buried half an inch. " Where a constant succession is required, small successive monthly
sowings will be necessary in spring and summer, as the plants in those seasons soon run to seed. There
should be also small sowings in August and September, to stand the winter under the defence of a frame.
The plants are to remain where sown." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 6. Caraway. — Carum carui, L. (Eng. Pot. 1503.) Pent. Trig. Li. and
Uinbell^erce, J. Carvi, Fr. ; Kiimmel, Ger. ; and Carvi, Ital.

4225. The caraway is a biennial plant, a native of England, being occasionally found
in meadows and pastures. It rises a foot and a half high, with spreading branches ; the
leaves are decompound ; the leaflets in sixes ; it produces umbels of white flowers in
June.

4226. Use. The plant is cultivated chiefly for the seed, which is used in confectionary
and in medicine. In spring, the under leaves are sometimes put in soups ; and in former
times the fusiform roots were eaten as parsneps, to which Parkinson gives them the pre-
ference. In Essex, large quantities of the seed are annually raised for distillation with
spirituous liquors.

Book I. HYSSOP, CHAMOMILE, ELECAMPANE. 677

' 4'>e7 Culture It is raised from seed, of which a quarter of. an ounce is sufficient for a seed-bed four
feetbv five Sw annu^ y!in autumn, soon after the seed is ripe : the seedlings will nse qmckly and
should bl thinned to a foot's distance ekch way. In default of sowing in autumn, sow in March or April,
IVtherindril^^o7broad-Lt; but the plants so raised, will not in general .flower till the followmg year.
When the seed is.ripe, the plant is generally pulled up in gathering, especially in field-culture

SUBSECT. 7. Rue. — Ruta graveolens, L. (Lam. lU. 345. t. 1.) Decan. Monog. L.
and Rtdacece, J. Rue, Fr. ; Route, Ger. ; and Ruta, Ital.

4228. The rue is a perennial evergreen under-slirub, a native of the south of Europe,
but cultivated in this country since 1562, and probably long before. It is well known
by its fetid smell. ,. . , • i

4229. Use. The leaves are sometimes gathered as a medicmal simple, and are also
given to poultry having the croup. In former days, it was called the herb of grace, from
the circumstance of small bunches of it having been used by the priests for the sprinkling
of holy water among the people.

4230 Culture. It is easily propagated by seeds, cuttings, or slips of the young shoots in March, April,
or May planted in a shady border. The plant delights in a poor, dry, calcareous soil ; in which it will con-
tinue for many years, and if cut down occasionally, always in full leaf and well furnished with young
shoou. Letting it run to seed, weakens the plant and shortens its longevity.

SuBSECT. 8. Hyssop. — Hyssoput officinalis, L. {Jac. Aug. 3. t. 254.) Didyrmnu Gymr
nos. L. ; and Labiatce, J. Hysope, Fr. ; Jsop, Ger. ; and Jsopo, Ital.

4231. The hyssop is a hardy evergreen under-shrub, a native of the south of Europe,
and introduced in 1548. Tlie stems rise a foot and a half high; the leaves are lanceolate,
short, and somewhat obtuse ; it produces blue flowers from June to September. The
whole plant has a strong aromatic odor.

42S2. Use. The leaves and young shoots are occasionally used as a pot-herb, and the
leafy tops and flower-spikes are cut, dried, and preserved for medicinal purposes.

4233. The varieties are —

The white, blue, and red Bowered ; but the blue is the original color, and most commonly cultivated.
4254. Propagation and culture. " It is raised by seed, by slips, and cuttings of the branches, and by
slips of the root and top together. It likes a dry or sandy soil When it is proijagated by seed, sow in
March or April a small portion, either broad-cast and raked in, or in small drills, six inches apart. The
plants may mostly be transplanted into final beds in June or July, nine inches apart, or some may be
planted as an edging ; or you may also sow some seed for an edging to remain where sown. Give the
edgings occasionally trimming, in their established growth ; cutting away also any decayed flower-spikes
in autumn. You may Uke rooted offsets from established plants in March, April, August, or September;
cuttings from the stalks in April and May ; also rootless slips of the young shoots in June or July. After
May, shade for a time, cr plant in a shady border. If for culinary purposes, the distance from plant to
plant may be nine inches ; irrthe physic-garden, eighteen inches or two feet. Water at planting, and twice
or thricca-week in dry weather till rooted." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 9. Chamomile. — Antliemis nobilis, L. {Eng. Rot. 980.) Syng. Polyg. Super.
L. and Composite, J. Camomille, Fr. ; Kamille, Ger. ; and Camomilla, Ital.

4235. The chamomile is a hardy perennial, which grows wild in various parts of Eng-
land in gravelly pastures, and by road-sides. The leaves are cut into threads, and the
stem prostrate. The flowers are white in tlie rays and yellow in the disk, and appear in
August and September. The whole plant is bitter and highly aromatic.

4236. Use. It is cultivated on account of the flower, which is a safe bitter and
fetomachic, and much used under the name of chamomile-tea. The double-flowering
variety, though more beautiful than the single-flowered, is less useful ; the aromatic
principle not residing in the floscules of the ray, the multiplication of which constitutes
the double flower. The double sort, however, is most cultivated by growers for the
market, on account of its greater bulk and weight.

4237. Varieties. These are the common single, and the double flowered.

4238. Soil and culture. This herb delights in a poor sandy soiL " Both kinds are propagated by part-
ing the roots, or by slips of the rooted offsets, or of the runners. Detach them with roots, in little tufty
sets, in March, April, or May ; and plant them from eight to twelve inches asunder, giving water; repeat
waterings occasionally till they root ; they will soon overspread the bed, and produce plenty of flowers the
same year in July and August, and continue several years productive.

4239. Taking the crop. " The flowers should be gathered in 'their prime, in June or July, just when
full-blown. Cet them be spread to dry in a shady place ; then put them in paper bags, and bouse them for
use." {^Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 10. Elecampane. — Inula Helenium, L. (Eng. Rot. t. 1546.) Syng. Polyg,
Super. Li. and Compositce, J. Inule, Fr. and Ger. ; and Inulo, Ital.

4240. The elecampane is a perennial plant, found in moist pastures in the south of
England, and one of the largest herbaceous plants we have, rising from three to five feet
high ; the lower leaves embrace the stem, are ovate and wrinkled, a foot long and four or
five inches broad in the middle. It produces large heads of yellow flowers in July and
August. The root is thick, fusiform, and aromatic. It was formerly in great repute,
and the plant was cultivated in village gardens throughout Europe. In private gardens
it still keeps its place in the physic-herb comer.

4241. Use. In France and Gennany, the root is candied, and used as a stomacliic, for

Xx 3

ers PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

strengthening the tone of the viscera in general. Asa medicinal plant, it possesses the
general virtues of alexipharmics.

4242. Culture. It is propagated by offsets in autumn, after the plant has done flowering : these, if planted
in a deep soil, rather moist, or in a shady situation, will be fit for use the end of the second year. Koots of
this age are said to be preferable to those of older plants.

SuBSECT. 1 1 . Liquorice. — Glycyrrhizn glabra, L. {Lam. III. t. 625. f. 2. ) Diadel.
Decan. L. and Legumijiosce, J. Reglisse, Fr. ; SUsholz, Ger. ; and Reglida, Ital.

4243. The liquorice is a hardy perennial plant, a native of the south of Europe, and
introduced into this country in 1562. The roots run very deep into the ground, and
creep to a considerable distance, sending up strong herbaceous stalks, four or five feet
high ; the leaves are composite, and consist of four or five ovate leaflets terminated by an
odd one ; these and the stalks are clammy, and of a dark green. The flowers come out
in axillary spikes, of a blue color, in July and August. Stovve informs us, that the plant-
ing and growing of Ucorish began about the first year of Queen Elizabeth.

4244. Use. It is cultivated on a large scale for the brewers and druggists, and in
gardens for the saccharine juice obtained from the root by decoction, and used as an
emollient in colds, fevers, &c.

4245. Propagation and culture. " Licorice is propagated by cuttings of the roots. On account of the
depth to which the root strikes, when the plant has room to flourish, the soil should have a good staple of
mould thirty inches or three feet in depth. Taking the small horizontal roots of established plants, cut
them into sections six inches long ; having traced out rows a yard asunder, plant the sets along each row,
at intervals of eighteen inches, covering them entirely with mould. For the first year, you may cultivate
alight crop of lettuce or onions between the rows. During the summer, keep the plot clear from weeds ;
and when the subordinate crop comes off, hoe and dress the ground. At the close of autumn, or as a
winter dressing, fork or dig between the rows, to stir and refresh the surface ; and cut down the decayed
stems."

4246. Taking the crop. " After three or four years' growth, the main roots will be of a mature size,
and fit for consumption or the market. In the course of the following winter, begin to dig them up, open-
ing a trench close to the first row, as deep as the roots, then, with the spade, turn out all the roots clean to
the bottom J so proceed from trench to trench, and prepare the ground for some other crop." {Aber-
crombie.)

SuBSECT. 12. IVormwood. — Artemisia Absinthium, L. {Eng. Hot. 1230.) Syng.
Polyg, Super. L. and Composite, J. Absinthe, Fr. ; Wermuthy Ger. ; and
Assenzio, Ital.

4247. The wormwood is a perennial plant, well known, and frequent in calcareous
commons and by road-sides in England. It rises from two to four feet high, covered
with minutely divided hoary leaves. The flowers appear in small pendulous hemi-
spherical bunches in August. The whole plant is intensely bitter and aromatic.

4248. Use. The seeds are used as stomachics, and the herb was formerly much used
as a vermifuge. The growth of this plant, Neill observes, " should be encouraged in
poultry -walks, it being found beneficial to them. The distillers in Scotland sometimes
employ it in place of hops, and for their use, small fields of it are occasionally sown."

4249. Propagation and culture. By seed, cuttings, or dividing the root : the latter is the easiest mode,
and the future treatment may be the same as for rue or hyssop. The sea-wormwood {A. maritima), the
Roman {A. pontica), and the Tartarian {A. santonica) are propagated chiefly by cuttings, and may be treated
like the common species.

SuBSECT. 13. Blessed Thistle. — Centaurea benedicta, L. [Zorn. Ic 122.) Syngen.
Polyg. Frustan. L. and Compositce, J. Centauree sudonjique, Fr. ; Cardo
benedicten, Ger. ; and Cardo santo, Ital.

4250. The blessed thistle is an annual plant, a native of Spain and the Levant, and
introduced in 1548. The leaves are long, elliptical, rough, runcinate, and variously
serrated. The calyx is woolly, and the flowers yellow, appearing from June to November.

4251. Use. An infusion of the leaves is sometimes used as a stomachic, and is said
to procure the return of appetite, where the stomach was injured by irregularities. A
strong infusion promotes perspiration, and increases all the secretions. It was formerly
used in cases of cancer ; but at present is considered of little medical value.

4252. Culture. The seed is to be sown in autumn, in any light earth, and in a warm situation. Thin-
ned and kept free from weeds, the plants will flower the following June and July, and if not gathered, will
produce seeds in August and September. Gather the herb when in flower, and take great care in drying
it and keeping it in a dry airy place, to prevent its rotting or getting mouldy, which it is very apt to do.

SuBSECT. 14. JBalm. — Melissa officinalis, L. Didyn. Gymnos. L. and Labiat<e, J.
MMisse, Fr. ; Melisse, Ger. ; and Melissa, Ital.

4253. The balm is a hardy perennial, with square stems, which rise two feet high or
more, furnished with large ovate leaves, growing by pairs at each joint. It is a native
of Switzerland, and the south of France ; produces flowers of a purplish color from
June to October, and was introduced to this country in 1573. There is a variety with
hairy leaves.

4254. Use. It is now little used, unless for making a simple balm-tea, which alfords
a grateful diluent drink in fevers, and for forming a light and agreeable beverage under
the name of balm- wine.

^^5oo;

K I. PLANTS USED AS PRESERVES, &c. 679

4255. ProiMgation, It is readily propagated by parting the roots, preserving two or
three buds to each piece, or by slips, either in autumn or spring.

4256. Culture. Plant the slips or sets in any bed of common earth, by dibble or trowel, and from 'eight
inches to a foot apart, giving water, if dry weather. Those of the spring planting wUl soon grow freely
for use the same year ; and afterwards will increase by the root into large bunches of several years' continu-
ance, furnishing annual supplies from March to September.

4257. Dried balm. Gather when coming into flower, and when the leaves are per-
fectly free from dew or moisture ; then dry rapidly in the shade, or better in an oven ;
and when cool press the herbage into packages, and wrap them up in white paper till
wanted for use. Keep the packages dry and in a close drawer.

Sect. XI. Plants used as Preserves and Pickles.

4258. Of plants used as culinary jn-eserves and jnckles, some are tender annuals, requir-
ing to be reared to a certain stage of growth in hot-beds or stoves, as the capsicum and
love-apple ; others are marine plants, as the samphires, more generally gathered wild than
cultivated in the garden. The remainder are chiefly common garden-plants, used also
for other purposes, as the red cabbage, Indian cress, &c. The whole occupy but a few
square yards of the largest kitchen-garden ; and, excepting the red cabbage, few of them
are seen in that of the cottager for the purposes of this section.

SuBSECT. 1. Love- Apple. — Solanum Lycoperskum, L. ; Lycoperdcum escvlentuniy
Dunal. (Rumph. Amb. 5. t, 154. f. 1.) Pentan. Monog. L. and SolanacecSf J.
TomatOj Fr. ; Liebes Apfel, Ger. ; and Porno d'Oro, Ital.

4259. The love-a]>j)le is a tender annual, a native of South America, and introduced
in 1596. The stem, if supported will rise to the height of six or eight feet ; the leaves
are pinnate, and have a rank disagreeable smell when handled ; the flowers are yellow,
appearing in bunches in July and August, and followed by the fruit in August and
September. The fruit is smooth, compressed at both ends, and furrowed over the sides ;
it varies in size, but seldom exceeds that of an ordinary golden pippin.

4260. Use. WTien ripe, the fruit, which has an acid flavor, is put into soups and
sauces, and the juice is preserved for wdnter use like ketchup ; it is also used in confec-
tionary, as a preserve ; and when green, as a pickle. Though a good deal used in
England in soups, and as a principal ingredient in a well known sauce for mutton ; yet,
our estimation and uses of the fruit are nothing to those of the French and Italians, and
especially the latter. Near Rome and Naples, whole fields are covered with it, and
scarcely a dinner is served up in which it does not in some way or other form a part.

4261. Varieties. Those in general cultivation are —

The large, small, cherrr, and pear-shaped red | The large, and small, or cheny-shaped yellow.

4262. Estimate of sorts. " The first sort is in most estimation for domestic purposes,
and should be cultivated accordingly ; while a few plants of the other kinds may be
raised for variety of the fruit."

4263. Propagation and culture. The plants must be raised and forwarded in a hot-bed, under glass,
from about the vernal equinox till Maj-. Sow in any general hot-bed about the end of March, or begin-
ning or middle of April ; and as to quantity of seed, one ounce will produce sixty plants. As soon as
the plants are about two inches high, if they are immediately pricked into another hot-bed, or into that
where raised, singly into small pots placed in the hot-bed, they will grow more stocky, and can be more
successfully transplanted. About the middle or end of May, transplant them, each with a ball of earth,
into a south border, to have the fuU sun, that the fruit may ripen in perfection. Some may be planted
close to a south wall, if vacant spaces can be had ; but as they draw the ground exceedingly, do not set
them near choice fruit-trees. Give water. During the first week or fortnight, if the nights be cold, de-
fend them with hand-glasses, or by whelming a large garden-pot over each plant ; or transplant upon
holes of hot dung, earthed to six inches depth, and cover with hand-glasses. vVhen they begin to run,
train them to stakes, or, when planted near a wall or pales, nail up the branches.

4264. miniot plants at the foot of a bed sloping steeply to the south, and trains the runners on it by
pegging them down. They frequently strike root at the joints ; he " tops them as soon as their branches
meet, clears off all the lateral shoots, and thins the leaves by which the fruit is exposed and well ripened.
In the fine season of 1818, each plant so treated produced, on an average, twenty poimds' weight of fruit"
(Hort. Trans, iii. 346.) The fruit begins to ripen in August ; gathered in October, and bung up in
bimches in any dry apartment, it will continue good for use in November.

4265. To save seed. " Gather some of the best ripe fruit in autumn ; clear out the seed ; wash and
cleanse it from the pulp, and dry it thoroughly ; then put it up in papers or bags, for use next spring "
(Abercrombie.)

ScBSECT. 2. Egg-Plant. — Solanum Melongena, L. {Pluk. Phyt. 226. f. 2.) Pent.
Monog. L. and Solanacece, B. P. Mdongene, Fr. ; ToUajrfel, Ger. ; and Melan-
zana, Ital.

4266. The egg-plant is a tender or green-house annual, a native of Africa, introduces,
in 1597. The plant rises about two feet high, with reclining branches ; the flowers ap-
pear in June and July, of a pale-\-iolet color, followed by a very large berry, generally
of an oval shape, and white color, much resembling a hen's egg ; and in large speci-
mens, that of a swan.

4267. Use. In French and Italian cookery, it is used in stews and soups, and for the
general purposes of the love-apple.

Xx 4

680

PRACriCE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

4268. The varieties are —

The oval-shaped white 1 The globuiar-shaped white

The purple, or violet -colored, of both formii.

4269. Culture. The plants are raised from seed, which may be sown in March or April, in a liot-bed,
in light rich earth. After they have shown two or three proper leaves, they may either be pricked out
in another hot-bed, or planted in small pots, to be shifted in rotation, till in size No. 16. in which
they will produce their fruit. If the plants, instead of being shifted into fruiting-pots, are planted
against a wall, or in a warm border in June, they will fruit in the open air, if the season is not unusually
wet and cold.

4270. To save seed. Gather one or two ripe berries of each sort, large and well formed, and preserve
them entire, till the seed is wanted for sowing.

SuBSECT. 3. Capsicum. — Capsicum, L. Peiit. Monog. L. and Solanacete, B. P.
Piment, Fr. ; Spanischer Pfeffer, Ger. ; and Peberone, Ital.

4271. Of the capsicum there are three species in cultivation.

4272. T/ie annual capsicum, or Guinea-pepper, is the C. annuum, L. (A'horr. Tliess. 2.
t. C. 6.), an annual plant, which, though a native of India, endures the open air in
this country during summer. It was introduced in 1548, and was cultivated in Gerrard's
time. It rises about two feet high, producing long, linear, dark-green leaves, on a
branchy stem. The flowers are white, and appear in June and July, succeeded by ber-
ries, varying in shape and color, and either long-podded, red and yellow ; short-podded,
red and yellow ; round short-podded, red and yellow ; or heart-shaped, red and yellow.

4273. The cherry-pqyjier (C. cerasiforme), {Hort. Kew.), is an annual plant, a native of
the West Indies, which also stands our summer. It was introduced in 1759, has the
same general character of foliage as the Guinea pepper, and flowers from June to Sep-
tember. It is characterised by its small cherry-shaped fruit, which is sometimes heart-
shaped, bell-sliaped, or angular, and in color red or yellow.

4274. The hell-pepper {C. grossum), (Be.%1. Eyst. Aut, 1, t. 1 1. f. 1.), is a stove biennial,
a native of India, and introduced in 1759. It is of humble growth, flowers in July,
and produces large red or yellow berries. It will endure the open air in summer, but
requires a place in the stove during the winter and spring months.

4275. Use. The green pods, or inflated berries, of all these varieties, are used for
pickling. They are sometimes also used in their ripe state, when they form a spice of
the hottest quality, known by the name of Cayenne pepper. The berries of the last
named species are deemed better for pickling than the others, the skin being thick,
pulpy, and tender.

4276. Culture. All the three species, •with their varieties, are raised from seed ; a small parcel, or the
produce of two pods, will be a sufficient quantity of each or of any one variety for ordinary supply. Sow
all the annual sorts at the end of March, " or beginning or middle of April, in a moderate hot-bed, under
a frame. Cover the seed a quarter of an inch deep. When the plants are two or three inches in growth,
prick some into a new slender hot-bed, to forward them f6r final transplanting ; or in default of this,
prick them into a bed of natural earth, at the beginning of May, if fine, settled, warm weather ; defend
them with a frame, or awning of mats, at night and in cold vicissitudes. Give water lightly at planting,
and occasionally afterwards in moderate supplies, to assist their fresh rooting and subsequent growth. At
the beginning of June, when the weather is settled warm, transplant them into the open garden, in beds
of light rich earth, from twelve to eighteen inches apart, giving water. They will thus advance freely,
flower in July or August, and produce plenty of pods from August till the end of Septemlier. Under the
deficiency of a hot-bed or stove, or for succession, annual capsicums may be raised in a bed of light rich
earth, under a hand-glass ; but the sowing must be deferred to fine warm weather in May. Give the
plants air in the day, but cover them close at night, till danger from frost is over. At the close of June,
transplant as above. The perennial species must be wintered in the stove." {Abercrombie.)

4277. To save seed. Leave one or two of the largest and handsomest shaped pods to ripen in autumn ;
after gathering them, the best way is to hang them up in a dry place, and not take out the seed till
wanted for sowing in spring.

SuBSECT. 4. Samphire, three Sjyecies of different Orders and Genera.

4278. Common samphire is the Crithmum Mari-
timum, L. {Eng. Bot. 819.); Pent. Dig. L. and
UmbeUiferce, J. Perce-jnerre, or Saint Pierre,
Fr. ; Meerfenchel, Ger. ; and Finochio marina,
Ital. (Jig. 475. a) It is a perennial plant, a
native of Britain, and found on rocky cliffs by the
sea, and in dry stone walls. The root-leaves are
triternate, those of the stem lanceolate and fleshy;
the flowers appear on a stem of about eighteen
inches high in August, and are of a yellow color.
The name samphire is a corruption of sampier, and
this again a corruption of the French name Saint
Pierre.

4279. Use. Samphire forms an excellent
pickle, and a frequent addition to salads. In
taste, it is crisp and aromatic, and constitutes a
light and wholesome condiment. It is generally
gathered in places where it is found native ; and
the allusion to the practice by Shakspeare, in his
description of Dover cliff, is well known. Tlie plant is also used medicinally.

Book I. EDIBLE WILD PLANTS. 681

4280. Culture. It is propagated by parting the roots, or by sowing the seed in April; but is rather
difficult of cultivation. Marshall says, " it likes a cool situation ; but yet prefers a sandy or a graveUy
•oil and pientv of water. Some," he adds, " have found it to do best in pots, set for the morning sun only."
Bra'ddick placed it in a sheltered dry situation, screened from the morning sun ; protected it by litter
during winter, and in spring sprinkled the soil with a little powdered bariUa : " This I do, he says, to
furnish the plant with a supply of soda, since in its native place of growth, it possesses the power of
decomposing sea-water, from which it takes the fossil alkali, and rejects the muriatic acid. With this
treatment it has continued to flourish at Thames Ditton for some years, producing an ample supply of
shoots, which are cut twice in the season." {,Hort. Trans. iL 232.)

4281. Golden samphire is the Inula Crithmifolia, L. (Eng. Bot, 68.) Syng. Polyg.
Sujier. L. and Composilee, J. L'Inule perce-inerre, Fr. ; Goldene Meerfenchel, Ger.
fjig, 475. b) Jt is a perennial plant, found on sea-shores, generally within salt-water
mark. It is occasionally gathered and brought to Covent Garden market, under the
name of golden samphire ; but has not, we believe, been introduced in the garden. It
is used for the same purposes as the common samphire.

4282. Marsh-samphire is the Salicornia Herbacea, L. {Eng. JBot. t. 415.) I>ian*
Monog. L. and Chenopodecc, B. P. Salicome, Fr. ; Glasschmalz, Ger. ; and Erbacali,
Ital. {Jig. 475. c.) It is an annual plant, a native of Britain, and not uncommon in
salt-marshes, and other aits and islets of low land overflown by the sea. It is occasionally
gatliered and brought to market ; and is used for pickling, and in salads, like the two
plants above described. This and the former species might be cultivated in the garden,
by imitating a small portion of salt-marsh.

Sect. XII. Edible Wild Plants, neglected, or not in Cultivation,

4283. The subject of edible wild jilants is introduced as highly deserving the study
of the horticulturist; partly to increase his resources, partly to induce such as have
leisure to try how far these plants may be susceptible of improvement by cultivation ; but
principally to enable the gentleman's gardener to point out resources to the poor in his
neighborhood, in seasons of scarcity. All vegetables not absolutely poisonous maybe
rendered edible by proper preparation. Many sorts, for example, are disagreeable from
their acrid and bitter taste ; but this might be, in a great degree, removed by maceration,
either in cold or hot water. The vegetable matter once reduced to a state of insipidity,
it is easy to give it taste and flavor, by adding salt of some sort, which is an article never
scarce through the influence of bad seasons ; or by vinegar, or oils, or fats ; by the
addition of other vegetables of agreeable tastes and flavors, as of thyme, mint, celery-
seed, onions, &c. ; or by the addition of torrefied vegetable matter ; as of the powder of
roasted carrot, parsnep, potatoe, or dandelion-roots, or of beans, peas, or wheat ; or, if
it can be had, of toasted bread, which will render almost any thing palatable, and pro-
long the pleasure of eating many of the best tilings.

4284. Gooseberry, birch, beech, willow, and other leaves, we are told, were formerly eaten
as salads ; and there can be little doubt that aboriginal man would eat any green thing
that came in his way, till he began to improve. It may be worth while for man in his
present multiplied and highly civilised state, to reflect on these things, with a view
to resources in times of famine, or in travelling or voyaging, or touching at or settling
in new or uncultivated countries. {Parry^s Voyage to the Polar Regions, 4to. 1821.)
Edible wild plants may be classed as greens and pot-herbs, roots, legumes, salads,
teas, and plants applied to miscellaneous domestic purposes.

SuBSECT. 1. Greens and Pot-herbs from Jflld Plants.

4285. Black bryony. Tamus communis, L. {Eng. Bot. 91.) Dicec. Hex. L. and
Smilacece, J. A twining perennial, growing in hedges, and commonly considered a
poisonous plant ; but the young leaves and tops are boiled and eaten by the country
people in spring.

4286. Burdock. Arctium lappa, L. {Eng. Bot. 1228.) Syng. Pol. 2Eq. L. and Composites, J. A
well known perennial, the tender stalks of which many people eat boiled as asparagus. {Bryant.)

4287. Charlock. Sinapis arvensis, L. {Eng. Bot. 1748.) Tetrad. Siliq. L. and Crucifera?, J. A common
annual weed in corn-fields. The young plant is eaten in the spring as turnip-tops, and is considered not
inferior to that vegetable. The seeds of this have sometimes been sold for feeding birds instead of rape;
but being hot in iu nature, it often renders them diseased.

4288. Chickweed. Alsine media, L. Sttilaria media, E. B. {Eng. Bot. 531.) Decan. Trig. L. and
CaryophyllecE , J. This common garden-weed is said to be a remarkably good pot-herb, boiled in the
spring.

4289. Shepherd's purse. Thlaspi bursa pastoris,!.. {Eng. Bot. 1485.) Tetrad. SUic. L. and Crucifem, J.
An esculent plant in Philadelphia, brought to market in large quantities in the early season. The taste,
when boiled, approaches that of the cabbage, but is softer and milder. This plant varies wonderfully in
size and succulence of leaves, according to the nature and state of the soil where it grows. Those from
the gardens and highly cultivated spots near Philadelphia, come to a size and succulence of leaf scarcely
to be believed without seeing them. They may be easilv blanched by the common method, and certainly
in that state, would be a valuable addition to the list of dehcate culinary vegetables. {Correa de Serra in
Hart. Trans, vol. iv. 445.) '

4290. Fat hen. Chenopodium urbicnth^ {Eng. Bot. 111.) and C. album, {Eng. Bot. 1723.) Pent. Big. L.
and Chenopodece, J. Both these plants are annuals, common among rubbish of buildings, dunghills &c.
Boiled, and eaten as spinage, they are by no means inferior to that v^etable. Several other native' but
less common species of this genus, may be applied to the same use. '

682 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4291. Ox.fongue. Picris hieracioides, L. {Eng. Bot. 972.) Syn. Pol. JEq. L. and Compositce, J. This
annual, common in clayey pastures and wastes, when boiled, affords a good greeo. In France and Italy,
a species named P. vulgare, and probably the same as the above, is grown and used as a salad, and is said
to resemble succory. {Bon Jard. 1820. p. 170.)

4292. Sauce alone, or Jack by the hedge, is the Erysimum Alliaria,!,. (Eng. Bot. 196.) Tetrad. Siliq^.
and Cruciferce, J. {fig. '^15. d) A biennial plant ; found by hedges where the soil is dry and rich. The
stem rises two or three feet high, with heart-shaped leaves of a yellowish-green color ; the flowers are
white, and appear in May. The whole plant, as the trivial name imports, scents strongly of garlic. It is
occasionally used r.s a salad ; boiled as a pot-herb, or introduced in sauces. Neill ob.serves, that, " when
gathered as it approaches the flowering state, boiled separately, and then eaten to boiled mutton, it cer-
tainly forms a most desirable pot-herb ; and to any kind of salted meat, an excellent green."

4293. Sea-orache. Atriplex littoralis, L. {Eng. Bot. 708.) Poly. Moncec. L. and Chenopodece, B. P. This
is an annual, and is eaten in the same manner as the chenopodium, as greens or spinage.

4294. Sea-beet. Beta m^iritima, L. {Eng. Bot. 285.) Pent. Dig. L. and Chenopodece, J. Tliis biennial
is common on various sea-shores, and is also used like the orache, fat hen, and white beet.

4295. Spotted hawkweed. Hypochceris tnaculata, L. {Eng. Bot. 225.) Syng. Pol. jEq. L. and Compo-
sitce, J. The leaves of this perennial are eaten as salad, and also boiled as greens.

4296. Stinging nettle. Urtica dioica, L. {Eng. Bot. 1750.) Mona'c. Pent. L. and Urticcee, J. This
perennial, found in dry rubbishy soils and in hedges ; is but .seldom seen in places where the hand of man
has not been at work, and may therefore be considered a sort of domestic plant. Early in February, the
tops will be found to have pushed three or four inches, furnished with tender leaves ; in Scotland, Poland,
and Germany, these are gathered as a pot-herb for soups, or for dishes like spinage ; and their peculiar
flavor is by many much esteemed. No plant is better adapted for forcing j and in severe winters, when
most of the brassica tribe have been destroyed, it forms an excellent resource. Collect the creeping roots,
and plant them either on a hot-bed, or in pots to be placed in a forcing-house, and they will soon send up
abundance of tender tops : these, if desired, may be blanched, by covering with other pots. We have
known the nettle forced by being planted close to the flue in a vinery, so as to produce excellent nettle-
kale and nettle-spinage in the last week of January.

4297. Wild rocket is the Sisymbrium qfficinalc, {Eng. Bot. 125.) Tetrad. Siliq. L. and Cruciferce, J.
A common annual, of a yellowish hue, from two to three feet high, with the leaves runcinated, and the
seed-pods inclined upwards, close to the stalk. It is sometimes used as a pot-herb j and the tender young
leaves, in salading, greatly resembling mustard in its taste and flavor.

4298. Willow-herb. Epilobium angustifolium, L. {Eng. Bot. 1947.) Oct. Monog. L. and OnagraricE, J.
The young and tender shoots are eaten as asparagus, and the leaves are a wholesome green.

4299. Saw-thistle is the Sonchus oleraceus, {Eng. Bot. 843 ) Syng. Polyg. ^qu. L. and Compositce, 3.
A hardy annual, and a well known weed in rich garden and field soils. There is a prickly and a smooth
variety, both abounding in a milky bitter juice. The tender tops of the smooth variety are in some
countries boiled and us^ as greens, or mashed as spinage : hence the origin of the Linntean trivial name
oleraceus.

SuBSECT. 2. Roots of Wild Plants edible.
4300. Arrowhead. Sagittaria sagittifolia, L. {Eng. Bot. 84.) Moncec. Polyan. L. and
Alismacecs, B. P. The roots of this aquatic perennial are said to be very similar to those
of the West India arrow-root {Maranta Arundinacea, L.). They are sometimes dried
and pounded, but are reported to have an acrid unpleasant taste ; though tliis might,
it is believed, be got rid of by washing the powder in water.

4301. Comtnon arum. Arum maculatum, L {Eng. Bot. 1293.) Monoec. Polyan. L. and Aroidece, B, P.
This plant is very common in hedges and woods in loamy soils ; in the isle of Portland it is very abun-
dant, and there the roots are dug up by the country jjeople, macerated, steeped, and the powder so
obtained is dried, and sent to London, and sold under the name of Portland sago.

4302. Bitter vetch, or mouse peas. Orobus tuberosus, L. {Eng. Bot. 1153.) Diad. Decan. L. and
Leguminosce, J. The tubers are said to be chewed by the Scottish Highlander as a substitute for tobacco.
Boiled till a fork will pass through them, and dried slightly and roasted, they are served up m Holland
and Flanders in the manner of chestnuts, which they resemble in flavor. Dickson {Hort. Trans, n. o59.)
recommends cultivating them in a bed or border of light rich soil, paved at the depth of twenty inches, to
prevent their roots from running down. Plant the tubers six inches apart, and three inches below the
surface ; the second year some will be fit to gather, and by taking only the largest, the bed wiU continue
productive for several years, adding some fresh compost every year. .,,. ^ ^ ,, . „.^ ,

4303. Earth-nut. Bunimn bulbocastanum, L. {Eng. Bot. 988.) Pent. Big. L. and UmbelhfercB, J.
The roots of this bulbous perennial are eaten raw, and are by some considered a delicacy here, but thought
much mor€ of in Sweden, where they are an article of trade : they are eaten also stewed as chestnuts.

4304. Meadow-sweet. Spircea Filipendula, L. {Eng. Bot. 284.) Icos. Dt-Pentag. L. and Rosacece, J.
The tubers of this perennial, common in most meadows where the soil is inclined to peat, or boggy, are
ground and made into bread in Sweden. „ . „ „ , ^ . t> . t

4305. PUewort. Ranuncidus ficaria, L. {Eng. Bot. 584.) Polyan. Polyg. L. and Ranunculacece, J.
■ ■• ' by the common people in Sweden, and eaten as greens. 1 he roots

The young leaves, in spring, are boiled „^ _.. ^_^ , ~ , . ^,. ^ .

are sometimes washed bare by the rains, so that the tubercles appear above ground ; and in this state
have induced the ignorant, in superstitious times, to fancy that it has rained wheat, which these tubercles
somewhat resemble. {Derkam's Physico-Theology.) a r^ i -J ti-dti,-,

4306. Sa^o. Orchis Mono, I.. {Eng. Bot. 9i)o9.) Gynan. Monan. J^ and Orchtde^, B. T The
powder of the roots is used in forming the beverage called saloop. 1 hough imported chiefly from Turkey,
vet the roots of this country, either gathered wild, or cultivated for use, might answer the same purpose.
This plant is particularly abundant in the vale of Gloucester.

4307. Silver-weed PotentiUa Anserina,Tu. {Eng. Bot. 861.) Icos. Polyan. 1,. and Rosacece, J The
roots of this plant taste like parsneps, and are frequently eaten in Scotland either roasted or boiled. In
the islands of Jura and Col they are much esteemed, as answering in some measure, the purposes of
bread they having been known to support the inhabitants for months together during a scarcity of
other'provisions. They often tear up their pasture-grounds with a view to get the roots for their use ;
and as they abound mSst in barren and impoverished soils, and in seasons when other crops fail they
afford a most seasonable relief to the inhabitants in times of the greatest scarcity. iLtghtfoot s Fl. Scot.)

4308. Solomons seal. Pohjgonatum vulgare, D. {Eng. Bot. 280.) The roots are
dried, ground, and made into bread ; and the young shoots are boiled and eaten as
greens.

Book I.

WILD PLANTS FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES.

des

SuBSECT. 3. Leguminous Wild Plants Edible.

4309. Sea-jyeas. Pisuvi marilimum, L. {Eng. Bot.
1046.) Diad. Decan. L. and Legurninos^e, J.
(Jig. 476.) These peas have a bitterish disagree-
able taste, and are therefore rejected when more
pleasant food is to be got. In the year 1555, how-
ever, when there was a great famine in England, the
seeds of this plant were used as food, by which, ac-
cording to Turner, thousands of families were pre-
served. The bitter of these seeds might in all
probability be removed by steeping and kiln-dry-
ing, as in preparing for the mill peas which are to be
split.

4310. Wild vetches. Lathyrus, Jlda, and Ervum, L. Diad.
Decan. L. and Leguininosce, J. The seeds of all the British
species of these genera may be used as peas. They are found
in hedges, woods, and corn-fields, and are most prolific in dry

SuBSECT. 4. Salads from Wild Plants,
4311. Ladies^ smock. Cardamine pratensis, L. {Eng. Bot. 776.) Tetrad. Siliq. L.
and Cruciferce, J. The leaves of this plant afford an agreeable acrid salad, greatly
resembling the American cress.

♦312. Stone-crop, or orpine. Sedum Telepfiium, L. {Eng. Bot. 1319.} Decan. Pentag. L. and Semper-
vivete, J. Trique Madam, Fr. The leaves are eaten in salads like those of purslane, to which, by the
French, it is considered equal.

4313. Sea^indiveed. Convolvulus Soldanella, L. {Eng. Bot. 314.) Pent. Monog. L. and Convoivulaceee,
R P. This plant abounds on sea-coasts, where the inhabitants gather the tender stalks, and pickle
them. It is considered to have rather a cathartic quality.

4314. Svueet Cicely. Scandix odorata, L. {Eng. Bot. 697.) Pentan. Dig. L. and Vmbeli(fer^, J.
The leaves of this plant used to be employed like those of chervil Thejgreen seeds ground small, and
used with lettuce or other cold salads, give them a warm agreeable taste. The smell of the plant attracts
bees, and the insides of empty hives are often rubbed with it before placing them over newly-cast swanns
to induce them to enter.

4315. Buckshorn-plantain, or star of the earth. Plantago coronopus^ L. {Eng. Bot. 892.) Tetrand.
Monog. K Plantagine^, B. P. Corne de Cerf, Fr. ; Krahenfuss, Ger. ; and Coranopo, ItaL This is a
hardy annual, a native of Britain, found in sandy soils. It is a low spreading plant, with linear pinnated
leaves, and round stalk : producing short spikes of starry flowers from May to August. It was formerly
cxiltivated as a salad herb, and used like the common cress ; but is now neglected in English gardens,
perhaps on account of its rank and disagreeable smell. It is still, however, regularly sown in French
gardens. It is raised by seed, which may be sown the first week in March ; and after the plants have
come up, they should be thinned so as each may occupy from five to nine square inches. To ensure a
succession of tender leaves, cut ofif the flowers as they appear.

4316. Ox-eye daisy. Chrysanthemum leucanthetnum, L. {Eng. Bot. 601.) Syng. Polyg. Super. L. and
CompositiB, J. Marguerite grande,Fr.; Grosse Wucherblume, Ger. ; and Leucanterno, Ital. This is a
perennial plant, common in dry pastures. The leaves, which spring immediately from the root, are
obovate with foot-stalks ; from these a stem arises from two to three feet high, furnished with oblong,
embracing pinnatifid leaves. The flowers are large, with yellow disks and white rays, and appear in
June and July. The young leaves were much used in Italy^ in salads in Bauhin's time"; and thev are
mentioned by Dr. Withering as being fit for this purpose. The plant is easily propagated by dividing the
roots after the flowering season. To produce succulent tender leaves, it should be placed in soft, rich.

SuBSECT. 5. Substitutes for Chinese Teas from Wild
Plants.

4317. SpeediL'ell. Veronica sjncata, L. (Eng. Bot.
2.) Diayi. Monog. L. and ScrophularinecB, B. P. This
plant is sometimes used as a substitute for tea ; and
is said to possess a somewhat astringent taste like
green tea [Camellia viridis).

4318. Spring grass. Anthoxanthum odoratum^ L. {Eng. Bot.
' ^'— "■■- " — "^ lecE, B. P. {Jig. 477.) This is a

, . ^ - , tion of which is said tt

considerable resemblance to tea.

647.) Dian. Dig. L. and Gramineee, B. P. {Jig. 477.) " T
highly odoriferous grass, a decoction of which is sard to

4j19. Other substitutes. The leaves of the black currant afford
a very good substitute for green tea ; and those of Saxifraga
crassifolia are said, by Tooke(/?i«s. Emp.), to be used as tea in
Siberia. Betonica qffidnaUs {Eng. Bot. 1142.) is said to have
the taste and all the good qualities of foreign tea without the
t>ad ones.

SuBSECT. 6. Wild Plants applied to various Domestic Purposes.

4320. Buttenvori. Pir^icvla vulgaris, L. (Eng. Bot. 70.) Diand. Monog. L.

and Lentibularice, B. P. The mhabitants of Lapland and the north of Sweden ffive to

milk the consistence of cream by pouring it warm from the cow upon the leaves of this

plant, and then instantly straining it, and laying it aside for two or three days till it

eS4 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

acquires a degree of acidity. This milk they are extremely fond of; and once made,
they need not repeat the use of the leaves as above, for a spoonful or less of it will
coagulate another quantity of warm milk, and make it like tlie first, and so on, as often
as they please to renew their food. (Lightfoot's Flor. Scot. p. 77.)

4321. Cow-parsfiep. Heracleum Sphondylium, L. {Eng. Bot. 939.) Pent. Big. L. and Umbelliferce, J.
The inhabitants of Kamschatka, about the beginning of July, collect the foot-stalks of the radical leaves
of this plant, and, after peeling off the rind, dry them separately in the sun ; and then tying them in
bundles, they lay them up carefully in the shade. In a short time afterwards these dried stalks are
covered over with a yellow saccharine efflorescence, tasting like licorice, and in this state they are
eaten as a delicacy. The Russians, not content with eating the stalks thus prepared, contrive to get a
very intoxicating spirit from them, by first fermenting them in water with the greater bilberry ( Vaccinium
uliginosujn), and then distilling the liquor to what degree of strength they please j which Gmelin says, is
more agreeable to the taste than spirits made from corn. [LightfooVs Fl. Scot.)

4322. Heath. Erica Vulgaris, L. {Eng. Bot. 1013.) Octan. Monog. L. and Ericece, J. Formerly the young
tops are said to have been used alone to brew a kind of ale ; and even now, the inhabitants of Isla and
Jura continue to brew a very potable liquor, by mixing two thirds of the tops of the heath with one of
malt. {LightfooVs Fl. Scot.)

4323. Substitutes for capers. The flower-buds of the marsh -marigold {Caltha palustris, L.) form a safe
substitute for capers ; and likewise the young seed-pods of the common radish ; and the unripe seeds of the
nasturtium, or Indian cress. A species of spurge, common in gardens, (Euphorbia Lathi/ris,) is vulgarly
called caper-bush, from the resemblance of its fruit to capers ; and though acrid and poisonous, like the
other plants of this genus, its seeds are sometimes substituted by the Parisian 7-estaurateurs for the pods
of the true capers. For more minute details respecting the plants enumerated in this section, and
various others which might be used as food, or in domestic economy, see Bryant's Flora Di^tetica,
and Lightfoot's Flora Scotica, Hudson's Flora Anglica, and the local floras of all parts of Europe.

SuBSECT. 7. Poisonous native Plants to be avoided in searching for edible Wild Plants.
4324. The principal poisonous plants, natives or growing in Britain, are the follow-
ing: those marked thus (*J are also the most valuable plants in the native niateria
medica : the whole, for obvious reasons, ought to be known at sight by every gardener : —

Bitter Poisons, for which acids, astrin

jus, Cicuta virosa*, Colciiicum autum-
nale*, ffinanthe crocata, Pmnus Lau-
rocerasus.
.Acrid Poisons, which should be counter-
acted by powerful astringents, as bark,
and afterwards the stomach restored
by soft mucilaginous matters, as milk.

fat broth, &c. Aconitum Napellus,
and Lycoctonum, Actaea spicata,Rhus
Toxicodendron.

Stupifyin^ Poiaotts, to be counteracted by
Tegetable acids and emetics, ^thusa
cynapium, Atropa Belladonna, Datura
Stramonium*, Hyoscyamus niger,
Lactuca virosa, Solanum dulcamara*,
and nigrum.

Fetid Poisons, to be attacked by ether.

wine, or acids. Coniuni maculatum*.
Digitalis purpurea*. Helleborus ftcti-
dus, Juniperus Sabina, Scrophularia,
aquatica.
Drastic Poisons, to be corrected by acids
alkalies, and astringents. Asclepias
svriaca, Bryonia dioica, Euphwbia La-
thyris and amygdaloides, j\Iercuriali«
perennis and annua, Periploca greeca,
Veratnim eiibum.

4325. The jyoisonous fungi will be found in a succeeding section.

Sect. XIII. Foreign hardy herbaceous culinari/ Vegetables, little used as such in Britain.

4326. The culinary plants of other countries are in general the same as our own ; but
a few may be mentioned which are more commonly cultivated in France, Germany, and
America, than in England, but which would thrive in the latter country.

4327 The Claytonia perfoliata {Fentan. Monog. L. and Portulacece, J.) is a hardy annual, a native of
America of the easiest possible culture in any soil. Sown in autumn, it endures the winter, and flowers
in April and May. Its perfoliate foliage is not very abundant, but it is exceedingly succulent, and not
inferior to common spinage in flavor. It has no pretensions to sui}ersede, or even to be generally culti-
vated as a spinage plant ; but in very poor soils, under trees, or in other peculiar circumstances, it may be

found a useful resource. „ . -r ^ ^, ., t n ^ i.- • i • j

4328 The Basella alba and rubra {Pentan. Trig. L. and ChenopodecB, J.) are stove-biennials, raised on
hot-beds near Paris, and transplanted into warm borders, where they furnish a summer spinage equal to
that of the orache. {Hort. Tour, 489.) They are also grown for the same purpose in China. {Living,
stone, in Hort. Trans, v. 54.) „.x ^^. jtvt^ •,

43''9 The Virginian poke {Phytolacca decandra, Decan. Pentag. L. and ChenopodetB, J.) is a hardy perennial
with' large ramose roots, shoots half an inch in diameter, and five or six feet high; the leaves five
inches long and two and a half inches broad, smooth and of a deep green. It grows vigorously in a good
deep soil, and furnishes ample supplies of young shoots, which in America and the West Indies are
boiled and eaten as spinage. {Miller's Dict.RXt. Phytolacca; Correa de Serra, in Hort. Tram iv 446.)

4.330 The White cabbage of China (Chtnerms), used both as a pot-herb and a salad {Barrow ;
Ahei^'&nA the wild cabbage of America {B. washitana, Muhi , used as a pot-herb, might be grown for
similar nurooses in this country. The procumbent cabbage of China is mentioned by Livingstone {Hort.
Trans v. 55^, as being a hardy plant, supplying leaves the whole of winter

4331 The Shawanese salad {Hydrophyllwn mrgmicum, I.. Pentan Monog J. and Boragine^, J.)
is a hardv perennial, very prolific in lobed lucid green leaves which hold water (whence the name), and
are used by the Indians both raw and boiled. v,.j*i, *j

4.'m Tlie Avios tuberosa. Ph. {Diadelph. Decan. L. and Leguminosce, J.) is a hardy tuberous-rooted
Dereniiial. a native of North America, the tubers of which are used by the Indians ^ . , ^

^ The bread root {Psoralea escutenta, L. Diadel. Decan. L.and Legummosce, J.) is a hardy perennial,
a native of Missouri, and used there as potatoes are in this country. ^ xt *u *

IS. ThiQuarnash {Scilla escutenta, L. Hexan. Monog. L. and Asphodelece, J.) is a native of North Ame-

^^'^l^^%^dZ^M%^esSkts. The Indian com {Zeamays) is grown in some parts as a garden-plant,
theears being gathered green or partially ripe, and boiled or roasted. The common millet is grown on
Si continent as a garden-plant'^for its seeds, to be used as a substitute for nee: the Polish millet
Tm^tariTmnguinall) is grown for this purpose in the cottage gardens in Poland ; as is the carnation
^S^£tiPaS^s^nmrnm), for its seeds, which form a seasoning to buck-wheat porridge N.gella
^t^vl indarvenX hardy annuals, are cultivated in Flanders for their seeds, which are used as celery-
S arein thfs countnr, in soups and also in puddings. The Pekiii mustard {Smams Pekmensis) is a hardy
!t.^L^aL the most extensively used herbaceous plant in China, being, as Livingstone informs us
mZ-f'TrTm v^ ) carried St the streets of Canton and other towns in the boiled state The amaran-
thZxJyR^uil^iJS annual, grown in China as a spinage plant, and a number of others belonging to the
CmcSSnoJ^e^, Portullce^,&c., might be mentioned. {See Forstcr's Plant. Esculent. Austr. j
J^arU's HoraD^eticai Le Bon Jardinier s Modem Books qf Travels, &c.)

I

Book I.

EDIBLE FUNGI.

6SS

478

Sect. XIV. Edible Fungi.

4336. Only one species of edible fungi has yet been introduced to the garden, though
there can be no doubt the whole would submit to, and probably be improved by, cul-
tivation. All of them are natives of Britain, and may be gathered wild at certain sea-
sons, so that though they do not enter into the plot of the cottager, they are, or may
be, enjoyed by him. In Poland and Russia, there are above thirty edible sorts of
fungi in common use among the peasantry. They are gathered in all the different stages
of their growth, and used in various ways : raw, boiled, stewed, roasted; and being
hung up and dried in their stoves or chimneys, form a part of their winter stock of pro-
visions. Fungi, however, are not equally abundant in Britain, owing to the general
cultivation of the soil ; and therefore the good sorts being little familiar to the cottager,
most of them are passed over as deleterious. Indeed the greatest caution is requisite in
selecting any species of this tribe for food ; and though we have given a catalogue both
of the good and bad sorts of mushrooms, we can advise none but the botanist to search
after any but the common sort {^^gaHcus campestris) as food.

SuBSECT. 1 . Cultivated Mushroom. — Agaricus camjyestris, L. and Sowerby ; A. edulis
of Bulliard. {Eng. Bot. Fungi, t. 1.) CryjHogamia Fungi, L. and of the natural
order of Fungi Gymnocarpi, Persoon. Chmnpignon Comestible, Fr. ; Essbare Bl'dl-
terschamme, Ger. ; and Pratajuolo, Ital. (Jig. 478.)

4337. The mushroom is a well known native vegetable,
springing up in open pastures in August and September.
It is most readily distinguished, when of middle size, by its
fine pink or flesh-colored gills, and pleasant smell; in a
more advanced stage, the gills become of a chocolate color,
and it is then more apt to be confounded with other kinds ,
of dubious quality ; but that species which most nearly
resembles it, is slimy to the touch, and destitute of the fine
odor, having rather a disagreeable smell : further, tlie
noxious kind grows in woods or on the margins of woods,
wliile tlie true mushroom springs up cliiefly in open pastures,
and should be gathered only in such places.

4338. Use. The garden-mushroom is eaten fresh, either
stewed or boiled ; and preserved as a pickle, or in powder, or dried whole. The sauce
commonly called ketchup (supposed, by Martyn, from the Japanese, kit-jap,) is, or
ought to be, made from its juice, with salt and spices. Wild mushrooms, from old
pastures, are generally considered as more delicate in flavor, and more tender in flesh,
than those raised in artificial beds. But the young, or button mushrooms, of the cul-
tivated sort, are firmer and better for pickling; and in using cultivated mushrooms,
there is evidently much ^less risk of deleterious kinds being employed. [Neill and
Martyn. )

4339. Species. The following catalogue of edible and poisonous mushrooms is taken
from Sowerby's splendid work on English fungi.

EdihU Sorts,

Agaricu$ campestria. Common
field, or cultivated mush-
room

A. violaceut. Violet, or blue

A. cinnamomeui. Cinnamon

A. lacUflm,>. Milky

A. chanturellus. Chantarelle

A. pratensis. Champignon

A. auratitiacus. Orange

A. iolitarius. Solitary

A. procerus. The grisette of
tUe French, or TaU

A. ddidosua. Sweet mush-
room

A. virnincus. Mausseron
mushroom

Dangerous Sorts.
A. campestris, var. Dangerous
variety of cultivated mush-
room
A. chjpeatus. Long-stalked
A. muscarius. Reddish

A. piperatus. Pepper
A. campanulatus. Bell
A. maminosus. Nipple
A. aurantiacus, var. Danger-
ous variety of orange mush-

A. necator

A. virosus.

stool.

Poisonous, or toad-

4340. General criteria of ivholesome and deleterious fungi. Unwholesome fungi will
sometimes spring up even on artificial beds in gardens ; thus, when the spawn begins to
run, a spurious brood are often found to precede a crop of genuine mushrooms. The
baneful quality of the toad-stool (A. virosus) is, in general, indicated by a sickly nauseous
smell, though some hurtful sorts are so far without any thing disagreeable in the smell,
as to make any criterion, drawn from that alone, very unsafe. "Hie wholesome kinds,
however, invariably emit a grateful rich scent.

4341. Antidote to poisonous sorts. All fungi should be used with great caution, for
even the champignon and edible garden-mushrooms possess deleterious qualities when
grown in certain places. All the edible species should be thoroughly masticated, before
taken into the stomach, as this greatly lessens the effects of poisons. When accidents of
this sort happen, vomiting should be immediately excited, and then tne vegetable acids
should be given, either vinegar, lemon-juice, or that of apples ; after which, give ether
and antispasmodic remedies, to stop the excessive bilious vomiting. Infusions of gall-
nut, oak-bark, and Peruvian bark are recommended as capable of neutralising the poi-
sonous principle of mushrooms. It is, however, the safest way not to eat any of the good
but less common sorts, until they have been soaked in vinegar Spirit of wine and vinegar

686

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

extract some part of their poison ; artd tannin matter decomposes the greatest part of it
{Botanist s Comjmnion, \ol. ii. p. 145.) or

* ^^' £"^'"';^- For the culture of the common mushroom, see Chap. VII, Sect. XIV. (3404 ) With resnect
tSll^l^Zf.'^'^-^'. '^'^'J'' already observed, they are seldom gathered for use in Briiai^xcen ng b^Sl
penenced botanists ; and none of them, as far as we know, have yet been brought under cultivation. We
think however that some of them, as the A. aurantiacus, a! deliciosus, and A. pratensis, might very
readily and without danger be introduced to the garden; treating thei^ like the garden-mushroom
or imitating the climate of the season of the year in which they are found in perfection, and the so"
situation, and exposure, &c. where they are found in greatest abundance, and of the best qiality In the
first instance. It would, perhaps be preferable to propagate from seed, in order to make sure of the species.
In the present improved state of horticulture, if this branch of culture were once attempted, it would soon
be rendered available by every gardener who can cultivate the common mushroom.

SuBSECT. 2. Morel — Phallus esculentus, L. ; Helvella esculenta of Sowerby
(tab. 51.) ; and MorcheUa esculenta of Persoon. Cryptogamia Fungi, Lu and Gym-
nocarjn, Persoon. In French, German, and Italian, not distinguished from the Cham-
pignon by any popular name. (Jig. 479.)

4343. The morel is distinguished by its cylindrical, solid, or hol-
low stem, white and smooth ; the cap is hollow within, and adher-
ing to the stem by its base,and latticed on the surface with irregu-
lar sinuses. The height is about four inches. It rises in the
spring months, in wet banks, in woods, and in moist pastures.
It is in perfection in May and June, and should not be gathered
when wet with dew, or soon after rain. Gathered dry, they will
keep several months.

4344. Use. Morels are used, either fresh or dried, as an in-
gredient to heighten the flavor of gravies, ragouts, &c.

4345. Culture. Though this vegetable has not yet been introduced in gar.
den-culture, like the mushroom, there can be no doubt of the attempt being
attended with success. The spawn should be collected in June, and planted in
beds or ridges, differently composed, and some laid up for use in dry and moist
envelopements, in order, by experiment, to come to the best mode of cultiva-
tion. Lightfoot says, he has raised the phallus from seed.

SuBSECT. 3. Truffle, or Subterraneous Puff-ball. — Tuber Cibarium, Sowerby. (tab. 309.)
Cryptogamia Fungi, L. and Angiocarpi, Per. Truffe, Fr. ; Truffel, Ger. ; and Tar-

tufo nero, Ital. (Jig. 480.)

480

4346. The truffle is a subterraneous fungus, growing
naturally some inches below the surface in different parts
of Britain ; and very common in the downs of Wiltshire,
Hampshire, and Kent, where dogs are trained to scent it
out. The dogs point out the spot by scraping and bark-
ing ; and the truffles, which are generally found in clus-
ters, are dug up with a spade. The truffle is globular,
seldom the size of a hen's egg, without any root, and of a
dark color, approaching to blackness. The surface is
uneven and rough ; the flesh firm, white while young, but when old, it becomes black,
with whitish veins.

4347, Use. They are used, like the mushroom, in stuflings, gravies, and other high-
seasoned culinary preparations. They are generally procured from Covent Garden mar-
ket, as they bear carriage to any distance.

' 4348. Culture. " No attempt," Neill observes, " it is believed, has hitherto been made to cultivate
truffles ; but of the practicability of the thing there seems no reason to doubt. In their habits of growth,
indeed, they differ essentially from the mushroom ; but it is certainly possible to accommodate the soil and
other circumstances to the peculiar nature of the fungus. It has been said, that the tubercles on the sur-
face of truffles are analogous to the eyes or buds of potatoes, and that they have been propagated, like pc
tatoes, by means of cuts furnished with tubercles ; it may however be suspected, that the pieces thus
nlanted contained ripe seeds. Truffles, we may add, seem to delight in a mixture of clay and sand ; and
a moderate degree of bottom heat, such as is afforded by a spent hot-bed, might probably forward their ve-
getation." (^Ed. Encyc.)

Sect. XV. Edible Fuct. — CryjHogamia Algee, L. and Fucaceee, Lamouroux.
Varec, Fr. ; Meergrass, Ger. ; and Fuco, Ital.

4349. The edible British fuci may be shortly enumerated, because some of them are
occasionally used as condiments by families living near the sea-coast ; and because they
furnish articles of resource for the local poor, especially in seasons of scarcity. There are
numerous species ; all of which, in common with every other class of sea- weeds and zoo-
phytes, are employed in gardening as manures ; and in general economy for making kelp
or alkali. The following are the principal of the British species, which are considered
edible by the inhabitants of sear-shores.

Book I.

HORTICULTURAL CATALOGUE.

em

4350. Fucits saccharinus. Sweet fucus, or sea-belt.
(fie 481. a) Lightfoot mentions, that the common peo-
ple on the coast of England sometimes boil this species as
a pot-herb. Anderson savs, the Icelanders boil it m milk
to the consistence of pottage, and eat it with a spoon.
They are also said to soak it in fresh water, dry it in the
sun, and then lay it up in wooden vessels ; it soon becomes '
covered with a white effloresence of salt, which has a
sweetish taste, and in this sUte they eat it with butter.
They also feed their cattle with this species.

4351. F. palmatus, L. Dulse, {fig- 481- b) Both the
tender stalks and voung fronds are eaten recent from the
sea, commonly without anv preparation ; they are some-
times considered as forming a salad, but more generally
are used as a whet. Dulse formerly was frequently fried
and brought to table. It is said, that the inhabitants of
the Greek islands are fond of this species, adding it to ra-
gouts and olios, to which it communicates a red color, and
at the same time imparts some of its rich and gelatinous
qualities. The dried leaves, infused in water, exhale an
odor somewhat resembling that of sweet violets, and they
communicate that flavor to vegetables with which they
are mixed. Lightfoot mentions, that in the Isle of Skye,
in Scotland, it is sometimes used in fevers, to promote per-
spiration, being boiled in water, with the addition of a , »^U V.K «f *!,« ♦.!- i^»
little butter It grows not uncommonly on rocks which are barely uncovered at the ebb of the tide ; but
is more frequent as a parasite on F. nodosus ; and it occurs also on the stems of F. digiUtus, attaining in
thU situation a considerable size, perhaps twelve or fifteen inches long, while, in general, it is only about
six or eight inches. It is soft and limber, and does not become rigid by drying, bemg of a more loose tex-
ture than many other sea-weeds. _ , . ^ , . ■ ^^ r ^

4352. F.edutis, L,. red dulse (^^. 481. c), is by many preferred to the F. palmatus, especially for roa«t.
ing in the frying-iian. Like that species, its smell somewhat resembles sweet violets. It is of a deqs
opaque, red color, giving out a purple dye.

4353. F. esculentus, L. Badderlocks, or henware.
{fi^. 482. a) The mid-rib, stripped of its membrane, is
the part chiefly eaten. In Orkney, the pinn<B are also
eaten, under the name of mickles.

♦354. F. ciliatus, L., ciliated dulse, and F. digitatus,
fingered dulse, sea-girdle, and hangers {figs. 482. 6),
are sometimes gathered and eaten like F. edulis, palma-
tus, and other species.

•i.355. F. digitatus. In Scotland, the stem of this species
is used for making handles to pruning-knives. A pretty
thick stem is selected, and cut into pieces about four
inches long. Into these, while fresh, the blades are stuck,
and as the stem dries, it contracts and hardens, closely
and firmly embracing the hilt of the blade ; when these
handles have become hard and shrivelled, and tipt with
metal, they are hardly to be distinguished from harts-
horn.

4356. F. pinnatifidus, L. Pepper dulse. In Scotland,
it is eaten along with the F. palmatus, and in Iceland it
is used instead of spice. This species is common to Scot-
land, Iceland, the Red Sea, and the shores of Egypt

•i357. F. natans, L. Floating fucus. The succulent
fronds. Turner mentions, are selected and pickled like
samphire ; and the young shoots are eaten as a salad,
seasoned with juice of lemons, pepper, and vinegar.

4358. Ulva Lactuca, L. [fig. 482. c) Lettuce-leaves,
or oyster-green. The thin, green, pellucid membranes
of which this vegetable is composed are eaten raw, as a salad, and esteemed a great delicacy by such as
have been accustomed to the use of marine vegetables.

4359. Supplies. No submarine production has hitherto been cultivated in the garden ; though it might
be worth while to try what could be done by a stone cistern of salt-water, and other contrivances. In the
mean time, families in any part of Britain or Ireland, desirous of enjoying these vegetables, might have
them regularly forwarded from the sea-shores, especially from such as are rocky. There are very few spe-
cies known to be absolutely poisonous.

4360. Edible nests. We may add, as matter of curiosity, that the transparent edible nests of the East
Indian swallows, so much in repute at the luxurious tables of the rich, in China and the East, are now
generally believed to be almost entirely composed of gelatinous fuci j and more especially of the F. liche-
noides. {Turner, L 118.} The plant is also in high estimation for die table in India,

Chap. IX.
Horticultural Catalogue. — Hardy Fruit-trees, Shrubs, and Plants.

4361. The hardy fruits of a country may be considered in reference to the vegetable
appendages of the table, as next in utility to bread, com, and culinary esculents.
The excellent meats which they afford to the second course, and their contributions
to the dessert, give them a peculiar value in the domestic economy of all those whose
condition in life rises above the care of mere subsistence ; and there are some sorts, as
the gooseberry and apple, which, happily, either are or may be within the reach of the
most humble occupier of a cottage and garden. Many fruits are as wholesome as they
are pleasant j and some greatly assist the cure of particular diseases. Ci^r, perry, and

^^S PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part IIL

the various wines which may be made from the juices of fruits, are acceptable offerings
to the social circle, when made in the best manner, and form important articles of com-
merce. We shall arrange the Hardy Fruits as —

4362. Kernel.Fruits or Pojnes ; including the apple, pear, quince, medlar, service.

4J6J. Stone. Fruits ; as the peach, nectarine, almond, apricot, plumb, and cherry.

4J64.. Berries; as the mulberry, barberry, elderberry, gooseberry, currant, raspberry, cranberry, and

4365. :Suts i as the walnut, chestnut, filbert.

4366. Native and neglected Hardy Fruits, deserving cultivation, or useful in domestic economy, as the
sloe, bird-cherry, wild service, mountain ash, bilberry, &c.

4367. The varieties of most of these fruits are so numerous, and each described as
having so many good qualities, that the inexperienced selector may well be puzzled in
making a choice, even from the comparatively limited lists which we have prepared for
the following sections. When to all the names in these lists, and those of the nursery-
men, we add the numerous new names annually brought forward by the Horticultural
Societies of this country and of France, the difficulty of selection seems insuperably in-
creased. The experienced and well informed gardener will be able to find out his way
in this labyrinth ; but what are others to do ? We would say, as a prudent mode, con-
sult the selections recommended by eminent practical men ; as Abercrombie, M'Phail,
Forsyth, Nicol, Macdonald, &c. which we have given in this chapter, and also in those
on planting the kitchen-garden and orchard. (2498. and 2527.) There are probably not

'half so many distinct sorts, as there are names in use ; and of that half, most likely
two thirds are not worth cultivating. Of most of the sorts originated from seed, sufficient
time has not elapsed to judge of their merits ; they are all described as good ; but un-
questionably many of them are worth little in comparison with the best old sorts. Some of
the new cherries and peaches might be adduced as examples ; and the Poonah grape, lately
imported from the East Indies, andstated to be " a valuable addition to our gardens" (Hort.
Trans, iv. 517.), has been in the country (in the Brompton Nursery, for example), for an
unknown length of time, under a different name. It is one of the worst descriptions of
raisin grapes, with a small elliptical berry, having little flesh, juice, or flavor. — We
make these remarks not to discourage from originating or importing new fruits ; nor to
dissuade from choosing new sorts ; but to guard the inexperienced against being led
away by names and appearances. The Horticultural Society are doing much to illus-
trate the subject of fruits, and in a few years they will no doubt settle a. nomenclature,
and determine the merits of all the fruits now in Europe, or perhaps the world.

Sect. I. Kernel-Fruits.

4368. The principal hardy Iternel-fridts are the apple and pear, too well known
for their important uses to require any eulogium. In this section are also included
the quince, medlar, and service.

SuBSECT. 1. Apple. — Pynis Malus, L. {Eng. Bot. 179.) Icos. Di-Penlag. L. and
Mosacece, J. Pomme, Fr. ; Apfel, Ger. ; and Porno or Melo, Ital.

4369. The aj)ple is a spreading tree with the branches more horizontal than in the pear-
tree ; the leaves ovate ; the flowers in terminating umbels, produced from the wood of the
former year ; but more generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years'
growth. The fruit is roundish, umbilicate at the base, and of an acid flavor. In its wild
state, it is termed the crab, and is then armed with thorns, with smaller leaves, flowers, and
fruit, and the pulp of the latter extremely acid. It is a native of most countries of Europe
in its wild state ; and the improved varieties form an important branch of culture in Britain,
France, Gennany, and America, for the kitchen, the table^ and for the manufacture of cider.
From whence we at first received the cultivated apple is unknown ; but in all probability it
was introduced by the Romans, to whom twenty- two varieties were known in Pliny's time
(52.), and afterwards the stock of varieties greatly increased at the Norman conquest.
According to Stow, carp and pepins were brought into England by Mascal, who wrote on
fruit-trees in 1572. The apple-tree is supposed by some to attain a great age. Haller men-
tions some trees in Herefordshire that attained a thousand years, and were highly prolific ;
but Knight considers two hundred years as the ordinary duration of a healthy tree, grafted
on a crab-stock, and planted in a strong tenacious soil. Speechly (^Hints, 58.) mentions
a tree in an orchard at Burton-joyce, near Nottingham, of about sixty years old, with
branches extending from seven to nine yards round the bole, which, in 1792, produced
upwards of 100 pecks of apples. 'Of all the different fruits which are produced in
Britain, none can be brought to so high a degree of perfection, with so little trouble ; and
of no other are there so many excellent varieties in general cultivation, calculated for
almost every soil, situation, and climate, which our island affords. Very good apples are
grown in the Highlands and Orkneys, and even in the Shetland Isles, {Caled. Hort.
Mem. vol. ii.) as well as in Devon.shire and Cornwall; some sorts are ripe in the be-

Book I. APPLE. 689

ginning of July, and others, which ripen later, will keep till June. Unlike other fruits,
those which ripen latest are the best.

4370 Use For pics, tarts, sauces, and the dessert, the nee of the apple is familiar to every one. Duduit,
of Mazer«t has found that one-third of boiled apple-pulp, baked with two thirds of flour, havmg
been properly fermented with veast for twelve hours, makes a very excellent bread, full of eyes, and ex-
SeW Salable and light. {New Month. Mag. June 1821.) The fermented juice forms cider, a substitute
Kforrrape-wine and malt liquor. In confectionary, it is used for comfits, c«mpo/^5 marmalades.
Siesplte^, tarts, &c. In medicine, verjuice, or the juice of crabs, is used for sprains, and as an astnn-
ient and repellent and, with a proper addition of sugar, Withering thinks a very grateful liquor might
be m^de with it, little inferior to Rhenish wine. Lightfoot affirms that the crab mixed with cultivated
apples, or even alone, if thoroughly ripe, will make a sound, masculine wine The apple, when ripe w
laxative; the juice is excellent in dysentery: boiled or roasted apples fortify a weak stomach bcopoli
recovered from a weakness of the stomach and indigestion from using them ; and they are equally effica-
cious in putrid and malignant fevers with the juice of lemons or currants In perfumery, the pulp of
apples, beat up with lard, forms pomatum : and Bosc observes (N. Cours d\Agriculture,&c. m loco) that
the prolonged stratification of apples with elder-flowers, in a close vessel, gives the former an odor of
musk extremely agreeable. In dyeing, the bark produces a yellow color ; and, in general economy, the
wood of the tree is used for turning, and various purposes, where hardness, compactness, and vanegaUon
of color, are objects. . .,._.. ,,»j-

4.771 Criterion of a good apple. Apples for the table are characterised by a firm juicy pulp, elevated poig-
nant flavor, regular form, and beautiful coloring ; those, for kitchen use, by the property ot falling, as it is
technically termed, or forming in general a pulpy mass of equal consistency, when baked or boiled, and by
a large size. Some sorts of apples have the property of falling when green, as the Keswick, Carlisle, Haw-
tlioriuien, and other codlins ; and some only after being ripe, as the russet tribes. Those which have this
property when green, are particularly valuable for affording sauces to geese early m the season, and for
succeeding the gooseberry in tarts. For cider, an apple must possess a considerable degree of astringency,
with or without firmness of pulp, or richness of juice. The best kinds. Knight observes, are often tough,
dry, and fibrous ; and the Siberian Harvey, which he recommends as one of the very best cider-apples, is
unfit either for culinary purposesor the table. Knight has found that the si)ecific gravity of the juice of any
apple recently expressed, indicates, with very considerable accuracy, the strength of the future cider.
Considering the various uses of the apple, we agree with Speechly in regarding it as a fruit " of more use
and benefit to the public in general, than all the other fruits, the produce of this island, united."

4372. Varieties. Tusser, in 1573, mentions in his list of fruits, " apples of all sorts." Parkinson, in
1629, enumerates fifty-seven sorts. Evelyn, about thirtv years afterwards, says (Powona, pref), "It was
through the plain industry of one Harris, a fruiterer to Henry VIII., that the fields and environs of about
thirty towns in Kent only, were planted with fruit from Flanders, to the universal benefit and general im-
provement of the county." G'lhson {Churches of Dove and HomelaOf.) mentions that Lord Scudamore,
ambassador to the court of France, in the time of Charles I., collecteo in Normandy scions of cider-apple-
trees, and when he returned to England, encouraged the grafting them throughout the county of Here-
ford. Harllib, in 1650, speaks of " one who had two hundred sorts of apples," and " verily believes there
are nearly 500 sorts in this island." Ray, in 1688, selected from the information of the most skilful gar-
deners about London, a list of 78 sorts. Succeeding writers have been enabled greatly to increase the list,
partly from the almost continual accession of sorts received from the continent during intervals of peace, but
principally from the great numbers raised from seeds. A variety of apple, like those of most other j)lants,
is supposed by some to have only a limited duration ; and hence on taking a retrospective view of the lists
of sorts, given by Parkinson, Evelyn, and other authors, many of them are not now to be found, or are so
degenerated or diseased, as no longer to deserve the attention of the planter. " The moil," Knight ob-
serves, " and its successful rival, the red-streak, with the musts and golden-pippin, are in the last stage of
decay, and the stire and foxwhelp are hastening rapidly after them." After making a great variety of ex-
periments for several years, and after many attempts to propagate every old variety of the apple, this au-
thor observes {Tr. on Apple and Pear, 15.), " I think 1 am justified in the conclusion, that all plants of
this species, however propagated from the same stock, partake in some degree of the same life, and will
attend the progress of that life, in the habits of its youth, its maturity, and its decay; though they will
not be any way affected by any incidental injuries the parent tree may sustain after they are detached
from it."

4373. Knight next directed his attention to raising new varieties from seeds, and has, by crossing one
sort with another, and by having constantly several thousands of seedlings rearing, from which, as they
show fruit, to select the best sorts, succeeded in producing several new^ varieties of apples, much esteemed
for the table and the press. Of several of these sorts, and how obtained, accounts will be found in the
work above quoted, and in the Horticultural Transactions, and a compend of their history and properties
will be found in our table {next page). Several eminent horticulturists, in different districts, are now en-
gaged in a similar manner; and there can be little doubt a valuable accession will, in a few years, be made
to this class of fruits. Some, however, as Williamson {Hort. Trans, iii. 291.) and Speechly {Hints, 188.),
consider that the deterioration of the apple and other fruits may be owing to the climate, and that the re-
turn of genial summers would restore to us from old trees as good fruit as heretofore. Such also is
our opinion, and Knight's doctrine appears to us contrary to general analogy in vegetable life. It is
unquestionably true that all varieties have a tendency to degenerate into the primitive character of the
species ; but to us it ap|>ears equally true, that any variety may be perpetuated with all its excellencies by
proper culture, and more especially varieties of trees. However unsuccessful Knight may have been in con-
tinuing the moil, retlstreak, and golden pippin, we cannot alter our conviction, that by grafting from
these sorts they may he continued, such as they are, or were when the scions were taken from the trees, to
the end of time. As to plants propagated by extension, " partaking in some degree of the same period of
life as the i)arent," we cannot admit the idea as at all probable. Vines, olives, poplars, and willows have
been propagated by extension for ages, and are still, a^ far as can be ascertained, as vigorous as tliey were
in the time of Noah or Pliny.

4374. A numerous list qf varieties may be considered as puzzling to inexperienced persons who have to
select for a garden or an orchard. Sabine {Hort. Trans, iii. 263.) justly observes, that the stock of
apples requires reduction rather than increase ; and adds, that one of the chief objects to which the
attention of the Horticultural Society is at present directed, is to make a judicious selection.

4375. A great variety of apple-trees in a bearing state may be seen in different nurseries both in Britain
and Ireland, but especially near London ; from these in the autumn, the fruit may be tasted from the
trees, and either young plants newly worked, or plants in a state of bearing, fixed on and marked, to be
taken up at the proper season. The advantages of this mode, especially to such as ix)ssess but a small gar-
den, are too obvious to require comment.

4376. No well arranged catalogue of apples has yet been published, because, in general, only a limited
number of sorts fall under the eye and experience of one individual Such a work seems more likely to
be accomplished, by public bodies, and is worthy of their attention. In the mean time, we present the
best arrangement in our power of sorts readily procured from British nurseries, including most of the
newly originated varieties, of which accounts have been published, and grafts distributed, among the com-
mercial gardeners.

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Book I.

APPLE. 697

i.'TTS Prnmiration The apple, like most other hardy trees, may be propagated by" seeds, cuttings,
suti^ers.fa7&Tor^'.gratoi|?V seeds, for obUuning ne^ varieties, and by the other modes tor contnm-

'"f;^"' Vv tcedf 'xSrst business here is, the clmice of the see.ls ; which should be taken from fruits

ronnJT^d not bv calvils or cod ings. A small-sized apple, crossed by a large sort, will be more certain
of nrSudne f new varietv than the above mode ; but' will be almost equally certaui of producing a
vari^t?^destftute of vaSlc qualities ; the qualities of parents of so opposite natures being, as it were.
"S!'feS?/2f/A'fiutUnroK of theblossom to be impregnated and afterwards, when

thc7tig4 f matre intro<lucing the pollen of the other ixirent. is unquestionably the most scientific
ram4 KrS ng he operation. In this way he produced those excellent apples the Downton, red and
"eU^w I nSSL^id Gringe pippins, from the same parents ; viz., the seed of the orange pippin, and
■tS7ol r of he golden pippin. ^The Brindgwood pippin he produced from golden PjPI"" blossoms (di-
vested of their stamens) duAed with the pollen of the golden harvey apple. The seeds may be sown m
autumn, inUght eTr'h/coverecl an inch, ind either in ,>,.ts or beds. The end of the first year they should
be transplants! into nursery rows, from six inches to a foot apart every way. Aftervyards they should be
removed to where they are to prmluce fruit; and for this purpose the greater the distance bet^yeen the
plaVits tlie Wer. It should n.It be less than six or eight fef t every way The quickest way to bring them
into a bearing state, Williams, of Pitmaston, considers, {Hort. Trans, vol. i. ooi.) is to let the plants be fur-
nished with literal shoots from the ground upwards ; so disposed as that the leaves of the upper shoots
may not shade those situated underneath, pruning away only trifling shoots. Ih.s mode of treatment
occurred to him on reflecting on Knight's Theory of the CircuUUion of the Sap. Observing the change
in the appearance of the leaves of his seedling plants as the trees advanced m growth, he thought it might
be possible to hasten the progress of the plants, and procure that peculiar organisation of the leaf, neces-
sary to the formation of blossom-buds, at a much earlier age. lie in consequence adopted the mode
above describetl, and succeeded in procuring fruit from seedling apples at four, five, and six years ot age,
instead of waiting eight, ten, and even fifteen years, which must be the case by the usual motle ot planting
close, and pruning to naked stems. , ^ . . r ■,. j- j

4381. Macdonald, an eminent Scotch horticulturist, has also succeeded m obtaining truit from seed
lings at an early period by grafting, already stated (2014.) as one of the uses of that mode of propagation.
In IS08, he selected some blossoms of the nonpareil, which he impregnated with the pollen of the golden
pippin and of the Newton pippin. When the apples were fully ripe, he selected some of the best, from
which he took the seeds, and sowed them in pots, which he placed in a frame. He had eight or nine
seedlings, which he transplanted into the open ground, in spring 1809. In ISll, he picked out a few ot
the strongest plants, and put them singly into poU. In spring 1812, he observed one ol the plants show-
ing fruit-buds. He tooiv a few of the twigs, and grafted them on a healthy stock on a wall ; and in 1813
he had a few api)les. This year (1816) his seedling yielded several dozens, and also his grafts ; and he
mentions, that the apples from the grafts are the largest. He is of opinion that in giving names to seed-
lings, raised in Scotland, the word " Scotch" should be mentioned.

4o82. A very common practice among those who raise fruit-trees from seed, is, in the second or third
season, to select such plants only as have broad and roundish leaves, throwing away the rest; experi-
ence having taught, that the former more frequently produce fruit of improved qualities, or at least
larger, than those plants which have narrow-pointed leaves. The width and thickness of the leaf, Knight
observes, " generally indicates the size of the future apple ; but will by no means convey any correct idea
of the merits of the future fruit Where these have the character of high cultivation, the qualities of the
fruit will be far reraovetl from those of the native species ; but the apple may be insipid or highly fla-
vored, green, or deeply colored, and ofcour.se well or ill calculated to ai<swer the purposes of the planter.
An early blossom in the spring, and an early change of color in the autumnal leaf, would naturally be
supposed to indicate a fruit of early maturity ; but I have never been able to discover any criterion of
tills kind on which the smallest dependence may be placed. The leaves of some varieties will become
yellow and fall ofF, leaving the fruit green and immature ; and the leaves in other kinds will retain their
verilure long after the fruit has perished. The plants whose buds in the annual wood are full and promi-
nent, are usually more productive than those whose buds are small and shrunk in the bark ; but their
future produce will depend much on the power the blossoms possess of bearing the cold, and
this power varies in the different varieties, and can only be known from experience. Those which pro-
duce tlieir leaves and blossoms rather early in the spring are generally to be preferred, for though they
are more exposed to injury from frost, they less frequently suffer from the attacks of insects ; the more
common cause of failure. The disposition to vegetate early or late in the spring, is like almost every
other quality in the apple-tree, transferred in different degrees to its offspiing; and the planter must
therefore seek those qualities in the parent tree which he wishes to find in the future seedling plant*.
The most effective method I have been able to discover of obtaining such fruits as vegetate very early
in the spring, has been by introducing the farina of the Siberian crab into the blossom of a rich and
early apple, and by transferring in the same manner the farina of the apple to the blossom of the Si-
berian crab. The leaf and the habit of many of the plants, that I have thus obtained, possess much
of the character of the apple, w^hilst they vegetate as early in the spring as the crab of Siberia, and pos-
sess, at least, an iqual power of bearing cold ; and I possess two plants of this family, which are quite
as hardy as the most austere crab of our woods."

4383. Abcrcrombie observes that, " as the codling is a sort found to change very little from seed, or not
for the worse, new plants of it are sometimes raised by sowing the kernels, not by way of experiment
for a new uncertain variety, but with some dependence on having a good sort resembling the parent."

4384. By cuttings. Every variety of apple may be grown from cuttings ; though
some with much greater facility than others. All those of the burknott and codling
tribes grow as well this way as by any other, and some allege, that the trees so raised
are not liable to canker (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 120.), which is supposed to be owing
to their " putting out no tap-root, but spreading their numerous fibres from the knot or
burr horizontally." P^ven the golden pippin may be continued in this way, and the trees
have remained seven years in perfect health, when grafts taken not only from the same
tree, but from the very branch, part of which was divided into cuttings, cankered in two
or three years. " All apple-trees raised in this way," Biggs observes, « from healthy
one-year-old branches, with blossom-buds upon them, will continue to go on bearin"- the
finest fruit, in a small compass, for many years. Such trees are peculiarly proper for
forcing, and not liable to canker." (Hort. Trans, vol. i. p. 65.) TTie cuttings are to be
chosen from the young wood of horizontal or oblique branches, rather than from upright
ones ; from six to eight inches or more in length, with a small portion of old wootrat

€^» PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

the lower end. Cut ofF the tip of the shoot, and all the buds, excepting two or three
next the tip or upper extremity ; then smooth the sections at the lower end, and insert
them three or four inches in sandy loam, pressing the earth firmly to them, watering
and covenng with a hand-glass. The proper time for this operation is early in February,
and the glass should not be touched, excepting to give water, till the shoots have sprung
an inch or two. Shade during the mid-day sun, and begin to harden by giving air in
July ; finally remove the glass in August ; and in October transplant to nursery rows, or
in pots, according to future intention. With the burknott tribe, all that is necessary is to
plant the cuttings in a shady border, and treat them like those of the gooseberry or currant.

4385. By layers. The success of this mode of propagation may be considered as certain ; as it has
nothing peculiar m its apphcation to the apple, we need only refer to general directions (1993 ) for oer
forming the operation. The after treatment of the plants is the same with that for those originatedbv
the foregoing or following modes. ^ '

t^' -§y *«<^^'<^'*- This mode is generally confined to the paradise and creeping apple for stocks
4o87. By grafting and inoculation. This may be said to be the universal practice in propaeatine the
apple. The first consideration is the choice of stocks ; of these, there are five sorts in common use • —
Seedling apples, used for full standards, and riders or wall standards ; seedling crabs, for standards
and half standards; codling apples, from layers or cuttings, for dwarfs and espaliers ; paradise apples
or doucmsj from layers or cuttings, for low dwarfs and trained ; and creeper apples, from layers or cut-
tings, for the best dwarfs or bushes. Dubreuil, gardener at Rouen, recommends the doucin for clayey
and light soils, and a free stock for sucli as are chalky and siliceous. {Hort. Trans, iv. 566 )

4388. Stoclts of seedling apples. The seeds should be selected from the fruit of vigorous growing young
or middle-aged healthy trees; but when wanted in large quantities, they are procured from cider
makers ; private propagators will adopt the first mode. The sowing and after treatment is the same as
for seedling crabs.

4389. Seedling crabs. " A preference," Knight observes, " has generally and justly been given to ap-
ple-stocks raised from the seeds of the native kind, or crab, as being more hardy and durable than those
produced from the apple. The offspring of some varieties of the crab, particularly of those introduced
trom Siberia, vegetate much earlier in the spring than the other trees of the same species; and thence
the inexperienced planter will probably be led to suppose, that such stocks would accelerate the veget-
ation of other varieties in the spring, and tend to produce an early maturity of the fruit in autumn.
In this, however, he will be disappointed. The office of the stock is, in every sense of the word, subserl
vient ; and it acts only in obedience to the impulse it receives from the branches : the only qualities
therefore, which are wanting to form a perfect stock, are vigor and hardiness." '

4390. Seeds, sowing, and culture. In recollecting the seeds to sow, it must be remembered, that the
habits as well as the diseases of plants are often hereditary, and attention should be paid to the state of
the tree from which the seeds are taken ; it should be large and of free growth, and rather in a growing
state than one of maturity or decay. The crab-trees, which stand in cultivated grounds, generally grow
more freely and attain a larger stature than those in the woods, and therefore appear to claim a prefer-
ence. The seeds should be taken from the fruit before it is ground for vinegar, and sown in beds of good
mould an inch deep. From these the plants should be removed in the following autumn to the nursery,
and planted in rows at three feet distance from each other, and eighteen inches between each plant.
Being here properly protected from cattle and hares, they may remain till they become large enough to
be planted out ; the ground being regularly worked and kept free from weeds.

4^91. Codling stocks are raised chiefly from layers, which, at the end of the season, are taken off, and
planted in nursery rows two feet between the rows, and one foot plant from plant.

4392. Paradise, or as they are called by the French, doucin stocks, are raised either from layers or suck-
ers ; and stocks from creeping apples (so named from their aptitude to throw up suckers), or the Dutch
paradise, chiefly from the latter mode. They may be planted in nursery rows somewhat closer than the
codling stocks.

4393. All stocks require to stand in the nursery till they are from half an inch to an inch thick, at the
height at which they are to be grafted ; such as are intended for full standards or riders will, in general,
require to grow three or four years before being fit for this operation ; those for half standards two years,
and those for dwarfs one year. The ground between them must be kept clear of weeds, and stirred
every winter ; the side shoots of the plants, at least to the height at which they are intended to be grafted,
rubbed off as they appear, and all suckers carefully removed. Where budding is adopted, the stocks
maybe worked at nearly half the diameter of stem requisite for grafting; and stocks for dwarfs planted
in autumn or spring may be inoculated the succeeding summer. No great advantage, however, is gained
by this practice, as such plants require to stand at least another year, before they have produced their
bud-shoots.

4394. Soil and situation of the nursery. " A difference of opinion appears always to
have prevailed respecting the quality of the soil proper for a nursery ; some have pre-
ferred a very poor, and others a very rich soil ; and both perhaps are almost equally
wrong. The advocates for a poor soil appear to me to have been misled by transferring
the feelings of animals to plants, and inferring that a change from want to abundance
must be agreeable and beneficial to both. But plants in a very poor soil become stunted
and unhealthy, and do not readily acquire habits of vigorous growth, when removed from
it. In a soil which has been highly manured, the growth of young apple-trees is ex-
tremely rapid ; and their appearance, during two or three years, generally indicates the
utmost exuberance of health and vigor. These are, however, usually the forerunners of
disease, and the ' canker's desolating tooth' blasts the hopes of the planter. In choosing
the situation for a nursery, too much shelter, or exposure, should be equally avoided ;
and a soil, nearly similar to that in which the trees are afterwards to grow, should be se-
lected, where it can be obtained. Pasture ground, or unmanured meadow, should be
preferred to old tillage, and a loam of moderate strength and of considerable depth to all
other soils." (TV. on App. and Pear.)

4395. Grafting. Tlie first business is to select the scions, the principles of which have
been already "noticed (2043). At whatefer season scions are to be inserted, Knight ob-
serves, " the branches, which are to form them, should be taken from the parent stock
during the winter, and not later than the end of the preceding year : for if the buds have
begun to vegetate in the smallest degree, and they begin with the increasing influence of

Book I. APPLE. 699

the sun, Uie vigor of the" shoots, during the first season, will be diminished, and the
grafts will not succeed with equal certainty ; though a graft of the apple-tree very rarely
fails, unless by accidental injury, or great want of skill in the operator. The amputated
branches must be kept alive till' wanted, by having the end of each planted in the ground,
a few inches deep in a shady situation."

4396. Stocks destined to form standard trees, may either be grafted at the usual height at which the
lateral branches are aUowed to diverge, which is commonly six feet, or they may be grafted near the
irround, and a single shoot trained from the graft, so as to form the stem of the tree. The propriety of
Iraftin? near the ground, or at the height of six or seven feet, will depend on the kmd of fruit to be
i)ropagated, whether it be quite new and just beginning to bear, or a middle^ged variety. In new and
livuriant varieties, and these only should be propagated, it will be advantageous to graft when the stocks
are three years old, as the growth of such will be more rapid, smooth, and upright than that of the crab,
and there will be no danger of these being injured by beginning to bear too early. Middle-aged varieties
will be most successfully propagated by planting stocks of six or seven foot high, and letting them remain
ungrafted till they become firmly rooted in the places in which the trees are to stand. One graft only
should be inserted in each stock ; "for when more are used, they are apt to divide when loaded with fruit,
and to cleave the stock, having no natural bond or com;. ; tion with each other. When the stocks are
too large for a single scion, I would recommend that the grafts be inserted in the branches, and not in
the principal stem. This practice is not uncommon in various parts of England; and. is general in
Germanv, with free stocks, where, however, they often neglect to graft the trees ; and thus, as Neill ob-
senes, produce an endless variety of sorts, some good, but most of them little tetter than crabs.

4307. Stocks, intended to form half standards, are grafted at three or four feet from the ground ; and
those for dwarfs at eight or ten inches, or lower. Miller and Knight agree in recommending to graft
near the ground where lasting and vigorous trees are wanted ; but the practice of the continental gar-
deners, and the opinions of some in this country, are in favor of leaving a stem below the graft of not
less than a foot in length.

4398. The kind of grafting generally adopted for moderate-sized stocks is the ivhip or ton^ve method
(2038.\ or the new mode of saddle-grafting (2033.) adopted by Knight ; and tlie general time for the ap-
ple is the end of February and greater part of March. Much depends on the season and situation ; the
guiding principle is, to make choice of the time when the sap of the stock is in full motion ; while that of
the scions, from having been previously cut off and placed in the shade, is less so.

4399. The common season for budding the apple is Jiily ; as there is nothing peculiar to this tree i»
performing that operation, we refer to the general directions. (2050.)'

4400. Transplanting grajted trees in the nursery. " It has been recommended,''
Knight observes, " to remove grafted trees once or twice during the time they remain in
the nursery, under the idea of increasing the number of their roots ; but I think this
practice only eligible with trees which do not readily grow when transplanted. I have
always found the growth of young apple-trees to be much retarded, and a premature
disposition to blossom to be brought on by it ; and I could not afterwards observe that
those trees, which had been twice removed, grew better than others. It has also been
supposed that many small roots, proceeding immediately from the trunk, are, in the future
growth of the tree, to be preferred to a few which are large ; but as the large roots of
necessity branch into small, which consequently extend to a greater distance, the advan-
tages of more transplantations than from the seed-bed to the nursery, and thence to tlie
garden or orchard, may reasonably be questioned."

4401. The choice of sorts depends on the object in view. The first thing an inex-
perienced gardener has to do is to consider the various domestic uses of the apple, and
then determine what is wanted, accordiag to the family or market to be supplied; the
next tiling is to consider how those wants may be supplied in his given soil, situation,
and circumstances ; and the last tiling is to study the catalogue of sorts, and select ac--
coi Jingly. In every garden and private orchard, apples for ten different purposes are
desirable : —

4402. For summer culinary use, as the

Codlings, while not fully grown or imperfecUy ripe, which are fit for using in Jttne, July, and August.

4403. For summer eating or table use, as the

Jennetting, pomroy, &c. which ripen I Margaret summer pearmain, &c. which I Kentish fill-basket, Hawthomdean, &c.
in the end of June or in July | ripen in July | wliicb ripen in August.

4404. For autumn baking, as the

Codlings and Burknotf s, red streaks, I PUes's russet, Carlisle codling, cafs I Wormsley pippin, golden Harrey, queen-
Ere apple, courtpendu, nonsuch, &c. I head, embroidered, ic which ripen ing, golden russet, which ripen in

which ripen in September | in October | November.

4405. For autumn table use, as the

Kirton and Dalmahoy pippins. Loan's | Orange and ribstone pippins, grev I Franklin's golden, and Borsdorf pippins^
uearmain, colville, Kent, godolpliin, rennet, femeuse, violet, &c. which I Drejge's nisset, mareil. Sec. which

(Sec. which ripen in September | ripen in October | ripen in November.

4406. For winter culinary use, as the

Miniei's dumpling, Burknott, John I Hall -door, royal pearmain.Dutch queen- | Biindgwood pippin, cockagee, tanker,
apple, Mansfield tart, &c. which are ing, Aclam's russet, which are fit to ton, box-apple, &c. which are fit to

fit to use in December | use in January | use in February .

4407. For winter table use, as the

Golden and Kentish pippins, golden and I The Norfolk storing, Hubbard's, Syke- I Dredge's Queen Charlotte, Feams,Skenn's

Canadian rennets, brandy, &c. which house, white courtpendu, &c. which kernel, Jind Dalmahov pippins, royal

are fit to eat in December are fit to eat in January pearmain. Sec. which are fit to eat in

I I February.

4408. For sirring culinary use, as the

Quince, white colville. Lord Camden's I Spencer pippin, Trevoider rennet, Mac- | Norfolk paradise. Loan's pearmain.
rennet, winter pearmain, which keep donald's Scotch nonpareil, Spaniard, J English rennet. &c which ken> fill

till the end of March | &c. which ksep.till tfiTenU J-\prii j theendofMay7 ^- ""<=" ««^ '»"

700 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4409. For spring table use, as the

"ner;^fd™nh!?^irilr"h^\^"*^''!-n I C°^klea"d^VTiitmorepInpln.,, Rolden I Stone and spencer pippins. Royal George,
rhee^ofTi?ch' ^ ^''^'''*^''" and PUes'srus.setWhee'ler's extreme. Ward, &rwhicK keep 'till W end of

u.eenaol March | &c. which keep till the end of April | May.

4410. For summer culhiari/ use, till the apple season returns, as the

^^hicfakS^U^The^dToTiui;!'™"'"' ''°"P' '="'""^' ''" I N°yf^'J;^^-'];;jN-folk storing, French crab, .hichke^

441 1. For summer table use, till the aj^jyle season returns, as the

"L*^ ?™^' °^''"' P^*^' carnation, &c. -Hrhich keep till the I Nonpareil, Yorkshire greening, Norfolk cohnan, which keep
ena ot June | till the end of July.

4412. Other sources of choice. Another source of choice, under each of the above heads, may respect the
soil, situation, and climate of the garden, or orchard, in which they are to be planted, or the character
whether of dwarts, espaliers, or wall-trees, which they are to assume there. The winter and spring table
apples may recjuirea south wall in one district, while in another they may attain equal maturity as standards
or espaliers. Where there is ample room, a selection of large sorts, as the Alexander and Baltimore apples
or of such as are the most beautifully colored, as the violet, carnation, &c. may be made to gratify the eye ;
where room is wanting, useful sorts and great bearers are to be preferred, as tlic golden and ribstone pippin,
summer pearmain, codlings, grey russet, summer and winter colvilles, &c. In general, small-sized fruit
as the Harveys and Granges, are to be preferred for standards, as less likely to break down the branches
of the trees, or be shaken down by winds ; middling sorts for walls and dwarfs, and the largest of all for
espaliers. In respect to a soil liable to produce canker, sorts raised from cuttings may be desirable, as the
Burknott and codling tribe ; and where an occupier of a garden has only a short interest therein, such as
come into immediate bearing, as the BurknoUs, and others from cuttings, and the Hawthorndean, Apius's
apple, and other short-lived dwarf-sorts on Paradise or creeping stocks, may deserve the preference. On
the contrary, where a plantation is made on freehold property, or with a view to posterity, new varieties
on crab or free stocks, should always be chosen, as the Grange, Ingestrie, Harvey, &c. Some excellent
sorts will grow and produce crops every where, as the Hawthorndean, codling, and Kibston pippin ;
the latter of which, Nicol says, will grow at John o'Groat's house, and maybe planted in Cornwall ; others
are shy bearers in cold situations, as the Newtown pippin of America, and most of the ftewly imported
French sorts,

4413. Choice of plants and planting. This depends in some degree on the object in
view, the richness of the soil, and the shelter; young trees are more likely to succeed in
exposed sites and poor soils, but the apple will bear transplanting at a greater age than
any other fruit-tree. It may be planted in any open weather from November till February.

4414. Soil and site for pevfjianent planting. Any common soil, neither extremely
sandy, gravelly, nor clayey, on a dry sub-soil, and with a free exposure, will suit this
tree. On wet, hilly sub-soils, it will do no good, but after being planted a few years
will become cankered, and get covered with moss. Where fruit-trees must be planted
on such soils, they should first be rendered as dry as possible by under-draining ; next,
provision made for carrying off the rain-water by surface gutters ; and, lastly, tb.e ground
should not be trenched above a foot deep, and the trees planted rather in hillocks of earth,
above the surface, than in pits dug into it. There is no point of more importance than
shallow trenching and shallow planting in cold wet soils, in which deep pits and deep
pulverisation only serve to aggravate their natural evils of moisture and cold. {Sang, in
Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 140.)

4415. Knight observes, that " the apple-tree attains its largest stature in a deep strong loam or marly
clay ; but it will thrive in all rich soils, which are neither very sandy nor wet at bottom. It succeeds best,"
he adds, " in situations which arc neither high nor remarkably low. In the former its blossoms are fre-
quently injured by cold winds, and in the latter by spring frosts, particularly when the trees are planted in
the lowest part of a confined valley. A south, or south-east aspect is generally preferred, on account of
the turbulence of the west, and the coldness of north winds ; but orchards succeed well in all aspects ;
and where the violence of the west wind is broken by an intervening rise of ground, a south-west aspect
will be found equal to any."

4416. Abcrcrombie says, " all the sorts of apple-tree may be planted in any good common soil, with a
free exposure, whether that of a garden, orchard, or field ; so that the ground be neither very low nor ex-
cessively wet, nor subject to inund^ition in winter. Avoid, as far as possible, very strong clayey and gra-
velly soils. "

44.17. Mode of bearing. " In all the varieties of the common apple, the mode of bearing is upon small
terminal and lateral spurs, or short robust shoots, from half an inch to two rnches long, which spring from
the younger branches of two or more years' growth, appearing first at the extremity, and extending gra-
dually down the side : the same bearing-branches and fruit-spurs continue many years fruitful " (Abcr-
crombie.)

4418. Pruning. " As, from the mode of bearing, apple-trees do not admit of short-
ening in the general bearers, it should only be practised occasionally ; first, where any
extend out of limits, or grow irregular and deformed ; and secondly, a good shoot con-
tiguous to a vacant space is shortened to a few eyes, to obtain an additional supply of
young wood from the lower buds of the shoot for filling up the vacancy. But to shorten
without such a motive, is not merely the cutting away of the first and the principal bear-
ing part of the branches, but also occasions their putting forth many strong useless wood-
shoots where fruit-spurs would otherwise arise ; and both effects greatly tend to retard the
trees in bearing ; whereas the fertile branches being cultivated to their natural length,
shoot moderately, and have fruit-spurs quite to the extremity." (Abercrombie.)

4419. Espaliers and ivall-trees require a summer and winter pruning.

4420. The summer pruning. Train in the young shoots of the same year, which are likely to bo wanted
in the figure, and retrench tliera where ill placed or too numerous ; for as the trees continue bearing many
years on the same branches, they onlv require occasional supplies of young wood ; therefore, begin in May
or June to pinch off or cut out close all fore-right, ill placed, and superfluous shoots ; retaining only some
of the promising laterals in the more vacant parts, with a leader to each branch ; train in these between
the mother branches, at their full length, all summer ; or, where any vacancy occurs, some strong conti-

Book I. APPLE. 701

euous shoot may be shortened in June to a few eyes, to furnish several laterals the same season. Keep
the shoots in all parts closely trained, both to preserve the regularity of the espalier, and to adioit the air
and sun to the advancing fruit .„ ^ . . ■ r * -i in.-

4421. The winter pruning may be performed from November till the begmnmg of April. Ihis compre-
hends the regulation of the wood-branches, the bearers, and of the young shoots. First, examine the
new shoot* trained in the preceding summer ; and if too abundant, retain only a competency of well placed
and promising laterals, to furnish vacant larts, with a leading shoot to each parent branch. Continue
these mostly at full length, as far as there is room. Cut out close the superabundant and irregular young
shoots ; and where any of the elder branches appear unfruitful, cankerj-, or decayeil, cut them either clean
out, or prune short to some good lateral, as may seem expedient. Abo prune into order any branches
which are verv irregular, or too extended. Carefully jireserve all the eligible natural fruit-spurs ; but re-
move all unfruitful stumps and snags, and large projecting rugged spurs; cutting close to the old wood.
As each espalier is pruned, let the old and new branches be laid in at convenient distances, according to
the size of the fruit, four, five, or six inches asunder, and neatly tied or nailed to the wall or trellis.
{Ahercrombie.) , .

4422. Training espaliers. The following mode, as describctl by Meams, is the most general, and by using
stakes, which do not answer so well for any other species of espalier-tree as for apples, is also the most eco-
nomical :— In the first stage of training, the stakes require to stand as close together as twelve or fourteen
inches, and to be arranged in regular order to the fun height of five feet, with a rail slightly fastened on
the top of them for neatness sake, as well as to steady them. If stakes of small ash, Spanish chestnut, or
the like, from coppices or thinnings of young plantations, be used, they will last for three or four years,
provided they are from one inch and a half to two inches in diameter, at a foot from the bottom. They need
not be extended further in the first instance than the distance to be considered probable the trees may
reach in three years' growth ; at that period, or the following season, they will all require to be renewe<^
and the new ones mav be placed on each side, to the extent that the trees may be thought to require while
these stakes last, finis.hing the top as before, with a rail. As the trees extend their horizontal branches, and
acquire substance, the two stakes on each side of the one that supports the centre leader of the tree, can be
spared, and removed to any of the extremities where wantetL And as the tree extends further, and ac-
quires more substance, every other stake will be found sufficient ; and the centre stake can be spared also,
after the leader has reached its destined height, and is of a sufficient substance to support itself erect.
When such a form of training is completed, and the branches of sufficient magnitude, about six, eight, or
twelve stakes will be sufficient for the support of the horizontal branches, even when they have the burden
of a full crop of fruit. At any other time, about six stakes to each tree will be all Uiat are necessary.

4*23. In selecting trees far the usual horizontal training, look out for those which have three fine shoots.
Or it is better to plant them one year where they are to remain to get their roots well established, and then
to head them down to within eight or nine inches of the ground, and to encourage three shoots from the
top of each stool' (Jig. 483. a), so that the first and lowermost horizontal shoots may be tied down within
ten inches of the ground.

4424. In the pruning season cut down the middle shoot of the three, reserving what is left as an upright
leader, its length being about twelve inches from the base of the other two, and train these in a horizontal
position (6), fixing the middle shoot, which was cut down perpendicularly to the stake it is planted against.
Bui if it is against a wall or pales, it may be better to zigzag the upright leader, for the more regular dis-
tribution of the sap, and when that is intended, the leader should be left a little longer, to allow of its
being bent. In espalier training this zigzagging is not so readily done, nor is it necessary where the trees
are not intended to rise high. It is always necessary, in the course of training the young wood across the
stakes, in summer, to have large osier, or similar rods, to tie them to, in order to guide the shoots of the
year in a proper direction. The proper ties are small osier twigs.

4425. The following summer encourage three other shoots in the same way as the season before (c), then
cut off the middle shoot at ten, twelve, or fifteen inches above the base of the other two, and train these
last as in the former season (d) : and so continue training, year after year, till the trees have reached their
destined height. {Mearns, in Hort. Trans, v. 4o.) An improvement on this mode consists in cuttingdown
the leading shoot during summer, in the manner practised by Harrison, of Wortley Hall, as described in
the succeeding paragraphs.

4426. Training against a ivall. Tlie horizontal mode is unquestionably to be preferred
for so vigorous a growing tree as the apple ; and Harrison's mode of conducting the
process (Tr. on Fruit-Trees, 1823. ch. xx.) appears to us much the be.st. The pe-
culiarity of his method is, that instead of training the leading shoot in a serpentine or
zigzag manner with Hitt or Mearns, to make it send out side shoots, he adopts the
much more simple and effectual mode of cutting down tlie current year's shoots in June ;
by which means he gains annually a year, as side shoots are produced on the young wood
of that year, as well as on last year's wood which it sprang from.

4427. The tree being a maiden plant is the first year headed down to seven buds. Every bud pushing,
two of the shoots, the third and fourth, counting upwards, must be rubbed off when they are three inches
in length ; the uppermost shoot must be trained stiaight up the wall for a leading stem, and the remaining
four horizontally along the wall. The leading shoot having attained about fifteen inches in length, cut it
down to eleven inches. » From the shoots that will thus be produced select three, one to be trained as a
leader, and two as side branches. Proceeding in this way for seven years, the tree will have reached the
top of a wall twelve feet high. With weak trees, or trees in very cold' late situations, this practice will not
be advisable, as the wood producetl would be too weak, or would not ripen ; but in all ordinarj- situations,
it is obviously a superior mode to any that has been hitherto described in books. In pruning the spurs of
apple and other trees, Harrison differs from many gardeners in keeping them short, never allowing one
spur to have more than three or four fruit-buds, arid in cutting off the spurs entirely, or cutting them down
for renewal every fourth or fifth year. Every practical gardener, desirous of excelling in the training
and spurring of fruit-trees, ought to possess Harrison's treatise.

4428. Heading down apple-trees that are much cankered, is strongly recommended by
Forsyth, who gives an example of one (Jig. 484.), after it had been headed down four
years, which bore plenty of fine fruit. The point at which it was headed down (a) was
within eighteen inches of the soil ; and under it, on the stump, were two large wounds (b)

T02

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

and (c), made by cutting out the cankery part, and which being covered with the com-
position were soon nearly filled up with sound wood. Very Uttle pruning is at first given
to trees so cut, but afterwards a regular succession of bearing wood is kept up by re-
moving such as have borne for three or four years; Thus, one branch (rf), Which has
done bearing, is cut off, and succeeded by another (J), and when that is tired also, it is
cut off, and replaced by a third (e), and so on.

4429. Grafting old apple-trees of difFerent sorts with superior varieties, is an tibvious and long-tried im-
provement. In this case, if the tree is a standard, it is only headed down to standard height ; in old sub-
jects, most commonly the branches only are cut over within a foot or two of the trunk, and then grafted
in the crown or cleft manner.

4430. Injuries, insects, &c. ^The mistletoe {Viscum album) is frequently, through negligence, suffered to
injat« trees in orchards, and different species of mosses and lichens those in gardens. " Moss," Knight
observes, " appears to constitute a symptomatic, rather than a primary, disease in fruit-trees : it is often
brought on by a damp or uncultivated soil, by the age of the variety of fruit, and by the want of air and
light in closely planted unpruned orchards. In these cases it can only be destroyed by removing the cause
to which it owes its existence."

4431. Blights. Whatever deranges and destroys the organisation of the blossom, and prevents the set-
ting of the fruit, is in general termed a blight ; whether produced by insects, parasitical plants, or an
excess of heat or cold, drought, or moisture. One of the most injurious insects with which the apple-
tree has been visited for the last twenty years, is the Aphis lanigera, L., the Eriosoma viali of Leach ;
woolly aphis, apple-bug, or American blight " The eriosomata," Leach observes, " form what are
called improperly galls on the stalks of trees, near their joints and knobs, which are in fact excrescences,
caused by the efforts of nature, to repair the damage done to the old trees by the perforation of those in-
sects whose bodies are covered with down." (Sam. Ent.) Salisbury has given an engraving of the erio-
soma [fig. 485.) as he found it appear under a magnifying glass, when attacking the roots (a) and the

branches (6), as well as a ■" " " ' ' - - - - ....

winged (d). The latter he

a It appear unaer a magnirymg glass, wnen aitacKing me roots \a) arm me
still more highly magnified figure of one of the bugs without wings (c) and
considers likely to be the male insect. Thoroughly cleaning with a brush and

Book I. PEAR. 703

water together with amputation when it has been some time at work, is the only meansof destroying this
hS- b^reven this will not do, unless resorted to at an early stage of its progre^- The caterpillar of
^^ sanies of butterfly and moth, and the larva of various other genera of tlie hemtptera and l^idop.
^r&T^T«r«K, C«;c«//, &c. attack the apple-tree in common with other fruit-trees; and on a
S 1^1? itTs difficult, if not impracticable, to avoid Uieir injurious effects. Burning *traw or other
Sriab under thrtrecs has been long recommended ; but the principal thing to be relied on, m our
opinion, is regimen ; that is, judicious sub-soil and surface soil, culture, and pruning.

4432. Other points of culture have been already given. See Chap. II. and III. and
for gathering and storing the crops, see Chap. IV. Sect. X. and Chap. V. Sect. III.

SuBSECT. 2. Pear.—Pyrus Communis, 1j. {Eng. Bot. 1784.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L.
and Rosacece, J. Poirier, Fr. ; Birnbaum, Ger ; and Pero, Ital.

4433. The jyear-tree, in its wild state, is a thorny tree, with upright branches, tending
to the pj-ramidal form, in which it differs materially from the apple-tree. The twigs or
spray hang down ; the leaves are elliptical, obtuse, serrate ; the flowers in terminating vil-
lose cor>Tnbs, produced from wood of the preceding year, or from buds gradually
formed on that of several years' growth, on the extremities of very short protruding
shoots called, technically, spurs. It is found in a wild state in England, and abund-
antly in France and Germany, as well as other parts of Europe, not excepting Russia,
as far nortli as lat. 51. It grows in almost any soil. The cultivated tree differs from
the apple, not only in having a tendency to the pyramidal form, but also in being more
apt to send out tap-roots ; in being, as a seedling plant, longer (generally from fifteen to
eighteen years) of coming into bearing ; and when on its own root, or giafted on a wild
pear-stock, of being much longer lived. In a dry soil it will exist for centuries, and
still keep its health, productiveness, and vigor. " The period at which the teinton
squash first sprang from the seed, Knight observes, probably, cannot now be at all
ascertained ; but I suspect, from its present diseased and worn-out state, that it ex-
isted at least as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century : for another kind, the
barland, which was much cultivated in the early part of the seventeenth century, still re-
tains a large share of health and vigor; and the identical trees which supplied the
inhabitants of Herefordshire in the seventeenth century with liquor, are likely to do
the same good oflSce to those of the nineteenth." Oiu- remarks on the history of the
apple will apply almost without exception to the pear. The Romans, in Pliny's time,
possessed thirty-six varieties, and the fruit is still more valued, both in Italy «nd France,
than the apple.

4434. Use. As a dessert fruit the pear is much esteemed, and generally preferred to
the apple. It is also used for baking, compotes, marmalade, &c. Pared and dried in
the oven, the fruit will keep several years, either with or without sugar. This mode of
preparing the pear is about as common in France as the making of apple-pies is in this
country ; and what is favorable to the practice is, that bad eating sorts answer best for
drying. Bosc {Kouveau Cours (fAgric- in loco) describes two methods of drying pears
for preservation ; and adds, that he has tried them after three years' keeping, and found
them still very good. Perry, the poire of the French, is made from the fermented juice,
in the manner of cider, and the best sorts are said by Withering to be little inferior to
wine. The wood of the pear-tree is light, smooth, and compact, and is used by turners,
and to make joiners' tools, picture-frames to be dyed black, &c. The leaves will pro-
duce a yellow dye, and may be used to give a green to blue cloths.

4435. Criterion of a good pear. Dessert pears are charsLCtenaed by a. sugary aromatic
juice, with the pulp soft and sub-liquid, or melting, as in the beurr^s, or butter-pears ;
or of a firm and crisp consistence, or breaking, as in the winter bergamots. Kitclien
jiears should be of large size, with the flesh firm, neither breaking nor melting, and ra-
ther austere than sweet, as the wardens. Perry pears may be either large or small ;
but the more austere the taste, the better will be the liquor. Excellent perry is made
from the wild pear.

4436. Varieties. Tusser, in 1573, in his list of fruits, mentions "peeres of all sorts."
Parkinson enumerates sixty-four varieties ; Mortimer, in 1 708, has many sorts ; and
Miller has selected eighty sorts, and described them from Tournefort. In France, the
varieties of the pear are much more numerous than even the varieties of the apple. The
catalogue of the Luxemburg nursery at Paris contains 189 select sorts. The British
nursery lists at the present time contain from tw o to three hundred names, among which,
it may be observed, the number of good sorts are fewer in proportion than in the apple
lists. In the present very imperfect state of the nomenclatiu-e of fruits, all we can do is
to make a selection from names which have some descriptive particulars attached. We
shall arrange them into dessert, kitchen, and perry pears, and each tribe shall be set down
in the order of their ripening.

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Book I. PEAR. 707

4438. Propagation. The pear may be propagated by layers or suckers, but not easily
by cuttings. These modes, however, are pr£)ductive of very indifferent plants, and are
justly rejected in favor of raising from seed, and grafting or budding.

4439. From seed. This mode is adopted either for the purpose of obtaining new varieties, or for pro-
ducing pear-stocks. In the former case, the same principles of selection or crossing are to be followed
which we have stated in treating of raising seedling apple-trees, between which and the pear-tree, the
chief difference is, that the latter requires a longer period, nearly double, to come into bearing, and
that the proportion of good sorts to bad, so originated, is but very small. Professor Van Mons, proprietor
of the Pepinicre de la FidtUte, at Brussels, has upwards of 800 approved sorts of new pears, raised from
seed bv himself and M. Duquesne, of Mons, in the course of fifteen or sixteen years, and selected from,
probably, 8000 new seedling fruits. Van Mons observed to Xeill, that " he seldom failetl in procuring
valuable apples from the seed ; for those which were not adapted to the garden as dessert fruit, were pro-
bably suited for the orchard, and fit for baking or cider-making. With i>ears the case was different,
many proving so bad as to be unfit for any purpose." {Horticul. Tour, Sec. 309.) Whenever a seedling
indicates, by the blunt shape, thickness, and wooUiness of its leaves, or by tt<? softness of its bark and
fulness of its buds, the promise of future good qualities, as a fruit-bearing tree. Van Mons takes a
graft from it, and places it on a well established stock : the value of its fruit is thus much sooner ascer-
tained. [Horticul. Tour, &c. 310.) At Brussels, seedlings yield fruit in four or five years, in Britain seldom
before seven or ten years have elapsed. The fruit of the first year of bearing is always inferior to that of
the second and third years. If a pear or an apple possess a white and heavy pulp, with juice of rather
pungent acidity, it may be expected in the second, third, and subsequent years, greatly to improve in
size and flavor.' New varieties of i>ears, ami indeed, of all fruiu, are more likely to be obtained from the
seeds of new than of old sorts. {Horticul. Tour, &c. 308, 309.)

44t0. In raising pears for stock, the seeds from perry-makers are generally made use of; but the most
proper are those from the wild pear, as likely to produce plants more hardy and durable. There is, howi-
ever, less difference between free pear-stocks, for those raised from the cultivated fruit, and wild pear-
stocks, than there is l)etween free apple and crab-stocks. The seetis being procured, may be sown, and
afterwards treated as directed for seeilling crab, or apple-tree stocks.

4441. Grafting and budding. The most common stocks for grafting the pear are the common pear and
wilding ; but as the apple is dwarfed, and brought more early into a bearing state by grafting on tlie yxi-
radise or creeper, so is the pear by grafting on the quince or whitethorn. The pear will also succeed very
well on the whitcbeam, medlar, service, or apple ; but the wilding and quince are in most general use.
Pears on free stocks grow luxuriantly in good soil on a dry bottom ; those on wildings grow less rapidly,
but are deemetl more durable, and they will thrive on the poorest soil, if a hardy variety, and not over-
pruned. " On the quince," Miller observes, " breaking {)ear8 are rendered gritty and stony ; but the melt-
ing sorts are much improved : trees on these stocks may be planted in a moist soil with more success than
those on wildings or thorns." On the thorn, pears come very early into bearing, continue prolific, and,
in respect to soil, will thrive well on a strong clay, which is unsuitable both to those on quinces and wild-
ings ; but they are supposed to have an unfavorable influence on the fruit, in rendering it smaller and
hard ; and the grafts or buds require to be inserted very low, that the moisture of the earth may tend to
favor the swelling or enlargement of the diameter of the stock, which does not increase proportionally to,
nor ever attains the same size as the stem of the pear. Dubreuil, a French gardener, recommends the
quince-stock for clayey and light soils, and the free stock for chalky and siliceous soils. {Horticul. Trans.
iv. 566.) The free and wilding pear-stocks are to he planted in nursery rows, at the same distance as re-
commended for free and wilding apples ; and the quince arid thorn at the same distance as the paradise
and creeper apples ; in other respects, the management is the same as for the apple.

4442. Choice of sorts. (See Ch. II. and III. on Planting the Orchard and Kitchen-Gar-
den.) The following is a list of table-pears for use in succession, from July to July
again, as furnished for tlie table of the Duke of Buccleugh from the Dalkeith gar-
den. The letters mark the aspect of the walls against which they are trained.

{W.) JargoneHe

(S.) Longueville

(S.) Summer bergamot

(S.) Orange bergamot

[W.) Summer boncretien

( W.) Autumn bergamot
( W.) Gansel's bergamot
(S. and H^) Green sugar
( IV.) Earlv primitive
(S.) Muirfowl egg

(S.) Grev achan
( W.) Green chL<iel
( H-.) St. Germain
( W.) Cressane
( fV.) Brown beurrtf

(ir.)GrevbeurT^

(W.) Winter boncretien

( W.) Swan's ^g

(IV.)ChauraonteUe

(fr)Colmar.

(itacdonatd, in Hir John Sindair't G^n. Jteji. of Scotland, iv. 433.)

4443. Choice of plants. Abercrombie takes trees at one year from the graft, and thence to the sixth
year, or older. Forsyth says, " I would advise those who intend to plant pear-trees, instead of choosing
young ones, to look out for the oldest that they can find in the nursery, and with strong stems."

4444. Soil and site. " A dry, deep loam," Abercrombie observes,' " is accounted the best soil for the
pear-tree when the stock is of its own species ; on a quince-stock it wants a moist soil, without which it
will not prosper. Gravel is a good sub-soil, where the incumbent mould is suitable. Cold clay is a bad
sub-soil : to prevent fruit-trees from striking into it, slates mav be laid just under the roots. For wall-
frees, the soil should be made good to the depth of three feet ; for orchard-trees, eighteen inches may do.
Pear-trees, on their own stocks, will thrive on land where apples will not even live ; supposing the plants
to be hardy varieties, little removed from wildings, and to have room to grow freelv as standards. To the
more choice of the early autumn and prime winter pears, assign south, east, or west walls. Knight and
M'Phail recommend a strong, deep, loamy soil, and the latter a high wall for training the better sorts."

444o. Planting finally is performed any time, in mild weather, from October to March ; standards are
placed from twenty-five to forty feet apart every way ; half standards, from twenty to thirtv : and dwarf
standards, in borders from fifteen to twenty feet from stem to stem. Wall and espalier trees are planted
from fifteen to thirty feet apart, according as thev may have been planted on pear or quince-stocks

4446. Mode of bearing, as in the apple-tree. " The pear-tree," M'Phail says, " does not produce blos-
soms on the former year's wood, as several other sorts of trees do. Its blossom-buds are formed upon
spurs growmg out of wood not younger than one year old, and consequentlv, projecting spurs all over the
tree must be left for that purpose." " In some pears," Knight observes, " the fruit grows only on the
mside of those branches which are exposed to the sun and air ; in others it occupies every part of the

4447. Pruning and training standards. « Permit these to extend on all sides freely.
Several years may elapse before any cross-placed, very irregular, or crowded branches,
dead and worn out bearers, require pruning, which give in winter or spring. Keep the
head moderately open in the middle." " Pruning," Knight observes, '° is not often
wanted in the culture of the pear-tree, which is rarely much encumbered with superfluous
branches ; but in some kinds, whose form of growth resembles tlie apple-tree, it will
sometimes be found beneficial."

Z z 2

708 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4448. Pruning and training waU-trees. As a wall-tree or espalier, the pear is always
trained in the horizontal manner on account of its luxuriant growth. Harrison trains
most pear-trees in this way, and proceeds exactly as he does in training the apple-tree.
(4427 ) But, « when it occurs that a tree trained after this method still continues un-
fruitful for several years after planting, the branches must be trained in a pendulous
manner, and more or less so, according to the luxuriancy of the tree, but always com-
mence the training in the horizontal method, and afterwards change the direction of
the branches as required." (Tr. on FruU Trees, 144.) The ordinary distance at which
he trains the side shoots is nine or ten inches, but the jargonelle he lays in at twelve
inches, so as to have room for laying in side shoots from the spurs, for one or more years.
This he finds checks the luxuriancy of the tree, and keeps it in full bearing. ( Tr on
Fruit IVees, 159.)

4449. Forsyth, in training a young pear-tree, shortens the leading shoot in March,
and vvhen the shoots it produces are very strong, he says, " I cut the leading shoot
twice in one season ; by tliis method I get two sets of side shoots in one year, which en-
ables me the sooner to cover the wall. The second cutting is performed about the mid-
dle of June. " ( Tr. on Fruit Trees, 1 93. )

4450. Established xvall-trees and espaliers will require a summer and winter pruning,
and the following are Abercrombie's directions : —

4451. Summer pruning. "While the spray is young and soft, but not until the wood-shoots can be dis-
tinguished from spurs, rub oflf the fore-right, the disorderly, spongy, and superfluous shoots of the year
rather than let them grow woody, so as to require the knife. Retain some of the most promising, weH
placed, lateral, and terminal shoots, always keeping a leader to each main branch, where the space will
permit. Leave the greater number on young trees not fully supplied with branches. Train in these at
their full length, all summer, in order to have a choice of young wood in the winter pruning. Occa-
sionally on old trees, or others, where any considerable vacancy occurs, some principal contiguous shoot
may be shortened in June to a few eyes, for a supply of several new shoots the same season.

The winter pruning may be performed any time from the beginning of November until the begin-
ning of April. If on young trees, or others, a further increase of branches is necessary to fill up either
the prescribed space, or any casual vacuity, retain some principal shoots of last summer, to be trained for
that purpose. As, however, many young shoots will have arisen on the wood-branches and bearers, of
which a great part are redundant and disorderly, but which have received some regulation in the summer
pruning, we must now cut these out close to the mother branches, while we are preserving the best in the
more open parts. Examine the parent branches, and if any are very irregular, or defective in growth,
either cut them out close, or prune thorn to some eligible lateral to supply the place ; or if any branches
be over-extended, they may be pruned in to such a lateral, or to a good fruit-bud. Cut out the least
regular of the too crowded; also any casually declined bearers ; with decayed, cankery, and dead wood.
The retained supply of laterals and terminals should be laid as much at length as the limits allow, in order
to furnish a more abundant quantity of fruit-buds. During both courses of pruning, be particularly care-
ful to preserve all the orderly fruit-spurs emitted at the sides and ends of the bearers : if, however, any
large, rugged, projecting spurs, and woody barren stumps or snags occur, cut them clean away close to
the branches, which will render the bearers more productive of fruit-buds, and regular in appearance. As
each tree is pruned, nail or tie the branches and shoots to the wall or truJlis. If afterwards, in conse-
quence of either pruning out improper or decayed wood, or of former insufficient training, there are any
material vacuities or irregularities in the arrangement, un-nail the misplaced and contiguous branches, and
lay them in order.

4452. Knight's mode of training the pear-tree is as follows : " A young pear-stock, which had two
lateral branches upon each side, and was about six feet high, was planted against a wall early in the
spring of 1810 ; and it was grafted in each of its lateral branches, two of which sprang out of the stem,
about four feet from the ground, and the other at its summit in the following year. The shoots these
grafts produced, when about a foot long, were trained downwards, the undermost nearly perpendicu-
larly, and the uppermost just below the horizontalline, placing them at such distances that the leaves of
one shoot did not at all shade those of another. In the next year, the same mode of training was conti-
nued, and in the year following I obtained an abundant crop of fruit. An old St. Germain pear-tree,
of the spurious kind, had been trained in the fan-form, against a north-west wall in my garden, and the
central branches, as usually happens in old trees thus trained, had L.ng reached the top of the wall,
and had become wholly unproductive. The other branches aflfbrded but very little fruit, and that never
acquiring maturity, was consequently of no value ; so that it was necessary to change the variety, as well as
to render the tree productive To attain these purposes, every branch which did not want at least twenty
degreesof being perpendicular, was taken out at its base; and the spurs upon every other branch, which
I intended to retain, were taken off closely with the saw and chisel. Into these branches, at their sub-
divisions, grafts were inserted at different distances from the root, and some so near the extremities of the
branches, that the tree extended as widely in the autumn, after it was grafted, as it did in the pre-
ceding year. The grafts were also so disposed, that every part of the space the tree previously covered,
was equally well supplied with young wood. As soon, in the succeeding summer, as the young shoots
had attained sufficient length, they were trained almost perpendicularly downwards, between the larger
branches and the wall to which they were nailed. The most perpendicular remaining branch, upon each
side, was grafted about four feet below the top of the wall, which is twelve feet high ; and the young
shoots, which the grafts upon these afforded, were trained inwards, and bent down to occupy the space
from which the old central branches had been taken away ; and therefore very little vacant space any
■where remained in the end of the first autumn. A few blossoms, but not any fruit, were produced by
several of the grafts in the succeeding spring ; but in the following year, and subsequently, I have had
abundant crops, equally dispersed over every part of the tree."

4453. Heading down and -pruning old j)ear-trees. *' The method of pruning pear-
trees," Forsyth observes, " is very different from that practised for apple-trees in ge-
neral. The constant practice has been to have great spurs, as big as a man's arm,
standing out from the walls, from a foot to eighteen inches or upwards." The constant
cutting of these spurs, he says, brings on the canker, and the fruit produced is small,
spotted, and kernelly. Forsyth's practice with such trees was to cut them down, and
renew the soil at their roots, and he refers to beurr^ pear (Jig' 486. ), restored from an
inch and a half of bark, which, in 179G, bore four hundred and fifty fine large pears, &c.

rEAR.

709

4454. Harrison, and vanous other gardeners, adopt the mode of keeping only short
spurs, by which much larger fruit is produced. According to this plan, each spur
( fis. 487. a) bears only once, when it is cut out, and succeeded by an embryo-bud (d)
at Its base. This bud at the end of the first season, is no more than a leaf-bud (c) ;
but at the end of the se-
cond summer, it has be-
come a blo8Som-bud (^6),
and bears the third sum-
mer (a). Some useful ob-
servations on the manage-
ment of pear-trees, in
correspondence with Har-
rison's practice, will be
found in different parts of
the Caledonian Hort. Me-
vwirs, vol. i.

4455. Forsyth says, " The constant practice has been to leave great spurs as big as a man's arm, stand-
ing out from the walls, from one foot to eighteen inches and upwards. The constant pruning of these
brings on the canker ; and by the spurs standing out so far from fhe wall, the blossom and fruit are
liable to be much injured by the frost and blighting winds, and thus the sap will not have a free circu-
lation all over the tree. The sap will always find its way first to the extremities of the shoots ; and the
spurs will only receive it in a small proportion, as it returns from the ends of the branches." (Tr. on Fruit
Trees, 187.)

4456. Setting the fruit. In a verj* curious paper on this subject, by the Rev. G. Swa^ne, he informs us of a
pear-tree, which had for twenty years never borne fruit, but which he induced to bear by cutting
off all the blossoms of each corjinbus of flowers, excepting the lower three, on the same principle as
gardeners top beans This succeeded to a certain extent on one tree, but not on another ; the selected blos-
soms of the other he rendered fruitful by cross-impregnation. He says, " I fancied likewise that the
pointal was fit for impregnation before the anthers were ripe, and even before the petals expanded ; and
from the peculiarly slender and delicate make of the latter, as it struck me, I supposed, that it ceased to
be in a proper state as soon as it became exposed to the sun and air ; I therefore concluded, that there
might possibly be a chance of obtaining fruit, by depriving the blossoms of their petals before they ex-
panded, and enclosing with each floret in this state, within a j)aper envelope (as is my mode of effecting
artificial impregnation}, a riper blossom, viz. one that had just began to diffuse its farina, either one of
its own, or, preferably, of some other variety of pear." {Hort. Trans, v. 210.) He tied up twenty-seven
envelopes on the STth'of March, and took off the papers on the 15th of April ; a number succeeded, and
produced ripe fruit, specimens of which were sent to the Horticultural Society, and found unusually
large and handsome. The Rev. Experimenter concludes his paper, by observing, " whether the result of
the above-detailed experiments be such as to authorise an expectation that artificial assistance in vegetable
fecundation, will hereafter become of so much importance to gardeners, in the instance just alluded to,
as in those at present recognised, of the cucumber, the melon, the early bean, and the hautbois straw-
berry, must be left to futurity to ascertain." {Hort. Trans, v 212.)

44o/. Harrison appears to have adopted a similar practice, he says, " It is very general to see healthy
pear-trees, which produce an abundance of bloom but set a very small proportion of fruit ; this is more
particularly the case with the tenderest kinds. The reason of such barrenness is in some cases from
the stamina being destitute of farina, and in others from the farina having been dispersed before the pistil-
lum had arrived at a proper state for its reception. To remedy such defects, I adopt the foUowing'prac-
tice. As soon as the florets have expanded and the pistillum is in a proper state of maturity, I impreg-
nate six upon each corymb of blossom. The florets which I choose for this operation are those situated
nearest the origin of the spur, for when pears set naturally, it is verj' generally such florets. The time
I choose for this operation is calm dry days, and if possible when the sun is not very hot upon the trees.
Immediately after performance, I give each tree about eighteen gallons of manure water, or soft pond
water, at the roots. The trees should never be washed over the tops for a considerable time after this
impregnation has l)een effected." {Tr. on Fruit Trees.)

4458. Insects, diseases, &c.

The pear-tree is liable to the attacks of the same insects
Z z 3

710

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

as tlie apple-tree ; and the fruit of the summer kinds, when ripe, is liable to be eaten by
birds, wasps, &c. which must be kept off" by shooting, hanging bottles of water, and
other usual preventives.

For other jmiits of culture, and gathering and storing, see Chap, II., Chap. IV. Sect.
IX., and Chap. V. Sect. III.

SuBSECT. 3. Quince. — Pt/rus Ci/donia, L. ; Cydonia Vulgaris, W. en. Icos. JDi-Pen-
tag. Li. and Rosacea:, J. Coignassier, Fr. j Quittenbaum, Ger. ; and Cotogyio, Ital.

4459. The quince-tree is of low growth, much branched, and generally crooked and
distorted. The leaves are roundish or ovate, entire, above dusky-green, underneath
whitish, on short petioles. The flowers are large, white, or pale-red, and appear in May
and June ; the fruit, a pome, varying in shape in the different varieties, globular, ob-
long, or ovate ; it has a peculiar and rather disagreeable smell and austere taste. It is
a native of Austria and other parts of Europe; is mentioned by Tusser, in 1753; but
has never been very generally cultivated.

4460. Use. The fruit is not eaten raw ; but stewed, or in pies or tarts, along with
apples, is much esteemed. In confectionary, it forms an excellent marmalade and syrup.
When g,pples are flat, and have lost their flavor, Forsyth observes, a quince or two, in a
pie or pudding, will add a quickness to them. In medicine, the expressed juice, repeat-
edly taken in small quantities, is said to be cooling, astringent, and stomachic, &c.
A mucilage prepared from the seeds was formerly much in use, but is now supplanted
by the simple gums. In nursery-gardening, the plants are much used as stocks for tlie

4461. Varieties. Miller enumerates — ■

The oblong, or pear-quince; with oblong
ovate leaves, and an oblong fruit
lengthened at the base.

The apple-quince ; with ovate leaves and
a rounder fruit.

The Portugal quince (Lang. Pom. t. 73.) ;

with obovate leaves, and an ob-
long fruit, which is more juicy and
less harsh than the others, and there-
fore the most valuable. It is rather
a shy bearer, but is highly esteemed

for marmalade, as the pulp has the
property of assuming a fine purplo
tint in the course of being prepared.
The mild or eatable quince ; less austere
and astringent than the others.

4462. Propagation. Generally by layers, but also by cuttings, and approved sorts may be perpetuated
by grafting. In propagating for stocks, nothing more is necessary than removing the lower shoots from
the larger, so as to preserve a clean stem as high as the graft ; but for fruit-bearing trees, it is necessary
to train the stem to a rod, till it has attained four or five feet in height, and can support itself upright.

44*53. Soil and site. The quince prefers a soft moist soil, and rather shady, or, at least, sheltered situ-
ation. It is seldom planted but as a standard in the orchard, and a very few trees are sufficient for any
family.

4464. Theti)ne of planting, the mode of bearing, and all the other particulars of culture, are the same
as for the apple and pear.

SuBSECT. 4. Medlar. — Mespilus Germanica, L. (^Eng.Bot. 1523.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L.
and Rosacece, J. Nejlier, Fr. ; Miq)elbaum, Ger. ; andNespolo, Ital.

4465. The medlar is a small or middle-sized branching tree ; the branches woolly, and
covered with an ash-colored bark, and, in a wild state, armed with stiff spines. Leaves
oval-lanceolate, serrate, towards the point somewhat woolly, on very short channelled
petioles. Flowers produced on small natural spurs, at the ends and sides of the branches.
Bracte as long as the corolla ; calyxes terminating, fleshy ; petals, white ; fruit, a tur-
binated berry, crowned with five calycine leaflets ; pulp thick, mixed with callose gra-
nules, and containing five gibbous wrinkled stones. The tree flowers in June and July,
and the fruit is ripe in November. It is a native of the south of Europe ; but appears to
be naturalised in some parts of England, where it has been sown in copses by binds.

4466. Use. Tlie fruit is eaten raw in a state of incipient decay ; its taste and flavor
are peculiar, and by some much esteemed.

4467. Varieties. Those in common cultivation are —

The Dutch medlar (Pom. Franc. 2.
p. 4,'>. t.2, .l.); a crooked, deformed,
low tree with very large leaves, entire,
and downy on the under side. The
flowers and fruit are very large ; the

' 4468. Propagation. By seeds, by layers, and cuttings, or by grafting on seedlings of their own species^
or on any other species of mespilus, or of cydonia, or crata?gus. Miller observes, that if the stones are
taken out of the fruit as soon as it is ripe, and immediately planted, they will come up next spring, and
make good plants in two years. He prefers raising from seed to grafting on the Crataegus. Forsyth says,
" Those who wish to keep the sorts true, should propagate them by grafting on their own stocks." The
plant is rather difficult to strike by cuttings.

4469. Soil. The soil in which the medlar thrives best is a loamy rich earth, rather moist than dry ; but
not on a wet bottom.

4470. Final planting. The medlar, like the quince, is usually grown as a standard or espalier ; the
former may be planted from twenty to thirty, and the latter from fifteen to twenty feet apart.

4471. Mode of bearing. On small spurs at the ends and sides of the branches.

4472. Pruning. Forsyth recommends the same sort of treatment as for the quince. Cut out all the
dead and cankery wootl, and keep the tree thinof branches when it is desired to have large fruit. Care
is requisite to train standards with tall stems. Espaliers will require a summer and winter pruning, as In
the apple-tree.

For other details of culture^ see the Ajyiile and Pear.

latter approaching to the shajie of an
apple.
The Nottingham medlar ; with fruit of a
quicker and more poignant taste.

The wild medlar ; a smaller tree, with
I smaller leaves, flowers, and fruit than
any of the former sorts, and the fruit
is pear-shaped.

4

^^l

ooK I. STONE-FRUITS. 711

UBsiCT. 5. True-Service. -— Sorbus Domestka, L. (Pyru5 Domeslica, Eng. Bot.
350.) Jcosan. JDi-Pentag. L. and J2o5ace<F, J. ^/tzier, Fr. ; Eisbeerbaunh Ger. ; and
Lotoy or Bagolaro, Ital. (^g. 488.)

4473. T/te ^nte-s^i'/ce-tree is of the middle size, not unlike the mountain-ash, of a very
low growth, and not flowering till it arrives at a very great age. The leaves are com-
pound, alternate, with ovate or oval leaflets. The flowers are produced on terminating
panicles issuing from spurs of two or more years' growth ; the petals are cream-colored ;
the fruit, according to Gaertner, is a pome, pear-shaped, reddish, and spotted, extremely
austere, and not eatable till it is quite mellowed by frost or time, when it becomes
brown and very soft. It flowers in May, and the fruit ripens in November ; the tree,
according to Krocker, does not come into full bearing before it is sixty years old. It
is a native of the warmer parts of Europe, and has
also been found wild in Cornwall, Worcestershire,
and Hertfordshire, from whence the fruit is brought
to London in autumn in large quantities. Miller

says, " There was one tree in the garden of John
Tradescant, of South Lambetli, near forty feet high,
which produced a great quantity of fruit annually,
shaped like pears. Some trees of middling growth,
in the garden of Henry Marsh, Esq. at Hammer-
smith, produced fruit of the apple-shape. From
these many trees were raised in the nurseries near
London, but the fruit was small compared with that
of Tradescant." Great numbers of large service-
trees grow wild about Aubigny in France ; from
the seeds of which one of the dukes of Richmond
raised a great many trees at Goodwood in Sussex.
It is a very common fruit-tree at St. Germains en
Laye, where it is cultivated along with Pyrus Americana.

4474. Use. The fruit has a peculiar acid flavor, and is eaten, when mellowed, like
that of the medlar, to which it is deemed inferior. It is common in Italy, and ripens at
Genoa in September, where it is esteemed good in dysentery and fluxes. The wood,
which is very hard, is held in repute for making mathematical rulers, and excisemen's
gauging-sticks.

4475. Varieties. In Italy they have many varieties obtained from seeds; but those generafly known
here are only three : the pear-shaped, apple-shaped, and berry-shaped.

4476. Propagation. By seeds, cuttings, or layers ; or, which is preferable for plants intended to form
good-sized and early-bearing trees, by grafting on seedlings of their own species. It may also be grafted
on the pjTus, mespilus, or cratjegus.

4477. Soil. The best is a strong clayey loam.

4478. Culture. The tree is recommended by Forsyth and Abercrombie to be grown as a standard at
twenty or thirty feet distance, and to be pruned and otherwise treated like the apple and pear. Choice
sorts, Abercrombie observes, are sometimes trained as dwarf standards, or espaliers.

4479. Gathering the crop. It is late in autumn before this operation can be performed. Wipe the fruit
dry, and lay it on dry wheat-straw, spread on the open shelves of the fruit-room. In about a month it
wiU become mellow and fit for use. See Chap. IV. Sect X. and Chap. V. Sect III.

Sect, II. Stone- Fruits.

4480. Of stone-fruits the most esteemed is the peach tribe, and next the apricot ; both
the trees natives of Persia, but acclimated in Britain, and remarkable for the lively colors
and early appearance of their blossoms. The peach is one of the most delicious of sum-
mer fruits. Besides the peach, nectarine, and apricot i the almond, plum, and cherry,
are comprehended in this section.

SuBSECT. 1. Peach. — Amygdalus Fersica, L. (^Black. t. 101.) Icos. Monog. L. and
Rosacece, 3. Mains Fersica of the Romans. Pecher, Fr. ; Pfirschbaum, Ger. ; and
Fersico, Ital.

4481. The peach-tree in its natural state is under the middle size, with spreading
branches, lanceolate, smooth, and serrated leaves. The flowers are sessile, with reddish
calyces, and bell-shaped, pale or dark-red corollas, often bordered with purple ; the fruit
a roundish drupe, generally pointed, and ^vitll a longitudinal groove ; pulp, large, fleshy
or succulent, white or yellowish, sometimes reddish, abounding with a grateful, sweet,
acid juice ; stone, hard, irregularly furrowed ; kernel, bitter. The tree of quick growth,
and not of long duration ; blossoms in April, and ripens its fruit in August and Septem-
ber. Sickler considers Persia as the original country of the peach, which, in Media, is
deemed unwholesome ; but, when planted in Egypt, becomes pulpy, delicious, and
salubrious. The peach also, according to Columella, when first brought from Persia into
tlie Roman empire, possessed deleterious qualities; which Knight concludes to have
arisen from those peaches being only swollen almonds ( the tuberes of Pliny), or im-

Z z 4

712 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Pari III.

perfect peaches ; and which are known to contain the Prussic acid which operates unfa-
vorably in many constitutions. The tree has been cultivated time immemorial in most
parts of Asia ; when it was introduced into Greece is uncertain : the Romans seem to
have brought it direct from Persia, during the reign of the emperor Claudius. It is first
mentioned by Columella, and afterwards described by Pliny. The best peaches in Eu-
rope are at present grown in Italy on standards ; and next may be cited those of Mon-
treuil, near Paris, trained on lime-whited walls. {Moxard, sur V Education des arbres d
Fruits, et priticipaleme7it die Pecker, &c. 1814.) We visited these gardens in May, 1819,
and examined more particularly those of Jean Pierre Savard, the principal proprietaire
cnltivateur. His trees were that season covered with aphides, and the principal part of
treatment in which he seemed expert was that of varying the position of the branches of
the tree every year, by elevating to a greater angle the weak, depressing the strong, and
cutting out the old, naked, or twigless shoots ; thus presenting at all times a well balanced
tree. The stems of these trees, when first planted, and for one or two years afterwards,
are hooked to the wall, to prevent their being stolen ! Mozard's garden was visited by
the Caledonian Horticultural deputation in 1817, who found wholesome management,
but nothing new. In England, there are but few sorts of peaches that come to tolerable
perfection in the open air, in ordinary seasons. The best adapted for this purpose are the
free stones ; but all the sorts ripen well by the aid of a hot-wall or glass, and may be
forced so as to ripen in May or June. The tree is generally an abundant bearer ; one
of the noblesse kind, at Yoxfield, in Suffolk, which covers above six hundred square feet
of trellis under a glass case, without flues, ripens annually from sixty to seventy dozen of
peaches. {Hort. Trans, iii. 17.)

4482. Use. It is a dessert fruit, of the first order, and makes a delicious preserve. In
Maryland and Virginia a brandy is made from this fruit. " The manufacture of this
liquor, and the feeding of pigs, being," as Braddick observes (H^or/. Tr. ii. 205.), " the
principal uses to which the peach is applied in those countries." Tlie leaves, steeped in
gin or whiskey, communicate a flavor resembling that of noyeau.

4483. Criterion of a good peach. A good peach. Miller observes, possesses these qual-
ities : the flesh is firm ; the skin is thin, of a deep or bright red color next the sun, and
of a yellowish-green next the wall ; the pulp is of a yellowish color, full of high-flavored
juice ; the fleshy part thick, and the stone small.

4484. Varieties. Linnaeus divides the Jl. Persica into two varieties ; that with downy
fruit or the peach, and that with smooth fruit or the nectarine. There are various in-
stances on record (Hort. Trans, vol. i, p. 103.) of both fruits growing on the same tree,
even on the same branch ; and one case has occurred of a single fruit partaking of the
nature of both. The French consider them as one fruit, arranging them in four divi-
sions : ihepeches, or free stone peaches, the flesh of whose fruit separates readily from the
skin and the stone ; the pcches lisses, or free stone nectarines, or free stone smooth peaches ;
the pavies, or cling-stonc peaches, whose flesh is firm and adheres both to the skin and
stone ; and the brugnons, or nectarines, or cling-stone smooth peaches. Knight {^Hort.
Tr. iii. 1.), Robertson {Hort. Tr. iii. 382.), and various botanists, consider the peach
and almond as one species.

4485. The Jlat peach of China (Hort. Trans.
vol. iv. pi. 19.) is a curious flattened fruit (fg. 489.),
sweet and juicy, and with a little noyeau flavor.
Knight has fruited it, and considers that from the
early habits of the tree it will prove a valuable acqui-
sition. He has " found excitability of habit to be
hereditary in the seedling offspring of plants, and to
be transferable by the pollen ;" and, therefore, ima-
gines " there will be no diflRculty in obtaining from
the flat peach other varieties of similar habits, free
from the deformity which has recommended it to the
Chinese." (^Hort. Trans, v. 272.)

4486. There are many fine varieties of the peach :
Tusser, in 1573, mentions peaches, white and red;
Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates twenty-one ; and Mil-
ler, in 1750, thirty-one varieties. In the garden of the Luxemburg, at Paris, are seventy
varieties ; and above double that number of names are to be found in the catalogues of our
nurseries. Tliree distinguished and ingenious attempts have been made to class the va-
rieties of peaches and nectarines, by the leaf and flower as well as the fruit : the first is
by Poiteau, in the Bon Jardinier ; the next by Count Lelieur, in his Pomone Fran^aise ;
and the third by Robertson, nurseryman, of Kilkenny, whose arrangement is founded on
the glands of the leaves. But as these systems are not yet suflSciently perfected to render
them available for this work, all we can do is to submit the following table : —

1

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Book I. PEACH. 715

4488. Selection of sorts. Abercrombie says, "Except the situation be completely fa-
vorable as to climate, aspect, and shelter, forbear to plant very early or extreme late fruit ;
the frost will almost inevitably cut off the former when blossoming and setting ; and '
the latter will hardly ripen under the declining heat of autumn."

4489. The peaches proper for a smaU garden, according to Forsyth, are —

The early avant I Royal Geor^ I Early Newington | NiTette

8mall mienonne Royal Kensington Gallande Catherine

Anne I Noblesse I Early purple CbanceUor I Late Newington.

4490. The peaches in the Dalkeith garden, and which ripen in the order in which they
are placed are as follows ; those marked (H.) being planted against hot- walls :

(IT.) Earlv nutmeg 1 (IF.) Grimwood's Royal Ge>irge I (H.) Bellegard I j IT.) Smith's early NewingtoB
IJV.) Early Anne (W.) Noblesse (M.) Montaubon (H.) Chancellor

(H'.j Red Magdalen (if.) Gallande I (H.) Millet's mignonne H IT.) ^Vhite Magdalen

(W.) Royal George I I I

The best varieties for forcing, according to Oldacre, are, the violet, native, mignonne,
and Marlborough.

4491. Propagating to procure new sorts. The peach is raised from the stone ; and this
mode is pursued in America, even for procuring trees for common purposes. In Mary-
land and Virginia, Neill observes, " peach-trees are propagated from the stones without
budding. Every peach-orchard contains of course numerous varieties. Among these,
a few are always of superior quality; with the rest of the fruit pigs are fed." The
peaches (Nos. 38, 39.) in the table, mentioned as produced by Knight, were thus
originated : the parent trees were dwarfs planted in large pots ; these being brought into
a state of vigorous health, the pistils of the blossom of one sort were impregnated with
the pollen of another ; only three peaches were suffered to remain on each tree ; and
from sowing the stones of these, the Acton scott, and spring grove, and other varieties,
were produced : the male parent of the latter was the large French mignonne ; and the
female, the little red nutmeg ; which choice is consistent with the general principle, that
the most perfect and vigorous offspring will be obtained of plants, as of animals, when
the male and female parent are not closely related to each other. (Neill.)

4492. Knight has some excellent observations on this subject in various papers published in the
Hart. Trans. ; but especially in Observations on the Method of producing new and early Fruits, and
on some Varieties of the Peach, (vol. i.) In the latter paper he thus concludes, " I entertain little
doubt that tlie peach-tree might, in successive generations, be so far hardened and naturalised to the
climate of England and Ireland, as to succeed well as a standard in favorable situations. The peach does
not, like many other species of fruit, much exercise the patience of the gardener, who raises it from the
seed ; for it may always be made to bear when three years old. I will not venture to decide whether it
might not possibly produce fruit even at the end of a single year. In prosecuting such experiments, I
would recommend the seedling peach-trees to be retained in pots, and buds from them only to be inserted
in older trees ; for their rapid and luxuriant growth is extremely troublesome on the wall, and pruning is
death to them." He afterwards succeeded in producing blossom-buds the first year : the means used were,
leaving on the laterals near the extremities of the shoots, and exposing the leaves as much as possible to
the sun, in order to promote the growth, and ripening of the w^ood.

4493. Miller says, the best sorts for sowing, are those whose flesh is firm and cleaves to the stone ; and
from amongst those, you should choose such as ripen pretty early, and have a rich vinous juice. These
stones should be planted in autumn, on a bed of light dry earth, about three inches deep and four inches
asunder ; and in the winter the beds should be covered to protect them from the frost, which, if permitted
to enter deep into the ground, wiU destroy them. After remaining two years in this bed, they may be
transplanted into nursery rows, three feet asunder, and one foot distant, plant from plant, in the rows ;
mulching the surface, and watering during summer in very dry weather. After being two years in this
nursery, transplant them where they are to remain to produce fruit. Plant them as standards till you see
their fruit ; cut off bruised roots, but give their tops no other pruning than cutting out decayed or very
irregular branches.

4iy4'. Propagation to perpetuate varieties. The peach is generally budded on damask plum-stocks, and
some of the more delicate sorts on apricot-stocks, or old apricot-trees cut down, or on seedling peaches,
almonds, or nectarines. Knight recommends growing almond-stocks for the finer kinds of nectarines, and
apricots, as likely to prevent the mildew, and as being allied to the peach. He says, " almond-stocks
should be raised' and retained in the nursery in pots, as they do not transplant well." Dubreuil, already
mentioned (4387. 4411.), recommends a plum-stock for a clayey soil, and the almond for such as are light,
chalky, or sandy. The same opinion is held by the Montreuif gardeners. " Perform the budding in July
or August, in the side of the stock, one bud in each, inserted near the bottom, for principal wall-trees ;
and at the height of three, four, or five feet, for riders. The bud will shoot the following spring, and
attain the length of three or four feet in the summer's growth. After the budded trees have ripenwi the
first year's shoot, they may either be planted where they are to remain, or be trained in the nursery for
two, three, or four years, till in a bearing state. Whether the plants be removed into the garden at a
year old, or remain longer in the nursery, the first shoots from the budding must be headed down, either
early in June the same year, to gain a season, or in the March following, to four, five, or six eyes, to produce
lateral shoots, with one upright leader, to begin the formation of the head in a fan-like expansion :
the second year's shoots should also be shortened to a few eyes at the return of June or March ; and
those also of the third year in such degrees as may seem expedient." At Montreuil, almond-stocks are
used because the soil is dry; but Mozard prefers plum-stocks where the soil is strong and black. {Hort.
Tour, &c. 429.) The Flemish nurserymen graft both the peach and nectarine on the Mirabelle plum-
a very small cherry-sliaped fruit.

4495. Soil. A good soil for peach-trees, according to Abercrombie, " is composed of three parts mellow
unexhausted loam, and one part drift sand, moderately enriched with vegetable mould, or the cooler
dungs. If the soil be lean and poor, and at the same time light, have the borders improved with decom-
posed dung and fertile mellow earth (new top-spit loam, if attainable) ; if the ground be strong and heavy,
add some light earth or dung ; if very gravelly, remove the grossest part, excavating to a proper depth ;
and in the same proportion apply a compost as above. Let the soil lie made good to the depth of thirty
inches or three feet. The nectarine wants the warmer, richer, and deeper soil, if any difference be made.
Bad cold ground, or an exhausted mould, is often the cause of the trees gumming." Forsyth says'
" Peaches require a lighter soil than pears and plums, and a light mellow loam is best"

4496. Choice of plants. Abercrombie, Forsyth, Nicol, and most authors, agree in recommending the
choice of trees, two, three, or four years trained. Forsyth says, «♦ they should be procured in the latter
end of October, or beginning of November, as soon as the leaf begins to fall."

4497. Final planting. The peach is almost universally planted against walls in Britain ; in some few
warm situations they have been tried as dwarf standards, and Knight {Hort. Trans, rol iL p. 219.) " thinki

716

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

they may be grown m some cases as low as espaliers, covering with mats in spring to protect the blossom
In a very warm season there can be no doubt the fruit of the hardier sorts so grown, would be higherl
colored and of superior flavor, and the trees would be less subject to the red spider. Early autumn plant-
ing IS best on a dry soil. Spring planting may be successfully performed in February and March ; the
sooner, so as the weather be favorable, the better j that the trees may take root immediately before the
dry warm season commences."

4498. Mode of bearing. " All the varieties of the peach and nectarine bear the fruit
upon the young wood of a year old ; the blossom-buds rising immediately from the eyes
of the shoots. The same shoot seldom bears after the first year, except on some casual
small spurs on the two years' wood, which is not to be counted upon. Hence, the trees
are to be pruned as bearing entirely on the shoots of the preceding year ; and a full
supply of every year's shoots must be trained in for successional bearers the following
season." {Abercrombk.) Du Petit Thouars denies the propriety of the distinction
usually made of wood-buds and flower-l)uds in the peach-tree and stalks, and that each
leaf produces a bud at its base, which soon becomes triple, the two outer proving flower-
buds, and the middle one a leaf or wood bud.

4499. The summer pruning, " in May and June, and occasionally in the succeeding months, is to regu-
late the shoots of the same year, and to prevent improper growths by disbudding. Pinch ofiF fore-right
buds or shoots ; and pinch oft" or cut out ill placed, very weakly, spongy, and deformed shoots, and
very strong luxuriant growths ; retaining a plentiful supply of good lateral shoots in all parts of the tree :
and leaving a leader to each branch. Let them mostly be trained in at full length all summer, about
three inches asunder, for next year's bearers ; and divest them of any lateral twigs, to prevent a thicket-
like intricacy, and to promote a healthy fruitful growth in the shoots themselves. In the course of the
summer regulation, if any partial vacancy occurs, or should a young tree under training want an addi-
tional supply of wood, shorten some convenient-placed strong shoot in June to a few eyes, to furnish a
supply of laterals the same season."

4500. The winter pruning " may be performed at the fall of the leaf, and thence, according to some
professional writers, at any time in mild weather until spring. It should be completed in February, or
early in March, before the blossom-buds are considerably advanced, which are distinguishable by being
round, plump, and prominent, while the leaf and shoot buds are oblong and narrow. There is some ad-
vantage in pruning when the blossom-buds can be certainly known. Retain, in all parts of the tree, a
competent supply of such regular-grown shoots of last year as are apparently fruitful in blossom-buds.
Most part of these should be shortened, not indiscriminately, but according to their strength and situation ;
the very strong shoots should be left longest, being topped about one fourth, or one third ; shoots of
middling vigor reduce one third or one half; and prune the very weak to two or three buds. Always cut
at a shoot-bud, to advance for a leader : sometimes a shoot-bud lies between a twin blossom-bud : cut half
an inch above the bud. As many new shoots as will lay from three to six inches asunder may be deemed
a competent supply for next year's bearers. Cut out quite close the redundant, irregular, and other
improper shoots : remove or reduce some part of the former bearers of the two preceding years, cutting
the most naked quite away, and others down to the most eligible younger branch or well placed shoot.
Also take out all diseased and dead wood : retaining young, where necessary, to fill a vacuity."

4501. A mode of pruning adapted to cold and late situations is recommended by Knight as calculated to
obtain fruit-bearing spurs on the peach, and these spurs he finds best calculated in such situations
and late seasons, to generate well organised and vigorous blossoms. " Instead of taking off* so large a
portion of the young shoots, and training in a few only to a considerable length, as is usually done, and
as I should myself do to a great extent, in the vicinity of London, and in every favorable situation, I pre-
serve a large number of the young shoots, which are emitted in a proper direction in early spring by the
yearling wood, shortening each where necessary, by pinching off' the minute succulent points, generally to
the length of one or two inches. Spurs which lie close to the wall are thus made, upon which numerous
blossom-buds form very early in the ensuing summer ; and upon such, after the last most unfavorable sea-
son, and in a situation so high and cold that the peach-tree, in the most favorable seasons, had usually

Produced only a few feeble blossoms ; I observed as strong and vigorous blossoms in the present spring, as
have usually seen in the best seasons and situations; and I am quite confident that if the peach-
trees, in the gardens round the metropolis had been pruned in the manner above described, in the last
season, an abundant and vigorous blossom would have appeared in the present spring. I do not, however,
mean to recommend to the gardener to trust wholly, in any situation, for his crop of fruit to the spurs
produced by the above-mentioned mode of pruning and training the peach-tree. In every warm and fa-
vorable situation, I would advise him to train the larger part of his young wood, according to the ordinary
method, and in cold and late situations only, to adopt, to a great extent, the mode of management above
suggested. A mixture of both modes, in every situation, will be generally found to multiply the chances
of success ; and, therefore, neither ought to be exclusively adopted, or wholly rejected in any situation.
The spurs must not be shortened in the winter or spring, till it can be ascertained what parts of them
are provided with leaf-buds."

4502. Harrison, in a very elevated and cold situation, prunes and nails his peach and nectarine trees
in December and January, taking away two thirds of the young shoots ; and in two hand-dressings in
May and July, he leaves the lowest and weakest shoots for a succession in the year following, pinching
off the leading and other shoots. J. S. Wortley, Esq. (Harrison's employer) says, " he can hardly do
his gardener justice in describing his practice ; for he never saw trees so beautifully trained, and upon
such good principles. The chief rule which he follows, is never to allow the shoots that are left for
bearing fruit, to run to any length from the strong wood ; for which reason, when the trees are pruned in
autumn the bearing branches for the next year are shortened, taking care not to leave more fruiting -buds
than he thinks will come to perfection." {Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 14. ; Harrison's Tr. on Fr. Trees, ch. xxv.)

4503. Training. The peach is almost uni-
versally trained in the fan manner, though some
allege that it bears better in rich soils when lead-
ing branches are trained nearly horizontally, and
the bearing shoots trained upwards from those,
thus combining horizontal and upright training.
Hayward suggests the wavy-fan manner {Jig.
490. ), as likely to answer better than the common
mode of fan-training.

4504. Moxard's mode of training peach-trees is as fol-
lows : in the course of the winter he cuts over the young
tree above the graft, leaving four or five buds to produce
as many branches. In July foLowing, he cuts out, close

BookI* peach, 717

to the main stem, aU other branches than those absolutely needed for furnishing the tree. He trains
regularly to the right and left ; but the weaker branches receive less inclination, or are placed more up-
right than the stronger ones, that this more favorable position may give them energy, and bring them to
an equality of vigor with the stronger branches which are laid in horizontally. At the first regular form-
ing or cutting in, about a year and a half after planting, the branches are reduced to two on each side ;
and at the next pruning, one branch is removed on each side, leaving the tree to be formed only of two
principal branches, and those the most equally balanced as to general form and promise. If the first
year's growth do not yield two sufficiently good leading branches, they are sought from the growth of the
second year; the best branch of the former year is now, with this view, trained upright as a stem, and
two leading branches or arms are derived from it in the succeeding season. In subsequent years the
pruning is conducted on similar principles. It is a common rule to leave two secondary arms of
nearly equal strength, and about two feet apart, on each side. In trees managed in the way now described,
the sap seems to be equally distributed ; at least, the trees exhibit, u\Mn the whole, a great equality of
branches, both as to size or strength, and as to furniture of twigs, leaves, and fruit Continued care is
exercised to keep both sides of the tree equally balanced as to vigor. If one principal arm become
stronger than the other, a few robbers are allowed to push for a time on the weak arm, with the View of
drawing an increase of sap to that side of the tree, till the equilibrium be restored : or, the weak arm is
altogether raised a little more towards the vertical, while the stronger is depressed more to the horizontal,
and thus an equality is graduaUy accomplishetl. The lambourdes, or robbers, it may be added, with due
management, frequently afford the healthiest and best wood. They are cut down to a foot and a half,
leaving one or two buds as near as possible to the trunk of the tree ; the resulting shoots are laid in, and
form, good fruit-bearing wood the next season. The annual shoots are left of different lengths, according
to the vigor of the tree, from one foot to three feet There are two kinds of shoots, such as are the
produce both of the early spring and of the summer flow of sap, and such as result from the latter only.
The former are preferred, and are called rameanx ; the latter are distinguished as rainUles. \Nhen the
tree reaches the top of the wall, the cutting in is discontinued, and the pruning extends only to shortening
the leading shoots, or, in some cases, bending them till they be confined about two or three inches below the
coping of the wall. In this way the equable distribution of the sap in the central parts of the tree is pro-
moted. In the regular course of pruning, all branchlets that show fruit-buds only, or are thought to contain
no others, are sacrificed without mercy. This would appear absurd to any one not a horticulturist, but
if such branchlets do exist, their excision is quite prudent ; for wood-buds or shoots are like pumps, to
draw sap towards the branchlets ; and if they be wanting, the blossom on the twig commonly fails to set ;
or if the fruit form, it soon falls off, or at all'events, is deficient in size and flavor. From four to eight
flower-buds are left on each twig, according to its strength, and a wood-bud at the extremity, when it can
be there had, or between two flower-buds near the extremity. When this wood-bud expands into a shoot,
the shoot is shortened to an inch or so in length, and this remains as the pump for drawing sap to the four
or eight fruit-buds of the twig. Other wood-shoots, as they are called, which may appear below the
fruit-buds, or nearer to the main branches, are cut down to one or two eyes. Mozard likewise resorts to
disbudding, although little or no notice is taken of that practice in his work. {Hort. Tour, 452.)

4505. Sieulle, gardener at Vauz Praslin, adopts, for the first two years, a different mode of training
and pruning from that of Mozard. The distinguishing characteristics of Sieulle's method are applicable
only to very young peach-trees, in their first and second years. In the first year he does not at all cut or
shorten the two original or principal branches, called the 7nere branches. The young tree has only to be
fixed to the wall or treUis, requiring no other treatment till the fall of the leaf By leaving these mere
branches at full length, and only disbudding late in the autumn, the vigor of the young tree is greatly
promoted. He trains these principal branches to a much wider angle than the Montreuil gardeners, per-
haps &H° or 65° instead of 45°. At the approach of winter he practises rebourgeonnement a sec, leaving
only four buds on each branch, and removing the rest neatly with a sharp knife. At Montreuil the mere
branches are cut in or shortened hi the first year, and disbudding is delayed till the leaves be developed in
the following year. By disbudding at this season the young tree not only suffers an unnecessary check or
injury, but the consequence is that the buds left, instead of forming good shoots, develope themselves into
numerous brindilles. Late in the autumn of the second year, SieuUe cuts in, to the extent of one third,
the four lateral branches produced on each of his tnere branches. In the following year, he disbuds the
lateral branches to the extent of one half; and in the future management he practises winter disbudding
greatly in place of pruning, a practice long ago strongly recommended by Nicol in his horticultural writ-
ings. By Sieulle's method, Du Petit Thouars remarks, the young tree is more quickly brought to fill
its place on the espalier ; it is afterwards much more easily kept in regular order : many poorer flower-
buds are allowed to unfold themselves, but the necessity of thinning the fruit is thus in a great measure
superseded, and the peaches produced are larger and finer. {Hort. Tour, 479.)

4506. Thinning the fruit. " In favorable seasons, the blossoms often set more fruit
than they can support, or than have room to attain full growth ; and if all were to remain,
it would hurt the trees in their future bearing : therefore they should be timely thinned,
when of the size of large peas or half-grown gooseberries. There should be a preparatory
thinning before the time of stoning, and a final thinning afterwards, because most plants,
especially such as have overborne themselves, drop many fruit at that crisis. Finish the
thinning with great regularity, leaving those retained at proper distances, three, four, or
five, on strong shoots, two or three on middling, and one or two on the weaker shoots ;
and never leaving more than one peach at the same eye. The fruit on weakly trees,
thin more in proportion." {Jbercrombie.)

4507. Renovating old decai/ing trees. Head down, and renew the soil from an old up-
land pasture, and if the bottom of the border is moist, or if the roots have gone more than
two feet, or two and a half feet downwards, pave the bottom, or otherwise render it
dry and impervious to roots at the depth of twenty inches, or two feet from the surface.
This plan will be found almost universally successful in restoring ^sufficient vigor, to
resist insects and diseases, and produce abundance of fruit.

4508. Protecting blossom. This may require to be done by some of the various modes
already enumerated. (2206. to 2218.) Forsytli recommends old netting as the best
covering.

4509. Harrison protects his trees from the frost, in the month of January, by branches of broom • these
are previously steeped in soap-suds, mixed with one-third of urine, for forty-eight hours, in order to clear
them from insects, and when dry, disposed thinly over the whole tree, letting them remain on only untQ
the trees begin to break into leaf At the time of the blooming and setting of the fruit he applies cold
water in the following manner : viz. If upon visiting the trees, before the sun is up, in the morning af
ter a frosty night, he finds that there is any appearance of frost in the bloom or vouno fruit he waters
the bloom or young fruit thoroughly with cold water, from the garden-engine ; and he affirms, that even

«« PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

if the blossoms or young fruit are discolored, this operation recovers thern, provided it be done before the
8un comes upon tiiem. He farther says, that he has sometimes had occasion to water particular parts of
the trees more than once m the same morning, before he could get entirely rid of the effects of the frost
Dr. >ioehdcn remarks {Hort. Trans, ii.) " that this operation of watering before sunrise, in counteract-
ing the frost, seems to produce its effect in a manner analogous to the apjjlication of cold water to a frozen
jomt or limb, which is injured by the sudden application of warmth." Harrison discovered this method
by the following accident : " In planting some cabbage-i)lants, among the rows of some kidneybeans,
very early m the morning, after a frosty night, in spring, before tiie sun was high enough to come upon
the frosted beans, he spilt some of the water upon them which he used in planting the cabbage-plants ;
and to his surprise, he found that the beans began immediately to recover."

4510. Ripening peaches on leafless branches. Whenever the part of the bearing branch,
•which extends beyond the fruit, is without foliage, the fruit itself rarely acquires matu-
rity, and never its proper flavor and excellence. Tliis Knight conjectured to be owing
to the want of the returning sap which would have been furnished by the leaves ; and he
proved it experimentally, by inarching a small branch immediately above the fruit. The
fruit, in consequence, acquired the highest degree of maturity and perfection. (Hort.
Trans, ii. 25.)

4511. Insects, diseases, &c. The leaves of the peach-tree are x / 491
very liable to the attacks of the acarus, its greatest enemy, and also
to be devoured by the Chermes (Jig. 4^Jl. a), Ajyhis (fig. 491.
b), and even a much smaller insect, the Thrips (fig. 492.),

4Q2 which, in its natural size (c) is hardly perceptible with the naked eye.
These are to be kept under by the usual means of watering over the leaves,
and fumigation with tobacco-smoke. The honey-dew, mildew, gum, and
canker, are chiefly to be kept under by regimen : dusting with sulphur has
been found to destroy the mildew (Rubertson, in Hort. Trans, v. 184.}, but

the only certain way of removing it is by a renewal of the soil, which will commonly be

found old mould long in use and too rich ; and by abundance of air. J. Kirk. (Caled.

Hort. Mem. iv. 159.) has tried renewing the soil for fifty years, and always found it an

effectual remedy.

4512. Black spots or blotches are very apt to appear and spread on the young wood of the peach-tree,
and these Kinment proved to be produced by over-rich soil. He says, " Some time in the beginning of
winter, 1811, I collected together a rich compost-heap (No. 1.), consisting of one third light loam, one
sixth strong clay, one twelfth lime, one sixth hot-bed dung, one sixth vegetable mould, and one twelfth

Eigeon-dung. At the same time, I collected another heap (No. 2.), much less rich, consisting of one
alf light loam, one fourth strong clay, one eighth earth from scourings of ditches, one sixteenth lime,
and one sixteenth hot-bed dung. These heaps I turned over occasionally, in order that they might be
well meliorated by the frosts. About the middle of March, 1812, I planted the trees, and applied to the
roots of a few of them the rich compost of No. 1. ; but the greatest number of them were planted with the
compost No. 2. About the latter end of June, I examined the young trees all over : the shoots that
they had made were nearly all of the same size; but I was no way disappointed when I found those I
had planted with the rich mould, sadly infested with black spots; while those planted with No. 2. re-
mained whole and sound. There being only the few which were planted with No. 1. infested with the
black spots. With my knife I cut the blemishes entirely out ; and about the latter end of September I
found the wounds completely whole. Early in the spring, 1813, I cleared off" the rich mould entirely
from their roots, and supplied the vacancy with No. 2. ; and at the end of last season I had the happiness
to sec them succeed to the utmost of my wishes, free of black spots." {Caled. Hort. Mem. ii. 79, 80.)

4513. Tlie ivasp {Fespa vulgaris), the large fly {Musca vo?nitoria), the ant {Forj7iica vulgaris), and
especially the earwig {Forjicula auriculat-ia), are enemies to the ripe peach. The three first may be ex-
cluded by nets, or enticed by honied bottles, and the last caught by the beetle-trap, reeds, or bean-stalks,
laid in behind the leaves, and examined every morning.

4514. T/ie Montreuil peach-growers water to wash off" the aphides ; pick off" wrinkled, blotched, and
mildewed leaves, and cut out canker and gum, and cover the wound with ongucnt de St. Fiacre, i. e. cow-
dung and loam, " much in the same way," Neill observes, " as is practised in Scotland."

451.5. Gathering. Use the peach-gatherer, and gather one day or two before the fruit is to be used, and
before it be dead-ripe, laying it on clean paper in a dry airy part of the fruit-room. See Chap. IV. Sec. III.
and Chap. V. Sect. X.

4516. Forcing, and the use of hot-walls. The peach-tree forces well under glass, (See Chap. VII. Sect.
III.) and its ripening may be accelerated in the open air, when planted against a hot-wall, by the application
of gentle fires in cold moist weather, in August and September. This will ripen the fruit and wood, but
attempts to accelerate the l^ossoms early in spring are very dangerous, as without the protection of glass
they are almost certain of being cut off".

SuBSECT. 2. Nectarine. — Amijgdalus Fersica, \ax. Nectarina, la. Peche lisse, Tr.

4517. The nectarine is distinguished from the peach by its smooth and rather firmer
and more plump fruit. In other respects the general description of the peach equally
applies to the nectarine, both, as before observed, being by the continental gardeners
considered as one fruit. Forsyth says, " The fruit is called nectarine from nectar, the
;;oe/iVaMrink of the gods." Some botanists, considering it as a distinct species, dis-
tinguish it by the trivial name of nuci-persica, from the similitude of the green fruit in
smoothness, color, size, and form to the walnut (mix) covered with its outer green shell.

4518. The varieties are enumerated in the following table : —

Free Stones arranged in the order of their ripening.

first cultivated at Hoxton, by
Gurle, in 1680 ; {Hook. P. L. & For. 3.)
medium size; dark-retl and )>ale-yel-
low color ; ripens about the middle of
August ; and is soft and melting
Temple's (I^n/f. P. t. M. and For. 8.);
medium size; )>ale-red and yellowish
color; ri|)ens in the middle of Sep-

tember; flavor rich and juicy 1 end of August

Fairchild's early (For. 1.); small size;
round figure ; beautiful red color ;
rii>ens in the middle of August;
flavor good

Peterborouuh, Late Green, Vermash
(For. 10.)

Scarlet {For. 4.) ; small size ; fine scar-
let and )iale-red color; rijiens in the

Violet, Violet HaUve {Hook. P. t. 1.5.

For. 11); metlium size; puri'le and

i)ale color ; vinous flavor
Ulurry {For. /•); medium size; dingy

red and pale green ; ripens in tlie

middle of September
White, Flanders (HooA". P. t. .'^0. For.

II. .08.) ; rijiens in the bcgimiing of

September.

EOOK I.

APRICOT.

71©

Clingstones arranged in the order qf their ripening.

Late Newington {Lang.P.t.99.For.2.)

red and
middle of Septa
juice
Bru^on, Italian

npens

in the

{Lang
For. 5.); deep-red and

color; ripens the b^inning
teraber; rich flavor

excellent rich

P. t. 29.

)ale-velloiir

' Sep-

Red Roman, Brugnon Musqu^ [Duh.

rugnon j
,); large

and yellow color ; ripens in Septem-
ber ; replete with rich juice
(olden [Lang, p.t.^- For. 9-) ;medi\im
size ; soft nd and yellow color ; ripens
in the banning oir October; poignant
rich flavor

Early Pavle (For. 57.)

Late Genoa [For. 57)

Early Newington {For. 57.); above
medium size; ripens the end of Au-
gust ; deep-red color ; pulp super-ex-
cellent; and, according to Miller, one
of the best flavored of nectarines, or of
any known fruit in the world

Roger's seedling. (For. 77.)

4519. Selection of sorts. Forsyth recommends for a small garden —

FairchUd's early | Elruge i Scarlet | Newington 1 Red Roman 1 Temple's.

4520. Those in the DalkeUh garden are as follows; such as are marked (If.) being
planted against a hot-wall : —

(ff.) Red Roman 1 (H.) Elruge I W Temple | Fai^^M's I (»•) Clermont

(H.) Dutilly's I (H.) Brugnon | (H.) Murry 1 (H.) Scarlet |

4521. Insects. " On account of the smoothness of the skin of the nectarine," For-
sytli says, " it suffers much more from the wood-louse ( Oniscus asellus), ear- wigs, &c.
than the peach ; it will, therefore, be necessary to hang up a greater number of bundles
of bean-stalks about these tlian about any other fruit-trees. Wasps are also very destruc-
tive to nectarines, and the trees are very liable to be infested with the red spider."

Culture, &c. Tliis is in all respects the same as the peach.

SuBSECT. 3. Airricol. — Prunus ArmeJiiaca, L. ; Armeniaca Vulgaris, P. S. [Lanu III.
t. 431.) Icos. Di-Penlag. Li. and Rosacecu, J. Malus Armeniaca of the Ancients.
Ahricot, Fr. ; Ahricosenbaum, Ger. ; and Albicocco, Ital.

4522. Tlw ajrricot is a low tree, of rather crooked growth, with broad roundish-
pointed leaves, glandular, serrated, and the petiole commonly tinged with red. Linnaeus
remarks, that the vemant leaves are convoluted, that is, not folded flat together, like
those of the cherry, but roiling upwards, more or less. The leaves of many apricot-trees
have a disposition to tliis at all times. The flowers are sessile, of a white color, tinged
with dusky-red ; fruit round, yellow witliin and without, firmer than plums and most
peaches, enclosing a smooth compressed stone, like that of the plum. The flowers ap-
pear in April, on the shoots of the preceding year, and on spurs of two or more years'
growth, and the fruit ripens in September. From its trivial name, it is generally sup-
posed to have originated in Armenia, but Regnier and Sickler assign it a parallel be-
tween the Niger and the Atlas ; and Pallas states it to be a native of the whole of the
Caucasus, the mountains there, to the top, being covered with it. Thunberg describes
it as a very large, spreading, branchy tree in Japan. Grossier says that it covers the bar-
ren mountains to the west of Pekin, that the Chinese have a great many varieties of the
tree, double-blossomed, which they plant on little mounts for ornament, and dwarfs in
pots for their apartments. It appears from Turner's Herbal, that the apricot was culti-
vated here in 1562 ; and in Hakluyt's Remembrancer, 1582, it is affirmed, that the apricot
was procured out of Italy by Wolfe, a French priest, gardener to Henry VIII. The
fruit seems to have been known in Italy in the time of Dioscorides, under the name of
PrcECocia, probably, as Regnier supposes, from the Arabic, Berkoch ; whence the Tuscan,
Bacoclie or Albicocco ; and the English, Ajrricock : or, as Professor Martyn observes,
a tree, when first introduced, might have been called a preecox, or early fruit ; and gar-
deners taking the article a for the first syllable of the word, might easily have corrupted
it to apricocks. The orthography seems to have been finally changed to apricot about the
end of the last century; as Justice, in 1764, writes apricock ; and Kyle, of Moredun
in 1782, apricot.

4523. Use. The fruit is used in a raw state at tlie dessert, and is esteemed next to the
peach ; it is also made into marmalades, jellies, and preserved. Grossier says, that lo-
zenges are made by the Chinese, from the clarified juice, which, dissolved in water, yield
a cool refreshing beverage : oil may be extracted from the nut, and the young shoots
yield a fine golden cinnamon-color to wool.

4524. Varieties. Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates six; Rea, 1720, seven; the Lux-
emburg catalogue, in 1 800, fifteen ; and the British catalogues enumerate about the same
number.

Masculine, Early Red Masculine; an
old varietN-, mentioned by Parkinson
in 1629 {Duh. n. t. 1. & For. 1.) ;
small size ; roundish form ; greenish-
red color ; ripens in the end of July ;
the pulp tender, with a tart tastej
the tree a good bearer, and the fruit
esteemed tor its earliness and tart taste

Orange; mentioned bv Kea in 1702
(Fm-. 2.); large size; deep-yellow
color ; ripens in the end of August ;
the pulp dj-v and insipid; fitter for
tarts than for the table; excellent for
preserving

Algier; mentioned by Rea in 1702

. (Fur. 3.) ; flatted oval form ; straw-

color ; ripens in the middle of August ;

the pulp juicy and high-flavored ; and,

according to Miller, earlier than the

orange
Roman; mentioned by Rea in 1702

{Lang. P. t. 15. and" For. 4.) large

size; round form; deep-yellow color ;

ripens in the middle of August ; the

pulp not very juicy
Turkey; mention^ by Rea in 1702

{Lang. P. t. 15. and For. 5.); large

size; globular form ; very deep yellow

color; ripens in the end of August;

the pulp firm and dry
Breda ; brought from Africa to Br^a,

and thence to England in 1702

{For. 6.) ; large size ; round form ;
deep-yellow color; ripens in the -end
of August; the pulp soft and juicy;
the tree a great bearer ; an excellent
fruit, especially if grown on stand-
ards, to which this sort is particuJarly
adapted
Brussels ; mentioned by Rea as brought
from Brussels in if 02 {Pom. Auti.
t. 57. and For. 7-); medium size;
inclining to an oval form ; red, with
dark spots, and greenisn -yellow color;
ripens in the end ofAuguit; the pulp
not liable to be mealy, or doughy;
brisk flavor ; the tree a great bearer ;
and held in great esteem on account

720

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

of its bearing so well In standards, or
largedwarfe

Moor Park; Anson's, Temple's, Dun-
more's Breda, and Peach Apricot ;
brouglit from the Netherlands by Sir
Thos. More, say in 1700 (Hook.
P. t. 9. and For. 8.) ; ripens in the
end of August ; fine fruit ; according
to Nicol, preferable to all other apri-
cots

Peach Apricot ; Apricot of Nancy ;
' ' ■" Paris by the Duke

" in 1767 (DuA.

ripens in the end of August ; the fruit
is the finest and largest of all the
apricots, and differs from the Moor
Park chiefly in the leaves
Black Peach; introduced by Sir Joseph
Banks in 1800 {Pom. Franc, i. 36.
and For. 10.); black- skinned; rijiens
in the beginning of August ; and of

Anf^umois {Duh. n. 4. t. 3. and For.

i>.5.)
Bfotched-leaved {Pom. Franc, i. 34. and

For. p. 5.)
Breda, Grover's (For. p. 5.)
Great (For. p. 5.)

Holland (Duh. 5. t. 4. and Far. p. 5.)
Orange, Royal
Persian

Portugal {Duh. 6. t. 5. and For. p. 5.)
Provence {Duh. 6. t. 4.)
Transparent
Violet.

Alberge {Pom. Franc, i. 39. and For.
p. 5 ) ; the only variety whose seeds
produce the same fruit as the parent

4525. Choice of sorts. Those grown in the Dalkeith gardens are —

Moor Park [ Breda, early 1 Masculine, early | Brussels, early | Orange, early.

4526. Propagation. New varieties are procured from the seed as in the peach, and approved sorts are
perpetuated by budding, generally on muscle or plum stocks. The Brussels and Breda, when intended
for standards, are budded on the St. Julian plum, which produces a strong clean stem ; but for the rest,
any stock will do, provided it be free and thriving. Knight (Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 19.) recommends bud-
ding the Moor Park on an apricot-stock, which he has found prevents the trees of this sort from becoming
diseased and debilitated, which they generally do on plum-stocks. Budding apricots is generally per-
formed early in the season, from the middle of June to the end of July. For dwarfs, the bud is inserted
six or eight inches from the ground ; and the sorts are sometimes twice budded, or one variety budded on
another, which is said to keep the trees in a more dwarf state. For riders or standards, they are budded
on plum-stocks four or five feet high. Miller prefers half standards, budded about three or four feet from
the ground ; the trees so produced, being less liable to suffer from high winds.

4527. Choice qf ike plants. Abercrombic prefers trees of two or three years' growth from the bud, and
fit for immediate bearing. Forsyth makes choice of those plants which have the strongest and cleanest
stems : and if he can such as have been headed down, of two or three years' growth, as they will bear and
fill the walls much sooner than those which have not been so treated. He says, " make choice of trees
with one stem ; or, if they have two, one of them should be cut off; for by planting those with two stems,
the middle of the tree is left naked, and, of course, one third of the wall remains imcovered."

4528. Season of planting. Abercrombie says, the best season is from the fall of the leaf until February
or March. Forsyth says, the best time is in August, when the leaf begins to fall.

4529. Final planting. The Breda and Brussels are occasionally planted as standards or espaliers in warm
situations ; and in these states, in fine seasons, produce more highly flavored fruit than on walls. The other
varieties are generally planted on walls, which. Miller and Forsyth say, should have an east or west aspect ;
for, if they are planted full south, the great heat causes them to be mealy before they are eatable. The
borders should not be less than six or eight feet wide, and two or two and a half feet deep. The soil a light
rich loam, perfectly dry below. Forsyth says, " the borders may be three feet deep." " Standard apri-
cots," Abercrombie observes, " do not come into bearing under a considerable number of years, some-
times ten or twelve ; but then the fruit, in a congenial situation, is abundant and of the finest flavor. So,
when the prevailing fault of a particular sort is mealiness, and yet it cannot be expected to ripen on even a
dwarf standard, the medium course of training the plant to a trellis almost touching a south wall, will im-
prove the flavor,"

4530. Mode of training. The fan method is very generally adopted with this tree:
Forsyth prefers the horizontal manner, and Harrison also trains horizontally, but " so as
to let the branches have an elevation to their extremities of 20 degrees, varied, however,
according to the luxuriancy or weakness of the tree." With young trees he proceeds to
fill the wall by heading down, twice a year, in the same manner as with the apple and
pear. The result produces a tree (Jig. 493.) not essentially diflferent from Forsyth's
engraving. (Tr. on Fr. Tr. chap, xxiv.)

4531. Mode of bearing. The varieties of the apricot, in general, bear chiefly upon
the young shoots of last year, and casually upon small spurs rising on the two or three

Boor I. ALMOND. 721

year-old fruit-branches. The Moor Park bears chiefly on the last year's shoots, and on
close spurs formed on the two-year-old wood. The bearing shoots emit the blossom-buds
immediately from the eyes along the sides ; and the buds have a round and swelling ap-
pearance.

4532. Pruning ivall.frees. The general culture of the wall-apricots comprehends a summer and winter
course of regulation by pruning and training.

4333. Summer pruning. Begin the summer pruning in May or early in June, and continue it occasion-
ally in Julv, August, &c. This pruning is principally to regulate the young shoots, of the same year.
In the first place, Uke off close all the fore-right shoots, and others that are ill placed or irregular, or too
luxuriant in growth ; taking care to retain a competent supply of choice, well placed, moderately growing
side shoots, with a good leader to each mother branch. Continue these mostly at their full length all
summer, regularly trained in close to the wall, to procure a sufficiency to choose from in the general win-
ter pruning, for new bearers next year. If the summer regulation commence early, while the shoots are
quite young, and, as it were, herbaceous, one, two, three, or four inches long, those improper to reUin may
be detached with the finger and thumb; but when of firmer growth, they must be removed with the
knife. If anv very strong shoot rise in any casually vacant part, it may be topped in June, which will
cause it to produce several laterals the same year of more moderate growth, eligible for training in to sup-
ply the vacancy.

4334. Thinning (he fruit. Sometimes the fruit are much too numerous, often growing in clusters ; in
which case, thin them in May and the beginning of June, in their young green state ; leaving the most
promising fruit singly, at three or four inches' distance, or from about two to six on the respective shoots,
according to their strength. The apricots so thinned off, and the first principal green fruit, are esteemed
very fine for tarU.

4335. Winter pruning. This may be performed either at the fall of the leaf, or in mild intervals
from that time until the beginning of March. When it is deferred until the buds begin to swell, the pro-
mising shoots can be better distinguished. It comprehends a general regulation both of the la.st year's
shoots and the older branches. A general supply of the most regular-placed young shoots must be every
where retained, for successional bearers the ensuing year. Cut out some of the most naked part of the two
last years' bearers, and naked old branches not furnisTied with competent supplies of young wood, or
with fruit-spurs, either to their origin, or to some well directed lateral, as most expedient, to make room
for training a general supply of the new bearers retained ; and cut away all decayed wood and old stumps.
Generally observe, in this pruning, to retain one leading shoot at the end of each branch ; either a natur-
ally placed terminal, or one formed by cutting, where a vacuity is to be furnished, into a proper leader. Let
the shoots retained for bearers be moderately shortened : strong shoots reduce in the least proportion, cut-
ting off one fourth or less of their length ; from weak shoots take away a third, and sometimes half This
shortening will conduce to the production of a competency of lateral shoots the ensuing summer, from the
lower and middle-placed eyes ; whereas, without it, the new shoots would proceed mostly from the top, and
leave the under part of the mother branches naked, and the lower and middle parts of the tree unfurnished
with proper supplies of bearing wood. Never prune below all the blossom-buds, except to provide wood,
in which case cut nearer to the origin of the branch. As, in these trees, small fruit-spurs, an inch or two long,
often appear on some of the two or three years' branches furnished with blossom-buds ; these spurs should
generally be retained for bearing ; but when any project fore-right far from the wall, cut them in accord-
ingly ; for spurs projecting above three inches, though they may set their fruit, seldom ripen it, unless the
season and situation are both favorable. The thick clusters of spurs which are apt to form on aged trees,
ought also to be thinned. As each tree is pruned, nail it, laying in the branches and shoots from three to
six inches' distance, straight and close to the wall.

4336. Pruning espaliers. As directed for wall-trees.

4337. Pruning standards. Half standards will require only occasional pruning to regulate any branches
which are too numerous, too extended, or cross-placed ; and to remove any casually unfruitful parts and
dead wood. At the same time, the regular branches, forming the head of the tree, should not be generally
shortened, but permitted to advance in free growth. {Abercrambie.)

4538. Renovating old decaying trees. Forsyth had the greatest success in this de-
partment of fruit-tree culture, by cutting down to within a foot or eighteen inches, or
more, of the ground, and then renewing the soil of the border. He says " it has been
the general practice to train apricot-trees on walls in the fan form, which occasions the
sap to rise too freely to the top, lea\ang the lower part almost naked ; so that scarcely
one quarter of tlie wall is covered with bearing wood." His remedy for this evil is to
« cut down the whole of the tree, as near to the place where it was budded as possible ;
remembering always to cut it to an eye or joint. If there should be any young shoots
on the lower part of the tree, it will be proper to leave them, training them horizontally,
which will check tlie flow of the sap, and thereby render them much more fruitful."
(Tr. on Fr. Tr. ch. i.) Harrison says, " Apricots are very susceptible of injury from
pruning away any strong branches." Instead of heading down old peach, apricot, or
plum, or even cherry trees, he generally prefers rooting them out and planting young
ones.

4539. Gathering. The fruit is apt to become mealy, if left on the tree tiU overripe : it should be gathered
with the peach-gatherer while moderately firm. e ^ cv*

4540. Insects, diseases, &c As the fruit ripens eariy, it is very liable to be attacked by wasps and laree
flies, which should be kept off by a net, stretched a foot or more apart from the wall or trellis. The other
msects, and the diseases of this tree, are the same as in the peach-tree ; but it is not neariy so obnoxious
to their attacks, probably owing to the comparatively hard nature of its bark and wood, and coriaceous

46*1. "Die apricot does w>t force weU; but a few are sometimes tried in pots, and placed in the peach-
house SeeChap. VII. Sect. III. *^ "ic ^jcatu

SuBSECT. 4. Almond. — Amygdalus, L. Icos. Mo7iog. L. and Rosacece, J. (Plenck.

Ic. t. 385.) Amandier, Fr. j Mandelbaiim, Ger. ; and Mandorlo, Ital.

4542. The common or m-eet almond is the A. communis, L. ; and the bitter almorid is

the A. amara, L. {Blackw. t. 195.) Both will grow to the height of twenty feet with

spreading branches. The leares resemble those of the peach, but the lower serratures are

3 A

722

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

glandular, which has given rise to the conjecture that glandular-leaved peaches have
sprung more immediately from the almond than such as are without glands, as is generally
the case with nectarines. The flowers vary in their color from the fine blush of the apple-
blossom to a snowy whiteness. The chief obvious distinction is in the fruit, which is
flatter, with a coriaceous covering, instead of the rich pulp of the peach and nectarine,
opening spontaneously when the kernel is ripe. It is a native of Barbary, China, and
most eastern countries. The tuberes of Pliny, Knight considers as swollen almonds, and
the same with the amandier ■pecher, or almond-peach, described by Du Hamel : having
raised a similar variety from dusting the stigma of the almond with the pollen of the
peach, which produced a tolerably good fruit. {Hort. Trans, iii. 4.) The almond is men-
tioned by Turner in 1548, and, though scarcely worth cultivating in England as a fruit-
tree for profit, yet it is a very satisfactory tiling to produce almonds of one's own growing
at the dessert. The tree forms an important article in the general culture of many
parts of France, Italy, and Spain. In a forward spring the blossoms often appear in Fe-
bruary, but in this case frost generally destroys them, and they bear little or no fruit ;
whereas, when the trees do not flower till March, they seldom fail to produce fruit in
abundance.

4543. Use. The kernel of the stone is the only part used, which is tender, and of a
fine flavor. The sweet almond and other varieties are brought to the dessert in a green
or imperfectly ripe, and also in a ripe or dried state. They are much used in cookery,
confectionary, perfumery, and medicine. " Sweet almonds used in food," Professor
Martyn observes, " are difficult of digestion ; and afford very little nourishment, unless
extremely well comminuted. As medicine, they blunt acrimonious humors j and some-
times give instant relief in the heartburn."

4544. Varieties and species in cultivation. Miller enumerates three species, Du Harael
seven ; the number of sorts at present grown in the nurseries are as follows : —

Tender, shelled, Sultane (Z>uA- n. 2. and
For. 1.); small size

Sweet, Common Sweet (DiiA. n. 5.
and For. 2.); large size; bitter al-
monds sometimes found on the same
tree

Bitter, Common Bitter (Pom. Franc.
i. 67. and For. 3.) ; large size ; sweet

almonds sometimes found on the
same tree
Sweet Jordan (Amyg. diJctjot Miller)
{Pom. Franc, i. 67. and For. 4.) ; ten-
der shell, and large sweet kernel;
leaves broad, short, and crenate
Hard-shelled (For. 5.)
Dwarf (Duh. n. 8. and For. 6.)

Peach Almond, Amandier Pdcher {Duh.
n. 2. t. 4. and Hort. Tram. S t. 1.) :
produces some fruits ; pulpy and of
tolerable good flavor; and others mere
almonds; some partake of both na-
tures

Pistachio, Amande Pistache {Miller, 4.);
very small size.

' 4545. Selection of sorts. The tender-shelled is in the greatest esteem ; and next, the sweet and Jordan.

4546. Propagation. The almond is propagated, like the peach, by seed, for varieties, or for stocks ; and
by budding on its own or on plum stocks, for continuing varieties. Plum-stocks are preferred for strong
moist soils, and peach or almond stocks for dry situations.

4547. Final planting. It is generally planted as standards in shrubberies, and these will sometimes in
good seasons ripen their fruit ; but when fruit is the object, it should be trained against a west or east wall,
like the peach.

4548. Mode of bearing and pruning. The almond-tree bears chiefly on the young wood of the previous
year, like the apricot and peach ; and in part upOn small spurs on the two-year-old, three-year-old, and
elder branches: it is therefore pruned like these trees.

4549. Gathering and preserving the crop. A part may be gathered when nearly ripe daily for some weeks
before gathering the whole crop. This operation generally falls to be performed in September, when a part
may be laid in the fruit- room, and a part thoroughly dried and bedded in sand in the fruit-cellar, for
keeping through the winter.

SuBSECT. 5. Plum. — Prunus domestica, L. {Eng. Bat. 1783.) Icos. JDi-Pentag. L.
and RosacecB, J. Prune, Fr. ; PJlaumenbaum, Ger, ; and Prugno, Ital.

4550. The j)lum-tree rises fifteen feet in height, branching into a moderately spreading
head ; the leaves are ovate, serrated, and on short petioles. Petals white, drupe an oblong
spheroid, shell long, ovate, and compressed. The natural color of the plum is generally
considered to be black ; but the varieties in cultivation are of yellow, red, blue, and green
colors, and of different forms and flavors. It is a native, or naturalised in Britain, being
frequently found in hedges ; but its original country is supposed to be Asia, in Europe :
and, according to Pliny, it was brought from Syria into Greece ; and thence into Italy.

4551. Use. The best varieties are esteemed a delicious dessert fruit ; and the others
are used in pies, tarts, conserves, and sweetmeats. A wholesome wine is also occasionally
made from them, with or without other fruits and ingredients. " Plums," Professor
Martyn observes, " when sufficiently ripe, and taken in moderate quantity, are not un-
wholesome ; but in an immature state, they are more liable to produce colicky pains,
diarrhoea, or cholera, than any other fruit of this class. Considered medicinally, they are
emollient, cooling, and laxative, especially the French prunes, which are peculiarly useful
in costive habits. The wood of the plum is used in turnery, cabinet work, and in making
musical instruments."

4552. Varieties. Tusser enumerates ten ; Parkinson, sixty ; Miller, only thirty sorts.
In the Luxemburg catalogue are sixty-eight ; nearly a hundred names are to be found
in the catalogues of our nurserymen, of which those in the following table are deemed
the best.

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724 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4554. Selection of sorts. The following are recommended by Forsyth for a small
garden : —

Jaune Mtive I Royal I Saint Catherine and impera- 1 Magnum bonum ; for baltine

Karly dainaik Green gage (different soru) trice Winesour ; for preserving.

Orleaiw iDrapd'or | I

4555. The table fruit in the Dalkeith garden are as under, placed in tlie order of their
ripening, all of them being planted against walls : —

Violet hative I Earlj Morocco I Blue perdigron I 'White magnum bonum

Early hative (jreen ^age Apricot plum Imperial.

New Orleans | Blue gage | Fotheringham |

4556. Propagation. Most of the varieties are propagated by grafting or budding on tlie muscle, St. Julian,
bonum magnum, or any free-growing plums, raised from seed, or from suckers ; but seedlings are prefer-
able stocks for a permanent plantation. The common baking plums, as the damson, buUace, wentworth,
&c. are generally propagated by suckers, without being either budded or grafted. Plum-grafting is per-
formed in July or March ; budding in July or August. Miller prefers budding, because plums are very
apt to gum wherever large wounds are made on them. Themyrobalan,a small j)lum shaped like a cherry,
and resembling a May-duke when half ripe, is planted to form hedges about Ghent, and used by the Flemish
nurserymen, as stocks for both nectarines and peaches. (Neil/, in Hort. Tour.)

4557. ^ew varieties are procured by propagating from seeds on the general principles already stated. Knight
{Hart. Trans, iii. 214.), in an attempt to combine the bulk of the yellow magnum bonum with the richness
and flavor of the green gage, produced a frui^ which partook of both parents, but which has not yet been
given to the public ; but a good variety of the'Crleans plum. (Hort. Trans, iii. 392.)

4558. Soil. Plums, according to Miller, should have a middling soil, neither too wet and heavy, nor
over light and dry, in either of which extremes they seldom do well. Abercrombie recommends any mel-
low fertile garden or orchard ground ; and where a soil is to be made, *' one half fresh loam, one fourth
eharj) sand, one sixth road-stuff, and one twelfth vegetable remains, or decomposed dung or animal
matter."

4559. Site. The plum is cultivated like other indigenous fruit-trees : the hardier sorts, as standards ;
and the finer varieties against walls. It is sometimes forced ; but the blossom, like that of the cherry, is
difficult to set, and on the whole, it is a fruit not well adapted for forcing. The finer varieties are almo.st
always plaoted against walls, which. Miller says, should have an eaiit or south-east aspect, which is more
kindly to these fruits than a full south asi)ect, on which they are subject to shrivel and be very dry; and
many sorts will be extremely mealy, if exposed too much to the heat of the sun ; but most sorts will
ripen extremely well on espaliers, if right'y managed. Some, he adds, plant plums for standards, in which
method some of the ordinary sorts wil! oc'ar very well ; but then the fruit will not be near so fair as those
produced on espaliers, and will be more in danger of being bruised or blown down by strong winds.
Abercrombie says, " have some choice sorts against south walls for earlier and superior fruit ; others on
east and west walls, and espaliers, to ripen in succession, with full and half standards in the orchard."

4560. Choice of plants. Miller recommends trees of not more than one year's growth from the bud ; for
if they are older, they are very sulyect.to canker; or if they take well to the ground, commonly produce
only two or three luxuriant branches. Abercrombie and Nicol take plants from one to five years old.
Forsyth chooses " clean straight plants with single stems, and of two or three years' growth."

4561. Final planting. Miller says, it is common to see plum trees planted at the distance of fourteen or
sixteen feet, so that uie walls are in a few years covered with branches ; and then all the shoots are cut
and mangled with the knife so as to appear like a stumped hedge, and produce little fruit; therefore the
only way to have plum-trees in good order, is to give them room, and extend their branches at full length.
Abercrombie directs full and half standards to be planted at forty, thirty, twenty-five, and twenty feet
distance ; dwarfs generally twenty feet apart, and wall-trees or espaliers fifteen, twenty, or twenty-five feet
ft-om stem to stem. Forsyth says, plums and cherries thrive best by themselves ; and he prefers a wall for
each, placing plums on walls ten feet high, eight yards apart j and at seven yards' distance on twelve-feet
walls.

4562. Mode of bearing. " All the sorts produce their fruit on small natural spurs,
rising at the ends and along the sides of the bearing shoots of one, two, or three years'
growth. In most sorts, new fruit-branches are two years old before the spurs bear. The
same branches and spurs continue fruitful in proportion to the time which they take to
come into bearing."

456.3. Mode of training. Forsyth and Harrison decidedly prefer the horizontal man-
ner, and both head down the leading upright shoot twice in a year. Forsyth says, " if
the leading shoot be very strong, you may top it twice in the summer, as directed for
pears, and at the same time that you top them (spring or winter pruning, and June) ; re-
peating the same every year till the wall is filled to the top." ( 2V. on Fr. Tr. ch. ii. )

456'i Pruning After the formation of the head is begun, it takes from two to six years before the dif-
ferent sorts come into bearing. Miller trains horizontally, and is against shortening the branches of
Dlura-trees since the more these trees are pruned, the more luxuriant they grow, until the strength of
them is exhausted, and then they gum and spoil ; therefore the safest method to manage these trees is to
lav in their shoots horizontally, as they are produced at equal distances, in proportion to the length of their
leaves pinching oft'the poipts of young shoots where lateral branches are desired, and displacing fore-right
and irrlgular shoots, or such as shade the fruit. With this carefully going over these trees in the growmg
season, there will be but little work to do to them in the winter. o. ^ .. v. ^ k

45a5 Abercrombie agrees with Miller in not shortening fruitful branches. Standards, he says, inust be
allowed to " expand in free growth, occasionally pruning long ramblers, and cross-nlaced or other irregu-
lar branches. Thin crowded parts, cut away worn out bearers, also decay^ and cankery wood.

4566 SvW says, « Never cut the stems of young plum-trees when first planted, but leave them till
thebuds begin to break ; then you may head them down to five or more eyes, always observing to leave
an (Sd one for the leading shoot: remember to cut sloping towards the wall, and as near to an eye as
nLXe thus managed, the shoots will soon fill the wall with fine wood. If you find that some of the
KtsareToluSnt,vou may pinch the tops off with your finger and thumb, abo"t the beginning of
Ju^e, in the first year after planting ; by doing which you will obtain plenty of wood to fiU the bottom of
the wall A great deal depends on the first and second year's management of your trees.

4567. Renovating decaying trees. Proceed as directed for the peach ; but observe that
the plum-tree, when cut down, is very apt to run to wood, therefore the new soil must
neither be very rich, nor laid on in a very deep stratum. _

4568. Protecting blossom. This is sometimes done with the tenderer sorts, m the same
way as for peaches and apricots.

Book I. CHERRV. 725

4569. TaHng the crop. The different sorts of the plum ripen in succession for about
three months in summer and autumn. Some early sorts begin to ripen in July ; the
main varieties reach full maturity in August and September ; late sorts continue ripen-
ing till the end of October or beginning of November. Each kmd should be brought to
table presently after being gathered, as they will not keep long in a natural state.

4570 Forcing the plum. Plums raav be forced in pots, or otherwise, like other fnoit trees. Grange and,
Aiton.' have forcedthem both wavs : the latter thus describes his practice. «' The sorts generally
preferred for forcing are the following, Pr^cocedc Tours, green gage, blue gage, white perdrigon,Orleani,
?few Orleans, and Morocco. Some others liave been tried, as La Koyale, simiennes and blueperdngon, but
are found objectionable, the two first producing fruit void of flavor, and the latter has a tendency to

"%ll"wh^^anearlu crop is desired, plums are best forced- in large pots or tubs, as this method ad-
mits of their removal at pleasure into different degrees of temperature, as occasion may require ; but for a
general crop to ripen by the end of May, or beginning of June, it is preferable to have the trees planted in
the forcing-house, and if thev are intende<l to be forced in the first year, proper trees for the purpose fur-
nished with well branching'wood, should be selected and planted eariy in the autumn, that they may
establish themselves before the winter sets in. The soil to be preferred is a moderately nch loam, without
mixture of manure. . , . , . , - t

4572 For a crop to ripen in the second tveek in May, the house must be covered m early in January
commencing with a temperature of 42° of Fahrenheit, for the first fortnight, after which the heat may be
gradually raised to 52'^, at which it may continue until the flowers make their appearance ; during this time
frequent changes of air must be admitted, to strengthen the bloom, and the crop will be rendered more
certain bv keeping the trees in blossom as long as possible, by light shading, where necessary ; and when the
petals begin to fall, gentle dews may be raised from the surface of the mould. As the fruit forms, the
thermometer should be raised to 58° ; this must be done gradually, as the consequence of a rapid rise may
be a casting of the fruit ; during the progress of stoning great care must be taken against sudden variations
of the temperature, water very sparingly used, and every check by fumigation be given to the various
insects which will be particulariy active at this period. When the fruit is safely ston^, a moderate dress-
ing of rotten manure may be spread on the surface of the mould ; the heat increased to 68°, and a more
liberal supply of water given. After the fruit has attaineil a full size, and approaches maturity, air may
be freely admitted, and water should be given in less quantities, and finally discontinued, a few days before
gathering.

4573. Insects, diseases, ^c. See Peach. The gum and canker are the most common
diseases, and, as in almost every other case, the acarus is the most noxious insect. As
a remedy for the former, Abercrombie directs to head down. The insects are destroyed
by tlie common means. The gages, or reine Claudes, when nearly ripe, are very apt to
be eaten by wasps.

SuBSECT. 6. Cherry. — Pnimis Cerasvs, L. (Eng. Bot. 706.) Icos. Di-Pentag. L.
and Rosacece, J. Cerisier, Fr. ; Jurschenbaum, Ger. ; and Ciriegio, Ital.

4574. The cherry is a middle-sized tree, with ash-colored, sliining, roundish branches,
ovate serrated leaves, and white flowers, produced in nodding umbels, and succeeded by a
red drupe, with an acid pulp. The leaf and flowering buds are distinct, the former termi-
nating, the latter produced from the sides of the two or more years' branches. The cul-
tivated cherry was brought to Italy by the Roman general LucuUus, in 73 A. C. from a
town in Pontus in Asia, called Cerasus, whence its specific name, and was introduced to
Britain 1 20 years afterwards. Many suppose that the cherries introduced by the Romans
into Britain were lost, and that they were re-introduced in the time of Henry VIII. by
Richard Haines, the fruiterer to that monarch. But though we have no proof that
cherries were in England at the time of the Norman conquest, or for some centuries after
it ; yet Warton has proved, by a quotation from Lidgate, a poet who wrote about or before
1415, tliat the hawkers in London were wont to expose cherries for sale, in the same
manner as is now done early in the season. The tree is now very generally cultivated
both as a wall and standard fruit, and has been forced for upwards of two centuries.

4575. Use. It is a refreshing summer fruit, highly grateful at the dessert, and afford-
ing pies, tarts, and other useful and elegant preparations in cookery and confectionary.
Steeping cherries in brandy qualifies and improves its strength and flavor ; a fine wine is
made from the juice, and a spirit distilled from the fermented pulp. The gum which
exudes from the tree is equal to gum arabic ; and Hasselquist relates that more than one
hundred men, during a siege, were kept alive for nearly two months, without any other
sustenance than a little of this gum taken sometimes into the mouth, and suffered gradu-
ally to dissolve. Cherry-wood is hard and tough, and is used by the turner, flute-maker,
and cabinet-maker.

4576. Varieties. The Romans had eight kinds; red, black, tender-fleshed, hard-
fleshed, small bitter-flavored, and a dwarf sort*. Tusser, in 1573, mentions cherries red
and black. Parkinson mentions thirty-four sorts, Ray twenty-four, and Miller hag
eighteen sorts, to which he says others are continually adding, differing little from those
he has described. The catalogue of the Luxemburg garden contains forty-two sorts, and
those of our nurseries exceed that number of names. As usual, we have inserted only
those sorts of which we could obtain some authenticated descriptive particulars. The
French divide their cherries into griottes or tender-fleshed, bigarreaux or hard-fleshed, and
guignes, geans or small fruits.

3 A 3

726

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

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Book I. CHERIIY. 727

4578. Selection >f sorts. Forsyth rocominends, for a small garden —

rhcmav.,luke I TI.e arrli-.luke I The Harr;.M.n-s heart J Tl.e Turk^ beart

The M.orello I The l.l.vk heart | The Krallion 1 The Keii».ni.ton iluke clierry.

4579. Those in the Dalkeith garden arc —

ITlie amlier heart
The moTvllo; aU: against walls.

4580. Miller says, the best sorts for an orchard are tlie common red or Kentish, the
duke, and tlie lukeward ; all of which are plentiful bearers.

4581. Propagation. Varieties of the cherry are continued by grafting or budding on stocks of the black
or wild rctl cherries, which arc strong shooters, and of a longer duraiion than any of the garden kuids.
The hearts, which arc all ill bearers, are sometimes graftal on bird-cherry stocks, winch arc saul to have
the same effect on the cherry, that the |Kiradise-stock lias on the aj)i>le, that of «lwarfing tlic tree and
rendering it more jirolific. Some graft on the morello for the same jturiiose, but. the most cHcctual dwarf-
iri" stock is the malialeb. Dubreuil of Kouen recommends the wild cherry for clayey and light soils, and
the mahaleb for soils of a light, sandv, or chalk v nature. The stones of the culti vatc<l cherry are commonly,
but improperly, substituted for tlio'sc of tiic wild sort, as being more easily procured. New varieties arc
procured bv ))ropagatiiig from seed, and some valuable fruits will be found in the table, so raisctJ by
Knight. "Tlie cherry," this gentleman observes {Hort. Trans, ii. 138.), " s|)orts more extensively in
variety, when propagatctl from seeds, than any other fruit which I have hitherto subjectal to experiment :
and tliis species of fruit is tiierefore probably cajiable of acquiring a higher sUite of perfection than it has
ever yet attained. New varieties are also much wanted ; for the trees of the best old kinds arc every
where in a state of decay in the cherry orchards ; and I am quite confident, that neither healthy nor pro-
ductive trees will ever be obtained from grafts or buds of the old and expcndetl varieties of this or any
other siMJCics of fruit-tree " Cherry-stones, whether for stocks or new varieties, are sown in light sandy
earth in autumn ; or are preserved' in sand till spring, and then sowed. They will come up the same
season, and should not be removed till the second autumn after sowing. They may then be plantetl out
in rows three feet apart, and the plants one foot asunder in the row. The succeeding summer they will
be fit to bud, if intended for dwarfs ; but if for standards, they will require to stand one or more seasons,
generally till four years old. They should be budded or grafted near six feet from the ground ; the usual
wav is to bud in summer, and graft those which do not succeetl the following spring.

■io82. Soil. The cherry delights in a dry sandy soil and elevatetl situation ; but some sorts, as tlie may.
duke, will thrive in all soils and asiiects, and all the varieties may be planted in any common mellow
garden or orchard ground. In Kent, the tree prospers in a deep loam' incumbent on rock. Miller says, the
soil which cherries thrive best in, is a fresh hazel loam; if it be a dry gravel, they will not live many
years, and will be perpetually blighted in the spring.

4583. Site. To obtain fruit early, some sorts, as the may-duke, are planted against walls ; but all Ihe
varieties will do well as dwarfs or espaliers in general situations, and most of them as standards. Tlie
mav-duke, Nicol observes, does well as a standard ; but against a south wall the fruit becomes considerably
larger, and contrary to what happens in other fruits, it seems to acquire a higher flavor. The morello is
much improved in flavor when planted against a wall of good aspect. Abercrombie say.<;, " Allot to the
finest of the early kinds south walls for fruit in May and June ; train others against west and east walls,
for supplies in succession ; and some on north walls for the latest riixiners, particularly the morello, which,
so situated, will continue in perfection till September and October : but it is also proj)er to plant some
trees of this sort on south walls, to have the fruit ripen earlier, with improved flavor."

4584. Final planting. " Plant full standards from twenty to thirty feet a\Kin ; small standards, fifteen,
eighteen, or twenty feet The proi)er season for planting is from the middle or end of October, or any
time in Novemlier or December, if open weather, till February or March." Miller says, never jjlant
standard or rider cherry-trees over other fruits ; for there is no sort of fruit that will prosper well under
the drip of cherries. He allows forty feet square for standards in orchards for the same reason.

4585. Mode of bearing. " Cherrj'-trees in general produce the fruit upon small
spurs or studs, from half an inch to two inches in length, which proceed from the sides
and ends of the two-year, three-year, and older branches ; and as new spurs continue
shooting from the extreme parts, it is a maxim in pruning both standards and wall-trees,
not to shorten the bearing branches where tliere is room for tlieir regular extension.
The morello is in some degree an exception."

4586. Mode of training. Forsyth and Harrison train in the horizontal manner, and prac-
tise shortening the leading shoots as in the plum, apple, &c. For tlie morello Harrison
adopts the horizontal or half-fan method, " the horizontal method when the tree grows
very vigorous, and the half-fan metliod when weaker." (Tr. on Fr. Tr. ch. xxiii.)

4587. Training cherry-trees in general. — Standards. Give only occasional pruning, to reform or
remove any casual irregularity from cross-placed or very crowded branches ; and take away all cankery
and decayed wood.

4588. Wall-trees. " A summer pruning, to commence in May or June, is necessary to regulate the
shoots of the same year. Disbud the superfluous and fore-right shoots ; or if they have been suffered to
spring, pinch or cut them off", with such as are disorderly. Retain a competent supply of some of the best
well-placed side and terminal shoots, to remain for selection at the winter pruning. Nail or lay in the
reserve close to the wall, at their full length, and so train them all summer. The winter pruning may be
performed at the fall of the leaf, or at any time in moderate weather till Februarj- or March. It comprises
a regulation both of the old and young wood. Carefully preserve the sound productive branches and
bearers in their full expansion ; and reduce or remove such only as are irregular in growth, too crowded,
unfruitful, decayed, or cankery. Any branches extending out of bounds, prune in to some good lateral
shoot or fruit-bud. According to the time the bearers have already lasted, look to some promising shoots,
for successors to those which may first wear out To fill immediate vacancies, retain .select shoots of last
year, and the year before, with uniformly a leader to the advancing branch where there is room, and
with lateral shoots in any open or unproductive space near the origin of the branch, to be trained as
bearers between the main branches. Some cut sui)erfluous fruit-shoots clean away ; others leave a
sprinkling of short stubs, cut very short if fore-right. The new laterals and terminals are to be trained in
at full length, as far as room will permit. They will come into bearing the first and second year. In
pruning cnerry-trees in general, be careful to preserve the small clustering fruit-spurs, except where in
wall-trees any old spurs project considerably, and assume a rugged disorderly appearance ; cut such clean
out smoothly."

4589. Pruning the morello. " The morello cherry bears principally on the shoots of last year, the fruit
proceeding immediately from the eyes of the shoots ; and bears but casually, and in a small degree on close
spurs formed on the two-year-old wood, and scarcely ever on wood of the third year. Therefore, both i/i
the summer and winter pruning, leave a supply of last year's shoots, on all the branches, frOm the origin

3 A 4

728 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part Hi'.

to the extremity of the tree, for next year's bearers 5 cutting out past bearers to make room. It is plain
that the inorello ouglit to have no stubs left with a view to spurs, and all fore-right shoots ought to be
'.lisbudded while young. To leave a convenient space for young wood, train the present bearers six inches
apart ; lay ni between each of these one young shoot for bearing next year, wiiich will make the promis-
cuous distance three inches."

4590. Underwood (Caled. Mem. i. 427.) has often observed, when the branches of cherry-trees are laid
in too near to one another, or are crossed by branches of the same kind, or by plum-tree branches, as is
sometimes the case, that although there be. abundance of blossom, yet there is no crop, even in good
seasons. On examining the blossom, produced on such crowded shoots, he found, that in fifty flowers,
there were not above two styles, of course no fruit could be expected. By not laying in the branches so
close, and by removing all superfluous summer shoots, more light and air was admitted, and he had, in
consequence, plentiful crops.

4591. Renovating old or decayed trees. Proceed as in renovating tlie plum.

4592. Protection from birds. " As cherries, in a ripening state, are frequently attacked by birds, it is
advisable to have choice wall-trees or espaliers defended with large nets in due time. Old fishing-nets
may also be spread over the branches of dwarf sUndards. To protect other standard trees, let scarecrows
and clap-boards be put up in terrorem.'"

459.J. Gathering the fruit. Use the hand, taking hold of the fruit-stalk, in gathering from thewall, and
the cherry.gatherer, in gathering, from distant branches of high standards.

4594. Insects, diseases, &c. Wall cherry-trees are often infested with the red spider, but standards are
generally not much injured by insects. Naismith says, " our cherry-trees, both in the open air, and on
the natural walls, particularly the tops of the young shoots, are much attacked with a small black insect,
provincially called the black beetle. The remedy I have found most ettectual for their destruction, is, a
mixture of pitch, with one sixteenth part of powdered orpiment, one sixteenth jiart of sulphur, dissolved
over a slow fire in an earthen pipkin, until they be well incorporated; when cold, divide it into small
pieces, about the size of a hen's egg, and burn it under the trees with damp straw, directing the smoke as
much as possible where the insects are most numerous. In an hour afterwards (if the state of the fruit
will admit) give the trees a good washing with the garden-engine, which generally clears off the half-
dead beetles, and prevents the spreading of the red spider." (Caled. Mem. ii. 90.)

Sect. III. Berries.

4595. Of the cultivated berries the gooseberry is the most useful species in Britain, in
which it is grown in far greater perfection than in any other country ; next to the goose-
berry is the currant, valuable as affording wine ; besides these are included the mulberry,
raspberry, strawberry, barberry, and elderberry.

SuBSECT. 1. Black, or Garden Mulberry. — Moms nigra, L. {Blackw. t. 126.)
Monoecia Tetrandria, L. and Urticece, J. Murier, Fr, ; Maulbeerbaum, Ger. ; and
Moro, Ital.

4596. The black mulberry is a middle-sized tree, with a whitish bark, and broad, sub-
quinquelobate, bluntish, and rugged leaves. It has generally male flowers or catkins, on
the same tree with the fruit, which is a turbinate berry. Young trees from seed. Professor
Martyn and Knight observe, often show nothing but male flowers for several years, and
yet afterwards produce also female flowers, and become fruitful. The fruit of seedling-
trees, it is said, is the largest and best flavored. The black mulberry is a native of Persia,
and it is supposed was brought to Europe by the Romans, as Pliny mentions two varie-
ties. It will not live in the open air in several parts of Sweden, and is treated as a" wall-
tree in the north of Germany. It is mentioned by Tusser, in 1573, and was cultivated
by Gerarde, in 1596. In some of the old kitchen-gardens near London, there are trees
of a very great age, which are very healthy and fruitful. Bradley says, that most of
these were planted in the time of James the First, who attempted unsuccessfully to set up
a silk manufacture in England ; but the species on the leaves of which silk-worms are
fed, is the white mulberry (^Morus alba), whose fruit is not of any value. Forsyth men-
tions " four large mulberry-trees as still standing on the site of an old kitchen-garden,
now part of the pleasure-ground at Sion House, which the late Duke of Northumberland
used to say were about three hundred years old." The mulberry is remarkable for putting
out its leaves late, so that when they appear, which is generally in May, with the leaves of
the common ash-tree, the gardener m.ay take it for granted that all danger from frost is
over. There is a curious tree fanned by two stems proceeding from a fallen trunk on the
site of the garden of the Abbey of St. Augustine at Canterbury, which must at least be
300 years old, probably much older. (Keill, in Hort. Toiir, &c. p. 13.)

4597. Use. The fruit is brought to the dessert, and recommends itself by its highly
aromatic flavor, and abundant subacid juice. It is very wholesome, cooling, and rather
laxative. Like the strawberry, it does not undergo the acetous fermentation, and there-
fore may be safely eaten by gouty and rheumatic persons. An agreeable wine is made
from the juice ; a syrup is obtained from tlie unripe berries, which is used as a gargle in
cases of sore throat ; and the bark of the tree is a vermifuge.

4598. Varieties. Only one variety of the black is mentioned by Miller, with palmate leaves and smaller
fruit.

4599. Propagation. By seed, layers, cuttings, or grafting. The first is the least advisable mode, unless
for stocks to inarch upon, because, though some affirm the fVuit of seedlings to be the largest, yet the plants
are very long of coming into bearing.

4600. By layers. " These will generally take root sufficiently the first year to bear separatmg from the
parent tree, and should then be planted in a nursery, and trained up with single stems. In four years they
will be fit to plant out where they are to remain. They should be planted at a proper distance to admit the

Book I. BLACK, OR GARDEN MULBERRY. 720

sun and air, as the fruit, when the trees are too close, is very apt to turn inouldy ; they should also be
sheltered from the east, north, and west winds." Knight lays parts of the bearing branches of old trees, in
pou raised to these branches upon poles. Wood of any age will do, and the plants afford fruit the second

°Wr BTcuttines. In raising mulberries from cuttings, choose the former year's shoots, having one joint
of the two years' old wood. Plant them in autumn, if fine weather, or in the month of March in rows nine
inches apart, and at the distance of two inches in the rows, leaving only two or three buds above ground :
mulch the ground with leaves or dung well rotted, to keep it moist, and the plants will require little water,
ing If thev succeed well, they mav, next season, be transplanted into a nursery, and treated as directed
for layers these voung trees, while they remain in the nursery, should be transplanted every three or four
years. Miller says, mulberrv cuttings will also strike well if planted on a hot-bed in spring ^ ^ „ .

4602 Kiiisfit failed in raising cuttings on a hot-bed in spring, but was very successful by the following
process He cut vigorous shoots from the trees in November, and formed them into cuttings of about five
inches long, each consisting of about two j)arts of two years' old wood, and one part of yearling wood.
They were intended to be put in pots, and the bottom of each cutting was cut so much aslope, that its sur-
face might be nearlv parallel with that of the bottom of the pot in which it was to be placed. " 1 he cuttings
were then placed in the common ground, under a south wall, and so deeply immersed m it, that one bud
only remained visible above its surface ; and in this situation they remained till April. At this period the
buds were much swollen, and the upper ends of the cuttings appeared similar to those of branches which had
been shortened in the preceding autumn, and become incapable of transmitting any portion of the ascend-
ing fluid. The bark at the lower ends had also begun to emit those processes, which usually precede the
production of roots. The cuttings were now removed to the pots, to which they had been previously
litted, and placed in a moderate hot-bed, a single bud only of each cutting remaining visible above the
mould, and that being partially covered ; and in this situation they vegetated with so much vigor, and
emitted roots so abundantly, that I do not think one cutting in a hundred would fail with proper atten-
tion. The mould I employed was the alluvial and somewhat sandy loam of a meadow, which was
sparingly supplied with water ; and the plants, till they had become sufficiently rooted, were shaded during
bright weather." ,. . ,

4603. In Spain and India, as Townsend and TenanC inform us, the white or silk-worm mulberry is al-
wavs propagated by cuttings, three or four being planted together, so as to grow up into a bush.

4604. Bi/ suckers. Mulberry-trees, as well as most others so propagated, are longer of coming into bear-
ing, than those raised in any other way but by seed. The plants of this tree, raised from bearing branches,
have entire heart-shaiied leaves, but those obtained from suckers or seeds present deeply divided or half-
winged leaves.

4605. By grafting. Knight having planted some young mulberry-trees in pots, raised them to the bear-
ing branches of old trees, and grafted them by approach. The young grafts bore fruit the third year, and
continued annually productive. This tree succeeds very ill by the common mode of independent grafting.
(Hort. Trans, i.60.)

4606. Soil. The tree. Miller observes, delights in a rich light earth, and where there is depth of soil, as
in most of the old kitchen-gardens about London. In a very stiff soil, or on shallow ground, whether of
clav, chalk, or gravel ; the trunk and branches are commonly covered with moss, and the little fruit pro-
duced is small, ill tasted, and ripens late. Abercrombie says, the mulberry thrives well in a deep sandy
loam, and Avill succeed in any fertile mellow ground, having a free situation in the full sun.

4607. Site. The mulbeiTy is generally grown as a standard or half standard, sometimes
as espaliers, dwarfs, or wall-trees. A single young plant does not afford much fruit; but
one full-grown and healthy, will afford more than is sufficient for the supply of a large
faiiiily. Miller recommends planting in a situation defended from the strong south and
north-west winds, in order to preserve tlie fruit from being blown off; but at the same
time to keep them at such a distance from trees or buildings, as not to keep off the sun,
for where the fruit has not the benefit of his rays to dissipate the morning dews early, it
v.ill turn mouldy and rot upon the trees. The nurseries, and especially those at Paris,
afford large standard trees of five or six years' growth, which come into bearing tlie year
after removal. Those are in general to be made choice of in preference to raising the
tree from cuttings, or inarching. In orchards they may be planted thirty or thirty-five
feet from other trees, and twenty feet apart on walls or espaliers ; dwarfs may be planted
fifteen feet apart, and in each case temporary fruit-trees may be introduced between.

4608. Forsyth recommends planting mulberries in grass orchards and pleasure-grounds, because as the
finest of the fruit, when ripe, frequently drops, it can be picked up without receiving any injury. Another
reason for planting these trees on lawns or in orchards is, that, when full-grown, they are too large for a
kitchen-garden. Abercrombie adds, " so nice is the criterion of perfect ripeness, that berries falling with-
out damage are superior to those gathered. Besides, a grass surface harmonises best with trees of magni-
tude, and increases the beauty of a rural scene."

4609. Willia7ns experienced, that the fruit might be much improved in size and flavor by training the
trees against a south or west wall. " The standard mulberry," he says, " receives great injury by being
planted on grass-plots with the view of preserving the fruit when it falls spontaneously. No tree perhaps
receives more benefit from the spade and the dunghill than the mulberry ; it ought, therefore, to be fre-
quently dug about the roots, and occasionally assisted with manure. The ground under the tree should be
kept free from weeds throughout the summer, particularly when the fruit is ripening, as the reflected light
and heat from the bare surface of the soil is thus increased ; more esi>ecially if the end branches are kept
pruned, so as not to bower over too near to, and shade, the ground. The fruit is also very fine if the tree
is trained as an espalier, within the reflection of a south wall or other building. If a wooden trellis were
constructed with the same inclination as the roof of a forcing-house, fronting the south, and raised about
six feet from the ground, leaving the soil with the same inclination as the trellis, a tree trained on it would
receive the solar influence to great advantage, and would probably ripen its fruit much better than a
standard." {Hort. Trans, ii. 92.)

4610. Knight concurs with Williams as to the advantages of planting the tree against a south wall in cold
situations, adding, that "it aflTords an exception to all, or almost all, other fruits, to which the wall gives
increased bulk and beauty, at the exi>ense of richness and flavor." (^Hort. Trans, iii. Qo]

4611. Mode of hearing. " The mulberry produces its fruit chiefly on little shoots of
the same year, which arise on last year's wood, and on spurs from the two-year-old wood ;
in both stages, mostly at the end of the shoots and branches."

4^12. Pruning. Miller and Forsyth agree in saying there is no occasion to prune standards farther than to
tlun out irregular crossing branches, and never to shorten the young wood, on which the fruit is produced.

730 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4613. Pruning wall-trees and espaliers. " Cut so as to bring in a partial succession of
new wood every year, and a complete succession once in two years : taking the old barren
wood out, as may be necessary. In the winter pruning, lay in the reserved branches and
shoots at six or seven inches' distance."

4614. Williams observes, that the trained mulberry requires some nicety in pruning, otherwise it will
not bear fruit. " The following method has succeeded in my garden for several years past. All'the an-
nual shoots, except the fore-right, are neatly trained to the wall, and these last n.ust be left to grow till
towards midsummer, and then be shortened about one third of their growth to admit light to tlie leaves
beneath. By the end of August the fore-right shoots will have advanced again, so as to obstruct the light
and they must then be shortened nearer to the wall than before. In the month of March, or beginning
of April, the ends of the terminal shoots should be pruned away down to the first strong bud that does not
stand fore-right, and the front shoots which were pruned in August, must also be shortened down to two
or three eyes. If trained after this method, the tree will afford fruit the third year j when the manage-
ment of the fore-right shoots must be somewhat different These should now be shortened at the end of
the month of June or beginning of July, so as to leave one leaf only beyond the fruit, the terminal shoots
being nailed to the wall as before, and left without any summer pruning ; the fore-rights will not advance
any further, as their nutriment will go into the fruit, which, when quite ripe, becomes perfectly black
very large, and highly saccharine." *

4615. Knight remarks {Hort. Tr. iii. 63.), that the mode recommended by Williams may suit the ex-
tremely fertile soil and climate of Pitmaston. " But in cold situations (and it is chiefly in such that the
mulberry-tree will be found to deserve a place on the south wall,) little fruit will be produced, and that
will ripen but ill, unless the bearing wood be brought closely into contact with the wall ; and the great
width of the leaves, and vigorous habit of the tree, present some dilKculties to the cultivator, when this
mode of training and pruning is adopted. It will be found necessary to diminish the luxuriant growth of
the tree, and at the same time to increase its disposition to bear fruit. Such effects may, however, be
readily produced by several different means ; by destroying a small portion of the bark, in aline extending
round the trunk or large branches, or ringing, by tight and long-continued ligatures, or by training the
bearing branches almost perpendicularly downwards. I have adopted the last-mentioned method, because
it greatly hicreases the disposition in the tree to bear fruit, without injuring its general health, and be-
cause it occasions a proper degree of vigor to be every where almost equally distributed."

4616. Season for pruning. " As the blossom-buds of the mulberry-tree cannot be readily distingufshed
from others in the winter, the best period for pruning is when the blossoms first become visible in the
sprmg. Pinch off every barren shoot which is not wanted to cover the wall, and stop every bearing
shoot, under similar circumstances, at the third or fourth leaf Williams has correctly stated, that the
bud immediately below the point, at which a bearing or other branch is pinched off, usually affords fruit in
the following year." {Knight, in Hort. Trans, iii. 63.) The mulberry succeeds better than any other tree
when trained downwards {Jig. 494.), either horizontally Snd drooping (a), or in the stellate manner \b).

494

<^

4617. Renovating old mulberry-trees. Miller, Forsyth, and Knight, agree that this may be done with
trees of almost any age, by removing part of the branches ; or by completely heading down, and renewing
the soil by fresh mould enriched by dung.

4618. Taking the crop. " The most forward berries attain maturity about the end of August ; and
there is a succession of ripening fruit on the same tree for about a month or six weeks ; the ripening ber-
ries gradually change from a reddish to a black color, and should be gathered accordingly for immediate
use ; this delicate fruit will not keep good off the tree above a day or two." Coke and Knight have had
mulberries from wall and espalier trees in gathering from July to the end of October. {Hort. Trans.
vol. iii. 394.)

4619. Forcing the mulberry. Knight observes, that " the mulberry is a much finer fruit when ripened
under glass, in the north of Herefordshire, than in the open air; and in the still colder parts of England
it is probably the only means by which it can be ripened at all. The culture of this fruit, by me, under
glass, has been confined to plants growing in pots ; but I am not acquainted with any species of fruit-tree
which, under such circumstances, produces more abundantly, or which requires less care. Its blossoms
set equally well in different degrees of heat, and the same continued temperature which will ripen the
earlier varieties of the grape in the end of July, will afford perfectly ripe mulberries early in June ; end a
tree of the latter species, when fully loaded with fniit, presents at least as agreeable an object to the eye
as many plants which are cultivated as ornaments only. It is not subject, under common care, to any
disease or injury, except the attacks of the red spider ; and as the foliage and growing fruit of the mul-
berry-tree are not at all injured by being wetted every evening with clear water, the red spider can never
prove a very formidable enemy." {Hort. Trans, ii.)

SuBSECT. 2. Barberry. — Berberis vulgaris, L. (Eng. Bat. 49.) Hexan. Dig. L. and
BerberidecB, J. Ejnne Vinette, Fr. ; Berberitzen, Ger. ; and Berbero, Ital.

4620. The barberry is a branchy prickly shrub, rising to the height of eight or ten feet,
with ash-colored bark, yellow inside. The flowers appear in pendulous racemes towards
the ends of the branches ; the corolla, yellow ; the berries at first green, but of a fine red
when ripe. The flowers appear in May with a cowslip odor ; and the fruit, which is of an
acid flavor, ripens in September. It is a native of the eastern countries, and also of most
parts of Europe, and is found in woods, coppices, and hedges in England, especially in a
chalky soil. It is generally supposed that the Puccinia, a fungus which closes up the epi-
dermis of the leaves of corn crops, and appears on their surface like rust, is generated by
the jEcidium berberides, an insect which inhabits the barberry. (Sir J. Banks on Blight, Sec.)

4621. Use. The fruit is used for preserving, candying, and pickling, as well as for
garnishing dishes j the plant is also an ornamental shrub, both when in flower and in
fruit.

Black sweet; which is the tenderest of I ornament than use, on account of iU
them, and should be planted in a warm I beautiful red berries,
situation. I Purple-fruited. (Pint, et Turp.Fr.t,59.

Book I. ELDER, GOOSEBERRY. 731

4622. Varieties. Those most esteemed for their fruit are the following, viz.

Bed barberry without stones; which has White barberry. {PoU. et Turp. Fr. I Common red with stones. (DuAam. in.
^a^eeaWe flavor when full ripe. It _t.51.) . . A 152. rf/oi) This is planted more^^r

is omv found without stones when the

plant' has attained considerable age,

and is on a poor soil.

4623. Propagation. " All the varieties are propagated commonly by suckers, also by cuttings and layers
of the young branches, and occasionally by grafting ; the common red sort is also raised by seed ; each of
which methods of propagation may be performed in the spring ; that by suckers and layers may be effected
also in autumn." ,., ., ^ ^ i., ..i^^

4G24. Soil and final planting. The barberry prefers a light dry soil. One or two plants may be planted
in a complete orchard, and trained as standards ; but where the shrubbery is the site, it may be allowed
to grow as a bush or shrub. " According to the nature of the ground, plant either at any time from au-
tumn to spring, or only in the spring ; the plants may be already furnished with a head pretty well ad-
vanced, if thought proper ; allow them square distances of frrm fifteen to thirty feet."

4625. Mode of bearing and pruning. " The barberry produces its fruit at the sides of the branches
in small loose bunches : it bears both on young and old wood, chiefly toward the extremities. The
branches should not be shortened, except the design be to force out new wood ; permit the head to extend
freely ; and give only occasional pruning, to keep it in a pretty round form, open in the middle ; cutting
out weak, luxuriant, crossing, superfluous, and decayed branches ; reduce also long ramblers, and trim
up low stragglers, also lateral shoots on the stem, and eradicate all root -suckers."

4626. Taking the crop. " As a proportion of the berries ripen in the course of September, they will
afford occasional gatherings for present use ; and as they will be wholly ripe in October, all that are
wanted for domestic supply should be then pulled ; always pick them in bunches." {Abercrombie.)

SuBSECT. 3. Elder. — Sa7nbucus nigra, L,. {E7ig. Bot. 476.) Pent. Trig. L. andi Capri-
foliacece, J. Sureau, Fr. ; Hollunderbaum, Ger. j and Sambuco, Ital.

4627. The common elder is a bushy tree of twelve or sixteen feet in height, much
branched, and covered, with a smooth grey bark, becoming rough on old stems. The
leaves are unequally pinnate. The flowers appear in terminating cymes, and are suc-
ceeded by globular blackish-purple berries, mawkishly sweet. It flowers in May, and
the berries ripen in July. The whole plant has a narcotic smell, and it is not prudent,
we are told, to sleep under its shade. It is a native of Britain, and many other parts of
Europe, and of Africa, Japan, &c. It is common in damp woods and hedges, and is
sometimes introduced in cottage gardens and plantations for the fruit, and in forest
plantations, exposed to the sea air, as a nurse plant.

4628. Use. The fruit is in demand in many places, but especially in London and
the principal English towns, for making elder wine of the expressed juice ; a powerful,
warming, and enlivening article for the cottager. Tlie tree, professor Martyn observes,
is a whole magazine of physic to rustic practitioners, nor is it quite neglected by more
regular ones. An excellent healing ointment is made of the green inner bark, which is
also purgative in moderate, and diuretic in small doses. A decoction of the flowers pro-
motes expectoration and perspiration, and they give a peculiar flavor to vinegar. The
flowers are reported to be fatal to turkeys, and the berries to poultry in general. No
quadruped will eat the leaves of this tree ; notwithstanding it has its own jthaleBna and
aphis. Tlie wood is used by the turner and mathematical instrument maker; and is made
into skewers for butchers, tops, angling rods, and needles for weaving nets.

4629. Varieties. Miller mentions several, but those cultivated for their fruit are
chiefly the white and black. The scarlet and green berried may also be used like the
black, and are very ornamental trees in the shrubbery.

4630. Site and soil. " As the tree will grow any where, either in open or shady situations, it may be
planted in any out-ground or waste spot, in single standards or in rows, to assist in forming boundary
fences. Trees planted in the hedge order, if suffered to grow up untrimraed, will produce abundance of
berries for use."

4631. Propagation and rearing. " The elder is raised by cuttings of the young shoots in the spring,
and by seed in the autumn. Select for cuttings some strong young shoots of last summer, cut into lengths
of one foot, and thence to three feet or more : these may be planted either where it is intended the plants
should remain, or in a nursery for a year's growth. Insert them from six to fifteen inches into the
ground, according to their length ; they will soon strike root ; and will shoot strongly at top the same
year. Train those designed for standards with a single stem from three to five feet high ; and those
for hedges, with branches out from the bottom. To raise this tree from seed : sow in autumn, October,
or November, or later in mild weather, or soon in the spring, either for a hedge, in drills, where tho
plants are to remain ; or in a bed or border for planting out when of one or two years' growth."

4632. Final planting. "Standards maybe planted from ten to twenty feet apart. They should be al-
lowed to shoot out above to form a branchy head, nearly in their natural order : in which thev will soon
become plentiful bearers. For hedge-planting, insert cuttings or year-old plants into the sides' or tops of
banks or ditches, or other suitable boundary lines, a foot asunder. Permit them to branch out from the
bottom ; and where they are designed for full fruiting, merely cut in the sides a little regular below,
leaving them to run up above in branchy growth, for producing large crops of berries."

4633. Taking the crop. " The berries ripen in perfection for the purpose of making wine, about the
middle and end of September, and in October, and should then be gathered in bunches." {Abercro?nbie.)

SuBSECT. 4. Gooseberry Bibes Grossidaiia, and R. Uva-crispa, L. ( Eng. Bot.

1292. 2057.) Pent. Monog. L. and Cacti, J. Groseille a maquereauy Fr. ; Stacliel-

beerstrauch, Ger. ; and Uvaspino, Ital.

4634, The gooseberry in Piedmont, where it is found wild, and the berries eatable,
but astringent and neglected, is called griselle. Some derive our name gooseberry from
gorseberry, or the resemblance of the bush to gorse ; others, as Professor Martjli, from
its being used as a sauce with young or green geese. Gerrard says, it is called feaberry
(feverberry) in Cheshire , and it has the same name in Lancashire and Yorkshire. In

732 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Norfolk this trf-m is abbreviated to feabes, or, as they pronounce it, thapes. Carberry is
another British name for this fruit. The gooseberry-bush is a low, branching, prickly
shrub, with trilobate sub-pubescent leaves, one-flowered nodding peduncles, and pen-
dulous berries, hairy or smooth. It is a native of several parts of Europe, and abounds
in the Vallais in copsewoods, where it produces a small, green, hairy, high-flavored fruit.
In England it is naturalised in various places on old walls, ruins, and in the woods and
hedges about Darlington. It is cultivated in greater perfection in Lancashire than in
any other part of Britain ; and next to Lancashire, the climate and treatment of the
Lotliians seem to suit this fruit. In Spain and Italy the fruit is scarcely known. In
France it is neglected and little esteemed. In some parts of Germany and Holland the
moderate temperature and humidity of climate seems to suit the fruit ; but in no country
is its size and beauty to be compared with that produced in Lancashire, or from the
Lancashire varieties cultivated with care in the more temperate and humid districts of
Britain. Neill observes, that when foreigners witness our Lancashire gooseberries, they
are ready to consider them as forming quite a different kind of fruit. Happily this
wholesome and useful fruit is to be found in almost every cottage garden in Britain;
and it ought to be considered a part of every gardener's duty to encourage the introduc-
tion of its most useful varieties in these humble enclosures. In Lancashire, and some
parts of the adjoining counties, almost every cottager who has a garden, cultivates the
gooseberry, with a view to prizes given at what are called gooseberry-prize meetings ; of
these there is annually published an account, with the names and weight of the success-
ful sorts, in what is called the Manchester Gooseberry-Book. The prizes vary from 10s.
to £5 or j^lO. The second, third, to the sixth and tenth degrees of merit, receiving
often proportionate prizes. There are meetings held in spring to *' make up," as the
term is, the sorts, the persons, and the conditions of exhibition ; and in August to weigh
and taste the fruit, and determine the prizes. In the gooseberry-book for 1819 is an
account of 136 meetings; the largest berry produced was the top-sawyer seedling, a
red fruit, weighing 26 dwts. 17 grs. Forty-six red, thirty-three yellow, forty-seven
green, and forty-one white sorts were exhibited, and fourteen new-named seedlings,
which had been distinguished at former meetings, stated as " going out," or about to
be sold to propagators.

4635. Use. The fruit was formerly in little esteem ; but it has received so much
improvement, that it is now considered very valuable for tarts, pies, sauces, and creams,
before being ripe, and when at maturity it forms a rich dessert fruit for three months ; and
is preserved in sugar for the same purpose, and in water for the kitchen. Unripe goose-
berries can be preserved in bottles of water against winter ; the bottles are filled with
berries close corked and well sealed ; they are then placed in a cool cellar till wanted.
By plunging the bottles, after being corked, into boiling water for a few minutes,
(heating them gradually to prevent cracking,) the berries are said to keep better. (^Neill.)

4636. Varieties. The gooseberry is mentioned by Turner in 1573. Parkinson enumerates eight va-
rieties: the small, great, and long common, three red, one blue, and one green. Ray mentions only the
pearl-gooseberry ; but Kea has the blue, several sorts of yellow, the white Holland, and the green.
Miller only says, there are several varieties obtained from seed, most of them named from the persons
who raised them ; but as there are frequently new ones obtained, it is needless to enumerate them. The
present lists of London nurserymen contain from 80 to 100 names ; but those of some of the Lancashire
growers above 300. Forsyth, in 1800, mentions ten sorts as common ; and adds a list of forty-three nev?
sorts grown in Manchester. The following may be considered established varieties, and such as merit
cultivation : —

Red.

Nutmeg

YeOorv.

Golden knap

O'd ironmonger

WUmot's early red.

Great amber

Royal sovereign

Ewly black

Globe amber

Tawny.

iMmson, or dark red

Great mogul
Hairy globe

Larce rough red
Red walnut

Green.

White.

■ Green Gascoigne

Golden drop
Honeycomb

Large crystal

Warrington

Green walnut

White-Tdned

Smooth red

AVhite Smith

Sulphur

Royal George

Hairy red

Green globe

Conqueror

White Dutch

Red champagne

Green gage.

Yellow champagne

White walnut.

at islewortn, m lou*, ana nas oeen cuiiivaieu uy mm very extt-nsiveiy on accoum, ui 11
ties ; being early ripe, of excellent flavor, and extremely productive. It usually ripen
to the end of June. For culinary use in the month of May it is larger and better thai
skin not being tough, but the whole berry melting to a fine consistence." Forsyth v

4637. Selection of sorts. " It must be admitted," Neill observes, " that although the large gooseberries
make a fine appearance on the table, they are often deficient in flavor when compared with some of
smaller size. Slany of them have very thick strong skins, and are not eatable unless thoroughly ri-
pened. Some of the large sort, however, are of very good quality, such as the red cnampagne and the
green walnut. Among these also Wilmot's early red deserves further notice. It was raised by Wilraot,
at Isleworth, in 1804, and has been cultivated by him very extensively on account of its valuable proper-
■ ~ .. . ^ . . . , ,. T. " ')ens from the middle

lan most others, the
__ ^ ^^ ^ _ Forsyth very judiciously re-
commends cultivating'the early and late sorts, in order to prolong the season of this fruit. In Lancashire,
the Warrington or Manchester red, which is an improved variety of the old ironmonger, is esteemed
the best dessert fruit ; and the shoots growing upright, the shrub occupies less horizontal space than most
varieties. The walnut red they consider the best sort for preserving. The best mode to obtain a com-
plete collection is to send to a Lancashire nurseryman, stating whether the object desired be an assort-
ment of large showy sorts, a numerous variety, or a selection of the most useful sorts : but. all the sorts
worth having as dessert or kitchen fruit, are in the London and Edinburgh nurseries.

4638. Propagation. The gooseberry may be propagated by all the modes applicable
to trees or shubs ; even by pieces of the roots; but the mode by cuttings is usually
adopted for continuing varieties, and that by seeds for procuring them.

Book I. GOOSEBERRY. 733

4639 By seeds. As far as we know, the scientific mode of impregnating one variety with another has
noTteen appUed to this fruit. In general, the seed of some clioice variety thoroughly njie is taken and
Lwn iTaulWn or early in spring, in b^ or pots of rich light me low earth : when the plants are
r^ear old they are planted out in nuTsery rows, to be culUvated and trained there a year or two ; in ge-

'"'S.^^i^^'calS.'^ mS s^^^^^^ the best season for planting gooseberry-cuttings is in autumn just
before their leaves begin to fad. 'xhe cuttings should be taken from bearing shoots rather than those
gourmands which isTue from the main stem. Cut them to such a length as the strength and npen ess of
the wood will bear, and cut off all the buds excepting three, or at rao>t four at top and tram the plants
with a single stem of nine inches, or a foot high, from the top of which the branches should radiate up-
wards at £i angle of 40o, or better if 45o, llaynes advises Uking off cuttings in July, when the fruit is
on the tree, in order to make sure of the sorts. He says, by iminetiiate planting watering and shading,
as good plants are produced as from ripe wood-cuttings. {Tr. on the Gooseberry, &c. p. ittJ.)

4641. SoU mid sUe. Any good garden-soil, on a dr>- bottom and well manured, will
suit the gooseberry. That which is soft and moist produces the largest fruit. The
situation should not be under the drip of trees over-much shaded or confined, otherwise
the fruit will be small, ill flavored, and the plants apt to mildew. Forsyth says, goose-
berries should be dunged every year, or at least have a good coat of dung once in two
years. Haynes recommends a mixture of peat and loam well manured, and a shade«
situation. The last he proposes to eflPect by planting among Ids compartments of goose-
berries, rows of Jerusalem artichokes in the direction of east and west.

40i2 Final planting. " The season for planting gooseberries is any time during open weather from
October till March. \Mien trees are procured from the public nurseries choose such as are of some ad-
vanced size, about three years' growth, with pretty full heads, for immediate plentiful bearers. Let the
general supply be in standard bushes, and planted principally in the kitchen-garden, in single rows, along
the boundary edges of the main compartments, or outward borders, from six to eight feet apart ; or some
may be planted in cross rows, to subdivide extensive compartments. When the object is to raise large
quantities of fruit, plantations are made in continued parallel rows, eight or ten feet asunder, by six feet
in the row. It would l)e eligible to plant a few choice sorts against south and other sunny walls or pa-
ling, for earlier and larger fruit; and on north walls, to ripen late in succession." {Abercrombie.)

4<}4o. Forsyth savs, " The market-gardeners about London plant them in rows, from eight to ten
feet apart from row' to row, and six feet from plant to plant in the rows. In small gardens I would re-
commend planting them in a compartment by themselves, at the distance of six feet between the rows,
and four feet from plant to plant ; or you may plant them round the edges of the compartments, about
three feet from the path ; you will then have the ground clear for cropping, and a man, by setting one
foot on the border, can gather the gooseberries without injuring the crop."

4044. Keill says, " In some places gooseberry-trees, on the sides of the borders, are trained to a single
tall stem, which is tied to a stake : this, though six or eight feet high, occasions scarcely any shade on
the border, and it does not occupy much room, nor exclude air ; while, at the same time, the stem be-
comes close hung with berries, and makes a pleasant appearance in that state." {Ed. Enc. art. Hort.
§ 161.)

^A5. Maher observes {Hort. Trans, ii. 146), that as " the crop of ripe fruit is often injured, by having
the largest and earliest berries prematurely gathered, whilst green, for tarts, a sufficient number of trees
of such varieties as are the earliest, should be planted in a se[>arate compartment of the garden, and de-
voted exclusively to the use of the kitchen, for tarts and sauce."

4646. Mode of bearing. " The gooseberry produces its fruit not only on the shoots of
last summer, and on shoots two or three years old, but also on spurs or snags arising
from the elder branches along the sides ; but the former afford the largest fruit. The
shoots retained for bearers should therefore be left at full length, or nearly so." {Aber.)

4617. Pruning. " The bushes will require a regulating pruning twice in the year."

4618. Sumrner pruning. "Where any bushes are crowded with cross and water shoots, of the same
year, shading the fruit from the sun, and preventing the access of air, thin the heart of the plant and
other tufted parts moderately, pinching off or cutting out close what spray is removed ; but do not touch
the summer shoots in general." Maher says, " it will greatly contribute to the perfection of the fruit, if
the very small l>erries are taken away with a pair of scissors about the middle or end of May ; and these
small berries will be found quite as good for sauce or gooseberry-cream as the larger."

4619. Winter pruning. " You may proceed to the winter pruning any time from November until the
end of February, or until the buds are so swelled that farther delay would endanger their being rubbed
off in the operation. Cut out the cross shoots and water-shoots of the preceding summer, and the su-
perfluous among crowded branches. Prune long ramblers and low stragglers to some well placed lateral
or eye ; or if an under-straggler spring very low, cut it away. Of last year's shoots retain a suffi-
ciency of the best well placed laterals and tenninals, in vacant parts, to form successional bearers, and
to supply the places of unfruitful and decayed old wood, which, as you proceed, should be removed.
Mostly retain a leading shoot at the end of'a principal branch, leaving it either naturally terminal, or
where the branch would thus be too extended, pruning to some competent lateral within bounds. The
superfluous young laterals on the good main branches, instead of being taken off clean, may be cut into
little stubs of one or two eyes ; which will send out fruit-buds and spurs. Of the supply reserved for
new bearers, a small number will probably require shortening, where too extended, or curvated incom-
modiously ; leave these from eight to twelve inches in length, according to strength and situation ; those
of moderate extent and regular growth will require very little shortening, and many none at all. Ob-
serve, too close cutting, or general shortening, occasions a great superfluity of wood in summer : for the
multiplied laterals thus forced from the eyes of the shortened branches increase to a thicket, so as to re-
tard the growth and prevent the full ripening of the fruit: on which account it is an important part of
pruning to keep the middle of the head open and clear, and to let the occasional shortening of the shoots
he sparing and moderate. Between the bearing branches keep a regulated distance of at least six inches
at the extremities, which will render them fertile bearers of good fruit. Some persons, not pruning the
gooseberry-tree on right principles, are apt to leave the shoots excessively close and tuiled, while they
shorten the whole promiscuously ; others sometimes clip them with garden-shears to close round heads •
in consequence of being pruned in these methods, the bushes shoot crowdedlv, full of young wood in
summer, from which the fruit is always very small, and does not ripen freely w'ith full flavor."

4650. Forsyth says, " Many of the Lancashire sorts are apt to grow horizontally, and the branches
frequently trail on the ground, which renders them liable to be broken by high winds, especially when
they are loaded with fruit. In that case I would recommend two or three hoops to be put round them
to which the branches may be tied, to support them, and prevent their Ijeing broken by the wind " *

^1. Jeeves has tried training gooseberries on an arched trellis, in the manner of a berceav, or arbor-
walk. For this purpose, he plants in rows, five feet and a half apart, and the plants three feet distance
m the row. He chooses the strongest-growing kinds, and trains four branches, at nine inches' distance

734 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

from each plant, till they meet at top. The advantages of this plan are, beauty of appearance, fruit not
splashed by rain, easily gathered, and the ground more readily cultivated. {Hort. Trans, vol. iv. p. 194.)

4652. Taking the crop. " From gooseberries being useful for different purposes, both in a green and in
a mature state, and from the compass of time afforded by early and late sorts, they are in season and great
request four or five months in summer, from April till September. The early sorts, on south walls, come
m for gathering in small green berries, for tarts, &c. in April or early in May, and attain maturity in
June. From common standard bushes an abundant supply is yielded in May and June of gooseberries in a
green state ; and in proportion as part is reserved to ripen, a succession, in full size and maturity, is ob-
tained in June, July, and August. Some late kinds, either planted in shady situations, or shielded with
mats from the sun in their ripening state, continue good on the tree till September."

4653. Prolonging of the crop. In addition to planting late sorts in shady situations, the bushes,
whether standards or trained, may be matted over when the fruit is ripe, and in this way some of the reds, -
as the Warrington, and the thick-skinned yellow sorts, as the Mogul, will keep on the trees till Christmas.

^Qoi. Suckling. By preparing a very rich soil, and by watering, and the use of hquid manure, shading,
and thinning, the lar^e fruit of the prize cultivator is produced. Not content with watering at root
and over the top, the Lancashire connoisseur, when he is growing for exhibition, places a small saucer of
water immediately under each gooseberry, only three or four of which he leaves on a tree. This is
technically called suckling. He also pinches off a great part of the young wood, so as to throw all the
strength he can into the fruit.

4655. Accelerating maturity. Hunt tried ringing on half a gooseberry-bush, which half produced ripe
fruit a week sooner than the other, and twice the usual size. {Hort. Tra.ns. iv. 565.)

4656. Insects, diseases, &c. The caterpillars of saw-flies ( TenthredinicUsy Leach) {Jig.
495.), of butterflies {PapUlcB, L.), and of moths [Pha-
IcSTus, Li.) are w^ell known and serious enemies to goose-
berries. The larvae of the TentkredinidcB have from
sixteen to twenty-eight feet ; a round head ; and when
touched, they roll themselves together. They feed on the
leaves of the gooseberry, apple, and most fruit-trees, as
well as roses, and other shrubs and plants. When full-
grown, they make sometimes in the earth, and sometimes
between the leaves of the plant on which they feed, a net-
work case, which, when complete, is strong and gummy, and in that change to a pupa
incompleta, which for the most part remains during the winter in the earth. The per-
fect fly emerges early in the ensuing spring ; its serrated sting is used by the female in
the manner of a saw, to make incisions in the twigs or stems of plants, where it deposits
its eggs. The Caledonian Horticultural Society having " requested information respecting
the best method of preventing or destroying the caterpillar on gooseberries," received
various communications on the subject, and the following are extracts from such as they
deemed fit for publication : —

4657. Gibbs describes the large black, the green, and the white caterpillars, with his methods of de-
stroying them. During the winter months, the large black kind may be observed lying in clusters on
the under parts, and in the crevices of the bushes ; and even at this season (Feb.) I find them in that
state. In the course of eight or ten days, however, if the weather be favorable, they will creep up in
the day-time, feed on the buds, and return to their nest during the night. Whenever leaves appear
upon the bushes they feed upon them till they arrive at maturity, which is generally in the month of
June ; after which they creep down upon the under sides of the branches, where they lodge till the crust
or shell is formed over them. In July they become moths, and lay their eggs on the under sides of the
leaves, and of the bark. The produce of these eggs, coming into life during the month of September,
feed on the leaves so long as they are green, and afterwards gather together in clusters on the under side
of the branches, and in crevices of the bark, where they remain all the winter, as already said. Winter
is the most proper time for attacking this sort with success, as their destruction is most effectually
accomplished by the simple operation of pouring a quantity of boiling hot water upon them from a watering
pan, while no injury is thereby done to the bushes.

4658. The green sort are at present (Feb.) in the shelly state, lying about an inch under ground. In
April they come out small flies, and immediately lay their eggs on the veins and under sides of the leaves.
These eggs produce young caterpillars in May, which feed on the leaves till June or July, when they cast
a blackish kind of skin, and afterwards crawl down from the bushes into the earth, where a crust or shell
grows over them, and in that state they continue till the following April. The only method which I have
hitherto found effectual in destroying these is, 1st, to dig the ground around the bushes very deep during
the winter season, by which means the greater part of them are destroyed, or buried too deep ever to
penetrate to the surface : 2dly, in April, when the flies make their appearance, to pick off all the leaves
on which any eggs are observable ; this is a tedious operation, but may be done by children. If any of the
enemy should escape both these operations, they will be discernible as soon as they come to life, by their eating
holes through the leaves, and may then easily be destroyed, without the least injury to the bushes or fruit.

4659. The white kind, otherwise called borers, are not so numerous as the other kinds, though very de-
structive ; they bore the berry, and cause it to drop off"; they preserve themselves during the winter sea-
son, in the chrysalis state, about an inch under ground, and become flies nearly at the same time with the
last mentioned kind ; they lay their eggs on the blossoms, and these eggs produce young caterpillars in
May, which feed on the berries till they are full-grown, and then creep down into the earth, where they
remain for the winter in the shelly state. {Caled. Mem. vol. i.)

4660. Macmtirrat/, in autumn, pours a little coiu-urine around the stem of each bush, as much as suffices
merely to moisten the grotmd. The bushes which were treated in this manner remained free of cater-
pillars for two years ; while those that were neglected, or intentionally passed over, in the same compart-
ment, were totally destroyed by the depredations of the insects. A layer of sea-weed laid on in autumn,
and dug in in spring, had the same effect for one year. {Caled. Mem. vol. i. 95.) , . .,

4661. R. Elliot says, " Take six pounds of black-currant leaves, and as many of elder-leaves, and boil
them in twelve gallons of soft water ; then take fourteen pounds of hot lime, and put it in twelve gallons
of water ; mix them all together ; then wash the infested bushes with the hand-engme ; after that is done,
take a little hot lime and lay at the root of each bush or tree that has been washed, which completes the
operation. By these means you will completely destroy the caterpillars, without hurting the foliage of
the bush or tree in the least. A dull day is to be preferred to any other for washing. When the toliage
is all off the bushes and trees, wash them over with the hand-engine, to clean them of decayed leaves ; tor
this purpose, any sort of water will do ; then stir up the surface of the earth all round the roots ot tne
bushes and trees, and lay a little hot lime about them to destroy the eggs. This I have never found to lail
of success since my first trial, six years ago. The above-mentioned proportion of leaves, hme, and water.

Book I. BLACK CURRANT. 135

will serve for two acres of ground or more, covered with trees and bushes in the ordinary manner, and
will cost very little money indeed. The same proportion is to be observed m making a wash for the rest of
the trees or bushes." , , , ., , _^ - , ,

4662 Machray procured some tobacco and soft or black soap, and boiled a quarter of a pound of
tobacco with one pound of soft soap in about eighteen Scots pints of water, and kept stirring the liquid
while boiling with a whisk, in order to dissolve the soap ; this liquor, when milkwarm, or so cool as not
to hurt the foliage, he applied to the bushes with a hand-squirt in the evening, and in the morning found
all the ground under the bushes covered over with dead caterpillars. This practice he continued for six
years, always when he saw any symptoms of the approach of caterpillars.

4663. Tweedie, in the course of any of the winter months, pares all the earth from under the bushes
to the depth of about three inches, into a flat ridge betwixt the rows ; and on the first dry day following,
either treads, beats, or rolls these ridges, and trenches the whole down one and a half or two spades deep,
observing to tread the foul earth into the bottom of the trench.

4664. Forsyth's method is as follows : *' Take some sifted quick-lime and lay it under the bushes ; but
do not at first let any of it touch the branches or leaves ; then shake each bush suddenly and smartly, and
the caterpillars will fall into the lime ; if the bush be not shaken suddenly, the caterpillars, on being a
little disturbed, will take so firm a hold as not easily to be shaken off After this is done, sift some of the
lime over the bushes ; this will drive down those which may have lodged on the branches. The caterpil-
lars ought to be swept up next day, and the bushes well washed with clear lime-water mixed with urine ;
this will dcstrov any caterpillars that may still remain, and also the aphides, if there are any on the bushes."

4665. Sweet first syringes the plants, and then powders them with quick-lime by hand, so that every leaf
both above and below is covered with it This he found destroyed not only gooseberry caterpillars, but
the black flv on the peach-tree. {Hort. Trans, v. 76.)

4666. Harrison considers, that in the winter season, "the eggs of the insects are deposited in crevices
and joints of the tree, also in the ground." In the pruning season, he bums the primings, and washes the
trees with a mixture of quick-lime and water, and then casts in powdered hme among the branches ; or,
instead of this, he washes the trees with twelve gallons of water, half a pound of tobacco, and six ounces of
black pepper boiled together for half an hour, and used when cold. In the following spring, " just before
the trees come into bloom," he sprinkles them with lime-water, and throws on them powdered lime,
spreading some at the roots of the tree. Soon after the berries are set, he smokes the trees with straw
fires. When summer flies visit the trees, he picks off the leaves on which their eggs are deposited.
" This," he says, " is readilv done, and very effectual." If they increase very rapidly, he uses lime-water
as in spring. {Tr. on Fr. Tr. 348.)

4667. Our opinion is, that no reliance is to be placed in powdered hot lime alone, for destroying either
the insects or their eggs. Hot water, apphed in Gibbs's manner ; Ume-water, or water and powder of lime,
in the manner of Elliot and Sweet ; and digging down, as performed by Tweedie, may be of real service :
but the only effectual plan seems to be that of previously hand-picking; which, however tedious it may
seem, will often be found a more economical mode than any of the above. Hand-picking, with the spring-
generated kinds, should commence as soon as the eggs are observed on the under sides of the leaves, of a
white color, and not thicker than hairs ; the whole leaf may be picked off, or the eggs brushed or sponged
off: with the winter kinds it ought to commence as soon as they leave their nidus in the soil or bark and
appear on the leaves.

4668. Preventive treatment. Sprinkling gooseberry and currant bushes with tar-water, prevents the fly
or moth from settling on the plant to lay its eggs ; this must be done early in the spring, for if done after
the fruit is set, it will taste of tar. {J. Busch, in Hort. Trans, iv. 568.)

4669. Forcing. The gooseberrj- may be forced in pots or boxes placed in pits, or in the peach-house or
vinery. Hay plants in pots in November, removes to the peach -house in January, and has ripe fruit in
the end of April, which he sends to table growing on the plants. {Hort. Trans, iv. 415.)

SuBSECT. 5. Black Currant. — Ribes Nigrum^ L. {Eng. Bat. 1291.) Pentand.
Monog. L. and Cacti, J. Groseille a fruit noir, or Poivrier, Fr.

4670. The black currant is an humble shrub, with smooth shoots, strong-smelling tri-
lobate leaves and hairy racemes, vriih a solitary one-flowered peduncle at the base of the
raceme. The flowers appear in April, of a greenish-white, and the fruit ripens in June and
July, and changes from a green to a black color. It is a native of most parts of Eu-
rope, especially the more northern parts. It abounds in the woods in the north of Rus-
sia ; and in the subalpine regions of Siberia, where the branches and berries are very large
and sapid. In Britain, it is found in wet hedges, on the banks of rivers, in alder swamps,
and sometimes in woods.

4671. Use. The fruit, which has a peculiar flavor, and disliked by some, is seldom
brought to the dessert ; but it is eaten in puddings and tarts, and made into jellies, and
wines. The Russians put the berries into brandy, and the Irish into whiskey, in the same
way as the English put cherries ; the Russians also ferment the juice with honey, and so
form a strong and palatable wine. Many cottagers, who cannot aflford to mix green tea
with common bohea, substitute one or two dried leaves of black currant, the flavor pro-
duced by which few are so acute as to distinguish from that of a mixture of green and
black tea. There are no varieties of the black currant.

4672. Propagation. By cuttings. See Gooseberry.

iffI3. Soil and site. A moist soft soil and shady situation, such as is afforded by borders of north ex-
posure IS preferable. Miller says, " The fruit is always best when the plants are placed in an open situ-
ation, and light loamy soil." *^

r.^^!^^Ji'hJ^'■T^'"^^ ^* only a few plants are in general required for private gardens, these may be
placed at the distances recommended for gooseberries, in the margin of a shady border, or against a wall
fl ^ "° n^ exposure. NeiU says, it produces most fruit as a standard, but the largest berries when trained

f,^c; ^^'^ °^ bearing. The black currant bears chiefly on the shoots of the preceding year, and also
Se^Ser^'Crr^'^SSnt '''^''' ^'^ '"'' abmidant, and of smaller size in t'he blac/c^ant than^
i„.^^^' ^^""'"f • Attend to the general directions giving for pruning gooseberries, observing to deoend
make rol^m for the new ^'^"^""^ ^^'' ^°'^' '^"''^"^ ""''*'" °^ ^^ '* *^''°^^« nare^and tirrK
.^^■^'*^^f^^^ diseases. The black currant is seldom attacked by insects; though, like the elder-

736 TRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

SuBSECT. 6. Red Currant. — Ribes Rubruni, L. (Eng. Rot. 1289) Pentandria Mono-
gynia, L. and Cacti, J. Groseille a grappes d^ outre mer, Fr. ; Johannisbeere, Ger. j
and Uvettn, Ital.

4680. The red currant i?, a. low shrub, with smooth branches, doubly serrate, pubes-
cent leaves, yellowish green flowers on pendulous racemes, which appear in May, and
the fruit ripens in June and July. The berries of this shrub, in its wild state, are red ;
cultivation has produced white and pale-red berried varieties. It is a native of the
northern parts of Europe, and found in hedges and woods in England. Professor
Martyn observes, that " the currant does not seem to have been known to the ancient
Greeks and Romans, as the southern nations of Europe have not even an appropriate
name to it at this day. The old French name groseilles d' outre mer ; and the Dutch,
beskins overzee, proclaim their having been strangers imported. Our English name of
currant is evidently from the similitude of the fruit, to that of the uva corinthiaca, the
small grape of Zante, or the common grocers' corinths, or currants. The red currant
has been long cultivated in Britain, and very much improved in the size of the bunch and
berry.

4681. Use. The fruit is acceptable at the dessert, being of an agreeable acid taste.
It is much used for jellies, jams, and wines. Forsyth says, it is the most useful of all
the small fruit, either for the table and kitchen, or for preserving, making wine, &c. ;
and continues longer in succession than any other. According to Withering, the juice
forms an agreeable acid to punch ; and Professor Martyn says it was a common bever-
age in Paris in 1763. Its medicinal qualities are similar to those of other subacid
fruits, allaying thirst, lessening an increased secretion of the bile, and correcting a
putrid and scorbutic state of the fluids.

4682. Varieties. These are —

eommon red or wild currant I Champagne large red I Large new white Dutch I Large pale-red Dutch

Large red Champagne pale red f^Uook P. L, t. 36.) Uooseberrj-leaved.

Long clustered red | White Dutch | 'VVTiite crystal |

4683. Propagation and nursery culture. Tiie same as in the gooseberry. With a view to obtaining im-
proved varieties from seed, that indefatigable liorticulturalist. Knight, procured cuttings, in the year
1810, of the finest varieties of the red and the white currant, which he planted in pots of very rich
mould and placed under a south wall, to which the trees were subsequently trained. At the end of three
years, within which period the pots had been as often changed, the trees were first suffered to produce
blossoms. Ttjese were, with the exception of a very small number, removed from the white curraMt
trees, as soon as their buds unfolded ; and those which remained were deprived of their stamens, whilst
immature, and subsequently fertilised by the pollen of the red variety. The seeds thus obtained were
sowed in pots, as soon as the fruit had become perfectly mature, and were subjected, early in the follow-
ing spring, to the artificial heat of a forcing-house ; by which means, and by proper subsequent atten-
tion, the plants grew more than a foot in height in the first season. At two years old, in the year 1816^
several of the plants, and, in 1817, the greater part of them, produced fruit of great variety of character^
and merits ; but out of about two hundred varieties, only three red and two white api>eared to possess
greater merits than their parents. {Hort. Trans, iii. 88.)

' 4684. Soil and site. All the sorts are very hardy, will grow freely, and bear plentifully almost any
where, alike in open and shady situations, by which the fruit may be obtained early, in June and July,
and prolonged for several months in succession till October. As to soil, the currant generally does well
in any common garden-ground, well tilled and recruited ; it bears the greater crop in a strong loam, or
improved clay, somewhat moist ; the earlier in a sandy light mould, which is not poor. Previous to
planting, the ground should be dug two feet deep.

4685. Final planting. " The season for planting on a dry soil is any time in open weather, from the
fall of the leaf till February or March. Plants expected to bear the following summer are best moved in
October, unless the ground be wet in winter. Allot a competent supply of standard bushes, to be planted
chiefly in the kitchen-garden, in a single row round the main compartments, or in the outward borders, or
some in cross rows, to divide extensive compartments. Plant them from five tn ten feet distant in the row.
To raise large supplies, full plantations are formed in parallel rows, with intervals between the rows of eight
or ten feet, and between the trees in each row of six feet. Where convenient, have also some choice sorts
trained against walls or palings, of different aspects, to obtain early and late fruit in perfection : some
against a south exposvire, for early production ; others on east, west, and north walls, for intermediate suc-
cession and late fruit. Plant them at six, eight, or ten feet distance ; letting them occasionally fill up the
vacant spaces between other wall-trees. The branches should be allowed to advance from near the bot-
tom, and be trained in a nearly horizontal direction from three to six inches asunder. Before nailing
them, cut out superabundant and irregular growths, retaining a competency of regular shoots for orderly
training, among which, if any are of very considerable length, prune them to moderate extent. Some
may likewise be trained as espaliers, in a detached row, in the borders or divisions of the compartments.
The trees so trained may either be left to grow without support, or be tied occasionally to stakes, and
the branches thus will not overspread the ground. Being kept moderately thin and regular, they will
bear fine large fruit, and make an agreeable appearance."

4686. Mode of bearing. Currant-trees, in general, bear the fruit both on the young
wood of one, two, and three years' growth ; and on the older branches, from small spurs,
and snags along the sides, which continue several years fruitful, but the fruit produced
on the last year's shoot is always finest, especially when the old mother bearers have
borne more than four years.

4687. Pruning. The chief part of the future culture is seasonable pruning. After the plants are fur-
nished with full heads, they produce many superfluous and disorderly shoots every summer, crowding
the general bearers, so as to require retrenchment and regulation, both in the young growths of the
year and older wood The season for the cajntal i)runing is winter ; but a preparatory part is i)erformed
in summer, to thin the superfluous shoots of the year where too crowded, excluding the sun and air from
the fruit First, as to standards : — .......

4688. Summer pruning. " In May or June cut out close the most irregular shoots rising in the centre
of the tree, with all the cross and water-shoots, to admit more freely the essential influence of the air

Book I.

RASPBERRY.

rst

and sun. and promote the growth of the fruit and improve its flavor. Also twist off aU root-suckers a*

^4k7^VMerprunine. " This extends both to the old and young wood ; the time for it is when the
plants at rS^'^f tife shoots of the preceding summer, cut out the cross-placed and the otherwise srre-
gul^r. with those which are not want^ for vacancies ; but superfluous good lateral shoots are to be cut
down to short stubs or artificial spurs, about half an inch long, so as to leave an eye or two n order that
SieTmay send out fruit .shoots and spirs. With regard to the old bearers^ take away those which are
naled or Retting unfruitful, or of which the fruit is declining in size ; reduce any of excessive length.
pSgin^o some well placed lateral young shoot, to preserve V^f ^ead w.thin some r^ular c^^^^
cut out also any decayed or cankery parts ; retain a competency of the finest best-placed "e^.j^oots above
and below vaca^it parts, to come in for successional bearers, or to supply he places of defective old wood
and preserve a leading shoot to the principal branches, where w.thm orderly limits : s^ortemng such terrai.
1 shoots as are of grlalest length, to ten, twelve, or fifteen inches, according to their strength and situation
on theTanchL ; a^nd leaving those of small extent mostly entire. Take care of the small n«
spurs, and occasionally selec.t short lateral roots of one. _two. or three ^.n^hes,^ for^beanng f^u^t^.jr^^miJ^r

TXZuas are orgSst enVh: roten^T^elvTo; fifteen inches, according to their strength and situation
on theTanchL ; a^nd leaving those of small extent mostly entire. Take care of the small n«
spurs, and occasionally select short lateral roots of one. two, or three inches, for l^%'"g f"^";* 5 or simila^
small shoots may be ciit to short snags of an inch or two long, also for fruiting Thm out spu^ on the
old branches where very thick. As the old fruit-branches decline bearing or decay, cut .them away,
taking care to provide young ones in succession ; and thus keep the trees always furnished with full-bear-
ing branches, and advancinf young bearers, in a regular open expansion, six. eight. orJf"»"^hes asunder
at thP extremities : circumscribing the general head within the height of three or four feet, or hve at most.

taking care to provide young ones in succession ; and thus keep the trees always furnished with ftill-l>ear

ing branches, and advancing young bearers, in a regular open expans- —■ — ""

at the extremities ; circumscribing the general head within the height ^ i. ^ ^ - ,-. * „^

4690. Macdonald, at Dalkeith House, Neill observes, " raises currants of the finest quality. A g(wd
deal depends on the way in which he manages the bushes, especially during the ripening of the fruit. He
prunes the bushes at the usual season of mid-winter, shortening the last year's shoots down to an inch or
an inch and a half. Next summer the plants show plenty of fruit, and at the same time throw out strong
shoots As soon as the berries begin to color, he cuU oflF the summer shoots to withm five or six inches
before the fruit. This is commonlv done with the garden-shears, with which a man may go over halt an
acre of bushes in a day. Sun and air thus get free access, and more of the vigor of the plant is directed
to the fruit: the berries are found not only to be of
higher flavor, but larger than usual." It appears {Caled.
Hort. item, ii.) that Macdonald had used the knife for his
summer pruning till within two years. We confess we regret
to hear of the introduction of the shears into the kitchen-
garden, and especially into that of so opulent a proprietor,
who ought to set an example of order, progress, and per-
fection, and not of reviving random work, for the sake of
economy. It would certainly be better to employ women
and children.

4691. To wall-trees, espaliers, and fan-standards with-
out support, the same course of summer and winter prun-'
ing is applicable, with the obvious variations required by
their figure. In training wall-trees, two branches are led
in a horizontal direction along the bottom of the wall or
trellis, perhaps half a foot from the surface of the earth,
and the growth from these of all upright shoots, which
will admit of being arranged at the distance of five or six inches from each other, is encouraged. Fan-
standards are sometimes trained in a manner nearly similar {fig. 496.). and sometimes with the branches
radiating from the crown of the stem.

4692. Insects, &c. The red currant is occasionally attacked by the caterpillar {Phaltena grosstdaria)^
and very frequently by the ApJus ribes, which changes the color of the leaves to red, pits and puckers thetn,
and causes the fruit to be shrivelled and flavorless. These are to be destroyed by watering with lime-water,
and water alone.

4693. Forsyth says, " As currants are verj' liable to be devoured by earwigs, which take shelter under
their leaves and branches, bundles of bean-stalks should be hung up some time before the bushes are co-
vered with mats or nets. If proper attention be not paid to this, the fruit will generally suffer verj' much
from these insects. After the bushes are covered, take the mats oflT once in three or four days, and kill
the earwigs that have got into the bean-stalk, which it will be necessary still to keep hung up. As there
is a sweetness in the inside of bean-stalks which attracts the earwigs, they very readily take shelter in
them from rain."

4694. Taking the crop and preserving. " The ripening fruit comes in for small gathering in June, ad ■
vances to maturity in July, and continues in perfection till the end of August : or if trees in a full expo
sure are timely defended from birds and the full sun with garden-mats, or protected with nets where they
grow against north walls, the fruit may be continued good till September or October." Gather in a dry
state, as in rainy weather they lose their flavor. [Abercrombie.)

4695. Forcing. To obtain early currants by forcing, let some good bearing trees, in pots, be placed, as
early as January or February, in any common forcing department : they will produce ripe fruit in April
and May.

SuBSECT. 7. Raspberry. — Rubus IcUbus, L. {Eng. Bot. 2442.) Icos. Polyg. L. and
Rosacece, J. Framboisier, Fr. ; Himbeerestratich, Ger. ; and Rovo ideo, Ital.

4696. The rasjiberiy plant has stems which are suffruticose, upright, rise about two
feet high, and are biennial in duration ; but the root is perennial. The leaves are qui-
nate-pinnate, the flowers come in panicles from the extremity of the present year's shoots ;
they are white, appear in May and June, and the fruit, which in the wild plant is red,
ripens about a fortnight afterwards. Tt is a native of Britain, and not uncommon in
woods in low moist situations.

4697. Use. The fruit is grateful to most palates, as nature presents it, but sugar im-
proves the flavor ; accordingly, it is much esteemed when made into sweetmeats, and for
jams, tarts, and sauces. It is fragrant, subacid, and cooling; allays heat and thirst,
and promotes the natural excretions in common with other summer fruits. It is much
used in distilling, to make the cordial spirituous liquor, to which it gives name. Rasp-
berry-syrup is next to the strawberry in dissolving the tartar of the teeth ; and as, like that
fruit, it does not undergo the acetous fermentation in the stomach, it is recommended to
gouty and rheumatic patients.

4698. The varieties are —

Early small white
Large white
Large red

Most large red Antwerp
Large yellow Antwerp
Cane or unooth-stalked

i Twice bearing white
Twice -bearing red
Smooth cane, twice-bearinc

3 B

Woodward's raspberry.
{Hock. P. L.

738 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4699. Estimate of surts. " With respect to the varieties of fruit : the first in the above list is a small
milt, but esteemed for its early bearing. The second and third, the common large white and red sorts
are cultivated in fuller crops, as plentiful bearers of larger berries. The two Antwerp sorts are still supe'
nor in yielding fine large truit, and deserve a wall or espalier. The cane-raspberry is a good sort for the
mam crop. The twice-bearers are esteemed for their singular property of producing two crops of fruit the
same year, of which the first commonly ripens in July, and the second in September or October : and in
fine dry seasons the plants will afFord some production from the second crop till November."

4700. Propagation. " The varieties can be perpetuated by young sucker-shoots rising
plenteously from the root in spring and summer : when these have completed one season's
growth, they are proper to detach with roots for planting, either in the autumn of the
same year or the next spring, in February or March, but not later than the middle of
April. These new plants will bear some fruit the first ye^r, and furnish a succession of
strong bottom shoots for full bearing the second season. New varieties are easily raised
from seed ; and they come into bearing the second year."

4701. Soil and site. " All the varieties will succeed in any common mould trenched about two feet deep,
and suificiently manured ; but the soil in which the raspberry -bush most prospers and bears the finest
fruit, is a light rich loam. Allot the main crop a free exposure to the sun, that the berries may ripen in
perfection. Be careful to favor the twice-bearers with a dry soil, and a sheltered sunny situation, to give
the second crop every aid in coming to maturity. When raspberries are cultivated on a large scale, it is
best to keep them in plantations by themselves. Set these in rows, from four to six feet asunder, as the
bushes are of the smaller or larger kinds, by three or four feet in each row. Scattered bu.shes may either
occupy a single row lengthwise along the back part of a border, or sUind in detached stools, at ten or
fifteen feet distance. Select sorts are frequently trained against walls, stakes, or espaliers, from the most
sunny to the most shady aspect, for early and late fruit of improved growth and flavor." Neill sajs, " the
raspberry-bush grows freely in any good garden-soil ; but it is the better for being slightly moist. Al-
though the place be enclosed bjr trees, and even slightly shaded, the jjlant succeed.s. In an enclosed and
well sheltered compartment, with rather a damp soil, containing a proportion of peat-moss, we have seen
very great crops of large and well flavored berries produced ; for example, at Melville House, the seat of
the i^rl of Leven, in Fifeshire." Haynes also recommends well manured bog-earth, and a situatibn
naturally or artificially shaded.

4702. New plantation. " Raspberry-bushes are in their prime about the third and fourth year ; and if
well managed, continue in perfection five or six years ; after which, they are apt to decline in growth,
and the fruit to become small, so that a successive plantation should be provided in time. Select new
plants from vigorous stools in full perfection as to bearing."

4703. Summer culture. " Keep them clear from weeds during the summer by hoeing between the
rows ; at the same time, loosen the earth about the plants. Under this management the plants, if tole-
rably strong, will both yield a moderate crop the first summer, and supply young stems for bearing in
greater plenty and perfection the following season ; and so, from year to year, the summer culture should
be repeated. As the plants get established, let all straggling suckers between the rows, or from the ex-
treme roots of single stools, be cleared out by hoeing, or twisted off; to admit the air and sun freely to
the fruit."

4704. Pruning and wititer dressing. " It is requisite every winter or spring to cut out the dead stems,
and to thin and regulate the successional young shoots. This annual pruning may be performed any time,
during open weather, from November till the beginning of April. When kitchen-garden crops are cul-
tivated between the rows, it is most convenient to do this as soon as the old bearers begin to decay. As
to pruning indiscriminately in the open weather of winter, it sometimes happens that severe frosts im-
mediately follow, and partially kill the plants ; therefore it is safer to shorten the tender young stems
early in spring ; but let it not be deferred till the buds are making new shoots, as that would weaken the
root. Cut out all the old dead stems clean to tlie bottom ; and having selected from the strongest young
shoots on each main stool, three, four, or five, to be preserved for a succession of bearers, cut away the
superabundant close to the ground. Let each of the shoots retained be pruned at top, below the weak
bending part ; cutting them in the smaller plants, to about three or four feet in length, and in the large
sorts, to the length of five or six feet. If any of the stems diverge irregularly, or straggle much asunder,
they may be tied together at top, and thus the strong ones will support each other ; or the taller varieties
may have the support of stakes. Prune plants against a wall or trellis as above ; and train the shoots to
rise a little diagonally. After pruning, having cleared away the cuttings, dig the ground between and
about the plants. To turn in a little rich compost every year will conduce to plentiful and fine returns ;
lay it at the extremities of the roots, and deeper as the plantation gets older. Eradicate all straggling
suckers."

4705. To obtain fruit of a very large size. The fruit of the raspberry may be obtained of a very large
size, other circumstances being of the most favorable kind, by destroying all the suckers; but in this
way, the plant being destroyed, a double plantation is wanted, one to grow only suckers, and the other
fruit. In this way Kecht, at Berlin, produces plants ten and twelve feet high, with fruit larger than any
we have seen in this country {Versuch den Weinbau, &c. p. 46.)

4706. Taking the crop. " The fruit of the different varieties comes in from the end of June or July till
October or later. As it ripens, it should be timely gathered for immediate use ; because, when fully ripe,
it will not keep above two or three days before it moulds, or becomes maggotty, and unfit to he used."
{Abercrombie.)

'ilffj. Raspberries maybe forced equally well with gooseberries and currants, and like them either planted
in pots or in the soil or floor of the house. In M. Hope's garden at Haarlem, the raspberry is planted
outside along the north and south sides of a pit ; the shoots of the preceding year are introduced under
the glass and trained to a trellis, and forced while the suckers are left to grow upright in the open air.

SuBSECT. 8. Cranberry/. — Vaccinium, L. ; Oxycoccus, P. S. Octan. Monog. L. and
Ericece, J. Airelle, Fr. and Heidelbeere, Ger.
4708. The American cranberry (Oxycoccus macrocarjnis, P. S.) (Hort. Kew. ii. t. 7.)
is a native of North America, and by the ingenuity of Sir Joseph Banks, it may be said
to be now added to our cultivated fruits. The plant was known to Miller, who, of the
cranberry tribe, in general, observes, " they can only be cultivated for curiosity in gar-
dens, for they will not thrive much, nor produce fruit out of their native swamps and
bogs." A very iiiteresting account of the mode adopted bj the illustrious horticulturist
above mentioflS^is given by himself in the Hort. Trans, i. 71. and of the produce, which
was large iiid wiiform. In one year, viz. 1813, from three hundred and twenty-six
square feet, or a bed about eighteen feet square, three and a half Winchester bushels of

Bjok I. STRAWBERRY. 739

berries were produced, which, at five bottles to the gallon, gives one hundred and forty
bottles, each sufficient for one cranberry-pie, from two and a half square feet.

4709. Culture in moist soil. " Wherever there is a pond," NeJll observes, " the margin maj', at a
trifling expense, be fitted for the culture of this plant, and it will continue productive for many years.
All that is necessary is to drive in a few stakes, two or three feet within the margin of the pond, and to
j»lace some old boards within these, so as to prevent the soil of the cranberry-bed from falling into the
water ; then to lay a parcel of small stones or rubbish in the bottom, and over it peat or bog-earth, to the
depth of about three inches above, and seven inches below the usual surface of the water. In such a
situation the plants grow readily ; and if a few be put in, they entirely cover the bed in the course of a
year or two, by means of their long runners, which take root at different points. From a very small space
a very large quantity of cranberries may be gathered ; and they prove a remarkably regular crop, scarcely
affected by the state of the weather, and not subject to the attacks of insects." the cranberry will also
succeed when planted as an etlging to any pond, provided some bog-earth be placed for its roots to run in ;
or if a bed of bog-earth be sunk in any shady situation, so as its surface may be a few inches below the
general level, for the sake of retaining water, the plant will thrive well, and being regularly watered iu
the driest weather, produce abundant crops.

4710. Culture on dry beds. " The American cranberrj'," Salisbury observes (Hart. Trans, ii. 96.), " may
be cultivated very successfully in situations not ix)sitively wet, if only planted in bog-earth, which retains
moisture longer than any other soil ; for a few plants, even in pots, which had stood sometime neglected
under a hedge, .so that their branches were matted together, produced a plentiful crop." Hallet found the
cranberry, and also the bilberry succeed perfectly in a dry bed of peat-earth, so that it may now be cultivated
in any garden where that soil can be procured. {Hori. Trans, iv. 483.) Milne also found vigorous shoots
and abundant crops produced on dry beds of paat-earth, even in the warm summer of 1822. He finds the
American cranberry easier cultivated than the common j but some prefer the flavor of the latter.
(,Hort. Trans, v. 279.)

4711. Tlie comnwn crmiberri/ (Orj/coccus palustris, P. S.) (Eng. Bot. 319.) may be sub-
jected to tlie same treatment. " Great quantities of this berrj- are gathered in upland
marshes and turf-bogs, both in England and Scotland. The berries are made into tarts,
p.nd have much the same flavor as the Russian imported cranberries, or those procured by
•^jltivation." {Neill.) Twenty or thirty pounds worth are sold each market-day for five
or six weeks together in the town of Langtown, on the borders of Cumberland. {Light-
foot.)

SuBSECT. 9. Strawberry. — Fragaria, L. Icos. Polt/g. L. and RosacecBf J. Fraisier, Fr. ;
Erdbeerpjlanze, Ger. ; and Pianta difragola, Ital.

4712. The strawberry is a small creeping plant, with a perennial root, and, in general,
ternate leaves. There are numerous sorts by some botanists distinguished as species, by
otliers considered as only varieties. Knight {Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 207.) considers the
grandiflora or pine, the Chiloensis or Chili, and the Virginiana or common scarlet, (the
first supposed to be a native of Surinam, the second of Chili, and the tliird of Virginia,)
to be varieties only of one species ; as all may be made to breed togetlier indiscriminately.
Tlie fruit has received its name from the ancient practice of laying straw between tlie
rows, which keeps the ground moist and the fruit clean. Tliey are natives of temperate
or cold climates, as of Europe and America. The fruit, though termed a berry, is, in
correct botanical language, a fleshy receptacle, studded with seeds.

4713. Use. Tlie fruit is fragrant (whence /ra^arj'a), delicious, and universally es-
teemed. It consists almost entirely of matter soluble in the stomach, and neither there
nor when laid in heaps and left to rot, does it undergo the acetous fermentation. Hence
it is very nourishing, and may be safely eaten by gouty and rheumatic persons. « In
addition to its grateful flavor, the subacid juice has a cooling quality, particularly ac-
ceptable in summer. Eaten either alone, or with sugar and cream, there are few consti-
tutions with which strawberries, even when taken in large quantities, are found to dis-
agree. Further, they have properties which render them, in most conditions of the
animal frame, positively salutary ; and physicians concur in placing them in their small
catalogue of pleasant remedies. They dissolve the tartareous incrustations of the teeth.
They promote perspiration. Persons afflicted with the gout have found relief from using
them very largely ; so have patients in cases of the stone ; and Hoffman states, that
he has known consumptive people cured by them. The bark of the root is astrin^rent."
{Abercrombie. ) ^

4714. The species and varieties Sire —

The wood-strawberry (F. vetca) (Eng.
Bot.l5'ii.) ; with oval serrated leaves;
the fruit round and small, red, white,
and green. A native of Britain.

The scarlet [F. virginiana) {Duh. arb. 1.
t. 5.) with leaves like the preceding ;
the fruit roundish and scarlet -colored.
A native of Virginia. Varieties. Early
scarlet, Wilmofs Jate, common late,
Wilmot's coxcomb scarlet. (Hort.Traiu.
V. 2C2.)

The roseberry (F. nV^.var.) {Hort. Trans.
ii. pi. 27.) ; an Aberdeen seedling, intro-
duced in 1810. The plants have few
roundish leaves; larger fruit than the
scarlet, and are very prolific. Continues
bearing till August.

The Downton (F. virg. var.) (Hort. Trant.
ii. pi. 15.) The fruit is large, irr^ular,
and coxscomb-like ; leaves 1^^ ; plant
hardy and prolific.

The Carolina (F. caroHniensis) ; red, from
North America. Bostock.

The musky or hautboy (F. datior) (Eng.
Bot. 2177.) ; with oval rough javelin-
edged leaves ; the fruit large, of a pale
red color. A native of Britain .

The Chili (F. ChiloentU) {Duh. arb. 1.
t.30; with large, oval, thick, hairy leaves
and large flowers ; the fruit large and
very firm. A native of South America.

Keen's imperial, or new Chilf (F. Chil.
var.) (Hort, Trant, ii. pi. 7.) ; a large

showy fruit. Keen's seedling. IBoH.
Tram. v. pi. 12.)

The pine (F. grandiflora) (Mille,; icon.
2. t. 288.) ; the leaves small and deUcate ;
there are two sorts, the red and the
wnite, or greenish-tinted, of this most
rich-flavored fruit. South America.
Mathven castle. Princess Charlotte.

The alpine or prolific (F. aiUimi) ; which
commonly lasts from June till Xovem-
ber, and in a mild sea-son, till near
Christmas; two sorts of the fru'l, the
red and the white. Alps of Euiope.

The one-leaved (F. tnonoiihylla) (Bet Mag.
63.) ; the pulp of Uie fruit pink-colored,
bouth America.

ft.«I fk Of propagation^ The plants mulHply spontaneously every summer, as weU bv suckers

from the parent stem as by the numerous runners ; aU of which, rioting and forming a plant^ate%e^
joint, reqiure only removal to a bed where there is room for them to flourish. Each of these separatel?

3 B 2

740 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

planted, bears a fine fruit the following season, and will bear in ftiU perfection the second summer. A
plantation of the alpine yields fruit the same year that it is made. The woods and the alpine come regu-
lar from seed, and bring a finer fruit than from offsets. The other species are uniformly propagated by
offsets, except the intention be to try for new varieties." Knight, in making experin tnts, with a view of
ascertaining whether most of the sorts would not breed together indiscriminately, raised above four hun-
dred varieties, " some very bad, but the greater part tolerably good, and a few very excellent." The
fruit of above a dozen sorts was sent to the Horticultural Society in August, 1818, and found of various
degrees of excellence. The seeds, if sown immediately after being gathered, will produce plants whicfr
will come into bearing the following year.

4716. Soil and site. Neill says, " Strawberries are generally placed in a compartment of the garden If
themselves, and it should be one which is freely exposed to sun and air. They are sometimes, howeve^
planted in single rows, as edgings to borders, and in this way they often produce great crops. In either
case care must be taken to replant them every fourth or fifth year at the farthest. The alpine and wood
species maybe placed in situations rather cool and shady; perhaps as an edging in the shrubbery. In
such places they produce their fruit perfectly well, and late in the season, which is desirable."

4717. General culture. The folTowing original and excellent instructions for culti-
vating the strawberry, are given by Keen, of Isleworth ; a most successful grower of
this fruit. • He says, " I will commence with a general detail of my practice : this may
be considered as applicable to all the varieties of the strawberry ; and afterwards, in no-
ticing each kind tliat I cultivate, I will specify such peculiarities of treatment as are
exclusively applicable to each.''

4718. In preparing the soil for strawberries, " if it be new, and, as is frequently the case, very stiff, it
should be trenched ; but if thelwttom spit of soil, as sometimes happens, be of an inferior quality, I then
recommended only a simple digging, placing dung at the bottom, underneath the mould so dug ; on the
contrary, should the land have been kept in a high state of cultivation, or be good to the full depth, it will
be advisable for the bottom spit to be brought up to the top, placing the dung between the two spits. The
best way to obtain new plants is, by planting out runners in a nursery, for the express purpose, in the
previous season : for it is a very bad plan to supply a new plantation from old plants. With respect to the
time of planting, I have always found the month of March better than any other. Sometimes, when rjy
crops have failed, I have had runners planted in the autumn, for the following year, but these have always
disappointed my expectations. I plant them in beds, containing three or four rows, and the plants, in
each row, at a certain distance from each other, leaving an alley between each bed, the distance of the
rows and of the plants in the rows, as well as the width of the alleys, depending on the kind of strawberry
planted. The width of the alleys, as it will afterwards be stated, may appear considerable ; but, I am satis-
fied, that allowing this space for the workmen to stand on, when they water the plants, or gather the
fruit, is beneficial, because I have observed in other persons' grounds, where less space is allotted for this
purpose, that great damage is done to the plants and fruit by the trampling of the people." -

4719. General culture. " After the beds are planted, I always keep them as clear of weeds as possible.X
and on no account allow any crop to be planted between the rows. Upon the growing of the runners, i^^
have them cut when necessary : this is usually three times in each season. In the autumn, I always have
the rows dug between ; for I find it refreshes the plants materially ; and I recommend to tJiose persons to
whom it may be convenient, to scatter in the spring, very lightly, some loose straw or long dung, between
the rows. It serves to keep the ground moist, enriches the strawberry, and forms a clean bed for the
trusses of fruit to lie upon ; and thus, by a little extra trouble and cost, a more abundant crop may be ob-
tained. A short time before the fruit ripens, I always cut ofi" the runners, to strengthen the root ; and
after the fruit is gathered, I have what fresh runners have been made taken off with a reaping-hook, to-
gether with the outside leaves around the main plant, after which I rake the beds, then hoe them, and
rake them again. In the autumn, unless the plants appear very strong, I have some dung dug in between
the rows, but if they are very luxuriant the dung is not required ;. for in some rich soils it would cause
the plants to turn nearly all to leaf. I also have to remark, that the dung used for manure should not be
too far spent ; fresh dung from the stable-door is preferable to spit-dung, which many persons are so fond
of. The duration of the bed must be determined by the produce of the plants, which varies much ac-
cording to the different sorts ; it also varies with the same sort in different soils, so that the precise time
of the renewal of the beds must be regulated by the observation of the gardener, in each particular
case."

4720. Sorts grown by Keen. The pine Keen grows in a light loam, « though no other
Aind of strawberry will bear a strong loam better than this. It is likewise to be noticed,
that this is of all others the most difficult strawberry from which to procure a good crop.
Particular care must be taken that they are planted in open ground : for in small gardens
they grow very strong, but seldom bear fruit, in consequence of being so much shaded
by standard trees ; and I have observed the shade of the walnut-tree to be much more in-
jurious to these than to -others : for under it they seldom bear at all, but run entirely to
leaf. In planting the beds of pines, I keep the rows two feet apart, and put the plants
eighteen inches from each other in the row, leaving alleys of three feet wide between
ea^h bed : these large distances I -find necessary, for the trusses of fruit in my garden-
ground are frequently a foot long. The duration of this strawberry, with me, is three
years : the first year it bears the best, the seccmd year the crop is very good, and tlie
third year it is less."

4721. The imperial strawberry, " which was j-aised by myself from seed, may be treated in a similar
•way, with respect to planting, distance, &c. as the pine ; but I have to remark, that it requires rather a
lighter and richer soil, and is not so liable to run to leaf, when planted under trees." ^ , . ,

4722. The scarlet strawberry must be treated also like the pine. " With respect to distance for planting the
beds of scarlets, I put each row twenty-one iiidies apart, and each plant eighteen inches distant in the
row, and make the alleys two feet six i»ches wide. The duration of this strawberry, with me, seldom
exceeds three years." , ., , . , , „ ,. , ..i.

4723 The hautboy " I have always found to thrive best in a light soil : and it must be well supphed with
dung, for excess of manure does not drive it into leaf like the pine-strawberry. In planting the beds, each
row must be two feet apart, and from plant to plant, in the rows, must be eighteen inches, leaving the

■.alleys between the beds three feet wide. There are many different sorts of hautboys : one has the male
and female organs in the same blossom, and bears very freely ; but that which I most approve, is the one
which contains the male organs in one blossom, and the female in another : this bears fruit of the finest
color, and of far superior flavor. In selecting these plants, care must be taken that there are not too
many of the male plants among them ; for as these bear no fruit, they are apt to make more runners
>han the females. I consider one male to ten females the proper proportion for an abundant crop. I

Book 1.

STRAWBERRY.

741

learned the necessity of mixing the male plants with the others, by experience, in

; I had, before
hop

that period, selected female plants only for my beds, and was entirely disappointed in my hopes of a crop.
In that year, suspecting my error, I obtained some male blossoms, which I placed in a bottle on the bed
of female hautbovs. In a few days, I perceived the fruit near the bottle to swell ; on this observation, I
procured more male blossoms, and in like manner placed them in bottles, in differents parts of the beds,
removing the bottles to fresh places every morning, and by this means obtained a moderate crop where I
had gathered no fruit the preceding year. The duration of the hautboy, with me, seldom exceeds three
years."

4724. The wood-straivherry is best raised from seed, " which I obtain from fruit just gathered, sowing
it immediatelv in a bed of rich earth. When the jUants are of a proper size, I transplant them into other
beds, where I'let them continue till the March following. They are then planted in rather a moist soil,
in beds, as the others, each row being two feet apart, and the plants in each row eighteen inches distent,
the alley between each bed being three feet wide : in this way I produce abundant crops of very fine
fruit. I have propagated this strawberry from runners, but never with such good success as from seeds,
particularly if the runners were teken from old roots. The duration of this strawberry, with me, seldom
exceeds two years."

4725. The alpine strawlierry must always be raised from seed, which should be sown m a bed of nch
earth, in the spring. " When the plants are of a proper size, which will be in July or August, I plant
them in rows at the back of hedges or walls, in a rich, or in a very moist soil : the rows should be two
feet apart, and the distance, from plant to plant, in the rows, twelve inches. My alpines, this year, thua
managed, are bearing most abundantly, so much so, that in gathering them there is not room for the
women to set their feet, without destroying many. The alpines differ from all other strawberries in
quickness of bearing ; for no other sort, sown in the spring of the year, will produce fruit, under two
years, whereas this yields a crop at the end of one year. Its duration, with me, seldom exceeds two years,
and frequently it lasts only one year." {^Hort. Trans, ii.) Williams considers that the fruit of plants raised
from seed, comes in very "well as a late autumn crop, but is certeinly inferior in flavor to that produced
from transplanted runners. {Hort. Trans, i. 247.)

4726. The Rev. T. Gamier^ a successful cultivator of strawberries, never suffers any of the varieties to
remain in the ground more than one year. " Early in August, or as soon as the gatherings are over, I
destroy all my beds, and proceed immediately to trench, form, and manure them in the manner before
directed, to receive the plants for the crop of the ensuing year, taking care to select for that purpose the
strongest and best-rooted runners from the old rejected plants. If at this season the weather should be
particularly hot, and the surface of the ground much parched, I defer the operation of preparing my beds
and planting them till the ground is moistened by rain. Such is the simple mode of treatment which I
have adoptetl tor three successive years, and I have invariably obteined upon the same spot, a great pro-
duce of beautiful fruit, superior to that of ever>- other garden in the neighborhood. Depth of soil I have
found absolutely necessary for the growth and production of fine strawberries, and when this is not to be
obteined, it is useless, in ray opinion, to plant many of the best varieties. It is not generally known, but
I have ascerteined the fact, that most strawberries generate roots, and strike them into the ground, nearly
two feet deep in the course of one season. The pine and roseberry succeed better than any other in stiff
and shallow soils, but they should always be planted in an open situation, and not, as is too commonly the
practice, in shady and neglected parts of the garden " {Hort. Trans, iv. 480.)

4727. loMwg^ justly blames gardeners for cutting over the leaves of strawberries after they have borne a
crop, thereby preventing proper buds being formed for next year, and also depriving the roots of the
plants of their natural protection from the frost. He is also adverse to the practice of digging between
the rows in winter, which, he says, cuts off the fibrous roots, and prevents the plants from setting out in
spring with that vigor which they otherwise would do. Instead of supplying manure in this way, he re-
commends the appropriation of liquid manure ; or what is better, never letting a crop remain above three
years on the same piece of ground. [_Calcd. Hort. Soc. Mem. iii, 291.)

4728. Brick-beds for strawberries. These were observed in a small garden near Chatham,
and are thus described : " The beds (^Jig. 497. a) were upon flat ground, each about
three feet wide, and between them were trenches about nine inches wide, and four-inch
walls of brick on each side of the trenches (6), to keep up the earth on the sides of the
beds. These trenches were about the depth of two or three courses of bricks laid flat,
without mortar, and were intended for the purpose of holding water, wliich was supplied
from a pump whenever the ground was dry, while the plants were in fruit. By this

method, a much greater crop of fruit was obtained, and the plants continued bearin*'
much longer than in beds where there were no trenches for water. In Devonshire, straw-
berry-beds are constructed against the side of a hill or bank, by building up beds in steps,
with rough granite at the front, to keep up the earth, each step being about two feet
high and tliree feet wide. These steps were filled with good loam, and the surface of
each was covered with rough pieces of granite bedded into the loam, leaving openings
between the stones, just sufficient to put in the plants. The surface being covered with
granite, kept the ground longer in a moist state, and the fruit always clean. " I
should expect," observes the writer, " that chippings of stone, such as may be had from
the masons in London, might answer the same purpose. I have found a great advantage
in keeping the fruit clean, by laying a row of common bricks on each side of the rows
of strawberrv'-plants ; I tried plain tiles, but found bricks answer better, as the tiles are
apt to be broken in gathering the fruit, and will not do to use a second time." (Alkiiisoru
in H^rL Trans, v. 191.)

4:2;-. Taking the crop. The fruit ripens from June to August and September ; but the main crop is
usaaily over in Juh- Gather when the weather is dry, and the same day that the fruit is to be sent to
table, otherwise It \viil soon lose its flavor. Pinch off the calyx and a quarter of an inch of the peduncle,
along with the berry. '■ *

3 B 3

7-13 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4730. To have ct regular successhn of strawberries throughout the autumnal months. This is commonlT
done by means of the wood and alpine species, and their varieties. Garnier thinks it may be accomplished
by late planting ; for example, of Wihnot's late scarlet, or the common scarlet about May. He has
planted runners of the roseberry on tlie 1st of July, and gathered fruit on the 7th of September. (Hort
Jrans. w. 482.) Williams cultivates the alpine for this purpose. " E;irly in the month of May, wheti
they arc in flower, he cuts away all the blossoms, preserving the leaves uninjured ; this is again repeated
at the end of the month. Towards the middle or end of June more blossoms appear, and the plants afford
flowers and fruit, all the latter part of the summer, and till cut off by the autumnal frosts. If the first
blossoms were not removed, -the principal crop of alpines would be ripe at the time the larger strawberries
are m season, and consequently of little worth ; but by this mode of culture, they come into bearing in the
latter part of the summer, just at the time the other kinds are over." {^Hort. Trans, v, 247.)

4731. For forcing the strauiherry, see Chap. VII. Sect. VIII.

Sect. IV. Nuts.
47.S2. Among nuts the most useful in this country is the walnut, both for the dessert
and pickling ; the filbert is also a very useful fruit ; chestnuts are wholesome and nutri-
tive, and form, in Spain and Italy, an important article of human food.

SuBSECT. 1. Walnut. — Juglans regia, L. (Lam. ill. 781.) Moncec. Poli/an. L, and
Terebintacecs, J. Noyer, Fr. ; Walnusshaum, Ger. ; and Noci, Ital.

4733. Tlie walnut is a large and lofty tree, with spreading boughs, and pinnate leaves,
having a very strong aromatic odor. The male flowers come in subterminating aments ;
the females scattered two or three together in close sessile buds on the young wood near
the extremities of the branches. The fruit is an ovate, coriaceous, smooth drupe, enclosing
an irregularly grooved nut, which contains a four-lobed oily eatable kernel, with an irre-
gular knobbed surface, and covered with a yellow skin. The flowers are produced in
the end of April and beginning of May, and the fruit ripens in September and October.
It is a native of Persia and the south side of Caucasus ; but it is supposed to have been
introduced here from France, and called gaul-nut, before 1562.

4734. Use. The kernel, wlien ripe, is in esteem at the dessert ; and the fruit whole,
in a green state, before tlie stone hardens, is much used for pickling. An oil which
supplies the place of that of almonds, is expressed from the kernel in France. In Spain
they strew the gratings of old and hard nuts, first peeled, into their tarts and other meats.
The leaves strewed on the ground and left there annoy worms ; or macerated in warm
water, afford a liquor which, from its bitterness, may effect their death. The unripe
fruit is used in medicine for the same purpose. Pliny says, " the more walnuts one eats,
with the more ease will he drive worms out of his stomach." The timber is used in this
country for gun-stocks, being lighter in proportion to its strength and elasticity than any
other. It is almost exclusively used in cabinet-work in most parts of the continent.
The young timber is held to make the finest-colored work, but the old to be finer varie-
gated for ornament.

4735. Varieties. Those commonly cultivated for their fruits are —

The round early oval I Highflyer of Thetford, the best variety known.

Double large French (ff. Tran4. iv. 517.)

Tender-shelled, and thick-shelled |

473fi. Propagation. It has generally been propagated from the nut ; and this mode is recommended
by Miller and Forsyth ; probably froni their not having known that the tree may be continued by inocu-
lation as practised successfully by Knight. Inarching this tree was long ago recommended by Boutcher,
who says, " he found the fruit in this way produced in one third of the time necessary for plants raised
from the noit."

4737. Knight, " having planted, in the spring of 1799, some walnut-trees of two years old in garden-
pots, raised them up to the bearing branches of an old walnut-tree, and grafted them, by approach, with
parts of the bearing branches of the old tree. An union took place during the summer, and in the
autumn the grafts were detached from the parent stock. The plants thus obtained were planted in a
nursery, and, without any peculiar care or management, produced both male and female blossoms in the
third succeeding spring, and have since afforded blossoms every season." {Hort. Trans, i. 61.) After
numerous trials, he also succeeded in propagating the walnut-tree from budding. " The buds of trees^"
he observes, " of almost every species, succeed with most certainty when inserted in the shoots of the
same year's growth ; but the walnut-tree appears to afford an exception ; possibly, in some measure,
because its buds contain within themselves, in the spring, all the leaves which the tree bears in the fol-
lowing summer ; whence its annual siioots wholly cease to elongate soon after its buds unfold ; all its
buds of each season are also, consequently, very nearly of the same age : and long before any have
acquired the proper degree of maturity for being removed, the annual branches have ceased to grow
longer, or to produce new foliage. To obviate the disadvantages arising from the preceding circumstances,
I adopted means of retarding the period of the vegetation of the stocks, comparatively with that of the
bearing tree ; and by these means I became partially successful. There are at the base of the annual
shoots of the walnut and other trees, where those join the year-old wood, many minute buds, which are
almost concealed in the bark, and which rarely or never vegetate, but in the event of the destruction of
the large prominent buds which occupy the middle and opposite end of the annual wood. By insert-
ing in each stock one of these minute buds, and one of the large and prominent kind, I had the pleasure
to find that the minute buds took freely, whilst the large all failed without a single exception. This
experiment was repeated in the summer "of 1815, upon two yearling stocks which grew in pots, and had
been placed, during the spring and early part of the summer, in a shady situation under a north wall ;
whence they were removed late in July to a forcing-house, and instantly budded. These being suffered to
remain in the house during the following summer, produced from the small buds, shoots nearly three feet
long, terminating in large and perfect female blossoms, which necessarily proved abortive, as no male
blossoms were procurable at the early period in which the female blossoms appeared : but the early
formation of such blossoms sufficiently proves that the habits of a bearing branch of the walnut-tree may
be transferred to a young tree by budding, as well as by grafting by approach. The most eligible situation
for the insertion of buds of this species of tree (and probably of others of similar habits) is near the summit
of the wood of the preceding year, and of course, very near the base of the annual shoot j and if buds of

Book I. CHESTNUT. * -^43

tJie small kind above mentioned be skilfully inserted in such parts of branches of rapid growth, they will
be found to succeed with nearly as much certainty as those of other fruit-trees, provided such buds be m
amoreraaturestate than those of the stocks into which they are inserted. ^ . »• i

4738 Carlisle {Hort. Trans, ii.) mentions the case of a walnut-tree raised from the nut m the usual way,
on a light soil, on a sandy sub-soil, and in a warm sheltered situation, which produced fruit in six years ;
but the usual period is eighteen or twenty. . „„ j „„♦,, „*■»»,„

4739. Abercrombk szss, the walnut-tree is propagated, in general, by sowing well ripened nuts of the
finest varieties : but as 'seedlings are apt to varv, new plants are occasionally raised by layers and march-
ine to continue particular sorts permanent. The nuts may be sown in autumn or spnng, in drills, nine
to twelve inches apart, and two or three inches deep; place the nute two inches asunder, and having
earthed them in, smooth the surface. They will come up in the spring. W hen of one year s growth, set
out the plants in nursery rows, a foot asunder by six inches in the rows, to remain two years, then to be
transplanted (doubling the distance) into other nursery lines. Train each with a single stem of six or
seven feet high • then to be permitted to branch out above, and form a spreading head. Layers may be
made in autumn or spring, of voung shoots produced near the ground from proper stools formed for that
purpose : they will be rooted in one season, to plant off in nursery rows for framing as above. Inarching
maybe performed in February or March upon seedhng walnut-stocks, advanced in proper stems.

4/40 Soil and site. The walnut-tree will succeed in any common fertile soil, a light or a clayey loam,
so as tiie sub-soil be dry, and the site a little siieltered ; but it thrives best where there is a good depth of
loam mixed with sand or gravel rather than clay. As this tree is long before it bears fruit, there is a
particular inducement for procuring plants from the nurserv, either inarched, budded, or in as advanced
astage as it will be safe to remove them at. This may be when they are from eight to twelve years old,
according as they mav have been prepared by rcjieated transplantations. Walnut-trees may be planted in
orchards or small paddocks, in a row towards the boundaries ; or in parallel double rows in a quincunx
order in extensive grounds, but detached from fruit-trees of more contracted growth. The hne of walnut-
trees,' when fully grown, will serve as a screen to the fruit-trees occupying the interior ground. The
plants should stand at twentv-five and the trees to fifty feet distance.

4741. Mode of bearing. On the extremities of the preceding year's shoots.

4742. Pruning. Walnut-trees, when finally planted, may be permitted to branch out in their natural
order, with the exception of a little occasional pruning, to regulate any casual disorderly growth, to re-
duce over-extending branches, and to prune up tlie low stragglers.

4743. Ringing to induce bearing, is practised by the Baron de Tschoudi, near Metz, in Lorraine. A
zone of bark two inches broad is taken out, and the part plastered over with cow-dung and loam; the
consequence is that the trees prove more prolific, and the fruit ripens sooner.

4744. Taking lAe crop. Walnuts should be taken for pickling while the internal parts remain tender
and fleshy, which may be ascertained by probing them with a pin or needle. The nuts are ripe in Sep-
tember and October, and should then be gathered so as not to injure the tree, and housed in the proper
manner for winter use.

SuBSECT. 2. Chestnut. — Fagus Castanea, L. ; Caslanea Vesca, \V. (Eng. Bot. 886.)
Moncec. Poll/. L. and Anientacece, J. Chdlaigne, Fr. ; Castanienbaum, Ger. ; and
Castagno, Ital.

4745. The chestnut is a large tree, spreading its branches finely on every side -where it
has room, but, planted closely, will shoot up straight to a great height. The leaves are
lanceolate, serrated, and very large. The aments, or catkins, of male flowers are pendu-
lous at the ends of tlie branches ; very long, resembling those of the walnut. Tliey have
a strong spermatic smell ; the flowers are collected in remote little balls, and are sessile.
The proportion of male flowers to the females is prodigious. The calyx of the female
flowers becomes an echinate capsule or four valves, of a silky smoothness in the inside,
and containing two or three nuts or one only. It flowers in ^May, and ripens its fruit
in October. It is supposed to have been originally brought from Saidis to Italy by Tib.
CiBsar. It is so common as to be considered a native in France and Italy ; and some
consider it as naturalised in England, though it is not likely to propagate itself in this
country. Some of the oldest trees in the world are of this species ; as that mentioned by
Brydone on Etna, and the great tree at Tortworth in Gloucestershire.

4746. Use. The fruit is a desirable nut for autumn and winter, and is eaten roasted,
with salt, and sometimes raw. Abroad, it is not only boiled and roasted, but puddings,
cakes, and bread are made of it. " Chestnuts stewed with cream," according to Phillips
{Pomarium Brit. 95.), " make a much admired di^h, and many families prefer them to
all other stuffings for turkeys." He says, " I have had tliem stewed and brought to table
with salt fish, when they have been much admired." The timber was formerly in very
general use in house-carpentry, though some, with every appearance of reason, consider
what is generally called old chestnut as old oak.

■ 4747. Varieties. There are none of any note. Some varieties ripen their fruit a few days earlier than
others, but none of these have been fixed on and perpetuated by the nurserymen so as to be rendered
available by purchasers.

4748. Propagation. IMiller and most gardeners recommend propagation from nuts ; but, for fruit, the
Devonshire practice of grafting is decidedly preferable. Sir Joseph Banks says, " the nurserymen there
deal in grafted chestnut-trees ;" and we may add, that they are now to be had in the London nurseries. (Hort.
Trans, i. 62.) Knight says, " The Spanish chestnut succeeds readily when grafted in almost any of the
usual ways, and when the grafts are taken from bearing branches, the young trees afford blossoms in the
succeeding year ; and I am much inclined to think, from experiments' I have made on this tree, that by
selecting those varieties which ripen their fruit early in the autumn, and by propagating with grafts or
buds from young and vigorous trees of that kind, which have just attained the age necessary to enable
them to bear fruit, it might be cultivated with much advanUige in this country, both for its fruit and
timber." (Hort. Trans, i 62.)

4749. So/7 and site. The tree prefers a sandy loam with a dry bottom ; but will grow in any soil on a dry
sub-soil. Distribute the plants towards the northern boundarj' of orchards ; and in larger groups, over any
vacant tracts in extensive pleasure-grounds or parks, and to form spacious avenues, or a row along any
out -boundary. A great number should not be placed close to a residence, as the smell of the flowers is
offensive. Plant them at not less Uian thirty feet, and thence to fifty feet distance.

.3 B 4

744

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

4750. Subsequent culture. " Permit the trees to branch out freely above, mostly in their natural order,
to advance in large regular heads. Give occasional pruning only to very irregular and cross branches,
and low stragglers. After they have attained some tolerably branchy growth, they will come into bearing
in moderate plenty ; and when they have expanded into large full heads, they may be expected to yield
considerable quantities of nuts."

4751. Taking the crop. " The nuts ripen from the end of September to the end of October. When the
outer capsule containing the nuts begins to divide, and the nuts appear of a brown color, and some fall
promiscuously from the tree, their full maturity is indicated. They may be gathered by hand, or beat
down by long poles. Selecting the finest and best-ripened, clear them from the husks ; let them be well
dried, and deposited in the fruitery, upon shelves, &c. j and some packed in layers of very dry fine sand
for longer keeping." {Abercrotnbie.)

SuBSECT. S. Filbert. — Corylus Avellana, L. {Eng. Bot. 723. ) Moncec. Poly. L. and
Amentacece J. Noisette, Fr. ; Nussbaum, Ger. ; and Avellano, Ital.

4752. The common hazel-nut, or the filbert in its vt'ild state, is a large-sized shrub, with
an ash-colored bark, and alternate roundish cordate leaves. The male catkins appear on
the preceding year's shoots in autunin, and wait for the expansion of the female gems in
the spring. It is a native of Britain, very common in most woods, and extensively cul-
tivated about Maidstone, in Kent.

4753. Use. As a table nut it is in universal esteem ; and the wood and twigs of the
wild plants are used for sticking peas, forming pegs, number-sticks, staking green-house
plants and raspberries, and many other similar purposes in gardening.

4754. Varieties. These are —

The common hazel nut
'the red-kemelled {Lane P. t. Wi. 2.)
The white-keraelled filbert {Lang. P.
Ivii. 1.)

The red-kernelled filbert

The great cobnut {Hort. P. L. t. xlix)

The large long nut

The Barcelona, or Spanish

I The Constantinople, or dwarf Bvzantine
The cossford {Hort. Tram. u. 405.)
The frizzled, or Norfolk variety. {Hort.

I Tratu. V. 263.)

4755. Estimate of sorts. The common wood-nut, the least desirable for horticultural plantations, may
be admitted for variety. The filbert merits culture in a large proportion, and its returns are very profit-
able for sale. The red-filbert is accounted to have a finer flavor than the white. The cob-nut is large,
with a thick shell, but the kernel is considerable in size, and sweet. The Barcelona, a good large nut,
with a thin shell, is well known, great quantities being imported as well as grown here. The long native
nut seldom kernels well. The cossford is very sweet, kernels well, and the tree is a great bearer.

4756. Soil and site. Abercrombie says, " A cool, dry, poorish soil is to be chosen for filbert and nut
trees in general ; for example, a sandy loam, mixed with minute shattery stones or grit, and with a low
proportion of vegetable or animal remains ; for the plants fruit best when but moderately strong. About
Maidstone, according to the Rev. W. Williamson, they prefer a hazel loam of some depth, on a dry sub-
soil, which they dress every year, as the filbert requires a considerable quantity of manure. They are ge-
nerally planted in the orchard, or in the slips which surround the kitchen-garden."

4757. Propagation. " All the sorts can be propagated by grafting, by layers, by suckers, and by sowing
the nuts. The most advisable methods, because they are certain to keep the respective variety permanent,
are, either by grafting them in February or March upon seedling or sucker stocks of the filbert or hazel;
or by layers of the young wood in the spring. Sow the nuts in October or November, or in the spring,
in a bed of light earth, covering them about two inches. The greater part will germinate in spring, and
when the plants are one or two years old plant them out in nursery lines in autumn or spring. Train a
principal supply in standards, half-standards, and dwarf standards, each with a single clean stem, from
six feet high down to twelve inches." {Abercrombie.) About Maidstone, according to Williamson,
they are almost universally propagated by suckers.

4758. Mode of bearing. All the species bear principally upon the sides and ends
of the upper young branches ; and from small shoots, which proceed from the bases of
side branches cut off the preceding year.

4759. Final planting. " The season for planting all the sorts is autumn or spring, or any interval in mild
weather from October till the beginning of March. Allot detached standards, not less than ten, and
thence to twenty feet distance, to have room to branch out in full heads. In the filbert-grounds about
Maidstone it is usual to plant hops, standard apples, and cherries among the filberts. When the filberts
come into a bearing state the hops are destroyed, and the fruit trees only suffered to remam. The ground
is then planted with gooseberries, currants, &c and herbaceous vegetables." {Hort. Trans, iv. 152.)

4760 Pruning. " In the filbert-orchards, about Maidstone in Kent, it is a prevaihng practice to tram
the trees with short stems, like a gooseberry-bush, but with the heads in the shape of a punch-bowl,
and exceeding thin of wood, and to prune them with exact attention to the mode of beanng. The
filbert is there propagated by suckers, and Williamson advises to plant them where they are to remain ;
to suffer them to grow without restraint for three or four years ; and then to cut them down withm a
few inches of the ground. They will push five or six strong shoots which, the second year after cutting
down, are to be shortened one third. Then place a small hoop within the branches, and fasten the
shoots to it at equal distances. In the third year, a shoot will spring from each bud ; these must be
suffered to grow till the following autumn or spring of the fourth year, when they are to be cut off nearly
close to the original stem, and the leading shoot of the last year shortened two thirds. In the fifth year,
several small shoots will arise from the bases of the side branches, which were cut off the preceding year ;
from these the fruit is to be expected, and the future object of the pruner must be directed to produce an
annual supply of these by cutting out all that have borne fruit. The leading shoot is every year to be
shortened two thirds or more, and the whole height of the branches must not be suffered to exceed six
feet Every shoot that is left to produce fruit should also be tipped, which prevents the tree from being
exhausted in making wood at the end of the branch. Observe, in pruning early m spring, to have a due
supply of male blossoms and to eradicate all suckers." Such is the Maidstone practice, which has been
long celebrated ;" by which 30 cwts. of nuts per acre have been grown on particular grounds, in particular
years: but 20 cwts. is considered a large crop, and rather more than half that quantity the usual one,
with a total failure three vears out of five, so that the average produce is not more than 5 cwts. per acre.
Williamson thinks the failure, happening so often, may be owing to the excessive productiveness of the
successful years owing to the mode of pruning, by which " the whole nourishment ot the tree is expended
in the production of fruit." He recommends leaving the trees rather more in a state of nature, and,
from experiments in his own garden, thinks a regular crop in succession will thereby be obtained. {Hort.
Traits iv 154 ^

4761'. Insects. The leaves are little troubled with vermin of any sort; but the eggs of the weevil
(Curadio nucum) {fig. ^m. a) and C. mn {h) are deposited in the germ en, and nourished on the
ternel, which they effectually destroy. I'hc only way of lessening this evU is by taking care to de-

BookI.

NATIVE, OR NEGLECTED FRUITS.

'45

498

Btroy all the nuts so infested, in order that the larvse may never attain to the fly

4762. T%e Rev. G. Swayne having had a plantation of filberts, which for
the 20 years of their existence had produced very little fruit, began to suspect
a want of male blossoms. He therefore selected a number of catkins from the
common hazel, and suspended them over the scarlet blossom of his filberts ;
and the result was, that the first year he had more fruit than he had dunng the
20 preceding years. To prove that it was owing to the farina of the male
blossoms, he tried some with and some without this assistance, and found the fruit produced as the
male blossoms applied. He taught this mode to a neighboring farmer's wife who had a row of barren
trees, and she was " much delighted" with the plan ; put it in execution the next day, and the same
season sent her instructor 6 lbs. of very fine filberts from four old stunted trees that had not borne one
for many years. {Hort. Trans, v. 316.)

47G3. Taking the crop. " The maturity of the fruit is indicated by the cup turning
brown, and by tlie nuts, which have also become brown, readily qtiitting the husk.
House a quantity for keeping ; gather them in bunches as they grow. If a portion,
after being properly dried, be laid in boxes, and covered with dry sand to exclude the
air, it will tend to preserve the kernels from shrinking ; and they will thus keep well for
a month or two." Braddick's mode of keeping nuts two years by closing them up air-
tight in emptied butter-firkins has been already niijntioned. (2308.)

Sect. V. Native, or neglected Fruits, deserving Cultivation.
4764. Though some of our native fruits recommend themselves by their already known
atility, as the cranberry ; yet others, as the sorb, haw, &c. are only mentioned with a
view of directing scientific horticulturists of leisure and means, to try what can be done
in improving them. We shall enumerate them in the order of stone-fruits and berries.

4765. The sloe is the Prunus spinosa, L. {Eng. Bat. 842.) Icos. Monog. L. and Rosaceee, J. Ripe, it
makes an excellent preserve ; unripe, the inspissated juice forms the G«rman acacia, and aflTords an almost
indelible ink used to mark linens. It is used in home-made wines, to communicate the color and rough-
ness of red port ; and the leaves are employed to adulterate the teas of China. Knight and others consider
the sloe as the parent of the bullace (P. insitUia], and all the varieties of the common plum {P. domesticd).
As a shrubbery plant the sloe is most ornamental, blossoming before all others of the prunus tribe.

4766. The bird-cherry is the Prunus padus. {Eng. Bat. 1383.) The fruit is nauseous to most palates ;
but infused in gin or whiskey it great'.y improves these spirits, and is only surpassed by an infusion of peach-
leaves. A few trees therefore are desirable, especially in Scotland and Ireland.

4767. The mountain-ash is the Sorbi/s Aucuparia, L. Pyrus Aucuparia, E. B. {Eng. Bot. 337.) Icos. Di-
Pent. L. and Rosaceee, J. The berries are eaten in some parts of Scotland and Wales, and afford an
agreeable fermented liquor, and, by distillation, a strong spirit. Grafted on the service-tree, as is fre-
quently done in France, the fruit is said to become larger and more abundant. {Neill, in Hart. Tour, 364.)

4768. The wild seruice {Pyrus torminalis,\y.) \,Eng. Bot. 298.) (^.499), the bastard service {P. pin-
natifida, E B.) {Eng. Bot. 2331.) {fig. 500.), and the whitebeam-tree {P. Aria) {Eng. Bot. 1838.), aSbrd
agreeable mealy berries, with much less acid than those of the mountain-ash. These trees are most
ornamental in shrubberies or on lawns ; and the two last are not undeser\ing a place in orchards.

499

4769. The tree-currant {Ribes spicatum, L. {Eng. Bot. 1290.) Pentand. Monog. L and Cacti, J.) aSbrds
a fruit somewhat smaUer and more acid than the common red currant ; but by crossing and ciiltivation
might, no doubt, be greatly improved ; and from its comparatively tree-like habits, might be a more
convenient fruit-shrub in respect to crops below or around it.

4770. The common bramble, Rubus fruticosus, L. {Eng. Bot. 715.) Icos. Polyg. L. and Rosaceee, J. The
fruit is powerfully acid and astringent, forms agreeable pies and tarts, m^icinal gargles, and may also
be used raw. There are two single varieties, the white-fruited and smooth, and one with double
blos.soms.

4/ /I. The cloud-berry, Rubus Cham/smorus, L. {Eng. Bot. 716.) {figs. 20. and 501.) '♦ In Scotland," Neill
observes, " the fruit is also called roebuck-berries or knot-berries, and they are perhaps the most grateful
and useful kind of fruit gathered by the Scots Highlanders. On the sides and near the bases of the
mountains it may be collected for several months in succession. It is not cultivated without difficulty
and it seldom yields its fruit in a garden." By raising from seed, and again from the seeds of plants so
raised, and so on for six or eight generations, perhaps at the same time crossing the flowers with those of
the bramble or raspberry-, in all probability this plant might become a valuable accession to the kitchen-
garden. Its berries are ripe in September. (See a curious paper in Caled. Hort. Mem. L 383.) In Lapland
and Sweden the fruit is much prized, and used for a great variety of purjjoses. Dr. Clarke, as we have
seen (249.) found it medicinal. {Scandinavia, chap, xv.)

746

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

4772. The dwarf crimson
bramble {Rubus arcticiis)
{Eng. Bot. 1585.) {fig. 502.)
produces an excellent berry,
found only on the highest
and wildest mountains of
Scotland. By successional
sowing of the seeds on differ-
ent levels, doubtlsss it might
be brought down, step by
step, to live and produce fruit
on plains, and in appropriate
parts of gardens.

4773. The dewberry (liu.
bus ceE^ius) {Eng. Bot. 826.)
I fig. 503.), the stone- bratnble
(Rubus saxatiUs ) {Eng. Bot.
2233.) ( fig. 5(J4. a), and the up.
right bramble {Rubus sube-
rectus) {Eng. But. 2572.) {fig.
SOi. b), afTord agreeable acid
and aromatic fruits, which
come in late in the season,
and merit attempts with a
view to accommodating them
to habits of cultivation. The same remarks will apply to a plant common in the woods of Russia and
Poland, and which Dr. Clarke has figured, and named Cripsia ; but which appears to be a species of
rubus, and probably a variety of It suberectus.

4774. The
snowberry is
the GauUhe-
ria serpyllifo-
//a,P.S.; Vac-
cinium hispi-
dulmn, L. ;
and Chiogenes
of Salisbury.
{Mich. Am. i.
t. 23.) Decan.
Monog. L. and
Ericete, J.
" At Shaw-
hill, near Ha-
lifax, it pro-
duced fruit
abundantly,
planted under
a north wall,
shaded behind
by high trees,
in a border of
sandy peat ;
and it succeed-
ed pretty well in nearly a similar situation at Chapel Allerton, during the eighteen years of my resi-
dence at that place, often ripening its berries ; hut they being httle esteemed, I only preserved a patch of
it as a rare plant. The flavor of the fruit, however, is exceedingly agreeable to some persons, being
strongly perfumed, like eau de noyau, or bitter almonds, and mixed with a pleasant acid. I now regret
that I never tried the berries baked with sugar in a tart : if gathered before they are too soft, they may,
no doubt, be preserved in bottles, like cranberries, and possibly prove a valuable addition to our win-
ter fruits of that sort." {Salisbury, in Hart. Trans, vol. ii.)

4775. The purple or common bilberry, blackberry, or whortleberry, {Vaccinium Myrtillus, L.) {Eng. Bot.
456.) is another bog-plant common in Britain and the north of Europe. The berries are gathered in au-
turan for making tarts ; in Devonshire they are eaten with clotted cream ; in Polaiul they are ripe in July,
and, being mixed with wood-strawberries, and eaten with new milk, are considered a great delicacy. In
th^ Highlands of Scotland they arc eaten with milk, and made into jellies. They may be successfully cul-
tivated in a shady border of bog-earth.

4776. The red bilberry, or crowberry, Vaccinium Fitis Idrea, Ij. {Eng. Bot. 598.) The fruit is acid and some-
what bitter, but makes a very good rob or jelly, which in Sweden is eaten with all kinds of roast meat,
and forms a sauce for venison, which is thought superior to currant jelly. In Wales we have experienced
it to be an excellent addition to roast mutton. It may be cultivated m a moist shady border of bog-earth,
like the common bilberry.

4777. The broad-leaved whortleberry ( Vaccinium amcenum, L.) {Bot. Rep. 138.) is cultivated at Enghien, in
the Due d'Aremberg's garden, and the fruit used in the same way as the cranberry. {Neill, in Hort.
Tour, 322.)

Chap. X.
horticultural Catalogue. — Exotic Fruits.

4778. Among exotic fruits we comprehend such fruits as require the aid of artificial
heat to bring them to perfection, and among these we have included the vine and the fig ;
for though these fruits ripen in the open air in very favorable situations and warm seasons,
yet it is allowed on all hands, that in by far the greater number of situations and sea.sons,
grapes and figs, grown in the open air, do not attain any thing like their proper size and
flavor. Exotic fruits may be arranged as follows : —

4779. Those in general cultivation ; as the pine, vine, fig, melon, and cucumber.

Book I. EXOTIC FRUITS. 747

4780. Tliose well known, but neglected, as such ; as the orange, pomegranate, olive,
Indian fig, torch-thistle, and strawberry-pear.

4781. Tliose lUde hioiotv, some of which seem to merit cultivation ; as the akee-tree,
alligator-pear, anchovy-pear, durion, guava, granadilla, jamrosade, raalay apple, lee-
chec, loquat, mango, mangosteen, pishamin, and various others.

4782. IVie varieties of some of these species, as the vine, fig, and melon are very great ;
in making a selection we would recommended the plan submitted as to the selection of
tiardy fruits. (4367.)

Sect. 1. Exotic Fruits in general Cultivation.

4783. T/ie exotic fruits in general cultivation include the three first fruits in the world;
the pine pre-eminent for its flavor ; the vine, for its generous and enlivening juice ; and
the melon, approaching in flavor to the pine. All circumstances considered, it is doubt-
ful if the durion, mangosteen, and other Indian fruits, equal these ; certainly no fruit
hitherto discovered in any region surpasses the pine-apple.

SuBSECT. 1. Pine-apple. — Bromelia Ananas, L. {Bot. Mag. 1554.) Hexan. Monog. L.
and Bromeliacece, 3 . Ananas, Fr., Ger., and Ital.

4784. The pine-apple is described in IMiller's Dictionary (art. Bromelia), as herba-
ceous ; but it is by others considered as a shrub. Its common name of jnne-apple is sup-
posed to be derived from the resemblance of the fruit in shape to the cone of some spe-
cies of pine-tree. In richness of flavor this fruit stands unrivalled ; and, as Neill ob-
serves, " it is one of the greatest triumphs of the gardener's art, to be able to boast that
it can be produced in Britain in as high perfection as in a tropical climate." The leaves
of the pine-plant are long, narrow, channelled, and in general furnished with spines or
prickles on the edges. Tlie flowers are in a loose spike, on a scape, which is leafy at
top ; " as the spike ripens, it takes the form of a fleshy scaly strobile, vulgarly called
the fruit, and composed of many coadunate berries, which have scarcely any cells or
seeds." Professor Martyn doubts whether there may not be some of the fruits with
male flowers only, and others with hermaphrodite flowers ; " because those fruits which
have seeds are remarkably different from the others when cut through the cells, in which
the seeds are lodged ; for in these they lie near to the centre of the fruit, whereas in
those which have abortive cells, they are chiefly close to the rind." South America is
generally considered the native place of the pine, though it is indigenous in uncultivated
places in Africa, in great abundance. Linnaeus ascribes it to New Spain and Surinam;
and Acosta says, that it v, as first sent from the province of Santa Croce, in Brasil, into
the West, and afterwards into the East Indies. Professor Martyn thinks it may be com-
mon to the tropical parts of the three continents. The pine-plant has been long culti-
vated in Jamaica and other West India islands with great success, and was introduced
to the gardens of Europe by Le Cour, of Leyden, about the middle of the seventeenth
century. Tliis gentleman. Miller informs us, received his first plants from America,
and " after a great many trials with little or no success, did at length hit upon a proper
degree of heat and management, so as to produce fruit equally good (though not so large)
as that which is produced in the West Indies. " From Le Cour " our gardens in Eng-
land were first supplied with this king of fruits ;" and it is " commqnly said that Sir
Matthew Decker, of Richmond, was its earliest cultivator ;" but, as a botanical plant,
it was introduced so far back as 1690, by Bentick. (Hort. A'etv.) Miller informs us,
that at first the plants were kept in dry stoves, during winter, placed on scaffolds, after
tlie manner in which orange-trees are placed in a green-house ; and that in summer, they
were removed to hot-beds of tanners' bark, under frames. They soon, however, began
to erect " low stoves," called succession-houses, and bark-pits under deep frames, for the
suckers and crowns. Bradley informs us, that by the year 1730, pine-stoves of the dif-
ferent kinds were established in all the principal English gardens ; and Justice, in his
Britis/i Gardener's Directory, published in 1744, states, that pine-apple stoves had also
been erected in Scotland, and he gives the plan of one erected by him in his own garden
at Crichton, near Edinburgh, in the year 1732, in which the pine was fruited for the first
time in Scotland. He recommends such as intend cultivating this fruit, to get their
plants and furnaces (the latter cast in one piece) of Scott, of Tumham Green, London,
and their thermometers from Coles, in Fleet-street.

4785. Use. It is the first of dessert-fruits ; and is also preserved in sugar, and made
into marmalades and other confectionaries. In preparing to eat this fruit, first twist out
the crown and then cut the fruit into horizontal slices : these being served, the rind and
scales of the pips are pared oflf by the guest with a knife and fork. {Speedily.)

4786. Varieties There are many varieties of this fruit, independently of some dis-
tinct species, as the B. Penguin and B. Karatas ; the fruit of these species being some-
times eaten in tlie West Indies. If the seeds of the ananas were sown frequently in
their native country, Professor Martyn considers that varieties might be rendered 33 nu-

748

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

merous as those of the apple and pear. Miller, in sowing the seeds, found a variety of
sorts produced from the same fruit ; and Speechly mentions, that he raised in 1768 above
seventy plants, from seeds sent to the Duke of Portland from the West Indies, most of
which varied in some distinctive circumstance, either in their leaves or fruit. Many
of these fruits turned out of inferior quality, probably from the seeds having been
gathered indiscriminately. Seeds are not usually produced in this country ; when they
occur it is generally in those pines which blossom in August, and ripen their fruit in
December. {Buck, in Hort. Trans, iv. 535.) The most esteemed varieties in present
cultivation are —

The old queen. Fruit oval-shaped, and
of a gold color. Ksteemed the hardiest
kind, and fruited in fifteen or eighteen
months. The fruit tprows to a large
si/e, often weighing from three to four
pounds. It is much more certain of
showing fruit at a proper age and season
than most of the other sorts, and hats a
just preference in most hot-houses.

Ripley's new queen. A subvariety of
the old queen, with a large elegant
fruit ; fruited also in an equzdly short
period.

Welbeck seedling ; fruit small, generally
broader at the head than at the base ;
of a pale yellow, or sulphur color, with
very flat pips ; flesh white and tender,
nch in flavor, with less acidity than is
found in most other pines. (Hort.Tram.
iv. 213.)

Pyramidal, or brown sugar loaf. Cone-
shaped, and dark-colored till it ripens ;
the leaves brownish, and flesh yellow.

Prickly striped sugar-loaf. Cone-shaped,
the fruit of a golden color, the leaves
striped with black or purjile lines.

Smooth striped sugar-loaf; similar to the
above, but the leaves not pricklv.

Havannah. Tankard-shaped; dark-co-
lored till it ripens.

Montserrat. Tne leaves of a dark -brown,
inclining to purple in the inside; truit
middle sized and tun-shaped, and the
pips or protuberances of the fruit being
larger and flatter than in the other
kinds.

King pine, or shining green. The leaves
of a grass-green, the pulp hard and
rather ctrin^-, but of good flavor when
ripe.

Green, or St. Vincent's pine. A rare va-
riety ; when ripe the fruit is of an olive
hue, middle-sized, and pyramidal.

Black Antigua. The fruit is shaped like
the frustum of a pyramid; leaves of a
brownish tinge, and drooping at the
extremities, with strong prickles, thinly
scattered. The pips of^ the fr\iit are
large, often an inch over ; and it at-
tJiins a large size, weighing from three
to four pounds It is of a dark color
till it ripens; very juicy, and high
flavored.

Black Jamaica. The fruit is large, and
the plants similar in character and*
habits to the above.

Providence pine, or new providence.
There are two varieties, the white and
green ; the fruit is larger than that of
any of the kinds cultivated in this
country; the form inclining to pyra-
midal; the color at first brownish-
grey, but when mature of a pale-yellow
The flesh yellow and melting, abound-
ing with quick lively juice. Speechly
produced in the gardens at Welbeck, in
1794, a fruit that weighed five pounds
and a quarter, or eighty-four ounces,
and from a plant that was not a large
one. GriflSn had, in 1803, two plants

S laced under his care, which fruited in
uly 1804, the fruit of one plant weigh-
ing ieuen pounds two ounces, and the other
nine pounds three ounces, avoirdupois.

' This sort, and the two preceding, re
quire generally three years, and some-
times four or five to produce their fruit.

'What is called the old providence, is a
small fruit from one of the Bermuda
islands of that name.

Blocid red ; fruit equal in bulk at both
ends. I'ips of moderate size, color
brick red ; flesh white and opaque ;
leaves of a changeable hue ; the flavor
of the fruit being inferior to that of mo!.t
others, this is to be considered merely
as a curious variety. (Hort. Trans, iv.
214.)

Silver-striped queen. Leaves beautifully
striped with white, yellow, and red ; but
the plant, though elegant, is a reluctant
fruiter.

Variegated-leaved pines. Besides the
strii)ed-leaved queen, there are several
sorts with beautifully varied leaves and
fruits, and some with red or brown
leaves ; but in general they are tardy in
fruiting, and more to be considered as
ornamental than as useful varietie .

New sorts. Pine plants are frequently
imported from the West Indian islands,
and in this case generally bear their
names. In general, however, these
plants are far inferior, both as to kinds
and condition, to those grown, and to
be procured from nurserymen in tliis
country. They are generally infested
with the bug, and vei7 uncertain in
thtir time of fruiting, as well as to their
flavor. If these were to be enumerated,
the list of pines known in this coun-
try would amount to upwards of forty
sorts. Specimens of above thirty sorts
are grown in tlie gardens of Gunter,
at Karl's-court. The globe pine-apple,
a subvariety of the queen, was sent to
Russia, above thirty years ago, by I.od-
dige, and isnow reiniportcd urd,er the
name of the Russian gli;be. (Hort.Trant.
v. 2C5.)

505

4787. The insects which more especially in-
fest the pine are, the brown turtle bug (Coccus
hesperidtwh L.) (Jig. 505. a to e). The female
has at first the appearance of a flat scale (a) ;
afterwards, when depositing its eggs, it becomes
fixed and turgid (6) ; these eggs (c) are hatched
under the mother, who soon afterwards dies;
the young insects, seen under a magnifier,
appear like turtles in miniature (rf). Only
the males (e), which are few in proportion to
the females, have wings ; these devour nothing,
and having performed the office of impregna-
tion, die.

4788. The white scaly bug (C hesp. var.)
(fto t) bears a considerable resemblance to the
above ; but the scale (f) is somewhat smaller ;
the color is white, and the males or flies (/) not so large as those of the brown.

4789. The white mealy crimson-tinged biig (C. hesp. var.) (n and m) diflTers from the
former in being larger and crimson-colored. Speechly considers it as viviparous. This
and the former species are much the most pernicious. The various modes of destroy-
ing them, and also the other insects which attack the pine, have been already detailed.

SuBSECT. 2. Grape- Vine. — Vitis Vinifera, L. (Jac. Ic. i. t. 50.) Penlan.
Monog. L. and Vites, J. Vigne, Fr. ; Weintrauben, Ger. ; and Vigna, Ital.

4790. The grapes-vine is a trailing, deciduous, hardy shrub, with a twisted irregular
stem, and long flexible branches, decumbent, like those of the bramble, or supporting
themselves when near other trees, by means of tendrils, like the pea. The leaves are
large, lobed, entire, or serrated and downy, or smooth ; green in summer, but when ma-
ture, those of varieties, in which the predominating color is red, constantly change to, or
are tinged with some shade of that color ; and those of white, green, or yellow grapes, as
constantly change to a yellow, and are never in the least tinged either with purple, red,
or scarlet. The breadth of the leaves varies from five to seven or ten inches, and the
length of the foot-stalks from four to eight inches. The flowers are produced on the
shoots of the same year, which shoots generally proceed from those of the year preceding .

GRAPE-VINE. 749

they are in the form of a raceme, of a greenish-white color, and fragrant odor, appear-
ing in the open air in this country in June ; and the fruit, which is of tlie berry kind, at-
tains such maturity as the season and situation admit, by the middle or end of Sep-
tember. The berry or grape is generally globular, but often ovate, oval, oblong, or
finger-shaped ; the colors green, white, red, yellow, amber, and black, or a variegation
of two or more of these colors. The skin is smooth, the pulp and juice of a dulcet,
poignant, elevated, generous flavor. Every berry ought to enclose five small heart or
pear shaped stones ; though, as some generally fail, they have seldom more than three,
and some varieties, as they attain a certain age, as the ascalon or sultana raisin, none.
The weight of a berry depends not only on its size but on the thickness of its skin, and
texture of the flesh, the lightest being the thin-skinned and juicy sorts, as the sweetwater
or muscadine ; and what are considered large berries of these varieties, will weigh from
five to seven pennyweights, and measure from one to two thirds of an inch in girth. A
good-sized bunch of the same sorts may weigh from two to six pounds ; but bunches
have been grown of the Syrian grape, in Syria, weighing forty pounds, and in England
weighing from ten to nineteen pounds. A single vine in a large pot, or grown as a
dwarf standard in the manner practised in the vineyards in the north of France,
ordinarily produces from three to nine bunches ; but by superior management in
gardens in England, the number of bunches is prodigiously increased, and one plant, that
qf the red Hamburgh sort, in the vinery of tlie royal gardens at Hampton Court, has
produced 2200 bunches, averaging one pound each, or in all nearly a ton. That at
Valentine's, in Essex, has produced 2000 bunches of nearly the same average weight.

4791. The age to luhich the vine will attain in warm climates is so great as not to be
known. It is supposed to equal or even to surpass that of the oak. Pliny speaks of a
vine which had existed six hundred years ; and Bosc says, there are vines in Burgundy
upwards of four hundred years of age. In Italy there are vineyards which have been in a
flourishing state for upwards of three centuries ; and Miller tells us, that a vineyard a
hundred years old is reckoned young. The extent of the branches of the vine, in certain
situations and circumstances, is commensurate with its produce and age. In the hedges
of Italy and woods of America, they are found overtopping the highest elm and poplar
trees ; and in England, one plant trained against a row of houses in Northallerton
(lately dead), covered a space, in 1585, of one hundred and thirty-seven square yards; it
was then above one hundred years old. That at Hampton Court, nearly of the same
age, occupies above one hundred and sixteen square yards ; and that at Valentine's, in
Essex, above one hundred and forty-seven square yards. The size to which the trunk
or stem sometimes attains in foreign countries, is so great as to have afforded planks
fifteen inches broad, furniture, and statues ; and even in this country, the Northallerton
vine above mentioned, in 1785, measured four feet in circumference near the ground ;
and one branch of the Hampton Court vine measures one hundred and fourteen feet
in length. Vine timber is of great durability. It may be remarked, that vines regu-
larly pruned and dressed, can rarely attain similar magnitudes, nor is it desirable that
they should.

4792. T/ie native country of tlie vine, like most of our acclimated fruits, is generally
considered to be Persia ; and Dr. Sickler [Gesckichte der Obst. Cult. vol. i.) has given a
learned and curious account of its migration to Egypt, Greece, and Sicily. From Sicily
it is supposed to have found its way to Italy, Spain, and France ; and in the latter coun-
try it is believed to have been cultivated in the time of the Antonines, in the second century.
It has been found wild in America, and is now considered as a native, or natu-
ralised in the temperate climates of both hemispheres. In the old world, its culture
forms a branch of rural economy from the 21st to the 51st degree of north latitude, or
from Schiraz in Persia to Coblentz on the Rhine. Some vineyards are to be found even
near Dresden and in Moravia ; and by means of garden-culture, it is made to produce
fruit for the table still farther north ; being grown to a considerable degree of perfection
in the hot-houses of St. Petersburgh and Stockholm.

4793. The introduction of the vine to Britain is supposed by some to have taken place
under the first Roman governors, though, from Tacitus, it appears to have been wanting
in Agricola's time. There is evidence, however, to prove that vineyards were planted here
in the year 280, A. D. (see 312.) ; and Bede, writing in 731, says, there were vineyards
growing in several places. Harte observes, that the religious fraternities of the dark
ages spread out from Italy in all directions, carrying with them the knowledge of agri-
oilture and gardening ; there is little doubt, Professor Martyn remarks, that orchards and
vineyards were common appendages to abbeys and monasteries from their first establish-
ment, at least in the southern parts of the island, to the time of the reformation. From
this period they have disappeared, in part, perhaps, from the culture of the vine being little
understood by those to whom the lands of religious houses were sold or granted ; and in
part, because a better article would be introduced from our French provinces in the time
of the Henries, and continued to be imported when we lost these.

'^^O PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4794. Vineyards have also been planted in modern times, and wine produced, nearly,
if not entirely equal, to that of France. In the Museum Rusticum, it is stated, that at
Arundel Castle in Sussex, the Duke of Norfolk had a vineyard, of which there were in
lois Grace's cellar, in 1763, above sixty pipes of excellent Burgundy. Bradley informs
us, that Warner, a gentleman of Rotherhithe, made good wine from his own vineyards.
Switzer mentions several instances, and among others, that of Rocque, of Walham
Green, who made wine for thirty years from a vineyard he had planted in a common JteUl-
garden. Hanbury and Hales confirm these accounts, and cite others ; and Barry, in his
History of Wines, gives an account of a very productive vineyard, formed by the Hon.
. Charles Hamilton, at Painshill, in Miller's time, which succeeded for many years, and
produced excellent champagne. It is not yet twenty years since this vineyard was ne-
glected or destroyed. There can be no hesitation, therefore, in agreeing with these
authors, and with Miller, Martyn, and Speechly, that vineyards would succeed in various
parts of England, and produce wine equal to much of that imported from France.
But, in a national point of view, we may conclude with equal safety, that the culture of
the vine, as a branch of rural economy, would not be a profitable concern here, on the
broad general principle, that it cannot be long worth while to grow any thing at home
•which we can get cheaper from abroad. The high duties on imported wines may seem
to bear against this opinion ; but this is merely a temporary cause ; for, in the progress
of international commerce, governments gradually discover the advantage of leaving trade
comparatively free ; and in proportion as this becomes the case, each country will feel its
advantage in pursuing those branches of industry in which nature or habit has ren-
dered it pre-eminent. It may, however, afford much rational satisfaction for indi-
viduals, in favorable situations, to form vineyards, and drink their own wine.

4795. Grapes for the table appear to have been in demand as early as the beginning of
the 16th century ; for Tusser includes " grapes white and red," in his list of fruits, pub-
lished about the year 1560 ; but as far as appears from horticultural literature, the
vine had only been grown as dwarf standards, or trained against walls or buildings, till
the beginning of the 18th century. Stoves for preserving curious exotics had been in-
troduced soon after the middle of the 17th century ; but we find no mention of the ap-
plication of artificial heat to the vine, till 1718, when Lawrence informs us, in his
Frniit- Gardener, published that year, " that the Duke of Rutland, at Belvoir Castle, has
done so much justice to the vine as to have fires constantly burning behind his slope
walls, from Lady-day to Michaelmas ; whereby he is rewarded by the largest grapes,
and even the best Frontignacs, in July." These sloped walls, we are informed, were
afterwards covered with glass. Switzer {Pract. Fruit. G. 2 edit. 1763.) appears to be
the first author who gives a regular plan of a vinery, with directions for forcing the
grape. He advises making fires as early as the middle of December, so as to make the
vines push by the middle of January. Since his time, the art of forcing has made such
rapid progress that no kitchen-garden worth notice is now without a vinery : the fruit is
produced in some vineries during every month of the year ; and in the London markets
is to be had in the highest degree of perfection from March to January. Vines are at
the same time still grown on walls unaided by fire-heat, and in favorable seasons, the
more hardy early sorts attain a tolerable degree of maturity. In the nursery-gardens of
Joseph Kirke at Brompton, a wall upwards of two hundred and twenty yards long, and
ten feet high, is covered with plants of the white muscadine, which have produced regu-
lar crops for many years. On the border to this wall are standard vines of the same
sort, trained to stakes about four feet high, which also bear in proportion, though the
fruit does not ripen quite so early, nor attain an equal degree of flavor with that on the
wall. In propitious seasons these grapes attain a tolerable degree of flavor ; but even
then they are of little value, compared to those grown in vineries and hot-houses.

4796. Use. The uses of the grape in Britain are well known ; in the dessert it ranks
next the pine, and is by some preferred to it. The berries, when green or not likely to
ripen, may be used in tarts or pies ; and the lea'^s form an elegant garnish to other
table-fruits. Wine is sometimes made in England, by expressing and fermenting the
juice, either alone or with that of other fruits ; and it has even been made from decoc-
tions of the leaves of some sorts. In warmer climates, the grape is not only used in the
dessert, but eaten with bread, either newly gathered or dried as raisins ; and in these
countries, from the fermented juice, a wine or liquor is made superior to all others for
stimulating the stomach, and exhilarating the spirits of man. Some of the most im-
portant consequences in the mythological history of man, are referred to its last-men-
tioned qualities. (See the Histories of Lot, Noah, and Bacchus.) The medical products
of the vine are verjuice, formerly used as the juice of lemons : tartar, a gentle cathartic :
vinegar, used as a condiment ; for extracting the virtues of other medicines ; and for
counteracting the effects of vegetable poisons. Even wine itself is given as a medicine,
in typhus fevers ; in nervous disorders ; in putrid sore throats ; and even in the plague.
« In almost all cases of languor, and great prostration of strength," Martyn observes,

Book I.

GRAPE-VINE.

751

'< wine is a more grateful and efficacious cordial than can be furnished from the whole
class of aromatics. "

4797. Varieties. These are exceedingly numerous ; partly from the antiquity of the
vine, it having, as Professor Martyn remarks, been cultivated from the time of Noah ;
partly from tlie influence of soils and climates in changing the qualities of grapes, there
being hardly two vineyards in France or Italy where the sorts, though originally the
same, remain long precisely alike ; but chiefly, as far as respects this country at least,
from the facility with which new sorts are procured from seed. Tusser, in 1560, men-
tions only " white and red" grapes. Parkinson, who was more of a horticulturist,
gives, in 1627, a list of twenty-three sorts, including the white muscadine, " very great,
sweet, and finn ; some of the bunches have weighed six pounds, and some of the berries
half an ounce." Ray, in 1688, enumerates twelve sorts as then most in request, Rea,
in 1702, gives most of those in Ray's list, and adds five more sorts, recommending the
red, white, and the d'Arbois, or royal muscadine, the Frontignacs, and the blood-red,
as the fittest sorts for England. The best vines, he says, were then on the walls of the
physic-garden at Oxford.

4798. Switzer, in 1717, says, " It is to Lord Capel and Sir William Temple that we are owing that col-
leclion of good grapes now so plenty in England; the latter," he says, " brought over the Chasselas,
l)arsley, and Frontignac ; and also the Amboyna, Burgundy, black muscat, and grizzly Frontignac ; all
highly approve<l, and distributed amongst the nurserjmen, as well as the nobility and gentry. The best
grapes," he tells us, " were grown at Twickenham, Isleworth, and Kichmond." Specchly, from 1760 to
179<), excelled in the culture of the vine at Welbeck.

4799. The most valuable tnodern additions to the varieties of grapes in this country have been procured
bv sowing the seeds of sorts ripened in this country. That excellent grape, the red Hamburgh, was raised
from seed, about a century ago, by Warner, of Rotherhithe, already mentioned. Miller in the same way
produced the variety of the black cluster, which bears his name. Specchly produced various new sorts,
which have now a place in the catalogues of nurserymen. Williams of Pitmaston, Braddick of Thames
Ditton, and, above all, the President of the Horticultural Society, have raised several excellent varieties
of the Sweetwater, Chasselas, and Hamburgh grapes. The great attention paid to natural history by such
as go abroad, has also contributed to the number of grapes. New sorts have been sent from Spain, Italy,
and the East Indies, and many from France ; so that the lists of some British nurserymen exceed two
hundred and fifty names. In France, during the consulship, in 1801, the celebrated chemist, Chaptal,
\vhen minister of the interior, ordered a specimen of everj- known variety of the grape to be collected
from the different departments where the vine is grown, and planted in the nursery of the Luxemburg
garden, with a view to ascertain their respective merits. Though this assortment was never completed,
the number collected amounted to upwards of three hundred distinct varieties.

4SW3. A classiJicatioH of the nutnerous varieties of the vine has not yet been made, either in France or
England. Bosc, the inspector of government-nurseries in France, was employed to compare and class
those collected at the Luxemburg ; but in 1809 he had only succeeded in describing and figuring fifty dis-
tinct sorts. The groundwork of his classification was, the color, form, and size of the fruit ; the surface,
margin, texture, color, and position of the leaves ; and the redness, greenness, or variegation of the
foot-stalks. From these eleven characteristics combined, he forms 156 classes, in which, he says, may be
placed all the possible varieties of grapes. Bosc, aware of the great variety of considerations of another
order, which augment the number of characteristics, such as grapes which are in other respects alike,
yet differ in their time of ripening, in the time they will hang without alteration on the plant, in the
quantity produced on a plant, quality of the pulp, &c. acknowledges, that, after four years' labor, he could
offer no useful result. In the catalogue of the Luxemburg collection, published by Hervey in 1802, the
arrangement is, 1. vines with black oval fruits , 37 sorts ; 2. black round fruits, 98 sorts ; 3. white oval
fruits, 44 sorts ; 4. white round fruits, 73 sorts ; 5. grey or violet oval fruits, 5 sorts ; and 6. grey or violet
round fruits, 10 sorts : in all, 267 sorts. The most elaborate descriptions of the varieties of the vine
which have yet appeared are contained in a Spanish work, Ensayo sobre las variedades de la vid co-
mun, que vegetan en Andalusia, &c. by D. Simon Roxas Clemente, librarian to the botanic garden at
Madrid. This author founds his varieties on the character of the stem, shoots, leaves, flowers, bunches,
and berries. He describes 120 varieties, comprising them in two sections, downy and smooth-leaved. Each
section is arranged in tribes or clusters of subvarieties,- bearing one common name, and distinguished by
a common character in some of the parts of the fundamental characteristics above named, and into isolated
varieties, which he describes singly. He enumerates thirty-six authors who have written on the vine,
since Columella, by whose names he has distinguished many of his tribes; the others by their local ap-
pellations. The table of grape-vines here given is, we acknowledge, very imperfect, hut it contains all
the information which we have been able to embody from the best authors, and especially from Speechly
and Forsyth. More than triple the names it contains might have been inserted; but,' without being
accompanied by any descriptive particulars, they could be of no real use.

4S01. Estimate of sorts. As it is generally a puzzling consideration for inexperienced persons to make
a selection from the ample semi-descriptive catalogues of authors and long lists of names kept by nursery-
men, we shall here submit a few selections suitable to common cases. "

Vines to plant against a common garden-
nail of south crposure, or against the
tvaUt of a house. The Julv black,
■white muscadine, white and black
Sweetwater, small and large black and
white cluster, black esperione, &c.

To plant a vinery for early forcing.
Take the preceding sorfc;.

To plant a i-inery for a full crop qf good
grayes of various flavors. Take a
white and red, or black muscadine,
a white and red mtiscat, a white and
a red Frontignac, a black or red mus-
cadel, a white raixin-grape, a white
and red Hamburgh, a Sitwell's and
red Sweetwater, a white and red
Kice.

There are here 26 grapes of 14 distinct
flavors; an equal number of both co-
lors ; large showr bunches and berries,
as those of the Nice ; and small high-
flavcHed ones, as those of the Fion-
the whole placed in the order

in which they will ripen. The foliage
in autumn will be alternately tinged
with red and yellow ; and, supposing
the muscadines to be placed next the
end at which the flue e»uers, they will
ripen nearly a month earlier than anv
of the others: the ^fuscats, Frontig'-
njics, and .M uscadels being hot-house
grapes, will have a sufficient heat to
ripen them ; and the three last sorts,
being somewhat more tardy, will come
in succession.
To plant a vinery for a late crop. Take
the black Damascus, black Frontignac,
black Hamburgh, red Syracuse, black
and white raisin, black "and white St.

To plant a hot-house in

, &c.

muscadel, red or black Hamburgh, red
Sjrracuse, red and white raisin, black

Dama.<u:us : and for early sorts, Sitwell's
Sweetwater, royal muscadine, white
Frontignac.

To plant vines to nin up the rafters of
green-housis, or plant-stoves. Choose
such <>orts as have small leaves and
short foot-stalks.

Hardy small leaved sorts for the rafters of
a green-house. White and black sweet-
water, black cluster, black musca-
dine, parsley-leaved muscadine, black
raorillon .

Smnllleaved sorts, requiring more heat,
and Jit for the rafters of a ilant-stove.
Black Morocco, blue Frontignac, blue
tokay, claret, white Tenerifie, white
morillon, &c.

SmaU-fniited sorts for planting in pott
or boxes. Black and white Corinth,
black andwhitecluster,redandgriialy
Frontignac, white and red Buifundy^

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'•54 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

4803. Projmgation, The vine is propagated from seed, layers, cuttings, grafting, and
inoculation. By seed, for the sake of obtaining new varieties; by layers, to get strong
showy plants the first year ; by cuttings, for economy in management, and to get plants
with tops proportioned to their roots ; and by grafting and inoculation, for various useful
and curious purposes.

4804. By seed. The first thing is to select the seeds. If the object be to propagate an esteemed variety
irom which cuttings cannot be obtained, or to procure a subvariety of any esteemed sort, then select tlie
largest and best-ripened berries from the largest and best-formed bunches," out of which to take theseed*
But if the object be to procure an entirely new variety, then the first preparatory steps must betaken
•when the vines are in flower, either by bringing two or more sorts so near together as that the pollen of
the anthers may effect a promiscuous impregnation, as was practised by Speechly; or by cutting out, with
small scissors, the stamens from the flowers to be impregnated, before their anthers had burst, and in-
troducing the pollen of the variety with which it is to be crossed or impregnated, by dusting the stigma
with the ripe anthers, as was practised by Knight. This is the most certain and effectual method : the
most certain, because if the blossom destined to bear seeds be fecundated or set, it must evidently have
been set through the influence of the stranger pollen ; and the most effectual, because the stranger pollen
operating alone must have more influence on the progeny than when operating in conjunction with that
of the blossom to be crossed.

4805. As some guide for the selection of sorts to breed from, (to borrow the phraseology of a sister art )
we may state, that the legitimate object which ought to be had in view, should not merely be to obtain a
new variety, but one, either superior in the size, both of the bunch and berry, superior in flavor and de-
licacy of skin |ind flesh, superior in point of hardiness and bearing, or in earliness or lateness. In connec-
tion with each of these particulars, the form of the bunch, and the length of the foot-stalk of the fruit,
and even the size of the leaves and the length of their foot-stalks, are also objects deserving attention :
close-growing grapes, which always have short foot-stalks, being subject to many misfortunes. " All the
sorts of Frontignac grapes," Speechly observes, " are proper to add an excellency of flavor to other
kinds : but there is a superior richness in the black, blue, and red Frontignacs; and they do not partake
80 much of the strong muscat flavor as the white and grizzly do. But it must be considered, that the
blue Frontignac grows close upon the bunch, and therefore is only proper to be coupled with the loose-
growing kinds^ that have long foot-stalks. The white muscat of Alexandria produces large loose-growing
bunches, and the berries being very large and well flavored, it must be a proper kind to be coupled with
many sorts. There is a peculiar delicacy in the flesh of the white sweetwater ; it is also a remarkably
thin-skinned grape, with large berries ; consequently, it is a proper kind to couple with various sorts that
are small and less delicate. Were the red Frontignac and white sweetwater wedded together, their
union would probably produce a very valuable sort, as there would be a good chance of its being both
large and delicate, and well flavored. The Syrian vine is only admired for producing most astonishingly
large bunches, and, therefore, I would not advise the joining this coarse sort to any other except the fol-
lowing, as, in all likelihood, the offspring would only produce bunches much less" ponderous. But the
white muscat of Alexandria, having larger berries and longer foot-stalks, there would be a probability of
producing a kind between this and the Syrian grape, that would exceed the original parents both in size
and flavor." The following kinds also admit of a junction with great propriety, viz. " the black Damascus
and grizzly Frontignac; the flame-colored Tokay and red Frontignac ; the white muscat of Alexandria
and white sweetwater ; the black Frontignac and white muscadine ; the St. Peter's grape and white mus-
cat of Alexandria." Other examples might be cited, but these Speechly considers as " sufficient to stimu-
late persons of taste and curiosity to pursue an amusement that one may venture to piOiiounce will con.,
tribute both to their advantage and pleasure." He augurs, '• that the best vsort of grapes hitherto known
will at some future day be esteemed only as secondary kinds." {Treatise on the Vine, p. 44.) Ne.U observes,

, that. as several persons are now engaged in the raising of seedling vinos, in all probability some excellent
and hardy kinds will soon be produced ; so that another generation may once more see vineyards com-
mon in this country. {Ed. En. art. Hort.) Grapes, for seed, should be permitted to remain on the
■plant till the fruit is perfectly mature, and the seeds of a very dark brown color. They should be sepa-
rated from the pulp, and preserved till February or the beginning of March. Tl^ey should then be sown
.in pots filled with light fresh mould, and plunged in a moderately warm hot-bed ; they will come up in
four or six weeks, and when the plants are about six inches high, they should be transplanted singly,
into forty-eights, and afterwards into pots of larger size. Water gently, as circumstances require, allow
abundance of light and air, and carefully avoid injuring any of the leaves. Cut down the plants every
autumn to two good buds, and suffer only one of these to extend itself in the follov.-ing spriiig. Shift into
larger pots as occasion requires, till they have produced fruit. This, under good management, will take
place in the fourth or fifth year, when the approved sorts should be selected and the rest destroyed, or
used as stocks on which to graft or inarch good sorts.

4806. Forsyth, and some other authors, advise planting seedling vines the second year of their growth,
against a wall in the open air, and there letting them remain till they produce fruit. W'here there is
abundance of walling to spare, and no great haste requisite for proving the fruit, this is a very good
modfe, as the fruit in such a case is certain of growing larger, and therefore affording a better opportunity
of judging of its merits, as to size of bunch and berry. Keeping the plants in large pots, on the other
hand, though the bunches and berries may not grow quite' so large, yet as both the wood and fruit may
be ripened under glass, is a more eligible mode ; the plants will produce fruit sooner, and that fruit will
be of better flavor.

4807. Speechly says, " it would not be prudent to furnish a wall, or any part of a hot-house, with seed-
ling vines in their untried state, or before they have produced fruit ; for although the prospect of obtain-
ing good kinds from seed saved iii a hot-house, be more promising and certain th^n that of getting them
from seed of grapes in vine countries, (because there, when the vines flower, the very air is impregnated
with tlie farina of the grapes of the vineyard, which are, generally, of sorts of harsh, austere qualities,
esteemed only for making wine, and not at all fit for eating) ; yet many of the new kinds from seed will
prove to be worse sorts than the originals from which the seed was saved. A specimen, therefore, of the
fruit should be obtained from each plant, be tried and tasted before it is permitted to be planted against
the walls in a vinery or hot-house, or in any permanent situation. The fruit of seedlings is not even
always such as to render it advisable to introduce the plants in a vineyard ; for though it may not have the
sweetness, flavor, bulk, or precocity desired in an eating grape, it may be of that insipid large-berried
kind, which is fit only for making the most inferior wines. In most vine countries, a small black berry
with an austere taste, and aromatic flavor, and a close bunch like that of our black cluster, is preferred
to all others." {Treat on the Vine, 8vo. edit. p. 60.) It may be, observed, that though vine-plants raised
from the seeds of black or red grapes will generally produce red or black berries, yet they will occasionally
produce white ones ; and the produce of white berries will sometimes, in like manner, be berries of other
colors. Thus plants, from stones of the peach, will sometimes produce nectarines; and though a nec-
tarine-stone will, in general, produce a tree of the same kind, as CoUinson experienced {Smith's Correspond.
of Linn. 71.), yet it will somotimes also, as the French gardeners declare, produce trees bearing peaches.

4808. By layers. The advantages of layers are generally stated to be that of pro-
curing large showy plants that come immediately into bearing, and we have given (2957.)

Book I. GRAPE-VINE. 755

A successful instance of this practice from layers made in a vinery ; but when taken from
stools in the open air, it happens almost always that the roots of the layer are not ripened ;
the consequence of which is, tliat their extremities rot off, and the following year the
plants make hardly any shoots. Layering without, or but with a trifling incision, as is
too frequently done in'the hurry of nursery business, greatly contributes to this eflfect,
by obliging the shoot to derive all its nourishment from the parent plant or stool, to
which, in autumn, the descending sap is returned. Whereas, when a deep incision is
made, or a ring of bark taken off in Williams's manner (2168. ), less sap ascends, the shoot
is not so long, it ripens sooner, and the descending sap reposes in, and ripens the roots.
It is not easy to conceive in what way plants so raised can be inferior to those raised
from cuttings of one or of several eyes ; though it appears to be tlie general opinion that
they are not so long-lived as plants raised from one eye. " Vine-plants raised by layers,"
Speechly observes, " are much inferior to plants raised by cuttings, both in point of fu-
ture vigor and durability." Hitt wonders how any one can prefer cuttings to layers, since
the former are always one year beyond the latter.

4809. By cuttings. The advantages of propagating by cuttings are economy in labor,
economy in the wood or shoots to be propagated from, and tops or shoots proportioned
to the roots. There aretliree kinds of cuttings used in propagating vines : —

4810. Long cuttings. The first are from a foot to eighteen inches long, consisting of new or young
wood, with a joint or two of that of the preceding year. This is the sort recommended by Miller ;
adopted in forming vineyards on the continent ; and formerly also in this country in planting walls or
vineries. They are inserted so as to leave only two eyes above ground ; the earth is firmly pressed round
the lower part, to which the old wood is attached ; they are mulched, and water is supplied regularly in
dry weather. Cuttings of this sort, so treated, strike freely, as Speechly observes, either with or with-
out bottom heat. We have seen them in some French nurseries producing luxuriant shoots and branches
of grapes the first yea<. Justice says he prefers stocking a \'inery from such cuttings to using rooted
plants.

4S11. Short cuttings. The second mode is that of forming the cuttings with only one eye on young or
one-year-old wood, and a few inches of that of the preceding year attached. " Each cutting should have
two inches of the old wood, with one eye of the new. The bottom part should be cut perfectly smooth ;
plant in pots, one cutting in each pot, which, as to size, should be a forty-eight. When the plants begin
to get strong, and the pots full of roots, it will be necessary to shift them from the forty-eights to the
thirty-twos." [Speechly.)

4812. Single eyes. By the third mode, the cuttings have only a single eye on young or one-year-old
wood. This mode was first adopted by the Rev. M. Mitchell, and by him communicated to Speechly,
about the year 1770. The following is Speechly's reasoning in its favor : " It is allowed," he says, " that
cuttings are generally preferable to layers, and that plants of any sort raised from small cuttings, com-
monly make the best plants. The new plant is injured in proportion as it partakes too abundantly of its
original or mother plant Hence, the less the bulk of the matter that forms the new plant the better ; for
plants raised from seed have the smallest beginning of any, and are preferable both to layers and cut-
tings." {Tr. on fine, 52.) Perhaps, the chief advantage of propagating by eyes in preference to short
or long cuttings or layers, is, that the sets are more manageable, and can be more readily potted and
placed in pits or frames to receive bottom heat ; on which, applied early in spring and continued through
summer, accompanied by proper shiftings and waterings, much more than on the form of the cuttings,
depend abundance of roots and fitness for bearing the second year. We have seen single eyes raised
in pineries, produce strong shoots from ten to twenty feet the first year, and others, in cold frames or pits,
with only a little bottom heat to start the plants in spring, produce weak shoots, not longer than two or
three feet. Ripe wood is to be chosen for propagating by eyes ; and though some are of opinion that cut-
tings taken from the lower part of the vine are preferable to those that grow higher and at a distance
from the root, yet Speechly says, he never could find any difference, provided the wood was equally well
ripened. Forward shoots, froin \ines forced early, he considers as the most eligible ; and these will ge-
nerally be found at the most distant parts from the root, as vines generally break first at the extremities
of the shoots; and at these extremities will be found both the strongest, earliest, and best-ripened wood,
and largest and most abundant bunches of fruit. Very strong shoots abound too much with pith to make
good cuttings, the requisites to which are as foUow : " 1. The eye or bud should \>e large, prominent,
and bold. 2. The shoots should be moderately strong, round, and short-jointed. 3. The texture of the
wood should be.close, solid, and compact ; and the best criterion of its maturity is, its soliditv, and hav-
ing ver5' little pith." {Tr. on Vine, 57.) " Choose fit shoots at the pruning season, and preseK-e them till
wanted in spring, by cutting them into moderate lengths, and placing their lower ends in earth, which must
be moistened, if it get very dry. Cut the upper part of the shoot sloping, with a sharp knife, about a quarter
of an mch above the eye ; and, at about three inches below the eye, cut off the wood horizontally, or right
across, and smooth the section." In some of the London nvurseries, Speechly's mode of forming vine-
cuttmgs IS reversed, and the wood is cut off horizontally close below the eye, and at three inches above it :
others cut at equal distances from the eye, and burv the whole cutting in the soil, with the eve upper-
most, which appears superior even to Speechly's mode, where no bottom heat is given, as affording a
greater supply of nourishment to the young shoot Plant in pots, and apply bottom heat as in propagating
by short cuttings.

4813. By grafiing. The advantages of this mode of propagation may not at first
sight appear, but they are, Speechly observes, " many and important. " First, when a
wall, or vinerj-, is planted with inferior kinds of vines, the usual method of stubbing
them up and supplying their places with better sorts, is attended with much expense and
loss of time : as several years must elapse before the wall can be completely finished
with new vines ; but, by grafting, the nature of the vines may be changed without ex-
pense or loss of time ; for I constantly have good grapes from the same year's graft ;
and in a hot-house the gratis, if permitted, will frequently shoot thirty or forty feet the
first summer. Secondly, in small vineries, or vine-frames, where it would be incon-
venient to have any considerable variety of sorts from roots, they may be procured by
grafting different kinds upon one and the same plant. A Syrian vine now (1759) grow-
ing in the hot-house at Welbeck, produces sixteen different sorts of grapes. But the
most important advantage, Speechly considers to be, « the impro^-ing the various kinds

3 C 2

756 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part JIT,

of grapes, and particularly the small kinds, which generally make weak wood. By
grafting the weak and delicate growing vines, as the blue Frontignac, upon robust and
vigorous stocks, as the Syrian, it will produce well-sized handsome bunches, almost as
large as those of the Hamburgh." The Syrian vine, raised from seed, is greatly pre-
ferable to all odicrs for stocks. If the seed degenerate to a kind of wildness, so much
tlie greater will be the vigor of the plants, and the higher the flavor of the sorts grafted
on them. At the pruning season select cuttings for grafts from the best bearing branches,
in general preferring tlie bottom part of last year's shoot ; preserve them, by inserting
them three parts of their length in pots, till wanted. The season for grafting in stoves
is the beginning of January ; in the open air, the middle of March. On small stocks not
more than one inch in diameter, cleft-grafting will be found the most proper ; but, upon
larger stocks, whip-grafting is to be preferred. As vine-grafts do not take so freely as
those of most other fruits, the operation must be performed with the greatest care.
But the most eligible mode of grafting vines is that by approach, in which case either the
stock or scion must be growing in a pot. Strong plants, two years potted, are to be
preferred for the open air ; but, for a vinery or hot-house, plants from the nursery may
be potted, or shifted, if already in pots, and inarched the same season. In whip or cleft
grafting, the clay may be taken off when the scion has made shoots five or six inches
long ; but here both clay and bandage should remain two or three months after the graft
has formed a union, lest the grafted part spring from the stock.

4814. Knight finds grafting most successful when the lower part of the scion consists of two-year-old
wood, and when the graft is well covered ^vith clay kept moist, or if the branch be on a horizontal trellis
with a pot or saucer placed under the graft, and the point of junction kept well covered with earth occa-
sionally watered. {Hort. Trans, iv. 105.)

4815. Braddick has made several experiments on grafting vines : he found the^cion generally sodden
by the bleeding of the stalk ; but, at last, he contrived by a very close bandage round the graft to force the
sap of the stock up through the vessels of the scion, when the latter grew. From these, and various other
experiments, he says, " I feel confident in stating, that healthy vines may be successfully grafted with
young wood of the preceding year's growth, from the time that the shoots of the stocks which the grafts
are to be put uj)on, have made four or five eyes, until midsummer, with every prospect of the graft's
growing, and without the least danger of the stocks suffering by bleeding. They may likewise be grafted
with shoots of the same summer's growth, worked into the rind of the young wood, from the time that the
young bunches of grapes become visible on the stocks till July, out of doors ; or till a month later, under
glass. The operation must not be perfonned later than the periods here specified, because time is
necessary for the young shoots of the graft to become hard and ripen before winter." (Hort. Trans.
V. 204.)

4816. Culture. For the culture of the vine in the forcing department, see Chap. VII.
Sect. II. What follows concerns chiefly the management of vines in the open air.

4817. Soil. The vine will thrive in any soil that has a dry bottom ; in such as are rich and deep, it will
grow luxuriantly and produce abundance of large fruit ; in shallow, dry, chalky, gravelly, or schistous
soils, it will produce less fruit, but of better flavor. The greater part of the vineyards of France, Bosc db-
Berves {Cours complet d^Agricidture, &c. art. /%«e), are on a soil argil-calcareous: sometimes primitive,
as those near Dijon ; and sometimes secondary, as those at Bourdeaux. Argillaceous gravel is the next
in frequency, as near Nismes and Montpelier, and that which produces the I'insdes Graves of Bourdeaux.
"Both good and bad wines are produced from the debris of granites ; among the former are the cotes roties
and hermitage on the Rhone. The excellent wines of Anjou are made from vines growing among schis-
tous rocks. Wines which are made from vines planted in chalky soils, are weak, colorless, and do not
keep well, as those of Champagne. Wines grown on the ashes discharged from volcanoes are excellent,
as those of Vesuvius and Etna. Soils surcharged with oxide of iron, red or yellow, are not less proper for
making good wine. Retentive clays are the worst soils for the vine; the flowers are in great part abor-
tive ; the fruit, if it sets, does not ripen ; the shoots not ripening well are more easily affected by tVosts ;
and the wine, if any can be made, is weak and flavorless. Such a soil, even when in a warm climate, is
particularly obnoxious to the vine, as Bosc observed in the botanic garden established at Charlestown, in
South Carolina, by Michaux. There vines brought from France produced for six months in the year,
buds, leaves, and shoots; flowers, the greater part of which proved abortive, and green and ripe berries
This circumstance, he considers, will prevent the successful culture of the vine in that part of America.

4818. Switzer observes, that the soil for the vine should be light, having a bottom of chalk or gravel
under a surface of about two feet deep and free from springs ; it cannot be too hot nor too dry, provided
it be not in its own nature so very barren that nothing will grow upon it. If given to brambles, it is a
certain sign of fitness, as no plant whatever is so co-natural to the vine as this shrub. In chalky-bottomed
lands, and in gravel, which is not springy or spewy, gripes are the largest and sweetest of any ; and where
these are most abundant, we dare challenge even Paris itself to excel us. (,Pr. Fruit Gard. 149.)

4819. Hitt, having observed a vine at Belvoir Castle growing out of the stony foundation of a wall, with-
out any other roots than what were fixed therein, producing better fruit, and earlier ripe, than any other
in the open ground in these gardens, advises the mixture of lime-rubbish, brick-bats, &c. for a foot deep
in the bottom of wall-borders destined for the vine. (TV. on Fr. Tr. 12.)

4820. Lawrence says, " he cannot easily be brought to think that any soil or situation can be too dry foi
the roots of the vine, after having seen at Barnwall, near Oundle, a flourishing vine grow from between
the joints of an old castle-wall, near twenty feet high from the ground, and which produced admirable
crops of grapes when well managed." (FrwiV Garrf.) , . ^

4821. Speechhj says, " the soil in which I have known the vine to prosper in the most superlative degree
Without artificial aid, was a kind of rich sandy loam, intermixed with beds of materials like jointed slate
or stone, so very soft in its nature as almost to becapable of being crumbled between the fingers." Strong
and deep lands most suitable for tillage are the least so for vines, and hence the introduction of vineyards
would have no bad effbct respecting agriculture." {Tr. on the Vine, 29.)

4822. Manures. Dung, Speechly observes, should not be permitted to approach the roots of vines till it
be perfectly reduced to a kind of black mould. Soot, wood-ashes, pigeons' and hens' dung, he considers
too hot for the root of the vine ; pond-mud and moor-earth too cold. Stableyard-dung is too spirituous,
hot, and fiery, when introduced before its heat is thoroughly abated. Some sorts of lime are bad ; but
others might be advantageous, if introduced into vine-compost, " Vines are greatly injured in their roots
by the common practice of laying lime-rubbish for the bottom floor in the preparation of the ground.
Blood, the offal of animals or shambles' manure, horn-shavings, old rags, hair, shavings of leather, none-
dust, dung of deer and sheep, and human ordure," are admissible when duly meliorated by time, a win-

Book I. GRAPE-VINE. 757

ter's frost, and repeatedly turning over. The dust and dirt of roads, ^eechly greatly esteems ?.s a manure
for vines : its fertile nature he attributet, "in part, to the dung, urine, and other rich materials of which
it is composed ; and in part to a kind of magnetic power impressed iqpon it by fnction, and its perpetual
pulverisation." [Tr. on the Vine, p. 37.) Cow-dung is generally preferred for the vine in France ; but the
vine-growers take every sort they can get : the more careful, however, form composts of earths, leaves,
weeds, cleanings of ditches, rivers, and ponds, which they turn over a year at least before using, in some
places, littery dung is buried in trenches between the rows ; but in general, the dung, of whatever kind, is
spread on the surfoce, and regularly dug in. Green croiw are sown and dug m in some places. {Lours.
Complef, &c. art. Figne.) Forsvth considers the best manure for vines to be a mixture of vegetable mould,
rotten sjiit-dung, -ana fresh loam ; these ingredients should be thrown into a heap, and frequently turned
a year or two before it is use<l. The vine is allowed by all gardeners to be a gross feeder ; the fertility of
both the Hampton Court and Valentine's vines are attributed to their roots having found their way, the
former into a large common sewer, and the latter into a pond of stagnated muddy water. {Hort. Irans.
iii 537 ) Some vines in the hot-houses at Earl's Court produced abundance of blossoms the second year
from the eye, and the voung wootl of the same vines the third year is now vJune 1. 1820.) throwing out
laterals with large bunches of flowers ; so that these vines the third year are producing two crops, one of
whi -h is now ripe and the other in blossom. The cause of this extraordinary fertility appears to be the
soil of the border, which is coraixjsed of equal parts of garden-earth and blood mixed together, and repeaU
edly turned over one year before using.

4823. Vine-walls. A south uall is always to be preferred for vines ; though, in some
years, the hardier sorts may attain a tolerable degree of perfection on a wall considerably
inclined to the east or west. \'ines, Speechly observes, do well on low walls six feet
higli ; and it has been found that the plants grow stronger, and afford larger grapes when
they do not exceed four or five feet in height ; they enjoy in this way both the reflected
heat of the wall and of the earth. Flued walls have been tried for vines in some parts of
tlie north of England ; but Speechly, and English gardeners in general, do not approve
of the practice. In Scotland, though flued walls are more common and better under-
stood, yet vines are seldom planted in the open air. For standards or plantations in the
wav of vineyards, Switzer recommends, "that side or declivity of a hill lying to the south
or south-east, which, if favored with other hills, somewhat higher, clothed with wood on
tlie north, north-east, and north-west, will break the severity of those perishing quarters."
Speechly concurs in this opinion, adding, that the hills in the counties bordering on the
English channel, have in general declivities tending to tlie south, and are, therefore,
highly favorable for vineyards. Steeps of poor gravelly and rocky soils, in warm situ-
ations, would ^produce more under vines than under any other crop.

4S24. Sorts for the open air. Some of these have been already enumerated. (4801.) And an addition
may be made from the hardy sorts described in the table.

4825. Planting. Where a wall is to be entirely covered with vines, three plants of a sort maybe planted
at the distance of three, or if a large-leaved kind, of four feet from each other j the two outer plants to l)e
considered as temporary, to fill the wall and produce a supply of fruit ; and the centre plant to be con-
sidered as permanently to fill the space occupied by the other two. The temporary plants will, therefore,
be trained chiefly on the upper part of the wall, and the permanent ones below ; and in four or five years
the latter will be'in a state to cover the wall, when the former may be rooted out. When vines are only
planted in the intervals between other fruit-trees, or on piers, to be trained within a narrow upright space,
then one plant to each is sufhcient. Some however, as Forsyth, place two against a pier, one on each
side ; but this is more to obtain a variety of sorts than to fill the space.

4826. In pruning and training in the open air, any of the modes described as appli-
cable to forced vines (2965.) may be adopted. As they break more regularly in the
open air than when forced, the spur-method (Jig. 455.) and the fruit-tree method (Jig.
456.) seem to deserve the preference.

4S27. WiJliayns, of Fitmaston, {Hjrt. Trans, iii. 250.) describes a mode of training so as to fill up the va-
cancies of other fruit-trees, which seems well deserving attention. " A vine," he says, " might be
trained horizontally under the coping of a wall to a great distance, and by inverting the bearing shoots,
the spaces between the other fruit-trees and the top of the wall could readily be filled up, and if different
vines were inarched to the horizontal branch, the south wall of a large garden might be furnished with a
variety of sorts from the stem and root of a single plant, the roots of which would not encumber the
border in which the other fruit-trees were growing. 1 have an experiment of this kind now in progress
in my garden. With a a few years past, I have gradually trained bearing branches of a small black clus-
ter-grape to the distance of nearly fifty feet from the root, and I find the bunches every year grow larger,
and ripen earlier as the shoots continue to advance. According to Knight's theory of the circulation of
the sap, the ascending sap must necessarily become enriched by the nutritious particles it meets with in
its progress through the vessels of the alburnum ; the wood at the top of tall trees, therefore, becomes
short-jointed and full of blossom-buds, and the fruit there situated attains its greatest perfection. Hence
we find pine and fir trees loaded with the finest cones on the top boughs, the largest acorns grow on the
terminal branches of the oak, and the finest mast on the high boughs of the l)eech and chestnut ; so like-
wise apples, pears, cherries, &c. are always best flavored from the top of the tree. But I suppose there
are certain limits l)eyond which the sap would be so loaded with nutriment that it could not freely cir-
culate."

4828. Training the shoots of vines along the ground like those of melons and cucumbers has been proposed
by \ ispre {Dissert, on the Growth of IVnie in Eng. Bath, 1786.\ and was practised by him on a small scale
at Chelsea, where " the grapes were considerably larger than those of the same kind growing on a south
wall, and well ripened." Bacon had before suggested this mode, from a report that " in some places
these vines are suffered to grow like herl)s, spreading upon the ground, and the grapes of these vines are
very large, &c.'' It appears from Vispre, that the Rev. M. I^ Brocq had taken out a patent for training
fruit-trees in this manner. Speechly says, " Fruit-trees of various sorts have been so trained at Welbeck
for fourteen years ;" and we have seen the practice adopted in the Earl of Selkirk's garden at SL Mary's
Isle in Kircudbrightshire, above fifteen years ago.

4829. Growing the vine on espaliers. This maybe done, following the same directions in all respects as
for walls ; but it is evident that, under such treatment, the fruit will not come to the same degree of ma-
turity as when enjoying the shelter and reflection of a compact screen. Where wine is made from green
grapes, as is now frequently done, the practice may be preferable to growing the vine as dwarf standards.

48.j0. Growing the vine as standards. This practice may be adopted either in the borders of gardens
or in extensive plantations as vineyards, and the plants may be trained either like red currants or rasp!
berries. In the former case no stakes are used ; but about a foot from the ground, three or more shoots,

3 C 3

758 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

eighteen inches or two feet in length, diverge from the stem, and supply young wood annuaUy for bear-
ing, ine summer prunmg consists in removing shoots which have no fruit, or are not wanting for the
succeedmg season ; in topping fruit-bearing shoots, and also those for the succeeding years, when incon-
veniently long and straggling . For as by this mode the shoots destined to bear are all cut into three or
lour eyes at the winter season, no inconvenience arises from their throwing out laterals near the extre-
mities, which stopping will generally cause them to do. This mode is adopted in vineyards on dry rocky
situations where they do not run much to wood. In training standard vines, as raspberries, the single
stem at bottom is not allowed to exceed six or eight inches in height, and from this two or three shoots
are trained or tied to a single stake of three or four feet in length. These shoots bear each two or three
bunches within a foot or eighteen inches of the ground, and they are annually succeeded by others which
spring from their base ; that is, from the crown or top of the dwarf main stem. This is the mode practised
in the north of France and in Germany j in the south of France and in Italy, the base or main stem is often
Higher, and lurnished with side shoots, in order to afford a greater supply of bearing wood, which is tied
to one or more poles of greater height. The summer pruning in this case is nearly the same as in the
last. In the winter pruning, the wood that has borne is cut out, and the new wood shortened in cold si-
tuations to three or four eyes, and in warmer places to six or eight eyes.

4831. Formation of vineyards. A vineyard is a collection of standard vines, planted
in rows of a greater or less width, according to the height and mode of training proposed
to be adopted ; and according as the soil may be rich and deep, or poor and thin, or its
surface flat or inclined. A square yard of surface to each plant, when they are kept low,
may be considered as a desirable medium.

48-32. Where plantations of vines are made on the slides of very steep hills, it is sometimes customary to
form the surface into terraces or horizontal beds rising one above another. The width of these beds or
terraces depends on the regular or irregular declivity of the hill. "When the declivity is regular and the
hill steep, each terrace is narrow and supported by a wall, against which the vines are planted and trained
as on low garden-walls or espaliers ; but, in general, the irregularity of the declivity and surfaces of hills,
causes a very great inequality in the breadth and height of the terraces, and in these cases the vines are
planted as standards, according to the room afforded by the platforms of the terraces. The walls which
support these platforms in vine-countries, are generally too rude to admit of training against them, and
therefore one of the standard modes above described is almost always adopted.

4833. Sorts of erapes proper for a vineyard. On the continent the vinesreckoned best for making wine
are by no means the most agreeable to eat ; and there is always a clear distinction made between fruits to eat,
and fruits for the press, by the nurserymen, who, in general, have only plants of the former sort for sale.
The names of vineyard-grapes vary in every district ; so that were it desirous to procure sorts from France
or Germany, only a general order could be given. In this country, however, it would probably, in the
event of planting a vineyard, be found preferable to select from the sorts already acclimated, and rendered
hardy by many years' culture and propagating from seed, such as the clusters, sweetwaters, esperione,
&c. The sorts planted in the vineyard at Painshill, were the Burgundy, or large black cluster, and
the miller-grape, or small black cluster. The vineyard-grapes in France, Germany, and Italy, and we are
informed, in Spain, Portugal, and every other wine-country, may be considered as varieties or subvarieties
of the black cluster ; and the vines which are grown to produce sweet wines, as the Constantia and Malm^
sey Madeira, variations of the chassclas or muscadine.

4834. Making of wine from grapes. The making of wine is a part of domestic economy that can hardly
be considered as included under gardening. We shall, therefore, merely suggest, that where grapes are
to be pressed in any quantity, the management of the liquor should not, if possible, be left to mere empiric
practitioners. Some knowledge of the general principles of fermentation will help to guard against acci-
dents, and direct in doubtful cases. The assistance, therefore, of a person possessing some knowledge of
chemistry, or one who has been concerned in the manufacture? of British wines, will be found desirable on
such occasions. An excellent paper " On the Processes of Wine-making," will be found in the second
volume of the Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticnltuial Society, by Dr. MaccuUoch, of Woolwich. Mat-
thew-s (in the Hort. Trans, ii.), has given a receipt for making a very tolerable sort of red wine from the
leaves of the claret grape ; these leaves, it is suggested, might be employed to give color to wine pro-
duced from certain sorts of white grapes, green gooseberries, or other fruits producing a colorless fermented
liquor.

48:35. Insects which infest the vine. The red spider, of which there are many sorts, at-
tacks the leaves in spring, or early in summer ; increases prodigiously in dry weather, and
soon damages and destroys the foliage. Speechly says, red spiders " generally reside
and breed on the under side of the leaves, and the infested leaves are very distinguishable
as soon as they are attacked by them for the insect wounds the fine capillary vessels with
its proboscis, and this causes the upper surface of the leaf to appear full of very small
dots, or spots of a light color. When the acari are very numerous, they work a fine
web over tlie whole under side of the leaf, as also round the edges thereof ; and it is cu-
rious enough to observe, that they commonly carry this web in a straight line, from one
angular point of the leaf to another, on which boundary line, in a warm day, they pass
and re-pass in very great nimibers. Watering
is the only effectual means of destroying this
insect." (^Tr. on the Vine, 162.) The thrips
{Thrips, L. Latr. and Leach.) is more in-
jurious to vines in the forcing department ;
than to those in the open air. However, if
young shoots chance to receive any injury
from late spring frosts, the tender part of the
leaf will immediately curl up, and change to
a dark-brown color ; and in this state, the
thrips generally attacks them with great greedi -
jiess, especially the white sweetwater and
white muscadine kinds. The green fly some-
times attacks vines ; but seldom so as ma-
terially to injure them. Smoking destroys

Book I. FlC>. 759

both insects Tliere are two or three Iciucfs of cocci, or turtle insect, that sometimes
infest the vine, {Coccus hesperidum and adonidmn,) but they rarely do much injury in the
open air.

4836 The blue fly [Muica vomiforia, Latr.) attacks the fruit when nearly ripe, before the wasp or
birds begin to devour it. Forsyth says, " As soon as it makes its appearance, you must provide
betimes pleiity of bottles, a little more than half filled with some sweet liquor, to entice them to
enter and be drowned. Hang the bottles on the nails, at proper distances, all over the vines, and also
place some of them at the bottom of the wall." ,„ „ . ^ ^^^ , , .. ^ .

4837. T/ic ivasp [ I'espa vulgaris^, and in some places the hornet ( f . Crabro, fig. 506.), attacks the fruit
like the blue fly, and is to be destroyed in a similar manner ; or by tying up the bunches in gauze bags.

48-j8. Birda of various species, but chiefly the smaller kinds which may abound in the neighborhood,
also attack grapes. A few of them may he shot and hung up as scares ; or bagging may be adopted ; or
where there is a full regular crop over the wall, trellis, or standards, the trees may be protected by
netting or bunting. The latter wiU protect them also from the fly and wasp.

SuBSECT. 3. Fig. — Ficus Canca, L. [Trew. Eliret. t. 73, 4.) Polygam. Dicec. L.
and Urticece, J. Figuier, Fr. ; Feigenbaum, Ger. ; and Figo or Fico, Ital.
4839 The fig-tree is a low tree, a native of Asia and Barbary ; naturalised in Italy
and the south of France, and enduring the open air in the mildest parts of Britain. The
fig-tree in France and Italy grows as large as our apple-trees, but in this country seldom
exceeds two yards in height ; the trunk is about the thickness of the human arm ; the
wood, porous' and spongy ; the bark, ash-colored ; the branches smooth with oblong
white dots; the leaves annual in Europe, but perennial within tlie tropics, cordate,
ovate, three or live lobed, thick, and the size of the hand. The fruit is a berry, turbinate
and hollow within ; produced chiefly on the upper part of the shoots of the former year,
in the axils of the leaves on small round peduncles. The flower is produced within the
fruit ; what is considered as the fruit being a common calyx or receptacle : the male
flowers are few, and inserted near the opening in the extremity of the receptacle, or
fruit ; the female flowers are very numerous, and fill the rest of the hollow space within.
The greater part prove abortive, both with and without the process of caprification. Tlie
fig forms an important article of culture in the isles and borders of the Mediterranean
sea, and especially in Greece, Italy, and Spain. It is also much cultivated for drying
in the south of France ; and for the table, at Argenteuil, near Paris. The earliest,
notice we have of its culture in England is by Turner in 1562. The first trees were
brought over from Italy by Cardinal Pole, in 1525, during the reign of Henry the
Eighth, and yet exist in the gardens of the archbishop at Lambeth. They are of the
white Marseilles kind, and still bear delicious fruit. They cover a space of fifty feet in
heigiit, and forty in breadth ; the circumference of the trunk of two of the trees is
t we i\ty-eight, and of anotlier twenty-one inches. In the severe winter of 1813—14, these
trees were greatly injured, and in consequence their principal stems were cut over near to
the ground ; but they are fast recovering. At Oxford, in the garden of the Regius
Professor of Hebrew, is a fig-tree, which was brought from Aleppo, and planted by Dr.
Pocock, in 1643. It is in a thriving condition, and bears a black fig. Gerrard says, "the
fig requires a hot-wall ;" and Parkinson, that they are planted in great square tubs, to
be removed into the sun in tlie summer time, and into the house in winter. The culture
of the fig was little known here till the time of Miller, who introduced above a dozen
new sorts from Italy. He observes, that the generality of Englishmen are not lovers of
this fruit, and that, therefore, few trouble themselves with the culture of it. Since
Miller's time, the fig has been introduced to the forcing department, and there cultivated'
to a much higher degree of perfection than before on open walls ; and though it be still'
true, that a taste for the fig in its green or fresh state is less prevalent in England than
elsewhere, yet, by those who have been some time abroad, it is generally much esteemed.

4840. ilo7ick " believes the fig-tree to be of all the fruit-trees which we cul-
tivate in our gardens, the least understood ; but, to those who may have acquired a
knowledge of its habits, the most tractable. No tree is propagated more easily. I sent
from London in April last to Kelsay in Northumberland, two cuttings of figs. They
were so small as to travel by the post in a common letter-cover. I have gathered this
autumn from one of them three ripe figs, and two from the other. The fig-tree may be
checked in its useless habit of luxuriant growth by ringing, so as to become fruitful at a
very small size. It may be forced by heat and liquid manure, with copious irrigation,
so as to support an abundant crop of fruit, and bring them to perfection, to a greater
extent than any other tree. Spare branches of a large fig-tree growing out of doors may
be ringed, and surrounded by a small pot of earth, into wliich they will speedily strike
root, so as to bear being separated in autumn from the tree ; and they may be used to
furnihh any glass houses with trees to bear fruit through the next summer. I believe, too,
that the fig-tree may be easily propagated by inoculation, if that should be desired."
{Ilort. Trans, v. 173.)

4841. Use. It is cultivated here entirely for the dessert; but in fig-countries it is
eaten green or dried, fried or stewed, and in various wdys, with or without bread or
meat, as food. Abroad the fig is introduced during dinner, as well as at the dessert

3 C 4 ■ ■

760

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

In common with the melon, it is presented after soup ; and the person who cuts a fig,
holds it by the small end, takes a thin circular slice off the large end, and then peels
down the thick skin of the fruit in flakes, making a single bofine louche of the soft interior
part. All the species of the genus Ficus have more or less the quality of intenerating
animal fibre, like the pawpaw-tree (Carica papmc) ; the F. elastica in the greatest de-
gree, and next, the common fig. The milky sap may be used as rennet, and for
destroying warts. Philips says, "a gentleman who lately made the experiment, assured
me that a haunch of venison, wliich had lately been killed, was hung up in a fig-tree
when the leaves were on, at about ten o'clock in the evening, and was removed before
sunrise in the morning, when it was found in a perfect state for cooking, and he adds,
that in a few hours more, it would have been in a stale of putrefaction." [Pom. Brit.
169,) Burying in the soil for ten or twelve hours is a well known and effectual resource
for intenerating recently killed fowls, or tough butcher-meat.

4842. Varieties. These, in fig-countries, are almost as numerous as those of the
grape ; new sorts being readily procured from seed, and continued by cuttings, layers,
or grafting. Bosc says, that even in France new sorts are continually produced, and
as quickly falling into neglect. The varieties most esteemed in England are the fol-
lowing : those marked tlms (*) will ripen as standards under favorable circumstances.

*Brown chestnut-colored ischia (island
oflschia). This.i.s one of the letrsest that
we have : it is of a bro\m or chestnut
color on the outside, and puri)Ie
within ; the grains are larjje, and the
pulp sweet and high-flavoi-ed. It
ripens in August; and if planted
acainst a hot-wall, two crops may be
obtained annually.

*Black Genoa fig. This is a long fruit
of a dark purple color, the inside
being of a bright red, and the flesh
very high-flavored. It ripens in the
latter end of August.

*Small white early fig. [Lan/^le^ Pom.
t. 52.) The skin of this fruit is of a
pale yellow when ripe : the flesh is
white and sweet. It is ripe about
the latter end of August or beginning
of September.

*Large white Genoa fig. (Pint, et Tiirp.
Fr. t. 4.) This is a large fruit, the
skin ii thin and yellow when ripe,
and red within. It is a good fruit,
and is ripe about the latter end of
August. This and the preceding bear

two crops annually.

fig. Thi

fruit ; the skin is almost black

Black ischia fig

rhis is a middle-sized
hen

ripe, and the inside of a deep red.
The flesh is high-flavored, and the
trees good bearers.

Brown and black small Italian figs.
These are cultivated in pots ; the
fiaiit is small, round, and very deli-
cious. Forsyth gatheretl from one
plant in a twenty four pot, two dozen
of figs at one gathering.

Malta fig. This is a small brown fig ;
the skin of a pale brown, the inside of
the same color ; the flesh is sweet and
high-tlavored. It is ripe in August
and Sejitember.

Murrey; brown Naples fig. This is a
pretty larce fruit, of a light brown
color, and the inside nearly of the
same color ; the flesh is well-flavored ;
and it ripens about the middle of
Sejitember.

Green ischia fig. This is an oblong
fruit with a green skin ; but being
thin, is stained through of a brownish
cast by the pulp when full ripe. The
inside is pur^)le, and the flesh high-
flavored. It IS ripe about the middle
of September.

Jladonna, Brunswick, or Hanover fig.
This is a large pyramidal fniit ; the

skin brown ; the flesh a lighter brown,
coarse, and has but little flavor. It
ripens about the n^iddle of Septem-
ber.

Common blue or purple fig. (Dnham.
n. 2. tab. 2. f. 1 ). This is a large oblong
fruit, ripens in August, and is a good
bearer.

The skin of
browr

ripe ; the flesh inclining to red. It has
large grains and a good flavor, and
ripens about the beginning of Oc-
tober.

Small brown ischia fig. This is a
small pyramidal fruit ; the jkin of a
light brown ; the flesh of a purple
cast, and of a high flavor. It ripens
in October.

Yellow ischia fig. This is a large
fruit ; the skin yellow ; and the flesh
puH'Ie and well flavored. It ripens in
October.

Gentile fie. This is of a middle size;
roundish fruit; the skin yellow; and
the flesh inclining to the same color.
It has large grains, and a goo<l flavor .
rijiens very late ; ar.d the trees are but
indifierent bearers.

4843. According to Forsyth, the figs proper for a small garden are the

Large white Genoa | Early white | Murrey fig | Small brown ischia | Black ischia.

4844. Sawyer recommends for a regular succession of figs from August to October,
inclusive, the

Brown ischia. Large white Genoa,
Green ischia. Brown Naples, White

Marseilles, Black Province, Yellow
ischia, and Gentile; which ripen in

the order in which they are here
placed, from the middle of August to
the end of October.

4845. Propagation. Figs may be propagated from seed, cuttings, layers, suckers,
roots, and by ingrafting ; the most generally approved method is by layers or cuttings,
which come into bearing the second, and even the first year.

' 4846. By seed. Here the same process as that directed for raising seedling vines is to be followed, with
this difference, that the young plants should not be cut down on account of their mode of bearing. They
will produce fruit in the sixth or seventh year. The process of crossing to obtain new varieties can here
be performed only in the general way, of placing two or more sorts together ; or of introducing with a
small hair pencil the pollen from the father variety, to take effect in conjunction with that of the male
blossoms in the plant destined to bear seed. Possibly, however, some curious horticulturist may find a
mode of cutting out the male blossoms without destroying the females ; in which case the pollen from the
father variety may be introduced to take effect alone. Lee, of Hammersmith, has raised several new
sorts from seed.

4847. Bi/ cuttings. These are formed of young wood from eight inches to twelve inches in length, with
an inch or two of old wood attached. They should be taken from the most fruitful, well ripened, short-
jointed boughs in autumn, and either preserved from the frost till spring, or planted in pots or in a bed of
earth from six to nine inches deep, without cutting off their tops. The soil should be a loam inclining
to sand, and in a warm situation ; it should be covered with old bark, leaves, or ashes, to keep out the
frost in spring, and the drought in summer. If the cuttings have been planted in autumn, then their tops
will require the additional protection of haulm or litter during winter. Give water and keep clear of
•weeds during summer, and by the following autumn, the plants will be fit to be transplanted into nursery
rows ; where they must be again mulched at root, and protected at top. They require no pruning farther
than what may be required to rear them with a single stem, and keep their heads of a regular shape;
the second or third year they may be removed to where they are finally to remain. Cuttings of roots
readily make plants, but the process is too slow for general use, and the plants so produced are not likely
to come so soon into bearing as by the laye-s or cuttings.

4848. Bi/ layers. This is the quickest mode of getting bearing trees, as shoots of two or three years'
growth, if laid down, will make abundant roots the first summer, and admit of being taken off and placed
where they are finally to remain in the autumn. Miller says, " young shoots or suckers produced from
old stools should neve'r be taken, as they arc too soft and spongy, liable to be affected by frost, and not
likely to prove good bearers."

4849. By suckers. This is an easy, but a bad method, for a common reason, that all trees raised from
suckers are subject to send out great quantities of suckers again from their roots, which branches are
never compact ajid fruitful, because too luxurious to be ripened in our climate. Miller says, " this
▼jcious habit, contracted while the trees arc young, may be afterwards corrected,"

Book I. FIG. 761

4850 Bu era/tine. This mode can only be advantageously adopted in cases similar to those recom-
mended for grafting the vine. (4813.) The process by any of the modes readily succeeds, and we li..ve
seen in Italy above a dozen sorts of figs on one tree.

4851. Culture. Foi the culture of tlie fig in the Forcing Department, see Cliap. VII.
Sect. V. In tlie open air, the plants are grown as standards, espaliers, and against walls;
but, as already obser\ed, the fruit produced in any of these situations is of very inferior
flavor to that grown under glass. A crop of figs, Miller observes, is generally more
uncertain than that of any other fruit : and Neill says, Britain is certainly not the
country for figs. From the attention now paid to this fruit, however, by some eminent
horticulturists, we may hope for improvement, and, at any rate, for a more general taste
for the fruit.

4852. Soil. The fig-tree thrives in all soils not wet at bottom ; but they produce a greater quantity of
fruit upon a strong loamy soil than on dry sandy ground, a dry soil being apt to make them cast their
fruit Miller says, " I have always observed those fig-trees to bear the greatest quantity of well flavored
fiuit wliich were growing upon chalky land, where there has been a foot or more of a gentle loamy soil on
the top. They also love a free open air ; for although they will shoot and thrive very well in close places,
yet they seldom produce anv fruit in such situations." Smith {Caled. Uort. Mem. vol. ii.), after trying
several soils, found the fig-t'ree thrive best in a rich friable loam, free from latent water at bottom.

4853. Growing the fig as standards. In fig-countries, this tree is always grown as a standard; and
here dwarf standards, planted in very warm situations, will, in very favorable seasons, afibrd tolerable
crops of fruit Some of the best in England are at Arundel Castle ; and there is a fig-orchard of 100 trees
at Tarring, and another of 14 at Tempting, near Worthing. {Hort. Trans. voL iv. 505.) Those at Arun-
del are planted six or eight feet apart, and from a single stem allowed to continue branching into regular
conical heads ; pruning chiefly irregular and redundant growths, and cutting out decayed or injured wood.
Miller says, standard fig-trees, when protected during winter, generally bear better than those against
walls ; which, however, may l)e considered as in great part owing to the mode of training and pruning figs
in the latter situation not having then been generally understood. At Argenteuil, where the fig is culti-
vated in immense quantities for the supply of the table, the plants are grown as dwarf standards ; and the
chief part of their culture, Bosc observes, consists in keeping their branches short, low, and spreading, to
enjoy both the heat of the sun and reflection of the earth. The ground is manured occasionally, and
stirred at least once a-year ; and for protection from the frost during the winter, the circumferential low
branches are buried six inches in the soil, and the central ones enveloped in litter.

485t. On espaliers. \\'here figs will succeed as standards, they will also ttirive against espalier-rails;
in which situation they admit of being more readily covered or protected during winter. The plants may
be placetl at ten or twelve feet distance, and trained in the fan or horizontal manner.

4555. On walls. This is unquestionably the best mode for our climate, as it admits of more rendily pro-
tecting the plants during winter, and is more likely to bring the fruit to maturity in the summer or
autumn. The distances at which the plants are placed will depend on the height of the walL In general,
a low wall is to be preferred, both because the tig is naturally adapted for being kept low, and because,
when low, it admiU more readily of protection. The plants may be placed from fifteen to twenty feef
apart, witli temporary trees of the fig, peach, or any other fruit between.

4556. Mode of bearing. " The fig-tree," the Hon. W. Wickham observes, " is distinguished from most,
if not from all, other trees, by this extraordinary property, that it bears, and, in warmer climates, brings
to matiurity, in every year, two successive and distinct croijs of fruit, each crop being produced on a dis-
tinct set of shoots. The shoots, formed by the first or spring sap, put forth figs at every eye, as soon as
the sap begins to flow again in July and August. These figs (which form the second crop of the year,)
ripen, in their native climate, during the course of the autumn ; but rarely, if ever, come to perfection in
England, where, though they cover the branches in great abundance, at the end of that season, they
p?rish, and fall off", with the fiist severe frosts of winter. The shoots, formed by the second flow of sap,
commonly called iridsummcr shoots, put forth figs in like manner at every eye, but not until the first
flow of sap in the following spring. These last mentioned figs, which form the first crop of each year,
ripen, in warmer climates, during the months of June and July, but not in this country before September
or October. In warmer climates, indeed, very little attention is given to this first crop, because the mid-
summer shoots, on which it is borne, are commonly in the proportion only of one to six or eight in length,
when compared with the shoots of the spring, which produce the second crop ; and the crop itself is
always small, in the same proportion. But in England, it is the reverse. As no care or skill of the gar-
dener can ever ensure a second crop of ripe figs in the open air."

4857. Pruning and training. Most gardeners. Miller observes, imagine that fig-trees should never
have much pruning ; or, at least, that titey should always be suffered to grow very rude from the wall to
some distance. A jtrumd fig- free never bears, is a cominon saying, nor, according to \Vickham, can its
truth be denied, when applied to the most common method of pruning these trees, i. e. by cutting away or
shortening the last year's shoots, instead of cutting away old wood, and training those shoots to the wall
in its place.

4858. IVlckham recommends a system of pruning which may increase the proportion which the midsummer
shoots .the only ones, as stated alK)ve, which produce fruit that ripens in this countrj-,) bear to the spring
shoots, both in number and length. For this purpose, he breaks off the spring shoots as they nearly
attain their full growth, and just as the spring sap in each begins to abate something of its full vigor. He
breaks them at moderate distances (six to fifteen inches, according to the strength of each shoot), from
the place whence they severally spring, taking care that enough of the shoot be left to admit of its being
bent back, and nailed close to the wall at the ensuing winter pruning, and that one eye, at least, be left
uninjured by the fracture, and always preserving a quantity unbroken, sufficient to keep up a future
supply of branches and wood. The shoot may be either broken short off, or left suspended by a few ragged
filaments, which may afterwards be separated with a knife, when the spring sap has ceased to flow. The
former mode is less unsightly, and will therefore be generally preferred by the gardener; but the latter
has been found more successful in practice. It is of consequence, howevtrj to the full success of this sys-
tem, that the shoots should be broken and not cut If left to their natural growth, or shortened by
a sharp smooth cut with a knife (instead of a fracture), they would produce, at theii extremities, only
one single midsummer shoot, being a simple prolongation of the wood, formed in the spring; but
when the shoot is broken at the time, and in the manner above described, it generally happens that, on
the second flow of sap in July, two or three more shoots (forming a kind of stag's horn) are pushed from
the fractured part instead of one ; and it is hardlv necessarv to add, that each of these, according to
its length, will produce several figs in the ensuing spring, (making the first crop of that fruit,) all of them
capable of being ripened by our ordinary summer and autumn heats. A suthcient supply of midsummer
shoots being thus procured during the summer, room must be made for them at the succeeding winter prun-
ing, by cutting away so much of the old wood as will admit of their being all trained in, at full length,
and nailed close to the wall, which should always be done before the first severe frosts. Keeping this
otiject in view, the knife cannot well be used too freely in cutting away the old wood, nor is there
any reason to fear that its free use will either injure the future crops, or deprive the tree of its regular
supjily of branches. The midsummer shoots being trained in, each of them will produce, in the following

762 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

year, one spring shoot, at least, at its extremity, whilst another will rise from each eye of the remnants
of the old spring shoots that had been preserved in the manner above described, when these shoots
were broken, in the preceding month of June. From this fresh supply, by pursuing the system here ex-
plained, either wood or fruit, or both, may be obtained for the succeeding year, at the discretion of the
gardener. Where he wishes for wood, he must suffer these new shoots to grow to their full length : where
fruit, and not wood, is desired, he must break them in the momh of June, in the manner and with the
precautions that iiave been minutely explained. {Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 74. et seq.)

4859. Knight disapproves highly of training the branches of fig-trees perpendicularly, as encouraging
too much the prolongation of the shoots ; he approves of Wickham's mode in warm situations, but in
high cold situations, lie radiates his branches from the top, and parts near it, of a t-ingle stem. He says,
" Let the stems, if there be, as usual, many within a narrow space, be gradually reduced to one onlv ;
and from the top, and parts near it, of this, let lateral branches be trained horizontally and pendently, 'in
close contact with the wall. Under such treatment, all troublesome luxuriance of growth will soon dis-
appear ; the pendent shoots will not annually extend more than a few inches, and few or no more leaves
will be produced than those which the buds contain before they unfold. The young wood consequently
ceases to elongate very early in the season, and thence acquires perfect maturity ; and by being trained
close to the wall, is placed secure, or nearly so, from injury by the severest frost. The quantity of mature
and productive young wood thus necessarily become very great, relatively to the size of the tree : and the
fruit being in contact with the wall, and not shaded by excess of foliage, acquires an early and perfect ma-
turity." {Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 307.)

4860. The Rev. G. Swayne, from the various papers on the culture of the fig-tree, published in the Horti-
cultural Transactions, but particularly from that of VVickham, infers, " that the principal defect requiring
a remedy is a deficiency of fruitlings, or bloom, in the early spring, on the whole of the last year's shoots,
excepting on the few joints at their extremities," and he describes a remedy which he has for a long time
been in the habit of using, and which he " considers as a specific." It is simply to rub off, as soon as they
can be discovered by the naked eye, all the figs which are produced after midsummer on the same year's
shoots. The object is not only to prevent those figs which would never ripen without artificial heat to
exhaust the tree, but to give it sufficient time to employ the strength which would have been employed
in nourishing these " sterilising incumbrances," in the seasonable preparation of new embryo figs for the
following year. " If this operation," he says, " be performed in due time, it will not fail to prepare on
one, and often on both sides, of almost every fig so displaced, such embryos. For this purpose, the trees
should be examined once a-week, from the beginning of August, at which time the figs of this second
crop usually begin to show themselves, and this examination must be repeated as long as any of these
make their appearance." Most gardeners, he says, omit removing these late figs at all, or delay the
practice till October or November, when no benefit is derived from it. He trains the trees horizontally,
and does not prune them till late in the spring, when he can plainly distinguish between a leaf and a fruit-
bud, as well as appreciate the whole of the mischief occasioned by the frosts of the preceding winter. {Hort.
Trans, vol. iv. 430.) The above practice, in connection with the mode of training recommended by
Knight, would, we think, effect an important improvement in the culture of this fruit. Wickham's
mode appears to excite too much the powers of the tree ; and the common mode of fan-training from three
or four root-stems, which are in fact so many suckers, is only calculated to produce wood and leaver.
Training the fig-tree on walls, as a rider, and in the stellate manner {Jig. 386. c), and pinching off all the
embryo fruit after midsummer, would probably effect every thing that can be desired in the culture of
this tree on the open wall in this country.

4S61. Protecting during iviater. This is found necessary in many parts of France,
and every where in Britain. Miller recommends tying together the branches of stand-
ards, and applying pease-haulm, straw, or any other light covering ; rolls of reeds to be
placed on each side of espaliers, removing these coverings in mild weather, to prevent the
figs from coming out too early. Forsyth covers tig-trees against walls with " laurel, yew,
fir, or spruce boughs," and then " tucks in short grass or moss among the branches."
Smith covers with spruce fir branches, from three to six feet long, fastening them to the
wall by the middle rib of the branches, at two different places. " To prevent any friction
by the wind, the branches should be made to fit each other, that the covering may be of a
regular tliickness over every part of the trees. As the covering is generally put on the
trees in the month of December, the branches remain green all the winter ; and in the
month of March, when the days get long, the leaves begin to drop from the branches, and
continue falling through April; and by the begiiming of May, when tlie covering is en-
tirely removed, only the ribs of the branches are found remaining. Thus, the progress of
the season reduces the coverings in a gradual manner, so as not to expose the trees to any
sudden check, which might otherwise be the case, if they were all at once laid open to the
weather."

4862. Sawyer, in November, detaches the branches of his fig-trees from the walls, picks off all the autumnal
fruit that are larger than a filbert, or not of a dark shining green : he then ties the branches of the tree
together in bundles forming a sort of cones, filling the interstices with dry hay, and wrapping mats round
the whole. After this he lowers the cones to the right and left, and makes them fast to the wall with rope-
yarn. In this state they remain till March, when the whole is undone, and the branches replaced and
covered first with treble, then double, and lastly single netting, which last is removed in May.

4863. Mean {Hort. Trans, vol. ii.) adopted the French mode of burying the branches in the soil, in 1789,
and has practised it with success ever since.

4864. Wickham observes {Hort. Trans, iii. 80.), in respect to covering fig-trees, that " much must be left
to the care and skill of the gardener, whose precautions must be determined, as well as varied, by the situ-
ation, aspect, and local shelter belonging to each particular tree, and by the varying temperature of each
particular winter; it may, however, be laid down as a general rule, that the covering, where used, should
be as thin and light as a due consideration of all the above circumstances will admit, and that it should
generally be removed in the day-time, and always on the return of moderate weather."

4865. Ripening the fruit. Williams suggests that the practice of taking off a circular ring of bark from
the lower part of the branches of the fig, in the manner he has so successfully practised on the vine,
might accelerate the maturity of the fruit. Monck tried ringing, and found that it may be practised
on the fig-tree with " as much safety, and more effect upon the age of its fruit than on the pear-tree."
{Hort. Trans, v. 172.) A very general French practice is to prick the fruit with a straw or quill dipped in
olive-oil. In Italy, a wound with a knife is sometimes made on the broad end of the fig, or a very small
part of the skin of the fruit removed for the same purpose. Brandy is also sometimes applied, either by a

uncture on the side of the fruit with a bodkin dipped in the spirit, or by dropping a small quantity in the
eye of the fruit. " Plums and pears," Tournefort observes {Travels, letter viii.), "pricked by insects,
ripen the faster for it, and the flesh round such puncture is better tasted than the rest. It is not to be dis-

Book I.

MELON.

763

puted but that considerable change happens to the contexture of fruits so pricked, just the same as to part«
of animals pierced with any sharp instrument." Monck split a fig from the eye to the stalk, and found it
ripen six weeks before others that were untouched, (//ort. rra/i5.v. 172.) » .^ x. ».

4866. The process of caprification qf figs is performed in the Levant to hasten the maturity of the
autumnal crop, and consists in placing on the fig-trees what are called ^^fs-^urs, or spring figs, in which
a certain insect of the gnat species {Culex, L.) has deiwsited its eggs. From these eggs, in the sprmg figs,
proceed a multitude of gnats, which, in their turn, deposit their eggs in the autumn figs, or rather in their
flowers, effecting in their passage the fecundation of these flowers, and, by consequence, hastening the
maturity of the fruit. The most enlightened French naturalists are of opinion that this is a very unneces-
sary part of the culture of ttie fig. Olivier, member of the Institute, and author of a Journey through the
Ottoman Empire, considers it as "a tribute which man pays to ignorance and prejudice." " In man^
countries of the Levant," he savs, " it is not performed, nor is it done in France, Italy, or Spain ; and it
is now neglected in some of the isles of the Archipelago, where was it practised formerly." Bosc says,
•• the larva of the Cynips, in eating the interior of the figs, can be no otherwise useful than the larva of
the Pyrale pommonelle, Hubner, {Phal<ena, Linn.) or apple-worm, can be in hastening the maturity of the
apple : and who would take it upon him to advise rendering apples worm-eaten in order to enjoy the ad-
vantage of eating them a fortnight sooner?" This observation, it may be observed, rather confirms
the idea that caprification ha.>tens maturity, which, from what we have seen in the neighborhood of Rome
and Naples, we believe to be the case. Though we think with Olivier, that it is by no means absolutely
necessary to fecundation ; and even if it were, that fecundation is not essentially requisite to the swelling
and ripening of the fig.

48G7. Monck has made some curious experiments
and observations on this subject, from which he is
led to conjecture, 1. That fig-trees never bear figs
which contain both kinds of florets in an efficient
state ; 2. That figs in which the anther-bearing florets
only are perfect, never come to be eatable fruit ;
3. Tliat you may pronounce, from the external shape of
a fig, which kind of floret prevails — the stigma-bear-
ing in the pear-shaped {Jig. 507. a), the anther-bearing
in the squat figs (6) ; 4. That fig trees, which put forth crops of figs, and cast them,
most probably do so from defect of setting. (^Hort. Trans, v. 168, 169.)

4868. Insects and diseases. .The fig is subject to few of either of these in this country.
In forcing-liouses it is liable, in common with other plants, to the attacks of the red spi-
der, coccus, and aphides, and occasionally also on garden-walls. The remedies are
obvious. In France tliey are attacked by a species of coccus, vulgarly called the fig-
louse, which proves very injurious, and is only to be destroyed by rubbing them off with
a coarse cloth.

SuBSECT. 4. Melon. — Cucumis Melo, L. Moncecia Monadelphia, L. and Cucurbi-
tacece, J. Melon, Fr. ; Melone, Ger. ; and Mellone, Ital.

4869. The melon is a tender annual, proilucing one of the richest fruits brought to the
dessert, and cultivated in England since 1570; but the precise time of its introduction,
and the native country of the plant, are both unknown^ It was originally brought here
from Jamaica, and was, till within the la.st fift}- years, called the musk-melon. The fruit,
to be grown to perfection, requires the aid of artificial heat, and glass, throughout every
stage of its culture. Its minimum temperature may be estimated at 65'^, in which it will
germinate and grow ; but it requires a heat of from 75*' to 80" to ripen its fruit, which,
in ordinary cases, it does in four months from the time of sowing the seed.

4870. Varieties. There are numerous varieties, many of which, especially those raised
from seeds brought from Italy and Spain, are not worth cultivating. The best sorts are
included under the name of cantaleupes, an appellation bestowed on them from a seat of
the Pope near Rome, where this variety is supposed to have been originally produced.
The general character of the cantaleupes is a roundish form, rough, warty, or netted outer
coat ; neither verj- large in fruit or leaves. The Romanes, the Italian sort, next in
esteem, are generally oval-shaped, regularly netted ; tlie fruit and leaves middle-sized, and
tlie plants great bearers. INIany varieties of both these sorts, however, that were formerly
in esteem, are now lost, degenerated, or supplanted by others of Spanish or Persian origin.
The following are among the best both of the old and new varieties : —

The early eolden cantaleupe. It is deep-
ftirrowed, middle-sized, loneish, golden
colored ; flesh not -very high- colored
nor high-flavored. The plant grows
fircely, shows early, sets its firuit well ;
and is a very great bearer.

The orange cantaleupe. Smaller than
the above, round, and pale-vellow.
The flesh, when just fit for cutting,
is orange ; but when riper, it is more
red. As it swells and ripens, it be-
comes partly netted. In respect to
flavor, It is excelled by none of the
melon kind ; being juicv, sugary, and
rich. The ]ilant is a free grower, an
early setter, and a great bearer.

The netted cantaleupe. This is equally
juicy and high-flavored as the last-
mentioned ; a good deal larger, round, I
soUd, and very ponderous; having a
very small vacuum for the seeds ; and |
it may be eaten nearer to the rind than

most other kinds. The plant sets firedy
and is a good bearer.

The silver cantaleupe. Round, of a mid-
dle size, shallow furrowed ; and when
full-grown, before it begins to color, is
all over mixed silver and green. A
very good bearer.

The black rock cantaleupe. This is a
very large-growing melon ; round,
black, or very dark green when full
prown, but yellow when ripe. It is
juicy, but not so high-flavored as any
of the above cantaleupes, except the
first-named ; nor is the plant so good
a bearer. Four or five fruit in a light
is a medium crop.

The carbuncled rock cantaleupe. Two
varieties, a large and a small ; both
very similar to the black rocks, as to
color and flavor; but flat or cheese-
shaped, and covered with large protu-
berances or carbuncles. The small

kind bears pretty freely, and the large
sort less so.

Lee's rock cantaleupe. Rather long than
round, and more green than black.
The flesh and flavor much the same as
those of the last-mentioned variety.

The Italian green-fleshed cantaleupe.
Small, nearly globose; usually about
four inches and a half in diameter
coat pale greenish-white, moderately
thin ; flesh opaijue, soft, and melting ;
in flavor both nch and sweet. {Hurt
Tram. iv. 319.)

The smooth scarlet-fleshed cantaleupe.
Roundish, inclining tc oval ; outside
greenish-yellow, with fine white vep.
micular reticulations; flesh nearly an
inch and a half in thickness, of a
uniform bright scarlet from the edge
of the coat to the centre, and tolerably
firm ; it ig particularly high flavored
(Hw<. Traw. iv. 320.)

764

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

III.

The mootagu cantaleupe, is a Tariety pro-
duced from the two last-named sorts;
Interinediate in size between thpm ;
preenish-wliite witliout ; the flesh an
inch and a half in thickness, not very
hiph colored, but soft and juicv, com-
pletly melting in the mouth, aiid with
a very sweet and delicate flavor. (Horl.
Trans, iv. 120)

The green-fleshed Ionian cantaleupe. Le-
mon-colored and lemon-shaped; large,
thin-skinned, no great bearer, and does
not readily mature seeds, but of excel-
lent flavor. {Ca/ed Mem iv. 210.)

The green-fleshed Egjptian melon. JMid-
dle-sized, round, netted; in habits and
flavor resembling the last-named va-
riety. (Caled. Mem. iv. 210.)

Lee's romana- Middle sized, longish ;
shallow-furrowed, solid, and ponder-
ous. Rind hard, partly netted, and
pale-yellow ; flesh a full yellow, pretty
nigh- flavored, but not very juicy.
Plant a good bearer.

The large netted romana. The largest
of the romanas, regularly netted all
over, shallow-furrowedj oval, solid,
and very ponderous, often attains to
nine or "ten pounds in weight. Hind
hard, pale-yellow when fit to cut ; the
flesh a fuU yellow but not very juicy ;

very high-flavored, If eaten sharp-ripe.
The plant is a better bearer thjin any
other large .sort.

Fair's romana. Small, oval, smooth,
solid and ponderous ; the rind hard,
greenish-yellow when fit to cut; and
the fle^h a pale yellow, not very juicy ;
well-flavored and agreeable; may be
pared very near to the rind. The plant
is a very great bearer.

The polignac- A rich-flavored middle-
sized oval fruit, in frequent cultivation.

The small Portugal, or dormer, noted
as a good bearer, and a very early
variety.

The black Portugal, or Galloway. A sub-
variety of the former.

The salonica. Nearly spherical, and
without any depres.sions on its surface ;
color that of gold, pulp, pure white;
improves in flavor and richness till it
becomes quite soft ; consistence of its
pulp is nearly that of a water-melon,
and it is very sweet A full-grown
specimen of the fruit generally weighs
about "lb. [Knight, in Hi>rt. Trans, ii.)

The dampsha melon. A variety from
Persia ; nearly cylindrical and netted ;
color varying from pale and yellowish-
green to dark-olive: flesh bright and

deep green near the skin; pale to-
wards the centre, quite melting, and
cf excellent flavor; hung up by the
stalk, or in nets in a dark room, it
keeps until the winter months. {Old-
acre, in Horl. Traits, iv. 212.)

The sweet melon of I spahan. Fruit ovate,
varies in length from eight to twelve
inches ; nearly quite smooth, of a deep
sulphur-color;, skin very thin, fle?h
white, extending about halfway to the
centre; cri.sp, sugary, and rich in taste.
{HoH. Tratis.m.p. 117.)

The levant melon. Oval, slightlv lobed,
green-fleshed, milky, sweet and high-
flavored. {Hori. Trans, iv. 5U.)

The winter melon. (./?^. 50S.) Cultivated
in various countries bordering on the
Mediterranean sea, and i)articularly in
the orange gardens at Hieres, in Toulon,
whence its fruit is sent to Paris. Skin
thin, flesh white, firm, saccharine, and
juicy ; not rich, but pleasant. The
sha]>e oval ; size, about a foot long, and
eight inches broad ; color a dark green.
Inis fruit is regularly imported, and
may be had in the fruit shops from
September to January. {Hurt. Tram.
iii. p. UG.)

Thcrvater-nitUoa. Cucurbila. (See 4209."

4871. Choice of seed. In the cultivation of the
melon, Knight observes, it is a matter of much im-
portance to procure proper seed. Some gardeners are
so scrupulous on this point that they will not sow the
seeds unless they have seen and tasted the fruit from
which they were taken. It is proper at least not to
trust to seeds which have not been collected by judi-
cious pei-sons. Some make it a rule to presei-\e always
the seeds of those individual specimens which are first
ripe, and even to take them from tlie ripest side of the
fruit. A criterion of the goodness and probable ferti-
lity is generally sought by throwing them into a vessel
containing water ; such as sink are considered as good
and likely to prove fertile, those that float, as effete. It is remarked of seeds brought
from the continent, that they must have more bottom heat, and the young plants less
water, than are necessary for seeds ripened in this country, or young plants sprung from
these.

4872. For the entire course of ctdture of the melon, see Chap. VII. Sect. "VII.

SuBSECT. 5. Cucumber. — Cucumis sativus, L. Monccc. Monadclph. L. and Cucurbi-
tacece, J. Concombre, Fr. j Gurke, Ger. ; and Citriuolo, Ital.

4873. The cucufnber is a tender annual, a native of the East Indies, and introduced
in 1573. It is a trailing and climbing plant, with large roundish rough leaves, furnish-
ed with tendrils, and if sown in the open air in May, produces flowers from July to
August. The cucumber is of nearly as great antiquity as the vine, for jNIoses, the
earliest Jewish author, mentions it as abounding in Egypt, when the children of Israel
were there, above tliree thousand years ago. (A^innbers, chap, ii.) In England it is cul-
tivated generally and extensively, in forcing-frames and in the open air, and especially
near large cities and towns. " Not only gentlemert," as M'Phail observes, " but almost
every tradesman who has a garden and dung, have their cucumber-frame." In Hert-
fordshire, whole fields are annually seen covered with cucumbers without tlie aid of
dung or glass, and the produce of which is sent to the metropolis for pickling. In
March, cucumbers fetch in the London market a guinea a dozen ; in August and Sep-
tember one penny a dozen. The village of Sandy, in Bedfordshire, has been known to
furnish 10,000 bushels of pickling cucumbers in one week.

4874. Use. The green fruit is used as a salad ; it is also salted when half-grown ;
and preserved in vinegar when young and small. In Germany and Poland, barrels of
half and also full grown cucumbers, are preserved from one year to the other, by immer-
sion in deep wells, where the uniform temperature and exclusion of air seem to be the
preserving agents.

4875. Varieties. The principal of these are —

The early longprickly; from five to se\en i Early short prickly; not more than

inches long, of a" green color, with i

few prickles. The plant is a good [

bearer ; and upon the whole, this is

accounted the best cucumber for the |

general summer crop, the pulp being

very crisp and pleasant. I

Longest green pnckly ; from seven to ten i

inches in length; it has dark-green |

skin, closely set with small prickles. |

This is a hardy sort, but does not come |

early. i

black prickles. This is one of the
hardiest and earliest sorts, and is often
preferred for the first crop.
Dutch, or white short prickly, though
not much cultivated, is recommended
by some, as preferable even to the early
long prickly ; it has fewer seeds ; is
evidently different in taste from most

other cucumb&s, but of agreeable fla-
vor.
Cluster cucumber ; a very early sort, the
flowers api)ear in clusters of three or
four together ; the fruit is seldom more
than five inches long ; it is at first of a
fine green color, but becomes yellowLsJi
as it ripens. T he stems of this variety
are much inclined to climb by means
of their tendrils upon sticks ; the leaves
are small, and the plant altogether oc-
cupies but little room.

Book I.

EXOTIC FRUITS.

765

Smooth green Roman ; an early lort; the
fruit becomes Ian;e and long, and is
quite smooth ; the plants grow verr
strong, and require a good deal of
room.

^Tiite Turkey ; the stalks and leaves are
larger than' in the other varieties; the
fruit also is very long, sometimes from
ten to fifteen of even twenty inches ; it
is quite straight, and has a smooth skin
destitute of iirickles ; it is produced
sparingly, and late in the season.

Long green Ttirkey ; sometllnes sown for 1
the late crop. I^te cucumbers, how- .
ever, are much less cultivated than the
earlv varieties ; most gardeners l«ing of
opinion, that those kinds which are
best for the early crojis are also best for
the late. I

Naj>3l ; fruit very large, usually weighs j

upwards of twelve jwund.,' weight,
measures in girth twenty-fiour inches.

and in length aerenteen inches ; flaTor

pleasant and esteemed for stewing.

Sent to the Horticultural Society ftoin

Calcutta by Dr. ^V'allick. IHort. Tratu.

iv. 150 )
Flanagan's. Near two feet long and of

superior crisuness and flavor. [Hort.

Tratu. iv. 560.)
Fluted cucumber. A Chinese variety.

(HoH. Tratu. v. 36.)

4876. Culture. The culture of the cucumber, as a table esculent, is chiefly carried on by artificial heat
or protection, and is therefore treated of under the Forcing Department, Chap. VII. Sect.VII. For pickling,
it is chiefly cultivated in the ojien ground, bv what is termed drillin<j, and which forms the only branch of
the culture of this vegetable reserved for this article. To have a crop in the natural ground, the seed is
sown in warm compartments of rich earth, towards the end of May, or beginning of June, when the
weather is settled, warm, and dry. The plants should mostly remain where sown, to produce late fruit,
towards the end of Julv, or more generally in August and September, small for picklers, and in larger
growth for ordinary co'nsumjjtion. Sow a portion in a warm border, and the main crop m an open com-
partment Dig the ground neatlv even. Trace lines with intervals of five or six feet ; and in the lines
mark stations three and a half fce't distant ; thtn, with a trowel at each of these si>ots, form shallow cir-
cular saucer-form cavities in the surface, ten or twelve inches wide, and about an inch deep in the middle.
Sow in the middle of each cavity eight or ten seeds, half an inch deep. When the plants are come up,
and begin to put forth the first rough leaves in the centre, thin them to three or four of the strongest in
each hole. Earth these up a little, between and close round the stems, pressing them a little asunder;
and give them some water, to settle the earth belOw and abtjve. In their advancing growth, train out the

' leading runners. Supply them with requisite waterings, in dry weather, two or three times a week, or
sorneti'mes every day in very dry hot weather, in July, August, or September. At this season, water
early in a morning, or late in the afternoon, towards evening.

4877. Gathering. " The crop comes in sometimes towards the end of Julv, but more generally not
before Au;,'ust in full production ; continuing till about'the middle or end of ^ptember, when the plants
decline. Be careful to gather the fruit in a prime state, both for pickling and other purposes. They must
be quite young for pickling, not exceeding two or three inches in length." {Abercromtne.)

Sect. II. Exotic Fruits, well known, but iieglected as such.

4878. Among neglected exotic fruits we include the orange tribe, one of the most beau-
tiful, and also, a very useful class of fruits. The culture of oranges and lemons for the
table is not at present common in England ; but, in our opinion, it might be pursued
with much enjoyment to the amateur, since, independently of the gratification of seeing
fruit of one's own growth at the dessert, no object of tlie fruit-tree kind can be more
splendid than a large healthy orange-tree- covered with frufr. The pomegranate seems
also to merit culture, both for its singular beauty while on the tree, and the addition it
would make to the dessert. *

SuBSECT. 1. Orange Tribe. — Citrus, L. Polyadel. Polyan. L. and AuranticB, J.

4879. Of tie genus citrus there are five species or leading sorts, of which the fruit are
used ; all natives of Asia, viz. the common orange, the lemon, the citron, the lime, and
the shaddock. The common character of the plants bearing these fruits is that of low
evergreen trees, with ovate or oval-lanceolate, entire or serrated, leaves. On the un-
grafted trees are often axillary spines. Tlie flowers appear in peduncles, axillary or
terminating, and one or many flowered. The fruits are large berries, round or oblong,
and generally of a yellow color. Tlie species seem best distinguished by the petiole,
which, in the orange and shaddock, is winged ; in the citron, lemon, and lime, naked. The
form of tlie fruit, although not quite constant, may also serve for a distinction. In the orange
and shaddock, it is spherical, or rather an oblate spheroid, with a red or orange-colored rind ;
in the lime, spherical, with a pale rind ; in the lemon, oblong, rough, with a nipple-like pro-
tuberance at the end ; in the citron, oblong, with a very thick rind. The flowers of the citron
and lemon have ten stamens, and those of the orange more. Professor INIartyn observes,
that it is very difficult to determine what is a variety, and what is a species in this genus.
The trees in the eastern countries, where they are natives, vary in the size and shape of
the fruit and leaves ; and many of those considered varieties in Europe, preserve their
differences in their native woods. He has no doubt that any one who would pursue this
subject in the native countries of these fruits, would detect varieties connecting all those
generally considered as species. This opinion appears highly probable when we ex-
amine the catalogues of the continental writers on this fruit ; who, in general, finding it
difficult to make botanical distinctions, are obliged to rest satisfied with popular descrip-
tions. In K^ouveau Cours, &c. art. Granger, those cultivated in France, and in Dr.
Sickler's work, and that of Gallesio, tliose of Italy, are so described.

4880. Dr. Sickler, who spent several j'ears in Italy, and paid great attention to the
kinds and culture of the orange, published
in 1815, Der Vollkornmen 0 ran gerie- Gart-
ner [The Complete Orange-Gardener), in
which he describes above seventy sorts of demons.
citrus, including all the species above men-
tioned. He arranges the whole in two
classes, and these classes into divisions
and subdivisions, without regard to their oran^ps..
botanic distinctions or species, thus : —

Lemons.

Cedratesorl

Citrons J 4 sorts.

f Round-shaped lemons 6 ditto.

I Pear-shaped ditto 11 ditto.

".(Cylindrical ditto 4 ditto.

I (iourd-shaped ditto 12 ditto.

L Wax lemons 5 ditto.

Cedrate lemons or cidronates 6 ditto.

Lumies orfLumies 5 ditto.

Ix>mes 1 Apple liutiies 3 ditt<^

LLimes 4 ditto.

r Bitter oranges 6 ditto.

-J Sour oranges 6 ditto.

(.Sweet oranges 12 ditto.

766

PRyACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

The names and some descriptive traits of these seventy-four sorts of citrus will be
found in A Short Delineation of Dr. Sickler's Treatise, by Dr. Noehden, in the Hort.
Trans, vol. iii. App.

4881. Gallesio (Trciite du Genus Citrus, &c. Savonna, 1818.) has given a synoptic
tree (fig. 509.), in which he has introduced ramifications which display an arrangement
of the forty principal sorts cultivated in Italy.

509

>.-,,

P/fUt

"^^P:r-^r.^,^,„^,^^«-

4882. The most splendid work on oranges which has yet appeared is the Histoire
Naturelle des Grangers, by Risso, of Nice, and Poiteau, of Versailles. (Paris, fol. 1818.)
Here 169 sorts are described, and 105 of them figured, and their French and Italian
culture given at great length. They are arranged as sweet oranges, of which they
describe 43 sorts ; bitter and sour oranges, 32 sorts ; bergamots, 5 sorts ; limes, 8 sorts ;
fchaddocks, 6 sorts; lumes, 12 sorts; lemons, 46 sorts; citrons, 17 sorts.

4883. All the species of citrus endure the open air at Nice, Genoa, and Naples ; but at
Florence and Milan, and often at Rome, they require protection during the winter, and
are generally placed in conservatories and sheds. The largest conservatory in Italy is
that of Prince Antonio Borghese, at Rome, which contains seventy select sorts of
agrumi. The largest trees are at Sorenta, Teracina, Gaeta, and Naples ; but the most
regular and garden-like culture of the orange, is in the orange-orchards at Nervi, Mo-
naco, and other places in the neighborhood of Genoa. At Nervi are also the orange-
nurseries which may be said to supply all Europe with trees ; they are, in general,
wretchedly cultivated, and the stocks inoculated in the most unscientific manner ; but
the fine climate, strong clayey soil, and abundant manurings, supply in a great degree
the nicer practices of gardening. Tliere the names of varieties vary as much as those of
gooseberries do in England ; but from upwards of one hundred names, not above forty
distinct sorts can be procured. Good plants of the Maltese and other varieties of orange
may be procured from Malta ; and some sorts also from Lisbon. From the nurseries

Book i.

ORANGE TRIBE.

767

at Paris about thirty sorts may be obtained, much smaller plants than those from the
other places named, but more scientifically grafted or inoculated. At Vallet's nursery
at Rouen, is a collection of very large plants of the common kinds. The catalogues
of London nurserjmen enumerate above thirty varieties of orange, twelve of lemon, and
several varieties of the other species ; the plants are generally inoculated, and small, and
are more calculated for pots than for planting in the soil for producing fruit. As being
most useful for the British horticulturist, we shall place under each species the names of
the varieties which may be procured in England.

4884. The common orange is the Citrus Aurantium, L. ; the
orange of the French ; pomeranze of the Germans ; and aran-
cio of the Italians. ( fig 510.) It is a middle-sized evergreen
tree, with a greenish-brown bark ; and in its wild state, with
prickly branches. The fruit is nearly round, from two to three
inches in diameter, and of a gold color. It is a native of India
and China, but now cultivated in most countries of Europe ; in
the open air in Italy and Spain ; and in conservatories or green-
houses in Britain and the north of Euroix;. The orange is sup-
posed to have been introduced into lUly in the fourteenth cen-
tury, above a thousand years after the citron. In England, the
tree has been cultivated since 16'29. Parkinson, writing at that
time, says, " it hath abiden with some extraordinary looking and
tending, when neither citron nor lemon trees could be preserved
any length of time."

4885. The orange-trees of Beddington, in Surrey, introduced
from Italy by a knight of the noble family of the Carews {Gib-
son's edit, of Camb. Brit.), were the first that were brought into
Fjigland ; they were planted in the open ground, placed under
a moveable cover during the winter months, and they had been
growing there before 1595. It has been said, that these trees
were raised by Sir Francis Carew, from seeds brought to Eng-
land by Sir Walter Raleigh : but as such trees would not have
readily borne fruit, Professor Martvn thinks it much more likely
that they were plants brought from Italy. Bradley says, they alwayi bore fruit in great plenty and per-
fection ;'that they grew on the outside of a wall, not nailed against it, but at full liberty to spread ; they
were fourteen feet high, the girt of the stem twenty-nine inches, and the spreading of the branches one
way nine feet, and twelve feet another. These trees, Evelyn informs us, were neglected in his time dur-
ing the minority of their owner, and finally entirely killed by the great frost in 1739-40.

4886. During' the latter end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, the orange-tree
was a very fashionable article of growth in conservatories, when there were but few exotics of other sorts
kept there. The plants were procured from Genoa, with stems generally from four to six feet in height ;
they were planted in large boxes, and were set out during summer to decorate the walks near the house in
the'manner still practised at Versailles and the Tuilleries. About the middle of the eighteenth century,
when a taste for botany and forcing exotic fruits became general, that for superb orange-trees began to
decline; many of these large trees have decayed through neglect; and those which are now to be found
in the greater number of green-houses, are generally dwarf plants bearing few fruit, and those of small
jsize. In some places, however, are still to be found large and flourishing trees. Those at Smorgony in
Glamorganshire, are the largest in Britain; they are planted in the floor of an immense conservatory,
and bear abundantly. It is said that the plants were procured from a wreck on the coast in that quarter,
xa the time of Henry VII.

4887. At Nuneham, near Oxford, are some verj- fine trees, planted under a moveable case, sheltered by
a north wall. In summer, the case is removed, and the ground turfed over, so that the whole resembles
a native orange-grove. At Wormleybury, Hertfordshire, and Shipley Hall, in Derbyshire, are very
fine large orange and lemon trees grown in borders and in boxes. {Hort. Trans. voL ii. 295. and iv. 306.)

4888. At the Wilderness, Kent, (Marquis Camden's,) are three trees in boxes, not surpassed by any
trees so grown in Europe. C. Bingham, at Isleworth, possesses a very fine collection ; and various others
might be enumerated.

^9. At Woodhall, near Hamilton, trees of all the species of citrus are trained against the l)ack wall of
forcing-houses, in the manner of peaches, and produce large crops of fruit.

4890. In the south of Devonshire, and jiarticiilarly at Saltcombe, one of the warmest spots in
England, may be seen, in a few g.irdens, orange-trees that have witlistood the winter in the open air
upwards of a hundred years. The fruit is as lai-ge and fine as any from Portugal. Trees raised from
seed, and inoculated on the spot, are found to bear the cold
better than trees imported.

4S91. Use. As a dessert-fruit, the orange is well known.
The varieties imported, which are most esteemed for this
purpose, are the China, Portugal, and Maltese. Ii is also
used in confectionary, both ripe, and when green and' not
larger than a pea : it forms various liquors and conserves,
either alone or with sugars, wines, or spirits ; and either the
pulp or skin, or both, are used for these purposes. In cook-
ing, it is used to aromatise a number of dishes. The juice
of the Seville orange is used in medicine, in febrile and in-
flammatory disorders ; and that of the other sorts possesses
the same qualities in a lesser degree. The acid of oranges,
Dr. CuUen says, unites with the bile, takes off its bitterness,
and may prove useful in obviating disorders arising from its
redundancy and acridity. In perfumery, the orange is used
to form various perfumes and pomades : and the flower dis-
tilled, produces orange-water, used in cooking, medicine,
and as a perfume.

4892. Varieties. These are very numerous in the eastern
countries, and even in Italy and France. About forty sorts
are cultivated in the neighborhood of Paris, and about
thirty in the London nurseries, of which we shall give a list
The two principal varieties are the sweet or China orange,
the orange douce of the French, and porto-gallo or poma de
sino of the Italians ; and the bitter or Seville, the bigarade
of the French, and arancio volgaro of the Italians. The Maltese or»nge, dlstinguised by its red pulp is
also a noted and much-esteemed sort The box-leaved, willow-leaved, and some othws, are cultivated
more as carious varieties than for their fruit

768

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III,

Common orange

Bloody-fruite-

Broad-leaved

Bergamot large

Ber^ainot small

Cluster-fruited

Curled-leaved

Double-tlowered

Fine- leaved

Laurel-leaved

Lisbon

Maltese

Bloody Maltese

Narrow leaved

Oval-fruited

Pale-leaved

Seville or bitter orange,
(./i^. 511.) chietly used to
making marmalade

Spike-flowered

Striped common

Striped curled-leared

Striped gold

Striped silver

Striped tricolor

Striped willow-leaved

Sweet-skinned

Sweet China

Tanjierano

Thick-leaved

Weeping

Willow-leaved

Clove, or mandarin, (C. No-
bilis, H. K.) {Hot. Rep. 608.
and 211.), distinguished from
the common orange by its

curious form, and by the
pulp adhering so loosely to
the rind as to be sejiarable
from it by the slightest effort,
and leaving in many places
a considerable opening be-
tween them. It IS the most
delicate of the orange tribe,
whence its name by the Chi-
nese of mandarin, or noble
orange — Probably only a va-
riety, though named as a sjie-
cies.

4893. The Citron is the C. Medica, L. (Gcer. fru. 2.
t. 121. f. 2.) ; the citron of the French ; the citronier of
the Germans ; and cedraie of the Italians. {Jig. 512.)
In its wild state the tree grows to the height of about
eight feet, erect and prickly, with long reclining branches.
I'he leaves are ovate, oblong, alternate, subserrate, smooth,
pale green. Tlie fruit or berry is half a foot in length,
ovate, with a protuberance at the tip. There are two
rinds, the outer thin, with innumerable miliary glands,
full of a most fragrant oil ; the inner thick, white, and
fungous. The citron was introduced into Europe from
Media, under the name of mains medica, and ^vas first cul-
tivated in Italy by Palladius in the second century. The
date of its introduction into England is not exactly
known; it would probably be coeval with that of the
lemon, which was cultivated in the botanic garden at Ox-
ford in lf;48. The fairest fruit, Miller states, was in the
Duke of Argyle's garden at Whitton, where the trees
were trained against a south wall, through which there were flues for warming the air in
winter, and glass covers put over them, when the weather began to be cold. Thus
the fruit was as large and as perfectly ripe, as it is in Italy or Spain. In Italy citrons
and lemons are generally trained on walls or espaliers, because, being considerably more
tender than the orange, they require, at least in the north of Italy, some protection in
winter ; the fruit does not ripen regularly at one time, like that of tiie orange, but comes
successionally to maturity almost every month in the year.

4894. Use. The fruit is seldom brought to the dessert in a raw state, but it forms excellent preserves and
sweetmeats, to furnish the table when other fruits are scarce. The juice, with sugar and water, forms
lemonade, a most refreshing, salubrious, and universally esteemed beverage. Its use in punch and negus
is well known. It is much used in medicine, and also in perfumery and dyeing.

4895. Varieties. Dr. Sickler enumerates only about a dozen citrons and citronates as grown in Italy.
The French nurseries have nearly twenty names in their lists. In England the six following are cultivated^
for sale ; —

The common citron
The flat-fruited

The rough-fruited
The forbiaden-fruited

(HoH.

vol. iii. p. 358.)

The round-fruited
The thick-leaved.

4896. The lemon is the C. Medica, var. Limon, W. (Blackw. 362); the limon of the French ; limonier
of the Germans ; and limone of the Italians. (Jig. 513.) The distinction between the lemon and citron is
very trifling. The fruit is less knobbtd at the extremities, is rather longer, and more irregular, and the
skin is thinner than in the citron ; the wood is more knotty, and the bark rougher. Cultivated in the
Oxford garden in 1648.

4897. 77i<r Msrt of the lemnn are the same as those of the citron. r^, t. ,. j- *

4898. Varieties. Dr. Sickler enumerates twenty-eight as grown in Italy. The French, according to
Ville Herv6, have eleven sorts ; in the London nurseries are cultivated the twelve following : —

Common
Broad-leaved
Chinese
Imperial

Pear-shaped, or Lime ijig' 614.)
Rough-fruited
Smooth-leaved
Striped gold

Striped silver
Strij)ed three-colored

Book I.

ORANGE TRIBE.

769

4899. The lime U the Ciirus Adda, Roi. {Brown's Jam.
508.) by some esteemed a variety of tlie C. Medico; the
limeofthe French, Italians, and Germans. (Jig. 515.) The
sour lemon, or lime, grows to the height of about eight feet,
with a crooked trunk, and many ditftised branches, with
prickles. The leaves are ovate, lanceolate, almost quite
entire. Berry an inch and a half in diameter, almost glo-
bular, with a protuberance at the top ; the surface regular,
shining, greenish-yellow, with a very odorous rind, en-
closing a very acid juice. It is a native of Asia, but has
long been common in the West Indies, where it is grown
both for its fruit and for fences.

5900. T/ie uses of the lime are the same as those of the
lemon, to which, in the West Indies, it is preferred ; the
juice being reckoned more wholesome, and the acid more
agreeable to the palate.

5901. Varieties. By the catalogue in Kouveau Cours, &c
the French have two sorts of lime ; and according to Dr.
Sickler, the Italians have four varieties. The following
five kinds are grown in the London nurseries : —

I The broad -leaved
I The "West India

The Chinese spreading.

' S902. The shaddock is the C. decumana, W. {Rump. am. 2.
t 24. f. 2.) ; the orange pampehnouse of the French ; and
the arancio massimo of the Italians. {Jig. 516.) The tree is
above the middle size, with spreading prickly branches. The
leaves are ovate, subacute, seldom obtuse ; the petioles are
cordate, winged ; the wings as broad as the leaves. The berry
spheroidal, frequently retuse at each end, of an even surface,
and greenish-yellow color ; pulp, red or white ; juice, sweet or
acid ; rind, white, thick, fungous, and bitter. Thunberg says,
the fruit in Japan grows to the size of a child's head, and
Dr. Sickler states its weight as fourteen pounds, and its diameter
as from seven to eight inches. It is a native of China and Japan,
and was brought to the West Indies by Captain Shaddock, from
whom it has derived its name. From the West Indies it was
sent to England, and cultivated by Miller in 1739.

5900. Use. The shaddock is certainly the least useful of the
species enumerated, and is cultivated chiefly for show. It has
the handsomest leaf of the whole tribe, and the fruit is larger
than the orange. Where several sorts of oranges are pre-
sented at the dessert, it makes a striking addition to the variety.
The juice is of a subacid sweetness, and excellent for quench-
ing thirst; and the fruit, from the thickness of its skin, will
keep longer in sea voyages than any of the other species of
citrus.

5901. Varieties. The Italians, according to Dr. Sickler, have one ; and the French, according to the
Nouveau Cours, &c. four sorts. The following four are grown in the English nurseries : —

The common shaddpck | The rough-firuited | The largest-firuited i Tlie West India.

5905. Pro2)agation of the citrus tribe. All the sorts may be propagated by seeds, cut-
tings, layers, and grafting, or inoculation.

5906. By seed. The object of raising plants from seed is either to obtain new varieties or stocks for
grafting. To attempt raising new varieties in Britain will in general be found a tedious process, as the
trees do not even in Italy show fruit for six or eight years or more ; and there is now in the botanic
garden at Toulon, a large handsome tree, of twenty-five years' growth, which had not in 1819 blossomed.
However, if new varieties are attempted, select the largest and best-formed ripe fruit of the kind to be
raised, extract the seeds, dry them, and sow and nurse as hereafter directed for raising stocks. Where
trees are to be raised for stocks to bud oranges. Miller advises to procure citron-seeds, as stocks from these
are preferable to any other for quickness of growth ; and also that they will take buds of either orange,
lemon, or citron. Next to these are the Seville orange seeds ; and the best of either sort are to be had
from rotten fruits. Prepare in spring a good hot-bed of dung or tan, and when it is in moderate temper sow
the seeds in pots of light earth ; plunge them, give water frequently, and raise the glasses in the beat of
the day. In three weeks the seeds will come up, and in a month's time be fit to transplant into single
pots. Then renew the bed, and fill pot5 of five inches in diameter half full of good fresh earth, mixed
with very rotten cow-dung : shake out the seedlings, and plant one in each pot, filling it up with the
same earth, and replunge as before. Give a good watering at the roots, and repeat this often, as the
orange tribe in a hot-bed require a good supply of water. Shade in the day-time, when the sun is power-
ful, and give air so as not to draw the plants. By this method, with due care, the plants will be two feet
high by July, when they must be hardened by degrees, by raising the glasses very high, and afterwards,
in fine days, taking them entirely off, shading the plants from the sun with mats or other screens. To-
wards the end of September, house them in a dry part of the green-house, near the glass, where they
will not be liable to damp off. During winter refresh them with water, and in April now and then wash
their stems and leaves, to clear them from any filth they may have contracted. Place them again in a
moderate hot-bed, and harden them by the beginning of June, that they may be in a right order to bud
in August.

5907. Budding. IVIake choice of cuttings from trees, that are healthy and fruitful, observing that the
shoots are round ; the buds of these being much better and easier to part from the wood than of such
shoots as are flat or angular. After performing the operation, remove the plants into the green-house, or
under glass frames, to defend them from wet, turning the buds from the sun ; but let them have as much
free air as possible, and refresh them often with water. In a month it will be observable which has taken,
then untie them, and let them remain in the green-house all the winter. In spring cut off the stocks
about three inches above the buds, and place them in a moderate hot-bed, giving air and water, and
shading as before. By the end of July they will have made shoots of two feet or more ; then harden them
before the cold sets in, that they may the better stand the winter. In the first winter after their shooting,
you must keep them very warm, for by forcing them in the bark-bed they will be somewhat tenderer ;
but it is very necessary to raise them to their height in one season, that their stems may be straight, for
in tretjs which are two or more years growing to their heading height, the stems are always crooked. In
the succeeding years their management will be the same as for full-grown trees.

5903. The Italian process of raising and budding.

3 D

In the orange-nurseries at Nervi,

770

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

the seeds of the citron or orange, as it may happen, are sown in beds in the open ground
in February or March, and in September planted out in compartments, in rows generally
about eighteen inches wide, and the plants six or eight inches in the row. They are
placed thus close to draw them up with clean straight stems. Tliere they remain
generally four years, and in April or May of the fifth year they are taken up, their roots
cut within four or six inches of the tap-root, which is also shortened to six or eight
inches, according to the size of the tree. The stem, if it has any side shoots, is pruned
clean, and sawn off horizontally, at such a height as that the section is from half an
inch to an inch in diameter. {Jig- 517. a) The
general heights are one foot, which forms tlie
lowest-growing plants ; eighteen inches for
trees to be sold m Italy; from two to four
feet for trees to be sent abroad ; and five or
six feet for extraordinary orders. These last
are not so common ; as tlie stocks require six
or eight years' growth, and some care to attain
that height with clean stems, and a diameter
of three quarters of an inch. The plants thus
pruned are budded, sometimes when out of
ground, and sometimes after planting. One
bud is inserted on each side of the stock (a),
within an inch of the section. In a month
buds and roots begin to push, and in Decem-
ber or January following these plants are in
fit state for taking up for exportation. After
being taken up, the roots, now well furnished
with fibres, are enveloped in a ball of stiff
clay ; this is covered with moss carefully tied
on, and in this way they are laid in boxes, or
in casks, and sent not only to most parts of
Europe, but to North and South America.
The chief defect in this system is the naked
horizontal section at the top of the stem (a), which, not being smoothed with the knife
and covered with clay or any other protection, to cause the bark to grow over it, indurates
and cracks with the drought ; retains moisture and decays, so that in almost all trees
that have^ been budded in this way, a dead stump or a rotten hole, may be observed
during the whole period of their existence. This evil is often lessened by covering with
a cap of lead or a patch of wax ; but it might readily be obviated by peeling off a piece
pf bark from one side of the part of the stock to be sawn oflP (d), letting it remain attached
to the lower part or stem j and after removing the head, bringing it down close over
the section, inserting its iend under the bark in the opposite side, somewhat in the man-
ner of saddle-grafting ; or the manner employed by surgeons in amputating a limb
{e) might be adopted. A similar object might probably be effected by removing a
wedge-shaped section from the top of the stock {f), and then compressing its sides, so
as to present a wedge-shaped termination covered with bark (g). But the gardeners at
Nervi are too indolent and obstinate to hear of any thing new, and will persist in their
present plan till the credit of Genoa for orange-trees is gone, or till some strong necessity
urges them to improvement.

5909. Hie Maltese, aware of the defects in Italian trees, make a sloping section (6), paring it clean, and
budding on one side onlyj the consequence of which is, that the section becomes covered with bark, and,
which it never does in the Italian method, as sound and healthy as any part of the stem. The French
graft and inoculate in a very neat manner (c), and indeed their orange-trees, though small, are much
handsomer than the Italian ones.

5910. By grafting. This mode is occasionally resorted to in Italy, and is that most generally adopted
in the nurseries at Paris. The stocks, when of two years' growth, and not much thicker than the scion,
are cut over within six inches of the ground, and then grafted in the whip manner. Tlie trees continue
small, but have clean stems of from one to three feet, and generally make handsome plants, prolific in
flowers and fruit, of a small size. Grafting, both by the whip manner and by approach, is frequently
practised in England, in nearly the same circumstances of age, size, and efFect, as practised in France. A
variety of the whip-manner is described by Cushing, in which the top of the stock is left on, but the scion
is cut off as in grafting. "Form the scion as for the common whip-graft, and then, without taking oif
the head of the stock, cut from the clearest part of its stem an equal splice as smoothly as possible ; do not
tongue the scion, but tie it on neatly and firmly with matting and clay, in the manner of a graft : plunge
them in a hot-bed, and cover with a cap-glass till the scion begins to grow, and then cut away the top of
the stock, and remove the matting by degrees." {Exotic Gard. 103.)

5911. Whip-grafting in the common way has lately been successfully performed, even with fruit or
flowers on the scion, by Nairn, who gives the following account of the process : " I^t the operator select
as many orange or lemon stocks as he wishes to work, and place them on a moderate hot-bed for a fort-
night, by which time the sap will have risen sufficiently to move the bark; the stocks must then be cut
off, about two inches above the surface of the pot, and an incision made with a sharp knife, similar to
what is done for budding, separating the bark from the wood on each side. Let the scion be cut thin, in
a sloping direction, and thrust between the bark and wood, and then bound tight with woollen yarn ; but
very great care must be taken, in binding, to prevent the bark from slipping round the stock, which,
without attention, it is very apt to do. After it is properly and neatly bound, put a little loam or clay

Book I.

ORANGE TRIBE.

771

close round the stock, to the surface of the pot, tbeii, with a glass of a proper form {Jig. 518.), to prcrent
the damp from dripping on the scion, cover the whole, and press it firmly

into the mould, to prevent the air or steam from getting to the plant; ^--'**^>^ 518

the glass must not be taken off, unless you find any of the leaves damp- -^^ ^^^ *^

ing, and then onlv till this is remedied,' when it must be immediately re-
turned. The stocks must next be placed on a brisk hot -bed of dung, and
in about six weeks, the glasses may be taken off, and the clay and binding
removed ; but it will be necessary to bind on a little damp moss, in lieu of
the clav, and to keep the glasses'on in the heat of ihe day, taking them
off at night; when, in about three weeks or a month, they will be fit to
be put into the green-house, where they will be found to be one of the
greatest ornaments it can receive. I should recommend the mandarin
orange for the first trial, as the fruit is more firmly fixed than that of any
of the other sorts. I have, by the above method, had seven oranges on a /
plant, in a pot, com:r.only called a small sixty, which I conceive to be /
both curious and handsome." {Hort. Trans. \\\.) L —

5912. Henderson's mode of grafting is well adapted for proving successful."
" Take two-vear-old wood, cut into lengths of about seven inches. If the stock is much thicker than
the graft (Jig. 519. a), cut a piece out of the stock of a triangular figure, about an inch and two eighths in
length, regulating the depth according to the
thickness of the graft, and keeping it square at
the bottom. Displace nvo leaves at the bottom of
the graft, for the convenience of getting it put on,
cut the graft right across under one eye, where a
leaf has been taken off: dress the graft to fit the
receptacle made in the stock, observing to keep
the lower end of the graft equal in thickness as
above ; always let three or four leaves remain
untouched on the graft. After the graft is fitted
in the stock, tie it up with bass matting, and put
clay around it. If the grafts and stocks are nearly
of the same thickness (6), cut the stock, at right
angles, nearly half through. Cut off the piece,
keeping it equal at top and bottom : cut the
lower end of the graft right across under an
eye ,«}, and with a knife prepare the graft to fit the
stock. When the grafted plants are tied up and
clayetl, set them at the back of the vinenr or
peach-house, observing to keep them away from
the flues, as fire-heat is hurtful to them at first :
cover them with hand-glasses, or, if a frame can
be spared, it is still better. Shade them every
day, but take the mats off at night ; continue the
shading tiU they begin to grow, when they may be
exposed to the light If any stock happens to be
so tall and thick that it cannot be placed under a
hand-glass or frame, put two or three grafts on
it, set in anv convenient place in the house, and
shade it with mats ; it will succeed perfectly in
this way, the grafts lose none of the old leaves ;
and, in five or six months, they will make three
or four young shoots six or eight inches long ;
these, with the leaves that were on the grafts
when put on, form a well-clothed little plant"

5913. By cuttings. This method, though little

Cractised on the continent, where tlie object is
irge trees and fine fruit, is frequently adopted
by the British gardener, whose object is generally
small handsome plants. Two methods are adopt,
ed ; the first is to take young succulent wood as
soon as it has done growing, and the lower end
has become somewhat mature. These cuttings,
prepared properly (5914.) are inserted with a small
dibber in pots of light sandy loam, with two or
three inches of gravel or broken pots at bottom.
They are then covered close with a crystal bell,
and plunged in a gentle heat, and shaded. The
glasses are taken off onlv to wipe them when damp, and to remove any decaying leaves. In two months
such cuttings either strike or rot off The second method is in spring to take the shoots of last year ; to
prepare and plant them as above ; but after covering them with glasses to plunge them in a cold-frame,
where they remain in a state of apparent inaction for three or four months, when they either form a cal-
lous excrescence at the lower end of the cutting and push at top, or die off. After preserving them in a
low temperature through the winter, they are placed the succeeding spring in a gentle hot t>ed, where
they will push freely, and make tolerable plants. The success of either mode may be faciliUted by taking
care to place the cuttings so as their ends may touch the bottom of the pot, or the' potsherd or gravel with
which that is covered. The advantages of so placing cuttings is generally known to gardeners, and has
been noticed by Hawkins in the Hort. Trans, vol. ii. p. 12.

5914. Henderson considers cuttings as the quickest mode of getting plants, and has practised it for
thirty-seven years past on the orange tribe, and his directions are as follow : " Take the strongest voung
shoots, and also a quantity of the two-year-old shoots ; these may be cut into lengths from nine inches to
eighteen inches. Take the leaves off the lower part of each cutting to the extent of about five inches, aU
lowing the leaves above that to remain untouched : then cut right across, under an eve ; and make a
small mcision in an angular direction on the bottom of the cutting. When the cuttings a're thus prepared,
take a pot, and fill it with sand ; size the cuttings, so that the short ones may be all together, and those
that are taller in a different pot. Then, with a small dibble, plant them about five inches deep in the
sand, and give them a good watering overhead, to settle the sand about them. Let them stand a day or
two m a shady place, and if a frame b^ ready with bottom heat, plunge the pots to the brim. Shade
them well with a double mat, which may remain till they have struck root ; when rooted, take the sand
and cuttings out of the pot, and plant them into single pots, in the proper compost (see 5922.) Plunge
thepots with the young plants again into a frame, and shade them for four or five weeks, or till they
are taken with the pots ; when they may be gradually exposed to the Ught From various experiments,
I found that pieces of two-year-old wood struck quite well ; and in place, therefore, of putting in cuttings
SIX or eight inches long, I have taken off cuttings from ten inches to two feet long, and struck them

3 D 2

772 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

with equal success. Although I at first began to put in cuttings only in the month of August, I now put
them in at any time of the year, except when the plants are making young wood. By giving them a
gentle bottom heat, and covering them with a hand-glass, they will generally strike roots in seven
weeks or two months. The citron is most easily struck, and is the freest grower. I therefore frequently
strike pieces eighteen inches long ; and as soon as they are put into single pots, and taken with the pots,
they are grafted with other sorts, which grow freely. I am not particular as to the time either of striking
cuttings or of grafting." {Calcd. Hort. Mem. iii, 308.)

5915. By layers. This mqfle is occasionally practised both on the continent and in England. At Monza,
near Milan, there is a very fine collection of lemon-trees in boxes, trained as espaliers, which were so
raised. The trees are five feet higli, and each box has a portion of trellis attached to it of that height, and
ten or twelve feet long, which is wholly covered with branches. Where laying is adopted, the plants may
either be laid down on their sides, and laid as stools, or pots may be raised and supported under the
branches to be propagated from. These branches, or their shoots of one or two years' growth, may then
be cut or ringed, and bent into the pot, or down through the hole in the bottom, and treated in the usual
manner, taking care to supply water with the greatest regularity. Shoots layered in March will be fit to
separate from the stools as mother plants in the September following. In general, it may be observed,
that the citron tribe, like other fruit-bearing plants raised from cuttings or layers, though they may prove
very prolific trees, yet seldom grow with that vigor, and produce such large fruit, as those propagated by
budding or grafting on seedling stocks.

5916. Soil. At Genoa and Florence they are grown in a strong yellow clay, which is richly manured j
and this soil is considered by the first Italian gardeners, as best suited to their natures. At Rome and
Milan the natural soil is lighter ; but a strong soil is adopted generally for all the agrumi, and particularly
in the garden of his Holiness the Pope. At Naples, where the trees are always planted in the open
ground, the soil is lighter and of volcanic origin. A strong soil, in imitation of that of Nervi, is recom-
mended and adopted by the Dutch. (See Van Osten. Nied, Hesperides, &c.)

5917. The French garde/iers, according to Bosc (in N. Coursd'Ag. in loco.), in preparing a compost for
the orange-tree, endeavor to compensate for quantity by quality ; because the pots or boxes in which
the plants are placed ought always to be as small as possible, relatively to the size of the tree. The fol-
lowing is the composition recommended : To a fresh loam which contains a third of clay, a third of sand,
and a third of vegetable matter, and which has lain a long time in a heap, add an equal bulk of half.rotten
cow-dung. The following year turn it over twice. The succeeding year mix it with nearly one half its
bulk of decomposed horse-dung. Turn it over twice or three times, and the winter before using, add a
twelfth part of sheep-dung, a twentieth of pigeon-dung, and a twentieth of dried ordure.-

5918. Miller says, the best compost for orange-trees is two thirds of fresh earth from a good pasture, and
one third part of neat's dung. These should be mixed together at least twelve months before usmg, turning
it over every month to mix it well and to rot the sward. Pass it through a rough screen before using.

5919. M'Fhail and Abercroinbie recommend " three eighth parts of cow-dung, which has been kept
three or four years ; a fourth part of vegetable mould from tree-leaves ; one sixth part of fine rich loam ;
and one twelfth part of road-grit j to this may be added one eighth part of sheep-dung." (G. JRem. 242.
Pr. Gard. 574.)

5920. Mean has tried the following mixture {Hort. Trans, ii. 295.), and with which he has " every rea-
son to be satisfied. Well-prepared rotten leaves, two to three years old, one half; rotten cow-dung,
two, three, and four years old, one fourth ; mellow loam, one fourth ; with a small quantity of sand or
road-grit added to the compost, which ought not to be sifted too fine."

5921. Ayresy who grows excellent table fruit of the citrus, at Shipley, uses ten parts of strong turf-loam,
seven of pigeon-dung, seven of garbage from the dog-kennel or butcher's yard, seven of sheep-dung,
seven of good rotten horse-dung, and ten of old vegetable mould, mixed and prepared a twelvemonth
before using. {Hort. Trans, iv. 310.)

5922. Henderson, of Wood Hall, a most successful cultivator of the genus citrus, gives the following di-
rections as to soil : " Take one part of light-brown mould fi-om a piece of ground that has not been cropped
nor manured for many years; one part of peat-earth, such as is used for growing heaths ; two parts of
river-sand, or pit-sand if it be free from mineral substances ; and one part of rotted hot-bed dung ; with
one part of rotted leaves of trees. Mix them all well together, so as to form a compost-soil of uniform
quality." {Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 302.)

5923. Temiperature. The standard temperature for the citrus tribe is 48° ; but in the growing season
they require at least ten degrees of additional heat to force them to produce luxuriant shoots The air of
the house in which the plants are kept, whether in boxes or in the ground, should never be allowed to fall
under 40*^, for though the orange, like the pine-apple, will endure a severe degree of cold for a few hours
without injury, yet, as Mean has observed, the leaves once injured the trees will require three years to
recover their appearance. Ayres never sufters his orangery to be heated above 50* by fire-heat, until the
end of February ; when the trees show blossom, it is increased to biP, but never allowed to exceed 60** by
sun-heat, the excess of which he checks by the admission of air till the early part of June, when he
" begins to force the trees, by keeping the heat in the house up as near as possible to 75". For I do not
consider (he adds) that either citrons, oranges, lemons, or limes, can be grown fine and good with less
heat." {Hort. Trans, iv. 811.) The orange, Humboldt observes {Be Distrib. Plant. 158.), which requires
an average temperature of 64 degrees, will bear a very great degree of cold if continued only for a short
time. This is proved by an observation of Dr. Sickler, who says, " It is remarkable how much cold and
snow the common lemons and oranges will bear at Rome, provided they are planted in a sheltered situ-
ation, not much exposed to the sun. Thus I saw in the two winters of 1805 and 1806, under my windows,
on Monte Pincio, three standard orange-trees in the open ground, heavily covered with snow for more
than a week. The green leaves, but still more the golden fruits, nearly ripe, looked smgular but beautiful
amidst the snow ; neither fruits nor trees had suffered, being in a shelteretl place, while many branches
and leaves of other trees of this kind, which were exposed to the sun, turned black and died, rendering
the whole tree sickly." {Volk. Oran. Gart. 9.) It appears that the snow had been thawed from off these
trees gradually, and more by the temperature of the atmosphere than by the direct rays of the sun, or a
current of heated air. This resulted from their sheltered and partially shaded situation ; and, as Dr.
Noehden has remarked {Hort. Trans, iii. 43.), it proves the truth of the observation of Knight, that it is
more the sudden transition from cold to heat, and the contrary, than the degree of either, which destroys
vegetables Whenever orange-trees or any tender exotics have been touched during night by frost, they
should either be immediately shaded by mats from the next day's sun, or thawed by water at not more than
32 or 33 degrees of temperature. In the northern regions the same treatment is successfully applied to
animals. (See Horf. Tmws. iii. 42. and 144.) ,.,,,.,. ., . . ^^ r ;,

5924 Water. Orange-trees, like other evergreens which delight in a strong soil, are not naturally fond
of water • but in this country those in boxes are often much injured for a want of a due supply of this ma-
terial • for the earth becoming indurated, the water wets only the surface, and runs over and escapes by
the sides of the pot or box ; so that while the mass of earth below is dry, the surface has a sane moist ap-
pearance. Mean says, " When I think from the appearance of a plant, that the water does not freely
enter by the middle or sides of the box, a sharp iron rod, about three feet long, is made use of to penetrate
to the bottom of the earth, and to form a channel for the water, too little or too much of which is equally
injurious to orange-trees." Knight {Hort. Trans, ii. 229.) watered an orange-tree with very strong liquid
manure, and found it grow with equal comparative vigor to the vine and mulberry. Ayres, after the fruit
is set, waters with water, in which, at the rate of three barrows of fresh cow-dung, without litter, two bar-
rows of fresh sheep's droppings, and two pecks of quick lime have been added to every hogshead ; when

Book I.

ORANGE TRIBE.

773

used, the water is about the consistence of cream. {Hort. Trans, v. 310.) The French water once after
shifting with a very strong lessive; they also mulch with recent cow and horse droppings, renewing these
once a-month or oftener during summer, that there may be always abundance of soluble matter for the
water to convey to their roots. {Souveau Cours, &c. art. Orange.) M'Phail mentions a case in which very
large orange-trees in the border of a conservatory looked sickly ; when, on digging deep into the borders
to examine the cause, he found the earth quite dry, and by afterwards continuing to water them regu-
larly he recovered them. {G. Rem. 242.)

5i)25. Air. During the winter season, Miller observes, orange-trees require a large share of air when the
weather is favorable ; for nothing is more injurious to these trees than stifling them. The prevention of
damp. Mean observes, is as essential to the perfection of the plants as the exclusion of cold. Where these
trees are kept in old-fashioned opaque-roofed green-houses, these cautions as to air and damp deserve parti-
cular attention. Ayres says, the more air orange-trees have during the blossoming season, the more cer-
tain will they be offsetting the fruit.

5926. Light. Many gardeners are of opinion that the orange tribe do not require so much light as other
exotics, which may have arisen from the gloomy conservatories in which they used to be formerly kept
during winter ; for certainly to look at the orange-houses at Versailles and Kew, one would not con-
clude light to be a very essential requisite. But though these trees, like other evergreens, when in a state
of inaction, will live with less light than evergreens or deciduous plants in a growing state, they always
suffer for the want of it, which is indicated by the paleness of the leaves in spring, and by their falling
off when set out in the open air and fully exposed to the influence of day. Whoever intends to grow the
orange in any degree of perfection, should adopt houses, if not with glass on all sides, at least with glass
fronts and roofs. When the plants are placed in the naked ground as standards, glass on all sides is
highly desirable ; for otherwise their leaves and shoots will all be turned to the south, and the north side
of each tree will in a short time become naked and unsightly.

5927. Majiner of growing the trees. All tlie species may either be grown as dwarfs in
moderate-sized pots or boxes ; as standards with stems from two to six feet high in large
boxes ; as standards planted in the naked ground ; and either as dwarfs or standards
planted and trained against a wall or trellis under glass. The two first modes are more
adapted for ornament than producing crops of large fruit ; for all the art of the gardener
will never make plants grow as vigorously in boxes as in the free ground. Standards
planted in the free ground or floor of the conservatory, combine both elegance and utility ;
as in a house properly constructed, they will make handsome heads, and produce abundant
crops of fruit. The last mode, or that of planting against walls or trellises, is much the
most certain way of ha\-ing large crops. Every part of the plant above ground can thus
be brought near the glass and equally exposed to the sun's influence and that of the air
and heat : they can be more readily pruned, and correctly trained, watered, and washed ;
and they occupy less room in proportion to the produce. The trees at Wood Hall, in
West Lothian, some of those at Shipley, and at some places in Devonshire, are trained
in this way. In a very few favorable situations in the South of England, as at Gerston
and Woodville, in Devonshire, they are trained against walls in the open garden.

5928. Plans for orange- houses. These must naturally depend on the mode of growing. For plants in
moilerate-sized pots and boxes, a common green-house is the obvious habitation ; for, being plants of orna-
ment, they require merely the treatment of that department. The conservatories in Italy have generally
opaque roofs, but some of the more enlightened nobles of Lombardy have lately erected splendid construc-
tions with glass roofs, in which they combine the culture of the citron tribe with other, large-growing
exotics, [fig. 520.)

520

5929. For trees: in large boxes, a 'proportionably large and lofty house is requisite ; it may be opaque
on the north side with a glass roof, front, and ends, of any convenient or desired length, width, and height
For one of moderate size, the height at the back wall may be fifteen feet, at front ten feet, and the
width of the house fifteen feet The floor may be either perfectly level, and the boxes placed on it, the lar-
gest behind, so as their tops may form a slope to the front glass, aa in the conservatory of Prince Borghese,

at Rome ; or if the trees are young, a stage may be erected for a few jears, in order to raise the plants to
the light : but if the trees are of a considerable size, the best way is to have square pits in the floor at re-
gular distances, somewhat larger than each box, and in these to sink the boxes, covering them with

3 D 3

774

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

mould, sand, or moss nearly to the level of the pavement, so that each tree so placed and dressed, will ap-'
pear as if planted in a small compartment of earth. Such is the plan of the large conservatory in the
royal gardens at Monza. The walk, unless where a stage is adopted, should be in the front of the house, with
corresponding doors in each end ; but where the trees are young, and placed on a stage like green-house
plants, the walk should be in front, as in no other situation could the eye of the spectator meet the foliage
of the plants. Where the walk is in the middle, and a double row of trees on each side as at Monza, the
effect in winter is truly magnificent and gratifying.

5930. Where the trees are to be planted as standards in the borders or floor of the house, it is essentially
requisite to the health and beauty of the plants that the building be glazed on all sides. (Jig. 521.)
Showers might be supplied in Loddiges's manner; heat by steam or flues (fig. 522. a) and in winter, the
beds (b) might be covered with turf, strewed with daisies, violets, and primroses ; these would come early

into flower, and if the turf were kept very short about the roots of the flowering plants, and the trees in •
excellent condition, only those who nave seen the first-rate, regularly planted, standard orange-groves of
Nervi could form an idea of the effect, which, by contrast with the external winter, would be felt as lux-
urious and as anticipating real spring.

5931. W/ierc orange-trees are to be trained against the back wall or a trellis, under the glass, the forms
adopted for common peach-houses or vineries are perfectly suitable ; but as by training close under the
glass, as is done with vines, much of the beauty of the foliage would be lost, training on a trellis a few feet
distant, with a path between it and the glass, is preferable.

5932. Plans for tubs, pots, and boxes. Unglazed pots of earthenware are preferable to glazed stone ware
or China pots ; the form need not be different from that in common use, and the size must depend on that
of the plants. At Florence, where the largest and best garden-pots in Europe are made, the rim and part of
the outside of pots destined for oranges and ornamental plants, are often decorated with festoons of flowers
or fruit, and lions' heads, or other ornaments ; which some potters near London have begun to imitate.

5933. Tubsmayhe of any size, and in these and in boxes, trees thrive better than in pots. One advan-
tage of tubs is, that byunhooping them, the staves are instantly removed, and the roots examined and
dressed, and by having a cooper at hand they are immediately replaced ; thus saving much of the trouble
necessarily incurred in shifting plants in pots or boxes.

5934. Boxes. All boxes which are larger than the largest-sized pots, should be contrived to take to
pieces, in order to examine the roots, or to shift into larger boxes. Square boxes held together by an iron
hoop, and taking to pieces on the principle of tubs, are most convenient for trees which do not require
more than five or ten cubic feet of earth ; and such as are used at the Tuilleries and by Mean (figs. 177
to 179.) answer very well for plants requiring from ten to sixty cubic feet. Those of Mean contain sixty-four
cubic feet of compost.

5935. Proportioning the size qf boxes to that of the plants. The general opinion of gardeners is in favor
of small pots or boxes ; and where the object is dwarf plants, or merely to presert-e the trees without much
increasing their size or regarding their fruit, they are the most proper. But where the object is luxuriance
of growth and fruit, it does appear to us that the pots or boxes cannot be too large ; unless, as Van Osten
observes, it is meaait to be asserted that plants grow larger in pots than in the free ground. It is, however,
expedient to plant at first in small boxes, and remove into larger ones by degrees. The largest boxes in
use in Holland and France are four feet square, which serve for trees with stems from six to eight feet
high, with globular heads of six feet in diameter, and above a century old. Henderson has " always found
that the citrus tribe, and plants in general, grow best in pots or boxes, regarded as rather small in propor-
tiion to the size of the plants," {Caled. Mem. iii. 303.)

5936. Choice of sorts. Where the object is more ornament than fruit for the dessert,
a selection may be made from the varieties of each species at pleasure ; where the object
is fruit for the dessert, the following sorts are to be preferred : the common, blooidy-
fruited, Bergamot, Maltese, sweet China, Seville, and Mandarin oranges ; the com-
mon lemon, citron, and lime, and one or two plants of the shaddock. These include
all the essential varieties of the orange tribe as far as respects fruit ; variations in the
leaves and mode of growth.

5937. Choice of plants. For moderate-sized trees to be treated like green-house plants, such as are
raised in this country or in the Parisian nurseries are preferable ; but where the object is large handsome
trees in boxes, standards in the free soil, or trained trees, then plants from Genoa or Malta are decidedly
preferable ; indeed, no plants fitting for the purpose of standards could be elsewhere procured. Miller is
of this opinion, observing, that " by much the quicker way of furnishing a green-house with large trees,
is to make choice of such as are brought over every year in chests from Italy ; for those which are
raised from seeds in England will not grow so large in their stems under eighteen or twenty years, as
those are when brought over ; and although their heads are small when we receive them, yet in three
years, with good management, they will obtain large lieads, and produce fruit." When the plants are
purchased in London, at the Italian warehouses, without names, the greater number will be found to be
of the shaddock and citron kinds ; as the Italian gardeners find these sorts make stronger shoots and more
showy plants, and therefore send a less number of the less luxuriant but more useful varieties. But the
best way is to send an order, through a British merchant who has a correspondent at Genoa, for named
sorts, ordering so many of each class, either from the table of Dr. Sickler (4880.) or the synopsis of Gal-
lesio. {fig. 4881.)

5938. Management in pots and boxes. The management of dwarf English or French plants m moderate-
sized pots or boxes, for the green-house stage, consists in common green-house treatment. Being potted
in the proper soil, the roots are to be annually examined before the growing season in spring, and when
matted or diseased, trimmed off and repotted, or shifted into larger pots at discretion. Henderson says,
*' The general management of the orange-trees from the middle of ?.Iarch till the 1st of October, may be
discussed in a few words. I give the trees a good watering all over the leaves once a-week with the en-
gine, excepting when they are in flower. Till the end of May this watering is given about 11 o'clock in
the forenoon. After the end of May, I give them a good dashing over the leaves twice a-week with the en-
gine, and now I do it in the evening. In very hot weather I repeat the engine-watering thrice a-weck.

Book I. ORANGE TRIBE. 77$

I never set the orange-trees out of doors during summer ; for, from thiity-fflght years* experience, I find
it is much against them, in the climate of Scotland. In hot weather I keep them in the back of the
vinery, under the shade of the vines, or behind the stage of the green-house. Orange-trees delight to
be in 'the shade in sunny weather ; they here grow freely, and keep a tine dark-green color. From the fre-
quent waterings over the leaves in summer, the pots require less water, but they must be carefully attended
to, and when the plants are making their young shoots, the pots or tubs require a good supply of water.
From October to March, I give them a gentle sprinkling over the leaves once in two or three weeks,
but only in fresh weather, taking the opportunity of a mild day, whe!n there is a little sim, and always in
the forenoon." {Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 303.)

5939. For the management for Italian plants, destined to grow large trees and produce
crops of fruit ia boxes or tubs, the treatment requires to be more particularly detailed.

5&10. The foUowing are Miller's directions : — Having furnished yourself with a parcel of trees, prepare a
moderate hot-bed of tanner's bark, in length and breadth according to the number of trees to be forced,
then put your trees into a tub of water upright, about half way of the stems, leaving the head and upper
part of the stem out of water, the better to draw and imbibe the moisture. In this situation they may re.
main two or three days, according to their plumpness when you received them ; then take them out and
clean their roots from all filth, cutting off all broken or bruised roots, and all the small fibres which are
quite dried by being so long out of the earth, and scrub the stems with a hard hair brush, cleaning them
afterwards with a cloth ; then cut oflfthe branches about six inches from the stem, and having prepared
a quantity of good fresh earth, mixed with very rotten neat's dung, plant your trees therein, observing
never to put them into large pots ; for if they are but big enough to contain their roots it is sufficient at
first planting. Wrap the stems round with hay-bands from bottom to top to prevent the sun from drying
their bark : plunge the pots in the bark-bed, watering well to settle earth to their roots, frequently re-
peating the same all over their heads and stems, being ver>' careful not to over-water them before they
nave made good roots, and shade from the sun in the middle of the day. If they have grown kindly
they will have made strong shoots by the beginning of June ; at which time stop them to obtain lateral
branches to furnish their heads ; harden them to admit thtyr removal into the open ground in July ;
house them about the end of September ; and, during winter, water frequently but moderately, guarding
against frost In the following spring clean the stems and leaves of the plants, top-dress the earth, and
mulch, with rotten cow-dung, round the edges of the pots, taking care that none touch the stems.
Remove to a sheltered situation in the open air by the end of May. As the trees advance, stop strong irre-
gular-growing shoots in the summer season, to force out lateral branches, to fill the head, and render it
regular and free from weak trifling branches. The trees will require to be shifted and new-potted, every
other year, in April. In performing the operation, having drawn the trees out of the pots, cut off all the
roots round the outside of the ball of earth, and take away all mouldy roots ; then with a sharp iron in-
strument, get as much of the old earth from between the roots as possible ; then set the root of the tree
into a large tub of water, for about a quarter of an hour, to soak the under part of the ball of earth,
then clean the stems. Repot the trees, and water, letting them remain in the house till they have
taken root.

5&il. The operation of shifting, when the plants become very large, is much facilitated by adopt-
ing boxes which admit of being taken to pieces, as already described j the balls of earth can thus be
slid from one box to the other instead of being lifted out of the box. .Where the boxes do not separate, the
tree and ball must be lifted out by fixing one end of a rope to the stem of the tree, and passing the other
over a pully suspended from a triangle. This mode is recommended by Van Osten, while some French au-
thors recoromend a carriage -lever and rope. The tree and ball of earth are thus, by either mode, suspended
in the air, the latter is examined, the roots pruned, &c. ; and this done, the same or a larger box is placed
directly t)elow the ball, with a proper quantity of compost at the lx)ttom, and into this the tree is lowered,
and the sides filled with earth, &c. The worst thing attending this mode is the liability of injuring the
bark of the stem by the noose of the suspending rope.

5^2. Henderson shifts oranges only once in two years, and frequently after a longer interval. *♦ I never
shift any plant till the pot is veryfuU of roots. In shifting the oranges, I always take as much of the
exhausted mould away as I can ; and, on account of the light and free nature of the compost used,
it comes easily from among the roots. The. best season for this operation is about the beginning of
March. Having turned the plants out of the pots or tubs, pick as much of the old exhausted mould
from the ball as you can, without injuring the roots. They should be shifted into the pots or tubs
only one size larger, and some of the plants will perhaps do better if replaced into the same pots again.
Let the pots be all clean washed and dried before any plants be again put into them. Put a piece
of crockery or broken pot over the hole in the bottom of the pit, with the convex side down ; then
cover the txjttom, above the piece laid over the hole, three quarters of an inch thick, with char
.made from pit-coal, broken small, about the size of peas. This both forms a drain, and prevents the
entrance of worms. On the top of the charred cinders place a layer of dried moss {hypnum), which
prevents the compost mould from getting down amongst the char, and lets the water pass off freely
from the roots of the plants. The bottoms of the pots being prepared in this way, put in a little of
the compost ; then introduce the roots of the plant into the pot, and fill it up with the compost, ob-
serving to keep a little of the mould betwixt the side of the pot and the roots. The plants may be
set partly into the peach-house or the vinery, and some into the green-house, which wUl give a
longer succession of their flowers. The orange-trees that are placed in the \inery or peach-house, if
there be any fire-heat used at the time, must be watered as soon as put in ; but those put into the
green-house where there is little heat, may stand a day without getting any. After that space they
may get a moderate watering ; and this may be repeated once a-week tUl the weather become warm,
when they will require it oftener. Those placed in the \nnery or peach-house will require watering
very frequently, according to the degree of heat kept in the house." {Caled. Hort. Metn. iii. 304.)

5943. Renovating old trees i« pots or boxes. Where orange-trees have been iU ma-
naged, and their heads become ragged and decayed, Miller directs to restore them by
cutting off the greatest part of their heads by March ; drawing them out of the pots or
tubs, and shaking off the earth from their roots ; then cutting away all small fibres and
mouldy roots ; and next soaking and cleaning their roots, stems, and branches, planting
them in good earth, plunging them in a hot-bed, and treating them as directed for trees
received from abroad.

5944. Management of the citron tribe as standards. Prepare foreign plants as directed above, and instead
of planting in pots, plant in the border or floor. This must have been laid dry by proper drains, and if on
a wet sub-soil, floored, to prevent the roots from penetrating into it. On this, lay "the sort of earth, or com-
post, most approved of, to the thickness of three or four feet ; care having been taken in constructing the
house, that all the walls (excepting the north wall, if the house be opaque on that side), flues, paths, &c.
be supported on pillars or piers, so as the compost may extend under them, and ten or twelve feet without
the house, according to circumstances. Plant the trees either in squares, or better in quincunx, allowing
six or eight feet between the trees, which will give thirtj-six or sixty-four square feet to each plant. This
distance will suffice for several years, and afterwards every other tree can be taken out. After planting,

3D 4

776 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

which should be finished In April, water at the root, and morning and evening sprinkle a little over the
tops to assist in causing them to break freely. Apply fires, and keep the house close night and day, with
a moist heat of from 55*^ to 60° till the plants have made shoots of three or four inches; then begin to
give a little air, gradually increasing it, but still keeping up the heat till the growth of the shoots is
completed, when the sashes should be taken off to harden and color the shoots and leaves. It will be
necessary to attend to the above directions annually, for three or four years, in the growing seasor, m
order to procure as much wood in a short time as possible. Keeping the heads open and regular, with the
common routine culture, is all that is necessary at other seasons.

5945. On walls and espaliers. Prepare the plants and the border as before, and plant about ten or twelve
feet distance, allowing a larger space for the citron, lemon, and shaddock, than for the common orange, as
the former grow faster and more luxuriantly. In the growing season, observe the directions already given,
continiung them annually. The fan manner of training is that generally adopted.

. 5946. Pruning. The French pay great attention to this part of the culture of the orange tribe; and, in-
deed, display greater art in pruning every sort of tree, than the British. They have their winter iaille, and
their ebourgeonnc7)ient, or summer pruning, of the orange-tree, as of the peach and vine. Those at Ver-
sailles and the Tuilleries are looked over every year, and receive a very elaborate pruning every sixth or
eighth year. The object of this pruning is to keep the head proportioned to the capacity of the box con-
taining the roots. The heads of these trees, notwithstanding the annual prunings, become too large and shovr
indications of suffering for want of nourishment every sixth or eighth year. The shoots are then shortened
to within an inch or two of the old wood, and the tree, thus almost completely deprived of leaves, does not
produce blossoms during the two next years : it pushes, however, vigorous shoots, which are trained to
form a bushy well furnished head of the same shape and size as before. Such has been the practice of the
late M. Pethon, who was head gardener at Versailles for forty years. The form of the heads of the trees
at Versailles is that of a cylinder, spreading out at top, of which the height is greater than the breadth j
those in other places are ovate, globular, or mushroom-shaped, and some are even square and triangular.
(See Van. Osten. c. xi.) The blossoms of the orange-trees in the royal gardens of France, and in most
gardens of Holland and the Netherlands are carefully picked off as they appear ; as well to prevent the
tree from being exhausted by bearing fruit, as for the use of the flowers in perfumery. Those of the
Tuilleries, Neill informs us {Hort. Tour.), are farmed at the rate of £00/. a-ycar; and those of Versailles
are let annually, in lots, and produce 125/. a-year, or upwards. In Holland the flowers are commonly the
perquisite of the gardener. Thus the beauty of the continental orange -trees is far inferior to those of Italy
or Britain, which are covered with fine large fruit.

5947. The pruning which orange-trees receive in England, does not differ, in general, from that given to
any green-house tree or shrub ; and the consequence is, handsome bushes or trees, with the blossoms and
fruit on the surface of the foliage. But when the orange-tree is cultivated for fruit, whether as standards
or against walls, the branches ought to be kept thin, like those of other fruit-trees, so as to admit the sun,
air, and water, freely to every part, and thus have the blossoms and fruit regularly distributed from the
centre to the extremities. This is readily effected where the trees are flat-trained, which, where fruit is
the object, is a great argument in favor of that mode of culture.

5948. In pruning, with a view to fruit, it must be considered, that the most useful blossoms of most sorts
of citrus are produced in the form of terminating peduncles, on the wood of the current year; and hence,
the grand object of the pruner ought to be to encourage the production of young wood in every part of the
tree ; by cutting out naked wood, and shortening vigorous shoots where wood is wanting. A powerful co-
operating measure is the exposition of all the parts of the tree to the light and air, which, as already
observed, is only to be done in standards, by keeping the trees open, or by flat training. There are also
blossoms produced by various sorts of citrus, in tufts, directly from the axillje of the leaves of the wood of
the preceding year : these expand earlier than the others, but generally drop off in plants kept under
cover. Ayres cuts away the old and least-promising branches, in February, to make room for younger
and more productive wood, and shortens very strong branches to keep the trees in proper shape. After the
fruit is set, it ought to be thinned, seldom leaving more than one on a peduncle. In France they thin the
flowers, which, by that means, they are enabled to use for distillation. The thinned fruit is used in con-
fectionary. Mean observes, " In regard to the necessity of thinning the fruit, lest the trees should exhaust
themselves, it appears to me to depend on the state of the trees : if they are flourishing, I never observed
that it was at all required, either here or at Bromley Hill, where the orange-trees belonging to the Right
Honorable Charles Long are very fine, and loaded with peculiarly large fruit." Ayres thins when the fruit
are about the size of green-gage plums, and never leaves two fruit together. Will standard trees, pruned
with a view to fruit, be equally beautiful with the compact geometrical-headed trees of Parrs, and the old
conservatories of this country? Those who prefer a full-bottomed periwig to a natural disposition of the
hair will not think so. The two beauties, or effects, are of diflterent kinds; the latter has utility to re-
commend it ; the former, associations of the pomp and formal grandeur of past times. Quintiney, and
other French authors, direct the wounds or sections made in pruning orange-trees, to be covered with a
composition to exclude the air ; which deserves to be attended to, as the growth of the bark is otherwise
very slow over wounds in these trees.

5949. Manure. About Genoa, the best cultivated orange-groves are manured annually. In France and ■
this country, the best practitioners stir the surface and apply a top-dressing of rich compost when the trees
begin to grow, generally in April or May. Ayres top-dresses in June.

5950. Gathering the fruit. In the Italian gardens, and those at Hieres in France, where the fruit of the
orange is raised for sale, it is gathered every year, generally in May. If not then gathered, it will hang
on the tree for one or two years longeV ; but when the young fruit is green and swelling, the old ripe be-
comes somewhat shrivelled, and if then gathered is found almost void of juice. But as the new fruit
begins to arrive at maturity, the juice begins to return to the old fruit ; so that both old and new crops are
in perfection together the following May. In this way, at Genoa, the orange is sometimes allowed to re-
main on the tree three years, and being then gathered, has a peculiar subacid sweetness and flavor, and
is sold at a very high price to connoisseurs at Milan, Turin, and other places. The lemon differs from the
orange in that it ripens irregularly, and drop off when ripe. It is therefore gathered at almost every ,
season. The orange-tree, kept in conservatories, generally requires fifteen months to ripen its fruit, and
hence, both green and ripe fruit are together on the tree. Some authors assert, that the leaves remain on
the same period with the fruit ; but Quintiney says, " on a vigorous plant they will remain three or four
years." In Britain they often remain three years on moderately strong plants without fruit. In gather-
ing for the table in this country, the fruit should not be pulled with the hand, but carefully cut off with a
few leaves attached, and, thus garnished, sent to the dessert. By allowing them to hang two years, the
trees will at all times have green and yellow fruit, which, in connexion with their shining green leaves and
fragrant blossoms, forms, early in spring, in such a house as we have hinted at (5929. and^g. 521.), one of
the most splendid of horticultural scenes.

5951. Insects and diseases. The chief insects injurious to the citrus tribe, are the coccus and red spider ;
both to be removed or destroyed by water applied with the engine, brush, or sponge. Mean, early in March,
when he top-dresses his plants, applies a copious washing with the engine ; then shuts up the house close for
three or four hours, which produces a strong heat, as high as 70°, which effects the destruction of the red
spider ; while the stems and leaves are wiped with a wet sponge to remove other insects and dirt. {Horf.
Trans, ii. 296.) Henderson destroys the aphis by fumigation ; the red spider by sprinkling and dashing with
water ; the coccus, by laying on the leaves with a brush some black soap dissolved in water, or by water-
ing and dusting tlie leaves with sulphur; and the only remaining insect which infests the orange, tha
rhrips, he destroys with water. {Cakd. Hort. Mem. 315.)

Book I. POMEGRANATE, OLIVE. 777

SuBSECT. 2. Pomegranate. — Punica Grarmtiim, L. {Bot. Mag. 634.) Icos. Monog. L.
and Mj/rtacece, J. Grenadier, Fr. ; Granatenbaum, Ger. ; and Melagrano, Ital.

5952. The pomegranate is a low deciduous tree, rising fifteen or twenty feet high,
thickly cloathed with twiggy branches, some of which are armed with sharp thorns. The
leaves are long and narrow, of a light shining green with red veins. The flowers are pro-
duced at the ends of the branches, in the shoots of the same year, single or three or four
together ; frequently one of the largest terminates the branch, and immediately under that
are two or tliree smaller buds, which continue a succession of flowers for some months,
generally from June to September. The calyx is very thick and fleshy, and of a fine red
color ; the petals are scarlet. The fruit is a berry covered with a hard coriaceous rind,
and beautifully crowned with the tube of the calyx, which is sharply toothed, and remains
even after the fruit is ripe, contributing greatly to its singular and beautiful appearance.
The fruit ripens in October, and, in a green-house, will hang on the trees till the spring
or summer following. It is a native of most parts of the south of Europe and of China.
In Languedoc, and some parts of Italy, it is used as a hedge plant. It was cultivated in
England in 1596, by Gerrard ; but though it grows very well in the open air, it seldom
ripens its fruit so as to render them worth any thing. It used formerly to be kept in
boxes, and housed like the orange-tree, which is still the practice near Paris and in the
Netherlands. Some of the orange and pomegranate trees in the orangery at Versailles,
Risso informs us, are believed to be between two and three hundred years old.

5953. Use. The fruit having an acid pulp is very refreshing, and is eaten like the
orange ; its singular and beautiful appearance contributes to the variety of the dessert.
It is used medicinally in fevers and inflammatory disorders ; being powerfully acid and
astringent.

5954. Varieties. The Paris nurseries propagate the following sorts : those marked
thus (*) may be had in the London nurseries.

The •wild, or very acid-fruited I The semi-double, and double red and

Tlie subacid-fruited, or cultivated* | _^_white_* „ ,^ | E^o

The sweet-fruited The yellow-flowered *

Large-flowered single red and white 1 The vari^ated-flowered

5955. Propagation. The single-flowering sorts may be raised from seed, and all the varieties by cuttings,
suckers, or layers, or by inoculation or grafting on the wild sort. The last is considered much the best
mode where fruit is the object ; and the next best is by layers, but the common mode is by suckers, which
these plants send up abundantly. Inoculated plants, both of the single and double sorts, may be procured
from Genoa ; and this is the most desirable plan where the plant is to be cultivated for its fruit.

5956. Culture. The directions given for raising and cultivating the orange-tree may be considered as
equally applicable to the pomegranate, which, with the olive, was formerly the common companion of
these trees in conservatories. Miller has observed, " that both the single and double pomegranate are
hardy enough to resist our most severe winters in the open air ; and that if planted against walls, the
former will often produce fruit, which ripen tolerably well in warm seasons, but ripening late, are seldom
well tasted." Where it is to be grown for fruit, therefore, either the standard or flat trained mode, under
glass, as recommended for oranges, should be adopted. A few trees may be introduced along with those
of the citrus tribe.

Soit. Miller recommends a strong rich soil, in which he says, " they flower much better, and produce
more fruit than if planted on drj- poor ground." In regard both to soil and mode of growth, the pome-
granate bears a close resemblance to the hawthorn.

59a/. Pruning and training. As already mentioned, the flowers of this tree always proceed from the
extremity of the branches produced the same year, hence all weak branches of the former year should be
cut out, and the stronger shortened, in order to obtain new shoots in every part of the tree. When the
trees are trained against a wall, the shoots having small leaves, may be laid in four or five inches asunder.
The season for the winter pruning. Miller says, is about Michaelmas ; for if left till spring before they are
pruned, they seldom put out their shoots so early. In summer they require no other dressing than pinch-
ing off fore-right and over vigorous shoots, as it'is the middling only which are fruitful. In a warm situ-
ation Miller obtained a great quantity of fruit from trained trees ; which, though not very well flavored,
were of full magnitude, and made a very handsome appearance on the trees. The double and other
varieties, cultivated for the sake of their flowers, should be pnmed, whether in boxes or against walls, on
the same principle.

SuBSECT. 3. Olive. — Olea EuropcBa,!-,. {Fl. Greeci. t. 3.) Diand. Monog. L. and
Oleiti^, B. P. Olive, Fr. ; Oeldbaum, Ger. ; and Uliva, Ital.

5958. The olive is a low branchy evergreen tree, rising from twenty to thirty feet, with
stiff, narrow, bluish-green leaves. The flowers are produced in small axillary bunches
from wood of the former year, and appear in June, July, and August. The fruit is a
berried drupe of an oblong spheroidal form, hardish thick flesh, of a yellowish-green
color, but turning black when ripe. The tree is supposed to be originally from Greece ;
but it is now naturaliseiin the south of France, Italy, and Spain, where it has been exten-
sively cultivated for an tinknown length of time, for the oil expressed from its fruit. The
tree attains an incredible age. Near Terni, in the vale of the cascade of IMarmora, is a
plantation above two miles in extent, of very old trees, and supposed to be the same
plants mentioned by Pliny, as growing there in the first century. It appears to have
been cultivated in the botanic garden of Oxford, in 1648, and is' generally treated as a
green-house plant. With protection from severe frost, Miller says, " it may be main-

778 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

tained against a wall in the latitude of London." In Devonshire, some trees have
stood the open air for many years ; but the fruit does not arrive at maturity. Some trees
planted against a warm wail at Camden House, near Kensington, succeeded so as in
1719 to produce fruit fit for pickling.

5959. Use. At the dessert, and frequently, also, during dinner, unripe olives appear
as a pickle ; which, though to those who taste it for the first time, it appears somewhat
harsh, yet it soon becomes extremely grateful ; and is said to promote digestion and
create an appetite. Pickled olives are prepared by steeping in an alkaline lessive, to
extract a part of their bitter ; they are next washed in pure water, and afterwards pre-
served in salt and water, to which an aromatic, as fennel, &c. is sometimes added. The
ripe olive, pressed and washed with hot water, furnishes, when skimmed, the well known
condiment and corrective, salad-oil, employed both in food and medicine. It may be
considered as the butter of Italy and Spain.

5960. Varieties. In the olive-countries these are nearly as numerous as the sorts of the grape and fig.
The French {N. Cours, &c. in loco) describe between thirty and forty sorts. The following are grown in
English nurseries : —

The common | Large-leaved | Broad-leaved | Iron-colored | Twisted-leaved | Box-leaved.

5961. Propagation. By seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, and inoculation. The last mode is adopted
where the culture of the olive is conducted with care ; but the olivettes, or olive-plantations, are generally
furnished from suckers, which arise abundantly from the roots of old trees. In England, as a green-house
plant, it is raised from cuttings ; but where it is intended to grow a few trees in the forcing-department,
for the sake of their fruit, we would recommend procuring strong plants from Genoa ; these will produce
fruit in three or four years, but the others not for an unknown length of time.

5962. Culture. Some plants used formerly to be received by the Italian merchants along with their
imports of orange-trees, and were planted, like them, in pots or boxes ; but in order to grow the tree for
fruit, the modes to be adopted are either planting as standards in the area, or training on a wall, as recom-
mended for the orange and pomegranate. If a house is not devoted to this fruit, one might be appropri-
ated for it and the pomegranate ; giving each their respective soils, and recollecting that the olive will not
bear a very high degree of heat.

5963. Soil. The olive will grow luxuriantly in a strong clayey richly manured soil, but will not prove
nearly so prolific as in a dry, calcareous, schistous, sandy, or rocky situation ; which ought to be imitated
in some degree in the composition prepared for the area or border of the olive-house.

5964. Temperature. .That suitable for the orange will agree with the olive ; but it cannot bear so high
a degree of heat as that plant, never being found in Africa south of Atlas, nor in the East or West Indies.
It is also easily affected by cold, but not more so than the orange.

5965. Pruning. The object here is to have a regular distribution of wood of the former year, from the
axils of the leaves of which, the flowers spring out. When shoots of three or more years are shortened
for this purpose, they do not produce blossoms ; but wood of the preceding or current year may be short-
ened, and the shoots proceeding from them will produce blossoms in due course. Ringing, to induce
fruitfulness, was practised on the olive so early as the seventeenth century. {Bosc, in N. Cours, &c. art.
Olivier.)

SuBSECT. 4. Indian Fig, or Prickly Pear. — Cactus opuntia, L. (ITnor, Thes. l.vF.a.)
Icos. Monog. L. and Cacti, J. Ragnette, Fr.

5966. The genus cactus consists of succulent plants, permanent in duration, singular
and various in structure, generally without leaves, and having the stem or branches
jointed, and for the most part armed with spines and bristles. The joints or branches
of the C. opuntia are ovate, compressed, and have very small cadaverous leaves coming
out in knots on their surface, and accompanied by four short bristly spines. The branches
spread near to, or trail on the ground. The flowers come out on the upper edges of the
branches in June and July. The fruit is in the form of a fig or pear, with clusters of
small spines on the skin, which encloses a fleshy pulp of a red or purple color, and
agreeable subacid flavor. It is a native of Virginia and Barbary, but is now natural-
ised in the south of Italy, being found on the rocks at Terracina and Gaeta. It was
cultivated in England by Gerrard, in 1596, in the open air, but without bearing fruit.
It was cultivated in the stove by Justice at Crichton near Edinburgh, in 1750, and
ripened its fruit. Miller says, " it will live abroad in England in a warm situation and
dry soil ; but in severe winters will be destroyed if not protected from frost."

5967. Use. Tlie fruit is sent to the dessert in the West Indies ; and might add to
the variety of exotic fruits in this country. Braddick observes (Hort. Trans, ii. '239.),
that in countries where the fruit abounds, it is considered very wholesome, and though
the taste of it is not agreeable to all persons till after they have eaten of it several times,
yet they soon become very fond of it.

'S968. Sorts. There are several species of that division of the genus cactus, called prickly pears or figs,
which produce edible fruit in their native countries, as the great Indian fig, or upright prickly pear,
(C. tuna) (Plant. era.is 138.); oblong Indian ^g [C. ficus Indica) (Reich, vol. ii. 470.) ; Barbadoes goose-
berry (C. pereslda) (Dill. elf. t. 227. f 294.) : the C. opuntia is deemed the most hardy, and by consequence
the easiest to fruit in Britain ; but there can be no doubt that the other sorts i»ght also be brought to ma-
ture their fruit with very little expense or trouble. They are at present kept in dry-stoves for the sake
of variety. , i.- iu i **

5969. Propagation and culture. All the above sorts may be propagated from seed or cuttings ; the latter
mode is most common. Cut off the branches at the joints, in July, or after the plants have done flowering,
and let them dry for a fortnight, that the wounded part may be healed over ; then plant in small pots,
and plunge in the bark-bed, or in a moderate hot-bed, watering sparingly, giving air to avoid damps, and
shading from the midday sun. ' . . v ^ *u- i

5970. Soil. Miller recommends the following : one third of light fresh earth from a pasture ; a third

Book I.

EXOTIC FRUITS LITTLE KNOWN.

779

part of sea-sand ; and the other part, one half rotten tan, and half lime rubbish. Th«>se are to be mixed
and laid in a heap, three or four months before using, turning it over once a month ; then pass it through
a rough screen, but do not sift it fine ; reserving some of the small stones and rubbish to lay at the bottom
of the pots, in order to keep an open passage for the moisture to drain off. The Barbadoes gooseberry
requires less lime-rubbish and more of vegetable earth.

5971. Temperature. All the sorts, excepting the prickly pear, require the temperature of a dry-stove
in winter, and an increased degree of heat, say 80*' or 90^ in summer, when it is intended they should
produce fruit. They may either be planted in large boxes, filled with the soil above described, with a
portion of vegetable 'mould added ; or in borders, to be trained on a wall or trellis near the light. In
either case, by supplying them liberally in summer, whilst in a growing state, with heat at bottom and
top, air, light, and some moisture, they will thrive abundantly, and produce fruit certainly not of exquisite
flavor, but agreeable and singular, and worthy of being added to the British dessert

5972. Culture of the prickly pear in the open air. Braddick having eaten, with pleasure, of this fruit
in Virginia, was desirous of cultivating it here. He recollected that the plant in its wild state delighted
in a dry soil, amongst rocks, near the skirts of the sunny sides of the forests ; and having heard thaf it
would stand the open air in this country, he planted it in the compost described below, placed in a shel-
tered situation open to the sun. " The first plant that I turned out has lived in the open ground of
this country for six or seven years, during which period it has endured one exceeding hard winter, and
several trying springs ; and in all, except the two first years, it has never failed to ripen its fruit and
seeds, so that it may be now considered decidedly acclimated. The compost used by me for growing
the Cactus opuntia is" the following : one half is carbonate of lime, for which lime-rubbish from old
buildings will answer ; the remaining half consists of equal portions of London clay and peat-earth, hav-
ing the acid neutralised by barilla : these are intimately blended and sifted. One square yard of this
compost I conceive to be sufficient for one plant, which must be placed in the middle of a small artificial
hillock, raised eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, which ground should be rendered per-
fectly dry, if not naturally so, by under-draining. Neither the leaves, flowers, nor fruit should ever be
suflfered "to touch the ground, but they should, as constantly as they are produced, be kept from the
earth by placing stones, pebbles, flints, or bricks under them, in imitation of artificial rock-work." {Hort.
Trans. 238.)

5973. The torch-thistle, or ■njrright cereiis, of wliich there are four species which bear
edible fruit, and the strawberry-pear (C. triangularis), the poire de chardon of the French,
may also be cultivated as fruit-bearing stove plants, in the same way as recommended
for the Indian fig.

Sect. III. Exotic Fruits little known, some of which merit Cultivation Jbr their Excellence

or Rarity.

5974. The introduction and cultivation of new exotic fruits may be considered as a very
rational and entertaining object, for such as have the means, the time, and a taste
for gardening. It seems to deserve the particular attention of retired persons of solitary
habits, aged or inactive, by presenting an end to be attained ; it may serve as a gentle
stimulus to such as, from indolence or bilious complaints, are apt to sink into a state
of torpid unenjoyed existence. A few of the plants, which we shall here enumerate,
have been cultivated so as to produce fruit in this country, as the granadilla, lee-chee,
loquat, banana, &c. ; most of the others have hitherto served only to increase the variety
of our stove or green-house plants.

5975. The akee-tree is the Blighia Sapida, H. K. {Ann.
Bat. 2. t. 16, 17.) Oct. Monog. L. and Sapindi, J. {fig. 523.)
It is a tree rising from twenty to twenty-five feet in height,
with numerous branches, and alternate pinnate leaves,
like those of the common ash. The flowers are smaU,
white, on axillary racemes. The fruvi is a pome, reddish
or yellow ; about the size of a goose's egg, with a pulp of
a grateful subacid flavor ; and in the West Indies esteemed
very wholesome and nourishing. It is a native of Guinea,
and was introduced in Jamaica in 1778, and from thence
brought to this country in 1793.

5976. Propagation and culture. It may be propagated
from seeds, cuttings, or layers ; but as the former mode
would prolong the period of culture for fruit, and the two
latter produce but weak plants, the better plan would be to
order a few trees to be inoculated in Jamaica, and then sent
over in tubs ; these might be treated as directed for orange-
trees (.5939.), and then planted in a border of rich earth,
submitted to a Jamaica climate, and flat-trained near the
glass. By such treatment, there can be no doubt the akee-
tree would in a few years produce fruit as readily as the
orange.

5977. The alligator, or avocado pear, is the Laurus Per.
sea, L. {Pluk. Aim. t. 267. f. 1.) Ennean. Monog. L. and
LaunniB, B. P. It is a stove tree which, in the West In-
dies, grows to the height of thirty feet or upwards, with
tKL^«™ nro^hfr^^o^L'!?".?!'''" apple-tree. The leaves are like those of laurel, of a deep-green-

780

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

a few stocks to be inoculated from bearing trees. These
being properly casetl and packed, would arrive as safe
as orange-trees usually do ; might be treated like them
when unpacked ; and planted in a border of strong rich
soil, to be trained on a trellis or wall near the glass.
After the plants were established, horizontal training and
ringing, accompanied by a Jamaica temperature, would
soon produce fruit.

5979. The ancfiovy-pear is the Grias cauliflora, L. (Sloan.
Hist. 2. t. 217. f. 1. 2.) Polyan. Monog. L. and GvttifercB, J.
{fig- 524.) It is a stove tree, frequently growing to the
height of fifty feet in the West Indies, where it is a na-
tive. The leaves are oblong, and two or three feet long.
The flowers numerous on short peduncles, large and
whitish. The drupe is ovate, and crowned with a calyx
like the pomegranate, about the size and shape of an alli-
gator's egg : it is pickled, and eaten like the East Indian
mango, which it greatly resembles in taste. It grows ge-
nerally in low moist bottoms, or shallow waters, and has
a most elegant appearance. Introduced here from Ja-
maica in 1768.

5980. Propagation and culture. It is very readily pro-
pagated from the stones, and the plants must be kept in
a moist heat. To grow it for fruit, plant in a border, and
train horizontally near the light, as directed for the avo-
cado-pear. (5978.)

«<. — The durion is the Durio Zibethina, L. {Rumph.

Arhb. p. 99) Polyadelph. Polyan. L. and Capparidece, J.

(fig. 525). This is a lofty East Indian tree, with leaves re-
sembling those of the cherry, and large bunches of flowers

coming out below the leaves, of a pale-yellow color. The

fruit is the size of a man's head, roundish or oblong ;

resembling in some degree a rolled-up hedgehog, with a

hard bark or rind; the fleshy part of the fruit is of a creamy

substance, and of a delicate taste ; but of an unpleasant

heavy smell, somewhat resembling that of rotten onions ;

and the smell of the breath of those who eat it is infected

also in a high degree ; but when once a person has accus-
tomed himself to eat this fruit, he generally considers it

the most excellent of all. Rumphius says, it is by much

the most excellent fruit of India. The tree has not yet

been introduced ; but if a few fruit or plants v/ere sent for

from the Calcutta garden, and submitted to the general

plan of culture for trees difficult to fruit, there can be no

doubt of success.
5982. The white guava is the Psidium pyriferum, L.

{Rumph. amb.l. t. 47.) Icos. Monog. L. and Myrtacece, J.

(fig. 526.) It is a West Indian tree, growing to the height

of seven, eight, or twelve feet, with numerous branches and

blunt, entire, smooth leaves, two or three inches long ; the

flowers are in solitary peduncles and sweet-smelling ; fruit

bigger than a hen's egg, roundish or oblong, smooth, yel-
low ; the rind thin, brittle, and yellow ; pulp firm, full of bony seeds, flesh-colored, sweet, aromatic, and

pleasant. It is eaten with avidity both by West Indians and Europeans, raw in the dessert, and preserved
52S * ^'"-^ sugar. It has been grown here as a stove plant since

1656 ; it is propagated by seeds from ripe fruits brought
over ; and to be fruited should be treated as directed for
other similar fruit-trees already mentioned.

5983. The red guava (P. pomiferum) has a beautiful
fruit, crowned like a pomegranate ; but is not so agreeable
to eat as the other

5984. Cattley^s *uava, P. Cattleianum. A new species
introduced from China by Messrs. Barr and Brooks, nur-
serymen, and fruited by W. Cattley, F. H. S., in 1820. The
plant resembles the other species in general habit and ap-
pearance ; but the fruit is larger, nearly spherical, of a fine
deep claret color, growing in the axilla of the leaves ; the

■^ skin has much the consistence of that of a ripe fig, but is
^ thinner ; the interior is a soft fleshy pulp, purplish-red next
the skin, but becoming paler towards the middle, and at the
centre it is quite white j it is juicy, and in consistence is
much like a strawberry, to which it bears some resemblance
in flavor. {Hort. Trans, iv. pi. xi. 317.)

5985. The jamrosade, or rose-apple, is the Eugenia
Jajnbos, L. (Bot. Mag. 1696.) Icos. Monog.'L.andMyrtace<e,
J- (fig- 527.) It is a branchy tree, rising trom twenty to
thirty feet high, with long narrow leaves not unlike those of
the peach. The flowers come out in terminal bunches in
July, are of a greenish-yellow color, and succeeded by fruit
about the size of a hen's egg, white, red, or rose-scented, with

the flavor of a ripe apricot, and ripening from September to December. It is a native of the East Indies,
and was cultivated here by Miller, in 1768. There are several varieties of this tree differing in the size and
color of the fruit. That with white fruit has been cultivated by Professor Thouin in the National Garden
at Paris. This horticulturist endeavored to harden the tree by exposing it annually to the open air
during the two hottest months of the year ; but, after persisting in this mode of cultivation for several
years, and finding the leaves and part of the shoots die off annually, in consequence of the cold while
exposed, he at last had recourse to a hot and moist atmosphere, and was successful. {Hort. Trans, i.
App.) Cattley has a plant which regularly yields him abundance of fruit. {Hort. Trans, v. 112.)

5986. The Malay apple is another species of Eugenia {E. Malaccensis). {Rot. Rep. 458.) The tree resem-
bles the former, but has broader leaves. The fruit is ovate, an inch and a half in diameter, fleshy, very
sweet-smelling, like the rose, agreeable to the taste, smell, and sight, and esteemed wholesome. It is com-
mon in most of the islands in the South Sea, and was cultivated by Miller in 1768.

5987. The bastard guava {E. Pscudo- Psidium) and the Cayenne cherry (E. cotinifoUa) produce

Book I.

EXOTIC FRUITS LITTLE KNOWN.

781

edible fruits, held in considerable esteem in the West
Indies, and with the Malay apple appear to deserve culture
in this countrj'. (See Miller's Diet.)

5988. The custard-apple {Anona reticulata), alligator-apple
{A. palustris), sweetsop (A. squamosa), and soursop{A. mu-
ricata), are esteemed West Indian fruits ; and the Chere-
moyer\A. tripetala\ the Cherimolia of some botanists, is the
fruit most prized by the natives of Brazil and Peru. All
these plants are already in our stoves, and might easily be
cultivated as fruit-trees.

5989. The mammee-tree (Mammea americarut, L)
Poll/an. Monog. L. and GuttifercE, J. is a tall handsome
tree, with oval, shining, leathery leaves, and one-flowered
peduncles, producing sweet white flowers an inch and a half
in diameter, succeeded by roundish fruit, about the size of |
an egg, and in pulp and taste not unlike the apricot. It \s
eaten raw alone, or cut in slices with wine and sugar, or
preserved in sugar. It is a native of the Caribbee Islands,
and was cultivated in 1759 by Miller.

5990. Propagation and culture. It may be raised from
the stones or seeds, and treated like other stove fruit-trees.
It has been cultivated by Knight, who found it rather im-
patient of a very high temperature. {Hort. Trans, iii. 464^)

5991. The lee-chee and long-yen. The lee-chee is the
Dimocarpus Litchi, W .{Lam. ill. t. 306.) Octan. Monog. L.
andSaninrfac^iP, J. Itis a stove tree, with compound leaves,
not unlike those of the ^ommon ash-tree ; a native of China, and introduced in 1786. The fruit is a berry
of a red color when ripe, except in one varietv. which remains green : it is much esteemed by Europeans.

5992. The long-pen is the D. Longan, H. K." \Buch. Ic. t. 99.) Tlie tree resembles the former, but the
fruit is not so large, and is of a light-brown color. " In both species the pulp of the fruit is surrounded
with a tough, thin, leathery coat ; it is a colorless, semi-transparent substance ; in the centre of which is
a dark-brown seed of different sizes in the different varieties. The flavor of the pulp is slightly sweet, sub-
acid, and particularly pleasant to the taste in a warm climate. The fruit of the lee-chee, dried either in
the sun or by fire-heat, is frequently brought to England from China. In this state the pulp is shrivelled
and reduced within the coat, or shell, to half its usual size, and has a rich and sweet taste, if it has been
well preserved. The fruit of the long- yen has been ripened by John Knight, Esq. of Lee Castle, in a lofty
stove, erected for the purj'ose of growing tropical fruits ; and a bunch was presented by him to the Hort
Society, in September, 1816, supposed to be the only one ever produced in Europe, and which persons
well acquainted with the long-yen in its native places of growth, pronounced quite as good as those grown
within or near the tropics." {Hort. Trans, ii. 408.)

5993. Propagation and culture. Both species may be raised from seeds or layers, and the plants may be
aflerwards placed in a bed or area of rich soil, and trained or spread out near the glass. The temperature
should never be under that of the pine-apple.

' 599*. Tlie lo-quat is the MespUus Japonica, L. {Vent.
Malm. 19. and Hort. Trans.iii. tab. 11.) ; Eriobotrya japonica.
Lam. Icos. Di-Pent. L. and RosacetP, J. {fig. 528.) In a
wild state it is a lofly tree with thick knobbed branches, and
toraentose spray or branchlets ; the leaves are narrow, a cpan
long, bright-green and cinereous tomentose below. The flow-
ers come in spikes at the end of the shoots in October and
November. The fruit is a five-celled pome, about the size
of a gooseberrv, and in taste approaching to that of the apple.
It ripens in May and June. It is a native of Japan, and was
introduced in 1787 to Kew-gardens, where, as well as in
some other places, it has produced fruit

5995. Propagation and culture. It may be raised from
seeds, or continued by cuttings or layers ; but the best me-
thod, when it is intended to produce fruit, is to graft it on
any other species of mespilus. It is considered as a frame
or half-hardy tree ; but, to ripen its fruit with flavor, should
have the temperature of the stove, in which, planted in a
border of rich soil, it will add to the variety of the dessert.
Sir Joseph Banks {Hort. Trans, i.) considers the fruit as
equally good with that of the mango. Lord Bagot, who has
fruited the plant in a very superior manner for several years
at Blithfield, gives the following outline of his practice :
" The plan I have usually followed has been to give it a

winter (out of doors) during the months of July, August,

and September, and about the middle of October to re-

Elace it in a very warm situation in the tan. This summer,
owever, I was obliged to alter my mode ; for, just at the
moment when I was going to put it out for its winter, it be-
came covered with at least twenty bunches of the finest
flowers possible ; I was therefore obliged to let it remain
where it was. The present year's treatment, therefore, is an
exception to the former practice; under that, it usually
breaks into flower about the end of December, and the fruit
becomes ripe in March or April. The last time my plant
was m fruit, Sir William Coke, who had resided manv vears
in Ceylon, where he is at present, was with me at Blithfield ;
he told me that he was in the constant habit of eating very
large quantities of the fruit daily in that island, but that he
had never tasted any so good, and with so much flavor, as
those produced in my garden."

5996. The mangctree {Mangifera indica, L. {Bot. Rep.
4525.) Pent. Monog. L and Tercbintacete, J.) {Jg. 529.)
IS a large spreading tree, like the walnut, with lanceolate
shining green leaves, seven or eight inches long, having a
sweet resinous smell ; the flowers are white, growing in
bunches at the extremity of the branches. The fruit a
drupe, large, kidney-shaped, covered with a smooth, sofl-
ish, resinous pale-green, yellow, or half-red skin, and con-
taining an ovate, woody, fibrous, compressed nut or stone.

782

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part IIL

within which is an ovate kernel, soft and pulpy, like a damascene plum. " When ripe, it is replete with
a fine agreeable juice ; it eats like an apple, but is more juicy, and some are as big as a man's fist. It is
esteemed a very wliolesome fruit, and, excepting very fine pine-apples, is preferable to any fruit in India :
gentlemen there eat little or other fruit in the hot months. In Europe we have only the unripe fruit
brought over in pickle." {Martyn, in Miller''s Diet.) It is a native of the East Indies, and was in-
troduced in 1690 ; but has not yet been cultivated for its fruit. According to Governor Ilaffles, forty vari-
eties of mango are known in Java.

5997. Propagation and culture. It may be increased by cuttings like the gardenia, which it some-
what resembles in habit, or from nuts ; but as the vegetative quality of these does not seem to admit
of long preservation, they must be enveloped in wax, or otherwise managed (2312.), to preserve
it. Miller says, the tree will not thrive in the tan-pit ; and he recommends the dry stove, a temperate
heat, and light kitchen-garden earth. This tree seems particularly deserving culture for its fruit, both
on account of its quality, and tlie plants not requiring so much heat as most of the other untried In-
dian fruits. Knight raised some mango-plants from seeds in October, 1818, which in the following
March, shot very vigorously in a temperature of 60"; he is " much inclined to believe that the mango
might be raised in great abundance, and considerable perfection, in the stove, in this country ; for it is
a fruit which acquires maturity within a short period. It blossoms in Bengal in January, and ripens in
the end of May." {Hort. Trans, vol. iii. 463.)

5998. The m'angostan, or mangmtin. — Garcinia Mangos-
tana, L. {Lam. III. t. 405.) Dodec. Mmiog. L. and Gutti-
ferXy J. {fig. 530) It is a tree rising near twenty" feet
high, with a taper stem, sending out many branches, not
unlike a fir-tree ; with oval leaves, seven or eight inches
long. The flower is like that of a single rose ; the fruit round,
the size of a middling orange ; the shell is like that of the
pomegranate, the inside of a rose-color, divided by thin par-
titions as in oranges, in which the seeds are lodged, sur-
rounded by a soft juicy pulp, of a delicious flavor, par-
taking of the strawberry and the grape, and is esteemed
one of the richest fruits in the world. It is a native of the
Molucca islands, whence it has htcn transplanted to Java
and Malacca. The head of the tree is in the form of a pa-
rabola, so fine and regular, and tlie leaves so beautiful, that
it is looked upon in Batavia as the tree most proper for

adorning a garden, and affording an agreeable shade. It was ^ x. ^^

introduced to England in 1789. According to Dr. Garcin </L

{Phil. Trans.), " it is esteemed the most delicious of the East cp'^^^-S-*:;
Indian fruits, and a great deal of it may be eaten without /^ v=.3^~-^
any inconvenience ; it is the only fruit which sick people / \

are allowed to eat without scruple. It is given with safety j i

• in almost every disorder ; and we are told that Dr. Solan- '. /

der in the last stage of a putrid fever in Batavia, found him- \ •

self insensibly recovering by sucking this delicious and re-
freshing fruit. The pulp has a most happy mixture of the
tart and sweet, and is no less salutary than pleasant."

5999. Propagation and culture. It may be raised from seeds or cuttings; and in procuring the seeds
from the East Indies, the same precautions must be taken as suggested for those of the mango. (5997.)
Miller says, " the surest way to obtain the plants, is to sow the seeds in tubs of earth in their native
country, and when the plants have obtained strength, they may be brought to Europe ; but there should
be great care taken to screen them from salt water in their passage, as also not to give them too much
water when in a cool or temperate climate. When the plants arrive in Europe, they should be carefully
transplanted each into a pot filled with light kitchen-garden earth, and plunged in the tan-bed, and
shaded from the sun till they have taken new root. Then treat them as suggested for fruiting other stove
plants."

6000. The pishamin, or European date-plum, {Diospyros LotuSflu {MilLIc. 1. 116.) Polyg. Dicec. L. and
Ebenacece, B. P.) is a small tree, rising six feet high, with spreading branches, and large shining lan-
ceolate leaves. The flowers are small, of a reddish-white ; the fruit is a berry half an inch in diameter,
yellow when ripe, sweet, and somewhat astringent : it is used like the medlar, in a state of incipient de-
cay. It is a native of Italy and some parts of France ; was introduced to this country in Gerrai'd's time,
and will grow in the open air, but not ripen its fruit freely.

6001. Propagation and culture. It may be raised from seeds sown in a hot-bed, and afterwards hard-
ened, or from layers ; but when it is intended to fruit the plant, it may be procured from Genoa of a
good size ; and, planted in a temperate forcing-house, it will not, fail to mature its fruit.

6002. Tne granadilla, or little pomegranate. This name is apphed to the edible fruit of five species
of the Passijiora genus ; Monadel. Pentan. L. and Passiflora;, J. The common character of which is
that of climbing herbaceous plants, woody at bottom, generally with lobed leaves, and all natives of
warm climates,

6003. The granadilla, or granadilla-vine of the French, is the P. quadrangidaris, L. {Bot. Reg. 14.) The
leaves are oval and subcordate, five or six inches long and entire ; the stem luxuriant and four-cornered.
The flowers are odoriferous, red within and white on the outside, and appear in August and September,
both fruit and flowers growing at the same time. The fruit, Sabine describes {Hart. Trans, iii. 100.) as
very large, of an oblong shape, about six inches in diameter, from the stalk to the eye, and fifteen
inches in circumference. It is externally of a greenish-yellow when ripe, soft and leathery to the touch,
and quite smooth ; the rind is very thick, and contains a succulent pulp of a purple color (which is the
edible part), mixed with the seeds, in a sort of sack, from which it is readily separated. Wine and sugar
are commonly added to it, when used. The flavor is sweet, and slightly acid, and it is very grateful to
the taste, and cooling in a hot climate. It is a native of Jamaica, and other West India islands, where
it grows in the woods, and was cultivated by Miller in 1768, as a stove plant. It has since been successfully
cultivated for its fruit in a few places, as at Lord Harewood's {Hort. Trans, iy. 60.), Farnley Hall, &c.

6004. The apple-fruited granadilla, or sweet calabash, is the P. maliformis, L. {Bot. Reg. 95.) It has
a thick triangular stem, with leaves oblong, cordate, six inches long, and four broad, in the middle of a
lively green. The flowers are sweet-scented, large, of a pale red and blue : " the fruit round, smooth,
about two inches in diameter, of a dingy yellow color when ripe ; the coat is hard and stringy, nearly a
quarter of an inch in thickne.ss, full of a very agreeable gelatinous pale yellow pulp, in which many
oblong black seeds are lodged," {Hort. Trans, iii. 101.) and is eaten like that of the former species. It is
a native of the West India islands, and was introduced here, and cultivated by Miller in 1731. It has
borne fruit in the stove of the Bishop of Durham in Oxfordshire, and at Vere's, Kensington Gore.

6005. The laurel-leaved granadilla, or water-lemon, the Potnme de Liane of the French, is the P.
launfolia, L. {Bot. Reg. 13.) It has a suflrutesccnt stem, with divaricating filiform branches, oval
smooth leaves, and very long tendrils. Flowers red and violet, sweet scented; the fruit about the size
of a hen's egg, but rather more elongated, and tapering equally at both ends ; when ripe, it is yellow
and dotted over with white spots ; it contains a whitish watery pulp, which, in the West Indies, is usually
sQcked through a small hole made in the rind ; the rind is t/^ugh, soft, and thin ; the juice has a peculiar

Book T.

EXOTIC FRUITS LITTLE KNOWN.

aromatic flavor, is deUcately acid, and allays thirst agreeably. It is a native of Martinique and Surinam,
and was introduced here in 1690. It U grown in the stove, but has not yet been cultivated for its truit

6006. The purple-fruited granadilla {Hort. Trans, vol. iii.
pi iii.) {Jig. 531.) is by some botanists considered as a variety
of P. mcarnata, but by Sabine, who thus describes it [Hort.
Trans, iii. 99.), as a distinct species. " The stem is thick and
woody, the leaves three-lobed, and of considerable size ; the
flowers proceeding from the axilla of the leaves, fragrant, and
of a white color, tinged with purple. The fruit when unripe,
is green, but as it ripens changes to a dark livid purple, and
much resembles the fruit of the purple egg-plant. The shape
is eliptic, an inch and a half in diameter, and two inches from
the stalk to the top ; the pulp is orange-colored, and the seeds
numerous ; the taste acid, and the flavor somewhat like that
of the orange. It is a native of the Brazils, was introduced
from> Portugal by Boehm, in 1810, and has produced fruit
abundantly in the stoves at Walton-on-Thames, at the royal
gardens at Windsor, and other places. Such is the rapid growth
of this species, that a single plant will in one season extend in
a line over upwards of forty feet of glass, en which space it
will produce from 400 to 500 fruit."

6007. TJte flesh -colored granadilla, or May apple, is the P.
incarnata, L. [Abb. in Geor. 1. 12.) The root is perennial, send-
ing up annually a number of herbaceous shoots, with three-
lobed leaves, and sweet-scented flowers, variegated with pur-
ple, and appears from July to September. The fruit when ripe
is about the size of an apple, orange-colored, with a sweetish yellow pulp. It is a native of Virginia, was
cultivated in the open air by Parkinson in 1629, and afterwards by Miller in the stove, with whom it bore
fruit

' 6008. Propagation and culture. All the sorts may be propagated from seed, layers, and even cuttings'^
but layers come soonest into bearing. Having procured plants with good roots, plant guch as are intended
to fruit in a border in the stove, and train them to a trellis near the glass ; they will in general produce
fruit the second year. The seedlings of the purple-fruited sort will produce fruit the first year. All the
species will fruit even in large pots ; but Sabine says, the " best method is, to plant them in an angle of
the bark-bed, which has been parted off, either by boards or nine-inch brick-work, as low as the pit goes.
At the bottom of the cavity, formed by this division, should belaid some brick-rubbish, over which may
be thrown a little dead tan, and the -.vhole be then filled with equal parts of very old tan, and a compost
of leaf-mould and rotten dung. Herein the roots will strike freely, and will even spread through the
partition into the pit, growing into the fresh tan. Such roots may be trimmed and reduced whenever the
tan is changed ; but should the plant have been some time in its station, it will be as well to leave part of
the old tan in the bottom of the pit, in which the protruded roots may remain undisturbed. They do not
require the full heat of the pine-stove, for they flourish best in a temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees ;
but they do not bring their fruit to perfection if kept in a common green-house or conservatorj', though
they will grow and flower in it. The shoots as they advance must be trained near to, and under the in-
clined glass of the stove : the first flowers will appear in May, and the blooming will continue until Sep.
tember, the fruit setting the whole time ; but if it does not set well, it will be advisable to impregnate the
stigmas, by applying the pollen with a feather. As they grow, the very strong shoots should be cut out
from their origin, for these do not bear fruit so abundantly as those which are less vigorous ; but the
fruiting branches must not be shortened on any account Thetemperature must be kept up equally, dur-
ing the time of flowering and fruiting ; the crop will begin to come in in August, and will continue until
January ; but the earlier produce is the best When the crop is all off", which will be early in January,
the heat must be reduced to about 50*^, so as to check or stop the growth ; this being effected, the shoots
must be well cut in. As little old wood as possible, besides the main stem, which rises from the pit to the
glass, and a few pieces (about two or three feet of each) of the old branches should be retained : for all
that is to be trained under the glass to bear in each year, ought to be the growth of the same season. It
is found that the shoots break better, and in greater quantity, from the older wood than from that of two
years' standing. In this dormant and reduced state it is to be kept during January and February, after
which the necessary heat may be applied to cause it to resume its functions for the ensuing season."

6009. The cocoa-nut-tree \s' the Cocos nucifera, L. {Roxb.
Cor. 1. 1. 73.) Moncec. Hexan. L. and PalmcE, B. P. {fig.
532.) It is an East Indian palmj but cultivated in most ':^\>M
places within the tropics. The trees grow to a great height, "^^w^
with leaves thirteen or fourteen feet long ; the flowers come ^
out round the top of the trunk of the tree in large clusters,
enclosed in a spatha or sheath ; and the nuts succeed them
commonly ten or twelve together. Their form and use is
familiar.

6010. Propagation and culturt. The nuts are to be plant-
ed where they are designed to remain, as the tree will not
bear transplanting unless when very young. In a moist
heat they will push in six weeks or tno months. To cul-
tivate for fruit, plant in the centre of the area of a house,
twenty-five feet wide, and either lofty, or with a moveable
roof, which will admit of being raised as the tree advances
in height In this way, with a strong heat, there can be
no doubt this tree would produce fruit in England ; but
even if it did not, or did not for a great many years, the
magnificence of its appearance, under such a mode of treat-
ment, would compensate a curious horticulturist for the
labor and expense. Though the cocoa-nuts to be obtained
in the shops are supposed to be gathered before being ripe,
yet they have been found to grow with no other care than
planting in a large pot or box of rich earth, and plunging
in a bark-bed. It may be observed here, that this is almost
the only palm that could be cultivated in this country for perfecting its fruit ; for the others being dice-
cious plants, unless a great number were grown together, there would be no legitimate means of imnree-
naling the female blossoms. ^ ^

6011. The plantain-tree {Musa paradisiaca, L. Hex. Monog. L. and Musaceee, P. S.) rises with a soft
herbaceous, conical stalk, fitleen or twenty feet high, with leaves issuing from the top, often more than
SIX feet long, and near two feet broad ; the spike of male and female flowers appear from the centre of
the leaves, and is succeeded by pudding-shaped fruits, eight or nine inches long, above an inch in diame-
ter, pale- yellow when ripe, of a soft, sweet, luscious flavor ; the spikes often so large as to weigh up-
wards of forty pounds. It is a native of the East Indies, and other parts of Asia, and probably of Africa,

784

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

and waa cultivated at Hampton Court in 1690. Gerrard says, the pulp eats something like that of a musk-
melon ; he calls the plant Adam's apple-tree, from a notion that it was the forbidden fruit of Eden ; others
suppose It to have been the grape brought out of the promised land to Moses. Dampier says, it is the
2^,^^ ^'^ *^"''' ^^^ excepting the cocoa itself There are numerous varieties.

6012. T/ie banana-tree (M. sapieiitutn, L.) {Jig. 533.) dif-
fers from the plantain in having its stalks marked with dark-
purple stripes and spots, and the fruit is shorter and rounder.
Some botanists, however, consider them as only one species.
The fruit is mellower than the other, is eaten raw or roast-
ed, in fritters, preserves, marmalades, and the fermented
juice affords an excellent wine. It has been fruited for up-
wards of seven years, at Wynnstay, the seat of Sir W. W.
"Wynne, in Denbighshire. Specimens were sent to the Hor-
ticultural Society in August 1819, which were between four
and five inches long, and possessed an agreeable, luscious,
and acid flavor, and the produce from a single plant is " so
abundant, as to entitle the banana to be considered as a
useful fruit for the table."

6013. Propagation and culture. Suckers rise from the
root, which should be planted in light rich earth, in pots,
and afterwards, if the plant is cultivated for its fruit, plant-
ed in a bed or pit of earth, kept rather moist. The plant
at Wynnstay was planted in the pit of a stove about 1811,
" It was then about six feet high, with a single stem. In
each succeeding year it has produced a bunch of fruit ; but
in the present year (1819) two bunches ; the first was ripe
in May, the other in August, having about four dozen fruit
on each bunch. The plant is now sixteen feet high, and
measures three feet round at the bottom." (Hort. Trans.
iv 138.) .

^ 6014. The bread-fruit. ■^ Artocarpus incisa, L.

{Rumph. Amb. 3. t. 33.) Moncec. Monan. L. and
UrticecE, J. llima or Fruit-il-pain, Fr. and Brod-
baum, Ger. It is a stove tree, growing in the
South Sea Islands to the height of a moderate-
sized oak. with alternate leaves, deeply gashed,
glaucous, and two feet long. Aments on the out-
most branches, violet-colored, peduncled, male and
female on the same twig. The whole tree and the
fruit, before it is ripe, abounds in a very tenacious
milky juice. The fruit is about the size and shape
of a child's head, and the surface is reticulated, not
much unlike a truffle ; it is covered with a thin
skin, and has a core about as big as the handle of a
small knife; the eatable part lies between the skin
and the core ; it is as white as snow, and somewhat
of the consistence of new bread. It must be roasted
before it is eaten, being first divided into thi-ee or
four parts ; its taste is insipid, with a slight sweet-
ness, somewhat resembling that of the crumb of
wheaten bread mixed with Jerusalem artichoke.
Five plants were brought to England, the remain •
der of the stock brought from Otaheite by the unfortunate Captain Bligh in 1793. In Professor Martyn's
edition of Miller's Dictionary will be found a variety of interesting details relative to this tree, and another
species, the A. integrifolia, or Jacca-tree, which also well merits culture for its fruit.

6015. Propagation and culture. This tree will grow either from seeds, layers, or suckers ; the latter the
plants send up abundantly in their native climates. They succeed best in a rich soil ; and to induce them
to produce fruit, should be treated as already advised for other stove fruits not easily fruited. As the
bread-fruit-tree has been introduced in the West India Islands, the shortest way would be to procure good
sized plants from Jamaica or St. Vincent's though they may be occasionally obtained from the London
nurserymen.

6016. The true lotus {Zixiphus lotus, W.), the jitjubee-tree [Z. Jujuba, W.), and the kaki {Diospyros Kahi,
W.), are branching shrubs or small trees of the easiest culture in Italy, Barbary, and China, and abundant
bearers. They might readily be cultivated in this country, and as the jujube grows in hedge-rows about
Genoa and Nice, it is probable it would bear fruit abundantly in a green-house. The jujube is served up
in Italy as a dry sweetmeat. The fruit of the kaki are orange or apple shaped.

6017. Other exotic fruits. The following have been enumerated by Lindley {Hort. Trans, v. 88.), as
meriting introduction, or where already introduced, to be cultivated as dessert-fruits.

6018. Of African fruits we might have from Sierra Leone, the cream-fruit, country cherries, country
plums and figs ; from Congo, the conte, mabocche, gangi, safu, and anona sencgalensis ; from Loango,
the cazou as large as a melon ; from Madagascar, the voanato, voutaca, voaucrome, azonualala, and
alaraotou.

6019. From the West Indies, the sappodilla-plum {Achras Sapota), country cherries which are various
species of Malpighia, the callimato-tree {Chrysobalanus Icaco), the star-apple {Chrysophylhtm Cainito),
the country plums {Spondias) various species, the sea-side grape {Coccoloba uvifera), the garlic-pear {Cra-
tiEva Tapia), and various species of cactus. Most of these fruits are cultivated both in the West India Islands
and on the American continent, and plants of all of them may be had from the London nurseries

6020. From South America numerous fruits may be introduced : from Guiana, the tapaculo {Carica
microcarpa ?), the pinaou {Anona punctata), the pinaioua {A. longifolia), the marmalade-box of Stedman
{Surinam, vol. ii. p. 330.) ; from Brazil, Peru, &c. the achocon {Leonia glycycarpa), the queule or keule
[Gomortega nit.ida), and others of less note.

6021. From Asia the first fruits in the world have been obtained, and others are yet to introduce. From
the Indian Archipelago, thelanseh {Lansium domesticu?n), a fruit considered as next to the mangosteen
and durion, the rose-water jambu {Eugenia aquea), and other species ; the blimbing {Averrhoa Carambola),
the cheremi {A. acida), the rambutan {Nephelium lajrpaceum), the tomi-tomi {Flacourtia inei-mis), the
Xanthochymus dulcis, Sandoricum indicum, and some others. P'rom the continent of India, the
maredoo, or elephant-apple {jEgle Marmelos), the yellanga {Feronia elephantum), the latti am {JV/l.
lughbeia eduUs), the iwaia mamady {Xanthochyrnus pictorius), the caraunda {Carissa Carandas), the
launzan {Buchanania latifolia), and others. From China and Japan many new sorts of i)ears and
peaches, it is supposed, may be obtained, and probably also apples and other European fruits ; the Poma-
ceae and Prunacea; occupying the place in higher latitudes which the Myrtacese, Guttiferce and Tere-
bintaceae do in countries nearer the equator. From tlie Society Islands, the Otaheite apple {Spondias
cylherea), &c. Though we think it probable that few or none of' these, grown in this country, would be

Book I.

EXOTIC ESCULENTS.

785

found to equal our best peaches, pears and plums, or even gooseberries and strawberries ; yet we cannot
but wish to see this or the contrary proved by the wealthy and curious horticulturist.

Sect. IV. Exotic Esculents, not hitherto cultivated as such.
6022. Of exotic esculents, some, as tlie yam and sweet potatoe, are worthy of being ex-
perimented on with a view to their naturalisation as articles of food ; and even as fur-
nishing a variety of esculent root, they deserve to be grown and sent to table, where there
is a complete or extensive garden establishment.

6023. T/ie West Indian yam (the inhame of the Portu- Y^ y<^^^^r'^K 535
guese, and igname of the French,) is the name applied to
several species, with their numerous varieties of the genus
Bioscorea, L. Dioec. Heian. L and Dioscore<E, J. They are
climbing, perennial, herbaceous planU, with tuberous roots,
and axillarj- flowers in spikes or racemes. The name yam
is more particularlv applied to the D. sativa. {Rheed. Mai.
8. t. 51.', [Jig. dSoS This plant has tender stalks, climbing
to the height of eighteen or twenty feet, and furnished with
smooth-nerved roundish leaves. From the base of the
leaves arise spikes of small flowers of no beauty. The root is
flat, brownish, a foot broad, and nearly palmated like those of
some of the orchideae. It is a native of, and cultivateil exten-
sively in, Africa and the East and West Indies, and was in-
troduced here from the latter country in 1733. The roots are
mealy, easy of digestion, palatable, and not inferior to any
roots now in use, either for delicacy of flavor or nutriment.
They are eaten instead of bread, either roasted on the cinders
or boiled ; the flower is also made into bread and puddings.

6024. The D. alata, {Rheed. Mai. 7. t. 38.) or winged yam,
is in equal, if not more universal cultivation than the former
species. Its roots are frequently three feet long, and weigh
thirty pounds. Of both these species there are numerous
varieties, diflfering in the size and form of their roots.
. 6025. Propagation and culture. They may be propagated like the common potatoe, and cultivated in

nearly the same mamier as the forced potatoes.

Browne {Hist of Jam.) affirms, " that the roots must

\ ^^ /^V>*^^^^f /fl ^ *^"* ^'^ ^* ^° leave a little of the skin to each

\ vx j/yCi:^^ " V — — T~~ - — ^ /jB piece, for by that alone they germinate ; the roots

having no apparent buds or eyes, but casting out
their weakly stems from every part of the surface
alike. They are planted commonly m August, and
are ripe in November or December following."

6026. The Spanish, or sweet potatoe, is the Convol-
vulus Batatas, L. {Rheed. Mai. 7. t. 50.) Pent.
Monog. L. and ConvolmUacece, B. P. {fig.536.) It is
a herbaceous perennial, with a round stem, hispid,
prostrate, creeping, of a whitish-green, putting out
scattered, oblong, acuminated tubers, i)urple or pale
on the outsides. The leaves are angular, on long

?etioles ; the flowers purple, on upright peduncles,
t is a native of both the Indies, and was introdu-
' ced here, and cultivated by Gerrard in 1597. He
calls the roots potatus, potades, or potatoes, and says,
that they are by some named skirrets of Peru. They
flourished in his garden till winter, when they
perished and rotted. Batatas were then sold at tlie
exchange in London, and are still annually imported
into England from Spain and Portugal. Tliey were, as already observed (3617.), the common ix)tatoes of
our old English writers ; the Solanum tuberosum hemg then little known. The tubers of the batatas are
sweet, sapid, and nourishing They are very commonly cultivated in all the tropical climates, where they
eat not only the roots but the young leaves and tender shoots boiled. There are several varieties, if not
distinct species, differing in the size, figure, and taste of the roots.

6027. Propagation and culture. In warm climates this plant is cultivated in the same manner as our
potatoe, but requires much more room, for the trailing stalks extend four or five feet every way, sending
out large tubers, forty or fifty to a plant. In the national garden at Paris, the plants are raised in a hot-
bed, and about the middle of May, transplanted in the open ground, where they are earthed up, and other-
wise treated like the potatoe. In warm seasons they produce a tolerable crop, and we have been informed
by Professor Thouin, that he hopes, after several years, at least so far to acclimate the plant as to fit it for
field-cukure in the south of France. Lelieur, who grows it in the same manner, also strongly recommends
its culture. Both consider it as much lighter food than the common potatoe, and equally nourishing. In
England, Miller observes, the roots must be planted on a hot-bed
in the spring, and if the plants are kept covered in t)ad weather
with glasses, they will produce flowers and many small tubers
from the joints ; but if they are exposed to the open air, they
seldom make much progress. This, however, ought not to dis-
courage the curious or patriotic horticulturist, either in his at-
tempts to raise the roots for the table, or to acclimate the plant

6028. The caper (^Capparis sjnnosa, L. Polyan.
Monog. L. and Capparidece, J.) (Jig. 537.) is a trail-
ing shrub, a native of the south of Italy and Sicily,
where it abounds on rocks, ruins, and old walls : it
has been long cultivated in France, and was intro-
duced in this country in 1596, as a stove plant; but
there is reason to believe it maybe naturalised. It is cul-
tivated, Neill observes, in the neighborhood of Paris,
with no other protection than that of being trained
against a low wall , and the shoots in winter laid down
and covered with litter or fern, like those of the fig.

3 E

786

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

In the garden at Camden House, Kensington, a caper-tree stood alive in tlie open air for
near a century : it had a south-east aspect, and was well sheltered from the north ; it
had no covering, and was generally much injured by the frost ; but the roots of this
plant being particularly strong and vivacious, it made strong shoots, and produced
flower-J)uds every year. It is probable, therefore, that a plantation, so situated, if
covered every autumn with litter, mats, or ferns, would succeed. Such a plantation, not
trained on walls, but planted in an open compartment, would, like those near Toulon, in
France, have the general appearance of a plantation of brambles, and might be yearly
covered with very little trouble. Neill suggests, that a hardy variety might possibly be
obtained by repeatedly raising from seed, at first in Guernsey or Jersey, and the plant
thus gradually inured to this country. The part used is the flower-bud, which forms a
well known pickle , and an article of considerable commerce from Sicily, and other
islands in the Mediterranean.

6029. Propagation and culture. It may either be raised from seed, cuttings, or pieces
of the root. The authors of the Cours complet (V Agriculture prefer the mode by cuttings,
and direct them to be cut a foot long, and planted in autumn. The autumn following,
they will be fit to remove to a general plantation. They describe two modes of cul-
ture ; one, that of planting in walls, where no farther care is wanting, but that of gathering
the buds ; and the other, that of planting in quincunx in open compartments, like other
fruit-shrubs ; the latter models greatly to be preferred .

6030. The salsUla, or edible ahirccmeria. — Alstrcemeria
SalsiUa, B. M. {Bot. Mag. 1613.) ; and S. ediilis. {Horf.
Trans, vol. ii.) He.r. Monog. L. and Asphodelece, B. P. This
is a herbaceous plant of great beauty, a native of Peru, and
introduced in 1806. It is cultivated in the West Indies,
where its roots are eaten like the potatoe. It was flowered
here in 1811, in the Comte de Vande's garden at Bayswater.
It requires the temperature of the stove, and may be culti-
vated in a hot-bed like the early potatoe.

6031. The bread-root. — Psoralea esciUenta, Ph. (Pursh.
Amer. t. 22.) Diadelph. Decan. L. and Legu?nitwscB, J, It
is a perennial herbaceous plant, a native of Missouri, and in-
troduced here in 1811. It will grow in the open air, but re-
quires the protection of a frame to produce abundant crops
of roots, which are used like those of the potatoe in the
countries where it is a native.

6032. The pi-tsi, or water-chestnut of the Chinese. —
Scirpus tuberosus, Rox {Ro.t. iii. 26.) Triand. Monog. L. and
Cyperacece, B. P. {fig. 538.) It is a stoloniferous rush, without
leaves, excepting a slender short sheath or two at the base
of each culm. On the stolones grow tubers which are in
high estimation among all ranks of the Chinese, not only as
a pot-root, but as a medicine. It is eaten either boiled or
raw.

6033. Cultivation. " The maa-tai, pu-tsai, or pi-tsi, <j^ Abb^ Grosier, grows in tanks; these are ma-
nured for its reception about the end of March. Thus a tank Joeing drained of its water, small pits are •
dug in its bottom ; these are filled with human manure, and exposed to the sun for a fortnight ; their con-
tents are next intimately blended with the slimy bottom of the tank, and the slips or roots of the plant
deijosited therein ; the water is now returned to the tank, and the new crop of tubers comes to perfection
by the first of September." {Box. Coro?n.)

GOSi. The earth-almond, or rush-nut, {Cyperus esculentus, L. Trian. Monog. L. and CypcracecB, J.
Souchet comestible, Fr. and Zizole dl Terra, Ital.) is a fibrous-rooted grass, with small round tubers
hanging from the fibres, about the size of peas, which taste like chestnuts or almonds. It is a native of
Italy and Montpelier, and is cultivated in some parts of the south of Europe and Germany for food. The
tubers are planted in spring, and taken up in October, and preserved for winter use in the manner of
potatoes. It might probably be cultivated in this country in dry warm situations, or in a frame. {Bon
Jardinier.)

6035. The eatable hibiscus. — Hibiscus esculentus, L. Monadelph. Polyan. L, and Malvaceee, J. Gom~
baud or Gotnbo, Fr. This is a stove annual, a native of the West Indies, and introduced in 165^. A soft
herbaceous stalk rises from three to five feet higli, with crenate leaves, and axillary, pale sulphur-colored
flowers, succeeded by capsules. These, in the West Indies and the south of France, are put green into
soups, or eaten with butter. In the south of France it is cultivated in the open air for this purpose ; and
at Paris it is treated as we do the capsicum and love-apple. A similar treatment would, no doubt, suc-
ceed in this country.

6036. The arracacha, of the order of Vmbellifene, J., is a South American plant, said to resemble the
Apium in habit ; Conium Arracacha, Hook., and probably the Conium moschatum of Humb. The main
roots divide into four or five others, whicli grow to the size of cows' horns. These are used in the man-
ner of potatoes by the inhabitants of Santa Fe and the Caraccas. They are light, starchy, and easy ot
digestion. The plant is said to thrive best in the elevated regions of mountains, where the medium heat
does not exceed 58° or &P. {Annals of Bot. i. 400 ) This plant, through the exertions of the Horticul-
tural Society, has recently been introduced to England, and will soon be subjected to examination and
improvement. , , , ^ , . , , ^ ^ -.

6037. Other exotic esculents. To the above we might add, the Dahlia, recommended to be grown for
its tubers by Thiebaut-de-Berneaud. The Dollchos Soja, a stove annual, the seeds of which form, or ought
to form, the chief ingredient in the fish-sauce of that name. The earth-nut of South America {Arachis
hypogcea), a stove annual, raised in a few places near Paris, on hot-beds, and then transplanted in the open
air. The Convolvulus reptans, a shrubby stove plant, grown in China, in trenches filled with water, and
used as a spinaceous or oleraceous plant. The Basclla ni^ra, and other species, stove biennials, used for
the same purpose : the European and Chinese water-caltrops {Trapa natans and bicornis), both green,
house annuals, but fruited by I*ambert in the stove. {Hort. Trans, iv. 563.) The T. natans is grown in
the ponds in Holland, according to Professor Martyn, and the nuts are used there as chestnuts both by men
and hogs ; and Neill informs us that the canal at \'ersailles is covered with the plant, and that the fruit
is sometimes served up at table. These, and a variety of others, the curious cultivator will find noticed
in botanical works and books of travels, and will enjoy greater satisfaction in discovering them himself
than in finding them here ready named for his experimental enquiries.

Bock I.

MONTHLY HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS.

787

Chap. XL

Horticultural Productions which may he expected from a Jlrst-rate Kitchen-garden
-managed in the best Style,

6038. The sources of edible enjoyment afforded by a jirst-rate kitchen- garden are nu-
merous and varied ; and consequently a proprietor, who spares no expense on this de-
partment, ought to be informed of what he has a right to expect, subject, however, to the
drawbacks of bad situations, uncertain seasons, and unforeseen accidents. Many garden-
ers object to tables of this kind, as leading to unreasonable expectations, disappoint-
ments, and quarrels, and as, in short, enlightening too much their employers. On tliis
we shall only observe, that the more a proprietor requires, the more he must conform to
tlie conditions on which alone these products are to be expected. As to the subject of
enlightening masters, much might be said in its favor, and nothing founded in right rea-
son against it. It is only by a knowledge of gardening that a master can distinguish a
bad gardener from a good one ; and only from this appreciation that a good gardener
can be properly valued and rewarded. Community of knowledge must be better than
no community at all. A man who employs a gardener as he does a tailor, merely to
supply his wants, may look on him as a very convenient machine, and useful to have
about his premises ; but where a knowledge and taste for gardening exists in the em-
ployer, one point of union is formed between him and his servant, which must be pro-
ductive of a certain degree of humanity, if not of mutual respect and consideration. It is
only bad gardeners, therefore, that have to fear the dissemination of knowledge among
their masters. In a work of this nature, however, in which the object is more to give the
opinion of others than our own, we subjoin what M'Phail observes on the subject, which
may be reckoned the opinion of most men of his order. " The book called Every
Man his own Gardener, he says, " gives a list of what fruits, &c. gentlemen may expect
from their gardens in every month of the year ; such a list not only of fruits, but of flow-
ers and esculent vegetables, which nature, assisted by artificial means, is incompetent
to produce in every month of the year in any country, in any degree of latitude under
the sun ; hence, from lists of this kind being given in books said to be written by practi-
cal gardeners, ariseth strife between masters and mistresses and their servant-gardeners. "
{Card. Bern. Pref. xxviii.)

Sect. I. January. — The Productions arranged in the Order in which they have been treated
in the jrreceding Chapters.

6040, Hardy frtdU from the open garden, ordiard, or Jhat-

6059. Culinary vi^alUtfrom tkt open garden or parden-ttoret.
Strasburgh cabbage, ^aroys, borecoles, I»iis.sels sprouts. Kid-
neybeans for harricots, and Prussian and other peas. Potatoes,
Jerusaietn artichokes, turnip, carrot, parsnep, red beet,skirret,
■cnrzonera, and salsify, from the root-stores and seed-room.
Spinage in mild seasons ; also sorrel £ind white beet. f)nions,
lc«ks, garlic, shallot, and rocambole. !^a-kale from the coverc-a
beds. Lettuce, endive, celery, American and winter cress. Pars-
ley, if protected, horse-radish, and dried fennel,dill, chervil, &c.
Thyme, sage, rosemary, lavend*, from the open garden, and
dried marjoram, savory, mint, basil, &c. from the herb-room.
Rhubarb-stalks from covered roots; anise, coriander and cara-
way-seeds, chamomile, elecam|>ane, blessed thistle, &c. dried.
Ked cabbage and samphire. AV ild rocket, wild spinage, sauce-
alone, and sorrel, if a mild winter. Mushrooms from covered
ridges. Sea-belt, or sweet fucus, dried.

room. Some plums and morello cherries, carefully preserved
on the trees. Some thick-skinned cooseljcrries, currants, and

grapes, preserved on the trees. Some dried fruits of the same

Branches hung up ;
nuts, chestnuts, filberts from the fruit-room. Sloes from the

sortson branches hung up in the fruit-room. Almonds, wal-

bushes, wild services, hips, haws, and sometimes a few cloud-
berries.

6041. CuUn
ment. Kidneyt

Parsley. Fennel. Rhubarb. Mushrooms. Pines, winter i
Ions, grapes, strawberries, cucumbers occasionally. Orango,
olives, and pomegranates. Malay i^^ple, loquats, and \
Yarns and Spanish potatoes

vegetableM andfntUt from the forcing depart.
Potatoes. Sea-kale. Small saiads.

Sect. II. February.

6042. Culinary rfgetaUa from the open garden or garden-ttoret.
Scotch or Strasbur^h cabbage, savoys, borecoles, Brussels
sprouts, and, if a mild winter, cabbage-coleworts, broccoUs.
Haricots, beans, and soup-peas from the seed-room. Potatoes,
Jerusalem artichokes, turnip, carrot, parsnep, red- beet, skirret,
scononera, and salsify. Spinage, if a milu winter. Onions,
leeks, garlic, shallot, and rocambole. -Sea-kale from covered
beds. Lettuce, endive, .celtry. American and winter cress.
Parsley, if protected, horse-radish, and dried fennel, dill,
chervil, &c. Thyme, sage, rosemary, and lavender, from the
open garden ; dned marjoram, basil, &c. from the herb-room.
Rhubarb-stalks from covered roots, anise, coriander and cara-
Tray-seeds, from the seed-room ; chamomile, &c. from the
berb-room. Red cabbage, samphire. Nettle and thistle tops ;
towards the end, sorrel-leaTes, and if a mild winter, sauce-

alone. Mushrooms from covered ridges. Sea-belt preserved,
and occasionally badder -locks.

6043. Hardy fruitt from the open garden, orchard, or frtaU
room. Apples, pears, quinces, medlars, services from the fmit-
room. Some plums from branches hung up in the fruit-room.
Dried grapes and currants from branches hung ud in the fruit-
room. Almonas, wainuis, chestnuts, filberu from the fruit-
room. Sloes fit) m iried branches hung up m the fmit-nxmi.

6044. Culinary productiunt and frvitt from the forcing depart-
ment. Kidneybeans. Potatoes. Sea-kale, asparagus. Small
salads. Parsley, mint, chervil. Rhubarb. Alushrooms. A
pine occasionally ; grapes, cucumbers, strawberries. Oranges,
lemons, oUves, pomegranates. Pisbamin-nnts, Ie«K:hte«.
Yams and Spanish potatoes.

Sect. III. March.

6045. CaHnary vegetable* from the open garden, or garden,
ttoru. Brussels sprouts, borecoles of sorts, especially the early
greens, and Breda kale, broccolis. Haricot-beans and soup-peas,
from the seed-room. Potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, turnip,
carrot, red'beet, parsnip, skirret, scorzonera, and salsify.
Spinage occa>ionally, if mild. Onions from the root-room ;
\velch onions, ciboules from the garden ; garlic, shallot,
rocambole from the root-room. Sea kale from covered beds.
Lettuce, endive, celery, American and winter cress; also
water-cress, bomet and others. Parsley, horse-radish, and
dried fennel, dill, chervil, ice. Thyme, sage, rosemary from
the open garden ; and dried marjoram, basil, mint, savory, &c.
from the herb-room. Ithubarb-stalks from covered foots ;
anise, coriander, caraway, and other seeds, chamomile, blessed
thistle, and other dried herbs. Samphire. Nettle-tops, damleUon-

3 £

lea res, bladder-campion-tops, water-cresses, brook-lime, sancc.
alone. Mushrooms from covered ridges. Common aad xed
duLie, sea-belt, and pepper-dulse.

6046. Hardy fruitt from the open garden, orchard, or fruH-
room. -Apples, pears, quinces, medlars, services from the fruit-
room. Some dried grapes. -Almonds, walnuts, chestimts, filbert*
from the friiit-room.

6047. Culinary productione and fruitt from the forcing depart,
ment. Kidneybeans. Potatoes, radishes. Sea- kale, a^iaragos.
Small salads, onions. Parsley, mint, chervil, sweet marjoram.
Rhubarb. Mushrooms. A pine occasionally ; gr^ies, cucum-
bers, strawberries. Oranges, shaddocks, lemons, olives, pre-
served pomegranates. i.oquats, pisbamin^iuts, Iee-cbec». &c.
Yams and Spanish potatoes.

2

788

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

Sect. IV. ^pril.

6048. Culinary vegetables from the open garden, oreardeTi-storet.
Brussels sprouts, borecoles, broccoli, coleworts. Haiicot-beans,
and soup-peas from the seed-room. Potatoes, Jerusalem arti-
choke, yellow turnip, carrot, red beet, parsnep, skirret, scorzo-
nera, and salsify. Spinage, orache, wild spinage, sorrel, fat hen,
herb-pat^ce. Bulbed and young onions, ciboules, and Welsh
onions; garlic, shallots, rocambole, &c.from the stores. Sea-kale
and asparagus at the end of the month ; hop-tops, campion-tops,
and thistle-tops throughout the month. Lettuce, endive, celery,
American and winter cress ; burnet, water-cress, and other sal-
ads. Parsley, purslane, tarragon from the garden ; horse-radish
and dried herbs, from theherb-room. Thyme, sage, mint. rose-
mary, lavender, tansy, from the open garden. The others of
this class from the herb-room. Rhubarb-stalks from covered
plants; angelica, elecampane, and thistle-stalks from the
(garden. Theseeds and dried herbs of this class from the stores.

Samphire and buds of marsh-marigold. Nettle, campion,
thistle, bryony, burdock, ox-tongue, sauce-alone, and other
tops ; chickweed, wild rocket, sea-belt, and other leaves- Mush-
rooms from covered ridges. Dulse, tangle, and other fuci, in
a fresh state ; sea-belt preserved ; £md floating fucus pickled.

6049. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, or fruit-
room. Apples, pears, services, from the fruit-cellar. Some
dried grajjes from the fiuit-room. Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts,
filberts, from the fruit-room or cellar.

6050. Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart,
ment. Kidneybeans, peas. Potatoes, carrots, radishes. Sea-
kale, asparagus. Small salads, lettuce, onions. Parsley, pur-
slane, mint, &c. Rhubarb. Mushrooms. A pine occasionally ;
grapes, cherries, peaches, cucumbers, melons, strawberries.
Oranges, lemons, limes, jiomegranates. Loquats, pishamin-nuts
and dried lee-chees, and long-yens. Yams and Spanish potatoes.

Sect. V. Mai/.

605 !• Culinary vegetables from the open garden, or garden-
ttores. Early cabbages, cauliflowers, broccolis, and coleworts.
Haricot beans, jmd soup-peas from the seed-room, and some-
times, though rarely, young peas, towards the end of the month,
from a warm border. Potatoes and Jerusalem artichokes from
pits, or cold cellars ; turnip, carrot, and red beet from cellars
or the open ground, if not destroyed by the frost ; young ra-
dishes. Spinage, orache, wild spinage, sorrel, and herb-pa-
tience in perfection. Hfliused onions, and winter leeks; young
onions, ciboules, and chives, garlic and shallot from cold
rooms. Asparagus and sea-kale in perfection. I^ettuce, endive,
celery, succory, young radishes, and all the salads in perfection ;
winter radish, lamb-lettuce. Parsley, purslane, horse-radish,
tarragon, and all this class, either fresh or from the herb-room.
Thyme, sage, mint, tansy, costmarv, &c. from the open garden;
the others from the herb-room. Rhubarb-stalks, blanched, or
otherwise, from the earthed-up or uncovered plants, Emgelica-
stalks, anise, and other seeds, and the dried herbs, as before.

from the herb-room. Samnhire, and buds of mar h-marigold.
Charlick,fathen, chickweed, sea-orache, sea-belt,&c.as greens ;
ladies'-smock and orpine, as salads; speedwell and vernal grass,
as tea -plants. Morels from their native habitats ; garden-
mushrooms from coYered ridges in the open garden. Dulse,
tangle, and the other sorts of fuci, in a fresh state, and floating
fucus for pickling.

6052- Hardy fruits from tlie open garden, orchard, or fruit-
room. Apples, pears, from the fruit-cellar. Dried grapes from
the fruit- room. Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts, from the
fruit-cellar.

6053 . Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart-
ment. Kidneybeans, peas, beans- Potatoes, carrots, radishes.
Sea-kale, asparagus- Small salads. Chervil, purslane, &c.
Mushrooms. A pine occasionally ; grapes, peaches, melons,
encumbers, cherries, figs, apples, pears, gooseberries, and
strawberries. Lemons, shaddocks, oranges, pomegranates.
Yams.

Sect. VI. June,

6054. Cidinary vegetables fromthe open garden, or garden-stores.
Cabbages and cauliflowers in perfection. Kidneybeans, peas,
and common beans. Old potatoes from watered pits; new
potatoes, turnips, carrots, and radishes. Spinage, orache, and
sorrel, in perfection. Young onions and chives ; rocambole
and garlic from the root-room. Asparagus and sea-kale in
perfection till the middle of the month. Small salads, lettuce,
lamb-lettuce, radishes. Parsley, purslane, tarragon, horse-
radish, fennel, dill, marygold, &c. Thyme, sage, mint, savory,
basil, &c. from the garden, and the others from the"herb-room.
Rhubarb-stalks, angelica- Samphire, three sorts. Charlick,
chickweed, fat hen, orache, and willow-herb, as pot-herbs ;
orpine, ladies'-smock, &c. as salads; sweet cicely as a garnish ;

sea-bindweed as a pickle, and butterwort as rennet ; ficaria-
roots as saloop. Morels from tfteir native habitats; and the
garden-mushroom from covered ridges. Dulse, tangle, and
the other sorts of edible fuci-

6055. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, orfniit-
room Apples, pears, from the fruit-cellar- Some cherries
towards the middle of the month- Gooseberries, currants,
strawberries, and raspberries, towairds the end of the month.
Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts from the fruit-cellar.
Some snowberries and tree-currants -

6056. Culinary vegetables and fruits from the forcing depart-
ment. Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, peaches, nectarines, figs,
cherries, &c. melons, cucumbers. Shaddocks, oranges, lemons.

Sect. VII. July.

6057. Culinary productions from the open garden, or garden-
stores. Cabbages and cauliflowers in perfection . Peas, beans,
sugar-pea, and kidneybeans. New potatoes, turnips, carrots,
radishes. Spinage, orache, sorrel, and white beet. Onions
bulbed and ciboules, for salading. Artichokes, alisanders,
rampion. Small salads, lettuce, radishes- Parsley, purslane,
Indian cress, marigold, borage, fennel, &c. Thyme, sage,
mint, balm ; and all tlie others from the open garden, and also
from the herb-room. Angelica-stalks, gourds; the aromatic
seeds from the seed-room, and the herbs either from the herb-
iroom, or open garden. Caper, Indian cress, radish-pods, kidney-
bejuis, and pickling cucumbers. The pot-herbs and salads as
-in Jun«, the seeds of some sorts of vetches, jb legumes ; the

cow-parsnep for its different uses, and butterwort ; the roots of
ficaria. Morels from their native habitats ; garden-mushrooms
from covered ridges. Dulse, tangle, <lfec. as in June.

6058. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, or fruit-
room. Juneating, margaret, and codlin apples ; James and
other pears from the trees. Some peaches, nectarines, and
apricots ; also cherries. Gooseberries, currants, strawberries,
raspberries. Almonds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts, from tha
fruit-cellar. Bird-cherries, tree-currants.

6059. Culinary proditttions and fruits from the forcing depart-
ment. Mushrooms, pines, grapes, peaches, nectarines, figs,
cherries, apples, melons, cucumbers, &c. Lemons.

Sect. VIII. -August.

6060. Culinary vegetahhs from the epe/i garden, or garden-
stores. Cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli- Peas, beans, sugar-
pea, kidneybean. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, radishes, Jerusa-
lem artichoke, red beet. Spinage, white beet-chard, orache,
sorrel. Onions, bulb or small, shallots, garlic, and rocambole,
from the garden. Artichoke, cardoon, rampion. Small salads;
lettuce, endive, radishes, &c Parsley, purslane, Indian cress,
marigold, borage, fennel, &c. Thyme, sage, mint, balm, and
all the others, green or dried. New seeds of caraway, anise,
&c. ; new hyssop, chamomile, aijd other herbs ; gourds. Love-
apple, egg-plant, capsicum, Indian cress, radish-tops, kidney-
■bean, atid pickling cucumbers. Most of the pot-herbs and
salads of June ; the roots of arrow-head, silver-weed, ficaria,
and earth-nut roots; heath-tops and cow parsnep. Mush-

rooms and champignons from pastures, and the open garden ;
truffle from commons. All the sorts of fuci in their greatest
perfection for the table or pickling.

6061. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, and fruit-
room Apples, pears. Peaches, nectarines, apricots, plums,
cherries. Gooseberries, currants, strawberries, raspberries.
Nuts, if desired, from the fruit-cellar; almonds, and some wal-
nuts and filberts from the trees towards the end of the month.
Tree-currants, roan-berries.

6062. Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart-
ment Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, peaches, figs, melons, cu-
cumbers. Indian figs, strawberry-pears. Alligator, granadillas,
guavas, pears. New yams and Spanish potatoes.

Sect. IX. September y

• eoe.'?. Culinary vegetables from the open garden, or garden-stores.
Cauliflowers, cabbages, broccolis. Peas, beans, and kidney,
beans. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsneps, skirret, and all the
roots. Spinage, beet-chard, orache, and sorrel. Onions, shal-
lots, garlic, rocambole, and leeks. Artichokes, cardoons,
rampions. Small salads, endive, lettuce, celery, tanragon-
Parslev, horse-radish, Indian cress, marigold, fennel, chervils,
&c. Thyme, sage, mint, and all the class, dried or green.
Gourds and pumpkins; the aromatic seetLs from the seed-
room ; and the herbs from the gau-den or herb-room. Love-
apple, capsicum, egg-plant, samphire, red cabbage, kidney-
bean, &c. pickling cucumbers. Sea-peas and various legumes
of the vetcn kind, dropwort, Solomon's seal, saloop,- and other
roots; heath-tops and cow -parsneps. Mushrooms and cham-

pignons from their native habitats, or from the open garden.
Dulse, and all the sorts of edible fuci, in perfection.

6064. Hardy fruits from the open garden, orchard, orfntil.
room. Apples, pears, quinces, medlars. Peaches, nectarines,
apricots, plums, cherries. Grapes, gooseberries, currants,
strawberries, raspberries. Almonds, walnuts, filberts. Wild
services, cloudberries, bilberries, cranberries, brambles, hips,
haws, &c.

6065. Culinary productions and fruits from the forcing depart-
ment. Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, melons, cucumbers, figs.
Pomegranates, Indian figs, torch-thistles, and strawberry.pears.
Akees, alligator, and anchovy pears, guavas, and graiiadillas,
some mangoes. Yams and Spanish potatoes.

Sect. X. October.

6066 Oulinaru vegetables from the open garden, or garden-stores.
Cabbages, cauliflowers, broccolis. Peas and kidneybeans, if the
weather is dry Potatoes, turnips, carrots, radishes, Jerusalem
arttchokps, red beet, skirret, salsify, scorzonera. Spinage, beet>

chard, sorrel. Onions, leeks, garlic, shallots, and rocambole.
Artichokes, cardoons, rampion, celery. Small salads, endive,
succory, lettuce, winter-cress, burnet. Parsley, horse-radish,
Indian cress, marigold, fennel. Thyme, sage, mint, and all of

Book II.

FLORICULTURE.

789

plant, red cabbage, kidney bean. Meadow-sweet, and the
edible roots, and heath for brewing. AU the sorts of edible
fuci.

6007. Hardy fruiti from the optn garden, orchard, or frvU-roonx.
Apples, jiears, quinces, medlars, services. Some peaches, nec-
tarines, apricots, plums, and protected or covered morello cher-
ries. Grapes and strawberries, raspberries, and protect^ or

covered gooseberries and CTirrant<!. Almonds from the fruit-
room ; and walnuts, chestnuts, and filberu from the trees. M'ild
services, cloudberries, bramble- berries, and cranberries.

eOGS. Culinary produdumt and fniiit from the forcing depart-
mnU. Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, melons, cucumbers, figs.
Pomegranates, olives, Indian tigs; torch-thistles and straw-
berrv -pears. Akees, alligator, and anchovy peais; guavas,
gran'adillas, durions, mangoes, and mangosteen. Yams and
Spanish potatoes.

Sect. XI. November.

6069. Culinary vegetables frem the open garden, or garden-storet,
■ Cabbages, cauliflowers, protected by frames ; broccoUs, Brussels
sprouts, savoys, borecoles. Ihied kidneybeans and i>eas, from
tne seed-room. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, winter radish, Jeru-
salem artichoke, red beet, skirret, saUiiy, scorzonera. Spinage
beetchard, sorrel. Onions, ieeks, garUc, shallot, rocambole.
Cardoons, rampions, celery. Endive, lettuce, winter cress,
bumet. Parsley, horse- rjulish, feimel, and dried chervil. Sec.
Thyme, sage, and rosemary, the others chiefly from the herb-
rooin. Caraway, anise, and other aromatic seeds from the
seed-roora ; the family herbs from the herb-room. Red cab-
bage. The edible roou, as In October. Sea-belt, badder-locks,
and other species of fiici.

6070. Hardy fruit* from the open garden, orchard, orfnat-room.
Apples, pears, quinces, medlars. Some plums, and protected
cherries from the trees. Grapes from the trees, and protected
gooseberries, currants. Almonds from the fruit-room, and
walnuts, chestnuts, filberts. M'ild services, cloudberries, bilber-
ries, cranberries, hips, and haws.

607 1 . Culinary production* and fnnt* from the forcing depart,
ment. Mushrooms. Pines, grapes, melons, cucumbers, figs.
Oranges, lemons, pomegranates, olives. Akees, guavas, oana-
dillas, bananas, dtirions, mangoes, and mangosteens. Vains,
&c.

Sect. XII. December.

6072. Culinary vegetable* from the ox,en. gitrden, or garden-store*.
Strasburgh cabi>ages, cauliflowers,where presei redor protected,
broccolis, savoys, Brussels sprouts, borecole. Dried kidney,
beans for haricots ; and soup-peas from the seed-room. Pota-
toes, turnips, carrots winter radish, Jerusalem artichokes, red
beet, skirret, saUify, and scorronera, from the open garden or
root-room. Beet-chard, where protected. Onions, leeks, gar-
lic, shallots, and rocambole. Cardoons, celery. Endive, let-
tuce, winter and American cress. Parsley, horse-radish, dried
herte. Thyme, sa^e, rosemary, lavender, &c. green, the other
dried. The anise' and other' aromatic seeds from the seed-
room; and the herbs of this class from the herb- room. Red
cabbage. Edible roots from the stores or pits. Preserved sea-
belt, and when the weati.er admits of gathering, other edible
fuci ; the floating fuetis in pickle.

services. Some pro-

6073. Hardy fruit* front the
room. Apples, pears, qtiinces,

tected plums and cherries from branches hung in the fruit- room.
Grapes from tl.e trees, or from branches hung in the finit-
room. Alnx>nds, walnuts, chestnuts, filberts, from the fruit-
room. Sloes, from the bushes, wild services, hips, haws, cran-
berries, and cloudberries.

CheTA-il, fennel, &c. Rhubarb. Mvishrooms. Pines, grapes,
melons. Sec. winter melons, cucumbers, figs. Oranges, le-
mons, pomegranates, olives. Akees, guavas, aurions, mangoes,
mangosteens, rcse-apples, pishamins, lee-chees, &c. Yams and
sweet potatoes.

BOOK II.

FLORICULTURE.

6075. Floriculture we consider as comprehending whatever relates to the culture and
arrangement of vegetables, grown chiefly on account of their flowers, or as objects of taste
or curiosity. Tlie culture of flowers was long carried on with that of culinary vegetables,
in the borders of the kitchen-garden, or in parterres or groups of beds, which commonly
connected the culinarj' compartments with the house. In places of moderate extent, this
mixed style is still continued ; but in residences which aim at any degree of distinction,
the space within the walled garden is confined to the production of objects of domestic
utility, while the culture of plants of ornament is displayed in the flower-garden and
the shrubbery. These, under the general term of pleasure-ground, encircle the house in
small seats, and on a larger scale embrace it in one or more sides ; the remaining part
being under the character of park-scenery. Many of the most interesting plants belong-
ing to this branch of culture are natives of warm climates, and require the protection of
glass and artificial heat. On a limited scale, such plants are grown in the culinary-forcing-
houses, or in green-houses, or botanic stoves, connected with the others in the kitchen-gar-
den. In complete residences, however, the culture of exotics forms a distinct department
of ornamental horticulture, and the hot-houses requisite for this purpose are placed in
the flower-garden, or variously arranged within the precincts of the pleasure-ground. In
both departments, separation is attended with the usual advantages resulting from a divi-
sion of skill, labor, and effect. Floriculture is obviously of limited interest and utility,
compared to horticulture ; much less has accordingly been written on it, and our view
of modern practice will, therefore, be proportionately brief. The order adopted, is the
formation, planting, and general culture of the flower-garden ; the formation, planting,
and general culture of the shrubbery ; the design and general culture of the floricul-
tural hot-houses ; the catalogue of plants and trees used in ornamental horticulture ; and,
lastly, the montlily table of floricultural productions.

Chap. I.

Oftlie Formation of the Flower-garden.

6076. The situation of the flower-garden, as of every department of floriculture, shoula
be near the house, for ready access at all times, and especially during winter and spring,

3 E 3

790

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III

when the beauties of tliis scene are felt with pecuh'ar force. " Tiie flower-garden," Neill
observes, " should form an ornamental appendage to the mansion, and be easily accessible
in all kinds of weather. Tliere is no objection to its being seen from the windows
of the house: on the contrary, this is sometimes considered as desirable." Nico., as
we have seen (2382.), approves of having tlie various gardens of a place combined, and
placing them at no great distance from the house ; and Repton strongly recommends
tliis practice.

6077. Abercrombk says, " While the kitchen-garden is concealed by buildings or plantations, the flower-
garden and pleasure-ground should stand conspicuously attached to the family residence. When the
horticultural establishment includes a conservatory, it is proper to have it in sight, and connected with
the ornamented grounds ; because the style of such a building, the plants within, and the scene
without, under Jt tasteful arrangement, harmonise in character and effect. The botanic-garden, the range
of stoves, and all the departments, a visit to which renders a walk about the grounds pleasing and inter-
esting, should beat hand."

6078. The author ofthc'FlorlxVs Manual confines her observations to the "construction of that humble
flower-garden," which she calls " the common or mingled flower-garden." " This," she says, " should be
situated so as to form an ornamental appendage to the house, and where the plan of ground will admit,
placed before windows exposed to a southern or south-east aspect; and altliough to this position there
may appear the objection of the flowers turning their petals to the sun, and consequently from the win-
dows, this predilection in the tribe of Flora for the rays of that bright luminary, will produce the same
effect in whatever place our flowers maybe situated, when in the vicinity of a building, as they invariably
expose the front of their corols to the lights from which both the petals of flowers, and the leaves of
plants are believed to derive material essential to their existence." Slie adds, " when apart from the
house, the mingled flower-garden may be introduced with great advantage, if situated so as to form a
portion of the pleasure-ground : in this case it should not be distinct from the house, but so contrived
as to terminate one of the walks of the home shrubberies." {Flor. Man. p. 10. 15.)

6079. To place the flower-garden south-east or south-west of the house, and between it and the kitchen-
garden, is in general a desirable circumstance. In a design for a villa farm {fig. 5oD.), supposing the en-
trance-front of the house («), to face the north-west, then the farm-offices (6), horse-pond (c), &c. may be
placed to the north-east ; the kitchen-yard (rf) and livery-stable-yard (<?) to the south-west : against these
may be placed the exotic hot-houses, looking to the flower-garden (/), and beyond this the American
garden {jg), and lastly, the kitchen-garden (//),and walk through the farm (i). If concealed approaches to
the farm and stable-offices (c, n,) and from the kitchen-garden to tlie kitchen (A, e, d,) be contrived, such
an arrangement will be found to combine both elegance and economy, and to admit of bringing the wire
fence {m), which separates the mown from the fed lawn, near the house, without being unsightly : a de-
sirable object in farm villas, as it saves mowing, and increases pasturage.

9a ?%

6080. In exposure and asi^ect, the flower-garden should be laid out as much as pos-
sible on the same principles as the kitchen-garden (2390.), not only on account of the
advantages to be derived from the full influence of the sun during winter on the hot-
house department, but also for the better enjoyment of the open air scenes, in weather
favorable for walking out of doors. It should not be naturally low in surface, nor of
a wet retentive soil, nor rendered damp and gloomy by surrounding high trees, or lofty
walls or buildings. If it Ixappen that a house be nearly surrounded by a flower-garden,
the variety of aspect dience afforded will be favorable to the continuance of the bloom
of our flowers, far beyond what can be obtained if confined to a southern exposure.
South, south-east, and east, are the aspects most advantageous to the growth of flowers ;
and, possessing these varieties of exposure, the bloom of a garden may be protracted
some weeks beyond the time it could be preserved under a single aspect.

6081. The extent of the flower-garden depends jointly on the general scale of the re-
sidence, and the particular taste of the owner. If any proportion may be mentioned,
perhaps, a fifth part of the contents of the kitchen-garden will come near the general
average ; but there is no impropriety in having a large flower-garden to a small kitchen-
garden or mansion, where the taste of the owner leads to such a deviation from common
rules. As moderation, however, is generally found best in the end, we concur with
tlie author of the Florist's Manual, when she states, that " the compass of ground appro-
priated to flowers must vary according to the size of tlie place of which that ground
forms a part, and should in no case be of great extent. If the form of ground, where

1500K 11.

FORMATION OF THE FLOWER-GARDEN.

791

a parterre is to be situated, is sloping, the size should be larger than when a flat surface,
and the borders of various shapes, and on a bolder scale, and intermingled with grass ;
but such a flower-garden partakes more of the nature of pleasure-ground than of the
common parterre, and will admit of a judicious introduction of flowering shrubs." " To
cover twenty acres with mere flowering plants," Abercrombie observes, " producing
nothing esculent in the root, leaves, or fruit, would be puerile and ridiculous, as it would
exceed the moderation with which nature scatters her ornaments." {Pract. Gard. 338.)

6082. Shelter is equally requisite for the flower as for the kitchen garden, and, where
naturally wanting, is to be produced by the same means, viz. planting. The plantation
on the side next the garden, should begin with the lowest shrubs, and rise in gradation
to tlie trees, which, unless on tlie north, or very exposed points, should not be of the
tallest kinds. A few elegant shrubs, and one' or two trees may be scattered through
the scene, either in the dug compartments or in the turf-glades, for the purposes of shelter
and sliade as well as ornament ; but in general, much of either of tlie two former quali-
ties are highly injurious both to the culture of flowers, and the thick closeness of turf;
besides rendering the garden unfit to be resorted to in the winter and spring seasons.
Sometimes an evergreen-hedge will produce all the shelter requisite, as in small gardens
composed of earth and gravel only (Jig. 541.) ; but where the scene is large {jig. 540.),
and composed of dug compartments (a), placed on lawn {b) the whole may be sur-
rounded by a: df flowers, shrubbery, and trees.

5^0

6083. Soil. Most of the hardy herbaceous flowers, and the deciduous and evergreen
ornamental shrubs, will succeed in a soil of common good qualities, moderately light and
mellow. Negatively, the ground should not be excessively strong and clayey ; and mere
gravel is very intractable. (Abercrombie.)

G084. Nicol oberves, that flowers in general " will thrive very well in common garden-earth of a mid-
dling texture, if broke fine, to the depth of a foot. Some, no doubt, do better in light than in heavy soils;
and the contrary : and others do best in rich humid earth. Bulbous flowers, in general, do l)est in light
sandy earth ; though some require a stronger and a richer soil. In general, the soil for these should be
formed at least eighteen inches deep, and should be made very fine by the spade, or be put through a
coarse screen." In parterres where the finer flowers are cultivated, a variety of soils will be required ac-
cording to the nature of the plants, as rich sandy loam for bulbs, loamy earth for the primula tribe, bog-
earth for Americin plants ; and hence it follows, that, provided the sub-soil be drj-, the nature of the sur-
face-stratum is of the less ccnsquence.

6085. Surface. Wliere the extent is small, and the plants grown to be chiefly florists'
owers, or other select kinds, in beds separated by gravelled paths, a level or gentle
and uniform slope will be found most suitable ; but where the limits are more exten-
sive, and turf and shrubs are introduced, a wavy surface, either naturally or rendered
so by art, will have much the best effect. " In recluse scenes immediately under the
eye, art. may create a sort of miniature of beautiful ground. Man is but a puny object
compared to those of inanimate nature. He may overlook a distant hill, separated by
low ground ; but a mound of less than three yards in height, placed near the eye, confines
the view, and all other ol^etts being shut out, acquires, if apparently a work of nature, a
degree of importance in his imagination : winding walks, four feet below the original
surtace, will supply earth for accompanying them by wavy hills or swells eight feet high.
If these hills and swells are formed and contrived so as to produce a varied and natural-
like whole, with every change of position, a veiy suitable basis will be raised for a pic-
turesque shrubbery or flower-garden. It was to this sort of art that Pope's garden, at
Twickenham, was indebted for so great a variety of beauties in a small space ; and the
flower-garden at Lord Harcourt's, at Nuneham, was laid out under the eye of Mason the

■nnpf_ nn tVip camf> ■nrin<»inlf»- " t Vfi T'ttm nrt T nnrltnnna flnfAanimrr \

poet, on the same principle.

{Ed. Ency. ait. Landscape Gardening.)
3 E 4

792

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

60SG. Water. Tliis material, in some form or other, is as essential to the flower as
to the kitchen garden. Besides the use of the element in common culture, a pond or
basin affords an opportunity of growing some of the more showy aquatics, while jets,
dropping-fountains, and other forms of displaying water, serve to decorate and give in-
terest to the scene. Besides choice aquatics, the ponds or basins of flower-gardens may
be stocked with the gold-fish (^Ci/jmnus auratus), and will serve as a hybernaculum for
that elegant and interesting animal the tree-frog (Rana arborea), so amusing in the gar-
dens of the south of Tiermany.

6087. Theforin of a small garden {Jig. 541.) will
be found most pleasing when some regular figure is
adopted, as a circle, oval, octagon, crescent, &c. : but
where the extent is so great as not readily to be
caught by a single glance of the eye, an irregular shape
is generally more convenient, and it may be thrown into
agreeable figures, or component scenes, by the intro-
duction of shrubs so as to subdivide the space, i
*' Either a square or an oblong ground-plan," Aber- ,
crombie observes, "is eligible; and although the shape ;
must be often adapted to local circumstances, yet,
when a garden is so circumscribed that the eye at
once embraces the whole, it is desirable that it should
be of some regular figure."

6088. Nicol sa)-8, " a variety of forms may be indulged in,
without incurring censure ; provided the figures be graceful,
and not in any one place too complicated. An oval is a figure
that generally pleases, on account of the continuity of its out-
lines ; next, if extensive, a circle. Next, perhaps, a segment \
in form of a half-moon, or the larger segment of an oval. But
hearts, diamonds, triangles, or squares, if small, seldom please.
A simple parallelogram, divided into beds running lengthwise,
or the larger segment of art oval, with beds running parallel to
its outer margin, will always please." Neill concurs in this
opinion.

6089. The avthor of Hints on ttie Formation of Gardens, &c.
says, " a symmetrical form is best adapted to siich parterres as
are small and may be comprehended in one view ; and an irregular shape to such as are of a considerable
size, and contain trees, shrubs, statues, vases, seats, and buildings."

6090. Boundary fence, or screen. Parterres on a small scale may be enclosed by an
evergreen hedge of holly, box, laurel, privet, juniper, laurustinus, or Irish whin ( Ulex
europcEus, var. a. ) ; but irregular figures, especially if of some extent, can only be sur-
rounded by a shrubberj', such as we have already hinted at (6082.) as forming a proper
shelter for flower-gardens.

6091. Abercrombie says, " for the enclosure, a wall or close paling is, on two accounts, to be preferred
on the north side ; both to serve as a screen, and. to afrbrd a warm internarface for training rare trees.
When one of those is not adopted, recourse may be had to a fence of white thorn and holly," &c. iPract.
Gard.339.)

6092. Rustic fences formed of shoots of the oak, hazel, or larch, may often be intro-
duced with good effect both as interior and surrounding barriers, (fg. 542. )

k:U!

fM#^M

6093. Laying out the area,
to be excelled in without a t

This is the most difficult part of the business, and is not
ouiicItTablc deg»-cc of taste and experience. Jn laying out

Book II.

FORMATION OF THE FLOWER-GARDEN.

793

the area of the kitchen-garden, its destination being utility, affords in all cases a safe
and fixed guide ; but the flower-garden is a matter of fancy and taste, and where these
are wavering and unsettled, the work, will be found to go on at random. As flower-
gardens are objects of pleasure, that principle which must serve as a guide in laying them
out, must be taste. Now, in flower-gardens, as in other objects, there are diflTerent kinds
of tastes ; these embodied are called styles or characters ; and the great art of the designer
is, having fixed on a style, to follow it out unmixed with other styles, or with any de-
viation which would interfere with the kind of taste or impression which that style is cal-
culated to pro<luce. Style, therefore, is the leading principle in laying out flower-gardens,
as utility is in laying out the culinarj'-garden. As subjects of fancy and taste, the styles
of flower-gardens are various. The modem style is a collection of irregular groups and
masses, placed about the house as a medium, uniting it with the open lawn. The ancient
geometric style, in place of irregular groups, employed symmetrical forms ; in France,
adding statues and fountains ; in Holland, cut trees and grassy slopes ; and in Italy,
stone walls, walled terraces, and flights of steps. In some situations, these characteristics
of parterres may with propriety be added to, or used instead of the modern sort, especially
in flat situations, such as are enclosed by high walls in towns, or where the principal
building or object is in a style of architecture which will not render these appendages
incongruous. There are other characters of gardens, such as Chinese, which are not
widely different from the modern ; the Indian, which consists chiefly of walks under
shade, in squares of grass, &c. ; the Turkish, which abounds in shady retreats, boudoirs
of roses and aromatic herbs ; and the Spanish, which is distinguished by trellis-work and
fountains : but these gardens are not generally adapted to this climate, though from con-
templating and selecting what is beautiful or suitable in each, a style of decoration for
the immediate vicinity of mansions might be composed, greatly preferable to any thing
now in use.

6094. Abercrombie, Kicol, and most -practical gardeners, seem not to understand the subject of stjle,
and their rules amount to little more than that of subdividing the area by pths in diflferr-nt directions.
The former author says, " If a piece of ground be set apart for the cultivation of flowers, in what style
should it be laid out ? This may vary with the quantity of surface, and the object of the cultivator, "in
the first place, carry a border round the garden, nowhere narrower than three or four feet, unless it may
be proper to contract its breadth under the windows of the house; or unless there be a green hedge,
on any side, rooted in the level of the garden, which might be expected either to draw the earth, or
to encroach on the small plants, in which case flowering shrubs in little slips of mould would do better
than dwarf-stemmed flowers. In contact with the surrounding border, may be either a grass plot or a
gravel-walk. The latter is most convenient for approach at all seasons. If'the ground be at all dilated,
handsome walks, crossing or leading to the centre, will be also requisite : let the principal walks be five
or six feet in breadth. The interior of the garden is usually laid out in oblong beds, three or four feet
wide, with intervening alleys, two feet wide, or from that down to twelve inches, when it is intended to
abstract as little space as possible from the cultivation of the flowers ; or, the same end may be obtained
by circular or oval beds, with smaller compartments between, of such a form as will leave the alleys of
one regular width." {Praet. Gard. 340.)

6095. According to Nicol, the laying out of flower-gardens is a " matter very much of fancy. Too
many gravelled alleys offend the eye, especially if they be much twisted, or run across ; as it comprehends
the whole at once. Their breadths should be proportioned to that of the beds ; nor should they be much

544

,.-T~-'^

"feSis 1 [ cs

794 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Tart III.

sunk ; seldom more than an inch ; otherwise they have a bad efFect, and look rather like furrows tlian
alleys. They may be edged with box, with daises, with violets, gentianella, or thrift, according to fancy.
But the edging, whatever it be, should be kept low, thin, and neat. It should seldom be allowed to rise
two inches high, or spread two inches wide. A linear box-edging always pleases, if kept quite close and
connected." {Kal. 458.)

6096. The author of the Florisfs Manual, though she confines her directions to one style, has much
more correct ideas on the subject than our practical authors. " It is moie difficult," she says, *' than may
at first appear, to plan, even upon a smiU scale, such a piece of ground, nor, perhaps, would any but an
experienced scientific eye be aware of the difficulties to be encountered in thedisi)osal of a few shaped bor-
ders interspersed with turf; the nicety consists in arranging the different parts so as to form a connected
glow of color, to effect which it will be necessary to place the borders in such a manner that when viewed
from the windows of the house, or from the principal entrance into the garden, one border shall not inter-
cept the beauties of another, nor in avoiding that error, j)rodu(T6 one still greater, that of vacancies be-
twixt the borders forming small avenues, by which the whole is separated into broken parts, atul the ge-
neral effect lost. Another point to be attended to, is the just proportion of green turf, wliich, without
nice observation, will be too much or too little for the color with which it is blended; and, lastly, the
breadth of the flower-borders should not be greater than what will place the roots within reach of the
gardener's arm without the necessity of treading upon the soil, the mark of footsteps being a deformity
wherever it appears amongst flowers." {Flor. Man. 13.)

6097. The materials ivhich form the surface offiower-gardens (Jigs. 543, 544.) are gravel [a), turf (6), and
dug borders (c), patches (d), or compartments (e), and water (/) ; but a variety of other olyects and mate-
rials may be introduced as receptacles for plants, or on the surfaces of walks ; as grotesque roots, rocks,
flints, spar, shells, scorite in conglomerated lumps, 545

sand and gravel of different colors ; besides wsrks of „g ~^gna »„-—..„=■« jB^=^B^=ra

art introduced as decorations, or tensile perform- =^^^^^p •b=^;~=s g^ j^ ^"^ . =^

ances, when the old French style {fig. 5'lo.) is f|=^s #_?-w_i=' j=^[l fjgg-^ =^s:g.l'^-=,^SP

imitated. S^^^p ^m^^^'m m^=A f^,T ^f M^M=

6098. Rock-works. The author of the Florist's 1 ^^^^T^-^^ = ^ -=-=^~ a ==~^=S

Manual observes, on this subject, that " fratf- gg=^=£'^ = =''=%^3 pfflff^Tg f ^^^^^l
ments of stone may be made use of, planted ?g=-S= ^-^^^ - ^^^ig ||i~€ s^ A ''^ '^ss;
with such roots as flourish among rocks, and to =^^iS_s = ^ ^ — ~^ %^ ^ '^^ a ^ ^s|
which it might not be difficult to give a natural ap- y ~ .^ I?^^ ' — ^ " ,J?M ^s^^^^ ' C»r- ' -§
pearance, so far as by bringing forward to the view s ^^S^^S^^^ -=^gp fe^^ ^ >^^^fex
the utility of these stones in the culture of the vege- fg ^^^^ ""'^^^^^3 ^^^ffl^-^l^g
tables growing thereon. The present fashion of in- = #=== ^j. '_'-=a:^fi3 e^^^ ■* ^^^^
troducing into flower-gardens this kind of rock-work g l^ ^^Pks:^^''' S^^-^a^^^ "Bf
requiresthehandoftastetoassimilateittoourflower- _==^^~ ^^^^^ "^%i ^^ ^^ -

borders, the massive fabric of the rock being liable [i | ^^^- .£. " - '*^ ^i' ^ ^^■%3%.

to render the lighter assemblage of the borders di- g ^ — y.t 0
minutive and meagre: on this point, caution only '^.y.^^Mff
can be given, the execution must be left to the ele- rjfe^^^gg
gant eye of taste, which, thus warned, will quickly ^g^g^^lg
perceive such deformity. I must venture to disap- ^,
prove the extended manner in which this vegetable ,^w'??^?i
rock-work is sometimes introduced, not having been JS^^ffi^P^-^
able to reconcile my eye, even in gardens planned 1= =:-"^ ^^%.

and cultivated with every advantage which elegant =1^^^^=^^^^ - ^. -^^

ingenuity can give them, to the unnatural appear- ^ f .^^'^"^ »^«r ^^-^w.

ance of artificial crags of rock and other stones in- ^^^^ '^^■^t^ ^J^' ^^ "'^^

terspersed with delicate plants, to the culture of s MW ^^S^.'^"^^-''"- -!'=-s'^^ ~~ ""'
which the fertile and sheltered border is evidently ^ js^ ^ -^'
necessary, being decided that nothing of the kind 8 ^^5s ^--"
should be admitted into the simjjle parterre that is fa \^l^^^^r
not manifestly of use to the growth of some of the W. ^^^^Z ^=^~Siti pliil
species therein exhibited. In pleasure-grounds nr g-Jr5=-g ■=3' '=*~^'^ 1^^
flower-gardens on an extensive schle, where we meet g=^ ^-.^^ »^ ^?M ^-il'
with fountains and statuary, the greater kinds of ve- s==s%rg, I ^Jm^M pg-:

getable rock-work might probably be well intro- ?I^^^S^-#-^^^g. =i P s

duced; but to such a magnificent display of art I feel M^^spts ? =v%-^s tt=;. -^

mytaste and knowledge wholly incompetent." (F/or. M^^%'^^^= ^1= p|=- ^ -— ^ -^-^£3
Man. 15.) " Where neither expense nor trouble." j^ ^^>_ _^£_=^ =gK»-:^v, e^£«=S^
the same author adds, " oppose their prohibiiory w^^^^S S^s^^U m — ^V-=IS' e^=^=ll
barrier, many of the vegetable tribe may be cultivated to greater perfection, if we appropriate different gar.
dens to the growth of different species, as, although it is essential to the completion of our garden to intro-
duce, on account of their scent and beauty, some of the more hardy s{)eciejs of the flowers termed annQals,
in that situation room cannot be afforded them sufficient to their production in that full luxuriancy which
they will exhibit when not crowded and overshadowed by herbaceous vegetables ; and hence becomes de-
sirable that which maybe called the annual flower-garden, into wliich no other kind of flower is admitted
besides that fugacious order, and under which is contained so great a variety of beauty and elegance, as one
well calculated to form a garden, vying in brilliancy with the finest collection of hardy perennials. Also,
the plants comprised under the bulbous division of vegetables, although equally essential to the perfection
of the mingled flower-garden, lose much of their peculiar beauty when not cultivated by themselves, and
will vvell repay the trouble of an a.ssiduous care to give to each species the soil and aspect best suited to its
nature. Two kinds of garden may be formed from the extensive and beautiful variety of bulbous-rootetl
flowers; the first, wherein they should be planted in distinct compartments, each kind having a border ap-
propriated to itself, thus forming, in the Eastern taste, not only the 'garden of hyacinths,' but a garden of
each species of bulb which is capable of being brought to perfection without the fostering shelter of a con-
servatory. The second bulbous garden might be formed from a collection of the almost infinite variety of
this lovely tribe, the intermixturojof which might produce the most beautiful effect, and a succession of
bloom to continue throughout the early months of summer. A similar extension of pleasure might be
derived from a similar division of all kinds of flowers, and here the taste for borders planted with distinct
tribes may be properly exercised, and, as most of the kinds of bulbs best suited to this disi>osition have
finished their bloom before the usual time at which annuals disclose their beauties, the annual and the
bulbous gardens might be so united, that, at the period when the bloom of the latter has disappeared, the
opening buds of the former might supply its place, and continue the gaiety of the borders."

6099. The green-house or conservatory is geyieral!?/ placed in the Jlower-garden, provided
these structures are not appended to the house. In laying out the area, a fit situation
must be allotted for this department of floriculture, and the principles of guidance laid
down in treating of the situation of the culinary hot-houses (2475.) require here also to
be applied. Some recommended the distribution of the botanic hot-houses throughout

Book II.

FORMATION QF THE FLOWER-GARDEN.

795

the flower-garden or pleasure-ground ; but we are decidedly of opinion, that much the best
effect is produced when they are connected together in one scene. By the other mode they
may form objects agreeable enough to look at externally ; but to derive the full eflfect of

their internal beauties, _^ j^

it appears to us that
tliey must be examin-
ed in succession and
without interruption.
No arrangement can
be better, in our opi-
nion, than to connect
the whole of the bo-
tanic hot-houses with
the mansion as an in-
troductory scene to the
flower-garden. ITiis
was Repton's favorite
mode, of which, among
other examples, he has
left that of Ashridge
Park. (,^5. 546.) Here,
to the original lawn
and pleasure-ground 1
(1), he made an
addition in the same
style (2), uniting by
walks the following

interesting scenes. The botanic stoves and paved terrace (3) ; broad-sanctuary and holy-
well (4) ; pomarium and winter walk (5) ; the monk's garden (6) ; arboretum of exotic
trees (7) ; magnolia and American garden (8) ; embroidered parterre (9) ; grotto
and garden for rock-plants (10) ; cabinet de verdure {I I) ; mount garden (12) ; rosa-
rium apd fountain (13) ; connecting and interior walks (14) ; open terrace and exterior
walks (15).

6100. In particular situations, as where the prospect and space are both confined, the plant hot-houses
may embrace the house or the court- vard on two or more sides. In a case of this kind, which occurred in
our practice (fig. 547.), a large conservatory (a) and aquarium (ft) were connected with the library (i) :

547

from the conservator)', a green-house (c) led to an aviary (rf), and this was connected with a house for
standard peach-trees, with vines as climbers (g), by two plant-stoves {e and/). The furnaces were placed
in the court-yard (/), and attended from the stable-yard (A), without interfering with the house («), or the
flower-garden {m). The elevation of such a range (Jig. 548.) does not pretend to architectural or pictu-
resque beauty ; but it is such as is best suited for the culture of plants ; and from the peculiarity of the
situation it is seen from no point beyond the limits of a very moderate-sized flower-gardep.

6101. According to NeUl, a green-liouse, conservatory, and stove should form prominent objects in the
different parts of the flower-garden. The author of the FlorisVs Manual recommends a spring-conser-
vatory, annexed to the house, consisting of borders sheltered by glass, and heated only to the degree that
will produce a temperature, under which all the flowers that would naturally bloom betwixt the months
of February and May might be collected, and thence be enabled to expand their beauties with vigor.
{Flor. Man. o. 23.^

796

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6102. According to Ntcol, " the most proper situation for the green-house and conservatory, in an exten-
sive and well laid out place, is certainly in the shrubbery or flower-garden ; and not, as'they are very
generally to be found, in the kitchen-garden, combined with the forcing-houses. In smaller places, no
doubt, they must be situated so a* to suit other conveniences ; and we often find them connected with the
dwelling-house. In this latter way they may be very convenient, especially in the winter season, and may
answer for keeping many of the hardy kinds of exotics ; but it is seldom they can be so placed and con-
structed, on account of their connection with the building, as to suit the culture of the finer sorts, and
bring them to a flowering state. Such may rather be termed green-rooms, as being connected with the
house." {Kal. 539.)

6103. Abercrombie says, " A green-house may be made a very ornamental object as a structure ; its
situation is, therefore, usually in a conspicuous part of the pleasure-ground, contiguous to the family resi-
dence. The front of the building should stand directly to the south, and the ends have an open aspect to
the east and west." {Pract. Gard. 551.)

6104. Flower -nursery, and pits for forcing fiowers. To every complete flower-garden
and shrubbery, a piece of ground should be set apart in a convenient and concealed situ-
ation, as a reserve-ground, or nursery of flowering plants and shrubs. The situation
should, if practicable, be behind and near to the range of hot-houses, and it may at the
same time include the pits for forcing flowers, and the hot-bed department of the
flower-garden. Here plants may be originated from seed, cuttings, pipings, and a pro-
per stock kept up, partly in beds and partly in pots, for more easy removal, to supply
blanks, and in the more select scenes, to replace such as have done flowering. No
flower-garden can be kept in complete order without a nursery of this description ; nor could
the management of some sorts of florists' flowers, as the auricula, during the latter part
of summer and winter, the carnation, &c. be well carried on without it. Here they may
be grown, and, when in bloom, exhibited in proper stages in the main garden.

6105. Walks. In most styles of parterres these are formed of gravel ; but in the mo-
dern sort {^fg- 549.), which consist of turf, varied by wavy dug beds (1 and 2), and
surrounded by shrubbery, they 549

are sometimes dispensed with.
Such a flower-garden is recom-
mended by the author of the JYor-
isl^s Manual, as suitable for the
*' midst of pleasure-ground," and
the beds " peculiarly adapted to
the advantageous exhibition of
flowers." The general length of
the beds she recommends to be
from twenty-three to twenty-five
feet, and the width in the broad-
est part, about four feet ; the
grass to be five or six feet \vi4e
between the beds, that it may be
conveniently mown and rolled ;
all the beds a good deal raised,
and a tree (3) placed at the en-
trance (4) of light and rather
pendulous foliage, and pruned to
form a high stem. " If the space of grass between the borders appear too great, it may
be lessened by baskets of ever-blowing roses, carnations, or any other plants ; and these
baskets may be formed by circular beds, surrounded by cast-iron, made to resemble the
open edges of a basket, and painted of a very dark-green color." (p. 6.)

6106. In extensive and irregular parterres, one gravel-walk, accompanied by broad margins of turf, to
serve as walks by such as prefer that material, should be so contrived as to form a tour for the display of
the whole garden. There should also be other secondary interesting walks of the same width, of gravel
and smaller walks for displaying particular details. The main walk, however, ought to be easily dis-
tinguishable frcftn the others by its broad margins of fine turf. In general the gravel is of uniform
breadth throughout the whole length of the walk ; but in that sort of French parterres which they
call parterres of embroidery {fig. 550.), the breadth of the gravelled part {a) varies like that of the turf.
Such figures, when correctly executed, carefully planted, judiciously intermixed with basket-work,
shells, party-colored gravels, &c. and kept in perfect order, are highly ornamental ; but very few
gardeners enter into the spirit of this department of their art. The French and Dutch have long
greatly excelled ua in the formation of small gardens, and the display of flowers j and whoever wishes

Book II.

PLANTING THE FLOWER-GARDEN.

797

Antwerp, P"issel3, and Paris j and consult

to succeed in this department ought to visit Amsterdam

the old French works of Mallet, Boyceau,

Le Blond, &c. _5_^^^_^.

6107. Edgings. In parterres where
turf is not usetl as a ground or basis
out of which to cut the beds and walks,
the gravel of tlie latter is disparted from
the dug ground of the former by edg-
ings or rows of low-growing plants, as
in the kitchen-garden. Various plants
have been used for this purpose ; but,
as Neill observes, the best for extensive
use is the dwarfish Dutch box, kept low
and free from blanks. Abercrombie
says, " Thrift is the neatest small ever-
green next to box. In other parts, the
daisy, pink, London-pride, primrose,
violet, and periwinkle, may be employ-
ed as edgings. The strawberry, with the
runners cut in close during summer,
will also have a good effect ; the wood-
strawberry is suitable under the spread-
ing shade of trees. Lastly, the limits
between the gravel-walks and the dug-
work may sometimes be marked by
running verges of grass kept close and
neat. Whatever edgings are employed,
they should be formed previous to lay-
ing the gravel."

6108. Basket-edgings. Small groups'
near the eye, and whether on grass or
gravel, may be very neatly enclosed by
a worked fence of basket-willows from
six inches to a foot high. These wicker-work frames may be used with or without ver-
dant edgings ; they give a finished and enriched appearance to highly polished scenery ;
enhance the value of what is within, and help to keep off small dogs, children, &c.

.■-:!"■-„. Abercrombie scarcely approves of them. He

says, " Where round or oval parterres stand
on a ground of lawn, it is a prevailing fashion
to surround them with what are termed baskets.
These are commonly made either of wood or
cast-iron ; those of the latter material of course
are durable ; and the others, if painted, and
removed under shelter in winter, will last ten
or twelve years. Novelty is all attractive ; and
when men have walked as far as they can in the
path of nature for principles of embellishment,
for the sake of novelty they will walk back
again. A bed of flowers and shrubs within a
basket looks very much like a large bouquet.
What is artificial, should have some use. Where
cattle are to be kept off, a basket is service-
able." (Pr. Card. 454.)

61C9. To assist in the invention of figures for flower-
gardenSf the simple but ingenious contrivance {fig. 551.)
invented by Professor Bradley may be made use of. It
consist'- of two plates of looking-glass, of any convenient
size, furnished with wooden backs, so as to admit of their
being hinged (a). One part of a circular figure being then drawn on paper (6, c), the frames are to be
opened the width of the figure {b,c, d), and placed on edge so as to include it, when the form will then
be so multiplied by the looking-glass as to complete the circle. The kaleidoscope may also be resorted
to, of which this instrument of Bradley's is supposed to be the origin or prototype.

Chap. II.

Of Planting the Floiver-garden.

6110. The manner of planting the herbaceous plants and shrubs in a Jlmver-garden de-
pends jointly on the style and extent of the scene. With a view to planting, they may be

798 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

divided into three classes, which classes are independently altogether of the style in which
they are laid out. The first class is the general or mingled Jlower-garden, in which is dis-
played a mixture of flowers with or without flowering-shrubs according to its size. The
object in this class is to mix the plants, as that every part of the garden may present a gay
assemblage of flov/ers of different colors during the whole season. The second class is the
select Jlower-garden, in which the object is limited to the cultivation of particular kinds of
plants ; as, florists' flowers, American plants, annuals, bulbs, &c. Sometimes two or more
classes are included in one garden, as bulbs and annuals ; but, in general, tlie best effect
is produced by limiting the object to one class only. The third class is the changeable
Jlower-garden, in which all the plants are kept in pots, and reared in a flower nursery or
reserve-ground. As soon as they begin to flower, they are plunged in tlie borders of the
flower-garden, and, whenever they show symptoms of decay, removed, to be replaced by
others from the same source. This is obviously the most complete mode of any for a dis-
play of flowers, as the beauties of both the ge^ieral and particular gardens may be combined
witliout presenting blanks, or losing the fine effect of assemblages of varieties of the same
species ; as of hyacinth, pink, dahlia, chrysanthemum, &c. The fourth class is the botanic
Jlower-garden, in which the plants are arranged with reference to botanical study, or at
least not in any way that has for its main object a ych display of blossoms. On each of
these gardens, or manners of arranging plants grown for their beauty or curiosity, we shall
offer some remarks.

6111. The mingled Jlower-garden, or border, is by far the most common; it is what
every gardener attempts at in planting his flower-borders, and the aim of the greater num-
ber of such as form parterres, or separate scenes for the culture of flowers, seldom goes
further. The object here is to display a gay assemblage of colors during the season of
flowers, without much regard to variety of form or diversity of character in these flowers,
or the plants that produce them. Tlie great art, therefore, in this kind of flower-border,
is to employ such plants as produce large heads, or masses of flowers ; to plant an equal
number of every color, and such a variety in regard to time of flowering as may aflbrd
some of every color in flower from February to October. This object docs not require a
great variety so much as a judicious selection ; for, supposing the number four to include
all the colors of flowers, and one sort to continue in bloom a month, then for nine months
of the year, viz. from February to October inclusive, only thirty-six sorts will be requi-
site to commence, as it were, the pattern of the border. Much more may be effected by
a few sorts than by a great number, for the greater the number of sorts introduced in the
pattern above thirty-six, supposing it correct that one sort continues in bloom a month,
the greater the blank spaces that must remain between the plants in bloom. A moderate
number of select sorts, or of what are called border-flowers, and that number selected
equally from the different colors, and the sorts in bloom in the nine months of blooming
season, is what demands the exclusive attention of whoever would plant a mingled bor-
der, or flower-garden. It has been frequently observed that flower-gardens have been on
the decline for the last half century ; and the cause of this appears to have been the influx
of new plants during that period, by which gardeners have been induced without due con-
sideration to be more solicitous about rarity and variety, than well disposed colors and
quantity. The same error, and from the same cause, has prevailed, during the above pe-
riod, in the planting of shrubberies and tree-plantations.

6112. Abercrombie, Kicol, and other practical gardeners, seem to have no distinct ideas on the subject of
arranging flowers in flower-gardens ; but the authors of Hints on laying out Gardens, and of the Florist's
Manual, have viewed the subject in its proper light. Neill also has some judicious observations on the sub-
ject. He says, " the plants are arranged in mingled flower-borders, partly according to their size, and
partly according to color. The tallest are planted in the back part, those of middling size occupy the centre,
and those of humble growth are placed in front. The.beauty of a flower-border, when in bloom, depends
very much on the tasteful disposition of the plants in regard to color. By intermingling plants which
flower in succession, the beautv of the border may be prolonged for some weeks. In a botanic-garden the
same plant cannot with propriety be repeated in tlie same border ; but in the common flower-garden a .
plant, if deemed ornamental, may be often repeated with the best effect ; nothing can be finer, for example,
than to see many plants of double scarlet lychnis, double sweet-william, or double purple jacobea." {Ed.
Encyc. art. Hort.) , ^. .. • i

6113. The author of Hints, &c. remarks " that the beauty of parterres depends more on the materials
with which Ihev are planted than on their form ; and that the prevailing error consists in crowding them
with all sorts of trees and plants at random, or filling them entirely with rare species, which will ever
want one principal source of beauty — health." In the Florist's Manual it is observed, that "the
fashionable novice, who has stored her borders from the catalogue of some celebrated name with variety
of rare species ; who has procured innumerable rose-trees, chiefly consisting of old and common sorts,
brought into notice by new nomenclature; who has set apart a portion of ground for American plants,
and duly placed them in bog soil, with their names painted on large-headed pegs, becomes disappointed
when, instead of the brilliant glow of her more humble neighbor's parterre, she finds her own distiii-
guished only bv paucity of color, and fruitless expenditure. Variety of species, bog borders, and largely
lettered pegs, are all good in their way, but they will not produce a gay flower-garden ; and the simple
cause of the general failure in this particular is the prevalent solicitude for rarity and variety, in preter-
ence to well blended quantity ; as, without the frequent repetition of the same plant, it will be m vain to
attempt a brilliant flower-garden, and, as in the judicious mixture of every common color, the art of
procuring it consists. Hence, the foundation thus laid, the solicitude of those who wish to com-
plete the superstructure must not be for rare species, but for new color, so that the commonest primula
which presents a fresh shade of red, blue, yellow, &c. ought to be esteemed more valuable than the most
rare American plant which does not bring a similar advantage. In the formation of that assemblage of

Book II. PLANTING THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 799

flowers, %vhich may be distinguished by the term of ' The Mingled Flower Garden,' it is essential that
the separate parts should, in their appearance, constitute a whole ; and this appearance is not incom-
patible with any form into which the ground may be thrown, if attention be given to the manner of
planting. In some gardens this appearance of a whole is entirely destroyed by the injudicious taste of
settingapart distinct borders for pinks, hepaticas, primulas, or any other favorite kinds of flowers ; also
for ditierent species of bulbs, as anemones, ranunculuses, hyacinths, &c. ; tjjese distinct borders, although
beautiful in themselves, break that whole which should always be presented to the eye by the mnigled
flower-garden, as single beds, conUining one species only, form a blank before that species produces its
flowers, and a mass of decaying leaves when the glow of their petals is no more. The reverse of this
mode of planting is essential to the perfection of the mingled flower-garden, in each border of which
there should be, at least, two of every s})ecies ; but the precise number must be regulated by the force of
coliir displayed by the plant, and the size and the relative position of the borders. It will be only neces-
sary to observe that, to whatever view the garden presents itself, the eye should not be checked by the
failure, in any part of it, of the prevalent colors of the season." (p. 5.)

6114. Hogg, who maybe considered an unprejudiced observer of the different tastes in disposing of
flowers, has the following remarks : " We are apt to ridicule the Dutchman, as well as the imitators of
him here at home, who divide their gardens into small beds, or compartments, planting each with sepa-
rate and distinct flowers : we ridicule the plan, because it exhibits too great a sameness and formality ;
like unto the nosegay that is composed of one sort of flowers only, however sweet and beautiful they may
be, they lose the power to please, because they want variety. It must undoubtedly be acknowledged,
that a parterre, no matter in what form, whether circular or square, elliptical or oblong, where all the
shrubs, plants, and flowers in it, like the flowers of a tastefully arranged bouquet, are variously disposed
in neat aijd regulated order, according to their height and color, is a delightful sprctacle, and worthy of
general imitation. Yet still in some particular cases I am disposed to copy the Dutchman, and I would
have my bed of hyacinths distinct, my tulips distinct, my anemonies, my ranunculuses, my pinks, ray
carnations distinct, and even my beds of hollyhocks, double blue violets, and dwarf-larkspurs distinct, to
say nothing of hedge-rows of different sorU of roses. Independent of the less trouble you have in cul-
tivating them when kept separate, you have beauty in masses, and you have likewise their fragrance
and perfume so concentrated, that they are not lost in air, but powerfully inhaled when you approach
them. Mrs. Siddons, the celebrated tragic actress, is a great admirer of this mode of planting, and fond
of contemplating this ' beauty in masses.' She adopted this style of gardening at her late residence on the
Harrow-road. Her favorite flower was the viola amoena, the common purple heart 's-ease, and this she
set with unsparing profusion all around her garden. Her garden was remarkable in another respect, and
migh- with great propriety be styled a garden of evergreens, which, together with a few deciduous
shrubs, were of the most sombre, sable, and gloomy cast, such as box-trees, fir, privet, phillyrea, arbor
vitas, holly, cypress, the red cedar, laurel, Irish ivy, bay-tree, arbutus, spurge-laurel, &c. The only part
of the year in which it could be viewed with any degree of satisfaction was the winter, as giving rise to a
pleasing association of ideas in beholding these retain their green verdure and clothing, at a time when
the rest of the surrounding trees were stript naked and bare." {Tr. on Flowers, 69.)

6115. To give an example of the munner of planting a bed or border in the mingled style, suppose the
various colors of flo.vers-to be all included under the four common colors, red, white, blue, and yellow;
that for the time of blowinor, we allow February and March as one division, March and April as a second.
May and June as a third, July as a fourth, Au/ust as a fifth, and September and October as the sixth and
last. Then supjwse the border, or bed admits of four rows in width ; the lowest plants to be placed next the
walk, or the eye of the spectator, and the tallest at the back in regular gradation. Mark out the border
In rows length- ways and across, so as each plant may stand in the angle of a square, whose side is, say
eighteen inches. Thei begin at the first row (Jig. 5o2. a), and fix on the order in which the plants are to
be placed as respects their time of flowering. To distrioutethe plants in flower at one time as equally as
possible over the border, the order of 1, 6, 3, 5, 2, 4, will, it is believed, be found the best. Next, fix as
to the order of colors ; and here it is of little consequence what order is fixed on, provided that order be
maintained thrDUghout the border : say that we adopt the order of red white, blue, and yellow ; then
the first row to be of the lowest plants will stand thus : Ir. 6w. 3b. 5y. 2r. 4a'. : that is, a red flower to
come into bloom in February and March ; next to it, a white flower to come into bloom in September and
October ; next, a blue flower to come into bloom in May and June ; then a yellow flower to come into
bloom in August ; then a red flower to come into bloom in April and May ; and lastly, a white flower to
come into bloom in July. The second, third, and fourth rows, [b, c, d) are to be arranged in the same
way, observing, however, not begin with the same month and color for the sake of more effectually
mingling the tunes of flowering and color of the flowers. Where roses or other shrubs are to be intro-
duced, a plant must be omitted, which, however, should not be allowed to derange the order of the rest.

552

a Ir 6/B 3A by ir 4ra; 16 6^ 3r brv 26 4«/ Ir 6nr 36 5^ ir in \r Gn> 36

6 Ir Gm 36 5y ir 4n> 16 &y Sr bra 26 Ay \r 6m 36 by ir irv 16 6t/ 3r brn 24

c : Ir Cro 36 5^ 2r in 16 6^ 3r bm 26 4^ Ir Cm 36 by ir in U Gy or bm 26 4^ Ir

(f Ir On 36 by ^ im \b 6y Zr bm ib Ay Ir 6m Sb by ir in 16 6y Zr 5n ib iy \r 6m ob

e Ir 6m 36 by ir in 16 6y 3r bn 36 iy Ir 6m 36 by ir in 16 6y 3r Sw 2i 4y

f Ir 6f» 36 by ir im U 6y 3r bm 26 iy Ir 6m 3b by 2r im 16 63/ 3r 5i»

f; Ir Cf» 3b by ir im 16 6^; 3r Sm ib iy tr Cm 3b by ir im 16 6y

A Ir 6m 36 5^ 2r im 16 6y 3r bm ib iy Ir 6m 36 5^ 2r im

6116. If a double border, with a walk on each side ifig. 552. a to A) a bed-group, or compartment on a
lawn, to be viewed on all sides, is to be planted, then it is only necessary to fix on the number of rows,
and to keep the lowest plants in the margin and the tallest in the centre, adhering in the rows, to the
order of time, and of colors given above, or to any order that may be fixed on, and inserting shrubs in
lieu of plants where it may be deemed advisable.

6117. Floivers in borders should always be planted in roius, or in some regular form, and that this ap.
pearance should be assiduously kept up by trimming off all irregular side-shoots and straggling stalks,
and reducingtthe bulk of plants which grow too fast. Every approach to irregularity and a wild, con-
fused, crowded, or natural-like appearance, must be avoided in gardens avowedly artificial.

6118. U"ith four colors, four sizes, and six ti?nes of coming into Jlower, a mingled border may be com-
mencetl with ninety-six sorts ; and the pattern may be repeated like the border of any work of art ad in-
finitum ; but it is also evident, that it may include any number of species, provided these have the de-
sired requisites of height, color, and time of flowering ; the second and every successive repetition of the
pattern being made up of different, and not before- introduced species, but still of the heights, colors, and
times of flowering required for the first example of the pattern. The safest way, however, as we have

800 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

already observed, is to adopt but a moderate number of species, and those of the showy sorts that have
numerous varieties, and are of hardy vigorous growth. A suitable list for this purpose is given m the
floricultural catalogue, under the head oi Border Flowers, and the reader may increase it at pleasure
from the Frodromus of Page.

6119. The select Jlower-garden being limited to one kind, or class, of plants, is com-
paratively simple as far as respects planting. It may be devoted to florists' flowers, as
the hyacinth, tulip, pink, auricula, &c. ; to select flowers, as the dahlia, paeony, chry-
santhemum, &c. ; to annuals, hardy, half hardy, and tender ; to American or bog-earth
shrubs and plants ; to any one natural order, as the bulbous-rooted tribe ; or to spring,
summer, or autumn flowers, &c.

6120. Florists' flowers and select flowers are planted in beds or compartments of carefully prepared soil,
and the arrangement in the beds is generally conducted on the principle of mixing the colors and shades of
color as much as iwssible. As the plants being of the same species generally grow of the same height,
^nd come into flower at the same time, no particular attention is requisite in these respects. (See Hya-
cinth and Auricula, in the catalogue.)

(5121. A parterre of annuals, as the different sorts generally come into flower about the same time, mav
either be arranged according to their colors and heights jointly J or, as there are numerous varieties of
some sorts, as of larkspur, j hrysanthemum, lupin, &c., each species with its varieties may be sown in
groups or beds, by itself; and the general principle by which to determine the sorts which are to join
each other, may either be color and height, or natural character. If the latter, then the table exhibiting
the genera, arranged according lo the Jussieuean classification (589.), will be found a convenient guide.

6122. An Ainerican garden combines shrubs and even low trees. These maybe arranged in tiie mixed
method, according to color, height, and time of flowering, the trees and shrubs alone, and the plants
alone, or both combined : but the most suitable way is to follow the natural orders, attending, at the
same time, to keep the higher sorts farthest from the walk or side from which the group or border is to
be chiefly viewed. This arrangement has an excellent effect in an American shrubbery, where the low
species of heaths and other bog under-shrubs which are introduced, supply the place of herbaceous
plants.

6123. A garden exclusively devoted to bulbous-rooted flowers, admits of being very perfectly arranged
after the natural method. No onlers run into other so naturally as, and none present a more harmonious
assemblage both of foliage and flowers than, the Phanerogamea;. (589.) The planting of such a garden
would require very little nicety beyond introducing the proper genera and species in succession, taking
care to keep the taller bulbs, as lilium, fritillaria, &c. in the interior of the groups or beds.

6124. Gardens of spring, sutnnier, or autumn flowers may be planted on any of the principles that have
heen mentioned.

6125. The changeable flower-garden. The essential principle of this garden consists in the power of
changing its productions at pleasure, so that whenever any plant, or group of plants, begin to decay, they
can be removed and their places supplied by others coming into bloom. To admit of this a large reserve-
nursery is requisite, in which the plants must be kept in pots, and removed and plunged in the borders as
wanted. The Chinese, Sir W. Chambers informs us {Dissert, on Orient. Gard. 96.), excel in this mode of
gardening ; and we have been informed by a traveller who has resided some time at Canton, that he has
known a mandarin (or noble) have the whole furniture and style of his parterre changed in a single
night, so as next morning to present not only a different description of flowers, shrubs, and dwarf trees,
but a different arrangement of the beds and compartments. Something of the same kind is practised in
the gardens of the Tuilleries in Paris ; in some of the Imperial gardens at Petersburg, and in the vice-
royal gardens at Monza. Gardens of this description admit of a very perfect arrangement of the flowers,
whether in the mingled manner, in select groups, or according to the natural method. It is only with
such resources that a flower-gardener can " paint his way," as Sir W. Chambers says the Chinese artists
do, " not scattering their flowers indiscriminately about their borders, but disposing of them with great
circumspection along the skirts of the plantations, or other places where flowers are to be introduced.
They reject all that are of a straggling growth, of harsh colors, and poor foliage, choosing only such as
are of some duration, grow either large or in clusters, are of beautiful forms, well leaved, and" of tints
that harmonise with the greens that surround them. They avoid all sudden transitions, both with regard
to dimension and color, rising gradually from the smallest flowers to the hollyhocks, paeonies, sun-flowers,
carnation-poppies, and others of the boldest growth ; and varying their tints, by easy gradations, from
white, straw-color, purple, and incarnate, to the deepest blues, and most brilliant crimsons and scarlets.
They frequently blend several roots together, whose leaves and flowers unite, and compose one rich har-
monious mass ; such as the white and purple candytuft, larkspurs, and mallows of various colors, double
poppies, lupins, primroses, pinks, and carnations ; with many more of which the forms and colors accord
with each other; and the same method they use with flowering shrubs, blending white, red, and varie- ,
gated roses together, purple and white lilacs, yellow and white jessamine, altheas of various sorts, and
as many others as they can with any propriety unite. By these mixtures they increase considerably the
variety and beauty of their compositions. In their large plantations the flowers generally grow in the
natural ground ; but in flower-gardens, and all other parts that are highly kept, they are in pots, buried
in the ground, which, as fast as the bloom goes off", are removed, and others are brought to supply their
places ; so that there is a constant succession for almost every month in the year ; and the flowers are
never seen but in the height of their beauty." (Dw. on Orient. Gard. 06.)

6126. The botanic Jlower-garden being intended to display something of the extent and
variety*of the vegetable kingdom, as well as its resemblances and differences, should
obviously be arranged according to some system or method of study. In modern times,
the choice is almost limited to the artificial system of Linnaeus, and the natural method
of Jussieu, though Adanson has given above fifty-six different methods by which plants
may be arranged. {Fam. des Plants.) The latter has much the best effect in a garden,
and corresponds better with culture. The former, though most convenient for the young
student, yet by bringing plants together that have few or no obvious relations, it destroys
that harmony which is so gratifying in viewing natural families. Whatever method is
adopted, the plants may either be placed in regular rows, or each order may be grouped
apart, and surrounded by turf or gravel. For a private botanic garden, the mode of
grouping on turf is much the most elegant, and it has this advantage, that as the species
belonging to the group are increased, it can be enlarged by appropriating a part of the
turf, and any group containing few species may be filled up with repetitions for effect.
The groups may be of the most irregular outlines, and those which are to contain treea
may be raised or lowered in surface, according as the species may be natives of hills or

Book II.

PLANTING THE FLOWER-GARDEN.

801

valleys, and the trees and plants so dispersed as that the former shall not conceal the latter,
nor present a compact lumpish appearance at the edges, or in the outline against the sky.
Ilock-work may be introduced in groups where there are many alpines to be grown ;
and bogs, ponds, and springs imitated in odiers destined for aquatics, &c. as far as
consistent with botanical purposes. A gravel-walk may be so contrived as to form a tour
of all the groups {Jig. 553.), displaying them on both sides ; in the centre, or in any
fitting part of the scene, the botanic hot-houses may be placed j and the whole might be

surrounded with a sloping phalanx of evergreen plants, shrubs, and trees. The plants in
such a garden should generally be neatly, but inconspicuously named, or, at all events,
numbered ; but naming is greatly to be preferred, as saving trouble to the spectator, and
more mviting to the novice desirous of knowledge. It is hardlv necessary to observe that
tlie above modes, or others that we have mentioned, of planting a flower-garden, are alike
applicable to every form or style of laving out the garden or parterre, and that they do
not interfere with any mode of enclosing or surrounding it, or of edging the walks.
6127. J)ccorations. It is usual to employ different objects of art as decorations to
flower-gardens, and the practice is founded in reason, since
the works of nature and of art lend force to each other by
their contrast. We have, in a former part (1805. to 1846.),
enumerated the principal garden-decorations. Those more
especially applicable to the flower-garden are the fountain
in various forms ; the open and
covered, or rustic seat (Ji^. 555. ) ;
the statue (Jig. 554. ) in all its va-
rieties of therm, bust, single figure
and group, and in the various
materials of stone, metal, or ver-
dure ; the arbor, and a variety of
others. Even the apiary and ^
aviary, or, at least, here and there cj^^^sf^
a beehive, or a cage suspended ^

3 F

802

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

-^^

from a tree, will form very appropriate ornaments. Sometimes inoffensive birds, as the sea-
gull, may be introduced to run at large ; gold-fish are very appropriate in the aquarium ; and
an animal which affords great amusement by its cry and song in the flower-gardens of the
south of Germany, the tree-frog {Rana arborea), would be an acquisition in this country.
In some families there is a taste for minerals or antiquities ; and here, besides larger spe-
cimens distributed in the garden, a building
^.fiS' ^56. ) may be introduced, combining a
mineral cabinet (a), an aviary [b), and the
botanic hot-houses (c).

61£8. Where the old French style {figs. 545. 550.) is
imitated, a profusion of marble and vegetable sculp-
tures, verdant arcades, colonnades, arbors, &c. are in
character ; but in the more simple and modern forms
{,figs. 540, 541. 543..) a few stools, sofa-chairs, a pavilion-
seat {Jig. 338.), a sun-dial, fountain, some urns, and a
few good statues, will, in most cases, be sufficient. In
the distribution of even these few decorations much
judgment is requisite to avoid exciting ridicule by fall- '
ing into the vapid, the flippant, or some other species of
deformity. (See Schitnmelpenninck on Beauty, &c.)

6129. Time of jilanting herbaceous plants.
This is, in general, autumn and spring ; but
any perennial plant may be safely removed after it has done flowering or produced seed.
With respect to biennials and annuals, they may be planted at almost any season before
they have begun to throw up flower-stems. Biennials, however, are generally sown early
in autumn in the flower-garden nursery, and transplanted either late in the same season
or early in the following spring, to where they are to flower. Annuals are commonly
sown in spring, where they are finally to remain. The culture of herbaceous flowers of
the more valued sorts is exceedingly varied, and will be found under each species or class
in the Flower-garden Catalogue. For the preparation of the soil and the manner of per-
forming the operation, see these articles in (Chap. IV.) Planting the Shrubbery.

Chaf. III.

Of Forming the Shrubbery.

6130. By a shrubbery, or shrub-garden, we understand a scene for the display of shrubs
valued for their beauty or fragrance, combining such trees as are considered chiefly orna-
mental, and some herbaceous flowers. The form or plan of the modern shrubbery is ge-
nerally a winding border, or strip of irregular width, accompanied by a walk, near to
which it commences with the herbaceous plants and lowest shruljs, and as it falls back,
the shrubs rise in gradation and terminate in the ornamental trees, also similarly gradu-
ated. Sometimes a border of shrubbery accompanies the walk on both sides ; at other
times only on one side, while the other side is, in some cases, a border for culinary vege-
tables surrounding the kitchen-garden, but most generally it is an accompanying breadth
of turf, varied by occasional groups of trees and plants, or decorations, and with the bor-
der, forms what is called pleasure-ground.

6131. The sort of shrubbery formed under the geometric style of gardening {fig. 557.) was more compact ;
it was called a bosque, thicket or wood, and contained various compartments of turf or gravel branching
from the walks, and very generally a labyrinth. The species of shrubs in those times being very limited,
the object was more walks for recreation, shelter, shade, and verdure, than a display of flowering shrubs.
What was wanting in natural beauty and variety, however, was made up by the art of the gardener in
cutting such trees and shrubs as he had, into curious shapes. Shrubberies are often made for the sake of
obtaining an agreeable walk to some particular place or scene, as the kitchen-garden, farm, wood, &c. ;
and sometimes in order to lead the spectator to different points, where views or distant prospects may be
obtained. The most desirable shrubbery is one where both these objects are combined ; and the least so,
where the walk leads to no particular object, is shut up on both sides, and has no beauties to depend on but
those of the shrubs. Hence Sir W. Chambers complains of walks en cul de sac, and Knight of " the shrub-
bery's insipid scenes," &c. {Tr. on Country Res. i. 352.) The shrubbery, however, judiciously laid out and
planted, will always be a scene of considerable beauty and use about a country-seat. It is one of the princi-
pal resources for a'home-walk for exercise ; and as Repton has observed, a tolerable walk, even round one's
own field, is more interesting than a better one where we have no interest. " We are greatly indebted to
shrubs," Nicol observes, " for much of the pleasure and delight we enjoy in our gardens. Though they
produce no eatable fruits, nor afford us any sort of nourishment, yet they are particularly conducive to our
comfort. In winter, they shelter us in our walks ; in summer, they shade us from the sun. They aflbrd
a great variety of flowers, a varied foliage, and are standard ornaments that give us no great trouble. They
are particularly useful in the character of screens, whether against the weather, or to hide disagreeable ob-
jects, in which case they may be planted nearer to the house than forest-trees. When planted in masses
at a distance, they become agreeable objects, and often improve the scenery of a place. The .shrubbery is
often a matter of utility as well as of ornament, in which case it gives the highest satisfaction. When
formed for the purposes of shutting out the offices or the kitchen-garden from the view of the house ; for
sheltering the latter or the garden, or for connecting the house with the garden and the orchard, the
shrubbery becomes useful and interesting."

6132. In reject to situation, it is essential that" the shrubbery should commence either

Book II. FORMING THE SHRUBBERY. SOS

immediately at the house, or be joined to it by the flower-garden ; a secondary requisite
is, that however far, or in whatever direction it be continued, the walk be so contrived as
to prevent the necessity of going to and returning from the principal points to which it
leads over the same ground : but as this is a matter which must be aiTanged in the general
disposition or laying out of the residence, it need not be here entered on.

6133. The extent of the modern shrubbery must depend more on the extent of that place
of which it is a part than on any otlaer principle, and it is, or ought to be, so blended with
the flower-garden lawn, as scarcely to admit of its quantity being estimated apart. Where
the proportion of pleasure-ground, which may be judiciously apportioned to a residence,
depends so much on the ground's surface, and on tiie character or style of the whole seat,
notliing definite can be laid down in the way of rules. The walks in the pleasure-ground
should generally exceed a mile or two for the sake of recreation ; but what proportion of
these should be in open lawn, and what in flower-garden, or along the margin of a shrub-
bery, is too vague a question to receive any useful answer. Local circumstances and the
character to be created must determine every thing. It may be mentioned as a charac-
teristic distinction between the ancient and modem shrubbery, that the former was
of limited extent, compact form, situated near tlie house, and that the length of walk was '
made up by repetition of parallel and cross walks. The whole of these had little distant
prospect, and were generally more sheltered and shaded than is suitable for our climate ;
whereas, in the modern shrubbery, the length is made up by stretching out the walk to a
distance ; and air and ventilation, as well as views and prospects, are obtained by its being
planted chiefly on one side. Such shelter and shade as is deemed requisite for the walk
is obtained by the introduction of scattered trees along its open margin.

6134. SoiL " Shrubs, in general," Nicol obser\-es, "thrive very well in ordinary
garden-land, and better in light than in heavy soils. Most shrubs, likewise, do well in
ground a foot in depth ; but it is always advisable to trench to the full depth of the soil,
previous to planting, if that were even two feet. Manure is seldom bestowed on shrubs, and
if the soil be not far below mediocrity, it is seldom necessary, provided the ground be
otherwise well prepared, and be meliorated by trenching or digging. In the case of plant-
ing screens, where it is desirable to have them effectual as soon as possible, or in planting
favorite shrubs in particular situations, every justice should be done to the soil in prepar-
ing and enriching it, either with manure or by the addition of fresh earth. Those who
are curious in collections of certain shrubs, prepare or choose certain soils for them.
Evergreens, for the most part, thrive well in loam of a middling texture ; but some kinds
do better in mossy humid earth, as the azalea and rhododendron. Deciduous shrubs, in
general, thrive well in light loams or sandy soils j but certain kinds flower better in rich-
mellow earth, as the moss-rose and the robinia."

6135. jralks. " Tlie conducting of walks," Nicol says, " through the shrubbery, is
a matter both of convem'ency and of taste : of conveniency, when the shrubbery is merely
a passage from one place to another, or a narrow screen to tlie garden. In tlie former
case, the walk should be simple and direct : in the latter case it may be circuitous ; and
if there be any variety in the ground, it ought to lead to particular points of view. The
walks, however, should seldom cross one another ; they should rather take off" at oblique
angles ; nor should one run parallel to another within view. It is proper to show off" the
shrubs, but too many walks perplex. TTieir breadtlis may be various. If short, they
should be narrow ; if long, and if a considerable reach be caught at once, they should
be broad. A medium may be taken at five feet, the extremes being three and eight.
'ITiey may be of turf or of gravel ; but tlie latter is always most wholesome, and most
agreeable in winter." In the ancient style, where the shrubbery, or umbrageous scene
(Jig. 537. a), often enclosed the flower-garden (b), both being situated in front of the
house (c), the walks (d) were laid out in arbitrary geometrical shapes, crowded and nu-
merous, to afford sufficient space for recreation, and varied by niches (e), boudoirs (y),
salons !^g), and other open parts to give variety.

6136. Fence. Local circumstances must, in almost every case, determine the sort of
exterior or boundary-fence most proper for tlie shrubbery or pleasure-ground ; the inte-
rior, or that on the open side, should, in almost every case, be one of tlie inconspicuous
kind ; either light iron-railings, moveable hurdles of wood or iron, or the sunk-fence.
Where the shrubbery is not a boundary plantation, a light fence may include it on both
sides ; but so much depends on locality and other arrangements, that the subject cannot
be profitably discussed separately from that of laying out the entire residence. Under
the geometric style, the business of fencing the shrubbery or woody scene, was very sim-
ple, the whole being generally surrounded by a high wall. « Fences of all kinds,"
Abercrombie observes, " are rather necessary and useful as instruments of shelter and
security tlian to be chosen as materials of ornament. Whether the view terminates on
the fence, or is directed beyond it, the effect on the scene, at best, is negative : thus, a
fence is sometimes made higher than its proper use requires, merely to shut out something
more unsightly ; and, in judiciously employing that capital invention, the sunk-fence or

3F 2

804

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

ha-ha, the advantage, though great, is purely negative ; some prospect worth retaining at
considerable cost is not obstructed."

6137. Reserve-ground for the shrtibbery. A plot of ground should be set apart for the propagation and
culture of the more tender shrubs, to supply deaths or accidents in the front of the shrub-border. This
reserve-nursery will be most conveniently situated when joined to that of the flower-garden ; but it may
also be taken from the interior of any wide part of the plantation where it will not be seen. Here roses,
mezereons, American shrubs, honeysuckles, and a variety of the more ornamental and tender sorts should
always be in readiness, partly in pots and partly in nursery lines, to remove to the principal scene, either
to add to its usual beauty, or to compensate for accidental defects. To the same ground may be added a
space for accumulating leaves, spray, and other refuse of the shrubbery, to ferment and produce manure
for the nursery in the same way as is done in the compost-grounds of the kitchen and flower garden.

Chap. IV.

Of Planting the Shrubbery.

/ 6138. On jflanting the shrubbert/ the same general remarks, submitted as introductory

/ to planting the Jlower-garden, are applicable ; and shrubs may be arranged in as many
/ different manners as flowers. Trees, however, are permanent and conspicuous objects,

I and consequently produce an effect during winter, when tlie greater number of herba-

\ ceous plants are scarcely visible. This is more especially the case with that class called

I evergreens, which, according as tliey are employed or omitted, produce the greatest dif-

/ ' ference in the winter aspect of the shrubbery. We shall here describe four leading
/ modes for the arrangement of the shrubbery, distinguishing them by the names of the

/ mingled or common, the select or grouped manner, and the systematic or methodical style

/ of planting. Before proceeding farther it is requisite to observe, that the proportion of

evergreen trees to deciduous trees in cultivation in this country, is as 1 to 12 ; of ever-
green shrubs to deciduous shrubs, exclusive of climbers and creepers but including roses,
as 4 to 8 ; that the time of the flowering of trees and shrubs is from March to August
inclusive, and that the colors of the flowers are the same as in herbaceous plants. These
data will serve as guides for the selection of species and varieties for the different modes
of arrangement, but more especially for the mingled manner.

6139. To dispose shrubs artd trees in the mingled manner, proceed as under. The width of the space to
be covered with trees, shrubs, and flowers being given, first mark it out in rows lengthways. The first

Book IL PLANTING THE SHRUBBERY. 805

row may be two feet from the margin of the turf or the edge of the walk ; the second, three feet from
the first ; the third, four feet from the second ; and so on to the back of the plantation. Suppose the
width to admit of ten rows {Jig. 558. a to k), then the six rows next the walk will occupy a space of twenty.
seven feet, which may be devoted to shrubs, and the remaining three rows will occupy a space of thirty-
seven feet, and may be planted with trees. Then beginning with the first row, which is destined for the
lowest class of shrubs, arrange them according to the times of their flowering, which will, as in arranging
herbaceous plants, be most conveniently done at six times: viz. 1, March ; 2, April, &c. to 6, August;
and they will stand as in the flower-border in the order of 1, 6, 3, 5, 2, 4, and with the colors in the same
manner (a). The second row (6) is to be arranged in the same manner ; and as trees, though nearly of
the same size when planted, yet attain finally very different degrees of bulk, provision must be made for
the plants in each row to expand year after year, till they attain their full growth. This we propose to
do by planting two plants of a sort in the second row (6), three in the third, and so on (as indicated in the
figure), till in the last or tenth row (A), there will be ten plants of a sort in a line together. It is to be
observed, that a deciduous and an evergreen sort (marked d, e, in the figure) are to be planted alternately,
in order to ensure an equal mixture in respect to verdure ; and that the colors (denoted by r, tv, b, y, in
the figure) are mixed as in the mingled border, to ensure a general display of mixed blossoms. The se-
cond or third year such of the plants are to be thinned cut as crowd the others, reserving, however, as
final plants, one of each sort, (say E for the evergreens, and D for the deciduous sorts), so placed in re-
spect to the plants in the other rows, as that the whole, when finally thinned out, may stand in quincunx.
The largest trees will tlien occupy about 100 square feet each ; and each of the shrubs in the front row
about a square yard : there will be the same number of deciduous plants as evergreens ; some shrubs of
all tlie four colors in blow throughout the whole season, and a verdant aspect in summer as well as winter.

558

k. . tvle rvU rvle nle rvU nU nrle nrle wle nrle b6db6db6dli6db6db6db6db6db6db6dv5ey3*-

E D E

^ hot b3t bZt bSe boe bSt bSi yM y5d y5d yid yM yid t/bd ybd ra? r2« r2< r2e r2< r2e

K mid tv2d n'id mid mid ni'id w2d b4e bit bie Me bit Me Mt i/ld yld yld y\d yld

He rie rie rie rie rie mid rvld mid wld tvld rvld b6e b6e b6e b6t I6e b6e ySd yZd yZd ySd

1^ bSd b3d b3d b3d y5e y5e y5t y5t ybe r^T%Ir2drUT^m4trvi*tv4etv4etvU
D E D E

* l....l...,l

' m^ ">le tvU »1« b6d b6d b6d b6d yZe yZe yZe yZe rbd r5d r5d rSd rvZe wit wit tv2* bid bid

r \

* '■5<i rbd rbd tvZe nZe m2e bid bid Md yU y\e yU r6d r6d r€d tv3e tv5e tv3e b5^ b&d

D E D E D ED

f 1....1....1

* Me Me yld yld r6t r6e iv3d iv3d b5e b5t y2d y2d rie rie mid mid b6e b6e ySd y3d rbe r5«

ED E D E D E D EDE

« rU nf6« bSd y5t r2d rvie bid «6e rSd mSe bZd u4e rid tv6e h3d ySe r9d Tc4e bid v6« rM

D ED ED ED ED ED^D ED^D EDTED
0 1

3 F 3

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6140. The distance between the rows qf trees (ten feet) may in some cases be an objection, for a year or
two at first; but this, we consider, will oe more than counterbalanced by the opportunity afforded of cul-
tivating the ground between them, and by the air and light admitted to their side shoots, which will the
sooner fit them for producing blossoms. All formality of appearance will soon be done away by the irre-
gular growth of the plants, and by the thinnings which must take place in, at the latest, three years after
planting. If any, however, object to the appearance of rows, they may be obliterated, by introducing
some plants in the intervals of the same sort as those in the lines adjoining ; but in doing this, care must
be taken never to lose sight of the shrub or tree which is finally to remain, as it is of importance to this
plan, (which is not natural or picturesque planting), that the regular disposition of the whole be preserved,
as well with a view to the gradation of height as to the mixture of color in the flower, and of permanent
and deciduous foliage. The herbaceous plants only remain to be added. These are to be inserted one
row in front of the first row of shrubs (o), and three or more rows {p, q, r, s) in the intervening spaces
between the next rows. The plants are to form a quincunx with the shrubs ; and the same arrangement
as to height, color, and time of flowering, adopted as in the mingled border. Such a shrubbery may be
commenced with (2 X 6) twelve sorts of evergreen, and the same number of deciduous trees ; with (6 x 6)
thirty-six sorts of shrubs, half the number deciduous, and half evergreen ; and with (5 x 6) thirty sorts of
herbaceous plants. It may then be continued either by repeating the pattern with the same sorts, or by
other sorts ; or principally by the same sorts, with some others occasionally. If a show of flowers is
valued, the sorts employed must be comparatively few, as the flowers of the greater number of trees and
shrubs are of dull colors, or little conspicuous. The evergreen trees, in a popular sense, can hardly be said
to have any flower ; but still a number of them must be introduced in the back rows, to blend with horse-
chestnuts, limes, acacias, wild cherries, wild pears, &c. &c.

6141. The select or grouped manner of planting a shrubbery {Jig. 559.) is analogous to
the select manner of planting a flower-garden. Here one genus, species, or even variety,
is planted by itself in considerable numbers, so as to produce a powerful effect. Thus
the pine tribe, as trees^ may be alone planted in one part of the shrubbery, and the holly,
in its numerous varieties, as shrubs. After an extent of several yards, or hundreds of
yards, have been occupied with these two genera, a third and fourth, say the evergreen
fir tribe and the yew, may succeed, being gradually blended with them, and so on. A
similar grouping is observed in the herbaceous plants inserted in the front of the plant-
ation ; and the arrangement of the whole as to height, is the same as in the mingled
shrubbery.

6142. The chief difficulty in this manner of planting is so to select the sorts that are
to succeed each other, so to blend one group or kind with those adjoining, and at the
same time maintaining the requisite gradation from the front to the back of the plant-
ation, as to preserve to the spectator in walking along, the appearance of a lohole. When
this is successfully accomplished, and on a large scale, no kind of shrubbery can be more
beautiful in summer ; but in winter it will present parts wholly without evergreens, and
it will only be rich in flowers in some parts ; as for example, where the roses, spireae,
mespileae, &c. are introduced. By proper contrivance, however, the evergreens, the
showy flowering deciduous kinds, and the less showy deciduous sorts may form three
divisions, and the two former can be kept nearest the mansion. The best guides as to
the sorts proper to adjoin each other, are the general fonn and mode of growth ; and
next, the color and foliation. In these particulars the transition should always be gra-
dual. Thus, among the trees, the pines, cedars, firs, and yew, form a regular gradation,
and the shrubs which may be placed near them are the arbor vitae, juniper, whin, &c.
To place groups of weeping-willow or elm adjoining the pines, and to select roses and
lilacs a.s shrubs, would produce a harsh and incongruous effect. There is obviously
much less natural affinity between herbaceous plants and shrubs than between shrubs
and trees ; but the groups of the herbaceous plants must harmonise among themselves on
the same general principles as the trees ; thus pink-looking plants (car7/ophi/Ue<e), should
not be succeeded by coarse broad-leaved sorts (boraginece) , but rather by more delicate
kinds, as grasses or primulas, &c. There may sometimes also be a certain species of
relation between the herbaceous plants and shrubs ; thus the bulbous-rooted kinds, and
small early flowers, as violets, primula;, will be more fitly planted among evergreens and
early-flowering deciduous shrubs than among late deciduous kinds.

Book II.

PLANTING THE SHRUBBERY.

807

6143. Various other modes qf select-planting shrubberies may be adopted ; such as collecting together all
such shrubs, trees, and flowers as flower at the same time, or have the same color of flower, or foliage, or
the same odors, or the same general shape, or the same natural habitation, as of marshes, mountains, &c.,
or the same gauntry, as America, Switzerland, Sweden, &c. But the intelligent gardener who has
attended to what has been already advancetl, can hardly require farther instructions to form such plant-
ations. We would suggest, as worth trial, where there was ample space, the mode of arranging by odors ;
the ancienU are said to have paid particular attention to this in mixing their trees. {Falconer, &c. and

37.) Every one must have experienced a difference in this respect between walking in a pine-forest,
a plantation of balsam-poplars, a birch-copse, and beside sweet-briar and juniper hedges. An arrangement
of this kind, depending on the smell of the buds and leaves, rather than of the flower, would have its

jlantation of balsam-poplars, a birch-copse, and beside sweet-briar and juniper hedges. An arrangement
this kind, depending on the smell of the buds and lea\
effect the greater part of the year, especially after showers

6144. Systematic or methodical planting in shrubberies consists, as in flower -planting,
in adopting the Linnaean or Jussieuean arrangement as a foundation, and combining at
the same time a due attention to gradation of heights. This mode, executed on a grand
scale, would unquestionably be the most interesting of all, even to general observers ;
but on a small scale it could not be so universally pleasing as the mingled manner, or
the mode by select grouping. The uninstructed mind might be surprised and puzzled
by such an assemblage ; but not perceiving the relations which constitute its excellence,
they would be less pleased than by a profusion of ordinary beauties ; by a great show of
gay flowers and foliage. Dr. Darwin is said to have blended picturesque beauty with
scientific arrangement in a dingle at Litchfield, where he disposed of a large collection of
trees and plants in the Linnaean manner. The same thing may be attempted on any de-
scription of surface, and with any form of ground-plan, provided turf be introduced, and
care be taken to elongate tlie groups containing trees in such a way as to preserve a suf-
ficient degree of woodiness throughout, both for shelter, shade, and picturesque effect.
In this way we have arranged a spot {Jig' 560.) of little more than an acre and a half.

so as to ordinary observers, to be nothing more than a house surrounded by pleasure-
ground, but to the botanist and painter, to be a scientific and picturesque scene. This
sjxjt combines a villa and offices (a), a kitchen-garden {b), reserve-garden and melon-
ground (c), botanic ground for herbaceous plants (t/), rock-work (e), rosarium {f\
aquarium ( g), American ground {h) ; besides a variety of other subordinate scenes, a
scattered orchard (i), and the shrubberj' (k], arranged in irregular, elongated groups on
lawn, in the manner mentioned. But much the most interesting mode of arrangement
would be that of Jussieu, by which a small villa of two or three acres might be raised,
as far as gardening is concerned, to the ne plus ultra of interest and beauty. To aid in
the formation of such scenes the table^j (588, 589.) exhibiting the genera contained in
each Linnaean or Jussieuean order, and also the number of species distributed according
to their places in the garden, will be found of the greatest use.

6145. Chijiese arrangement. It is only since the great influx of trees and shrubs from
America, during the latter half of the last century, that the idea of arranging shrubs
found a place in the writings on gardening. Sir W. Chambers seems to have been the
first who suggested it in his account (whether correct or not, is of little consequence to
our present purpose), of the practi9e of the Chinese gardeners. The Chinese, he says,

3 F 4

808 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

in their plantations, do not, as is the practice of some European gardeners, plant indis-
criminately every thing that comes in their way ; nor do they ignorantly imagine, that
the whole perfection of plantations consists in the variety of the trees and shrubs of which
they are composed : on the contrary, their practice is guided by many rules founded on
reason and long observation, from which they seldom or never deviate. Many trees,
shrubs, and flowers, they say, thrive best in low moist situations ; many on hills and
mountains : some require a rich soil ; but others will grow on clay, in sand, or even
upon rocks ; and in the water : to some a sunny exposition is necessary ; but for others,
the shade is preferable. There are plants which thrive best in exposed situations ; but,
in general, shelter is requisite. The skilful gardener, to whom study and experience
have taught these qualities, carefully attends to them in his operations ; knowing that
thereon depend the health and growth of his plants j and, consequently, the beauty of his
plantations.

6146. The perfection of trees for ornamental gardening consists in their size, in the beauty and variety
of their forms, the color and smoothness of their bark, the quantity, shape, and rich verdure of their
foliage, with its early appearance in the spring, and long duration in the autumn ; likewise in the quick-
ness of their growth, and their hardiness to endure the extremities of heat, cold, drought, or moisture;
in their making no litter, during the sjiring or summer, by the fall of the blossom ; and in the strength of
their branches, to resist, unhurt, the violence of tempests.

6147. Tlie jyerfection of stirubs consists not only in most of the above-mentioned particulars, but also in
tlie beauty, durability, or long succession of their blossom ; and in their fair appearance before the
bloom, and after it is gone. We are sensible, say they, that no plant is possessed of all good qualities ;
but choose sucii as have the fewest faults ; and avoid all the exotics tiiat vegetate with difficulty in our
climate ; for tUougli they may be rare, they cannot be beautiful, being always in a sickly state.

6148. The excessive variety of which some European gardeners are so fond in their plantations, the
Chinese artists blame ; observing, that a great diversity of colors, foliage, and direction of branches, must
create confusion, and destroy all the masses upon which effect and grandeur depend : they observe too,
that it is unnatural ; for, as in nature most plants sow their, own seeds, whole forests are generally com-
posed of the same sort of trees. They admit, however, of a moderate variety ; but are by no means pro-
mi.«cuous in the choice of their plants ; attending, with great care, to the color, form, and foliage of each ;
and only mixing together such as harmonise and assemble agreeably. They observe, tliat some trees are
only proper for thickets ; others, only 6t to be employed singly : and others, equally adapted to both these
situatiotis. The mountain cedar, the spruce and silver firs and all others whose branches have a hori-
zontal direction, they hold improper for thickets : because they indent into each other ; and likewise cut
disagreeably upon the plants which back them. They never mix these horizontal-branched trees with the
cypress, the oriental arbor vitse, the bamboo, or other upright ones ; nor with the larch, the weeping
willow, the birch, the laburnum, or any of a pendent nature ; observing, that the intersection of tneir
branches forms a very unpicturesque kind of network ; neither do they employ together the catalpa and
the acacia, the yew and the willow, the plane and the sumach, nor any of such heterogeneous sorts^ but,
on the contrary, they assemble in their large woods, the oak, the elm, the beech, the tupelo, the sycamore,
maple, and plane, the chestnut, the walnut, the arbele, the lime, and all those whose luxuriant foliage
hides the direction of their branches ; and growing in globular masses, assemble well together; forming,
by the harmonious combination of their tints, one grand group of rich verdure.

6149. In their s?naller plantations, they employ trees of a smaller growth, but of the same concordant
sorts ; bordering them with Persian lilacs, guelder-roses, syringas, coronillas of various sorts, flowering
raspberries, yellow jessamine, hypericum, the spireea frutex, altheas, roses, and other flowering shrubs
peculiar to China : and wherever the ground is bare, they cover it with white, blue, purple, and variegated
periwinkle, the convolvulus minor, dwarf stocks, violets, primroses, and different kinds of creeping flowers j
and with strawberries, tutsan, and ivy which climbs up and covers the stems of the trees.

6150. In their shrubberies they follow, as much as possible, the same rules ; observing farther, to plant in
some of them all such shrubs as flourish at onetime ; and in some, such as succeed each other : of which
different methods the first is much the most brilliant ; but its duration is short ; and the appearance of
the shrubbery is generally shabby, as soon as the bloom is off: they therefore seldom use it, but for scenes
that are to be enjoyed at certain periods ; preferring the last, on other occasions, as being of long duration,
and less unpleasing after the flowers are gone. {Dissert, on Orient. Gard.)

6151. British practice. Soon after Sir William Chambers's work appeared that of
Wheatley, which contains some excellent remarks on the subject {Obs. on Gard. sect.xii.
xiii. xiv.), and subsequently Uvedale Price's excellent .£Jssa^s on the Picturesque, vol. i.
In 1804 we endeavored to enforce the principle, not only in planting trees, but in
arranging herbaceous plants, and the plants in botanic hot-houses. (06s. on Planting and
Landscape Gard. 8vo.) All these efforts were at first treated as visionary by Marshal,
Nicol, and other planters and gardeners. But Nicol, in the last editions of his works,
allows there may be some merit in grouping ; and Sang, his editor, highly approves of
following nature in the arrangement of trees. {Planter s Xalend.)

6152. Nicol says, " the proper disposition of shrubs, where many are to be planted, is a matter of con-
siderable importance to the future welfare of the whole, and that whether they be mixed, or be grouped ;
that is to say, whether deciduous or evergreen shrubs be indiscriminately mixed, as is often done, or the
evergreens be planted distinctly by themselves. The arrangement of shrubs is a matter, no doubt, very
much of fancy. In some parts they may be mixed ; in others grouped ; but, in general, there ought to be
plenty of evergreens planted, in order that the whole may be the more cheerful in winter. Generally
speaking, however, the method of mixing all kinds of shrubs indiscriminately, prevails too much in modern
shrubberies. Much more character and distinctness may be given, by judiciously grouping them, than by
following the common methods of planting."

■ 6153. Abercrombie, or rather his posthumous editor, seems undecided in his observations on this subject.
In one place he says, " in the distribution of plants over grounds dedicated to elegance, there are two rival
systems, each of which has its practical followers and theoretical vindicators. One proposes the indiscri-
minate mixture of many different species ; the other deliberately groups those only which have some
marks of affinity. It is still a question, which order of planting is countenanced by the practice of nature
in self-sown vegetables ; and which will confer on a garden the stronger claims to character and beauty ?"
He elsewhere observes, that " the different natures of herbaceous flowers, shrubs, and trees stand in the
way of every attempt to govern their distribution or assemblage by a common principle." In planting
trees, however, he subjoins, " the principle of unity may be consulted, without losing sight of the advan-
tage of variety," &c. {Pr. Gard. Vll.)

Book II.

PLANTING THE SHRUBBERY.

809

6154. Fruit-trees in shrubberies. *' In shrubberies of considerable extent, fruit-trees
may be interspersed at fifteen or twenty yards' distance, by which means a good deal of
fruit may be obtained, and very much beauty added to the shrubbery. In spring the
blossoms of apples, cherries, and pears are beautiful ; in autumn their fruits and the
foliage of cherries in particular, give a lustre and variety that highly brightens the ap-
pearance of other plants, especially of evergreens." (Villa Gard. Direct. 16.) This
mode. Sir W. Chambers tells us, is practised, by the Chinese ivhen the patron is poor ;
that is, their shrubbery is composed of fruit-trees, and shrubs, and forms a sort
of ornamental orchard. This we consider an advisable mode for an economical farm-
residence ; but the general introduction of fruit-trees, in even mingled shrubberies, un-
less of the species in their wild state, as crabs, wildings of pears, cherries, quinces, rasp-
berries, &c. we consider as likely to destroy the character of the scene. It must be
recollected too, that grafted trees, especially the apple and cherry, seldom grow so freely
and produce such vigorous and natural-like heads as plants raised from seed ; they are,
therefore, soon overtopped by the others, or where they are placed among trees tl»at do
not grow higher than themselves, they seldom fail of producing deformed stunted heads.

6155. Forsyth, Abercrombie, and others,
recommend their introduction, as it ap-
pears to us, without due regard to any
other object than the fruit they will pro-
duce, and the fugacious beauty of their
blossoms ; but their unaccommodating

form, and their influence as to character ^ ^- _—

in ornamental plantations, we consider -^^^ U lj^^ft*;^»^^W "V~"

as sufficient arguments against the prac- j^^^^^lk, jli y§'!^^p&-rz: —^^-''j^^
tice in general cases. ^^^^^^r^€^^!^i^^^^^ -'~~^' ==^^dJ

6156. Decorations in shrubberies. Those
of the shrubbery should in general be of
a more useful and imposing character
than such as are adopted in the flower-garden. The green-house and aviary are
sometimes introduced, but not, as we think, with propriety, owing to the unsuit-

-;--- ableness of the scene for

the requisite culture and
attention. Open and co-
vered seats are necessary,
or, at least, useful decor-
ations, and may occur here
and there in the course of
the walk, in various styles
of decoration, from the
rough bench to the rustic
hut {Jig. 561.) and Gre-
cian temple. (Jtg. 562.)
Great care, Tiowever, must
be taken not to crowd these
nor any other species of
decorations. Buildings be-
ing more conspicuous than
either statues, urns, or in-
and with greater caution. In

scriptions, require to be introduced more sparingly

garden or ornamented scenery tliey should seldom obtrude themselves by their mag-

^^^ some obvious purpose <tf

but

nitude or glaring color ; and rarely be erected
utility.

6157. Covered seats and shelters are intro-
duced of many forms, and under a great
variety of names, such as root-houses, heath-
houses, moss-houses, huts, shelters, (Jig. 563.)
bowers, caverns, caves, grottoes, temples,
mosques, &c. besides plain covered seats either
of wood or stone. The imitation of temples or
mosques, as they must be on a small scale, is
generally quite ridiculous. The propriety of
introducing the others depends entirely upon
the character of the scene. Light bowers formed of lattice-work, and covered with
climbers, are in general most suitable to parterres ; plain covered seats suit the general
walks of the shrubbery. Most of the others may be introduced in romantic, singular,
wild, or melancholy places.

eio

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

564

6158. Statues, whether of classical or geographical interest {figs. 564. and 565.), urns, in-
scriptions, busts, monuments, &c. are materials which should be introduced with caution.

None of the others require so much taste and judg-
ment to manage them with propriety. The introduc-
tion of statues, except among works of the most
artificial kind, such as fine architecture, is seldom or
, never allowable ; for when they obtrude themselves
'among natural beauties, they always disturb the train
of ideas which ought to be excited in the mind, and
generally counteract the character of the scenery. In
the same way, busts, urns, monuments, &c. in flower-
gardens, are most generally misplaced. The obvious i
intention of these appendages is to recall to mind the
virtues, qualities, or actions of those for whom they^

were erected : now this requires time, seclusion, and

undisturbed attention, which must either render all the flowers and other
decorations of the ornamental garden of no effect ; or, if they have effect, it can only be
to interrupt the train of ideas excited by the otlier. As the garden, and the productions
of nature, are what are intended to interest the spectator, it is plain that the others should
not be introduced. This reasoning, while on the one hand it shows the absurdity of such
a practice, on the other, directs that unis, monuments, &c. should only be placed in
solitary unfrequented places, where the mind is naturally led to contemplate, and where
the remembrance of the virtues of great men, or the worth of relations now no more,
afford proper subjects for contemplation. But even in places apparently solitary, or
secluded, these have been introduced in so affected or improper a manner, as to furnish
reason for the greatest caution in future. ( Tr. on Country Res. )

6159. A cottage, when the walk of a
shrubbery is of great extent, may some-
times be advantageously introduced in a
distant part of it, with an occupant, for
the purpose of keeping one apartment in
order as a place of repose. Such a cot-
tage {fig. 566.) may be designed in any
style, according to the taste of the owner,
and may serve a variety of useful pur- ^^~--
poses. In the gardens laid out under T „^
the direction of the Queen of Geo. Til.
at Frogmore, and in the walks of what!
are called the slopes at Windsor, are some !
good examples of rustic seats, and orna-
mented shrubbery cottages.

6160. On the subject of planting both

kSjC^^

fiower-gardens and shrubberies we may remark, with the author of the Florist* s Manual,
that it is considered in much too unimportant a light, both by gardeners and their em-
ployers. The business is almost every where performed^ at random, instead of being
conducted with a speci^c object in view. To remedy this evil, gardeners should first
make a correct plan of the border, parterre, or plot, of whatever kind it may be, tliat is
to be planted ; and then having determined the mode of arrangement most proper, and
selected the names of plants to effect it, from the proper catalogues, the situation of
every plant and its name should be determined on the plan. This done, all these points
should be correctly transferred to the ground, and a pin or stake inserted at each, num-
bered in correspondence with a list of the sorts. The plants being procured, should
then be distributed and planied according to these stakes and numbers ; and the stakes
sliould be allowed to remain for a year or two, to make certain as to the sort to be re-
placed there, in the case of death or accident. If ever this branch of gardening should
attain a high degree of perfection in Britain, it will probably be deemed as necessary to
call in a professor to direct the arrangement of flowers and shrubs in parterres and shrub-
beries, as it is now to require his aid in arranging the ground-plan.

II.

ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES.

Sll

Chap. V.

Of the Hot-houses used in Ornamental Horticulture.

6161. The hot-houses of Jloriculture are the frame, glass case, green-house, Granger)-,
conservatory, dry-stove, the bark or moist stove, in the flower-garden, or pleasure-ground ;
and the pit and hot-bed in the reserve-garden. In the construction of all of these' the
great object is, or ought to be, the admission of light and the power of applying artificial
heat with the least labor and expense. In culinary forcing-houses, it is requisite to at-
tend to the angle of the glass roof, so as to obtain most of the sun's influence at the time
the fruit witliin is to be ripened ; but in the hot-houses of the flower-garden or pleasure-
ground, the construction ought to be such as to admit as much light as possible in win-
ter ; for then in the stoves a heat is kept up by art, which is not to be found in any
natural climate connected with so little light as is then afforded in our latitude. Hence,
as a general principle it may be affirmed, tliat the roofs of all plant or botanic hot-
houses should be steep rather than flat, and, perhaps, the angle of 45° may be fixed on
as the fittest average. It was adopted by Miller, both in culinary and ornamental hot-
houses, and is fitter for general purposes than any other.

6162. The frame used in ornamental horticulture is generally of the same form as
those of tlie kitchen-garden. For alpine plants this form succeeds perfectly, but for
frame-shrubs, the ends and front should be deeper than usual, and glazed half their
depth, to admit the sun to the surface of the adjoining pots. Frames for the taller
bulbous-rooted flowers, should either be glazed in front and at both ends, or if opaque
in those parts, should be placed on a steep surface for the same general object. Frames
of every description should have a gutter or spout in front, to carry off the rain-water
which falls on the sashes.

6163. The glass case maybe variously constructed from detached sashes; it is used
to protect standard trees or shrubs, and sometimes to place against walls or espaliers,
(see/-. 326.)

6164. The green-house may be designed in any form, and placed in almost any situa-
tion as far as respects aspect. Even a house looking due north, if glazed on three sides
of the roof, will preserve plants in a healtliy vigorous state. A detached green-house,
even in the old style, may be rendered an agreeable object in a pleasure-ground, of
which, as an example, we may refer to one (Jig. 567.) erected by Todd, for

E. Liebenrood, Esq. near Reading ; but the curvilinear principle applied to this class
of structures, admits of every combination of form, and without militating against tlie ad-
mission of light and air. Though we are decidedly of opinion, however, that as iron roofs
on the curvilinear principle become known, the clumsy shed-like wooden or mixed,
roofs now in use will be erected only in nurserj' and market-gardens ; yet we are not
to be understood as exclusively recommending our own plans, and we, therefore, de-
scribe that of Todd, whose book contains a number of examples, erected in different
parts of tlie country, and in the best manner of the old style. " This house (fg. 567, )
has a span roof, and the centre lights, which are balanced by weights, made in imitation
of acorns, suspended from the ridge of the roof, are made to slide, to admit air from the
roof. The front and ends are ^-^^^^^^^ssb^^

formed with folding case- ^^s^^^^^^^^^^^^s^-^ ^oo

ments, hung so as to be
taken away at pleasure ; and
between each is a pilaster
of treillage-work. A cast-
iron column at each ex-
tremity of ttie upper part of
the roof, is placed for the
purpose of keeping it from
spreading, as such roofs ge-
nerally do, unless held to-
gether by a transverse tie.

which has a less pleasant appearance than a column. A

812 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. ' Paat III.

single fire beats this house ; the flue goes under the floor round the front and ends,
rises and continues above the floor along the back wall, and terminates in a chimney in
the centre. Over the stock-hole is placed a cistern, which is supplied from the roof, and
occasionally from a pump adjoining, with water, which is conveyed into the green-house
by a lead pipe." {Plans for Greeii-houses, &c. p. il.*

6165. The most^ suitable description of green-house or conservatory for the floxver-
gafden is that with span roof {Jig. 568.), because such a house has no visible
" hinder parts," back sheds, stock -holes, or other points of ugliness, witli which it is
difficult to avoid associating all the shed, or lean-to forms of glazed buildings
with back walls. Several elegant houses of this description have been erected by Messrs.
Bailey. An example occurs in the Regent's Park, at the villa of W. H. Cooper,
Esq. ; another at Walthamstowe, in the grounds of P. Kendal, Esq. ; and several more
are mentioned in the table already given (1587.), or are in course of erection.

6166. hi the interior of the green-house the principal object demanding attention is the
stage, or platform for the plants. In a double-roofed house, surrounded by a path, the
stage generally consists of shelves, rising from the path to the middle of the bouse {fig.
567. a and b) ; but in a house with a single roof {fig. 569.) it generally rises from the
front path to the back, and in both cases the slope of the
stage is generally the same or somewhat less than tlie slope
of the roof. In the green-houses destined for very large
or tall-growing plants, as camellias, and many of the New
Holland plants, no stage is requisite ; and in such as are
destined for small plants, as heaths and geraniums, the
first step of the stage, when there is a path between it and
the front glass, should be raised at least two feet and a
half high, and it may then be continued parallel to the H-
roof. The object of this arrangement is to bring the
plants near the glass, so as they may obtain the benefit of the light in a state as little de-
composed as possible. Flues in green-houses are frequently carried above ground,
which is inelegant and too much in the style of the common forcing-house. They may
in almost every case be conducted under the paths or stage, and by keeping them de-
tached so as air may circulate round them, as much heat will be given out as by the
common mode. In general one fire will be sufiicient to warm from 4000 to 5000 cubic
feet of air, of the temperature requisite for green-house. plants, (see 1662.) In some cases
trellis-rods are placed at regular distances under the roofs of green-houses, for the pur-
pose of training vines ; but this practice is incompatible with a high degree of culture
and beauty in the green-house plants, on account of the light it excludes ; besides, it
interferes with character. 1£ any creepers or climbers are to be trained under the roofs,
they should be of the ornamental kind ; but it is generally best to train them to
upright rods at the back part of the house, or rods forming intersecting arches over
the back paths, or against the back wall ; for by either of these modes they exclude less
light, better display their foliage and flowers, and less recal the idea of the forcing-
house.

6167. Abercrombie and Nicol give descriptions of green-houses, such as they approve ; the former is
rather indefinite in his remarks ; but the latter has given the best instructions that have yet appeared, as
far as respects the old forms and mode of treating and ventilating.

6168. According to Abercrombie, " The green-house maybe made a very ornamental object as a structure.
The front of the building should stand directly to the south, and the ends have an open aspect to the east
and west. The extent of the green-house may vary, according to the largeness of the collection to be cul-
tivated : when most contracted it should considerably exceed the breadth and height, in order to have
handsome proportions. As to the breadth, were it more than twenty feet, those plants most remote from
the windows would be troublesome to manage, as they must stand on very high stages to be reached by the
sun ; between twelve and twenty feet will be found the most commodious latitude. The front, including
a low parapet wall and a row of windows, or upright glasses, may be eight or ten feet high, measured from
'the interior floor. It will be proper to lay the floor at least twelve inches above the level of the ground,
and in damp situations two feet. The back is the only part at which an entire wall should be carried up
to the roof; the precise height of this wall depends upon that of the glass front and the breadth of the
house ; the proportions of these three must be so accommodated as to give the proper slope to the roof."
{Pract. Gard.)

6169. According to Nicol, " In the construction of green-houses, fancy may be indulged, and a greater
scope may be allowed to taste, than in the construction of forcing-houses. These are generally confined
to one object, the production of certain fruits in perfection ; which renders the observance of forms and
dimensions in their construction more necessary than in that of the green-house, where a variety of plants
of different habits are to be cultivated. Nevertheless, in order that these plants may generally thrive,
there are certain rules to be observed, and errors to be guarded against, which I shall briefly point out.
Green-houses with upright fronts, and with perpendicular lights only, whether the columns that separate
them be of wood or of masonry, are the most objectionable ; as the plants in such are always drawn up
weak, and are distorted by continually stretching towards the light. Neither do they enjoy the genial
effects of the sun, except in the winter months, when his rays, though feeble, strike horizontally on the
windows, and for a few hours in the middle of the day perhaps, shine on the low plants, and those placed
most forward. If such houses be very wide, they are the most objectionable on that account ; as, in that
case, the plants placed near to the back of the stage are never visited by the rays of the sun, and enjoy but
little light to what they may require. But such green-houses may be, and indeed have been, much im-
proved, by taking off their leaden or slated roofs, and by substituting roofs consisting of wooden framing
and glass, for the admission of sunshine and perpendicular light. But still they are so far defective, as
that, by their great height, the plants are much more drawn than they ought to be, or would be, in a

Book II.

ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES.

813

lower and better-constructed house. Houses that are open on the front only, although they have sloping
lights on the roof, are next to be objected to ; as the plants in such are necessarily more drawn and dis-
torted than if the ends were also glazed. If such be not placed among other buildings, so as that they can-
not be altered, thev might be very much improved by pulling down the close ends, and by substituting
glazed lights ; which, if they be of a moderate height, would render them next best to such houses as are
described belo%V."

6170. A complete green-house, being quite detached from other buildings, should be glazed on all sides. " It
may be a cii-cular, oval, hexagonal, octagonal ; or with two straight sides, and circular end.s which I
think the best form of any ; the next best, an octagon, whose sides are not equal, but with two opposite
longer sides, and six shorter sides ; three and three opposite, forming, as one might say, an angular oval ;
the ends being angular, instead of round. In either of these last-mentioned forms, the stages and plants
mav, at least in my mind, be more tastefully arranged, than in any other. Granting either of these
cases, the house should be about thirty-six or forty feet long, eighteen or twenty feet wide, and ten, or
at most twelve feet high, above a given level line for its floor. The i«rapet all round to be a foot or fifteen
inches high, and the upright glasses placed on it, four, or four and a half feet at most For it is of im-
portance, for the sake of the finer kinds of plants, and in order to have all kinds grow bushy, and flower
while young and small (in which state they are certainly most attractive and pleasing), to keep the roof-
glasses as low as possible ; just allowing suflicient head-room to the tallest person when walking in the
alleys. The furnace and stock-hole may be placed at either end, or at either side, as may be most con-
venient ; and they should be sunk under ground, and be concealed. The flue to be constructed, to run
parallel to, and be separated from the parapet by a three-inch cavity ; its surface being level with the top
of the parapet, and being crib-trellised for heaths. Botany Bay, and other rare plants. A walk thirty or
thirty-six inches broad, to be conducted all round next the' flue ; within which to be placed the stages
for the more common, and the taller plants ; being raised in the middle, and falling to either side and end ;
corresponding with the glasses, though of course not so steep. A row of columns should be placed in the
centre, in order to support the ridge of the roof; to which climbing plants might be trained in various
forms, and might be hung in festoons from column to column at top, or otherwise, as may be dictated by
fancy. The front of the stage all round should be raised about eighteen or twenty inches above the walk»
in order to raise the whole of the plants placed on it suificiently near to the glass ; thus forming the walk
into a deep alley ; the person walking in it having a narrow border of the finer and smaller plants on the
one hand, and a bank of the more common and larger kinds on the other ; than which, when the plants
are healthy and thriving, few scenes can be more pleasing. The aspect of such a house should be towards
the south ; that is to say, it should stretch from east to west, or as nearly so as circumstances will permit.
It may have an entrance on the south side, or one at either end, as shall be most convenient and suitable
to its connection with the walks of the shrubbery or parterre in which it is placed. If a green-house must
necessarily be attached to a wall or other building, it might be constructed very much as above ; with
this difference, having one of the ends, as it were, cut off; in which case, it should be placed with its cir-
cular end south, or towards that point, and the sides pointing east and west This I should consider as
the second best-constructetl green-house, and in which, excepting in the above-described house, the plants
would enjoy the fullest share of sun and light In either of these houses, and in plant hot-houses of every
description, a suflicient number of the upright and sloping sashes should be made moveable, for the ad.
mission and regular circulation of air in the better seasons of the year ; and ventilators should be
placed at regular distances all round, for the purpose of airing and ventilating them in the winter months,
or at times when it may not be safe to open the lights. Such a house as either of these, would form a
very complete receptacle for a handsome and pretty extensive collection." {Kal. and Villa Gard. Direct.)

6171. The orang^ery is the green-house of the last centurj-, the object of which was to
preserve large plants of exotic evergreens during winter, such as the orange tribe,
myrtles, sweet bays, pomegranates, and a few others. Geraniums, heaths, fuchsias, and
other delicate plants requiring much light, were then unknown. ITie orangerj' was
generally placed near to or adjoining the house, and its elevation corresponded in
architectural design with that of the mansion. From this last circumstance has arisen
a prejudice highly unfavorable to the culture of ornamental exotcis, namely, that every
plant-habitation attached to a mansion should be an architectural object, and consist of
windows between stone piers or columns, with a regular cornice and entablature. By
this mode of design, these buildings are rendered so gloomy as never to present a
vigorous vegetation, and vivid glowing colors witliin ; and as they are thus unfit for
the purpose for which they are intended, it does not appear to us, as we have already

570

observed at lengtli (1590.), tliat tlu-y can possibly l>e in good taste. Perhaps the only
way of reconciling the adoption of such apartments with good sense, is to consider thein

814

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

as lounges or promenade scenes for recreation in unfavorable weather, or for use during
f&tes, in either of which cases they may be decorated with a few scattered tubs of orange-
trees, camellias, or other evergreen coriaceous-leaved plants from a proper green-
house, and which will not be much injured by a temporary residence in such places,
which, as Nicol has observed, " often look more like tombs or places of worship, than
compartments for the reception of plants ; and, we may add, that the more modern sort
look like a combination of shop-fronts, of which that at Claremont is a notable example."
Sometimes structures of this sort are erected to conceal some local deformity, of which,
as an instance, we may refer to that {Jig. 570.) erected by Todd, for J. Elliot, Esq.,
at Pimlico. " This building was constructed for the purpose of preventing the pros-
pect of some offices from the dwelling-house. The architectural ornaments, and the
roof, not being of glass, are points in the construction not generally to be recommended;
but^ as it was built for the purpose above mentioned, the objections were overruled.
There are three circular stages to this house, which are made to take out at pleasure.
The ceiling forms part of a circle, and tlie floor is paved with Yorkshire stone. It
is fifty feet long, and thirteen feet six inches wide, and heated by one fire, the flue
from which makes tlie circuit of the house under tlie floor." [Plans of Green- Houses
&c. p. 10.)

6172. Of the orangery considered as a house for groiving the orange tribe, as a dessert-
fruit, we have already treated. (5930.)

6173. 4 recent and very considerable improvement in the construction of green-houses and orangeries
consists in forming the shelves and stages of thin plates of stone, instead of boards ; and very frequently
the flag-stones are hollowed out, so as to leave a raised margin of half an inch or more, for the purix)se of
retaining moisture, preventing dripping, and raising, when the air of the house is warm, a general steam or
dew. This may be considered, on the whole, as a real improvement, a proof of which is the readiness
with which it has been adopted by nurserymen and practical gardeners. A substitute consists in raising
marginal slips of boards to wooden shelves, and covering the board with a thin layer of gravel or scoria.

6174. The conservatory is a term generally applied by gardeners to plant-houses, in
which the plants are grown in a bed or border without the use of pots. They are some-
Cimes placed in the pleasure-ground along with the other hot-houses ; but more frequently
attached to the mansion. The principles of tlieir construction is in all respects the same
as for the green-house, with the single difference of a pit or bed of earth being substituted
for the stage, and a narrow border instead of surrounding flues. Tlie power of admit-
ting abundance of air, both by the sides and roof, is highly requisite both for the green-
house and conservatory ; but for the latter, it is desirable, in almost every case, that the
roof, and even the glazed sides, should be removable in summer. When the construction
of the conservatory does not admit of this, the plants in a few years become etiolated, and
naked below, and are no longer objects of beauty ; but when the whole superstructure,
excepting the north side, is removed during summer, the influence of the rains, winds,
dews, and the direct rays of the sun, produce a bushiness of form, closeness of foliage,
and a vividness of color, not attainable by any other means. We are decidedly of opi-
nion, therefore, that a conservatory of any of the common forms, unless it were one de-
voted entirely to palms, ferns, scitamineae, or other similarly growing plants, should
always be so constructed as to admit of taking off the sashes of the roof and the front ;
and if it were a detached structure in the flower-garden, we should prefer a plan that
would admit of the removal of every thing excepting the flues and the plants. There is
an old conservatory of this sort in the flower-garden at Nuneham Courtenay, planted
with orange-trees ; and when the roof is removed, the flues, border, and bed are covered
with turf, so that the trees appear as if planted in the open garden. The trees have stood
there for upwards of half a century, are vigorous, and bear annually abundance of fruit.
On the other hand, there are two conservatories at Knowle, with roofs fixed, or partially
opening, which have not been erected more than four years, and in which the plants are
already etiolated, and the lower branches dying off". When a conservatory is glazed on
all sides, it should, if possible, be placed south and north, in order that the plants on
both sides of the pit should equally benefit from the sun; when placed against a wall,
the glazed side may front any quarter except the north. But as the removal and re-
placing of the roof of such immense conservatories as are sometimes attached to man-

Book II.

ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES.

815

sions {jig. 571.), is attended witli considerable expense, risk of breakage, and what is of
still more consequence, risk to the plants, if they happen to be uncovered too soon in
spring, or left too long uncovered in autumn, we would recommend tlie polyprosopic
roof (1610. and Jig. 261.) as by far the most perfect description of a hot-house roof that
has yet been devised. With such a roof, the plants within may, at any time, in a few
minutes, be as completely exposed to air, rain, dew, and sun, if these exist without, as
if the roof were removed ; and again, in a few minutes, they may be completely shut up.
The improver who shall erect an extensive conservatory of this kind (Jig. 571. a), and
apply to it the regulating apparatus of Kewley (Jig. 217.), will find liimself in possession
of the most unique and complete plant-structure in the world.

6175. The conservatory in comparatively humble and economical residences (Jig. 572.),
may consist of a number of rectangular sashes, connected and supported by means of
light iron rafters. In the beginning of summer, the saslies may be removed and applied

to the ripening of peaches, vines, or figs against walls, or laid over excavations in the form
of pits, containing melons, cucumbers, &c. The light iron frame-work may either be
removed, or remain, and be disguised by annual creepers, or by vines of the narrow-leaved
sorts. Sometimes a cistern is placed in tlie conservatory for growing aquatics, and
containing a few gold-fish ; but as there are very few exotic aquatics which will thrive
in the temperature of the green-house, this is seldom requisite, unless as a decoration,
and for the use of the water in culture, and the appearance of the fishes. The tempera-
ture of conservatories being the same as of green-houses, the same proportion may exist
between the flues and volume of air to be heated.

6176. The dry -stove is chiefly devoted to the culture of succulents. In design it
need not differ from the green-house, unless, perhaps, in the stage (Ji^. 573. a) being

placed somewhat nearer to the roof. The name and character of this structure is
derived from the higher degree of heat generally kept in it, and from the air being less
moist than in the bark-stove, where more water is used, and consequently more vapor
generated. The volume of air to be heated by one fire in the dry-stove, should not
exceed two thirds of that to be heated- in a green-house or conservatory, similarly con-
structed and situated.

816

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6177. The bark or moist stove differs from the last only in having a pit {Jig. 573. b) for
bark or other fermenting matter instead of a stage. ITiis pit may be from two and a
half to four feet deep, according as bark or leaves are to be used, the latter material
requiring the greatest depth. It is commonly surrounded by a thin brick wall, but, in
elegant structures, planks of stone, or plates of slate or cast-iron, are to be preferred,
as a higher finish, and occupying less space. The roof, when
necessary, may be supported from the iron columns from the
middle of the pit. (Jig. 574. a) Shelves may be placed against
the back wall (6), and occasionally a narrow-leaved creeper run up
the roof (c). Such is the common interior arrangement of a
botanic stove, as may be exemplified in that designed by Alton,
and erected by Todd, in the royal garden at Frogmore, (Jig, 573.)
We may add, that houses of this description are generally placed
east and west against walls, on account of the shelter thereby ob-
tained during winter, when a high degree of heat is kept up

within, while the cold is excessive without. There are exceptions, however, in tlie
plant-stoves of the more recent public botanic gardens, especially those of Dublin and
Liverpool, which are placed with their ends to the south, and in tlie immense palm-house
erected by Messrs. Loddiges, which stands east and west, and is glazed on all sides. In
private flower-gardens the hot-houses frequently consist of a range (Jig. 515.) containing

a green-house (a) at one end, a dry-stove (6) at the other, and a stove (c) in the centre.
By this disposition the stove is easier kept up to the required temperature, tliough it loses
the full influence of the light at the ends. In general, a stove requires double the num-
ber of fires required to a green-house of the same size.

6178. There is a peculiarity in the construction of plant-stoves which deserves particularly to be noticed ;
namely, that fewer openings for the admission of air are requisite than in any other hot-house, excepting
the pine-stove. One reason of this is, that the degree of heat which must at all times be kept up in the
enclosed atmosphere, is so much greater than that of the open air, that the difference in the specific gravity
of the two fluids, when permitted to mingle by opening two or three sashes, produces a more active circul-
ation, and sooner approaches to an equilibrium of temperature : another is, that however numerous the
openings in the hot-house roof may be, they could seldom be made use of without reducing the house to
too low a temperature ; and a third and last is, that the plants being mostly kept in pots, and many of
them, as the palms, being of slow growth, they are not so apt to etiolate as those of the green -house and
conservatory. Hence it is, that the roof of a botanic stove may generally be erected at less cost than that
of a green-house or conservatory ; but particularly where iron is employed, and the cur^'ilinea^ principle
adopted.

6179. Houses oj ?nagnijicent forms, and almost as light within as in the open day, might
thus be constructed for the growth of palms, scitamineas, bamboos, and other tropical trees
to be planted in the ground, as in the conservatory. These might also be detached in the
flower-garden (as Jigs. 10. and 20. in Sketches for Curvilinear Hot-houses), or they might
form an appropriate appendage to a palace in the oriental style. {Jig. 576.) Indeed,

there is hardly any limit to the extent to which this sort of light roof might be carried ;
several acres, even a whole country residence, where the extent was moderate, might be
covered in this way, by the use of hollow cast-iron columns as props, which might serve
also as conduits for the water which fell on the roof. Internal showers might be produced
in Loddiges' manner ; or the roof might be of the polyprosopic kind, and opened. at
pleasure to admit the natural rain. Any required temperature might be kept up by the
use of concealed tubes of steam, and regulated by the apparatus of Kewley. Ventilation
also would be effected by the same machine. The plan of such a roof might eitlier be
flat ridges running north and south {Jig. 577. a), or oi'tagonal or hexagonal cones (Z»), with

Book IT.

ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES.

WT

a supporting column
at each angle, raised
to the height of a
hundred or a hun-
dred and fifty feet
from the ground, to
admit of the tallest
oriental trees, and the
undisturbed flight of
appropriate birds a-
raong thei r bran ches.
A variety of oriental
birds, and monkeys,
and otlier animals,
might be introduc-
ed ; and in ponds, a

stream made to run by machinery, and also in salt lakes, fishes, polypi, corals, and other pro-
ductions of fresli or sea water might be cultivated or kept. TTie great majority of readers
will no doubt consider these ideas as sufficiently extravagant ; but there is no limit to human
improvement, and few things afford a greater proof of it than the comforts and luxuries man
receives from the use of glass — a material, as Cuvier observes (Magazin Ericylop^diqtiet
1816;, manufactured from seemingly the most useless debiis of our globe, and an insig-
nificant plant (salicornia) found on sea-shores. In northern countries civilised man could
not exist without glass : and if coal is not discovered in these countries, say in Russia,
it may at some future period become a question whetlier, instead of separate fires and
stoves, double windows, &c. the most economical mode of procuring a proper temper-
ature will not be by at once to cover whole towns with immense teguments of glass, and
heating by steam or otherwise, the enclosed air common to all the inhabitants ; or where
glass was considered too expensive, whole villages might be covered with a roof of boards,
and lighted nigiit and day in the winter season by gas previously obtained from the fuel
used to produce the steam : or tlie gas might be employed for heating, either by the
generation of steam, or passing the air heated by the flame through metallic tubes.

6180. The (ujuarium. The greater number of exotic aquatics being stove plants, a cistern of water for
their culture is comraonly placed in the bark-stove, generally at one end of the pit, and so as to be as
near the light as possible. The Cuke of Marlbor9ugh, however, and some others, have erected houses
on purpose for this beautiful class erf plants, substituting a r-n

large cistern for the bark-pft. The aquarium, at WTiite "^ ' °

Knights, {fig. 578.) built by Todd, " is constructed with a
span roof of glass ; the sides and ends are also of glass, as
low down as the top of the flue. A cistern occupies the
interior of the house, having a walk round it ; it is lined
with lead, and filled with a mixture of mud and water,
proper for the reception and growth of such plants as require
aqueous nourishment. A flue goes round, directly under
the bottom of the cistern, for the purpose of keeping the
water of a certain temperature. Another flue goes round
the house above ground, and terminates in a chimney at
the north-west comer. The bottom of the cistern, to ro- '
ceive the lead, is formed with slates, supported by transverse bars of ca*t-iron ; a bottom of wood would
have been more convenient for laying the lead upon, but as the flues are so near the bottom of the cistern,
danger of fire was apprehended. The cistern is supplied with water by means of a pump placed at a con-
venient distance for that purjxjse." {Plans for Green-Houies, &c. p. 17.) This aquarium suits very well
for such aquatics as grow to some height above the water ; but for those whose leaves float on its surface,
as is the case with the most numerous and beautiful genus of this class {NymphtBo], it is too far from the
light. A more perfect plan would be, to have the cistern close under the front glass, and to have that
glass rather flat, say at an angle of lo*' ; or two cisterns might be formed, one in the back part of the

818J PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III

house for tall plants, and the other in front for floating foliage, with a broad path between. But the
most elegant plan would be, to have a circular house, glass on all sides (fig- 579.), to have a cistern
in the centre for river-plants, and a surrounding cistern for those which grow in stagnant water lo
imitate the effect of the motion of water in the central cistern, the mould or pots in which the plants
grow might be placed on a bottom (a), apart from that of the cistern (6), and this bottom being on
the end of an upright shaft, might, by the aid of proper machinery in a vault below (c), be kept in
perpetual circular motion. Those plants, which grow naturally in rapid streams, might be planted or
placed on the circumference of the bottom (rf), and those requiring less agitation towards its centre (e).
If reversed motion was required to imitate tides (where marine aquatics were cultivated), nothing
could be easier than by the sort of wheel used in the patent mangle to produce it to any extent ; or
by another still more simple plan known to every engineer, it might be changed seldomer, say only
once or twice in twenty-four hours. If a rapid and tortuous motion was required, then let the
bottom on which the plants are placed, be furnished with small circular wheels (/) placed on its margin,
working on pivots, and furnished on their edges with teeth like a spur wheeL Then let there be a cor-
responding row of teeth fixed to the inside of the wall or side of the cistern, into which they are to work
like a wheel and pinion. By this means, pots of plants set on the small wheels, will have a compound
motion, one round the centre of the small wheels, and another round that of the large bottom, something
of the nature of planetary motion, but more like that of the waltz dance. It is almost needless to add,
that exotic aquatic fowls and fishes might be kept in such an aquarium, and either of the sea or fresh-
water rivers, according as salt water or fresh was used. It may be thought by some that the machinery
would be intricate and troublesome ; but the power requisite is so very small, that it might easily be ob-
tained by machinery on the principle of the wind-up jack, such as was used by Deacon in his ventilating
Eolians. {Rem. on HotJi. 68.) This kind of mechanism very seldom goes out of order, or requires repairs,
and would require no other attention than being wound up twice in twenty-four hours, and oiled oc-
casionally. The same vault that contained it might serve for the furnace or boiler for heating the house.

6181, Wind. If instead of water in a circular cistern with its bottom so constructed, we suppose air,
then the same arrangement would serve for producing artificial wind to plants, the beneficial effects of
which in producing bushiness and strength of stem are well known. The motion thus given would pro-
bably be extremely useful for young plants in close damp weather in winter, by preventing some sorts
from getting mouldy and damping off, and by moderating the growth, and preventing the etiolation of
others. For this purpose the machine might be considered as a kind of hospital, and the plants being in
pots, might be set on either the large or small wheels, and kept there in motion for a longer or shorter
period, according to circumstances.

6182. The substitution of fire-heat for that produced by the fermentation of vegetable substances, is a re-
cent innovation in the construction of plant-stoves. This has been done by heating the air of a vault or
chamber below the pit, with smoke or steam, either by circulating these fluids in flues or tubes in the
chamber, or by simply filling the vault with them. In some cases, also, flues or steam-pipes have been
conducted through the tan with a view to prolong its heat. The mode by heating an air-chamber below
the pit was carried into execution by us so long ago as 1804, at Glenfuir {Tr. on Hot-h. p. 249.) ; and more
recently upon a larger scale, for the purpose of growing pines, at Underley Park. {Tr. on Coun. Res. p. 295.
pL 11. fig. 3.) A plan very similar to the last has been adopted by Kent {Hart. Trans, ii. 389. and iii. 287.),
who at first plunged the pots in a bed of sawdust over the vault, thinking thereby to avoid the worms and
insects that generate in decaying tan. He found, however, that when the sawdust became rotten, worms
generated in it as freely as in any thing else, and has therefore given up the practice of plunging altogether,
setting the pots on a thin layer of coarse sand placed over the pavement, which forms the roof of the hot
air chamber. Thus situated, the plants are not apt to. run through the bottoms, and over the tops of the
pots, as is the case when they are plunged, which always occasions a serious check to the plants, whenever
they are removed or required to be shifted. After above a year's trial, he says, " I think I can with cer-
tainty pronounce that plunging is not only unnecessary, but really worse than useless to plants, except
where they have been injured and require' to be drawn." A very obvious extension of this principle was
the disuse of bottom heat altogether, and the substitution of a platform of brick or pavement, or merely a
bed of scoria or gravel for the bark-pit. This has been done extensively by Messrs. Loddiges, Kent,
the Comte de Vande, and various others, with perfect success as far as respects large plants ; but most
stove-plants require to be originated and brought forward till they are one or two feet high in bottom heat.
By keeping up a considerable atmospheric temperature, and by frequent waterings over the leaves, that
sort of moist heat is produced which seems most congenial to vegetation, and it may, we think, be assumed
as experimentally proved, that where such heat is produced in plant-stoves the bark-pit is unnecessary for all
general purposes. " If we reflect for a moment," says Kent, " that in tropical countries, the stem, branches,
and leaves receive a greater degree of heat from the atmosphere than the roots can possibly do ; it appears
extraordinary that a system of management so directly opposite to nature should have ever been adopted,
or that it should have been so long practised. If a quantity of earth was to be raised from the root of any
tropical shrub, growing in its native situation, there is no doubt its heat would be below the temperature
of the air, therefore the roots of the plants in a stove ought not at any rate, to receive more warmth than
their other parts." {Hort. Trans, iii. 288.)

6183. A propagation-house is a requisite appendage wherever a general collection of
exotic plants is maintained ; and the proper situation for it is in the reserve-garden.
Such a house, like the houses used by nurserymen, does not require to be so light as fruit-
ing or flowering houses ; it may be little more than a large pit with the roof very flat (say
from 12° to 15°), in order that all the plants may be near the glass ; it should contain a
bark-pit. raised to within eighteen inches of the glass in front, and 2^ feet behind, a broad
stone shelf in front, and two or more shelves in the back of the house, close under the
roof, that is, over the path and flue. All shelves in hot-houses, it may be observed,
whether of stone or timber, ought to have narrow ledgments along tlieir edges, not less
than an inch deep, by which the water which escapes through the bottoms of the pots is
not only prevented from dropping, but retained to generate a salutary coolness and mois-
ture. The fire-place should be formed at one end of the front (say the south-ea.st corner),
and the flue conducted along the front from about nine inches or a foot from the parapet,
and so along the opposite end and back wall, till it terminates at the extremity of the lat-
ter, or the north-east corner. The door may be formed in the back part of the end in
which the furnace is placed, and the path which surrounds the pit, should be made suffi-
ciently low to admit of head-room. This plan may in some cases be doubled ; that is,
a similar arrangement of flues, &c. may be erected alongside the other, that is, the north
side, with a moveable boarded partition between them. The house fronting the north
may be used for striking cuttings, or raising seedlings, and that fronting the south, for

Bock II.

ORNAMENTAL HOT-HOUSES.

819

nursing the plants so raised, till they are fit for removal to the principal green-houses and
stoves. The partition is made to remove, in order to admit or exclude the sun's rays to
the back-house in spring or autumn at pleasure.

ei84. We have already stated that we
consider steam the best vehicle Jbr heating hot-
houses of. every kind, especially where there
are several connected together. Thus where
all the hot-houses of a residence are con-
nected with the mansion, both the latter and
the former, witli drying rooms, hot water or
vapor-baths, steaming apparatus for horse-
food, poultry-houses (under particular cir-
cumstances), and various other appendages
might be heated as well as the hot-houses.
The spare steam might be employed as the
first power to machinery, to raise water, to
drive a mangle, &c. and a gas apparatus
might be added, to admit of lighting up
the whole. Repton has given a plan well
adapted for this purpose. (Jig. 580.) At
one end of this design an aviary (1) is
surrounded by a conservatory (2), and
joined to a glass passage for flowers
(3), which leads successively through an
orangery (4), lobby (5), music-room (6),
library (7), print and picture-room (8),
breakfast- room (9), anti-room (10), din-
ing-room (11), hall (12), and peach and
green-house (13). Tlie whole length
of this range is three hundred feet. Even
single stoves or green-houses may be
more agreeably heated in this way than by smoke-flues, which are very generally
attended by a bad smell, and vapors of carbonic acid and hydrogen. A very neat ex-
ample of tliis kind (Jig. 581.) is given by Hay ward. (Hart. Trans, iv. 434.) " It is
erected in a small conserva-
tory, the boiler (a) contains
about thirty gallons, and the
pipes (b, b) are three inches in
diameter, and so laid as to have
thick planks resting on props
(a, b, c) placed over them, to form
the pathway round the house.
Chambers are formed round the
pipes, communicating with the
external air, by surrounding them
with larger pipes (c, c) ; and by
means of small pipes (d, d) as
much heated fresh air can be ad-
mitted into the house through dif-
ferent apertures (e, e) as can be
wished." By laying the pipes
with a declination of a few inches
from their departure from the
boiler till their return to it, the
water of condensation is returned
through a valve (a D),which is a
very considerable advantage ; but this valve is much better placed in a close box outside
the boiler, (an improvement made by Messrs. Bailey,) as admitting thereby of examin-
ing it with ease when out of repair. The air-cock (f), safety-valve (o), steam-gauge (h),
and water-gage in Hay ward's boiler, do not differ from the usual construction. The
mode here described of admitting heated air, we would observe, must be used with very
great caution, for we know experimentally, that no mode is more liable to overheat the
atmosphere of the house when the fire or steam is brisk in the beginning of the night, and
overcool it when the fire declines towards the morning. We have the same objection to
Walker's Improved Construction of Hot- Iwuse Flues, as described (Hort. Trans, iv. 237.),
by A. Seton, Esq. Here a cast-iron flue is enclosed in one of masonry, and the vacuity
between them communicates with the open air at the stock-hole, and with the air of

3 G 2

820 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

the house at certain distances, by means of apertures in the top of the flue. The ar-
gument in favor of this arrangement, is that usually given for vacuities around furnaces
connected with flues, as adopted by Stewart, Gould, and various others ( Tr. on Hot-
houses, p. 132.), viz. that " the current of external air, by commencing, when cold, at
that part of the flue which is hottest, takes up the heat there where it is least wanted, and
carries it to those parts at a distance from the furnace where it is most needfed ; and as the
valves are to be chiefly opened in the latter situations, to permit its escape, it diffuses a
nearly equal warmth over the whole house." Every thing in this plan evidently depends
on the management of these valves ; if they are left open during the night, the risk above
stated is incurred ; if during day, less heat being wanted, little advantage is obtained. In
stoves, however, this plan, under judicious management, might be useful; but it must
never be forgotten, that air can be rendered much hotter by a fire-flue than by a steam-
pipe, and hence the danger to the plants. No one was ever more sanguine as to the ad-
vantages to be derived from furnace vacuities and air-flues than ourselves (see Tr. on
Hoi-houses) ; but after twenty years' experience, we must acknowledge that they are so
liable to produce accidents, either by admitting smoke or burning uj) the plants (as the
phrase is), that we now seldom recommend their adoption.

61 85. Various jnts and hot-beds will be required in the reserve-department of the flower-
garden, for forcing shrubs and flowers, raising annuals, &c. ; the construction of which
having nothing peculiar, need not be here detailed. (See 1591. et seq.)

6186. The idea of cold-houses seems to have been first suggested by Sir W. Chambers (Dissert, on Om.
Gard. p. 90.), and it may be worth while to submit some hints on their construction for such amateurs in
this country as maybe curious in the cultivation oi onusciijungermannice, and other cryptogamous veget-
ables which grow in the lowest temperatures ; and for botanists in warm climates, who may wish to cul-
tivate not only mosses, but the more perfect plants of elevated regions or northern climates ; as for example,
of the British or Swedish alpines in Spain, or in the south of Italy. The simplest form of a cold-house may
be a vault of rustic masonry open at one end, along the'floor of which a rill of water may pass, and from every
part of the ceiling water may drop on the floor or bed, and descend to the rill in the centre. This is an ob-
vious imitation of the dripping caves sometimes found in tracts of country abounding with calcareous rocks,
of which, as an example, we may cite the dripping rock at Knaresborough, and the dripping cave near
Rousseau's walk at Lyons ; in which last, on the 19th day of June 1819, we found the thermometer at 48",
whilst in the open air, under the shade of an adjoining mulberry-tree, it stood at 72". Various mosses and
jungermanniae were in luxuriant vegetation in the interior of the cave; and some sorts of ferns near its
mouth. Another imitation of such caves might consist of an open grove of elms or oaks, among the lower
branches of which lead pipes pierced with small holes, in Loddige's manner (1689.), might be fixed hori-
zontally at regular distances, and these being supplied, during the warmer months, with water from a
proper reservoir, would furnish a continual shower, which, with the assistance of the small rills furnished
by the collected rain thus produced, would lower the temperature of the atmosphere sufficiently for the
growth of such mosses and ferns as do not require much light ; and the margin of the grove might be
devoted to plants of a more perfect kind, requiring a low temperature and moist atmosphere. But a more
perfect plan would be to form a house like a large pit, with a double glass roof, fronting the north. Over
the outer roof should be a system of pierced pipes to keep it cool by a continual shower during sunset, and
at the top of the back wall an arrangement whereby two or more separate and concentric coverings of can-
vass could be let down to exclude the sun during the day. Instead of flues of masonry, large tubes of lead
or cast-iron should surround the house, to be kept cool by a continual stream of water passing through
them. The pit might contain a large metallic cistern, filled with ice, to be renewed when thawed, &c.
It would be advancing too far jnto the regions of speculation to particularise other minor details that
would be requisite to render such a house complete ; let it suffice to say, that such houses might be erected
either in Britain or the south of Europe, so as to produce a temperature of 32 degrees throughout the year.
This would admit the cultivation, in pots and on pieces of rock, of lichens, mosses, and of all the more per-
fect plants which grow in the regions of perpetual snow. (See 1696.)

Chap. VI.

Of the General CMtureand Management of the Flower-garden and Shrubbery.

6187. The cultivation of the flower-garden is simple compared with that of the kitchen-
garden, both from its limited extent and the general sameness of its products ; but to
manage it to perfection requires a degree of nicety and constant attention beyond any
other open-air department of gardening. As the stalks of flowering plants shoot up, they
generally require thinning, and props for support ; and the blossom, both of plants and
shrubs, no sooner expands than it begins to wither, and must be cut off, unless, as in
some of the Ornamental shrubs, they are left for the sake of the beauty of their fruit.
Weeding, watering, stirring the soil, cutting off stems which have done flowering, at-
tending to grass and gravel, must go hand in hand with these operations.

6188. With respect to the general culture and manuring of the soil, it should be subjected, as far as
practicable, to the same process of trenching to different depths as that of the kitchen-garden. In the
shrubbery this cannot be done, but it, and also the earth compartments of the flower-garden, should be
turned over a spit in depth, and some vegetable mould, or very rotten cow-dung, added occasionally.
Every two or three years the plants in the flower-garden should be taken up and reduced in size, and the
beds or borders trenched, say one time at two spits deep, another at three, and so on (see 2549.), adding
enriching compost or manure completely rotted, according to circumstances. If, instead of trenching,
the old earth were entirely removed, and replaced by good loam from a dry upland parterre, the improve-
ment would be still greater. Most herbaceous plants flower well in such loam, and for the more culti-
vated sorts, as border pinks, auriculas, &c. that require a rich soil, a portion of enriching matter could
be added to each plant as planted, and a corresponding attention paid to such as required peat-earth, sand.

Book 11. CULTURE OF THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 821

clay, or lime. In the shrubbery, a similar renewal of soil, and attention to the soils required by parti-
cular shrub-plants, is also required, at least in front, where the more delicate shrubs naturally rank, and
where the herbaceous plants are chiefly arranged.

6189. With respect to the times ofplantingy or sowing, and manner of cropping the flower-garden and
shrubbery, the greater part of the surface being covered with shrubs or pknts of perennial duration,
very little cropping is required, and as a substitute for a rotation, recourse must be had to the renewal of
the soil as recommended above. Annuals are sown at various periods from February to June ; but for
the principal show, generally in March ; the half-hardy sorts are raised in hot-beds in the reserve-depart-
ment, and transplanted when they are to flower in April and May, and later sowings and transplantings
are made to procure a protracted display. Biennials and perennials of the fibrous or ramose rooted kinds
are transplanted from the reserve-department in September or in March ; and such bulbous roots as are
annually taken up, are generally replanted in November or February. When bulbs and other florists'
flowers are cultivated in beds, a rotation may be adopte<l as far as respects them : thus the hyacinth, tulip,
&c., may be succeeded by annuals, and those by the dianthus tribe, or dahlias, &c. ; but in borders and com-
partments planted in the mingled manner, as well as in shrubberies, a rotation is out of the question.
Particular care is requisite to remove weak, ill-conditioned, or ill-flowering plants, and to replace them
by others of the same height and color. This may be done at all seasons of the year by the use of the
transplanter ; but the better mode is to have always an ample stock in the reserve-garden, of all the colors
and heights, both of herbaceous plants and low shrubs, (of all the sorts is unnecessary,) in pots, and
whenever, when any plant is in flower, a defect appears, it can be remedied at once by turning the plant
out of the pot into its situation in the border. Independently of disease or accident, tine showy species,
answering in general color and height, may thus at pleasure be substituted for such as are less showy, or
less to the taste of the master.

6190. Ornamental plants, whether shrubby or herbaceous, require to be pruned, trained, thinned, and
dressed, according to the sort of beauty or effect expected from theni. If they are grown chiefly on ac-
count of their blossoms, then they must be pruned on the same general principles as fruit-trees ; but
little more than thinning out weak and crowded shoots will be required where they are grown chiefly
on account of the beauty of their foliage ; and still less where the tree or bush is planted for the sake of
its natural shape. It is customary in some places to apply the hedge-shears to shrubs ; but this is a bar-
barous practice, destructive of all these beauties, which ought to be exploded, unless in cases where,
in imitation of the antient style, trees are to be trained in artificial shapes. Herbaceous plants require
little pruning, but nevertheless something in this way may be occasionally required on the same general
principles applied to trees. Where very large flowers are wanted, it is obviously advantageous to prevent
the plant from expending its vigor in too great a number of them, or in mere shoots and leaves. Top-
heavy plants, as some thistles, solidagos, &c. may require to be lightened, and almost all are benefited
by thinning out a part of their shoots. In some annuals, thinning is effected both by eradication and
pruning, and in the more delicate sorts by pinching off the young shoot, when an inch or two high.
Creepers, climbers, and shrubs planted against walls or trellises, either on account of their rarity, deli-
cacy, or to conceal the object against which they are placed, require different degrees of training ; those
which attach themselves naturally, as the i\'y, merely require to be occasionally guided so as to induce a
regular distribution of their shoots ; the others must be treated like fruit-trees, training thinly, if blossoms
are the object ; and rather thicker, if a mass of foliage be what is chiefly wanting. Hedges and edgings
require to be cut and otherwise kept in order by the obvious means. " Edgings of all sorts," Marshall
observes, " should be kept in good order, as having a singularly neat effect in the appearance of a garden.
The dead edgings will sometimes, and the live edgings often, want putting to rights ; either cutting,
clipping, or making up complete. Where there are no edgings, or but weak ones, let the earth border-
ing on the walks be kept firm, and now and then worked up by line in moist weather, beating it smooth
with a spade." {IntroiL 57.)

6191. Grass-plots require to be regularly mown at least once a-fortnight, and where extraneous plants,
of broad-leaved kinds, make their appearance, as plantagos, crowfoots, &c. they must be carefully re-
moved. Worms should be gathered by hand before sunrise, or their casts swept off with the wire
besom (1321.\ and then the ground watered with lime-water. Rolling and watering must be applied ac-
cording to circumstances, and nothing neglected to ensure that deep-green color and velvet texture which
is, or ought to be, the characteristic of the British lawn, and which is indeed the pride of our island.

6192. Various tender sorts of plants and shruf>s require protection by one or other of the different uten-
sils, structures, or contrivances (2206. to 2218.) destined for that purxx)se. Alpine plants require protec-
tion from cold, by covering with snow, or by hand-glasses, or frames during winter ; and from heat, by
screens to produce shade during summer. The roots of many sorts require to be protected by ashes, rot-
ten tan, or litter, from frost, and the tops of others both shrubs and plants, to be guarded by fronds of
fern fir-branches, mats, or portable glass cases, from rain, hail, and cutting winds. Great care must
be taken to protect pots of plants from frost ; by always keeping them plunged in earth or some non-
conductor ■ for no state in which a plant can be placed is so obnoxious to the baneful influence of con-
gelation as' that of being grown in a pot. Climbing plants require to be supported by poles or rods, as
some sorts of honevsuckle, bignonia, aristolochia. See. ; by props, as pyramidal bell-flower, lobelia ful-
gens &c or bv branches or spray, as the nasturtium and pea tribe. Much of the beauty of the flower-
garden depends on the manner in which these operations are performed. The prevalent error consists in
overdoing the thing in employing too stout and too long rods or props, and too many thick tufty
branches? instead of such as are free-grown and open. Watering must be liberaUy appUed to almost
every part of the flower-garden during summer, and in the evening ; it increases the progress, and en-
larg4 the parts of all vegetables ; gives a fresh appearance to the soil as well as the plants, disperses their
odors in the surrounding atmosphere, and tends to subdue various kinds of insects. ,

6193. Water, whether as an orna-
mental feature, or as an aquarium, ^h»«,^ ff ^ 582
should be kept clear both of weeds
and insects. Of aquatic weeds the
most troublesome in small aquariums
are the confervae and byssi, which
can only be removed by hand, or by
entangling them with a rake or
broom. The larvje of numerous land-
insects are deposited in water or in
the muddy sides of ponds and ditches,
as the elephant-hawk-moth (.Sp/iinjc
Elpenor, L.) ifis. 582.), the dragon-
fly {Libellula, IJ), and many others.
Of the aquatic kinds are the well
known tipulae, of which some species
{T. oleracea) {Jig. 583.) glide over the
water, and are by many considered
rather ornamental than otherwise,
and others live entirely under it, and
feed on the roots of plants. To de-

3 G 3

833

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

stroy, or at least greatly to keep under all aquatic insects, an effectual mode is to dry the pond for a day
or two; but in the case of an aquarium it cannot be done ; fish and frogs, their natural enemies, must
therefore be encouraged, in order that they may attack them. . u ww

6194 Insects and vermin. These must be kept under in every part of the flower-garden and shrubbery,
and we perfectly agree with the author of the Florist's Manual, that " the simple and laborious mode of
picking away the animal, is the only one to which recourse can be had with permanent advantage. To
give full efficacy to this method of

rescuing plants from caterpillars, - \ j

snails, &c. our attacks must be
made upon them at particular sea-
sons, which can only be done from
such a knowledge of their history,
as shall enable us to have swarms
of them destroyed in the destruc-
tion of an individual of the spe-
cies. Without, however, much re-
search into their natural history
■we may, from common observ-
ation, understand that in the
winged insect we may free our
plants from an innumerable tribe
of those which crawl, and which,
in that reptile state, have the ca-
pacity of devouring the whole
product of a garden. The two pe-
riods of change of form in the ca-
terpillar species, seem to afford
the most advantageous times to
put an end to their existence.
Thus, the ephemeral butterfly; if
timely attended to, we may de-
stroy the animal before it has ac
quired the power of disseminating
its young progeny ; and, in the in-
termediate and voracious state of
caterpillar, every single one which
is prevented attaining the winged
form, preserves our flowers from a
host of enemies. The green ca-
terpillar is the most common foe
to our flower-borders and in au-
tumn attacks the branches of mig-
nonette in such numbers as to af-
ford an easy opportunity of their
destruction. A more persevering enemy, and more difficult to exterminate from gardens, is the snail
{Helix) and slug {Limax) ; which, forming their habitations under the soil, attack the roots of the flow-
ers, and frequently destroy them before the gardener can be aware of the mischief, that too often becomes
visible only when past reparation. Under a vigilant eye, however, plants will not twice suffer from the
enemy not being ostensible ; as the symptoms of his vicinity may be marked by flowers perishing as they
first emerge from their buds or bulbs, by leaves or petals being pierced in small holes, or having the ap-
pearance of bemg gnawed in growth, or from almost any failure in vigor which cannot be accounted for
by external causes. In cold and dry weather the snail rarely appears, but after warm showers it may
generally be found ; early in the morning, and about the close of evening, are the usual times of their
coming abroad, when they may be picked up in large quantities. They will, however, frequently molest
a plant for a length of time without being visible, in which case, when there is reason to suspect their
hidden attacks, the only method to entrap them is to place a common garden-pot over the infested root,
and It will rarely occur that the enemy is not discovered, as snails fasten themselves to the sides or tops of
boards, or mats, or cabbage-leaves, so placed, and thence are easily taken. In droughty seasons it will
be of use to water the plant before it is covered, as the moisture of the earth will be an additional mo-
tive of attraction to draw the animal from his hiding-place. The smaller insects which infest rose-trees,
and some herbaceous plants, can only be kept within moderate bounds by sweeping them from the branches,
or by cutting off those whereon they are found in most profusion. In carrying off these diminutive ene-
mies, birds are peculiarly serviceable. Insects generally attack those plants which are least vigorous ;
and the reason of the selection of such leaves as are beginning to decav may be, that in their declining

Book II. CULTURE OF THE FLOWER-GARDEN. 823

state they have usually a peculiar sweetness, probably perhaps owing to some saccharine juices which are
preparing for the nutriment of the bulb or bud which is forming in their bosoms, for the nascent veget-
able derives its sustenance from the recrements of the one from which it takes its birth." {Flor. Man. 25.
et seq.) The cultivated bee is an insect which the gardener will of course take care not to destroy on ac-
count of its use ; and it may be a question whether some species of the butterfly, moth, dragon-fly, &c.
should be destroyed on account of their beauty. Some species of these genera are highly beautiful, as
the four-blotched dragon-fly {Libellu/a quadrimaculata, L.), and the swallow-tailed butterfly {PapUio
Machaon, L.) {Jig. 584.}, which is reckoned the most superb of the British species. It is very local, but
occurs near Bristol, Beverly, and in the New Forest. The larva feed on umbelliferous plants ; the
caterpillar is green, banded with black, marked by a row of red spots. It changes into the chrjsalis
state in July ; and the perfect insect is found in August There are two broods, the first appears in May,
having been in the pupa state all the winter, and the other in August from the pupa of July. {Samouelle.)

6195. The cutting off Jlower-stalkSy decaying Jlowers, leaves, &c. is to be done in most
cases immediately after the flowers are faded ; but there are exceptions where tiie leaves
on the lower part of flower-stems may be requisite to strengthen the root, and where, as
in the case of stipa, some convallarias, eringoes, &c. the parts of the flower are persisting,
or the fruit or seed-pods are objects of beauty. The leaves of bulbous-rooted plants,
and such others as are not prolific in foliage, should be carefully preserved till they have
begun to decay ; and, indeed, the base or root-leaves of no plant whatever should be cut
oflp till this is the case, unless for some particular object. Every single flower, as soon
as the petals begin to droop, should be pinched off, and especially every flower of the
double kind. Every rose, when it begins to droop, should be clipt off near to the foot-
stalk of the one which is about to succeed it ; and when the last of the corymb has done
flowering, then the common foot-stalk should be cut off back to the first strong leaf-bud :
nothing is more unsightly in a flower-garden than rose-bushes where this has not beea
attended to. By emplopng women or apprentices to go over the whole pleasure-ground
everj' morning during tiie four summer months, to attend to this business, it may be com-
pletely accomplished at very little expense. These and other points of management, we
know, are considered needless niceties by many gardeners : but what is a flower-garden
unless it is kept with the utmost nicety ? Others will tell you, they have not time for
such tilings ; but where there is a real taste for neatness, time will be found. " No
gentleman," Sir G. 3Iackenzie observes (Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 194.), " ought to keep
a gardener who does not understand that there is time enough for every thing, provided
that time is not wasted, but properly regulated, and nothing too long delayed."

6196. Gathering Jiowers. Gather, if possible, only from the reserve-garden ; for if the
main borders and compartments are managed as they ought to be, much gathering will
disfigure the plants. Always use the knife, and prefer such as are coming into flower,
ratlier than such as are fully expanded. If possible, gather from crowded plants, or
parts of plants, so that every gathering may operate at the same time, as a judicious
pruning and thinning.

6197. The French rose-gatherer presents a refinement in floriculturai instruments highly characteristic of
its origin. The general form of this little engine is that of a pistol : it has a handle and trigger like it, and
a cutter in the manner of the wire pliers, or flower-gatherer ijie. 152), disguised as a barrel. A rod, an-
swering to the ramrod, connects the pincers with the trigger, which last, being pressed, opens the pincers,
that is, charges the pistol ; the operator then presents the pistol to the rose to be gathered, and so that when
the cutter operates, it may separate it at the precise point of the stalk deemed proper : things being thus
adjusted, the trigger is drawn, and the deed is done. — Of course this instrument, like a nimiber of other
horticultural toys manufactured by the Parisians, is chiefly pour les dames.

619S. Floiuers may be preserved, ivhen gathered, by inserting their ends in water, moist earth, or moss ;
and may be freshened, when withered, by sprinkling' with water, and putting them in a close vessel, as
under a bell-glass, hand-glass, flower-pot, or in a botanic box ; if this will not do, sprinkle them with
warm water, or with spirits of wine, or ether, and if this feils, insert their ends in water heated to 80° or
90°, and cover them with a glass.

6199. Grafting, budding, laying, &c. Operations of this sort require to be performed
in the flower-garden and shrubbery, for enlarging, renovating, and otherwise improving
shrubs and plants, or introducing new sorts ; they are also required for the common pur-
poses of propagation.

6200. Ordering seeds, bulbs, and plants. This business is much simpler in "the flower
than in the kitchen garden. For flower-seeds of most sorts, an order is simply given for
aj)aj)er of a sort ; mignonette, lupins, sweet peas, and a few others, may be ordered by
the ounce ; bulbous roots are generally ordered by number, either of mixtures or single
sorts ; and herbaceous plants, shrubs, &c. by name and number, or by the hundred or
dozen in mixture. See the priced catalogue of any nurseryman.

6201. Neatness has been already a good deal insisted on in different parts of this work. We repeat, it
is the dress and visage of gardening, and if necessary any-where, is more especially so in the flower-garden.
A gardener who pretends to manage a flower-garden without the most vigilant attention to this point, at
all times, is unworthy the charge. The first thing is to have a quick intelligent eye, so as instantly to
perceive what is wanting, and the second is to be possessed of that principle of activity which immediately
sets about supplying the want. Many gardeners have certain times for cleaning up, &c and will go fifty
times past a we«?d, stone, dead leaf, o'r some such article, which disfigures or injures a scene, without re-
moving it, merely because the time for cleaning, &c. has not come. This is most abominably formal con-
duct, deserving the severest reprobation. A gardener ought to have his eye, his head, his heart, his hand,
his knife, and apron, ready for action at all times, places, and seasons, when within the precincts of his
charge. Let him drown this incessant care in his own way when he is without his scene of business, or in
the hours of rest and refreshment; and let him not luidertake it without adequate terms of remuneration.
(See 2355. 337a)

3 G 4

894

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

Chap. VII.

General Culture and Management of the Ornamental or Botanic Hot-houses.

6202. The general culture ofjloricultural hot-houses respects soil, choice of plants, plant-
ing in pots or beds, and arranging : after offering some remarks on these heads, we shall
submit a few as to what is general in the management of the principal floricultural habit-
ations, as the frame, green-house, and stove.

6203. Soil for beds or borders. The first operation of the gardener, after a conservatory or stove is
finished, is to fill up the beds and borders with prepared earth. These being narrow, should seldom be
less than three feet in depth, the bottom should generally be paved, and sloping to a drain or drains ; and
in cases of very dry soils, provision may be made for the roots extending themselves beyond the area of
the house. In general, however, this is not desirable in stoves, as the roots might be chilled during se-
vere frosts ; but provision may be made for their extension under the paths, and every other part of the
area of the house. When a variety of plants and trees are to be grown in such pits, no soil can be fixed
on that will suit them all ; but if the main body be a sandy loam, then, as each particular tree is planted,
a few cubic feet of this loam may be removed, and replaced by the soil best suited to the plant The plant
once established, be it what species it may, will not languish in a sandy loam, other circumstances being
favorable.

6204. Choice of species and planting. The species of stove or green-house plants must depend on the
sort of house, and a variety of circumstances which need not be entered into. For common purposes
choose the showy-flowering, easily cultivated, and vigorous-growing genera, as geranium, camellia, fuch-
eia, jasminum, &c. ; or evergreens, as the myrti, proteaceae, &c. choosing (from the tables in Chap. X.)
some plants of the principal colors to flower in every month. In planting broad central beds in a house,
glass on all sides, the highest-growing kinds will be placed along the middle of the bed ; but where there
IS a wall to the north, the highest kinds will be placed next it. With respect to arrangement, the limited
space admits of very little ; in general, it will produce the most showy and immediate effect to adopt thi;
common mingled and shrubbery arrangement, which we have recommended (6139.) ; but as the si^ectator
lingers longer on the pavement of the conservatory or stove, than in the walk of the shrubbery, more
prolonged interest will be produced by assembling such plants as belong to one genus, or natural order, by
themselves ; because this will be to unite what used to be considered the desideratum of taste — unity and
variety ; that is, a general harmony of character in the genus, tribe, or family, and yet, when examined
in detail, a distinctive character belonging to each of the individual species which compose it It is a very
common practice to plant climbers in such beds and along narrow borders, close to the upright or front glass,
to be trained under the roof. We most decidedly disapprove of this plan, in almost every case, as tending
to defeat the whole object in erecting such houses, very luxuriant climbers are thus produced, but it is
at the expense of light, not one ray of which, if possible, should be prevented from falling on the plants
in the body of the house. Climbers or creepers are highly ornamental, and may be planted in a variety
of situations without injuring the other plants : for example, in the bed, and trained on rods, or up such
props as may be necessary to support the roof ; or, along the sides of a central walk in a house standing
north and south, and trained over the walk on an arcade of rods ; or, on a similar arcade over the back
path of a single-roofed house, or on the back walL It is a very common thing to see the cobtea in green-
houses, and the fruit-bearing passion-flowers in stoves, darkening the greater part of the roof, and the
plants beneath growing or elongating fast enough, but weak and of an unhealthy languid green. It is
only under the broad wooden rafters of old-fashioned hot-houses that any sort of creepers may be trained
up the roof without materially injuring the plants below ; and even in these cases the injury is consider-
able, unless they are kept within very narrow bounds. But if creepers are injurious in plant hot-houses,
the introduction of vines under the rafters is still worse ; for, besides darkening the plants below more
than the others with their broader leaves, the incongruity of effect produced by the attempt to unite two
opposite characters, is exceedingly disagreeable, and only to be tolerated in humble economical residences,
where a green-house, perhaps, is the only glass structure.

6205. Arrangement of plants in pots. Where the house and the collection are small,
or the plants few and large, the same observations will apply which we have advanced on
the subject of planting tlie beds of conservatories or stoves ; but when the houses and
collections are extensive, then some plan of arrangement ought to be adopted. Here,
as in shrubberies and flower-gardens, there are tliree modes, by mingling, by groujnngj
and by method. For general effect the first is the best, but for prolonged enjoyment and
examination in detjiil, the two others are greatly preferable. An abstract view of tlie
modes by mingling and grouping might be represented by lines {Jigs. 585, 586.), in

585

H"l-^-^i--P"

:Tr±+±-

" -h - j"

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.. _.;..

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IT.

^ ^ ..;, ^ .^.

i ; ' r -r- -
— j- -|... ..^,., _^. .|-. ..

-f~ -4- -

u-^_

hT

~"t* ~n"i

... TIT

q:q:.4.3:.i.

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--f-4-

.4- -|.. ..

,..i-,:.

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__:.-,..

- --i-

.,|. ..j.. ,,;,.. .;.. ,.;....„

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-- "!•-

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which, by the mingled mode, the colors are as regularly arranged as chequer- work, while,
by the grouping mode {fig. 586.), they succeed each other in large irregular masses.
By the first mode, there is only one plant of a color by itself; by the second, from half
a dozen to three or four dozen, according to the size of the group and the plants.

Book II. CULTURE OF BOTANIC HOT-HOUSES.-

586

825

Thalamiflo. sect. 1. | Thalam. sect- 2. | Thalamiflo. sect. 3. | Calyciflctse. 1 CoroUiflorte, | Monochl. & Fhanerog.

6206. By either mode regard must be had to place the plants in gradation according to
their size, from the front to the back, or from tlie lowest to the highest part of the stage,
as well to give them every possible advantage as to light, as to present the greatest surface
to the eye of the spectator. It is not desirable, however, to dress them so regularly, as
tliat the general slope of verdure shall appear as if shorn or mown, for that both deprives
the sides of the plants of a considerable portion of light and air, and the eye of variety
of form, and light and shade ; it will have a much better effect if somewhat irregular,
and if here and there a distinguished individual appear above the rest as a standard.

6207. In arranging by method or botanically, either the Linnaean or Jussieuean classifi-
cation may be adopted ; tlie latter is unquestionably preferable, as exhibiting a more per-
fect relationship ; and it may be considered as represented by the same lines as those de-
lineating the mode of grouping by colors. {Jig> 586.) Where the Linnaean method is
adopted, the classes raay either be grouped in irregular roundish masses ; or, as the tallest
trees and lowest herbs are often placed in the same class, it will answer better to dispose
each class and its orders in irregular strips {Jig' 587. m. d. t. tet. pentandria, &c. ), from
the lowest to the highest part of the stage, by which the dwarf plants of each class may
be placed in front, and the taller farthest back.

587

d. t. tet. _ pentan.

icos. poly, did.tet.mon. dia. polyad. syn.gy. mo.di. po-cijpt.

6208. The botaitic arrangements, it has been already observed, are only adapted for extensive collec-
tions and capacious hot-houses ; on a smaller scale the mingled method, or that by grouping, wiU be most
advantageously adopted. In the case of green-houses attached to living-rooms, and where there are reserve-
houses to keep up a supply, only such plants as are in bloom should be introduced, and there the method
by grouping the colors may be adopted with great effect But whatever be the size of the house, or even
the extent of a bed, or shelf, or any part of them, never let the plants be placed there in the present in-
discriminate mode. In this, no regard is paid to any thing but height ; or if any farther object is taken
into consideration, it is to mix the kinds as much as possible, with a view, as is alleged, to produce
variety. But the effect of this mixture, whether on a large or small scale, instead of variety, is same-
ness or monotony, which lessens interest, and finally produces indifference in the spectator. It is true,
there is as great a degree of sameness in the mingled mode ; but then it is the sameness of a formal and
avowed regularity ; whereas, the sameness resulting from the common mode of mixture, is the sameness
of affectation, — a sameness resulting from an abortive attempt at something not attained. The one mode
may be compared to the geometrical manner of laying out grounds, and the other to the mode by clumps
and bolts ; bath are alike artificial, but the former is avowedly so, and therefore has attained its end,
while the latter affects to be an imitation of nature, and therefore disappoints. A safe rule for every
gardener to adopt, whether in setting pots of plants on a shelf or a stage, however small either may be,
and however limited the collection, is to keep each genus together, placing the tallest plants farthest from
the eye. Sometimes this will form a thin, straggling group from the front of the shelf or stage to the
back {fig. 588. pelargonium, geranium, and erodium), and at other times, a sub-orbiculate group in the
front {oxalis,) middle {olea,) or back parts (cassia). This is a very simple rule, easily recollected and ap-
plied, and every master and head gardener who approves of it, ought to insist on its being carried into
execution in every case, whether in the open air or in hot-houses, where pots of plants are to be set
down together ; unless, indeed, it should, in the case of diseased plants, interfere with culture. The ef-
fect of this mode raay be very well estimated by inspecting the hot-houses, or open air collections of pots

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part HI.

588

Pelitrgoniutn

in some of the nurseries, and more particularly in Messrs. Loddiges', where this arrangement, both in the
extensive green-houses and beds of pots of alpines and other herbaceous plants, is adopted on account of
its utility.

6209. The following directions respecting the particular plant-habitations of fioricnl-
ture, are chiefly taken from Sweet's Botanical Cultivator (of 1820), and Cushing's Exotic
Gardener (of 1814).

6210. Frame. Very little management is requisite for this department, as the plants
kept in cold-frames are so hardy, that for seven or nine months of the year the sashes do
not require to be put on. All that is requisite is to expose the plants to the air the whole
of every day during winter when the weather is open, by drawing off the lights ; to
attend to watering them moderately, during winter in mild weather in the morning
after sunrise, and in summer in the evening. Once a-year in spring each plant
should be examined, and such changes made in the soil, size of the pot, head of the
plant, roots, &c. as the experience of the gardener, the appearance of the plant, or the
object desired by cultivating it may dictate. The routine culture of weeding, staking,
picking off decayed flowers, leaves, &c. need not be insisted on ; and the culture of par-
ticular species or even tribes cannot here be entered into. (See the Catalogue of Frame
Plants, in Chap. VIII.)

6211. Green-house. The plants of this department, Sweet observes, only require
protection from frost in winter. The more air they have given them when not frosty,
the more healthy they will be. On a fine morning, the sooner air is admitted the
better ; but it is best to shut up pretty early in the afternoon, particularly if likely to be
a cold night. No fire is required, except frost is expected in the night, or the house
should be damp with continued wet weather; then a little fire is requisite to dry the house,
as plants are more liable to be injured by damp than by cold. The plants should be
looked over most days to see if any require water, which must only be given when quite
dry, in the winter season : from nine to twelve o'clock in the morning is the best time
for watering them ; for, if watered in the afternoon, they are apt to be chilled at night,
which makes their leaves look yellow and unhealthy. When the surface of the mould is
green with moss, &C. the top should be taken off, and tlie surface moved with a flat stick,
but not deep enough to disturb the roots ; if a little fresh mould is wanting on any of
them, it should be added. Always be careful to put the same kind of soil they are al-
ready grown in ; for a different kind put on injures plants more than some cultivators
are aware of.

6212. When the 'weather begins to get war??i in spring, some air should be left all night to harden the
plants before they are set out ; a little must be left at first, and continue to increase it every night till
they have full air, if the weather will allow of it. The time of setting them out in the open air depends
entirely on the weather. Sometimes they may be put out with safety by the middle of May, in other sea-
sons not till the latter end ; but they had better stay in a little too long than be put out too soon. Calm
cloudy weather is the best time for setting them out, when as sheltered a situation as possible should be
chosen for them. The best time for shifting them in fresh pots is early in spring : some shift them before
they are set out, and let them make fresh roots while in the green-house, which is a very good plan, par-
ticularly for young or tender plants. If any plants are too tall, and want cutting back, it should be done
early in spring, as soon as they begin to grow ; then they have time to recover themselves, and make good
bushy plants by autumn.

6213. Cuttings require to be put in at various seasons, and in different situations. From Christmas to
May may be considered the best time for cuttings in general ; but some will require to be put in at various
seasons throughout the year, according to the state of the shoots. The best time for watering green-
house plants in summer is as late as possible in the aftenioon, then they have all the night to refresh
them. If watered in the morning of a warm day, they will dry again almost immediately. Plants should
not remain out too long in autumn, as they are liable to get too much wet, and the worms get in the pots.
The middle of September should be the latest, but give them full air as long as the weather will permit
(Bat. Cultivator, 121.)

6214. Stove. The management of stove plants, according to the same author,
whose experience and success are exceeded by none in the cultivation of exotics, de-
pends a great deal on the kind of house in which they aie grown ; but there is little
difficulty in growing them well, if the house can be kept up to a proper heat, and a suf-
ficient quantity of air can be given when required. Close glazing is to be preferred ;

Book II. CULTURE OF BOTANIC HOT-HOUSES. 827

either the lights should be leaded, or the laps stopped with putty, so tliat a sufBcient
quantity of air may be always given, and die house kept to a more regular heat. When
the laps of the glass are left open, a great deal of air is admitted, which is often injurious,
particularly on a cold windy night. The thermometer should never be allowed to be
below 60° of Fahrenheit's scale ; if it gets above 70° on a fine day, a little air may be
given, which should be taken away early, and the house shut up warm ; it then requires
less fire to keep up the heat through the night. If the house is heated in the common
way by flues, and tlie plants are plunged in tan, care must be taken not to give these
too much bottom heat, as it will injure their roots, or too much water in winter, as it is
apt to rot them. Particular caution is necessary for watering in winter, not to wet the
tan, as it makes the worms very troublesome ; they often destroy young plants by
throwing the mould out of the pots ; but a better way is the one now very generally
adopted, viz. to do without plunging in tan. Some hot dung or tan may be still kept
in the pit to throw up a little warmth, on which should be put a good thickness of sand
or gravel for the pots to stand on, and the plants will thrive much better than when
plunged in tan : it is also coming nearer to nature, which should be always studied in
the cultivation of plants, both in soil and situation. In tropical countries it is the sun
that heats the earth in which the plants grow, not the earth that heats the air; and
the heat must be kept up in the stoves accordingly. If the houses are heated by steam,
no tan is required. The plants may be set on stages, or any way that is most conve-
nient. Some of them may be planted out in the house, where they will grow in greater
perfection, and flower and ripen fruit better than when confined in pots.

6215. To have plants look well they should be always kept clean and free from insects : if infested with
any species of aphis, the house should be smoked witli tobacco, which instantly destroys them. The red
spiders are likewise a great pest to cultivators, but are also easily destroyed. One pound of sulphur vi vum,
mixed up in a pail of quick-lime, and the flues brushed all over with it as a common whitewash, will de-
stioy any quantity of them, and make the house look light and clean. The mealy bug is also troublesome if
left to increase on the plants ; but as soon as they appear they should be brushed off as well as the scaly in-
sects ; for, if left to increase, they will disfigure the plants, and be very difficult to get rid of In fine
•weather the plants should be often sprinkled over with water from an engine, and the house shut up warm
afterwards, which is a great means of keeping them clean and making them grow luxuriantly. Air
should be given in the mornii;g as early as possible, in fine weather, as it sweetens the house, and makes
the plants healthy. It should also be taken away early in the afternoon, and the house shut up warm, that
they may not be chilled by the night air.

6216. In potting plants, care should be taken to drain the pots well with broken potsherds or rough bits
of turf ; for nothing injures them more than letting them get sodden with too much wet. The best time
to shift them in fresh pots is the spring, but some will require to be shifted ag^in in autumn, to have them
thrive well. The free-growing kinds cannot be well overpottcd if there be plenty of room for them in the
houses : they will thrive and flower better for being in large pots. Others that are more tender should
be kept in as small pots as possible, that they may not get sodden, and lose their roots. {Bat. Culti-
vator^ 1.)

6217. The reserve hot-houses of the ornamental garden may be divided into those for
forcing hardy flowering plants and shrubs, and those for propagating exotics by seeds,
cuttings, or otherwise.

6218. Herbaceous plants and flowering shrubs are generally forced in pits or low houses ; and as soon as
the flower-buds begin to expand, removed to the green-house or drawing-room, there to prolong the flower-
ing season. The shrubs should be previously established in the pots, by being planted and plunged in
the open reserve-garden a year beforehand : the autumn before forcing they should be thrown early into
a state of rest, by covering them with canvass frames to exclude rain and sun, but so as to admit cold and
air. This operation should be commenced in July ; and the first course of pots may be removed to the pit
in November or earlier. Herbaceous plants of most sorts, especially of the fibrous-rooted kinds, may be
taken up with balls, and planted in pots early in the autumn preceding the winter in which they are to be
forced. Fusiform-rooted sorts earlier, as they do not rise so easily with balls ; and the bulbous sorts, the
bulbs being out of ground, may be planted in the end of autumn, plunged in the open ground, and covered
with rotten tan or ashes, and taken up as wanted. It is of some consequence to remark, that the flowers
should be pinched off both the shrubs and herbaceous plants, the summer preceding the forcing season,
in order to communicate additional strength, and aid in throwing them more early into a state of rest
The bottom heat may either be from tan or dung, or a vault heateil by flues or steam ; but the former we
consider as most to be depended on. The temperature of the air of the house may at first setting in the
plants be kept at 50° or 55'^ ; and in a fortnight, raised 10 degrees higher. After that, it may be kept up
to 65° or higher, admitting air during sunshine The temperature of the pit should be kept as high as
that of the air. Successional supplies should be kept for the first fortnight in a cooler house, or in the
coolest part of the pit; or the temperature, on their admission, may be somewhat lowered. The other
points of routine culture need not be entered into.

6219. The jn-opagation-hoiise requires to be kept at a much more moderate tempera-
ture both as to the atmosphere and the bottom heat than the forcing-pit or the principal
stove. It need seldom exceed 60° in winter, and 65° in summer. Abundance of air
must be given at certain seasons when damp and mouldiness begin to appear ; and
shading and watering, so as to produce a moist atmosphere, must be attended to in the
Summer season.

S2ft

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

Chap. VIII.
Florictdtural Catalogue. — Herbaceous Plants.

6220. A Jloriadtural catalogue, as copious as that which we have given of culinary plants
and fruits, would greatly exceed our limits. Plants grown for ornament are so numerous,
that we cannot particularise separately the culture of each individual species ; but, with
the exception of some of the more choice sorts, as the florists' flowers, &c., must collect
them in groups, and detail a mode of culture applicable to the whole group. We shall
first commence with herbaceous flowers, and these we shall arrange as florists', or select
flowers, border-flowers, and herbaceous plants for particular purposes.

Sect. I. Florists', or Select Floxvers.

6221. Florists* flowers are so called as being " flowers" by way of eminence, and be-
cause the principal sorts of them for a long time almost exclusively engaged the attention
of the flower-gardener. The Dutch, in this, as in most other departments of gardening,
were the first to bring it into notice, and more particularly by the great excellence to which
tliey attained in the culture of florists' bulbs. In the culture of that tribe, they still excel ;
but the fibrous-rooted flowers, as the carnation, auricula, &c. ; and the tuberous-rooted
kinds, as the dahlia, paeony, &c. are brought to a higher degree of perfection in Britain
than any where else. Ornamental flowers, like culinary vegetables which have been
long and highly cultivated, acquire a magnitude, succulence, and conformation of parts
which render them w idely different from what they are in their natural state. This takes
place both in double flowers, that is, when the petals of the corolla are increased in num-
ber, or by the transformation of other parts of the flower into petals ; and also in single
flowers, or those in which the petals do not exceed the common number. A flower so
changed by cultivation, can no more be compared to the blossom of the same species in
its wild state, than a headed cabbage or a broccoli can be compared to the wild cabbage
of our sea-shores. Hence have been formed, by the common consent of florists, what
are called canons of criticism, by which to estimate the properties of new varieties of
established sorts of florists' flowers. To the hyacinth, tulip, auricula, and a few other
sorts, particular canons are adapted ; but the merits of a number of other select
flowers, double and single, are only to be judged of by general rules, such as fulness
of floral leaves, roundness of outline, brilliancy and distinctness of color, &c. Under
each species we shall give the established criterion, or canon, as far as generally agreed
on. We shall take the plants of tliis section in the order of bulbous, tuberous, ramose,
and fibrous rooted flowers.

SuBSECT. I.' Hyacinth. — Hi/acinlhus Orientalis, L. {Bot. Mag. 937.) Hexandria
Monogynia, L. and Asphodeleee, B. P. Jacinte, Fr. ; Hyacinthe, Ger. ; and
Giacinto, Ital. {fig. 589.)

6222. Tlie bulb of the hyacinth is tunicated,
the leaves broad and green, from the centre of
wliich arises a scape, witli a spike of flowers,
pointing in all directions, and by which it is
known, at first sight, from Hyacinthus nonscrip-
tus, L. {Scilla nonscripla, W.), in which the
scape is drooping, and the flowers all turned to
one side. It is a native of the Levant, and
abundant aljout Aleppo and Bagdat, where it
flowers in February ; here it flowers in March
and April. It was cultivated by Gerrard in
1596 ; but had, doubtless, long before been im-
proved by the Dutch, who have added greatly to
the strength and beauty of the plant, and produced
almost innumerable varieties.

6!iJ23. Varieties. Gerrard mentions the single and double
blue, tlie purple, and the white. Parkinson, in 1629, enu-
merates eight sorts. Miller says, the Haerlem gardeners

distinguish near 2000 sorts, and generally publish cata- *^'^''

logues of them from year to year. At present, the taste for this floweif being considerably abated,
the Dutch and Englisli catalogues contain only a few hundred sorts. Mason's catalogue for 1820,
contains three hundred sorts with names. These names are quite arbitrary, being given by the
grower after himself or some public character ; and therefore they are here omitted. They are arranged
as double blues, whites, reds, and yellows, and single sorts of the same colors ; the blues and reds are the
most numerous ; the yellow, those of which there is least variety. Only single hyacintlis were at first
cultivated ; but about the beginning of the last century attention was paid to double flowers by Peter
Voerhclm, \yhose first double flower was named Mary, and is now lost ; but his third flower, the King qf
Great Britain, which is now looked upon as the oldest double hyacinth, was greatly prefcrre<l to all the '
flowers knoT\'n, and the price of it was then above 1000 florins, or 100/. sterling. Up 'to the middle of last

Book II. HYACINTH, 829

century, the greatest attention was paid at Haerlem to raising new sorts of double flowers ; and as much
as 200/. has been known to be given for a root : but, since that period, the taste for this and other bulbous
flowers has considerably declined, and at present there are few sorts for which more than 10/. are asked j
the general price being from one to ten shillings a bulb for the varied sorts, and what are called the com-
mon mixtures are sold at from 2/. to 3/. a hundred. A variety degenerates, under bad treatment, in two
or three years ; but in Holland some have been preserved nearly a century.

6224. Criterion of a fine double hyacinth. ( fig. 589. a) " The stem should be strong, tall, and erect, sup.
porting numerous large liells, each suspended by a short and strong peduncle, or foot-stalk, in a horizontal
position, so that the whole may have a compact, pyramidal form, with the crown, or uppermost flower,
perfectly erect. The flowers should be large, and perfectly double, i. e. well filled with broad bold petals,
appearing to the eye rather convex than flat or hollow ; they should occupy about one half the length of
the stem. The colors should be clear and bright, whether plain, red, white, or blue, or variously inter-
mixed and diversified in the eye ; the latter, it must be confessed, gives additional lustre and elegance to
this beautiful flower. Strong bright colors are, in general, preferred to such as are pale."

6225. Propagation. By seed for new varieties j and by offset-bulbs for continuing
approved sorts.

622& By seed. " The seed should be saved from such sorts as have strong and straight stems, and a
regular well formed pyramid of bells, not perfectly single, but rather semi-double. It should not be
gathered till it has become perfectly black and ripe, at which time the pericarpium will appear yellow
on the outside, and will begin to open. The stem, with which the seed is connected, is then to be cut off",
and placed in a dry, airy, cool situation, where it may remain undisturbed till the time of sowing, which
is the latter end of October, or beginning of March : it should then be sown about half an inch below the
surface of the soil, in a deep box, filled with good sound garden-mould, mixed with sand, or the hyacinth
compost, which should be afterwards placed in a warm situation during winter. It will never require
to be watered, or have any other attention paid to it than to keep it free from weeds and frost, till it has
remained in this state two years ; it must then, on the approach of winter, have an additional stratum of
the compost placed upon it, about half an inch thick ; and at the third year, in the month of July, the
roots may be taken up, dried, and treated in the same manner as large bulbs or offsets : some of the roots
will flower the fourth year, one half of them will at the fifth, but by the sixth year, every healthy root
will exhibit its bloom, and then the hopes and expectations of the cultivator will be realised or disap.
pointed. He may think himself fortunate, if one half of the plants that first appeared, are in existence
at this period ; and if he can at last find one flower in five hundred deserving a name or place m a curious
collection, he may rest perfectly content, and be assured that he has fared as well as could reasonably be
expected, and better than many who have bestowed equal attention on the subject" (Maddock.)

6227. By offsets. These may be planted in the beginning of October, or soon after they have been
separated from the parent bulbs. Plant them in an open part of the garden, in rows about two inches
deep', upon a bed raised six or eight inches above the common level, consisting of a sandy soil, pulverised,
eighteen inches deep ; the surface of the bed should be made rather convex or rounding, so as to throw
off" heavy rains ; no further attention is necessary, except to stir the surface of the bed occasionally, keep
it free from weeds, and preserve it from very severe frost. The proper time to take them up' is the
same as for large roots. Off'sets, if preserved in health, will bloom weakly the second year; but by the
third tolerably strong, and may afterwards be placed on the best bed.

6228. Choice qf full-grown roots. " Such roots as have attained the age of four or five years, bloom
stronger in this country than any other ; they afterwards gradually decUne, either by dividing into off^ts,
or diminishing in size and strength : but in Holland, owing to the peculiar circumstances of the soil,
climate, situation, &c. the same bulb has been known to produce blossoms twelve or thirteen times, nor is
it ever known to die merely with age."

6229. Soil and site. " The bed on which tliey are to be planted should be situated in rather a dry
and airy part of the garden ; a southern aspect is to be preferred, sheltered on the north and east When
the situation is determined on, the dimensions of the bed should be marked out, and the soil entirely taken
away to the depth of at least two feet ; the earth in the bottom must then be dug up and pulverised, one
spit or nine inches deeper, and the space above filled up with a compost consisting of one third coarse
sea or river sand ; one third fresh sound earth ; one fourth rotten cow-dung, at least two years old ; and
earth of decayed leaves for the remainder. These ingredients are to be well mixed and incorporated,
and about a fortnight previous to planting, the bed should be filled up with the compost to about four
inches above the level of the path on the south or front side, and ten inches on the north side, so
as to form a regular slope or inclination towards the sim."

6230. In the Dutch Florist of Nicholas Van Kampen and sons, florists at Haerlem {Haerlem 1760, and
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1763), sandy earth is said to form the basis of the culture of the hyacinth. It
ought to be of a bluish-grey or blackish-red color, not sharp, but rather handling smooth, a little greasy,
and taking a pearl color when dry ; the water passing through it being sweet and of a delicate taste. The
best method of enriching sandy earth, according to their experience, " is to make use of cow-dung, rotted
leaves of trees, and tanners' bark ; but the bark ought not to he taken fresh out of the pits, but laid up
for two years at least, that it may be well rotted and consumed to one half : — Our method, then, of mak-
ing compost for hyacinths is as follows : Two sixth parts of grey sand ; two sixths of well rotted cow-
dung ; one sixth of tenners' bark, quite rotted and reduced to earth ; one sixth of tree-leaves, also well
rotted. AU these materials must be thrown into a heap, not more than three feet thick, so that the rays
of the sun may have power to penetrate through it, and warm it to the bottom ; for which piu^Mse the
heap must be laid in a high and open place exposed to the south. Once a month it ought to be carefully
turned, and the bottom throwTi to the top, tiiat all parts of it may partake of the benign influence of the
sun and elements : this is essential ; and this turning must be continued for twelve months, taking care
not to sift the compost, because, in that case, it is apt to run into lumps, which would be of dangerous
consequence." (Quot. by N/nll, in Hort. Tour, 5S&.)

6231. In St. Simon's work, entitled Des Jacintes (Amst 1768, 4to.), in which the Dutch mode of cul-
tivating the hyacinth is fully detailed, the compost used at Haerlem is said to be rotten cow-dung, rotten
leaves, and fine sand. The leaves of elm, lime, and birch are preferred to those of oak, chestnut, walnut,
beech, plane, &c. which do not rot so quickly. The cow-dung is collected in winter from cattle, stall-fed
upon dry food, without anv mixture of straw or other litter. The leaves, when decayed and fit for use,
are thus mijfed with the other materials : " First, they place a layer of sand, then one of dung, and
then one of rotten leaves, each being eight or ten inches thick. These layers are repeated till the heap is
six or seven feet high, a layer of dung being uppermost, sprinkled over with a little sand to prevent the
too powerful action of the smi upon it After the heap has lain thus for six months or more, it is mixed,
and thrown up afresh, in which state it remains some weeks to settle before it is carried into the flower-
beds. This compost retains its qualities about six or seven years ; but the Dutch avoid setting hyacinths
in it two vears successively ; in the alternate years they plant tulips, jonquils, narcissuses, crocuses, irises, &c.
in the same beds ; nor do they venture to set hyacinths in the compost the first season, when the fresh
manure might be injurious to them." {Herbert, in Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 165.)

6232. Planting. This should take place " from the middle of October to the middle of November ; if it
is done earlier the plants will appear above ground in the middle of winter; or if it is deferred later,
the roots will be weakened by their natural tendency to vegetate. On planting the roots, the surface of
the bed should be covered with a little fresh sandy earth, about one inch thick, raked perfectly smooth

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

III.

590

and eren, and have the exact situ-
ation for every bulb marked upon it

ffig.5i)0.), regularly mingling the co-
ors of red, blue, and white ; the yel-
lows being classed with the latter.
The width of the surface of the bed
may be four feet, and six rows may be
placed across it at eight inches asun-
der, the two outside rows being each
four inches from the sides of the bed ;
consequently the space between the
centre of each bulb will be about nine
inches and a quarter. On planting
hyacinths, a little clean sand should
be placed underneath, and likewise
upon the roots, to prevent the earth
adhering too closely to them ; the
whole are then to be covered with
sound fresh sandy earth, from three to
four inches deep, according to the size of the bulb ; when this is completed, the bed will be about eight
inches above the level of the walk on the south or front side, and about fourteen inches on the north ; it
•will look neater and have a better effect, if it is supported on each side with a strong frame of thick
iboards or brick-work.

6233. The Dutch Florist directs, " After a place has been pitched on for planting the flowers, the natural
earth must be dug out to the depth of three feet, and the bottom covered with a stratum of cow-dung half
a foot thick ; which must be beaten and trod down till it be very firm and compact hke a hard crust, so as
to prevent any communication with the sub-soil. Then the hole is to be filled up with compost, six inches
above the level of the garden. The compost should be laid into the designed bed about a month before
the roots are planted ; for if it be put in later, the earth might settle while the roots are in it, which would
lay them too deep. The proper season for putting in the bulbs is October and November. They ought to
be set at the depth of four or five inches ; but early flowering varieties may be one inch deeper, which will
bring them to flower at the same time with the others." (Quot. by Neill, in Hort. Tour, 537.)

62-34. Culture. " In order to preserve it from very heavy rains or severe frosts, it should be hooped over,
and mats or canvass should be placed at hand ready to cover the bed on such emergencies ; but it will not
be necessary to defend it from moderate rains or slight frosts: for too frequent and long covering will de-
prive the roots of the due action and influence of the air, which ought to be avoided as much as possible :
it were even better to run the hazard of incurring a slight injury by the omission of covering on some oc-
casions, than overdo it to the certain detriment of the plants. If frost is permitted to penetrate so far into
the soil as to reach the bulbs, especially about the time that the plants begin to appear above ground, it
will produce a singular effect, by causing some of them to shoot forth or discharge their stems and blos-
soms ; but if the roots become entirely frozen through, they are in danger of being destroyed. The earlier
sorts will begin to open and show color about the beginning of April ; it will be proper to screen such from
the too powerful effects of the sun, which, if not prevented, would bleach and tarnish their colors, parti-
cularly the reds and deep blues ; but if they are properly defended from it, their colors will be preserved,
and they will, in some measure, be kept back, so as to be in full bloom with the later sorts, especially if the
roots of the early sorts have been planted about an inch deeper than the rest : it is a very desirable object
to have a uniform bloom. It will be necessary to support the stems as they advance in height ; for this
purpose, small sticks or wires, painted green, should be forced into the ground, immediately behind the
bulbs, either in an erect position or leaning a little backwards, to which the stems are to be rather loosely
tied with small pieces of green worsted, as soon as they begin to bend, or are in danger of breaking with
the weight of the corolla or bells : this operation must be repeated as they advance in height, for it is im-
possible to do it at one time so as to answer the purpose. When the greater part of the bed appears in
color, a covering, or awning, should be erected over it and the path in front : the awning should consist
of a strong frame of wood, ten feet high in the centre, and seven feet at the sides, covered with Irish or
Scotch sheetings, or Russia duck, which will effectually keep out rain, and admit a great degree of light;
it should come down close to the bed on the north side, in order to preserve it from cold winds, which are
prejudicial to the bloom. The covering {fig. 591.) should be
BO const urcted, by means of lines (rt) and pulleys (6), as to be
easily and expeditiously rolled up, or let down, as occasion
requires, to afford the plants the full benefit of light and air,
at all favorable opportunities, that is to say, when the air is
mild, and light clouds intervene, so as to blunt the sun's ray.
This sometimes, and, indeed, often happens to be the case
from seven to nine o'clock in the morning, and from four to
six in the evening, at which time the sun has also less power
than in the middle of the day. A bed of hyacinths never
requires to be watered at any period ; the rains that happen
after planting are generally more than sufficient both for
the roots and the bloom ; and after the bloom is over they
are rather prejudicial than otherwise, except when very
moderate. Although covering in the manner described
presents and exhibits the bloom to the greatest advantage,
yet it evidently has a tendency to weaken and injure the
bulbs, and ought not, therefore, to be continued more than
two or three weeks at most ; but as soon as the general
bloom declines, tlie beds should be immediately exposed to
the open air, and the mats and hoops should be replaced, as before, to keep off heavy rains."
• 6235. Taking up the bulbs. " It is the practice in Holland, to take up the bulbs about three weeks or a
month after bloom, in the following manner : As soon as the plants begin to put on a yellowish decayed ap-
pearance, they take up the roots and cut off the stem and foliage close to, or within half an inch of the
bulb, but leave the fibres, &c. attached to it ; they then place the bulbs again on the same bed sideways,
with their points towards tlie north, and cover them about half an inch deep, with dry earth or sand, in
the form of a ridge, or little cone, over each : in this state they remain about three weeks longer, and dry
or ripen gradually ; during which, as much air is admitted as possible, but the bed is preserved from heavy
rams, and too hot a sun ; at the expiration of this period the bulbs are taken up, and their fibres which are
become nearly dry, gently rubbed off; they are then placed in a dry room for a few days, and are afterwards
cleaned from any soil that adheres to them, their loose skins taken off, with such offsets as may be easily
separated. When this dressing is finished, the bulbs are wrapped up in separate pieces of paper, or buried
m dry sand, where they remain till the return of the season for planting. Another, and less troublesome,
mode of treatment after bloom, though perhaps more hazardous, is to keep the bed airy, and rather dry,
till the stems and foliage appear nearly dried up or consumed ; this will seldom happen to be the case in less
than two months ; the bulbs are then to be taken up, cleaned from the fibres, soil, &c, and preserved in
sand or papers as before directed."

Book II. TULIP. 881

6236. Van Kampen and son say, "We take up the roots as soon as the leaves b^n to wither, that is, whm
their plants begin to turn yellow. We then break off the stems an inch above the bulbs, which we afterwards
cover with earth, in which they are to lie till the gross moisture be dried up by the warmth of the sun.
We make a little heap of earth, and place the roots in it, bottom downwards as they grew ; and the heap is
covered with an inch or two of soiL When the bulbs have lain in this heap for three weeks, thev are
to be taken out in fair weather, and laid on a board in the sun for an hour, after which, they are to be
cleared of the earth and offsets about them, taking great care not to give the least bruise or wound."
(Quot by Neill, in Hort. Tour, 558.)

6237. Herbert says, " The bulbs should be placed in an airy store-room, and not suffered to touch each
other ; a moveable stage of open lattice-work, furnished with drawers, may be used, and the utmost atten-
tion should be paid to ventilation." A French florist, Baudry, is said {Caled. Hort. Mem. iv. 76 ) to have
lost annually a number of his hyacinth-bulbs through dampness until he adopted the expedient of placing
them in the store-room with the base of the bulb upwards. Drawers of lattice-work would effect the same
object

6238. Diseases. " Hyacinths are subject to various diseases, arising from different causes ; that distem-
per commonly known by the appellation of the ring-sickness, is of all others the most dangerous and most
difficult to cure ; in short, the only effectual remedy is to cut out the diseased part, till no brownness, yel-
lowness, or other symptom of distemper remains. The sound part will sur\ive the operation, if it consist
of no more than the outside tunic of the bulb, without any heart ; but it will, in such case, only be able
to produce offsets, and will never recover itself so as to flower again : as soon as the operation is performed,
the wounded part should be exposed to the sun, till it becomes dry, to prevent mouldiness, and it will be
best to replant it in some dry situation soon after." " The Dutch," Herbert observes, " are much troubled
with this disease ; the cause of which appears to be a fungus, the spawn of which is nurtured in the
cow-dung. The only remedy is the removal of the distempered bulb, and the compost that was in contact
with it."

6239. Duration of bulbs. " The hyacinth delights in a sandy soil and saline atmosphere ; of conse-
quence it succeeds best on the sea-coast, or in situations very near to the sea. In more inland parts, it
will generally be found necessary to procure an annual reinforcement of fresh imported bulbs, in order to
make good or supply the deficiencies arising from the loss, or impaired health and strength of many of those
that have bloomed on the best bed the preceding spring. Those who are well acquainted with the hyacinth,
always allow about one bulb in twelve to fail, notwithstanding no visible blemish or decay is discernible at
the time of planting ; such generally have a corps de reserve, in narrow deep |X)ts, which, at the com-
mencement of bloom, they plunge or sink into the bed, wherever a vacancy, or weak sickly plant makes
its appearance ; by which means the uniformity and regularity of the bed is preserved, without any visible
defect or alteration." Herbert says, " My own experience enables me to say, that the nurseryman in the
neighborhood of London may produce hyacinth-bulbs equal, if not superior,' to those imported from Hoi-
land ; though, perhaps, with" greater loss from disease, owing to his not being able to procure the dung of
cattle fed upon hard food, and free from straw." {Hort. Trans, vol iv. p. 168.)

6240. Forcing the hyacitith. Plant the roots in narrow deep pots, filled with sandy loam, in October ;
plunge them in and cover them with old bark-leaves or sand ; they will soon throw down roots, and a part
may then, say in November, be plunged in bottom heat, which will come into bloom by Christmas, and
suc'cessional supplies can be taken from the store planted in October, and a bloom thus kept up till they
flower in the open air. The best sorts to force are the single blues and reds.

6241. Blowing hyacinths in water-glasses. Blue or dark-colored glasses are more favorable to the pro-
gress of the roots than light ones, light being injurious to all roots. The bulbs to be blown in the glasses
should be planted in October, in earth in which they push their fibres more regularly, and taken up as
wanted, washed from the earth, and placed in the blowing-glass : the glasses may be kept in a warm room
or in a stove. The water should be soft, and the glass so full that it may rise a fourth of an inch on the
bulb. As often as it becomes fetid, it should be renewed.

SuBSECT. 2. Tulip, — Ttilipa Gesjieriana, L. {Bot. Mag. 1135.) Hex. Monog. L. and
Lilice, J. Tulipe, Fr. and Ger. and Tulipatio, Ital. (Jig. 592.)
6242. The bulb of the tulip is solid, and sends up an upright stem from twelve to eigh-
teen inches high, w-ith glaucous leaves, and a large erect flower, tlie petals in its wild state
having a black base. It is a native of the Levant. It is common in Syria, and is sup-
posed by some to be the " lily of the field," referred to in Christ's address from the mount;
though Sir J. E. Smith thinks the amaryllis lutea is there meant. In Persia, where the
tulip is abundant, it is considered as the emblem of
perfect lovers. " When a young man," says
Chardin, " presents one to his mistress, he gives
her to understand, by the general color of tlie
flower, that his body is on fire with her beauty, and I
by the black base of it, that his heart is burned to a I
coal. " According to Gesner, tlie tulip was brought
to Europe in 1559. It was cultivated in Eng-
land by James Garnet, in 1577, having been intro-
duced, according to Hakluyt, from Vienna. To-
wards the middle of the 17th century, the tulip
became the object of considerable trade in the
Netherlands ; it rose to its greatest height in 1634,
and the three following years. According to
Beckmann (History of Inventions, art. Tulip), for
one root of a variety called the Viceroy, articles to
the value of 2500 florins were agreed to be de-
livered. The Semper Augustus has been sold for
2000 florins ; one person agreed to give 4600 florins (about 460/. ), with a new carriage,
two horses, and complete harness ; and another agreed to give twelve acres of land for a
single root. The trade was generally followed for a time, and having no foundation in
real utility, like the Missisippi and South Sea schemes, it was a mere gambling business,
and rightly named Tulipomania. John Barclay, the celebrated author of the romance of
Argenis, is said to have had this mania to such an excess, that he placed two mastiffs as

832 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

sentinels in his garden. This was between 1600 and 1621, when he lived at Rome, in
an ill aired and unwholesome habitation ; in which, however, he chose rather to continue
tlian abandon his favorite flowers. (^Chalmers's Biog. Diet.) The taste for tulips in Eng-
land was at its greatest height about the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th cen-
tury ; about the year 1730 or 40, it had declined and given way to the taste for botany,
and new plants from America and other foreign countries. Tlie tulip, however, is still
much cultivated both in Holland and England, near large towns, though in the latter
country there are now very few good cpllections in the private gardens of the higher classes.
Like the auricula and some other flowers, it is more the flower of the tradesman and oper-
ative manufacturer than of the botanist or man of fortune.

6243. Varieties. Parkinson, in 1629, enumerates 140 sorts : but " to tell of all the kinds," he says,
" which are the pride of delight, they are so many, and as I may say almost infinite, doth both pass my
ability, and.^s I believe, the skill of anv other." In Parkinson's time, tulips were divided into pracoces,
or early blowers, and serotinco, or late blowers, with an intermediate division of dubicc medite, doubtful
or middle blowers, which, for the most part, however, belonged to the serotinee. The early blowers have
short stems, and the Due Van Tholl is almost the only variety in repute among modern florists. The great
variety in the catalogues is i)roduced from the late blowers, which have tall stems and much richer colors ;
of these the catalogue of Maddock in 1792 contained the names of C^Q5 sorts. In Mason's catalogue for
1820, are six sorts of early tulips ; four of perroquets, or middle blowers ; 22 double sorts, and upwards of
600 single late sorts. The'Dutch florists class their late-blowing tulii)s as under : a variety will last an un-
known number of years.

Prime baguets (bagxtette, Fr. a rod or
wand) ; very tall ; line cuus with white
bottoms, well broken with fine brown,
and all from tlie same breeder.
<uets Higaut's (suimosetl from Ri-
; Ho ■ ■

well formed cups, with white l)ottoms,
well broken with fine brown, and all
from the same breeder.

Incomparable Verjiorts ; very perfect
cups, cherry and rose, and white bot-
toms, well broken with shining brown.

Byblomens, or next flowers, the Jlamands

of the French florists, with bottoms
white, or nearly so, from ditterent
breeders, and broken with variety of
colors.
Bizarres {tnxarre, Fr. odd, irregular) ;
ground yellow, from dilrerent breed-
ers, and broken with variety of colors.

gaud, some eminent florist's name, or
ruuf;eiuiile, red-face<l} ; not quite so tall,
but with strong stems, and very large

f 6244. The names of the different varieties, classed under these heads, being perfectly arbitrary, and con-
stantly changing, their insertion here could be of no use. (See the Annual Catalogues of Bulbous Boots,
published by the nurserymen and florists.) What are called breeders are procured from seed, and consist
of one plain color on a white or yellow bottom. These being cultivated on a dry and rather poor soil be-
come broken or variegated, and produce new varieties. The time that elapses before they break varies
from one to twenty years or more, and sometimes this change never takes place, so that whoever thinks
of raising new varieties of tulips from seed must be possessed of an ample fund of patience and persever-
ance. Tlie early dwarf tulip, known among florists as the Van Tholl, is a distinct species, T. suavcolens.
Tormerly there were several varieties of early dwarf kinds.

6245. Criterion of a fine variegated late tulip. "The stem should be strong, elastic, and erect, and
about thirty inc-hes above the surface of the bed. The flower should be large, and composed of six petals :
these should i)roceed a little horizontally at first, and then turn upwards, forming almost a perfect cup,
with a round bottom, rather widest at the top. The three exterior petals should be rather larger than the
three inferior ones, and broader at their base : all the petals should have perfectly entire edges, free from
notch or serrature ; the top of each should be broad and well rounded ; the ground-color of the flower, at
the bottom of the cup, should be clear white or yellow, and the various rich-colored stripes, which are the
principal ornament of a fine tulip should be regular, bold, and distinct, on the margin, and terminate in
tine broken points, elegantly feathered or pencilled. The centre of each leaf, or petal, should contain one
or more bold blotches, or stripes, intermixed with small portions of the original or breeder color, abruptly
broken into many irregular obtuse points. Some florists are of the opinion that the central stripes, or
blotches, do not contribute to the beauty and elegance of the tulip, unless confined to a narrow stripe, ex-
actly down the centre, and that they should be perfectly free from any remains of the original or breeder
color : it is certain that such appear very beautiful and delicate, especially when they have a regular nar-
row feathering at the edge ; but the greatest connoisseurs in this flower unanimously agree, that it denotes
superior merit, when tiie tulip abounds with rich coloring, distributed in a distinct and regular manner
throughout the flower, except in the bottom of the cup, which, it cannot be disputed, should be a clear,
bright white or yellow, free from stain or tinge, in order to constitute a perfect flower."

6246. Propagation. By seed for new varieties, and by offsets for continuing approved sorts.

6247. Bi/ seed. Select such breeders as have tall strong stems, with large well formed cups, clear in the
bottom, and save seed from these in jireference to the finest of the variegated or broken sorts, as the seed
of such sorts produces nothing but iwor weak breeders of no value. " It should remain growing on the
stem till the pericarpium becomes of a brownish color, and begins to open; it is then sufficiently ripe, and
should be cut off, with six or eight inches of the stem, and treated afterwards, in all respects, agreeable to
the directions given for the management of hyacinth-seed. Some of the seedlings will bloom by the fourth
or fifth, and most, if not all, by the seventh year."

6248. Bi/ offiets. These should be planted soon after they are separated from the parent bulb, in beds of
fresh sandy loam, with a little rotten cow-dung placed from seven to twelve inches below the surface, in a
dry airy situation, from two to four inches deci), according to the size of the roots. The beds should be
raised six or eight inches above the alleys, formed rather convex on the surface, and may be provided
with hoops and mats, to be used to guard them, as occasion may require, from heavy rains and severe frosts.

6249. Choice offull-groivn bulbs. Select such as have not lost the brown skin, are not mouldy or soft at
the root end, and are full, solid, and rather pointed at the other. Just before planting, strip off the brown
skin so as to leave the root i)erfectly bare and white, performing the operation with great care, to avoid
bruising or wounding the root, especially at the lower end, where the fibres are formed, which is, at the
season of planting, extremely tender.

6250. So/7 and situation. " The situation for the best bed should be in an open airy part of the garden ;
when that is fixed upon, the ground should be marked out, agreeable to its intended dimensions, and the
soil taken out twenty inches deep ; the bottom is then to be filled up with sound fresh earth, ten inches thick,
upon which is to be placed a stratum of two-year-old rotten cow-dung, and earth of the above descrijrtion,
about one half of each, well mixed together, twelve inches thick ; and again, upon this is to be i)laced an-
other stratum of the same kind of earth as that of the bottom ; this is only to be two inches thick at the
sides, and three inches at the middle, which will give it a small degree of convexity; this is to be per-
formed about the 20th of October, i. e. a week or two before planting, to give (he bed time to settle ; at
the expiration of two weeks, the earth will have subsided, so as to be about two inches higher than the cir-
cumjacent p9ths ; but if heavy rains intervene between this preparation of the bed, and the time of plant-
ing, it will be i)roper to keep them off, in order to preserve the tcmiicrature of the earth, as it would be
•■cntlcrcd too compact and adhesive, by a redundancy of moisture for the fibres to pass freely through it,
which ought to be avoided." Hogg recommends a fresh, rich, loamy soil, of rather a sandy nature, which .
should be dug twelve months at least before it is used, and a small i)ortion of well rooted dung must be
added. He says, an intelligent old tulip-grower assured him, that the best compost lie had ever hit on

was three fourths rich yellow loam ; one fourth leaf-mould j one sixth two-year-old horse-dung ; and

Book II. TULIP. 833

on3 eighth sea-sand, well incorporated, and laid in a bed, or stratum, for the plants, two feet decix" (TV.
c>H the Carna/ion, Auricula, Tulip, &c. 142.)

625 1. Planting. The most proper time is from the end of October to the tenth of No-
vember. ( )n the day made choice of for planting, rake the surface of the bed smooth
and even, still preserving its convexity, and mark the exact situation for every root upon
It. Tlie proper distance between each root is seven inches from centre to centre ; and if
the rows are seven inches asunder, the roots will form squares of similar diameter on all
parts of the bed. A bed consisting of seven rows makes the noblest appearance, when
it is of sufficient length, with a path round it about two and a half or three feet wide ; but
where the number of roots is small five rows may suffice, and the path, in that case, may
either extend quite round the bed, or only on one side, at pleasure. If, therefore, the bed
consists of seven rows, it should consequently be fifty inches wide, which will allow a space
of four inches between the outside rows and the sides of the bed ; but if the bed contains
only five rows, it will only require to be three feet wide, to give the roots similar distances.
Having sprinkled a little clean sand where the roots are to be set, place them with great
exactness and add some very sandy earth, so as to completely envelope each root in a lit-
tle cone of it; then cover the whole very carefully with strong, sound, fresh loam, about
four inches thick at the middle of the bed, gradually decreasing as it approaches the sides,
where it should be about three inches thick ; thus will the convexity of the surface be in-
creased in a proper degree, and the roqjs will be covered with soil, to a depth propor-
tionate to their size and strength ; the largest and strongest having been placed in the cen-
tre rows, and the smaller and weaker on those of the outside. No tulip-root, whatever
may be its size or strength, should be planted more than four inches deep from the upper
side of the root ; nor should any blooming root be planted less than two and a half or
three inches deep, however small it may be. The soil made use of for covering the bulbs
shoidd be frequently turned over, and thoroughly exposed to the sun and air, some time
before it is made use of, that it may be rendered perfectly sweet and free from the acrid qua-
lity that most soils are subject to, when taken considerably below the surface. But if the
bed is only to contain five rows, with a path in the front, and none behind, then it will be
proper to plant the smallest and lowest growing roots in the front, next the path, and so
gradually to increase in the size of the roots to the fifth or last row, which should con-
tiiin the strongest and largest of all ; when the roots are properly covered with soil, as
before directed, the surface of the bed will slope one way, forming an inclined plane : it
will be necessary to support its highest side at least with boards or brick-work, otherwise
the earth would be liable to crumble down and leave the roots bare or too shallow.

6252. Future culture and management. " When the operation of planting is concluded, the bed may bo
hoopetl over, and taken care of, in the manner directed for hyacinths, i. e. so as to presTvc it from very
heavy rains, and severe frosts ; but either one or the other, iii moderation, will be of more service than
injury to it. By the e'ui of February every plant in health will be visible above ground ; some tall early
sorts will be two or three inches high, others one inch, and the latter sorts just making their aunearance ;
indeed, a very few remarkably late sorts may be a week longer before they appear, but not more : if, on
examination, any distem}jer or canker is discernible on the foliage, about this time, either a!>ove or an
inch or two below the surface of the soil, it should be carefully cut out with a sharp knife, and the
wounded part left exposed to the sun and air, which will presently heal it : a line dry day should be made
choice of for this oj^eration. If the surface of the bed appears to be of too close and solid a contexture, it
should be carefully stirred up, about two inches deep, which will admit the air more freely, and prove, in
all respects, very beneficial. By the end of April, some of the plants will probably be grown so tall as to
require the hoops to be raised a'little, to secure the blossom from injury : attention to this part must not
be omitted, for the blossom is very tender and likely to be bruised and disfigured, by a very slight blow,
or rub against the hoops. As"soon as anv of the earlier sorts begin to show color, they should be shaded
from the sun, for, when its heat is considerable, it will cause the colors to run and intermix, in such a
manner as to destroy the elegance and beauty of the flower ; some sorts are more particularly liable to
this effect than others, and will be spoiled in "five minutes. When the greater part of the blossoms have
begun to open, a frame, or awning, should be erected over the bed and paths, nearly similar to that for
hvacinths (». 591.) : that is to say, so as to keep out rain, and admit as much light as possible ; this must
be thrown off, or rolled up, at every favorable opportunity, as directed for hyacinths, except that it should
be done rather earlier in the mooiing, and later in the evening; because the sun has acquired a greater
degree of power at this season of the year than earlier. If these frequent exposures to the light and air be
omittetl, the colors of the flowers will be faint and weak, and the grandeur of effect will be lost, or consi-
derably lessened. The cloth covering should come down on each side, within about three feet of the
ground, to allow a free circulation of air, except in windy weather ; from the effects of which, the flowers
must be most carefully preserved, by a continuation of the covering quite down to the ground, on the
windy side ; a line of mats sewed together, and their upper edge nailed to the frame on that side, may
answer the puq^se, if the cloth is not of sufficient length. Tuliijs never require to be artificially watered,
in the hottest and driest seasons, at any period from planting to taking up the roots ; neverthe ess, mo-
derate rains mav always be admitted before, and irf very small quantity after the bloom is over ; but early
in the spring, they are absolutely necessary, in order to procure a strong bloom. \%hen the awning is
erected, the hoops should be carefully taken awav, the sides and ends of the bed should be neatly boarded
up, and the paths lowered two or three inches, to bring the flowers nearer to the eye : a slight frame,
about two feet high, should surround the bed, to prevent the garments of spectators from rubbing against,
or breaking off the flowers ; lines of small twine, painted green, and corresponding with the rows of
flowers, should pass from one head of the bed to the other, fastened to the end pieces of the frame, and
stretched tight ; to these the stems of the flowers are to be loosely tied with short pieces of green worsted,
which will preserve a pleasing regularity of appearance, without stiffness and formality. 1 ulips will bear
to be covered a longer time in bloom than most other flowers, without sustaining any considerable injury :
it may be continued three weeks with great safety. If any roots should perish, or fad to produce bloom,
the deficiency may be made good by transplanting, with the tube transplanter {fig. Qb.), from a reserve-
bed, or the lower end of the stems of flowers, taken from the reserve-beds, may be immersed in phials,
fiUed with water, and sunk into the bed, so as not to appear above ground these wiU continue in bloom

3 H

834

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

geveral clays, without requiring to be changed, and will make a tolerable appearance. About a week ot
ten days after full bloom, when the petals of many begin to drop off, the awning should be taken down,
together with the frame, boards, &c. that surround the bed ; and the mats and hoops may be replaced as
before, to throw off excess of rain, as the case may require : and as the leaves or petals of any fall, the
seed-vessel of such should be immediately broken off close to the stem ; for if suffered to remain on the
plant, it will procrastinate the period of its maturity, and weaken the root considerably. The bed may
remain in this state about a fortnight longer, by which time the grass, or foliage, will become of a yellow-
ish-brown, and two or three inches of the top of the stem will wither, dry up, and become purplish : this
denotes the critical period to take up the roots, because if done earlier, they will be weak and spongy,
and if deferred later, their juices will become gross ; this will be manifest at the succeeding bloom, by too
great a redundance of colorific matter in the petals, and the flowers being what is generally termed foul."
6353. Taking up the roots. Dig them up carefully, and place them under cover, in a dry, airy, shaded
situation. Here they may remain untouched till August or September following. " Then it is proper to
take off their loose skins, fibres, and such offsets as are easily separated; observing not to leave the roots
too bare, because the action of the air upon such would have a tendency to weaken and inj\ire them, by
drying up part of their juices ; the last brown skin, which is so intimately connected with the root, should
remain on it till the time of planting."

6254. Diseases. The tulip is hardier, and less liable to disease and injury from weather, than most sorts
of flowers ; it is sometimes attacked by grubs and wire-worms at the root early in spring, and then the
best mode is to remove the plant and a portion of the soil, replacing the former from the reserve ot
offset-buds.

6255. Forcing the tulip in pots or water-glasses. The early dwarf sorts are well adapted for this purpose,
especially the Due Van Thol, They may be treated as in forcing the hyacinth.

SuBSECT. 3. Ranunculus. — Ranunculus Asiaticus, L. {Mill, Ic. 2. t. 216.) Poly.
Polyg. L. and Ranunculacece, J. Renoncule, Fr. ; Ranunkel, Ger. ; and Ranun-
cola, Ital. (Jig. 593.)

6256. The rammculus from a fasciculus of small tubers sends up several bipartite
leaves, and an erect branched stem with a terminating flower variously colored. It is a
native of the Levant, and was cultivated by Gerrard in 1596. Though rather a tender
plant, innumerable and highly beautiful double-flowered varieties have been raised from
seed, chiefly by the English florists, from the middle to the latter end of last century.

6257. Varieties. Only double ranunculuses are held in esteem : of these, Parkinson,
in 1629, enumerates eight; and Ray, in 1665, twenty sorts. Justice, in 1764, divides
ranunculuses into Turkey and Persian ; of the former he enumerates eighteen sorts, and
of the latter a hundred. What he calls the Turkey ranunculus is only a variety or sub-
species with a very dark flower, which Miller also considered as a species, and named it
R. sanguineus. Maddock, in 1792, had upwards of eight hundred sorts. Mason's
catalogue for 1820 contains about four hundred names. " Tliere are more varieties of
ranunculuses," Maddock observes, " than of any other flower;" but as their names are
arbitrary, it would be of little use to enumerate them here. A variety will last from
twenty to twenty-five years.

6258. Criterion of a Jine double ranunculus. {Jig. 593. a) " The stem should be
strong, straight, and from eight to twelve inches
high, supporting a large well formed blossom, or
corolla, at least two inches in diameter, consisting
of numerous petals, the largest at the outside, and
gradually diminishing in size as they approach the
centre of the flower, which should be well filled
up with them. The blossom should be of a hemi-
spherical form ; its component petals should be
imbricated in such a manner as neither to be too
close and compact, nor too widely separated ; but
have rather more of a perpendicular than horizon-
tal direction, to display their colors with better
effect. The petals should be broad, and have per-
fectly entire well rounded edges : their colors
should be dark, clear, rich, or brilliant, either con-
sisting of one color throughout, or be otherwise
variously diversified, on an ash, white, sulphur, or
fire colored ground, or regularly striped, spotted,
or mottled in an elegant manner."

6259. Propagation. By seed, for new varieties, and by offset-tubers, or dividing the
tubers for continuing approved sorts.

6260. By seed. The seed of the ranunculus, Maddock observes, in no instance ever produces two
flowers alike, or the same as the original. It should be saved from such semi-double flowers as have tall
strong stems, a considerable number of large well formed petals, and rich good colors, chiefly preferring
the darker, but not to the exclusion of the lighter colored, when their properties answer the foregoing
description. " The seed should lemain on the plant till it has lost its verdure, and becomes brown and
dry ; it may then be cut off, and spread abroad upon paper in the seed-room, exposed to the sun, that
every degree of humidity may be exhaled from it ; in which state it should be put into a bag, and pre-
served in a warm dry place "

6ZSI, January is the proper time to sow the seed; and in order to prepare it, it must be separated from
the stalks to which it is connected, in the following manner, viz. in the first place, it should be taken out
of the bag, and .spread thin upon a sheet of paper or tea-tray, &c. and placed before a moderate fire, till
It IS just warm, and no more ; the seed will then easily scrape off, by means of a penknife ; but great
care must be taken to avoid scraping it off in lumps, or suffering any pieces of the stalk, dried petals of

PooK II. RANUNCULUS.

8S5

the flower, or other extraneous matter to be mixed with It, which would create a mouldlness when sown
of very destructive consequeJice : when the seeti is scraped in a proper manner, it will have much of the
appearance of clean coarse bran, with a little brown or purple speck in the centre of each cuticle, which
is the kernel W hen the seed is thus prepared, it should be sown in a shallow frame, provided with sashes -
the soil should have been previously taken out, three feet deep, and spread thin upon the ground till it
has been perfectly frozen throughout, in order to destroy any vermin it may have contained, more' parti
cularly the common earthworms. When the pit is filled up again with the frozen lumps of earth it
should remain till the whole mass has thawed, and subsided to its pristine bulk, or nearlv so ; iu surface
should then be made perfectly smooth and even, and the seed sown upon it with the utmost regularity in
such quantity as nearly to cover it ; the glasses should be placed over it immediately, and the frame kept
closely covered with them, for two or three days, till the seed begins to swell and soften ; a little light
earth should then be sifted upon it, through a fine sieve, but not suflRcient to cover it ; this should be re-
peated once or twice a-week, till the greater part of the seed disappears : it is proper to remark in thia
place, that such seeds as happen to be covered deeper than the thickness of a half-crown piece, will never
vege.tate, and must of course, inevitably perish.

6262. It is necessary to keep the seed moderately moist, by gentle waterings with sofl water, that has
been exposed to the sun till it is a little warmed ; the rose of the watering-pot should be hemispherical,
and perforated with a great number of very small holes, that will discharge fine streams of water, in a
very distinct and regular manner. About the time that the plants begin to make their appearance, it is
proper to stir the surface of the earth with a pin, or silver bodkin, just sufficiently to admit air, and give
liberty to the young plants to pass easily through ; this operation should be very carefully performed, to
prevent breaking off the fibres, or raising and leaving any of the planU out of the earth, because one hour's
sun upon such would inevitably destroy them. When the sun sliines very hot, it is necessary to admit
some fresh air under the glasses, and shade the frame with matt ; but it should be close shut up with the
glasses when the air is cold, and always at night

6263. /ifler the plants are all up, and their two interior leaves appear, more air must be given, by hav-
ing hurdles or lattice-work substituted for the glasses ; waterings must be regularly continued, in the
manner before described, when the long continuance of dry weather renders it necessary : but fine warm
showers of rain are always preferable, when they happen in due time. This kind of management is to be
continued till the roots are matured, and fit to take up, which is known by the foliage becoming perfectly
brown, dry, and nearly consumed.

6264. The speediest and safest method of taking up these small roots is to pare off the earth, three inches
deep, with a trowel or shovel, having previously carefully picked off the dried leaves, and any other ex-
traneous matter that may be found upon it. The earth and roots, thus collected, are to be thrown into a
fine brass-wire sieve, that will not permit the smallest roots to pass through it ; the sieve is then to be
worked in a large vessel or tub, nearly filled with water ; the earthy part will, in consequence, be dissolved
and washed away, and the roots will remain in the sieve, where, bv a little management, they may be
easily separated from the stones, &c. which are mixed with them. The upper rim of the sieve must, at
all times, be held above the surface of the water, otherwise some of the smallest roots will be lost, as
thev are frequently found floating on the surface, till they have imbibed a sufficient quantity of water to
make them sink. The roots are to be dried and preser%'ed, and are to be planted at the latter end of Oc-
tober, or beginning of November ; the greater part, or such as have two or more claws, wiU blow strong
the following summer. The Rev. W. Williamson sows half his seed in autumn, and the other half in
January, in the open air. He prefers the autumnal sowing, if the winter proves mild.

6265. By offsets. Unlike the offsets of the hyacinth and tulip, those of the ranunculus generally attain
perfection in the season of their formation on the parent plant, and are therefore fit to be planted as full-
grown tubers the same season in which they are removed. Smaller ones, which are unfit to bloom the
following year, may be planted in a bed prepared as to be directed for the full-sized roots.

6266. By dividing the tubers. " In minutely examining the crown of a ranunculus-root, several small
protuberances will be found ; from each of which a shoot will arise, and the root may therefore be
divided by a sharp knife into as many parts as there are protuberances ; and thus the danger of losing
any rare variety is much diminished. These sections will not bloom till the second year." {Hort.
Trans, iv. 380.)

6267. Choice of full-grown roots. Select such as are sound and full in every part, and have plump
and prominent buds.

6268. Soil and situation. According to Maddock, a fresh, strong, rich, loamy soil is preferable to all
others. Hogg recommends fresh loam, with a considerable portion of rotten horse or cow dung. The
Rev. W. Williamson {Hort. Trans, iv. 375.) uses a stiff clayey loam with a fourth part of rotten dung.
The situation should be open, but not exposed to violent winds or currents of air. " The bed should be
dug from eighteen inches to two feet deep, and not raised more than four inches above the level of the
walks, to preserve the moisture more effectually : at about five inches below the surface should be placed
a stratum of two-vear-old rotten cow-dung, mixed with earth, six or eight inches thick ; but the earth
above this stratum, where the roots are to be planted, should be perfectly free from dung, which would
prove injurious, rather than of benefit, if too near them. The fibres will draw sufficient nourishment
from it at the depth above mentioned ; but if the dung was placed deeper, it would not receive so much
advantage from the action of the air, which is an object of consequence."

6269. Planting. " This may be done either before or after winter : if the soil and situation is remark-
ably cold and wet, it will be better to defer planting till the middle or end of January or beginning of Fe-
bruary, as the weather may favor ; but, in other situations, the latter end of October or beginning of
November is to be preferred, as the roots will have more time to vegetate and form themselves, and will
in consequence bloom rather stronger, though only a few days earlier than those later planted. A bed,
consisting of tlie variety called the scarlet-turbaned ranunculus, will produce a most brilliant effect ; if
planted at the same time as the tulip-bed, they will bloom together ; they are hardier than any other ra-
nunculuses, but may, in other respects, be treated in the same manner. The surface of the bed should
be raked perfectly even and flat, and the roots planted in rows, at the distance of about five inches from
each other. It is better to plant in shallow trenches, made nearly two inches deep, than to make holes
for the reception of the roots : there should be a little clean coarse sand sprinkled into the trench, and the
roots should be placed with their claws downwards, from three to four inches asunder, according to their
size : when the trench has received its roots, it should be carefully filled up level with the same earth that
was taken out, so as to cover the root exactly one inch and a half deep, which is the only true depth to
procure a good bloom : it is pointed out by nature in a singular manner ; for when these roots have been
planted too shallow or too deep, in either case, a second root is formed at the proper depth, by which the
plant is weakened to such a degree that it seldom survives a repetition of it. V\ illiamson plants in spring,
but never after the tenth of February ; and he frequently planU the roots in the same place for several
years successively." {Hort. Trans, iv. 376.)

6270. Future culture and management. Ranunculus-roots will remain several days
in the ground after planting, before they begin to vegetate ; during this period, they be-
come very much swelled, by imbibing the moisture of the soil, and are, in this state,
extremely susceptible of injury from frost, much more so than when vegetation has actu-
ally taken place. As soon as the bed is planted, a sufficient quantity of barley or oat
straw should be placed near it, ready for a covering : in case of frost, it may perhaps be

SH 2

836

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

III.

necessary, during a very severe vi^inter, to cover the bed in this manner ten or fifteen
inches thick ; but the straw sliould be taken off at all favorable times : for tlie effects of
covering too much or too long are as destructive as the reverse, especially before the
roots have begun to vegetate, because they are then more liable to become mouldy than
at Any other period, than which nothing can be more prejudicial. Early in the spring,
when the plants make their appearance above ground, so as to render the rows easily
"discernible, the surface of the earth between each row should be trodden or beaten, so
as to make it firm and compact ; and if the soil is compressed with the fingers, quite
close to the plants, it will keep out cold drying winds, and prove benefieial. It is ad-
visable to make choice of a fine dry day, soon after rain, whilst the ground is still moist,
to perform the above operation : when it is finished, a little long straw should be placed
between each row, to preserve the surface of the soil cool and moist, till the foliage of the
plants is suflEiciently grown and expanded, to afford it shade without further assistance.

6271. Water. April showers, and frequent rains in May, are essentially necessary to the growth and
vigor of the plants : if these fail, soft water must be administered in sufficient quantity between the rows,
by means of a common watering-pot, with a long tube or spout, held low, so as not to wash the earth
into holes ; for it is better to avoid watering the plants themselves, as it may chill them too much, and
stagnate their juices. The consequences of omitting to water when necessary are these, viz. the plants
will make little progress ; the blossom-buds of the strongest will be small, and the weaker plants will
not bloom at all ; the grass, or foliage, will put on a sickly yellowish appearance, from which it will
never recover during the season ; and, lastly, the roots will, when taken up, be small and lean. But such
kind of waterings, however necessary, are by no means so salutary to these, or any other flowers, as fine,
warm, natural showers ; they can neither be so equally dispensed, nor are the plants naturally disposed
to receive them when the atmosphere is dry, because their pores and fibres are contracted, and they are,
as it were, in the expectation of dry weather. Since it is evident that artificial waterings are, in all re-
spects, so much inferior to natural, it is better therefore to wait a day or two, in hopes of a change of
weather, than to be too hasty in watering, although the plants may appear to suffer for the moment, by
the omission ; for if such a change should fortunately take place, they will receive infinitely more benefit
from it than when both themselves and the soil are already saturated, or replenished, with moisture.

6272. Shading. The weather in May is sometimes very clear and hot ; the plants ought to be shaded
at such times by means of lofty hoops and mats, or some better contrivance, that will admit light and air
freely ; a frame and covering, similar to that for hyacinths, would answer best, if expense and trouble
were not to be considered : it will, however, be absolutely necessary to shade them, in some manner, during
the period of bloom, otherwise they wiil continue but a very short time, especially the dark rich-colored
sorts; for, in proportion as their colors approach to black, is the injury they will receive from the rays of
the sun, if permitted to shine upon them in full force; some of the very darkest cannot stand it one hour
without being entirely spoiled. The light-colored sorts will bear the sun's rays much better, reflecting them
in proportion as they approach to white ; green is the only color that reflects and absorbs the rays of light in
equal proportion, and is more predominant in the vegetable kingdom than any other. After the bloom is
over, watering is no longer necessary, but shading, in the middle of hot days, is still very beneficial to the
plants : it tends to prolong their vegetation, and the size and substance of the roots are thereby increased,

6273. Taking up the roots. By the end of June, or soon after, the greater part of the plants will ap-
pear brown and dry : vegetation has then ceased, and it is the exact time to take up the roots, because if
they are suffered to remain in the ground till rainy weather ensues, they will begin to shoot afresh, and
thereby sustain considerable injury. When the roots are taken up, their stems, &c. should be cut off
close, and they should be placed in a shady airy room, or situation, to dry gradually ; but before this is
perfectly accomplished, it will be proper to clean and separate them, because, when quite dried, they be-
come very hard and brittle, and there is great danger of breaking off their claws : some may be separated
into many complete roots, although they are so closely connected, as, on a superficial observation, to have
the appearance of only one large root. Nothing more remains to be done, till the return of the planting
season, except to stow the sorts separately in bags or boxes, for the sake of convenience, in a dry room, in
which state it is possible to keej) them out of ground for two or three years without perishing, although it
evidently tends to weaken and injure them : there have been instances known of the ranunculus-roots sur-
viving till the fifth or sixth year ; they were, however, rendered extremely weak, nor could any but very
strong roots retain their vegetative powers for so long a period. Williamson takes up the roots immediately
after the color of the foliage begins to change.

6274. Forcing. The ranunculus may be forced, but loses mucli of its strength of stem and brilliancy of color.

SuBSECT. 4. .Anemone.. — Anemoiie, L. Polyand. Polygyn. L. and Ranuncidacece, J.
Anemone, Fr. ; Windblume, Ger. ; and Anemone, Ital.

6275. There are two species of anemone cultivated as florists' flowers, under the com-
mon name of anemone : the A. coronaria, L., or
poppy-anemone (Bot. Mag. 841.) (fig. 594. a),
a native of the Levant, and introduced in 1596 ;
and the A. hortensis, the star or broad-leaved
anemone (6), a native of Italy, and introduced
from Holland in 1597. The anemone has been
cultivated from as early a period as the tulip, and
many fine double varieties produced both by the
Dutch and British. The single and semi-double
flowers are nearly in as high estimation as the
double ones.

6276. Varieties. These are numerous, but few
of them are named. Parkinson, in 1629, enu-
merates thirty sorts of single narrow leaved ane-
mones, and nearly as many double and single of
the broad-leaved sort. Mason's catalogue for
1820 contains seventy-five sorts. A variety will
last for twelve or fifteen years.

Book II.

ANEMONE.

837

6277. Criterion of a fine double anemtme. (Jig. 595.) « The stem should be Btrong,
elastic, and erect, not less than nine in-
ches high. The blossom, or corolla, should
be at least two inches and a half in dia-
meter, consisting of an exterior row of
large substantial well rounded petals, or
guard-leaves, at first horizontally ex-
tended, and then turning a little upwards,
so as to form a broad shallow cup, the
interior part of which should contain a
great number of long small petals, imbri-
cating each other, and i»ther reverting
♦Vom the centre of the blossom ; there are
a great number of small slender stamens,
intermixed with these petals, but they are
short, and not easily discernible. The
color should be clear and distinct when diversified in the same flower, or brilliant and
striking if it consists only of one color, as blue, crimson, or scailet, &c., in which case
tlie bottom of the broad exterior petals is generally white; but the beauty and contrast is
considerably increased when both the exterior and interior petals are regularly marked
with alternate blue and wliite, or pink and white, &c. stripes, which in Sie broad petals
should not extend quite to the margin."

6278. Propagation. By seed for new varieties, and by dividing the root for continu-
ing approved sorts.

6279. By seed. Select " single or semi-double flowers, that have strong, tall, and erect stems, larg& well
formed cups, and petals of very brilliant colors. The seed must be gathered from time to time as it
oi)ens ; for, being very downy and light, it will otherwise be blown away by the first breeae of wind, or
fall down and be lost : it may be sown at the same time, and be treatedin all respects like that of ranuncu-
luses; the seedlings will, like those, blow strong the second year, It will be found very difficult to sow
anemone-seed in a regular manner: it is united with, and enveloped in a downy substance, that upon
being put together in quantity, adheres in such a manner as to render it necessarj' to make use of some
sand or earth to separate it oil sowing; nor will this be effected sufficiently without considerable labor in
rubbing it for a long time amongst the earth, as it ought not to adhere together in lumps, which would
not allow the young plants space enough to form their roots. There will be found but few double flowera
amongst the seedlings, nor can it hardly ever be expected there should, if the seed be entirely saved from
single ones ; oC course, the greater number of broad petals the flower of the seed-bearer possesses, so much
greater is the probability of procuring large double flowers from the seed of it."

65SO. By dividing the root. When the division is properly made, every piece will blow the first year,
and is therefore to be treated in the same way as such as are full-grown.

6281. Choice of fuil-grown roots. Select fresh plump roots of moderate size ; large overgrown roots,
which are hollow in the centre and ot^en decayed, are to be avoided, as they never blow strong.

6282. Soit and situation, and preparation of the bed. The same as for the ranunculus.

6283. Planting and future culture. The distance between the roots may he the same as for the ranun-
culus. Attend to place that side of the roots next the soil in which the decayed rudiments of small
thread-like fibres will be observed, and cover about two inches deep. " Anemones are hardier than
ranunculuses, and, consequently, may be always planted in the autumn with safety ; the most advisable
time is about the middle of October, by which means they will blow a week or two earlier than the tulips :
if they are planted ten days or a fortnight after the tulips, they will aU bloom together; but a few
days earlier or later in the planting will scarcely be perceptible at the time of flowering : it is, how-
ever, proper to observe, that such roots as are p'lanted in October, will blow stronger, and, when taken
up, will be found of a larger size than those that are planted towards the end of November, especially
if the winter proves mild ; but if the winter sets in early, and proves severe, late-planted roots will
not have time to vegetate before frosty weather takes place ; in which case there will be great danger
of their perishing, unless they are covered with straw, just sutliciently to" keep frost from the roots, as
they are then in a state of inactivity, but repkte with moisture, which renders them more susceptible of
injury from frost, and, at the same t'me, in much greater danger of mouldiness than after vegetation ha«
commenced. The covering must therefore be taken off and put on, as often, and in such proportion, as
the exigency or circumstance of the case requires." Water and protect from high winds and heavy
rains, as directed for ranunculuses.

6284. Taking up the roots. " Anemones continue longer after bloom in a state of vegetation than ra-
nunculuses, probably because of their greater de.tree of succulency ; and even at the proper time to take
them up, it will sometimes happen, that part of their foliage will not be entirely divested of greenness and
moisture ; this will often be the case when frequent showers of rain intervene, and are admitted between
the times of blowing and the maturity of the roots : when it thus happens, much skill is required to ascer-
tain the critical period to take up the roots ; for if they are su&cred to remain in the damp or wet ground
a few days too long, thev will shoot afresh, and be thereby materially weakened and injured ; it is, indeed,
better to' take them up rather too earlv, than suffer them to re-vegetate ia this manner ; but the roots
will not be so firm and solid as if done at the exact time. The safest and most effectual methotl to pre-
serve them from these disagreeable consequences, is to keep oft" all rains after the bloom is quite over, by
means of mats on hoops ; the roots will then regularly and gradually mature, and the foliage will, in like
manner, become brown and drv, which will point out the true time to take up the roots ; and this will
usually happen to be about a moiith after full bloom. The whole subsequent treatment of the roots, till
the time of planting, is the same as for ranunculuses, with only the following caution, viz. that as the
roots are exceedingly brittle, it is necessary to handle them very gently upon dressing or cleaning away
their fibres, and the soil that adheres to them ; however, should only small pieces break off; such should
not be thrown away, as each will, in the course of a few years, become a blooming root, if it has an eye,
without which it is of no value ; but that seldom happens to be the case." {Maddock.) Anemones may
be forced like the ranunculus; but, as it generally destroys the roots, the finest sorts should not be dewted
to this purpose.

S H s

SSft

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

SuBSECT. 5. Crocus. — Crocus, L. Trian. Monog. L. and Iridea, B. P. Safran, Fr. j
Safran, Ger. ; and Zqffurano, Ital.
6285. T/«e 6uZ6 o/" fAe crocus is round, solid, and compressed, with a netted skin, from
the centre of which arise four or fiye grass-like leaves, and one or two flowers. Out ot
the centre of the tube of the flower arises a slender style, crowned by a broad flat stigma
of a gold color. After the flower is past, the germ, which hitherto was seated on the
bulb at the base of the tube, pushes
out of the ground, and ripens its seeds ;
a singular economy in nature, and which
occurs only in the colchicum, and a few
other plants. All the known species
of this genus may be considered as
florists' flowers. Many botanists, indeed,
reckon only two species, the C vernuSy
or spring-blowing crocus ; and the
C, sativus, the saffron, or autumn
crocus.

From the Crocus vemiu (Eng. Bot. 343. and our Jg-.

596.), they consider that the C. versicolor {fig.59i.),

the C. biJlorus{fig. 598. a), the C. susiana (h), the

C. sulphureus {c), and the C. nwssiacvs [d and e), with

their numerous subvarieties, have been produced by

culture or locality ^

Prom the Crocus iaVunis, or saffron-crocus ( Eng-. Birt. o4o.

and our Jig. 599. a), they think it likely that the

C. serotinus (Jig. 599. fc) and the C. nmUJIorus (Jxg-

599. c) have been also originated by cultivation ot

6286. ^U the soi-ts of crocus have been, time out of* mind, and still are, great ornaments
to the garden ; the spring sorts coming into flower in February and March, and the
autumn sorts in September and October. Tlie color of the spring crocus in its wild
state, in Switzerland, is white with a purple base ; it is considered as naturalised in Eng-
land, but, when found wild, is almost always of a yellow color. The autumn crocus,
or saffron, is also found wild in some places, and considered as naturalised ; but it ap-
pears to be an African plant, which its Arabic name, sahofaran, seems to justify, and
introduced originally in Edward the Third's time. Its color is generally purple or blue,
as is that of most of tlie autumn varieties in cultivation at present.

6287. Varieties. None of these are double. Of the spring crocus, Parkinson has
enumerated twenty-seven varieties ; the fundamental colors of which are blue, purple,
yellow, and white. Miller recites twelve as leading sorts. Mason's catalogue for 1820
mentions "twenty named sorts," besides the light, dark, and striped purple, cloth of
gold, the Scotch crocus beautifully striped, the white, the large and small yellow, and
several striped sorts. The Dutch are continually producing new varieties, as are some
florists in this country, of which Haworth (Hort. Trans, i. 122.) may be cited as an in-
stance. Of the autumn crocus, Parkinson has enumerated four, and Ray six varieties.
Miller has only four : the sweet-smelling, of a deep blue ; the mountain, of a paler blue ;
the many-flowering, bluish j and Uae small -flowering. Most of these varieties are now
lost.

6288. Criterion of a good crocus. Clear or brilliant cj^lors, and each color distinctly
marked and finely pencilled in the striped and variegated sorts.

6289. Propagation. By seed, for new varieties ; and by offset-bulbs, for common

Book II. NARCISSUS. 83»

purposes. The latter generally flower tlie first spring after planting, and are treated in
all respects as full-grown roots.

6290. By seed. The following directions are by Haworth. " The seeds of crocuses are best sown,
immediately after being gathered, in light dry earth, in large pots, or pans, or small shallow boxes,
with a sufficiency of holes and potsherds at the bottom, for the purix)se of draining off with certainty all
Buperfluous moisture thinly ; for almost every seed will vegetate, and cover not more than half an inch
with the mould. The most eligible aspect, or situation, for the seminal boxes, until the autumnal rains
set in, is a moderately shady yet unsheltered one : permitting them to receive all the influence of the
weather, except such heavy showers as would wash bare the seeds. As soon, however, as the autumnal
rains commence, remove the boxes to a warm aspect ; and protect them from all excessive rains, frosts,
and snows, by the occasional shelter of a garden-frame : allowing them, nevertheless, the benefit of the
full air at other times, but more especially after the seminal leaf (for they have but one, being monoco-
tyledonous plants), eager to commence the career of life, urges its fine setaceous point above the surface
of the earth. This occurs sometimes about the end of the year; but oftener in earliest spring. After
this it is quite essential that they should have complete exposure to the air, even in frosty weather ;
screening them, however, occasionally, like early radisha*, with loose straw, from other injurious effects
of frost ; so as to prevent their being raised out of their infantile beds by its baneful effects. In this
manner may the young crocuses be treated until the sun acquires suflScient power to dry the earth in
their boxes, so as to require daily waterings. It will be then found advantageous to remove them to a
cooler, but not sheltered situation, and here they may remain until their leaves die down ; giving them,
as just hinted, at all times, and in every situation, while their leaves are growing, such discretional rose-
waterings, when the sun is not shining, as they may reasonably appear to require : but never until the
earth they grow in becomes dry: not any whatever, after their leaves begin to look yellow. After this
period, it is necessar>' to defend them from all humidity, except dews and gentle rains, until the end of
August, or beginning of September."

6^1. From weeds, worms, slugs, and snails, •' it is almost needless to observe, they should constantly be
kept as clear as jxjssible. And if the surface of the earth in their boxes is occasionally stirred with the
point of a knife, or fine piece of stick, it will never fail to be attended with beneficial effects, and invigo-
rate the bulbs : operating no doubt, as a sort of hoeing, and, like that important practice, (as the writer
of this paper conceives,) proving salubrious to vegetables of every denomination, not only by lightening
the soil, but by admitting new accesses of atmospheric air towards their roots ; and thereby facilitating,
and stimulating their absorbent inspiration of its oxygen : without a due supply of w^hich all vegetables,
as well as animals, eventually become feeble and sick. If, notwithstanding the precaution
of thinly sowing the seeds, the plants in any of your seminal lx)xes should have grown so thickly
together as to have incommoded each other, it will be desirable to have such taken up, and replanted
immediately further asunder in ft-esh earth, and about three quarters of an inch deep. But if they are
not too crowded, they will require no shifting this their tirst autumn ; but merely about a quarter of
an inch of fresh mould sifted over them, previously stirring and cleaning the surface of the old from
moss and weeds ; and observing not to bury the young bulbs not yet so large as lentils, deeper than
three quarters of an inch, or an inch at the most. The second season requires exactly the same manage-
ment as the first. But as soon as their second year's foliage has passe 1 away, the roots should all be
taken up, and replanted again the same or following day, into fresh earth, of the same kind as before,
about an inch deep, and as much apart, and treated as above. Nor does the third season demand any
alteration in their management ; sifting over them in autumn half an inch of fresh earth. The spring
following, if they have teen duly attended to, most of them will show flowers (a few, perhaps, having
done so the season before) in the midst of their fourth crop of leaves ; fully rewarding with the cheering
colors of their new faces all the preceding assiduity and care." {Hart. Trans, i. 125.)

6292. Choice of bulbs. Observe that the base is not mouldy, nor the bud or siunmit of the bulb
decayed.

6293. Soil, situation, and ciUture. They will grow in any common soil, but prefer a loamy sand. Octo-
ber is the best season for planting ; the more select varieties are grown in beds like the hyacinth, and the
colors mingletl in the same manner ; the distance from bulb to bulb about three inches. The more ordi-
nary sorts are grown as border-flowers, and form an im{X)rtant part of the early flowers of the front row.
{Jig. 552. a) They are very hardy, and require no care till the leaves begin to fade, when they should
be taken up, and kept in a state of rest for two or three months. Some do not take them up oftener than
once in three years, which answers very well for the border sorts. Even these, however, should not be
left longer, l)ecause, as the young bulbs are formed on the tops of the others, they come nearer to the sur-
face every year, till at last, if neglected, they are thrown out and lost.

SuBSECT. 6. Narcissus. — Narcissus, I-. Hex. Monog. L. and AmaryUUle<Kf B. P.
Narcisse, Fr. and Ger. ; and Narcisso, Ital.

6294. The bulb of the narcissus is pear-shaped and tunicated, the leaves succulent and
linear, and the flower-stems, which are from six to eighteen inches in height, bear either
solitary or fasciculated flowers ; the color of the flower is either white or yellow, and
generally odoriferous. Most of the species are natives of the south of Europe, but one,
the N. Pseudo- Narcissus, is a native of England, and common in woods in clayey soils.
They come into flower in February, March, and April.

6295. Species and varieties. The popular di\-ision of this genus is into daffodils,
white narcissus, jonquils, and polyanthus narcissus.

The daffodils are N. Pievdo f,'i
lEiiff. But. 17.), of which the varieties
are the common double, the double
with white petals and a yellow cup,
the single with yellow petals aiid a
golden cup, three or four concentric
cup>, Tranescant's daffodil, and above
a dozen other nameless varieties ; the
peerless, or two-tlowered daffodil (iV.
UJlonu) {Eng. Bot. V76), and a variety
(>■. b. a. Icniiior) with one flower only
on the stape ; the two-coloretl daf-
fodil (.V. IncvUir) {Bot. iliig. 1187.), a
native of Spain, and a variety of the
threat yellow Spanish, the largest flower
of the genus; the least daffodil (.V

minor) {Bot. Jtas. 6.) ; the rush-leaved
(iV. Iriandrua) {Bot. Hug. 48.); and
some other species and varieties.
The white narcissi are the poets' nar-
cissus ( .V. porficI(«^ ; the early-flowered
(A", p. at. uitfpittifoliut) ; and the late-
flow^ered (A', p- jg maJalU) ; the musk-
narcissus (.V. moschtjtus) (Eng. Bot.
1500.); the eastern narcissus (.V. oru
entatit) (Bet Mag. 948.), and the yel-
lowish and larire-tlowered varieties;
the hoop-)ietticoat narcissus (.V. twl-
botodium) {Bot. Mag. 8S.); and the
paper narcissus (iV. papyraceut), with
other varieties

The jonquils are the common {N.Jon-
qvilla) (Bot. Mag. 15.), so named from
its rush or jonc-like leaves ; the double-
flowered jonquil; the sweet-scented
ionquil (.V. odorui) (Bot. Mag. 934.);
'the great jonouil (S. calathinut) (Bot.
Mag. 78.) ; and some minor varieties.

The polvanthus narcissi are the com-
mon (.V. tazzetta) { Bot. Mag. 925.) ; the
sulphur-colored, single and double ; the
white and yellow, single and double ;
and above a hundred other sorts, with
arbitrary names given by the Dutch,
who have highlv improved this division
of the genus. Some of these sorts are
considered species by botanists.

6296. Criterion of a good narcissus. Strong erect stems ; regularity of form and dis-
position in the petals and nectars ; distinctness and clearness of color ; and in the many-
ftowered sorts, the peduncles all of the same length, and coming into flower at once.

6297. Proimsation. By seed for new varieties, but generally by offsets, which, as they

SH 4

840

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Tart III.

seldom flower the first year after separation, should not be planted with the full-grown
roots, but in a bed of light loamy soil by themselves in the reserve-garden. ITiey should
not be planted later than the beginning of September.

6298. By seed. Miller directs to sow in flat pans, tilled v/ith fresh, light, sandy earth, about the be-
ginning of August, soon after the seed is ripe ; to place the pans where they will receive onl5 the morn-
ins sun till October. Then expose them to the full sun, and protect them from heavy rami and frosts
till Apr'l, when they wiU have come up, and must lie removed to their first situation In June, the
leaves will have decayed, when some frysh eartli is to ba shifted over the surface of the pans. Treat
them in other respects during the second winter as during the first. The end of the second summer
after solving, the roots are to be taken up and planted at about three inches' distance every way, m beds
raised and rounded to throw otf the water. These bods are to be protected in vvniter by old tan-ashes
or haulm After remaining two years in this situation, they are to be taken up and planted in otheis,
dug deep, and with a little rotten cow-dung buried in the bottom of the fibres to strike into. Here the
roots are to be planted at six inches' distance, having earth sifted over them when the leaves decay, and
tan or ashes in winter. The second season of their growth in this bed, that is, the fifth from sowing,
most of the bulbs will come into flower. Such as are esteemed good flowers may be taken up and treated
as full-"-rown bulbs; but those which have not flowered, or of which the flowers are of doubtful excel-
lence, may remain another year. Miller sa>-s, none should be rejected till they have flowered two or
three times : as it often happens, that their lirit blowing is not near so beautiful as their second and

629*9. Choice of full-grown bulbs. Select such as are rounded towards the base rather than compressed,
with full sound tops, and bottoms free from mouldiness or decayed fibres.

63(50. Soil, situation, arid planting. As eastern aspect is to be preferred ; and, according to Miller, the
best soil is fresh, light, hazel loam, mixed with a little very rotten cow-dung. The bed in which they
are to be planted must bo excavated three feet deep, and filied with this compost, and then the roots
planted on it about eight inches' distance every way, and covered from six to eight inches, in the man-
ner directed for tulips. The best time for planting is August, or the beginning of September.

6501. Cidture. Stirring the soil, weeding, and watering are all that is in general required : bat such
as wish to produce a very perfect show of flowers, shelter with an awning in the manner recommended
for hyacinths. In winter, the beds require the protection of tan or litter, which should be put on in
October or November, and removed, and the soil stirred in February or March. Where the narcissi
are cultivated for commercial purposes, the strength of the bulb is greatly increased by cutting off the
flower-stem when the flowens begin to expand. The flower is still valuable, being expanded till in a
marketable state by inserting the stalk in water. " Some years ago I gained admittance into the grounds
of Daniel Carter, at Fulhain, who has long cultivated large quantities of polyanthus narcissuses for sale,
and was surprised to find all the crop nearly gathered, though very early in the season. His son, how-
ever, explained the m3'stery, by taking me into a large barn, which was filled with the gathered flowers,
blowing in pans of water; and he told me that by doing this, the bulbs continued to produce as abund-
ant crops every year, as new ones imported from Holland. The practice was suggested to him by re-
marking, that in a bed left for seed one vear, very few roots sent up a complete bunch of flowers the
following season, and many roots none at all. He therefore now cuts off the stalk close to the ground,
as soon as two or three of the flowers are expanded, but is very careful not to injure the leaves." {Hort.
Trans, i. 362.)

6'302. Taking up the bulbs. The bulbs should not be taken up oftener than every third year, if they are
expected to flower strong and make a great increase. If they remain longer than three years, the offsets
will become so numerous as to weaken the bulbs, which will at first flower weakly, and in time cease al-
most entirely to show flowers. The Dutch take up these roots every year, because their object is to fur-
nish a round plump root, and the way to accomplisli this is to take off the offsets annually, to prevent
their pressing against and flattening the parent bulb. The bulbs being dried in the shade, may be laid in
an airy situalioii in tlie seed-loft till wanted for planting.

6303. Forcing. These bulbs force well, and either in deep pots of sandy loam, or in water-glasses ; their
previous treatment is the same as we have prescribed for the hyacinth ; and they are highly odoriferous
and ornamental in apartments.,

SuBstCT. 7. Iris. — 7m, L. Ttian. Monog. L. and Tridccc, B. P. V Iris, Fr. ;
Sc/nvertlilie, Ger. ; and Iride, Ital. (Jigs. 600, 601.)

m^ "

fi304. There are several species of iris which are considered florists' flowers.

The Persian iris (/, Persica) (not. Mag.,
and our.fo. tO l.a) ; a verj low bulbous

. roptecl lU^nt, with delicate blue and
violeUcolored flowers, (jreatly esteem-
ed for their beauty and sweet smell,
which is so powerful that one plant
will scent a whole room. It is a native
of Persia, and was cultivated by Par-
\mvm in ICiS. The bulbs are jje

nerally imported from Holland, and
blow in water .i;lasse>, or pots of sand
with very little earth intermixed, in
Februiiry and P.farch.
The snake's-head irH(T. iHberotii) {liof.
Mai; 5.T1. and ,/;.£,' COi) i) has long
narrow four-cornered li.aves, and a dark
puqile flower, which appears in April.
Itis anativL' of the Levant, and was

cultivated in 1.59". TI)o tubers are
Kenerally imported from Holland.
The Chalcedoiiian iris (l- x.itianattBot.
Ma/f. 91. and.%. 6)0 i) has finely
striated leaves, a scape a span high,
and the largest and most mapiificent
coi-oUa of all the species. Its petals
are of a delicatt texture, almost as
broad a$ a hand, puri>lc or l-laek.

Book II.

FRITILLARY.

£41

stnped with white. It flowers in the
beginning of June; is a native of the
Levant, and was cultivated by Gerrard
in 1596.
The bulbous-rooted, or Spanish iris {I.
xipkium) {Bet. Mag. 6S6, and ,fifr 6()1.
a) has channelled leaves, convoluted
durinfj tlieir whole length, and awl-
shaped at the tip ; the flowers of the

Mng. 602. and ./S^. 601. 5), is much
larger than the other in all its parte,
the tlower-stalk is near twice the
height, and the flowers are more than
double the size. It is oquallj prolific
in varieties as /. rip/iiiim, of which it is
by some botani.-.ts considered only a
variety. The tubers of l)oth sorts are
annually importeil Trom Holland.

wild plant are blue, with emarginate
petals, and appear in June; but culti-
vation has produced a great number
of varieties with yellow, white, violet,
and variegated flower.*. It is a native
of the south of Europe, and was cul-
tivated by Gerrard in 1596.
The great bullmus-rooted iris, the English
iris of the Dutch, {I. jcipliiuidet) {Hot.

6305. Culture of tliejirst three species. These seldom ripen their seeds in this country,
nor are they often propagated here from offsets, annual supplies of bulbs being obtained
from Holland, and generally forced like the hyacinth. Justice says {Brit. Gard. Direct.
222.) the Dutch florists told him, that tlicy never could obtain any varieties from sowing the
seeds of the Persian iris ; nor could this author himself, who cultivated the plant, and
raised seedlings at Crichton, near Edinburgh, with great care and considerable success.
The three sorts are best cultivated under the protection of a frame, where their flowers will
be less liable to injury than in the open air, and where their leaves will be stronger and
more able to nourisii the bulbs and offsets. Tlie Chalccdonian iris, Curtis observes, thrives
best in a loamy soil and sunny exposure, with a pure air, but guarded from moisture, and
from frosts during winter. The Persian iris thrives best in a light sandy loam and eastern
exposure, sheltered^ from rains and frosts, like the other. The snake's-head iris is the liardi-
est of the three, requires the same soil and exposure as the Persian, but less care during
winter. None of these sorts need be taken up oftener than once in three years, when the
leaves decay ; they should be replanted in a month or six weeks afterwards, at iix inches' dis-
tance ever}' way, and covered from two to four inches according to the size of the bulbous
tuber. If the soil in which the bulbous and tuberous sorts of iris is planted be loose and deep,
and the plants not taken up every three, or at most four years, they will run down and be lost^
6J06. Culture of the bulbous irises. Miller and Justice recommend a light sandy loam, not rich, and an
eastern exposure. The plants are multiplied abundantly by offaets, and as they also produce seeds freolv,
many new varieties are obtaii.ed in that manner. Justice snj-s, he raised a great number with very little
trouble {Bnt. Gard. Direct. 4o0.) ; and Masters says, " I know of no flower that better rc|)ays the time
and attention of the horticulturist." The followingare this author's directions for its proi)agation by seed.
" In August the seeds become ripe, and are plentifully produced on all seedling plants, although, like
many other plants, but sparingly, and very frequently not at all, on such as have been long increased by
off ets, or parting the roots ; they may be sown in slight drills, about six inches asunder, as soon as ripe;
and in the Marcii following, they will make an api>earance very similar to rows of young onions. \V ith
no other care than frequent weeding, they may remain in the seed-bed for three years, for they are much
more hardy than most kinds of seedling bulbs, and, therefore, will not even reouire protection from the
frosts. In' August or September of the third year, it will be necessary to transplant them into beds,
at one foot's distance, row from row, and thebulbs six inches apart; and in two years from their re^
moval, most of the strongest will show blossom, and nearly all in the year following, or the sixth
from the seed. If, during the time the roots are at rest, the
top surface of the earth is carefully removed, and fresh light
loam is substituted, a year will be savetl, for this treat-
ment will greatly promote the growth of the bulbs, and with
these, as well as many other seedling plants, it is not a
stated time that must pass before they blossom, but only ';^
such a portion as will allow the bulb to attain a size sufficient
to contain vigor to produce and perfect a flower-stem, the
rudiment of which is formed in the preceding summer.
When they blossom, a selection can be made, and the va- y.
rieties perpetuated by the increase of their offsets. The ^ .i
most proper time for removing thebulbs is in August and '•'^'
September, those kept out of ground until Christmas rarely
blossom in the succeeding summer." {Hort. Trans, iv. 413.)
6.307. Flowering bulbs. Every third year, in August, is the
most proper time for taking them up ; and they should, if
possible, be replanted in September following. Masters ^j
says, those kept out of ground till Ciiristmas rarely bios- 'il/.
sdm in the succeeding summer. They may be planted /if
either in beds, at eight inches or a foot distant every way, ^w
or in mingled borders, care being taken in either case to "*'
prevent the roots running down by removal every thirti
year, or by a substratum of tiles or com',)3ct rubbish within
eighteen inches of the surface. These species are very
hardy, and flowering so late as Jnne, require no protection
either in summer or winter. They are seldom or never forced.

SuBSECT. 8. Fritillary. — Fritilluria, L. Hexait. Monog. L. and Lilice, J. (fig. 602.)
enoS. Of the frilillary there are three species which are considered as florists' flowers ;
of these species tliere are numerous varieties.

The crown-imperial {F. Imperiulia. (Bot.
-Wujf. 194.) /.a Courvime Imperiule, Fr. ;
Kimerkrune, Ger. ; and La Coronm Itn-
Tteriale, Ital.) (fifc. 60<2. a) has a scaly
bulb, from which arise strong stems,
from two to four feet in height, fitr-
nished with numerous broad shining
green leaves, and crowned with a
whorl of showy pendulous flowers, yel-
low, red, or stri)>ed in various ways,
which appear in March and April. It
Is one of the earliest ornaments of the
flower-garden, pro<lucing a fine ap-
pearance in the middle of large borders,
at a season when such flowers are most
wanted. The " singular nectary," Pro-
fessor Martyn observe*, " caimot but
engage the attention of the curious
observer ; it is a white glandular cavity,
as the bascof each i«etal, and has a drop

of limpid nectareous juice standing in it,
when the flower is in vigor. Another
of the wonders of nature may be ob-
served in the petluncles which bend
down while the plant is in flower, but
become uprighf as the seed ripens."
There are almve a dozen varieties in
cultivation, distinguished by the dif-
ferent shades of yellow, white, and red
in the flower, and by being striped
double or seitii-double.
The Persian fritillarv {F. Pertica) {But.
Mag. 1537, and fig. 60'2. t) has a
large round root, the size of an
orange ; the stem is three feet high,
and the flowers in a loose spike at
the top, forming a pyramid. They
are of a dark purple color, and appear
in May, but seldom produce seeds in
Englaiul. It is a native of Persia, and

was cultivated here in 1596. There is
a smaller variety, with a shorter stem,
and smaller leaves and flowers.
The common fritiUarv.or chequered lilv,
( F. MtlengHs (F.ng. Bo . 60'2.) La Friltt-
laire Meleagre, Fr.; Kitbitzey, Ger. ; and
Ciglio vanegato, Ital. {Jig. 602. c), has
a solid tuber, about the size of a nut,
a stem from twelve to eighteen inches
high, with linear leaves, and one or
iriore pendulous flowers on the top ot
the stem. It is a native of Britain,
and flowers in April and May, or in
March in mild seasons. There are
nearly twenty varieties, with red, white,
purple, black, striped, and double
flowers, besides an umbellate fritillary,
a mule between this species and the
crown-imperial.

the stem iirwluces smalt green bulbs in
the axillse of the leaves. Of this s))e-
cies, there are eight or ten varieties and
subvarieties.
The martagon, or Turk's cap, {L,. Mar-
ta^on) {Hoi. Ma/r. 893.), has a large
sCtily bulb, a stalk furnished with nar-
row leaves, near three feet high and
terminating peduncles of fine carmine
flowers in July. Of this species there
are half a dozen varieties, besides the

scarlet martagon (/-. Chalcedoniaim),
of which there are also different sorts.
Besides the above species and their va-
rieties, there are the L. Canaderue,
tvperbmn, or Turk's cap ; the Potnjto-
Ilium, and Tif^rinum, or tiger lily ; the
Japoniciim, or Japan lily, with stems of
5 feet, and the flowers 7 inches broad,
pure white with a streak of blue ; all
equally meriting cultivation as select
flowers.

842 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

6309. Propagation. The common method is by offtets; but they may be raised from seed, which
riiwns readily, and is to be treated in all respects like that of the tulip, the seedlings of the crown.imi>e-
rial flowering in the fifth or sixth year, and those of the two other sjjecies in the third or fourth year.

6310. Culture offloiucring bulbs. They delight in a light soil, not too wet nor very full of dung. It
Bhould be dug deep, and the bulbs may be i>lanted six inches deep, and from eighteen mches to two feet
distant every way ; but they have the best effect in a mingled flower-border. They need not be taken
up above once in three years, when the stems are withered in May or June, and they should not be kept
longer out of the ground than two month?.

SuBSECT. 9. Lilt/. — LUium, L. Hexund. Monogt/H' L. and Lilian J. Lis, Fr. ;
Lilie, Ger. ; and Giglio, Ital.

6311. Of //te /% there are sixteen species introduced in Britain, and the whole of
them may be reckoned very choice flowers. We shall notice particularly, only those
species, of which numerous varieties have been produced. These are : —

The white lilj [L. CaiuUdtim) {Bot. Muf;.

278.) has a large scaly bulb, a leafy

stem, from three to four feet in height.

terminating in large pure white flowers

on peduncles. It is a native of the

Levant, and was in most gardens in

Gerrard's time. Of this sjiecies there

are al>ove eight varieties.
The orange lily (L. bulbiferum) (Bot.

Hag. 36.) has a scaly bulb, a leafj- stem,

two feet and a half high, termmatinj;

In orange-colored flowers. Sometimes

6312. Propagation. This is almost always by offset-bulbs ; but new varieties may be
raised from seed, which ripens in most sorts in August : being treated as directed for
raising new varieties of the narcissus, the young bulbs will flower the fourth and fifth
years.

6313. Culture of flowering bulbs. The more common sorts, species, and varieties, will thrive in any
soil and situation, even under the shade of trees. The Canadian, Pomponian, and Philadelphian mar-
tagons are somewhat tender, and require the protection of ashes or rotten bark in winter. They are ge-
nerally planted in borders, and need not be taken up oftener than every three or four years in September,
and replanted six inches deep in the October following. None of the species can be safely transplanted,
after they have pushed leaves, without weakening them so as to prevent their flowering for several years.
This remark, indeed, will apply to most bulbous-rooted plants. Griflin, of South Lambeth, whose supe-
rior skill in the cultivation of bulbous plants is well known {Horf. Trans, iv. 544.), has been in the prac-
tice of keeping the lilium japonicum in pots, protected by a green-house or garden-frame ; but he thinks
they thrive best in the former. He places the bulb in twenty-four-sized pots, not lower than an inch from
the surface of the mould, which is composed of about two thirds peat and one third loam, the bottom of
the |Jot being covered to the depth of two inches, with broken pieces of tile and the rough siftings of peat.
The plants are kept entirely from frost, and are watered very little when in a dormant state, for they are
then very impatient of wet in excess. The pots kept in the green-house are placed at a distance from the
flue to prevent the mould drying quickly. {Hort. Trans, iv. 554.) Brooks grows in a brick-pit, which
he can cover with mats or glasses at pleasure; but he says, it " appears to be sufficiently hardy to en-
dure our winters, as I have had a bed of them two years in the ooen ground without protection."
{Hort. Trans, iv. 552.)

SuBSECT. 10. Amaryllideee. — Amaryllis, L. Hex. Monog. L. and AmaryUideee, B. P.
Lis-narcisse, Fr. ; Narcissenlilie, Ger. ; and Giglio Narcisso, Ital.
6314. The amaryllidecB is a splendid family, lately subdivided into those of Nerine,
Coburgia, and Brunsvigia (see Bot. Mag.), of which almost every species may be consi-
dered a select flower. The A. amabUis, Josephina, and Vittata, are reckoned the most
splendid bulbous-rooted plants ; and the A. for mosissima, or Jacobea lily ; Sarniensis, or
Guernsey lily; Belladonna^ &c. are less magnificent, but of very great beauty. Most of
the species are green -house or stove plants, and natives of the Cape of Good Hope,
China, or South America. Various hybrids of this family have been produced by Her-
bert, Sweet, Gowen, and others. {Hort. Trans, iv. 488. &c.)

6315. Propagation and culture. New sorts, as in similar cases, are procured by seed ; but the most usual
mode, as few of these plants have ripened their seeds in this country, is by offsets from the flowering
bulbs, removed yearly, or every time the bulbs are taken out of the ground. The great art in cultivating
these, and all other bulbs, is to procure vigorous leaves, as on these depend the quantity of nutritive
matter prepared and deposited in the bulb, and consequently its ability to flower the following season. The
circumstance of several of these plants, as the Guernsey lily, flowering in the autumn, and producing
their leaves afterwards under the disadvantages of a winter's sun, is the reason why they have been hitherto
cultivated with so little success in this country, and why we are obliged to Import the bulbs annually
from other countries. The observations of Knight on this subject are particularly valuable ; they more
immediately refer to the Guernsey lily, but they are equally applicable to all exotic bulbs. " Bulbous
roots increase in size, and proceed in acquiring powers to produce blossoms, only during the periods
in which they have leaves, and in which such leaves are exposed to light; and these organs always
operate most efficiently when they are young, and have just attained their full growth. The bulb
of the Guernsey lily, as it is usually cultivated in this country, rarely produces leaves till September,
or the beginning of October, at which period, the quantity of light afforded by our climate is pro-
bably quite insufficient for a plant, which is said to be a native of the warm and bright climate
of Japan ; and before the return of spring, its leaves are necessarily grown old, and nearly out of
office, even when they have been safely protected from frost through the winter. It Ls, therefore, not
extraordinary, that a bulb of this species, which has once expended itself in affording flowers, should but
very slowly recover the power of blossoming again. Considering, therefore, the deficiency of light and
heat, owing to the late period of its vegetation, as the chief cause why this plant so often fails to produce
flowers, I inferred that nothing more would he required to make it blossom, as freely, at least, as it does
in Guernsey, than such a slight degree of artificial heat, applied early in the summer, as would prove
sufl^cient to make the bulbs vegetate a few weeks earlier than usual in the autumn. Early in the summer
of 1816, a bulb, which had blossomed in the preceding autumn, was subjected to such a degree of artificial
neat, as occasioned it to vegetate six weeks, or more, earlier than it would otherwise have done. It did
not, of course, produce any flowers ; but in the following season it blossomed early and stronglv, and

Book II. IXI^ AND GLADIOLI, TUBEROSE. 841

afforded two offtets. These were put, in the spring of 1818, Into pots, containing about one eighth of a
square foot of light and rich mould, and were fed with manured water, and their period of vegetation
was again accelerated by artificial heat. Their leaves, consequently, grew yellow from maturity, early
in the present spring, when the pots were placed in rather a shady situation, and near a north wall, to
afford me an opportunity of observing to what extent, in such a situation, the early production of the leaves
In the preceding seasons had changed the habit of the plant. I entertained no doubt but that both the
bulbs would afford blossoms, but 1 was much gratified by the appearance of the blossoms in the first week
in July. From the success of the preceditig experiment, I conclude that if the offsets, and probably the
bulbs of this plant which have produced flowers, be placed in a moderate hot-bed, in the end of May, to
occasion the early production of their leaves, blossoms would be constantly afforded in the following sea-
son : but it will be expedient to habituate the leaves, thus produced, gradually to the open air, as soon
as they are nearly fully grown, and to protect them from frost till the approach of spring."

6.316. The Rev. W. Williamson has adopted the same rationale as Knight; and, with the aid of a glass
frame, without artificial heat, brought bulbs which had flowered into a state to flower again after two
winters. Had he applied artificial heat, he thinks one winter might probably have been sufficient
{Hort. Trans, iii. 450.)

6317. The Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert has found a similar treatment attended with corresponding suc-
cess. He says, " the only attention which the Guernsey lily requires here (Spofforth, Yorkshire), is to
give it sufficient air while the leaves are growing, that they may be strong and dark-colored j to protect
the leaves from frost, keeping the pots near the light, if under glass ; to give a moderate and regular
supply of water, and to leave the bulbs nearly dry, from the time the leaves decay, that is, about mid-
summer, at latest, to the end of August, when the flower-buds should appear. If tlie bulbs are not left
dry early in the summer, the autumnal shoot will be delayed till the season becomes too cold for the
proper growth of the flowers or leaves, and the natural course and vigor of the plant will be interrupted,
after which it will require at least a year to repair the injury it will have received. Whenever the
sprouting of the bulb is tardy, it should be assisted by placing it, for a short time, in a warmer situation.
If the stigma does not expand so as to become, after a few days, trifid, it is a sign that the temperature is
rather too low to suit the plant, and the leaves will probably not push freely without more heat. I have
obtained seed from the Guernsey lily by procuring the blossom early in an airy situation." TItesoU Her-
bert recommends -is a good yellow loam, without any manure; but he thinks " they will thrive in any
wholesome compost, which does not canker their bulbs. They should be planted partly above ground, for
the wet earth round their necks will prevent their flowering or thriving, and will even sometimes destroy
them." {Hort. Trans, iv. 177.) The same treatment, with very few exceptions, he adds, suits the whole
of the bulbs included under amaryllis, as well as a number of other allied genera, as hjemanthus, pan-
cratium, agapanthus, &c. Some species of these genera, as Amaryllis lon^folia, W. and Crinum Astaii.
cum, Rox., are natives of dry ditches that communicate at certain seasons with the water of the rivers in
Bengal, where they root deeply in the mud. These species, and some others, Herbert found to succeed
perfectly when plunged during summer in a pond. " Most of the crinums," he says, " are swamp plants,
or grow' in river-mud, and should be cultivated in our stoves, with a pan of water under them, the bulbs
being raised above the earth, and stripped of all dead integuments. Agapanthus lunbellatus flowers best
when so treated ; the Amaryllis longifolia (which, he says, should be named Crinum capense) will," he
has no doubt, " flower as a hardy aquatic, if planted in jiny pond or river of two feet water, not liable to
freeze at the bottom." {Hort. Trans, iii. 188.)

6318. Some account of the culture of the Guernsey lily in the Island of Guernsey is given by Dr. Maccul-
ioch {Caled. Mem. ii. 62.) : there they grow it in the open air, and protect it with sand during winter.

SuBSECT. 11. Ixue and Gladiolij W. Trian. Monog. L. and Irideee, B. P.

6319. The ixits and gladioli include a number of recently formed genera (see Bat.
Mag. and Bot. Reg.) of Cape bulbs, which may be flowered in the open air, imder
frames without bottom heat, or on shelves near the glass in green-houses. Tlie Hon.
W. Herbert, who has paid great attention to the culture of bulbs, is " persuaded that
the African gladioli will become great favorites with florists, when their beauty in the
open border, the facility of their culture, and the endless variety which may be produced
from seed by blending the several species, are fully known, nor will they be found to
yield in beauty to the tulip and ranunculus." (^Hort. Trans, iv. 154.)

6320. Propagation and culture. They may either be propagated by seed or oflfket-bulbs ; by the formet
mode, Herbert has produced numerous beautiful varieties. The proper soil for these and similar bulbs is
peat with sand : and in a bed of this compost the seeds should be sown in spring, and well watered before
and after they come up. " At the beginning of October, or as soon as the leaves wither, the young bulbs
should be taken up and dried ; they may be replanted again at any time, placing them about eight inches
under ground, to prevent the frost reaching them. Next year they will generally flower." The best way
of treating gladioli which are to be flowered in pots is, whenever the bulbs are potted, to plunge the pots
about eight inches under ground in a bed of peat, and raise them nearer the surface in spring, as soon
as the very severe frosts are over ; or not to plunge them so deep, and protect them with moss, leaves,
rotten tan, &c.

6321. Various other bulbous iridete, and also oxalis, lachenalia, cyclamen, &c. may be successfully treated
in a similar manner. {Herbert, in Hort. Trans, ; Maddock, in Flor. Dir.)

SoBSECT. 12. Tuberose. — Polianthes Ttiberosa, L. (Bot. Reg. 63.) Hex. Monog. L.
and Henierocallideee, B. P. Tuberose, Fr. and Ger ; and Tuberosoy Ital.

6322. The tuberose is a bulbous-rooted plant, with linear leaves of a whitish green, and
stems four or five feet high, terminating in a sparse spike of white flowers, of very
powerful fragrance. It is a native of India, whence it was first brought to Europe about
1524, and to England in 1629. It is generally cultivated in frames or the green-house,
but in warm situations will flower in the open air. The tubers of this plant are an-
nually imported from the warm provinces of North America and Italy, but, like those
of the Guernsey lily, might, by proper treatment, as Salisbury has proved, be produced
in this country equally fit for flowering. There is a double variety, which is in most es-
teem, but both are equally fragrant.

6323. General treatment. The bulbs are planted in pots of sandy loam in March or
April, and brought forward in a hot-bed or hot-house till the flower-buds begin to ap-

844 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Pakt III.

pear. The plants are then removed to the green-house or the open air, or to halls or
churches, as in Italy, where the cooler temperature procures a prolonged bloom.

6324. Culture to produce flowering roots. The following is the process followed by Salisbury, by which
he produced, for many years, in the open air at Chapel Allerton, Howering bulbs equal to those imported.
The situation he preferred was a dry warm border ; in this he made an excavation tWo or three feet deep,
and of any convenient length and width ; about the middle of April, he filled this pit with fresh stable-
dung, and covered it with light sandy earth ;- then, on the bed so formed, the small lateral roots, or
those from foreign bulbs, or from those which had flowered in this country the preceding year, and boon
preserved ilirough the winter in s.ind, were planted at five inches' distance every way, the uppc-r p:;rt of
the tuber being just covered with earth. The bed was protected from nightly frosts and heavy rams,
little or no water was given, but when the leaves were an inch long, a iittle fresh compost was added lo
the surface- In June and Julv, when the leaves were in full vigor, it was watered copiously after warm
days; but in autumn and the' beginning of winter, it was carefully protected from heavy rains. In the
beginning of December, the decayed leaves being removed, the bed was thatched over a foot thick with
dry straw, sloping it well to throw off" the wet ; or covered with a frame and litter. In February the roots
were taken up, preserving their fibres, and packed in dry sand in a cellar where the cold could not pene-
trate, till April, when their fibres being shortened in proportion to their decay, and all tiie onsets except-
ing one or two on each bulb being removed, they were replanted as before. A few strong roots flowered
in this second year. In the succeeding winter the bed was thatched as before, and in February the roots
were taken up for forcing, or any of the puqjoses for which tuberose-roots are grown. F>y this process
bulbs were produced equal, if not superior, to those imported ; and therefore the ;iuthor thinks their cul-
ture might become an object to the commercial gardener, especially in the southern counties near the sea,
and in the vicinity of London. The great object, he says, is to obtain " a sutticient dcgr-e o^ heat in
summer to bring their leaves out to their full magnitude, that of the roots following of course. The
theory," he adds, " which I would recommend any intelligent girdener to adopt in its general rar.nage-
ment is, to keep the roots growing as vigorously as possible from May to October, but in a stuta of com-
plete rest and drought for the remainder of the year." {IJorf. Trans. L 53.)

SuBSECT. 13. FcEony. — P^onia, L. Pulyand. Digynia, L. and Ranunculacecs, J.
Fivoiiie, Fr. j P'donie, Ger. ; and Peonia, Ital.

6325. Most of the species of paony introduced in this country may be considered
as select flowers ; but that which has been longest cultivated is the P. officinalis {Bot.
Mag. 1784.) Tlie roots are composed of roundish tubers, the stalks of the leaves rise
between two and three feet high, and terminate in large red or purple flovvers, which
appear in May. The leaves are composed of many unequal lobes, variously cut into
many segments. It is a native of Switzerland, Dauphine, and other parts of Europe,
and also of China and Japan ; and was cultivated here in 1562. The roots were for-
merly much used in medicine.

6326. Varieties. Originally the common paeony was said to be of two sorts, male and
female, the flowers of the former being smaller and lighter colored than those of the
latter. These distinctions, which had no sexual allusion in this case, the pa2ony being
hermaphrodite, are now laid aside, and the varieties of P. offLcinalis have been reduced
by Sabine (^Hort. Trans, ii. 273.) to the following : —

The double red ; the most common, and j The double flesh-colored / The double sweet-scented Chinese (Hort.
formerly highly prized; lieine, when The double white Tr-awi. vol. ii. pi. 18.) '

introduced at Antweri'» near 250 years The double fringed Whitley's double white Chinese.

ago, sold for twelve crowns. | The double white Chinese |

6327. Propagation and culture. By seed from the single and semi-double sorts for new species, and by
dividing the roots for ordinary purposes. Miller directs to sow the seeds which ripen in September, im-
mediately afterwards in light fresh earth, covering them half an inch. They will come up the following
spring, and may remain in. the seed-bed two years before they are transplanted, sifting a little rich earth
over them when the leaves decay at the end of the growing season. Having made two years' growth in .
the seed-bed, they are to be transplanted in September into other well prepared beds of light fresh earth,
and placed six inches asunder every way, and three inches deep. Here they are to remain till they
flower, which is generally the fourth or fifth summer after sowing.

6328. Full-grown roots are readily propagated by parting, taking care to preserve a bud on the crown of
each offset The plants are very hardy ; they will grow in almost any soil and situation, and even under
the shade of trees, where, Miller says, they continue longest in beauty. They are chiefly planted in flower-
borders, and form a splendid ornament both to the parterre and shrubbery.

SuBSECT. 14. Dahlia. — Dahlia superflua and D. frustranea, H. K. {Cav. Ic. i. t. 80.
and 266.) Polyg. Super. L. and Corymbiferce. J.

6329. The roots of the dahlia are tuberous and fasciculated; the stems rise from five
to eight feet, covered with large compound leaves, resembling those of the common
dwarf elder, and with side branches bearing numerous flowers of a great variety of
colors, which appear in August, and continue till destroyed by frost. The plant grows
wild in Mexico, in sandy meadows, and was sent to Madrid in 1789, and thence to
England in the same year ; but the plants being lost, seeds were reintroduced by Lady
Holland in 1804, and from these and some plants imported from France during the
peace of 1814, the present extensive stock of dalilias has originated. Till this last
period they were much more cultivated in France and Germany than in England, and
more especially by the Count Lelieur, at Paris, and Otto, at Berlin. At present the
dahlia is the most fashionable flower in this country, and the extent of its culture in some
of the nurseries, especially tliat of Lee, is truly astonishing. Nor is this to be won-
dered at, as Sabine observes, for, independently of the great beauty and diversity of the

Book II. DAHLIA. 845

flowers, tlicy are in perfection at a season when, till they came into notice, our gardens
had but little ornament. The roots are edible, but not agreeable.
6:530. The varieties are exceedingly numerous.

The leadini; varieties of the fertile-rayed
s,\>ecies,D.*Hftrltun, are the i>urple,rose,
jiale, white, suluhur, yellow, tawny,
copper, brick-reii, dark-red, i>oi>iegra-
nate-colored, dark-jmr^ile, very dark,
and lilac tlowered sini^le, semi-double.

and double, with innnmerable sub-
varieties.
Of the barren-rayed species, D-fniilranea,
there are the scarlet, bright-scarlet,
orange, saftron, and yellow flowered,
single, semi-double, and double, witli

several sub\-arieties, though this spe-
cies ^^as not sported nearly so much as
the other.
At the Hammersmith nursery, above
200 sorts may be procured.

6S31. Criterion of a good (laJilia. The plant short, stiff, and bushy, prolific in flowers
having short peduncles ; the flower well expanded and standing boldly to the view, and
the colors clear and distinct.

6>32. Propagation. By dividing the roots, and by cuttings for ordinary purposes ; and by seed for new
varieties and also for increasing the stock of this plant, as the seedlings flower the first year. In dividing
the root care must be had to preserve a bud to each section, otherwise, though the tubers will throw out
roots, they will not produce leaves.

6333. By cuttings. Take these from the root-shoots in spring, or the tops of the young shoots, as early
in summer as may be ; cut the lower end smoothly off" in the middle of a joint, and leave the leaves on
the top, excepting such as would be buried in planting the cutting. Plant in sandy earth on heat, and
cover with a hand-glass, and they will strike and produce both flowers and tubers before the autumn.

6334. By grafting. This mode of propagating herbaceous vegetables has been known for some time on
the continent, and practised, as we have seen (202-.), to a considerable extent by the Baron Tschoudi.
In this country it seems to have been first adopted by Blake, in 1820, as a more speedy mode of pro-
pagating double-flowering plants than striking them by cuttings. The following are the details of his
practice : " The cutting intended for the graft should be strong, and short-jointed, having on it two or
more joints or buds ; it must be also procured as soon in the season as possible ; when obtained, select a
good tuber of a single sort, taking esjxjcial care that it has no eyes ; with a sharj' knife (for a dull edge
would mangle the fleshy root, make it jagged, and so prevent a complete adhesion), cut off a slice from
the upper part of the root, making at the bottom of the part so cut, a ledge whereon to rest the graft;
this is recommended because you cannot tongue the graft as you do a wood-shoot ; and the ledge is useful
in keeping the cutting fixed'in its place while you tie it; next cut the scion sloping, to fit, and cut
it so that a joint may be at the bottom of it, to rest on the aforesaid ledge ; a union may be effected
without the ledge, provided the graft can be well fixed to the tuber, but the work will not then be so
neat. It is of advantage, though not absolutely necessary, that a joint should be at the end of the scion,
for the scion will OLcasonally put forth new roots- from that lower joint ; the stem is formed from the
upper joint. I therefore procure the cuttings with the two lower joints as near together as possible. After
the graf^ has been tied, a piece of fine clay, such as is used for common grafting, must be placed round
it : then pot the root in fine mould, in a pot of such a size as will bury the graft half way in the mould;
place the pot on a little heat in the front of a cucumber or melon frame, if you chance to have one in
work at the time ; I prefer the front for the greater convenience of shading and watering which are re-
quired. A striking glass may be put over the graft, or not, as you please. In about three weeks the
root should be shifted into a larger pot, if it be too soon to plant it in the border, which will probably be
the case ; for supposing the work was begun in March, the plant cannot go out till the end of May,
so that the shifting will be very essential to promote its growth till the projier season of planting out shall
arrive." {Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 476.)

6335. By seed. The following directions are extractetl from an excellent paper on this subject {Ilorf.
Trans, vol. 238.) by Sabine. Collect the seeds in September from the dwarf plants, where no preference
exists on other accounts, and from semi-double flowers when double varieties are chiefly desired. Per-
haps seetls obtained from those particular florets of the disc which have altered their form, may have
a greater tendency than others to produce plants with double flowers. Sow in March, or earlier, on a
heat of 55" or 65° ; the young plants to be pricked out, if necessary, in pots, and kept in a moderate tem-
perature, say 50° or 55**, till the end of April. Now plant out where they are to remain, covering each
plant at night with an empty pot for some weeks, to avoid injury from spring frosts. If in a compartment
by themselves, plant in rows three feet wide, and at two feet distance in the row : if in the flower-
border, plant in the back rows. In either case they require to be staked. Seedlings thus treated will
blow in July, and continue in perfection till the autumn ; but the first frost takes the same effect on the
dahlia as it'does on the potatoe and kidneybean. A blow may be prolonged by planting in large iJots and
removing early in autumn to the green-house.

6336. Soil and situation. Dahlias thrive best in rich loam, and a clear open space, neither sheltered by
trees or walls. Like the potatoe, they exhaust the soil considerably, and do not thrive well when re-
peatedly planted on the same spct

63.JJ.' Planting futt-growH roots. These may either be planted on the spot where they are to flower,
early in April, and protected by covering with litter or by empty pots, as in transplanting seedlings ; or,
when an early blow is wanted, they may be planted in large pots and forwarded in frames or pits, or in
any spare house, with a temperature equal to that of the green-house, till the middle of May, when they
may be planted where they are finally to remain, and will flower in June. Sabine says, " Dahlias
look best in a large mass, unmixed with other plants ; in this plan of growing them, some nicety is re-
quired in the due distribution of the sorts, so as to have a proper and good mixture of colors ; and par-
ticular care is necessary to keep the tallest plants either in the centre or at the back of the clump,
according as it is destined to be viewed, from one side only, or all sides, and to place the whole so that
there shall be no unevenness in the general shape of the entire mass, arising from the irregular arrange-
ment of the individual ^ilants, according to their respective heights. The roots should be planted about
three feet from each other every way ; this distance will keep each sufficiently distinct, and yet so
united that the whole clump will have the appearance of an unbroken wood or forest of dahlias.
They look very handsome if planted in the manner of an avenue, in a straight line, on each side of a
walk."

6338. General culture. No particular care is requisite after the plants are neatly tied to stakes, till
they have been attacked by the frost, they should then be cut down and the roots covered with as much
haulm, old tan, or leaves, as would be necessary to keep the frost from the tubers of a ix)tatoe-plant left
in the soil. If this is done, they will blow well and early next season. But the most general way, espe-
cially with the valuable sorts, is to dig up the roots with a portion of the stem attached, and plant or bed
them in pots or boxes among sand or dry mould, and keep them under the stage of a green-house, or m
some dry airy place, free from the access ot frost, till the spring On a large scale, they may be pitted
like potatoes, or packed m ridges with sand in cellars, and covered with straw ; the object being to keep
them sufficiently moist and plump to maintain the living principle, and yet not to rot them, or have them
destroyed by frost.

S46

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Paw III.

SuBSECT. 15. Auricula. — Primula Auricula, L. (Jac. Aus. 5. t. 415.) Pent. Monog. lu.
and PrimulaceeB, B. P. Oreille Wours, Fr. ; Aurikel, Ger. j and Orecchio d'orso, Ital.
{Jig. 603.)

6339. The auricula is a flower of great beauty : it is a small fibrous-rooted plant, with
fleshy succulent leaves, generally mealy on the edges ; a native of the mountains of
Switzerland, Austria, Syria, and the Caucasus, &c. We have gathered it in abundance
near the post-house on the Simplon road. It was cultivated by Gerrard in 1597, under
the name of bear's ears, or mountain cowslips. To show what cultivation may perform
on this plant. Professor Martyn relates, from Morant's Colchester (1768, p. 92.),
that Henry Stow, a gardener, near that place, a famous grower of ^uriculas, had some
plants with no less than 1 33 blossoms on one stem. About a hundred years ago the
passion for this flower in England was much greater than at present ; and, as Justice
remarks, we supplied the Dutch, who afterwards, till the late war, used to re-supply us
with the progeny of our own flowers. Justice was the most enthusiastic cultivator of the
auricula, and indeed of all florists' flowers of his time. After him the Lancashire
growers are the next to be distinguished, and more especially Maddock, the well known
author of the Florist's Directory, originally from Warrington. Emmerton is, at this
time, one of the most enthusiastic admirers of this flower ; and the best collections are
to be found among the commercial gardeners near London, and the operative manu-
facturers and artisans near Manchester, Paisley, and other large towns. It is like the
tulip, pink, &c., a poor man's flower, and a fine blow is rarely to be seen in the gardens
of the nobility and gentry.

6340. The varieties are endless.

The colors of the flower in its wild state
are yellow, purple, and variegated.
Gerrard figures the yellow, purjile,
red, scarlet, blush-colored, and bright-
red, most of which grew in the Lon-
don gardens in his time. Parkinson,
in 1629, enumerates twenty rarieties.

and says many more were to be
found. Rea, in 1702, has an increased
number, classed as purples, reds,
yellows, and whites. In 1792, the
catalogue of J. Maddock contained
nearli; 500 named varieties, divided
into ligioUa, selfs, or pl<iin one-colored

sorts, double flowers, and painted or
variegated sorts. The latter only are
held in esteem, and few collections
contain more than two or three selfs
of the ftindamental colors, and as many
double flowers. Double varieties are not

603

6341. Criterion of a fine variegated auricula,
(fig. 603. a, b, c, d, e) " The stem should be
strong, erect, and elastic, and of a proper height,
that the bunch or truss may be above the foliage
of the plant. The peduncles, or foot-stalks, of
the flowers should also be strong and elastic, and
of a proportional length to the size and quantity
of the pips, which should not be less than seven
in number, that the bunch may be rather round,
close, and compact. The component parts of
the pip are the tube (with its stamens and an-
thers) ; the eye ; and the exterior circle contain-
ing the ground-color, with its edge or margin :
these three should be all well proportioned,
which will be the case if the diameter of the
tube be one part, the eye three, and the whole
pip six, or nearly so. All the admirers of this
flower agree that the pips ought to be round ;
but this seldoms happens ; and we must be content if they are so nearly round as not to
be what is termed starry. The anthers, or summits of the stamens, ought to be large,
bold, and fill the tube well, and the tube should terminate rather above the eye ; the eye
should be very white, smooth, and round, without any cracks, and distinct from the
ground or self-color. The ground-color should be bold and rich, and equal on every
side of the eye, whether it be in one uniform circle, or in bright patches ; it should be
distinct at the eye, and only broken at the outward part into the edging ; a fine black,
purple, or bright coffee-color, contrast best with the eye ; a rich blue or bright pink is
pleasing, but a glowing scarlet or deep crimson would be most desirable, if well edged
with a bright green ; but this must seldom be expected. The green edge, or maro-in,
is the principal cause of the variegated appearance in this flower ; and it should be in
proportion to tlie ground-color, i. e. about one half of each. The darker grounds are
generally covered with a white powder, which seems necessary, as well as the white eye,
to guard the flowers from the scorching heat of the sun's rays, which would soon destroy
them if they were exposed to it."

6342. Propagation. By rooted slips, or dividing the root for continuing approved
sorts, and by seed for obtaining new varieties. The best time for taking off slips, or
dividing the root, is after the plant has done flowering and ripening its seed, if this last

Book II.

AURICULA.

847

is pennitted. The operation is therefore generally performed in July and the beginning
of August. Emmerton says, the Lancashire growers will not take off, or sell a slip be-
fore the 5th of August, on which day they begin to execute orders for young plants.

6343. By seed. Maddock says, " the surest and best method to obtain fine auriculas from seed is to
provide young, healthy, and strong plants, of capital high-colored sorts, possessing first-rate properties •
these, on the approach of bloom, should be detached from the rest to a remote part of the garden, and
there exposed to the sun, air, and rain, when the last is in moderation ; but if in excess, thev should be
preserved from it by mats on hoops, or small hand-glasses may be placed over them. In dry weather,
they must be regularly watered, as often as they appear to require it ; for much depends on a due at-
tention to this particular jwint." Emmerton is a warm advocate for raising the auricula from seeds, and
says, any one who will follow his directions may be certain of raising very fine sorts. He selects the
flowers he intends to breed from, according to the properties he desires in the oflfspring. Thus, he
advises to procure the following sorts, sufficiently well known to the London and Manchester florists, and
to plant them in pots ; six plants of two sorts in each pot, viz.

For breeding light-green
teedtingt. A imt with
king and 4 of Grimes's privateer; one
with 2 of Barlow's king, and 4 of
Butterworth's Lord Hood ; one with
2 of Barlow's king and 4 of Ken-
yon 's ringleader.

For breeding ^fine grast-green or clean
green-edged teedlingt. Pots with six
plants in each, viz. 3 of Barlow's
king, 3 of PoUet's Highland boj ; 3

of Barlow's king, 3 of Buckley's jolly
tar; 3 of Barlow's kini;, 3 of Har-
ris's Prince Bliicher; 3 of Barlow's
king, 3 of Stretch's Emperor Alex-
ander.
For breeding _fitie choice-tittted Holet
ground-colored feedlings rvith green
edge: Pots with six plants in each,
viz. 3 of Bearless's sui)erb, 3 of Fo-
den's victory ; 3 of Bearless's superb,
3 of Warris's Prince Biucher: 3 of

Bearless's superb, 3 of Chilcot's
king.
For breeding Jine rvhite-edged teedlingt.
Pots with six plants m each, tiz.
3 of Schooley's Mrs. Clarke, 3 of
Taylor's incomparable; 3 of Schoo-
l.y's Mrs. Clarke, 3 of Crompton's
Admiral Gardner ; 3 of Schooley's
Mrs. Clarke, 3 of Popplewell's con.
queror ; 5 of Schooley's Mrs. Clarke.
3 of WUd's bUck and clear.

6344. Each of these pots is fo be set apart, and at a distance from all other auriculas, before the flowers
have expanded, to prevent accidental impregnation, and to be kept so detached till auriculas in general are
out of flower. They may then be placed on a platform of scoria or tiles, there to remain till they have
ripened their seeds.

6345. A simple mode is to impregnate the stigmas of one sort with the anthers of another, in Knight's
manner : or even without castrating the female parent. Xicol tried this last mode with the greatest suc-
cess both in the primula and dianthus genus. {Gated. Hart. Soc. Mem. iii. 276.)

6346. TJie seed will commonly ripen in June and July, and is to be gathered in single capsules as it ripens,
and kept in them till the sowing season, which is January or February, according to Maddock ; and from
the middle of Febrtiary to the 10th or 12th of March, according to Emmerton. Maddock sows in boxes,
covers as lightly as possible, and sets the boxes in a hot-bed ; preserving a moderate and equal degree of
warmth both day and night, admitting fresh air occasionally. The advantage of this mode is, that it forces
every live grain into vegetation in about three weeks, if the warmth of the bed be properly kept up;
whereas, by the more usual mode of exposure to the open air, the greater part does not vegetate till the
second year ; and the weaker seeds, which are probably the most valuable, seldom vegetate at all.

6347. T/ie earth and seed must always be kept moderately moist, but never very wet ; the best method of
watering it is by means of a hard clotTies-brush, dipped into soft water, which has had its chill taken off
by standing in the sun, the hair side being quickly turned upwards, and the hand rubbed briskly over it,
will cause the water to fly off in an opposite direction, in particles almost as fine as dew ; a sufficient water-
ing may, in this manner,'be given in a few minutes. If the surface of the earth in the box is inclining to
become mossy or mouldy, it must be stirred all over very carefully with a pin, about as deep as the thick-
ness of a shilling. At the expiration of three, four, or at most, five weeks, the young plants will all make
their appearance ; it then becomes necessary to give them very gradually more air, in order to harden and
render them fit for an entire exposure to it, which they will be able to bear in a ibrtttight or three weeks
afterwards ; at which time the box should be taken out of the frame, and placed in rather a warm situ-
ation, though not too much exposed to the sun, till towards the end of April, when it may be again re-
moved to a cooler aspect, where it can only receive the sun till nine o'clock in the morning ; and in May,
if the weather is hot, it should be placed iii the most cool and airy part of the garden, not neglecting, at
any time, to keep the earth moderately moist ; but at the same time preserving it from violent rains when-
ever they occur. As soon as any of the plants apj)ear with six leaves, such should be taken out from the
rest, and transplanted into other boxes, filled with the compost, about an inch and a half or two inches
asunder ; and when they are again grown, so as nearly to touch each other, they may be a second time
transplanted into larger boxes, or round small pots, at the distance of three or four inches, where they
should remain till they blow, which will generally happen the following spring, perhaps before they have
acquired any considerable size ; and then such as appear to be possessed of merit should be marked, and
the inferior ones destroved. As soon as the bloom is over, such as have been marked should be taken up,
and planted separately 'in small pots, and be taken the same care of as other auriculas, till they blow
again ; at which time' their respective merits and properties may be ascertained with more accuracy.
Such weakly plants as are not able to blow the first or second year, ought nevertheless to be carefully pre-
served ; for amongst these it often happens that the most valuable flowers are found. A great proportion
of the seedlings, although the seed was saved from the best flowers, will be plain-colored, or self, which,
unless possessed of excellent properties in other respects, or being singularly beautiful in their colors, are
of no value, but as common border.flowers.

6348. Emmerton sows in small pots, about six inches over the top, and six deep, filled half full with coal-
ashes or cinders, for the sake of drainage. He covers as thinly as possible with the auricula-compost, then
puts on a bell-glass, and places the pots in a situation quite excluded from the sun, except in the morning.
The bell-glass, he savs, will cause the seed to vegetate much sooner, and by pouring the water over the
top of it, the earth in' which the seeds are will receive sufficient moisture, so that there will be no occasion
to remove it. " If convenient," he says, " I would recommend the front of a green-house, or a cool-frame,
for the seed-pots to be placed in, but by no means a hot-bed ; or if not that accommodation, a hand-glass,
having tiles or slates placed underneath, to keep the worms out of the pots ; great care being taken to keep
the earth in a regular moist state. In about four or five weeks, perhaps three weeks, if m a green-house,
the seeds wiU break ground ; and when the leaf begins to appear, you must take care by degrees to admit
air." After this, his treatment of the young plants till they flower is essentially the same as that recom-
mended above by Maddock. All pin-eyed flowers, or such as show only the stigmas and not the anthers,
he throws away as of no value, either as border-flowers or select sorts. , „ . ,

6349. Hogg says, auricula-seed may be sown either in pots, or in the open air, about the 1st of March, and
covered with a hand-glass. When the plants will bear transplanting, he removes them mto pots of the
smallest size, one in a pot

6350. Soil. The different composts used by florists in growing this flower are almost
as numerous, Hogg observes, as the florists themselves. " Persons often take extraor-
dinary pains, and incur unnecessary expense, to injure, if not destroy, their flowers.
Weak minds are soon misled by quackery and novelty, having no sound judgment of their

848 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

own ; and quackeiy, even in the growing of flowers, has as many followers as in any other
line." (^Treatise, &c. p. 103.)

6351. Maddock recommends " one half rotten cow-dung, two years old. The cow-dung produced near
London is more crude and gross than that of the country, occasioned by the difference of food on which
the animal subsists ; it of course requires longer preparation and £xposure to the atmosphere that the lat-
ter, but two years and a half will be found sufficient for it in its grossest and most crude state. One sixth
n:esh sound eartli, of an open texture. One eighth earth of rotten leaves. One twelfth coarse sea or river
sand. One twenty-fourth soft decayed willow wood. One twenty-fourth peaty or moory earth. One
twenty-fourth ashes of burnt vegetables." This compost is to be thoroughly incorporated and exposed to
the air in an open situation for a year before it is made use of.

6352. Emmerton says, " Good compost is the food, the very life of the auricula ;" it must be very rich,
and properly tempered and sweetened by the sun, frost, and air. His materials are goose or pigeon dung,
night-soil, sugar-bakers' scum, yellow loam, or loam from such land as will grow good crops of wheat, and
sea-sand. He does not use salts of any kind, which are, no doubt, supplied by the sugar-bakers' scum, that
substance being chiefly blood, lime-water, and oily matter. He gives various proportions, all of which he
found successful ; in some, night-soil and sand are wanting, thus : three barrowfuls of goose-dung, steeped
in blood from butchers ; three barrowfuls of sugar-bakers' scum ; two barrowfuls of fine yellow loam :
or, two barrowfuls of goose-dung, steeped in blood ; two barrowfuls of scum ; two barrowfuls of night-
soil ; and two barrowfuls of fine yellow loam. These composts require two years' preparation ; in the
first, they are mixed up in a hole in the earth ; and in the next, turned over every month in an open ex-
pos(Mi situation, so as every part may be thoroughly frozen in winter, and heated by the sun and penetrated
by the air in summer. Those composts, he says, he used with very great success, though they contained
no sand. He next introduces that material thus : four barrowfuls of loam, steeped in night-soil and
urine ; two barrowfuls oi goose-dung, mixed with blood ; two barrowfuls of sugar-bakers' scum ; and
two pecks of sea-sand : or, two barrowfuls of night-soil ; one barrowful of cow-dung ; one barrowful
of fine yellow loam ; and one peck of sea-sand : or, two barrowfuls of night-soil ; two barrowfuls of
goose-dung ; two barrowfuls of cow-dung ; two barrowfuls of fine yellow loam ; and two pecks of sea-
sand. Great stress is laid on the blood, which, " when rotted down with other manure, does wonders be-
yond all idea ;" but unless the above composts are " stirred and turned over frequently, it will poison aiid
rather kill and destroy your plants, than nourish them. Rendered sweet and wholesome, it will be the
means of throwing brilliant colors into the pips or petals, and of giving life and vigor to the plants, as
much as fine old port or rich Madeira wine does to the human constitution." {Cult, of the Auricula,
&c. p. 77.)

6353. The late P. Kenny, Hogg observes, " gardener by profession, was, perhaps, one of the most successful
and eminent growers of auriculas in his day, and who won as many prizes as most jnen, during the course
often or twelve years that he lived at Totteridge, in Middlesex. He certainly had all the benefit of air,
situation, and soil, which, coupled with his fondness for the flower, and his skilful treatment of it, (to say
nothing of his being almost constantly in the garden,) gave him a decided superiority over many of his
competitors, and ensured, as it were, his chani-e of success. He always kept by him a quantity of sound
staple loam, of rather a sandy nature ; this he sweetened, by frequent turning. His next principal ingre-
dient was sheep-dung and hay-litter, obtained from the slieds used to rear early lambs, well rotted, by
being turned, mixed, and fermented in the same manner as the gardener docs horse-dung and straw-litter.
His proportions were one third loam; two thirds sheep-dung and hay-litter; one tenth coarse sand.
These formed his compost for growing them in ; but he had another of a richer quality, if I may so term
it, with which he used to top-dress his plants, and this he would do sometimes twice in the year. When
they killed any sheep, he always reserved the blood, and mixed it with the dung of poultry. These
two ingredients he added to his loam and sheep-dung, and these constituted his compost for surface-
dressing." {Treatise, &c. 104.) This compost was employed and much approved of in the Hammersmith
nursery.

6354. The Lancashire growers, Hogg informs us, " use horse-dung and cow-Jung indiscriminately,
sometimes mixed, sometimes apart; the dung of poultry most frequently; and old decayed willow wood,
when they can got it ; with the mould cast up by moles ; taking care that the same be v>roperly mixed, sweet-
ened, and pulverised. In winter, they throw itup in narrow ridges, and when the top of it is frozen, they
take it off", and so continue to do, till the whole of it has been frozen."

6355. Justice gives the culture of the auricula in a " hitherto-unattempted manner, and which, although
repugnant to the rules given by our cultivators of auriculas, T shall here insert, as the only true method
to procure a fine blow of auriculas, such as 1 had this last spring, 1762 ; which, to the sight of numbers of
spectators, exceeded all the blows of any auricula-; ever seen in Scotland, in England, or in Europe ;
which was composed of the most capital flowers in England and Holland, and some very fine new seed-
lings of my own raising." The soil he recommends is, one half free fresh loam, from under an old pas-
ture; one half composed of the following parts, viz. three parts three -year-old cow-dung, and one part
sea or river sand : no horse-dung to be used, and the ingredients not to be mixed together till a few days
before being made use of: " for otherwise, when they are mixed for some time, they breed vermin and
worms." He idds, " if you use fullers' earth to them, it must be done in the proportion only of an
eighth part, and at no time but in the spring dressing ; for if used in autumn, it is prejudicial ; and even
when it is used in spring, it must be well dissolved in warm water before being used, and then use no
sand." {Biit. G rd. Direct, art. Au7-icula.)

6356. Curtis, in a note to tiic 'ast edition of Maddock 's work, says, " We have seen the strongest auri-
culas produced from the foUowing ingredients : two thirds of the rotten dung from old hot-beds reduced
to fine mould ; one third containing equal parts of coarse sand and peat or bog earth, such as is used in
the culture of heaths, mixed well together by sifting or scroening, and suffered to be well aired by fre-
quent turnings during the frosts of winter." {Florist's Direct. 161.)

6357. Henderson, of Delvine, uses two parts of very rotten dung from old hot-beds, one part of vegetable
mould, one quarter of river sand, mixing the whole, and exposing it for a winter. {Calcd. Hort. Sac. Mem
ii. 230.)

6358. The compost in most general use among auricula-growers is of fresh loamy soil and perfectly de-
composed cow-dung, equal parts of each, adding one tenth of the mixture of sea or river sand. Some use
leaf-mould instead of cow-dung. The whole incorporated and prepared for one summer and one winter
in the usual manner.

6359. Manner of growing. The common sorts are grown in beds or in mingled
borders ; but all the fine flowers in pots. Maddock recommends pots of six inches and a
half interior diameter at top, seven inches deep, and the interior bottom diameter four
inches, for full-grown flowering plants ; and smaller sizes for seedlings and newly sepa-
rated offsets. Emmerton uses pots for large blooming plants, eight inches high, five
inches and a half diameter at the top, and four inches and a half at the bottom outside
measure.

6360. Time of potting and transplanting full-grown plants. The most advisable time
to pot auriculas, according to Maddocks, is immediately, or soon after bloom, and

Book IL AURICULA. 849

this sliould be repeated annually (notwithstanding the opinion of some who say the plants
bloom better the second year after potting) for this obvious reason, that it preserves tlie
health and constitution of the plants, by affording them a fresh supply of nutriment ;
and at the same time the cultivator has an opportunity of curtailing their fibres, if grown
very long, or of cutting off the lower part of tlie main root, if too long, or the end of it,
if decayed ; thereby forcing the plants, as it were, into a state of action, and causing a
continued circulation of their juices, during the summer, in the formation of new fibres
for their necessary sustenance and support : whereas, if tliis operation of potting is not
performed till the second year, the soil must have lost a considerable part of its nutritious
quality, which will produce a proportionate decline in the strength of the plants : and if
it be deferred till Uie autumn, there will not be time for a sufficient reproduction of the
fibres before winter sets in, the effects of which will be a faint-colored and weak bloom
the ensuing spring. Tlie only objection of any importance, against spring potting, is
tliat some sorts will in consequence be more inclined to blow in the following autumn,
and thereby deprive the plant of its capacity to bloom well the ensuing spring ; this,
however, occurs but in few instances.

63ol. In potting or transplanting auriculas, the plants should be carefully turned out of the former pot,
and the earth shaken from its fibres, which should be curtailed if found too long and numerous, together
with the lower end of the main root, and the fibres attached to that part, if it apjiears too long, or some-
what decayed ; the plant is to be at the same time carefully examined, and wherever any unsoundness
appears, iK must be entirely eradicated by means of a sharp penknife, let the extent of it be ever so great,
till no appearance of decay remains ; particularly in that part of the main root whore it enters the surface
of the earth, or, as the sailors phrase it, betwixt wind ancf water, which, being alternately wet and dry, is
more subject to decay than any other i>art, and for the same reason is the' most difficult to heal :' the
wounded part should be immediately exposed to the sun, and when the surface of the wound is perfectly
dry, a cement should be applied, consisting of bees' wax and pitch, about one half of each, warmed and
softened in the sun, or by a fire, to make it adhere more firmly on application : this will become close and
hard when cold, it will resist moisture, and is the best application yet discovered, to prevent further pro-
gress of the decay. Whenever the lower leaves of the plant, next the surface of the earth, become vel-
low, or dried up, it is proper to strip them off, in a direction downwards. On replanting, a pot suitable to
the size of the plant is to be selected J it is to have a hollow oyster-shell p%".ccd with its convex side up-
wards, over the hole at the bottom, and then to be about three parts filled with compost, higher in tlie
middle than at the sides : the plant is next to be placed thereon, with its fibres regularly distributed
all round, so as nearly or quite to reach the sides of the pot, which is afterwards to be filled up with the
compost, adding a little clean coarse sand close round the stem of the plant, on the surface : the bottom
of the pot should then be gently struck two or three times against the table, which is supposed to l)emade
use of for the sake of convenience in the operation, in order to render the soil more firm and compact;
this will cause it to sink or subside about half an inch below the top of the pot, which will prevent the loss
of water when it is administered.

6362. The true depth to plant an auricula is within about half an inch of the bottom of its lowest or
outside leaves ; as the new and most valuable fibres proceed from that }>art, so they should immediately
meet with earth to strike into, or otherwise they will perish : it will likewise encourage the offsets, if
there be any, to strike root sooner than they would do if not in contact with the soil. {Florist's Direct.
129.)

6363. On the foregoing directions, by Maddock, his editor, Curtis, has the following note : " Notwith-
standing the author has so particularly recommended the annual fresh potting of auriculas, we must beg
leave to differ in opinion from him, as far as relates to those plants which are intended to bloom strong
the following spring, the mode of potting advised being to shake tlie whole of the earth from amongst Uie
fibres of the plant, in order to examine the lower end of the main root, this severe operation being per-
formed in the spring, when the plants ought to bemaking their most luxuriant growth, will have evil conse-
quences. The case is simply this : the pfant being firmly established, nature intends its greatest growth
in the spring ; during this rapid growth, the operation gives an unnatural shock to vegetation ; the con-
sequence is, the plant must remain dormant until fresh fibres are formed sufficient to draw nourishment
for supporting the growth necessary to form a strong-blooming plant Having given our opinion against
it, we "substitute the following recommendation : select those plants intended for strong blooms the following
spring from the younger ones, turn them out with their balls of earth entire, and if the fibres are healthy,
return the balls into a set of pots one size larger than they were in before, adding new comjxjst to fill up ;
we have no objection to remove as much earth as can be done without disturbmg the mass of fibre ; in
this state treat them as usual, and when those which have bloometl strong on this plan are out of bloom,
put them on the plan recommended bv the author. \Ve beg leave also to notice, that it sometimes hap-
pens that the ovster-shell placed at the bottom of the pot by fitting too close confines the water in it, which
is ineviuble destruction to the plant ; we should advise particular care to be taken for the effectual
drainage of a sui>erabundance of wet, by putting two or three pieces of broken pot over the surface of the
bottom."

63G4. Emmerton disapproves both of spring and autumn transplanting, and says,
" the best time for the operation is soon after they are out of bloom j say about the 22d
or 23d of May;" but he adds, —

G365. From the 29/A of May to the \2fh of June, I have transplanted my flowers with great success,
even also as late as the 13th of July. On no account remove a general collection a week later, at least,
those you intend to bloom very strong : by this means they will have three or four months to get well
rootetl before winter, which they ought to have ; and if you transplant them early in the spring, it will be
so near their time of blowing, that the check they will receive by transplanting will prevent their blooming
strong. Strong-blowing roots should not be removed more than once in two years ; to do it oftener would
be to run a risk of not having anv fine flowers to exhibit on your stage ; because these plants never thrive
rightly, till the roots have reached the sides of the pots, and it seldom or never happens that they get suf-
ficiently well established in a full-sized auricula-pot, in one year. By no means remove your large-bloom-
ing auricula-plants in drv hot weather, as bv shaking the mould clean out of the plant the roots will not
freely draw fresh fibres, except the weather 'is inclined to be showery, and what is termed a cool moist air.
I am satisfied dry hot weather is an improper time, except they are fine young maiden plants, m small
pou, which should be slipiied out of the pot with the whole ball of earth, and then immediately planted
in a full-sized blooming-pot for the ensuing season ; in this last case I used to pay no attention whatever
to the dry weather. If your large-blooming planU have not been removed for two or three years, their

3 1

850

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

amall roots will have filled the pots, and probably their large, or what is called by some the carrot root,
may be grown so long as to require shortening ; in this case the plant must be taken out of the pot, and
the earth entirely shaken from it ; you will see what is necessary to be done ; shorten the carrot-root, if
necessary, for if you suffer it to remain too long, it will either get rotten at the end, and always keep the
plant weak, or will be too long for an ordinary pot; besides, it would want shifting every year, and never
produce fine strong flowers. Reduce their small roots to about ten or a dozen, leaving those that are
nearest the leaves : they will be sufficient again to support and vegetate your plant. If you perceive any
canker or rottenness in the root, cut it boldly to the quick, till it appear tresh and lively, and no spots or
symptoms of decay remain ; put on the wounds a little mastich, bees' wax, turpentine, and white rosin, in
equal parts, to heal and dry them ; leaving as many fibres to it as possible. If a large-blooming plant, or any
other one you remove, has been in the pot but one year since it was last transplanted, you may slip it out
of the pot with all its earth about it, and although its fibres may have reached the outside, they will not
be so large and numerous, or so matted together, as the older plants that have remained in one pot two
clear years. You need not therefore shake the earth from it, but with a sharp knife cut the fibres and
earth away till you reduce it to the size of a cricket-ball, or rather larger, as much depends on the size
and age of your plant. {Treatisey 132.)

6366. Hogg recommends the first week in August, because " if you put your plants at this early period
of the summer into pots, in which they are to remain till they flower again next spring, the space of
nearly twelve months, the strength of the compost must be greatly reduced before that time, particularly
as they require so much water during the hot months of June and July ; this must tend, beyond all doubt,
to exhaust the nutriment contained in so small a body of earth, as is in the pots; by which means they
■will be less able to throw out strong fibres, or to produce you strong blooms in the spring. Early potting
is attended with another evil consequence ; for, the plants being removed into fresh and more vegetative
earth, accompanied with daily waterings, forces them prematurely into a state of active vegetation, and
causes them to flower late in the autumn, a circumstance which the florist always views with regret, as
it in a great measure destroys his hopes of a fine bloom at their natural and expected season, towards the
latter end of April : this last argument of itself appears to me quite conclusive in favor of late pot-
ting. The slips or offsets will also have acquired more strength and better roots, by being suffered to ad-
here to the parent plant till the beginning of August, and will occasion you less trouble in protecting and
shading them. From the beginning of August to the beginning of November is a period quite long enough
for the plants to strike fresh fibres, and to get well established in the pots, before winter ; and, with the
return of spring, you may expect a vigorous growth of the plant in all its parts. The customary mode is, to
shake the mould completely from the roots every second year ; but, in doing this, you must be guided by
the state and condition of your plants. The late Kenny let his remain very frequently until the third
year, reducing the ball of earth only, trimming the fibres, and examining the carrot or main root.
Transplanting should be done in a cloudy sky and a moist atmosphere."

6367. Justice pots suckers, and transplants old plants, in August. Henderson, of Delvine, says,
" the shifting season is always, with me, about the third week of May, when the plants have done flow-
ering. At that season, I shake the mould from the old plants, and cut the end of the stump up to the
fresh young roots, if it has grown too long. (I am now speaking of those plants which have been in the
largest-sized pots for two years.) After dressing the wounds with gum-mastich, to prevent gangrene, the
plants are repotted in the second size of pots. Next May they are shifted, with the ball entire, into the
largest size, or flowering-pots ; so that from the first potting of the young plants in small pots, to a com-
plete shifting, four years elapse ; the plants having been one year in small pots, one in the second size,
and two in the largest, or third size. A little river-sand is put round the stems at all the shiftings ; and if
any wounds are made by taking off the suckers, they are dressed with mastich. At all times the stems
are cleared of sprouts above ground as they appear, but suckers from under are allowed to grow, in order
to form young plants." {Caled. Hort. Soc. iii. 2o0.)

6368. Removal and potting of offsets. When offsets have formed one or more fibres, an inch or two
in length, Maddock directs to remove them by means of a piece of hard wood, or by the use of the
fingers, to be separated from the old plant with safety, and replanted round the sides of a small pot, filled
with the same compost, till theyJbecome sufficiently grown to occupy pots separately : if a small hand-
glass be placed over each pot containing these newly-planted offsets, it will cause their fibres to grow .
more rapidly ; but it should not be long continued, as it would have a tendency to draw and weaken the
plant {Florist's Direc. 130.)

6369. Emmerton says, " You may separate offsets from the mother plant any time between February
and August, according as they are in size, or are wanted for increase, and plant them immediately
against the side of pots four or five inches in diameter. If a strong and superior bloom of flowers is de-
sired, no offsets must be allowed to grow on the old plant, and especially none on the stem without

fibres. Rub them all off when they are about the size of hemp-seed." {Treatise on the Auricula, &c. 126.)

6370. Geyieral culture. Maddock keeps his auriculas
during one part of the year in what he calls a summer re-
pository {fig. 604.), and the other in a winter repository.

6371. Summer repository. " The following is recom-
mended as a proper plan for the summer repository, viz.
m the first place, there should be a bed of coal-ashes
formed in the place where it is intended to be erected,
about five or six inches thick; or a platform of plain
square tiles, closely fitted to each other, on the surface of
the ground, to preserve the pots from the common earth-
worm, which, by gaining admittance into them, would/"
perforate, and alter the consistence of the soil, in such a
manner as to prove very injurious ; upon this foundation
rows of bricks {fig. 604.) are to be placed in straight lines
about two or three inches asunder, which will allow a free
circulation of air under and between the pots when placed
upon them, an object of great importance, especially in
warm weather, when the air is most inclined to stagnate
and become impregnated with noxious efliluvia. The
plants, by the above plan, will be raised from nine to
twelve inches above the level of the ashes or platform
There should be two rows of substantial stakes, three feet
long, and five inches by three wide, one row of which
should be placed on each side, at about three or four inches'

Book II. AURICULA.

851

top, which will give room for the shutters to move backwards and forwards without difficulty or danger
of bhpping out. Both sides are thus to be provided with stakes and shutters, the upper edge of the latter
should meet over the centre of the platform (e), when the planU require to be covered with them in the
form of the ridge or roof of a house, well fitted and sloping equally on both sides, so as to throw off rain
without even admitting it to drip through upon the plants in any part It is necessary that a rail or row
of stakes, of a proper height and strength, should proceed from the ground between the two' middle
rows of pots, to support the shutters when closed or closing, especially as it is usually more convenient to
begin to cover or uncover on one side first, and finish on the other ; without a support of this kind in
such case, the shutters must fall down upon the plants : a similar exterior rail, or row of stakes, is ne-
cessary on each side, to support the shutters when open, with the same degree of slope, in a contrary di-
rection than when closed ; by which means the plants will have a free communication with the air
whether covered or open ; nor are they entirely deprived of light, when the shutters are closed, because
the lower edge of the shutters is as high or higher than the top of the plants at all tunes. The peculiar
advantage arising from this plan is, that when the plants require to be shut up from excess of rain, they
have at the same time the advantage of a continual supply and free circulation of fresh air, which passes
amongst their leaves in all directions ; whereas those who are obliged to shut up their plants in a close firame,
to exclude excess of rain from them, oftentimes shut them up in a wet state, as soon as it is judged they
have had a sufficiency : this is a very dangerous, though not unusual practice, and often produces a mildew
which is attended with the most destructive consequences. The importance of a properly constructed re-
pository, and suitable treatment of the plants, for the summer season, will sufficiently apologise for any
prolixity in the description : it cannot, indeed, be too strongly impressed on the mind of the cultivator of
this delicate flower that his success more particularly depends on the health and vigor of his plants towards
the end of summer, than at any other period of the year. The plants, after being placed in the summer
repositorj', are to be kept moderately moist ; if the rains that happen are not sufficient, they must be occa-
sionally watered with soft water, by a small pot with a round curved spout, taking care not to let any water
fall into the heart or amongst the interior leaves of the plant, as it could not speedily dry up in that part,
and, of course, would endanger a decay; any water lodging in the heart of the planU in spring, when the
blossoms begin to make their appearance, cannot fail to injure them considerably. The plants are to re-
main in their summer situation till September or October, as the weather maybe more or less favorable-
or until the heat of the sun has considerably decreased."

6372. Emtnerton places his pots, after the plants have done flowering, in a shady situation, and full north
a-ipect. He sets them on bricks placed on a bed of ashes, in the same manner as Maddock j but he pro-
vides no covering to exclude the rain. {Treatise on the Auricula, &c. 143.)

6373. Hogg removes his auriculas which have blown in spring from the show-stage to a north-east aspect,
to avoid the scorching rays of the summer sun. He then sets them upon thin boards or thin slates, lying
on a bed of coal-ashes. {Treatise, &c. 115.)

6374. Justice sets his plants in a full northern exposure, and without covering, to the 20th of October.
Whichever of these plans be adopted, the plants must be kept clear of weeds, the soil gently stirred
when it gets hard or mossy, water supplied in dry weather, and the leaves, as they become yellow, drawn
off close to the stem.

6375. Winter repository. In the end of September or beginning of October, Maddock removes his au-
riculas to the winter repositon,', " which is to be constructed in a manner exactly similar to that for the
summer season, with only one exception, viz. that the south side of it should consist of frames of glass
{Jig-. 604. rf), instead of the wooden shutters : these are to act in the same manner, but will admit of light
when the plants are of necessity shut up from adverse weather, which so frequently occurs during winter ;
the admission of light at such times is indispensably necessary to the welltJeing of the plants, especially
when the long continuance of rain, or severe frost, renders it requisite to keep them covered, sometimes
perhaps for a day or two, with little or no intennission. In the first favorable weather that occurs in
February, it is necessary to divest the plants of their decayed exterior leaves ; and by the middle of that
month, the operation of earthing up, as it is termed, should commence ; that is to say, the superficial
earth of the pots should be carefully taken away, about an inch deep, and fresh compost with the addi-
tion of a little loam, to give it more tenacity, should be substituted in its stead: this will contribute
greatly to the strength of the plants, and the vigor of their bloom : at the same time it will afford a fa-
vorable opportunity to sej>arate such offsets as shall appear possessed of sufficient fibre, to be taken off at
this early season with safety : these offsets, when properly planted in small pots, should be placed in a
frame, in some warm sheltered situation, till the roots are established.. The auricula is by no means a
tender plant, yet it will be proper to cover the repository with mats, in case of severe frost ; for although
it probably would not destroy the plants, unless it happened in an extreme degree ; it would, however, in-
jure them, and perhaps spoil their bloom, particularly early in the spring, when the stem begins to rise;
It would certainly, at that period, destroy or render the pips or corollas abortive. If any plant is possessed
of more than one or two principal stems, it is advisable to pinch off the pips of the smallest and weakest,
in order to render the blossoms of the remaining one larger and more vigorous than they would be if this
was omitted to be done in due time. It is a curious fact, that those sorts which are naturally jxjssessed of
a fine green on the edge, or margin, of the flower are often known to lose that property, when the stem
proceeds from the very heart or centre of the plant ; whereas those stems that proceed from the side pro-
duce larger pips, possessing their true natural colors in much greater perfection : these last are called ths
winter stems, because they are usually forwarder, and produce their flowers rather earlier in the season
than those which proceed from the centre of the plant. When the pips become turgid, and begin to ex-
pand, they must be preserved from rain : nor should they remain any longer in a situation exposed to cold
winds ; on the contrary, such plants ought to be selected from the rest, and removed to a calm shady cor-
ner, where they should have small hand-glasses suspended over them in such a manner as to preserve the
bloom from rain, &c. and yet admit a free circulation of air, both to the plant and to the blossom, it being
equally necessarv for the one as for the other."

6376. Emmerion, about the middle of October, makes choice of a full southern aspect, and in general
puts his pots of plants into small frames of about three and a half to four feet long, and each light about
three feet wide. So soon as they are placed in their winter situation, during the autumn and winter months,
even down to the 5th of April, or thereabouts, he exposes them, during the day, to as much air as possi-
ble, by leaving the lights entirely off. It is necessary they should be kept very dry, in November and
December, as in case of a severe frost the weather has less power on the roots of the plants. During
January, and most likely the greater part of' February, much depends upon the depth of snow and the in-
tense frost. Some winters are more favorable than others : if the season has now the appearance of open
weather, you may treat your plants nearly in the same manner as the two last months ; but if you have
snow, and the weather is now a severe frost, you must be rather more cautious as to the exposure ; a
trifling frost is of no serious consequence to these hardy plants, but the mould should not be severely fro-
zen in the pots, as by the end of January the bloom is formed, although very low in the heart of the plant ;
he therefore covers with mats till the weather becomes mild and open, giving air, however, a few hours
in fine days ; but no water till natural rains fall {Treatise on Auricula, &c. p. 85.) In February he top-
dresses with rich compost, and transplants offsets intended to bloom, from small pots into larger ones. He
exposes the plants to all the gentle rains of this month, at the same time carefully defending them from
frost and hail-storms, or long continued rains. From the 10th or 12th of March he covers up with «' warm
clothing," to defend the coming bloom against frosts. ^ , , ,.

6377 Hogg puts his auriculas into frames in October ; the frames are placed on a bed of ashes, and are
raised on bricks to admit a free current of air under them ; but when the frost seta in, about Christmas,

3 I 2

652

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

W'^

the bricks arc removed and the frainesj rest oh the ground. In all dry and temperate weather the plants
are e"pose"to the air very little ^^^^^^^ is ^ven, and the plants are kept free from decayed leaves, and the
surfSf the pots from mLlcHness. Fro^ the'sccond week of February, ^"ddurmg March the p ants
are allowed the benefit of gentle rains for an hour or two: they are ^\]r^''^''^^f^ iy±^^ll^^^fj^ HI
shifted, and suckers aretakfn off where they are large, and while ^» PO'^^ible^'.'^J^ 8'7" ^"""^ ^^y* *^^
frames are shut close at night, to prevent the opening blossoms being "'PPfdby the frost.

6378. The Lancashire growers have no frames or lights, but make use o^ ^*f .^'^f J^'^^^f '"«' wi^^

fixed against .some wall or fence, in a south aspect, to defend them agamst the rain and snow restm^^
when shut close, upon a board nine inches high ; but this is never done except jn very severe weather,
the pots are plunged up to the rim in sawdust or coal-ashes. {Hogg.) K„„tor

6379. Jusdce places his auriculas in what he calls a bunker or shed, on the 10th of October. This bunker
is a stage with boarded ends, front and cover, placed against a wall with a north-eastern exposure. «e
gives water sparingly, but as much air as possible ; by the end of February he top-dresses the planu, ana
if they are weak he adds the proportion of^ one eighth of fullers' earth to the compost.

638U. Blooming-stage. {fig. 605.) This, according to
Maddock, should have a northern aspect, that the sun
may not shine on the flowers ; it should consist of four rows
of shelves, in the form of steps, but must not exceed five ;
the front, or lowest shelf, should be two feet five inches
from the ground, the second about three inches higher than
the first, and the rest in the same proportion ; these shelves
should be about six inches wide, strong, and well supported,
otherwise the weight of the pots will cause them to bend or
give way. If the stage consists of four rows of shelves, its
depth, from front to back, ought to be about two feet eight
inches ; the north or front elevatipn of the stage should not
be less than seven feet, gradually sloping to about five feet
six inches on the south side : the roof should consist of
frames of glass. The frames of glass made use of on the
south side of the winter repository will answer extremely

well for this purpose ; but as they will not be wide enough to form the roof completely, without addition,
a single row of feather-edged boards may be placed on the lowest part of the slope, and the lower edge of
the frames of glass may rest upon them ; these boards will answer another good puriKJse, by preventing
the sun, which at this season of the year has obtained a considerable degree of altitude, from shining on
the first and second rows of plants, during the middle of the day, when it has most power; although the
plants of the back row will, in consequence, have rather less light, yet it is not so materially injurious as
the former. The posts supporting the roof of tlie stage, on the south side, may be so constructed, and
placed at such distances from each other, as that the wooden shutters, made use of on the north side of-
the winter repository, may fit between them, and form a regular shed, as low or lower than the higher
shelf: the remaining space to the ground may be left open in mild calm weather, or may be easily closed
up, by a line of mats sewed together, when it is otherwise. The east and west ends of the stage should
be entirely boarded up from top to bottom, and the front left open, unless in unfavorable weather, and at
night ; at these times, it may be defended by frames of wood covered with canvass : these should be about
six feet wide, suspended from the front edge of the roof by liinges; they will serve both to defend the
bloom, when let down, and also by each having two small iron rods, about five feet six inches long, con-
nected with their lowest edges by staples, tint will allow them to move in any direction, and support them
when up, will defend the path in front froTi rain, take off the glare of light when the sun shines, and at
the same time defend the spectators from its heat. The inside of the back and ends of the stage, and
the shelves likewise, should be painted biack, or some very dark color, by way of contrast to the white
eyes, &c. of the flowers : and if a large looking-glass be placed at each end of the stage, the effect pro-
duced will be very pleasing, by apparently lengthening the stage each way as far as the eye can reach.

6381. As auriculas and hyacinths generally blow exactly at the sajne time, the beauty and elegance of the
scene is considerably increased by having a stage of the former, and a bed of the latter, under the same
awning, with an intermediate path, about six feet wide ; in which case, if the cloth covering of the hya-
cintlis is fine enough to admit a efficiency of light, it may be continued over the auricula-stage, instead
of the glass and boards, and will answer all purjioses tolerably well with little trouble : or otherwise, the
edge of the cloth covering, for the bed and path, may be nailed to the upper or front edge of the glass
frames, over the auriculas, in such manner as effectually to prevent rain dripping through in that quarter.
A row of fine polyanthuses, in pots, may likewise be introduced in front of the hyacinths, as they likewise
blow at the same time ; it will add to the variety, and form altogether a more elegant assemblage or
beautiful fragrant flowers than any other season of the year can afford. The tallest blowing auriculas
should stand on the last or most distant shelf, and the shortest in fVont ; those stems which are weak and
bend should Ixj supported with small wires, fixed in the earth behind them, so as not to be easily dis-
cerned. If any of the stems and blossoms of those in the back row incline forward too much towards the
light, they may be easily recovered to an erect position, by turning the pots for a few hours in the morn-
ing ; but the glass roof will render very little of this trouble necessary : the pots must be regularly
watered, two or three times every week, during the bloom. No person can depend on a complete stage
of auriculas, who is not provided in autumn or early in the spring with twice as many blowing plants as
his stage will contain, because some will eventually prove defective, and fail in one respect or other : and
a succession of proper plants in bloom will be required to replace such as, being earlier than the rest or of
shorter duration, are no longer eligible to remain on the stage, and ought, in consequence, to be taken
away, and more suitable ones brought on in their stead.

()382. IVlien the bloom is declined, the plants are to be removed into their summer repository, where
they will soon recover their former strength and vigor, which, notwithstanding the utmost care and pre-
caution, will have been, in some degree, impaired by standing two or three weeks upon the stage.

6383. Emmcrton says, " to bloom your auriculas well, too great attention cannot be paid to them for
about four or five weeks, viz. to use the language of a florist, to prevent them from being set, when all
trouble and danger will be completely over. This strict care commences about the 20th or 22d of March,
and ends, as I calculate, by the 25th of April, or thereabouts; Around London, many fine plants of the
choicest sorts have always been spoilt by nursing them as they do their geraniums, that is, by keeping
their jjlants under glass so many weeks, night and day. Many florists keep their lights continually over
their flowers, day as well as night, from the 1st of January till the 1st of May, and only admit a current
of air behind their frames : this is the rock, fatal to bloom, which so many si)lit on. This mode of treat-
ment, I am convinced, is highly improjier ; it draws up the flower-stem, and renders it weak and spind-
ling, in a state unfit to bear or produce a bold truss. To bloom an auricula in i)erfection, it does not
require to be continually under glass night and day, longer tlian twenty-four days, or thereabouts ; as a
criterion, say from the 4th to the 28th of April : you will find your middle pips expanded, or nearly so,
and well adajited to be exhil)ited on the stage at this time." Previously to this period, however, say from
the 10th to the 16th of April, he removes them from the frames Cwhich have a south aspect), and places
them under hand-glasses in a full or north-eastern exposure. Here they remain till the 26th or 28th of
Ai)ril, and are then removed to the stage in a full north aspect.

6384. //o/r/f keeps the lights over his auriculas, in April, night and day, to preserve their beauty unimpaired.
Air he admits by raising the sashes behind j he covers up close at night, " this being the very crisis of

Book II.

PRIMROSE FAMILY.

853

606

time that requires your most jvirticular care." He thins out the pips or blossoms, leaving not more than
thirteen, nor fewer than seven on a truss or umbel. In thinning, " they should be taken out two or three
at a time, and it requires some taste, nicety, and art, to perform this'ojjeration well, that the blossoms
which are left on may grow in a regular equidistant form, so that any common spectator might suppose
that no such thinning of the pips had taken place, but that they had grown exactly In that form, and
with that number, from the first." Towards the end of the month the flowers are removed to the stage
fronting the east.

6385. The Lancashire growers, " in blooming ,

time, set their large show-plants under hand-
glasses, in an east aspect, to receive the morning
sun only. The plants are, perhaps, not so early
in bloom as those wintered in frames, but when
their stems are not drawn, and they are able to
support the trusses firmly : the mildew and rot
do not take them so readily as when in closer
situations."

6386. Justice blows his flowers in the bunkers,
or she<l$, exposed to the full north ; he gives
them all the air he can, but excludes the sun,
shelters them from wind.s, and waters them well
twice a-week. {Brit. Gard. Direct, art. Auricula.)

6387. Henderson, of Delcine, blows his
flow ers in a frame {Jig. 606. ), which he
says, ♦' answers all the purposes of frame,
hand-glass, and stage, used by the Eng-
lish florists ; at least I make it do so.
I have only to erect a screen of matting
or poles in front, during the flowering
season. The plan of it (a) is a long
hexagon, which has a span roof 6) and
a low stage sloping on all sides, (c)
In the elevation are eight ventilators (d),
eight lunged sashes {e), and as many
iron rods on staples for holding them
up {/)" The whole seems a simple,
economical, and suflSciently neat struc-
ture.

Pentand. Mormg. L. and

SuBSECT. 16. Primula, or Primrose Faviily. — Primula, L.

Primulacece, B. P.

6388. T/te ]m7)i7-ose family, grown as florists' flowers, consists of the polyanthus,
primrose, cowslip, and oxlip.

6389. The polyanthus is the Primula vulgaris, van Polyanthus, L. Primula, French,
German, and Italian. In its wild state, the common primrose is too well known to
require any description, it produces its flowers on numerous peduncles ; but, by
cultivation, throws up a scape, bearing an umbel of numerous flowers, brown, purple,
red, and yellow. Linnaeus asserts, that the peduncles in the common wild primroses
spring from a scape, which, being so short as to be concealed among the leaves, has not
been observed. Curtis, however, found it in a few plants, and also that wild primroses,
introduced into Dr. Buxton's garden, at Maize Hill, near Greenwich, produced flowers
both with and without a scape, and became, color excepted, perfect polyanthuses. Many
botanists consider, that the polyanthus, primrose, cowslip, and oxlip are one species ; and
the Rev. W. Herbert thinks he has proved it, and the same thing as to Primula auricula,
helvetica, nivalis, and viscosa. [Hort. Trans, iv. 19.) It is sufficient for our purpose to
observe, that the polyantlnis is a very permanent variety, which does not readily return
to the primrose, and that it is in high repute as a select and border flower, appearing in
March and April, when there are few others to decorate the flower-garden.

6390. Varieties. These are as numerous as the varieties of auricula ; and, as in that
plant, single flowers are most esteemed.

6391. Criterion of a fine polyanthus. " Its properties are, in most respects, similar to those of a fine
auricula, viz. the stem, peduncles, or foot-stalks, and formation of the bunch or truss ; therefore, a defi-
nition of its pips, or petals ifig. 607. a), only remain necessary to be considered in this place. The tube
of the corolla above the calyx, should be short, well filled with the anthers or summits of the stamens,
and terminate fluted, rather above the eye. Tlie eye should be round, of a bright clear yellow, and dis-
tmct from the ground-color ; the proportion as in the auricula throughout the flower. The ground-color
is most admired when shaded with a light and dark rich crimson, resembUng velvet, with one mark or
stripe in the centre of each division of the limb, bold and distinct, from the edging down to the eye,
where it should terminate in a fine point. The pips should be large, quite flat, and as round as may be,
consistent with their peculiar beautiful figure, which is circular, excepting those small indentures between
each division of the limb, which divide it into five or six heart-like segments. The edging should resem-
ble a bright gold lace, bold, clear, and distinct, and so nearly of the same color as the eye and stripes are
scarcely to be distinguished ; in short, the polyanthus should possess a graceful elegance of form, a rich-
ness of' coloring, and symmetry of parts, not to be found united in any other flower." {Maddock.)

6392. Propagation. By dividing the root, or by slips, for ordinary purposes : and by seed, for obtaining
new varieties.

3 I 3

854

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6390. By seed. The plants fVom which eeed is to be saved are to be separated ftrom the steins, and
treated in the same manner as seed-bearing auriculas. When ripe, it should be cut off with part of the
stem, and so preserved till the sowing season, which, as well as the mode of procedure, are, accordmg to
Maddock, the same as for the auricula. Emmerton says, flowers intended for seed should be selected on
the same principle as he directs for the auricula ; and he reconmiends Pearson's Alexander and NichoU
eon's Tantarara as excellent flowers to breed from. Knight's mode of castration may be adopted,

6394. Justice says, he " has had great success in raising polyanthuses and primroses from seed.' He
gathered the seed generally about the 25th of June, and sowed it ten days afterwards m boxes, placed m
the open air, under a wall or hedge with a north aspect. In July, he directs to " prepare a nursery-bed of
the same earth in which they were sown, and plant them carefully out, taking up as much earth about
their roots as you can, so as not to disturb their young fibres, planting them twelve inches asunder, and
shading them from all sun until they have struck new roots ; keep them clear from weeds, and give them
gentle waterings, and let this nursery-bed bo made in such a situation as to have the morning sun only.
Some of them will show their flowers the same autumn, and many of them in the spring following. Select
the best, and plant them in a bed by themselves in a shady moist situation. In November, top-dress the
plants, which will greatly strengthen them for the succeeding spring. They require to be transplanted
every two years." {Brit. Gard. Direct. 218.)

6395. Soil. Maddock and Emmerton recommend the same compost as for auriculas, but with more
loam. Justice used the following : " to one load of well rotted cow-dung, or leaves of trees, take half a
load of fine white sand, and two loads of fine hazelly loam, taken from a pasture some months before, and
which has had the sward rotted amongst the earth : mix all well together before using."

6396. Hogff says, " the primrose and polyanthus require a much greater portion of sandy loam than the
auricula, a very small quantity of rotten dung, and a little leaf-mould or heath or peat earth, mixed with
them : in this they are found to grow extremely well."

6397. Manner of growing. Maddock says, they may be grown in the same sized pots as the auricula, and
be treatetl in the same manner ; but as they are more impatient of heat and drought, and partial to shade
and moisture, they may, with equal propriety, be planted on cool and shady beds or borders. This is the
general practice of almost all the growers of this flower.

6398. General culture. The polyanthus is very hardy, and seldom perishes in the coldest and wettest
seasons ; but, during the heats of summer, they are frequently destroyed by snails and slugs, and by a small
red spider. " This insect," Maddock observes, " seldom attacks such plants as are in a state of vigor, or
when the weather is cold and wet ; it generally commences its depredations in the early part of summer,
and continues them as the heat and dryness of the weather favor its existence : the juices also of the plants
being then more viscous and saccharine, afford it more suitable nourishment than at any other season.
Such plants as appear infected should be immediately selected from the rest, taken out of the earth, and
soaked for two or three hours in a strong infusion of tobacco-water, and be replanted in a fresh soil or
compost, and removed to another situation remote from the
former. If the whole bed or border of polyanthuses is over-
run with this insect, it is best to take up all the plants, serve

them in the same manner, and plant them elsewhere. The Or'^.^ J" M^^> «r»7

bed or border from whence the plants have been taken, ^•^■^^j^ Wv^ o'J«

should be immediately dug up or trenched, and suffered to
remain fallow till the following season, or be occupied with
some crop not liable to the same calamity." ( Florist's Di-
rectory, 228.)

6399. The jrrimrose (P. vulgaris, "L. {Eng. Hot.
4.) Primevere, Fr. ; Shaftlose Primide, Ger. ;
and Primavera, Ital.) (Jig. 607.) has a perennial
root, appearing as if bit off at the end, with a
singular smell like that of the anise. It is a na-
tive of most parts of Europe, in woods, coppices,
and sheltered lanes, particularly in a clayey soil.
The flowers of the wild plant are almost always of
a brimstone-color, but sometimes of a purple hue ;
they appear in March and April.

C400. Varieties. The double varieties produced by culture are in most esteem, of which there are —

The stemless white I Purple I Scotch | Yellow

Crimson Lilac | White Brimstwie.

Hose-m-hose | | |

6401. The cowslip (P. veris, L. (Ejig. Hot. 5.) Primel, Fr. and Schlusselblume, Ger.)
(Jig. 608.) is distinguished from the primrose, by smelling more strongly of anise, by
shorter leaves, and by an umbel with a leafy involucrum. It
is a native plant, and found in moist pastures, in open situations,
flowering in May.

6402. Varieties. Both double and single varieties are in esteem ; but the
plant has not been so much cultivated as the primrose. Gibbs, nursery-
man, Brompton, has lately raised a great many very beautiful varieties from
seed, differing in color, magnitude of the umbel, and in some being double,
and in the hose-in-hose form. " May 19th, 1818, Gibbs sent a large col-
lection of flowers of varieties of the common cowslip, from his garden at
Brompton. He had raised them from the seed of plants, originally derived
from the wild cowslip, which had sported into varieties, and by frequent re-
production had attained their present excellence. The changes that have
taken place are in the magnitude of the trusses, and the size and color of
the flowers ; the selection appearing to have been from the darker hues,
though some paler flowers were in the collection. However great the vari-
ation was in the points alluded to, yet none of the specimens appeared to
have lost the general character and appearance of cowslip, not running either
into the oxlip or the primrose ; but some of them had become what florists
term hose-in-hose, which appears to be the conversion, more or less, of the
calyx, into the appearance of the corolla."

6403. The oxlip (P.elatior, L. (Eng. Bot. 5 1 8. )Bavillon, Fr. and
Gartenprimel, Ger. ) (Jig. 609) is distinguished from the primrose by its many-flowered scape,

Book II.

CARNATION.

655

and from the cowslip, by the flat border of the corolla. It is
found in woods, thickets, hedges, and sometimes in pastures ;
but is by no means so common as the primrose and cowslip*
It flowers in April and May. Sir J. E. Smith is inclined to
thmk that tlie oxlip is a hybrid production from a primrose, im-
pregnated by a cowslip ; its habit, the contraction towards the
middle of the leaf, and the umbellate flower-stalk, indicating
the father, whilst in the corolla, its form, color, and scent, it
most resembles the motlier. {Eng. Bot. 513.)

6iM. Varieties. There are a few ; but the plant has not been much cuU
tirated with a view to that object.

6405. The jyrojmgation and culture of these three species is
the same as for the polyanthus :

SuBSECT. 17. Carnation. — Dianthus CaryaphyUxUy L. {Bot..
Mag. 39.) Decand. Trigynia, L. and CaryojyhyUea, J.
UoeiMet des Fleuristcs, Fr. ; Gartennelke, Ger. ; and Garofan»
ortense, Ital. {Jig. 610.) •

6406. The carnation is little known in its wild
state, though it has been found in England on rocks
and walls. It was unknown to the ancients in its
cultivated state ; but has been a favorite flower in
£urope for an unknown length of time. It is generally
supposed to have been introduced from Germany or
Italy, in which countries it is more cultivated tlian in
England ; Gerrard, in 1 597, received it from Poland.
*' Of all the flowers that adorn the garden," Hogg ob-
ser\'es, " whether they charm the eye by their beauty,
or regale the sense of smelling by tJieir fragrance, the
carnation may be justly said to hold tlie first rank.
The stateliness of its growth, the brilliancy and di-
versity of its colors, and the sweetness of its per-
fume, never fail to attract our regard and admir-
ation. The tulip, though styled the queen of the
garden, cannot boast of more admirers : they may
with propriety' be considered the two master-pieces of nature ; and, though rival beauties,
may be said to share the sovereignty of (he garden equally between them. Yet it must
be admitted, that tlie carnation, independent of its fragrance, has this advantage over its
rival, that it continues longer in bloom ; and that when planted in pots, it can be removed
to decorate the green-house, the conservatory, or the drawingroom."

6107. Varieties. Parkinson (in 1629} has forty-nine sorts, which he divides into carnations, or " the
greatest sorts in leaf and flower," and gillyflowers, or such as are smaller in both respects. One Tuggre,
in Westminster, was the most remarkable man at that time for the culture of these flowers. Rea (in
170'2) has 360 good sorts of carnation ; a number scarcely exceeded by the catalogues of modem British
florists. The varieties of this flower are now arranged in three classes: flakes, bizarres, and picot^es.
flakes have two colors only, and their stripes large, going quite through the leaves ; Bizarres {Fr. odd.
irreg.) are variegated in irregular spots and stripes, and with not less than three colors: Picotees {Fr.
piqaeffee, prickwl or spotted) have a white ground, spotted or pounced with scarlet, red, purple, or other
colors. Of each class there are numerous varieties, arranged under the farther subdivisions of scarlet
flake, pink flake, purple flake, yellow flake, Sec. scarlet bizarre, crimson bizarre, &c. and purple picot^e,
y^low picotte, &c. Hogg gives a catalogue of nearly 350 sorts, so arranged, named after great personages,
all of which were in his possession at the time he published his Treatise on the Carnation, in 1820. Only
double varieties are in esteem. As an oddity may be mentioned the double dwarf carnation of Liege, with
sessile flowers.

6408. Criterion of a fine double carnation. {fig.QlQ. c a.r\Ad) "The stem should be strong, tall, and
straight ; not less than thirty or more than forty-five inches high ; the foot-stalks, sui)porting the flowers,
should be strong, elastic, and of a proportionate length. The flower, or corolla, should be at least three
inches in diameter, consisting of a great number of large well formed petals ; but neither so many as to
give it too full and crowded an appearance, nor so few as to make it appear too thin and empty. The pe-
tals should be long, broad, and substantial, particularly those of the lower or outer circle, commonly
called the guard-leaves ; these should rise peqiendicularly, about half an inch above the calyx, and then
turn off gracefully, in a horizontal direction, supporting the interior petals, and altogether forming a
convex, and nearly hemispherical corolla. The interior petals should rather decrease in size, as they ap-
proach the centre of the flower, which should be well filled with them. The petals should be regularly
disposed alike on every side, imbricating each other in such a manner as that both their respective and
united beauties may captivate the eye at the same instant : they should lie nearly flat, however a small
degree of concavitv, or inflection, at the lamina, or broad end, is allowable ; but their etlges should be
perfectlv entire, that is to say, free from notch, fringe, or indenture. The calj-x should be at least one
inch in length, terminating with broad points, sufficiently strong to hold the narrow bases of the petals,
in a close and circular body. \Vhatever colors the flower may be possessed of, they should be perfectly
distinct, and disposed in long regular stripes, broadest at the edge of the larnina, and gradually becoming
narrower as they approach the unguis, or base of the petal, there terminating in a fine point. Each pe-
tal should have a due proportion of white, i. e. one half, or nearly so, which should be perfectly clear, and
free from spots. Bizarres, or such as contain two colors upon a white ground, are esteemed rather pre-
ferable to flakes, which have but one, especially when their colors are remarkably rich, and veo' regularly
distributed. Scarlet, purple, and pink, are the three colors most predominant in the carnation ; the two
first ar« seldom to be met with in the same flower, but the two last are very frequently. ^Vhen the sc*i-

3 14

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

856

let predominates, and is united with a paler color, or, as it sometimes happens, with a very deep purple
upon a white eround, it constitutes a scarlet bizarre, of which there are many shades and varieties, some
richer and others jialer in their colors, as is the case with all the rest Puik bizarres are so caUed when
the pink abounds ; purple bizarres, when the purple abounds ;
crimson bizarres consist of a deep purple and rich pink. When
the pink flake is very high in color, it is distinguislied by the
appellation of rose flake ; but some there are so nearly in the
medium betwixt a pink and scarlet, that it can scarcely be de-
fined to which class they belong. In addition to the foregoing
varieties, there is a sort held in great esteem by cultivators,
called picot(5e {Jig. 611. a) ; many of which are very beautiful,
and being hardier than the other sorts, are in considerable re-
quest The colors are principally yellow, and white spotted ;
nieir properties are the same as the other kinds, except that
the edges of the petals are serrated or jagged, and the color is
disposed in spots, where the others are striped. It is propa-
gated in the same manner as the others."

6409. Propagation. By layers and pipings for continuing
approved sorts, and by seed for procuring new varieties.
. 6410. By layers. The time for performing this operation is
when the plants are in full bloom ; some defer it till the flowers
are on the decline ; but in that case the new plants are not so
well rooted as those layed earlier, and consequently less able to
stand the winter. Laying, by the wounds it inflicts, consider-
ably impairs the bloom, and generally kills the parent plant.
The practical part of the operation has nothing extraordinary
in it ; a sufficient quantity of ijegs {fig. 612. a) and of com-
post being provided, the pot containing the plant to be laid is placed on a table, and the layers prepared
by cutting oft' their lower leaves (6) ; the earth is then stirred, and the pot filled up with " hght rich mould,
not of too fine a grain." {Maddock ■) The incision is made by entering a quarter of an inch below the
joint, and passing the knife up through the centre of it j it is then to be pegged down, and buried not more
than half an inch deep. " It is advisable," Maddock says, " to peg down the layers in a dry state, being
then less brittle, and consequently not so liable to break off as when they are wet and succulent ; there-
fore, as soon as the layers are dressed, the i)ot should be placed full in the sun for half an hour, in order
to render them more flaccid and pliant than they otherwise would be. When the layers arc properly
rooted, which will be the case with moist sorts in about three weeks or a month after laying, provided due
care be taken to keep them regularly moist, and to shade them from the heat of the meridian sun, they
are then to be cut off from the old plant, with about half an inch of the stalk which connects them with
it, and be immediately plantetl in small pots, three or four plants in each, placed round the sides. The
pots are to be placed under an arch of hoops, where they can be covered with mats, in case of excessive
rains, till the severity of the weather renders it necessary to remove them into their winter repository,
which is to be constructed in the same manner, and have the same aspect, as that described for auriculas."
(Florist's Directory, 196.)

6411. J-^ogg commences laying when the flowers are sufficiently expanded to show which are in color, or
true to their kinds, and which not : this he finds to be about the 21st of July, and he continues laying from
that time to the 21st of August The plants receive a good watering the day previous to laying, because
they can receive it only for some time after tlirough the fine rose of the watering-pot, on account of pre-
serving the earth on the layed shoots. In performing the operation, he cuts off the nib or extreme end of
the tongue, or talus, immediately below the joint, because, " if left on, it is" apt to decav," and prevent
the protrusion of that granulous matter from which the fibres proceed. Under favorable circumstances
they will be fit to take off" in seven or eight weeks, and may then be planted two or three in a small pot
(No. 48.), three inches in diameter, by four inches deep. The iwts are to be set on tiles, slates, or
boards, there to remain till the middle or end of October, when they are to be removed to their winter
quarters. {Treatise, &c. 56.)

6412. By pipings. This mode of propagating the carnation is very precarious. Maddock says, " five
thousand plants were piped one season, of which not more than one hundred perished ; wJ.crcas more than
two thousand were lost of the same number the year following, with but very little variation in the ma-
nagement ; nevertheless, some sorts succeed much better by piping than laying, and make healthier plants •
it requires attention and experience to distinguish such sorts firom the rest." Piping, however is often a
necessary resource where the shoots are too short for laying, or where in laying, shoots are broken bv
accident . .- o> j

6413. The first thing is to provide a slirjU hot-bed, and cover it four or five inches thick with fine light
mould, laid very regular and even. Tlie cuttings intended to be piped are to have two complete joints,
that is to say, they are to be cut off horizontally close under the second joint : the extremities or points of
the leaves are likewise to be shortened, as for laying, which will leave the whole length of the pipmg from
one inch and a half to two inches, according to its strength {fig. 612. c) : as soon as thus prepared, it may
be thrown into a basin of soft water for a few minutes, to plump it up. The earth on the bed where the

pipings are lo be placed should bo moderately moistened, and rendered rather compact than otherwise >
tjien take^a smaU^hand-glass, and with it make an impres- «^t."«wis« ,

sion neatly on the surface of the soil, in order to know
where to stick in the pipings, so as to lose no room, or en-
danger their being disturbed when the glass is placed over
them. The pipings are then to be taken out of the basin
singly, and forced into the earth, in their wet state, with a
steady hand ; but not more than half an inch deep. When
a sufficient number for the glass are thus placed regularly,
at equal distances from each other, and rather more than
an inch within the mark described bv the glass, on every
side, they are to be very gently waterwl, in order that the
earth may adhere more closely to them, and thereby k-sep
out the air ; after this watering, they are to remain open
but not exposed to a hot sun, till their leaves become per!
tectly dry, after which the glass is to be i)laced over them
carefully, on the same mark that was made by it upon the
surface oi" the soil, before the pipings were placed there
i he bottom edges of the glass are to be forced a little into
the earth, to prevent the admission of too much air, which
so far finishes the operation. What further remains to be
done IS to attend diligently to their management, with re-
spect to sun and air. Sec.

6414. The soil ought to be kept rcgularh/ 7>w!st, till they
have formed their fibres ; but too much moisture is as pre-
jiiUicial as too little, and whenever thev arc watered the
glossed are uever lo be replaced over them tiU their leaves

Book II. CARNATION. 857

are perfectly dry. The pipings should have a little of the morning sun, but must be shaded fVom it
when the heat becomes considerable ; this will l)e easily effected by placing mats upon a slieht frame
ot hoops or laths erected over the bed about two feet above it.

6*15. The glasses should be occasion a// 1/ taken qffto admit fresh air; if this material point is neglected
the consequence will be a green mossy appearance on the surface of the earth, and an universal mouldiness
amongst the plants, which will destroy them. It requires more skill to know when and how long the
pipings should be exiwsed to the air, while forming root, than for almost any other part of the manage-
ment ; on this single point, in great measure, depends the good or ill success of the whole undertaking
It IS almost, or perhaps entirely, impossible to lay down any rules that will not be liable, as circumstances
may vary, to mislead the inexperienced in the art of piping ; much must depend on the discernment and
prudence of the cultivator ; there is no great danger to be apprehended from taking off the glasses for a
few minutes, or half an hour, when it is cloudy, and the air rather warm and moist ; but if no opportuni-
ties of this kind occur in due time, it should be done early in the morning : and rather than to omit doing
It entirely, it will be better to Uke the glasses off, if it is only for five minutes, turning them upside down
on the path, in order to air them, and replacing them again over the plants ; even this will be of great
service, though not equal to a more effectual airing at favorable times, which, indeed, becomes more fre-
quently necessary in proportion to the length of time the pipings have been upon the bed; but when once
they begin to strike fibre, they will soon spindle up and become extremely weak, if not carefully attended
to, viz. agreeably to the following directions : when their fibres are formed, which the additional verdure
and growth of the plants will demonstrate, the glasses should be placed over them very lightly, in order
that more air may be admitted ; and when they become tolerably well rooted, the glasses being no longer
necessary, should be entirely taken away : but it seldom happens that all the plants, under the same glass,
strike root together ; some are generally a few days or a week forwarder than the rest, as will be apparent
by their superior growth and verdure: such ought to be carefuUy taken up and planted in small poU, for
winter preservation, or they may be planted round the sides of large carnation-pots, filled with the com-
post, where they will soon make rapid progress ; the remaining plants which are not sufficiently rooted for
removal, must be continued under the glasses, as before directed, till they become so.

6416. Care of pipings as to run or degenerated Jloivers. It is necessary to be very careful to mark such
pipings as are taken off before it can be ascertained whether the original plant is in true colors, or run (or
degenerated) ; because it very seldom happens that the pipings or layers, taken from a run flower, produce
any other than run or plain-colored blossoms ; in consequence of which they are not worth the trouble of
propagation ; the pipings ought therefore to be so marked as that it may be accurately known from what
plant or plants they were taken, in order that if any of the originals should prove foul in color, or run, the
increase of such may be distinguished from the rest, and destroyed. The layers and pipings of the most
beautifully variegated flowers will frequently produce run blossoms ; but it is impossible to prevent it,
especially amongst the rich high-colored sorts, when they grow in a rich compost.

i>417. So7ne people pipe their carnations at the third joint, but it is better to do it at the second; because,
in the first instance, the third joint being more hard and woody, the pipings do not strike root so soon, or
form afterwards such handsome plants, as when they are piped at the second joint from the extremity of
the shoot. {Flo. Direct. 202.)

6418. Hogg considers, that piping the carnation should commence sooner than laying, before the shoots
get hard and woody ; he begins about the first of July. Plants raised from j)ipings, he considers as sounder,
and more likely to encounter the rigors of a sharp winter than layers ; but still as laying is the surest mode,
he only makes pipings of such shoots as appear crowded, or too short or too high up the stalk to be laid
easily. He plants them on abed of dung of blood warmth, in a compost of one third maiden earth, one
third leaf-mould, one third rotten horse-dung, and one sixth said, finely sifted, that " the cuttings, when
tuck in, may enter easily and without injury. The piping should be cut with a sharp pen or budding-
kiife, at the second or third joint, according to the condition of the shoot; but the shorter the better. The
cu. must take place liorizontally, close below the joint, and the sheath, c r part that covers the joint, must
be c. '•efully removed and peeled off. When the pipings are cut, the surface of the bed made flat and level,
and gfc.'tly watered through a fine rose, they may be stuck in three quarters of an inch deep, in rows not
too near 'ogethcr. Then let them be watered again, which will help to fix the earth close round them ;
the glasses ^n no account are to be shut down close till they are dry, or they will inevitably fog, rot, and
periyfi. The ^ "st glasses for piping are those made of the common window. glass, eight inches square and
six inches deep, .;nd the less air they contain the sooner will the cuttings strike root. The striking-glasses
in common use, which are blown for the purpose, too often contain such a thick body of glass as to concen-
trate the sun's rays, and scorch the pipings. They require shading only when the sun is out, and then
with a net or old mat, to admit the glimmering of his rays. If the weather continues dry and hot, they
will require to be watered occasionally with a fine rose, early in a morning, over the gh.sses, which, for
one fortnight at least, need not be removed if they are doing well. After, you may take them off from
time to time as you see occasion, for half an hour or so in a morning, to give fresh air, and dry the glasses ;
and if any of the pipings appear mildewed or rotten, pull them up. At the end of six weeks they will be
sufficiently rooted to be transplanted into small poU or a prepared bed, over which it would be advisable to
place a frame and lights for a week or ten days, till they take root again. There they may be allowed to
remain till the middle or so of September. In taking them up, if you find any not rooted, but sound, and
their ends hard and callow, do not let them remain upon the same si)ot, but remove them to another bed,
with a little temporary heat, and cover them with glasses as before ; this will not fail to start them and
hasten their fibring." {Treatise, &c. 52.)

. 6419. By seed. Carnation-seetl is rather difficult to raise or rij^en in this country, owing to the moisture
and cold of the autumnal months. It is generally procured from Vienna and different towns of Switzer-
land ; and if put in vials and well corked will keep for years. To raise it in this country, Maddock gives
the following directions : " Those flowers which have but few petals, or, as it is more commonly expressed,
are thin of leaf, generally produce most seed, and therefore are most to be depended on for a supply; but
they should be possessed of the best properties in other respects, viz. their petals should be large, broad, sub-
stantial, and perfectly entire at the edge, and their colors rich and regularly distributed, and in due propor-
tion; throughout the whole blossom. The plants should be ^elected from 'the rest, and their pots should
stand upon a stage, defended against earwigs, in an open part of the garden, in which situation they should
remain during bloom, and until the seed is perfectly matured ; their blossoms should be defended from
rain, by having glass, paper, or tin covers {Jig. 612. d), suspended over them, in such a manner as to admit
a free circulation of air ; the pots should neither be kept very wet nor very dry ; nor will it be proper to cut
and mutilate the plants, either for their layers or pipings, till the seed becomes ripe, because it would cer-
tainly weaken them, and consequently injure, if not destroy, their seed. When the bloom is over, and the
petals become withered and drj-, thoy should be carefully drawn out of the pod or calyx, being apt to retain
a degree of Moisture at their base, endangering a mouldiness and decay in that part which will destroy the
seed. There is another motle of treatment adopted successfully in ripening the seed, which is, when the
bloom is over, and the petals begin to decay, they are to be extracted as above, taking particular care to
leave the two stvles, which appear like horns proceeding from the summit of the germen, or future pericar-
pium: thecalyx {fig. 610. a) is then to beshortened to about one half of its originallength, and an aperture
made on one side of the remainder, down to the base of the pericarpium, so that no water can possibly
lodge there ; but in doing this, great care is necessary not to wound or injure the pericarpium, or seed-
vessel itself, because it might prove destructive to the seed. After the above is performed, the covers may
remain or be taken away at pleasure ; but in the latter case it is advisable to loosen the upper part of the
stems from the sticks, that the open end of the calyx may incline a little downwards, the more eflectually to

858 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part IIL

preserve it In a dry state ; the stems should not be sufffered to hang so loose as to be in danger of breaking
off with every puff of wind. The seed ripens from the end of August to the beginning of October : the
pericarpium becomes brown, dry, and hard, and the seed, when ripe, is of a black or very dark brown
color ; those who are not sufficiently attentive to the ripening of their seed are apt to gather it too soon,
before it is perfectly matured, in consequence of which the greatest part proves small, pale-colored, and
unproductive. When gathered it should remain in the pericariJium, in a dry room, till the beginning or
middle of May; it is then to be sown in pots filled with the compost, and have a little fine mould sifted
upon it, barely sufficient to cover the seed : at this season of the year artificial heat is not required, the
pots should therefore be placed in an airy part of the garden, be shaded from the heat of the sun, and kept
moderately moist, but never very wet. As soon as tlie young plants appear with six leaves, and become
about three inches high, they should be planted out on a bed of good rich garden-mould, at about ten or
twelve inches asunder, and be defended from excess of rain and severe frosts, by mats on hoops, placed
over the bed in the usual manner : they will in general blow the following summer. Some persons have
advanced an opinion, that the seed of run plants produces as great a proportion of variegated flowers
as any other ; but the validity of this assertion has not yet been sufficiently demonstrated by experiment."
{Mnddock.)

6420. Hogg's directions differ in nothing of importance from those of Maddock. He says it often hap-
pens, that out of 200 blooming plants you will not be able to get even two pods of perfect seed. More
was saved in the dry summer of 1818 than in any seven preceding years. Seedlings require two years to
bloom, and the chance of getting a good new flower he reckons as one to 100. If a florist raises six new
carnations in his lifetime, he is to be considered fortunate. Seed out of the same pod, he says, is reported
to produce flowers of all the different varieties, flakes, bizarres, &c. Emmerton experienced that seed
from a scarlet flake will produce a scarlet bizarre, and a rose or pink flake.

6421. Soil. The compost Maddock recommends is as follows : " one half rotten horse-dung, one year
old, or that has been used as a hot-bed for cucumbers, melons, &c. ; one third fresh sound loamy earth j
one sixth coarse sea or river sand. These ingredients are to be mixed together in autumn, laid in a heap
about two feet thick, in an open exposure, and turned three or four times during winter ; or, otherwise,
the dung alone, after being used as a hot-bed, may be thrown together in a heap, in a conical form, in
order to rot more perfectly ; and, as its surface freezes in winter, it should be pared off, and laid on one
aide, till the whole mass has been thoroughly frozen throughout ; this may be repeated as often as the
season permits, and it will be completely fit for use the following spring : the earth and sand may be
added to it in March, when wanted to fresh pot the plants for bloom : the whole should then be well
mixed and incorporated together, and passed through a coarse screen or sieve, to reduce its parts and
take out stones, or any other extraneous substance which it may contain. In country places, where the
air is more pure, exjjerience has pointed out the propriety of using less dung and more loam ; the pro-
portions of which, for such situations, may be reversed, viz. one half loamy earth and one third dung,
with the sand as before specified : the preparation of the compost, in other respects, is to be exactly the
same in all situations." {Florist's Direct.)

6422. Hogg takes " three barrows of loam, one and a half ditto of garden-mould, ten ditto of horse-
dung, one ditto of coarse sand ; let these be mixed and thrown together in a heap or ridge, and turned
two or three times in the winter, particularly in frosty weather, that it may be well incorporated. On a
dry day towards the end of November, I take a barrow of fresh lime, which, as soon as it is slacked, I
etrew over it while hot in turning the heap ; this accelerates the rotting of the fibrous particles in the loam,
lightens the soil, and destroys the grubs, worms, and slugs. Lime is too well known as a manure to say
any thing further in its praise here. If there has been much rain during the winter, so that the strength
of the compost is reduced, and the salts washed from it, I take about seven pounds of damaged salt and
add them to it, either dissolved in water or strewed over with the hand. This, from an experience of
three years, I have found to be attended with the most beneficial effect upon the future health and vigor
of the plants. During very heavy rains, many florists cover their compost with tarpawling or double mats,
to prevent the nutritious particles from being washed out ; this is also an excellent precaution. If any
objection be started that the quantity of dung is too great in proportion to that of the loam, I answer, that
such an objection might be well founded, if the compost were to be used immediately on its being mixed
together ; but as it has to lie six months before it is used, I am decidedly of opinion, that the quantity is
not more than is necessary in order to ensure a luxuriant growth and a generous bloom." For flowers
that are apt to sport in color, such as Humphrey's Duke of Clarence, Plummer's Lord Manners, &c. he
lowers the compost, and uses " three barrows of sound staple loam, two ditto old rotten cow-dung, one
ditto horse-dung, a half ditto sand, a half ditto lime rubbish, or old plaster; to be prepared, and well in-
corporated, as before." He also uses the same compost for yellow picotees. {Treatise, &c. 45.)

6423. Justice says, " One article with respect to the soil for carnations you must certainly observe :
never to use for it the ground wherein hyacinths have been planted; they, from certain experience, being
a sure poison to the carnation, and vice versa." {Brit. Gard. 427.)

6*24:. Manner of grovdng. The commoner sorts are planted in beds or borders, but the select kinds
always in pots.

6425. Po/s and potting. Maddock uses pots for flowering plants, " at least twelve inches wide at the top,
SIX inches at the bottom, and ten inches deep in the inside, with a circular aperture in the centre of the
Dottmn, ot about an inch in diameter ; also three or four smaller holes round the sides of the pot, close to
the bottom, to prevent the possibility of water lodging or remaining in that part." Hogg uses pots of

alia o£,f''^t^^" to the cast, being smaller than those recommended by Maddock.

6426. ihe 0} eration of potting, according to Maddock, " should commence about the middle of March.
If the weather IS not extremely unfavorable; but it should not, on any account, be deferred later than
the end of that month The pot is, in the first place, to be half filled with compost, having an oyster,
snell, with Its hollow side downwards, placed over the hole in the centre of the bottom : this compost is
to be higher at the sides than in the centre of the pot, and the plants intended for it, which are supposed
to have been wintered in small pots, containing four plants each, are to be carefully turned out of their
%f^' Til }^ ""^l^^ adhering to them, in a ball ; and after rubbing off about half an inch of the sur-
tace ot the old mould, round about the plants, above their fibres, cleaning them and cutting off the decayed
^H"fl5*^''' «,f r'' ^^t^^^ '^ *"* ^^ carefully placed in the centre of the pot, and the space between it
?J^ f VJ, ^ .1 up with the prepared compost. It is verv necessary to be attentive in placing the plants,
\^X ^^l, 1 '^'^ *"[ P>^"t«^<^ deeper nor shallower than they were before ; the compost should therefore be
high enough to replace the old earth that was rubbed off on potting, exactly to the same height as before,
L; ^i!;. 1. higher than the ball of old earth and fibres : and the whole surface of the earth in the
fc^! fh -A oPl^'^tion IS finished, should be nearly level or flat; but by no means higiier at the centre
than withfn'irf '^n^h^^f fn^^'f plants would thereby be kept too dry ; nor should the compost come nearer
cTonnH nn fi.fcK-"^ ''^ *•" • *°P *''" "^^ °^ ^^-^ P^*' ^^^r it has been gently shaken, or struck against the
to be nprf.™, ^'h^'."*" >"^9»^e"'ence wi 1 attend its being too full, when the operation of laying comes
Hoeecm^sH^ffh.fi *;' '^T-'"^'a'°'V'' additional mould on the surface, for the layers to striki into."

o^i\^t^fLtfr:::^^.r.^is^^oSi': ^^'"* ^"'^ ^^^^ ""^ *« p*^' ^^^"^*^°"«' ^"^ ^^ p^^^«-^ *^<^

oi)Sffair??/r7l/^f "'■^- T^^^^ ^^'^ plants are potted off for bloom, the pots should be placed in an
Kott7nLh s^Litf i"^";,,""''^'" ^" ^""."^ °^ ^'"''P^' that in case of cold drying winds, heavy rain«,
fn tKituatS tZv ir^^ot ^''^'' 7^'"' ^"^ P'^s^'-^e them from the effects of such unfavorable weather
kep reSar V wafererwith """^^ *" ^"^^ ^'''' ^"^^P* i" ^he cases above mentioned, and be

rj it:guiany watered with soft water from a fine-rosed watering-pot

Book IT. CARNATION.

859

6428. When thetr flcwer^tems are grown eight or ten inches high, it will be necessary to support them
with sticks, forced into the earth in the centre of the pot, to which the stems are to be loosely tied with
email pieces of bass mat : these sticks should be as high as the hoops will admit, in order that the pots may
remain under them as long as possible ; but when the stems are grown too high for this situation the
pots are to be removed to the stage, and remain there till the time of bloom ; the small sticks should be
replaced with others more suitable for the occasion ; these should be about four feet or four feet six inches
long, regularly tapering a litUe from the bottom to the top, and be painted green ; they should be sub-
stantial and straight, and their lower ends are to be forced into the earth in the centre of the pot, sutfi-
ciently deep and firm, not to be shaken loose by the wind. As the stems continue to advance in height
the tying, as above, must be also continued at about every five or six inches : it is proper to look over
and examine the plants for this purpose every three or four days, as the stems are rather brittle, and
liable to be broken by the wind, if not supported in this manner.

6429. If any small, green, winged insects appear on the stems or foliage of the plants, particularly upon
or underneath the flower-pods, they must be ertectually extirpated or destroyed, either by the means of a
small soft brush or feather, by the application of a strong infusion of tobacco-water, or some similar easy
and safe expedient : even Scotch snutt' dusted upon the infested parts early in the morning, while the
plants are wet with the dew of the night, has been sometimes tried in this case with success.

6430. The calyx of many sorts contains a great number of petals, which, as they increase in bulk, will
distend and burst it, if not timely prevented : this generally happens a few days previous to the proper
time for the blossoms opening, and will, if neglected, soon manifest the effects of such neglect, by letting
out the petals on one side, and thereby producing a loose irregular appearance, totally destroying that
compact, graceful, circular form which a perfect f ower ought to possess, and which is one of its greatest
ornaments ; but this disagreeable effect may be easily avoided, by fastening a small narrow slip of bladder
round the middle of the pod, where it is most swelled, and appears to have the greatest inclination to
burst The slip of bladder should be rather longer than is required to go once round, so that one end of it
may lay over the other a little, which, by the application of a little gum-water, will adhere firmly together,
and answer the purpose completely. Small slips of wet bass mat may be substituted for those of bladder,
and being tied with a single knot round the same part of the pod, will answer nearly as well. {Jig. 612. b)

6431 iVhen any of the flowers begin to open and expand, such should be shaded, both from sun and rain,
by means of strong caps or paper covers {fig. 612. d), about twelve inches in diameter, painted white or
green, and formed like an umbrella, to throw off rain ; each should have a square tin tube on the sum-
mit, that will permit the stick, to which the stem is tied, to pass through it as far as is necessary. The
tube should be about two inches long, and have a small hole bored through one of its sides, that it may be
fixed by a n.iil to any part of the stick where required. But when the major part are in bloom, a cloth
awning should be placed over the whole, and be drawn up or let down by means of lines and pulleys, ex-
actly in the same manner, and on the same occasions, as for the bloom of hyacinths and tulips. The
same frame that was used for the hyacinth {fig. 591.) will, without being removed or taken down, answer
in every respect for carnations : nor can any other more suitable be contrived or adopted.

6432. In order that the flowers mny appear to the greatest advantage, it is necessary that the pots should
stand upon a stage or platform of boards raised about twelve or fifteen inches above the ground ; this
stage should be very strongly supported, in order to sustain the immense weight of the pots, without dan-
ger of giving way ; the supporters of this platform should stand in shallow leaden or earthen vessels, filled
with water, to prevent the access of earwigs, which are destructive enemies to the blossoms of carna-
tions : they secrete themselves commonly during night in the calyx {Jig. 612. a), and soon commence their
depredations, by biting off and devouring the lower ends or claws of the petals, which of course will
cause them to dtop out, and thereby disfigure the flower.

6433. TTie stands, or reservoirs, should be broad enough to allow an intermediate space of water, three
or four inches wide, between their sides and the supporters placed in the centre of each. Earwigs will
nevertheless be frequentlv found amongst the flowers, having been brought upon the stage with the pots,
where they remain concealed, or dormant, till the flowers are in bloom ; or perhaps they may have
gained access bv having crept up the external framcy and from thence fallen down upon the pots ; or they
may possibly have flown upon them, as they are evidently provided with wings, though it does not appear
that they often make use of them. At aU events, it is necessary frequently to examine the plants, and
the sticks which support the stems, as earwigs will be often found concealed there in the daytime, par-
ticularly at the part where the stems are tied, which affords them a more secure hiding place. If any of
the petals hang loose, or drop out, it is a certain sign that an earwig is, or has been there : in the first case,
blowing forcibly with the mouth, into the blossom, two or three times, will cause it to creep out ; but if it
has quitted the blossom previous to the discovery, it should be carefully sought after and destroyed, or it
will continue its depredations the succeeding night ; it will, however, most probably be found sculking
somewhere about the same pot, but not farther distant than the next, or next but one, unless the search
has been deferred too long.

6434. The flowers should be suspended from the stickshy small pieces of fine elastic brass wire {fig. 612. e),
of unequal lengths, (sold in the pin-shops,) to support them in an easy graceful manner, neither too near
together nor remote from each other : one end of the wire should be introduced into the stick by means
of a smaU awl, and there be fixed sufficiently tight to prevent its dropping out by the weight of the blos-
som ; the other end of the wire should be formed into a small ring, about a quarter of an inch in dia-
meter, to enclose the stem below the calyx ; this ring should be a little open on one side to admit the
stem freelv, without bruising it, which would materially injure the bloom.

6435. Those who are particularly curious in blowing their carnations, carefully extract such petals as are
plain, or run from their true colors : they perform this by means of an instrument adapted to the purpose
{kg. 612./), and with the same arrange the remaining petals, so as to supply the defect; in like manner
they dispose the whole with such regularitv that the flowers appear to have an equal distribution of beau-
tiful petals, nearlv alike on every side, without imbricating each other, so as to hide their respective
beauties ; and if the blossom consists of too great a number of petals, they extract the smaUest, and
thereby afford the others more room to expand, which Ukes off the confused effect always produced by
redundancy. The pots must be kept regularly and constantly watered during bloom, in the manner before
described, 'and no favorable opportunity should be neglected to afford them the full advantage of ex-
posure to light and air, by drawing up the cloth covering, in the manner before described ; but no ram
must be admitted to the blossoms at any period of the bloom. Some place their stage, or platform, on
one side, others in the centre ; but a double row of pots on each side, with a commodious path in the
middle, U preferable. If the pots contain only two plants each, they consequently are not required to be
so large as for four or five; but the latter have much the best appearance in bloom, producing a greater
number of blossoms : it is not however advisable to permit every pod to blow, especially of such sorts as
are naturally possessed of but few petals ; because it would render each blossom smaller and thinner than
if only one or two were left on each plant : it is, therefore, proper in this case to cut oft, or draw out the
small lateral pods, close to the main stem, as soon as they can be ascertained, in order that the remainder
may have time to reap due benefit by it ; but those sorts that have remarkably large short pods, abound-
ing with petals, must be suffered to bloom them all, or the greater part, although, in general, three or
four pods are as many as ought to be suffered to blow on one plant These rules, or remarks, admit of
some few exceptions, but the instances seldom occur. „»,,„,

6436 Carnations are to be treated, during winter, much like auriculas : with respect to the weather,
they ate seldom injured by a moderate dry frost, though it is safer to defend them from too much of it ;
but it is very necessary to caution against covering them up close when the plants are wet, as they are, in

860 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

that state, very liable to contract a destructive mildew, if they have not the benefit of a fVee circulation
ot air ; this mildew makes its first appearance in purple spots on the fol.age, which can only be cured or
prevented from spreading amongst the adjacent plants, by cutting out the infected part, or removing the
pot, as soon as discovered, it being not improbable but that the distemper is m great measure, owing to
a very minute insect, brought into existence by the warmth generated at such times. Plants tiius infected
have been frequently known to communicate the contagion to others which stand near them, therelore
no time should be lost in cutting off- the spotted leaves or removing the pants to a distant part of the
earden. A repositorv, constructed in the manner already described, is less liable to the above effects than
any close frame or situation can possibly be, because it has the advantage of a free circulation of air at
aU times, even wlien shut up, unless indeed when closely covered up with mats, &c. as in cases of severe
frost ; but at such times no such consequences are to be dreaded. ^ ^ .. „ <■

64^ The rains of autumn and winter are generally more than sufficient for carnations, as well as tor
auricuUs, from an excess of which it is proper to defend them : of the two extremes, it is safer to keep
them rather too dry than too wet at these seasons, especially ciuring winter-; but a moderate degree of
moisture is always to be preferred, except when the weather is severely frosty. As too long a deprivation
of light is at all times prejudicial to plants, therefore, whenever tlie winter repository is required to be
closely covered up with mats, for several davs and nights, with little intermission, no opportunity should
be lost during the middle of the day, if the sun shines, to take off" the mats in front ot the glasses, in
order to admit its light and warmth. Whenever the surface of the earth in the pots becomes green with
moss, or too compact and adhesive, it will be proper to stir it up carefully, about halt an inch deep, and
to sprinkle a little coarse dry sand regularly upon it : this will prevent any great degree of tenacity in fu-
ture, and be of great service ; it may be repeated as often as required.

6438. In spring, the pots will probably require to be frequently watered, and by the middle of March
the operation of potting is to commence, as already described. The blossoms of carnations, particularly
the high-colored sorts, are very apt to run from their striped or variegated colors to a j)lain one ; they are
tlien esteemed of little or no value: but wlien they have onlv partially run, they may sometimes be re-
covered to their former state, by being planted in a poor dry soil, that will but just afford sufficient nour-
ishment for their existence. {Florist's Diiect IGfi.)

6439. Hogg having potted his blooming plants, supports them with green sticks, in the manner of
Maddock, and top dresses about the middle of June " with about half an inch of rotten horse-dung passed
tlirough a sieve, which he finds materially to assist the plants, and promote the growth of the layers, on
which depends the preservation of the collection. Many," he says, " top-dress with some of the hotter
manures of night-soil, sugar-baker's scum, &c., but, in my opinion, that is not necessary for carnations,
and is attended with danger : for, if they are not reduced to a perfect mould, they will corrode, and bum
the plants." He waters freely while the pods are swelling, and during the whole time they continue in
blossom. As soon as the side slioots appear, he places "a paper collar round tlie bottom of the blossom
to support it. Tliese collars are made of white card-paper, in the form of a circle of tliree or four inches
in diameter {fig. 612. g), with a hole in the centre just large enough to admit the calyx or pod, witliout much
compressing, and with a cut extending from the centre to the outside or circumference, like the radius of
a circle. On these cards the flower is preserved in shape and form a long time ; on these the petals are
also finely disposed, and the beauty of the carnation displayed to great advantage." We must confess, we
think these collars a great deformity, and much prefer a tie of thread or bass mat, or the slip of bladder
recommended by Maddock. When placed on the stage, they should have the benefit of the morning sun
till about nine or ten o'clock, according to the intense heat of its rays ; the same in the evening, with as
much open exposure to the air at all times as you can give them, without injury to the bloom." In winter
Hogg preserves them in frames, in the same manner as he recommends for auriculas. When he has
more plants than he can blow in pots, he plants tliem in beds of the same compost used for the others, pro-
tecting them from severe frosts and heavy rains, and in other respects treating them in the same manner
as if in pots. {Treatise, &c.)

SuBSECT. 18. Pink. — Dianthus hortensis, L. Decan. Trig. L. and Caryophyllcce, J.
L'ceillet, Fr. j Nelke, Ger. ; and Garqfmio, Ital. {Jig. 611. b)
6440. The pink is considered by many to be a subspecies of the D. cart/opIit/Hus ; and
by others to have proceeded from D. deltoides, a British species, and the pheasant-eye
pinks from Z>. j)himarius. This flow^er, Professor Marty n observes, does not seem to
have attracted any notice among our ancestors ; and it is only within the latter half of
the 18th century that pinks were inuch improved and varied, so as to be greatly valued
among florists. It is now much cultivated everywhere, and especially in the manufactur-
ing districts ; in the neighborhood of Paisley, it is carried to a high degree of perfection.
(See Part IV. Book I. Ch. III. Sec. 3.) The pink is much hardier than the carnation,
and less liable to the casualties incident to the latter.

6441. Varieties. Parkinson, in 1629, mentions six or eight sorts. Rea, in 1704, says, there are many
sorts, but of little esteem. Hogg, in 1820, gives a list of nearly one hundred names, as containing the best
sorts in England ; but Davey, who has raised more fine varieties of this flower than any one else, has above
double that number ; and the Paisley growers reckon above three hundred sorts.

6442. Criterion of a fine double pink. " The stem should be strong, elastic, and erect, and not less than
twelve inches high. The calyx rather smaller and shorter, but nearly similar in form and proportion to
that of a carnation, as well as the formation of the flower, which should not be less than two inches and a
half in diameter. The petals should be large, broad, and substantial, and have very fine fringed or serrated
edges, free from large, coarse, deep notches or indentures ; in short, they approach nearest to i)erfection
when the fringe on the edge is so fine as scarcely to be discernible ; but it would be considered a very de-
sirable object to obtain thein perfectly rose-leaved, i. e. without any fringe at all. The broadest part of the
lamina, or broad end of the petals {.fig. 611. c), should be perfectly white and distinct from the eye, unless it
be a laced pink, that is, ornamented by a continuation of the color of the eye round it {fig. 611. b), bold
clean, and distinct, leaving a considerable proportion of white in the centre, perfectly free from any tinge
or spot The eye should consist of a bright or dark rich crimson, or purple, resembling velvet; but the
nearer it approaches to black, the more it is esteemed ; its proportion should be about equal to that of the
white, that it may neither appear too large nor too small." {Maddock.)

6443. Propagation. Generally by pipings for ordinary purposes, sometimes by layers to preserve rare
sorts, and by seed for nev/ varieties.

6144. By pipings. The time to commence this operation is immediately previous to or during the bloom,
or indeed as soon as ever the new shoots are grown of a sufficient length for that purpose. Hogg com-
mences about the twenty-first of June. The operation is the same as in piping carnations ; only some do
not apply bottom heat. This, however, is the more certain mode, and the pipings are ready to remove
sooner, and generally in a fortnight or three weeks. *- «- & :

6445. Bi/ seed. Proceed as directed for carnations.
•i,w?^\''^t?°f^''^^^^^^^Sl'i^t advantage from impregnating double and semi-double pinks, with single
Kinas, both in respect to fecundating more sUmens, and producing in consequence more seed ; but^also in
increasing the varieties, or new sorts raised from such seed. {Caled. Sec. Metn. iii. 270 )

Book IL DOUBLE ROCKET.

861

6*47. Mode of growing. The common sorts are introduced in borders, and the better varieties in ore
pared beds. Sometimes rare sorts are planted in pots, but in general they thrive better in the ooen
ground. '^

6448. Soil. Maddock says, " A good fresh loamy soil, dug and comminuted about two feet deep and
manured with a stratum of cow-dung, two years old, mixed with an equal proportion of earth, (this' stra-
tum to be about six inches thick, and placed five or six inches below the surface,) is all the preparation or
compost that appears necessary for this flower."

6449. General culture. As soon as the pipings are struck and will bear removal, thev are to be planted on
a bed of common garden-mould, where, in a few weeks, it will easilv be discernible which are the strongest
plants to remove to the blooming-bed. " This bed should be raised three or four inches above the sur-
rounding paths, and its sides may be supported with an edging of boards, to come up even with, or one
mch higher than its surface j this last, more for the sake of neatness than any particular utility it will be
of tot he plants."

6450. The plants intended for the principal bed for bloom, should be placed upon it in August, or
early in September, as they do not blow quite so well if removed later in the season ; they should be planted
at about the distance of nine inches from each other, and the bed should be laid rather convex, or round-
ing, to throw oflT excess of rain ; but will require no other covering than a vcrv slight one in case of severe
frost. The bed should be kept free from weeds, and its surface stirred up a little if it inclines to bind, or, in
other words, whenever it becomes too firm and adhesive. Larger strong plants will put up numerous
flower-stems, but it is proper to thin them out a month or six weeks before bloom ; in doing which, the
largest and strongest should bo left, especially the leading stem, which proceeds from the heart or centre
of the plant, together with all its best pods ; but no plant, however strong, should be permitted to bloom
more than ten or twelve blossoms, nor weakly plants more than four or five. In order to obtain them large
and well colored, all the small lateral pods should be cut or pulled ofF, as they never produce any other than
diminutive flowers, and at the same time rob the others of a certain part of their nourishment, which, of
course, prevents their attaining the size and beauty they would otherwise arrive at.

6451. The largest and most bushy plants do not produce the finest flowers ; they naturally put forth
numerous small stems, which their roots are not able to supiK^rt suliiciently to produce large blossoms.
Strong healthy plants, not too large, and consisting of a capital leading stem" in the centre, with but little
surrounding increa.se, are most proper to select for the best bed j these will seldom put up more than one
or two stems, which will, however, be very strong, grow tall, and produce three or four blossoms, as large
and fine as the sort is capable of.

6452. Those pods that appear in danger of bursting should be tied in the same manner as directed
for carnations under similar circumstances. Such sorts of pinks as are most inclined to burst their pods,
oftentimes produce larger and finer flowers than others which have smaller ikkIs, because the latter gene-
rally consist of too few jietals : it is, however, more desirable to have their pods large and long, than too
short and round, as it is hardly possible to preserve the latter from bursting, whereby the beauiiful circular
form which the flower ought to possess is lost. When the calyx is so extremely short that it must in-
evitably burst, it is better to assist nature by what is called letting down the pod, that is, with a penknife
to nick'it down at the bottom of each of its indentures, as low as may be deemed necessary-, in order to let out
petals regularly on e\'ery side, and preserve the circular form of the blossoms ; for if it is left to nature, the
calyx will burst only on "one side, and its petals will consequently force their way through that aj^erture, and
produce a loose deformed flower ; some kinds are posses.sed of such weak and short pods, that the calyx
(fig. 571. d) will entirely burst from top to bottom on one side, and open so very wide as to suffer almost all
the petals to fall out and hang down when they have been in bloom but a short time ; such indeed hardly
deserve to be classed amongst the best sorts, let their properties, in other respects, be ever so desirable.
"When the flower-stems are grown sufficiently long, they should be supixjrted with small sticks or wires, as
the fancy of the cultivator may direct ; but these ought to be disposed of in such a manner as to allow the
blossoms to expand and blow perfectly distinct from each other, that the whole may have an easy graceful
appearance. Those who can bestow sufficient time and attention to their bloom of pinks, may contribute
greatly to the effect, by placing upon the calyx the thin pieces of card, or stiff paper, cut circular {fig. 612.
e), already mentioned "(6439.) ; these are to be placed close underneath the guard-leaves, so as to support
them horizontally, and will, when they extend just as far as the extreme points of the petals, give the
blossom a very circular and pleasing appearance ; but they are apt to warp when long exposed to the
weather, es[)ecially after being wet, and must either be taken off entirely, or exchanged for new ones, as
they will no longer answer the intended purix)se. Some kinds do not require any assistance of this sort, but
the greater part not having tbeir guard-leaves sufficiently strong at the base to support themselves in a
horizontal position, are considerably improved by this little contrivance, which, perhaiw, by the foregoing
description, will not be difficult to comprehend.

6453. At the time of bloom, which is towards the end of June, it is proper to defend the bed by a
covering or awning, somewhat similar to that used for the bloom of tulips and carnations ; they should, in
like manner, enjov the advantage of light and air, and the soil should be kept regularly moist by soft
water, administered between the plants, carefully avoiding to wet the blossom. {Florist's Direct. 220.)

64»4. Hogg observes, that " pinks moved and transplanted in the spring never do well, nor show half the
beauty which those do that were planted in September ; the laced pinks in particular appear almost plain,
and without their distinguishing character : they should likewise never be suffered to remain longer than
two years without either change of soil or situation."

6i55. Emmerton says, " your pink-bed should be top-dressed in the spring, if you have a desire to excel
in blooms, with some old night-soil, or sugar-baker's scum, finely sifted and sown over it. Your
strong-blowing plants sliould not be allowed to bloom more than eight or ten blooms, and those that are
weaker, of a less size, not more than four." {Treatise on Auricula, &c. 191.)

SuBSECT. 19. Double Rocket. — Hesjjeris matronalis, L. (Lam. iU. t. 564. f. 1.) Tetrad.
SUiq. L. and Cinidferce, J. Julienne, Fr. ; Nachtviolen, Ger. ; Esi^ride, Ital.

6456. The double rocket is a biennial or imperfect perennial ; a native of Italy, and
cultivated by Gerrard in 1597. j /. •

6457. The varieties are the white and purple, both very double, and forming a spike
of about a foot long, of great beauty and fragrance, and considerable duration.

6i58. Propagation and culture. The plant is extremely difficult to preserve, especially near large
towns. It does not thrive either near London or Paris ; and both capitals, esi>ecial y the latter are
supplied with it from provincial growers. It is very much grown in the ^^^^ J>f ^co and and m the
Netherlands; and between Calais and AbbeviUe it maybe seen in great Perfection m m^t cottagers
gardens. Van Mons {Hort. Trans, ii. 153.) says it prospers best in a clayey soil, but flowers best in one of
flighter texture, like the lobelia cardinalis. The best directions which we have met with for ite culture
are given by Robertson. {Caled. Mem. iL 245.) He says, « The double rocket is a beaut.tul plant
rathir scarcl in this part of the country, owing chiefly, I suppose, to florists not being acquainted with a
successful way of increasing it. I had a few ulants of rocket under my care, and I did them a 1 justice, as
I thSh, but all would not do ; I lost them" all. I tried to part their roots, but being small and weak
the sluls eat them all up in a short time ; as slugs are very fond of them esj^.ally of their leaves I
tried to increase them by cuttings in the common way, with as little success. This led me to try another

668

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

method, which I would rftcommend aa a never-failing way of propagating this beautiful flower. If a
person has but one plant of rocket, and is anxious for its flowers, the first thing is, after the flower is
beginning to fade, to eat down the stalks and divide them into ordinary lengths of cuttings ; next to cut
off" the leaves, and smooth the wids ; then to make three slits with a knife in the bark or rind, longways,
so as to separate or raise thebark for half an inch in length. When the cutting is inserted in the ground,
the loose bark naturally curls up ; and it is from this bark that the young roots proceed. The partial
separation, and the turning up of the bark, seems to promote a tendency to throw out roots. The cuttings
may be put into flower-pots, as they may thus be sheltered during winter with more ease ; or they may be
placed in the natural earth, provided the soil is light and fresh. Covering them with a hand-glass will
forward the rooting of the cuttings ; or with the aid of a hot-bed they will succeed excellently. I
have used this simple way for six years back, and never without success ; not one in twenty having
failed. This method, it may be remarked, will hold good in cuttings of stock-gilliflowers, and double
wallflowers."

-SuBSECT. 20. Cardinal Flower. — Lobelia, L. Pent. Monog. L. and Campanula-
cecBy B. P. Lobelie, Fr. j Kardinalsblume, Ger. j Fior Cardinale, Ital. (Jigs. 613.
and 614.)

6459. There are three sj)ecies of lobelia which rank high as florists' flowers.

6460. The common cardinal Jloiver (L. cardinalis) [Bot. Mag. 320. and fig. 613.) has
roots composed of many white fleshy fibres, oblong

leaves, stalks erect, about a foot and a half high,
terminated by a spike of flowers, " of an exceed-
ingly beautiful scarlet color," appearing in the end
of July and August. It is a native of Virginia ;
and it is found abundantly by the side of rivers and
ditches: introduced in 1629. Justice is in rap-
tures with it, describing it as " a flower of most
handsome appearance, which should not be wanting
in curious gardens, as it excels all other flowers I
ever knew in the richness of its color." Tliere is a
dwarf variety, but it is very liable to perish.

6461. Propagation and culture. By seeds, offsets, or cut-
tings ; but the former method produces the strongest plants.
Sow in pots of rich earth soon after the seed is ripe, and place
them under the protection of a frame. The seeds will appear
the following sprmg ; and after they have two or three leaves,
should be planted in separate small pots, and shifted into
larger ones once or twice during the season. Place them in
an eastern exposure, and supply them freely with water.
Protect, during winter, by a frame ; and the following spring,
shift them into pots, six or eight inches diameter, in which
they will flower. If not much exposed to the sun, they will continue long in beauty. The roots do not
last above two or three years ; and therefore a succession of young plants, from seed or sUps. should be
regularly provided. {^Miller.)

6462. Tlie fulgent cardinal Jlower (L.fulgens, W. en.) (Bot. Rep. 659. and fg. 614. a)

is a native of Mexico, and was introduced into
England in 1809 : flowers in July and August.
Though a native of a warm climate, it has been
found to bear the severity of our winters, by
being immersed in %vater, as an aquatic, and with
this treatment has flowered well by the sides of
ponds and in cisterns.

6463. Propagation. By suckers or cuttings, which strike
with remarkable facility in any shady situation ; and by
seed. According to Professor Van Mons, " the seed
should be sown, as soon as it is ripe, in earthen pans ; the
earth should be moistened, and after it has imbibed the
water, the seed must be spread over it without being
covered. The pans should be sheltered from the frost,
and the young plants may be transplanted in April and
May. \ ery few of them remain, more than the second
year, without flowering."

6464. Culture. This plant has assumed a character of
uncommon magnificence under the management of
Hedges, which is thus detailed by Sabine: " In October,
he takes off the suckers, which are thrown up from the
roots of the old plants, and puts them into small pots, one
in each pot, and keeps them in a cold-frame till the mid-

f...»„» «,»,.»,« *u u 4. • 1 i. ^ ^;- , die of January : he then removes them into a cucumber-

^IC'}^^^ **^.l ^^^ ''.^^P' "P *° ^ ^^""^ °f Fahrenheit's scale, by linings of hot dung f a pine sue*
c^.on stove of the same temperature will equally suit them. In the middle of February, hey are shifted
into pots a size larger ; and at the end of March, or in the beginning of April, they ar7agai7movld into
larger pots, and in the middle of May they are a third time shifted ; the pots to be used for this last sWft
^..^l *'^^^^^'- ^^ l°°" ^^ the plants are well rooted, after the last Vemoval, therare carried into a
peach-house or green-house, in which they continue till they flower, and are hkrd7enough to belr the
^"*"^- .^/"fu" th^y,«>=e preparing to throw up their flowering stems, and during their erowth it is
^f ^n=^f* nH ' mL^^ ^.IP* "^P "'Sif' ^'^''^'^ '^ ^^'^t^'l by putting pans'under the p^ote and^keeping the
Sinuel^ hfnw .n J"*" ^^^^''- „^^-?kP'2"^' thus managed, begin to flower eariy in Ju yt and the s?ikef
f^Xf eoSLZ'am Jhr.^^^n^^"^*^ ^n^ f °'''^'"' through the autumn. The com'post usid in the pots is
onefm.rth of iP of brown or yel ow loam, and of leaf or bog mould, to which is added sand eoual to
one fourth of the previous composition, the whole being well mixed together. The plan"of ^ofi/ «

Book II.

CHRYSANTHEMUM.

8G3

fulgent, which waa exhibited to the Society on the 19th of last month, by Hedges, had been managed a*
above directed ; but as no notes of its size and height were made at the time, the following dimensions
have been taken from another plant in the garden at Kenwood. The base of the stem was near six inches
in circumference ; the height of the centre spike was five feet and a half; the shoots from the bottom and
sides of the main stem were in number seventeen, rising together round the principal stem, to the height
of about four feet and a half. Hedges states, that the plants were in the two preceding years, much taller
than that now dcscrit)ed. Some few plants were observed to be rather shorter, and to have a more bushy
appearance : this is produced by stopping the centre stem, after the last shifting, by which the side shoots
become more vigorous and fuller of flower, and in this state they form handsome companions to the
flowering plants of campanula pyramidalis, whose beautiful spikes of blue flowers agreeably contrast with
the brilliant scarlet of the lobelia." {Hort. Trans, ii. 400.)

6465. Tlie splendid cardinal Jloiver (L. splendens, W. en.) (^Bot. Beg. 60. and
fig. 614. b)j a native of Mexico, and introduced in 1814, may be treated like L. ftdgens ;
and the blue cardinal Jloiver (L. siphililica) (Jac. Ic. iii. t. 597.), a native of Virginia,
and introduced in 1665, may be treated like L. cardinalis.

SuBSECT. 21. Pyramidal Bellfiower. — Cavijximda in/ramidalis, L. {Park. Farad. S54:.)
Pent. Monog. L. and CampanulacetB, B. P. Campanelle Pyramidale, Fr. ; Pyrami-
denglocken, Ger. ; and Campanule, Ital.

6466. The pyramidal bellflmver, in its cultivated state, has thick ramose roots, which are
milky; oblong leaves; and strong stalks, four feet high, from the sides of which the
flowers are produced for more than half their length, forming a sort of pyramid. The
most common color is blue, but there is a variety with white flowers. It is a native of
Istria and Savoy, and was cultivated by Gerrard in 1596. Formerly it was in demand
as an ornament to halls, and for placing before chimneys in summer, being planted in
large pots, and trained in the fan manner, so as to cover a large surface. In the shade
it continues in flower for two months or more.

6467. Propagation and culture. By seed, cuttings from the stem, or by dividing the roots ; the last
method makes the strongest plants in the shortest time. The season for this operation is after the bloom
has faded in September ; the sections are to be jJanted in pots, and protected by a frame during winter.
In spring they may be transplanted into large pots, and in the beginning of summer into still larger
mes, in which they are to flower the summer following.

6468. By seeds. The plants so raised. Miller says, are always stronger, and the stalks rise higher, and
produce a greater number of flowers. Good seeds are to be obtained by placing a strong-flowering plant
in a warm situation against a wall or under a glass case. They are to be sown in pots of light earth soon
after being gathered, protected by a frame during winter, and will come up in spring. When the leaves
decay in October, they are to be transplanted to beds of light sandy earth, without any mixture of dung,
which is a great enemy to this plant. Here they are to remain two years, being protected in winter by
rotten tan ; they are then to be removed to their final destination in September or October, and the year
following, being the third from sowing, they will flower. The plants. Miller observes, of this species, as
of many others which have been long propagated by roots, offsets, or cuttings, do not so readily bear seed
as those which have been raised from seed.

6469. The C. Carpatica, grandiflora, and several other very showy species, may be similarly treated. !

SuBSECT. 22. Chrysanthemum. — Chrysanthemum sinenss. Sab. ; Anthem.is Artemisue-
folia, W. Syng. Polyg. Sujter. L. and Corymhiferce, J. Chrysanteme, Fr, ; Gold-

blume, Ger. ; and Crisantero, Ital.

6470. The Chinese chrysanthemum is a fibrous-rooted half-hardy perennial, with pin-
nate, gashed, serrated leaves, leafy stems, from three to four feet high, and flowers
generally on solitary peduncles. It is a native
of China, where it is highly prized and exten-
sively cultivated as an ornamental plant, and
was introduced in 1764. Here it contributes
greatly to the beauty of the flower-garden in a
fine autumn, and of our conservatories in
November and December, when scarcely any
other plants are in flower.

6471. Varieties. The Chinese are supposed from good
authority to have fifty varieties or upwards : there are
twenty-three sorts described by Sabine, as having flow-
ered in this countrj-, and there are a number more,
of recent introduction, which have not yet flowered.
Through the exertions of the Horticultural Society,
and some nurser%Tnen, and private individuals, it is ex-
pected all the Chinese sorts will soon be imported. Sa-
bine describes as having flowered in the garden of the
Horticultural Society, and as to be procured in the nur-
series, the following : —

The purple
Changeable white
OuUled white
Suverb white
Tasselled white

jUal pink-flowered
Early crimson (.fe- 615. a)
Large quilled orange (6)
Expanded light purple

Sulphur yellow
Golden yellow
Large Lilac
Rme or pink
Buffer orange
Spanish brown

(Sabint, in Uort. Iran*. toJ. iv. p. S34. & toI. t. p. 149.)

burled Ulac

Superb clustered yellow
Semi-double quilled pink
Semi -double quilled white
Small yellow tingle.

864 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Tart III.

6472. Propagation. By dividing the root, by suckers, and by cuttings : the latter is
the best mode, as producing plants less likely to throw up suckers. The cuttings are
usually taken from the side branches in August, planted in shallow pots, placed in a
wai-m shaded spot, and covered with a hand-glass. In a month or six weeks, they
will have struck, and are then put into pots of the smallest size, and put in a warm
situation, where they remain till November ; they are then placed under a frame for the
winter.

6473. The soil used generally for the chrysanthemum, is two thirds of turfy or virgin
loam, and one third of leaf-mould or decayed dung.

6474. Culture in pots In April, the cuttings of the preceding autumn are shifted
into No. 32 pots, and set out into a well sheltered south border, on a bed of scori.-e, for
the summer. About the beginning of October, when the flower-buds are formed, they
are taken into the green-house, on the stage of which they are exposed as much as possi-
ble to the air, both night and day, in good w eather, but protected by the lights from
wind, rain, and frost. The Chinese also propagate the chrysanthemum by cuttings ; but
they take them off in May, strike them as we do, and then put each plant in a small pot,
in which it flowers tlie succeeding autumn. By this means the plants are much dwarfer
than ours usually are, and instead of having great part of their stems naked, or covered
with withered leaves, tliey are clothed with green foliage from the ground to the flower.
In order that the blossoms may be strong, they pinch otf aU the flower-buds, excepting
three, or five, or sometimes only one, as soon as they appear, and are liberal in the use of
liquid manure ; those which remain are as large and fine as are produced by the most
bulky plants. {JVe/ls, in Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 571.) This is by far the most simple,
elegant, and economical mode of propagating this beautiful flower ; it has been practised
several years by the Comte de Vande, at Bayswater, as well as by others in this country,
and whenever it is generally known will be as generally adopted. All suckers should be
removed, only one or three stems trained erect, and branching regularly on all sides.
Tlie side branches and top, or head, should be so arranged and adjusted by a nice appli-
cation of black threads and wires, attached to the main prop as to render the figure of the
entire plant perfectly symmetrical. Three stems may be trained, though one is better than
three, because it will grow stronger : but three are better than two, which do not com-
pose a whole ; and better than a greater number than three, because unity departed from,
there is no limit to irregularity. One and three are unity; because one is complete, and
three has a beginning, middle, and end. All possible numbers besides, either fall short
of or exceed unity : they are irregularities, and irregularities are redundant and infinite,
and therefore unsatisfactory to contemplate.

6475. Culture in the open border. Many of the sorts may be planted out in warm
borders, or compartments, or against walls, and will flower well in fine autumns ; but
their roots require protection through the winter, and they should be renewed about every
two years ; for as they increase much in size by suckers from the roots, the plants, if left
for a longer period, become unsightly, and produce small and imperfect flowers. The
early flowering varieties, as the purple, changeable white, rose, and buff, seem the hardiest
and most suitable for borders. {Sabine, in Hort. Trans, vol. iv. 323.) To look well in
the border the plants should be large, and with many stems ; their flowers are
consequently more numerous, and produce a greater effect at a distance. The ap-
pearanes of the flowers on many of the kinds is very different when blossoming in the
borders from those which expand under glass, so much so, that they might be easily
mistaken by an unexperienced observer for different varieties. (Hort. Tram. vol. v.
162.)

SuBSECT. 23. Hydrangea. — Hydrangea hortensis, L. {Bot. Mag. 438.) Decan. Dig. L.
and SaxifrageceF J. Hydrangelle, Fr. ; Kehlknopf, Ger. ; and Hydrangea, Ital.

6476. The hydrangea is a very low under-shrub, producing broad green leaves, and
cymes of monstrous flowers, like the guelder rose in form, and red in color, changing to
white and green. Its native place is unknown ; but it is commonly cultivated in the
gardens of China and Japan, from whence it was introduced to Kew by Sir J. Banks
in 1790. It is much valued as a chamber plant, and in consequence, extensively cul-
tivated near London and most large towns of Europe.

6477. Varieties. Soon after it was introduced, some plants were found with blue
flowers, which some supposed to be produced by salt or saltpetre, and others by oxide of
iron. The yellow loam of Hampstead heath and some other places, and some sorts of
peat-earth are found to produce this effect ; but the cause is not yet ascertained. Dr.
Daalen, of Antwerp, finds that turf-ashes, and still more effectually those of the Norway
spruce, the wood generally used as fuel by him, applied to the roots of hydrangea, pro-
duced the blue color of the petals. {Hort. Tour, 122.) According to Busch, of Peters-
burgh, '< the hydrangea will be turned blue by watering the young plant, tlie summer

Book II. BALSAM. rst?

before, witli alum-water. Our grey-colored eartli, under the black moor-earth, has the
same effect, being combined with aluminous salt." {HoH. Trans, vol. iv. 568.)

6478. Propagation and culture. Hedges, who has been " very successful" in treating
this plant, gives the following directions. " As a succession of young plants is neces-
sary', I raise some each year by taking, in the beginning or middle of July, young shoots
with three or four joints, cutting them off' close to the joint which is at the bottom of the
shoot ; these are planted in rich earth, in a warm border, and covered with a hand-glass ;
they are shaded during the middle of the day, and sprinkled with water from a fine rose
watering-pot, two or three times a-week, in the evening, so as to keep them moist: the
glass being kept close over them at all times. They will also grow by layers made in
July, in tlie same way as is usual with carnations. Tlie cuttings or layers will be well
rooted by the end of August, at which time, or early in September, they must be put
singly into small pots, and placed under a frame, which at first must be shut up close ; if
they can be assisted by a temperate dung-heat, at this time, it will be better for them. In
the frame they must be shaded and watered as before. About the middle or end of
October, they are to be taken into the green-house, or other shelter, where they can be
protected from wet and frost ; during the winter, they must be watered once a week or
fortnight, as they may require. In the latter end ^of May or early in June following,
they must be turned out into a bed of rich mould, in the open ground, to remain there
till September, when they must be taken up and potted, and kept protected from damp
and cold, as in the preceding winter. Instead of turning them out, as stated, in the
spring, they may be retained in pots ; but they must be shifted twice during the summer.
By either method fine strong plants will be formed, fit for forcing or turning out in the
succeeding spring. If wanted for the borders, let them be put out when all danger of
their sustaining injury by frost is over ; they will stand the winter in the borders, and
will also bear flowers, though not so well as when protected by a house. Those which
are to flower in pots, are taken as soon as their buds begin to swell in the spring ; all the
old mould being removed from their roots, they are planted in fresh earth, in pots of
about eight inches diameter at top, and placed in front of the green-house or peach-
house ; if the plants are not over large, pots of smaller dimensions should be used ; these
will come into flower in June. Care must be taken to supply them plentifully with
water whilst they are coming into bloom, and it is best to place waterpans under the pots
to secure a continual supply of moisture. If it is desired to have plants in flower early in
the spring, they must be shiflted into their new pots in January, and brought forward
with forcing heat. The mould I generally give to my hydrangeas is a compost of loam
and bog-earth or leaf-mould, with a little sand, well incorporated together ; in this they
will produce red flowers ; if they are expected to blow blue, they must be planted in the
piu-e yellow loam."

SuBSECT. 24. Balsam. — Impaiiens Balsamina, L. ( Blackw. t. 583.) Pent. Monog. L.
and GeranicBj J. Balsamine, Fr. and Ger. and Balsainina, Ital.

6479. The balsam is a tender annual, rising from one to two feet high, with a succu-
lent branchy stem, serrated leaves, and various-colored flowers. It is a native of the East
Indies and Japan, where the natives, according to Thunberg, use the juice prepared with
alum, for dying their nails red. Cultivated by Gerrafd in 1596.

6480. Varieties. These are infinite, but not so marked or permanent as to have acquired names. The
seed from one plant will hardly produce two alike. Double flowers are chiefly held in esteem, and espe-
cially those that are striped like flakes and bizarre carnations.

6481. Propagation and culture. It can only be raised from seed, which ripens readily from semi-double
plants, and should not be less than three or four, or even nine years old, garc'eners having experienced
that new seed seldom produces double flowers. The best soil is a rich loam, rather lighter than that used
for growing melons. At any period between the 1st of March and 1st of May, sow very thin in pots, to be
placed in a hot-bed, and as near the glass as possible. When the plants are five inches high, transplant
lOto No. 48. pots, one plant in the centre of each pot. As soon as the roots have filled the pots, move them
into pots a size larger, and repeat this operation three or four times, till at last they are in pots of eight
inches' diameter or upwards, keeping the plants all the while in a hot-bed or pit, and near the glass. Bal-
sams so treated will rise four feet high, and fifteen feet in circumference, with strong thick stems, fur-
nished with side branches from bottom to top, and these covered with large double flowers. {Fairweaiher,
in Hori. Trans, iii. 406.)

6482. Tlie Amaranths, Celosia or cockscomb, Gomphrena or globe-amaranth, Mesembry-
anthemum crystallinum or ice-plant, Solanum melongena or egg-jilant, and most other
tender annuals, will attain to corresponding luxuriance, if similarly treated.

6483. Knight,\n OcXxiber, 1820, sent to the Horticultural Society, a cockscomb {Celosia cristata), tiie
flower of which measured eighteen inches in width and seven inches m height, from the top of the stalk ;
it was thick and full, and of a most intense purplish-red. To produce this, the great object was to retard
the protrusion of the flower-stalk, that it might become of great strength. The compost employed was of
the most nutritive and stimulating kind, " consisting of one part of unfermented horse-dung, fresh from
the stable, and without litter, one part of burnt turf, one part of decayetl leaves, and two parts of green
turf the latter being in lumps of about an inch in diameter, in order to keep the mass so hollow, that the
water might have free libertv to escape, and the air to enter. The seeds were sown m spring rather late,
and the plants put first into pots of four inches' diameter, and then transplanted to others a foot in dia-

3 K

see PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

meter ; the object being not to compress the roots, as that has a tendency to accelerate the flowering of all
vegetables. The plants were placed within a few inches of the glass, in a heat of from 70'' to 100" ; they
were watered with pigeon-dung water, and due attention paid to remove the side branches when very
young, so as to produce one strong head or flower." {Hort. Trans, iv. 322.)

SuBSECT. 25. Mignonette. — Reseda odorata, L. {Bot. Mag. 29.) Dodecan. Big. L.
&ndiResedaceie,lAnd\. Reseda odorant.Yx.y Wohb-iechende Reseda, Ger; and Reseda
edorosa, Ital.

6484. The mignonette is a trailing hardy annual, a native of Africa, and introduced in
1752. It is " the Egyptian bastard-rocket, with most sweet-smelling flowers," of Jus-
tice, and the Dutch florists of his day. The flowers are highly odoriferous, and the plant
in pots is in universal request, at all seasons of the year, for placing in rooms.

6485. Varieties. There is a sub-biennial semi-frutescent variety, rather more odori-
ferous than the common sort, which forms an elegant winter plant for the drawingroom,
but which is not yet in very general cultivation.

6486. Propagation and culture. Rishon, who cultivated this plant extensively for tl>e
London market, gives the following instructions, as applicable to tlie common variety :
*' To obtain fine plants, strong and ready to blow, during the winter, and through the
months of January and February, the seed should be sown in the open ground the end
of July ; by the middle of September, the plants from this sowing will be strong enough
to be removed into pots ; for a week after this removal, they must be shaded, after which
they may be freely exposed to the sun and air, care being taken to protect them by frames
from damage by heavy rains, and from injury by early frosts, until the beginning of
November, at which time many of them will show their flowers ; and they should then
be removed to a green house or conservatory, or to a warm window in a dwellinghouse,
where they will branch out, and continue to blow until the spring. The crop for March,
April, and May should be sown in small pots, not later than the 25th of August ; the
plants from this sowing will not suffer by exposure to rain, whilst they are young ; they
must, however, be protected from early frosts, like the winter crop ; they are to be
thinned in November, leaving not more than eight or ten plants in each pot ; and at the
same time, the pots Ijeing sunk about three or four inches in some old tan or coal-ashes,
should be covered with a frame, which it is best to place fronting the west ; for then the
lights may be left open in the evening, to catch the sun whenever it sets clear. The
third or spring crop should be sown in pots, not later than the 25th of February ; these
must be placed in a frame, on a gentle heat, and as the heat declines, the pots must be
let down three or four inches into the dung-bed, which will keep the roots moist, and
prevent their leaves turning brown, from the heat of the sun, in April and May. The
plants thus obtained will be in perfection by the end of May, and be ready to succeed
those raised by the autumnal sowing." [Hort. Trans, ii. 375.)

6487. The tree-mignonette, according to Sabine, " is to be propagated from seeds sown
in spring j it may also be increased by cuttings, which will readily strike. Tlie young
plants should be put singly into small pots, and brought forward by heat, that of a gentle
hot-bed being preferable, but they will grow well without artificial heat. As they ad-
vance, they must be tied to a stick ; taking care to prevent the growth of the smaller
side shoots, by pinching them off, but allowing the leaves of the main stem to remain on
for a time to support and strengthen it. When they have attained the height of about
ten inches, or more, according to the fancy of the cultivator, the shoots must be suffered
to extend themselves from the top, but must be occasionally stopped at the ends, to force
them to form a bushy head, which, by the autumn, will be eight or nine inches in dia-
meter, and covered with bloom. Whilst the plants are attaining their proper size, they
should be shifted progressively into larger pots, and may ultimately be left in those of
about six inches in diameter at top." {Hort. Trans, iii. 181.)

Sect. II. Border-Flowers.

6488. Border-Jlowers are hardy plants, with showy blossoms, of easy culture, and their
use in floriculture is to decorate the flower-garden, shrubbery, and other spots or borders
considered as ornamental. We shall take them in the order of perennials, bulbs, bien-
nials, hardy annuals, and half-hardy annuals ; and arrange each of these subdivisions
according to their time of flowering, heights, and colors : indicating by letters those requir-
ing peat-soil ( p) ; such as are rather tender {t) ; such as are most showy (.?) ; and such as
continue in flower for two or more months (3). At the end of each subdivision we shall
give its general mode of propagation and culture. It may be added, that most of the
plants mentioned as flowering in any particular month will often come into flower the
month preceding, and continue in bloom during one or more of the following months.
Hence the importance of selecting such flowers as are at once the most easy of cultivation!
beautiful in appearance, and that continue longest in flower.

Book II.

BORDER-FLOWERS.

867

SuBSECT. 1. Species and Varieties of Perennial Jibrous, ramose, tuberous, and creejnng rooted
t Herbaceous Border- F/oicers, arranged as to their Time of Flowering, Height, and Color.
6489. PERENNIAL BORDER- FLOWERS. —FEBRUARY AND MARCH.

WHITE.

?inone Hep. rubra, p.
— llo. pi. rubro, p.

WHITE. .,^.^^.

Anemone Hep.tl.albo, p. | ThlaOTi alpestre, p.
Tus&ilago alba

— &rfiura
j — fols. rariegatis

— firagrans
YELLOW. YELLOW.

Adoxa moschatellina, p. Adonis vemalis, s.
Potentilla opaca Heleborus hyemaUs

BLUE.

Anemone apennina, p.

Hepatica,fl. caerul. p.

— fl. caer. pleno

PURPLE.

Sazifiraga oppo&itifblia

GREEN.

HeightfromOioiofaSt.From^ofaSoaHo\^foot. From li foot to 2!i feet From Z^ feet to 3^ Jiet. From 5.j> feet uprvards.

RED.

BLU*.

GREEN.

Helianthus viridls

WHITE.
Orontium japonicnm, p.

BLUE,
orientalis

PURPLE.
GREEN.

APRIL.

PURPLE.
GREEN.

RED,
WHITE.

PURPLE.
GREEN.

RED.

BelUs hortensis fistulosa
Cortusa MathioU
WHITE.
BelUs perennis

hortensis alba
Saxifraga hvpnoides
Soldanella al. flo. alb. p.
Viola odorate flo. albo.
_ — flo. pleno
Arabis alpina, p.

YELLOW.

Ctaiysosplenium altemi.
- — oppositifol.
Viola lactea

BLUE.
Viola canina, p.

odorata caer.

flo. pleno. caer.
PURPLE.
Soldanella alpina, p.
Tussilago alpina
Viola odor. purp.

VARIEGATED.
Clavtonia -virginica
Anemone coronaria

GREEN.

RED.
Tussilago Petasites
Deataiia bulbifera

WHITE.
Tussilago lobata pleno
Anemone nemorosa, p.
— flo. pleno

— venialis, p.

.Mandragora otEcina. p.
(Cardamine aniara, p.
IPulnionaria oflBcina. p,
I Valeriana tripteris
YELLOW.
Ranunculus auricomus
jAlvssum saxatUe
Aquilegia grandiflora, p.
' canadensis, p.

BLUE.
Anemone Pulsatilla, p.
Cynoglossum omphal. p.
I Viola purpurea

PURPLE.
Hyoscyamus phvsal. p.
Saiifraga cordifolia

crassifolia

VARIEGATED.
Bellis variegata

RED.

VARIEGATED.

— prolitera
Pothos fbetida

GREEN.
Helleborus lividus

VARIEGATED.

VABIEGA7ED.

GJREEN.

.MAY.-

RED.

RED

Anemone hort. flo. pi. p. 'Astragalus montanus
;pimedium alpinum, p. Ermus alpmu^
ilene acaulis Lamium rugosum

L..Xis alpina, 3 Dentaria penlap^ylla

Prim.aca4sco.dou.3 !^ - ^.V^^'t,^.^
^ - acaulis crims. 3 Dodecatheon Meadia
_ loneifolia, n. Fumana formo»a, ».

Z S b^^doub. Convallaria n?a. flo. n
IStatice armeria I Pnmula longifoUa, p.

Ajuga genevensis

WHITE,

AspenUa odorata
Cypripediura acaule, p.
Isopyrum thalictroides
Leontice thalictroides, p.
Uvularia amplexiflol. j>.
Anemone alpina p.

Tirginiana

Arenaria vema
Cerastium repens
C<mvallaria bifoiia

— majalis

_ m. pleno
Hvdrophyllum canaden.
Lychnis quadridenta. p.
Pachysandria prostra. p.
Podypbyllum peltatum

_. diphjllum Stellarxa wammea, p.

PotentiUa alba , — Tsolostea

Primula acaulis, 3 — nemorum

_ white, double iUTulariaperfoUata,p.

_ nivalis Fragaria i

Statice armeria, flo. albo
Tiarelia cordifolia, p.

triiblia
Tussilago palmata

RED.

Paeonia hybrida

— officinalis, *.
Valeriana rubra

Lychnis viscaria

_ _ flo.j)leno

Orobus tuberosus, o.

Polygala major

Tulgaiis

_ cortusoides, p
WHITE.

Anemone dichotoma, p.

aUpina

narcissiflora

sylvestris

Arum tenuifoUum

Chrysanthemum gram.
pinnaUfidum

Draba ciliaris
_ stellata

Ranunculus aconitifo. ».

flo. pleno, «.

amplezicauUs

Saxifiraga granulata
_ _ flo. plen.

— petrsa

— umbrosa

WHITE.

Cucubalus behen
Valeriana tripteris var

alba
Iris florentjna
Polemonium

flo. albo
Sazi&aga cotyledon

RED.
Paeonia tenuifi>lia, 3.

— monophylla
Gnaphalium planta. p.
Iiis pumila alba, p.

RED.
Paeonia corallina, 4

3K 2

BGS PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

PERENNIAL BORDER-FLOWERS. — MAY — cow^nwed.

Part IIL

Ilei^UfrotnOfo 3 of afl.

From 3 of a f jot to li foot.

From li Jixrf to 2i feet. From 2i feet to 3i feel.

From 3i/erf upwards.

WHITE.

WHITE.
Lamium molle

WHITE. WHITE.

WHITE.

Lepidium alpinum

Lychnis 4 dent, fl.alb.7

"

Peltaria alliacea

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Ranunculus thora

Arum arisarum

Chelidonium niajus

Bunias orientalis

Alyssuin cretisum

— oIymi>icum
Andryala lanata

Cineraria campestris
Draba azoides

_ laciniatum Doronicum pardalian.
— flo. pleno Smymium perfoliatum

Galium cruciatum Chrysanthemum multi.

Cheirauthus alpinus, p.

Geum strictum ! Cineraria lonpfoUa

Ueum montanum

GnaphaU. olym. «.3. p. Doronicum plantagine.

— minor

Lithospermum orientale,

Hieracium aureum, 3

_ officinale

•

Lysimachia nemoruni

Tormentilla erecta

_ numinularia

Onosma echoides

PrimuU acau. yell. dble.

Papaver cambricum

_ _ — sin.

PotentiUa sericea

— —hose in ho. ».

Uvularia sessilifolia

— auricula

Ranunculus auricomus

— veris

— — elatior

Tormentilla reptans

Vesicaria utriculata

Viola liiflora, ;..

BLUE.

RLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Asarum virfpnicum, p.

Ljnaria alpina
Iris sanguuiea

Iris lusitanica

Iris tuberosa, ;;.
Gentiana vema, p.
Phaca australis

_ tenuifolia

— siberica

Polemonium coeruleum

Phlox divaricata 3. p.

Symphytum orientale
Veronica gentianoides

Primula flrinosa, p.

Polemonium reptans

— helvetica, p.

Pulmonaria virginica, p.

_ spuria

— int€«rifolia, p.

— roarpnata

Statice coriacea, p.
Veronica officinalu

Viola hirta, p.

— comuta

_ obliqua

— i>edata

— pubescens

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Pulmonayia angusti. p.

Geum tivale

Hyoscyamus scopolia, p. ! Orobus niger, 3. p.

Anemone ))ratensis, p.

Helonias buUata, «.

Lamium orvale

Pseonia byzantina, 3.

Gentiana acauUs, p.

Iris biflora

Pffionia humilis, p.

— daurica, 3.

Iris pumila

Ranunculus gramineus

— fimbriata, 3.

Primula acaulisli.dbl. 3

Saxifraga cunejfolia

Mitelladiphylla.p.

Verbascum pinnatifi. p.
Cardamine pratensis
— flo. pleno

Penstemon camj)anulata

Lamium Isevigatum

Orobus vemus «.

Primula villosa, p.

Vicia dumetorum

Viola hastata

Verbascum pinnatifi. p.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Anemone hortensis, p.

Cerastium alpinum

Iris pumila variegata,;>.

Iris prismatica, p.

Viola striata

Aristolochia clematitis

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN."

GREEN.

GREEN. ,

Paris quadrifolia

Aquilegia alpina

— viridiflora, p.
Saxiiiraga palmata

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

Primula Terii,flo.ple. t.

Mercurialis perennis

— polyanthos

' TTT'MP

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Ancistrum lucidum, /.p.

Aphilanthes monspeli.
Echixim rubrum

Achilleamille.fi ru.j. p.

tapaveroiientalis

CoroniIla,varlaflo. car.

Dianthus deltoides

Pseonia sinensis, rub. pi.

Thalictrum atropurpur.

Aconitum napel. fl. jros-

— alpinus.S.

Hedysarum onobrychis

Sanguisorba officinalis

Valeriana officinalis

— caesius rub. 3

Antfiyllis vul. coc.
Dianthus atro. rubens

Valeriana rubra

— jiyrenaica

- . glaucus

Fumaria spectabilis

Peeonia peregri. fl. ro. pi.

Sajjonaria ocymoi. 3- p.

Asperula taurina
Phlox cetacea, p.

Aquilegia rosea, multi.

Saxifrasa sarmentoxa

Orobus sylvaticus, p.

Semperv. arachnoide. p.

— subulata

Paeonia anomola

Statice conlifolia, p.

Sem))erv;vum arachn.

Anthyllis x-ulne. ilo. coc.
Valeriana dioica

Veronica urticifoUa

Betonica incana

— rotundifolia

Semi>ervivum caspi. p.

Phlox pilosa, p.

— globiierum

Ononis hircina
Orobus varius, p.
Polygonum bistortum, I.
Rubus arcticus, p.
Saxifraga rotundifolia
Statice cephalotes, t. p.
Teucrium multiflorum

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Asperula crassifolium
Illicebrum caj)itatum,».
Achillea clavennje, ».
Ajuija rei>tans, flo. al. p.
Androsace lactea
Arabis lucida, p.

- sibirlca
BcIHum bellidioides, p.
Campanu. rotun. f I. al. p.
Conius suecia, p.
Iris pumila alba, p.
PolyRonuir. viviparum

Anchusa angusti. fl. alb.
Anemone i>ensvlva. a. p.
Anthemis pyrethrum
Anthericum liliago

— liliastrum
Arenaria laricifolia, p.

— montana
Arum maculatum
Chrysanthemum argen.

— atratum

CochhSria SxaUUs '^"*^

Valeriana rubra, var alb.
Achillea ligustica

— moschata

— nobilis
Apocynum hypericifoli.

— venetum, /.
Asclepias vincetoxicum
Betonica glomerata
Chrysant. ceratophylloi.
Dorycnium herbaceum
Hesperis, mat. flo. pi. al.
Iniperatoria osUuthium

Actea sjiicata

— bacc. albidis

— bacc. rubris
Anthericum ramosum
Apocynum cannabinum
Athamanta sicula
Clematis recta, ».
Laseri)itium trilobum
JVlentha cerviiia
Pseonia albiflora

— sibirica
Plantago ali)ina

Aconitumnapel.fi. alb.
Asphodelus ramosus
Convolvulus sepium, alb.
Coronilla varia, fl. albo
Cynanchum acutum, 3
Galega officina. fl. albo
Laserpitium aquilegifo.
Spiraea aruncus, p.

Book II.

BORDER. FLOWERS.

869

PERENNIAL BORDER- FLOWERS. — JUNE — con/mwerf.

yeighifromOloiofafl. Fromlofafoottol^foot. Fromlifoottoiifett. \ From 2^ feel to 5iifeeL

WHITE.

Saiifraga adscendens

— C!£sia

— cemua

— nivalis

— rivularis
ScTophularia altaica
SUvnibriuin sagittatum
Thalictrum fuetidum
Thesiam aipinum

— liuoiihyllum
Trientalii europiea, p.
Valeriana celrica
Veronica alpiua
Viola blanda

lanccolata

YELLOW.

Linum flavum, p.
.Medicago prostata
Aletris aurea

— farinosa
Alv-ssum alpestre

" — murale
Anemone palmata, f. p.
AnthvUii vulnerziria
Arabis beUidifolia, p.
Cistus tuberaria, t p.
Glaux maritiraa
Gnaphal. Leontopod. p.
Hippocrepis comosa
HypochoEi-is Helvetica
Saxifraga tnutata
Geum ixjtentilloides, p.
Hypoxis erecta, p.
Seaum deficiens

— virens
Viola lutea

BLUE.
Arum triphyllum, p<
Asarum canadense
— europaenm
Gentiana adscendens, <•
Ajuga alpina

pyramidalis

reptans
Campanula rotiindi. p.
Globularia vulgaris pu.
Pulraonaria marit. 3. p.
Statice tartarica, p.
Veronica aphylla

— belUdioides

— chamajdrys

WHITE.

Convallaria latifolia
Cy'prepedium album s.
Dianthus caesius, tlo.albo

virginicus
Doronicum bellidias.
Galium glaucum
Erodium -chamaedryoi.
Geum virginianum, p.
Helonias asphodeloides
Hydrophyllum virgini.
Iris flexuosa, p.
Litbospermum virgini.
Lychnis, flo. albo
Melissa officinalis
Physalis aUcekengi
Pimpinella saiifraga
Potentilla rupestrts
Ranunculus alpestris
Rubus chamsmorus, p.

saxatilis
Sanicula europtca
Saxifraga aJugifoUa

— aizoon
Sempervivum hirtuin,p.
Seseli aristatum
Silene amcena, p.
Stellaria cerastoides, p.

scapigera, p.
Teucrium pyrenai. p.
Trifolium canescens
Trifolium pannonicum
repens macu.
YELLOW.
Achillea falcata

micrantha, p.

pubescens

santoUna
Agrimonia agrimonoid.

— nana
Alyssum tortuosum
Hieracium aurantiacum
TroUius americanxis

asiaticua

major
Arnica montana, p.
— scorpioides
Bupthalmnin grandifio.
Caltha palus, tlo. pleno
Cheirzuithus helvetic. p.
Crepis rigida
Cyprepedium calcecli.p.
Eiracaena boreali^,p.
Erysimum barb.doplesn.
Fumaria nobilis, 5. p.
Galeobdolon luteum

urbanum
Hemerocallis graminea
Hypochoeiis maculata

— radicata
Inula hirU
Medicago karstiensls

— marina
Ophiopogon japonicns,p
Globus luteus

Panax quinqucfolia, t.p
Smymium aureum
Thalictrum sibiricum'
Potentilla argentea

— a^traconica

— aurea

— obscura
tela
gua

Rhodiola rosea

Rubia tinctorum

Trigonella ruthenica, p.

Viola grandiflora lutea
BLUE.

Campanula azurea, 3-p.
_ alpina, 3

_ barbata, 3

WHITE,

^ Salvia indica

Ligusticum austriacum Sambucns ebulus

Lychnis vespertina

— — flo. pleno
Marrubium rulgare
Pimpinella peregrina
Rubus rosajfolius, p •
Saururus cemuus, t. p.
Sophora alba, p.
Spu^a trifoliata
Thalictrum rugosom

WHITE.

Lepidium latifoUum

YELLOW.

Achillea tomentosa
Astragalus alopecuroi.
Cineraria cordifolia
Clematis ochroleuca, p
Convallaria multiflora
— polvgonat

Ssmguisorba canadensis
Thalictrum' angustiibl.

— aguilegifol.

— — contortum

— comuti
Valeriana Fbu

YELLOW.

Agrimonia eupatoria
Asphodelus luieus, t.
Astragalus glycyphyUis
Centaurea phrygia
Ferula assafoetida, p.
■ '■ P-

Italic

ffo. pleno Laserpitium gallicum
Coreopsis angustifclia, p. Scabiosa alpina
Euphorbia cyparissias ! Sisymbrium strictisM.
Helonias luteus, p.
Hemerocallis fulva

— — flo. pleno
Hypericum hirbutimi, p.
Iris pallida
Mimulus luteus, p.
Paeohia sinen.alhple. 3.
Ranunculus acris fl.ple.
Sophora tinctoria, p.
Trollius europseus

BLUE. BLUE.

Aconitum uncinatum |lris germanica
Amsonia angustifoUa, p., Lathyms pisiformii
— latifol '^ ^'-' -

From 3i feet upmardt.

YELLOW.

Cineraria siberica
Datisca cannabina
Hedysarum aipinum
Heracleum angustifol.
Inula ^rmanica
Ligusticum levisticun<
Pastinaca opoponax
Peucedanum alsaficum.
Thalictrum lucidnm
— . maju.4

latifolia

betonicaef. 3 Aquilegia vulgaris

— saxatilis, 3

Dracocephalum austriac.
Phytenma spicata
Pulmonaria paniculata

flo. pleno
Campanula laciniata,3 j>
_ peresrrina, 3.
Clematis integrifolia

Viola calcarata

— grandiflora

— maculata

PURPLE.

Geranium pyrenaicum fGeranium aconiUfohum

_ ubericum - ,angulatura

Houstonia coerulea, p. Ins pensylvanica

Iris virginica Lithosperrnum fruUcos.

Orobus lathyroides, p. Salvia phlomoides

Statice Umonium '^ Symphytum caeruleum

Veronica latifoUa Veromca lacimato
Viola montana
— palustris

PURPLE.

Anthemis montana, p- | AquUegia viscosa
Aristolochia serpenta- p. Aristolochia lonja

hvpoglottii Astragalus monspesnlan

PURPLE.
Aristolochia rotundata
Cnicas monspesulanu.p

Podalyria australis, p.
Vicia'casstibica

BLUE.

Aconitum napellus

— pyramidale
Iris sambocina
Podalvria lupinoides, p,
Symphytum asperrim.

Astragalu
Betonica hirsuta
Geum reptans, p.
Iris pumila
Sedum villosum

— hybridura
Teucrium chamaedrys
Moerhingia muscosa
Thalictrum aipinum

I Dianthus plumanus

Geranium phaeum

Lychnis flos. cucuU

_ flo. pleno
Phlomis alpina
Phlox ovata, p.
Scrophularia betomcif.
: Stacnys circinata, p.

Hesp. matron, flo.pl.pur. ,y<;'^,^";;;j5';^^
Lychnis "' ' ■""' """^

diuma
flo. pleno

Salvia viscosa

Symphytum officinale

Anchusa angustifoUa ,

Medicago sativa

PURPLE.

Iris livida

Pccor.ia ]«re.grina, 3
Veratrum nigrum
I.unaria rediviva
ThaUctrum purpuras.

PURPLE.

Coronilla varia, 3
Galega officinalis, 3
Hesperis matronalis
Phlomis tuberosa

SK 3

870

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

PERENNIAL BORDER- FLOWERS. —JUNE — confmwed.

, PURPLE.

Verbascura myconi, p.
Linaria cymbalaria

— fol. variegatis

— pilosum

— purpureum
VARIEGATED.

Asperula cjTianchia
Iris variegata
— pumila variegata, J3
Saxitraga aii4rosacea
Veronica montana

GREEN.

Androsace vllJosa,p.

BROWN.
Medeola virginica, p.

Height from 0 to g of a ft. From'i of afoot to Ijifboi. From ^ifoot to 2^ feet. From ^feet to Z^fiet. From 3i/erf upwards.

I PURPLE.

Thymus vulgaris
Vicia cracca
Viola palmata, p.

VARIEGATED.

Dianthus barbatus

— hortense
Geranium pratense

— striatum
Iris fetidissima, p.

— fol. varieg.

— versicolor
Lotus maritimus

GREEN.
Astragalus virescens
Euphorbia verrucosa
(iundella Toumefortii,p.
Hydrastis canadensis

BROWN.

VARIEGATED.
Apocynum androsace. p.
Heraclcum austriacum
Iris aphylla

— squalens

— susiana

GREEN.

Heracleum sibericum
Saxifraga pennsylvanica

VARIEGATED.

JULY.-

VARIEGATED.

Asclepias varicgataj'^^p,

GREEN.

Humulus lupulus
Smilax herbacea, p.

RED.

Kpilobium alpinum
Geranium sanguineum
Anemone valdensis, p.
Dianthus hyssopifolius
Phlox stolonifera, p.
Saxifraga autumnalis
Silene saxatilis

saxifraga

vallesia
Bartsia coccinea
Satyrium repens, p.
Androsace camea, p.
Circaea alpina
Veronica fruticulosa
\chillea asplenifolia, p.
Phlox amaena, t.

WHITE.

Asperula tinctoria, 3
Dianthus coUinus
Dryas octopetala, p.
Ulicebrum paronych.,p.
Rubia cordifolia
Scuttellaria alpina
Achillea decumbens

— alpina

— ptarmica

— — flo.ple.
Alchemilla pentaphylla
."inemone cemua, p.
Vnthemis nob., flo. plen.
Arenaria baliarica, t. p.

- peploides

- saxatilis
ialax cordifolia, p.
Welanthium laetum
Pamassia palustris
Prunella CTandiflora, p.
Sedum album

dasyphyllum
Sempervivum sediforme
Silene alpestris

— rupestris
Tofieldia palustris

TELLOW.

Inula ensifolia

Alchemilla alpina
lAlyssum montanum
Unaria vulgaris

— peloria
jCoronilla minima
\Erigeron tuberosum

'y«erii foptida
— lucida
radiata
fKnothera pumila, 3. p.
Potentilla tridentata
Santolin.-i anthemoides
.Saxiiraga aizoides

— nioschata
Sedum qnadrifidum

rupestre

=-, w~, ,. sexangnlare
^ibbaldia procumbens
soljdago cambrica

RED.

Arum virginlcum
Astragulus onobrychis
Centaurea sibirica
Dianthus hybridus
Melittis melissophyllure
Mentha odorata
Nepeta nepetella
Origanum hybridum
Polygonum erectum
Saxifraga geum
Statice flexuosa, p.
Spigelia marylandica
Triosteum perfoUat. p.
Circsea alpina

— lutetiana
Ononis spinosa rub.
Semjjervi\'um tectorum
Achillea montana

— rosea

— tanacetifolia
WHITE.

Achillea setacea, p.
.— pentaphylla
— toraentosa

Arnica bellidiastrum, p.

Asperugo laevigata

Athamanta cretensis

Cyprepedium canad. p.
Doromcum altaicum
Galium boreale

rubioides
Gypsophilla panicula.p
Monarda rugosa, p.
Nepeta italica
Ononis spinosa alba
Onosma simplisissima, t
Origanum creticum, t.
Orobus albus

angustifoUus, f.
Salvia mollis
Scuttellaria lupulina, p.
Sedum populifolium
Slum sisarum
Spiraea ulmaria, flo.plen.
Statice speciosa, p.
Telephium imperati
Teucrium montanum
Tradesc.virgin.fl. albo,p,
Trifolinm montanum

YELLOW.
Achillea aurea
Aconitum anthora, p.
Alyssum montanum
A nemone patens, p.
Anthemis tinctoria
Arum italicum

RED.

Betonica grandiflora
Carduus cyanoides
Dianthus super, flo. rub.
Lathyrus tuberosus
Phlomis herba venti
Sanguisorba media
Dianthus cai-yophyllus,<.
Trifolium rubens
Veronica flo. incamato

WHITE.

Achillea atrata

herborata
impatiens

Cnicus tartaricus, p.

Dianthus superbus

Eryngium bourgati
campestre

RED.
Arundo, donax fol. var.
Asclepias amcena, 3. p.
Dictamn. albus, flo ruD
Lychnis chalcedonica
Monarda didyma
Phlox glaberfima, p.

— intermedia

— paniculata

WHITE.

Acanthus mollis, p.

— — lusitanicus
Achillea magna
Asclepias nivea, p.
Campan. persicif alb. pi
Dictamnus albus, 3
Laserpitium latifoUum

YELLOW.

Achillea abrotonifol. p.
Antirrhinum gensitifol.
Astragalus cicer
Coronilla coronata
Crepis albida
— sibirica
^ Cucubalus otites

r, ^. , ■ I Galium vemum

Bupthalraumcordifol.p. Gentianafulva n

t^IUCUS SPinOSUS. T). (innna^^ ^„. '

Astragalus microphyl. p.
Betonica alopecurur

Eupatorium peffoliatum Lycopus europnsus
Laserpitium angustifol. Lysimachia ephemerum
Ivepidum grammifolium Marrub. candidissira.i.n.
L^chn. chalcedon.fl.albo Partheniumintegrif.i.p.
Nepeta cataria i Phlox paniculata, flo alb.

— melisssefolia, p. Podalyriaalba
Polygonum divaricatum Polygonum undulatura
Sanicula canadensis
Sedum telephium album

— — major album
Selinum austrxacum
Sesseli montanum
Sison canadense
Solanum tuberosum
Spiraea filipendula

— lobata, p.

— ulmaria

— — flo. pleno.
Stachys cretica
Stipa pennata
Veromca maritim.fl.albo

spinosus, p. " I Gnnnera perpen'sa. t.
rv3^^f'T1 ,K, iHieraciurSly'^ttS.
Cyin-ep.calc.fol.glab.3.p. _ porrifolium
Hedysarum saxatile ^ Inula crythmifolia,"
Lysimachia ciliata

— quadrifolia
n? .T quadriflora
Qi-nothera undulata
Phaca alpina
Ranunculus cassubicns
Rudbeckia hirta, p.
Scorzonera graminifol.
Senecio abrotanifolia
Stachys maritima
Iris fulva
Thapsia asclepium

— garganica

— vii/ota

Uyoseris fretida

— lucida

— radiata
Inula bubonium, t,

mariana -

montana

suaveolens
Lotus cytissoides
Lysimachia bulbifera
_ — thjTsiflor
Peganum harmala, t.
Pei.thorum sedoides
Phaca rigida
Phy5alispensylTanica,B.
Potentilla bifurca

YELLOW.

Aconitum lycoctonum

— ochroleucum
Astragalus christianus
Erigeron carolinianu. i

Lysimachia vulgaris
Salvia glutinosa
Scorzonera hispanica
Chelone formosa, t. p.

RED.

Arundo donax
Convolvulvus soldanell.*.
Delphinum puniceum,p.
Epilobium hirsutum
— latifoUum
Phaca boetica
Phlox maculata, p.
Eupatorium cannabui.

WHITE.

Aconitum album
Clematis alpina, p.
Eupatorium altissimum
Galega orientalis, p.

— virginlana, p.
Kitaibelia vitifolia, p.
Lathyrus palustris, p.
^ycopus exaltatus
^erbena carolineana

YELLOW.

Aconitum pyrenaicum

— septentrionale
Agrimonia odorata
Aralea nudicaulis, p.

— racemosa
Astragalus galegiformis
Centaurea glastifolia
Cimicifiiga fcEtida, p.
Cineraria gigantea
^ .— glauca
Cmcus cemuus

oleraceus
Gentiana lutea, p.
Helianthus pubescens

— strumosus, p.
Inula helenium

Iris ochroleuca, p.
Lupinus nootkatens. 3.p.
Pofymnia canadensis
Senecio doria

Book II. BORDER- FLOWERS.

PERENNIAL BORDER- FLOWERS. —JULY— con^mu^d.

871

BLUE,
icabiosa columbaria, p.
Linaria repens
ampanula caxpatica, p.

— puinila, t.
Frankenea hii^uta
Ljentiana punctata, p.

— purjiurea
Klobularia nudicaulU
Prunella grandiflora, p.

— nyssoiiifolia

sisTnibrium anceps, p.

Veronica multiticui, t.

- orientalis
Viola cenesia, p.

— cuculata

HtightfromO to J ofaft.Frotniofafootto lifoot. From IJ Jbol to 2.i/erf.

VELLOW.

PURPLE.

Aster alpinus, 3. p.
Geranium maculatum
Anthyllis men tana
Linaria triomithophor./".
Dracocephal. per^. t. p.
Hedysarum obscurum
sedum teleph.purp.min,
Serratula alpina, p.
Thymus seipilium, p.

— — cit. oaore
Trifolium alpinum
Veronica allionii
Astragalus uralensie, p.
;>tati9e retioulata

TELLOW.

Fotentilla painsylvanica

— tridentata
Salvia austriaca
Santolina anthemoides
Scuttellaria orientaljs, p.
Sedum reflexura
Senecio doronicum
Sisyrin. iridioid. fl . lut. p.
Symphytum tuberosum
Tagetes lucida, p.
Thalictrum dioicuna
Valantia glabra
Valeriana rutheniea
Veratrum luteum
L^Tilaria lanceolata, p.

BLUE.

Anchusa sempervirens

Campanula aUiarisefolp.

— carpatica

— grandiflora

— nitida, p.

— patula
Centaurea montana
Cynoglossum pict. t. p.
Deljihinium grandiflor.
Dracocephal urn

grandiflonun
Erigeron alpinum
(ientiana cruciata, 3. p.

— macrophvlla

— septemfida
Geranium ibericum

— reflexum

— STlvatjcum

— — flo. pie.
Gratlola officinalis
Hemerocal lis carulea, p.
Linum alpinum
Mimuhis alatus, p.
Monarda ciliata, i.
Phjteuma campanul. t.

— henusphoerica
Scabiosa graininifolia
Scutellaria galericulata
Sisyrinchiuin berb. t. p.

— iridioides

Statice latifolia, p.
Tradescantia virginica
Veronica austriaca

— Candida

— hybrida

— pinnata
PURPLE.

Ancbusa officinalis

^fxttoStfitt.

BLUE.
Astragalus ulieinos. ».
Belphin.grandi. fl. pi. 3.
— urccolatiun, 3.
Eryngium alpinum
Hyssopus officinalis
Lychnis chalced. fl. pL p.
Nepeta violacea
Salvia grandiflora

Astragalus sulcatus
Campanula persicifol

.pleno
ifoides

From 3i feet upwarit.

VARIEGATED.

Geranium lancastrense

- argenteum
[risgranunea
Gnaphaliom alpinum

— dioicum

Gypsophilla panicxilata

— saxi&agra
GREEX.

Thymus montanus
Toneldia pubens
BROWN.

Astragalus tenuifoliiis,p.
Betonica stricta
Carduus pycnocephalus
Centaur ea" rhapontica

— scabiosa
Dodartia orientalis, p.
Trifolium lupinaster
Erigeron purpureum
Geranium macrorhizum

— palustre
Melissa grandiflora
Melittis grandiflora
Pisum maritimum
Sedum anacampsaros

— glaucum
Teucrium hircanicnm, i.
Tradesc. virg. flo. pur. p.
Trifolium alpestte
Mimiilus ringens, p«
Mitella nuda
Silene longiflora
Statice reticulata
Astragalus nralensis, p.
Bartsia pallida, p.
Betonica orientalis

VARIEGATED.

GREEV.

Melanthiom ■vii^nic p.
Poterium sanguisorba
BROWN.

Sonchns sibiricus
Veronica incisa

— maritima

— spicata

— teucrium
Lobelia siphilitica, t. p.

BLUE. BLUE.

Asclepia* slbirica, 3. Asclepias nigra, n
Aconitutn volubile
Delphin. alatum, 3. j>
azureimi,3.
— flo. pleno, 3.
„ , ^ . — intermed. p.

Delphin. exaltatimi, 3.p. Echlnops sphaerocephal,
,„. ^.,„ Gly cyrrhiza echmata, p.

Echinops ritro
Eryngium amethystin.
Iris halophylla
Salvia verti'cUlata
Veronica sibirica
Linum perenne

PURPLE.

Actsea racemosa

Cacalia alpina

Centaurea tartarica
I Cnicus caucasicus, p.
— heterophyllus
I — camic^cus, p.
I Monarda cUnopodia
I Salvia pratensis
! Scrophularia betonictfol.

Scuttellaria altissima, p.

Sedum telephi. pur. maj.
jStachys alpina, p.

Lycopus virsinious
I Penstemon tevigata, p.
I — pubescens

! Saponaria officinia. 3.
I — — flo. plen. 3.

Scabiosa arvensis

Verbena yflfi/'iTii^ijq

VARIEGATED. |
Diaiith. caryophyllus,<.3.
Iris spuria
Sessili glaucum
Sisyrinchum striatum,;).
Stachjs lanata, p.

GREEN.
Poterium hybridum

I BROWN.

; Scrophularia auricul. /.

I — orientalis

PURPLE.

Cnicus centauroides, p.
Leonorus cardiaca
Monarda fistulosa

— purpurea
Verbasc pbcenioe«m, p.

VARIEGATED.

^ - gidbra
Sonchus plumieri
Sophora australis

Vicia sylvatica

PURPLE,

Aconitum
Cnicus canus, p,
Eupatorium ]Mirpuiea
Lythrum salicaria
Prenanthes purpurea
Serratula coronata
Phytolacca decandra, p.

VARIEGATED.
[Cynanchum mdupeliac

GREEN.

Euphorbia palustris

BROWN.

Arum dracunculus
Verbascum fierrugin. p.

-AUGUST.

RED.
Saoseviera oomea, p.

RED.
Artemisia
Nepeta pannonica
Statice oleifolia, t.
Atbamanta condensata
Veronica marit. fl Jncar.

I RED. I

Dianth. carthusianorum
Epilobium angustissim.

' Asclepias incamata, 3.p.

; Athamanta siberica

, Gypaophillaperfoliata,p.

3K4

RED.

Artemisia vulgaris
Dioscoria verticillata,<.p

_ villosa, t.
Lobelia cardinalis, 3.
Phlox undulata 3. p.
Clematis crispa, p.
Malva alcea

— moschata '

RED.

I Althaea narbonensis
Carduus defloratus
Centaurea centaurium

I Cnicus ciliatus, p.
Glycine apios, p.
Phlox decossata, 3. p.
Tripsacura daotvloid,<.p.

I Lathius beteiophyUas

872

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

IIL

PERENNIAL BORDER- FLOWERS. — AV GUST -^continued.

HeiglUfrom 0 to J of a ft. From J of a foot to l^foot. From IJ foot to 2i feet.

WHITE. .

Nepeta incana, p."
fiilene matitima
Achillea cristata
Prenanthes alba
Sedum forsterianum
Sisymbrium barbarea
Thymus marschalli, t. p.

YKLLOW.

SantoUna maritima '
Prunella pensyl vanica,j),
Saxifraga ceespitosa

— hirculis
Sisymbrium pyrenjiicum

BLUE.

Mentha pulegium
Viola mirabilis

WHITE.

Achillea cretica, p.

— macrophylla

— squarrosa, p.
Arenariagrandiflora, p.
Artemisia campestris

— maritima

— santonica
, — sericea
Astrantia minor, ».
Athamantia rigida
Cacalia hastata
Conyza linifolia, p.
Erigeron uniflorum
Eupatorium rotundifol.
Gratiola virginica

— nepeta ,
Origanum heracleol
Phlox suaveol. fol. var. p.
Selinum chabraei
Thymus zygis
Gnaphal. raargar. 5. p,

YELLOW.
Anthericum ossifragum
Artemisia glacialls
Bupthalmum maritim.

— salicifol.

Coreopsis minima, p.
Inula oculus christi

— pro\inciaUs

— squarrosa
Podalyria tinctoria, p.
Rhexia, virginica
Sedum aizoon
Sideritis scordioides
Silene chlorsfolia
Solidapo humilis
Teucrium canadense

— scorodonia
BLUE.
Artemisia austriaca
Aster linarifolius, p.
Conyza asteroides, p.
Erynpum maritimum
Gentiana asclepedia, p.

— bavarica
Phyteuma orbicularis, p.
Salvia forskoehlU

— lyrata
Scabiosa caucasica, t. p.
Veronica incana
Viola mirabilis, p.

PURPLE.

WHITE.

Artemisia dracunculus
Aster linifolius

— umbellatus
Athamanta libanotis
Leonorus crispus
Phlox suaveolens, p.
Scabiosa leucantha
Scutellaria peregrina, t.
Selinum curvifoUum
Sium rigidum, p.

From2ifeetto3^feet. From 5^ feet upwards.

WHITE.

Acanthus spinosus, p.

WHITE.

Aconitum variegat
Centaurea cineraria" I Bocconia cordata
Eupatorium hyssopifol. | Cacalia suaveolens
Jtf arrubium peregrinum Campan. latifol. alb. p.

Polygonum virgiiuanum

VARIEGATED.

YELLOW.

Achillea ageratum, p.

— upatorium
Inula salicifolia
Prenanthes altissima, p.
Solanum quercifolium
Solidago ambigua

— bicolor

— C!£sia

— canadensis

— integrifolia
Asclepias tul^rosa, t, 5.

BLUE.

Aster acris

— sstiviis

— cordifolius, p.

— tardiflorus, p.
Glycyrrhiza asperima, p.
Hedysarum violaceum
Hyssopus lopanthus, p.
Lupinus perennis
Nepeta tuberosa
Scabiosa sylvatica

PURPLE.
Aster amellus
Lythrum triflorum, p.

— verticillatum
Mentha crispa, t.

— piperita

— viridis

VARIEGATED. VARIEGATED.

Astrantia camiolica, t. p,
Dracocephalum dentic.
Gypsophilla altissima

— repens
BROWN. BROWN.

Artemisia rupestris Achillea ochroleuca

— spicata
Swertia perenis

—SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER.

Phlox Carolina,
Saxifraga viscosa

YELLOW.

Artemisia pontica
Balsamita virgata

— vulgaris
Chrysocoma biflora
Coreopsis aurea, p.

— verticillata
Erigeron carlinianum,
Hieracium sabaudum

— umbellatum
^thonera fruticosa, p,
Solidago aspera

— odora
Tanacetum balsamita

BLUE.

Anchusa undulata
Campanula verticill. p.
Clematis cylindrica
CoUinsonia canadensis
Eryngium pljmum
Salvia sylvestris ,
Verbena urticifolia

Asclepias purpurasc. p.
Aster rigiaus
Eupatorium maculatunc
Lathyrus sylvestris
Liatris squarrosa, p.
Lythrum virgatum
Scrophularia scrodon, d.

persicif. fl. alb. pi
Chelone glabra
Clematis angustifoUa
Epilob. august, flo. alb.
Eupator. a^ratoid. p.
Nepaea leevis

— glabra
Veratrum album, p..
Veronica virginica

VARIEGATED.

Antirrhinu. monspessul.
Astrantia major, p.
Stachys germanica

BROWN.

Helianth. atro-rub^^s, p.

YELLOW.

Bupthalmum helianth.
Cacalia saracenica
Cassia marilandica, t. p.
Clematis vioma, p. .
Coreopsis procera
— tripteris
Helianthus altissimus
Oenothera missour. p.
Rudbeckia digitata

— fulgida

— laciniata
Silphium asteriscus

— connatum

— lara in latum

— perfoliatum
Solidago arguta

BLUE.
Aconitum japonicuni
Asclepias syriaca
Aster novi befgii
Campan. latifol. cter. p.

— p\Tamidalis,p.

— trachelium

— — fl. ciEr. pi. 3.
Lavatera thuringiaca

PURPLE.
Aster concolor
Chelone obliqua, p.

— — major
Clematis purpurea
Epilobium angustifoli.p
Hedysarum ccinaden. p.
Lathyrus latifolius

— grandiflorus
Liatris scariosa, p.
Rudljeckia purpurea, 3.
Cacalia atriplicifolia

VARIEGATED.
Campanula versicol. p.
Erigeron cemadense

YELLOW.

RED.

WHITE.
Eupatorium sessilifi>l.

YELLOW.

Chrysocoma villosa,
Solidago mexicema

..» RED.

Lobelia splendens, t.S.p.
Boltonia asteroides

WHITE.

Aster corjmbosus

— diffusus

— divaricatus

— linifolius

— macrophyllus

— pendulus
Scabiosa gramuntia

YELLOW.

Chrysocoma linosyris"

Euphorbia emarginata

BED.
Lobelia fulgens, t. 3.

WHITE.
Artemisia japonica
Aster dumosus

ipultiflorus

YELLOW.

Helianthus divaricat. p.
Scolvmus hispanicus
Solidago odora
Tetragonotheca heli. p.

RED.

Ater salicifolius;
(ilycine monoica, p.
Phloi pyramidalis

WHITE.
Aster ericoides

— tenuifolius
Eupatorium aromatic.

YELLOW.

Coreopsis altemifolia

— ■ ami)lexicaulis
Helenium autumnale,p.

— pubescens
Helianthus decapitalus

— giganteus

— multiflorus

— — flo. pleno

— tuberosus
Poljrmnia uvedalia
Sohdago Iffivigata

— lanceolata

— petiolaris

— procera

— sempervirens

— serotina

Book II. BORDER-FLOWERS. 873

PERENNIAL BORDER. FLOWERS. — SEPT. AND OCT. — cordiriued.

BLUE

Gentiana ciliata, t

Heif,'IU JromOtoltifa ft. Fromlofafoat toliJoot. From l^foot to 2ifcet. | From 2.^ feet toS^feet. , From Sifett

uptBonU.

BLUE.
Gentiana catesbaei, p.

pneumonanthe Scabiosa succisa

PURPLE.
Aster hyssovifolJiis

— latifolius
Liatrispumila, p.
Phlox suffmticosa

I BLUE.

'Aster IietIs

I — sibericus

I — spectabilU

Gentiana saponaria, p.

Plumbago europsea, p.

I PURPLE.

Sal via napifoUa [ Aster grandiflorus

Serratulaquinquefol.p. I — radula

Hyssopus nepetoides, p
Ijatris heterophyllayp.
— pilosus
I — spicata

BLUE.

Aster paludosus

— tradescanti

— undulatus, p.
Dracocephal. rii^ini. p.

PURPLE.

BLUE.
Aster foUosus

— fra^IJs

— paniculatns

— puniceus

— — elalior
PURPLE.

Aster alti^slmus

— junceos

— mutabilis

— novae angliae

— spurius
Liatris elegans, t.

6490. Projxigation of perennial herbaceous plants. All the modes of propagation, ex-
cepting such as are applicable only to woody plants, may occasionally be adopted ; but
the most general practice is by dividing the root, by suckers or offsets, and by seed ; the
other modes are by cuttings of the stalks, shoots, or roots, and by layers.

6491. By dividing the root. This mode is applicable to nine tenths of hardy herba-
ceous plants. The plant may either be taken up, divided with the knife, and a portion
replanted to continue the species in the spot allotted to it ; or, the earth may be partially
removed, and part of the roots and crown cut off to make new plants. The sections
may, if well rooted, be planted at once where they are to remain and flower, or, what is
preferable, they may be planted for one season in nursing-beds in the reserve-garden,
and prevented from flowering that season by pinching off the flower-buds as they appear.
The common season for performing the operation is spring, when the plant is beginning
to push, or in summer or autumn immediately after it has flowered. Tlie latter is ge-
nerally the preferable period, unless the plant flowers very late, in \\hich case the sections
will not have sufficient time to form roots for their support during winter.

6492. By suckers or offsets. This mode is also applicable to nine tenths of common
herbaceous plants ; the best time for removing them is in spring, or early in summer,
after the plant has begun to grow. Plant them in the nursing-department, and pinch off
their flower-buds, that they may flower strongly next season when removed to their final
destination.

6493. By seed. This mode is applicable to all the single-flowering kinds, but is only
adopted with a few species, which are otherwise difficultly multiplied. Collect the seed
from the flowers which expanded first, as being generally the strongest. If it is ripe
before August, it may be sown the same season, but if otherwise, it vdll be preferable to
defer sowing till the following spring. Sow on beds of light earth, thinly covering ac-
cording to the size of the seed, and prick out the plants once or twice according to their
strength, size, or weakness, so as they may be fit to remove to their final destination in
August or September. They will flower strongly the following year, and probably may
show some new varieties.

6494. By cuttings from the side-shoots or flower-stems. This mode is applicable to a
number of the more delicate and double- flowering herbaceous plants, as to scarlet and
pink lychnis, double rockets white and yellow, some hollyhocks, and a variety ^f others ;
but more to biennials and annuals than to perennials. The cuttings may be taken off at
any time when the shoots are tender and properly prepared, and planted in sandy loam
in a warm situation, but shaded and covered with a hand-glass. Afterwards transplant
them in the nursery-department, and again the same season where they are finally to re-
main. They will blow freely the summer following.

6495. By cuttings from tlie root-shoots. This is applicable to some sorts which do not
multiply fast at the root, or whose rooted stolones or suckers do not make handsome
plants ; as to some species of alyssum, statice, silene, &c. The early part of summer is,
in general, the most fitting season for performing the operation ; plant in sandy loam
under a hand-glass, and shade in tlie sunny part of the day ; then transplant in the nur-
serj' department for a few weeks, when the strongest plants will show themselves, and
may be removed in September to their final destination. They will blow strongly next
year.

6496. By cuttings of jointed root-shoots or pipings. This is chiefly applicable to the di-
anthus tribe, saponaria, the striped grass, or any other grasses or reedy plants. Proceed
as in piping pinks or carnations (6412.) ; but no bottom heat will be required for the sorts
that come under this section.

6497. By cuttings from the roots. This is strictly applicable only to such plants as
form buds on their roots, as to most of the rubiacea, to the mints, epilobiums, &Cc
About midsummer is the earliest period at which the creeping roots are generally fit for
this purpose ; but with some others, as galium, osmunda, &c. it may be done in springy

874

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

Plant the cuttings in the shade, and afterwards transplant and treat them like cuttings
from the flower-stalks or root-shoots.

6498. By layers. Such plants as cannot easily be propagated by any of the foregoing
modes may be increased by layers ; such as the carnation, some species of salvia, sibbal-
dia, sibthorpia, some silcnes, &c. Commence the operation when the plant begins to
flower, and when the layers are rooted, treat them as directed for pipings.

6499. General culture of fibrous-rooted herbaceous Jlowers. Autumn, after the plant
has done flowering, or spring, when it has begun to grow, as has been already observed
(6189.), are the seasons for planting or transplanting. The general culture is, stirring
the soil ; renewing it according to the kind of plant (6188.) ; taking up overgrown plants,
reducing them, and replanting (6190.); sticking, pruning, trimming, removing all use-
less, decayed, injured, or diseased parts ; and supplying blanks. (6192.) The general
management consists in attending to order and neatness. (6201.'!

SuBSECT. 2. Sj)ecies and Varieties of bulbous-rooted Border-Flowers.
6500. BULBOUS-ROOTED BORDER-FLOWERS. — MARCH.

Height from 0 to J of aft. From 'i of a foot to l^foot From li fool to 2i feet.

RED.

Cyclamen coum,* p,

WHITE.
l>eucojum vemum
Erythr. dens can. fl.al.p.

RED.

Hyacinthus orientalis

WHITE.
Scilla bifolia flo. albo. p.

Fumarla bulbosa

— cava
Galanthus nivalis, Feb. I
— flo. ]>leno I
YELLOW. j YELLOW.

Helleborus hyemal. Jan. Helleborus hyenialis
Tulipa suaveolens, p. Narcissus pseudo narcis.

— flo. pleno Tulipa sylvestris

Crocus vemus

Erythronium dens can.p.
Ixia bulbocodium
VARIEGATED.

BLUE.

Scilla bifolia, p.
PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

Allium chamas-moly

RED.
WHITE.

BLUE.
PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

From U^feet to 5^ feet.

WHITE.
Sangttinaria canaden. p

YELLOW.

Narcissus minor

BLUE.
Bulbocodium rem. <. p.

VARIEGATED.

'Fritillaria meleagris
Iris persica

GREEN.

RED.

Hyacinth orient, fl.eam

WHITE.

Hyacinthus orient.fl.alb.
Narcissus biflorus
Sanguinaria canadens. p.

YELLOW.
I Narcissus bicolor
— major

BLUE.

Scilla nonscripta

— amcena, p.

— vema
PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

GREEN.

Ornjthogalum nutans
— umbellat.

APRIL.

RED.

YELLOW.

Omithogalum stachy.

PURPLE.

Allium inodorum
VARIEGATED.

MAY.

RED.

Muscari botryoi. fl. caer

WHITE.
Narcissus tenuifolius

— triandrus
Muscari botryoi. fl. alb.
TrilUum grandiflorum

YELLOW.

Narcissus jonquilla

RED. I KED.

Lilium bulbifer. ard. p. Lilium concolor, t. p.

bulbocouiu

WHITE

Allium ursinum
— romanus
Narcissus anpustifolius
onentalis

— fl. pleno
poetJoHs

— fl- pleno
YELLOW.

Narcissus bulbocodium

— compressus

— incomparabil.

— odorus

— orientalis bio.

WHITE.

i'ELLOW.

— trilotma

RED.
WHITE.

BLUE.
PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

From S^feet vprvards

RED.
WHITE.

BLUE.
PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

PURPLE.
VARIEGATED.

RED.
FritiUaria latifolia

— imperialis

— — flo. pleno

— — major
WHITE.

YELLOW.

Fritillaria lat. flo. lut.

— fol. variegatis
BLUE.

PURPLE.
VARIEGATED.

RED.
WHITE.

RED.
WHITE.

Book II.

BORDER-FLOWERS.

875

BULBOUS-ROOTED BORDER-FLOWERS. — MAY — con/mtte^/.

Heif:/Ufro,nOtoiofaJ}

From i of a foot lo l^foot

Froml^footto'i^fat.

1 Fro»n2i/«</o34/«rf.

Fro,n 3A/«< u,„rard*.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Muscaribot>Toia.com.

Scilla campanulata, p.

Hyacinth, botryoid. caer

— — nionstros.

— lusitanica

— flo.palliao,l.

— — racemos.

Scilla italica

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Fritillaria |.ersica

— racemosa

— pyrenaica
Allium angulosum

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Anenio. coron. flo. pleno

Anemone coronaria
Oxalis acetosella

Tulipa f^neriana

Allium carinatum

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

aiuscari moschatura

Omithogalum striat. p.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

frillium cemuum, p.

— erettum

— sessile

TIJNF

RED.

RED.

Allium nutans
Orchis conopsea

RED.

Allium descendens

— sphserocephalon
Gladiolus communis, p.
Lilium pomponiiim

— — flo. coccineo
Gladiolus byzantinus, p.

RED.

RED.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE

Ftoftaria cucuUaria, p.

Allium sativum

Allium canadense

Amarjllis atamasco, t.

— senescens
Leucojum sestlvum
Orchis bifolia
Pancratium illyricum, p.
SciUaliliohyaci.fl.ple.
— lil.hvacin. fl. alb.

GiadioI.bv/ant.flo.al.p.

— communis
Omithogalum pyramid.

YELLOW.

Y'ELLOW.

YELLOW.

yELLO\N'.

YELLOW.

Erith.den.can.fl.fla.p.

Allium moly
Lilium pomiwn. fl. lut.
— bulbiferum, t. p.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Scilla sibirica

Hyacinthus serotinus

Iris xiphium

ScUla Ulio-hyacinthus

Iris lyphioides

— peruviana

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Allium ascalonicum

Allium roseum

— schoenoprasum

Orcliis militaris

OiaUs violacea, t. p.

— pyramidalis
Oxalis violacea, p.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Ranunculus asiaticus

Orchis maculata

Omithogalum pyrenaic.

GREEN.

GREEN.

AUium victorialis
Ophrys ovata

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

Ophrys apifera

— muscifera

Omithogalum uniHor. t.

JULY.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Amaryllis belladonn. p.

RED.

RED.

■WHITE.

V/HITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Allium tartaricum

Allium ampeloprasium

AUium nigrum

Lilium candidum

— tricoccum

Pancratium maritim. p.

- -flo. pleno

OmiQiogalum comos. p.

_ -flo. vMiegat.
— inartag. flo. alb.

YELLOW.

Y'ELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Oralis comiculata, p.

Allium flavum

Allium obliquum

Lilium tipinum

— stricta

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Allium lineare

Allium paniculatum

Lilium martagon

_ — flo. pleno
Allium scorodoprasum

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.
A TT/"* TTonn c

VARIEGATED.

EPTEMBER,

BED.

VARIEGATED.
LiUum candid, fl. stria.
_ martag. fl. mac.

OPTOBER.

VARIEGATED.

RED.

AUUrUOl, a

BED.

\J \^ A. V/ J-F J-/ X V«

RED.

RED.

Colchic. autumn, ru. p.
— — flo. pleno

Cyclamen eoropeeum

_ — fol.varieg.

Cyclamen europceum, p.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Colchic. autum. fl. al. p.

Cyclamen europ. fl. aL p.

Cvclam. europ. fl. alb. p.

Leucojum autumnale

Leucojum autunuiale

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

BLUE.

Lilium catesbaei, p.
— uniflorum
BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Lilium canadense, p.
_ _ penduliflor.
_ _ superbum
_ _ i>ensylvanic.

Crocus autunmalis

Crocus autumnalis

_ _ pliiladelphic.

— sati\-us

— sativus

VARIEGATED.

~

- -

Colchi. autum. fl. var. p.
[«cilla autumnalis

8^6, PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

6501. Propagation of bulbous-rooted Jlowers. By offsets or by seed ; the whole, with
the exception of the cyclamen, and one or two others, are propagated by offsets, which
are to be taken off when the plant is in a state of rest, which happens in most sorts after
it has done flowering ; afterwards they are to be planted in a nursery-bed for one year,
and where they are finally to remain the year following. Autumnal-flowering bulbs are not
in a state of rest till the beginning of the following summer : as the colchicum, autumnal-
flowering crocuses, amaryllis lutea, and a few others. These, therefore, are to be taken
up when their leaves begin to decay early in summer, their offsets separated and planted
in the nursery-department, and the parent bulbs replaced in a month or six weeks, in
order that they may have time to establish themselves and flower before winter.

6502. General culture and management. Bulbous-rooted flowers differ from others in
requiring in their cultivated state to be frequently taken up and replanted. Fibrous-
rooted plants which grow much at the root, require this occasionally ; but almost all
bulbs frequently. The reasons are, that in deeply comminuted rich ground, most sorts,
but especially those which form their new bulbs beside the others, multiply so fast that the
bulbs become crowded, small, and unfit to send up strong flowers ; that many sorts, as
in narcissus, tulip, &c. which form their new bulbs under the old one, send down their
bulbs at last so deep that they at first come up weakly, and afterwards cease to appear at
all, as in the bulbous-rooted irises, colchicum,'&c. ; and that some, on the contrary,
which form their new bulbs over the old ones, send them up at last above the surface, as
in crocus, gladiolus, &c. ; and are consequently killed by the frost or drought. Hence
the finer bulbs of florists require to be taken up every year, and all the border-bulbs at
least every three or four years. The time to do this is when the plant has flowered &im\.
the leaves have begun to decay. No bulb should be taken up for any purpose, or injured
in its growth in any way while the leaves are green ; for it should ever be remembered
by gardeners, that it is the leaves which bring the root to maturity and prepare it for
flowering the following year. If these are injured or cut off, or if the plant is trans-
planted, unless with such a ball as not to touch any of its fibres while in a growing state,
the bulb will not recover so as to be able to flower for at least one year, and probably two
or three. The time for keeping bulbs out of ground depends on their habits as to flower-
ing. The object is to heal the wounds made by removing the offsets, and perhaps by
setting the bulb more completely in a state of rest, to render it more excitable when
planted. A month will in general be sufficient for this purpose, and more cannot be
allowed with safety to the autumnal-flowering bulbs : more than three months is more
likely to be injurious than useful to most sorts, though hyacinths, and other bulbs which
form articles of general commerce, are frequently kept out of the soil half the year :
when planted so late, however, they seldom flower well the first season, and commonly
not at all for a year or two afterwards. The taking up, drying, and replanting of border-
bulbs must be attended to by the flower-gardener with equal regularity, though not
with equal frequency as the finer, select, or florists' bulbs : the offsets may be planted in
beds in the reserve-garden, if wanted for stock j and the soil of the spot where the plants
stood in the border renewed according to its kind, and the flowering-bulbs replaced.
Some bulbs multiply so fast by throwing out oflTsets, that they soon cease to send up
flower-stems. Of these may be mentioned the ornithogalum umbellatum, luteum, and
some other species ; some species of scilla, muscari, iris, allium, oxalis, and others.
These should either be annually taken up, their offsets removed, and the parent bulb
replanted; or the oflTsets, as soon as they send up leaves, should be destroyed. Indeed,
whenever strong-blowing bulbs is the principal object, the offsets should never be al-
lowed to attain any size ; but as soon as they indicate their existence by showing leaves
above ground, they should be removed with a blunt stick, or in any way least injurious
to the parent. By this practice a great accession of strength i^ given to the main plant,
both for the display of blossom during the current season, and for invigorating the leaves
to prepare and deposit nutriment in the bulb for the next year. In pursuance of the
same objects, every flower should be pinched oflT as soon as it begins to decay, but the
flower-stalk may remain till it begins to change color with the leaves. Some bulbs are
greedily sought after by vermin : as the crocus and tulip by the mouse and water-rat;
the snowdrop and some of the narcissi by the snail and slug ; and the hyacinth by a
particular sort of grub-worm. We know of no method of mitigating these evils but by
catchmg the mice and rats, gathering the snails, and taking up, drying, and replanting
m fresh soil, the roots attacked by worms or insects. The snail is perhaps the worst of
these vermm, and, fortunately, it may be most effectually kept under, by scattering
leaves of the brassica tribe (of any variety) over the ground, and picking from them,
every morning, the snails which have fixed on them during the night.

6503. Most bulbs force well} to expedite this, retard the bulbsljy keeping them in an
ice-house till the autumn of the second summer; put them in water-glasses or pots in
September, and they will be in full blow by Christmas.

Book II.

6504.

BORDER-FLOVVERS.

SuBSECT. 3. Species and Varieties of Biennial Border-Flowers.
BIENNIAL BORDER- FLOWERS. —MAY, JUNE.

877

Heignl from Oto^of aft.

Fromjqfa/orftoli/ort.j i^Vom li/oo< to 2i /erf.

From ^fett to 3i feet.

Fnm3ifeet,^aTdt.

RED.

BED. 1 RED.

BED.

RED.

Thymus alpinus

Agrost. coro. flo.pl. rub. Hedysarum coronarium

Agrostemma coronaria

Hesperis tristls
Thlapsi saiatile

— — flos. jovis
Silene muscipula, p.
lEnothera rosea
Thymus grandiflorus

Antirrhinum ma. fl. pie.
— — fol. var.

Antirrhin. ma. flo. rnbr.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Cochlearea glastiiblia

Hedysar. coron. flo. albo

Agrost. coron. flo. aHxi

Hespes.matr.flo.alb.pl.
Thlapsi hirtum

Antirrhin. maj . flo. albo

Trigondla platycarpos

TELLOVr.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Alyssum sinuatum

Alyssum clypeatum
Linum strictum, p.
Papaver nudicaule

Antirrhin. maj. flo. luteo
Ligusticum peregTinum
Chnothera smuata

Verbascnm lychnitis

(Enothera biennis
Scabiosa tartarica
Scorzonera hispanica

Verbascum i*lom" ides

Scorzonera resedifolia
Tragopogon crocifolius

Scorzonera lasciniata

Scrophularia trifoliata

— vemalis

TragopoFon dalechampi

— prateniis

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLl'E.

Phyteuma comosa
Scabiosa columbaria

Anchusa paniculata, p.
Delphinium stephisagr./.

Cynoglossum sylvaticum

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Alyssum dehoideum

Centaurea puUata

AnthThinum majus

Tragopogon porrifolius

Silene bupleuroid^, p.

Cynoglossum officinale

Hesperis matronalis
Lunaria annua

VARIEGATED.

VAKIEGATED.
Cynoglossum cheirifol. t.
Hyoscyamus niger

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Delphinium aconiti, <.

Euphorbia Terrucosa

Euphorbia lathyris

TTTT V

RED.

RED. 1 RED.

RED.

RED.

Thymus patavinus, t.

Dianthus monspeUa. p. Cheiranthus incan. red

Cheiranthus incanns

Fumaria spicate

(Enothera rosea Leonorus sibiricus

Digitalis erubesc«is

WHITE.

WHITE. WHITE. .

WHITE.

WHITE.

Onopordum acaulon

Alyssum maritim, p. Campanula thrvsoid. p.

Cheiranth. incan. white

Campan.med.flo.alb.

Teucrium montanum,p.

— _ fol. var. Cheiranthus inca. white

Reseda alba

Coninm maculatum

Iberis linifoUa, p.

Verbena urUci&Ua, p.

Digitalis purpur. fl. albo

Teucrium campanulat.<.

Dipsacus sUvestris
Verbasc. blatter, fl. albt

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Alyssum sinuatum

Crepis foetida Cerinthe minor

Digitalis arabigua

Isatis tinctoria

Gnaphalium lut. album Lipusticum scoticum

— lutea

(Enothera sinuata

Papaver nudicaule

CEnothera mollissima

Fumaria fungosa

Pastinaca lucida

Reseda undulata

— noctuma

Oinothera grandiflora

— sativa

Trigonella ruthenica

^'erbascum pulverulent.

— sinuatum

— thapsoides

Verbascum thapsus

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Antirrhinum bellidifol.

Campanula cervicar. p.

Campanula medium
Vicia biennis

Campanula siberica
Lobelia urens

— rapxmculus

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Carlina vulgaris

Verbena officinalis

Centaurea salmonitica

Anchusa italica

Digitalis minor

Conyza squarrosa

— splendens
Cheiranth. mean, purple

Carduus marianus

- thapsi

Digitalis puri'urea

Marrubium alysson

Onopordum arabicum

Salvia pinnate
Trachelium caeruleum

— illyricum

Verbascum blattaria

Trichostema brachia. p.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.
Dianthus armeria, p.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Althaea sinensis pleno

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

Dianthus femigineus

Monarda punctata, p.

Scabiosa atropurpurea

ATinTTQT^

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

GypsophiUa muralis

Leonurus tertaricus
Sisons^etum

Centaurea romana

Althasa rosea

— — lake col. doub.

— — flesh col-doub.
Echinm creticnm

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

wHrrE.

Digitalis leucophtea, t.
Salvia ceratopnylla

Dipsacus lacinUtus

Althaearos. white doub.

Sison amomum

Eehium italicum

Gaura biennis

Lavatera arborea

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

GnaphaUum sylvaticum
Scabiosa ucranica

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.
Althsa ro. straw -coL do.

— _ yeUow

— — orange doub.
_ ficifoUa

Crepis biennis

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Erigeron acre

Eehium vulgare

Michauxa campan. /. p.
Verbena bonar. i. Sept.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Carduus eriophoras

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Verbascnm vurgatum

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

Althffia ros. brown, dou.
DigitaUs femiginea

878

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6505. Propagation and culture of biennial border-Jlowers. They are all raised from
seed, but some of the finest double varieties are continued by cuttings. Tlie seed
of such sorts as ripen by August may be sown immediately after it is gathered ; but the
seed of those sorts which ripen later should be preserved till the following spring, and
sown in May or the beginning of June. Sow thinly in beds in the reserve-garden,
transplant into other beds when the plants are a few inches high, and in September or
October remove the plants to their final destination. If this be, as it most generally
will in the mingled flower-border, to provide a succession of the same sorts, then it can
only be done in the case of those sorts which are done flowering by September or the
first of October, and the others must be removed early in March with balls. Great
care is requisite in removing some sorts which have large tap-roots, as Oenothera, holly-
hock, lavatera, &c., for if materially checked they will not flower strongly. The best
mode is to nurse these sorts in large pots, and transplant them in October or February,
with their balls entire. The sorts continued by cuttings are chiefly fine double varieties
of wallflowers, stocks, rose-campions, &c. The cuttings may be taken from the flower-
stalks, or the root-shoots, early in summer, put under hand-glasses, and otherwise
treated as cuttings of perennials. If the cuttings of some sorts, as dahlia, chrysanthe-
mum, lobelia, &c. are taken off early in the season, they will flower in the autumn.
The plants once placed where they are to remain, their general culture and manage-
ment is the same as for the perennial border-flowers. (6187.)

SuBSECT. 4. Species and Varieties of Hardy Annual Border- Flowers.
6506. HARDY ANNUAL BORDER- FLOWERS. —JUNE.

Height from 0 /o 3 ofafi

Fromiofafoot to l^foot

From lifuet to '^i feet.

From ii feet,io 3^ feet.
RED.

From 5h feet uprvardi.
RED.

REB.

RED.

RED.

Cheiranthus maritjmus

Silene pendula, Jan.
— rubella

Knautia orientalis
Centaurea erunina
Convolvulus sibiricus

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Biscutella coronopifolia

Cucubalus italicus

Cheiranthus mari. fl. alb

Silene quinquevulnera

Lychnis quadriedentata

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Centaurea suaveolens

YELLOW

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

BLUE.

BLUE.

d'leonia lusitanica
Convolvulus siculus

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Crepis rubra

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

TTTT V

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Dianthus proUfer, p.

Chelidonium comicula.

Adonis miniati

Echium orientahs

Amaranthus caudatus

Lychnis laeta '

Geranium gruinum

Blitum capitatum

Delphinium aja. peach t.
Malva mauritiana, p.

Malva mosehata

Silene acteon

Silene conoida rub.

Silene armeria rub.

Amaranthus hypocondr.
_ lividus

Agrostemma coelirosa

Papaverrhoeas flo. pleno

Antirrhinum viscosum

Saponaria vaccaria

Malva americana

gx^^rctr.Si'-

Trifolium incamatum

Lathyrus odorat fl.incar.

Silene iKgjptiaca

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Bellium belUdioides

Anthemis maritima

Crucianella latifoHa

Agrostemma nicsensis'

Lathjrrus articulatus

Anthyllis cornicina

Silene armeria flo. alb.

Delphinium ajacis, white

— odoratus, fl. alb.

— tetraphylla
Antirrhinum chalepe. t.

— behen

Echium violac. flo. alb.

— fl. varie.

Lupinus albus

Malva crispa

— macrocarpon, t.
Artemisia pectinata

— angustifoUus

— limensis

Briza maxima

Calendula hybrida, t.

Campanula specul.fl.alb.

Crucianella angnstifolia

Cucubalus viscosus

Cynoglossum linifolium

— lusitanicum

Delphinium ajacis, white

Silene conoidea alb.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Ablhcxicum annuum, p.
Arctotis trlstis, i.

— anthemoides, i.

Antirrhinum bipunctat.

Calendula arvensis
Fumarla capnoides
Impatiensnolitang.p.
Lupmus luteus

Crepis barb. flo. pallida.
CalenduU officih. fl. pi.

Amaranthus flavus

- hybridus
Lathyrus annuus

— orontium

Momordica elaterium

— speciosaflavum

— — flo-paUido

— versicolor, p.

Scorpiurus muricata

Arctotis anthemoides;

— sub^illosa

Astragalus triinestris"

— vermiculata

>aUnanche lutea, t.

Calendula stellata

Chlora perfoliata
Joronilla securidaca

TrifoUum poloaicum

Book II.

BORDER- FLOWERS.

879

HARDY ANNUAL BORDER-FLOWERS. — JULY-

- continued.

HeifrlUfromOtoiofafi

From 3 qfafiiot to l^fooi.

From li foot to ^ feet.

Frorn'lifeetto^ifeei.

From 3i feet ujm-arilt.

PURFLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

'ampanula erinus

Antirrhinum hirtum

Crepis barbata

Lathyus odorat. fl. purp.

— speciosum

— major

Delphinium ajacis

_ _ -obLcufa

— triphyllum

— — purple

Calendula nudicaulis

— pluvialis

— i>erfoliata

— speculum

Chelidonium hybridum

Delphinium ajacis dwf.;).

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Delphiniu.ajac. lead col.
Antirrhinum pelisseria.

Luplnus hirsutus

Centaurea cvanus

Delphin. ajacis, lead co.

— spartium

Echium violaceum

Delphin. ajacis, striped

Triiblium coeruleum

Linum hirsutum

— usitatissimum

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Delphin. ajacis, striped

CoroniUa creUca. Centaurea cyan.fl. striata

Delpliinium consolida

Papaverrhoeastlo. varie. Convoh-ulus tricolor

— — flo. pleno

Delphin. ajacis Neapoli.

Lathyrus odorat.fl.striat.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Chenopodium ambrosio.

— aristatum
Garidella nigellastrum,^

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

Silene inaperta
— noctuma

BROWN.

BROWN.

A TTnTTOT'

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Cheiran. annu.lO wk.red

Lotus tetragonolobus

Blitum Tirgatum

PapaTer somn. dbl. red.

— wall-leaved red

Salv. horm. coma rub.

Echium creticum

— lOw.peach-coI.

— waU-Yea. pe.

Lupin, pilosus, flcroseo

Hedysarum caput galli

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Artemisia annua

Aster annus

-Antirrhinum medium

Datura ferox

Cheira. an. 10 we. white

Draco, moldavicum, fl.a.

— stramonium

_ _ waU-leaved

Lathrus sativus, ilo. albo.

Scabiosa stellata

Iberis amara

Xeranthemum annuu. 3.

.. _ umbellataalba

Nigella hispanica, t.

Qinothera tetraptera

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Alyssum calycynum.p.

Lotus tetragon, fl. lufeo

Tropseolum majus, ow

Anthemis arabica, t.

Tropteolum majus nana

— minus, o.

Astragulus contortuplic.

— hamosus

— uncatus

NigeUa orientalis, t.

Scorzonera pieroides

— tingitana

Medicago aculeate

— circinnata

— elegans

— intertexta

— minima

— orbicularis

— scutellaU

— tomata

— turbinate

Viola tricolor

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Viola tricolor, mac. maj.

Dracocephal. canescens

Datura tatula

— — minor

— moldavicum

Lathyrus sati\'us

Ageratum convzoides, p.
Cheiran. ann. 10 we. vio.

Nigella damascena
Salvia horm. com. pur.

Lupmus pilosus

NigeUa sativa

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Cistus guttatus, t.

Iberis umbellata, rubra
ffinothera purpurea
Cheir. an. ID we. cop. co.

Lathyrus tingitanus
Papav. somnif. dbl. bl.

_ _ dbL pur.

_ wall-leaved cop.

— wall-leaved purp.

Iberis umbellata.purpur.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.
Silene picta

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Papav. som. d fring car.

_ — dbl. blush cama

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Ambrosia artemisifolia

Ambrosia elatior

Ambrosia trifida

Chenopo-iium botrys

ChexvopotUum scoparia

Nicotiana rustica

Niijella damasc. flo. pie.

1 _ _ nana

6507 Propamtion and culture of hardy annual flowers. They are all raised from seed, though occa-
sionall'v some fine varieties of chciranthus, viola, &c. are preserved by cuttings. The seed is generally
sown in March or April, in patches or rings in the borders where the plants are to flower. Ihe ground
is nreviouslv stirred and made fine ; the patch is sown of a circular form of six or eight inches' diameter,
or a row only is sown in the circumference of the circle, the seeds covered according to their size, and
the Dlants when they are an inch high, thinned out to one, three, five, seven, or more, according to
their kind This and occasionally stirring the soil, with staking, &c. as in perennial flowers, is all the
culture they require Sometimes the whole, or many of the sorts, are sown in the reserve-garden, and
transplanted where they are fiiwlly to remain. This answers well for such sorts as the lupin, sunflower,
and sweetpea ; but is rather precarious with such early flowering and short-bved sorts as annual stocks,
candytuft, Venus's looking-glass, &c. ,

880

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

' 650S. Seed mnf/ be saved cither from the top and first-expanded blossoms of plants in the borders, or
from patches sown in the reserve-garden. For tie sake of neatness and beauty, no more flowers on each
plant ought to be allowed to ripen their seeds than are wanted for the supply ; but unless for varieties dif-
ficult to procure fiom the seedsmen, the simplest, and indeed the most economical mode, is to procure
supplies yearlv from them.

6509. Soine'very pleasing conceits for arranging annual fioivers are given by Swindon [Beauties of Flora ,
1778), a Brentford nurseryman. He gives a copious list of annuals, arranged according to their heights
and colors ; and by affixing a number to each sort, he can readily indicate on his plans the kinds to be
employed, and their relative position. Thus he has 89 sorts of common hardy annuals, arranged in six
different classes, for six different ranges, in borders, as follow : —

First range, rvliich grow from 8 io 12 or 14 incites high. Fourth range, which grow from 2 <o 2i or 3 feet high.

1. Cai)e marigold ; purple and white.

2. Large caterpillar ; yellow, and singular pod.

3. Venus's looking-gla.ss ; light purple.

4. Ram's horns ; yellow, the pod its beauty.

5. Venus's navel-wort ; cleau- white.

6. Round snails; yellow, and singular pod.

7. Dwarf variegated lychnis; crimson and white.

8. Heart's ease; purple and yellow

9. Half moons, or moon-trefoil ; white, and singular pod.

10. Blue meadow lychnis ; sky-blue.

1 1 . Dwarf virgin's stock ; purple.

12. Small hedgehogs ; yellow, and singular pod.

13. Woodroof ; light blue.

14. Red hawkwe«l ; pale red.

15. Large hedgehogs; yellow, and singular pod.

Second range, which grow from 12 to 18 or 20 inches high.

16. Oak of Jerusalem ; yellowish, with fragrant smell.

17. Small white candytuft ; clear white.

18. Long-horned devil in a bush ; yellow, and singular pod.

19. Convolvulus minor ; bright blue with yellow eye.

20. Large puri>le candytuft ; light purple.

21. AVTiite lobel's catchfly"; reddish- white.

22. Annual snapdragon ; purple and yellow.

23. Large white candytuft ; clear white.

24. Scarlet, or wing peas; dark and light red.
2.5. Striped convolvulus minor ; blue and white.

26. Red lobel's catchfly ; bright red.

27. Dwarf nasturtium; deep orange.

28. Broad Spanish nigella with brown seed; deep blue.

29. Red flos adonis ; dark red.

Third range, which grow from 20 to 24 or 28 imhes high.

30. Spanish nigella, with black seed ; light Wue.

31. Spanish hawkweed ; pale-yellow, and purple eye.

32. Blue Moldavian balm ; deep blue, and fine scent.

33. Annual rest-harrow ; pale red.

34. Double Roman nigella ; white mixed with blue.

35. Small running nasturtium ; dark orange.

36. Nettle-marjoram; yellowish, no smell but to the over-

curious.

37. Rocket-larkspur ; pink and white.

38. Sweet-scented lupmes ; bright yellow.

39. White Moldavian balm ; fair wliite, and fragrant smell.

40. Dutch lupines ; fine blue.

41. Annual hare's ear; pale yellow.

42. Purple jacobea ; purplish-red and yellow eye.

43. Dutch ranunculus-marigold ; sulphur-color.

44. Red-topped clary ; pale-red, and pink leaves.

45. Belvidere; yellowish, a handsome plant.

46. Small variegated corn-poppy ; various, red and white, &c.

47. Double upright larkspur ; blue, blush, &c.

48. Cyanus minor; blue, crimson, &c.

49. Thorn-apple ; white, and singular pod.

50. Prince's feather ; dark crimson.

51. Crown-larkspur ; pale pmk, sjiotted, &c.

52. Honey scabious ; pale blue, and globular pod.
5.3. Portugal lychnis ; pale red.

54. Small blue lupines ; bright blue.

55. Loves lies a-bleeding ; light red.

56. Ranunculus-marigold; deep orange,

57. Honeywort ; dark purj'le, and singular shape.

58. Strawberry-spinage ; bright-red fruit.

Fifth range, which grow from 5 to i feet lagh.

59. Venetian small-flowered mallow ; purplish-white.

60. I'ouble crimson jagged -leaf poppy ; dark crimson.

61. Tall narrow-leaf wallflower; bright yellow.

62. Arach ; deep crimson.

63. Double stripetl camation-poppy ; red and white.

64. Blue sweet trefoil ; lead -color.

65. Red lavatera ; light changeable red.

66. Branching larkspur ; blue and wliite, &c.

67. Tall white lupines ; clear white.

68. Double black camation-poppy ; rose-color.

69. & 27. Small Peruvian nasturtium; dark orange.

70. Lord Anson's peas ; fine blue.

71. \\Tiite lavatera ; snow white.

72. Dwarf double and quilled yellow sunflower ; deep yellow.

73. Bladder ketmia; pale-sulphur and purple eye, with smgular

pod.

Sirih range, which grow from 5 to 7 or 10 fit high.

74. Tall double yellow sunflower, with black seed ; deep yel*

75. Painted lady sweet-scented peas ; pale-red, and white.

76. Arach ; sulphur-colored.

77. Purple sweet-scented peas ; dark and light purple.

78. Tall Indian arsmart ; bright crimson.

79. Painted lady crownpeas; black and white.

80. Convolvulus major; fine purjile.

81. White crown-peas ; clear white.

82. Large Indian nasturtium ; dark and light orange.

83. Tall double brimstone sunflower; sulphur-colored.

84. White sweet-scented peas ; clear white.

85. Plain tangier peas ; fine crimson.

86. Tall oriental mallow ; purple.

87. Painted lady tangier peas; pale-red and white.

88. Scarlet beans ; fine scarlet.

89. Curled-leaf upright mallow; white tinged with purple.

6510. In borders he sows in six rows, or rather at six different distances from the walk, accordine to
the different ranges, thus : — , 5 i.!*

74 75

77 78

80 81 82 83 84

86 87

63 64 65 66 67

68

69 70

72 73

47 48

50 51

52

54

56 57

SO 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
12 3 4 5.6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

6511. For a circular clump, or cone qfjlowers, including all the 89 different sorts
he arranges the six heights in six concentric circles (^. 616.), placing a persicaria

and oriental mallow in the centre. The gene-
ral appearance (fg. 617.), he says, is " the same
on every side, rising gradually from the edge up-
wards, the highest plants meeting nearly in a point
at the centre, and no two flowers of the same color
or shape being seen together." (Beauties of Flora,
&c. p. ii.) To those who have but a limited space
and means, or who have few perennial flowers ; —
to persons in remote situations in the country ; — to
residents in the colonies ; and to female and infant
gardeners, the above list and modes of arrangement
afford a source of considerable show and amusement
at a very small expense, — little trouble, and, being
annuals, little loss of time. Swindon was in the
habit of supplying masters of ships with packets of
these seeds for all parts of the world.

Jit

'^/

*&'v

■b^/^'

'*-., ^3 ""16

-si' .y^

616

BcoK ir. FLOWERS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES.

SSI

6512.

SuBSECT. 5. Sj)ecies and Varieties of Half-hardy Annual Border- Floivers.

HALF-HARDY ANNUAL BORDER-FLOWERS, FLOWERING
IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER.

H.igUfrt/mOteiofaJt.

Fr<mlcffafaotio\)ifool

1 From lifoot to 2.i/«<. From 2| JW to 3i/«rf.

1 FromSifittupwarJt.

RED.

RED.

RED. RED.

! RED.

Dianthus sinensis
Ix)pezia rac mosa, • .
Steviaped ta
— serrata

Aster sinensis, red

— — bonnet

-Af irabilis jalapa. flo.'^TOb;
Zinnia multittora, rub.

— revoluta

— veiticillata

: Senecio elegans fl. in. oL

Polygonum orientale
Ipomtca cojclnea, p.
McoUanaglutinosa

- tabac. fol. ma-
Conrolv-ulos pur. fl. car.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

CU:us niloUcus

Ricinus inermis, p.

. TiridiS

Aster sinensis, white
— — quilled
Miral,ili*jalapa,flo.aIbo.
Miral>ilis longitlora
Ricinus communis, p.

Senecio cleans, fl. al. pi.

Conrolmlus discolor

— michauxii, pi.

Chrjsanthem. cor. fl. ai.

— jiet teret. al.

Polygonum orien. fl. al.

Trichosantlies auguina

TELLOW.

TELLOW.

TELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Spilanthesacmella,p.
CacaUa coccinea, n.

Areemone mexicana, p.
Bidens heterophjUa
relsia orienfalis
Fumaria vesicaria

Galinsogea parviflora

— triloba
Tagetes erecta lutea
— — flor. teretj

Chrysanthem. coronari.
— coron. pet. tereti.
Cucumis colocjTithis

Gnaphalium foptidum

— — aurantia

— flexuosus

— undulatum
MirabiUsjalapalutea
Tafietes tenuifolia

— — teret aur.
Carthamus tinctorius

Helianthus annuus
— — flo. jileno

Zinnia multiflora lutea

— — flOTepallido

— pauciHora

"

Momordica balsamina

Tagetes patula simp.

— lutra

_ - flcpleno.

Rudbeckia amplexifolia

— nana, simp.

Tricosanthes cucumeri.

— — pleno

Xeranthemum lucidum
Ximensia encelioides
Ipomoca phcenicea, p.

■BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

•S'clana prostrau

Aster sinensis, Ught blue
quUled

Atropa phy-,aloides
Convol. i.ur. fl. caur. paL

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

"McnopsLs scintillaris
JlicoUa ecrptiaca

Aster sinensis chine, pur.

— — purp. quilled
Chrysanthemum tricolor
Datura metel
Zinnia violacea

Dafnra ceratocaulis
Senecio elegans, purp.

Convolvulus purpurea

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.
Aster sinensis, pur. stri.

— — red —
Mirabilis jala. flo. ru. st.
— — flo. lut. stria.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

e.'ilS. Propagation and culture of half -hardy annual flowers. These are raised from seed, which is sown
in March in a hot-bed ; and the plants, when an inch or two high, are transplanted into another bed of
very moderate temi)erature. Here they may remain till the middle of May, or till all danger from frosty
nigh's is over, and be then transplanted to where they are to flower in the borders, and treated in all
lespc cts as hardy ;innuals.

6514. To save seed. In dry seasons, most sorts will ripen seeds, if permitted, but in wet seasons, unless
the jilants have been well forwarded in spring, and planted in a dry soil and warm situation, the seed will
not lie matured. In such cases, a hand-glass supported over the flower is of use ; or some may be re-
mov(d with balls into large i«ts, and placed in an airy pit, frame, or green-house. In the northern and
westtm counties, where the climate is cold and moist, half-hardy annuals never ripen their seeds in any
year ; and supplies are therefore annually obtained from the London seedsmen.

Sect. III. Flojvers for partindar Purposes.

6515. The partictdar purposes to which flowers are sometimes applied, may be either the concealment
of local defects, or the production of local beauties. Am.ong the former maybe classed, covering naked
walls, posts, parts of ruins, or other upright objects ; concealing horizontal defects, as naked sub-barren
8i>ots, unsightly banks, &c., protlucing vegetation under the shade and drip of trees : among the latter,
ornamenting water with flowering plants ; ornamenting rocks, or assemblages of stones formed in imitation of
rocks ; preserving a green appearance on beds or borders during winter ; forming edgings to beds or
borders ; furnishing odors ; and presenting boUnical, curious, and scientific assemblages.

3 L'

882

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

SuBSECT. 1. Flowers which reach from five to seven feet in height, for covering naked
Walls, or other upright Deformities, and for shutting out distant Objects which it is de-
sirable to exclude.

6516 The flowers suited for covering upright deformities are the climbers and twining plants : the former
to be supported by spray or trellis-work, or nailed in the manner of wall-trees, and the latter by rods. We
shall select a few species of each from the plants already enumerated in the foregomg section, to which
the botanist will easily be able to add others from the more extensive catalogues.

CUmbera, perennial. Astragalus galegi-

formis. Clematis alpina, vioma, v.

purpurea, Lathyrus latifoUus, Vicia

sylvatica, Bryonia dioica.
ClimbiH-a, bienmal. Vicia biennis, Fuma-

ria splcata.
Climbers, annual. Lathyrus, or sweetpea.

19 sorts, Momordica elaterium, Tro-
peeolum majus.
Climbers, half-hardy annuals. Ciicumis
colocynthis, dudaim, flexuosus.
Trvining plants, perennial. Convolvulus
althseoiaes, arvensis, Hamulus lupulus,
Tamus communis (10 feet high).

Twining plants, annuals. Convolvulus
tricolor, Phaseolus multiflorus.

Tn'iiting plants, half-hardy annuals.
Convolvulus discolor, Michauxii, pur-
purea, p. flo. cameo, p. flo. coer. pal-
lideo. Ipomoea coecinea, & phceoicea.

•SuBSECT. 2. Flowers for concealing Defects on horizontal Surfaces : as naked sub-barren
Spots, U7isightly Banks, ^c.
6517. The flowers suited for covering horizontal deformities arc creepers and trailers, of which we shall
here bring together the names of the most common sorts : —

Creepers and trailers tvhich are peren-
nials. Aju^a reptans, r. flo. albo. An-
themis nobilis, n. flo. pleno. Arenaria
montana, saxatilis, Asperula odora-
ta, taurina, tinctoria, Cerastium latifo-
lium, repens, Circa:a alpina, lutetiana,
Fragaria >.idica, vesca fol. var., v.
monophylla, Galium boreale, crucia-
tum, rubioides, vemum, Ueum rep-

tans, Gypsophila prostrata,
Hedysarum obscurum, Hieraciuni
aurantiacum, Lysimachia ' nummula-
ria, Phaca australis, Polygala major,
vulgaris, Potentilla astracanica, aurea,
vema, Kubia cordifolia, tinctorum,
Sagina procumbens, Saxifraga sar-
mentosa, Tormentilla reptans, Tri-
folium repens maculatum

Creepers and trailers, hardy annuals.
Aledicago intertexta, orbicularis, scu-
tellata, Momordica elaterium. Rese-
da odorata, Tropasolum majus, minus.

Creepers and trailers, half-hardy an-
nuals. Cucumis, the three species
enumerated as climbers, Monopsis
scintillaris, conspicua, Nolana pros-
traU.

SuBSECT. 3. Floivers tvhich xvill grow under the Shade and Drip of Trees.

6518. Flowers which will thrive under trees are of particular value. In improving neglected flower,
gardens and pleasure-grounds, it is a common complaint that new things cannot be brought forward on
account of the shade and drip of trees. This section, and the corresponding one of hardy shrubs, will, it
is hoped, aid in removing that complaint, which can only have arisen from ignorance of the native ha-
bitations of plants. It is proper to observe, however, that there is scarcely any, indeed we may say, no
plant, that will thrive under a dense evergreen fir-tree clothed with branches down to near the surface :
moss is all that can be there expected ; or, if somewhat open, the pyrola, box, and juniper will exist.
Where trees are so dense, however, no plant or shrub can be desired under them.

Perennials. Anemone nemorosa, n. flo.
pleno, pennsylvanica, ranunculoides.
Arum maculatum, Asarum europa;-
ura, Asperula tevigata, odorata. Atro-
pa benadonna, Betonica officina-
lis, Chrysosplenium altemifolium, op-
positifolium, Circaea alpina, lute-
tiana. Clematis recta, Convallaria
multiflora, verticillata, Fragaria vesca,
V. fol var. V. monophylla. Geranium
sylvaticuin, s. flo. pleno, Geum ur-
banum. Helleborus viridis, Hyperi-
cum Uirsutum,. Imperatoria ostruthi-
«m, Lathyrus tuberosus, Ljsimachia

ciliata, vulgaris, Mercurialis perennis,
Monarda didyma, fistulosa. Origanum
vulgare, Orobus angustifolius, lathy-
roides, tuberosus, niger, sylvaticus,
vemus. Primula acaulis, veris, v. ela-
tior, v. polyanthos. Ranunculus auri-
comus. Salvia sylvestris, Sambucus
ebulus, Saponaria officinalis, Saxifraga
umbrosa, Scabiosa sylvatica, Spirtea
aruncus, Stellaria eraminea, nemo-
rum, Teucrium Scorodonia, Vicia
dumetorum, sylvatica, Viola canina.
tulbs. Allium lineare. Crocus vemus,
Fritillaria imperialis, meleagris, Fu-

maria balbosa, Galanthus nivalis,
Helleborus hyemalis, Scilla non-
scripta, Ophrys apifera, muscifera,
ovata. Orchis bifolia, maculata, mili-
taris, Oxalis acetosella, Sanguinaria
canadensis.

Biennials. Cynoglossum officinale, syl-
vaticum. Digitalis purpurea, p. flo.
albo, Monarda punctata.

Hardy annuals. Antirrhinum oronti-
um, Briza maxima, Impatiens noli
tangere.

SuBSECT. 4. Flowers for ornamenting Pieces of Water, or planting Aquariums.
6519. Flowers for water or watering-places are of two kinds, aquatics, to plant in the water, and marsh
plants, Xo plant round the margin of the pond, stream, or aquarium. The shape and size of the aquarium
Cftgr. .618.) must depend on the extent and style of the flower-garden, of which it forms a part. In all

cases the bottom, if not naturally retentive, must be rendered so by a stratum of tempered for nuddled^
clay (a); the sides should be formed in terraces, or steps descending towardrthe cemr^rl) £ ff ^
of plants which grow in shallow water, while those that require d^p water, as tKVush tvuha &c
may be planted m the ground, or in large tubs placed in deep water. The marjin of tKquarfi^m may
eitJier be finished with regular masonry or brick-work ; or what, in some situatiof srhas a bettlr effecT with
[hrfve exce'^Ai3^° Th'^^'^h 7*"^^^ bricks, or flints (c), in the interstices of whfch marsh pkntsw 11
thrive exceedingly. The whole may be surrounded by a drain and gravel- walk id) raised a few inches

S?om?s'indhottonfa"&c'are'^h1^^lfh? ?? "^'"P'^"^' "u^a^^lienySesfTilaSa

lobelk crfnum S ra-^n ■>■ tfll t^L f^"^'^"f^ ' ?"'^' «^o»sklering that some exotic sp^ies, as amaryllis
ingii'^any flower fardS^^ ^^^' '" ""^ '"'"^^^' ^^^ ^q"^""™ ought no't to be want:

Book II.

FLOWERS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES.

883

6521. AQUATIC PLANTS WITH SHOWY FLOWERS.

MAY.

JUNE.

JULY.

AUGUST.

RED.

RED.

BED.

RED.

Eqnisetum fluviatile
H:rdTocot;le vuljfaris

Equlsetum palustxe
Butomus umbellatus

Hinpurus vulgaris
Polygonum araphibium

Hydropeltis purpurea

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Nasturtium officinale
Ranunculus aquatilis

HTdrocharis morsus-rana
P^Uandrium aquaticum

Alisma damasonium

— natans

— plantago
Callapalustris
Nymphaa alba

— odorata
Poa fluitans
Stratiotes aloides

CerasUum aquaticum 1
Poa aquatica

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Ranunculus aquatilis bederac.

Iris pseudacorus

Xuphar adrena

— lutea
Utricularia minor

Potamogeton natant

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Veronica beccabunga

Aliana ranuncnloide*

— vertjcillatnm

Lobelia dortmanna

Pontederia cordata

Verooica anagalUs

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Crticularia vulgaris
TTun natans
Sagittaria sagitifolia

PURPLE.

GREEK.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Potamogeton densum

CeratophyUum demersum
CicuUvirosa

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

1

Potamogeton lucens

— pectinatum

- lacustris

- triqueter j

6522. Marsh plants. Some of these have been given as border-flowers, and will grow in almost any
situation ; but others, as the acorus, comarum, littorella, &c. will not grow vigorous!}- and flower unles*
their roots are in soil constantly saturated with water.

MARSH PLANTS WITH SHOWY FLOWERS. — MAY

AND JUNE.

Height fTMi 0 to a of aft.

Fromiofajbottolifoet.

From \k fool to ^ftd.

From2ifittto3ifbtt.

From3iftttuptvardt.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Scrophularia'aquaaca

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Pinguicula lusitanica

(Enanthe peucedan. p.

(Enanthe fistulosa, p.

(Enanthe crocata, p.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Rammculosficaxia

Carex flava
Ranunculus flamula
- repens

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Pinguicula vulgaris

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Comarum palustre, p.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

GREEN.

GREEN.
Oarei disticha

— pulicaris

— precox
_ stricta

— miiricata

— elongata

GREEN.

GREEN.

Carex pseudocyperus

_ vulpina
Cyperus longug
Juncus compressu*

GREkN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

; BROWN.

Caret dioica

Carex csespitosa

— digiuta
Schoenus nigricans

TTTT "^

Carex paludosa, p.

— riparia
Juncus conglomerat p.

I AND AUGU

RED.

ST

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Tencrium scordium

Menyanthcs triibUata, p.

Malva sylvestris

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Littorella lacustris
Samolus valerandi, p.

Galium palustre
— uliginosum

Romex obtusifbUas

Setoi^ palustre

Schoenusalba

Pedicnlaiis palustris

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Hypericum elodes, p.

HotfamU palustris, p.
Romex maritimus

Acorns calamus
Mjsotis palustris
Rumex palustris

BLUE.

Cinta-aria palustris
Senecio aquaticus

Sonchus palustris

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

Scbcenus mariscm

Phormium tenai, p.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Pedicularis sylvatica
Triglochin maritimnm
_ palustre

PURPLE.
AstertripoUum.p.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

ScuteUaria minor j
GREEN.

VARIEGATED.
GREEN.

TARIXGATEO.
GREEM.

VARIEGATED.

GREEN.

Juncus effusus

VARIEGATED.

AngeUca sylvestris
GREEN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

Srthoenus compressns
Scirpus acicularis
— ctespitoeus

.Tuncus squarrosus p.
Schoenus nigricans

Scirpus maritimui
Rumex crispus
Juncus sylvaticns

' SL 2

Scirpus bolosohoenus

Rumex aquaticus
Cyperus longus, p.

SR4

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Tart III;

i'

♦ 6523, Propagation and culture. The same as for herbaceous plants, taking into bonsideration the dif-
ference in tlie soil and site.

SuBSECT. 5. Flowers for omamenting Rocks, or Aggregations of Stones, Flints, Scoria}
formed in imitation of Rocky Surfaces, ^c.

< 6524 In strict propriety, mountain or rock plants onlv should be introduced on artificial rock-work ;

but natural mountains and rocks are always moist and cool, and the plants which have their habitations

/ '■. there would not always thrive on dry ridges of earth and stones. On a small scale, therefore, choice is

Vnerally made of such plants as are not tall and rampant, and as grow naturally in a dry soil. In the

following list, as in the others, the most ornamental of them are distinguished by a letter (*), and tliose

which flower the greater part of the summer by a figure (3), &c.

c

PerentduU. Achillea alpina 3, tnontana,
AiU!.,a alpina, pyramidalis 3, Alche-

^ iriilla alpina, pentaphylla, Alyssum
montanum,muraleySaxatile,.\nenione
alpina, apennina, baldensis, Pulsatil-
la 3, p. major 3, Anthemis montana,
. Anthyllis montana. Antirrhinum al-
pinum, Aquil^ia alpina, Arabis al-

' pina 3, bellidifolia 3, lucida 3, sibi-
rica 3, Arenaria montana 3, saxatilis 3,
Arnica montana 3, Artemisia rupes-
tris. Astragalus alpinus, hypoglottis,
montanus s, uralensis 3, Atnamanta
libanotis, Bartsia alpina 3, Betonica
alopecurus. Campanula carpatica 3,
collina 3, rapunculoides 3, rotundi-
folia, saxatilis 3 a, Cardamine pe-
trfca 3, Centaurea montana.Cerastium
dioicum, Cheiranthus helveticus 3,
Cherleria sedoides, Chrysanthemum
montanum, Cochlearia saxatilis, Cu-
cubalus behen, Dianthus coUinus,

hyssopifolius, plumarius, virginicus,
Draba aizoides, ciliaris, stelldta, Epi-
lobium montanum, Epimedium alpi-
num 3, Geranium pyrenaicum, Geum
mgntanum, m- minor, Gnaphalium
marjcaritaceum 3,Hedjsarum saxatile,
Hy v)ericum montanum 3, . llecebrum
paronychia 3, Physalis alkekengi,riiTi-
pinella saxifraga, Podalyria austtalis 3,
Potentilla rupestris, Rubus articus 3,
chamsemorus 3, ros*foUus 3, saxati-
lis 3, Saxifraga aizoides, nivalis, op-
positifolia, pennsylvemica, petrsea, ro-
tundifolia, sarmentosa, Sedum for-
sterianum, giaucum, hybridum, ru-
pestre, sexangiilare, villosum, Silene
alpestris, rupestris, saxatilis, saxifraga,
Telephium imperati, Teucrium mon-
tanum, Thlaspi alpestre. Thymus
vulgaris, Tormentilla reptans, Trifo-
lium alpestre, montanum, repens ma.
culatum, Valeriana montana, pyre-

naica, Veronica montana, saxatilis,
%'iola lutea, montana.
Bnlbs. Allium carinatum, Fritillaria

Oxalis acetosella, violacea '.

BienniUts A ly ssum deltoideum 3, Cam-
panula cervicariaS, thyrsoidea 3, Car-
duus- niarianus, Carlina vulgari.s,
t^heiranthus cheiri, incanus, Cochle-
aria glastifolia. Digitalis purpurea, p.
flo albo.Echium vulgare,(jnaphalium
luteo-aibum, Hedvaarum coronarium,
Marrubium alyss6n,Teucn'im monta-
num 3, Thlapsi saxatile, VrrbenaoflS-
cinalis

Hardy Annuals. Alyssum ca ycinum \
Antirrhinum chalepense »,C tmpanula
iierfoliata, Geranmm mt schatuiit,
Alomordica elaterium, Kes>>da odor-
ata, iScorzonera picroides, tingitana,
Silene acteon, behen, Trifo'um po-
lonicum, V'iola tricolor.

y 6525. The ground-plan and figure of the elevation of the rock-work rAu%t, as in the case of the aqtarium,

be made to harmonise with surrounding objects. Simple outlines and surfaces, not too much broken,
/ . show the plants to most advantage, and are not so liable to ridicule as imitations of hills or mount.dns, or
AjtJ., liigh narrow cones, or peaks of scoriae in the Chinese manner, which are to be seen in some places,
'^^^ '/A ground-plan, in the form of a crescait, or of any wavy figure widest towards the middle pari of its
length, and with the surface not steeper than forty-five degrees (Jig. 619.) will be found well suiteu to tl.e

?/ /'■

less durable materials, such as bricks, pudding-stone, scoria, &c. which are found in flat countries.
Sometimes one side of such rock-works may be nearly perpendicular, in which case, if facing the north
it affords an excellent situation for ferns and mosses. '

6526. In countries abounding with stone, massy and extensive pieces of rock-work may be formed and
«hrubs introduced as well as plants, so as to produce a scene of considerable beauty and interest.' Its
base, and such parts as are near the eye, may be formed of masses of granite or bassalt ; selecting such
for the shady side as are already covered with mosses and lichens, especially the lichen atra-flavus geo-
graphicus, ventosus, stellaris, &c. These vegetables will not grow on sandstone, and but seldoni on
Itmestone, therefore stones of these earths sliould be kept as much as possible in the more distant parts
where they will be partially covered with shrubs and plants, rooted in proper soil, introduced in the
crevices. . When works of this kind are extf.nsive, a winding walk or stair may be led over them and
wells, or small reservoirs of water, introduced in some places for mountain bog-plants and aquatics and
for keeping the whole mass moist and cool ^ '

SuBSECT. 6. Evergreen-leaved Flowers, or such as are adapted for preserving an Aiyjiear-

ance of Vegetation on Beds and Borders during the Winter Months.

6527. A due proportion oi evergreen-leaved flo^Mcrs is very necessary for enlivening borders in the winter

rkiy^'crcSS'^'ithSr^^^^^^^^^^

Perennials. Achillea millefolium, m.
no- nibro, Alchemilla alpina, penta-
T>nylla,vulgaris,vpubescens,Anthemis
nobiUs, n. flo pleno, Bellis perennis,
nortensis, h. variegata, h alba, h. fis-
tulosa, h. prolifera, Campanula pumi-
la 5s, Dianthus barbatus, b. atro-ru-
bens, hortensis,Gentiana acauli» 3,ver-
na 3, Gnaphalium dioicum 3, Lych-
nis floscuculi, f. flo. pi. f. flo. albo,
viscaria, v. flo. pi. v. flo. aibo, MeUssa
«iftici!ialis, Melittn melissophyllum

Primula acaulis, auricula, veris, v.
elatior, v. polyanthos, v. flo pleno,
Saxifraga caespitosa, cimeifolia, gera-
noides, geum, hypnoides, mutata,
ni valis, oppositifoha, petraea, umbrosa,
Silene acaulis 3, Statice ai-meria, a.
flo. albo, Stipa pennata, Teucrium
chamffidi-ys, montanum. Thymus
montanus 3», serpyllum3« citricc'cru;,
j-ulgaris, zygis s. Veronica hybrida,
Viola grandiflora 3, g. flo. latto 3,
g. flo. maculata 3, odorata coer. 3,o.;io.

p'.eno coer. 3, o. flo. albo 3, o. flo. pleno
albo 3, o. flo. pi. purj). 3.

BuJbi. Amaryllis lutea, Hellebonw
hyemalis.

Dknuials. Agroitemma coronaria, c.
flo. albo, c. flo. pi. rub. Anchusa
JtaUta, paniculau 3, Dianthus arme-
ria 3, tierrugineus 3, inonspeliacus
3 a. Hesperis matronaUs, Iberis li-'
nifolia 3, Lavatera arboiea, silene?

Book II.

FLOWERS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSES.

88A

Slbsect. 7. Flowers for Edgings to Beds or Bordeis

fioCS. The princiiwl plants/or ed^ngs, next to the.dwarf-box, are the statice armeria, bcllis pcronis,
gentiana acaulis, saxitraga umbrosa, oppositi folia, hypnoides, fcstuca ovina, and otiicr low-growine
evergreens; but all the following sorts may be used in extensive concerns requiring edgings of flowers
The common and otJier heaths make very beautiful edgings in parterres of peat soiL

no crer. 3, o. flo. albo 3, o. flo. uleno

albo 3, o- tlo. ]il. |>ur|t 3.
Animal*. Bri/a maxima. Calendula of>
ficinalis, o. flo. fileno, Ch«iraiillius an-
nuus rub mariumus, m. ilo. aib , Ih^l.
lihinium ajacis Diaiitlmti, prolifcr, 3,
Iberis niara, a. major, uinUellataalba,
u purpurea, u. rubra, K<»<da t.durata,
Silene armeria rub a. flo alb. ruU^lla,
Viola tricolor, t. mac. major, t. uuu:,
minor.

Peremtinls. Achillea millefolium, m.
tlo. rubro, Alchemilia alpina, penta.
ph>lla vulgaris, v pubescens Anthemis
nobili«, n. Ho. pleno, Bellis perennis,
ho^te1l^L<, h variegata, h- alba, h. fis-
tulosa, h. proUfera, Campanula pumi-
la5j, Uianthus barbat ,b atro-rubens,
hortenai.>, Fe-.tuca elauca, Gentiana
acaulis 3, vema 3, Gnaplialiura dioi-
lum 5, rychiii^ flos cuculi, f. tlo. pleno,
f. flo. albo, viscaria, v flo. pleno, v. llo.
albo, AidL>6a otficinalis, AlelitUs me-

Ussophyllum,PrimulaacaulU, auricula,
veris, v. elatior, v. fjolyanthos, v. flo.
pleno, Saxifrai^ ca?»pitona, cuneifblia,
gtn-anuides, g^um, hvpnoides, niutata,
nivalis, op|>o&itifolia, petra^a, um-
broc>a, Silene acaulis 3, Statice armeria,
a. flo albo, Stipa pennata, Teucri-
um, chameedrys montanum. Thymus
moiitanus 3*, ser)>\llum 3 «. citri cdon^,
vulgaris, zvgis *, Veronica hvbrida,
\"iola granditlora 3, g tlo luteo j, g. tlo.
maculato 3, odorau ccer. 3, o. tlo. ple-

SuBSECT. 8. Highly odoriferous Flowers.

6529. Flmvers with sweet smells are no less desirable than those with fine forms or colors. So little has
hitherto been done in the nomenclature and classification of vegetable odors, whether fixed or volatile,
that we can hardly submit any thing satisfactory on the subject. No small |jart, however, of the ]>lcasure
derived from flowers de|)ends on the;r odors ; and that these are very diflereiit, every one must have re-
marked who lias walked in a wood or a garden after a warm shower, or in a dewy summer's evening.
Perhaps the best motie to arrange the odors of plants in our present imperfect state of knowledge on the
6ubje<:t, would be to fix on some generally known smell?, as those of the rose, lily, thyme, &c. aiid
group the others under these in the way of natural orders ; and thus we should have rosodoreic, liliodorea?,
thymodoreae, &c ; but in default of some such, or any system, we shall here bring together a few namcb
under commonly received distinctions.

The entire plant aromatic. Agrimonia

eupatoria, Hyssopus officinalis. Salvia,
■ numerous species. Thymus vulgaris,

Acorua calamus.
The JUm-er meUiJtiioiit. Symphytum

officinale, orientale, tuberosum. Iris

persica, Lilium candidum, Hottonia

palustris, Cerinthe minor
The Jlon-er arotnatic and tnellijlum.s.

Balsamita vulgaris, Artemiaia abro-

tanum
LUiaceima smell*. Convallaria majalis,

\'iola odorata, Hyacinthus orientalis.

Narcissus, various species. Reseda

odorata

Srreet aromatic rmelU. Melissa offici-
nalis, Monarda didyina. Origanum
baailicum. Thymus citri odorus Cheir-
anthus cheiri. Calendula otticinalis

The JUmer snielling like ha;/. Asperula
odorata, taurina, Galium boreale,
Stellaiia graminea, Tussiiago fira-
grans, Antlioxanthum vemim, Helio-
tropSum indicum

Anise smelt , Primula verb, elatior,
acaulis, Scandix odorata, Anethuin
graveolens, Angelica archargelic.A

SterHutalory smelU- Achillea ptarml-
ca, vulgaris, Dictamnus albus

Soporific nnclU. Hamulus lupulus.

Atropa belladonna, Nicotiana Ta>

bacuin
Kighi-smi'lling Jtorrers. Hes|>eris iuh.

tronalis, CKnothera fruticosa, uumila,

Cheiranthus cheiri, annuu-s, Triii'ceo-

lurn majas, Re;>eda odorata
Vulutile smells trhich perfume the m-ic-

rounilin^ utmiajihere. Lilium csmdi.

dum, Cheiranthus cheiri, Hesperisnia-

tronalis. Reseda odorata
Stinks. Astrantia major, Cimicifuga

fetida. Ferula asafcLtida, HeUel>o\ Us

foetidus. Allium, various ojiecit*, Scro-

phulariaaquatica, Anthemis cotulo.

SuBSECT. 9. Other selections of Flowers.

ft'SO. Other selections will readily occur to the florist who is conversant with the ample store of plants a^
his ci-mmand ; such as double flowers, flowers that continue in bloom the greater part of the year, flowers
for i-cat soils, &c. all which he may select from the indications in the tables already given. He may also
select, according to the Linnsean or natural orders, by referring to the tables ,588."and 589 ) in which the
genera are so arranged ; or acconling to the native habitation, native country, year of introduction, or
rarity, which circumstances he will find noted in the excellent catalogues of Sweet and Page.

Slbsect. 10. Botanical and other Assemblages of Plants. — Dial-Plants, Parasites, Ferns
and Mosses, Alpines, and a selection for a small garden.

6531. Botanical collections, as well as cabinets of shells and minerals, have been in vogue by the curious
since Solomon's time In many private families there is a taste for .■icientific botany ; in which case all
the hardy plants of the vegetable kingdom, as far as they are introduced into this country, are arranged
in their order according to some system ; and either in narrow beds, in which one species follows another;
or in groups, on lawn or gravel, in which the species most nearly allied according to the system adopted,
are placed together, each group containing an order {^'g 553.\ and all the orders of a class forming a
constellation of groups, connected at one point with the precetiing order, and at another with that wliich
follows. Sometimes a different arrangement is adopted, and all the plants that can l>e considere<l as orna-
mental are assembled in betls or borders, and all those that are merely curious, as ihe ferns, mosses, fungi,
&c or useful in agriculture or the arts, as the grasses, garden-plants, plants used' in dyeing, tanning, &c.
are' arranged in beds or groups in compartments by themselves. This is in general the mostsuiuble motie
for a private garden. With resjiect to the species to be introduced in these groups, the gardener will have
recourse to the tables already referred to, in which, in the Jussieuean table ^589),. under Graminea?, Cj
ueraceffi Junce», Rostiaceje, he will find all the grasses ; under Filices, all the ferns ; under Lyco|KHlinie,
u e planumosses ; under Equisetaceae, the equisetums, &c. The economical plants he will find under
p. r.eral heads in our view of the distribution of the British Flora (973.), and the £i)ecies he will find enu-
merated, and classed, in our Encyclopcedia of Agriculture. . , . , . , .u ,• . , .

{£>3^ Dial-rlants Among curious collections, it may sometimes be desired to assemble the dial-plants,
or »' ch as indicate the hours of the dav. An ample list of these has been given by Linnsus, in the Phi.
losorhira Botanica ; but the following, being plants generally known and easily procured, may be dcetqcd
sutt.cient lo complete a botanist's dial in Britain : —

Trasopojton luteum
Leontodon serotinum
Picris echioides

PajiaveT nudic lule
Hemerocallis fulva
Sonchus \x\U

alpiiuis

Convolvulus ar\ensis
Lap>a<ia comnnii is
Leontodon taraxacum

Opens in the Shuts from

morning.

Hou. .Min.

3 A

itngli
.Mir

Hypochseris maculata
NymphiL-a alba
liictuca sativa
Tagetes erecta
Anagallis arvensis
Hieracium pilo>ella .
Dianthus prolifer
Calendula arvensis
.Arenaria pun'i"'ea
Portulacn horlensis •
Malva caroliniana
Stellaria media •

Opens

III the

Shntsfrxm

ning.

HUllH to tlighl.

Hou

.Min.

Hou. Mi.)

6

7

4 .'.

.'> II

7

0

lit o

7

0

3 t

7

K

•i .•;

S

0

% ■ 11

8

a

1 1)

9

0

3 ;i

9

i<>

•i 3

9

lit

II IV!

9

III

12 1

9

10

9 la

SL S

88(5

PRx\CTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6533. In botar^alcollectionst some peculiarities of culture may be required for parasites, ferns, mosses,
fungi, and marine vegetables. The only hardy herbaceous parasite is the cuscuta, or dodder, a twmmg
plant found in hedges, and on hops, furze, thistles, and many weeds, with thread-like reddish stems, a
few small membranaceous scales, and balls of white or purplish flowers, which appear m July and Au-
gust They propagate themselves by seed, which germinates in the soil, and at first draws its nourish-
ment from tlience ; but the original root withers away as soon as the young stem has twined round any
other plant. In cultivating the cuscuta, it is easy to imitate nature by sowing the seeds at the root of a
thistle or whin. ... „ ,. ,j i. ^i. r /•

655t In raising ferjis'and mosses from seed, these being very small, should be sown on the surface of
peat-earth, ground to the finest powder: the seed need not be covered, but the pots .should be placed
in the shade, or in a vault ; and a moist close atmosphere produced by covering with a bell-glass, rendered
semi-opaque by a wash of mud. When they come up, they may be transplanted into pots of the smallest
size, and placed in situations formed in imitation of their natural sites. The more hardy ferns and
mosses, and also some of the fungi, will come up very well, if the entire plants, covered with ripe seed,
are strewed over a bed or border of peat-soil, completely shaded from the sun. The parent vegetables in
rotting will afford shelter and congenial nourishment to their infant offspring.

6535. Seeds of the fungi, hepatic^, algcB, and lichenes, may be sown in pots of fine earth, like the
mosses ; but manv require to be sown on pieces of decaying bark or wood, or on stones or pieces of lime,
or on walls, 8fC. 'Portions of these, or of whatever substances are requisite, should be procured and neatly
fitted to pots of six or eight inches' diameter ; the seed should be sown immediately when gathered, one
sort in a pot, and the pots set in a vault ; some kept damp and close by means of other pots whelmed over
them ; and others allowed more air, according to their natures. If it is wished to multiply specimens,
it may be done after they come up, by dividing the masses on which they grow.

6536. The culture of hardy marine productions, or submersed algce, may be attempted by forming a
cistern or basin of salt-water with shelves or terraces within, in the manner of the common aquarium.
(fig. 618.) Their pots or receptacles, in the form of rough cones or square blocks, may be formed from
basalt or compact limestone, and a specimen of the sea-weed, in which the seeds are supposed to be ripe,
attached to each receptacle ; or some of the receptacles may be placed in the sea near the fuci, which it is
desired to introduce to the marine aquarium ; and when the young fuci appear, the stones may be re-
moved to the cistern, and placed on a higher or lower terrace, according to the depth of water supposed
to be requisite. It has not been proved, that the motion and alternate immersion and exposure to air
produced by the tides is essential to the growth of marine vegetables ; but if it is, these circumstances can
be imitated by pumping the marine aquarium dry once a-day into a cistern above its level, and then al-
lowing the water to return gradually ; or the same thing might be effected without the labor of pumping,
by two moderate-sized cisterns fixed like scales on the ends of a moving beam, for weights, &c. The
lichenes of fresh-water are of easy cultivation.

6537. Alpines. A very general assemblage of plants is formed by gardeners under the title of aZ/j/ne*.
These ought properly to consist only of such plants as grow on high mountains ; but the gardener adds to
them all very dwarf small plants that are difficult to preserve in a state of cultivation. Some of these, in-
stead of being alpine, are arenarious, sea-side, or bog plants. Alpine plants are universally very low,
bushy, and evergreen. In their native sites, they are covered by snow great part of the year, and conse-
quently never experience either violent cold, violent heat, or intense light. The atmosphere which sur-
rounds them is of light or thin air, almost always highly charged with vapor, and the soil in which they
grow is generally soft, black, and peat-like, forming a thin stratum on rock, or filling up the chinks of
rocks or stones, and always moist. Art imitates these circumstances, by putting such plants in small
pots of peat or bog-earth, well drained by gravel, or scarcely drained at all, or mixed with stones, or with
sand, according to the habitation to be imitated. The pots are kept, during winter, under glass in
frames, in a situation exposetl only to the morning sun ; and in summer they are removed to a full
northern exixisure, or screens placed so as to produce this effect in their winter situation. Care is taken
to water three or four times a-day during summer, and to keep the ground around the pots constantly
moist; and in winter to protect by mats, in addition to the glass, when the cold is likely to be greater
than 25° or 30°. Perhaps an improvement in the management of alpine i)lants would be to set the pots,
in the summer season, on a grating or frame of cast-iron, placed a few inches' distance above a cistern or
pond of water, by which means a constant evaporation would take place, and a moist cool atmosphere
be produced. In winter they might remain in the same situation, protected by frames ; or they might be
removed to their usual site ; or the pots might be arranged in beds, and a pipe, finely pierced with holes,
in Loddige's manner, might pass along the centre of each bed, at such a distance above it as that the
shower would just cover the bed. A shower might thus be applied at pleasure, and the plants kept moist
by prolonged and gentle rains, instead of being deluged by sudden and heavy rains from the watering-pot.
Whatever plan be adopted, it is essential that the site be open to the morning sun only during winter, and
to only one or two hours' sun during summer, and that it should not be shaded by trees. Professor
Thouin arranged a bank for alpine plants in the Paris garden, and has given an account of it, accompanied
by some very judicious reasoning, in the Annates de Musee, (see a translation in Hort. Trans, vol. i. App.) ;
but experience shows, that plants of this description never thrive long on beds or banks of any kind :
those planted by Professor Thouin never did much good, and in the course of two years, as we were in-
formed on the spot, many of them died off, and the rest became too luxuriant for the situation. Potting
is by far the best mode, as each individual plant may then be examined at the root as well as the top and
its soil or situation changed at pleasure. From the rarity of this class of plants, the difficulty of keeping
them, their vivid green, neat shapes, small size, and many of them flowering early in spring they are
much prized, and collections made in most flower-gardens of note ; we shall, therefore, give a list of the
leading species of alpines, most of which will be found in a former table (64«9.), as plants for the front
row of the border : —

Perennials. Achillea alpina 3, Aoo-
nitum pjrenaicum, Adoxa moscha-
tellina 3, Aiujfa alpina, genevensi.s.Al-
chemilla alpina, Alyssum alpestre.
Anemone alpina, apennina, baldensis.
Antirrhinum triomithophorum 3, A-
c|uile|?ia alpina, Arabis alpina 3, bel-
hdifolia 3, lucida 3, sibirica 3, Aretia
alpina 3, helvetica 3, vitaliana3, Arnica
bellidiastrum 3, montana 5, scor-
pioides 3. Astrajjalus alpinus, Bellium
oellidioides 3 s, Cacalia alpina. Cam-
panula alpina 3, carpatica 3, Cerastium
alpinum, Cheiranthus alpinus 3, hel.
veticus 3, Cherleria sedoides, Chiyso-

glenium alteniifolium, oppositifolium,
istus tuberaria 3 «, Cnicus spinosis-
simus 3, Convolvulus soldanella*, Cor-
tusa mathioli j, Cot> ledon lutea, umbi-
licus, Crepis rigida, sibirica, Cjpre-
{•edium acaule 3, album 3, calceo-
lus 3,c.fol. glabris 3, canadense 3, Dian-
thus alpinus, jjlaucns, Draba aizoides.

ciliaris, stellata, Drvas octopetala 3,
Krifferon alninum, trinus alpinus »,
Frankenia hirsuta, laevis, (jentiana
adscendens 3 », ciliata 3 », pneu-
nionanthe 3, punctata 3, purjiurea 3,
sapouaria 3, septemlida 3, vema H,
Glaux maritima, Gnaphalium al-
pinum 3, Gundelia toumefortii 3 *,
Gunnera iierjjensa », Hypochoeris hel-
vetica, H>-poxis erecta * 3, Isopyrum
thalictroides *, lychnis flos-cnculi,
quadridentata 3, vespertina, Moerhin-

fia muscosa, Orontium japonicum 3 *,
anax quinquefolium 3 *, Pamassia
palustris, Peganum harmala «, Pentho-
rum sedoide:^. Phlox pilosa 3, setacea
3 s, subulataji, Primula cortucoides 3,
farinosa 3, helvetica 3, intejrrifolia 3,
longifi)lia 3, marginata, nivafis. Ra-
nunculus alpestris, glacialis, pamassi-
folius, Kubus arcticus 3, chamtemo-
rus3, rosaefolius ,3, saxatilis, 3, San-
scviera camea 3 «, Saxifraifa aizoides.

aizoon, androsacea, autumnalis, ccesia,
caespitosa, cemua, cordifolia, cotyle-
don, crassifolia, cuneifolia, geranoides,
geum, granuiata, g. flo. pleno, mos-
chata nivalis, paimata, rivularis, stel-
laris, viscosa, Sedum, aizoon, album,
dasyphyllum, diificiens forsterianum,
glaucum, hybridum, quadrifidum, sex.
angulare, villosum, virens, Semper-
vivum arachnoideum 3, cuspidatum 3,
globiferum 3, hirtum 3, sediforme 3,
tectoruin 3, Sibbaldia procumbens 3,
Sibthorpia europaea 3, Silene acaulis
3, vallesia, Sisvrinchum bermudiana
3 «, Thlaspi alpestre, Tiarella cordi-
folia3, tritolia3, Valeriana tuberosa,
Veronica alpina, aphvUa, Veronica
pinnata, Viola cenesia 3', pedata 3 *.
Bulks. Bulbocodium vernum 3 s, Cy.
clamen coum 3, europsum 3, e. flo.
albo, Ixia bulbocodium 3 «, Ophrys
api&ra, muscifera, ovata. Orchis bifo.
lia, conopsia, maculata, militaris, pyia-

Book II.

CATALOGUE OF HARDY TREES.

887

midaljs, Scilla amoDna 3, autnmna-
lii 3, bifolia 3, b. Ho. albo 3, campa-
nulata 3, italica 3, lilio-hyacinthus, I.
tlo. pleno, lu^taiiica 3 *, praecox 3,
iibirica 5, vema. [Thit U a mott beau-
tifiil trihe tif Utile early Uue-Jlotrering
fkants, ileterring a place in every Jiower-
franleii.] TrilUum erectum 3.
beHHuils. Campanula sibirica, virgata, |
Delphinium aconiti, Dianthus armeria, I
monspeliacus. Digitals lutea, Gna- |

( n

ihalium luteo album, sj-Ivaticum,
'rvpsophila muralis, IJnum striatum,
Afonarda rosea, Phyteuma comosa.
Ranunculus pennsylvanicus, Scabiosa
columbaria, uranlca, Scorzonera re-
sedifolia, Teucriura campanulatum,
Tlilapsi hirtum, saxatiie. Thymus al-
pinus, granditlorus, patavinus, Tra-
gopo^n crucifolius, Trichostemabra
chiata, Triponella platrcarpos.
Hartly aiuutaU. Arctotii anthemoides m.

trlstis *, Artemisia annua, pectinata.
Bellis annua, Bellium bellidioides,
minutum, Biscutelia coronopifolia.
Campanula erinus, hybrida, Cheiran-
thus maritimus, m.' Ho. albo, Cis-
tus guttatus *, Clajtonia perfoliata,
33, Dianthus prolifer 3, Geranium
BTuinum *, Lychnis Iseta, quadnden-
tata, Silene acteon, rubella, Viola tri.
color, viol- tii. mac. major, y. tri. mac.

6538. A collection of flowers for a small garden. Having given a selection of the most rare plants, and
such as in a state of cultivation are the most difficult to preserve ; we shall conclude with a list of flowers,
tlie most common, hardy, and showy, which flower great part of the year, will thrive in almost any soil
and situation, and which are recommended as fit for the commonest description of flower-borders, shrub-
beries, or parterres.

Flowering from February to May.

Red. Hepatica triloba. Anemonehortcn-
. sis, Alvssumdeltoideum. BeUisperen-
nis. £rinus alpinus. Krythronium
dens canis. Fritillaria imperialis, me-
leagris. Fumaria solida. Hyacinthus
orientalis. Orobusvemus. Phlox subu-
lata, setacea. Primula vulgaris, villosa,
longiflora, ferinosa.
B/uf." Hepatica trilob. Anemo. Pulsatilla,
apennina. Cynoglossum omphaloides.

Crocus vemus. Mnscari botrfoides
comosTim. Iris pumila. Primula auri-
cula. Pulmonaria oiiicinalis, >irginica.
Scilla prffcoi, bifolia, vema. Viola.
i'eUiyrv. Adonis vemalis. Alyssum sax-
atiie, minimum. Crocus verrus, sul-
phureus, susianus. Erythronium a-
mericanum. FritiUaria imperialis.
Heildiorus'hyemalis. Narcissus angus
tissimus, minor, bulbocodlum, tnan-

drus, jonquilla, pseudo-narcissus, bi-
color, tazetta. Primula veris.
JVhHe. Anemone nemorosa, hepatica.
Arabis alpina. Bellis perennis. Carda-
mine pr?.teiisis. Crocus biflorus. Ery-
thronium dens canis. Galanthus ni-
valis. Helleborus niger. Lecucojum
vemum. Primula nivalis, \-uIgaris.
Ranunculus amplexicanlis. ."^angui-
naria canadensis. Tiarella cordifiiua.

Red. Antirrhmum majtis. Astraatia ma-
jor, minor. Aquilegia vulgaris, cana-
densis. Anemone hortensis. Bellis pro-
lifera. Cistushelianthemum. Cheiran-
thus chetri, annuns, incanus. Chelone
barbata, oblitjua. Dianthus barbatus,
superbus, caesius. Dictamnus alb.rub.
Dodecatheon meadia. Epilobium an-
gustissimum. Fumaria Formosa. Ge-
ranium macrorhizum, sylvaticum,
sanguineum, Lancastriense. Gladiolus
oom munis. I vis versicolor. Lathyrus
latifolius. Lilium chalcedonicum.
Lychnis viscaria, flos-cucuU, chalce-
donica. I.ythrum salicaria, virgatura.
Monarda didyma. Orobus varius. Or-
chis muscula. Papaver orientale. Pae-
onia officinalis, tenuifolia. Phlox gla-
berrima, stoloiifera, ovata, amrena,
intermedia, pilosa, maculata, Rud-
beckia purpurea. Scilla nutans.
Tulipa gesneriana, suaveolens suav.
flo. pleno. Thalictnmi aquilegifoli-

Floweringfrom May to August.

ura. Valeriana rubra. Veronica car-

Blue. Anemone hortensis. Aster alpi-
nus. Aconitum napellus. Campanula
persicifolia, ptmula, carpatica. Ca-
tananche ccerulea. Cheiranthns inca-
nus, annuiLS. Centaurea cyanus. Del-
phinium grandiflorum, eiatum, azu-
reum. Gentiana saponaria, septemfi-
da, asclepiadea, acaulis. Geranium pa-
lustre. Hemerocdllis ccerulea, Iriscris-
tata, san.bucina, germanica, xiphium
xiphioides. Lanum perenne, pumila.

campsnulata, nutans. Sophora austra-
lis. Veronica prostrata, chamaedrys,
incana, spicata, gentiauoides. Vinca
major.

'ellotv. Allium moly. Antirrhinum
spartium. Caltha palustris. Cheiran-
thus cheiri. Cistus helianthemum.
Coreopsis tenni&lia, aurea, >erticillata.

Hemerocallis flava, fulva. Lilium
canadense, bulbiierum, tigrinum.
tEnothera pumilia, fruticosa. Papaver
cambricum. Tulipa sylvestris, ges-
neriana. TroUius europasus, asiaticus.
Viola tricolor, grandiflora, lutea.
White. Antirrhinum, majus. Anthericura
liliago, liliastrum. Aetata racemosa.
Anemone dichotoma. Bellis peren-
nis. CampanulapersicifoUa, pumilum.
Cheiranthus incanus, annuus. Conval-
laria polygonatum. Dictamnus albus
Hesperis matronalis. Iris xiphioides.
Lilium candidum. Narcissus poeticus.
Omithogalum pyramidale. Phlox sua-
veolens. Pancratium maritimum. Po-
lygonum viviparum. Ranunculus aco-
nitifolius. Saxi&aga granulata. Scilla
campanulata, nutans. Stipa pennata.
Spirea anmcus, lilipendula, ulmaria,
tnfoliata. Thalictrum aquUegifolium.
Tulipa ge<aieriana. Veronica spicat^,
pinnata. Vinc4 minoi.

Chap. IX.

Catalogue of Hardy Trees, with showy Flowers.

6539. All trees may he considered as ornamental by adding to the beauty of land-
scape ; but we mean here to confine ourselves to such as are ornamental, by the con-
spicuousness of their flowers. These are not numerous ; they are all of the deciduous
kind, and their time of inflorescence is limited to two or three months. The principal
are the horse-chestnut, acacia, the fruit-trees in their wild state, some species of mes-
pilus, sorbus, cytisus, robinia, &c. ; these, with some others, we have arranged accord-
ing to their height and time of flowering, in order to admit of a selection for the back
rows of the shrubberj'. None of the few evergreen trees which we possess, have showy
flowers, but we have added the names of these, with their heights, to facilitate a selec-
tion for mixing with the deciduous sorts in the mingled or grouped shrubbery. ^Ve
have omitted all those showy flowering and evergreen trees wliich do not usually attain
the height of twenty feet, deeming it more suitable for our purpose to include them
among the shrubs of that size. All the useful and curious species of trees will be found
in Page's Prodronuis, with their heights, time of flowering, soil, mode of propagation,
and other circumstances. In the Arboricultural Catalogue (Part III. Book III.
Chap. VIII.', the most useful timber-trees are described, and the shapes of trees, and
their colors, and characteristic expressions, are treated of both under Arboricultural and
Landscape Gardening. (See Part III. Book III. Chap. II. Book IV. Chap. II.)
Much less attention has of late been paid to tlie introduction of new sorts of trees
into this country, than to the introduction c-f fruits and flowers. The French and
Germans seem to excel us in this respect, A considerable number of new sorts of

3 L 4

8B8

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

ornamental trees have lately been added to the British Arboretum, by Messrs. Loddiges,
and specimens of them are conspicuously arranged in the Hackney nursery, to show
their forms and characters.

6540.

Sect. I. Deciduous Trees with showy Flowers.
DECIDUOUS TREES. —MARCH AND APRIL.

Height frtnn20Stiot% ft. From 2S feet to 36 feet.

RED.

Pvrus angustifolia, *.
AVIespUus oxycant, pr. j.

WHITE.
Pninus cerasus, ».
dotnestica, i.
nigra, ».
Pynis coronaria, i.
communis, */
— , t\. plen. I,
— fo.var. »,
YELLOW.
Salisbuiia adiantifblia

GREEN.

Taxus baccifera

BROWN.

Populus candicans

WHITE.
Prunus padus, *.

— — rubra, »

— pennsylvanica, »
SaUx aniygdalina, s.

BROWN.

Pinus larix microcarpa

— — pendula
Populus laevigata
— nigra^

Frmn 36 feet to 44 feet.

RED.
Pyrus aria.

dentata, t.
WHITE.

YELLOW.

Ulmus americana

— — alba

— — pendula

— campestrissativa
GREEN.

Quercus robur fruc. sesi.

— rubra

— — montana

— tinctoria
BROWN.

Populus graeca
Ulraus montana

— nemoralis

— suberosa

From 44 feet to 52 feet.

WHITE.
Prunus avium, 3.

BROWN.

Populus alba

RED.
Acer tjirtaricum
Cercis siliquastrum, s.
' ' pilus coccinea, *.
oxyacantha rosea, i.
— fol. var. s.
Pyrus spectabilis, s.
prunifolia, i.
salicifolia, s,
WHITE.
r campestre
fol. arg.
Celtis ocidentalis
Cercis siliquastr. fl. al. *.
Mespilus acerifolia, *.

— apiifolia, s.

— azEirolus, t.

— cordifoUa, ».

— cms galli, s.

— — eliptica

— — fissa

— — grossularf.

— — nybrida

— — incisa
— nigra

— oxycantha

— — aurea

— — pleno

— tanacetifoU
YELLOW.

Acer montanum

— dasycarpura

— hybridum

— lobatum

— n^fundo

— pennsylvanicum
Mespilus flava, 3.
Carpinus americana

— betulus
Praxinus americana

— — pubescens

— — rubra

WHITE.

Betula daurica
Juglans Eilba

— angustifolia

MAY.

RED.

WHITE. WHITE.

Celtis australis Pyrus torminalis

iSsculus hippocastan. s. Juglans regia

— - fol. aur. *. I _ _ major

— — — arg, «.,Platanusorientalis

From 52 feet upwa Ji.

YELLOW.
Ulmus campestris

GREEN.

Quercus robur

BROWN.

Populus dilatata

ohvse&rmii

GREEN.

BROWN.
Alnus glutinosa

— iacinnta

— quercifolia

— spinulosa
oblongata

iipticB

YELLOW.

Cupressus disticha
Fagus sjlvatica for- aur,

— — — arg.

— purpurea

— — cuprea
Fraxi. excelsior simi>Uci.

— — stricta

— — variegata

BROWN.

Populus monolifera

YELLOW.

Quercus alba

— aquatica

— — attenuata

— — heterophyl,

— — indivisa

— — longifolia

— Candida

Quercus coccinea elon.
— — foliata

BROWN.

Populus angulata

WHITE.

Betula excelsa
Platanus occidentalis
— — acerifbl

YELLOW.

Aceropulus
Quercus exoniensis

— — latifolius

— — turner!

— coccinea

— — montana

BROWN.
Pinus larix

YELLOW.

Fagus sylvatica
Fraxinus excelsior

— — altissima

— — pendula

GREEN.

Quercus palustris

— prinus

— latifolia

— longifolia

BROWN.

Book II.

ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS.

889

DECIDUOUS TREES. — JUNE.

Height Jrom 20 to n fat.

1

From nfitl to 36 fed.

From 36 fiet to ^fett.

From 44 feet to 52 feel.

From 5i feet uprvaru',.

1 RED.
Xsculus pavia
— — rosea

RED.

RED.
Acer saccharinum

I

RES.

RED.

WHITE.
Mespiljis odoratissima, *.
MajjnoUa cordifolia, t.
Caatanea vesca, fol. aur.

— — heteroph.

— — fol. lucidis
Diospyrui lotus

— Tirginiana

WHITE.
AfapnoUa tripetala, t.
Prunus serotina, t.
Pvrus aucuparia, t.
Morus alba
_ nigra

1 WHITE.
Pjrus hybrida, «.

WHITE.
Castanea Tesca

WHITE.
Pninm domestica, «.

YELLOW.

.Bsculus flava
CatalpasyringiefbUa, p.

YELLOW.
Cvtiisus laburnum, t.
Acer platanoides lacinia.

— pseudoplat. fol. arg.

_ _ — aur.

TELLOW.

YELLOW.

Acer platanoides
— p*eudopIatanu»

YELLOW.

BLUE.
Acer nibrum

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

GREEK.
MagnoUa acuminata, :

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

JULY.

BROWN.

BROWN.

Betula nigra

RED. '

RED.
Gleditschia triacanthos
Robinia viscosa

RED.

RED.

RED.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

YELLOW.

aymnocladus canadensis
Ailathus ^andulosa

YELLOW.

TiUaalba

— americana
Betula popuUfoUa

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Liriodendroo tulipifera
— integrifoUa
YELLOW.

6541.

Sect. II. Evergreen Trees.

EVERGREEN TREES.

All of these flower in March, April, and May.

Beif(UfromiOJt.to3Sfl. From iS feet to 36 feet.

- 1

Pinus abies alba , — picea

— cenibra 1 — abies nigra

— lanceolate | — — rubra

— palustris i — canadensis

— pumila — cedrus
Quercus gramuntia Juniperus rii giniana, p.

— suber Pnmus caroiiniana

From36feet to 44 feet.

— variabiUs

— sjlvest.marit.

— pungens
Quercus esculus

— phellos

— — virens

From 44 feel to 52 feet.

From 52fiH * upmtrd4.

Pinus abies

— Jnoj)S

— resinosa

Pinus pinaster

- ^gida

— sjlvestris
_ strobus

Propagation and culture. See Arboricultcire. Most of the trees enumerated in both the foregoing
sections are highly ornamental as single objects on a lawn ; and form curious chamber plants when
dwarfed and potted in the Chinese manner. {^Hort. Trans, iv. 289.)

Chap. X.

Ornamental Shrubs.

6542. The ornamental shrubs are a much more numerous tribe than the trees : we
shall first notice the more select sorts, as the rose, rhododendron, althaea, &c. and after-
wards, in succession, the deciduous kinds, evergreens, creepers, and sorts for particular
purposes.

Sect. I. Select Shrubs.

6543. The term select shrubs we apply to such shrubs as have been much cultivated,
and of which numerous varieties arc recognised as beautiful.

SuBSECT. 1. Rose. — RosOf L. Icos. Polyg. L. and Rosacea, 3. Rosier, Fr. ;
Rosenstock, Ger. ; and Rosajo, Ital.

6544. The rose is known by every body at first sight, and has been a favorite flower
from time immemorial among the civilised nations of Europe and Asia. The shrub
varies in size in diflferent species, from one foot to six or eigDt, and the colors are red,
white, yellow, purple, black, striped ; simple, or in almost numberless shades and mix-
tures ; and single, semi-double, and double. It is cultivated in every garden, from that

890

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III,

of the most humble cottager upwards ; some species, as R. centifolia damascena, &c. are
also cultivated by commercial gardeners on a large scale for distilling rose-water, and for
making attar, or essential oil of roses. Six pounds of rose-leaves will impregnate by dis-
tillation a gallon of water strongly with their odor ; but a hundred pounds afford
scarcely half an ounce of attar. The rose is also used in medicine. Botanists are not
agreed as to the number of original species of this genus, some regard all the European
species as originated from one source ; others, and especially the moderns, divide them
into species, subspecies, and varieties. The most scientific work which has appeared
on the roses in England, is the Rosarum Monographia of Lindley, 1819, in which
above a hundred species or subspecies are described, and some of them figured ; and
Miss Laurence has published ninety plates of A Collection of Roses from Naturey
3 810. In France, Guillemeau has published Histoire Naturelle de la Rose, 1800;
and Redoute and Thory are engaged in a splendid work, in folio, entitled Les RoseSy
containing plates of all the known species and varieties of this flower. Thory has pub-
lished a separate tract on their culture, entitled Prodrome de la Monographie du Genre
Rosier, &c. 1820; Pronville, a Nomenclature RaisonnSe, in 1818; and Vibert, Ob-
servations, &c. in 1820. A copious and intelligent account of the Scotch roses has been
lately given by Sabine [Hort. Trans, iv. 231.), and some hundreds of new varieties have
flowered from seedling plants, in the nursery of Lee, and will soon be found in his sale-
cataloffues.

6345. Species and varieties. The lists of the London and Paris nurserymen contain upwards of 500
ames; that of Calvert and Co., EnglisI
Rouen, enumerates near 900 sorts. The greater part of these have been raised from seed on the continent.

Calvert and Co., Englishmen, who have established a nursery at Bonne Nouvelle near

where it ripens better than in this country, within the last thirty years. A number of varieties have also
been raised in Britain, especially of the R. spiiiosissima, or Scotch rose, of which above 300 varieties
are procurable in the Glasgow nursery. New varieties are raised in France and Italy annually ; Villaresi,
royal gardener at Monza, has raised upwards of fifty varieties of Itosa indica ; not one of which have, as
far as we know, reached this country. Some of them are quite black, others shaped like a ranunculus,
and many of them highly odoriferous. The following table contains nearly 150 species and varieties of sin-
gle roses, of longest standing, arranged according to their time of flowering, heights, and colors; and of
the greater number of which there are double and semi-double varieties of the same colors. The names
are chiefly taken from Page's Prodro7nus, and the plants are known by them in the Hammersmith nursery.
Ample lists, as already observed, may be had from all the principal nurserymen, and the best mode of
making a selection is to view the plants while in flower.

6546.

ROSES. — MAY.

Height frmn 0 to 1 foot. \ From 1 foot to 2 feet.

PURPLE.
VARIEGATED.

I RED.

I Rosa spinosissiina rub.p.

— liroecox

WHITE.
I Rosa spinosissima alb. p.

— — stricta
I rURPLE.

I Rosa sjiinosiss. marm.p.
j VARIEGATED.
, Rosa spinosiss. pannic. j>.

From 2 feet to 3 feet.

From 5 feet to 5 feet. | From 5 feet to S feet.

PURPLE.
VARIEGATED.

RED.

Rosa pimpiiiellifolia

PURPLE.
VARIEGATED.

PURPLE.
VARIEGATED,

RED.
Hosa pumila

— pyreiiaica

— roxhiirghii, p.

— sibirica
YELLOW.

itosa prostrata, p.

RED.
Rosa alpina rubra

procera
l)roviiicialis

I WHITE.

I Rosa alpina

JUNE

RED.
Rosa centifolia
— nibiginosaci
-■- damascena

YELLOW.

Rosa lutea
— — bicolor

RED.

RED.

nccinea

Rosa ciucasica
— ferox

Rosaolympica
— villosa

— pendulina

piifolia

— cinnamonia

— rubiginosa

WHITE.

WHITE.

Rosa alba

— iniiscosa

— teneriften&is

YELLOW.

YElLOW.

WHITE.
YELLOW.

RED.
Rosa bland.s]>inis rubr.p.

— indica resplendens

— diversajflora, «.

— indica salicifolia, p

WHITE.
Rosa lucida

YELLOW.

JULY.

RED.
Rosa bland a, ;>.

WHITE.
YELLOW.

; PURPLE.

; Rosa minuta, d.

PURPLE.
,d.

YELLOW.
Rosa bracteata, p.

RED.
iRosa pennsylvanica, p.

I
1
i Rosa I

AUGUST.

I RED.

I RED.

I Rosa hirbinata

j — lyonii, v.

— rubifolia, ;).

j WHITE.

Rosa kainschatica
I YELLOW.

; Rosa americana lutea, p.

— — stricta

— caroHneana

PURPLE.

RED.

indica, v.

WHITE.
YELLOW,

1 WHITE.

' Rf»^s moschata

Book II. ROSE. 891

6547. Propagation By seed for new varieties, and chiefly by layers for continuing approved sorts.
They are also multiphed by budding, cuttings, and suckers. ^

6548. By seed. Ripe hips containing the seeds are obtained from semi-double and single flowers and to
nicrease the chance of new varieties, these should be taken from plants that have been planted am'one or
near to the sorts of which a cross is desired. We are not aware that Knight's mode of extracting the
stamina from the one parent, and dusting the stigma with the anthers of the other, has been applild to
the rose, but there can be no doubt it might be done in many instances. In France and Italy, the usual
mode IS to form a plantation of double and semi-double sorts mixed indiscriminately, and take the result
of promiscuous impregnation. Guillemeau has given lists of such as are adopted for this purpose : and
villaresi raised most of his beautiful varieties of the Rosa indica, by planting them among as many va-
rieties of the European roses as he could procure. Austen nurseryman at Glasgow, and Lee of Ham-
mersmith, mix all the sorts of Scotch roses together in the same plantation. The other mode may be
compared to cross-breeding at random ; and this to random-in and in-breeding.

6549. Process. Few of the hips are ripe before October, but most sorts that come to maturity in this
country, will be fit to gather by November. The seeds of the rose require to be one year in the soil before
they vegetate j they may either be immediately rubbed or washed out, and preserved among sand or cin-
der-dust : or the hips entire may be so preserved a full year, when the husks will be perfectly rotten, and
the seed being separated and sown in February, will come up in the May or June following. The best
place to lay up the hips is the floor of a cellar, such as that used for storing roots ; but in whatever way
they are preserved, care must be taken that they are not laid together in such masses as to produce fer-
mentation ; and that the heap be turned over frequently in course of the twelve months, to promote
decay. The seeds should be sown in a soft moist soil, such as that ccrmposed of equal parts of sand and
vegetable mould, in a shady situation ; it may be covered from a fourth to half an inch, according to the
size of the seeds, and the surface should be kept moist by watering in the evenings, till the plants have
come up and attained a few inches in height. Early in the second spring, they may be transplanted in
rows a foot apart every way, and a year afterwards again transplanted to a distance more or less, accord-
ing to the sorts. Here they are to remain till they flower, which varies in different sorts, from the third
to the fifth year, but most commonly they flower the fourth summer.

6550. Bi/ layers. The common mode is to lay down the young shoots of the preceding summer late in
autumn, or early in the succeeding spring, and then, with the exception of the moss-rose, and one or two
others, they form rooted plants by the next autumn. But it is now found, that if the same shoots are
laid down when the plant is beginning to flower in July, they will, with a few exceptions, produce roots
and be fit to remove the same autumn, by which a whole year is gained. Such sorts as do not root in one
year must be left on the stools till the second autumn ; but layers made when the shoots are in a growing
state, and furnished with healthy leaves, root much more freely than shoots of ripe wood. After the
plants are removed from the stools, they are planted in nursery rows, and in a year, the blossom-buds
naving been carefully pinched off from the first laying down, they will be fit for removal to their final
destination. The stools are then to be pruned, and the soil stirred and enriched on the general principles
already laid down. (2004.)

6551. By suckers arid dividing the roots. Many of the commoner sorts admit of being rapidly multiplied
in this way ; and the plants obtained may be planted in their final destination at once.

6552. By cuttings. Most of the sorts might, no doubt, be propagated from cuttings of the young wood ;
cut at a joint where it is beginning to ripen, and planted in sand and vegetable mould under a hand-glass.
But this mode is only adopted with such sorts as strike easily, as the R. indica, and other eastern species.

6553. By budding. ' This mode of propagating roses is adopted chiefly with the rare sorts, and such as
arre difficult to propagate by layers ; for it is found, that plants so originated, even though on stocks of
the hardier sorts, are less durable than such as are raised by any^of the other modes. But the chief use of
budding in the culture of the rose is to produce standard roses, or to produce several sorts from the same
stock. Standard roses are a modern invention, it is generally supposed of the Dutch, first carried to
Paris, and about twenty years ago to England. They are highly artificial objects, of great beauty, and
form magnificent oriiaments to parterres and borders. The stocks are either of the tree-rose (R. viJlosa,
"W.), or of any sorts of woody wild roses, as R. scabriuscula, heterophylla, or surculosa, Wds. They are
budded at different heights from three to seven feet, but commonly between five and six feet from the
ground. A stock in the Paris garden, which carries several sorts, has a naked stem of nearly fifteen feet,
and there arc others at Malmaison and the Grand Trianon, of equal height. These stocks are, both in
France and Engl.md, procured from woods and copses, and after being planted in nursery lines, are often
budded the same summer, sometimes in spring by the scalopemode of budding (2059.), Pceil poussant of the
French ; and never later than the succeeding spring or summer by the common mode, Poeil dormant, Fr.
Generally two buds are inserted on opposite sides of the stock, but often three or four, or a dozen, in
alternate positions en the upper six, or twelve inches of the stem. Every stock is supported by a rotl,
which should reach a foot or eighteen inches higher than the situation of the bud ; to this rod the stock
is tied, and afterwards the shoots from the buds, which are otherwise liable to be blown out by high winds.
The Paris nurseryn.en being supplied with stronger stocks than can readily be procured in England, and
having a better climate, and more experience in the culture of roses, excel us in this department of rose
propagation, and tl.eir standards afford an article of commerce with other countries. Their common
plants, raised by layers, are also in extensive demand, but in these we equal, if not surpass them. Fine
collections of stand; rd roses from Paris, maybe seen in the Hammersmith nursery, in the Comte de
Vandes's garden at Bayswater in the Duchess of Dorset's at Knowle, and at various other places.

6554. Final siitiation. No species of rose, wild or cultivated, thrives well in or very near
large towns, on account of the smoke and confined air. The yellow and Austrian roses
(R. lutea and L. hicolor) are difficult to flower in any situation, but seldom or never blow
in the suburbs of London : even the monUily rose does not thrive so well there as at
some miles' distance in the country. Roses are generally planted in the front of shrub-
beries, Rnd ill borders ; they are also planted by themselves in rose-gardens or rosaries
{Rg. 620.), ill groups on lawn or gravel, either with common box or other edgings, or
with edgings of wire, in imitation of basket-work. These last are called baskets of
roses ; the ground enclosed in the basket-margin is made convex, so as to present a
greater surface to the eye, and increase the illusion ; the shoots of tlie stronger
sorts are layered or kept down by pegs till Uiey strike roots into the ground, so
that the points of the shoots furnished with buds appear only above the soil, which is
sometimes covered witn moss or sniail shells. Under this treatment, the whole surface
of the basket becomes, in two or three years, covered %nth rose-buds and leaves of
one or of various sorts. Where one of the larger free-growing sorts is employed, as the
moss, or any of the Provins (rose de cramoti, Fr.) varieties, one plant may be trained
so as to cover a surfa.c cf many square yards. Where different sorts are introduced ia

«92

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

tlie same basket, they should be as much as possible assimilated in size of leaves and
flowers, and habits of growth, and as different as possible in the colors of tlieir flowers.
By mixing small-flowered with large showy sorts, the beauty of the former is lost with-
out adding to the effect of the latter.

6555. In rosaries commonly but one plant of a sort is introduced, and the varieties whicli most resemble
each other are placed together, by which their distinctions are better seen. Particular compart-
ments are oftendevoted to one species, as the Scotch, Chinese, yellow, l;urnet-leaved, &c. which has an
excellent effect ; sometimes a piece of rock-work in the centre is covered with the creeping roses, and
on other occasions these are trained to trellis-work, which forms a fence or hedge of roses round the
whole. In this hedge, standard-roses are sometimes introduced at regular distances ; a grove of standards
is also frequently formed in the centre of the rosary, and sometimes they are introduced here and there
in the beds.

6:556. Standard roses, however, have certainly the best effect in flower-borders, or when completely de-
tached on a lawn : their sanieness of form, and that form being com|)actand lumpish, prevents them from
grouping well, either among themselves or with other objects. Their beauty consists in their singularity
as rose-plants, and in their flowors ; and, therefore, to display these beauties to the best advantage, they
require to be seen singly, or in succession. This is the case where they occur as single objects on a lawn,
or in the centre in, and here and there among, groups of flowers ; or in lines or avenues, along flowers
walks. In the gardens of the Grand Trianon, they are planted profusely in large masses, like plantations of
trees and shrubs, and there much of their individual beauty is lost, and no good general effect produced.

6)57. Soil. Most species of the rose in their wild state grow in sandy and rather poor soil, excepting
such as are natives of woods, where the soil is richer, and comparatively moist. But all the cultivated
r;)ses, and especially the double-flowering kinds, require a rich loamy soil, inclining to clay rather than
saiid; and they require also, like most double flowers, plenty of moisture when in a growing state.

6558. General culture. To produce strong flowers, roses require some attention to
pruning ; old wood should be yearly cut out, and the young shoots thinned and shortened
according to their strength, and whether number or magnitude of flowers be v.anted.
Those sorts which throw up numerous suckers should be taken up every three or four
years, reduced and replanted ; and most sorts, excepting the standards, will be improved
i)y the practice, provided attention be paid to remove a part of the old soil, and replace it
by new. The points of the shoots of the more delicate sorts of roses are very apt to die
when pruning is performed in winter or spring ; to avoid the consequences of this evil,
many give a second pruning in June, or do not prune the tender sorts at all till the be-
ginning of that month. A very good time for performing the operation is immediately
after the bloom is over ; cutting out old exhausted wood, shortening shoots which have
flowered to a good bud accompanied with a healthy leaf, but leaving such shoots as are
still in a growing state untouclied till October. Where very large roses are wanted, all
the buds but that on the extreme point of each shoot should be pinched off as soon as they
make their appearance, and the plant liberally supplied with water. To lessen evapor-
ation, and keep up a constant moisture at the roots of their roses, the Paris gardeners
generally mulch them with half-rotten stable-dung, or partially rotten leaves.

6.559. Forwarding and retarding roses. The earliest flowering rose is the monthly, which, in mild
seasons, and planted against a wall, will sometimes flower in the beginning of April ; the roses next in
succession are the cinnamon, which flowers in May ; the damask, in the end of May or beginning of
June ; the blush, Yoik and Lancaster, Provence and Dutch hundred-leaved, in June, July, and August.
The Virginia and musk roses are the latest European sorts ; they flower in September, and in shaded
situations will sometimes continue in bloom till the middle of October ; but the earliest rose (the monthly)
is also the latest, and generally continues flowering till interrupted by frost. The earliest sorts may be
materially forwarded by being planted against a south wall, and if portable sashes are placed before them,
and the wall is either flued and heated by fires, or a lining of dung placed behind, the plants may be
l-.rought to flower in February or March. The monthly rose being protected by glass in autumn, or aided
by artificial heat, may be continued in bloom till Christmas. A very common mode of obtaining late roses,
and one of the greatest antiquity (48.), is by cutting all the flower-shoots off" when the buds begin to ap-
I)ear, or by rubbing off" all the rudiments of shoots, of every kind, early in spring; a second crop is in
consequence produced, which will not be in a state to bloom before the autumn.

6560. Forcing the rose. The best sorts for this purpose are the common and moss Pro-
vence; the Indian sorts force well, or rather, in stoves, continue in bloom all the year; but
the commoner varieties of these not being fragrant, they are in less repute than the European
roses. Rose-plants should be a year in pots previously to the autumn when it is intended
to force them ; they should be planted in pots of six or eight inches' diameter, in rich
loam, and plunged in an open aiiy situation ; their flower-buds pinched off as they ap-
pear ; and the plants put early into a state of rest, by excluding the sun and rain, but

Book Ii; SELECT AMERICAN PEATEARTH TLANTS. S9S

not a free circulation of air. Abercrombie says, " There is no certainty of attaining a
fine blow of roses in the depth of winter by the most expensive artifices of forcing ; and
yet fine flowers may be produced early in the spring by any ordinary stove put in oper-
ation in December When the plants are first introduced, keep the air of the house at
about 50°, never letting it fluctuate to more than two or three degrees below or above.
In the second week, aim at 60° as the standard ; in the third week at S5^. When a
month has nearly elapsed, l)egin to increase the heat gradually to 7G ; having brought
it to this standard, let it afterwards exceed it from three to five degrees, rather than sink
below. A succession may be kept up by introducing some pots every eight or ten days."
6561. Insects. All the species of roses are very liable to the attacks of insects, especially of the aphides ;
some, and especially the briar and Scotch rose, are attacked by the Cynips rosce, which, by puncturing
the bark, occasions the production of rose-galls, and of those mossy tufls often seen on wild roses, which
were known formerly under the name of Bedegnar, and used in medicine. A great number ggi

of insects seem fond of the flowers of roses, from the appalling earwig {Forficula auricularia) ~
to the seemingly harmless lady-bird {Coccinella l-i-guttata) (Jig. 621.), which deposits its larvje
(a) in the leaves of various species, both wild and cultivated. There seems no remedy for
insects on plants in the open air so simple and effectual as gathering them by hand-, or remov-
ing the leaf, or that part of the shoot which is infested by them. Under cover, tobacco-smoke
will prove an effectual remedy for the aphides ; but the larvae of many others, and especially of tipula and
the tenthredinid£B, which occasion the wrapping up and shrivelling of the leaves, can only be removed by
washing with lime-water or hand-picking.

SuBSECT. 2. Select American and other Peat-Earth Shrubs, viz. of Magnoliaceee, Mag^

nolia ; of Rhodoracetp, Rhododendron, Azalea, JCalmia; of the genera Cistus, ArbutuSt
Vaccinium, Andromeda, Erica, Daphne, and various others.

6562. Of select American shrubs there are numerous species and varieties, both deci-
duous and evergreen, which will be found arranged according to their heights and colors
in the two succeeding tables, and those requiring a peat-soil distinguished by a letter (p).
Tliey are all highly valued for their flowers, which are large and magnificent in magnolia
and rhododendron ; odoriferous in azalea and daphne ; and beautiful in andromeda, vac-"
cinium, and erica : arbutus is valued both for its flowers and fruit. They are mostly
natives of America, and introduced within the latter half of the last century.

6563. Propagation. They are all propagated by seed or by layers ; though grafting or inarching
is resorted to in some cases as more expeditious. The seed is either procured from America, or saved in
this country, and, being very small, is sown as early as possible in pans of peat-earth, and placed in the
shade. In winter it is placed under a cold-frame, or otherwise protected from the frost, and the plants
come up in May or June. In the following autumn, or succeeding spring, they are pricked out into other
pots, or into beds of peat-earth in a shady situation. Here they are protected by hoops and mats during
winter; and in two years are again transplanted into a similar soil and situation, and at distances corre-
sponding to the size of the leaves, or habits of the plants ; here they remain till they flower, or till wanted
to be removed to their final destination. They commonly flower from the fourth to the seventh year.

do&i. By layers. The voung shoots only are used for this purpose, either laid down in June and July,
when in full growth, or iii the following autumn ; by the former plan a year is gained, as the shoots will
be rooted, and may be removed by the succeeding winter or spring. Some sorts of magnolia, rhododen-
dron, &c. require two years to form a sufficient number of roots. The plants, when removed, may be
planted in nursery lines, in proper soil, and kept well watered during summer, and protected the first
winter by mats ; or, they may be planted in pots, and receive, during winter, the protection of a frame.

6;J65. JBy suckers, and by dividing the roof. Both these modes may occasionally, though but rarely,
be resorted to. Some si)ecies of azalea and andromeda throw up numerous suckers, and the heaths may
often be increased by dividing their roots.

6566. By cuttings. Some of the azaleas, heaths, &c. may be multiplied by cuttings of the young shoots,
when in a growing state, taken off" where the wood is beginning to ripen, and planted in sand and peat,
and covered with a hand-glass. If this operation is performed in the end of June, they will be ready to
remove into prepared beds, or to plant in small pots by the middle of September.

6567. By grafting, budding, or inarching. This is practised with some sorts of magnolia, arbutus,
daphne. Sec. which are placed on stocks of hardier species of the same genus, as on M. puri>urea, A.
unedo, D. laureola, &c. The stocks are planted in pots a year before wanted, which admits of their
being placed in any position with respect to the shoot being inarched. The daphnes and arbutus an-
drachne, are generally grafted with detached scions.

6568. Culture. The culture requisite for American plants, Abercrombie observes,
" principally consists in providing some imitation of the original soil, in order that they
may flourish in full vigor ; and, where there is no factitious soil provided, in making a
compensation during the dry part of summer, by plentiful waterings. Most of the exotic
shrubs brought from America, were originally found growing on tracts of ground re-
sembling our beds of peat, except that the alluvial soil there extends along a greater
surface, and the body of vegetable mould embedded in the swamp is richer and deeper,
being on a scale corresponding with the magnitude of the rivers. ITie native plants
found in these situations, vegetate with the highest vigor and luxuriance. The soil in
many parts is so pervaded by vegetable substances, that where from any cause a section
of the solid ground occurs, as in the bank of a river, or the shaft of a well, a layer of de-
cayed logs, branches, and leaves of trees is uncovered to the spectator. The luxuriance
of the ve<Tetables may, however, partly be ascribed to the excessive moisture which is
peculiar to the climate of America. In a few places, indeed, on the western coast, rain
is not known ; but the soil there is, in general, copiously watered by dew, so as to render
it highly productive. In the season called ivinter by the natives of South America, last-
ing from May to November, a continued succession of impetuous rains gives to the plains,
in most places, the appearance of an ocean. When the rains have ceased, the humidity

894 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

of the climate is kept up by a constant evaporation from swamps, rivers, and lakes, the
largest in the world. As we cannot have the mitigated warmth of the climate of South
America in plantations, in the full ground, and as the temperature of our winter cannot
be expected to coincide in its effects with the corresponding season even of North America,
when so many local circumstances are different, it is neither indispensable, nor perhaps
advisable, to create an artificial swamp for the cultivation of many American plants. It
is mostly safer to confine the efforts of imitation to the kind of earth, unless the water
can be carried off at any time ; for the lodgment of wet might cause some kinds of roots
to perish in cold weather. Thus the andromeda arborea would be injured by being floated
in winter, and must be protected from frost, though it requires a deal of water in summer.
The great object is to imitate the American peat. Tliis is a composition of the branches,
twigs, leaves, and roots of trees, with small plants, grass, and weeds ; by having lain
immemorially in water, the whole is formed into a soft mass, and, when the materials
are completely decayed and blended so as to be homogeneous in appearance, the com-
pound is the finest vegetable mould : where this description of peat cannot be obtained,
recourse must be had to the best that can be procured from marshes, bogs, or heathy
commons, which must be well turned and sweetened, and mixed with sand and rotten
leaves or dung." The soil being procured, the next thing to be done is to form a stratum
of it of sufficient thickness in the site intended for the plants. When they are merely
to remain a year or two, this need not be above a foot in depth ; but where they are to
remain permanently, it should be at least three feet thick. To encourage the roots to
penetrate the native soil, the bottom of the excavation should be dug and mixed with
peat ; unless a bottom of rough gravel were substituted at the depth of four feet, and
such an arrangement made, as that water could be introduced to, and withdrawn from,
this layer of gravel at pleasure, so as to saturate the whole superstratum of peat. In level
situations, and where water was abundant, this plan might be readily adopted, and none
could more closely imitate nature, as, by keeping the surface of the peat a few inches
below the level of the natural ground, the water might be allowed to rise a few inches
above the peat, and inundate the whole surface of the American ground. In peat coun-
tries, and where the climate is moist, as in Lancashire and Cheshire, admirable contri-
vances of this kind might be adopted, and the American and, bog-earth plants., herbaceous
as well as shrubby, grown to the greatest perfection.

6569. Final situation. American and peat-earth shrubs, requiring large masses of their
peculiar soil, and frequent artificial waterings, cannot conveniently be introduced in
mingled borders or shrubberies. They are therefore generally planted by themselves in
beds or compartments of peat-earth ; or entire gai'dens or shrubberies are devoted ex-
clusively to them. This last mode appears decidedly the best, as the general habits and
appearance of American peat-earth plants, independently of their culture, do not har-
monise remarkably well with European species. An American garden may have a
nortliern or eastern exposure, and if it slopes considerably will be still less affected by
the warm dry weather of summer. It may be laid out in any of the different styles of
flower-garden {Jigs. 541. to 545.) ; herbaceous plants introduced as well as shrubs, and
the whole surrounded by a sloping phalanx of American trees. The sorts may either be
arranged in the mingled manner (6139.), or grouped or classed according to some system.
(6141. to 6150.) Many and indeed most of the American shrubs thrive under the partial
shade of lofty deciduous trees, and the leaves which fall from these protect their roots
both from the frosts of winter and the drought of summer, while they constantly decay
into vegetable mould, and thus at the same time afford a supply of nourishment. Hence,
in some cases, the hardier sorts of rhododendron, azalea, andromeda, &c. may be intro-
duced as undergrowths in the margins of thin woods, placing under each plant a cubic
yard or more of its proper soil. This mode of planting, it would appear {Mason on
Design, art. Pitt), was first adopted by the great Earl of Chatham ; but it has been car-
ried to the greatest extent, not only with American plants, but with roses and other
tender shrubs, in the extensive woods of Fonthill, where, as also at King's "Weston near
Bristol, Kenwood at Hampstead, &c. many of the plants shed their seeds, and young
rhododendrons and azaleas spring up in abundance. In the nurseries, it is a general
practice to keep American and other peat-earth plants in pots, and to protect them during
winter in frames and pits for conveniency of deportation. At the Hammersmith nursery,
one green-house is exclusively, devoted to evergreen magnolias. All the American and
peat-earth shrubs may be selected from the three first tables in next section, by observing
the indication of peat-soil (letter p) ; and the herbaceous peat-earth plants may be selected
from the tables of Border- Flowers in a similar manner.

Book TI.

GENERAL CATALOGUE OF SHRUBS.

Sect. II. General Catalogue of Shrubs.
6570. In our general catalogue of shrubs we have included several species, which, from
their growing with single naked stems, and forming a spreading head at some height
from the ground, are correctly denominated low trees. Amygdalus communis, and
various species of Craleegus, L., may be referred to as examples. As our object is
to form such arrangements as will afford most facility to the gardener in adjusting his
plants as to height, colour of the flower, and time of inflorescence, we have included
all woody plants which do not exceed twenty feet in height under shrubs ; and all those
that exceed that height (excepting the climbers and twiners) we have allowed to re-
tain their places in the tables of trees. Here, as before, the most ornamental species
and those which continue longest in bloom are distinguished by appropriate marks
(s and 3).

SuBSECT. 1. Deciduous Shrubs, arranged as to their Time of Ftoivering, Height, and

Color of the Flower.

6371.

DECIDUOUS SHRUBS. — MARCH.

RED.
ZantfaoThiza apiifoUa

WHITE.
Pyms pumila

YELLOW.

Robinia pvgmiEa, p.

Height from 0 to 2 feet-

From 2 feet to A fat. From i feel to 7 fiet.

RED.
Daphne me/ereum, p.
Rhododendron daur. p.

WHITE.
Daphne mezereu.fl. al. p.

YELLOW.
Loniccza nigra

GREEN.

Comptcmia asplenifol. p.

i 7 feet to 10 fiet.

From 10 fiet to iO feet.

RED.
Caljcanthus pis^a.3. p.

CalTcanthus jirBcax flo. Pmnos spinosa, 3.
aibo, Jaa. 3. p. Hamamelis viripnica, ]

GRKEK.

APRIL.

I RED.

iRbodora canadensis, p.
iLonicera tartarica

WHITE.
Pyrus scorpius

YELLOW.

Lonicera cserulea
Roliinia altagana
GREEK.
SalixsiUrica

WHITE.
Pyrus botryapium, 3.
— prscoz, 3.
YELLOW.
Robinia spinosa, p.

GREEK.

Salix arenaria
I — argentea

GREEK.

Salix nigricans •

RED.
WHITE.
TKLLOW.
GREEK.

MAY.

RED. I RED* I RED.

V'accinium ervthoroc. p'Snirsea crenata, p. 'Colutea pocokii

-_ parviflorum .Vaccifti. amsen.tl.rub.p. Spiraea hypencifoua

Rosa, various sorts, 3. «. — arboreum Amygdalus orientalis, 3.

Amvedalus persica nana Rosa, various sorU, 3. *. j — sibirica, 3.

\Tuiea persica incisa Amygdalus nana 1 — sinensis, 3.

accinium venustum, p. — punulopl. Lonicera alpigena

WHITE.
Vaccinium album, p-

I RED. I RED.

Robinia hispida {Cerds canadensis

arborea Mespilus parvifolia, 3

Amygdalus commiin. pi. 1 — punctata, 3.
persica a. pleno, 3. — sanguinea, 3

lAmygdalus commun. 3.

— — amara, 3.

— Persica
_ _ fl. pleno, 3.
_ _firu.glab.3.

angustifolium

cor^nabosum

fiiscatom

glabrum

elaucum

hal leriaefolium

laiifolium

Ugustrinum

mucronatura

pallidum

rugosum, p.

salicinum

tomentosum

villosura

WHITE.

Comus florida
Fothergilla alnifolia,

— glauca

— speciosa
Mespilus cotoneaster
Pyrus depressa, 3.

— maritima, 3.

— montana, 3.

— arbuHfoUa, 3.

— firuc. luteo, 3.

— — nigro, 3.
Vaccinium amsnum.

YELLOW.

Senista decumbens, p.
Spartium alpinum

WHITE.
! Azale pontica glan. 3.f <
. 1 — precox, 3.
Halesia diptera, p.
— tetraptera
iMa°noUa speciosa, 3.
iPrunus pendula, 3>
I — sibirica, 3.
I — susquehana, 3-

— chicasa, 3.
Pyrus amelanchier, 3.
I — americana, 3.
p. — gn)eca,3.

WHITE.

Euonymus eur. firu. alb.
I _ _ pall.

— latiiblins
' Philadelphus coronarins
I _ _ flo. pleno
I _ _ fol.var.

Pninus cerasifera

1 chamse cerasus I

' _ nigra, 3. Prunus armemaca, 3.

PvrussorbifoUa,p. I„ — spinosa, 3.

Simbucus nigra, fol.var. Pyrus baccata, 3.
1 _ alba — poUTena,3.

I _ laciniata Broussonetia pa^

Spartiuni multiflorum

Syringa vulgaris alba, 3
_ monstrosa

WHITE.

Celtis orientalis
Mespilus pyrifolia

— spatbulata

— s])inosissima

— splendens

— tanacstifolia
Euonymus enropseus

— _ fol. auTc

YELLOW.

Berberis cretica, p.
Daphne altaica, 3. p.
Fraxinus pumila
Spartium angulatum
Robinia chamlagu
Myrica cerifera, p.
— latifolia

— K*l^
Rhamnus alnifolius

_ hybridus
Rhus aromaticum, p.

— suaveolens,p.
Spiraea laevigata, 3. p.

— sibnca

_ thalictroides, p.

— trUobata,3.
Svringa persic. alba, 3, p
\'arf^hiium salvifolium

YELLOW.
Azalea pontiea, 3.
_ _ pallida, 3

— — pleno, 3.
Berberis amencana

— vulgaris, 3.
Cytissus sessilifoUus
Fraxinus atra
Genista pUosa
Lonicera pyrenaica
Zanthoiylum f

YELLOW.

Staphyleapinnata

YELLOW.

Fraxinus omus
Robinia caragana

896:

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

DECIDUOUS SHRUBS. — MAY— con/mtied.

Height fromO to 2 feet.

From i fed to i Jilt.

Fromijietto7feet.

FromT feet to \0 feet.

FromlOJiettoiOJitt.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Syringa persica pur. p.

Betula pumila, t. p.
Magnolia purpurea, 3.

Syringa vulgaris pur. 3.

— — rerulea, 3-

Syringa sine«isis,p.

— — rothomag.

GREEK.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Berberis daurica

Berberis sibirica
Hippophee sibirica
Anstotelia macqui

Liquidamber imberbe

Carpinus betulus incisa
— onentalis

Coriaria myrtifolia

Fagus asplenifolia

Hippophee rhamnoldes

_ argentea

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

Vaccinium marylandi.p.

TTTxrv

■
RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Vaccinium dunio. t. p.
— nitidum

Azalea rosea, 3. p.
— rubra, 3.

Chionanthus virgin, p.
- latifolia

Mespiluschamae mespil
Rosa, various sorts, 3. #.

Rosa, various sorts, 3. #.
Ononis fruticosa, 3.

— rub plen.

— rub. pal.

— rufra,3.

— ruberrima, 3- p-

— viscosa pulchel. 3

Pyru^japoni^a,^^.^^^^^

Rosa, various soru, 3. «.
— — #.

— camea,'3.

— incamata, 3.

Hydrangea hortensi»,3.p
Monis tartarica

Vaccinium stam fl.rub 3

Colutea cruenta, 3.

Rosa, various sorts, 3.

' WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Azalea viscos, alb. 3. p.

Andromeda calyculat. 3.

Azalea odorata, 3. p.

i9ilsculu3 aculeata

Fraxinus rotundifolia

— ■ — dealbau
Daphne alpina, p.

- globulifera, 3.

— paniculata

Cornusalba

— altemifolia

Comus sanguinea
— stricta

Magnolia auriculata, p.

— glauca
Pyrus americana, 3 p.
— lanuginos% 3. p.

I.oniccra caucasica
Prunus prostrata
Vaccinium cinereum,p.

— diffusum,?.

— myrsinites

— resinosum, t,
Rosa, various sorU, 3.

— undulata
Axaleanudiflora,aIb. 3.

— — fastigiata,3.p.

— -floriaa,3

— — staminea, 3.

— — viIlosa,3.

— — tomentosa,3.

— circinata

— festigiata

— paniculata

— sericea
Euonymus angustifol. p.
Genista florida
Lauras eestivalis

— — fol. varieg.
Fraxinus striata
Laurus benzoin
Philadelph coron. mul.
Viburnum lantana, p.

— — fol. var.

— latifolium

— — viscosa sissa,3-

iMagnolia pyramidata,p.
Prunus rubra, 4

— — floribunda, 3.

= z^:^'-

Pyrus japonica, fl. albo.

Hubus cssius

— — lucida, 3.

— corylifolius

— — odorata, 3.

Sambucus racemosa

- -pleno,3.

Spiraea opulifolia

— — pubescens, 3.

— salicifolia

Prunus pumila

- latifolia •

Spaitium patens, p.

— paniculata

— purgans

Viburnum pyrifolium, p.

Spiraea stipulacea

- ulmifolia

Styrax Iffivigata, i.
Vaccinium &ondosum,p.

— stamineum

Viburnum alnifolium

— dentatum

— ful. lunatis

— nitidum

Rosa, various sorts

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Hypericum kalmianum
Rhamnus saxatilis

Coronilla emerus
Cytisus biHonis

— capitatus, *.

— elongatus

Fraxinus lentiscifoUa
Rhamnus infectcrius
Robinia halodendron
Staphylea trifoliata
Zizyphus paUurus

Colutea arborescent, 3.

Rhus cotinuj

— triflorus

Azalea nudfli auran.«.p.

Genista triquetra, t. p.

Hypericum denticulat.

— olympicura
Loniceradiervilla

Potentilla floribunda

Rhamnus lycioides

PURPLE.

Atraphaxisalpina,p.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Euonymus atro pur. p.

- latifolius

— verrucosus
Robinia halodendron

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Azalea fl.rub.etalha,3 p.

VARIEGATED.
Azalea viscosa var. 3. p.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED

GREEN.
BKOWN.

GREEN.
Morus pumila
— rubra

BROWN.
Ci43rcanthusflorida,p.

GREEN.

BROWN.
Calycanthus flo. 3. p.

- longifofius

- peinyWaiu

GREEN.

Diospyrus lotus
Hippophae canadensis

BROWN.
Alaus pumUa

1

greenI

Diospyrus virginiana
BROWN.

Book II. GENERAL CATALOGUE OF SHRUBS.

DECIDUOUS SHRUBS.— JULY.

897

H ightfrjtn Oloifitt.

From 2 fed lo 4fut.

From ifeti to 7 Jitt.

1 Frvm 7 fettto 10 Jitt.

1 From 10 feet to Wfitt.

KED.

RED.

RED.

1 RED.

&£B.

\ndrom. raariana, 3. p.
- - Unc^l.

Azalea bicolor, : p.
— coccinea cilspa, 3

Rosa, various sorts, 3. «.

Gleditschia sinensis, p.

Vacciniiun teueuum

— rubra pailido, t.

Kodreuteriaiiamc3.p.

Ilosa, rarioos sorts, 3. *.

— rubra, fl. pleno, t

\,

; Daphne mez. serot. 3. p.

^

Hvdranpea quercifolia

Afenziesia globular. 3. p.

.

Rosa, yaiious sons, 3. f .

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

AraIJa hispida, t. p.
GenUta pilosa

^sculus humilis

Comus siblrica

Amphora firuticosa, t. p.
Andrdnieda arborea, *.

Androm. cassinifol. 3. p.

Prunus verticillatiis, p.

Philadelphus inodorus
Viburnum dauricum

- dealbata

Sambucus cinadensu

Eleagnus angusti&Bus

- frondosa

btyrax grar.difolium, t.p.

Lig^iitrum wdgare

Rosa, various sorts, 3. ».

— pulveruienU

-- officinale,*.

— racemota, p.

,^ - ZfoLvari^f

Azalea canescens, 3. p.

Rosa, various sorts, 3. »,

Yibumum l«evi£atam,p.

— coccinea inajor,3.

— papillonacea
Prinos ambiguus, p.

- cassinoides

— laevigatus

^ lanceolatus

— prunifoliui

PteUa trifoUata

Rubus hjspidis

V^bS^Sn'LjeiifoliSi^

— carolineanuni,p.

_ lantanoides

— nudum

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Cytisus supinus
— wolgaricus

Azalea maxima, 3. p.,
— lutea, *.

Hvpericum eUtnm
Rhus toxicodendron

Rhuscariaria
_ el^ans
— glabrum

VixKUia lutea, p.

Hvpericum rosmarinifol.

— — major, 3.
Cytisus argenteus, 3.

— vemU

Rhamnus puniilus

_ typhlnum

— repens

— austriacus ■

Rosa, vailous torts, 3. «.

- nigricans

— senceus
Hypericum hircinum

■ _ _ minor
— proUficum
EUiamnus latifoUus

Rhus pumilum, p

Azalea aurantia maj^S.p.

— calojdulacea, ».
Rosa, various sorts, 3. «.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Azalea purpurea, t.p.
Rhodo<fe«f.a2aleoi<fcs
Cytisus purpureus, 3.

PURFLX.

PURPLE.

Betulanana

PURPLE.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Celastrusbullatus

GRKN.

GREEN.

Castanea americana, t. p.
- pumila,*. *^

BROWN.

BROWN.

- licolor

BROWN.

BROWN.

BROWN.

„ — . — n»ajor
Menziesia ferruginea

A TTnTT.QT

RED.

RED.

RED.

Hibisc syriac. rub. «. t.

z z z^^:s

RED.
iEscoIus inacrostad)7«

RED.

,

jEscuIus parvlflora

WHITE.

WHITE.

WKPTE.

WHITK.

Ceanothns araeric p.

Azalea gUuca,*. p.

Hibiscus syriacus alba,*.

■

_ — micro.p.

— _ scabra, i.

Hydrangea arboresc. p.
Rosa, various sorts, 3. #.

Lonicera sympooric. p.

Cephalanthus occidental.

Clethra alnifolia, p.

— acuminata

— paniculata

— pubescens

— scabra

Rontanesia phiUyrseoides

flydrangea^u^^^p.^^

Itea virginica, p.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Rosa, various sorts

Annona triloba, p.
Cytisus divaricatus

Mimosa arborea, p.

.

rURPLK.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Hibiscus syriac. pnrp. *J

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Hibisc. syri-fl. alb. etr.*.

• VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

3M

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

DECIDUOUS SHRUBS. — SEPTEMBER.

JBeigUfromOioZfeet.

From i feet to 4 feet.

From^feHtoTfeet.

From 1 feet to \(^ feet.

From 10 fed to Wfiet.

&E^

RED.

RED.

Vitex agnus castus lat.
_ _ angustif.

RED.

RED.

WHITE.

WHITE.
Aaaleaglauca serot. s.p.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Gordonia pubescens, t.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Aralia spinosa

YELLOW.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

Azalea variegata

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

SuBSECT. 2. Evergreen Shrubs.

6572. EVERGREEN SHRUBS. -

- MARCH.

REB.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Erica camea, Febr. 3. p.

Daphne colUna, 5.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Viburnum tinus, Jann.
- _ fol. arg.
— aur.

WHITE,

WHITE.

— — hirtum,3.

- - lucid.

TELLOW.

YELLOW.
Daphne ponnca
Ulex europffius

— nana

— — fl. pleno

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Daphne laureola

Taxus baoocta, fol. Tar,

Taxus baccata erecta

— _ fol. var.

APRIL

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Empetrum nigrum, p.

— — scotic.

^accinium vitis idaea

— majus

— maiimuna

,

— minor

Aialea procumbens, p.

V^accin.vit.idffia,fl.coc.

— nlif^nosa

iniiromeda polifolia, p.

— erecta

- media

— minor

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Andromeda calvcniata

— latifolia

— ventricosa

TELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Arbutus alpina

Daphne cneorum, 3, p.
Erica mediterranea, 3.

— minima, 3.

— stricta, 3.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.
Cupressns thyoides

GREEN.

Buxus sempervirens

— — angustifolia

— — aur. var.

GREEN

— — ang.

— — nana

MAY

BED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

5Jacciniummyrtiirus,p.
Erica fuscata, 3. f. p.
Kalmisglauca,3. «.
- - p4uidk, 3.

Erica australis 3. t.p.

Ilex aquifol. crassifol.

Ilex macrophylta

WHITE,

Andbromeda aiillaris^p.

catesbaei

WHITE.

WHITE.
Arbutus andrachne) /.

WHITE.

WHITE.
Ilex aquifolium

Ledum buxifolium
— angustifolium

— — lucida.A

- _serr»tif!<.

- - ftuc.fla.

— — heterophill.

— decumbens

— — fol. var. arg.

— Fatifoii^

— — _ _ aur.

— — — mac. arg.

— longifolium

— — _ _ aur.

Polygala chamae-bux. 3.

— — echinata

Olea angustifolia nana

- - - arg.

Rhodod.maxi.fl.aLS.p.
Ruscushypoglossum

-- — — aur.
Prunus laurocerasus
— — fol. mac.
- angustif.

YELLOW.

lienbta anglica

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Spartium scoparlum

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

GREEN.
Laurus nobill* nana

. GREEN.
Thuja^SSs

GREEN.

Laurus nana angustifol.
Thuja plicata
— tartarica

GREEN.
Quercus coccifera

GREEN.

Juniperus communis
t^urus nobilis
Thuja occidentaUs

— densa

- orientalU

Book IL GENERAL CATALOGUE OF SHRUBS.

EVERGREEN SHRUBS. —JUNE.

899

Heighi from 0 to 2 ftet.

RED.

Cistus apennin. fl. rub.p.
CTanditlor. fl. rub.
n .iaat.emi'ii
— sulph.
Linnaea borealisf , p.
Vaccinium buxifiihum
— crassifolium

— macrocarpon

— sibiricum
£rica cineria, *. o.

vulgaris, fjo. albo
— fl. pleno

WHITE.

Andromeda coriacea,/.p.

Astragalus tragacantha

— tragodes
Cistus alpestris

— apenninus,fl.alb.p.

— heUanthemuin,fl.a.

— — flo. mutabile

— incanus

— italicus

— laxus

— poUfolius

— salvifolius, fl.
Oaphnegnidium

tarton-rara
Erica cinerea, tlo. alb. p.

vulgaris

umbeUata

YELLOW.
Cistus apenninus, p.

— grandiflorus

— — flo. sulph.

— helianthemum

— — flo. luteo pleno
Genista germanica

sagittalis
Hyperic. androssemum

— calycinum
Cistus heliaiit. fl. aur. p.
— pleno
PURPLE.
Andromeda ccerulea
Cistus heliant. flo. pu. p.
Rhododendron chamae-
cistus, t. a. p.

— maximum, i.

— ponticum mjrtif.

— — pumilum

GREEX.

Ephedra distachva

Juniperus repens

From 2 feet to 4 feel.

RED.

Rhodod. catawbien. 3.p.

CJstns ladaniferus, p.

— iaurifolius

— populifolius

— — major.

— salicifoUus
Ilex opaca

— parado
Olea angustifbtia rosma.
Kuscus racemosa

GREEN.

Buius balearica
Juniperus sabina

fol. var.
tamariscifolia
sibirica

FnmifeeltoTfeet.

REIJ.
Rosa indica, 4 va :. 3"

WHITE,
thamnus alatemus, fbl.
var. org.

TELLOW.

Cytisus hirsutus, i.
Robinea halodendron
Buddlea globosa, t.

PURPLE.
Rhododendron pont. 3.p

— angustilblia, 3.

— eontortnm, ."5.

— macrophyUum,3

— roseum, 3.

— salicifoUum, 3.

— fol. arg. var. 3.

— — aur. 3.

— algarvense, 3. p.
GREEN.

Aucuba japonica, p.

From 7 feet to 10 feet.

WHITE.

Ligustrum vulg. semp.
Mispihis pyracantha
Olea angustifirfia

— latifolia

— obliqua

— media

— buxifsUa

— pendula

— fol. var.
Rhamnus alatem. lacini.

— — fbl. var.

GREEN.
Juniperus thuiifisa

10 feet to 20 feet.

WHITE.

Prunus lusitanica, 3.

— fol. mac.
Rhamnus alatemus lati£
— fcl.n

TELLOW.

GREEN.

Juniperus excelsa

— lycia

— oxycedrus

— phcenicea

— suecia

-JULY.-

RER.

Erica tetralix, 3. p.
Gaultheria procumbens
Pyrola maculata, 3.
Rhododendron fer. 3. p.

— hirsutum, 3.

— fol. mac. 3.
Erica ciliaris, 3. p.

— vagans, 3.

WHITE.
Atriplex portulacoides
Cistus albidus, p.

— crispus, t.

— monspeliacus, t.
Comus canadensis
Epigaea repens, 3.
Erica tetralix flo. alb. 3.

— vcigans flo. alb. 3.
Pyrola umbellata, 3.
Salix reticulata
Vaccinium arctost. t.p.
Andromeda speciosa

YELLOW.
Spartium radiatum, p.
Teucrium flavum
— fructicans
PURPLE.
Erica viride putp. 3. p.
Lavendula staechas, f.
GREEN.

WHITE.

Andromeda acumin. t.p
— ferruginea,<,
Euonymus americanus
Andromeda serratifoUa

YELLOW.
Ruta graveolens

RED.
Kalmia latifolia rub. p.

Atriplex halimus
Kalmia latifol. fl. alb.]>.

YELLOW.

Spartium junceum
— — pleno

GREEN.
Bupleurum firuticosum

AUGUST. -

GREEN.
Juniperus daniica

PURPLE.
GREEK.

RED.

mum frutescens
Rhbdodend. caucas. 3 -p.
Rosasemperflorens 7 va-
rieties, 3. (. p.

Polygon!)
Rhodode

RED.
Ilex oassine major, p.

3M 2

ftop

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

EVERGREEN SHRUBS, — AUGUST.

Hd^MfrrnnOtoifett.

From "iffeH to i feel.

From iSiet to! feel.

From IJiettoW feet.

From 10 feel to iOfeef.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE*

WHITE.

Prinosglaber
Yucca fiiamentosa, t.

Ilex cassine media, p.

Magnolia grandiflora, 3.

— — minor

— acuminata

— angustifolia, t.

Iva frutescens, p.

— exonlensls

— gloriosa, t. 3<

— obtus^olia

— rotundifolia

— salicifolia

YELLOW.

TELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Ruta montana

Jasminum fruticans
— humile

GREEN.

GREEN.

Artemisia abrotanum

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

SEPTEMBER

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Salvia erecta

Arbutus unedo rubra

_ officinalis

-- - angustifol.

— triloba

Kalmia angustifolia se.

rotina,p.

WHITE.

WHWE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Llgustrum lucidum

WHITE.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

r-, GREEN.

GREEN.

Ephedera monostachya

Salsola fruticosa

OPTO'R'F'T?

WHITE. • J

WHITE. 1

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

1

Arbutus unedo crispa |

Arbutus unedo

SUBSECT. 3.

Climbing and Tti

ining Shrubs.

6573.

WHITE.
PURPLE.

PURPLE.
GREEN.

HARDY CLIMBING SHRUBS. — APRIL.

PURPLE.

Vinca major, ev.

— — fol. arg.

— — fol. aur.

— — flo. pleno.

PURPLE.
GREEN.

BLUE.

MAY.-

WHITE.

I BLUE.

Atragene austriaca

PURPLE.

Vinca major, ev.

WHITE.

Lonicera belgicum prec.
I PURPLE.

JUNE.-

RED.

WHITE.

YELLOW.

WHITE.

YELLOW.

Lonicera caprifolia, ita- Clematis reticulata, p.

licum

PURPLE.
GREEN.

JULY..

PURPLE.

GREEN.

Vitis labrusca
Ziziphus Tolubilis

RED.

Polygonum volubile
Clematis vioma, Jw.

WHITE.
Ampelopsis cordata, p.

— hirsuta

Celastrus scandens
Rosa arvenois
canina

— pleno

— varlegata
sempervirens, ev.
YELLOW.

Aristolochia pubesc. p.
Lonicera quercifolinm
- variegatum
PURPLE.
Clem, viorna purp. 3, ev.
I GREEN.

Vitis laciniosa, p.

— odoratisma

— rotundifolia

WHITE.

RED.
Lonicera impleia, 3.
Lycium barbarum

WHITE.

Clematis florida, 3. v.
^ — — fl- pleno, V.3
Lonicera pench

1 penclym. i
belgicum

RED.
Lonicera sempervirens,<

— — minor, t.

— — longifol.
WHITE.

j Atragene americana,3.p
', „ — sibirica
Clematis vitalba
Jasminum officinale

— — fol. arg.
aur.

Rubus:

Rosa repanda, ev
IS fruticosus
fruc. albo
lacinatus
flo. pleno

Book II. SHRUBS FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSEo.

901

HARDY CLIMBING SHRUBS. —JULY— con^mwerf.

■ adgUfnmt 0 to 2fixt

' FromiJiato4fitt.

From4fettto7fetl.

FromTftttiolOfed.

From 10 /erf to 20 /«<.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

•

Glycine fhitescens. ».
Lonicera Hava

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.

BLUE.
Clematis viticelU coer. 3.
Passiflora coerulea, 3. p.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Clematis riUcdla rubra
- - fl-ple.

GKEEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEK.

GREEK.

Vitisarborea
— blanda

Menispermum canad.p.

— viiRiru
Fassiflora maculau

Rhmradicans

1

AUGUST.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Clematis^v^^ei^a^en.
Rosa multiflora, 3. t.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Periploca gneca

WHITE.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.
Clematis orientalis

YELLOW.

AristoIochia«ipho,p.
Bignoniaradi^|.p.
— — major, 3.

GREEN.

GREEK.

GREEK.

i

GREEK.

Smilaxaspera
- sarsaparilla

GREEK.
Heder hel. etrar. ev. Oct.
Lonicera grata

6574. The propagation and culture of shrubs being the same as that for trees, we combine both subject*
in the catalogue of arboriciUture in the succeeding book. »

Sect. III. Selections of Shrubs /or particular Purposes.

6615. The ]xirticular purjioses to wldch shrubs, like flowers, may be applied, are the
concealment of deformities or imperfections, and the production of particular beauties or
desirable effects. We shall here select the names of a few for concealing vertical and
horizontal deformity ; for producing an immediate effect as to bulk ; for producing ve-
getation under the shade and drip of trees ; for ornamenting water and rocks ; for form-
ing edges and hedges ; for diffusing agreeable odors ; for being ornamental by their
fruit J and for economical or botanical purposes.

SuBSECT. 1. Shrubs for concealing }}ertical and horizontal Deformities.

6S76. Vertical dtformiiies may either be concealed by the rapid and tall growing sorts (Subsect. 2.), or
hf the climbers or twiners, either deciduous or evergreen. The climbers may be nailed to a wall or fence,
or tied to a trellis, or allowed to climb on branches and spray ; for the twiners, tall sticks or poles are

necessary.

6577. Horizontal deformities may be concealed by rapid-growing bushy plants, by allowing climbers
and trailers to spread over them, or by the proper trailers and creepers of the hardiest kinds, a few of
which are these : —

Decidumu. Rosa arrensis, Rubus firuti-
cosus, Cissus hederacea, Cytisus su-

pinus. Genista decumbens, Rhamnns

Evergreen*. Rosa semperrirens, Vines
major and minor.

SuBSECT. 2. Shrubs (f rapid and bulky Growth.

6578. Shrubs qf rapid and bulky growth are often desirable to produce immediate effect in laying out
pleasure-grounds, as well as for producing shelter, and concealing objects.

Mespilus pyracantha, Pinus palostris.
Quercus gramuntia, Prunus lauro*
oerasus, lusitaniea, Rhamnus ala-
temus, Spartium iunceura, Ta.xus
baccata. Thuja occidentalis, orientalis,
Ulex europaea. Tar. hibemica.

Deciduout. Colutea arborescens, et fi-u-
tescens, Comus alba, florida, et &an-
guinea, Cvtisus laburnum, et sessilifo-
Eus, ligustrum \-ulgare, Philadelphus
coronarius, Rosa villosa, Sambucus

nigra. Spiraea opulitblia, Syringa vul-
garis, ViDumum opulus.
Ever^eent. Cupressussempervirens,Hex
aquifblium, Juniuerus virginiana, Li-
gustrum vulgaie, var. sempervirens.

SuBSECT. 3. Shrubs which thrive under the Shade and Drip of Trees.

6579 Shrubs which grow under the shade of trees are found in practice to be a most valuable class for
filline'up blanks in old shrubberies, or screen plantations; and thus producmg greenness, variety, and a
healthy aspect, instead of emptiness, haggard stems of trees, or mere ghosts of plants.

aqiufoHum, Ligustrum vnlg. semper-
vir. Mbumum tinus, t. fol. arg. t. fol.
aur. t. hirtum, t. lucidum.
Climbert. Clematis vitalba, v. canaden-
sis, Hedera helix e, h. fol. arg. mac.
e, h. fol. aur. mac. e, h. fol. arg. var.
e, h. fol. aur. var. e, h. foL mudnnis,
Lonicera periclymenum, pi. flo. albo,
Rosa arvensis ev, repanda, Vinca,
major t, minor e, m. fol. aif e, m.
fol. aor. (, m. flo. pl«no.

DedduMu. Comus alba, altemifoUa,
florida, sanguinea, Corjlus avellana.
Daphne alpina 3 mer^reum, m. Qo.
albo 3, m. serotina 3 », Euonymus
angustifolius 3, latifoUus 3, verru-
cosus 3 *, Hvpericum hircinum, h.
minus prolificum, Ligustrum vulgare,
V. fruc flavo, v. fol. variegatis, I-oni-
cera symphoricarpus 3, tartarica,
xylosteum, MespUus tomentosa, Rosa
IT. ribinca, arrensis, Rubus occiden-

talis, odoratus. trivialis, villosus, Sam-
bucus nigra foL var. n. alba, n. laci-
niata, racemosa, Spiraa canadenas 3,
thalictroides 3.
Evergreen*. Aucuba japonica 3, Bux-
us sempervirens, s. angustifol. s. aur.
var. s. arg. var. s. nana, Cistus ca-
nadensis, Daphne cneorum 3, c. fol.
var. collina 3 a, laureola, L fol. var.
iiphedra distachya, nionostachja, Hy-
periciun androsamum, calycinum. Ilex

SM 3

j^2 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part IIL

SuBSECT. 4. Shrubs for planting by the Sides of Pieces of Water, or in Marshy Grounds,

and among Rocks.

6580. Beside, a^tic shrubs, most of the peat-earth species are also suitable for planting in marshy
iltuations.
VecUuo,.. A,nuspumna,Betu,ana„a, . My^cacertfera, and ^ale, Salix, most . ^^Xs^T/ Pin'^^n^u.^ufsal^r^S:

pumila, and sibirica, Dirca palustns, of the species. | ^^jata.

6581. Of mountain or rock shrubs the following are some of the most hardy : —

- • Rosa alpina, spinosissima, Rubus cae- trumnicrum. Erica, all the har

sius, corylifolius hispidus, Spartium
angulatum.
Everj^reeni. Arbutus alpina. Azalea
procumbens. Daphne colUna, Empe-

Decidtma. AtraphaxU alpina. Daphne
alpina. Genista decumbens, Lonicera.
alDigena, Ononis fruticosa, PotentiUa
fruticosa, Rhamnus saxatilis. Rho-
dodendron dauricum, Ribes alpmum.

trum nigrum. Erica, all the hardy species,
Cistus, ail the species, Gaultheria pro-
cumbens, Juniperus communis, Ros-
marinns officinalis, Ulex euiopsus,
nana.

SuBSECT. 5. Slvrubs for forming Edgings and Hedges in Gardens.
6582. Of shrubs for edgings few are comparable to the box {Buxus sempervirens var. nana) ; but some
others may be occasionally used, as the

but the following sorts will form compact evergreen shelters : —

l?raq,Ufol!u!ri^aTr?isnoku^ 1 nuTalatern'us, Rosmarinus officinalis, 1 rocerasus.

The creeping shrubs may be formed into hedges by training on frame-work.
6584 Flowering hedges may be formed of the following deciduous sorts : —

Sdbsect. 6. Shrubs whose Floivers or Leaves have volatUe Odors, and diffuse them in the

surrounding Air.

6585. Of shrubs whose odors are volatile only a few have this quality in the leaves as well as the
flower ; these are marked leav. : —

Deciduoiu. Azalea most of the species,
Betula sibirica, leav. Daphne me-

• zereum, Rosa rubiginosa, leav.
Salix most of the q>eeies, but espe-

cially S. viminaUs, alba, Syringa vul-
garis.
Evergreen*. Lavandula spica, Rosma-
rinus officinalis.

Climbers. Clematis flamula, Jasminum
officinale, Lonicera capritoUum, perU
clymenum.

SuBSECT. 7. Shrubs ornamental by their Fruit as uvll as Flowers.
6586. Ornamental fruit-bearing shrubs are also serviceable as encouraging singing-birds to resort to the
shrubbery.

Deciduous. Berberis vulgaris, LigustruTTi
vulgare, Ribes alpinum, cynosbati,
Rosa spinosissima, et villosa, Sorbus
americana, et lanuginosa, most of the
species of Vaccinium, Lonicera, Vir
bumum, and all the species of Comus,
Euonymus, Mespilus, Prunus, Pyrus,
and Sambucus. Few shrubs are more
than the sloe (Pnmus

spinosa, Linn.) ; it is profusely covered | trum nigrum, Euonymus americamis.

rrth odoriferous white flowers early
in April, and with dark-purple fruit
with a fine bloom, from September to
February. It is much cultivated in
Japan (464.), where its flowers attain
the size of a double rose.
Evergreens. Arbutus unedo, alpina, and
uva-ursi, Comus canadensis, Empe-

Ilex aquifolium, Juniperus communis,
and suecia, Mespilus japonica, Pyra-
cantha, Prunus all the species, Taxus
baccata, Vaccinium all tlie species,
Hedera helix.
Climbers and Creepers. Lonicera all the
species. Roc>a canina, Vitis vul-
pina.

SuBSECT. 8. Selections of S/irubs for botanical or economical Purposes, parasitic Trees,
and Shrubs for a small Shrubbery.
6587. Selections of shrubs may he arranged in innumerable modes, as well as herba-
ceous plants ; as, according to soil, climate, habitation, country, rarity, place in bo-
tanical systems, uses in agriculture, or the arts, &c. No gardener can make any selec-
tion who does not know by inspection the actual plants, and their habits, culture, and
history ; to him it is needless to repeat the sources to which he may have recourse for
forming any classification whatever.

6588. A selection for botanical purposes will necessarily include parasitic plants, of which the only hardy
genus is mscum. This is propagated in February by sticking the berries, which are viscid when bruised,
in a slit like that made in budding, on the smooth bark of the apple, pear, thorn, or almost any tree.
If these are not washed away by rain, or otherwise rubbed off, they will germinate in the following sum-
mer. To make sure of their not falling off, some bore a hole in the bark and insert the seed ; or cat a
notch in it, or make a slit : the last seems the best mode, and has been successfully adopted by Professor
Thouin in the Paris garden, and extensively by Watts, a nurseryman at Acton, on most sorts of trees.
Some, as Professor Walker [Essays on Nat. Hist.), on the supposition that the seeds will not vegetate till
they have passed through the stomach of a bird, recommend causing fowls to eat the seeds, and then
sowing them. But this is found not to answer, for though the digestive powers of the stomach do not
destroy the vegetative power of seeds which pass rapidly through it, yet in most cases it does. The mistle-
toe in nature is propagated by the mistletoe-thrush (Turdus viscivorus), but not, as is generally supixjsed,
by means of its excrement. This bird feeds on the berries of the misletoe in winter. These, from their
viscosity, often stick to the outer part of the bird's beak, and to disengage them he strikes it against the
branch of the tree on which he alights, and leaves the seed sticking to the bark ; if this should chance to
be a smooth part, the seed will adhere to it, and the succeeding spring will grow, the radicle piercing the
bark, and the plume unfolding itself in the air. The viscum grows best on the pyrus and mespilus tribes,
but it will also grow on the ash, poplar, lime, oak, fir, &c., on which trees we have observed it in abund-
ance in Germany. In the pine-forests, near Magdebourg, it is most abundant on pinus sylvestris.

Book II.

FRAME EXOTICS.

6589. A selection of trees and shrubs of great beatUy and
duction in shrubberies of iimited extent : —

DeciduoHt tree*. Acer pennsjlvanicum,
>£sculus hippocastanum, Anivedalus
communis, Cupressus duticha,' Fagus
svlTatica purpurea, Platanus occi-
dentalis, Quercus coccinea, Robinia
pseud-acacia, 8orbus aucuparia, Ti-
lia euro|)a!a.

Evergreen irett. Pinus cedms, bal-
samea, pinsa abies, Cupressus sem-
pervirens, Quercus gramuntia and
suber, Juniperus virginiana.

Deciduous shrubs. Amyedalus nana, An-
dromeda paniculata, Azalea nudiflora,
and pontica, Chionanthus virginica,
Colutea cruenta, Comus florida, Co-
ronilla emerus, C'

purpureus,
and sessilifolius. Daphne mezereum,
iienista tlorida, HaJesia tetraptera.
Hibiscus sjTiacus and varieties, U-
eustrum rulgare. Magnolia purpurea,
MespUus chamae-mespilus, Philadel-
j>hus coronarius, Prunus cerasi&ra.

Pyrus iaponica,

" Jba, centifolia.

Robinia hispida,
Rosa alba, centifolia, cirmamomea,
damascena, indica, lutea, moschata,
muscosa, rubiginosa, spinosissima, vil-
losa. Sorbus lanuginosa, Spartium
nmltiflorum, Spirsa h;^pericifolia,
c^lifoUa, andcao^ensis, svringaper-
sica, . sinensis, vulgaris. Viburnum
opulus, lantana.
Everereens. Andromeda calyculata.
Arbutus unedo and andrachne, Au-
cuba japonica, Buddlea globosa, Bitxus
balearica and sempervirens, Cistus
apenninus and grandiflorus, Helian-
tnemum ^•ulgare, C'vtisus hirsutus.
Daphne laureola et pontica. Erica
herbacea et deboseia. Genista anglica.
Ilex aquifolium, and numerous va-
rieties, Jasminum frutjcans et bumile,
Juniperus sabina, Kalmia angusti-
folia, I>avandula spica, Laurus no-
blUs, Ligustrum vulgare, var. sem

908

culture, proper for intro-

pervirens. Magnolia grandiflora. Me*,
pilus pjTacantha, Olea angustifoUa,
latifoUa, et media, Pinus cembra et
lanceolata, Prunus laurocerasus lusi-
tanica, Rhododendron mzucimum and
ponticum, Rosa indica, semperflonajs
and banksis, Rosmarinus officinalis,
Ruscus racemosus, Spartium junceum
Taxus barcata. Thuja occidentaMs
et orientalis, \'iburmmi tinus, Ulex
europseus, Yucca filamentosa, gloriosa.
Clhnbers. Atragene austriaca, Bignonia
radicans. Clematis cirrhosa, tiamula,
florida, vioma, vitalba, et vitieella,
Hedera helix and varieties, Jasmi-
num officinale, Lonicera caprifoUum,
perjdymenum, belgicum, et semper-
virens, Lvcium barbarum, Passitlora
caerulea, Ko^a arvensis, re]!anda, et
sempervirens, Vinca major et minor,
CIssus h^deracea-

Chap. XI.

Frame Exotics.

6590. Frame exotics are such plants as are rather hardier than those kept in the green-
house and of low growth. Some of those enumerated here will also be found among
the green-house, and a few among the hardy plants. The frames or pits in which they
are kept are never artificially heated, but are well covered witli mats or other materials
during severe frost. The frames are sometimes attached to the front of the green-house
or stove, and thus derive some heat from tlie front flue, which, when an outside
frame is in contemplation, is generally built in the front wall. When this is not
the case, they may be advantageously placed on a border sloping to the east, south, or
west, under the shelter of a hedge or wall. The pots should be plunged in scoriae,
ashes, sawdust, or any similar non-conductors, and abundance of air, and little water
given in the winter time. Few scenes are more interesting in the spring season
than a small oblong flower-garden, surrounded by a holly-hedge enriched with many
spikes of coral berries : within the hedge a sloping frame-border all round; on the
north side, containing frame exotics ; on the west, early-flowering bulbs, as hyacinth,
crocus, narcissus, &c. ; on the east, dioice atiriculas ; and on the south side (the border
facing the north;, a collection of alpines. The middle of the garden laid out in beds of
florists' flowers. In summer the sashes are applied to various useful purposes, as to ripen
fruits against walls, to raise late crops of cucumbers, melons, &c.

Sect. I. Frame Woody Plants.

Those marked d are climbers ; tw are twiners ; and tr are trailersk

6591.

FRAME WOODY PLANTS.

FEB. MAR. APR.

Cydonia speciosa [ Prunus prostrata
Corchorus japonic. 3 lllicium floridanMm
Magnolia conspi. p. — parvifloru. p.
— tomentosa Magnolia obov. i. p.
Prenanthes spinosa Penstemon campzm

Thuja articulau

Vella pseudo-cytisus
Anthyllis erinacea
Othona chierifoUa
Cupressus lusitanic-
Smil. pseudo-chinen
Jimiperus bermud.

Ilex dahoon, p.

— angustifoba

— vomitoria
Lonicera flava
Cydonia japonica, p.
Heliantbem form. p.

— atripl. V.

— halimiio.

— elongatu-

— glutinos.
Thymus tragorigan.
Scrophularia frutes.
Biscutella seraperv.
Amorpha pubescens
Anthyllis herman.p.
Medicago arborea,p.
Conyza Candida, (.

Lonicera semp. miru
Rhododen. chaem. p.
Hudsonia cricoid . p.
Rosa berberif. sinica
Cistus villosus

— monspeliensis

— hirsutus
salvifoUus

— heterophyllus

— creticus

— purpureus
Helianth. libano.

— umbella.

— lavipes
Teucrium massil. p.

— flavum

aureum

flavescens

— gnaphalo.
Prasium majus
Amorpha microphy .
Hypericum nudiflor.

rosmarinif.

aspalath.

— iasdculat.
Centaurea argentea

1 lex cassme, p.
Pinckneya pubens
Prinos hlciaus
Silene firuUcosa
Euphorb. par. suf p.

' — sylvatica
Hdijmthem.canu. p.

I — scabrosum

— lavandul.
Reaumuria hyper.p .
Stachys orientalis
MaiTubi. pseud.dict.
Thymiis mastichina
Calamintha cretica
Alyssum spinosum
Stauracanth. aphyll.
Amorpha canesoens
Lupinus arboreus
Artemisia valentina
Gleditschia

SEPT. TO NOV.

Lonicera flexuosa

— japonica, 3. p.
Asparagus albus, p.
— acutifolius
Euphorbia imbri. p.
Mespilus japonica, p.
\'itei a^us-cast. p.
Antirrtiin. molle, t.
Lepidium subulat.
Gordonia pubesc. p.

3M 4

w-l

PRACTICE OF GARDIJNING.

Fart III.

6592.

Sect. II. Frame Succulents.
FRAME SUCCULENT PLANTS.

FEB. MAR.AFR.

Suphorbia characias

SEPT. TO NOV.

Kupho»ia nic8en&is I

659ii.

Sect. III. Frame Herbaceous Plants,
FRAME HERBACEOUS PLANTS.

FEB. MAR. APR.

I leleborus livjdus, p.
liiinus atpinus, 3

— hispcinicus
Arum crinituni, p.

JUNE.

Saxifraga granulata

— — pleno
Satureja Juliana
Mimulus luteus
Pedicularis enphras.

— myriophyl.

— resupuiata
Erodium gjandulos

— chamaedryoi
Geranium argent.
Lotus odoratus
MarshalUa lanceol.

— Tatifolia
Arum tematum, p.

obelia fiilgens, 3. p.

— splendens, 3

— cardinalis, 3
CEnothera rosea
Sazifiraga sarment.

— virginiensis

— congesta

— stellaris

— bryoides

— androsacea

— oppositifol.

— nvularis
Saracenia flava, p.

— purpurea
Satureja groeca
Scrophularia samb.
Pedicularis recutita

— foliosa

— verticillata
Ibeiis umbellata
Hedysarum murlca.
Hypericum setosum
Eupator. urticse fol.
Artemisia chamae.
Rudbeckia laevigata
Centatirea spinosa I

sempervir.!
eegyptica I
Calopogon pulche. pJ

AUGUST.

Linum narbonen. p.
Rhexia ciliosa, p.
Saxiflraga mutata

— autumnalis
Dianthus japonic, p.

— fruticosa
Silene fabaria
Sedum spinosum
Euphorbia paralias
Hydropeltis purp. p.
Teucnum nissoUan.
Marrubium acetab.
Antirrhinum asarin.
Linaria triornithop.

— biparlita

— tristis

— reticulata

— alpina, p.

— villosa
Pedicularis seep ■ car .

— flammea

— tuberosa

— compacta
liupinus villosus, p.
Glycine reniforme,;).
Hypericum mutil.

— crispum
Irestne celosioides

SEPT. TO NOV.

Statice aurieulae£ p

— spatulata

— speciosa

— conspicua
Saiifraga aspera

— hirculis
ScrQphularia mellif
Stevia salicifolia
Artemisia indica
Zaluzania triloba
Bupthalmum mani
Coreopsis feruleefol,
Urtica nivea, j».

6594.

Sect. IV. Frame Bulbs.
FRAME BULBS.

FEB. MAR. APR.

AlUum.chamse.mol. Omlthogal. arab.p.

Omithogalum squil.

SEPT. TO NOV.

Omithogalum txioi. Omithogalum latif. Uropetalon serotin.

— juncifo.
[Uropetalon fulvum J

ieuithemum tub.

6595.

Sect. V. Frame Biennials.
FRAME BIENNIALS.

FEB. MAR. APR.

Aeynos alpinus
Verbena aubletia
Lepidium subulat.
— cardamines
Cichorum nosum, s
Cnicus casabonae spi-

^ — diacanthus
Gnaphalium

fcetidum, *.

SEPTEMBER.

Gaura mutabilis
Origanum majorana
Celsia arctums

cretica, i.

lanceolata

6596.

Sect. VI. Frame Annuals.
FRAME ANNUALS.

FEB. MAR. APR. I MAY

JUNE.

JULY.

fe' "'^?f"' ^pifraga hederacea

Prichosanthes au- Momordica balsa-

<"""=• ' mina

— charantia

— operculata
luffa

guina
cucumerina

AUGUST.

SEPTEMSrR.

' — ; ^ I — lutta

Tkepro,n.gation and culture of frame exotics « the same as for gree„4,ause piar.ls.

Book II.

GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

905

Chap. XII.

Green-house Plants.

6597. Of green-house plants we shall first arrange some of the more select tribes, and
next class the most showy and easily-flowered sorts, under the head of woody, succu-
lent, climbing, herbaceous, bulbs, annuals, and biennials. Each of these subdivisions
will be arranged as before as far as respects time of flowering and color; but consider-
ing the limited height which all exotic plants attain in pots, it has been considered un-
necessary to attend to size. Such as are trees in their native country will be indicated
by the letters tr, and also such as are biennials by the letter b ; the most tender /, most
showy s, and those continuing in flower two or three months 3, as before.

Sect. I. Select Green-hoiise Plants.

6598. As select green-house plants we shall consider the geraniums, heaths, and ca-
mellias ; which three tribes united will supply a green-house with flowers of almost all
colors, during every month of the year.

SuBSECT. 1 . Geranium. — Geramum^ L. Geranium, Erodium, and Pelargonium, of
modern authors. Monadelphia, L. and Geraniacce, J. Geranier, Fr. ; Geranium, Ger. j
and Geranio, Ital.

• 6599. T/ie^era/tiMnUribe comprehends numerous species and varieties of herbaceous
sufFruticose and shrubby plants, generally of a somewhat succulent nature throughout.
They are almost all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and with the exception of three
or four species, have been introduced, or originated here from seed, during the present
and latter end of the last century. They are chiefly admired for their flowers, which
they produce in abundance from May to September, generally in corymbs from the
axilla} of the leaves, of every shade of red, scarlet, and purple, mixed with white and
yellow. The plants are easily cultivated, and by proper pruning, with the aid of gen-
tle forcing in winter, many of the species, as the P. aonale, cucullatum, cordatum, &c. may
be kept in flower all the year. The best collection of this family is in the nursery of
Messrs. Colvill, under the care of the botanist Sweet, whose Geraniacce, now publishing,
is the most elegant and complete work of its kind.

6600. Species and varieties. Many species and subspecies have been received from the Cape; but the
greater number of the admired sorts have been raised in this country from seedj some of these have re-
ceived systematic appellations, but the greater number have been named by those who raised them after
themselves, or their friends, in the manner of florists' flowers. The following table contains some of the
old established sorts, arranged according to their habits of growth and time of flowering; the flowers of
most of the sorts are so mixed in regard to color, that it is almost impossible to class them in that respect j
most of them are variegated with red, purple, scarlet, and white.

6601. GERANIAC.5?'.

Pelargonium

— dipetalum

— spatulatiun

— afBne

— roseutn

— hitsutum

— plctum

tiiphyllum

— punctatura

noribundum

_ bubonifolium
rapaceum

fissifoliumlut.

_ laciniatum

FEB.STAIl.APR.

procumbent

— cordatum

— spurium

— nothon
_•■ alnifblium

Pelargonium

— longifolium

— allatum

— longiflorum

— elegans

— altnaeides

— mj-rrhifoUum

— grevillianum

— crenatum

— conduplicat.

— Barrin^onii

— sidiEfolium

— cucullatum

— speciosum

— acerifolium

— quinatum

-* amplissimum

— fuscatura

— patulum

— sororium

— grandiflorum

— gratum

— variegatum

— delphmifoli.

— cynosbatifolia

— spinosum

— cispum

— gibbosum

— Beaufortiana

Pelargonium

— undulatum

— auriculatum

— purpurascens

— virgineum

— atrum

— nervifolium

— nummularifol.

— pilosom

— melananthon

— chamaedrifolium

— ovale

— anceps

— senecioides

— coriandrifolium

— glaucum

— dentatum

— stenojietalum

— pumilum

— zonale

— marginatum

— cochleatum

— pubescens

— rugosum

— rubens, *.

— papilionaceum

— glutinosum

— hisipidum

— ceratojihyllum

— crithmifolitim
Erodium

— alpinum
Geranium

— canesens

— incanum
_> erubescens

Pelargoniupi

— radiatum

— lineare
unctatum

zSTo

— revolutum

— oxalidifolium

— reflexum

_ astragalifolium
_ coronillffifolium
_ luteum

— barbatum
_ incrassatum

— blattarium

— tabulare

— grossularioides

— lac

— multicaule

— caucalifolium

— diversiflorum

— cuspidatum

— penicillatum

— betuUnum

— formosum

— scan dens

— lateritium

— ganiculeefoUum

— australe

— vitifoKum

— capitatum

— hermannifolium

— adulterinum
_ abrotanifolium

— temiifoUum
Geranium spinosum

Pelargonium
-.- lobatum

— triste, 1. 1.

— flavum

— alchemilloides

— odoratissima

— fragans

— inodorum

— columbinum

— coroncpifolia

— tricolor

— reniforme

— inquinans

— heteroganum

— monstrum

— crassicaule, f.

— peltatum

— lateriiies

— tetragonum, t

— variegatum, i.

— angulosum, t.

— graveolens

— radula

— denticulatum

— semitrilobum

— splendens

— iulgidum, *.

— altemans
Erodium crassifoIL

incamatum
geranifolium

SEPTEMBER.

Pelargonium

— balsameum

— quinquevulner.

— bicolor

— canariense

— tricuspidatum,*.

— scabrum

— gratum

— corsanguineum

— pallidum

— obtusifolium

— tripartitum

— ex«tipulatam

— unicolorum
_ willdenovrii

— IsEvigatum

— fragile,/.

_ camosum
^ dasycaule

— lanccolatimi

— acetosumi

— hjbridum

— reniforme

— cortussefolium

— candidum
Erodium by menodes

6602. Propagation. The ordinary mode of continuing each species, is by cuttings, but almost all the
sorts produce ripe seeds in this country, by which they may be multiplied, and also new varieties produced.
The seed, if ripe before midsummer, may be sown as soon as gathered, in pots of light rich earth, and
placed in a gentle hot-bed and shaded ; the plants will soon come up, and if, when they show two proper
leaves, they are transplanter! singly into pots, and kept under a cold-frame, they will flower the same
autumn. No plant grows more readily by cuttings than the shrubby or suffiruticose species of this family:
the cuttings may be taken off at a joint where the wood is beginning to ripen; laid in the shade for an
hour or two till the wound heals ; and then planted in sandy loam, and placed in a gentle heat. The
hardier sorts, as P. zonale, inquinans, &c. wiU strike in the open air or in any shady situation, without

906

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

being covered with a glass. Cuttings of the roots of such sorts, as P. triste, gibbosum, &c., strike readily;
a small portion of the root being left above ground. The fibrous-rooted herbaceous sorts, as E. Chamae-
dryoides and glandulosum, may be multiplied by dividing the roots. " From the latter end of March to
the middle or end of July," Gushing observes, " cuttings of all the common kinds of geranium may be put
in with success: Let a moderate hot-bed be made up, and surfaced with some old tan; when it is of a
proper temperature, let the cuttings be made, and put in some nice rich loam ; plunge the pots to the
rim on the bed, and shade them for a day or two, but no longer. Pick ofF any damping leaves that may
appear, water them occasionally, and observe to pot them oft' in due time, by which means they will be
stout plants by the end of autumn : the more curious kinds are in general done by cuttings of the thick
fleshy roots, which they produce in abundance : as many of these as can be spared with safety being taken
off carefully from each plant, and a few of the finer fibres attached to them and neatly potted in small pots,
leaving the crown of each about one fourth of an inch over the surface, watered and set on a moderate
heat, will, in a few weeks, make excellent plants : one, two, or more stems, which they in general pro-
duce, being left to form the plant." (.Exotic Gard. 90.)

6603. Cw/^Mre. The geraniacaB require a light rich soil ; they grow well in equal parts of sandy loam and
well rotted dung ; or they will grow in leaf-mould and a little sand, without any thing else. As most
species are rapid growers, the pots require to be examined in spring and autumn, and the roots and top
reduced, or the plant shifted into a larger pot. In general the shrubby sorts should be kept low and
bushy by pruning ; for when they are allowed to grow tall and straggling, they are very unsightly and do
not flower well. Some of the herbaceous sorts may be considered as frame plants ; but the greater number
require the green-house, and some of the very succulent sorts are best grown in the dry-stove. "When an
extensive collection of geraniums is kept, it is desirable to devote a house entirely to their culture ; in this
the roof should be of a construction to admit as much light as possible, the stage should be near the glass,
and there should be ample means of giving air and heat. Most of the species require rather more heat
during winter than evergreen woody exotics from the same climates ; otherwise they are apt to lose their
leaves and rot at the points of the shoots. To prevent this, heat should be given in the daytime and ai**
admitted, and whenever any leaf begins to decay, it should be removed. The hardier geraniacae, like other
green-house plants, are generally placed in the open air from May to September ; but as the flowers are
much injured by heavy rains and winds, the more delicate sorts, and all those intended to flower in the
best manner, should be kept in the house with abundance of air night and day. In warm situations it is
customary in April or May, to plant many of the P. zonale and other free-growing sorts in the borders of
the flower-garden or shrubbery : these have a splendid effect till attacked by frost, when their roots may
either be protected where they stand by abundance of litter and mats, or they may be removed into single
pots, and placed in a dry part of the green-house till the following spring. The Rev. W. Williamson has
found, that if the plants are taken up, deprived of their stalks and fibrous roots ; the wounds made in doing
this healed by exposure in a dry place ; and afterwards the roots deposited in layers in a mass of sand,
placed in a cellar, or otherwise excluded from frost, they will retain their vegetative power through the
winter, and grow vigorously when replanted in the open air in spring. {Hort. Trans, iv. 414.)

6604. Forcing the geraniacce. The hardier shrubby sorts force well with a very gentle heat, and in this
way may be kept in flower during the winter months till April and May, when they will be succeeded by
those that have been kept in the common green-house temperature.

SuBSECT. 2. Exotic Heaths. — Erica, L. Oclandria Mimogynia, L. and Ericece, J.
JBruyere, Fr, ; Heyde Kraut, Ger. ; and Macchia, Ital.
6605. The heath family constitute an extensive assemblage of low shrubby evergreen
plants, much valued for the beauty of their flowers, and the blossoming of many of them
in the winter season. Scarcely any exotic heaths were known in Miller's time, and none
of the Cape species. Almost the whole of these have been introduced to Europe during
the reign of Geo. III., and the greater part by Masson, a collector, who made two
voyages to Africa at that king's expense.

6606. Species and varieties. Above 300 species have been introduced, some of which, from the difficulty
of propagation, or accidental causes, have been lost; but there are still upwards of 250 sorts, which may
be procured from the nurseries. There are also several varieties which have been raised from seed. The
Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert has raised several hybrid heaths, which gives reason {Hart. Trans, iv. 27.) for
thmkmgthatmany of the sorts imported from the Cajx?, and considered as species, are only hybrids pro-
duced by promiscuous impregnation. We have here arranged most of the sorts procurable in the nur-
series; and, in addition to the time of flowering, height in inches, and color, designated the form of the
flower, as beU (6), pill or tube shaped [p), open (o), roundish (r), or ventricose {v).

6607. ERICA. — MARCH.

HHghtfr.0to6inch.

[ Fr<m 6 to 12.

From 12 to 18.

From 18 to 24.

From 24 to 30.

From 30 uprvards.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

.A.rdens, Feb. o. r.

PURFLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Oppositifolia, o. v.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

PaUens, Feb. p.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.
Vemix, r.
_ major

GREEN.

GREEN.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Barbata major, p.

— minor

— discolor

WHITE.

AP]

WHITE.
RIL

WHITE.

WHITE.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

Costata, t.

RED.

PURPLE.

-AlutabUis, V.

PURPLE.

Finitiana, o.
Gracilis, p.
PriECox, p.

PURPLE.
Baccans, r.

PURPLE.

Linnzeoides, /.

PURPLE,

PURPLE.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Sessilifolia, t.

YELLOW.

Spicata, t.

YELLOW.

GREEK.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

SessiUHora, t. .

GREEN.

GREEN.

WHITE.
Acutangula

WHITE.

veniTE. j

Aristata, o. r. |

WHITE.
GeUda

WHITE.

Discolor, t.

WHITE.

Book II.

EXOTIC HEATHS.

907

ERICA. — MAY.

RED.
Fimbiiata, p.

WHITE.

Arborea i
Squarrosa

From 6 to 12.

From 12 to J

From 18 to 24.

From 24 to 30. Frum 30 vptvardt.

RED.

Kalmiaeflora, o.
Trivialis, p.
Troiaula rubra, r.
\'enu3ta
Squarrosa (

PURPLE.
Exserta,j>.
Fragrani
MeiUfera,!*.
Mollis
Puerilis

YELLOW.

WHITE.
Arctata,p.
Biflora, r.
Cordata, o. p.
Mundula, r.
Odore rosa?, o. r.
Nigrita, r.
Densa
Stellata, p.
Trossula alba, t'.
Ursina, r.

I RED.

Acuminata,/.
IFersotuta rubra, p.

PURPLE.
' Patens, o.
Plumosa
R&cemosa

WHITK.

Actea, p.
Donnia

— variegated
Persoluta alba, p.
PinifoUa discolor

RED.

iRaffa, /.

I Versicolor, I.

Andromadsflora, i

Raoemiflora, p.
Spuria pallida, i
PURPLE.
Spuria, <.

HED.

Viscaria, r.

PURPLE. I PURPLE.

Concinna, t.

Ipne
Ilybi

WHITE.

Fattersonia major, t,
Confefta, p.
Flexuosa

JUNE.

YELLOW.
Enneapbjlla, L

YELLOW.
WHITE.

RED.
Longipedimcniata,

o. V.
Satuicifolia, o. p.

RED.

o. o.

Hyacinthoides, v.

PURPLE. PURPLE.

Bank>iapurpurea> t. Blanda, o. t.
Elevata, o. r. ^Concava, o.

Droseroid. minor, o. Congesta, p.
Elefians, o. . , Depressa, t.
! Xivenia, o. v.
I Nobilis, o. p.
I YELLOW,
Halicacaba, r.

YELLOW.
Banksia, t.

WHITE.
Acuta, o. /.
Petiolata, p.
Primuloides, t

WHITE.
Nivea, r.
Rostella, p.

RED. I RED.

Linnsa superba, i. Splendens, o. t.

Empetroides, p.
Lsevis rubra
Margaritacea incar-

,ta

PURPLE.
EmpetrifoUa, p.

Kefleza rubra, r.

YELLOW.

Flammea, o. *.
Epistomia, v.
Erecta, t. -

WHITE.
Laeris, p.
Linnae, (-
Margarifacea, p.
Melanthera
PyrolsEflora, r.
Reeerminans, p.
Triflora,r.

JULY.

YELLOW.

SimpUcifolia,<.

WHITE.

Absynthoides, p.
Aristata scrotina, o.
Reflexa alba

RED. I RED.

Paniculata, o. DicMnsonia rubra

Lachn^a rubra, o p. Articulata, d.

ComosaconferU, r

I _ rubra

Kennedya, o. t.

Parmentiera, *.

iVentricosa, r.

I — superba

iHirta

PURPLE. i . PDRPLE.
Droseroid. maj. o. r. Canipestm, p.
Comosaalba, f.
' Protrudens

RED.

Inflata, v.
Mucosa, p.
Pedimculata
Ramentacea
A\'alkeria superba, i
Canesccns, o.
Incana, o. r.
Incamata major, p.
Juliana, v.
Moschata, p.

RED.

iColata, o.r.

— major, 3. o.
iPenicillata rubra, t.
PinifoUa coccinea
. Hirta, t.

Sparraannia, i.
Lutea
Magnjfica, o. I.

WHITE.

Cistifolia, o. d.
Lachntea, o.
Rupestris

VARIEGATFD.

I GREEK.

Massocia ferugin. t.
I — minor
I WHITE,

campanulata, o.
I Pickinsonia alba, p.
,f;iomerata
'Pehiza,o.r.
lRetorta,o. r.
iBrevifolia, o.
I RotundifolJa
!Sexfaria,r.
lThyinifolia,p.
VARIEGATED.

PURPLE.

Obliqua, 0. r.
Perspicua, t.
Pubescens major, p.
Petiveria minor I

— minima |
Recurrata, r.

YELLOW. ■
Exsurg. coccin. d. t

— fiilgida
Petiveria aurania
Sebana minor
TetracOTia, v.
Thunbergia, r.

WHITE.

Asui^ens, p.

Capitata, i
Dccumbens
Humea, r.
UrceolaJis, r

VARIEGATED.

PURPLE.
Decora, v.
(ilauca, r.
Sebana, t.

I YELLOW.

rkfollissima
■Foliosa, t.

Formosa, <.

Glabra, b. t.

Hibbertia

Patersonia

Sebana fusca,<.
— aurantia
_ lutea, »..
GREEN.

WHITE.

Mari&lia, p.
Monsonia minor,
Penicillata, t.
PinifoUa
Triumphans, r.

VARLEGATED.

Melastoma, t.

RED.
ea
Vcbtita camea

VARIEGATED.

YELLOW.
Grandiflora

GREEN.
Coronata, o. (.

WHITE.

\estita alba

VARIEGATED.

908

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

ERICA.-

AUGUST.

HeigUfr.0to6in.

From 6 to 12.

From 12 to 18.

From 18 to 24.

From 24 to 30.

FromZO upnards.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

1 RED.

PumUla, 0. r.

Calycinamajor,o.p.
Obcordata rubra, r.

Rubella, p. '

Ampullacea,o.t).
Broidlyana,o.v.

Elongate, <..

Buccinifbrmis, t.

Rubens lUannata, t.

Peltata, o.

Sebanasanguinea,*. Salisbuna

l'S!r^"-

Templea.o.o. | Jasminiflora, r.
Denticulate rub- o. ! Vestita uicamata, t

Deflexa, p.
Noisettea, r.

Mucosoides, p.

lVerticUlata,<.

Rigida, t.

Mammosaalba.<-

Brunioides, r.

Pellucida

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Scariosa, r.

Lucida, p.
Quadriflora, r.

Mammosa, i,

— major, t.
Pallida
NiUda, p.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Albens, v.

Sorrida, t.

Elata, t.

Denticulata

Nudiflora

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Bandonia, v.

Swainsonia, o. t.

Imperialis, t.

Massonia, v.

Gemmifera, o. t.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE .

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Interteita, v.

Aggregata,j>.

Argentiflora, t.

Arbutiflora, r.

Mousonia, v.

Densa

tiw^"-

Cupressina, p.

Infnndibnii&nnis,

MirabUis, t.

o.t.

Daphnaeflora, v.

1 - major

Lambertia, o. r.

Fasti^iate,

Pnysodes, v.

Proboscidea

Flaccida,i>.

PUosa, t.

Struthiolaenora,o.p.

Pendula
Phyllicoides
Shannonia, v.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.
Caffraspicatajp.
Tricolor minor, o. t.

VARIEGATED.

Tricolor major

VARIEGATED.

VARIEGATED.

,, , SEPXE^^^^^

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

^^oli^t"-'-

DecUnata, p.
Fibula

Coccinea,^
— major

Pregnans cocein. v.
Cameola

Vestite coccinea, t.

Floribunda

Mucronata

Multiflora, p.

Plunkenetia nana, t

Globosa,r.

Pregnans, v.

Cemua. p.

RolUnsoma,<.

ImbricaU

Archeria, 0.;.
Princeps, o. v.
Erubescen$,<.
Palustris,p.
PulcheUa '

Seba?aviri<U^^'

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

Smithia, p.
Archeria, v.

Cathroides, o.

Rugata, t.

Vestita puifmea, t .

VesUte fulgens, t.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Speciosa

Glandulosa

Petivcriana coc. t.
Glutinosa

Leea

Lapuginiosa, v.

Fetiveriana

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.
Ruperba
Viridiflora
Viridescens

GREEN.

GREEN.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Cumulata

Eriocephala, p.

Planifolia, p.

Occularia
Pura e

P.unkenetia alba, '.

Setecea

Soland^a

OCTO'R"^''

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

■ RED.

nS^ontalis,*.

Cerinthoides Ian. t.
Pulverulente, r.

Cerinthoides clote

Pyramidalis, o.

Cerinthoides cap. t.

PerlaU rubra, o.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Rosacea, o.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Filamentosa,v.^
Purpurea

PURPLE.

!

PURPLE.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

Radiata, /. ;

Corrugate, t.
Picte

Serratifolia
Flava, t.

Aurea,<.

GREEN.

GREEN.

GREEN.

Viiidis, t.

GREEN.

GREEN.
£uerana,<.

- pilosa

- speciosa

GREEN.

WHITE.

WHITE.

WHITE.

Denticulata alba, ».
Perlata, p. 1
SenectulS 1

NOV]

WHITE.
Pinastri, t.

EMBER

RED.

WHITE.

WHITE.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

RED.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.

PURPLE.
Laxa,p.

PURPLE.

Colorans

PURPLE.

Vestitarosea,Dec.<.
PURPLE.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.
Sulphurea, t.
WHITE.

YELLOW.

YELLOW.

^WHIXK.

WHITK.
Pinea

WHITE.

WHITE. ~

WHITE.

Book II. CAMELLIA, 909

6608. Propagation. A number of the sorts ripen their seeds in this country, and may be so pronaeated •
but the greater number are struck from cuttings, and some few, as E. massoni, retorta, petiofata &c bv
layers, which require two years to throw out roots. The seeds are often imported from the Cape 'and
arrive m winter : they should be sown early in the spring following, in frames filled with equal parts of
peat and sand, very thmly covered, placed in the shade, and beU-glasses placed over them. The soil must
be kept moderately moist by gentle waterings : they will in general come up in six weeks or three months,
and may then be kept close to the glass in the heathery, or in a frame or pit tQl autumn, when they may
be potted off. Seeds which are saved in this country may be sown as soon as gathered, if they ripen before
September, but after that period it will be better to preserve them till next spring ; as the plants produced
from them would not be sufficiently advanced to endure the winter. Gushing {Exotic Gard. 74.) prefers a
September sowing, because he finds the plants will stand the winter in the seed-pot better than those that
have been raised early in spring, and transplanted in autumn into single pots. Ample directions for strik-
ing heaths will be found in Cushing's Exotic Gardener, who observes, that cultivators failed at first by
planting large cuttings of ripened wood, instead of taking only the points of the fresh shoot The true
method, he considers, of propagating heaths was first discovered in the Hammersmith nurserv, and the
following abstract of the practice there is from Page's Prodromus. " About the month of June, 'or as soon
as the plant has made fresh shoots, cut off the extreme points about an inch long or less, according as the
sort may afford, but always in the fresh shoot ; take off the leaves from the lower part, as far as it is to be
put in the sand, without injuring the shoot ; this is rather a nice operation, and should be done with a
sharp penknife, for the least bruise spoils the cutting. Dibble them into a pot, filled with moistened com-
mon white house-sand, before they have time to flag ; when they are all planted, water the whole to fix
them still better ; let the moisture a little subside, then cover them with a small bell-glass, fitted within
the rim of the pot, and place them in the shade on a spent hot-bed, keeping them close till rooted, which
win, with the free sorts, take place in about two months : when rooted, which is known by their shootine,
take off the small glass, for about a week, at night, previous to its total removal They will be fit to pot
off in March the ensuing year."

6609. Henderson of WoodhalVs mode qf striking ericas is as follows : — ** The month of July is a good time
for putting in most of these cuttings ; but the cuttings must not be taken off till the young wood be firm.
Cuttings of ericas may be put in at any time when the wood is in a proper state. Take the cuttings off the
plants about three quarters of an inch long, pulling them off downwards j strip off the leaves nearly half
the length of the cuttings ; place the cutting on the nail of the thixmb, and, with a sharp knife, at right
angles, cut off the small end close to the joint, or place where it was pulled off the plant. Having done
this, plant them into a pot filled with small pit or river sand, giving them a good watering to settle the
sand about them. Set them on a shelf where they are a little shaded j cover them with glasses, and notice
to keep the sand always moist Some of these sorts will be well rooted in three months, and others will
require six months." {CcUed. Mem. iii. 323.) Henderson keeps his ericas, at all times, cool and airy;
*• opening the glasses in winter when there is no frost, and letting the wind blow on them, and using
no fire but in time of frost Never," he says, "shift any plant till the pot is quite full of roots. When
the plants get large, several of them will continue in good health for three or four years without shifting,
and flower well I have plants of erica retorta here, in pots seven inches in diameter, which are very
bushy, being eighteen inches across, and fourteen inches high above the pot ; erica infundibuliformis, two
and a half feet in diameter, and two feet nine inches high j erica pilosa, betwixt five and six feet high, and
three feet across, in pots eleven inches in diameter : these have not been shifted for five years, and are in
high health, and covered with strong fine flowers from the mouth of the pot to the top of the plant**
{Caled. Mem. iii, 327.)

6610. Culture. " A prejudice," Page observes, " having spread that the culture of these plants is diffi-
cult, one of the greatest ornaments of the green-house has hence, of late, been neglected; although the
method of culture is as easy, and nearly as certain, as that of the geranium, but requiring a little more de-
licacy in the execution." The soil for all the species is peat-earth mixed with from one sixth to one fourth
of fine white sand. The pots should be well drained and rather small ; but large, in proportion to the size
of the plants. Heaths thrive best in a house by themselves, and placed as close to the glass as possible,
without risk from frosts : they do not require so much heat as most green-house plants, but abundance of
air, and, above all, great regularity as to water, so as to presen-e, as much as possible, an equable and mo-
derate degree of moisture about their roots. The mass of mould being once thoroughly dried, the plant
is irrecoverably lost ; and it is equally so, though the operation goes on with less rapidity, if the pot is kept
in a pan of water. No kind of plant is more injured by being kept in a chamber than heath, nor will they
thrive in a green-house or in the open air, within the influence of the smoke of large towns. In the best
situations and under the best management, many of the species are short-lived, and therefore require to
be frequently renewed by cuttings or seed. - x ~

6611. T/ie ericas are not subject to insects. Henderson says " I have never had any insect on them except
the green fly. The old grandiflora is the only one with me that has been attacked. I destroyed the flies
by dipping the plant into an infusion of tobacco. The ericas, I find, do not agree well with being smoked
with tobacco-paper in the usual way." {lb. iiL 327.)

SuBSECT. 3. Camellia. — Camellia and Theoy W. Monad. Polt/and. L. and Aurantiaca, J.

6612. Of the camellia genus there are four species introduced : the C. bohea, viridis, and
sasanquay are the plants whose leaves furnish the tea imported from China ; C. jajwnica,
introduced in 1739, is an ornamental evergreen shrub, which grows to the size of a low
tree in China, with dark-green ovate leaves, on short petioles, and flowers red, white,
striped, and variegated, and single, semi-double, and double, without fragrance, but of
great splendor and beauty, and peculiarly valuable, as appearing in December, January,
and February.

6613. Varieties, These are —

WhHt : the w.Rle serai-double, double, I pink, buff, lone-leaved, striped-leaved, I Thereareabovehalf a dozen other sorts,
double white, waratah,WelIbank's white, I myrUe-leaTed,Xadv Hume's, Greville's I procured from seed, which are not yet

fimbriated white, and spotted-leaved. I coronet, six-angled, and waratah. I named, and many hybrids have not yet

Red : the .<anj;le, semi-double, double, I Red artd rvhite ; the striped, double, semi- I come into flower.

pale, dark, large, paeony, pompone, | double, variegated, and spotted-leaved. |

6614. Propagation. The single red camellia is propagated by cuttings, layers, and seeds, for stocks ; and
on these the other sorts are generally inarched, and sometimes budded or grafted. Ttie cuttings are formed
of ripened shoots of the preceding summer, which are taken off in August,-cut smoothly across at a joint
or bud, two or three of the lower leaves only taken off, and the cuttings then planted and made firm with a
small dibber, in pans of sand or loam, or, by some cultivators, sand and peat, or sand alone. The pans are
kept in a pit or cold-frame, without being covered with glasses, but shaded during powerful sunshine ; and
in the following spring such as are struck will begin to push, when they are to be placed in a gentle heat
In September or October fbllowing, the rooted plants will be fit to pot off; and in the second or third
spring they may be used as stocks. Henderson puts in camellia-cuttings at any time of the year, except-
ing when they are making young wood. He puts fifty cuttings in a pot of sand eight inches in diameter,
seu them in a cool place in the back of a vinery or peach-house for a month or six weeks, and then plunges

910 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

tJiem to the brim in a hot-bed where there is a little bottom heat A speedy mode of obtaining stocks is
by planting stools in a pit devoted to that purpose, and laying these i" ^ujum" ; the following autumn
niost of the layers will have produced roots, when they may be taken off and potted, and used as stocks m
the succeeding spring. Inarching or grafting is performed early in spring, when the plants begin to grow ;
the chief care requisite is so to place and fix the pot containing the stock, as that it may not be disturbed
during the connection of the scion with the parent plant. The graft being clayed over, is then covered with
moss, to prevent its cracking. When independent grafting is resorted to, the mode called side grafting
(2031.) is generaUy used, as in the case of orange-trees (5910.) ; but the operation of tongueing is generally
omitted, as weakening the stock, and unnecessary, with a view to prevent the scion from being blown off
by winds. A few seeds are sometimes obtained from the single red and semi-double camellias, and from
the single waratah ; these require two years to come up, but make the best stocks of any. The tea-camel-
lias are generally propagated by layers, but will also succeed by cuttings. ., , ,. . . ^.

6615. SoU. Some cultivators grow the camellias chiefly in peat ; but Messrs. Loddiges, who have the
most numerous collection of this genus, formerly used loam, with a little sand and peat for most of the
sorts : and they are grown in a similar soil in the Hammersmith nursery. Of late, Messrs. Loddiges find
Ught loam alone to answer as well or better. In the Count de Vande's garden, at Bayswatcr, rotten dung
is mixed with loam and peat, and the surface of the pots are top-dressed with fresh cow-dung, free from
litter. The plants appear to us to grow most luxuriantly in a strong rich loam ; but to be most prolific in
flower-buds in loam and peat. Henderson, of Woodhall, is one of the most successful growers of the camel-
lia in Scotland ; his compost is as follows : Take one part of light-brown mould, one part of river-sand,- one
part of peat-earth, one half part rotted leaves. Mix them all well together, and when the camellias re-
quire shifting, put some broken coal-char in the bottom of the pots, and some dry moss or hypnum over it.
(Caled. Mem. iii. 316.) .

6616. Camellia-house. Camellias have the best eflfect, and are grown to most advantage in a house en-
tirely devoted to them. Such a house should be rather lofty, as the plants never look so well as when six
or eight feet high, trained in a conic form, and clothed with branches from the root upwards. The
plants should be raised near to the glass by means of a stage, which should be so contrived that as they ad-
vance in height, it may be lowered in proportion. Only the very best crown or patent glass should be used ;
because it is found, from experience, that the least inequality of surface, or thickness of material so oper-
ates on the sun's rays, as to concentrate them, and burn or produce blotches on the leaves of the plants.
Every cultivator must have observed that leathery shining leaves, like those of the orange, myrtle, &c., are
more or less obnoxious to this solar injury ; but the leaves of the camellia are particularly so. Some nur-
serymen recommend a roof which will not admit much light ; others, the use of green glass ; of an opaque
roof, with glass in front only ; or, of a house facing the north. Our opinion is, that a light house facing
the south, or, better still, glass on all sides, is essential to the perfect growth of the plants ; and that all
solar accidents may be avoided, or at least rendered of no consequence, by using the best glass, and placing
the plants as near it as possible.

6617. To grow the camellia to a high degree of perfection, considerable care is requisite. The roots are
very apt to get matted in the pot, and by the space they occupy, so to compress the ball of mould as after a
time to render it impervious to water. Hence frequent attention should be had, to see that the water
poured on the pots, moistens all the earth, and does not escape by the sides of the pot, moistening only the
web of fibres. The same cause renders examining the roots, and shifting or reducing and replanting them,
a necessary measure, at least once a-year. When the plants are in flower, and in a growing state, they re-
quire to be liberally watered, and also a degree of heat somewhat more than is usually given to green-house
plants. If this heat is not given in November and December, the plants will not expand their blossoms
freely; and if both water and heat are not regularly applied after the blossoming season, vigorous shoots
will not be produced. To form handsome plants, they should be trained with single stems to rods, and
pruned so as to make them throw out side branches from every part of the stem : to encourage these, the
plants should not be set close together on the stage. In summer they may either be set out of doors on a
stratum of scoriae, or on a pavement, in a sheltered but open situation ; or the glass roof may be taken off.
The hardier sorts, as the double reds, blush pasony, flowered, &c., answer very well when planted in the
bed or border of a conservatory, provided the roof or entire superstructure can be removed in summer to
admit the full influence of the weather. Where this cannot be done, the camellia and most other plants
are better in portable utensils, which admit both of examining their roots, and placing them in the open
air, or in a greater degree of heat at pleasure. The single and double red camellia will endure the open
air, when trained against a south wall, and protected by mats in winter ; and there can be no doubt that in
time these and other species will be more perfectly inured to our climate.

6618. Henderson, of IVoodhall, gives the following account of his mode of treating the camellia. " The
best time for a regular shifting of the camellias is the month of February or beginning of March. After
shifting all those that require it, put them into the peach-house or vinery, where there is a little heat :
if there be no peach-house, vinerj-, nor pinery, set them in the warmest "part of the green-house. They
will soon begin to make young wood. From the time they begin to make their young shoots, till they
have finished their growth, give them plenty of water. They may be kept in the vinery or peach-
house till they have formed their flower-buds at the extremity and sides of the young growths, when a
few of them may be removed to a colder place, say behind the stage of the green-house ; for the camel,
lias are fond of being shaded during strong sunshine. In three or four weeks after, a few more of the
camellias may be brought from the vinery or peach-house, and put into a cooler situation. This may be
repeated three or four times, which will make as many different successions of flowering. Those that
are wanted to come into flower early, may remain in the warm house till they are beginning to flower
when they should be taken to a cold place, say the coldest place of the green-house ; then give them
plenty of light only, and they will open their flowers well, and stand long. A camellia cannot stand
heat when in flower, indeed they seldom open their flowers fine when in heat, and, at all events the
flowers soon fall off Those that are kept all the summer in the vinery, will come into flower by the
first or middle of October, and a pretty large plant, having perhaps fifty or a hundred flower-buds will
continue in flower till the month of January. Those plants that are removed early from the vinery
will now be in flower, to succeed those that were in flower in October, and have now done flowering
These last should be immediately taken into the heat. They will make their young wood early and
they may remain in heat till they come into flower, which will perhaps be a month eariier next year
By attending to shifting the camellia-plants from the warm house to the cold, a regular succession of
flowers may thus be had from the first of October to the middle of July. I have even had them all the
summer, but the flowers are best in the winter. Those produced in summer are far from being so
fine, and do not stand half the time of those that come into flower in November, December, January
February, March, and April Camellias delight to be kept damp all the summer months, and a little shaded
from the strong sun. Give them plenty of water while they are making their young shoots ; thev mav
also get a gentle sprinkling over the leaves once every week during the summer season, except when thev
are m flower. Camellias will stand a great deal of cold without being much injured, but they will not form
many flower-buds without some artificial heat. I find they flower best when kept in rather small pots or
tubs. I never shift them but once in two years, or often once in three years. There are several very laree
camellias here that have not been shifted these five years, and they are still in high health, havine
fr^^^ produced above a hundred fine large flowers every year. Six years ago, I shifted a single camellia
flr^f cX^® ^J"*'l!,P°* ^r^ * *"^ seventeen inches wide by seventeen deep, and grafted it with two dif-

fS)rtrfn°hh.°h hluK' °? K*^°"H^^f ",??u' ^I"^ °"^ '^"."^'^ ^'"*^ = 't *^ «"" '" "^e ^"»e tub. and all the
lour sorts in high health. I have had aU the four sorts in flower at once on it, producing a fine contrast

Book II.

WOODY GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

911

of colors. The plant is large and handsome, being eight feet six inches high, and six feet nine inches
wide. There is another plant here, twelve feet high, having upou-itall the sorts I possess. They wej-fi
only grafted last summer, and a number of the sorts are showing dowers ; grafts of all of them have taken
and are growing well. The plant is growing in a box sixteen inches over by sixteen inches deep." ICaled.
Man. iii. 316.)

ScjBSECT. 4. Various Ge^iera which may be considered as select Green-house Plants,
showy, fragrant, and of easy culture.
6619. Of other select green-house plants, the first we shall mention is the citrus tribe,
already treated of as fruit-trees (4879.) ; the beauty and fragance of which need no en-
comium. They merit a house by themselves, though they will thrive perfectly in the
same climate as the camellia. Tlie myrtle comes next in order : nerium is a well known
genus, whose flowers are of great beauty and long duration ; fuchsia is universally ad-
mired ; jasminum, gardenia, and daphne, have flowers of great fragrance ; heliotropium
is remarkable as smelling like new hay ; various species and vaiieties of rosa indica
and semperflorens are both beautiful and odoriferous, and flower throughout the winter.
Among the new genera from the Cape and Botany Bay, acacia, mimosa, eucalyptus,
melaleuca, metrosideros, and the proteacea;, are admired for being prolific in showy
flowers, which, for the most part, appear early in spring, and being chiefly evergreens
and large-growing hardy plants. Diosma, gnidia, and struthiola, are admired for their
minute foliage and elegant flowers ; those of xeranthemum are prized for their dura-
bility. Bignonia, cobaea, dolichos, jasminum, lonicera, and passiflora, are admired,
climbers ; of passiflora some beautiful hybrids have been originated by Milne of the
Fulham nurserj'. {^Hort. Trans, iv. 258. and v. 70.) Mesembryanthemum, cactus,
and yucca, are curious and beautiful succulents; amaryllis, cyclamen, iris, ixia, and gla-
diolus, lachenalia,babiana, ferraria, and oxalis, are beautiful bulbous-rooted plants ; and
calla, celsia, cineraria, lobelia, tropaeolum, and jacobaea, select herbaceous sorts.

6620. The principal species of these genera will be found arranged in the following sections, with their
colors, and other particulars, added to each. They are of easy culture, and, with the genera of the pre-
ceding subsections, may be considered as affording the best choice for a small, showy, odoriferous, ever-
green, and ever.flowering collection.

Sect. II. Bloody Green-house Plants.

6621. WOODY GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.— JAN. FEB. MARCH.

Salvia dentata, p.
Azalea indica
Daphne odora, fl. purp.
Camelia various sorts
Erica, various sorts

Erica, various sorts

YELtOW.

Hyperium creticum, p.
Pogonia glabra
Cluytia alatemoides, p.
Erica, various sorts

Banksia paludosa, p.
Phylica ericoides

— erubescens
Banksia marcessens, p.
Daphne odora

— fol. var. fl.
Erica, various sorts
Protea mellifera, fol.

— pendula
Camellia various sorts
Isppogcn anetbifiilius

VARIEGATED.

Protea amplexicaulis
Camellia, various sorts
Erica, various sorts

APRIL.

Epacrisp
Myrsine

BoTonia pinnata
Cineraria ameloides

Hermannia grossular. p. Banksia littoralis
Hypericum balearicum Dryandra tenuifolia
monogynum Epacris attenuata

Acacia pubescens, p.

— suaveolens
Parietaria arborea, p.

rubra
— pungens alba
Myrtus commun. 1 2 va
Phylica pubescens, p.
Isopogon formosum
Protea longiflora
Struthiola erecta, p.

VARIEGATED.

MAY.

Actus viUosa.c.

— cordifolia
Bauera humilis, p.

— rubioides

Chorizema rhombea

Daviesia ulecina, p.

— — major
Fuchsia lycioides
Magnolia annonifolia, p.

— fuscata
Mahemia pinnata
Melaleuca tomentosa
Pteonia moutan

papaveracea
Polygala mixta rubra, p,
Struthiol. ciliat. fl. ru. p,
CamelUa, various sorts

PURPLE.

Cheiranthas mutabil. p.
Daphne olefolia, p.
Diosma purpurea, p. '
Indigofera australis, p.
Lavatera maritima, p.
Lotus jacobaeus
Paeonia moutan, fl.pu. jj.
Polygala cordifolia, p.

— heisteria

— stipulacea
Salvia africana

Edwaidsia grandiflora

— — minor

— mycrophylla
Genista linifolia

— canariense
Gnidia simplex, p.

— pinifoUa

— ciliata

— radiata

— sericea

— capitata

— flava

— grandis '
Pultensea fleiilis, t. p.

— obcordata, t.

— retusa,<.

Arbutus cassinifol. p
Buchnera viscosa, p.
Cistus vaginatus
Correa alba, p.
Diosma capitata, p.

— cihata

— ericoides

— ovata

— pulchella

— uniflora

— umbellata
Empetrum album
Hakea pugioniformis, p,
Malva capensis, p.
Melaleuca viridiJlora
Pittosporum tmdulat. p.
Pomaderris elliptica
Protea lanceolata
Struthio'.ii ciliata

I '. untnricata

[ ^ ^Tat»

— retusa

912

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part II J.

JUNE.

RED.

PURPLE & BLUE. YELLOW.

WHITE.

ORANGE.

Brachysema latifol. p.

Calothanmus quadriHda
— villosa

Cheiranthustristis

Corroea speciosa

Crotolaria elegans, d. p.

Epacri? j^andiflora, p.

Illiciuni floridanuiii
— jiarvitlorum

Melaleuca stypheloid. p
_ thymifolia

Metrosideros angusUfol.
_ floribunda
_ lanceolata

Oiylobium cordifol. p.

Pimelia linifolia, flo. ros.

Virgilia capensis

Convolvulus cneonim, p.

IndiRofera angustifol. p.
1 — purpureum
1 Losiopetalum roseum, p.
iPodafyriacalytrata,p.
, Polycala bracteata
_ cordifolia
- oppositifolia

Swainsonia fjalegitblia
1 _ betonicum

Teucriumfruticans

Brunia ericoides, p.
Clittbrtia ericaefolia
Corraea viridiHora, p.
Gnaphalium arborescens
I — congestum
I _ granditlor.
Gnidia imberbis
ILoddigesia oxalidifol. p.
Acacia ensifolia

= P^
— lophantha, p.

Pittosporum revolut.
_ tobira,

Acacia alata

Andersonia sprengel. p. ' Bossiaea cineria, p.
Buchnera pedunculata | — heteropfivlla
Citrus aurantium 1 — scolopendrium
_ buxifohus Daviesia latifolia

— decuraana — saligna
_ limon — ericifolia

— limonella DiUwyniaglaberima
_ medica | — hirta

— nobilis | — floribunda
Diosma fragrans, p. Goodia lotifolia

— oppositifolia i — pubescens
Empleurum serritulum Pultenaea daphnoides, p

— laUfolium Spharolob. vimineura
Gnidia oppositifolia j
Acacia lophantha, p.
Pimelia linifolia
Protea candidans
Zieria smithii 1

JULY,

RED.

PURPLE.

YELLOW.

WHITE.

ORANGE.

Beaufortia decossata, p

— glauca
Bouvardia triphylla, p.
Calothamnus gracilis
Colutea frutesoens
Epachris pulchella, p.

_ — minor
Fuchsia coccinea
Hermannia flammea, p.
Lambertia formosa
Marrub. pseudo diet. p.
Melaleuca den&a

_ fulgens
_ puSUlla;

Grevillea linearis
I^chnea purpurea, p.
Lavandula pinnata
Psoralea aculeaU
Salvia africana, p.
Scabiosa africana, U
Swainsonia coron. fol. p.
- galegifolia

Cassia corymbosa, p.
Cytissus tomentosus, p.
Gardenia Thunbergia
Gnidia flava, p.

_ grandls

— sericea
Hypericum cons, p.
Jasminum odoratisslm.
Leptospermum arbores-

Ma^olfa pumila
Acacia acicularis
Salvia aurea

Asterargophyllus,p.
Banksia praemorsa
Cassine raaurocenia
Cistus algai-vensis, p.

— canariensis
Clethra arborea
Dais cotonifolia
Diosma imbricata

— orbicularis

— speciosa
Dryandra floribunda
Heliotropium grandiflo
Leptospermum ambigu
Protea latifbUa

— mucronifoUa

Baeckia virgata, p.
Bosea yervamora
jBossiiea mycrophylla
Buddlea salvifoha
Platylobium formos. p.
- minor

AUGUST.

RED.

PURPLE. ;

YELLOW.

WHITE.

ORANGE.

Hermaiinia cuneifolia, p.

— odorata
Melaleuca decussata

— liypericlfolia

— linaiifoUa
Nerium oleander

— flo. pleno

— splendens
Erica, various wits

Eteria purpurea, p.
Dio?ma tetragona, p.
Lavandula dentata
Podalyria sericea, p.
Polygala f.liformis
— speciosa
Trachelium caeruleum
Erica, various sorts

Brunia candicans, p.

— elegans
Hypericum canariense

— crispum

— olympicum

— reflexura

— lanceolatum
Jasminum odoratissim.
Acacia discolor
Plectranthus firuticosus
Erica, various sorts

Banksia att enuata, p.
Beaufortia glauca, p.
Celastnu cassinoides, p.
Diosma latifolia
Donnia glutinosa, p.
Hakia cmeria
Leptosperm. obliquum

— — flo. alb. p.
Neriun] oleander

- - flo.plen.
Protea umbellata
Selago corymbosa, p.
Struthiola virgata, p.
Stylldium frutlcosum,p.
Erica, various sorts

Entaxia myrtifolia, p.
Platylobium triangulare
Tristania conferta,p.

— nerifolia
Erica, various sorts

SEPTEMBER.

RED.

PURPLE.

YELLOW.

WHITE.

ORANGE.

Phlomis leonorus
Erjcae et Uerauiio

Ericae et Geraniae

Gordonia lasianthus, p.
Ericse et Geraniae

Phylica ericoides, p.
Protea tomentosa
Ericic et Geraniae

Ericae et Geraniae

OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, DECEMBER.

RED.

PURPLE.

YELLOW.

WHITE.

ORANGE.

'hlomis nepetifblia, p.
Untana africana
Sticse et Geraniae

Statice mucronata
Ericae et Geraniae

;.inum trieynum, p.
Ericae et Geraniffi

<

^rbutus longifolia, p.

Protea hj-pophylla, p.

jomphocarpus arbores-
cens, p.

Vestringia rosmarini-
formis

:ricae et Geraniae

Ericae et Geraniae

fJ^^!; ^''?l'T^'"''' 'IJe method universally applicable is that by cuttings ; but a
few sorts, which are very difficult to strike, are sometimes layered, grafted, or inarched
and a number are raised from seeds. g^uitu, or marcnea,

QUah.ydo„b.AJ, cover »itl, the same Le mould, .4„ar,^The''l,roT!L°'sS^^^

Book II. WOODY GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 913

gentle watering with the finest-rose watering-pot They may now be set in the most dry airy part of the
propagation- house, where they can be regularly attended, as to watering and weeding,

6624. Watering, Cushing observes, they will require at least once a-day, in a greater or less d^ree;
for if they are not kept properly moist, the seeds will not by any means vegetate freely, if at all ; however,
the other extreme is to be studiously avoided. The weeds should be regularly pulled out brfore they
attain any size ; else, besides their tops smothering the young seedlings which may have started, the roots,
in getting them out afterwards, not only disturb them, but also the remaining seeds that may be perhaps
on the point of bursting their embrjo. As the spring advances, it will be necessary to lay a few sheets of
strong paper over the pots, for two or three hours in the middle of the day, if the weather happens to be
dear, and the sun acts forcibly on them ; particularly those in which the finer seeds are sown, in order to
prevent the surface getting over dry and powder-like ; or otherwise, if the mould happens to be pretty
moist, it is liable to form a mossy crust, which might be particularly injurious, by preventing the young
seedling ushering itself into the light, from penetrating through it with that ease which is requisite. In this
mannermusttheybemanageduntil the beginning or middle of June, at which season the larger kinds of seed
may be removed to some shady Iwrder, where the pots can be plunged nearly up to the rim in coal-ashes
or sand ; which will greatly assist to keep them in a proper moist state : here, all the care they will require
is to be kept clear from weeds, and regularly watered, morning and evening, if requisite : but never when
the sun shines strong upon them, lest the tender leaves of the young plants should get scorched ; it will
be also necessary to have a careful eye daily for slugs, worms, &c. Should there beany fine light-covered
seeds, such as heaths, &c. they must be set in such a manner, that they may be covered with a common
hot-bed frame, in a moderately exposed situation, so that in case of sudden or heavy showers, which might
otherwise wash the seeds out of the pots, they may be occasionally covered to preserve them from such
violence J yet they may be exposed to gentle rains at times, but never long together, lest they become over
wet, which would soon perish them in this tender state. They will likewise require to be shaded with a
mat in clear weather, or even a double mat, in the very hottest season.

6625. Potting qffi Early in July, many of them will be growing pretty fast, and will require to be
potted off into separate pots ; as it is much preferable to do this while they are young and small, before
their roots become matted together, than it is afterwards ; besides, that they have a considerable portion
of the growing season before them to establish themselves, before the winter stops their career. In per-
forming this work, care should be taken to match the pot to the size of the plant, and nature of the spencies
to be potted ; as overpotting these small seedlings might be of the worst consequence. The largest-sized
pots for this use, unless the plants are particularly strong, are what are called No. 60s : but for heaths, and
such like very small articles, a still less size, known by the name of thimble pots, are to be preferred.
Being provided with a quantity of these, and the different sorts of mould properly prepared, that may be
requisite for the kinds to be done, proceed to part the plants ; in doing which, let the nicest care be taken
to preserve as much roots and earth to each plant as can possibly be done without injuring th? others : let
them be neatly potted in the proper mould, which must be gently pressed to the roots, that they may the
sooner incorporate themselves with it. In this manner, pot as many as may t>e thought sufficient for the
present purpose, at the same time allowing a few for mischances. I'hey must then be well watered, in the
manner already directed for seedlings, and set in a cool frame, on coal-ashes well rolled, or any other hard
substance that will prevent the worms getting so freely into them, as they otherwise would. The lights
must be kept constantly on, and closed, for a few days, more or less as circumstances may require ; and it
will be also necessary to shade them very secure from the strong rays of the sun at first ; however, in a
little time, the lights may be taken off at night, if fine, having them on, and shading in the day, until by
degrees the plants are so hardened as to be able to withstand the full power of the sun ; thus, in the space
of a fortnight or so, they will be fit to be set along with the other plants. This business should not be
undertaken later than the middle of August, for if executed at a more advanced season, the plants will
not have time to establish themselves ; therefore, any that may remain in the pots, not strong enough to
be parted by that period, should be removed into the propagation-house early in September, and there
placed in their proper situation in that department until the spring following. Indeed, there are some
seeds which absolutely require to be kept for that term before they will vegetate ; whereby it becomes
necessary to examine with care whatever pots have not by that time shown any signs of vegetation, and
those which are found alive must be saved, and treated in the same manner as fresh-sown seeds.

6626. The pots set in the house will require nearly the same treatment as usual, viz. to be kept perfectly
clear from weeds, and regularly watered. Water should now be given in the morning only, as any damps
it may occasion will have time sufficient to evaporate in the course of the ensuing day ; whereas, if given
in the evening, it causes a chillness about their tender leaves, and from the necessary closeness of the
house at night, not having free exhalation, it may do a material injury, not only to the seedlings them-
selves, but likewise to the adjacent plants, by tending to increase the general damp of the house. When first
housed, if the weather prove clear, they must be shaded for two or three hours at mid-day ; but this practice
must not be followed too closelv, as the influence of the sun is but seldom too powerful for them at this
season, and during the winter months the more sun they receive the better : it is also necessary to be par-
ticular In observing that no slugs, snails, or any other insect, harbor about them. Those seeds received
from New South Wales, in general, as well as manv others of the South Sea Islands, and also several of
the larger sorts from the interior parts of the Cape of Good Hope, from the warmer countries of temperate
America, and in short, any of the climes in, or approaching the same latitudes, although the plants when
grown will flourish and come to perfection in the green-house, yet the seeds will require the aid of a hot-
bed when first sown, to set them in vegetation, and until they are parted and established in their separate
pots, then to be hardened by degrees to the open air ; from which time, they may be treated as durected
for the more hardy and common sorts of seedlings. {Exotic Gard. 84.)

6627. By cuttings. This mode of propagation may be commenced about the middle
or end of January.* As young shoots in a growing state generally strike most freely,
where these are wanting on particular specimens, the plants may be forced for a few
weeks in the stove, or in any of the pits in the reserve flower-garden, to produce them,
All the soft- wooded, tender, pithy kinds, such as indigofera, crotolaria, polygala, housto-
nia, chironia, &c., as well as some of the more curious geraniae, may require this treat-
ment. By the end of February, the heat will have produced shoots of from two to four
inches in length, and from that to any time in March, proceed to cut and dress them
neatly with a sharp penknife, taking otf all the leaves as close to the stem as possible
without wounding it, except a few at the top, to be left for the free respiration of the
cuttino- : this observation should be particularly attended to in making cuttings of ever-
greenfin general, whether hardy or tender : let them be cut off at bottom with a clean
horizontal cut, at a joint or bud, and immediately inserted in their proper pots. To have
these property prepared is a very necessary part of the business ; being well drained,
they should be rather more than half filled with the mould or compost best suited to the
nature of the plant, and afterwards filled with good loam or sand, whichsoever may be

3 N

gj4 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

thought more advisable to insert the cutting in : if sand is used, it should be previously
well watered, otherwise it cannot be sufficiently tightened to the base of the cutting ; a
most essential point to be obser^-ed ; however, it should have time to be well drained oft
from the pot before the cuttings are put in ; as they, being so tender, are extremely
liable to damp at this season ; than which nothing is more injurious. The loam will, m
general, be found sufficiently moist of itself ; and should it be of a fine, sandy nature,
so much the better ; but if not, a third or fourth part of fine sand should be added, and
well mixed previous to its being used.

6528 Bein<f properly planted, let them be covered immediately with the proper glass well fitted, and
presstd moderately on the mould, so as perfectly to exclude the air. They should then be plunged in the
front of the bark-pit of the propagation-house ; or otherwise m a hot-bed frame made up for that purpose
The inside of the glasses should be regularly wiped with a dry cloth every morning ; and any of them that
happen to damp, carefully taken away before they contammate the rest. If the sun happens to be un-
clouded they n'iust be shaded for a few days moderately with strong paper, or some such article ; but by
no means is it to be lefton too late in the afternoon, as the cuttings being so soft and tender, are extremely
susceptible of injury by over-shading. In the space of ten days or a fortnight, some of the free-rooting
kinds will be makiiig efforts of growth ; as soon as this is noticed, it will be necessary to give them a ittle
air bv taking the classes off every evening, when the sun is quite receded from them, and putting them
on again earlv the following morning ; until they are by that means hardened, so as to be able to bear the
full power of "the sun without the glass, when it is to be entirely discontinued. If any of them should
droop their heads when this operation is first performed, it is proper to refrain from moving the glasses
until they have gained more strength. The shading is also to be decreased by degrees, but not so much
as to be entirely done away while there remains anv of them under glasses. In this manner is the business
to be followed at different intervals, according as the cuttings are ready during the months of March and

6629. May and June is the most proper time for propagating most or all of the woody shrub-like plants ;
such as myrtles, oranges, metrosideros, banksias, &c. and more particularly heaths, as the young wood
will by that time be in general pretty far advanced. If this business is begun in June, which is early
enough, they must, on account of the increased heat of the season, be plunged in some cool shady situa.
tion where they can be conveniently shaded when requisite : an exhausted hot-bed, with a frame and
Rood li<^hU on it, will answer very well ; or otherwise, the north side of any low wall or hedge, where
they will be a little sheltered from the noonday sun, and have the benefit of it mommg and evening ; m
either place, the pots must be plunged up to the rim in old tan or sawdust ; and in the latter, they
will also require to be covered with large cap-glasses over the small ones, as well mixed cuUings as
heaths, except a few of the lierbaceous sorts, such as arctotis, calendula, &c. and strong, substantial,
broad-leaved kinds, as camellia, laurus, &c. which will succeed better without the small glasses at this
season; so that they are covered With sound airtight caps. There are many others, indeed all .aie-
growing deciduous, as well as evergreen sorts, as pomegranates, oleas, myrtles, &c. ; which, m general,
only form their callosities previous to the ensuing spring, that do better without the small glasses, as
their leaves drop off much sooner when too closely covered, than they do when differently managed ^
and it is well certified, that the longer the leaves are retained in an active state, the greater the pro-
bability of success : this is to be merely understood as relating to late cuttings ; for the same articles,
if put in early in spring, very young, in a moderate heat, closely covered, properly shaded and dried,
will strike astonishingly quick. Cuttings of all the kinds that remain to be propagated should also be
made at this season, and managed in the same manner. The whole being thus arranged, they must
be carefully shaded whenever the sun acts violently on them, especially when first put in ; but they
ought not to be shaded longer than four or five o'clock in the afternoon, according to circumstances,
as the mild influence of the sun at that hour will be necessary to dry up any damps that may have arisen
within the caps. It will be also requisite to dry the small bell-glasses every morning, as directed for the
.spring cuttings, and to water occasionally any of the pots which may require it ; for though it is proper
to keep the top of the cutting dry, yet the mould in the pot must be kept as near a medium as possible
between wet and dry, otherwise they will not freely vegetate.

6630. Potting off. Some of the first put in spring cuttings will, in May or June, require to be parted
and potted separately in small pots ; in performing which, be careful to avoid breaking the roots, using
them much in the same manner as already directed for seedlings. When potted and watered, they must
be set in the propagation-house for a few days, and shaded until they have established themselves in the
fresh mould : as soon as they have taken to grow freely, let them be removed to a frame ; but observe not
to expose them to the open air entirely at first, as it might do them a material injury, on account of which,
the lights over them should be kept closer than usual for a few days. About the middle of June, any of
the tenderer green-house cuttings that have been left in the propagation-house since spring, should be
plunged under the cap-glasses along with the others : where the whole must be carefully attended to every
morning, to pick off damps, dry the glasses, and water when wanted ; it is advisable, when fresh watered,
to let the glasses stand off for about a quarter or half an hour, to dry the surface a little, except the sun
happens to be very clear, and shining direct on them. It has been already remarked, that there are many
kinds which do better without the small glasses ; such as the strong-growing, spongy, and succulent kinds ;;
also those with thick leathery leaves, as the camellia, and some species of ilex, &c. ivhich are very liable
to have their leaves scorched by the glasses collecting the rays of the sun. Any time during the months
of June or July, cuttings of these sorts may be made with success ; as by that time the young shoots will
be sufficiently firm for that purpose, and will strike freely in good loam : but camellias, and such like sorts,
should not be cut until the shoots have finished their growth, and the leaves attained their full size, as-
they are, when takeii too young, particularly subject to rottenness and damp. In July and August, there,
will be many of the earlier cuttings growing; they should have their glasses taken off, as before directed,
and afterwards be set for a few days in a more exposed situation, to harden them by degrees, in which
they must be shaded from the mid-day sun, but freely exposed to the air at night.

6631. Parting and potting should also be occasionally performed on such as are ready for that operation ;
when, if any of them happen to be more backward than others in the same pot, and not rooted, let them
be put in again as cuttings, and treated as such ; those potted should be set in a cool frame, as directed
for seedlings, where they must be kept close and shaded, except in mild weather, until they are by degrees
inured to the free air.

6632. Eemoving to the propagation-house. At the season in which it is judged advisable to house the
general collection of green-house plants, it v/ill be also requisite to have the cuttings removed to the
propagation-house, to be cleaned, sorted, and regulated, according to their different kinds and stages
of growth. The commoner sorts will do to be set in any part of the house where they will have free
air and light, and that they can be got at conveniently to water, and pick them when necessary ; the
more curious kinds should be set in a dry airy part, where they can be carefully attended, to prevent
their getting over dry or dirty, and also to take the glasses occasionally off those that may be growing.
All the backward heaths, proteas, or any other hard-wooded kinds, such as are most of the Botany
Bay plants, &c. that take a long time to strike, should be set in one of the coolest and driest situa-
tions of the hot-'house, where they must be watered and cleaned, like the others, throughout the win-

Book II. WOODY GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. 915

ter. Towards the commencement of the new year, many of them will begin to grow, therefore the
glasses must be taken off such as soon as necessary. With the advancing season, these will likewise
advance, and soon require to be parted, and potted separately. {Exotic Gard. 101.)

6633. Abnost aU the woody green-house plants may be propagated by cuttings ; but a few are occa-
sionally layered, marched, or grafted, as the camellia, citrus, daphne, &c. which have been already
treated of. •*

6634. General culture of woody greeyi-house plants. We shall commence with the
shifting season, which generally takes place about the end of May, and trace, from Gush-
ing, an outline for their general culture and management throughout the year. Green-
house plants, tliis author observes, for the most part require a considerable share of
pot-room, as many of them are very free growers ; but still great caution is necessary to
avoid over-potting the tenderer weak-growing kinds. When shifted, let them be neatly
tied up, if requisite, and well watered. Any dead or ill grown parts can now be, with
propriety, cut away, so as to give the heads a regular neat appearance. In bright sun-
shine it may be also necessary to shade them for a few days from the influence of the sun
and winds, until they are perfectly established in the fresh mould.

6G35. Placing in the open air. By the middle of June, it will be time to think of preparing the
out-door departments, in which it is intended the plants should stand during the summer months. The
most eligible situations for this purpose are, the north aspect of vacant walls or hedges, where they will
be a little shaded from the noonday sun, or between rows of close hedges, particularly planted for, and solely
appropriated to this purpose. By no means set them close under the shade or branches of large trees : as
the plants are thereby inevitably drawn into a weak state in a few weeks, and those who adopt such situa-
tions are not unfrequently under the disagreeable necessity of throwing away many of, perhaps, their
most rare plants, every autumn : and even those that remain will have a bad unsightly appearance. In-
deed, shelter from the winds is the great desideratum to prevent their being upset, for most green-house
plants are fond of the warmth of the sun, except when recently potted, provided their roots are kept
moderately moist The practice of some gardeners is to plunge them amongst the shrubs and flowers of
the pleasure-ground ; this answers pretty well with the strong-growing-kinds, such as myrtles, geraniums,
coronillas, &c. old plants or supernumeraries that will not be wanted to house in the autumn ; and even
has a very pretty effect when judiciously done ; but it will by no means do for the tender species. There-
fore, upon the whole, the most unexceptionable situations are such as at the same time afford a moderate
portion of shade, and.are so situated as to break the force of those strong gales which frequently blow in
the summer and early autumn months, and yet allow that free circulation of air so necessary to the well-
being of plants in general, and at all seasons. Having fixed on the place where they are to stand, it must
be thoroughly cleansed from weeds, and the hedges, if any, neatly clipped. It should then be well rolled, to
make it perfectly firm and level, over it a layer of good lime, slacked and made into the consistency of
thick white-wash, should be poured, and left to soak into the surface, as a preventive against worms
getting into the pots. When tnis is dry, let about an inch of finely sifted coal-ashes be regularly laid on,
and firmly rolled a second time. Being thus prepared, the plants may be brought out and set regularly
and level on the surface, in whatever form or arrangement may best suit the situation or the taste of the
cultivator.

6636. Housing in autumn. As the young tender shoots of the summer's growth are" "extremely liable
to be injured by the frost, as soon as any symptoms of this appear, they should be removed to their win-
ter quarters, where, if the green-house is built on a proper principle, they can still have the benefit of the
free air, and at the same time be in a situation to be protected when necessity requires. They should, at
all events, be removed in the earlier part of September. Therefore, about a fortnight before that time,
they should be regularly examined, and any roots that may have extended themselves through the holes
at the bottom of the pots, cleanly cut away : this tends to stop the too luxuriant growth, and being exe-
cuted at a proper period, before their final removal, they have time to recover themselves from the partial
check they may have received by it; which would come doubly severe, if deferred until the time of re-
moving them into the house ; the transition from the cool bottom on which they stood, to the dry boards
of the green- house stage, being so materially different Whatever may be the mode of arrangement
adopted (6205.), the plants must not be set too close when first put in, as it would occasion most of their ten-
der leaves to turn yellow and fall off; neither should they, if the house happens to have been built on
a close construction, be by any means taken in when their leaves are wet

6637. When they are all housed^ and dirt of every description taken away, let as much free air be given
as possible in the daytime ; and even at night, should the weather prove moderately mild, and free from
any appearance of frost. Frosts, at this early season, are seldom so severe as to injure any green-house

admitted at this season, when many of the plants have not yet finished their summer's growth, it will in-
evitably cause them to produce weak and tender shoots, which will be extremely liable to damp off at a
more advanced season, when the house must be unavoidably kept close on account of the severities of the
external air ; and besides, it will tend to give them a more general tender habit, and render them less
able to resist the winter colds than they otherwise would. Hence it is evident, that they cannot receive
too much air, whenever the state of the external air wUl admit of it, by being free from all appearance of
frost, as it will be so much to their advantage to be thus hardened before the winter assumes its greatest
scvcritv-

6638 Water should also be plentifully administered when they are first taken into the house, as the dry
boards on which they now stand, as well as the elevated situation and free circulating air, occasions them
to require more than when they stood on the moist earth ; however, by no means go to the extreme, giving
it only when evidently necessary. . , , -^ -n „o.,-,« „ ui,

6639. As the close foggy weather advances, water must be given more sparingly, else it will conspire with
the atmosphere to inc?lase the damps of the house, which will inevitably injure the plants, by rotting their
leaves. These, and dead flowers, should be picked off as soon as they are observable, otherwise they will
make a very disagreeable appearance. . , ^i. . in. „<^ !..»»<, <.>,„., «.,.,

6640. The months of November and December seem to be more noxious to the health of plants than any
other season, bv reason of their being full of young sappy leaves, and the remains of many of the autumn
flowers still on-fhem, when the weather (which at this time generally '^.c?™es close and chilly ) renders
it necisary to keen the house shut and warm ; this occasions a most pernicious damp to exhale from every
^rt onh^house, and even from the earth in the pots, which fixes on «^^ If^^^f '^" °ce of X p?Led
plants, to their inevitable injury, particularly the younger parts, s^.^h as were the P^'^"?^.^. £^ P^?^f -
ing summer. If this kind of weather continues for any considerable time, it wiU be aovisable to give a

ittle fire-heat, to help in drying up these baneful exhalations and also as "juch a.r ^?f c^" .l>y^,^;'y ^J-
mitted by the doors and front windows, more especially when fire is ^^ded otherwise the heat of the flues
will insti-ad of exuelline the contaminated air, rather occasion it to exhale more tree y, and De o' worse
consiuSces At'lhi feason aSf the pSits should be regularly examined to clear them of aU dirt, and

3N 2

916 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part lit

also to scrape off any moss, &c. that may have grown on the surface of the mould, and to renew it with a
little fresh loam : this contributes much to their good appearance, if neatly executed.

6641 Fire-heat. Very little fire-heat seems to be requisite for tlie preservation of green-house plants
in this climate ; in fact, the less it is found necessary to use the better. Except m the case ot damp, a.s
before mentioned, it need not be used till the frost be so severe as to lower the thermometer several de-
grees below 48°, and then merely sufficient to raise it again to that point. If this can be done without the
assistance of fire, so much the better ; for which purpose, bass mats may be used along the lower parts of
the house, where they can be conveniently fastened : these will be of infinite service, even when fire is
used, as less of that element will suffice ; but they should be always taken ofif in the day to admit the light,
unless the weather happens to be particularly severe. It may be also proper to remark, that the more dry
the mould in the pots is kept at this season the better, as it will be less liable to attract the frost ; there-
fore, water must be used very sparingly, and only to such as are in actual want of it. Sometimes, in the
depth of winter, there is a succession of very clear weather for several days together, wherein warm sunny
days succeed the coldest frost, and nights in which fires have been absolutely necessary ; in this case, it
will be requisite to give all the air possible in the day, (unless strong harsh winds, or other occasional pre-
ventives, happen to prevail,) observing to shut the windows up close early in the afternoon, so as to
include part of the natural heat of the atmosphere within the house. Such weather renders an increase
of water necessary, especially over the entrance of the flues, where the fires have the greatest force. It
should be administered in the morning, and ought to be kept in the house all night, to expel any frosty
particles it ma^ have imbibed, and render it nearly equal to the temperature of the air of the house. But
unless water becomes actually necessary by the action of the fire, or the extreme drought of the season, (a
circumstance not much to be dreaded in our climate at this time of the year,) the less water used the bet-
ter; for though the plants in general like to be Vept pretty moist in the summer, there is hardly any thing
more pernicious to them now than an extreme of moisture.

6642. Winter and spring treatment, insects, &c. During the months of January and
February, and, indeed, all through the winter and early spring, on account of the neces-
sary closeness of these departments, it may be expected to see a few dead or yellow leaves
on the plants ; these, together with the dead flowers, and whatever damps may occasion-
ally appear, should be picked off as soon as discovered.

6643. The mildew and green fli/ will also be paying frequent visits at this season; particularly on the
young shoots of heaths, and such like tender-leaved plants. The best remedy for the first of these is, to
procure about equal proportions of sulphur and roach-lime, slacked and finely sifted, the quantity accord-
ing to the number of plants infected, to be used in the following manner : As soon as the least symptom of
this disease is perceived, (for the sooner it is stopped the better,) which makes its appearance like a whitish
down around the tops of the tender shoots, or a species of fungus on the back, or under part of the leaves,
provide a vessel full of clear water, large enough to immerge the plant in, exclusive of the pot, which must
be held in an inverted position, with the hand placed so as to prevent the mould falling out ; in this man-
ner, plunge the plant into the water, and while it is wet, holding it in the same position, let another apply
the above preparation with a powder-puff, or some such machine, in such a manner, that every part of the
plant may be perfectly covered : one dressing in this way will, in general, be found sufficient. The plants
should afterwards be taken to the reserve-department, or placed in some dry airy part of the house, not
conspicuous, until it recovers its verdure.

6644. As to the fly, fumigation with tobacco will be found adequate to its destruction ; strictly observing
to perform it at the proper season, that is, when the air is perfectly calm, and if close foggy weather, so
much the better ; every aperture should also be stopped, so as to exclude the external air as much as
possible.

6645. Towards the end of winter, the plants should be regularly examined, and cleaned from any filth
they may have acquired during that dreary season ; such as moss on the surface of the pots, and leaves that
have dropped thereon ; also any plants that may have grown into a loose habit should be tied up. The
platforms or stages should be clean brushed, whilst the plants are removed, and any worms that may have
harbored in the pots dislodged, by turning them upside down, and lifting them carefully off without break-
ing the ball of roots, at the bottom or sides of which they are generally to be found. It is easily known
when they are in the pots, by their casts on the surface. Indeed, this is a thing that should be attended
to at every season of the year, as they are to be observed more or less at all times, and considerably disor-
ganise the economy of the pot, when suffered to persevere.

6646. As the spring advances, it will be found necessary and convenient to admit a more free circulatioa
of fresh air, and on account of the increasing drought and heat of the season, water must be given more
plentifully ; but the houses must not yet be left open at night, particularly the top-lights, as the weather is
in general so very changeable at this season, that it frequently happens, although the evening may appear
mild and serene, the morning ushers in with a severe frost, which, if admitted to the plants, would mate-
rially injure them ; and perhaps at once render all the winter's care and attention abortive. Until about
the middle or end of May, the weather seldom becomes in any degree settled ; but at that season we may
venture to expose the plants both day and night to all the vicissitudes of the weather, should it continue
in any degree moderate. Being thus treated, they will require a considerable increase of water, which may
now be copiously given to them, particularly the more free-growing kinds ; but let the foUowingbe observed
as a general maxim not to be departed from ; that it is necessary to the health of plants, especially the ten-
derer species, to be permitted to become moderately dry before they are again watered ; because, when kept
in a continual wet state, the mould becomes entirely destitute of that active quality so indispensably neces-
sary to vegetation ; and the plant, in consequence, will assume a very luihealthy appearance, which manv
might perhaps not attribute to the proper cause. {Exotic Gard. 130.)

6647. Treatment of green-house plants in a conservatory. This should resemble the
treatment of plants in pots, as far as the difference of circumstances will permit. The
plants in the conservatory cannot be set out in the open garden ; but the roof can be re-
moved to produce the same effect, and should be done about the same time. Instead of
shifting, the soil can be refreshed by manure and top-dressings, or it may be entirely
renewed ; and pruning, training, and attention to cleanliness and neatness are alike
applicable to both modes of culture. When the green-house plants are housed, the lights
or roof of the conservatory should be replaced. The plants, in the meantime, will
require as much air as it is possible to admit on all fine days, and in case rain prevents
the letting down of the roof-lights, the front ones, if any, should be as open as possible.
Ihis is to prevent the plants being drawn into long naked stems, and weak branches,
which from their free habit of growth, they inevitably otherwise would be. As the
cold ot winter increases, which it naturally will do in the months of October, November,
and Uacemher, a proportionate decrease must be observed in giving either air or w ater ;

Book II.

CLIMBING GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

917

and, if necessaiy, add a little fire-heat, and mats along tliose parts of the glass nearrst
the plants, in such manner as to prevent the frost or piercing winds from injuring them.
The conservator^-, in these particulars, requires to be managed in the same maimer as
directed for the green-house. As few objects are more desirable than to preserve the
gay appearance of the plants, it will be requisite to pay constant attention to the removal
of decayed leaves and weeds of every description ; also to tie up or cut short any loose
straggling branches tliat happen to show themselves, to remove those pots which may
have been plunged or set on the pit when out of flower, and, if convenient, to have theii-
places supplied with others in a fresher state.

664S. During November, December, January, and February, the moisture of the atmosphere in such
departments, where there i*a great body of damp mould, will occasion several species of the bryum and
other mosses, as also of the fungi, to vegetate ; particularly as the mould has had time to settle, and the
surface to become of a close firm texture, which would give the house a very unclean appearance. It
must be remedied by frequently stirring with a small fork the whole of the pit, to the depth of two or three
inches, and raking it over smoothly with a neat close-toothed rake ; which, as well as the fork, should be
particularly adapted to this purpose, by being furnished with short handles ; so as to enable the operator
to use them with freedom under the plants, by which means many branches and flowers will escape being
broken off, which cannot be well avoided when awkward tools are allowed to be used for this purpose.
As soon as raked, let some fine-sifted fresh loam be thinly scattered over the surface, and it will tend to
give it a more agreeable appearance ; besides, being drj-, it will ser\-e to imbibe a good quantity of the
superabundant moisture.

6649. As the spring advances, they will require considerable attention to keep them in proper order, on
account of their great increase of growth, more particularly the climbing plants, trained against the walls
or trellis-work ; these should be daily attended to, and trained in their proper places ; directing their
course to those parts of the house which, from their nakedness, apjjear to want them most : also these
species of plants being remarkably free growers in general, it will frequently \x found necessary to thin
them, by cutting away any unsightly parts, and those branches most destitute of flowers ; by which means
there will be sufficient room for the young vigorous growth, and these should be trained in regularly as
they advance, otherwise they will attach themselves to the first object they meet, and render it difficult
to dress them neatly afterwards.

665<). Slugs, snails, and other vermin, are very fond of harboring among the leaves of these plants,
when permitted to grow crowded ; also under any low bushy plants in the pit, whence they make their
nightly excursions, to the great injury of the foliage in general, if not seasonably detected. ITie drought
and warmth increasing with the year, will render it convenient to admit more air, and an increase of
water ; two very essential points, that should never he neglected.

6651. In summer, the lights having l)een removed, as Ijefore directed, the plants should have any neces-
sary pruning, and be all regularly fresh tied up, to secure them against the free action of the wind ; they
will, if the weather happens to be dry, which is most frequently the case at this season, require an abund-
ant supply of water, particularly the strong free-growing sorts, on account of being thus exposed to the
open air.' The cause for thus taking off the top-lights every summer is, that the plants may have the
benefit of the warm invigorating showers of that season, and the action of the perpendicular air, which
will be a great means of their acquiring that strong, healthy, robust growth, so much wished for : indeed,
where it is not practised, the plants seldom fail of being drawn into the opposite unsightly extreme. In
two or three years from the first planting, many of them will be grown to as large a size as the house will
admit. The knife must be then freely used among such, to keep them within bounds, and prevent their
injuring each other, which they inevitably would, if permitted to grow too close together. However, in
performing this, one must be very careful lest they disfigure the general appearance of the plant, cutting
away only the rude and overgrown parts, which should be taken clean off, without leaving any of the
stumps behind. The younger parts which are suffered to remain should then be tied neatly up,' so as to
form a handsome middling-sized bush. It will also be necessary to observe whether any have outgrown
their neighbors in the front rows ; these may conveniently be rnoved into more backward situations, and
their places supplied with other new varieties, if to be had. This work may be done with safety any
time in spring or autumn, when the weather happens to be a little dull ; it will be advisable, however, to
cut off a few of the most luxuriant shoots, and to run a spade or large trowel down, around the roots, so
as to form a ball, some days previous to its final transplanting, which also operates as a partial check on
the free growth of the plant It should be taken up with a good ball of roots and earth, and weU watered
as soon as replanted : it may also be found requisite to shade such as are thus removed lightly for a few
days, if the weather happens to be very clear. (Cusking.)

Sect. III. Climbing Green-house Plants.

Those marked h have herbaceous stems.

6652.

CLIMBING GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

MAY.

JUNE.

JULT. j AUGUST. j SEPT. OCT.

\ristolochia semper, p.

Asclepias camosa, p.
Hibbertia crenata, p.

_ volubiUs
Kennedia coccinea
Psoralea patestina

Aristolochia glauca, p. Jasminum gracile, t.
Bignonia graiidiflora j — Krandifiorum
Capparis spinosa 1 — revolutum
Coboea scandens, h. Kennedia bimaculata, p.
DoUchos lignosus, p. Passiflora coerulea
Kennedia monophvlla - c. race. qum.
Convohiiluscanarien. h. — c. r. tnlobata
, — c r. raceniosa

Lonlcerajaponica,p.
JasminuiQ azoricum

6G53 Tlie propagation and culture of this tribe is the same as for woody plants. The situation proper for
planting climbers and creepers has akeady been considered. (62(H.') To cultivate them to perfection, a
house should be entirely devoted to them, in which they should be planted in prepared soil, and trained
on poles like hops, or 'on arcades, or on single rods running from the front or sides of the house to the
back or centre; but sufficiently distant from the glass to show the beauty of the flowers and foliage to the
spectator.

3N 3

918

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6654.

Sect. IV. SuccuIcjU Green-house Plants.
SUCCULENT GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

MAY.

JUNE.

JULY.

AUGUST.

SEPT. OCT.

Aloe ferox, 3.

— Rlauca

_ riticulata
Anthericum puRionifo.
Crassula nu<licau!is
_ obliqua

— odoratissiina '
Mesembrjanthemum

— marginatum

— mycrophjllum
Portolacaria afra

Aloe lingua,

— margantifera
_ •_ media

— — minor, 3.
_ pentagona
_ perfoliata

Anthericum aloides
Crassula orbicularis
Mesembryanthemum
aurantiuin

— capitatum
Senipervivum montan.

_ viUosum
Tetragonia herbacea

Aeave americana
Aloe maculata

— mitriformis

— — minor

— rigida
_ spiralis

_ triangularis

— viscosa

_ frutescens

_■ hemispherica

— lingiicfonnis
Talinum arnchnoides

— filaraentosura

Aizoon lanceolatnm
Aloe albicans
_ onnbiforrals, 3.

— depressa

— dichotoma

Cotyledon oblongata
Crassula canesceas

— ciliata

— coccinea
Mescmbryanthemum

_ belliairtorum

— canaliculatara

Aloe arborescens
_ picta

— major

— pui-purascens
Anthericum revolutum
Cacalia articulata, p.

— camosa
_ ficoides

— kleinia
Mesembryanthemum

— compressum
_ inclaudens

— lingueform. crucia.

— depressum
_ diforme

' 6655. Propagation. With succulents this is remarkably easy, as cuttings and suckers, where they can be
procured, seldom fail to put out roots ; however, some sorts of aloe, crassula, &c. do not readily produce
shoots of any sort by which they may be multiplied. When the leaves are taken off cuttings or suckers,
the latter should be laid in a dry airy place, till the wounds heal ; they may then be planted in the
proper soil, one in each of the smallest-sized pots, and being kept a few weeks in a dry heat, and shaded
from bright sunshine, they will seldom fail to grow. In raising succulents from seeds, proceed as directed
for the seeds of woody plants ; but observe to be more sparing of water after tlie plants come up.

efijfi. Culture. A sandy loam is the soil universally allowed as the most proper for these plants ; not
over finely sifted, in order to let the water pass the more rapidly through it ; and for the more succulent
and dwarf sorts as stapelia, cactus, &c. about an eighth part of old lime-rubbish may be added. Succu-
lents do not associate well with any other description of plants, neither as to appearance or modes of
culture ; therefore, wherever they are extensively cultivated, there should be a house or houses on pur-
pose for them. One house would be required for the more hardy sorts included in this section, and
another for the dry-stove succulents, given in a succeeding table. They require very little watering, and
never over the top during the winter months ; in summer, if the pots be well drained, they will bear more
water, especially when in flower. The pots in which they are placed should be smaller in proiwrtion than
for other plants, as they grow slowly, evaporate little, and apparently derive great part of their sustenance
from the air. They need not be shifted oftener than once in two or three years ; but the surface earth
should be taken oft', and fresh compost added every year. They do not require to be set out in tiie open
garden during summer ; but as much air as possible should be admitted to them, and the roof of the house
should be open at that season, night and day, excepting during heavy rains. " The greatest injury," Page
observes, " which these plants have to be guarded against, is damps in winter; therefore tliey should be
frequently looked over, and all decayed parts removed, particularly from those wliich are stemless, and
■when the leaves touch the earth." He adds, " few of these plants, either those of the green-house or hot-
house, are cultivated in general, but merely to fill up the by-shelves and odd comers of the exotic
houses ; but if a proper attention was paid to them, and their cultivation better known from a study of
their characters, we have no doubt but they might be rendered as ornamental and interesting as those
now considered the most select. Most of the forms and growths of these plants are truly curious ; and
many of their flowers of the greatest beauty and brilliancy. Since the days of Dillenius and the late
James Lee, these plants have had few admirers ; but the present Emperor of Germany, the Prince of
Salm, the Vice-Kin^ of Lombardy, and our countrymen Haworth and Anderson, the latter the able
curator of Chelsea Botanic Garden, are endeavoring to bring them again into that notice which they so
eminently deserve. " {Prodromus, 220.)

6657. Mesembryanihcjnums are planted out by Mowbray, in a pit along the front wall of a hot-house.
The soil he uses is ricii garden-mould and fresh loam : " the sorts are M. inclaudens, aurantiuirt, perfoli-
atum, deltoides, barbatum, and other species of different habits ; the strong-growing kinds are put to-
wards the back, and the dwarf ones in the front. They grow vigorously, and flower in a superior manner
to what they do in small pots ; nothing can surpass the brilliancy of their blossoms in a bright summer's
day, and many of them continue flowering all winter. All the culture they require is thinning and protec-
tion by mats over the glass in severe weather. In summer the sashes are taken off, and the soil may be •
covered with stones like rock-work." {Hort. Trans, v. 274.)

6658.

Sect. V. Bulbous Green-house Flanks.
BULBOUS GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

MARCH TO MAY.

AUGUST.

Antholyza cunonia, p.
Cyclamen hedertEfol,p.

— persicum

— — flo. albo

— — tlo. adorata
Gladiolus abreviatus, p.

— carinatus

— cuspidatus

— maripnatus

— orchidiflorus

— prtecox, (Marc' )

— watsonius
Iris sibyrinchium
Ixia au'lica

bulbifera
I.«chenalia flava, (April)
Massonia angustifolia

— latifolia, (April)

— Massonia scab. (Ma.)

— -violacea, (March)
Oxalis labumifolia, j).
Tulipa clusiana

'Amaryllis formosissima
Antholyza brevifolia, p.

— marginata

— meriana

— merianella

— spicata

— pallida

— tubulosa
Gladiolus angustus

— bicolor

— blandus

— byzantinus major

— — flo. albo

— campanulatus

— cameus

— galeatus

— namaquensis

— pyramidalus

— roseus

— striatus
Iris tricuspis
Ixia flexuosa

Amaryllis capensis

— Fothergilli

— — major

— glauca

— numilis

— tabulare
■vittata

'Amaryllis crispa
[ — .Tohnsonii
I — linearis
I Antholyza ringens, p.
.Gladiolus card'inalis
' — polystachius
Hyacinthus revolutus

» ; . ,. . nyacmmus revoiut

Antholyza sethiopica, p. Ixia stellata alba, p

, — iridifol.„

— — fulgens
I fusca

Gladiolus versicolor
I — undulatus
|Ixiaco!umnaris
I — — grandiflora

— purpurea

I — -versicolor
Scilla hyacinthoides

, purijurea

, Omithogalum niveum

I Polyanthes tuberosa

! — — flo.pleno

: Tigridia pavonia, p.

SEPT. TO OCT.

Amaryllis samiensis

— conmbosus
Lachenalia angustifolia
Omithogalum altissim.
Oxalis rubella, j».

— tenuifolia, p.

— tricolor

— variabilis
Veltheimia viridifolia

Book II. DRY-STOVE PLANTS. 9i9

6659. Propagation and culture. After the ample directions on the subject of propagating and culti-'at-
ing buibs, already given (6501.), very little can require to be added here. A mode of proi>agating such as
rarely produce offsets may be mentioned : it applies only to tunicate bulbs, which, if cut over transversely
a little above the middle, will form young bulbs in abundance near the margin of the outer coat. This has
been successfully practised with ha»manthus imbcsccns, and several of the more rare ornithogalia?. The
grand art in cultivating bulbs is, to attend to the projjcr time for putting them into a state of rest ; and
when they are in a growing state, to place them so near the light, and afford such a supply of air and water
as will enabk? them to bring their leaves to perfection. The management of exotic bulbs is, in general,
very imperfect among gardener*, who cannot be too much impressed with tlie imjwrUnce of attending to
these two points, — the ix?rfecting the leaves, and the putting the bulbs into, and keeping them during a
proper time, in a sUte of rest. Bulbous-rooted plants associate almost as ill with all others as succulents
do ; and, therefore, wherever a good collection is kept, there should be a house entirely devoted to their
culture. The roof should be low and not very steep, and the pots should be kept on a level stage or plat-
form, raised table high, or about two feet and' a half, that the flowers may be near the eye A house,
glass on all sides, with a central platform, six or eight feet wide, and two side ones, or side borders, about
three feet wide, would form an excellent house for plants of this descrii)tion, as all of them would be near
the glass, and near the eye of the spectator. Whenever the bulbs, cultivated in such a house, became in
a dormant state, they could be removed to a pit or frame of proper temperature in the reserve-garden, and
kept there dry, till the growing season. Exotic bulbs require nearly the same degree of heat, when
lying dormant, as they do when growing.

Sbct. VI. Herbaceous and stemless Green-liouse Plants.
6660. HERBACEOUS AND STEMLESS GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS.

MARCH TO MAY.

JUNE.

JULY.

. AUGUST.

SEPT. TO OCT.

-

— sufTruticaeum,;.
Lotus credcus
8owerbia juncea, p.
Statjce mncronata

Campanula moUit, p.
Wit£^carrix>boJi,p.

- crUpa

Ai^anthtts unA. m^
— — ininoi

6661. Propagation and culture. A small house, constructed like a bulb-honse, should be devoted to
these plants ; some of which are of considerable beauty : but they do not assort well with woody and ever-
green species. All the difference between the culture of hardy, and exotic hertjaceous plants, consists
in the latter being kept in a different climate and in pots.

Sect. VII. Of Selections of Green-house Plants for particular Purposes.
6662. The particular jriirjioses to which green-house plants are ajrjjlicable are few com-
pared with those for which plants which grow in the open air may be selected. The
most hardy species will be foimd arranged as frame plants ; the most showy and odori-
ferous under the first four sections. There are scarcely any green-house aquatics ; but a
few marsh plants ; and no parasites, or air plants, suitable for the green-house, have been
introduced hitherto. Collections, however, might be made of such as are grown in their
native countries for useful or economical purposes, and whose produce is imported to
this country, as of Laurus ca7nphora, the camphor-tree ; Pistacia lentiscuSy the tree which
affords mastich ; of such as are highly odoriferous, as Verbena y Heliotropium, &C. In a
botanical collection, Diona:a and Sarracenia are plants of great rarity, and difficult to pre-
serve or propagate. They are generally procured from their native countries, and grovm
in peat-earth, kept moist, and the atmosphere also rendered humid by covering them
with a hand-glass. Cresswell has produced very strong plants of S. jmrjmrea, by treat-
ing it as a stove plant. Under his management, " it is planted in a mixture of the
fibrous roots, obtained from peat-earth, with an equal quantity of rotten willow wood,
broken into small pieces, by which the soil is kept perfectly drained. The pots in which
the plants grow are kept in a shaded part of tlie stove, and watered occasionally, but they
do not require to be placed in pans of water, except they become so dry as not to absorb
the water given in the usual way." {Hort. Trans, iii. 360.) Some fine specimens of
these genera, and also of Nei^enthes (UstiUatoriay are contained in the collection of Messrs^
Loddiges, at Hackney.

Chap. XIIL

Dry-stove Plants.

666S. What are called dry-slot^ plants are such as from experience have been found
to require an intermediate degree of heat between the green-house and bark-stove plants
and a more dry atmosphere than the latter. 'Hieir propagation and culture is the same
as for crcen-house plants ; with this difference, that they are not m general removed to
the open air during summer ; but where the construction of tl.e house admits, the sashes
may be removed in dry weather during tlie tliree warmest months, but always replaced
on the commencement of heavy or cold rains and boisterous wmds. We sl.all arninge
them as woody, climbers, succulent, bulbous, and herbaceous plants. To culUvate them
to any degree of perfection, it is essentially necessary that a house be appropriated to each
section • and each house so arranged as that Uie plants may be near tlie glass, and that
heat and air may be supplied at the pleasure of the cultivator, or a long narrow house
may be divided so as to keep each class separate.

^ 3 N 4

1920

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6664.

Sect. I. Woody Dry-stove Plants.
WOODY DRY-STOVE PLANTS.

MARCH TO MAY.

Aotvu cordifolia, p.

— viUosa
Maheiaia pinnata, p.
Phylica plumosa
Antidesma alexiteria, p

— paniculata
Bocconia fnitescens
Crotalaria paniculata, p

— pulchra
Cylista villosa
Eugenia uniflora, p.

— zeylanica
Ficus bengalensis
Gardenia randia

— tubiflora
Melastoma rubra, p.
Ruizia variabilis, p.
Solandra grandUlora

JULY.

Aitoma capensis, p.
Andersonia sprengeli.p.
Corrsea speciosa, p.
Crotolaria elegans, p.
Gardenia radicans, p.
Barringtonia speciosa
Bontia daphnoides, p.
Borassus tlabeUiformis
Brossium alicastrum

— spurium
Gardenia pavetta
Grislea tomentosa, p.
Justicia gendarussa, p.

— pectinata
Lantana involucrata
Muntingia balabura
Ophioxyion serpentinum
Khcunnns colubrinus, p.
Samyda rosea, p.

Chironia angustifolia, p.

— decussata

— frutescens
Chorizema illicifolia, p.

Gardenia florida, p.
Heliotropium peruvian.
Roella ciliata, p.
Achania maivaviscus, p.

■ — mollis
Achras mammosa

— sapota
Ailanthus excelsa, p.
Alangium decapetal. j).
Amjris sylvatica
Annona hexapantha
Asclepias parviflora
Bignonia leucoxylon, p.

— tomentosa
Blakea trinerva, p.
Cestrum emgustifoli. p.

— tomentosum, p.

— vespertinum

Citrus trifoliata, p.
Platylobium parviflor. p.
Abroma angusta, p.
Annona glabra
Aralia capitata, p.
Ardisia elegans

— lateriflora
Bauhinia anatomica
Clerodendrum fragrans
Duranta ellisia
Erithalis fruticosa
Gardenia micranthus
Grewia asiatica
Hibiscus abelmoschus

— manihot,j>.

— phoeniceus

— populneus

— rosa sinensis

— — flo. pleno

— — — pl.palli

SEPT. TO OCT.

Crowea saligna, p.

— UtiioUa
Ardisia acuminata, p.

— sinensis

— solonacea
Bixa orellana, p.
Cestrum diumum,p.

— laurifolium

— noctumum
Clerodendrum inerme

— ligustrinum

— paniculatum

— siphonanthus
Duranta plumieri
Grewia velutina
Lantana radula

— scabrida
Panax fruticosum

6665.

Sect. II. Climbing Dry-stove Plants.
CLIMBING DRY-STOVE PLANTS.

MARCH TO MAY.

assiflorilutea,j>.

JUNE.

Asclepias scandens, p
— viminalis, p.
Banisteria purpurea, p.
Cylista villosa, p.

— scariosa, p.
Dracontium pertusum
— triphjUum

JULY.

Dolichos urens
Dracontium nymphae-

folium,p.
Echites biflora
— elastica
Gronovia scandens
Passiflora foetida, p,

— laurifolia

— murucuja
Roxburghia gloriosoid^j.
Securidaca volubilis, p.

AUGUST.

Basella alba

— rubra
Bauhinia anatomica, p.
Bignonia crucigera, p.

— paniculata

— unguis
Cissampelos parieira

— smilacina

Cissus acida, p.

— sicyoides

— trifoliata

— vitiginea

SEPr. TO OCT.

Cynanchuin suberos. p.

— viminale
Dioscoria pentaphylla
IpomoEa sanguinea, p.

— splendens
Nissolia fruticosa, p.
Passiflora maliformis

6666.

Sect. III. Succulent Dry-stove Plants.
SUCCULENT DRY-STOVE PLANTS.

MARCH TO MAY.

Aloe glauca

— reticulata
Cactus flagelliformis
Euphorbia canariense, p,
Mesembryanthemu. aur.

— fissum

Xanthorrhoea hastile, p

— minor

Piper magnoliaefolium

— nigrum
Pitcaimia bracteata, p.

Aloe arachnoidea

— foliolosa

— pentagona

— perfoliata
Bryophyllum calycinum
Crassulaimbricata
Mesembryanthe. rubic.
Aloe viscosa aspera, p.
Euphorbia clava

Piper clusiaefolium
Pitcaimia bromeliajfol.p.
— graminifolia

JULY.

Aloe maculata

— recurva
Cactus heptagonus
pentagonus

— peruvianus
Crassula cordata
Mesembryanthemum

— anceps

— expansum
Sempervivum monanth.

— villosum
Agave luridaj p.

— rigida
Cactus grandiflorus
Euphorbia neriifolia

— piscatoria

— tirucalli

— tithymaloides

cjmbiformis

Cacalia tomentosa, p.
Cactus cochinilifer
cylindricus
ficus indica
Crassula columnaris
Crithmum latifolium

— maritimum

Mesembryanthemum

elongatum
Aloe barbadei>sis, p.

— lineata

— albicans
Cactus hexagonus

— lanuginosus

— mamillaris

— melocactus

SEPT. TO OCT.

Agave virginica
Cacalia papillaris, p.

— klemia
Mesembrjanthem. digit

— felinum
Agave foetida, p.

— vivipara
Euphorbia heptagona

— hystrix, p.

— mamillaris
Piper polystachyon

f — reticulatum
Pitcaimia angustifolia,p
Stapelia anguina

— articulata

— campanulata

— concinna

— clypeata

— divaricata

— humilis

6667.

Sect. IV. Bulbous Dry-stove Plants.
BULBOUS DRY-STOVE PLANTS.

MARCH TO MAY.

Albuca altissiraa

major

spiralis,(April),p.
Anthericum canalicul.
Babiana rubro-cyanea,p.

— sulphurea

— tenuifolia
Drimia pusilla, p.
Ericomis bifoUa, (April)

— nana
Ferraria anthersosa, p.

undulata, p.

JUNE.

Albuca coarctata

— caudata

— minor

— vittata, p.
Amaryllis maculata

— undulata
Anthericum asphodelo.
Babiana latifolia, p.
Cyrtanthus albus

— obliquuslatifo.

— ventricosus
Galaxia grandiflora, p.
Gladiolus alatus

JULY.

Albuca fragrans, p.
Amaryllis tubispatha
Babiana villosa, p.
Cyanella capensis, p. _
Ericomis punctata

— striata
Galaxia graminea
GethylUs ciliaris

— spiralis
Gladiolus grandiflorus
Oxalis monophylla

AUGUST.

Amaryllis purpurea

— albucoides
Anthericum albucoides
GlEidiolus tristus tardi. p,

— luteo

SEPT. TO OCT.

Amaryllis pumila
Drimia elata, p.
Oxalis monophylla
— tricolor

Book II.

HOT-HOUSE, OR BARK-STOVE PLANT&

921

6668.

Sect. V. Herbaceous Drt/slove Plants.
HERBACEOUS DRY-STOVE PLANTS.

MARCH TO MAY.

JUNE. 1 JULT. 1 AUGUST.

SEPT. TO OCT.

Canarina campanula
BleUa tanketriUiae, p.
Neottja data

— orchioides

— picta
Pothos cordata
Pteris grandifolia

Arum divaricatum, p. ' Adiantum reniforme, p. AlstrcEmeiia pelegrina
Commelina tuberosa , _ trapeziforme Witsenia maiia,!.

— hengalensU Arum bicolor, p. Arum esculentura, p.
Marica martinicensis i _ colcx;asia , Asplenium prffiroorsum

— northiana B^onia nitida _ striatum
Phytolacca octandra Besleria melittifolia B^onia dichotoma
Polypodium asplenifol. Calea lobata \ _ evansiana
Pothos cannsfoKa Callisia repens 1 _ macrophylla
Monsonia siieciosa Dianella ensifolia
Geranium incamatum Gloriosa superba
Gloxinia maculata
' — ipeciosa

Arum auritum, p.

— orixense

— sagittifoUum
Begonia acuminata
Cjnlla pulchella
Leeacrispa

— macrophylla

Chap. XIV.
Hot-housef or Bark-stove Plants,
6669. Bark-stove playits are such as require the highest degree of heat, which has ge-
nerally been given by the aid of a bed of bark or other fermenting substance, in which
the pots containing the plants are plunged. Sometimes, as before observed (6184.), steam
or flues are applied under a vault covered with earth or sand as a substitute for bark ; and
more recently the pots have not been plunged in any material nor bottom heat applied,
but a greater atmospherical heat communicated, and the atmosphere about the pots kept
moist by watering, &c. We shall arrange the most ornamental species which flower freely
under woody, climbing, bulbous, perennial, annual, aquatic, reedy plants ; and add some
remarks on palms, air plants, and ferns, which, though they seldom flower in this coun-
try, or for the greater part have flowers of little show, yet are grand or interesting speci-
mens of vegetable beings.

Sect. I. Woody Bark-stove Plants,

670.

WOODY BARK-STOVE PLANTS.

Bmcea ferruginea, p.
Cassia bicapsularis, p.
Cordia gerascanthus

EHate'sylvestris
Erythiina camea

— crista galli
_ rosea

Eugenia jambos, p.

— uniflora
Euphorbia punicea
Hillia longifldhi
Myrtus biQora, p.

JUNE.

Cassia alata, p.
Chrysophyllum cainito
— fuscum

Eugenia fira^ans, p.
Myrtus disucha

— duniosa

— pimenta

— — longifolia

I Sopbora tomentosa, p.

SEPTEAIBER.

Adenanthera paTonia,p. .Sschynomene grand, p.
I ^schjTiomene sensitiva Amerimnum eomus
I AUamanda catharUca ! Asclepias gigantea

Amyris salvatica
I Asclepias curassavica
I — uarviflora
iBauhinia divaricata, p.
I — porrccta
Bignonia leucoxylon, p.
Brunsfelsia americana
Carolinea minor, p.
Gardenia aculeata

j Bauhmia acuminata, p.
' Bignonia longissima, p.
I — paniculata
I — pentaphylla
I Brownea coccinea

Brunfelsia undulata
; Bucida buceras

Cassia occidentalis
I — viminea

Gossypium vitifolium, p. Gardenia dumetorum
Hedysarum pictum, p. Gossypium arboreum, p.
Helicteres isora Guai'cum officinale

Heliocarpus americana Hedysarum gyrans, p.
■ Ixora purpurea i Ixor'a blanda '

Cameraria angustifolia
[ Carissa splnarum
' Cassia biflora, p.
Cerbera mangbas
Cinchona caribea, p.
Clusia flava
Croton aromaticum, p.
Desmanthus virgatus
Ephielii guineiisis, p.
Erythrina speciosa
Fagara pterota
Hamellia rentricosa, p.
Hedysarum strobUirer.
Helicteris baruensis
, Ixora alba
I — pavetta

6671. Propagation. All the known modes are occasionally adopted, but those by seeds
and cuttings are the most general. Few stove plants ripen their seeds in this country,
and such as are obtained are therefore generally procured from abroad.

6672. Tropical seeds in general. Gushing obsen-es, are very liable to lose their powers of vegetation
by reason of the transition from warm to cold climates, combined with the length of time which com-
monly intervenes between their gathering and arrival with us, especially if they have been exposed to
damps ; on that account they should be sown as soon as they arrive, at least a part of each parcel Much
depends on the state of the seeds when received. East and West India seeds generally arrive with the
regular fleets, as indeed do those from the Cape of Good Hope, and all the South Sea islands, for the
most part by the Eastern and China ships ; so that one may in general be prepared against their arrival.
As early spring is undoubtedly the best time for sowing, a few weeks' delay may in some instances be ad-
visable. If received late in C)ctol)er or November, wait until January, or perhaps February, unless it
evidently appears that they will not keep out of the earth so long a time in a vegetative state ; such as can
be sown before August have a good chance to acquire sufficient strength of growth to carry them through
the winter months, so adverse to the general efforts of young vegetable life.

6673. The pots being ivell drained should be filled with the compost suitable to the species of plant of
which the seed intended to be sown has been produced (see the table) j let it be pressed down to about a
third or half an inch below the edge of the rim, according to the size of the seeds ; if they are small or
light sorts, it will be necessary to press it pretty tight, and to add a little of the very tine-sifted mould on
which to deposit the seed, previously smoothing it with a bit of thin flat wood, bent so as to lie on it level.
Being thus prepared, let the seed be sown regularly on the surface, and cover it from about an eighth to a
quarter of an inch, according to the size of the seed as before, with the same sort of fine mould. But if
the seed is of the largest sorts, as, for instance, the nut or stone kind, no more is necessarv than to press
them into the earth with the finger, and to cover somewhat thicker than is recommended'for the others.
In either case, the covering should be pressed moderately on the seed with the hand; which is indeed a
most necessarv caution in sowing seeds of any description whatever. In order to ensure the vegetation

922

PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Pakt III.

of hard or very tough shelled seeds, some have them soaked in water for a few days, say a week, or even
ten days, for such as happen to be very dry, previous to sowing : a shallow pan, placed on the coolest part
of the flue in the propagation-stove, is the readiest and safest article to receive them for this purpose ; they
should be examined daily, and sown the moment any sign of swelling or growth api^ears : this process,
however, is fraught with danger to many of the lighter and smaller sorts. , , , ,

6fi74 The solving being finislicd, the pots must be set on a level spot, and gently, but thoroughly watered
with a pot, the rose of which has been made particularly fine, for this and other such uses ; and immedi-
ately plunged in a strong heat, without which they will not be likely to vegetate : if a close dung hot-bed
the better A regular but moderate watering, steady heat, and occasional weeding, should any such ap-
pear is all they will now require until they are fit to be removed into separate pots ; which may be done
as soon as they have attained a few inches' growth above their cotyledons, or seed-leaves. There are some
fruit such as nelumbium, whose exterior coat is so very hard that the embryo plants are not able to burst
through at least, with us; to remedy which, the knife is not unfrequently used to pare them thin, even
to making a hole in them, but not too near the eye or part where they sprout, witli good effect. If the busi-
ness of seed-sowing is performed in spring, or early in summer, the smaller sorts may be expected to ve-
getate in the course of five or six weeks at farthest ; whereas, the larger bony kinds will sometimes
remain dormant in the earth for the space perhaps of twelve months : this must be attended to, else one
might think them beyond a chance of growing, and perhaps throw them away without examination.
"Whenever there is any doubt of their vegetating, let some of them be taken up and opened with a knife ;
when they will at once discover whether they are sound or not; if sound, tiiey must be still kept in a
strong heat, and regularly watered as before ; for want of this simple precaution, valuable seeds are often
carelessly thrown on the rubbi«h-heap, when just bursting their shell or embryo ; and not unfrequently, by
that accidental check, are so materially injured as to prevent more than one half of them vegetating again ;
if they have been at all so fortunate as to be noticed and resowed. {Exotic Gard. p. 8.)

6675. By cutlhigs. Besides the usual supply of the different sorts of earth, &c. there
is another article necessary to be provided before we begin the business of making cut-
tings ; which is, a few dozen of small bell-glasses, (the white glass is best,) of as many
different sizes as are the pots in which the cuttings are intended to be planted : they
should be fitted to the pot, so as to rest on the inner side of it, about an inch below the
rim ; by observing which circumstance, when the pot is filled with earth, the glass will
have room sufficient to sink a little into it, so as to perfectly exclude the external air ; of
very essential importance to the cutting while in a dormant state, that is, from the time
they are put in until they begin to grow.

667G. The cuttings may be ?nade almost every season of the year ; yet the months of April, May, and
June are certainly the most proper ; as the plants are at that season plentifully supplied with young wood,
which, in most species, produce roots when made into cuttings, much sooner than the old wood will if
used ui the same manner. When the day is fixed upon for this business, let a quantity of pots of the pro-
per size be selected, and prepared by covering their bottoms to the depth of one or two inches with pot-
sherds ; and then, as wanted, about half filled with the compost best suited to the plant intended to be
propagated, to grow in for a few weeks, when first struck, and the remaining part with the best loam that
can be procure<i, to insert the cutting in when ready. On the purity and clearness of the loam depends
in a great measure the success of many of the tenderer kinds of cuttings, particularly those which are
obliged to be kept in moist heat, as it is, when contaminated with other composts, very liable in these situ-
ations to cause damp and rottenness, by the particles of putrefying matter generally contained in mixed
earths; and the properties of which are put in motion, by the application of heat. As an exception to this
rule, may be adduced sand ; which is of very great utility to mix with the loam, should it happen to be
rather stiff for the nature of the cutting: but then, the sand proper for this use is of so pure a nature in
itself, that it is evident it cannot have the effect noticed above in regard to mixed soils.

6577. In the choice of cuttings, preference should be given to the firmest wood of the same year's growth ;
and of these,.only such whose leaves have attained their full size and proper color, which are generally to
be selected from the lateral shoots ; as the upright leading ones are mostly too kixuriant to make good
cuttings. The cuttings of many plants, if taken from the lateral shoots, never become proper erect stems ;
but are inclined at all times to form an irregular, bushy, weak head : this is not of small importance to
such collectors as cultivate plants merely for the flower ; as such heads generally produce them sooner
than luxuriant leaders. Tiie lovers of handsome erect plants, however, choose their cuttings from the
upright shoots, early in the season, before they acquire that luxuriance of growth so unfit for the purposes
of propagation. The tops of the shoots are to be preferred, unless they happen to flag before used. To
prepare them for insertion, most of the leaves must be trimmed off close to the stem, leaving only a few at
the top, to allow a free respiration of the air necessary to the life of the plant. This is a most essential
article in the art of making cuttings, particularly those of evergreens ; for if they are deprived entirely of
their leaves, or that they otherwise flag, or occasionally fall off soon after they are put in, there will be
little or no chance of their growing. The reason is obvious, because the inherent sap -of. the cutting

. , , occasionmg j

immediate mortification.

6t)/S. In shortening each cutting to the most convenient length, care must be taken to do it with a clean
cut, in a transverse direction at a joint ; and by no means should they be left exposed, or to lie any consi-
derable time before planted. In planting, a small dibble or other convenient instrument should be used to
press the loam sufficiently tight to the base of the cutting, as that is the principal part to be made fast ; as
soon as the whole are inserted and the surface of the mould made level and a little firm, give them a gentle
watering to settle them ; they should be left to soak about a quarter of an hour, and then covered with a
bell-glass, which should be pressed pretty tight, so as perfectly to exclude the outward air. The atmo-
spheric air being prevented by the glass from exhaling any of the juices of the plant, all its powers are
forced downward to produce roots, and these will soon prove their existence by producing young leaves
and branches. If there are several cuttings of the same sort, they may be all put in one pot, unless they
happen to be very large or curious sorts ; but in general each species should be kept in a separate one on
account of the difference in time that some of them require to strike roots ; and also, that any scarce or va-
luable kind should be put only one in a small pot, as they then are not liable to be injured so much by damp •
neither do they require to go through the precarious operation of separate potting, so soon after being
struck. Should it be requisite to have a considerable quantity of cuttings made at the same time, it would
be proper to have a one-light frame, with close glasses, placed on a motlerate hot-bed, ready to receive
them. It should be covered with sawdust or clean tan, about a foot deep, in which to plunge the pots •
but if there are only a few done, they may be plunged in any frame among other things, provided tliere
IS a moderate heat. *^

6679. Watering and shading. They will now require the most particular attention as to waterin"' and
shading. The water must be given twice or thrice very moderately until the earth becomes sufficiently
moist, which, if once so, will retain the moi.iture for a length of time, by being covered with the glass-
but the shading is the principal care whenever the sun's rays fall on the glasses, as nothing wiU create roti

Book II. WOODY BARK-STOVE PLANTS. 92S

tenness sooner than letting the leaves flag, and Ho upon each other, which will be the positive consequence
ot a neglect of shade. Tiie most advisable method to do it is, to have a few large sheets of stronc naner
to lay over the glasses within a frame; which, at the same time that it shades the cuttings does not
prevent the sun's rays from entering the frame and clearing offanv damps that may be accumulated
therein ; whereas, if mats are laid on the outside of the frame-hght, it is evident they will tend to have
the direct contrary effect. However, in the course of a week or fortnight, they will be able to withstand
a little ot the rays of the morning and evening sun.

6580. U7ii/€ in an inactive state, they should be kept rather dry, but not let to an extreme ; else the bark
will become shrivelled, and occasion a very smart falling off amongst them ; on the other hand, should
they be kept in an over-moist state, tlie consequence would not be less disagreeable, on account of the
damp occasioned by the air being so closely confined under the glasses; in this case it would be of infinite
service to have the glasses wipetl with a dry cloth about once a-week, which is quite sufficient for hot-
house cuttings, as they are not so liable to suffer from this cause as those of green-house plants.

6681. As the heat of ike bed declines, it will be necessary to have another, properly tempered, ready, in
which to plunge them when requisite; or otherwise, let the old one be renovated with hnings of fresh
warm dung ; but in such manner as to avoid creating any violent degree of heat or strong rank steam in
the bed ; as it is better to do it often and but slightly at a time, it being but a trifling increase of labor
compared with the probable consequences. By this management one may expect to have some of tlie
free-growing kinds well rooted, and making rapid progress, in the course of a very few weeks; when such
is the aise, it will be necessary to give them a little air by taking off the bell-glasses at night, and to keep
them a little moister than before. If they endure this pretty well for a few days, the glasses may be left
off entirely ; which will harden and prepare them by the time in which it may be thought convenient to
part and pot them separately.

6oS2. In taking the bell-glasses qff" at night, it is necessary to observe that from their closeness they
sometimes occasion the cuttings, more frequently the harder sorts, to produce young leaves and even
shoots, before they have sufficient roots : if at any time these should be mistaken for well rooted plants,
and their glasses taken offaccordingly, in a few hours they may be perceived by their leaves beginning to
flag; in which case the glasses must be immediately replaced ; otherwise, if neglected, these tender shoots
will be utterly spoiled, and it will be a very great chance whether the cutting will ever produce more or
not. Should the above circumstance happen, they will be observed to be more impatient of damp after-
wards; as indeed will aU those be which are growing ; the glasses should therefore be more frequently
dried, and kept off until the leaves, &c. which were under them, become dry by evajxiration ; lest we risk
their success, I may say, perhaps, their existence, by rotting the first weak efforts towards active life.

6683. The rooted cuttings being thus prepared, they may be occasionally taken cut of the frame, and set
in more exposeil airy situations in the hot-house : but as some kinds require a much longer time to pro-
duce roots than others, it will be necessary to keep such still in the frame, shading and watering them
when requisite, as already directed. Thus may they be treated until the autumn ; when, if any yet re-
main in the cutting state, it will be advisable to have them taken to the propagation-stove, and plunged
in the bark-pit ; previously clearing them from any damps, moss, or weeds that may have grown amongst
them, and renewing the surface with a little fresh loam. Here they will require the same care as when in
the frame, except that as the influence of the sun decreases, so must the shading in proportion ; using it
only for two or three hours in the middle of the day, if at all requisite : and indeed it is necessary here to
observe, that in the winter, and early spring months, they must not be shaded on any account, nor watered
except when absolute necessity requires it ; neither should the cuttings that may be occasionally made at
these seasons, receive any water when first put in, as directed for those made in summer, as the mould
will be found in general sufficiently moist, in ii.self ; and as there is not that quick principle of vegetation
at this season, the water might prove materially injurious, by promoting damp and rottenness. It is even
necessary in some instances, should the cutting be of a succulent plant, or in any degree approaching that
nature, to provide loam rather dry, than moist; in which they must be planted and left without water,
until they have completely formed their callosities, and the wounds are healed ; however, in either case,
those fresh put in must be partially shaded for a few days, should the weather happen to be clear and
sunny. It will be also necessary to dry the inside of the bell-glasses more frequently in the winter months j
as there is generally a stronger heat kept in the tarwpit, which gives rise to au increased evaporation ; and
damp at this season should be more particularly avoided than at any other. In the ensuing spring those
put in early, as well as what have remained since the preceding summer, will in general make an effort to
grow ; as soon as they are observed in this state, let them be managed in the same manner as those already
rooted have been.

6684. In regard to parting and potting the rooted cuttings or seedlings separately, the greatest nicety
should be observed ; first, in turning thera out of the pots without lacerating the roots ; and secondly, in
shaking and working the earth from amongst them, until they can be readily parted without breaking;
if any of the mould can be conveniently preserved to them, so much the better ; but the preservation of
the roots should be the principal object. They must be immediately potted in their proper soil, in pots
suited to the size of the cuttings, and neatly tied up, if necessary ; let them be then well watered with a
rose-pot moderately fine, but by no means should they be flooded, or slushed with it, as too many are apt
to do, but let it be given gently, and time allowed for it to soak regularly into the mould. They will re-
quire a brisk heat and close shading for a few days, imtil they have established themselves in the fresh
moiUd. {Exotic Gardener, 26.)

6685. Laying and inarching are rarely practised on hot-house plants. However,
there are some that do not produce roots freely by cuttings, which may be multiplied
successfully by these methods.

? 6686 In laying, choice should be made of the young tender shoots of the present year ; the soft bark of
which will sooner form a callosity, and produce roots, than that of any of the preceding year s growth. It
is particularly necessary to observe whether the plant intended to be laid is ot a brittle nature or not ; for
if it is, it will be necessary that the shoots be pegged gently down to the surface previous to laying and
thus left until their tops naturally acquire a perpendicular direction, which they will do in a few days ;
without this precaution, it would be extremely dithcult to cut or tongue them without cracking or break-
ing thera off; but if treated in this manner, the most brittle may be layed without danger It is a con-
clusion drawA from several experiments, that the layer, which is inserted to a proper depth, roots sooner
and better than that which is laid near the surface; the reason of which is, at a certain depth the air is
better ex -luded, and there is a more regular degree of moisture for the nourishment of the young fibres.

6687° InarcMn'T \sm\xch preferable to the common grafting, for evergreens m particular ; it isprinci-
nallv practised as the best means of multiplying all the double vaneties;^o came ha and plants of similar
EabUs because tbeir strong leaves, if only for a few days deprived of their regular support, by being cut
SrfroraX mother stoci, if note closely with a glass, will be certain to wither and fall off;

after which there will be but very slender chance of the scion's completing a union : it is performed as
fSlowl bavin" provid^^^ stock, which should always be .ome of the coarser free kinds of the same
genvS of plants and nearlv of the same diameter as the shoot which is intended for marchmg; cut a

924 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

thin slip from two to three inches long, about one third or something better of the whole tm^^
BmoothlvofFfrom each of them in the clearest part of the stem, with a small sharp knife ; a most neces-
rrTSstrCmrnt foTSirbli^^s ; the bark o/each must then be fitted together in the exactest manner
Kast on one side, and tied ,>erfe;:tly tight with good matUng : they X^nS-'to »^ome ove^ drv ^d ?n
as crafts- and as being with n doors in a warm house will occasion the clay to become o\er dry, and in
fonf^^Ace Hab eTo cS they should, at least in dry weather, receive two or ^^ree times a-week some
water from the rose of a waterpot or by means of a synnge, to preserve it m a moist proper state, ob-
Irving to do it°nthe eveningVlest the leaves should get scorched by the rays ot the sun : a little moss
uidnlatlv round each ball ot" clav will prevent the water being so frequently necessary; eight or ten
wSkTwU in general be found sutficient time for them to unite; ^^ ^ 1^""'^%^^ ''l"\r,?,^whrLX
be partially sej^rated from the parent plant, by cutting the inarched «hoos better than half-wav through ;
andif on trial; thev are found to be united, and bear that operation well, they may m a^wda^^* after-
wards be entirely cut off and placed in a shady part of the Tiouse where they must be kept moderate^
syringed as before, and some additional shade given, according to the state of the weather, for tw o or three
weekfrduring which time they may be untied, and the top of the stock cut off m a neat manner ; and
also any unneSessarv part of the bottom of the scion that may remain : let a little clay be again applied that
these fresh wounds "may have sufficient time to become properly healed, which they will m a tew weeks.
In this manner, Cushing succeeded with mvrtus pimento ; and other plants alhed to it may be propa-
gated on the common myrtle, which are particularly difficult to multiply by any other means; and also
many other plants of the same description upon their kind.

6688. General culhire. To attain a respectable degree of perfection in tlie culture of
tropical plants, Cushing observes, the principal objects to which one should direct his
attention, are assiduity in keeping up the stock by propagation ; a careful nicetj- in pot-
ting, and shifting in the proper season ; a regularity in watering when requisite ; a
thorough knowledge of the temperature necessarj- to be kept in the house ; and a steady
attention to the cleanliness and habits of the plants in general. The business of shifting,
or refreshing the roots of plants with earth properly prepared for that purpose, and trans-
planting them into larger pots than they before occupied, is one of tlie most necessary
operations required to keep them in a good state of growth. The quantity of earth
contained in a flowerpot being in comparison so small to that which is requisite to the
support of the generality of plants, it must be supposed that unless it is changed or aug-
mented in due season, they will soon exhaust every particle of vegetative matter contained
therein, though frequently assisted by proper water, wliich doubtless contains a large
portion of the food of vegetables ; tlie consequence of which is, to tlie weaker-growing
and tender kinds, that its salts being dissolved, and the sandy particles which kept it in a
free open state washed away by the frequent and long continued ablutions, it becomes, in
the case of ill drained pots for seeds, sour and coagulated ; and the plant being no longer
able to draw its proper nourishment from it, must inevitably decline, and at last be-
comes a nuisance to the collection, by breeding insects and filthiness : to the stronger
sorts, though in a different manner, it will be no less pernicious, by starving them, and
thereby occasioning them to dwindle into naked stems, and awkward unsightly forms.

6689. The season most proper for shifting hot-house plants is about the middle or end of April ; if
done earlier (though some hot-house plants may be said to be in a state of growth for the greater part of
the year) the generality of them will be found dormant ; and therefore will not have the power to
establish themselves sufficiently in the fresh earth to prevent a great part of their leaves falling off, and
the whole plant acquiring a sickly appearance ; and on the other hand, if done much later, most of them
will be in a vigorous state, and it will require infinite care, and increase of lal)or to keep them properly
shaded, else the intense influence of the sun on them, at an advanced season, will have, though a dif.
ferent cause, nearly the same effect ; and reduce them to fully as disagreeable a state as in the former case.
But if taken soon after they have made the first effbrt for the season's growth, the fibres being set
in motion, and not having a top full of young tender leaves to support, they soon find their way into
the fresh mould; and the plants, by being thus taken in time, and when done, placed in a brisk bottom
heat to assist them, will in the space of three or four days at farthest be well recovered, and in general,
able to support themselves against the strongest rays we may reasonably expect at that season, without
much danger to their leaves.

6690. Operation of shifting. Being fully prepared for the removal of the plants, let apart of them be
taken to the potting-shed together, that they may be no longer than necessary out of the stove; and
while these are shifting, the remainder may be taken out of the tan, and set on any of the shelves or
benches that are over the flues, so as to allow sufficient room to have it forked up and turned ; and should
it be sunk considerably below the desired height, some fresh well dried tan should be added, and mixed
well with the old in turning ; when done, let it be made pretty level with a rake that the plants may be
conveniently and regularly set on the surface when shifted. In shifting the plant, the greatest nicety
should be used not to injure the roots ; because, if the roots, from a multiplicity of wounds, (which are
more frequently lacerated than cleanly cut,) once become cankered, or contaminated in any manner, the
branches must also be expected to suffer and decay.

6691. An old but erroneous practice followed by many, is that of paring off the best part of the roots
with a knife ; that is, the tips or ends of the fibres, which are undoubtedly the active agents in collecting
the food for the stem, &c. ; then, without ever loosening the remaining part of the ball, set in the new
pot with a little fresh earth thrown loosely about it : as a matter of course, they think it must then
be completely drenched or flooded from the waterpot ; and lastly, to crown the whole, perhaps set it
immediately in a pan of water ; when, if they only took time to consider the mutilated state, to which
they have reduced the roots, it is impossible they could ever conceive them to be in a state fit to undergo
such treatment with any kind of advantage : but it is the misfortune of many, who will not for a moment
hesitate to undertake the care of tender and curious plants, as a matter easily understood, yet will not
take the trouble of judging for themselves, to follow the old track of cutting and watering, the same as
they may have before seen practiseil on the hardiest geraniums or myrtles. Though the methotl may not
seem to hurt some few kinds of strong free-growing plants ; yet it never can be allowed as a jjroper inode
of treatment for all plants indiscriminately, because thev mav happen to have a good portion of roots :
indeed, more plants have been destroyed by this practice 'than by anv other particular part of the system
of mismanagement which some so bhndly follow. There are instances, however, wherein a knife i's ne-
cessary to the roots as well as the branches, viz. when they become rotten or otherwise contaminated ;
and also to such as are proj^gated by cuttings of the roots, as most species of geranium may be, some
munosaB also, and indeed any that are observed to produce suckers: in all which cases they should be
taken off^ with precision, and a sufficiency left to support the parent, if considered worth preserving.

Book II. WOODY BARK-STOVE PLANTS. 925

6G92. In turning the plant carefully out of Us pot, observe if the roots have perforated it in any part-
so as to render it impossible to part them without brealiing the one, or lacerating the other ; in which
case prefer the former as the slightest damage : however, when the ball of rooU is divested of its pot
let the broken tiles, or whatever substance may have been used as draining, he carefully picked out
without tearing off the roots that may have grown amongst them : also any caked or mossv substance on
the surface, which will come easily off with the fingers. Then proceed to loosen the earth and matted
rooU, by gently patting them on the side of the ball with the hand: or otherwise, by pressing it so as to
open the pores of the earth without cracking the roots ; shake ofir any loose earth, and having a proper
sizeil pot, ready prepared, put in a quantity of the fresh mould sufficient to raise the crown of the roots to
about half an inch below the rim of the pot, on which set the plant j and add more earth, Hghtly shaking it
in among the fibres ; let the whole be pressed moderately light, but not so as to render it hard in the least
degree, nor by any means using a stick for this purpose, another never -failing attendant on the former
practice, by which the roots are extremely liable to be torn or bruised ; add mould sufficient to raise the
surface level with the rim, as it will settle to a proper depth with watering, and smooth the whole off
neatly with the hand.

Gtiyii TvM or three assistants will be found necessary, where there is much of this work to be done ;
one of those should be employed in supplying pots and other necessaries; the others in washing and
cleaning from insects, &c. any plants that may happen to stand in need before shifted ; and in tying them
up properly to their sticks afterwards : new sticks should be had at least once a-year, to hot-house plants
in particular ; as the old ones very often harbor more or less of the several pestiferous insects which infest,
these departments. This done, let the plants be set on a level spot together, and moderately watered
with a fine-rose pot, held at a distance above their tops so as to give the leaves a good rinsing ; but
obsert-e to give no more water than is sufficient to settle the fresh mould to the roots, and by no means
to slush or give the surface that puddled api>earance, so very disagreeable to be observed in d^tartments
where neatness should be the uniform and leading principle. Having thus finished the first division,
let them be immediately taken to the stove, to be set on the fresh-tumed tan for the present, and
those that remained there, taken to the shed to be treated and shifted in the same manner as the others.

66&4. mien the whole are shifted, they may be partially plunged for a few days ; setting the pot about
half its depth loosely into the tan, to avoid the danger that attends too violent a'heat arising in the pit ;
which is frequently the case, when it has been recently turned or augmented. However, there must be
a pretty brisk fire-heat kept up in the house, until the plants recover from their inactive state, the un-
avoidable consequence of their roots being so recently disturbed. They will be much benefited at this
time by a moderate use of the hand-syringe, in the morning before the sun has begun to act upon them
with force; also by raising a strong' steam in the house, to be done by throwing water on the tops
and sides of the warm flues. But when they are freely treated in this manner, they require but Uttle
from the water-pot ; as over watering is very pernicious to plants in general, and at no lime is it more
particularly so, than when they have been lately shifted. However this must unavoidably depend on the
judgment of him in whose care they are placed; as some of them will require considerably more than
others. In a few days, when the danger of a violent heat is over, the plants may be plunged neatly in the
tan up to the rim ; but observe that it is not left scattered on the surface of the pots, as it would give
the work an extremely slovenly appearance; a few inches of clean sawdust laid over the tan, gives
a clean and neat appearance, which, in most gardens, is a particularly essential part of the curator's
conduct. All the plants which require the aid of tan-heat, being properly plunged, and the remaining
ones regulated on the different benches or shelves ; let the place be well cleaned out, when little more will
be necessary for a few weeks than watering when requisite, squirting, steaming, and attention to the
degree of heat necessary' to be kept in the house at this season. This should in general be about sixty
degrees. If it is kept much lower, it will considerably retard the plants in recovering their vigor ; and
if many degrees higher, the free-growing kinds will soon over-top, and materially injure the weak and
more tardy sorts unless prevented ; besides themselves becoming unsightly, the consequence of being
drawn, or forced into long weak ungainly stems.

6695. Insects. As the heat increases with the advancing season, tlie different species
of insects to which these departments are liable, will multiply incredibly. Those which
seem to make the greatest havoc amongst plants in the hot -house, are, the green fly, tlie
thrips, the mealy white bug, the great scaly bug, the small scale, or the pine-bug, and
tlie red spider, which, although the smallest, is by far the most destructive of any of the
species that exist in these departments.

6696. For the fly and thrips, there is no process which seems to take so much effect on them, as a
strong fumigation of tobacco ; repeated twice or thrice, according to the strength the insects may have
attained.

6697. For the bugs, there is none of the several expensive methods mentioned in different authors so
efeectual, as simply picking them off; this may be said to be tedious, but then it has surety to plead in
its behalf; besides, that the plants are in no manner disfigured by the operation ; but unless regularity
be observed in looking for them, examining plant by plant, and leaf by leaf, from top to bottom, and
also any incisions or cracks that may be in the bark of the stem, &c. there will be a constant and tiresome
emploj-ment ; on the contrary, if regularly done, one operation will be of more service than five, if ex-
ecuted in a careless inattentive manner. As each individual plant is picked, it should be carefully
washed with a strong lixivium of soft soap and water, which will have a powerful efiect on their eggs,
which are in general sufficiently small to elude the eye, or perhaps so situated within the young buds
that they cannot be got at without materially injuring the future growth ; the wash will, however,
penetrate into these secret holds, and in general be fully adequate to their destruction.

6598. When the plants are out of the house in summer, every part of them should be well washed with
strong soap-suds, in which a little of the same tobacco, as used for fumigating, has been infused ; in par-
ticular, all the joints of the wood-work, and also whatever nail-holes or other crevices may happen to be
therein ; as in these places some of the species, more especially the white mealy bug, is much inclined
to secrete itself for breeding. This operation will, however, if performed in spring and autumn, t)e a
great means of their extinction, and will tend in a great degree to check the multiplication of the
others. .

6699. The red spider, the last and most pernicious of the species mentioned, is to be overcome
neither by fumigation nor picking ; but bv the free but well directed use of common water; either by
steam or with the hand-syrmge. The stea'm, by creating a fine dew in the house, prevents the insect
from extending its slender web from leaf to leaf, and thus checks its progress ; while the syringe, by su-
perior force, breaks the ligaments of those already made, and in most instances wsishes the insects to the
ground ; where, although it may recover its fall for the first or second application, it is in the end sure
to perish. They will sometimes, however, elude the greatest diligence, for a while, by collecting under
large horizontal leaves, which serve them as citadels against the attacks of the water; but here they
wiU soon betray themselves, by extracting the fluid substance of the leaf for their support, in consequence
of which it loses its verdure and becomes conspicuous; this, when found, should be picked off, and taken
out of the house immediatelv ; for if left anj-where among the plants they will in a little time establish
themselves on others. If they happen to l)e discovered before the leaf has lost its beauty, they may be
rubbed off with the hand on a sheet of paiK-r, and expelled the premises. If at any time the quantity

926 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

of water necessary to be used in these operations, should occasion the earth to become over-wet, in
those pots particularly which arc plunged in the bark-bed, the syringing must be omitted, and use made
of the steam only, until they again become reasonably dry. Neither should it be performed Avhen the
sun acts freely upon the plants, lest their leaves become in consequence disfigured. For the water forms
itself into little spherules, the surfaces of which collect the rays of the sun in a greater or less degree
according to their convexity; and thereby the leaves are disfigured by being burned in the focus of each
spherule.

6700. Summer treatment. As the season advances, it will become necessary to ad-
mit a reasonable portion of air on all fine sunny days ; and also to decrease the strength
of the fires at night : but in these particulars, the only criterion to be guided by, are ex-
perience and observations on the weather, the variations in which render it utterly im-
possible to lay down any certain rule to act by, further than the admonitions of the ther-
mometer ; observing to keep it pretty near to sixty degrees. About the beginning or
middle of May at farthest, fires may be omitted entirely ; as tlie natural heat of the sea-
son united to that of the bark-bed, will in general be found sufficient to keep the mer-
cury up to the above-mentioned point.

6701. Towards the latter end of June, the plants by this treatment will generally be in a very luxuriant
free state of growth ; it will be therefore requisite to raise the pots quite out of the tan-bed, to check and
harden them a little, so as to be able to bear the air of the green-house for a few weeks, which will be
of considerable advantage to them the ensuing winter. Should any of them remain of a sickly appear-
ance, (and that a few may be in that state, in large collections, must be reasonably expected,) or any
particular tender sorts among them, they must be removed to a separate house, as already hinted, where
the tan being previously forked up, and otherwise properly prepared for their reception, they must be
immediately replunged : if no such house is convenient, a large deep hot-bed frame, set on a good bed
of well-prepared dung, will answer nearly as well for this purpose ; having nine or ten inches of rotten
tan or sawdust spread regularly over the bed within the frame, in which the pots are to be plunged.

6702. IVhen the bed has Ixefi got ready, a few days should elapse before the plants are set in it, that
the steam and violent heat may have sufficient time to evaporate. At the expiration of five or six days,
however, the plants in their pots may be set on the surface ; where they should remain a little time
longer without being plunged ; but particular care is necessary that the frame at this time may not be
kept too close, which would occasion the heat to ascend more rapidly than the plants could well bear;
to avoid this, give plenty of air in the daytime, and also a little at night, with a mat hung before it to
prevent the sharp air entering into the frame. When the heat of the bed has attained a proper tem-
perature, so that there may be no danger of the roots being burned or otherwise injured, let the plants
be plunged, and afterwards treated in the same manner as if they were still in the hot-house : only ob-
serving to keep those that are in a weak state rather dry ; as nothing can be more injurious to a sickly
plant than too much moisture, by reason of its inability to imbibe the usual quantity through want of
vigor. The plants which remain, intended to be set in the green-house, must now have a considerable
increase of fresh air on all fine days ; and also (the pots being quite out of the tan) they will require a
greater portion of water than has been usually g^ven them when plunged.

6703. As soon as the weather Incomes settled, and the night perfectly free from all chilliness and frost,
which is seldom much before the middle of July, the plants may with safety be removed from the stove
to the green-house ; and set regularly on the benches lately occupied by the green-house plants ; which
they will ornament very much, during the time the latter are set in fclumps in the open air. The stove
may in this interval be furnished with a few of each of the different tender annuals, to give it some-
thing of a gay lively appearance. They will likewise in some measure serve as a kind of natural trap
for the spider, &c. ; as they will, should there be any of them left in the house, immediately attack the
soft tender leaves of these plants, in which case, as soon as they are observed to be collected in force
upon any individual plant, it should be removed to the open air, without loss of time, and another sub-
stituted in its room; this practice will contribute towards subduing this formidable enemy, so that,
combined with other exertions, by the time it becomes necessary to have the hot-house plants reinstated
in the bark-bed, the house should be pretty free from them. These being now in the green-house, will
require a little attention to preserve their verdure, such as keeping the glasses close at night and ad-
mitting air only on fine days ; thus to exclude any chilling or strong winds that may happen to prevail,
which would occasion the leaves to contract a languid yellowish appearance ; however, in course of a
week or ten days, they will be able to withstand any weather that may in reason be expected at this
season ; unless it happens to be unusually violent, in which case it must be guarded against accordingly.

6704. The removal of insects, weeds, and dead leaves is the principal care they will require now fos
about a month or so, also casually tying up any that may want it, and watering ; in which last article,
it must be observed, that as they now stand upon dry boards, and the air acting freely on every side of
the pot, they must consequently be allowed an increase of water, to counterbalance its effect. The even-
ing is the most proper time for watering at this season, as well as syringing, particularly when dry and
warm ; for if administered in the morning, the rising heat of the sun exhales it, before it has time to de-
scend to the lower roots ; and unless replenished frequently in course of tlie succeeding day, they are
liable to much injui-y, by being left in an exhausted state until the following morning, and which, it is
probable, may not prove more fortunate ; whereas, if administered in the evening, it refreshes them
after the preceding day's drought, and having sufficient time to penetrate to the roots, they have the
night to recruit themselves against the following day. Besides, in syringing, there is much more dan-
ger of having the leaves scorched by the sun's rays, if done in the morning, than if done as here recom-
mended : but as either extreme is dangerous, care must be taken to use no more water than is evidently
necessary for the health of the plants: for if used to that degree that the earth becomes sour and de-
pnved of its vegetative powers, the consequences may be rather unpleasant.

6705. By thus setting the plants in the green-house, it tends to prevent the increase of insects- also
theur too luxuriant growth during the summer months ; and by hardening and ripening the wood, ren-
ders them strong and firm, and therefore more likely to bloom ; which is, in these ornamental plants,
the principal object of the cultivator, besides that they are not so liable to be injured by the severities
of the succeeding winter. ■'

6706. Autumn treatinent. Towards the latter end of August the natural heat of
the atmosphere will be on the decline ; therefore, except on particular fine days, when a
small portion of air may be given, the lights must be kept perfectly close ; but more
especially so at night : as we have frequently at this season heavy chilling dews, and are
also often surprised with unexpected showers of rain or hail ; to admit either of which
might be very injurious to the plants ; however, by shutting up the house before the sun
has withdrawn its influence entirely from it, and thereby %^arming the enclosed air, they
may safely stand here some days longer.

Book II. WOODY BARK-STOVE PLANTS. 527

6707. As soon as the month of September commences, it Is time to think of getting the stoves ready for
their reception ; first, a quantity of fresh tan should be provided, sufficient to raise the bed at least six
inches above thekirb or wall of the pit, in conjunction with thebest of the old already there, which is to be
extracted by shifting. Let the new tan be spread out to dry in ridges, upon some clean airy spot, or con-
venient yard, for two or three days, where it should be regularly turned twice or thrice a-dav, and covered
with mats at night ; while this is preparing, let the flues of the house be well cleaned and the walls white-
washetl ; an operation necessary to be done every year in these departments, where strong fires are kept
for such a length of time ; likewise, let the old tan be sifted in the common way, with a pretty coarse sieve
or riddle : some gardeners throw it entirely away, but the part sifted being mixed with the new, prevents
its heating so violently as it otherwise would when first put in ; it also tends to preserve a more regular
heat in the other longer than it naturally would if used by itself; as it would be very violent at first, and
consequently, like most other things that are worked up above their pitch, liable to be sooner exhausted
in proportion to the first foundation.

f)708. Having si/ted and got away all the refuse qf the old tan, let the fresh, if well dried, be immediately
carried in, and both well mixed together in the pit ; still adding, until the bed is raised to the projier
lieight ; this done, let the wootl and glass-work, kirbs, passages, &c., in short, every part of the house be
diligently washed ; for the twofold purpose of endeavoring to clear it as much as possible from insects,
as well as to give it a cleanly appearance : being thus prepared, the plants may be removed from the green-
house, observing to examine each of them diligently lest any of those plagues so often mentioned, should
find their way back to the stove.

6709. Tlte ])ots must not be plunged in the tan at first ; as well on account of the danger of the violent
heat injuring the roots, as because this early plunging might start them into a fresh growth ; which, at
this late season, would not be at all to their advantage. They must, therefore, be set on the surface of
the tan in regular order, where they may stand twelve or fifteen days, or perhaps longer ; being guided in
this particular by the state of the atmosphere abroad, as well as the internal temperature of the heat in
the pit : by the first week in October, the heat of the external air will be considerably abated, and that
in the pit sufiiciently moderate. The time for plunging being fixed on, observe to have it done in the
most exact manner, placing the tall plants towards the back or centre, and the lower ones to the front or
sides of the pit in regular order ; according to the form of the house, and the mode of arrangement
adopted. If sawdust is used, it will contribute much to their cleanliness, and also make a more agreeable
api>earance than the tan. All being set to rights, and the passages, &c. swept clean, give the plants a
good syringing to wash off whatever dust they may have acquired during their removal, which will com-
plete the business for this time. The principal care afterwards for a few weeks, is to give them a reason-
able share of fresh air and water, according to the temperature of the weather ; but it is more proper to
perform the watering, syringing, and steaming, from this time to the beginning or middle of May, in
the forenoon ; observing to do it while the rays of the sun fall so obliquely as to ensure the plants i'rom
being injured by it : should it be done in the evening, the air in the house would unavoidably get chilled,
especially in frosty weather. It is even necessary that the water used for this purpose should be nearly of
the same temperature as the air in the house.

6710. About the middle of October, it will be necessary to add a little fire-heat at night, beginning with
slow fires at first, and regularly increasing them as the severities of the weather increase. Although a
circubtion of fresh air is at all times requisite to the health of plants, yet the heat of the external atmo.
sphere will at this season be so much diminished that it will not be found convenient to admit it in any
considerable quantity ; in fact, none should be given, except on particular fine days, when the front or
end lights may be ojiened a few inches. They should be shut early in the day, seldom permitting them
to remain open longer than one o'clock ; thereby giving the sun time to warm the fresh-admitted air be-
fore the chill of the night commences ; even this little indulgence cannot be allowed from about the end
of October until the beginning of April : as the strong cold winds which generally blow during the winter
months find of themselves but too many entrances.

6711. As to watering in the autumn, discontinue it to those plants plunged in the pit, as the moisture of the
tan, added to that which proceeds from the syringe, will be found quite sufficient for most of them ; on
the contrary, those over the flues, or on the shelves or kirbs near the fires, will require an additional por-
tion on account of the strong fires necessary to be kept when the weather happens to be severe. The use
of the syringe and steam must also be stopped in the severest frosts, lest by that means the house should
get over chilled ; however, they may both be used freely, when the weather proves moderately mild and
fine ; but by no means is it to be understood, that the house at this time is to be kept in a continual mist ;
or, on the other hand, that the plants are not to be carefully examined as usual, and watered liberally
when in want of it. It is necessary to notice that those plants which are inclined to be deciduous, and
also some of the more tender ones, will be occasionally dropping part of their leaves ; these should be
picked oflf as soon as they api^ear, otherwise they will have rather a disagreeable appearance among the
plants.

6712. Whiter treatment. About the middle or end of December, it will be necessary
to have the tan in the pit turned, and renovated with a little fresh well-dried bark to en-
liven the heat, as the severest part of the season is still to be expected ; however, in per-
forming this work, great care is required that the plants are not chilled or injured by-
being removed out of the tan-bed at this cold season : therefore, the mildest weather
must be chosen for performing this operation. The pit being cleared, immediately
proceed to turn over and mix the old and new tan well together, in which, as soon as it
is completed and levelled fit to receive the pots, they may be plunged without delay ; as
there is not that certain danger of a burning heat ascending now as in the summer
months, in which season the powerful action of the sun occasions it to ascend more
violently.

C713. PluneiniT the pots. Should it »ot be convenient to have the whole plunged the same day, those
left will require "to be set on the surface of the tan during night ; lest by being left near the glass, or ex-
treme parts of the house, they might be severely injured ere the mornnig by the cold air ; as it is therefore
advisable to keep them as short a time as possible out of the tan at this season, they shoulu without fail
be plunged the next or following day at farthest : it will be also requisite to keep a pretty brisk fire-heat
in the house, while the plants are out of the tan, and until the bottom heat in the pit becomes sufficiently
strong; else they will be liable thereby to droop, and lose many of their leaves in consequence of being
checked at this season. Should it happen that a series of clear fine weather follows this operation, the
action of the sun may possibly occasion the heat to rise rather violent in course of a few days after being
renewed: to this particular attention must be paid, and if any such sjTnptom should appear, it must be
immediately remedied by lifting the pots out of their places, and throwing into the holes a sniall quantity
of the surface tan; on which the pots mav be again set in a loose manner; thiw, by permitting the heat
to pass freely off by the sides of the pots, it prevents its burning the earth or roots, which would be certain
death to the plants : when its violence has subsided, let the pit be levelled, and pots properiy replunged :
b^t unless the weather, as already noticed, happens to be paiticularly clear, m aU kkeUhood this labor wiU
not' be encountered.

928

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6714. Watering and cleaning. They will require from this time until about the beginning of March,
nothing more than the usual care of watering when necessary, and cleaning them from all dirt or insects
as soon as they appear ; also to keep the temperature of the enclosed air as near to its regular pitch as
possible : to assist in compassing this object, when the weather sets in severe, it will be proper to use either
shutters of canvass or bass mats to cover all the lowest parts of the house ; and in particular those at the
greatest distance from the entrance of the fires every night; otheiwise the frost will easily enter these
remote parts, and chill the air through the whole house ; the consequence of which may be very inju-
rious : on the other hand, if these precautions are not attended to, there will be a necessity of keeping up
a very strong fire-heat, which will likewise be attended with pernicious effects.

6715. Insects. It is in these intervals that that destructive insect the red spider makes the most rapid
progress, on account of the necessity there exists of keeping the houses close, and supporting a dry warm
air, both of which circumstances are particularly congenial to its nature; therefore on all fine mild morn-
ings, observe to raise a powerful steam in the house as already directed ; by the frequent repetition of
which there will be a possibility of keeping them under control.

6716. Refreshing the bark-bed. As the internal strength and heat of the tan will now be much on the
decline, in consequence of the length of time it has been in use, it will be requisite to turn it more fre-
quently, so that about the beginning of March, it should be again stirred to at least half its depth ; which
will afford a temperate heat, until the time in which the plants are usually shifted, when it is generally re-
newed. Some gardeners make it a practice to have merely the upper half of their tan-pits stirred at any
time throughout the year, when the heat happens to be on the decline ; this is certainly a very proper
method where there is plenty of time and hands to perform it ; as there is no danger of a burning heat
arising ; but it requires to be done so much the oftener, such heat seldom lasting above a month or six
weeks ; it consequently will not answer where these conveniences are not to be had. The plants being
regulated in proper order as before, let them have the usual treatment until the time of shifting. (Exotic
Card. p. 70.)

6717.

Sect. II. Climbing Bark-stove Plants.
CLIMBING BARK-STOVE PLANTS.

MAY.

JUNE.

JULY.

AUGUST.

SEPTEMBER.

Peigularia odoratissima

Aristolochia triloba, p.

Aristolochia odoratiss. p.
Cratseva fragrans
Gronovia scandens, p.
Pergularia minor
Roxburghia gloriosoides
Thunbergia fragrans, p.

Abrus precatorius, p.
Convolvulus speciosus.p.
Jasminum hirsutum

— muljiflorum

— sambac

— — flo. pleno

— — monstru.
Fassiflora biflora

— quadraneularis

ConTolvulusjalapa
Jasminum auriculaturo

6718. The propagation and culture adopted for green-house climbers, is equally so for those of the bar
stove, the difference of temperature being taken into consideration. (See 6204. an

and 6253.)

Sect. III. Btdbous-rooted Bark-stove Plants.

6719. AU bulbous-rooted stove plants may, no doubt, be kept in the dry-stove ; but if it
is wished that they should flower in any degree of perfection, they must be plunged in
the bark-bed, when newly planted. The same remark will apply indeed to most of the
dry-stove bulbs.

6720.

BULBOUS-ROOTED BARK-STOVE PLANTS.

MAY. JUNE.

JULY.

AUGUST.

BEPTEMBEK. '

AUiumgracUe
AmarylHs falcata

— fleiilis

angusti&lia

minor

— reginic

— reticulata
tteeraanthus coarctatus
Omithogalum arabicum

— caudatum
Pancratium amboinense

Amaryllis advena

— blanda

— cruciata

— radiata

— radula
Haemanthusalbiflos

— carinatus

— pilosus

— pubescens
Onuthogalum latifolium

Amaryllis Brunsvigii

— curvifolia

— disticha
undulata

— iosephinae

— longifolia

— zeylanica
Crinum americanum

— asialicum

— australe

— erubescens
Haemanthus longifolius

— multiflorus
Pancratium carolinean.

— mexicanum

Amaryllis aurea

— crocea

— equestris

— latifolia

— orientalis

— omata

— unduL-cfolia
Crinum amabUe

l-iiSfuT

Haemanthus coccineuj

— orbicularis
Pancratium amcenum

— calathinum

— fragrans

— littorale

AmaryUis brasiliensis

— marginata

— spectabilis
Haemanthus quadrivalv.

Sect. IV. Perennial Hei-baceous Bark-stove Plants,
6721. HERBACEOUS BARK-STOVE PLANTS.

MAY.

JUNE.

JULY.

AUGUST.

SEPTEMBER.

brides odoratuiD, p.

LobeUa surinamensis, p.
PeUosanthes teta

Buttneria scabra, p.
LobeUa longiflora, p.

Achyranthes porrigens
Dionaea muscipula, p.
E ephantopus scabef
Glonosa saperba, p.

Columnea hirsuta, p.
- scandens
Leea crispa
,— macrophylla
Lobelra assurgens

Book II.

HOT-HOUSE AQUATICS.

929

6722. The propagation and culture of these need not be entered on, being essentially
the same as for hardy or green-house herbaceous plants, the difference of temperature
being taken into consideration. Such as have tuberous roots must be treated on the
same principle as tubers in the open garden, as, for example, those of fumaria cava,
erythronium, &c. which have their regular seasons of rest.

6723. The eloriosa superba, that grand, beautiful tuberous-rooted stove plant, for want of attention to
the nature of its roots and its habits of growth, seldom produces flowers in this country, " Its failure,"
John Sweet observes, " arises chiefly from the defective method in which its roots are preserved during their
inaction, and from the want of proper treatment, when they first vegetate in the spring. Injured at these
periods, the plants generally continue through the summer, weak and unpromising, throwing up only a
few small stems, which do not flower in sufficient strength and beauty." Under the following manage-
ment. Sweet has had perfect success, and has known a single root grow ten feet in the course of a season,
with numerous blossoms upon it. When the stalks and foliage have decayed in the autumn, and left the
root, like a well ripened potatoe, in a dormant state, the pot containing it must be removed from the bark-
bed to the top of the hot-house flue, at some distance Trom the fire, all the warmth at this time necessary
being merely wliat is sufficient to keep the earth in the pot free from damp ; and to prevent the waterings
of the house, or other moisture, falling on the earth in the pot, it should be covered, by inverting upon it
another pot of the same size ; or if larger, it will hang over its edges and more effectually exclude the
wet If the roots are small, two or three may be placed together in the same pot, whilst in their dormant
state ; but if they are thus shifted, the mould must be well shaken down in the pot, in order to prevent the
access of air to them ; the old mould in which they grew must also be used ; for fresh earth or sand would .
stimulate them to move too early. About the second week in March, the roots must be planted, putting
one or two, according to their size, into pots measuring six inches over. The best compost for them is
fresh loam, mixed with an equal quantity of bog-earth of good quality : the loam should be good, not over
rich with dung, nor too heavy. The roots are to be covered about two inches deep, and care must be
taken not to break them, unless nature has shown where it is practicable to divide them easily. The pots,
when filled, must be plunged into the bark-bed, where the heat should be equal to ninety-five degrees of
Fahrenheit's scale. Water is to be given very sparingly at first, and though, as they grow, they will re-
quire a more liberal supply, yet it is necessary, at all times, to be very moderate in giving it. The heat
must be well kept up, and as the shoots extend they must be supported by sticks, or trained in any direc-
tion on wire or cords. {Hort. Trans, vol iii. 23.)

6724.

Sect. V. Annual Herbaceous Bark-stove Plants.
BARK-STOVE ANNUALS.

JUNE.

JULY.

AUGUST.

Amethystea caerulea, p.
Calceolaria pinnata
Campanula capensls
Cassia chamaecrlsta

tora

Cleome pentaphjlla, p.
spinosa
viscosa
Convolvulus pes caprae
Crotolaria juncea
Hedysarum gangeticum

_ vesjiertilUo

Heliophila integrifolia
Heliotropiumindicuin,p.
Impatiens balsam ina

_ _flesh-co.dble.

_ bizar, tall,dble.

_ _ dwarf, dble.

— — pur. str. dble.
_ — scarl.str.dble.

Mesembryanthemum

— glabrum

_ pinnatjfidum
Physalis prostrata, p.
Sida dilleniana

— bastata
Solanum melongena

— — fruct.p\iip.

Amaranthus bicolor

— cruentus

— rublcaulis

— tricolor
Browallia demissa

— elata coerulea

— — flo. albo
Buchnera capensis, p.

— fetida
Campanula debilis
Cardiospermum halica-

cabum
Convolvulus nil. p.

— tridentatum
ipomoea phoenicea

— quamoclit

— — flo. albo
Lobelia gracilis, p.
Mimosa pudica

— sensitiva
Sida cordifitUa, p.

SEPTEMBER.

Celosia argentea

— cemua

— cristata rub.

— — dwarf, red

— — talljbuft"

— — dwarf

— — imperialpred

z z z ES?'^

— — — variega.
Clitoria brasiliana, p.

— temata
-^ _ flo. alb

Crotolaria verrucosa
Datura fastuosa, cl.
I — _ flo. albo

Gomphrena globosa
_ — flo. albo

_ — flo. stri.

Martynia proboscidea
Mesembryanthemum

crystallinum
Fentapetes pheenicea, p.

ff725 Provaeation and culture. They are all propagated from seeds, most of which ripen in this
countrVV^fomrfen^Drts are continued by cuttings for the sake "^ Preserving particular variations^
Sow in Februarv or March in pots, to be plunged in a hot-bed; prick out the plants into the smallest-sized
Ste wher thSVave atUiined mie or two prober leaves, and shift them once or twice into pots a size larger
KeSer recommended for the balsam (1653.); keeping the plants in hot-bed^ or pits till ready to
Wossom Shcn they may either be removed to such of the houses as are empty at the time, as the bulb-
hou2 gr^n^house. &c. or assembled in a house devoted to annuals. Some few of them, as the >ce-plant
(MefenS^arU^umcrystaUinum) and egg-plant [Solanum meKmgenum), may be plunged m a warm
situation m the open garden.

6726.

Sect. VI. Aquatic Stove Plants.
HOT-HOUSE AQUATIC PLANTS.

MARCH.

JUNE.

JULY.

AUGUST.

SEPTEMBER.

Arum venosum
Cyperus aliemifobas

Menyanthesindjca

_ ovata
Nymphsea pubescens

Pont^eria'c^ta

Aponogeton angustifol.
_ distachyon
Euryale ferox
Nelumbium speciosum
Nymphsea caerulea
_ rubra
_ steUaU
_ versicolor
Philydmm lanuginosum
SagittanalancifoUa

Aponogeton monostar

chvon
Damasonium indicnm
Nymphsea lotus
Pontederia cordata

^ffi^d^S

3 O

930

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

not formed to be

6727 Propagation and culture. Being all herbaceous plants they are to be propagated as these gcnCTal F
are -some are raised from seeds, which in general should be sown as soon as r^.c and the pots plu"g«i '"
shillovv water ; when the plants come up, they may be transplanted into other iKjts, and shifted as they ad-
vance in grow h. till in a pot of sufficient size to admit their flowering wh.ch wdl generally teke place the
lame season Instead of being kept in pots, the plants may be inserted m a betl ot earth on the bottom of
thraquarrum. The most beautiful of the exotic aquatics, are the nymphsas and nelumbmms ; these, with
other^genera, have been cultivated toa hi,h degree of perfec;Uon by ^ent who mst d oj j^^^^^^^^

rium employs pans and small cisterns, plunged in hot-beds. Where a regular aquarium
heated by flues {.figs. 518, 579.) we should
suggest the idea of a cistern {Jig. 622.) to be
placed on pillars in the open air. When the
season for forcing the nymphaas com-
mences, it may be surmounted by a hot-bed
frame of the same diameter, and surrounded
by linings of dung. By this means any re-
quired degree of heat might be produced

puring the flowering season, and if it were ■,..., ,, w

desired to continue any of the plafits in a growing state during winter, the linings and frame could be
continued ; if not, the plants might be removed to a reserve-aquarium, in the stove or propagation-house.

6728. Menyanthes, nyinpheea, and euryale ferox (an annual, with singularly constructed leaves, often of
thirty inches diameter), Kent has proved to thrive best in a close heat. Menyanthes requires only to be
fresh potted in spring, and placed in a pan in a hot-bed, where it will flower the whole summer. The
nymphjeas having tuberous roots, he keeps, through the winter, in small pots (sixties), in a dormant state,
in a small trough of water in the stove. Early in April, he prepares them for their summer culture, by
placing these in small wooden cisterns, two feet long, fourteen inches wide, and six inches deep, and then
placing them in any cucumber or melon frames which may be then in use. " In about a fortnight or three
weeks a number of offsets or runners will be thrown from the bulbs. These are then separated and put
into small pots ; and in the course of ten or twelve days a strong plant of each species is selected, and
placed in the cisterns for flowering. The tender aquatics, especially the nymphfeas, grow in a brick three-
light frame, thirteen feet long, and six feet broad ; inside depth at back, five feet, and above the ground,
four feet ; which is filled with tan. 1 have four wooden cisterns, lined with lead, four feet long, two feet
six inches wide, and fifteen inches deep : they are plunged in the tan, and filled with strong rich loam,
about six inches deep, the bottom part of which is rammed down ; and the plants placed in them, one or
two in each, according to their habit of growth. The cisterns are then filled with water by degrees. As
the plants advance in sizs, they must be replenished and cleared from confervce as often as necessary ; and
if the plants are occasionally watered over their leaves, from a watering-pot, through a rose, their vigor
will be greatly increased. It is important to keep them in a constant state of growth ; for if checked, they
will form, bulbs, and grow no more during the season. This will be caused by cold ; but this year (1817),
the heat in June produced the effect, although they were shaded from the sun's rays by matting, and the
lights considerably raised. Where dung is used, there is like danger, from its heating. After being
planted out, they will show flowers in the course of a month, and some of them will continue blooming
through the season. As soon as the plants have done flowering, and perfected their seeds, they disappear,
and form bulbs in the mud. These, in the month of October, I put into small pots (sixty to the cast), and
place them in a trough of v/ater, in the stove, where they remain dormant until the ensuing spring. The
seeds are most likely to vegetate, if sown at the same time, and treated in the same manner. Nympha3a
caerulea will flower in the stove ; but not so freely as in the frame. Nymph£ea stellata seeds freely, but the
root does not easily divide ; indeed it is best grown, when treated as an annual. Euryale ferox does well
under similar treatment to that of the nyraphaeas ; its seed should be sown about Christmas, and kept in
the cistern of the stove." {Hort. Trans, iii. 34.)

6729. Nelumbium spcciosu?n " is easily raised from seed, which will retain its vegetative power for forty
years, and with every advantage, in a fair season, produce blossom the first summer. It is generally grown
m large tubs, with a few inches depth of water over the surface of the mould, placed in the tan-bed of the
stove. By these means, I raised a fine plant last year : the seed was sown in May, and threw up several
flower-buds, which did not come to perfection, but most probably would have done so, had the seed been
sown two months earlier. The leaves produced were about two feet in diameter ; but the plant went off
in the winter, notwithstanding it was treated in the manner hitherto found the most successful ; which has
been, to allow the tub to remain in the tan, and become nearly dry, giving it no more water than tlie other
plants around it. At Canton, it seems, they drain the ponds wherein it grows, and use the roots for food ;
but whether fibres of it are the parents of the ensuing crop, or the pots are replenished by seedlings, does
not appear. Both are probable, as the roots, which have been kept nearly dry in our hoUhouses, if but a
very srnall piece has remained alive, have become vigorous blooming plants, as well as those from seed."
(iiort. I runs. iii. 36.)

6730.

Sect. VII. Scitamineous, or Reedi/ Stove Phnts.
MARSH, OR REEDY HOT-HOUSE PLANTS.

JUNE.

Alpinia allughas,March, 'Costus spicata, p.
p. 1 Curcuma zedoaria

— occidentalis Strelitzia augusta, ;,.

— racemosa — angustifolia
Amomum afzelii — parvi&lia
Kaempferia angustifolia
Strelitzia reginae, v.

— ovata, March

— farinosa
Urania speciosa, March

JULY.

Canna glanca, p.

— mdica
Heliconia bihai
Olyra paniculata

AUGUST.

Costus arabicus, p.

— speciosus
Curcuma longa
Hedychium angustifo-
lium, p.
— coronarium
Heliconia psittacorum
KaempfcrU galanga
^ lotunda
.- speciosa
Alpinia nutans

SEPTEMBER.

Globba marantina, p.

— sessiliflora
Maranta arundinacea
Musa coccinea, Dec.

— paradisiaca, Nov.

— rosacea sapientum
Alpinia calcarata
Zingiber officinale

— purpureum

— zerumbit

t/Sil,^^'^^ "^^ """/ '^^l^'^'^e- No plants are more easily propagated than those enumerated In resnect
rc„^ i ''^' they may for the most part be considered as marsh or bog plants, for even the susar r^^

w^s TnTt^vrhpT'^ ^h'^ ^;"^^' ^^'"'^^' ^'^^^^') ^'•e found in f ^ild stkte by rl^e^ and S iS^s?
woods, and thrive best m the stove when their roots are liberally supplied with waterf

Sect. VI 1 1. Selections of Bark-stove Plants for particular Purjmses.
6732. Selections of bark-stove plants for particular purjmses can be but few. A collec-
tion may be made of such as are or have been most used in the arts; of curious or bota-
njlhr !L^T ' '"''^ ^' ''''''' '"S^^y odoriferous, as asclepias, bignonia, clerodendron ; or
Tru^T^nlTy.^' ^' cestrum nocturnum, cactus grandiflorus ; of palms, as of the sago-palm
iCycas), of the cocoa-nut (Coco.), of the date-palm, ^Phcenix) &c. ; or of any of the naLal

Book II.

SELECTIONS OF BARK-STOVE PLANTS.

931

orders of sucfi rare sorts as have not yet flowered. The following are some of the most
remarkable of the economical tropical plants used either in their native countries or im-
ported into this country.

Poison-nut {Slrychitot mtx vomica)
Wild licorice {Abrut nrecaioritu) ; climb.
Jalap-root (C'cnji>o/i,'i(/;(j Jalufya.) ; cUmh.
Gum-elastic {Echiteaelcutica) ; climb.
Vanilla ( Vanilla arumatica) ; climb.
Contrajerva-root {Dorstema conlrnjerva) ;

herbaceous
Balsam-plant (JuslUia comata) ; herb.

Jamaica ebony (Amerimnutn el>e7tus}
Bambu (Bambusa animtinacea) I

Silk-cotton-tree (Bowiior ceiba)
Tallow-tree {Crutmi seliifenim)
Oily palm-tree (Elaia i;uineenau)
01ive-woo<l (Elttodeiuhim orienlali)
Indian rubber-tree {Ficiis elatlka and

Ecliiles elastica) ; climb.
Cotton-tree {Gossypium arboreiim)
Lo^jwood (Hutmaloxyfon campechiainim)
Manchineel tree {Uippomane maHcinella)
Sandbox-tree (Hura crepUaiu)
St. Helena red- wood (tSelhama ery-

throxylon)
St. Helena ebony (Melhanin melaitoxylon)

Food.
Bengal quince (-•E/if/e marmdos)
Sour-sop {Aniuma tmtricata)
Alligator-apple {Annoiia paluttris)
Cabbage-tree (A real iJeracea)
Bread-fruit-tree {Arlocarpus hicisr.)
.Taca-trce (Arloairpm iute^rijvlia)
Akee-tree (^Bli(;hia sapulii)
Brjad-nut-tree (Btusimitni ailcastrum)
Cocoa-plum-tree (C/iruxu6(ziuiuM icacu)
Star-apple {Chn/aoph^um caiiiitu)
Cocoa-nut-tree (Coco* nuclfira)
Coftee-tree (CnJJ'ea arabica)
Garlic-pear {Cratetxi tupia)
Calabash-tree [Cresceiiiia cucurbltina)
Sago-palm {Cycas revolula)
Lee-cnee (Dimocarpiu lUchi)
Smooth-fruited leechee (Dhnoc. Ionian)
Date-plum (Diotpyrut kaki)
Malay apple {Euf;eraajambos)
Mangosteen [Gardnia mansostana)
Anchovy -pear ( Griat cautijiora)
Eatable okro {Hibiscus esculeiUiis)
Otaheite chestnut {Inocarpus edulis)
Barbadoes cherry (Malpighia aiifruslifol.)
Mammee-tree {Mammea americana)
Mango-tree (Maiif^j'era imlica)
Saffron-firuit {Mimosa dulcis)
Date-palm ( I'lueiiix dactyliferu)
Guava {PsiJium pyriferitm, p<nnif. Sec.)
J.otus-tTee {lihamnu* lotvt)
Tamarind-tree {Tamariiulus indica)
Chocolate-nut-tree {Theoliroma caMo)
Sweet potatoe (CoHi'o/.&rf/a/oj); climb.

Some minds relish nothing that

(iranadilla (Passi flora quadrang.) ; climb.
Melon-thtstle (Cachtsmatmniluns); sue.
Barbadc>es gooseberry {Cadu* peres.) ; sue.
Black pepper (rtj^r/i^Tom); sue.
Salsilla {Alstranneria saUilla) ; herb.
Eatable arum (Arum esculeiUum) ; herb.
Otaheite salop ( Tacca inie^rifuliu) ; herb.
Sacred Indian bean (Nelundjiuni speci-

osum) ; eiquatic
Cardamom(^»i<>mu»i(Mr(/amo»iH»K);reedy
Grains of Paradise {Ammnutn fp'anuyit

parouUsi) ; reedy
.Arrowroot (Maratita arundimuea) ; reedy
I'lantain-tree (Muaa jmrudisiaca) ; reedy
Banana-tree (Musa sapieiditm) ;. reedy
Sugar-cane {Sacc/iarnmofficiH.}; reedy
Ginger (Zingi/ier itfficinm).

Mkdicike
Cashew-nut {Anacardium occidetdale)
Areca-nut-tree (Arecha catechu)
Iixxacuanha [Eup/w'rbia ipecacuanhtt)
Papaw -tree (Caricn piimya) ; remarkable

for its property of intenerating raw

meat.
Jesuits'-bark {Cinchona tvgicinalis)
Balsam of Capivi {Copaifera omanalis)
Gum-guaiacum {Gvaiacum o^icinalc)
Cassava {JatroplMmanihut)
Cinnamon {Laurus cinnanvomum)
Cassia {Laurus cassia)
Medicinal mimosa {Mimosa ccdechv)
Gum- Arabic-tree {Mimosa nilotica)
Pimento-tree {Myrius jAmeidu)
Bitter of porter {Quassia amara)

Soapberry {S'apituhis sajwnaria)
Mahogany-tree {Stnetenia mancf^ani)
Indian oak {TecUnui f^randia)
Lance- wood {Vvaria lanceiitaia)
Indian madder (Oldenlandia umheUala) ;
herb.

not either immediately useful, or has some relation to utility : to
such the foregoing list will be of some value as pointing out plants of great importance to mankind in
other countries. From our connection with these countries, and the number of young persons that
annually leave Britain to pass great part of their lives in them, it is desirable those plants should be known
liere also ; and hence a ratic-nal object for the patriot, who has wealth and leisure, to display them in a
conservatory attached to his castle, or palace, (^g.623.) of suitable elevation and extent.

67 S3. In selections of rare or curious plants, or such as are sought after chiefly by
botanists, the palms, the air plants, and the exotic ferns wHl be included ; and on the
culture of these, we shall select some remarks from the Horticultural Transactions.

one of the most remarkable, being the only palm known .^Vi i i //.. .

to have a branched trunk like otber trees. .

6735 The culture of palms is less a matter of nicety,
than expense. They require a pow-erful moist heat, a
large mass of rich earth in the pot, tub, or bed, and ample
space for the leaves. As they are of remarkably slow
CTOWth, a stove devoted to their culture does not reqmre
to exceed the common height at first, but to admit the
tree-palms to display their character, it would require to
have the roof elevated by degrees to 60, 80, or 100 leet
It is much to be wished that some spirited man of wealtn
would, in these times of peace and leisure distinguish
himself by palm culture, of which Messrs. Loddiges, much
to their honor, have set the first example It is a common
opinion, that their growth is so slow, that little effect
would be produced during a life-time: but this every gar.
dener that has supplied his palms with abundance of space
foi- the roots, and adequate heat m their atmosphere, can

""'frl fS^hc stove plants. Maria Graham {Letters
fram India) remarks, that she saw many of these flou"sh.
ing in great luxuriance on the rough trunks of palms n
thi Calcutta botanic garden. At Kew,. Spring Grove and. n
the garden of the Horticultural Society, they have been

3 0 2

932 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

generally grown in rough tan, closely pressed together in small pots or baskets, and suspended from
the roof of the hot-house. Messrs. Loddiges have established some specimens on the trunks of palms
in the ln?Uan or natural manner, and the Honorable and Rev W. Herbert appears to have been
equally successful. " I am informed." he says, "by a friend at Calcutta that he cultivated with
K?eat ease, all the dendrobia aerides, and other parasitical plants by tying them, with twine, to the
stem ofa tree, or to the under-side of a branch, and placing above them a pot of water with a hole at
the bottom, through which a string passed, nearly as large as the aperture by which the water was
gradually and continually conducted to the upper part of the parasitical plant, which requires to be
constantly moist and shaded; and that a tree with smooth bark answered the purpose best. He men-
lions that dendrobium pieradii, fastened to a tree and irrigated in this manner, will, in a httle more
than a year's time, produce pendulous racemes of flowers, from two to six feet long, and it appears likely
to thrive with me under the same treatment. I had previously found no ditRculty in establishing epiden-
dra on the stems of trees in the stove, by cutting a notch in the bark and inserting the plant like a graft,
and tying moss about it to support it, till the young roots had attached themselves to the bark ; but from
want of fufficient moisture, they have not made much progress, or flowered with me. I have now adopted
the above-mentioned mode of irrigating them, with full confidence that it will succeed in our stoves, as well
as it does at Calcutta: and very soon after its application to a sickly epidendron, growing on the stem of
sterculia balanghas. vigorous young fibres began to sprout from it on ail sides. I am very much inclined
to think, that most of such plants would attach themselves to the sides of a porous stone or vessel, or ofa
dead root, if constantly irrigated, and thrive upon them as well as upon a living tree, especially if the stone or
root were covered with growing moss, for I have observed the fibres of more than one sort atUch themselves
strongly to the outside of the pot in which they are planted ; and I conceive that they might be beautifully
cultivated, upon an ornamental cone of porous pottery, filled with water and lurnished, on the outside,
with niches, in which the plant? might be fixed, with a httle moss or peat to promote their growth in the
first instance. I have found the parasitical plants in danger of perishing, from want of moisture, on a de-
ciduous tree, during its season of inactivity, but that deficiency would probably be removed by constant
irrigation. The neatest and most convenient vessels for that purpose, perhaps, would be little tubs, such as
are sold at toyshops, which might be easily tied to a branch, and perforated with a small gimlet. A short
string, of which one end is twisted round, or at least in contact with the plant, and the other inserted into
a phial of water, will also be found to convey a regular, though less plentiful supply of moisture, acting in
manner ofa siplion. I have used it advantageously to nourish a graft, and promote its union with the
stock. For the cultivation of parasitical plants in pots, I recommend placing the pots on a back flue, in a
tin tray, about two inches deep, and half filled with wet sand, giving an abundant supply of water, but not
suflScient to produce rottenness by its stagnation. I find the growth of crinums, which also like a moist
heat, to be prodigiously rapid with that treatment ; I should suggest a mixture of porous stones, orbits
of broken pots, with old tan, or such peat as contains a portion of half-decayed wood, and a garnish of moss
to the pot, as preferable, for parasitical plants, to the loam which some of our books have recommended."
(Hort. Tram. iv. 243.) All these parasites are included under the natural order of Orchidea; are of
herbaceous habits, and readily propagated by suckers or cuttings.

6737. The Rqfflesia Arnoldi is the most extraordinary jjarasite known to botanists. It was discovered by
the late Dr. Arnold,in Sumatra, in 1818. in a jungle or thicket, growing close to the ground under thebushes.
and attached to the roots of a species of cissus or vites. The plant consists of the flower only, having neither
leaves, branches, or roots ; the flower is a yard across ; the petals, which are subrotund, being twelve inches
from the base to the apex, and it being about a foot from the insertion of the one petal to the opposite one ;
the petals are from a fourth to three fourths of an inch thick, and the nectarium, it is supposed, would
hold twelve pints. It appears to take its origin in some crack or hollow of the stem, and soon shows itself
in the form ofa round knob, which, when cut through, exhibits the infant flower enveloped in numerous
bracteal sheaths, which successively open and wither away as the flower enlarges. A singular change takes
place in the vessels of the root or stem on which it grows ; their ramifications are multiplied, and they take
a direction so as to unite with and accommodate themselves to the base of the parasite to which they con-
vey nourishment. The general appearance of the flower is that of Stapelia, and its smell is also fetid. It
is dioecious, and supposed by Brown to belong to the natural order of AsarincEe. There is another species
R. horsfieldii with the flowers not above three inches in diameter. Both, it is probable, may in time be in-
troduced in our stoves. (See Lin. Trans, xiii. 201.)

6738. Exotic ferns. The tree-ferns. Humboldt informs us, are of singular beauty in their native sites.
Only a few species of these, as dicksonia arborescens, davallia pyxidata. pteris aculeata. &c. have been
introduced ; but the number of herbaceous ferns which are stove plants is considerable. They are pro-
pagated from seeds which generally ripen freely in this country, and such as are received from abroad
generally grow, however long kept ; they are also multiplied by dividing the roots. The best collection of
exotic ferns is considered to be in the Liverpool garden : many of these have been raised from seed by
Shepherd, the assistant curator ; and the following are his directions for this purpose : Having provided a
common garden-pot, four and a half inches in depth, and three and a half wide, let the bottom part, to the
height of one inch, be filled with fragments of broken pots by way of drain. Over these shouhi be spread
a stratum of such soil as is commonly used for potting green-house plants, of the depth of two inches :
the remaining half inch should be filled with brown loamy earth sifted through a hair sieve, the surface
being made perfectly smooth, and on this the seeds are to be scattered as evenly as possible. Care must
be taken that the wind be not suffered to blow the seeds away, leaving nothing but empty capsules. The
seeds being sown, no other covering is requisite than a bell-glass, which should just fit within the rim of
the pot, so as to exclude all air. The pot is then to be kept in a pan always half full of water, and set in a
shady part of the stove or hot-house, being always regularly watered as above directed. When the young
plants have acquired their second leaf, it is proper to give them a little air by placing a small piece of
wood under the edge of the glass, at one side. In a short time afterwards the glass may be entirely
removed. {Hort. Trans, iii. 338.) o ^ j

6739. The seeds come up in two or three months, and the plants flower the following year It is not
loiown how long these seeds retain their vegetative quality, but two plants of acrostichum calomelanus
were raised from seeds brushed from a specimen of that fern in the herbarium of Foster, supposed to bo
near fifty years old. But the same success did not attend similar attempts with any other specimens from
this herbarium. The soil for ferns should be of a soft fine texture to suit the very small fibres of their
roots ; It requires also to be kept constantly moist in imitation of the native habitations of these plants •

rto;es XTSinfels'e willfhrte'' ''""" °' '"''''• ^''''' "''" '^"^ "^"^ ""^ ''' ^" ^^^'^ P^^ '^f '^^

i^ooK ir. MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS

933

Sect. IX. Selection

6740.

Wotxhf flant*. Bambusa arundinacea,
Barringtonia speciosa, Carica papava,
Catesbaea spinosa, Clerodendrum fra-
grans, Coccoloba cerifera, Cocos nuci-
rera, Corypha umbraculifera, Chamae-
rops huniilis, Cycas revoluta. Phoenix
uactvlifera, Collea arabica, Crotolaria
pulchra, Datura arborea, Dillenia spe-
ciosa, DraciEiia draco, Ficus indica.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Ixora coccinea,
LagerstroeDiia r^inte. Mimosa ni-
lotica, odoratissiina, .Myrtus pimenta,
Nerium coronarium, "odonira, Nyc-
tanthes arbor trisUs, Portlandia gran-
oiflora, Robinia violacea, Solandia
granditlora, StercuUa platanti£>Ua,

of Dry and Bark-stove Plants, for such as have only
one Hot-house to contain them.

Tectona grandis, Vinca rosea, Volka-
meria aciUeata.

ClimUng. Convolvulus speciosns, Cra-
tasva firagrans, Dolichos urens, Ipo-
moea digitata, Jasminum sambac, Pas-
sitlora coccinea, alata, racemosa.

Succuientt. Agave \ivipara. Aloe pd-
lucens. Cactus grandirforus, melocac-
tus, speciosus. Euphorbia clava, Pan-
danus odoratissimus. Piper nigrom,
Stapelia grandiflora.

BuUu. AmarvIIis reginse, josephinae,
Criuum amabSle, enibescens, latifoli-
ura, Hsemanthus coccineus. Pancra-
tium amoenum.

Berbaceotu. .£rides odoratum. Arum

bicolor, Epidendmm cochleatum,
Gloriosa superba. Gloxinia maculata,
Limodorum tanko-villii, Phytolacca
octandra, Polypodium aureum, Pteiis
grandiflora.

Aifuatict. Cypnis papvrus, Euryale fe-
rox, Menianthes indica, Nelumbiura
speciosum, Nvmphaea lotus, pubescens,
rubra, Thalia dealbata.

Reedy. Alpina racemosa, Canna glau-
ca, indica, Heliconia bihai, Maranta
anmdinacea, Musa paradisiaca, sapi-
entum, Saccharum ofBcinarura, Stre-
Utzia reginae. Zingiber officinale.

Chap. XV.

Monthly Catalogue of the leading Productions of Ornamental Horticulture.
6741. Our catalogue of monthly ornamental jn-oductions extends only to a few of the
more generally known flowering plants and trees ; what respects the hot-house depart-
ment is to be understood as referring to flower-gardens, which contain at least a bark-
stove, a dry-stove, one or more green-houses, and an adequate number of reserve-pits
and frames. Those plants are marked (*) which may be produced from a small garden,
where there is a green-house, flued-pit, and hot-beds ; not in any quantity, but suffi-
ciently to keep up a hope and a fear for every month, Tlie keeping up of this sort of
hope and fear is much more conducive to the sort of happiness or interest which those
who have small gardens expect to derive from them, than a grand display of two or three
species of flowers, occurring only once or twice in the year.

JANUARY.

FLO WEE- GARDEN.

The crocufs, tulip, and some alliums,
b^;inning to emerge from thegroimd.
If mild weather, perhaps some choice
plant in flower, as tiie Clu^tmas
rose, daisy*, but generally no tlower
is to be seen at this season.

SHRUBBERT.

Evergreens display themselves to ad-
vantage, especially the holly* with its
coral berries. Calycanthus precox,
red and white, and lauru&tinus* in
flower.

HOT-HOUSE DEPARTMENT.

In

t-house, the camellias* in

australasian plants
In the stove, strelitzia*, seven species,

and some other planU.
From the pits and hoi-beds in the re

serve-garden, forced roses, hyacinths.

and other bulbs, mignonette, &c.

placed in the conservatory, plants

cabinet, or drawingnoom

FEBRUARY.

The snowdrop*, Christmas rose*, and
winter aconite*, in flower ; the cro-
cus, crown-imperial, and other bulbs,
fest advancing, if the weather be
&vorable.

shrubs, appear.
The laik sings about the beginning of
the month, and the thrush about the
middle.

In the green-houit, camellias* an^
heaths in great beauty, and also s
species of oxalis, protea, &c.

In the stove, strelittia*, and some I
and succulents.

Forced articles from the pits as before.

MARCH.

Among florists' flowers, the crocus*,
scilla*, some hyacinths* and crown-
imperials*, and also the primrose*
and polyanthus are in bloom in the
latter half of the month ; saxifraga
oppositifoUa* among the alpines ; and
viola odorata* in a warm border, or
on rock-work.

Some pines, poplars, and willows*,
show their catkins ; the sloe*, corne-
lian cherrv*, raezereon* different

flower.

The ring-do

week.

begins to coo m the first

In the gretn-hoiue, some camellias^
still in flower ; numerous heaths* ii
great beauty ; also aletris*, lachena-
ua*, oxalis*, some geranise*, and
above a dozen other genets.

In the stove, some scitamenae ant
bulbs ; solandra ^randiilora, pUnia,
eugenia, and justicia. *

Forced articles as before.

APRIL.

The hyacinth*, narcissus*, auricula*,
and polyanthus*, four of the most
valued florists' flowers are in perfec-
tion in the course of this month. Also,
the scilla, fritiUaria*, wallflower*,
daisy* ; pulmonaria officinalis, cyno-
glossum, oraphaloides* various saxi-
Sragas, and other alpines.

Most of the wild fruit-trees, as crabs*,
pears*, cherries*, and their allied
species, are now in flower : most of
the wUlows, birches, elms, and oaks,
show their catkins. Among shrubs,
the honeysuckle, some robinias*,
andromedas*, daphnes, ericas*, and
zanthorrhiza, are in flower.

In the green-house, above thirty specie;

of ericae*, and nearly as many of the

ixiEE* family, with lachenalia, oxalis.

acacia, and various other genera ii

perfection.
In the- store, dracsna*, bromelia*

ksemp&ria, stapelia, and some bulbs

in flower.
Abundance of forced articles, including

annuals, as sweet peas, larkspurs, &c

in flower.

MAY.

The auricula-stage still a fine object
in the first week; and the polyan-
thi narcissi not yet over. The col-
lections of tulips*, anemones*, and
pinnies*, in fiiU beauty from the
middle of tlie month. Many showy
herbaceous plants, as statice*, lych-
nis*, philox*, &c. coming into flower.
.\mong the aquatics, hottonia palus-
tris, arid ranunculus aouatilis*.

The horse-chestnut*, hawthorn*, sor-
bus*,mespilus*, and snowdrop-tree*,
in great beauty. Among the American
shnibs, several species of magnolia*,
azalea* ; kalmia*, andromeda*, &c.
and among common shrubs, the
lilac*, spiraea*, guelder-rose*, honey-
suckle*, the cinnamon, Scotch, bur-
net-leaved, and monthly roses.

Most of the singing birds in ftiU note.
3 O 3

In the green-house, a fine display of
ericse*, ixiae*, and gladioli*. Also
vo-al geraniae, salviae, protese, &c.
In the stove, Phytolacca decandra, pas-
siflora racemosa*, and other species
justicia, heliconia, Emd various ^nera.

From the forcing-departmejit, gera.
niums and other green-house plants,
hydrangeas*, balsams* and other
tender annuals.

934

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.
JUNE.

Part III.

The collections of paeonies and ane-
mones not yet faded ; those of ra-
nunculus*, iris xiphium* and xi-
phioides ; and of the hardy gladioli*
and ixiae, in full beauty. Assortments
of pink* and sweetwilliam*, in flower
towards the end of the month ; he-
merocallis*, aauilegia*, campanula*,
veronica*, and many showy herba-
ceous perennials ; some biennials, as,
agrostemma, alyssum*, &c. ; annuals,
as crepis, cucubalus ; aquatics, as bu-
tomus*, hydrocharis, potamogeton ;
viola, saxifraga*, and various alpines.

The florists' flowers of this month
are, the pink*, and carnation* ; the
white martagon* and tyger lilies* ;
the Brompton stock*, larkspurs*, lu-
pines, and other biennials and an-
nuals. More herbaceous plants are
now in flower than in any other
month, as chelone*, delphinium*,
dictamnus*, gentiana*, statice*,
philox*, silene*, salvia, veronica,
saxifraga, &c. The most showy of
the aquatics, as nymphtea*, nuphar*,
villarsia*, alisma, calla, stratiotes,
myosotis*, &c. are now in flower, and
various alpines.

FLOWER-GARDEN.

SHRUBBERY.

The lime, laburnum, and fringe-tree*,
in flower ; towards the middle of the
month a number of the roses* ; of
Americans*, andromeda, magnolia,
rhododendron maximum ana pon-
ticum, azalea,&c. Of common shrubs,
cistus*, helianthemum, erica, dog-
wood, elder, cytissus, spirea, loni-
cera, &c.

The goat-sucker, or fern-owl {Capri-
mulf^ia europceut), heard in the even-

HOT-HOUSK DEPARTMENT.

In the ereen-hoiite, chiefly tender
nuals from the reserve-garden ; tlie
proper inhabitants being in the open
garden, and there the heaths, gera-
niae, citrus tribe*, diosmce, proteae,
&c. in great beauty.

In the stove, amaryllis*, and other
bulbs, aloe, piper, and other succu-
lents; eugenias, epidendrons, cassia
castrum, &c.

The pits filled with tender annuals, oi
other plants, in the course of propa-
gation and rearing.

JULY.

The tulip-tree*, magnolia* kalmia*,
andromeda*, azalea*, erica*, several
sorts, and some rhododendrons*, and
other American or peat -earth shrubs
in flower. Among the commoner
sort, the roses* are now in full
splendor. The white jasmine*,
honeysuckles*, clematis*, spartium,
gle<liuchia triacanthos, cistus, Ijci-
um, and a great variety of others of
less note.

Showy butterflies and moths appear in
the beginning, and the dragon-fly
towards the end of the month.

tender annuals, as balsams, globe-
amaranthus, coxcombs, ice-plants,
sensitive mimos.^, &c. and probably
with some of the stove plants.

In the o)>en air, the geranice will be
in great beauty, and also erica*, me-
sembryanthemum*, melaleuca*,
trosideros*, protea, and numerous
other genera.

There are numerous stoiie plants now
in flower, as canna*, nelumbium,
gloriosa*, amaryllis* pancratium,
cactus, euphorbia, myrtus, ii>omoEa*,
justicia, &c.

The reserve hot-houses as before.

AUGUST.

The florists' flowers of this month are,
the hollyhocks*, pyramidal bell-
flowers*, lobeUas, annual stocks*, and
the poppies*, with lilium canadense*
and four other American species.
Numerous herbaceous plants are now
in flower that first appear in July,
and others, as aster* various species,
astrantia, helianthus, anthencum*
ossifragum, and numerous others first
bloom in this month. Among the
aquatics may be mentioned lobelia
dortmanna*, polygonum hydropiper,
and severed species of potamogeton.

Scarcely any trees are now in bloom ;
but of American shrubs there are va-
rious sorts of azalea*, clethra*, and
magnolia*, in perfection ; and of se-
lect common shrubs, the hibiscus*,
with its numerous and beautiful varie-
ties. The rose*, the honeysuckle*,
yellow jasmine*, clematis*, spirsea*,
and dwarf cesculus, form a greater
show in the shrubberv and rosary
than in any othei- month.

Robin-red-breast {MotaciUa rulnciila)
sings about the last week, and butter-
flies, moths, and dragon-flies abound
during the whole month.

SEPTEMBER.

The florists' flowers of this month are
the dahha*, which flowers also when
excited by artificial heat previously
to planting in the open ground in July
and August; but planted in the usual
way, it is now in perfection. Among
the bulbs there axe only leucojum
autumnale*, narcissus autuianalis*,
iuidscillaautumnale; the china aster.
In all its varieties, is now in per-
fection. Among the herbaceous per-
ennials, aster*, solidago, helianthus,
gentiana*, phlox*, and asphodelus,
are the chief sorts.

Aralia spinosa, some azaleas*, and
kalmia*, Lord Macartney's rose, and
one or two othei roses are in flower
during the greater part of this month.
But the chief ornament of the shrub-
bery is the fruits of the mountain ash*,
viburnum*, mespilus*, oxyacantha*,
Siberian crab*, sorb*, lom'cera*, ap-
ple, rose*, elder, &c.

Spiders, flies, and insects of all kinds,
very numerous ; few birds in song ;
but the fieldfare appears about the
end of the month.

The green-house as before. In the oi>en
air the plants growing vigorously ;
but excepting geranise*, ericse*, and
some succulents not many species in
flower.

In the ttore, asclepias, convolvulus*,
pancratium, lagerstroemia*, passiflo-
ra*, plumbago, and numerous other
genera in flower.

Tender annuals from the reserve-hot-
houses as before.

The green-house plants generally re-
turned to their winter habitation in
course of this month ; some heaths*,
and pelargoniums*, and a few other
sjjecies in flower.

There are not many stove plants in
flower at this season ; amarjllii,*, pas-
siflora, and some succulents may be
mentioned.

Tender annuals si'.pi)lied from the
forcing-department of the resen'e.
garden, for decorating the plant-ca
binet, conservatory, or drawingroom.

OCTOBER.

The florists' flowers of this month are
the Chinese chrysanthemums*, some
of the hardier of which will now
flower in the open air, and the others
under a glass case or in the green-
house; the colchicum*, autumn
crocus, cyclamen europeum*, and
amaryllis" lutea*. The principal
herbaceous plants are, aster and so-
lidago*, with asphodelus altissimus*,
helianthus, gentiana*, and some other

Arbutus unedo* is the only beautiful
shrub in flower, and also in fruit,
at this season, gordonia, rhamnus,
baccharis, clematis, and the common
ivy eire also in flower.

Any spare room in the green-limi
IS now occupied with chrysanth(
mums*, and some dahlias* raised L.
pots, and placed out of the reach of
frost, to prolong their bloom. A few
ericas*, statice*, and geranise, still in
bloom.

In the stove, vinca*, stapelia*, and a
few others.

The reserve-pits m preparation foi
lorcmg bulbs and roses.

NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER.

The remains of last month in greater
or less beauty, according to the wea-
ther, and, perhaps, a few plants xm.
naturally in bloom.

In the present mild and humid winter,
there are now (December 31. 1821)
in bloom in many gardens about
London, stocks of several sorts, lark-
spurs, violets, Indian pinks, jKit-mari-
golds, polyanthuses, primroses, genti-
ans, monthly roses, yellow amaryllis,
daisies, and various other plants. By
a letter we have just received from
a horticultural friend at Gottingen,
(H. Herring), we find many of the
same kinds of flowers were (Dec. lOtli)
in bloom in his garden.

The remains of last month, according
to the weather. Clematis calycina* ;
and, perhaps, a few plants unnaturally
in bloom.

Dryandra*, erica*, lantana*, and ca-
meflia**, about the middle of Decem
ber, in the green-house.

In the stove, all the species of stre-
litzia*, also stapelias, amar/Uls*,
aletris*, £md one or two other bulbs/

From the jhrcingdepartment, hva-
cinths*,Persian iris*, and other bulfc ;
monthly roses*, and, about Christ-
mas, the Provence rose*, and other
shrubs and flowers, such as sweet
briar, Persian lilac, varins lilac,
crabs of ditterent sorts, ))inks, sweet
Williams, &c.

^ooK III. ARBORICULTURE.

935

BOOK III.

ARBORICULTURE, OR PLANTING.

6742. A TREE is an object which has at all periods been held In a certain de^^ree of
admiration by mankind, from its grandeur, its beauty, and its use : a few treet have
accordmgly been associated with the dwellings of civilised nations in every country.
The Persians, Greeks, and Romans were particularly attached to trees : some of tlieir
greatest men were proud to acknowledge that they had made plantations with their own
hands ; and fine specimens, whether planted by nature or art, were held sacred, or spe-
cially protected. (37. ) The Romans, besides the ornamental plantations of tlieir villas,
planted occasionally for useful purposes; they had live hedges, osier plantations, and
rows of poplars and elms as props for their vines. (57.) The planting of extensive tracts

any

for timber or fuel, however, does not appear to have been practised by them.

„. — ., ..v^„v..Ei, uuva uKJt, uf^^icai lu uuve ueeii pracnsea oy mem, or any

other people, till tlie beginning of the sixteenth century, when the insufficiency of tlie
natural forests, which had hitherto supplied civilised society in England with timber and
fuel, rendered planting a matter of necessity and profit. In the century succeeding, the
improved practice of agriculture created a demand for hedges and strips for shelter ; and
the fashion of removing from castles in towns and villages, to isolated dwellings sur-
rounded by verdant scenery, led to tlie extensive employment of trees both as objects of
distinction and value. For these combined purposes planting is now universally prac-
tised : what relates to the effect of plantations, as parts of rural scenery, belongs to land-
scape-gardening ; and what relates to their use and culture is the subject at present under
consideration. We must however keep both objects in view, as well in contriving what
shall be most profitable, as in designing what shall be most ornamental or picturesque.
We shall therefore consider the uses of trees and plantations with a view both to profit
and ornament ; the kinds of plantations, their formation, their management, the form-
ation of a tree-nursery, the surveying and valuing of trees and plantations, and tlie cata-
logue of timber-trees and hedge plants.

Chap. I.

Of the Uses of Trees and Plnntatiojis, and the Profits attending tlieir Culture.

6743. The purposes for ivhich pla7itacio7is are made, may be reduced to those which
respect the actual consumption or employment of the tree or shrub individually ; and
those which respect their collective influence relative to surrounding objects. The first
considers trees as affording timber, fuel, bark, and other products ; and Uie second views
plantations of trees as affording shelter, shade, fences, ornament, or otherwise conferring
value on territory'.

Sect. I. Cy^the Uses of Trees individuaUy, as Objects of Consumption.

6744. A tree is employed after it has attained a certain age, bulk, or dimension, either
in civil, military, or naval architecture ; in the construction of machines, implements,
and utensils ; as fuel ; or as affording tannin or dyeing matter ; food or medicine for
men or animals ; or poison for vermin.

6745. For civil architecture the matured timber of the pine and fir tribes is in greatest demand, and
foreign deal is generally preferred to British produce, as being of larger growth, and more resinous and
durable in quality and texture. That which approaches the nearest to the pine and fir timber of the
north is the Scotch pine [Pinus st/h<esf7-is) , when grown in the north highlands, #nd the larch fir {Piniis
larix), when grown in hilly or poor districts ; resinous timber of the species indigenous in cold countries,
when grown on rich soils, and in warm climates, being found deficient in durability. Oak and elm are
also used in buildings, especially the former, as being of great durability and suitable for wooden bridges,
break- waters, joists in damp situations or on ground-floors, sills, wall-plates, staircases, door and window
frames, sashes, &c. Elm is not much used in buildings of magnitude, as being apt to twist, and not very
durable ; but it makes curiously variegated floors and steps of stairs, and very good weather-boarding fcr
sheds and agricultural buildings. Besides timber and timber-like trees for the general purix)ses of civ.l
architecture, there are some departments of rural construction, as the formation of fences, drains, em-
bankments, trellis-work, arbors, and the supporting of plants in gardens, which consume branches, spray,
thinnings of voung plantations, and shoots even of a year's growth. Almost any species of tree may be
used for these purposes ; but the branches and spray of the oak, elm, and beech, the weedings of ash or
larch plantations, the shoots of a few years' growth of the oak, sweet chestnut, ash, and hazel, and of one
year's growth of certain species of willow are greatly preferred.

674fi. For military archUecture, by which we mean chiefly the outworks of fortifications, any tree is
taken : but the pine and fir tribes are greatly preferred, as requiring less labor in cutting and preparing.
Besides those of a timber size for constructing bridges, portals, and others of less dimensions for palisadoes,
chevaux de frise, &c. ; branches, spray, and shoots are used for fascines, and fixed works en haic, en
corlfeille, &c.

6747. In naval architecture the oak is chiefly used. According to Marshall, *« the
keels are now prettv generally laid with elm or beech ; and part of the upper decks of

3 O 4

gjjg PRACTICE OF GxVRDENING. Part III.

men of war is deal : but these woods bear no proportion, in respect of Aie quantity used,
to the oak. The timbers of a ship are principally crooked, but the planking is cut out
of straight pieces. In a seventy-four gun ship, the crooked and straight pieces used are
nearly equal, but the planking under water is of foreign oak ; therefore, of English oak,
the proportion of crooked to straight pieces is almost two to one. Masts and yards are
of deal. ITie blockmakers use elm, lignum vitae, box, and other hard woods. Upon
the whole, it may be said, that, in the construction of a ship, oak is the only English wood
made use of; and that of this English oak nearly two thirds are requisite to be more or
less crooked." {Planting and Rural Ornament, i. 49.)

6748. In the construction of merchant^vessels, Monteath, in 1820, states, that " the out-keel commonly
Bsed is of beech or elm, and made generally of two or three trees or pieces joined together to whatever
length is required; these require to be nearly straight. The keel-stone, or inner keel, requires trees of
nearly the same description, but chiefly oak. Floor timbers are sometimes used of elm and beech, and
are a little crooked. First crooks are a good deal crooked towards the one end, as they begin to ascend
np the vessel, and are more valuable than the floor timbers, but are also used sometimes of elm and
beech. Upright timbers are always made of oak, and are considerably crooked, for elm or beech is seldom
put into a good vessel, except the lower part, where the vessel is always under water when light. Top
timbers are also of oak, but not so valuable, as they are mostly straight. Beams go under the deck of the
vessel, and are also all oak, and have but a small crook, but require trees of considerable length. Knees
are always of oak, and are the most principal crooks in the vessel. The stem-piece is a very particular
crook. Breast-hooks also have particular crooks. Stern-posts and windlass are straight pieces. Trees
that will cut up for planking are used of as great a length as they can be got, and are the better for having
a considerable crook or curve one way ; these are used of elm or beech for planking under water, but
four planks of oak are required for one of beech or elm for this purpose." {Forester's Guide, p. 111.)

6749. Straight timber is bent to any form by the use of steam, and other improvements in ship-building ;
and thus thelarch or any sound resinous timber may be employed, and is so to a certain extent for com-
mercial ships. Sir A. Grant, an experienced planter, is of opinion, that " the larch will, in a short pe-
riod, instead of the oak, bear the thunder of Britain on her element, the ocean." {Gen. Rep. of Scot. ii.
270.) In a communication to the President of the Board of Agriculture, by Wilson, of London, dated in
1797, the idea is suggested oi combining small timbers for all the purposes of ship-building. He suggests,
that oak of only thirty-three years' growth, by this mode of combining, may be employed where trees of
a hundred years old would be requisite by the old method : and he maintains, that ships so built sail faster,
and are less liable to accident. (Gere. Rep. ii. 199.) The use of timber of small growth has been already
introduced in the construction of masts for the largest vessels, either by splicing pieces properly adapted
together ; or, by forming hollow masts from small timber, which, uniting strength with lightness, have
advantages which solid ones do not possess. {Perring and Money on Ship-building.)

6750. In the construction of machines, the millwright's chief material is oak, beech, and
crab-tree for cogs ; alder, and sometimes willow, for float-boards ; and fir and oak for
shafts and frame-work. The waggon and cartwright uses oak and ash for bodies, axles,
and spokes ; elm for naves, fellies, and linings ; sometimes also the softer woods for lin-
ings, as poplar, willow, lime, and horse-chestnut. The coachmaker and ploughwright use
more ash than any other sort of timber. Gates are made of oak and deal, and their posts
of oak or larch ; the soft woods are sometimes used, but are far from being durable.
Ladders are formed chiefly of deal, or of poplar and willow, as being light ; pumps and
water-pipes generally of elm and alder ; beech and sycamore are used in making calen-
ders and clieese-presses, &c. For all these purposes the timber must be full-grown, with
some exceptions, as young or root-cut oak and ash for spokes and shafts.

6751. For implements, root-cut ash is in general use for the handles of such as require
to bear great stress, as of the spade, fork, mattock, forge -hammers, &c. ; willow or deal,
of the lighter tools, as the hoe, rake, scythe; beech and sycamore for the common tools
and instruments of carpenters ; box, holly, elder, &c. for the more select tools of artisans,
and for mathematical and gangers' instruments.

' 6752. For utensils, under which is included household furniture, the chief British wood used by the
cabinet-maker is beech for bed-frames, chairs, and sofas ; next, birch and broad-leaved elm for the same
purposes ; oak for gothic furniture; the cherry, plum, holly, yew, box, walnut, lime, poplar, and a great
variety of woods for occasional purposes ; and deal enters more or less into the construction of almost
every thing he makes. The musical instrument-maker uses lime, box, yew, holly, plum-tree, and poplar
Ihe carver uses chiefly lime, and next, pine-deal ; the cooper uses oak, and some chestnut for large casks
and vessels, corn-measures, &c. ; birch and alder for herring-barrel staves, sycamore for herring-barrel
ends ; these, since a aw passed authorising herrings to be put into barrels made from British timber, have
been m great demand {Monteath) ; ash for dairy utensils, butter-firkins, flour-barrels, &c. ; oak for well-
buckets and water.pails, and, in some places, for milk-pails and other dairy utensils: beech is occasionaUy
used for the same purpose, and for soap-firkins, and willow, oak, ash, and hazel for hoops. The brush-
maker uses beech, sycamore, birch, and some holly and box, and also poplar and lime-tree ; locksmiths,
the soundest oak, from the root-cut or but-end of the trunk; the block-maker, for printing and bleach-
ing-works, uses sycamore ; the turner, beech, sycamore, box, and holly ; trunk and ^cking-case makers.
«nfA&f' u .'^"i whatever soft wood may be cheapest at the time; coffin-makers use chiefly elm,
f^r^w.T °f^' gasket-makers the root-shoots of the wiUow, and sometimes of the hazel; bee-hive and
wLn^^fti^^ t^ "'^li"^ bramble and willow ; besom-makers the spray of the birch, broom, heath ;
ifd vPw^Fnr ^ .^'p'.K^'^^' ^"** ^"""^^ '.}^^ toy-maker, lime, and other soft woods, and also bok, holly
they shmild be S-grJ^!"^ purposes, the trees must have attained a timber size, and for some of theml

6753. For fuel, any ligneous vegetable may be used at any age, and either the body
or trunk and root of the plant, or its branches and spray. Resinous trees, excepting the
larch, afford most flame, and may be used the soonest after being cut ; the ash next in
order, then the birch, whose oily bark bums clear; oak and elm burn the slowest; and
tne roots ot trees are generally of more slow combustion than their tops. To produce
tuei m a short time, the most rapid-growing tree is the common tree-acacia {Eobiniq

Book III. USES OF TREES AND PLANTATIONS. 937

pseudacacia). Charcoal, as fuel, is prepared by subjecting roots, or the more ligneous
parts of branches, to a smothering combustion.

6754. For affording the tannin princi})/e, the bark of the oak is chiefly used ; but that of the Hunting-
don willow {Salix alha^, larch, black poplar, birch, chestnut, hazel, thorn, and some other trees, is found
to aflTord it in such quantities as renders it worth while to disbark them for that purpose. {Agr. Chem, 99
and Corn, to Board of Agr.) The bark is most powerful when taken from the tree at an early age, and
hence the oak is cut down before it attains a timber size, for that purpose, as in copse- woods j but the bark
of old trees is also used.

6755. For dyeing, the bark of several trees was formerly in use,as of the crab-apple, pear, ash, alder, &c.
The bark of the quercitron {Quercus tinctoria) is used for dyeing yellow in North America ; t)ut in this
country, foreign materials, as indigo, logwood, madder, &c. have superseded the use of indigenous, or home-
grown vegetables. The berries of some trees, as of the elder, and berry-bearing alder j and the leaves of
others, as of the walnut and sloe, have also been used as dye-stuffs.

6756. In various arts and manufactures some of the products of trees are used, as the charcoal (of the
dogwood princijally) in that of gunpowder ; the pitch of the pine, the resin of the spruce fir, and the tur-
pentine of the larch, for a great variety of purposes. The ashes of the burnt branches of all trees, but
especially of the ash, afford alkali for the laundress ; the spray of the beech and other trees affbrds, on
distillation, the pyroligneous acid, an excellent preservative of timber, and, when purified, a substitute
for salt in preserving butcher-meat ; the bark of the holly affbrds birdlime ; and the leaves of all trees,
excepting the resinous kinds, rot into excellent manure for the field, and highly prized vegetable mould
for the gzirden.

6757. For food to man, in his present state, the timber-trees affbrd but little resource ; but nuts of the
sweet chestnut, walnut, and hazel are still esteemed, and our ancestors used the acorn, l)eech-mast, haw,
roan, hip, and bramble. A very agreeable drink is made from the sap of the birch -tree in Sweden, Russia-
and some parts of Britain ; and, in America, sugar is obtained from the sugar-maple {Acer saccharinum]
in sufficient quantities to be used in domestic economy. Mast and acorns are esteemed excellent food for
swine, haws for deer, and the leaves and spray of many sorts of trees are, or may be, eaten during winter
both by domestic and wild animals. Game, which, in every cultivated country, is one of the greatest
luxuries of the table, is localised by plantations, in which both birds and quadrupeds find at once shelter,
security from their enemies, and food.

6758. For medicine, the products of scarcely any British tree is in use ; but the bark, blossoms, and
berries of the elder ; the fruit of the sloe and crab, and the leaves of the walnut were formerly in consi-
derable repute, and are occasionally used.

6759. As poisons for vermin, the leaves of the walnut, elder, and ash are used by infusion for destroy-
ing, or rather annoying, worms by their bitter acrid quality ; a glutinous snare for entrapping birds is
obtained from the holly and mistletoe.

6760. General result. From the above outline it may be inferred, that the timber-trees in most general
demand as such, are the oak, pine, and fir tribes ; and next the ash, elm, beech, poplar, willow, birch,
svcamore, &c. In the greater number of cases, cceteris paribus, the oak, larch, Scotch pine, ash, abele,
poplar, and willow, will be found the most profitable trees that can be planted with a view to timber oi
bark produce.

Sect. II. Of the Uses of Trees collectively as Plantations.

6761. Trees collectively in a growing state may be useful by affording shelter and im-
proving the local climate, improving bad soils, producing shade, by separation, seclusion,
distinction, appropriation, concealment of disagreeable objects, heightening the effect of
agreeable objects, creating beauty, and adding value prospectively.

6762. Shelter and climate. The umbrageous roof of the forest afforded shelter, and
a secure retreat to our savage forefathers ; and their civilised descendants still resort to
the nearest tree as a place of shelter during a casual storm ; to the thick forest as a place
of security, when they set the laws of their country at defiance, or have committed crime.
Considered agriculturally, " the advantages to be derived from subdividing extensive
tracts of barren country by plantations, are evidently great, whether considered in the
light of affording immediate shelter to the lands, or in that of improving the local climate.
The fact that the climate may be thus improved, has, in very many instances, been suffi-
ciently established. It is, indeed, astonishing how much better cattle thrive in fields
even but moderately sheltered than they do in an open exposed country. In the breed-
ing of cattle, a sheltered farm, or a sheltered comer in a farm, is a tiling much prized ;
and, in instances wliere fields are taken by the season for the purpose of fattening tliem,
those most sheltered never fail to bring the highest rents, provided the soil be equal with
that of the neighboring fields which are not sheltered by trees. If we enquire into the
cause, we shall find that it does not altogether depend on an early rise of grass, on
account of the shelter afforded to the lands by the plantations ; but, likewise, that cattle
which have it in their power, in cold seasons, to indulge in the kindly shelter afforded
them bv the trees, feed better ; because their bodies are not pierced by tlie keen winds of
spring and autumn ; neitlier is the tender grass destroyed by the frosty blasts of March
and April." {Plant, Kal. p. 121.) In gardening, as we have already seen (2400.),
shelter is not less important than in general economy.

67&3 Climate. An Italian author (G. Gautieri) has enumerated and illustrated the advantages, in point
of climate, which entire tracts of country derive from extensive woods and forests. " These," he says,
" are the arresting the progress of impetuous and dangerous winds ; mamtammg the temperature of the
air ■ re<nilatine the seasons ; lessening intense cold ; opposing the formation and mcrease of ice ; moder-
ating intense heats : producing abundance of rain and snow ; giving ongm to springs, and producing
abundance of water in the rivers ; discharging the electricity of the atmosphere ; dispersing hail, snow,
and watery clouds • preserving from inundations ; lessening the width and depth of torrents ; opposing a
barrier to the undermining of banks, and the formation of precipices ; preser>-ing the soil on mountains,
bv which their external figure is maintained ; and, finally, retaining withm bounds, or disturbing the
formation of avalanches, or accumulations of snow." He illustrates each of these prop«^itions by refer-
ences to what has taken place in Italy and Germany, in consequence of alterations that have been made
fnX wwdy surfaces of these countries. {Dello Influsso de' Bosch, Sec. Mi ano, 1817.) Williams, an
EngUsh author (1292.), has endeavored to show that the climate of Britain is detcnoratmg by the mcrease

938

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

of plantations. These, whether in masses or even in hedge-rows, increase the evaporating surface, and
consequently render the atmosphere more humid ; an open country, he says, would be more dry, airy, and
wholesome. This is, no doubt, correct ; and, perhaps, some valleys and plauis are more thickly studded
with hedge-rows and strips, than a strict regard to the culture of corn, or the salubrity of the atmosphere,
would justify : but the same objection will not apply to elevated situations and bleak hilly tracts, which
every one allows are greatly improved by planting, both in climate, agricultural produce, and general
effect. •

6764. Improving bad soils. " It certainly is not one of the least recommendations of planting," observes
Pontey, " that it may be made to contribute essentially to the improvement of a bad soil, as is the case
on sterile heaths and commons, where three means, the consequences of the planting, act together in pro-
moting such improvement The first is, the shade of the trees, which, by decomposing the vegetable
matter on the surface soil, renders it at once more fertile, and easily penetrable by the roots. The second
is, that by the decomposition of the annual fall of leaves, an addition is made to the vegetable soil, and
that of the very best description. The third circumstance is, that as the roots collect a great deal of their
support from a depth much lower than field vegetables are used to reach, they hence convert the tiseless
into useful. In short, instances are not wanting, where land previously producing little besides heath,
has, after producing a crop of trees, more especially firs, proved without further means very tolerable
pasture." (Profitable Planter, p. 231.) In the Agricultural Report for Perthshire (p. 243.) a heathy tract
is referred to, between Cupar and Perth, containing 2000 acres, which, after being twenty years under a
crop of Scotch firs, was profitably subjected to aration.

6765. The shade of trees is highly grateful to man, whether reposing under a single
tree, or in a state of recreation under the shadovr of a row, or in an avenge, grove, or
woodland path. " Shelter," Sang observes, " is not more useful in cold seasons, than
the shade of trees is gratifying to cattle in hot ones. In an exposed open field, under a
burning sun, the torture which cattle often endure is truly distressing." (Plant. Kal.
122.) In garden culture, shade is of great value ; but walls are occasionally preferred to
trees for this purpose ; and next to walls, hedges or trees cut in the hedge manner.

6766. Tlie separation produced by ligneous vegetables, in the form of hedges, is of long use in gardening,
and of great and acknowledged importance in agriculture. In the latter art it may be considered as a
criterion of improved culture ; for when land lies intermixed, and is cultivated in what is called the
common-field manner, the want of sutficient individual interest precludes all extraordinary exertion, and
the country so cultivated has tlie same appearance now, that it had many centuries ago. Even on entire
properties lying open, the want of the power of separating and classing cattle, and regulating their mode
of grazing, and protecting particular fields for particular purposes, &c. is found so great a disadvantage as
to be quite incompatible with the practice of improved farming.

6"767. The seclusion afforded by trees, either as hedges, rows, strips, or groups to dwellings of limited
surrounding territory may be desired from taste, or rendered necessary by personal infirmity, political,
local, or pecuniary circumstances. Trees, by their elevation and foliage, shut out external objects, ob-
struct the gaze of the over-curious, and do not invite the visits of any one ; while they leave the occupant
in the centre of a little world of liis own, in which he may enjoy himself in his own way.

6768. The distinction any sort of trees afford to a dwelling in a naked solitary country, or exotic species
in one already wooded, is often desiralile, as conveying cheerful and social ideas to the passing stranger,
and procuring for the owner that applause for improvement which he feels to be his due. In extensive
demesnes the outlines or prominent parts of them, may be indicated by particular sorts of trees ; so as,
from the house, or from a prospect-tower, in a central part of the estate, to render the contour of the
whole distinguishable. Where common, or any one kind of trees abound, uncommon or exotic kinds may
be made use of; or a common tree, pruned in a particular way, will have an adequate effect.

6769. To appropriate, harmonise, or render apparently a part of a near estate, distant woody territory
which does not belong to it, may be considered as a selfish principle under the disguise of a social one ;
but it is, at all events, harmless in a moral point of view, and is valuable as a device in improving the
beauty of real landscape. Whatever may be the kinds of trees, or the forms in which they are
planted in the distant or adjoining property, which we may wish to appropriate (fig. 625. a a) ; the
principle is, to plant the same sorts of trees in corresponding forms (6 b), in the property which we can
call our own.

6770. The conceahnent of disagreeable objects by trees is too obvious, useful, and universal an Improve
ment to require being enlarged on. This is one of the most important uses to which they are anplied in
sniall demesnes in a populous country, or near large towns. The desire of shutting out the houses of
others, and especially of our poorer neighbors, does not so much arise from dislike either to the objects
or the inhabitants, as from love of verdant scenery, and from a wish to have a country-seat as much like
the country as possible. The desire of shutting out manufactories, steam-engines, coal-works work
houses, &c. is still greater, because these objects excite ideas by no means in harmony with rural auiet '
but no one ever thinks of shutting out a distant farm-house, solitary cottage, church, water-mill bridee'
monument, or ruin ; for these are all interesting and agreeable objects, which are either characteristic ot
the country, or very generally occur there. ciai-iciiswi, oi

6771. Trees heighten the effect lyf agreeable objects by associating or grouping witli
them ; and thereby forming a more perfect whole. Every whole consists of a number
of parts, and the more varied the parts, provided they are allied among themselves, and
not confused or redundant, the greater must be the effect of the whole. Trees contri
bute to the beauty of objects already beautiful; by lending new forms, new colors,
varied light and shade ; by their own motion, by inviting birds, and even by their smell
AH these qualities are iiHcrestirig to the moral and picturesque observer, and of -,eat

Book III

USES OF TREES AND PLANTATIONS.

939

importance to the improver, whether he displays water, or erects buildings, or harmonises
rocks and mountains. A country-house without trees is felt by every one to be but a
part of a whole.

6772. Trees may direct the eye to objects that would otherwise escape notice, or whose beauties would
Unc'^or mefrskv"^ l^:'.Ji:^^^^':^^^'^ ^" *^" foreground of a sW to sWt ^utTniSSnTdiS
-hw, uT^ ^?' ^® ^^ ^ '^ *° '^P*^^® °" s°™^ agreeable near, or interesting distant object
S,^»nV^!l i*^P°'^'^^'^^'■^°7^c""T?''"^"^• ^y*h^« ^ort of indication, accompanied by a seat the
JrTcLn f • ^"If^ ^' London, of St. Peter's at Rome, and the cupola of the IwarWilika of Moiow
are seen from the grounds of residences at twenty or thirty miles' distance from these capitals ; and in twl
Ih7ms«c"i'£'ortL'S>wes.'"'''"'' P^'"^"" outtheWrekin. and church-spire of ?ialii,wen;"f;?m'

6773. Trees render indifferent objects interesting when judiciously grouped with them so as to sopm fn
conceal, by accident, that which we should desire%r imagine to be there. Thus, a fra^Jn^t^f a 4X o?
of a tower, emerging from a thicket, may, by imagination be considered as an index to the main bodV of
the ruined mansion or castle concealed by the wood. A broken gothic arch emerging from a thickw^
may seem.the commencement of a cloister or the aisles of a ruinid abbey. A large stone lying on a nIkS
^^^t?\^'"'^^^W^'^^'''^l^^''' ^ picturesque point of view, but surrounded by! ?e^w?rle^ and
h.! fn'.'fiS'H ^x ^ M K^" ^°' f^^^ f ^ ''^^^.""^ °'' "°'^^- ^ ^^^ y^^ds of brick wall, standing nak^ and
Sin Z nH ^^°4 d be considered as a deformity ; partially cover it with ivy. which may first ascend and
then mantle over its top, and add a hoUy or thorn, a bnar, and an oak or a/h, and a beautiful erouo U
produced. In scenery, where great deformities or featureless extent is mixed with beauty or grajideur
K^^^t^l linn'.? ^w. ^"^'^ and display the former to advanUge. Ranges of naked mountains Sften pre-'
sent this kind of mixture of feature, dulness and want of grouping (^g. 626.), which no improvement

but planting could ameliorate and render tolerable. Gilpin, in his Tours to the Lakes and Highlands,
&c. has some excellent observations on this subject ; and there are various instances in the Penltand and
Grampian ranges of hills where improvements of this sort have been executed with the happiest effect.

6774. Beauty may even be created by trees independently of all other objects, A dull
flat surface will be rendered more interesting by scattering a few trees over it, of any
sort, and in almost any manner : but it may be grouped or massed by one, a few, or
by many sorts ; or laid out in avenues, stars, platoons, and other modem or ancient
forms of planting, so as to become a scene of positive beauty. Every species of trees
has its particular form, bulk, mode of growth, flowering, &c. which constitute its charac-
ter ; this character varies with the age of the tree, and its situation, relative to other
trees, or to soil, climate, &c. Now, as every tree may be grouped, or combined with
those of its own species, or witli any or all of the others, in an endless variety of ways,
the beauty tliat may thus be created by trees alone, can only be limited by the extent of
surface on which they are to be grown.

' G775. Tlie value of landed property containing plantations is enhanced prospectively by the various pro-
perties of trees. " It is very generally known," Sang observes, " that such estates as have a quantity of well
arranged, healthv timber upon them, when brought to sale, bring an extra price, according to the quality
and value of the'wood, not onlv at the time of sale, but, counting forward on its value, to the period of its
l)erfection. Thus, supposing the half-grown timber on an estate to be valued at ten thousand pounds at
the time of the sale, instances are to be found where thirty thousand pounds have been given, over and
above the valuation of the lands. The purchasers of such estates wisely foresee the increase of value
which will arise from lH>althy timber growing where it may not only be cherished till of full maturity,
but where, probably, it can then be turned to thebcst advantage by reason of its local situation. But, besides
the real value of grown timber, there is most generally an ideal value attached to it, namely, that of its
ornamental appearance." {Plant. Kal. 124-.) A landed proprietor, who is a parent, looks on a thriving plant-
ation as capital laid out at compound interest, and on the most undoubted security, for the benefit of his
offspring • and he values it in this respect tlie more, because no man can determine the ratio in which,
from the progress of the trees, and the future prosperity of the country, it may increase in value. It does
not happen to many to plant trees and cut them down at a mature age ; but this only renders planting a
more interesting pe'rfonnance to the man who is in secure enjoyment of an estate ; for in his full-grown
trees he finds a link which connects him with his ancestors, and in his young plantations another which
carries him down with his posterity to the next ago. In tliis way he may imagine himself a being " hav-
ing neither beginning of days nor oid of life."'

94e , PRACTICE 01 GARDENING. Part III.

Sect. III. Of t/ie Profits of Planting.

6776. From the seemingly distant advantages of planting has arisen the practice, by
authors, of presenting statements of the profits, pleasures, and honors attending it,
with a view to excite the selfish or patriotic feelings of their readers. " The profits of
planting," says Marshall, <' are great, when properly executed, and this idea adds
solidity to the enjoyment. Pleasure alone may satiate ; but profit and pleasure united
seldom fail of producing a lasting gratification." Every one who has the least taste
for country matters, must be alive to the agreeable and satisfactory feelings with which
plantations are formed ; and certainly there is something disinterested and respectable
in incurring a present expense for what in most cases is to benefit a future generation ;
but as to the extraordinary profits, either of a near or far distant period, they are by no
means to be depended on. With respect to the absolute profit to be derived from trees
or plantations, considered independently, it is easy, by a calculation founded on a seem-
ingly very moderate data, to make the clear gain attending the raising of any crop ap-
pear considerable ; and, accordingly almost every speculative cultivator, whether of corn
or trees, calculates on making a fortune in a very few years, as soon as he can get pos-
session of a farm or a tract of waste. The truth is, however, that though accidental
circumstances may render it more profitable to cultivate one kind of crop, either of
trees or com, at one time and place rather than another ; yet, on the whole, the profits
of capital employed in any way in agriculture or planting must, on the general average,
be nearly the same. The certain lapse of time which must ever intervene between the
planting of trees and their attaining a disposable size, must alone render any calculation
made at the time of planting, extremely problematical. In planting, as in every other
branch of culture, extraordinary profit is attended by extraordinary production, which
soon sinks the market value of the article ; add also, that in a commercial, free and
highly taxed country, whenever any article attains a very high price, substitutes are
found at home, or imported from abroad ; so that no particular crop should be consi-
dered as exclusively the best to cultivate, and no extraordinary profits ever calculated on
from any crop. Plantations should be made with a joint view to all or part of the ad-
vantages which we have shown to be attendant on them ; but no rriore ultimate profit
calculated on, from the disposal of tlie trees, than what is expected from capital laid out
on any other territorial improvement ; indeed, the safest principle on which to act, is to
consider capital employed in planting, as on a par with that laid out in the purchase of
landed property.

' 6777. With respect to tJie value of trees as plantations, or in masses, that is entirely relative ; and must be
sought for in the additional value conferred on the adjoining lands by the improvement of their cHmate, or
their beauty. This sort of value cannot easily be subjected to any general rules of estimation ; but unques-
tionablv capital employed in planting and cultivating trees for such purposes, especially for the former, or
when they are both united, may be considered as likely in the end to yield a greater interest than that em-
ployed in the ordinary routine of tree or corn culture. In bleak exposed situations, the advantages which
nave arisen from screen plantations have in some cases been so great as to be estimated at a third of the
value of the land, and in every case where shelter is wanted they must be considerable. These, however,
should be looked on by the prudent man rather in the light of extraordinary cases, attended by unforeseen
risks, and though depending chiefly on skill, yet in some degree also on chance.

Chap. II.
Of tlie different kinds of Trees and Plantations.

6778. Having considered the different objects for which trees and plantations are cul-
tivated, our next step shall be to arrange trees and plantations, according to their qualities,
for fulfilling these objects.

Sect. I. Of the Classification of Trees relatively to their use and eject in Landscape.

6779. Timber is the grand object for which trees are cultivated, and it is either straight
or crooked m form, large or small in dimension, hard, soft, or resinous in quality, brittle
or flexible m texture, smooth or rough grained, and plain-colored or variegated in
appearance. ' °

678a Straig/it tijnberis chiefly produced by the pine and fir tribes, and such other trees whose lateral
brariches do not generally acquire a tmiber size, as the Lombardy poplar, hornbeam, decTduous cj'presf
brSd-leS^d elUT^nur&c "" ""^ ""' ^"' ^''"'^'"^ '''' ' ^"' ''''''^^ ^^ '''' ^^J'' sweet 'cliestnut,
w^^f^' Ti™*^^'^ or large dimension, in regard to length, \s produced by the spruce fir larch Lombardv
poplar, ash, narrow-leaved elm ; in regard to dia?neter hy the oak, sweet chestni^t and elm • maS
^^o^''!^':"'.'""' •/ ""'''^^ *" the narrow-leaved elm, heic.h, oak, knd larch fir ' ' magnitude in

S T^^Z. ,f"^^- '^"'"'V:'Jons is produced by the yew, holly, thorn, ash,' maple, laburnum &c

Book III. CLASSIFICATION OF TREES. 941

horse-chestnut Resinous timbers are the pine and fir tribes. Brittle timber is exemplified in acacia horr.
beam, and spnidle-tree ; flexible, m the ash, broad-leaved elm, and chestnut; ^«oo^r«-fl/;^/^ the S"
noplar. wiUow, hornheam; coarsegrained, in the ash, oak, and chestnut ; plan^ol<^ed%the'ximow me'
holly ; and variegated, in the yew, thorn, walnut, elm, plum, and many others. wuiow, ume,

6785. Jiark, which contains the tannin principle, is an important product of trees
That which affords it in greatest quantity is the oak ; and next, as far as chemists have
yet ascertamed, the Leicester willow (Salix alba, var.), Spanish chestnut, ash, sloe, Lom-
bardy poplar, hazel, elm, common willow, sycamore, beech, horse-chestnut, birch, and
larch. (659. & ^gr. Chem. 89.)

.^u^r^f'"'^^^' ^^''^'^ '* ^^^^ ^'■°™ ^^^^^^ branches, trunk, or roots, has been afforded by different trees
at thefo lowmg rates per cent. ; laburnum, 24 5; chestnut, 232 ; oak, 226; walnut, 20-6; hollv beech
maple 19 9; elm, 19-0 ; Norway pine, 19 2; sallow, 18-4; ash, 17-9; bi^ch, 17-4; Scotch pine, m!
(^KCtfit^n. Kta.) Proust found the greatest proportion of charcoal to be afforded by the ash (698 )

6787. Aslies have been afforded by the oak at the rate of 15 ; elm, 39 ; beech, 12 ; and poplar, 7 parts in
Sen a^S rife tm') *' °^^"^"''^'® experiments, on procuring ashes from trees, have

6788. For fuel and fencing. The tendency of trees to produce lateral branches, and
renew them when lopped off, is an important quality, and exists in an eminent degree in
the ash, elm, oak, willow, poplar, lime, &c. ; but not at all in the pine and fir tribes, and
but slightly in the plane, walnut, and some others. Those which grow most rapidly are
also to be desired as fuel-trees, as the acacia, poplar, willow, in most soils j and the larch
fir, Scotch pine, and birch, on such as are drj-. The ailantus glandulosus may also be
mentioned as a bulky and rapid-growing tree. On the chalky hills at Mereville (before
the revolution one of the most extensive parks and magnificent seats in France), this tree
thrives, and attains a considerable size, where few others will grow.

6789. Fur hoops, basket-tvilloivs, besom-spray, implement-handles, poles, &c. the renewal of trees or shrubs
which have been cut down, or technically, their tendency to stole or shoot out from the collar, is an im-
portant consideration. This quality does not belong to the pine and fir tribes; and only slightly to the
beech, sycamore, alder, plane, &c. ; but liberally to all those mentioned above, as renewing their branches
and indeed to most trees not resinous. For the same objects, the tendency of trees to send up suckers or
rooUshoots deserves also the attention of the planter. This never takes place with the resinous trees, and
seldom with the oak, beech, chestnut, ash, plane, &c. ; but it is general with the ebn, poplar, acacia,
prunus, pyrus, mespilus, lime, and several willows.

6790. For shelter, rapid-growing and evergreen trees are desirable, as the Scotch pine ;
and such as are at the same time clothed with branches from the ground upwards, as the
spruce fir ; the best of all trees for shelter, unless tlie situation is very elevated. Among
the deciduous trees, the fast-growing branchy sorts are most desirable, as the larch, birch,
poplar, willow ; in very elevated situations, the birch, mountain ash, and Scotch fir ; ex-
posed to the sea-breeze, the elder and sycamore. To maintain a branchy leafy screen
from the ground upwards, intermix trees and shrubs which stole ; or such as grow under
the shade and drip of others, as the holly, hazel, dogwood, box, yew, &c. To produce
shelter, and yet admit of the growth of grass below the trees, prune any sort to single
stems, and use chiefly deciduous sorts.

6791. For shade, close plantations are seldom desirable, a free circulation of air being necessary to cool-
ness ; therefore use trees with lofty stems and large heads, and prune them to single stems a certain height,
as the oak, elm, chestnut, beech, for thick shade ; the plane, acacia, jwplar, for lighter shade ; the birch,
balm of Gilead fir, and lime, for odoriferous shade; and avoid the walnut, elder, and laburnum, the atmo-
sphere under which is reckoned deleterious.

6792. For improving bad soils, and for all the purposes of planting, the soil and situation, affected by or
natural to trees, is an important study for the planter. Some are aquatics, or delight in moist situations
near water, as most of the willow and poplar tribes, the alder and elder ; others are mountain trees, as the
Scotch pine, larch fir, mountain ash, sorb; some delight in valleys or plains, as the narrow-leaved elm,
horse-chestnut, plane, lime, oak ; others, in craggy steeps and dells, as the ash, silver and spruce firs, most
of the pines, and many more ; some on chalky soils, as the beech ; others on clays, as the oak ; on sand,
as the Scotch pine ; and a few trees will grow in the most opposite situations and soils, as the elder, which
is found on mountain tops and on the sea-shore ; the birch on the highest mountains, on dry rocks, and on
marshes. For the iX)orest soils, whether high or low, choose the birch, larch, and Scotch pine; and for
the richest, the ash, elm, oak, chestnuts, limes, poplars, and willows.

6793. For the purposes of the separation of, or defence from, the inferior animals, the plantations called
hedges, or close rows of shrubs, are adopted ; when these are to be lovu, such shrubs as send out numerous
branches from the root upwards, and are of great durability, are most desirable ; as the holly among evw-
greens ; and the hawthorn, sloe, crab, beech, buckthorn, and hornbeam, among deciduous sorts. For moist
situations, the alder, elder, birch, and willow, are to be preferred ; and for dry upland sites, the juniper,
whin, birch, and elder : avoid poisonous trees, as the yew. For tall or tree hedges, such trees as the elm,
beech, hornbeam, lime, birch, and spruce fir, are desirable; but the holly excels all other plants for a
hedge, whether low or tall, and is liable to no other objection than its slow growth, which occasions a con-
siderable expense in protecting it till it is able to serve for defence.

6794. For seclusion and concealment, branchy leafy trees, a number of which have been mentioned
(6790.), are obviously desirable ; and, for distinction, either sorts different from what are already there, or
ordinary sorts pruned and made to assume extraordinary forms.

6795. For the various purposes of ornament, beauty, or effect, in landscape, the hardy
trees may be arranged as to magnitude, form, mode of growth, duration, and expression.

6796. Magnitude. Trees of great height are, the English elm, ash, larch, Polish and
Carolina poplars, &c. ; but the laburnum, mountain ash, and evergreen oak, are very low
trees. A medium in height may be found in the maple, pine, and birch. Some trees
exceed in breadth, as the oak, Spanish chestnut, and Scotch elm ; others of different heights
are very slender, as the Lombardy poplar, cypress, and bird-cherry.

6797. Form. The oak and Spanish chestnut afford the most irregular and picturesque

942

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

shapes, with round heads ; the English elm and ash liave long narrow forms, and round
heads ; the beech and horse-chestnut, compact ovate forms, with obtuse heads ; the spruce
and pine tribes, in general, have conical shapes, and pointed spiry tops ; the Lombardy
poplar, cypress, and most willows, have long narrow shapes, and oblong tops.

6798. Color. The Scotch pine, yew, and horse-chestnut, are dark-green j the larch
and elm, a yellow-green ; the abele, Huntingdon willow, a silvery-green, &c.

6799. Mode and time of growth. The nature of some trees is to lose their lower
branches as they increase in height, as the fir tribe ; and others have a tendency to retain
them, as the wych elm. In some tlie branches descend, and often recline on the ground,
a& the lime-tree and platanus. Some are very compact in their foliage, as the horse-
chestnut ; others very open, as the ash and acacia. Some have drooping spray, as the
weeping-willow ; that of others tend upwards, as in the Lombardy poplar ; horizontally,
as in the oak ; and obliquely, as in the Scotch pine. Some grow with rapidity, as the
Carolina and Athenian poplars ; others very slowly, as the oak and the stone pine.

6800. Duration. The most durable of trees is the oak ; the least so, some of the
poplar and fir tribes. A medium is to be found in the elm and lime.

6801. Expression. Some trees convey ideas of utility in the arts, and mark the attention
and industry of man, as having planted them for this purpose, as the oak, ash, elm, &c.
Others are known, or supposed to be of little use, and convey ideas of neglect or of wild-
ness, as the hornbeam, sorb, trembling poplar, &c. Some indicate general improvement
and artificial plantations, as the larch, and spruce fir ; others, garden-scenery or plantations
near a house, as the cedar, stone pine, and platanus. Some indicate rich deep soil, as the
oak ; and rich thin soil, as the elm ; others, chalk or gravel, as the beech ; rocky ground,
as the ash ; marshy ground, as the alder ; the proximity of water, as the willow. There
are also natural expressions belonging to trees, partly from general, and partly from acci-
dental association; as strength and stability to the oak, ease and elegance to the birch, sweet-
ness to the lime, gloom to the cypress and yew, melancholy to the weeping-willow, &c.

6802. The cominon hardy shrubs may be similarly arranged ; but it will be sufficient to class ttiem ac-
cording to magnitude, mode of growth, evergreen, deciduous, native, naturalised, and exotic.

6803. Magnitude. Some shrubs are high, approaching to the character of trees, as the mespilus and

very low, as the butcher's broom and dwarf-birch.
eSO*. Mode 6/ growth. Some are creepers, as the ivy ; climbers, as the virgin's bower ; trailers, as the

%gnm
oily;

bramble ; compact forms, as that of the arbor vital ; open airy branches, as in the tamarisk ; and sin-
gular branches, as those of the stagshorn-sumach. Some, as shrubs, soon acquire picturesque shapes, as
the thorn, holly, and elder. Some are evergreens, as the holly, laurel, yew, laurustinus, arbutus, &c.

6805. Deciduous, as the guelder-rose, lilac, syringa, &c.

6806. Native, as the holly, privet, hazel, thorn, briar, &c.

6807. Naturalised, as the rose, syringa, lilac, laburnum, &c.

6808. Exotic, or foreign, as the rhododendron, azalea, &c.

6809. These arrangements as to the effect of trees and shrubs in landscape, as far as form, magnitude,
mode of growth, and expression are concerned, refer to plants growing detached from other trees, and as
nearly full-grown. It is less intended to comprehend every characteristic distinction than to suggest to
the artist the principal light in which he ought to view trees and shrubs. Nor could he with confidence
attempt planting, with even such a knowledge as could be obtained from the above arrangement, com-
pleted by inserting all the names under their proper heads ; for unless he has seen the majority of the
full-grown trees himself, both singly and connected in groups and masses, and is acquainted with the
comparative rapidity of their growth in different climates and soils, he cannot well foresee the result of
his labors, or look forward " with the prophetic eye of taste" to certain beauty. Of this there are nu-
merous proofs, arising from the unjust preference given to exotics of unknown shapes and duration, in
situations where the general form and situation of the tree, or even of one or two trees, is of the utmost
consequence to the effect of a whole. How frequently on a lawn, or in a plantation near a house, do we
see acacias, cut-leaved elders, variegated sycamores, &c. where the oak, cedar, t)eech, lime, or Spanish
chestnut would have produced a much more impressive general effect !

Sect. II. Of the Classification of Plantations, or Assemblages of Trees.
6810. Assemblages of trees, yvheihei' natural or artificial, differ in extent, outline, dis-
position of the trees, and kind of tree.

6811. In regard to extent, the least is a group (Jig. 628. e and rf). which must consist at least of two
plants ; larger, it is called a thicket (6 c) ; round and compact, it is called a clump (a) ; still larger, a
mass ; and all above a mass is denominated a wood or forest, and characterised by comparative degrees
of largeness. The term wood may be applied to a large assemblage of trees, either natural or artificial :
foresty exclusively to the most extensive or natural assemblages.

6812. With respect to the outline, or ground-plan of a plantation, the simplest disposition is that of a row
or line, which may be either straight or crooked, as in hedges, or lines of trees ; next that of any deter-
minate shape, as round, exempliliod in the clump; square, in the platoon ; oblong, in either clump
or platoon, and in strii>es, screens, or belts ; irregular or indeterminate, in thickets, masses, and all
larger plantations.

6813. Withrcspeet to the disposition of the trees within the plantation, they maybe placed regularly in
rows, squares, parallelograms, or quincunx ; irregularly in the manner of groups ; without under,
growths, as ui groves {fig. 629. a, b) ; with underi;rowths, as in woods (c) j all undergrowths, as in copse.

Cook III.

FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS.

629 ^„=^

943

woods ((f). Or they may fonn avenues {fig. 630. a) ; double avenues (6) ; avenues intersecting in the manner
of a Greek cross {c) ; of a martyr's cross (rf) j of a star {e) ; or of a cross patte, or duck's foot {patee cCoye) (/}.

They may form regular glades [Jig. 631. a, b) ; or irregular glades (c) ; glades, as niches or cabinets (rf) j
as oi)en squares j glades, as squirts, en berceau {e) j or as squares, en salons and en allee (/"I.

' 6814. WUh respect to the character of tree-plantations, they may be as various as there are species ; but
for general effect and designation, woody plants are classed as large or small, trees or undergrowths,
deciduous or evergreen, round-headed or spiry-topped ; and planUtions of every form and disposition
may be plantetl with these, either separately or mixed. Thus we have groups of shrubs, groups of high
and low growths, and of trees ; plantations of round-headed and spiry-topped trees mixed ; of trees and
undergrowths ; or of low growths only, as in copse-woods and osier-plantations.

Chap. III.
OfLhe Formation of Plantations, in which Utility is the principal Object.

6815. The formation of useful plantations embraces the situation, soil, form, species of
tree, fencing, and other considerations.

6816. A sheltered situation and deep rich soil would be the most proper if the object of the planter was to
obtan the greatest bulk of timber in the shortest time ; but this would not be profiiab^ planting, for such
Tsoii would, in all probability, have made greater returns under common fanning. The profits of plant-
rnHo not depend on the absolute quantity of timber produced but on that quantity relatively toUie
lafue of the s^l for agricultural puqioses. Such situations and soils as can be prohtably subjected to
Iradon or i^mianent JLture, will raxelv be found to yield an equal profit, if planted with trees Suppose
f pi^e df *gr™nd to M at £0s. per acrefor pasture or arable, to be planted at an expense of only 10M>er
tc^^then^In order to return the rent, and 5/. per cent, for the money expended, it ought to yield 30*- a
^r • but as the returns are not yearly, but say at the end of evcrj- fifteen years, when the whole may be
cSd'own atcopJ, then ihe amount of SOs. per annum, at 51. per cent compound interest, being 32/. 85
^eiT7aU of coK made at the interval of fifteen years, ought to produce that sum per acre clear of all
fSisIs Hence, with a view to profit from the faU of timber or copse-wood no situation capable of
ShTgriculturai improvement ihould be planted, unless a certam part with a view to sheltering the
rest ; or for the puriMses of separation and fencmg.

944

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6817. Whatever may be the nature qf the soil, the sub-soil ought to be rendered dry if the plants are in-
tended to tJirive. Large open drains may be used, where the ground is not to undergo much preparation ;
but where it is to be fallowed or trencheJ, under-drains become requisite. It is true, these will in time be
choaked up by the roots of the trees ; but by that period, as no more culture will be requisite, they may
be opened, and left open. Many situations, as steep sides of hills and rocky irregular surfaces, do not
admit oi' preparing the soil by comminution previously to planting ; but wherever that can be done, either
by trenching, digging, or a year's subjection to the plough, it will be found amply to repay the trouble.
This is more especially requisite for strips for shelter or hedge-rows, as the quick growth of the plants in
these cases- is a matter of the utmost consequence. The general mode of planting hedges by the side of
an open drain, renders preparation for them, in many cases, less necessary : but for strips, wherever it is
practicable, and there is at the same time no danger of the soil being washed away by rains or thaws, as
in some chalky hilly districts ; or blown about by the wind, as in some parts of Norfolk, and other sandy
tracts, preparation by a year's fallow, or by trenching two spits deep, cannot be admitted without real loss,
by retarding the attainment of the object desired. There are instances stated of promising oak-plant-
ations from oaks dibbled into soil altogether unimproved; and of plantations of Scotch pine, raised by
merely sowing the seeds on a heath or common, and excluding cattle {Gen. Rep. of Scot. ii. 269.) ; but
these are rare cases, and the time required, and the instances of failure, are not mentioned. The practise
is obviously too rude to be recommended as one of art. The best situations for planting, without any
other culture but inserting the seeds or plants, are surfaces partially covered with low woody growths, as
broom, furze, &c. " The ground which is covered, or rather half covered, with juniper and heath," says
Buffon, " is already a wood half made."

6818. Osier-plantations are an exception to these remarks, as to the value of the situation and soil ; they
require a deep, strong, moist soil, but one not springy, or continually saturated with water ; and it will
be in vain to plant them without trenching it two or more feet deep.

6819. The form of plantation for profit or shelter must be determined jointly by the
situation and the objects in view. In rocky abrupt sites [Jig. 632. ), the plantation will
consist of a number of masses {a, b, c), of forms determined by the rocks and precipices,
among which some of the most valuable pasture may be left as glades (d, e), for use,
effect, and for the sake of game. Strips and hedges for sheltering or separating arable
lands, should be formed as much as possible in straight and parallel lines, in order not
to increase the expense of tillage by short and irregujar turnings. Straight parallel
strips, on irregular surfaces, have a more varied appearance at a distance, than strips ever
so much varied on a flat surface ; for, in the former case, the outline against the sky is
varied as much as that on the earth. In extensive hilly pastures, in which it is often

633

desirable to produce shelter, and at the same time to plant only the most rocky and un-
productive spots, the forms may be of tlie most irregular description ; and by planting
chiefly on the eminences and slopes (Jig. 633.), shelter will be most effectually produced,
the pasture improved, the least valuable ground rendered productive in copse or timber,
and the greatest richness and picturesque beauty
conferred on the landscape. There are some fine
examples of this on the hilly districts of Fifeshire ;
there, on many estates where nothing was sought
for but profit and shelter, the greatest beauty has
been produced; and the picturesque tourist now
passes through glades and valleys, pastured by well-
fed cattle and sheep, enlivened by rocks, thickets,
hanging woods, and occasional rills and lakes.
Fifty years ago, scarcely a tree was to be seen, and
only the most inferior descriptions of live stock.

6820. The enclosing of plantations is too essential
a part of their formation to require enlarging on.
In all those of small extent, as hedges and strips,
It is the principal part of the expense ; but to plant
m these forms, or any other, without enclosing,
would be merely a waste of labor and property.
The sole object of fencing being to exclude the
domestic quadrupeds, it is obvious, that whatever,
m the given situation, is calculated to eflfect this at
the least expense, the first cost and future repairs
or management being taken into consideration
must be the best. Where stones abound on the*

Book III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 945

spot, a waU is the best and cheapest of all fences as such ; but, in the great majority of
cases, recourse is obhged to be had to a verdant fence of some sort, and generally to one
of hawthorn. This being itself a plantation, requires to be defended by some temporary
barrier, till it arrives at maturity ; and here the remark just made will again apply, that
%vhatever temporary barrier is found cheapest in the given situation will be the
best. Hedge fences are in general accompanied by an open drain, which, besides,
acting in its proper capacity, furnishes, at its formation, a quantity of soil to increase
the pasturage of the hedge plants ; and an excavation {fig. 634. a), and an elevation (/),
to aid m the formation of a temporaiy fence. A hedge enclosing a plantation, requires

only to be guarded on the exterior side, and of the various ways in which this is done, the
following may he reckoned among the best and most generally applicable. By an open
drain and paling, or line of posts and rails (a), the plants inserted in a facing of stone,
orin a facing of sub-soil from the bottom of the drain, backed by the earth of the drain {b) ;
an excellent mode, as the plants generally thrive, and almost never require cleaning from
weeds ; an open drain and paling, and the hedge on the top of the elevation (c) ; no open
drains, but the soil being a loam, the surface-turves formed into a narrow ridge, to serve
as a paling, a temporary hedge of furze sown on its summit, and the permanent hedge of
thorn or holly within (d) ; and an open drain, but on the inside, the exterior being protected
by a steep bank sown with furze {e). The first of these modes is the most general, the se-
cond the best, and the fourth the cheapest, where timber is not abundant. Separation fences
are commonly formed in the first, second, or third manner, but with a paling on both sides.

6821. Shelter. Many situations are so exposed that it is extremely diiBcult to rear trees without some
mode of procuring shelter for them during their early growth. This is obtained either by walls, the ex-
tent of whose influence is only limited ; by thick planting, or by planting the more hardy and rapid-
growing species, to nurse up and protect such as are more tender, but ultimately more valuable. The
proportion of nurses to principals is increased according to the bleakness of the site. Pontey says, " lx)th
authors and planters are in the habit of erring egregiously, in regard to the proportion of principals and
nurses ; as they generally use as many, or more of the former than the latter ; though it is very easy to
show, that they ought to use three times as many of the latter as the former. For instance, when trees
are planted at four feet apart, each occupies a surface of sixteen feet ; of course four of them will oc-
cupy sixty-four, or a square of eight feet ; and therefore, if we plant three nurses to one principal
tree, all the former might be displaced gradually, and the latter would still stand only eight feet apart,
Nurse-plants should, in every possible case, be such as are most valuable at an early period of growth.
The larch and spruce fir should be used liberally, in every case where they will grow freely ; still it is
not intended that they should exclude all others, more particularly the birch, which has most of the
properties of a good nurse, such as numerous branches and quick growth, on any tolerable soil or situ-
ation. It is not, however, like the others, a wood of general application." {Profitable Planter, p. 113.)
Sang also adopts the proportion of three nurses to one principal, and employs chiefly the resinous tribe,
and looks to them for reimbursement till the hard timber has attained to a foot in diameter, under which
size hard timber is seldom of much value. His principals are planted at from six to ten feet apart, ac-
cording to the soil and situation. {Plant. Kal. p. 166.)

6822. In procuring shelter much depends on (he mode of commencing and continuing plantations on
bleak sites. Sang, who has had extensive experience on this subject, pbsert-es, that " every plain, and
most fields and situations for planting, in this country, have what may be called a windward side, which
is more exposed to the destructive blast than any other. It is of very great importance to be apprised
of this circumstance ; and to be able to fix upon the most exposed side of the proposed forest plantation.
Fix, then, upon the windward side of the plain which is to he converted into a forest ; mark oflf" a hori-
zontal stripe, or belt, at least a hundred yards in breadth. Let this portion of ground be planted thick,
say at the distance of thirty inches, or at the most three feet, with a mixture of larch, sycamore, and elder,
in equal quantities, or nearly so, if the soil be adapted for rearing these ; but if it be better adapted for
Scots pines, then let it be planted with them at the distances prescribed for the above mixture. We have
no other kinds that will thrive better, or rise more quickly in bleak situations, than those just mentioned.
When the trees in this belt, or zone, have risen to the height of two feet, such hard-wood trees as are
intended ultimately to fill the ground should be introduced, at the distance of eight or ten feet from
each other, as circumstances may admit At this period, or perhaps a year or two afterwards, accord-
ing to the bleak or exposed situation of the grounds, let another parallel belt, or zone, of nearly equal
breadth, be added to the one already so far grown up, and so on, till the whole grounds be covered. It
is not easy here to determine on the exact breadth of the subsequent belte or zones : this matter must
be regulated by the degree of exposure of the grounds, by the shelter afiTorded by the zone previously
planted, and by such like circumstances." {Plant. Kal. p. 29.)

6823. In situations exposed to the sea-breeze a similar plan may be successfully followed, and aided in
effect, by beginning with a wall ; the first belt having reached the height of the wall, plant a second,
a third, and fourth, and so on till you cover the whole tract to be wooded. In this way the plantations
on the east coast of Mid- Lothian, round Gossford House, were reared; and in Bang's manner, the
mountains of Blair and Dunkeld were clothed ; and examples, we are informed, might be drawn even
from the Orkney and Shetland islands. , , . „ ....... ^ ., ^

6824. The specks of tree to be planted must ever depend chiefly on the situation and sod, but partly
also on the sort of product desired as the most profitable, and on the importance attached to shelter. As
a general principle it may be observed, that the tree which will thrive the hesi, will turn out the most
profitable- for, though its timber may not be of the highest-priced kind, yet there will be quantity as
compensation for inferior quality. In rocky irregular surfaces there is generally great variety of situ-
ation and depth of soU ; and here a corresponding variety of trees may be introduced, and the more
valuable sorts, as the oak, ash, elm, poplar, &c. will no where thrive better than at the foot of precipices,
and in narrow dells and other sinuosities, where there is at once shelter and a good depth of dry soil.
The thriving of trees and plants of every kind, indeed, depends much more on the quantity of available

94€ . PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

«nils and its state in respect to water and climate, than on its constituent principles ; moderately shel-
Sred aSd on a Sy eub-S^ it signifies little whether the surface strata be a c ayey, sandy or calcareous
ln«m- an th^DZiciDal trees will thrive nearly equally well in either so circumstanced; but no tree
whTtlver in thc^e or^tn any other soil saturated'with water, and in a bleak exposed site For hedge-row
JTr^hlrfhosP kinds which grow with lofty stems, which draw their nourishment from the sub-soil, and
d^Wst Sv bv tLrshadf. aTe to be preferred. These, according to Blakie, are oaks, narrovv-leaved
rfmraKlck^tSn po5^^ beech, Ish, and firs, he says, are ruinous to fences, and otherwise mju-
rious to farmers. (On Hedges and Hedge-row Timber, p. 10.)

6825. The common practice in planting is to mix diferent species of trees together,
which is unavoidable where nurse or shelter plants are introduced ; where these are not
wanted* the opinions of planters are divided on the subject. Mixing different sorts is
most generally approved of. Marshall advises mixing the ash with the oak, because the
latter draws its nourishment cWefly from the sub-soil, and the former from the surface.
Nicol is an advocate for indiscriminate mixture {Practical Planter, p. 77.) ; and Pontey
says, « both reason and experience will fully warrant the conclusion, that the greatest
possible quantity of timber is to be obtained by planting mixtures." {Prof. Planter,
p. 119.)

■ 6826 Sans is " clearly of opinion, that the best method is to plant each sort in distinct masses or groups,
provided the situation and quality of the soil be properly kept in view. There has hitherto been too
much random work carried on with respect to the mixture of different kinds. A longer practice, and
more experience, will discover better metliods in any science. That of planting is now widely extended ;
and improvements in all its branches are introduced. We, therefore, having a better knowledge of soils,
perhaps than our forefathers had, can, with greater certainty, assign to each tree its proper station.
We can* perhaps, at sight, decide, that here the oak will grow to perfection, there the ash, and here
again the beech ; and the same with respect to the others. If, however, there happen to be a piece of
land of such a quality, that it may be said to be equally adapted for the oak, the walnut, or the Spanish
chestnut," it will be proper to place such in it, in a mixed way, as the principals ; because each sort
will extract its own proper nourishment, and will have an enlarged range of pasturage for its roots, and
consequently may make better fcmber-trees. Although by indiscriminately mixing different kinds of
hard-wood plants in a plantation, there is hardly a doubt that the ground will be fully cropped with one
kind or other, yet it very often happens, in cases where the soil is evidently well adapted to the most
valuable sorts, as the oak perhaps, that there is hardly one oak in the ground for a hundred that ought to
have been planted. We have known this imperfection in several instances severely felt. It not unfre-
quently happens, too, that even what oaks, or other hard-wood trees, are to be met with, are overtopped
by less valuable kinds, or perhaps such, all things considered, as hardly deserve a place. Such evils may
be prevented by planting with attention to the soil, and in distinct masses. In these masses are ensured
a full crop, by being properly nursed, for a time, with kmds more hardy, or which afford more shelter
than such hard-wood plants. There is no rule by which to fix the size or extent of any of these masses.
Indeed, the more various they be made in size, the better will they, when grown up, please the
eye of a person of taste. They may be extended from one acre to fifty or a hundred acres, according
to the circumstances of soil and situation : their shapes win accordingly be as various as their dimen-
sions. In the same manner ought all the resinous kinds to be planted, which are intended for timber-
trees ; nor should these be intermixed with any other sort, but be in distinct masses by themselves.
The massing of larch, the pine, and the fir of all sorts, is the least laborious and surest means of pro-
ducing good, straight, and clean timber. It is by planting, or rather by sowing them in masses, by
placing them thick, by a timeous pnming and gradual thinning, that we can, with certainty, attain to
this object." (Plant. Kal. 162. 166.)

6827. Our opinion is in perfect consonance with that of Sang, and for the same reasons ; and we may add
as an additional one, that in the most vigorous natural forests one species of tree will generally be found
occupying almost exclusively one soil and situation, while in forests less vigorous on inferior and on
watery soils, mixtures of sorts are more prevalent. This may be observed in comparing New Forest with
the natural woods round Lochlomond, and it is very strikingly exemplified in the great forests of Poland
and Russia.

6828. Whether extensive plantations should be sown or planted, is a question about which
planters are at variance. Miller says, transplanted oaks will never arrive at the size of
those raised where they are to remain from the acorn. {Diet. Quercus.) Marshall pre-'
fers sowing when the ground can be cultivated with the plough. {Plant, and Rur. Orn. i.
123.) Evelyn, Emmerich, and Speechly are of the same opinion; Pontey and Nicol
practise planting, but offer no arguments against sowing where circumstances are suit-
able. Sang says, " It is an opinion very generally entertained, that planted timber can
never, in any case, be equal in durability and value to that which is sown. We certainly
feel ourselves inclined to support this opinion, although we readily admit, that the matter
has not been so fully established, from experiment, as to amount to positive proof. But
although we have not met with decided evidence, to enable us to determine on the com-
parative excellence of timber raised from seeds, without being replanted, over such as
have been raised from replanted trees, we are left in no doubt as to the preference, in re-
spect of growth, of those trees which are sown, over such as are planted." {Plant. Kal.
43.) He particularly prefers this mode for raising extensive tracts of the Scotch pine
and larch (p. 430.), and is decidedly of opinion, « that every kind of forest tree will suc-
ceed better by being reared from seeds in the place where it is to grow to maturity, than by
being raised in any nursery whatever, and from thence transplanted into the forest,"
(p. 344.) Dr. Yule {Caled. Hort. Mem. ii.), in a long paper on trees, strongly recom-
mends sowing where the trees are finally to remain. <* It is," says he, «' a well ascer-
tained fact, that seedlings allowed to remain in their original station will, in a few
seasons, far overtop the common nursed plants several years older."

^^^l^.V^^9P^^^°^.ofDr.Yule, and in part also that of Sang, seems to be founded on the idea that the
^\tJ^^ \ , ^^^^ importance to grown-up trees, and that when this is once cut off by transplanting, the
?nf,^lo^c^f t Po^er Of renewing it. That the tap-root is of the utmost consequence for the first three or
four years is obvious from the economy of nature at that age of the plant ; perhaps for a longer period •,

Boor III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 947

but that it can be of no great consequence to fuU-grox^ trees, appears highly probable from the fact, that
when such trees arc cut doMrn, the tap-root is seldom to be distinguished from the others. The opinion
that young plants have not the power of renewing their tap-root, will, we believe, be found inconsistent
with fact ; and we may appeal to Sang and other nurserymen, who raise the oak and horse-chestnut from
seed. It is customary when these are sown in drills, to cut off their tap-roots without removing the planU
at the end of the second year's growth, and when at the end of the third or fourth year they are taken up
they will be found to have acquired others, not indeed so strong as the first would have been had they re- '
mained, but sufficient to establish the fact of the power of renewal. We may also refer to the experiment
recorded by Forsyth, which at once proves that trees have a power of renevving their tap-roots, and the
great advantages from cutting down trees after two or three years' planting. Forsyth " transplanted a
bed of oak-plants, cutting the tap-roots near to some of the side-roots or fibres springing from them. In
the second year after, he headed one half of the plants down, and left the other half to nature. In the first
season, those headed down made shoots six feet long and upwards, and completely covered the head of the
old ste.Ti, leaving only a faint cicatrix, and pro<luced new tap-roots upwards of two feet and a half long.
The other half of the plants tliat were not headed, were not one fourth the size of the others. One of the
former is now eighteen feet high, and fifteen inches in circumference, at six inches from the ground : one
of the largest of the latter measures only five feet and half in height, and three inches and three quarters
in circumference, at six inches from the ground." {Tr. on Fruit Trees, Uo edit 144.) The pine and fir
tribes receive most check by transplanting ; and when removed at the age of four or five years, they seldom
arrive at trees afterwards ; those we should, on most occasions, prefer to sow, especially on mountainous
tracts. But for all trees which stole, and in tolerable soils and situations, planting strong plants, and cut-
ting tliem down two or three years afterwards, will, we think, all circumstances considereid, be proved
preferable to sowing.

6830. On the subject of disposing the plants in plantations, there are different opinions ; some advis-
ing rows, others quincunx, but the greater number planting irregularly. According to Marshall, " the
preference to be given to the row, or the random culture, rests in some measure upon the nature and situ-
ation of the land to be stocked with plants. Against steep hangs, where the plough cannot be conveniently
used in cleaning and cultivating the interspaces, during the infancy of the wood, either method may be
adopted ; and if plants are to be put in, the quincunx manner will be found preferable to any. But in
more level situations, we cannot allow any liberty of choice: the drill or row manner is undoubtedly the
most eligible." {Plant, and Rur. Orn. p. 123.) Pontey considers it of much less consequence than most
people imagine, whether trees are planted regularly or irregularly, as in either case the whole of the soil
will be occupied by the roots and the surface by the shoots. Sang and Nicol only plant in rows where
culture with the horse-hoe is to be adopted. In sowing for woods and copses, the former places the
patches six feet asunder and in the quincunx order. " It has been demonstrated {Farmer's Mag. vii. 409.),
that the closest order in which it is possible to place a number of points, upon a plain surface, not nearer
than a given distance from each other, is in the angles of hexagons with a plant in the centre of each
hexagon. Hence it is argued, that this order of trees is the most economical; as the same quantity of
ground will contain a greater quantity of trees, by 15 per cent when planted in this form than in any other."
{Gen. Hep. ii. 287.) It is almost needless to observe, that hedge plants should be placed at regular distances
in the lines, and also the trees, when those are introduced in hedges. Osier-plantations, and all such as
like them require the soil to be dug every year, or every two years, during their existence, should also be
planted in regular rows.

6831. The distances at which the plants are placed must depend on different circum-
stances, but chiefly on the situation and soil. Planting thick, according to Nicol, is tlie
safer side to err on, because a number of plants will fail, and the superfluous ones can be
easily removed by thinning. " For bleak situations," he observes, " that from thirty to
forty inches is a good medium, varj'ing the distance according to circumstances. For
less exposed situations, and where the soil is above six inches in depth, he recommends a
distance from four to five feet. For belts, clumps, and strips, of a diameter of about one
hundred feet ; the margin to be planted about the distance of two feet, and the interior at
three feet. In sheltered situations of a deep good soil, he recommends a distance of six
feet, and no more." (Pract. Plant.)

6832. According to Sang, "the distances at which hard-timber trees ought to be planted are from six
to ten feet, according to the quality of the soil, and the exposed or sheltered situation. When the
first four oaks are planted, supposing them at right angles, and at nine feet apart, the interstices will
fall to be filled up with five nurses, the whole standing at four and a half feet asunder. When sixteen oaks
are planted, there will necessarilv be thirty-three nurses planted ; and when thirty-six oaks are planted,
eighty-fiTC nurses ; but when a hundred principal trees are planted in this manner, in a square of ten on
the side, there wUl be two hundred and sixty-one nurse-plants required. The English acre would require
five hundred and thirty-six oaks, and one thousand six hundred and ten nurses." [Plant. Kal. 163.) Pontey
says, " In general cases, a distance of four feet is certainly close enough ; as at that space the trees may
all remain till they become saleable as rails, spars, &c." ,^„ ^ , ^o,a j

6833. The number of plants which may be planted on a statute acre = 160 rods, or poles, = 4840 yards ^
43,560 feet, is as follows : —

Feet apart. No. of Plante.

6 1,210

7 889

8 680

9 537

10 4.W

Feet apart. No. of Plants.

1 43,360

14 19,360

a' 10,890

2i 6,969

? 4,840

34 3,556

? ... 2,722

4* 2,151,

1,748

11 3<J0

12 302

13 257

14 222

Feet apart. No. of Plants.

13 193

16 170

17 150

18 L-H

19 120

20 108

6834. The size of the plants depends jointly on the site and the kind of tree ; it is uni-
versally allowed that -none of the resinous tribe succeed well when removed at four or
more years' growth ; but if the soil is of tolerable quality, prepared by digging or sum-
mer pitting, and the site not bleak, plants of such hard woods as stole may be used whose
stems are an inch or more in diameter.

fig.'lS Nicol is of opinion, « That generally trees three, or at most four, years old from the seed, and which
ar^om twelvelo Twenty-four incles high, will, in any situation or soil, outgrow those of any size under

th^in^^sTbtTi^iayl^sai^^^^^^^

rrftiiTn Sef^ea^Vft^lh' TeSi fnT^^tv^r! if they have been raised i^Jood soil Many of

3 IT .J

948 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

them may be sufflcientjy large at two years from the seed ; and if so, are to be preferred to those of a
greater aee, as they will consequently be more vigorous and healthy. 1 he larch, if properly treated, wiU
be very fit for planting out at two years of age. A healthy seedling being removed from the seed-bed at the
end of the tirst year, into good ground, will, by the end of the second, be a fitter plant for the forest, than
one nursed a second year. The next best plant for the purjxjse, is that which has stood two years in
the seed-bed, and has been transplanted for one season. This is supposing it to have risen a weakly
plant • for if the larch rise strong from the seed the first season, it should never stand a second in
the seed-bed The ash, the elm, and the sycamore, one year from the seed, nursed in good soil for a
second season, will often prove sufficiently strong plants. If they be weakly, they may stand two years
in the seed-bed ; and then being nursed one season in good soil, will be very fit for planting out in the
forest The oak, the beech, and the chestnut, if raised in rich soil, and well furnished with roots at the
end of the first year, and liaving been nursed in rows for two years, will be very fit to be planted out.
But if they be allowed to stand two years in the seed-bed, and be planted one year in good ground, they
will be still better, and the roots will be found well feathered with fine small fibres. 'l"he silver fir and
common spruce should stand two years in the seed-bed. If transplanted into very good soil, they may be
fit for being planted out at the end of the first year ; but, more generally, they require two years in
the lines. The Scots pine should also stand for two years in the seed-bed, and should be nursed in good
ground for one year ; at the end of which they will be much fitter for being planted, than if they were
allowed to stand a second year in the lines. They are very generally taken at once from the seed-bed ;
and in land bare of heath or herbage, they succeed pretty well ; nevertheless, we would prefer them one
year nursed. The above are the hardy and most useful forest trees ; and tVom tlie observations made,
whatever respects the age or size of other kinds, may easily be inferred." {Plant. Kal. 158.)

^37. According to Pontey, " the best general rule is, to proportion the size of the plants to the goodness
of the soil : the best of the latter requiring the largest of the fonner. Still on bleak exposures this rule
will not hold good, as there the plants should never be large, for otherwise the greater part would fail
from the circumstance of wind- waving, and of those that succeeded, few, if any, would make much pro-
gress for several years ; firs of a foot, and deciduous trees of eighteen inches, are large enough for such
places. As in extensive planting, soils which are good and well sheltered but seldom occur, the most
useful sizes of plants, for general purposes, will be firs of a foot, and deciduous trees of eighteen inches,
both transplanted. None but good-rooted plants will succeed on a bad soil, while on a good one, shel-
tered, none but very bad-rooted plants will fail ; a large plant never has so good a root, in proportion to
its size, as a small one ; and hence we see the propriety of using such on good soils only. Small plants
lose but few of their roots in removal ; therefore, thougn planted in very moderate-sized holes of pul-
verised earth, soon find the means of making roots, in proportion to their heads. It should never be
forgotten, that, in being removed, a plant of two feet loses a greater proportion of its roots than a tree
of one, and one of three feet a greater proportion than one of two, and so on, in proportion to its former
strength and height, and thus the larger the plants, so much greater is the degree of languor or weakness
into which they are thrown by the operation of transplanting." {Prof. Plant. 161.)

6838. The seasons for planting are autumn and spring ; the former, when the soil and
situation are moderately good, and the plants large ; and tlie latter, for bleak situations.
Necessity, however, is more frequently the guide here than choice, and in extensive
designs, the operation is generally performed in all moderately dry open weather from
October to April inclusive. '* In an extensive plantation," Sang observes, " it will
hardly happen but there will be variety of soil, some parts moist and heavy, and others
dry and liglit. The lightest parts may be planted in December or January ; and the
more moist, or damp parts, in February or March. It must 1)e observed, however, that
if the ground be not in a proper case for planting, the operation had better be delayed.
The plants will be injured, either by being committed to the ground when it is in a sour
and wet, or in a dry parched state. At a time when the soil may be termed neither wet
nor dry, the operation of planting is most successfully performed. The mould does not
then adhere to the spade, nor does it run in ; it divides well, and is made to intermingle
with the fibres of the plants with little trouble ; and in treading and setting the plant
upright, the soil is not worked into mortar, which it necessarily must be, if in a wet state,
evidently to the great detriment of the plants. It is therefore improper to plant on a
retentive soil in the time of rain, or even perhaps for some days afterwards, or after a
fall of snow, until it has for some days disappeared. Whereas, on a dry absorbent soil,
it may be proper to plant in the time of gentle showers, immediately after heavy rains,
or as soon as the snow is dissolved." (Plant. Kal. 157.)

6839. Pontey is a decided advocate for autumn preparation of the soil, and spring planting
" Autumn planting," he says, " is advisable only in few cases, while spring planting may properly
apply to all.

6840. According to Sang, the proper time for planting the pine and fir tribes, and all evergreens is
April, or even the first fortnight in May. " Attention should be paid, that no greater number of plants
be lifted from the nursery than can he conveniently planted on the same day. Damp weather is the
best. When very dry, and the plants rise destitute of earth at their roots, their roots should be dipped
in mud (puddle) so as to be coated over by it. In all cases, care should be taken not to shake off anv ad-
hering earth from plants at the time of planting." {Plant. Kal. Ml.)

6841. The operation of inserting the plants in the soil is performed in various ways ;
the most general mode, and that recommended by Marshall and Nicol, is pitting ; in
which two persons are employed, one to operate on the soil with the spade, and the other
to insert the plant and hold it till the earth is put round it, and tlien press down the soil
with the foot. Where the plants are three feet high or upwards, this is tlie best mode ;
but for smaller plants modes have been adopted in which one person performs the whole
operation.

6842. Sang describes three kinds of manual operation employed by him in planting and in nart in
sowing trees: by pitting; by slitting simply, or by cross, or T slitting ; bv the d™fd d"bber • ^bv the
final trles™an.?'«' ^"^ ^I Jh' P'""'"''- ^" ^"'"^ ^" ''^'^^ ^'t" P^^^^s, he fi Jst plants S intSd as the
fhe auer .^nw fhTf":^' ^^^ ""'"'^^ '• °' f."'' '^^ of operators plant the fomier, while anotlier follow with
be la?er than that for^^nf-!^' i:™^^.'"^ t^e nurses, as in the case of evergreen pines and firs, should
oe later than that for planting the principals. (6832.) " The plants, if brought from a distance, should be

Book III.

FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS.

949

shoughed, i. e. earthed ; or they may be supplied daily ft-om the nursery, as circumstances direct All the
people employed ought to be provided with tliick aprons, in which to lap up the plants ; the spadesmen, as
well as the boys or girls ; the latter being supplied by the former as occasion may require. All of them should
regularly fill their aprons at one time, to prevent any of the plants being too long retained in any of the
planters' aprons. One man cannot possibly set a plant so well with the spade, unless in the case of iaying
as two people can ; nor, supposing him to do it as well, can he plant half as many in the same space
of time as two can. A boy ten years of age is equal, as a holder, to the best man on the field, and can be
generally had for less than half the money. Hence this method is not only the best, but the least ex-
pensive." {Plant. Kal. 167.)

6843. By pitting. " The pit having been dug for several months, the surface will
therefore be encrusted by the rains, or probably covered with weeds. The man first
strikes tlie spade downwards to the bottom, two or three times, in order to loosen tlie
soil ; then poaches it, as if mixing mortar for the builder ; he next lifts out a spadeful
of the earth, or, if necessary, two spadefuls, so as to make room for all the fibres, without
their being anywise crowded together ; he then chops the rotten turf remaining in the
bottom, and levels the whole. The boy now places the plant perfectly upright, an
inch deeper than when it stood in tlie nursery, and holds it firm in that position. The
man trindles in the mould gently ; the boy gently moves the plant, not from side to side,
but upwards and downwards, until the fibres be covered. The man then fills in all
the remaining mould ; and immediately proceeds to chop and poach the next pit, leaving
the boy to set the plant upright, and to tread the mould about it. This in stiff wet soii
he does lightly ; but in sandy or gravelly soil he continues to tread until the soil no
longer retains the impression of his foot. The man has by this time got the pit ready
for tlie next plant, the boy is also ready with it in his hand, and in this manner the oper-
ation goes on. On very steep hangs wliich have been pitted, the following rule ought to
be obser\'ed in planting : to place the plant in the angle formed by the acclivity and sur-
face of the pit ; and in finishing to raise the outer margin of the pit highest, whereby the
plant will be made to stand as if on level ground, and the moisture be retained in the
hollow of the angle, evidently to its advantage." {Plant. Kal. 167.)

''6844. The slit method, either simply (2088.) or by the T method, is not recommended by Sang; but
necessity may justify its adoption occasionally. " We would not recommend planting by the slit, unless
where there is no more soil than is alisolutely occupied by the fibres of the herbage which grows on the
place. Excepting on turf, it cannot be performed ; nor should it be practised, if the turf be found three
or four inches thick. By pitting in summer, turf is capable of tjeing converted into a proper mould in
the space of a few months ; and the expense of pitting, especiaUv in small plantations, can never counter-
balance the risk of success in the eyes of an ardent planter. The most proper time to perform the oper-
ation of slitting in the plants, is when the surface is in a moist state. On all steeps the plant should be
placed towards the deciivitv, that the moisture may fall to its roots ; that is to say, in planting, the
spadesman should stand highest, and the boy lowest on the bank; by which arrangement the plant wiU
be inserted at the lower angle of the slit." {Plant. Kal. 17O0

6845. Planting with the diamond dibber, he says, " is the cheapest and most expeditious planting of any
we yet know, in cases where the soil is a sand of gravel, and the surface bare of herbage. The plate of the
dibber {fig. 635. a) is made of good steel, and is four inches and a half broad where the iron handle is
welded to it ; each of the other two sides of the triangle is five inches long : the thickness of the plate is
one fifth part of an inch, made thinner from the middle to the sides, till the edges become sharii. The
length of the iron handle is seven inches, and so strong as not to bend in working, which will require six
eighths of an inch square. The iron handle is furnished with a turned hilt, like the handle of a large gim-
let, both in its form and manner of being fixed on. The planter is furnished with a planting-bag, tied round
his waist, in which he carries the plants. A stroke is given with the dibber, a little aslant, the point lying
inwards ; the handle of the dibber is then drawn towards the person, while its plate remains withm tlic
ground : by this means a vacuity is formed between the back of the dibber and the ground ; into which
the planter, with his other hand, introduces the roots of the seedling plants, being careful to put them
fully to the bottom of the opening : he then pulls out the dibber, so as not to displace them, and gives the
eased turf a smart stroke with the heel ; and thus is the plant completely firmed. The greatest error the
planter with this instrument can run into, is the imperfect introduction of the roots. Green, or unprac-
tised hands, are apt to double the roots, or sometimes to lay them across the opening, instead of putting
them straight down, as above directed. A careful man, however, will become, if not a speedy, at least a
good planter in one day ; and it is of more importance that he be a sure hand; than a quick one. A person
who is of a careless or slovenly disposition, should never be allowed to handle a dibber of thisTimd. ^

6846. Planting with the planting-mattock
{fig. 635. b) is resorted to in rocky or other
spots where pitting is impracticable. " The
helve or handle is three feet six inches
long ; the mouth is five inches broad, and
is made sharp ; the length from it to the
eye, or helve, is sixteen inches ; and it is
used to pare oft' the sward, heath, or other
brush that may happen to be in the way,
previous to easing the soil with the other
end. The small end tapers from the eye,
and terminates in a point, and is seventeen
inches long." By this instrument the
surface is skimmed off " for six or eight
inches in diameter, and with the pick-end
dug down six or eight inches deej), bring-
ing up any loose stones to the surface; by

which means a place will be prepared for .. , . v .^i.

the reception of the plant, little inferior to a pit This instrument may be used in many cases, when the
plants to be planted are of small size, such as one-year larch-seedlings, one year nursed ; or two-year Scots
nines, one year nursed ; and the expense is much less than by the spade. {Plant. Kal. oH^)

6817. Planting with the forest-planter. {fig. 635. c) " The helve is sixteen inches long, tlie mouth is four
inches and a half broad, and the length of the head is fourteen inches. The instrument is used in planting
hilly ground, previously prepared by the hand-mattock. The person who performs the work carries the
plants in a close apron ; digs out the earth sufficiently to hold the roots of the plant : and sets and farms it

950 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

without help from another : it Is only useftil when small plants are used, and in hilly or rocky situations."
( Plant. Kal.Vref.xxiv.) , , , . .

6848. Pontey prefers planting by pitting. In general cases ; the holes bemg made during the preceding
summer or winter, sufficiently large, but not so deep into a retentive sub-soil as to render them a receptacle
for water. When the plants "have been brought from a distance he strongly recommends puddling them
(6849.) previously to planting; if they seem very much dried, it would be still better to lay them in the
ground for eight or ten days, giving them a good soaking of water every second or third day, in order to
restore their vegetable powers ; for it well deserves notice, that a degree of moisture in soil sufficient to
support a plant recently or immediately taken from the nursery, would, in the case of dried ones, prove so
far insufficient, that most of them would die in it The puddling here recommended may also be of great
service in all cases of late planting where small plants are used ; my method is (after puddling) to tie them
in bundles, of two or three hundreds each ; and thus send them, by a cart-load at once, to where wanted ;
where such bundles being set upright, close to each other, and a little straw carefully applied to the
outsides of them, may remain without damage in a sheltered situation any reasonable time necessary
to plant them. Where loose soil happens to be convenient, that should be substituted in the place
of straw.

6849. A puddle far trees is made by mixing water with any soil rather tenacious, so intimately as to
form a complete puddle, so thick that when the plants are dipped into it enough may remain upon the roots
to cover them. The process of puddling is certainly simple, and its expense too trifling to deserve notice :
its effects, however, in retaining, if not attracting moisture, are such that, by means of it, late planting is
rendered abundantly more safe that it otherwise would be. It is an old invention, and hence it is truly
astonishing that it is not more frequently practised. If we could but persuade people to adopt it generally
in spring planting, I believe the prejudice in favor of autumn practice would soon be done away. (Prof.
Plant. 167.)

6850. Ponteyy methods of planting are in general the same as those of Sang : he uses a mattock and
planter of similar shape ; and also a two or three pronged instrument, which we have elsewhere denorain-
ated the planter's hack. (1305. fig. 90.) " This instrument," he says, " has been introduced of late years as
an improvement on the mattock a.nd planter {fig 635. b, c), being better adapted to soils full of roots, stones,
&c. ; they are likewise easier to work, as they penetrate to an equal depth with a stroke less violent than
the former : they are also less subject to be clogged up by a wet or tenacious soil. The length of the prongs
of both should be about eight inches, and the distances between them, when with three prongs, one and a
half, and with two prongs, about two inches ; the two-pronged hack should be made somewhat stronger
than the other, it being chiefly intended for very stony lands, or where the soil wants breaking, in order
to separate it from the herbage, &c. These tools are chiefly applicable to plants of any size up to about
two feet, or such as are generally used for great designs, where they are used as a substitute for the spade,
in the following manner : The planter being provided with a basket holding the plants required (the holes
being supposed prepared, and the earth left in them), he takes a tree in one hand, and the tool in the other,
which he strikes into the hole, and then pulls the earth towards him, so as to make a hole large enough to
hold all its roots ; he then puts in the plant with the other, and pushes the earth to its roots with the back
of the planter; after which, he fi.xes the plant, and levels the soil at the same instant with his foot : so
that the operation is performed by one person, with a degree of neatness and expedition which no one can
attain to who uses the spade. It is known to all planters, that but few laborers ever learn to plant well
and expeditiously in the common method, without an assistant : this method, however, requires neither
help nor dexterity; as any laborer of common sagacity, or boy of fifteen, or even a woman, may learn to
perform it well in less than half an hour. The facility with which these tools will break clods clear the
holes of stones, or separate the soil from herbage, the roots of heath, &c. (the former being previously mel-
lowed by the frost,) may be easily unagined." {Prof. Plant. 173.) The adoption of a smaU mattock for in-
serting plants, we recollect to have seen recommended in a tract on planting in the Highlands by Mac-
laurin, a nurseryman, published at Edinburgh upwards of twenty years ago.

6851. An expeditious mode of slit planting is described in the General Report of Scot- ^36
land, as having been practised for many years on the Duke of Montrose's estate. It is
as follows : " The operator, with his spade, makes three cuts, twelve or fifteen inches
long, crossing each other in the centre, at an angle of sixty degrees, the whole having
the form of a star. {fig. 636.) He inserts his spade across one" of the rays {a], a few inches
from the centre, and on the side next himself; then bending the handle towards him.
self, and almost to the ground, the earth opening in fissures from the centre in the di-
rection of the cuts which had been made, he, at the same instant, inserts his plant at
the point where the spade intersected the ray (a), pushing it forward to the centre and
assisting the roots in rambling through the fissures. He then lets down the earth by re
moving his spade having pressed it into a compact state with his heel ; the operation is finished bv adding
a little earth, with the grass side down, completely covering the fissures, for the purpose of retai'nine the
KSn^fie swarS" Tvol S.TH' ^ '''^^'^'''''^' ^^^^^ ^"^^^"^ encourages the plant to push fresh foot^

Chap. IV.
On forming Plantations, in which Ornament or Effect is the leading Consideration. '

6852. In designing ornamental j^lantations, the situation, form, the disposition of the
trees, and the kinds employed, are the principal considerations.

6853. Tlie situations to be planted, with a view to effect, necessarily depends on the
kind of effect mtended ; these may reduced to three — to give beauty and variety to ge-
neral scenery, as m formmg plantations here and there throughout a demesne -to give
form and character to a country-residence, as in planting a park and pleasure-grounds ♦
and to create a particular and independent beauty or effect, as in plantin^r an extensive
area or wood, unconnected wth any other object, and (Usposing of the interior in ave-
nues, glades, and other forms. In the two first cases, the choice of the situation must
always be relative to other objects ; as, for example, in ornamenting general scenery, to
fields and enclosures, buildings, roads, &c. ; and to the mansion-garden and other parts
of a residence, m laying out a country-seat : but in forming independent plantations the
choice may be absolute, and guided by no other consideration than the effect to be pro-
duced. One of the greatest beauties produced by planting, either on general scenery, or
on the grounds of a residence, is that of varying tlie form of the surface of the country

Book III.

FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS.

951

or increasing the variations already existing. To do this with most ejSect, it is an ob-
vious and long estabUshed principle, that, other circumstances being the same, the hills
are to be more generally planted than the hollows, or even the plains. By planting a
hill or the least rise of ground, that hill or rise is increased in effect j but by planting
the low grounds between hills or protuberances, their effect is destroyed. It is to be ob-
served, however, that the latter practice is often what we observe in natural scenery.
In hilJy tracts in a state of nature, and under the dominion of no other animals than
cattle or sheep, the vales or dells {Jig. 637.) are generally filled with wood and the

tops of the hills bare, which, however agreeable to tliose who view or study nature
chiefly in detail, yet to the general obsener it tends to confound form, and introduce
monotony of surface. Art, therefore, when planting for general effect, or for heighten-
ing tlie character of surface, adopts a contrary practice (Jig. 638.) to what is general in

wild nature ; for few things in a wild state are suitable to the views of man in a state of
civilisation and refinement ; and when he admires rude scenery, it is from views of its
novelty or rarity in cultivated countries ; or with reference to some other art or object,
or state of the same object. At the same time, a hill crowned with wood occurs in na-
ture occasionally, both witli and without naked hollows or plains at its base, and never
fails to excite a superior degree of satisfaction or pleasure in the spectator. To plant
hills, therefore, in preference to valleys, may justly be designated an imitation of one of
the more interesting features of nature.

6854. mth respect to form, it may be absolute, or independent of every consideration but the taste of the
designer ; or it may be relative. It is absolute in plantations intended to create particular beauties withiii
themselves ; as in labyrinths, woods pierced with avenues, stars, &c., in the geometric style ; or in com.
positions and groups, thickets and glades in the interior of a wood, laid out in the modern manner. It is
relative to the shapes of the ground and to existing objects in the forms adapted for improving general
sceneiy; and to these considerations, and to the situation and form of the mansion, gardens, waters, &c.
in laying out the grounds of a country-residence. For either of these objects the general principles of
operation are to heighten beauties already existing ; to conceal defects ; if possible, to create beauty; and
to connect detached objects, either in reality or appearance, so as the scenery, from whatever point it may
be viewed, may appear a whole ; in short, the end is a harmonious and expressive whole, and the means
are the grouping and connecting of the parts. Some tracts of counlrj-, or those parts of a demesne exte-
rior to the park, may be deficient in woodiness ; there trees may be introduced in masses on elevated sites,
or the sides of hills ; in groups connected with buildings ; in thinly scattered trees, in pastures, and by
brooks ; and in rows in hedges, and by other fences or roads. Where disagreeable objects are to be con-
cealed, the course is evident; and where nothing is interesting, attempts must be made to create interest.
A road through a dreary country may often have much of its dulness taken away by one or two rows of
trees on each side, the stems of which will break and vary the distant scenery. The lines may vary in
form and direction, may swell into strips, or clumps, or thickets ; form recesses, or be interrupted, accord-
ing to circumstances. The route through some of the most dreary tracts in Germany and Russia, and the
well-known Strada di Campagna, in Italy, are in this way rendered tolerable. In all this, though the
main object may be beauty, yet, utility must never be lost sight of. All plantations by arable lands should,
as much as possible, be bounded by straight, or at least not very irregular lines, and connected with the
hedges or other fences already existing; few single trees or groups should be planted in the area of such
fields. In pastures, the worst soils and most exposed situations should be chosen, and such forms
adapted as may shelter the stock from all quarters, but especially from the storms and winds which more
generally prevail. In planting near cottages and villages, care should be taken not to render the atmo-
sphere unhealthy by stagnating the air, or to les>;en the value of their yards and gardens by curtailing their
extent, or by excess of shelter and shade. Roads or lanes should on no account be injured, nor the water
of streams and ponds rendered dark, discolored by leaves, and unwholesome to men or cattle. In short,
the planter, for effect, should never lose sight of utility, or plant in opposition to it ; for though he may
produce particular sorts of beauty, and especially that lately so fashionable and justly admired disposition
of objecU, called picturesque, which may be admired by a number for a time ; yet there is a much more
elevated and universal beauty, that of moral relation, or, in short, refined utility, which, while men

3 P 4

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

and will therefore

952

retain their social feelings, must ever be the most Interesting to mankind In general,
finally prevail. . . -.

6855. The outline of plantations, made with a view to the composition of a country-
residence, is guided by the same general principles; whether the trees are to be dis-
posed in regular forms, avowedly artificial ; or in irregular forms, m imitation of
nature. ( fig 6S9.) The first thing is, in both modes, to compose a principal mass, from
which the rest may appear to proceed ; or be, or seem to be, connected. In common
cases it answers best to include or connect with this mass the house, kitchen and flower-
gardens (e) ; from these other masses and groups should proceed, either connected,
or better, only seemingly so when viewed horizontally. Theur forms should be such

and so disposed, relatively to the ground and other objects, and to each other, as to
throw the pasture surface into broad masses (a, b, c, rf), which become wholes in their
turn, and their connection and variation is heightened by the variety in the glades between
the masses and groups of plantation. Such would be the mode of procedure on a flat to
be formed into a modern park ; regard being had to exclude or admit the view of certain
parts of the distant scenery ; never to shut in, or leave without a third distance (as is the
term in landscape-painting), any of the scenes within the boundary of the park ; and to
other laws of perspective, optics, and composition, which will be more fully entered on in
treating of landscape-gardening.

6856. In the pleasure-ground, which, as far as respects the form or ground outline of
plantations, is to be considered as a part of the park, the same principles are applicable.
In neither the artificial or natural style, should their width be great ; but their form may
be varied at pleasure, subject to general principles. "Where the ground is irregular
(Jig. 640.), only the modem style can be adopted with good effect; and there, by con-

640

ductingthewalks,orforming the water chiefly in the hollows (a), and planting the emi-
nences (6), varying the manner in which the outlines of these masses embrace the decli-
vities, the happiest effects may be produced. Deviations from these general principles
can only be justified by extraordinary circumstances.

Book III.

FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS.

953

r^ J

641

6857. With resjyect to the extent, or area, oocupied by ornamental plajitations, as such,
that need seldom be great. " They are generally seen only in profile, and therefore a cir-
cuitous outline {Jig. 641. a.) may on most occasions be contrived to have the same effect
as planting a solid mass, which will occupy much more ground (6), show less exterior

— ?-~-_______ _ variety, and none witliin. The

/^^^^iL^:..^:;^^#> /^€^«^;^^^-^-^ case is different, however,

/^^.3^ ^^tl /'«-_ ^&« 4^ Jr 4 »: where the upper surface of a

plantation is to be met by the
eye, at a large angle, say up-
wards of 35°. In that case,
to produce a grand and im-
posing effect, real extent is
wanting. Examples occur in
planting the steep sides of high
liills, to be seen from below ;
or valleys or plains to be seen

from great elevations. It must be confessed that these are among

the grandest circumstances in which wood can be viewed ; pro-
files of outlines, varied both as respects tlie sky and the ground, arc

beautiful and interesting ; and avenues and long rows of trees

form imposing perspectives ; but the side of a range of mountains

clothed with wood, seen at a certain distance, from a plain below or

opposite hills, is one of the most magnificent of rural prospects.

6858. With respect to the disjiosition of trees in a ])lantation
where art is avowed or purposely displayed, the more regularly the
plants are placed the better is the end attained ; but, where na-
ture is to be imitated, irregularity will best sustain the character.
This should be studied in the larger as well as the smaller plantations, in the natural
style ; but more especially in detached groups, which operate so powerful an effect

643 g^ f?^ ^" laying out the grounds of a residence. The greatest beauty of a

^-© 5 ^^^ group of trees as far as respects their stems, is in the varied direc-
tion these take as they grow into trees (Jig. 64-2.) ; but as that is
for all practical purposes beyond the influence of art, all we can do is to vary as much
as possible the ground-plans of groups, or the relative position which the stems have
to each other, where tliey spring from the earth. 644 -^

This is considerable, even where a very few trees ^k^ rw^ ^W"^ ^^

are used, and of which any person may convince 6x |g

himself by placing a few dots on paper. Thus, two trees (/ig. 643.), or a tree and
shrub, which is the smallest group, may be placed in three different positions with re-

ference to a spectator in a fixed point : if he moves round them they will first vary in
form separately, and next (at b) unite in one or in two groups, according to the position
of tlie spectator. In like manner three trees (Jig. 644.^ may be placed in four different

positions; four trees may be placed in eight different positions (Jig. 645.); five
trees may be grouped in ten different ways as to ground-plan (Jig. 646.); six may
be placed in twelve different positions (Jig. 647.) ; and so on.

H'^ A _<5. Kh

647

6859. In j)lanting groups it is not meant to be asserted, that the ground-plan of each
rfiould be studiously considered ; It will be suflScient if this is done in conspicuous situ-
ations, by the sides of walks and roads, and in such places as require for shelter or shade,
or to exclude some disagreeable object, a series of groups of nearly the same number of
trees. For the ordinary purposes of grouping, such as varying the apparent outline of
masses, connecting scattered objects, adding parts to such objects as are incomplete
wholes, &c., it will be sufficient to introduce large and small groups; never to put two
trees at exactly the same distance from each other ; three in the angles of an equilateral
triangle ; four in those of a square ; five in those of an octagon," and so on.

954

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

6860. Scattered trees. It has been a very common practice among planters to intro-
duce, in parks, great numbers of detached single trees (in vulgar technology, dottmg),
with a view of effecting, by them, what can only be done by groups. Excepting the
clump, there is not a greater deformity in the grounds of British country-residences.
Supposing these trees, planted on a level surface, all of the same sort, and all growing.
eqiiaUy well, their insipid sameness of form and position must be evident to the mind s
eye of every one. Suppose them on the same character of surface, but all, or chiefly, of
different sorts (fig. 648.), it is equally evident they will grow with different degrees of
vi«Tor, and assume different characters of stem and head; and consequently produce an
appearance of the most discordant kind. It is only necessary to analyse a group, to be

convinced of the variety of general form produced, even by trees of one species, but
more especially by two kinds, and this, even by specimens that would be unsightly apart ;
and to observe a portion of the scattered woody scenery, in the openings or glades of a
natural forest, to be convinced how much more variety is produced by that manner of
planting, than by distributing over a surface great numbers of single trees. It is ob-
served by Uvedale Price, that in the numerous landscapes which compose the liber veritath
of Claude, there is not more than one single tree; so highly did this artist value the
principle of connection. A single tree, however, is not always to be condemned, even
as such, for its form, age, or blossom, or some other accidental circumstance may com-
pensate for its isolated situation ; and it may often exist singly as a tree, and yet in
connection or grouped with other objects, as buildings, rocks, &c. ; and in these cases
it is not to be condemned, because the grand object of grouping, connection, is maintained
by the co-tangent object.

f 6861. Placing the groups. Another practice in the employment of groups, almost equally reprehensible
with that of indiscriminate distribution, is that of placing the groups and thickets in the recesses, instead
of chiefly employing them opposite the salient points. The effect of this mode is the very reverse of what
is intended ; for, instead of varying the outline, it tends to render it more uniform by diminishing the
depth of recesses, and approximating the whole more nearly to an even line. Tlie way to vary an even
or straight line or lines, is here and there to place constellations of groups against it {fig. 649. c) ; and a
line already varied is to be rendered more so, by placing large groups against the prominences (a) to
render them more prominent ; and small groups {b), here and there in the recesses, to vary their forma
and conceal their real depths.

649

' 6862. In all plantations in the natural style above the size of a group, the same general principles are
to be followed m the disposition of the trees ; the plants, whatever be their kinds, and whether the mass is
finally to assume the character of a wood, grove, or copse, should be placed irregularly ; here thick, and
there thin, as if they had sprung upfrom the accidental semination of birds or winds. "The effect of this
arrangement will not be that composition of low and high, oblique and upright stems, and young and old
trees, and low growths, which we find in forest scenery ; but it is all that can be done in imitation of it at
the first planting ; and subsequent thinning, pruning, and cutting down, moving, renversing, planting,
and sowing, must be used from time to time to complete imitation or allusion, unless the owner will rest
satisfied with an inferior degree of beauty."

6863. The general form of tree employed materially influences the effect of plantations.
The capacities of different trees for producing effects in landscape, and the general
division of trees into round-headed, oblong-Iieaded, and spiry-topt, have been already
pointed out (6795. et seq.) It has also been observed (6857.), that the greater number of
plantations are seen chiefly in profile ; and hence, that the outline which the tops of the
trees form against the sky or the back-ground, is the most conspicuous feature in their
aspect. The difference between this outline, when formed of spiry-toj}t trees, as the firs,
pines, &c. (^fig. 650.) ; of oblong-headed trees, as most of the willows, alders, poplars {Jig.
651. b) ; and the round-headed sorts, as the oak, ash, elm, and most trt'cs {Jig. 651. a).

Book III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS.

650

955

is so considerable, as to merit the particular attention of the planter. Nothing can be
more harsh and unvaried than the serrated outline of the fir tribe, whether planted in
rows, strips, or masses ; whereas the rounded-headed trees, even in single rows, pro-
duce some variety of sky outline. The difference is equally great between the face or

front surface of a row or mass of spiry and round-headed trees ; for the great regularity
and similarity of the branches of the former, precludes the possibility of breaks in
form, or light and shade, and presents one uniform surface of verdure, not unlike the
side of a high hedge. The front surface of a row or mass of round-headed trees,
on the contrary, from opposite qualities in the branches, produces prominences and re-
cesses of different degrees of magnitude, and of different forms and relative positions. If
we look on the upper surface of a plantation of each class, we shall find the difiTerence
equally great,

6864. T/ie situations where sjriry^topt
trees have most effect is among rocks,
and in very irregular surfaces ; and
especially on the steep sides of high
mountains {Jig' 652.), where their
forms, and the direction of their
growth, seem to harmonise Avith their
pointed rocky summits. Fir and pine
forests are dull, gloomy, and monoto-
nous in the sandy plains of Poland and
Russia, but among the broken rocks,
craggy precipices, and otherwise end-
lessly varied surfaces of Sweden and
Norway, they are full of variety. In
tame countries they present most
variety when planted so thin as barely
to touch each other, and when a num-
ber of them are kept low, where the
whole are of different ages {Jig. 65S.) But the variety produced, even by this disposition,
is still far short of what would be effected by a similar arrangement of round or oval-

headed trees {Jig. 654.), of different ages, or mixed with shrubs or low growths. The
most suitable situation for spiry-topt trees, in ornamental scenery, is as single objects

or in small groups {Jig. 655.), sparingly introduced in the margin of thickets or stnps,
or sprinkled along the bottoms of deUs or dingles. In plantations which comprise masses
of all the different species of hardy tree, there they may come in also in their proper
place ; and in mountain and rocky scenery, they are in Uie places which nature seems to
have intended for tlicm.

956 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

€55

6865. The oblong-Jieaded trees njay be introduced much more frequently than the spiry-
topt sorts ; the more obtuse summits blend well with the round-headed trees, and the
more acute topt sorts which terminate in flexible flame-like shapes, as the Lombardy
poplar, and cypress, form excellent contrasts to the round trees, and serve as transition
forms to the spiry tribe. The round-headed trees, it need hardly be observed, are the
most general in nature, at least in temperate climates, and are the most universally ap-
plicable in ornamental planting. These considerations on the forms of trees refer to them
chiefly as in independent plantations ; in connection with buildings, the choice, as to
foran, may often be influenced by that of the building, and also by the effect or object in-
tended by planting them.

6866. With respect to magnitude, the grand division of woody plants is into trees and shrubs. The bulk
and heights of the common trees and shrubs of the country being generally known, the eye estimates the
magnitude of other objects by theirs; consequently extraordinary magnitudes, whether large or small,
should only be used under extraordinary circumstances. The apparent size, proportion, and distance of
objects, might otherwise be deranged, and a discordant effect produced. Shrubs, which have the form of
trees ; and low trees, as the mountain ash, the apple and pear, often produce this effect, when planted as
single objects ; and unless their fruit is prized above every thing else, they should, when introduced for the
sake of their flowers, either be planted in the margins of plantations, or grouped with trees of the or-
dinary size. The finest small groups are of this description, or composed of common deciduous timber
tiees and hardy shrubs, as oaks, chestnuts, hollies, thorns, &c.

6867. The choice of species must be made subservient to general effect, and to the particular purposes,
for which different species are calculated. These have been already pointed out (chap, ii), as well as their
uses (chap, i.), and both should be continually present in the mind of the planter. For the more general
purposes of planting, the standard trees of the country, native or naturalised, are mostly to be preferred,
as growing freely and preserving harmony ; for the purposes of distinction, foreign trees are more likely
to answer the end. Foreign trees also contribute greatly to variety and interest, and therefore are indis-
pensable in pleasure-grounds, or other scenes of much resort. " Any number of species may be admitted
into improved grounds ; commencing with the rare sorts near the house, as the centre of art and refine-
ment, and ending with the common trees of the country, at such distances as the extent and style of the
whole may suggest. The proportions of such trees as are only ornamental, and such as are valuable as
timber, must be in some degree determined by the character of the place, but chiefly by the taste and view
of the owner. Beauty alone, without utility, will not long please ; and a few single groups and plants of
the rare species, in the grounds more immediately consecrated to man, will generally afford more satisfac-
tion than a lavish display of exotics ; the former will always present a more luxuriant and thriving display
of scenery than the latter, and sooner atUiin the maturity of beauty." {,Edin. Encyc. art. Landscape
Gardening.)

6868. Whatever nuynbcr qf species are used, one only should prevail in one place ; or if there be high or
low growths, then one of each kind should prevail. Great attention should be had that the species
which compose the groups and thickets, or other scattered woodinesses which border on masses, should
consist almost entirely of the species which prevail in the masses : if this precaution is neglected, instead
of these appendages producing connection and harmony, they will have a tendency directly the reverse.
Thickets may next be considered in regard to their form, that is, the form of their ground-plan ; and with
groups and single trees in regard to the choice of species. Thickets are produced by nature, by the inroads
of cattle, or other animals, grazing or cropping the herbage, and with it the young trees in forest-scenery.
On levels and sheltered situations, we find their form comparatively regular, because there appears no
permanent or general reason to occasion their encroachment on one side more than on the other. But on
varied surfaces and soils a preference is given by depasturing animals to certain natural plants, and the
side on which they abound is penetrated more deeply than the other. The plan of the thicket, therefore,
varies accordingly. In elevated grounds, exposed to a particular wind, the thickets will exceed in length,
which will be found generally to be in the direction of the storm. The cause is too obvious to be pointed
out ; but this effect, and every other observed in the groups and thickets of natural scenery, always merit
study, and most frequently deserve imitation in creations of landscape-scenery. The species of tree
ought obviously to be those of the part of the mass to which they belong ; for thickets, groups, and single
trees, ought to resemble disjointed and broken fragments from those masses. But in particular cases, for
rendering a prominence still more prominent, or increasing the depth of a recess, a few plants of similar,
or not discordant growths, but of darker or lighter greens, may at a distance add to the eflTect of each. By
the same process, with more contrasted species, where no other mode can be put in execution, the form-
ality of a single row may in some degree be varied in its situation and contour. {Ed. Encyc. art. Land-
scape Gardening.)

6869. The arrangement of the species to effect variety must evidently be by grouping or collecting them
in masses ; for if all the species made use of were inthnatcly mixed together in every part of a plantation
it is evident the eye would meet every where the same species ; so that, as far as variation from that
source was sought for, it would be entirely wanting. Uvedale Price has treated this subject with much
ingenuity ; and in reprobating the common practice of mixing as many different sorts as can be procured,
in order to produce variety, observes, that " variety, of which the true end is to relieve the eye, not to
perplex it, does not consist in the diversity of separate objects, but in the diversity of their effects when com-
bined together in a difference of composition and character. Many think, however, that they have ob-
tained that grand object, when they have exhibited in one body all the hard names of the Linnsan sys-
tem ; but when as many plants as can be well got together are exhibited in every shrubbery, or in every
plantation, the result is a sameness of a different kind, but not less truly a sameness that would arise from
there being no diversity at all ; for there is no having variety of character, without a certain distinctness
without certain marked features on which the eye can dwell." (Essays on the Picturesque, vol i )

6870. Eepton observes, " there is more variety in passing from a grove of oaks to a grove of firs than in
rassing through a wood composed of a hundred different species, as they are usually mixed together By
this indiscriminate mixture of every kind of tree in planting, all variety is destroyed by the excess of va-
riety, whether it is adopted in belts or clumps, as they have been technically called : for example, if ten

eumps be composed of ten different sorts of trees in each, they become so many things exactly similar ;
h»L,ftf^fi.^"T consists of the same sort of trees, they become ten different things, of which one may
hereafter furnish a group of oaks, another of elms, another of chestnuts or of thorns, &c. In like manner

B:.OK III. FORMATION OF PLANTATIONS. 957

in the modern belt, the recurrence and monotony of the same mixture of trees of all the difiTerent kinds
through a long drive, make it the more tedious in proportion as it is long. In part of the drive at
Woburn, in which evergreens alone prevail, which is a circumstance of grandeur, of varietv of
novelty, and, I may add, of winter comfort, that I never saw adopted in any other place on so magni.
liccnt a scale, the contrast of passing from a wood of deciduous trees to a wood of evergreens must be
felt by the most heedless observer ; and the same sort of pleasure, though in a weaker degree, would be
felt in the course of a drive, if the trees of different kinds were collected in small groups or masses by
themselves, instead of being blended indiscriminately." {Inquiry into Changes of Taste, &c. p. 33.)

6871. Sir W. Chambers and Price agree in recommending the imitation of natural forests in the ar-
rangement of the species. In these nature disseminates her plants by scattering their seeds, and the off.
spring rise round the parent in masses or breadths, depending on a variety of circumstances, but chiefly on
the facility which these seeds afford for being carried to a distance by the wind, the rain, and by birds or
other animals. So disseminated they spring up, different sorts together, affected by various circumstances
of soil and situation ; and arrive at maturity, contending with other plants and trees, and with the brows-
ing of animals. At last, that species which had enjoyed a maximum of natural advantages is found to
prevail as far as this maximum extended, stretching along in masses and angular poitions of surface, till
circumstances changing in favor of some other species, that takes the prevalence in its turn. In this way it
will generally be found, that the number of species, and the extent and style of the masses in which they
prevail, bears a strict analogy to the changes of soil and surface j and this holds good, not only with respect
to trees and shrubs, but to plants, grasses, and even the mossy tribe.

6872. The most perfect arrangement of species in regard to va- /!-j:\^ 656
riety would be to employ every kind of tree and shrub that will grow
freely in the open air, and arrange them according to the natural
system. We have already suggested (6144.) that a residence might be
wooded in this way, so as in the smallest extent to obtain a maxi-
mum of variety and beauty. In most cases, where grouping, or any
systematic plan of arranging the species is to be adopted, the form of
the groups 'Jig. 656. a, b, c, d, e) should be marked on the plan of
the plantation, and the kinds for each form written down in a cor-
responding list ; the small detached masses intended as thickets (/)
should be similarly marked, the situatioa of groups indicated either
by letters simply {g), or by figures (6, 2, 3) referring to a list of kinds;
and where shrubs are to be introduced in the groups, two figures may
be used (^^, ^), one of which shall indicate the kind of tree, and
the other the species of low growth or shrub. This mode we have al-
ways adopted in funiishing plans for ornamental planting, and find
it enables gardeners to execute them with perfect accuracy. )

6873. The iize of the plants used in ornamental planting, should be
as great as the soil and situation will admit, for two reasons : first, because an early effect is always de-
sirable ; and secondly, because in planting detached groups, large and small plants, and a varied inclin-
ation of their stem (Jig. 642.) may be introduced in imitation of nature. Small groups on pastured lands,
indeed, cannot be formed without trees whose stems are sufficiently high to raise their heads out of the
reach of cattle, without enclosing so considerable a space round every tree as to render this mode both te.
dious, unsightly, and expensive.

6874. Fences. Masses, in the ancient style of planting, were generally surrounded by walls or other
durable fences. Here the barrier was considered as an object or permanent part of the scene, and for
that reason was executed substantially, and even ornamentally. They were generally walls substantially
coped, and furnished with handsome gates and piers. The rows of avenues and small clumps, or platoons
intended to be finally thrown open, were enclosed by the most convenient temporary fence.

6875. In planting in the natural style, a regular fence either of verdant or masonic materials, can never
be the final part of perfect imitation, since no such thing is to be found in nature. But in planting in
farm-lands, or for the purpose of improving the general scenery, some permanent fence is requisite ; and
all that can be said is, that which promises in the end to be the most efficient and economical, will almost
always be the best. The hedge, sunk fence, common wall, and wide water-course where it will be con-
stantly nearly full of water, here present themselves as the most general kinds. Any fence, however, of
which a large excavation, without water, forms a part, as the sunk fence, should be used with great cau-
tion ; as there are none of this class but what look ill from at least one point of view, that is, when seen
lengthways.

6876. In planting to form a park or residence, with the exception of the boundary fence, and that which
separates the lawn or mown surface from the grazed scenery, no permanent barrier of a formal nature
should ever be admitted. In verj- bleak situations, walls or mounds of earth, however unsightly, may be
necessary for a time to shelter and draw up the plants ; but the final removal of these and all fences in
parks, should be looked to as certain. Light palings, the rails coated over with tar or pyrolignous acid,
and the posts charred by burning at the lower end, to render them durable, may be used in the greater
number of cases; and in many, where the plants are larger, and the soil and other circumstances favor-
able to their growth, hurdles or other moveable rails or palings may be used. " The present improved
stateof the manufacture of iron offers a very desirable accommodation in this respect, affording the best
guards for single plants and groups ; and iron hurdles, or lines of cast-iron standards and half-inch wires,
as rails for masses, have a light and temporary appearance, highly congenial to the idea of their speedy
removal. The lines of the fences conforming to the irregular shapes of the masses will not be disagree-
able to the eye, if those of the latter are arranged with any regard to apparent connection ; for any ob-
jects, whether lines or forms, however deficient in beauty of themselves, acquire a degree of interest, and
even character, when connected and arranged in such a way as to form a whole. When a plantation is
finally to be composed both of trees and undergrowths, thorns, sloes, hollies, berberries, and briars, may,
in many cases prevail in the margin ; which, when the fence is removed, will form a picture.-que phalanx,
and protect the whole. Partial inroads, formed by cattle, will only heighten the variety and intricacy of
such masses." {Edin. Encyc. art. Landscape Gardening.) In this way, as Price observes (Essays, vol. i.),
the planter may plant as thick as he chooses, and never think of thinning or future management, only
taking care to introduce no more trees than what he intends to remain finally as timber. The great ma-
jority of the plants being shrubs will soon be overtopped by the timber-trees, which, having abundance
of head-room, will grow up in free and unconstrained shapes. The future care of plantations is so ge-
nerally neglected, that this suggestion, under certain circumstances, well merits adoption ; though it cer-
tainly can have no pretension to be called a scientific or profitable mode of planting. It is what it pre-
tends to be, a picturesque mode.

958

PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Pahx III.

Chap. V.
Of the Culture and Management of Plantations.

6877. On the management of plantations, Pontey and Sang observe, that it is too
common a case to consider a tree, when once planted, as done with ; though, as every
one knows, the progress and products of trees, like those of other plants, may be greatly
increased or modified by cultivating the soil, pruning and thinning.

6878 With respect to ctiltnre of the soil, it is evident that young plantations should be kept clear of such
weeds as have a tendency to smother the plants ; and though this is not likely to take place on heaths and
barren sites, yet even these should be looked over once or twice during summer, and at least those weeds
removed which are conspicuously injurious. In grounds which have been prepared previously to plant-
ing weeding, hoein-' by hand, or bv the horse-hoe, and digging or ploughing, become necessary accordmg
to circumstances. The hoeings are performed in summer to destroy weeds, and render the soil pervious
to the weather : the ploughing and diggings in winter for the same purpose, and sometimes to prepare
the soil for spring crops. These, both Pontey and Sang allow, may be occasionally introduced among
newly planted trees ; though it must not be forgotten that relatively to the trees, the plants composing
such crops are weeds, and some of them, as the potatoe, weeds of the most exhausting kind.

6879. Jh preparing land for solving woods. Sang ploughs in manure, sows in rows six feet apart, and
crops the ground between, with low-growing early potatoes, turnip, lettuce, or other green crops. He
does not approve of cropping the intervals with young trees, as a sort of nursery, as they prove more
scourging crops than esculent vegetables, nor with grain, as not admitting of culture, and being too ex.
hausting for the soil. Marshall, and some other authors, however, approve of sowing the tree-seeds with
a crop of grain, and hoeing up the stubble and weeds when the crop is removed.

6680. Pontey observes, " that wherever preparing the soil for planting is thought necessary, that of
cultivating it for some years afterwards will generally be thought the same; for where quick growth is
essantial, cleanliness of appearance is usually of consequence. Slight crops of potatoes, with short tops,
or turnips, may be admitted into such plantations with advantage for two or three years, as they create a
necessity for annually digging or stirring the surface, and tend very materially to accelerate the growth
of the plants. It may be objected, that such crops must impoverish the soil, and no doubt but such is
the fact, so far as common vegetables are concerned ; but as to the production of wood, its support de-
pends, in a great measure, on a different species of nutriment ; and hence, I could never observe that
such cropping damaged it materially." {Profit. Plant. ^. 153.) Osier -plantations for basket-willows and
hoops, require digging and cleaning during the whole course of their existence ; and so do hedge-rows to
a certain extent, and some ornamental plantations.

6881. Filling up blanks is one of the first operations that occurs in the culture of plantations next to the
general culture of the soil, and the care of the external fences. According to Sang, a forest plant-
ation after pitting, either in the mass form or ordinary mixture, should remain several years after plant,
ing, before filling up the vacancies, by the death of the hard-wood plants, takes place. Hard-wood plants,
in the first year, and even sometimes in the second year after planting, die down quite to the surface of
the ground, and are apparently dead, while their roots, and the wood immediately above them, are quite
fresh, and capable of producing very vigorous shoots, which they frequently do produce, if allowed to
stand in their places. If a tree, such as that above alluded to, be taken out the first or second year after
planting, and the place filled up with' a fresh plant cf the same kind, what happened to the former may
probably happen to the latter; and so the period of raising a plant on the spot may be protracted to a
great length of time ; or it is possible this object may never be gained.

6882. The filling up of the hard ivood kinds in a plantation which has been planted after trenching, or sum-
mer-fallow which has been kept clean by the hoe, may be done with safety at an earlier period than under
the foregoing circumstances ; because the trees, in the present case, have greater encouragement to grow
vigorously after planting, and may be more easily ascertained to be entirely dead, than where the nafutal
herbage is allowed to grow among them.

6883. But the filling up of larches and pines may take place the first spring after the plantation has been
made ; because such of these trees as have died are more easily distinguished. In many cases when a larch
or a fir loses its top, either by dying down, or the biting of hares and rabbits, the most vigorous lateral branch
is elected by nature to supply the deficiency, which bv degrees assumes the character of an original top.
Pines and larches, therefore, which have fresh lateral branches, are not to be displaced, although they
have lost their tops. Indeed, no tree in the forest, or other plantation, ought to be removed, until there
be no room left to hope for its recovery. If the filling up of plantations be left undone till the trees have
risen to fifteen or twenty feet in height, their roots are spread far abroad, and their tops occupy a consi-
derable space. The introduction of two or three plants, from a foot to three feet in height, at a particular
deficient place, can never, in the above circumstances, be attended with any advantage. Such plants may
indeed become bushes, and may answer well enough in the character of underwood, but they will for ever
remain unfit for any other purpose. It is highly improper, then, to commence the filling up of hard-wood
plantations before the third year after planting ; or to protract it beyond the fifth or the sixth. March is
the proper season for this operation. [Plant. Kahmd. 295.)

6884. Pruning is the most important operation of tree culture, since on it, in almost
every case, depends the ultimate value, and in most cases, the actual bulk of timber pro-
duced. In the purposes of pruning, as for most other practical purposes, the division of
trees into resinous or frondose-branched trees, and into non-resinous or branchy-headed
sorts, is of use. Tlie main object in pruning frondose-branched trees is to produce a trunk
with clean bark and sound timber ; that in pruning branchy-stemmed trees, is prin-
cipally to direct the ligneous matter of the tree into the main stem or trunk, and also to
produce a clean stem and sound timber, as in the other case. The branches of frondose
trees, unless in extraordinary cases, never acquire a timber size, but rot off from the
bottom upwards, as the tree advances in height and age ; and, therefore, whether pruned
or not, the quantity of timber in the form of trunk is the same. The branches of the
other division of trees, however, when left to spread out on every side, often acquire a
timber-like size ; and as the ligneous matter they contain is in general far from being
so valuable as when produced in the form of a straight stem, the loss by not pruning off
their side branches, or preventing them from acquiring a timber-like size, is evident. '^ On
the other hand, when they are broken off by accident, or rot off by being crowded toge-
ther, the timber of the trunk, though in these cases increased in quantity, is rendered
knotty and rotten in quality.

Book III.

CULTURE, &c. OF PLANTATIONS.

959

_^v,a__,_J|g»2i<— »-

6885. Ulih respect to the manner of pruning, where straight timber is the object, both classes in their
infancy, as Sang observes, sliould be feathered from the bottom upwards, keeping the tops light and
8|)ira], something resembling a young larch, (fig. 657. a) The proportion of their tops should be gradually
diminished, year by year, till about their twentieth

year, when they should occupy a third part of the ^ /^

height of the plant ; that is, if the tree be thirty feet . V^/ . Av/

high, the top should be ten feet (6). In all cases in
pruning off the branches, the utmost care must be
taken not to leave any stumps sticking out, but to
cut them in to the quick. It is only by this means
that clean timber can be procured for the joiner ; or
sightly smooth-stemmed trees to please the eye. It
is a very general practice to leave snags or stumps
(c) ; before the bole can be enlarged sufBciently to
cover these, many years must elapse ; the stumps in
the meantime become rotten ; and the consequence
is timber which when sawn up (rf) is only fit for fuel

6886. Pontet/ says, " The sap of a tree may be consi-
dered as the raw material furnished by nature ; and
man, the manufacturer who moulds it into the form
most useful for his purpose. A moderate quantity of
leaves and small wood is necessary to every tree ; but
all above that quantity are of no use to the plant, and
of little value to its owner." (Forest Pruner, 152,
158.)

6887. Pruning for ornament or beauty must be
guided in its operations by what that beauty is. If
it is the beauty of art, then the trees may require to
be cut or clipped into the shape of animals (fig.&io.) j
or inanimate natural objects, as mounds of earth,
mushrooms ; or geometric forms, triangles, globes,
cones ; or walls, columns, arcades, vases, arbors,
temples, theatres, or other architectural or sculptural compositions, (fig. 658.) The dwarfing of tree;i is
also another kind of artificial beauty, much practised by the Chinese; and though the habit be kept up
chiefly by withholding nourishment ; yet
the dwarf is produced by ringing a branch;
enveloping it in a ball of loam ; amputat-
ing it when it has mnrie roots ; and then
pinching off all exuberance of growth so
as to keep it into shape. (Livingstone,
in Hort. Trans, iv. 22-1.)
Z" 6888. If natural beauty is desired, then
the pruning must be rather negative than
positive; the object being to let the tree
assume its natural shape, or, as Sang de-
scribes it, " express its own nature."
All that man can do, therefore, in the
way of pruning for this object, is to assist
a plant of the tree kind to express the
characteristics of a tree ; that is, a pow-
erful trunk and ample spreading head,
which distinguishes it from a shrub; and
this he does by clearing a part of the tree
of its side branches ; and by avoiding to
train up a shrub with a single stem like a diminutive tree. In attending to these instructions the great
importance of the use of leaves must never be lost sight of: this is not, as Pontey asserts, to attract the
sap, but to elaborate it when propelled to thenv, and thus form the extract or food taken in by the plant,
into a fluid analogous to blood, and which is returned so formed by the leaves into the inner bark and soft
wood. It must be a very nice point, therefore, to determine the quantity of branches or leaves that should
be left on each tree ; and if no more are left than what are necessary, then in the case of accidents to them
from insects, the progress of the tree will be doubly retarded. Experience alone can determine these
things. Both Pontey and Sang agree that " strength is gained as effectually by a few branches to form a
head as by many."

6889. T/ie general seasons of pruning are winter and spring, and for the gean midsummer, as it is found
to gum very much at any other season. Pontey says, " as to the proper season for pruning, there is only
one difficulty ; and that is discovering the wrong one, or the particular time when trees will bleed. Only
two trees have been found which bleed uniformly at certain seasons, ;iamely, the sycamore and firs, which
bleed as soon as the sap begins to move. In spring pruning, desist when this takes place." As a general
rule, he thinks " summer preferable to winter pruning ; because, in proportion as wounds are made early
they heal so much the more in the same season." [Forest Pruner, 236.)

6890. Sang suspends pruning from the end of February to the middle of July, but carries it on during
every other month of the year ; the gean, or any other tree very apt to gum, he prunes only in July and
August. (Plant. Kal. 268.)

6891. IVith resjyect to the implements to be used. Sang observes, " In every case where
tlie knife is capable of lopping off the branch in question, namely, in the pruning of infant
plants, it is the only instrument necessary. All other branches should be taken off by the
saw. A hatchet, or a chisel, should never be used. Every wound on the stem, or bole,
should be quite into the quick, that is, to the level and depth of the bark ; nor should
the least protuberance be left. The branch to be lopped off by the saw should, in all
cases, be notched or slightly cut on the under side, in order to prevent the bark from
being torn in the fall ; and when the branch has been removed, the edges of the wound,
if anywise ragged, should be pared smooth with the knife. If the tree be vigorous, na-
turg will soon cover the wound over with bark, without the addition of any plaster to ex-
elude the air. In the shortening of a strong branch, the position of which is pretty
upright, it should be observed to draw the saw obliquely across it, in such a manner as
that the face of the wound shall be incapable of retaining moisture ; and afterwards to
smooth the edges of the bark with the knife." {PlaTU. Kal. 181.) In every case wlicrc

960 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

the branches are too large for the knife, Pontey prefers the saw, as the best and most ex-
peditious instrument ; and one, the use of which is more easily acquired by a laborer
than that of either the bill or axe. In "large work" he uses the common carpenters
saw ; for smaller branches, one with somewhat finer teeth, with the plate of steel, and
about twenty inches long. Having stated what is general in pruning, the next thing is
to submit some particular applications of the art to resinous and non-resinous timber-
trees, copse- woods, osier-holts, hedges, and hedge-rows, and trees in parks.

6892. Resinous trees, Pontey and Sang agree, should not be pruned at so early an age as the non-resin-
ous kinds. Sang commences about the sixth or eighth year, according to their strength or vigor, and
removes no more than one or two tiers of branches at once. Pontey, when the plants are about eight feet
high, gives the first pruning by " displacing two or at most three tiers of the lower branches ; after whtch,
intervals of three years might elapse between the prunings ; never displacing more than two tiers at once,
except more shall prove dead." {Forest Pruner, 504.) Sang judiciously observes, " Excessive pruning,
either of firs, larches, or deciduous trees of any sort, is highly injurious, not only to the health of the
plant, but to the perfection of the wood. If a sufficient number of branches are not left on the young
plant to produce abundance of leaves, perfectly to concoct its juice, the timber will be loose in its texture,
and liable to premature decay." {Pfanf. Kal. 182.) The opinions of Nicol and Monteath are at variance
with those of Pontey and Sang, as to pruning resinous trees. Nicol advises leaving snags {Pract. Plant.
213.), and Monteath {For. Guide, 45.) says, " Never cut off a branch till it has begun to rot, as the bleeding
of a live branch will go far to kill the tree."

6893. Non-resinous trees. Sang observes, " should be pruned betimes, or rather from their infancy, and
thenceforward at intervals of one or at most two years. If the pruning of young forest-trees is performed
only at intervals of eight or ten years, the growth is unnecessarily thrown away, and wounds are inflicted
which will ever after remain blemishes in the timber ; whereas, if the superfluous, or competing branches
had been removed annually, and before they attained a large size, the places from which they issued
would be imperceptible, or at least not hurtful to the timber, when it came to the hands of the artist.
The pruning of all deciduous trees should be begun at the top, or at least those branches which are to be
removed from thence should never be lost sight of. Having fixed upon what may be deemed the best
shoot for a leader, or that by which the stem is most evidently to be elongated and enlarged, every other
branch on the plant should be rendered subservient to it, either by removing them instantly, or by short-
ening them. Where a plant has branched into two or more rival stems, and there are no other very
strong branches upon it, nothing more is required, than simply to lop off the weakest clean by the bole,
leaving only the strongest and most promising shoots. If three or four shoots or branches be contending
for the ascendancy, they should, in like manner, be lopped off, leaving only the most promising. If any
of the branches which have been left further down on the bole of the plant at former prunings have
become very strong, or have extended their extremities far, they should either be taken clean off by the
bole, or be shortened at a proper distance from it ; observing always to shorten at a lateral twig of consi-
derable length. It is of importance that the tree be equally poised ; and therefore if it have stronger
branches on the one side than the other, they should either be removed or be shortened. Thus, a pro-
perly trained tree, under twenty feet in height, should appear light and spiral, from within a yard or two
of the ground to the upper extremity j its stem being furnished with a moderate number of twigs and
small branches, in order to detain the sap, and circulate it more equally through the plant. Trees of this
size, standing in a close plantation, after being properly formed, will require much less attention ; indeed,
subsequent prunings will mostly consist in keeping their leading shoots single. From the want of air,
their lateral branches will not be allowed to extend, but will remain as twigs upon the stem. These,
however, frequently become dead branches ; and if such were allowed to remain at all on the trees, they
would infallibly produce blemishes calculated greatly to diminish the value of the timber : hence the im-
propriety of allowing any branch to die on the bole of a tree ; indeed, all branches should be removed
when they are alive ; such a method, to our knowledge, being the only sure one to make good timber.
From these circumstances, an annual pruning, or at least an annual examination, of all forests, is neces-
sary." {Plant. Kal. 180.)

6894. Heading down such non-resinous trees as stole we have already (6829.) stated to be
an important operation. After the trees have been three or four years planted. Sang
directs that such as have not begun to grow freely should be headed down to within
three or four inches of the ground. The cut must be made with the pruning-knife in a
sloping direction, with one effort. Great care should be taken not to bend over the tree
in the act of cutting. By so bending, the root may be split, a thing which too often
happens. The operation should be performed in March, and not at an earlier period of
the season, because the wounded part might receive much injury from the severe weather
in January and February, and the expected shoot be thereby prevented from rising so
strong and vigorous. {Plant. Kalend. 297.) Buffon, in a memorial on the culture of
woods, presented to the French government in 1 742, says he has repeated this experi-
ment so often, that he considers it as the most useful practice he knows in the culture of
woods.

6895. For the purpose of producing hends for sUp-timher, various modes of pruning have been proposed.
According to Pontey, " little is hazarded by saying, that if plenty of long, clean, straight, free-grown trees
could be got, boiling and a screw apparatus would form bends." Monteath, a timber valuator of great
experience, and in extensive practice, says, the value of the oak, the broad-leaved elm, and Spanish
chestnut, depends a good deal on their being crooked, as they are all used in ship-building. He says he
has seen trees successfully trained into crooked shapes of great value, in the following manner : " If you
have an oak, an elm, or chestnut, that has two stems, as it were, striving for the superiority, lop or prune
off the straightest stem ; and if a tree that is not likely to be of such value be standing on that side, to
which the stem left seems to incline to a horizontal position, take away the tree, and thus give the other
every chance of growing horizontally. At this time it will be necessary to take away a few of the perpendi-
cular shoots off the horizontal branch ; and, indeed, if these branches, which is sometimes the case in these
trees, seem to contend, take away most of them ; but if they do not, it is better at this time not to prune
these trees over-much, except the crooked slioots on the horizontal branch, till they arrive at the height
of fifteen or even twenty feet. By this time it will be easily seen what kind of tree it is likely to form ;
and, if It mchnes to grow crooked, lighten a little the top of the tree, by taking off a few of the crooked
orancnes on the straighter side, allowmg all the branches to remain on the side to which the tree inclines
to crook, to give It more weight, and to draw most of the sap or juice that way, and it will naturally
kI i'^f "^^^^lu ^ T?^ ' u^ '''u ^^"^^ *'™'' clearing away any other tree on the crooked side, that may
nfof of w 1 "''"''' *" ^^'P ^^^ ^'^^ ^^ ^^^ t""^^ ^ ^^hich it inclines to crook, also taking away such
tree ot less value as may prevent it from spreading out to the one side more than to tlie other." He adds.

Book III. CULTURE, &c. OF PLANTATIONS. 961

" I have myself tried the experiment with several oak-trees at about twelve feet high that were a little
inclined to crook, and that had also a main branch inclined to a horizontal jxisit'ion. In the course of less
than twenty years I had the pleasure of seeing some of these very trees grow so very crooked that the
branch would work in with the main stem or body of the tree, to a complete knee, or square, which is the
most WiluabK' of all trees. And as ten trees of crooked oak arc required for one straight one, it is of the
most essential consequence to have crooked oak-trees ; and, besides, an oak-tree, properly crooked, that
will answer for a large knee — say the main branch, to be fit to work in with the body or trunk of the tree
without much waste of wood, is nearly double in value to tlie same number of straight trees ; and,
indeed, knees of oak are extremely scarce, and difficult to be got."

6896. Pontey " knows of no way by which bends of tolerable scantlings (knees excepted) can be pro-
duced with certainty and little trouble, but from a side branch kept in a bent position by the branches of
another tree or trees overhanging its stem." (Forest Pruner, 174.)

6897. Copjnce-woods, in so far as grown for poles or bark, require pruning on the
s^me principle as timber trees, in order to modify the ligneous matter into stem, and
produce clean bark. In as far as they are grown for fence-wood, fuel, or besom-spray,
no pruning is required.

6898. Osier-holts only require the laterals to be pinched off the shoots intended for hoops ; those for the
basket-maker seldom produce any. The stools also require to be kept free from dead wood and stinted
knotty protuberances.

6899. Hedge-rou^s require side pruning, or switching, from their first planting, so as
gradually to mould them into " the wedge shape, tapering from bottom to top on both
sides equally, till they meet in a point at the top. Two feet at bottom is a sufficient
breadth for a five-feet hedge : a greater or a less height should have the bottom wider or
narrower accordingly. In dressing young hedges, either of the deciduous or evergreen
kinds, the sides only should be cut till the hedge arrive at the proposed height, unless it
be necessary, for the sake of shelter, to cut their tops over, in order to make the hedge
thicker of branches. Such cutting of the upright shoots, however, is not of any very
great use in this respect ; because every hawthorn-hedge sends out a number of side
shoots, which, if encouraged, by keeping the top narrow as above, will make it abund-
antly thick." (S(aig, 447.) In pruning hedges, some use shears; but the hedge-bill
(Jig. 115.) is the most proper instrument, and prunes a smooth unfractured section, not
so apt to throw out a number of small useless shoots as generally follow the bruised cut
of the shears. (Jig- 125.)

6900. Hedge-row trees require to be pruned to a tall, erect, clean stem, as at once
producing more timber and doing least injury to the ground under their drip and shade.

6901. Trees in strips for shelter, or screens for concealment, ought to be furnished with branches
from the bottom upwards ; unless undergrowth supply this deficiency. Where this is not the case, care
should be had that the trees be pruned into conical shapes, so as that the lower branches maybe as Uttle as
possible excluded from the influence of the weather by the upper ones.

6902. Trees for shade, where shelter from wiruis is not wanting, should be pruned to ample spreading
heads with naked stems ; ibe stems should be of such a height that the sun's rays, at mid-day, in mid-
summer, may not fall within some yards of the base of the trunk ; thus leaving, under the tree, as well as
on its shady side, a space for the repose of men or cattle.

6903. Trees in parks may be considered as chiefly ornamental ; and for this purpose
should be left with larger heads than such as are grown chiefly for timber. Tlie height
to which the stems are cleared of branches should vary according to the kind of tree
^Jig. 659. aio e) ; and hollies, thorns, and such shrubs as are left untouched, or that are

protected by enclosure from the cropping of cattle (/,g), should be left entirely to
themselves. In parks, where no pruning whatever is given to the timber-trees by man,
we find they are all pruned or browsed to a certain height by cattle : this adds to their
character as trees, but in flat surfaces forms a disagreeable repetition of the horizontal
line in which they stand. To break this browsing line, pruning is a simple, obvious, and
fiectual resource.

6904 Some trees in pleasure-grounds and lawns, where no cattle ever come, may be allowed to ex-
tend their branches so as they may almost recline on the turf; others may be pruned to different heights,
according to their natures. Limes, planes, cedars, and firs have a fine effect with their branches depend-
ing from their trunks ; and give an idea of seclusion and exclusive consecration to man, highly charac-
teristic of what is caUed pleasure-ground.

6905. The properli/ thinning out of plantations, Sang observes, « is a matter of the
first importance in their culture. However much attention be paid to the article of
pruning, if the plantation be left too thick, it will be inevitably ruined. - A circulation of
air neither too great nor too small, is essential to the welfare of the whole. This should
not be wanting at any period of the growth of the plantation ; but, in cases where it has
been prevented by neglect, it should not be admitted all at once, or suddenly. Open-
ing a plantation too much at once, is a sure way to destroy its health and vigor. In

961^ PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Tart III.

tlnnnin«r, the consideration which should in kll cases predominate, is to cut for the good
of the timber left, disregarding the value of the thinnings. For, if we have it m our
choice to leave a good, and take away a bad plant or kind, and if it be necessary that one
of tlie two should fall, the only question should be, by leaving which of them shall we do
most justice to the laudable intention of raising excellent and full-sized timber for the
benefit of ourselves anil of posterity ? The worst tree should never be left, but with the
view of filling up an accidental vacancy."

6906 In thinnine mixed plantations, the removing of the nurses is the first object which generally
claims attention. This, l:Owevcr, should be cautiously performed ; otherwise the intention of nursing
might after all be thwarted. If the situation be much exposed, it will be prudent to retain more nurses,
although the plantation itself be rather crowded, than where the situation is sheltered. In no case, how-
ever should the nurses be suffered to overtop or whip the plants intended for a timber crop ; and for thu
reason in bleak situations, and when perhaps particular nurse-plants can hardly be spared, it may some-
times be necessary to prune off the branches from one side entirely. At subsequent thinnings, such pruned or
disfigured plants are first to be removed; and then those which, from their situation, may best be dispensed
with At what period of the age of the plantation all the nurses arc to be removed, cannot easily be de-
tcrmiired : and, indeed, if the nurses chiefly consist of larches, it may with propriety be said, that they
should never be totally removed, while any of tlie other kinds remain. For, besides that this i)lant is ad-
mirably calculated to compose part of a beautiful mixture, it is excelled by few kinds, perhaps by none, as
a timber-tree. , , . ^ . .,.

69()7. But when the nurses consist of inferior kinds, such as the mountain ash and the Scots pine, they
should generally be all removed by the time that the plantation arrives at tiie height of fifteen or twenty
feet, in order that the timber-trees may not, by their means, be drawn up too weak and slender. Before
this time, it may probably be necessary to thin out a part of the other kinds. The least valuable, and the
Ijast tliriving plants, should first be condemned, provided their removal occasion no blank or chasm ; but
wliere this would happen, they should be allowed to stand till the next, or other subsequent revision. At
what distance of time this revision should take place, cannot easily be determined ; as the matter must
very much depend en the circumstances of soil, shelter, and the state of health in which the plants may
be. In ge«oral the third season after will be soon enough ; and if the plantation be from thirty to forty
years old, and in a thriving state, it will require to be revised again, in mo.st cases, within seven years. But
one invariable rule ought to prevail in all cases, and In all situations ; to allow no plant to overtop or whip
another. Respect should be tiad to tlie distance of the tops, not to the distance of the roots of the trees ;
for some kinds requiVe much more head-room than others ; and all trees do not rise perpendicular to their
roots, even on the most level or sheltered ground.

6908. With respect to tlie final distance to which trees standing in a mixed plantation should be
thinned, it is hardly possible to prescribe fixed rules ; circumstances of health, vigor, the spreading nature
of the tree, and the like, must determine. Whether the trees are to be suffered to stand till full-grown ;
which of the kinds the soil seems best fittetl for ; whether the ground be flat or elevated ; and whether the
situation be exposed or shelttred, are all circumstances which must influence the determination of the
ultimate distance at*which the trees are to stand. It may, however, be said in general, that if trees be al-
lowed a distance of from twenty-five to thirty feet, according to their kinds and manner of growth, they
will have room enough to become larger timber.

0909. Plantations of Scots pine, if the plants have been put in at three or three and a half feet apart, will
retjuire little care until the trees be ten or twelve feet high. It is necessary to keep such plantations
thick in the early stages of their growth, in order that the trees may tower the faster, and push fewer
and weaker side branches. Indeed, a fir or soft wood plantation should be kept thicker at any period
«ff its growth than any of those consisting of hard wood and nurses already mentioned ; and it may
sometimes be proper to prune up certain plants as nurses, as hinted at above for nurses in a mixed
plantation. 'Those pruned up trees are of course to be reckoned temporary plants, and are afterwards
to be the first thinned out: next to these, all plants which have lost their leaders by accident should be
condemned ; because such will never regain them so far as afterwards to become stately timber; provided that
the removal of these mutilated trees cause no material blank in the plantation. Care should betaken
to prevent whipping; nor should the plantation be thinned much at any one time, lest havoc be made
by prevailing winds; an evil which many, through inadvertency, have thus incurred, lliis precaution
seems the more necessary, inasmuch as Scots pine, intended for useful large timber, are presumed never
to be planted except in exposed situations and thin soils. At forty years of age, a good medium dis-
tance for the trees may be about fifteen feet every way. It may be worthy of remark, however, that
after a certain period, perhaps by the time that the plantation arrives at the age of fifty or sixty years.
It will be proper to thin more freely, in order to harden the timber; and that, then, this may be done
with less risk of danger, from the strength the trees will have acquired, than at an earlier period ; but
still it should be done gradually.

6910. Plantations of spruce and silver firs, intended for large useful timber, should be kept much in
die manner above stated, both in their infancy and middle age. As already remarked, planting and
keeping them as thick as is consistent with their health, is the best means of producing tall, straight,
clean stems, and valuable timber. When planted for screens or for ornament, they require a different
treatment ; which will be noticed in the proper place.

6911. To larch.plantatlons, the above observations will also apply; and indeed they are applicable
to plantations of all kinds of resinous trees. It may be proper here to remark, that the exposed
margins of all young plantations should be kejit thicker than the interior. The extent to which this
rule should be carried, must be regulated according to the degree of exposure of the situation, the ago
of the plants, the tenderness of the kinds, and other circumstances.

6912. The projyer seasons for thinning are autumn, or very early in spring, where the
trees are to be taken up by the root and replanted elsewhere; and winter for thinning for
timber and fuel ; but such trees as are valuable for their bark slwuld be left untouched
till the sap rises in April or May. Copse-woods require thinning when young, like
other plantations, and when once established the stools require to be gone over the second
year after cutting, and all superfluous suckers and shoots removed. This operation
should be repeated annually, or every two or three years, in connection with pruning, till ,
within three or four years of the general fall of the crop.

G913. Ornamental plantations require to be thinned on principles agreeable to the intention with which
they were planted. In the artificial forms, the figure must be carefully preserved, as the main object -
and m plantations in imitation of nature, the principle of grouping and connection must be kept steadily
UJ view. A thm part is to be rendered thinner, and a thick group, or constellation of plants not ojiened
•yp» 1>U' merely deprived of such trees as are becoming smothered by the rest.

Book III. CULTURE, &c. OF PLANTATIONS. 963

G9M. Improving neglected plantations. Tliough it has been more or less fashionable,
for upwards of a century, to fonn plantations ; yet it has been also so generally the
custom to neglect tlieir future culture, that by far the greater pioportion of the surface
covered with trees in Britain may be considered as neglected or mismanaged. The ar-
tificial strips and masses have generally never been thinned or pruned ; and the natural
woods and copse- woods improperly thinned, or cut over. It is often a difficult matter
to make much of such cases ; and always a work of considerable time. " Trees," Sang
observes, " however hardy their natures may be, which have been reared in a thick
plantation, and consequently have been very much sheltered, have tlieir natures so far
changed, that if they be suddenly exposed to a circulation of air, which under different
circumstances, w^ould have been salul)rious and useful to them, will become sickly, and
die. Hence the necessity of admitting the air to circulate freely among trees in a
thick plantation, only gradually and. with great caution. To prevent a misfortune of
this kind, a plantation which has become close and crowded, having been neglected
from the time of planting till perhaps its twentietli year, should have only some of the
smallest and most unsightly plants removed : one perhaps, in every six or eight, in the
first season ; in the following season, a like number may be removed ; and in two or
three years after, it should be gone over again, and so on, till it be sufficiently thinned.
It will be proper to commence the thinning, as above, at tlie interior of the plantiitioh,
leaving tlie skirts thicker till the last ; indeed, the tliinning of the skirts of such a plant-
ation should be protracted to a great length of time." With thinning, pruning to a
certain extent should also be carried on. " If the plantiUion," Sang observes, " con-
sists of pines and firs, all the rotten stumps, decayed branches, and the like, must be cut
off close by the bole. It will be needful, however, to be cautious not to inflict too many
wounds upon the tree in one season ; the removing of these, therefore, shoidd be the
work of two or three years, rather than endanger tlie health of the plantation. After
the removal of these from the boles of the firs and larches, proceed every two or three
years, but with a sparing hand, to displace one or perhaps two tiers of the lowermost
iive brandies, as circumstances may direct ; being careful to cut close by the trunk, as
above noticed. In a plantation of hard wood, under the above circumstances, the trees
kft for the ultimate crop are not to be primed so much at first as might otherwise be
required ; only one or two of their competing branches are to be taken away, and even
tiiese with caution. If it be judged too much for the first operation to remove them en-
tirely, they may be shortened, to prevent the progress of the competition ; and the re-
maininfT parts may be removed in the following season ; at which time, as often obser>'ed,
they must be cut close by the bole." {^Plant. JCal. 467.)

G915. T/ie 0})cra(lon of thinning and pruning, thickening or filling up, or renewing portions that cannot
be profitably recovered, should thus go on year after year, as appearances may direct, on the general
principles of tree culture. And for this purpose the attentive observation and reflection of a judicious
manager will be worth more than directions which must be given with so much latitude. Pcntey has
noticed various errors in Kennedy's Treatise on Planting, and even in Sang's Knlendar, on the simple
subject of distances, which have originated in their giving directions for anticipated cases, which had
never come within their experience. " Most people," he says, " take it for granted, that if trees stand
three feet ai)art, they have only to take out the half, to make the distances six feet, though to do that,
they must take down three times as many as they leave. By the same rule again, most people would
suppose, that twelve feet distance was oiily the double of six ; but
the square of the latter is only thirty-six, and that of the former one
hundred and fortv-four, or four times the latter ; so that to bring six
feet distances to twelve, three trees must be removed for every one
left." {Profitatdc Planter, 256. ; Forest Pruner, 21.)

6916. Copse-woods are sometimes improved by turning them into
woods, which requires nothing more than a judicious selection and
reservation of those shoots from the stools which are strongest, and
which spring more immediately from the collar. But a greater im-
provement of copse-woods consists in cutting over the overgrown and
protuberant stools, by the surface of the soil (Jig. 660. a, b, c, d\ which
has been found by Monteath completely to regenerate them. The
oi)eration is iJtrformed with a saw, in a slanting direction, and the
young shoots being afterwards properly thinned and pruned, soon
establish themselves securely on tlie circumference of large, and per-
hai»s, rotten-hearted roots. {Forester's Guide, 60.)

6917. Hed"e-rows are often neglected, and, like larger plantations, require renovation
by cutting down and filling in vacancies, and by cultivating the soil at their roots.
Hedges, Sang observes, which have been long neglected, shoot up to a great height
like tiees, become naked at bottom, and occupy too much ground, at least for lands in
a state of high cultivation. The best method of reducing such to a proper size, and of
forming them into an immediate fence, is by plashing.

6918. Plashing. Tliis consists in selecting the strongest and straightest shoots.
Tliese are to be dressed up and headed down to four feet, and in such a way that the
tops of the whole may range in a neat line. These arc called the stakes ; and, when
they are deficient, either in strength or number, recourse must be had to artificial stakes,
which must be driven in to stand firm, and supply the deficiency of natural ones.
Havincr proceeded thus far in preparing the hedge for plashing, the hcdger is to begin

° 3 Q 2

964

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

at one end, and bend down as close as possible the remaining pliable branches, crossing
them in the manner of basket-work. Such as are too strong to be bent, may be cut
half through with the bill, which will render them pliable enough to be used ; and
such as are not required for any of the above-mentioned purposes, must be cut oft" close
to the ground. After the plashing is finished, the hedge should be dressed smooth on
both sides by the switching-bill or shears. There is another method of plashing,
which has been suggested as an improvement upon the foregoing ; and that is, by not
cutting any of the stems over as stakes, but weaving in the tops along with the other
branches. This method will not have so immediate a tendency to bare the lower parts
of the hedge by the growth of the top, as when any of the plants are cut over for stakes ;
but still, at the bendings, the growth will rush out with vigor ; besides this plan is at-
tended with more labor. Indeed, the best security against baring the bottom of a
plashed hedge, is by cutting over by the surface as many of the plants as can be at all
spared ; and the shoots arising from these will soon thicken the hedge at bottom.
Plashing can only be effectually and handsomely performed, when there is a good por-
tion of long, pliable, and well feathered branches, and where the hedge has, if not youth,
at least vio-or, on its side. After the plashing is completed, the ditch is to be scoured
out, and the bottom of the hedge cleaned and dressed up, in the same neat manner as
if all were new work.

6919. Cutting over old hedges is a much less expensive method of reclaiming or renewing, than any of
the above ; and, perhaps, in most cases, may be a more eligible one ; saving when an immediate fence is
the object. In cutting down an old hedge, there is certainly a very fit opportunity of laying the found-
ation of a complete and durable fence. The nature of the cutting must be regulated by circumstances, ac-
cording to the age, the strength, or the closeness of the hedge, and whether it have been planted in single
or double rows. If the hedge in question be pretty vigorous and branching towards the bottom, and if the
stems stand regularly and closely together, it may be brought into due subjection, without being cut down
to the ground. In this case, the sides are first to be switched up with the hook, not altogether close to the
stems, but within about a foot of them on each side at bottom, tapering up close at top, which should be
four or five feet high, according to the general height of the hedge : but if the hedge be thin at bottom, it
■will be advisable to cut more in, in order to make it bushy from the ground upwards. If the hedge is not
regularly close from end to end, but ragged, and full of gaps, the best method is to cut it over, within
eight or ten inches of the ground, and to fill up the gaps with stout well rooted plants of the same kind ;
or the gaps may be mended by the following method : — Let one of the stoutest thorn-plants next to the
gap be reserved uncut, and the space be digged over, or it may require to be filled up with rich earth to
within three inches of the height of the top of the ditch. Then having cleaned the thorn-plant of all side
branches or twigs, cut it half through at the height of the earth in the gap, on the side farthest from it, and
lay it down upon the earth, securCng the most distant end from rising up by a hooked pin ; then cover it
all over with rich earth, so as to make it the general height of the top of the ditch : and the thorn-plant so
laid down and covered, will take root, and send up a profusion of shoots over its whole length. If one plant
■will not reach the whole extent of the gap, one at each side probably will The surface of the bank should
be pointed up, and the ditch scoured as above directed in plashing.

6920. In other cases, when the hedge is getting thin below or too tall, and when the stems are placed
regularly within eight or ten inches of one another, and where it is necessary to retain a fence and at the
same time to cut so as to have a supply of young shoots from the bottom, the plan to be followed is to
cut alternately the one part to within eight or ten inches of the bottom, and the other at four feet high,
dressing the bank and scouring the ditch, as directed above. In cases where two rows of quicks have
been planted, the front one is to be cut bv the surface, and the other at four or five feet high, as circum-
stances may require.

6921. Neglected hedge-row timber may be improved by pruning according to its age.
Blakey recommends what he calls foreshortening, or cutting in, as the best method
both for young and old hedge-row timber. " This operation is performed by shortening
the over-luxuriant side branches
{jig. 661. a), but not to cut them
to a stump, as in snag pruning ;
on the contrary, the top only of
the branch should be cut off", and
the amputation effected imme-
diately above where an auxiliary
side shoot springs from the branch ^,
on which the operation is to be
performed (6) ; this may be at the
distance of two, four, or any other
number of feet from the stem of
the tree ; and suppose the auxi- -rnjmm.
liary branch which is left (when -•'"'"■'////
the top of the branch is cut off) is also over-luxuriant, or looks unsightly, it should also
be shortened at its sub-auxiliary branch, in the same manner as before described. The
branches of trees pruned in this manner are always kept within due bounds ; they do not
extend over the adjoining land to the injury of tlie occupier, at least, not until the stem
of the tree rises to a height out of the reach of pruning, when the top branches can do
comparatively little injury to the land. By adopting this system of pruning, the bad
effects of close pruning on old trees, and snag pruning on young ones, will be avoided •
the country will be ornamented ; and the community at large, as well as individuals,
benefited.

Book III.

CULTURE, &c. OF PLANTATIONS.

965

6922. Hedge-rows frequently require to be altered in direction to improve the form,
or increase the contents of farm-enclosures. ( fig. 662. ) Generally, and especially in

662

flat arable lands, this is done by eradicating such as are in unsuitable directions (a), and
substituting others (b) in parallel, or at least in straight lines ; but in rising grounds, and
where the surface will be improved by shelter, it frequently happens that a crooked
hedge is superseded by two straight ones, and the interval (c) filled up with plant-
ation. The advantage of straight-lined fields to a farmer is very considerable ; and when
this object is procured in the latter way, an improvement is produced both useful and
ornamental.

6923. Ornamental plantations are no less frequently neglected than such as are considered chiefly usefuL
Clumps, belts, and screens which have become thin, because they have not been thinned, are almost every
where to be met with. " In those neglected plantations," says Lord Meadowbank, " where dayUght may
be seen for miles, through naked stems, chilled and contracted by the cold, the mischief might, perhaps,
be partially remedied, by planting young trees round the extremities, which having room to spread luxu-
riantly, would exclude the winds, and the internal spaces might be thickened up with oak, silver firs,
beeches, and such other trees as thrive with a small portion of light. When once the wind is excluded, the
weakest of the old trees might be taken out, and the others left to profit by the ^^^

shelter and space that is afforded." {Life qf Lord Kaimes, by Tytler.) One of the ^^ ^?W».t^

most hopeless cases of improvement in this department is that of an old clump of A\f.''W^'\^^'^fi
Scotch pines {Jig. 663.}, from which scarcely any trees can be taken without risking ^"^ s^^ ■* ^^^
the failure of the remainder. The only way is to add to it, either by some scattered ^\t V,- » '^■^^
groups in one direction, or in various directions. Where a clump consists of hard \,^^«f C.^-^'47 '<^^
wood, either entirely or in part, it may sometimes, if effect permits, be reduced to -^-^ % -^"^^^^^^^^
a group, by gradually reducing the number of the trees. The group left should be l^^aX
composed of two or three trees of at least two species, different in bulk, and some- <^
what in habit, in order that the combmed mass may not have the formality of the
clump. , eC^

6924. Scattered trees in ornamental scenery otherwise of very good shapes, and very
well managed as to pruning, destroying the browsing line, &c. individually, are often,
from want of thinning in some places, and thickening in others, deficient in massiness

{Jig. 664.) ; the obvious remedy is to thin out some («), and plant others, so as to de-
stroy the straggling non-cooperating appearance which such trees present, and produce
something of grouping, massiveness, and character. [Jig. 665. )

6925. Wounds, bruises, casualties, and defects of trees.
required to be made by judicious pruning, easily heal up of themselves ; large wc
bv amnutations of branches, above six inches' diameter, should, if possible, ne

Small wounds, such as arc
.'ounds,
by amputations ot brancnes, aoove six imrues uiinucLci, suuuiu, « pussiujc, never be
made. Even wounds of six inches' diameter, or under, will heal quicker by the ^pli-
cation of anv material which excludes the air and preserves the wood from corruption;
and- we anree witli Sang, in recommending coal-tar, or the liquor produced from coals

3 Q 3 '

966 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

in manufacturing gas. It is, however, less favorable to the progress of the bark oyer
the wound than a coating of clay or cow-dung, covered with moss to keep it moist.
Pontey reconmiends putty and two coats of paint over it. In case the wood, at a bruised
or amputated place, have by neglect become already corrupted, the rotten or dead wood
is to be pared out quite into the quick ; and the wound is then to be dressed with tar, or
clay covered with a piece of mat, sacking, or moss. A wound, hollowed out as above,
may at first appear an unsightly blemish ; but, in subsequent years, nature will lay the
coats of wood, under the new-fomied bark, thicker at that place ; and probably may, in
time, fill it up to be even with the general surface of the tree.

6926 AW fractures, by whatever means produced, are to be managed as the circumstances of the case
require. If a large branch be broken over at the middle of its length, it should be sawn clear off close by
the lateral which is nearest to the bole of the tree : but, if there is no lateral, or branch, capable to carry
forward the growth, cut the main or fractured branch in quite to the bole. In Iwth cases, treat the
wounds as above recommended.

6927. Interior rotting, arising from the dampness of the soil, cannot by the art of man be cured ;
though it might have been prevented by timeous draining. The hearts of trees frequently rot, wliere there
is no excess of moisture, and especially such as have been produced from old roots left in the ground by
a previous felling. Such roots, when in good ground, send up very great shoots with few leaves in pro-
portion to their sizes ; by the absence of a profusion of these, properly to concoct the juices so abundantly
supplied by the roots, the fibre of the wood is loose and imperfect ; the next season will supply more leaves
in proportion to the supply of juices, yet not a sufficient number for making perfect timber ; several years
may pass before this event arrive : thus crude and ill digested timber disposed to premature decay, is the
foundation over which subsequent coatings of v/ood are laid : yet, however perfect these may be, they do
not prevent the progress of decomposition going on in the interior. Nature teaches how necessary nume-
rous leaves are to the proportion of the solid wood ; the cotyledons and subsequent leaves of a one- year-
old tree are a thousand times greater, comparetl to its solid contents, than are the leaves to the solid con-
tents of the first year's shoots from roots like the above.

6928. Shakes often arise from the weight and multiplicity of top branches, and might have been pre-
vented by timeous pruning. Shakes or rents in the boles of trees, however, often happen where there is
no excess of tops. Sometimes the rain running down from the branches, wets one jiart of the bole, while
the rest is comparatively dry. If this circumstance is succeeded by an intense frost, before the wetted
side becomes dry, the bole may be rent for a great length, and perhaps to the depth of the core. Shakes
or rents, like the above, are difficult to cure. The best method of helping them, is to trace out their up-
per extremity, caulk it up with oakum, and pitch it over, to prevent the rain descending that way in
future. {Sang.)

6929. In cases of hollown^ss, Pontey recommends probing to the bottom, letting out the water, if any,
with an auger, drying the cavity with a cloth, filling it with dry sand, plugging it with wood and oakum,
and then painting it over.

tjydO. Decorticated stems or branches stripped by lightning, or otlierwise, if the soft wood is not much
injured, will heal over and become covered with bark ; and this the more certainly and rapidly if the air
be excluded by a coating of adhesive matter, as cow-dung and quick-lime, or tying on moss or bandages
of mat or cloth. Pontey gives an instance in which such treatment was successful in the case of an
apple-tree. {Pruner, 230.) We" have witnessed it on an extensive scale on the trunk of a pear-tree ; and
we are informed, on the best authority, of other cases now under progress, in the government garden of
the Luxembourg at Paris, as matter of experiment, by Du Thouars, a mo.st ingenious physiologist.

6931. Withered or decayed tops may arise from age and incipient decay ; but also, as Pontey states,
from improper pruning, or the want of it. We often see it from improper pruning of elms, which, after
having been close pruned to their summits for many years, are left entirely to nature; in that case they
branch out luxuriantly below, and the top withers. By neglecting to thin out the branches on the stems
of non -resinous trees, the .same effect may be produced.

6932. Stinted biishi/ tops show a deficiency of nourishment; on very tall naked stems it is from these
circumstances ; and on short stems from defects in the soil. Obliquely placed misshapen heads, in de-
tached trees, commonly proceed from the same causes and want of shelter. Stinted growth, both in tops
and stems, is also produced by ivy, and by lichens, mosses, the mistletoe, and other parasites. Ivy com-
presses the bark, precludes its expansion, as well as excludes air and moisture, by which the outer bark
becomes rigid and corky. Happily, both men and trees will live along time under the influence both of
deformity and disease.

6933. Excessive exudations of gum and resins are peculiar to resinous and some other trees when ovcr-
puned, or pruned at improi^er times. Mildew, honeydew, and blight, three popular names applied to
the effects of certain uisects oi the aphis kind, attack the oak, beech, poplar, and many trees • all that
can be said is, if proper regimen has been regularly attended to, trees will overcome these and all other
enemies.

6934. Inects and vermin. Almost every tree has its particular insect of the hemipterous and dipterous
families, and many of the coleoptera family are common to all. The foliage of the small-leaved elm of
liedges is often almost entirely destroyed in the early part of the season by tenthredinidjc ; and those of
the larch and Scotch pine have suffered materiallvin some seasons from aphides. The Aphis laricea L
(Eriosomata of Leach) increased to an alarming extent from 1800 to 1802, on the larch, on account of
three dry seasons following each other; but, though it retarded their growth, it ultimatelv destroved
very few tr-es. Sang says he has known it since 1785; that it dirties more than injures the tree and is
now (1819) thought little of Indeed, almost every species of tree has been known to have suffered in
some one or more seasons, and in particular districts from insects ; for which, on so large a scale there
seems to be no applicable remedy but patiently waiting till their excess, or the increase of other vermin
their natural enemies, or a change of seasons, cause them to disappear. Trees, properly cultivated and'
managed, generally overcome such enemies. The hare is well k.iown to be very injurious to vounir trees
and especially to laburnums, by gnawing off their bark. Coating their stems with dung and'urine fresli
from the cow-house, is said to be an effectual remedy. It may be put on with a brush about two feet
lifgh ; a barrow-load will suffice for a hundred trees, with stems of three or four inches in diameter • and
:ts virtue, after laid on, endures at least two years. {Bull, in Calcd. Hort. Metn iv 190 )

Book III. PREPARING TREES FOR USE OR SALE. 967

Chap. VI.

Of ajyjyrojrriating the Products of Trees, preparing them far Use or Sale^ and estimating

their Value.
6935. Of the different jrroducts afforded by trees, the first is their /t'ow5, whic.h are or
may be collected in close plantations for the sake of the manure they afford ; and in open
groves, parks, and lawns, for that purpose, and to prevent their injuring the grassy sur-
face. Leaves are also gathered on the continent as food for cattle. Though, at first
consideration, leaves would appear to benefit pastures by sheltering the roots of
the grass during winter, and afterwards rotting into manure ; y^t experience proves,
that in considerable quantities they impode the growth of the grass plants, by
bringing on decay at their roots, in all probability owing to their exclusion of air.
For this purpose, in well wooded parks, the leaves are carefully collected in tlie begin-
ning of winter, and carried to rot-heaps in secluded situations, where in two years from
the time of gathering, they become the valuable mould so much in demand by tlie gar-
dener. A verj* ingenious machine for s\^eeping together, and at tlie same time lifting
up leaves into a box or receiver, has been invented by Snowdon, a London machinist,
and has been partially in use in Windsor Forest and at Hampton Court ; it is also calcu-
Lited for cuttiiig or wrenching off weeds, (as clean cut weeds are found to grow again,
tlie same season, while the roots of the others often rot,) or mowing and lifting the weeds
or swarth into the cart ; but it is not yet sufficiently matured to enable us to describe it as
completely answering all its intended purposes. Great credit, however, is due to the m,
genious inventor, who has been occupied on it for upwards of two years, and who has
sjiared neither time nor money.

(W36 Prunings or spray arc the next product of trees ; those which they afTord at a very early pcripd,
end all clippings of hetlges or artificial forms, are only fit to be used as leaves ; the larger prunings uuiy J.ic
usefl for some of the various purposes to which copse-wood and the lop of trees are applied. Qur.tbe
continent, and especially in Sweden and Norway, spray of all kinds is carefully faggotted in summer»driitl
and slacked for the use of cattle in winter. This was also the practice of the Romans, who preferred the
spray of the elm, as the Swedes do that of the birch.

69o7. The t/iinnini^s, when not beyond a suitable age, and taken up properly (6905.) and at a proper aea.
son, may be r->planted in other situations, or as single trees and groups; or they may be used as hoops,
hop-ix)les, poles for garden-training, for fencing, for props in coaleries, and for a great variety of pur-
I>oses; those whose barks are useful for tannin should not be cut down or rooted up till May", but the
others at any time during winter. It is common to sort them into lots, according to their kiiid or siae ;
and to faggot up the spray for fuel, besom-stuff, or for distilling for bleachers' liquid. See CopserWooiis,

f>D3S. TJif sreds of trees in general cannot be considered of much use beyond that of continuing the
species, and therefore, in very particular cases, where it is desired a tree should attain bulk as rapid^j- as
possible, the flowers should be pinched ofFas they appear. The seeds of the oak, beech, and sweet chestnut,
however, are valuable for feeding swine, and where they abound may either be swept together after they
drop, and carried away and preserved dry in lofts for thai purpose ; or if other circumstances are favorable,
^wiiie may be driven under the trees to collect them. These, and other seeds, as the haw and holly, are
aUo oaten" by deer. The seeds of the trees mentioned, and of all the resinous tribe, are in general demand
by the nurserymen for the purjioses of propagation. The seeds of almost all other trees and shrubs are
also in limited or occasional demand ; or may be collected for private sowing. They generally ripeu late
in the season, and are to be collected in the end of autumn or beginning of winter, with the exception
of a few, such as the elm, poplar, willow, and one or two others, which i\\yQn their seeds in May or
June.

69o9. In osicr.grmtnds, willows, whether intended for the basket-maker or cooper, should not be cut till
the second .season after planting, in order to strengthen the stools ; but by the third autumn the crop will
be fit for the basket-maker, and the fourth, plantations intended for the cooper (hoops requiring the
growth of two years") will be ready. The seasons for cutting are November and March ; after the former
period the wounds are apt to Ik; injured by frost, and after the latter the sap is too far advanced ; some is
lost by bleeding, and the buds are developed too suddenly to admit of proper strength in the shoots. The
cut should be made within three buds of the point whence the shoot issued, in a sloping direction, and the
section on the under-side. (1885.) In cutting hoop-willows, the swell at the bottom of the shoot only
should be left, that being furnished with abundance of buds for future growth. After being cut, the
hoops are trimmed from any side shoots, and tied up in bundles of a hundred, of gix .scores each,
which, in 1820, sold for frorln four shillings to five shillings a bundle. The willows arc sorted into three
sizes, and tied in bundles two feet in circumference, within a foot of the lower ends. When to be peeled,
they are immediately after cutting set on their thick ends in standing water, a few inches deep, and there
they remain till the growth ascends freely, which is commonly by the end of the succeeding May. " The
apparatus for peeling is simplv two round rods of iron, nearly half an inch thick, sixteen inches long, and
taijering a little upwards, welded together at the one end which is sharpened, so as that it may l>e easily
thrust down into the ground. When thus placed in a piece of firm ground, the peeler sits down opposite
to it, and takes the willow in the right hand by the small end, and puts a foot or more of the great end
into the instrument, the prongs of which he presses together with the left hand, and with the right draws
the willow towards him ; by which operation the bark will at once be separated from the wood : the small
end is then treated in the same manner, and the peeling is completed. Good willows peeletl in the abevo
manner, have been sold for some seasons past, at from six shillings and sixpence to seven shillings the
bundle of four feet in circumference. After being peeled, they will keep in good condition for a long time,
till a proper market be found." . , ,. ,

mV). Copse.iuoods are generallv cut over when the shoots of the stools have attemed from three to five
inches' diameter at their bases ; 'some grown chiefly lor hop-poles, and ware or stuff" for crates, hampers,
or wattled hurdles, are cut over earlier, and others, where small timber for fencing and other country
purposes is wanted, are left, later. In some parts of Herefordshire, where the oak grows with great
rapidity copse-woods are cut over every twelve years ; in the highlands of Scotland, where it grows much
slower "the time varies from twenty to twenty-five or thirty years. " The bark is there considered as
having arrived at its utmost perfection, and at its highest value, at the age of between twenty and thirty
years • under that age, its virtues are weak ; above it, the bark becomes coarse and loses its sap. Another
Important reason for cutting down oak coppice-wood about the above period, is suggested in the Stirling'

3Q 4

^8 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

shire Report, p. 218. ; namely, • that it is a fact established by experience, that it will not renew itself,
if it remains uncut, beyond the space of about forty years.' " {Gen. Rep. of Scotland, 218.) Where
there is a considerable tract of copse-wood, it is common to divide it into porttonSy m number accordmg
to the period of cutting. These are to be cut in rotation, so that when the last portion is cut over, the
tirst is again ready for cutting.

6941. T/ie season for cutting the kinds of trees whose barks are not made use of, is wmter and early in
spring; but the oak and other trees which are peeled, are left tiU the middle of April or May. Birch
and larch woods will peel nearly a month earlier than the oak. Should there be no frost, birch and
larch may be peeled about the beginning of April ; but the birch is commonly allowed to stand till July,
and the peeling of it is commenced after that of the oak has been completed ; and the reason is, there is
an outer skin upon birch-bark which requires to be taken off, as it is of no use to the tanner, and renders
that part which is of use more difficult to be ground, and the month of July is the only time at which
the two barks can be separated with ease, as at this time the juice or sap has made its circulation
through the tree and bark, and this circumstance renders the separation more easy. From the beginning
of May to the middle of July is the usual time for barking the oak. The earlier in the spring this oper-
ation is performed on the oak, both for the growth, if a natural wood, and for the bark, the better.
When the sap has begun to rise, the bark will easily be detached from the wood, and it ought then to be
taken off without loss of time ; and if the whole could be taken ofF before the leaf is completely deve-
loped, the bark would be better. After the sap has arisen to the leaf and new growth, the bark becomes
more dry, and requires more beating to separate it from the wood. And when what is called the black
sap is descending the tree, the bark taken off is black, and loses its original color ; and at this time also
the bark begins to throw off a scurf, more especially young bark without much cork on it ; this outer
skin having less of the proper sap or juice, and being much drier when taken off, will weigh less, and
consequently will not be so valuable. If possible, oaks should be barked by the middle of June, as every
ton of bark taken off after the first of July will be deficient two cwt. per ton, compared with the same
quantity taken off in May or early in June.

69i2. The termination of cutting is generally fixed for the fifteenth day of July, and afler this date there
should not be a single stool of oak wood cut that is intended for the growth ; and as soon as possible after
the fifteenth, the whole of the wood and bark should be carried away, that the young growths may
not be disturbed or injured, as at this time they will have made considerable progress ; at any rate, there
should neither be wood nor bark remaining within the new cut hag after the first of August ; nor should
either horse or cart be permitted to enter it after that period, for after the beginning of August, oaks
make what is termed a lammas growth, and the future prosperity and health of the coppice, in a great
measure, depend on the first year's growth, as far as regards form and vigor of the shoots. {Forestei-'s
Guide, 690

694.3. The best mode of cutting is evidently that of using a saw, and cutting the shoots over in a slanting
direction close by the surface. When the stool, after having been cut several times, has acquired con-
siderable diameter, it is customary in the midland counties, Marshall states, to hollow it out in the centre,
from a notion that by rotting away the central roots, the circumferential stems will grow more vigor-
ously, and become as it were separate plants. This is in fact the case in very old copses. For several
cuttings, however, it must evidently be the safer policy to keep the stool highest in the middle to throw
off the rain, and preserve it sound.

6944. Monteath says, " It will be found, upon experiment, perfectly evident, that stools dressed down to
the surface of the ground, (taking care always not to loosen the bark from the root, or allow it to be peeled
off in the smallest degree below the earth, but rounded down level to it,) that these stools will send forth
the most vigorous shoots, and stand the weather, and be the stoutest and best throughout the age of the
coppice." {Forester's Guide, 61.) From the late season at which the trees to be barked are generally
cut, they often receive considerable injury, both from that circumstance, and the manner in which the
operation is performed. Monteath appears to us to have furnished the best directions for executing the
work in a safe manner. He first sends a person furnished with an instrument with a sharp cutting edge
{Jig. 140.) through the copse, whose business is " to trample down the long grass or foggage all round the
root, and then, to make a circular incision into the bark so deep as to reach the wood, at about an
inch above the surface of tlie earth ; thus the bark when taken off, will injure no part of that which is
below the circular incision."

6945. The root of the tree being thus prepared, the cutters ought to proceed to their part of the
work, not with an axe, however, as is most generally recommended, but with a saw, because, in cutting
with the axe unless the root of the tree be so small in diameter as to be severed in one or two strokes at
most, the axe loosens the root to such a degree, that it not only loses the present year's growth, but often
tails altogether to grow. Tlierefore if the diameter of the root be six inches, or upwards, it should always
be cut with a cross-cut saw ; entering the saw about half an inch above where the circular incision has
been made mto the bark, if a small tree ; but if the tree be ten or twelve, or more inches in diameter,
the saw ought to be entered two inches above it.

6946. There are two advantages to be derived from cutting with the saw ; it has no tendency to
loosen the root of the tree, but leaves it in such a condition as to be more easily and properly dressed • it
also saves a portion of the wood that would otherwise be destroyed by the axe. On no pretence should
oaks of SIX mches' diameter be cut with an axe, but always with a saw. Having cut throus^h the tree
with a saw, take a sharp adze, and round the edges of the stool or root, going close down to'the surface
of the earth, taking with the adze both bark and wood, sloping it up towards the centre of the stool
taking particular care always that the bark and wood both slope alike, as if they formed one solid body*
being sure always that the bark bo not detached from the root. An objection has been made to this mode
of cutting with the saw, as taking up too much time ; but I have found that two men with a cross-cut
^^Sl.v^P^/" ^ "''^^'*' ^^'^ ^^^ ^^ ™"^'^ ^^ *^" ™<^" ^^^11 W''^h an axe. {Forester's Guide, 58.)

6947. The disbarked timber is prepared for sale by being sorted into straight poles of the largest size
stakes and other pieces fit for palings, faggots, fuel, &c. The unbarked wood is similarly sorted, and affords
wnere there IS much hazel or ash, cord-wood or bundles of clean shoots for making packing crates, ham-
pers, &c., poles for hops, larger poles for fences, rails, paling-stakes, stakes and shoots for hurdles, besom-
stutf, spray for distillation, and a variety of other objects according to the local demand, or the oppor-
tunity of supplying a distant market by land-carriage. The brush or spray of non-resinoul trees is called
niinf^^Jif'''/w;;'^°'''^'^"'^'/."u'-'''^i"'''''^^^^^^ pyrolignous acid used in bleach-fields and calico
print-works. 'When wood of this description is sent to Glasgow, where there are extensive works for
the purpose of distUing it, it sells readily at from 1/. 2.. to l! 10*. per ton; but when there Tre large
bo lers^o' rh'^'^l'^^l;^^"^. y°""^ T""^^' '* •''^°5*^ ""^^^ *° ^'^""^ ^'^^^' ""^^"^ ^^^ ^«od to distil it, as thefe
K com^rnt/ .♦ i^'^ ""* "° ^''^fu •^'^P^ns^' a"d .in this case the liquid is easily carried in casks to where
wnnH nf ^1^ ,' ^^ -^f expense than the rough timber could be ; of course it wiU pay much better. Small
^n.? „?. -^^^ description IS also used for charcoal : but in distilling it, there is part of it made into char
tSoT '^^ "^'^ supply the demand of that article, so that it is by far the most profitable way when
tSfwoorw^ilfa!tai'iT';*U'' '''T'^ f ' /° ^'''\^''^'' ^nd distil I, unless where die loca? situation of
arlSedTon A 1 kLn f"^'^/^'?n'^?* a small expense, and carried to where the works mentioned
chestnu and'birci »rp thf.^T» ^''i-^'^^*'?^-^'' ?'=U^'^"?'i°"' excepting fir; but oak, ash, Spanish
Ss? the but^^ds* nf t£ r^ • ^^'^'iY' ^'^'^ P-) u >^ '''''■*-' *'^« °^^^ g"""^^ slo^. a« i" the high-
to Ihirty-two^SS bv 5ErP^.^^htf If^ I'^Vr^^t for chaise-wheels. « Ix,ng spokes are from thirty
fr!.- Ih!,^ incnes Dy three inches and a half broad, and one nch and a half thick and thp "^hnrt nn<i
for tbe same purpose, from twenty-two to twenty.four inches long, and tL sLe s'zes othSwise? S^

Book III. PREPARING TREES ^OR USE OR SALE. 969

wheel spokes, from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches long, four inches broad by two inches thick
These are the sizes they require to stand when rough-blocked from the axe. Small wood when sold
^^.V* purpose, brought, in 1S20, 2*. a cubic foot, measured down to three inches square." {ilonteath )
6y4,S. Ill some cases copse.woods are sown with grass-seeds, and pastured bv sheep, horses, and cattle
Some admit the animals the fifth year after the last cutting, others not till the eighth : but Monteath
thinks this should never be done till the fifteenth vear. If the ground is properly covered with tree* it
can seldom be advantageous to admit any species of stock unless during a month or two in winter. "'

6949. In the ojyeration of barking trees, "the barkers are each furnished with light
short-handled mallets, made of hard wood, about eight or nine inches long, three inches
square at the face, and the other end sharpened like a wedge, in order the more easily
to make an incision in the bark, which is done all along the side of the tree which hap-
pens to be u]ipemiost, in a straight line : and as two barkers are generally employed at
one tree, it is proper, that whilst the one is employed in making an incision with the
mallet, as above, the other being furnished with the barking-bill {Jig. 140.), cuts the bark
across the tree, in lengths of from two feet six inches to three feet. Having thus made
the incision in the bark, both ways, the barkers being also each furnished with peeling-
irons {Jigs. 136. to 139.), if the tree or piece of timber to be barked is such as the two
barkers can easily lift one end of it, this is placed on two pieces of wood, three feet long,
and called horses ; these are about the thickness of a paling-stake, and have a forked end
on each about six inches long, the other end sharpened to go into the ground ; two of
these horses are placed in a triangular form against one another, one end of the piece to
be peeled being raised on the horses, the two barkers standing opposite to each other, and
entering the peeling-irons into the incision made by the mallet, and pressing the iron
downwards between the bark and the timber. In this way it will be found very easy to
take the bark off in one whole piece round the tree ; and, if possible, let these pieces be as
long as tlie incisions made in the bark. In some cases, where there is not much sap,
the bark may require a little beating with the square end of the mallet, to cause it to
separate easily from the wood ; but the less beating with the mallet the better, as it has a
tendency to blacken the bark in the inside, or fleshy part of it, so that when the tanner
sees it, he supposes it to be damaged, and under\'alues it. The branches of the tree be-
ing previously all lopped off with the axe, the persons, in number according to the extent
of the work, with the bill smooth all the branches, cutting them in lengths of from two
feet six inches to three feet, down as small as one inch in circumference. The barkers,
principally women, are each provided with a smooth hard stone of about six or eight
pounds weight, beside which they sit down, and having collected a quantity of saplings,
branches, or twigs, they hold it on the stone with one hand, and with the mallet in the
other, they beat the piece till the bark be split from the wood, from the one end to tlie
other, and taking it off all the length of the piece, if possible, then lay it regularly aside,
till a bundle of considerable size is formed."

6950. Drying the bark. " The point most particularly to be observed in this art is, putting the bark up
to dry ; which is done by putting the bark upon what is called the lofts or ranges. These are erected by
taking forked pieces of the loppings, called horses, the one three feet long, the other two feet six inches,
and driving each about four inches into the ground, opposite one another, alxjut two feet asunder in the
breadth, and as much betwixt them, lengthways, as will admit long small pieces of wood to be put upon
them, and as many of these must be put together as will hold the bark of everj- day's peeling. These
ought to be erected in as dry and elevated a spot as can be found in the margin of the wood or better out-
side of it. Thebark being'carried and laid on this loft, with the thick ends of it all laid to the high side
of the range, and the small bark laid on to the thickness of about six inches ; and the bark taken off the
largest of the wood laid regularly on the top, which serves for a covering, and the lofls or ranges having
a declivity of about six inches, the rain will run off them readily, and if properly put up in this manner,
they will keep out a great deal of rain. After it has lain in this state for three days, if the weather is
good and dry, it ought to be all turned over, and the small bark spread out, so as not to allow it to sit to-
gether, which, if much pressed, it is apt to do ; and if it does so with the natural sap in it, it has a chance
of moulding, which is extremely hurtful to the bark, and both lessens it in weight and in value After
thebark has stood on the ranges about eight or ten days, if the weather be good, it may either be put
into a house or a shed, or if intended to be put up into'a stack, it may now be done." A stack of bark
ought never to exceed eight feet in width, and twelve or fifteen feet in height, raised in the middle like
a haystack. If it is to stand any length of time in the stack, it ought to be thatched, and in that state
mavremain all winter. The greatest care ought to be taken to preserve the color of the inner parts of
the' bark, because the color of it is generally looked to as a principal criterion of its value, and the mer-
chant or tanner judges of its value chiefly by its color. Before being put into the stack, the natural sap
ought to be dried out of it, in order to prevent its fermenting; Ijecause if a fermentation takes place in
one part of the stack, it generally goes through and spoils the whole. The same mode of treatment will
do for all kinds of bark as well as" the oak ; but the birch has an outer or shredy skin upon it, that is of no
use, and rejected by the tanner, and, as already observed, must be peeled off.

6951. Chopping the bark. " When the l)ark is ready for the tanner, it has to undergo the work ofchop-
ping, which is done by driving in two or more stakes into the ground, with a fork on the upper end of
each, leaving them about two feet six inches from the ground, and laying a long small piece of wood across
between the two, where a number of people stand, and the bark is carried and laid down behind them,
which they take up in their hands and lay on the cross tree, and then, with a sharp whittle or bill in
the other' hand, they cut it into small pieces, about three inches in length; when this is done, it is
trampled into bags, which hold about two hundred weight each, and in these bags it is weighed when
sold by the ton, in tons, hundred weights, quarters, and pounds, and in the above manner delivered to
the merchant or tanner. " [Forester's Guide, 199.)

6952. ToUard-trees, which may be considered in most cases as injurious deformities, are lopped at stated
periods like copse-woods, and the lop, whether to be barked or otherwise, is to be treated in all respects
like that of copse

6953. The jteriod at lohich trees are Jelled, for the sake of their Umber, is determined
by various causes. By maturity of growth, or where the aruual increase is so trifling as

970 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

to render their standing no Ioniser worth while in point of profit : when wanted for pri-
vate use or sale; or when defects in the tree, or new arrangemenls, in its situation, point
out the - necessity of its removal. " A timbered estate," Marshall observes, "should
frequently be gone over by some person of judgment; who, let the price and demand for
timber be what they may, ought to mark every tree which wears the appearance of
decay. If the demand be brisk and the price high, he ought to go two steps farther,
and mark not only such as are full-grown, but such also as are near perfection." In
trees, as in the human species, there are three stages, youth, manhood, and old age. In
the period of youth, the growth is rapid; in manhood, that growth is matured ; and in
old age, it begins to decay.

6954. The most profilahlc season for felling timber is at what may thus be termed tlie beginning of man-
hood. After that time, though tlie tree may appear sound and healthy, its annual increase is so little,
that it would be more profitable to cut it down a»id replant The number of years that a tree may stind,
before it arrives at this period, must vary in different soils and situations ; but the period itself may easily
be ascertained — by the annual shoots — the state of the bark — and by taking the circumference of the tree
at the same place for two or three successive seasons, and commring the difference. In the view of pro-
fiting from timber produce, it is of great consequence to cut down plantations at maturity. Many trees
will stand half, others a whole century, after they are full-grown, appear quite healthy, and, at the same
time, make little or no increase of timber. But there are particular cases, arising from the nature and
state of the markets, where it may even be more profitable to cut timber before it is arrived at a full
growth. {Treat, on Coiintr. Res. ii. rfu.)

6955. Preparations for felling It has been strongly recommendetl to disbark trees a year or more be-
fore they are taken down in consequence of the result of certain experiments commenced by Buffon in
WTI. In May of that year, he disbarkcd tliree oak-trees, forty feet in height, where they stood. In the
course of three year* they died, and, on cutting them down, the outer wood was found hard and dry, and
the internal wood moist and softer. After trying its strength, &c. he concludes, that " timber which has
been disbarkcd and dried while standing, will weigh heavier, and prove stronger than timber cut in its
bark." Bosc, and other French authors, (in Cours Compl. (TAgr. &c. art Aubier, Bois, Quercus, &c.)
strongly recommend this practice, which is followed in some places on the continent, and in this coun-
try with the oak and larch ; but not, as far as we have learned, with any other tree. Monteath finds
it by far the most efticient way of seasoning larch-timber. He barked some trees in spring, and did not
cut them down till autumn, and others stood in the peeled state for two years'. After various and exten-
sive trials, he is " decidedly of opinion, that the larch treated in this way at thirty years of age will be
found equally durable with a tree cut down at the age of fifty vears, and treated in the ordinary way."
(Forester's Guide, 152.)

6956. As the dry rot {Merulius destruens. Sow.) is found to arise in a great measure from want of season-
ing, or at least to proceed with the greatest rapidity in timber not well seasoned, this practice seems to
deserve adoption in that point of view. {Encyc. Brit. Suppl. art. Dry Rot.) In some parts of the north of
Europe, the trees are divested of their bark for one or two feet in height from the ground a year or more
previous to that on which they are to be felled. We saw this done in Poland and Lithuania ; but though
we made diligent enquiry in Sweden, we could not learn distinctly the extent to which it was practised in
that country and Norway. It is occasionally practised in both for the ostensible purpose of hardening the
soft wood : but also accompanied by a deep incision made for the purpose of extracting tar ; a practice
obviously injurious to the timber, and therefore generally in these countries kept out of view. When
trees stand close together, a very obvious preparation to felling is lightening the tops of such branches as
would do injury in falling to the trees that are to be left, or to other adjoining objects.

6957. The season of felling is commonly winter, for timber not to be disbarked ;
l)ut some for the resinous tribe recommend suinmer as being the season in which it is
generally felled in the north of Europe and in the Alps. But the summer season is there
adopted from necessity, as in winter the woods are so filled up with snow that feliino-
is hardly practicable. As the timber of these countries is generally squared for the
market ; the soft wood is chiefly removed, so that the reason of felling does not seem as
to them to be of much consequence. Besides, the timber is never so full of sap in sum-
mer as it is in spring and autuinn, and therefore, next to mid-winter, midsummer may
be the next best time for felling all kinds of timber-trees. Where the trees are disbarked
at the base a year or more before felling, the soft wood will be partially hardened; but
this practice is by no means general in the north.

6958. Knoivles, in a recent work on preserving the British navy, the dry rot, &c. after collecting the
opinions of all the ancient and modern authors who have written on felling timber, concludes, that the
common notion that trees felled in winter contain less of sap or of the vegetable juices than those cut
down at any other season of the year, is not true; and that the method of barking standing trees in spring,
and not felling them till the succeeding winter, has not in any way realised the expectations formed of the
plan. After describing all the different modes that have been adopted for seasoning timber, he concludes,
that the best mode of seasoning is to " keep it in air, neither very dry nor very moist ; and to protect it
trom the sun and ram by a roof raised suhlciently high over it so as to prevent by this and other means, a
rapid rush of air." {Inquiry into the Means of pteserving the British Navy from Dry rot, &c. by Knowles.
Sec. to the Com. of Surveyors, chap, iii.) ./ > v i> >

6959. The operatwn of felling is performed either by digging an excavation round the
stem, and cutting the roots at two or three feet distant from it, or by cutting over the
stem at the surface. By the former mode the root is obtained for use, and the ground
more effectual ly cleared and prepared for the roots of other adjoining trees, or whatever
crop is to follow. Where the tree is intended to stole, which can very seldom be advis-
able in the case of cutting full-grown timber, or where there is some nicety in taking it
down so as not to injure other trees or adjoining objects, it is cut or sawn over, and the
root, if to be removed, dug out afterwards. « In cutting large trees, in order to make
the tree fall the way required, enter the cross-cut saw on that side of tlie tree it is intended
to fall, and cut it about a third part through; then enter the saw at the other side, and
when It IS cut so far as to admit a wedge, place the wedge exactly opposite the way you

Book III. PREPARING TREES FOR USE OR SALE. 971

want (he tree to fall, and keep driving it slowly till the tree is nearly cut through."

(^fontc'atfl.)

6960. Disbranching. The tree being felled, is next divested of its branches, which are sorte<l into
fence-wood, fuel, ton-wood, &c. according to the kind of tree ; and the trunk is generally preserved as
entire as jx)s.sible for the purchaser. Sometimes it is cut in two, and the root-cut, or but-e'nd, being the
most valuable, sold for one class of purposes at a higher price, and the top-cuts for others somewhat
lower. Sometimes timber is purchased by private contract by the foot or load in a growing state, or alter
being cut down ; in other cases regular sales are made annually, and the produce exposed for sale by
auction. It is measured by the cubic foot, fifty of which are a load; and the calculated tables and
Measurer's Guide generally resorted to, are those of Hoppus.

6961. The roots of trees are the last product we shall mention. These should, in
almost every case, be effectually eradicated ; to aid in which, in the case of very large
roots, splitting by wedges, refting by gunpowder (1941.), tearing up by the hydrostatic
press (Jig. 211 . >, or by a common lever and triangle (Jig- 666.), may be resorted to. Some
compact ash or oak roots are occasion- C";r.
ally in demand by smitlis, leather-
cutters, and others ; but in general
roots sliould be reduced to pieces not
exceeding three feet long, and six
inches in diameter, and put up in
stacks not less than tliree feet every

way, but commonly containing two

cubic yards. Iliese, when dry, are >?^5?^
sold for fuel, or reduced to charcoal
on the spot. In eradicating and stack-
ing up coppice- woods, it is common to allow a certain sum per sack, something for
every acre of ground cleared ; and if there are no trees to bark, the allowances are also
made for the poles, faggots, &c. so that no part of the operation is performed by day-
work.

6962. Tlie usual method of charring wood is as follows : —

6903. The wood being collected near the place intended for the operation, and cut into billets,
generally about three feet in length, the pits or stacks are usually formed in this manner: A spot,
adapted to the puri>ose, of from about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, of a conical form, is selected, and
after being properly levelled, a large billet of wood split across at one end, and ixiinted at the other, is
fixed in the centre of the area, with its po.ntetl extremity in the earth, and two pieces of woo<l, inserted
through the cloft:s of the other end, forming four right angles ; against these cross-pieces, four other billets
of wood are placed, one end on the ground, and the other leaning against the angles. A number of large
and straight billets are afterwards laid on the ground, to form a floor, each being, as it were, the radius
of the circular area ; on this floor, a i)roper quantity of brush or small wood is strewed, to fill up the in-
terstices, when the floor will be complete : and in order to keep the billets in the same position in which
they were first arranged, i^gs or stumps are driven into the ground, in the circumference of the circle,
about a foot distant from one another; upon this floor a stage is built, with billets set upon one end,
somewhat inclining towards the central billet, and on the tops of these another floor is laid, in a horizontal
direction, but of shorter billet*, as the whole is intended, when finished, to form a cone. The whole is
then coated over with turf, and the surface generally pla^ered with a mixture of earth and charcoal-dust.

6964. Previous to the operation of setting Jire to the pile, the central billet in the upper stage is drawn
out, and pieces of dry combustible wood sul)stituted in its place, to which the fire is applied. Great atten-
tion is necessary during the process, in the i)roper management of the fire, and in immediately covering
up the apertures through which the flame obtrudes itself, until the operation be concluded'; which is
generally ettijcted in the space of two or three days according to circumstances. When the charcoal is
thought to be sufficiently burnt, which is easily known from the appearance of the smoke, and the flames
no longer issuing with impetuosity through the vents ; all the apertures are to be closed up very carefully,
with a mixture of earth and charcoal-dust, which, by excluding all access of the external air, prevents
the coal from being any further consumed, and the fire goes out of itself. In this condition it is suffered
to remain, till the whole is sufficiently cooled ; when the cover is remove*!, and the charcoal is taken away.
If the whole process is skilfully managed, the coals will exactly retain the figure of the pieces of wootl :
some are said to have lieen so dexterous, as to char an arrow, without altering even the figure of the
feather. (^Encijc. Brit. vol. v. art. Charcoal.)

69(i3. The method of charring wood, for the making of gunpowder, according to an improved system,
adopted not many years ago, is however a much more costly operation, though the expense attending it is
amply compensated by the superior excellence of the article when manufactured. It is done in iron
cylinders, and in so complete a manner, that every particle of the wood is charred. The oily or tarry
matter is al.-o preserved, and may, so far as the quantity goes, be made use of instead of foreign tar or
pitch. This mode of charring wood for making gunpowder, is carried to the greatest perfection, near
Petworth in Sussex, and there is a manufacture of a similar nature near Chester. {Gen. Rep. for Scotland,
7oL ii. p. 332.)

C966. The valuation of trees forms a distinct profession, and can only be acquired after
much experience; like other valuations of property, it depends on a great variety of con-
siderations, some of a general, but the greater part of a local nature. All we shall here
attempt, is to give a few general ideas which may be of use to the private cultivator or
forester.

6967. In valuing any plantation, the first thing is to know its contents in acres ; if this
cannot be done, the number of plants must be counted. If a young plantation, the trees
of which are unfit for present use as timber, is to be valued, then its value at any distant
period, not exceeding twenty or twenty-five years, must be estimated ; and whatever sum
that estimate amoiuits to, the present value of that sum will give an idea of the value of
ihe plantation, allowing liberally for accidents to the trees and other unforeseen circum-
stances, llius, sTippose a plantation of oaks, intended as copse, or actually established as

972

PRACTICE OF GARDENING

Part III

such, to have grown four years, its present value would be next to nothing ; but if arrived
at its twentieth year, it would fetch fifty pounds per acre. Then the question is, required
the present value of fifty pounds, due sixteen years hence, the market price of money
being five per cent. ? and this, according to any of the modern annuity tables (say Bailey Sy
4to. 1808. tab. iv.) is 111. 18s. This principle is applicable to all kinds of valuing by
anticipation ; and there is no other mode of valuing applicable to young plantations. The
benefits derived from the trees in the way of shelter and ornament, are to be estimated in
valuing the territory, and are foreign to the present purpose, which has for its object tree-
produce only.

6968. In valuing saleable trees of any kind, their number per acre, or their total number by enumeration
being ascertained, and the kinds and sizes classed, then each class is to be estimated according to its worth
as timber, fence-wood, fuel, bark, &c. " In a coppice-wood which cannot readily be measured, the
readiest method of counting the stools is, to cause two men to take a line, say about a hundred feet.long,
or more, and passing the lino round as many of the stools as it will enclose, the one man standing still
while the other moves round a new number of stools, and count always the stools betwixt the two lines,
causing the one man to move the one time with the line, whilst the other man staiids still, and so on alter-
nately. The valuator at the same time taking care to average every twenty stools as they go on, before
losing sight of the counted stools. This way, too, is a very speedy and sure method of counting the num-
ber of trees in any plantation. Or, the stools of a coppice-wood may be counted and averaged by two men
going parallel to each other, and the person valuing going betwixt them ; the two men putting up marks
with mo.ss, or pieces of white paper, on a branch of the stools ; the one man going always back by the last
laid marks, and the valuator always counting and averaging the stools betwixt the newly-laid and the late-
laid marks ; counting and averaging the stools always as the men go on, taking only twenty, or even ten
stools at a time. To those who have been in the practice of doing this frequently, it will be found very
easy, and will be done very speedily, and with a very considerable degree of accuracy. The proper method
of learning to do this correctly is, when a person cuts an oak wood for the first time (or, even were the
work repeated several times), he should then, in order to make himself perfectly acquainted with ascer-
taining the average quantity of bark that a stool, or even a stem of a stool will produce, go before the
peelers, and select a stool or stem : after having examined it narrowly, he supposes it to produce a certain
quantity of bark, and marks this down in his memorandum-book. He then causes a person to peel it by
itself, dry it, and carefully tie it up, and weigh it, and compare it with the weight he supposed it to pro-
duce, and he will at once see how near his calculation comes to the truth. A stem of oak from a natural
^tool, suppose it to measure in girth two inches, by seven feet long, will contain two solid inches and one
third of an inch, according to the measurement of Hojipus This stem or shoot will produce two pounds
two ounces of b.ark. Again, a stem or shoot of natural oak, measuring four inches in girth, by nine feet
in length, will be found to contain one solid foot of wood, and will produce thirteen pounds and a half of
bark." {Forester's Guide, 170.)

6969. When growing trees are valued, an allowance is made from their cubic contents for the bark. The
rule given by Monteath is, " when the girth or circumference is any thing from twelve inches up to
twenty-four inches, then deduct two inches ; from twenty-four to thirty-six, three inches ; from thirty-
six to forty-eight, four inches ; from forty-eight to seventy-two, five inches; and above seventy-two, six
inches." These deductions, he says, " will be found (o answer in almost all trees ; unless in such as are
very old, and have rough and corky barks or barks covered with moss, when an extra allowance is to be
made," {Forester's Guide, 180.) *' Many persons," the same author observes, " in valuing measurable
oak-trees, proceed on the data that every cubic foot of timber will produce a stone (sixteen pounds) of bark.
This," he says, " is not ahva5's correct ;" and he states tlie following facts from his own txjwrience, with
a view to assist beginners in ascertaining the quantity of bark from various trees. " An oak-tree, about
forty years old, measured down to four inches and a half side of the square, and weighing only the bark
peeled off the timber that is measured, without including any of the bark of the spray, &c. every foot of
measured timber will produce from nine to eleven pounds of bark. An oak-tree, of eighty years old,
weighing only the bark peeled off the measurable timber, as above, every foot will produce from ten to
thirteen pounds of bark. Every foot of large birch-timber, peeled as above, will produce fourteen pounds
of bark. Every foot of mountain ash, as above, will produce eleven pounds and a half of bark. Every foot
of the willow, unless a very old tree, will produce from nine to eleven pounds. Every foot of larch fir, not
exceeding thirty years old, will produce from seven to nine pounds of bark. The timber of trees, particu-
larly the oak, is peeled out, every branch and shoot, down as small as an inch in circumference." {Forest-
er's Guide, 189.) The price of timber, like that of every other article in general use, varies with the supply
and demand ; and is easily ascertained from the timber-merchants at the diflferent sea-ports j as is that of
bark, charcoal, and fire-wood from the taimers and coal-merchants.

6970. To facilitate the measuring of standiyig timber, Monteath has invented a very in-
genious machine. (Jig. 667.) It consists of a wheel, or perambulator, about eight inches
in diameter, with a bell (a) on the end of
its axle ; at the end of every foot gone
over by the serrated circumference of the
perambulator, this bell is struck by means
of a spring (6) ; the sound of this bell will
be heard from the top of tlie highest tree.
A forked handle (c) works on the top of
the main axle on each side of the wheel ;
one of a set of connecting rods (e, h) goes
into it, and is fixed with a screw making a
swivel joint, and by screwing the nut firm,
the wheel can be set to any position, and it
will work equally well any way. A small
hand (d), in the circle of the triangular
spring, points to tlie inches or quarters of
an inch on the wheel, and tells what exceeds the inch after a lesser spring (e), which strikes
at every mch has struck the bell. The circumference of the wheel (f) measures two
feet. Ihe rods for workmg the measuring machine are each three feet long, and one inch
m diameter, wiUi connecting screws of brass on each end of them ; so that as many as are

Book III. FORMATION OF A TREE-NURSERY. P7S

required for any length or height, can be easily screwed into each other. The other small
rods for taking the length of the tree, as also of its branches, are only five eightlis of an
inch in diameter : each rod is three feet long, and goes together with connecting screws
of brass. Tlie rods are painted black, and divided into feet and inches, with white let-
ters ; so that by connecting any number of the rods together that may be required, and by
applying them to the tree or branches (k), you can take the exact length in a speedy, ac-
curate, and simple manner. (Forester s Guide, 207.)

6971. TTie value of the invention turns on the use of the wheel, in taking the girth of the tree. Thus,
" after having taken the length of the tree in feet and inches, which length may he taken by the rods as
already described, the girth is most generally taken at half the length, which girth we are enabled to take
with the measuring wheel : this is easily done, by putting up the wheel, with as many of the connecting
rods together as will put it up to the height required ; then, suppose there are no branches in the way, and
having before made a mark on the bark of the tree with the small rods, the uppermost one having a small
marking-iron in its end for that purpose ; this mark is made where the girth is to be taken, and from where
you are to take your departure with the wheel, which being done, press the wheel round the tree, following
it, and keeping "it as level as possible, which the wheel will in a great lAeasure do of itself, by its having
teeth like a saw in the hem of the wheel, unless carelessly attended to. As the wheel goes round the tree,
be sure to count the number of times the bell strikes, which it does at everj- foot ; and when you see you
have not another twelve inches or one foot more to run, to arrive at the place where you took your depar-
ture from, count thenumber of inches that it strikes over and above the last foot, and thus you will at once
have the feet and inches that the tree is in circumference; of which take the fourth, and this gives you
the side of the square : but when there are branches in the way of getting round the tree, you must have
a spare handle for the machine {e, h), about two feet, or two feet six inches in length, and by altering the
swivel-joint at the top of the first rod to any position required, the person working the wheel by the rods
can stand in the same place, and put the wheel, say half way round the tree, if it is very large, and by
turning the swivel-joint, and reversing the wheel, at the same time sending it round the other side of the
tree till it meet where it left off, and by counting the feet and inches as above, and adding the two together,
you will at once have the extreme girth of the tree. When branches are to measure, or when branches are
in the way of getting round the tree with the rods, the person with the small rods stands on the opposite
side of the tree, and directs the person when to stop with the wheel. Thus, by a little practice in working
the wheel, and paying attention to count the feet and inches as they strike, two men will measure growing
or standing trees equally as accurately and expeditiously as if the trees were lying on the ground. In
taking the girth with a line, you have first to put it round the tree, then you double it, and apply it to a
foot-rule ; you then take the half for the side of the square, whereas this machine gives you the exact feet
and inches from the top of the highest tree, without the help of any other rule." {Forester's Guide, 208.)
Neither this machine, nor a mechanical dendrometer, invented about twenty years ago, though both of
considerable merit, appear to us so well calculated for general use as the Timber Measurer of Broad, {fig. 154.)

6972. The books of accounts for trees and pkiyitations have already been mentioned.
(2340.) Some have proposed measuring the whole of, or at least all the detached and
hedge-row trees on an estate periodically ; numbering each tree, and keeping a corre-
sponding register, by which tlie proprietor, when at a distance, might give directions for
cutting down particular trees, &c. ; but this appears ratlier too much in the mercantile
style for the dignified enjoyment of landed pjoperty, and does not promise any very great
advantages.

Chap. VI I.

Of the Formation of a Nursery- Garden for the Propagation and Bearing of Trees ami

Shrubs.

6973. Nurseries for rearing trees are commonly left to commercial gardeners, as the
plantations of few private landowners are so extensive, or continued through a suf-
ficient number of years to render it worth their while to originate and nurse up their
own tree and hedge plants. Exceptions, however, occur in the case of remote situ-
ations, and where there are tracts so extensive as to require many years in planting. Be
sides, as Sang observes, " some are of opinion, that trees, in order to their being rendered
suflficiently hardy, should be reared on the soil and situation where they are ulti-
mately to be planted ; and if the design be extensive, and such as may require many
years for its completion ; a conveniently situated nursery is, in that case, highly de-
sirable, not only as saving the carriage of plants, and facilitating the business of trans-
planting, but as increasing the chance of success, on account of the plants remaining a
much shorter time out of the ground than if brought from a distance. If the situation,
however, ultimately destined for the trees be cold, high, and bleak, and the soil of course
various, some good, and much of it bad, or of an indifferent quality, there it would by
no means be advisable to attempt the establishment of a nursery, and especially a nur-
serj' to raise plants from seeds. The chief properties of nursery plants intended for
transplanting, consist in their strength and cleanness of stem, and in their roots having
a multiplicity of healthy fibres; and in order to obtain plants possessing these qualities,
it is necessarj' to sow, and plant out to nurse, if not in rich, at least in mellow earth,
and in a moderately sheltered situation." {Plant. Kal. 20.) The following directions
by Sang as to the soil, shelter, aspect, and fencing of a nursery -gardeh are equally ap-
plicable'to such as are intended for private or commercial purpo.ses : —

6^4 In order to have a complete nursery, it should contain soils of various qualities, and not less than
eighteen inches-or two feet deep ; the generaUty of it should be light friable earth ; a part of it should be

974 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

of a clavcv nature ; and another part should be mossy. Each of these will Ix; found peculiarly useful in
the raising of the different kinds of young plants. The whole should be well drained, and trencheij, and
cropnetl with vcgetjibles for one or even two vears previously to sowing tree-seeds. For transplanting, it
mav^ie used the first year. A nur.serv may certainly be over-sheltered ; " but tliis is likely to hapiK-n
only in tlie case of its "being very small ; for, if it extend to several acres, unless it be surrounded by very
tall trees, the area will be considerably exposed. No part siiould be either too much exposed, or too
much sheltered. Any aspect from east to west, following the course of the sun, will answer. Ground of an
unequal surface is most likely to contain the various soils above mentioned. A nursery should, therefore,
in general, rise from a level to a pretty smart acclivity ; yet no part of it should be too steep, because it is
in that case very troublesome to labor. The nursery-ground may be sufficiently fenced by a stone wall,
or even a hedge six feet high ; and if it be of small size, an acre or thereabouts, it will require no other
.shelter ; but if it extend to four or five acres, it must have dividing hedges properly situated, to afford
shelter over all the space. The fence, whether of thorns or stone, should be made proof against the ad-
mission of hares or rabbits. It should be sutnlivided into compartments and borders, of proiwrtionate size
to the contents of the area, by walks. The compartments should never be encumbered with large trees,
as apples, pears, or the like ; because, being already established in the ground, they never fail to rob the
voung trees of their food, and to cause them to be poor and stunted, unworthy of being planted in the
forest. It would be very convenient to have a rill of water passing through the ground, or to have a small
pond, fed by a spring or a pipe, for the purjjose of watering." {Plant. Kal. 22.)

6975. Jn preparing //le soil for i/ie culture of trees it v,\\l he advisable to trench it to its full depth, and
" necessary," the same author continues, " to give it a gootl dressing of lime or marl and dung in com-
post. Rjmk manure, such as stable-litter, should not be applied to nursery-ground, at the time of crop-
ping, with nursery articles ; but if it be necessary to enrich it, this should be done by a manured croj) of
onions, turnips, lettuces, or the like. Potatoes should never go before a crop of seedlings, even of the
coarser sorts, as ash, oak, or chestnuts ; because potatoes never can be taken clean out of the ground ;
and it being indispensable to pull up those which rise among the tree-seedlings, many of these unavoidably
come up along with them. Hence, crops of lettuces, turnips, cabbages, or the like, should rather pre-
cede the crop of seedlings. The best kind of management in this particular case, is to interchange the
croi)s of timber-trees and esculents occasionally ; perhaps, with resjject to most sorts of seedling-plants,
alternately observing to sow all small seeds, in particular, if not in a rich, at least in a fine tilth."
(Plant. Kal. 24.)

697(5. For a private nursery, he continues, " no place, certainly, can be more eligible than a field,
which may also be occupied as a kitchen-garden. If, for instance, three acres were required for the
punioses of nursery, and one or two acres were also required for extra kitchen-ground, or lor green crops
for cattle-feeding, it would be proper to enclose five or six acres, less or more, according to circumstances ;
by which means two important objects might be obtained, viz. land of a goo<l quality, and fine tilth, for the
raising of seedlings ; and an opportunity of effectually changing crops at pleasure. Carrots are peculiarly
scourging for a nursery, and, indeed, rather severe for most lands : but we have very seldom found a
good crop of trees following one of carrots ; while we have found peas, beans, and especially lettuces,
easy and enriching crops, well adapted as preparers for succeeding crops of nursery articles."

6977. In so far as respects public nurseries, " we have long remarked, that those which are as much
market-gardens as nurseries, generally produce the best seedlings, and young articles, for sale; provided
that their ground be any thing more than of a middling quality. This fact, if one were wanting, is a suf-
ficient proof of the utility of occupying the ground as above advised, in the double character of a kitchen-
garden and nursery."

6978. In a cold climate, or bleak situation, " with a poor barren soil, w^e would by no means advise the
raising of seetUings, either in public or private nurseries. It will be found a cheai>er, as well as a more
satisfactory method, to purchase seedlings, transplant them, and nurse them till fit for final planting;
and, even, in this case, a piece of the best, and most sheltered land in the situation, will be necessary
for the pun)ose." {Plant. Kal. 26.)

6979. A rotting-ground will be required for the preparation of certain seeds, by mixing them with sand,
ashes, or soil, and leaving them there for diflerent periods, from six months to two years, to rot oft' their
interior coverings. On a small scale, a portion of the compost-ground of the kitchen-garden may be
used for this purpose. If the scale is large, an area of a few square poles should be set apart for bed-
ding in plants taken up for replanting, or what is called laying in by the heels, or shoughing : this is ge-
nerally called the bedding-ground or (in Scotland) the shoughing-ground.

6980. Buildings. If tlie situation of the nursery be near to the kitchen-garden, and the latter have the
proper office-buildings (1701.), no other erection will be required for the nursery than a working-shed for
ordinary purposes, occasional shelter, and protection to newly taken up plants ; and for packing or tying
them up properly before sending them to their final situation, &c. Frames and hand-glasses may be re-
quired for some of the more tender seeds and seedlings ; and, on a large scale, a seed-loft and its ap-
pendages, as well as an oflSce for writing, &c. may require to be erected apart from those belonging to the
kitchen -garden.

C981. Stocking with plants. The ground being arranged, and prepared by one or more vegetable crops
the next thing is to stock it with stools, or stock plants, to propagate from by layers, and to procure stocks
for grafting or budding, but especially in a private forest-tree nursery with tree-seeds. In the tables of
ornamental trees and shrubs (6540. to 6571.), given in the preceding book ; and in the general index at the
end of the work will be found tlie particular mode of propagation, and the requisite soil for each
tree and shrub : by inspecting these sources it will be seen what plants must be procured for stools If
tlie object is merely forest culture, few, excepting some of limes, poplars, and planes, will be required •
Lut, if tender trees and shrubs are to be reared, the number will be more considerable. Plant the
tenderer .sorts m the sheltered borders, and the more hardy in the open compartments: the tree kinds
may U- placet! from six to eight feet every way, and tlie more delicate shrubs from three to six feet apart
in su. table soils. Stocks for grafting, whether for fruit or barren trees, are to be planted in nursery
rows, accordmg to their kinds ; those for inarching round the parent plant (2007.) or in pots.

Chap. VIII.
Of the Culture and Manogejnent of a Nursery for Trees and Shrubs.
6982. The principal objects of culture in a private tree-nursery are the hardy trees and
shrubs of the countiy, which produce seeds ; and the great object of the private nursery-
gardener must be to collect or procure these seeds, prepare them for sowing, sow them in
their proper season?, and transplant and nurse them till fit for final planting. We shall
arrange the principal trees and shrubs which ripen their seeds in this country ; as cones,
nuts, berried stones, berrJes with small seeds, leguminous seeds, and small soft seeds.

Cook III. CULTURE OF A TREE-NURSERY. 975

Refore treating of the gathering, storing, separating the seeds, sowing, and nursery cul-
ture, of each of these general divisions, it is essential to remark, tliat in collecting every
kind of tree-sceil, jjrcfcrcnce should be given to that produced by trees the largest and
most perfect of their kind, and to the fullest and best-ripened seeds on these trees. The
reasons have been too frequently given in^this work to require repetition.

Sect. I. Coniferous Trees and Shrubs, their Seeds, Sowing, and Rearing.
C983. The princijml hardy coniferous trees and sltrubs are as follow : —

Juniperus virginiana, December
Cupressus thuvoides, January

— seniperrirens, January
Finus balsaiiiea, September

— larix, December

— canadeiuos, November

Pinus sylvestris, Norember

— picea, October

— abies, Xovember

— nigra, November

— pinca, December

Pinus strobus, October

— pinaster, December

— cedrus, March.

Shrubs.
Thuya occidentalis, November

— orientalis. No

G9S4. Cones may be gathered any time between the ripening season and the following
April ; but the sooner they are gathered the better, as they supply work for the regular
hands of the establishment in bad weather during the winter months ; or admit of givin"-
industrious money-making persons work by the job in the winter evenings. The gene-
ral mode of separating the seeds is by kiln-drying, in the same way as in drying malt,
but applying a more gentle heat.

6985. The cone-kihi is constructed after the manner of a common malt-kiln : the bearers should be
about nine feet distant from the fire, and two inches apart A wire cloth is spread over them from side to
side of the kiln, and the cones are laid on it to the thickness of twelve or fourteen inches. A gentle fire is
then applied, and regularly kept up till the cones become opened. During the time of drying, the cones
must be frequently turned upon the kiln ; and when the seeds begin to drop out, they must be removed
to the seed-lort, and siftetl till all the seeds which are loose fall out, and be taken from among the cones.
The cones are afterwards to be thrashed severely with flails, or passed through a hand-threshing machine,
and sifted as before, and so on, till the seeds are taken out as completely as possible. It is, however, a
safer method to split the larch-cones before putting them into the kiln. This operation is performed by a
small flat triangidar spatula, sharpened at the point and cutting-angles, and helved like a shoemaker's
awl. The cone is held by the fore-finger and thumb of the one hand, upon a flat piece of wood, while,
with the other, by the splitter, it is split up from the great end ; and afterwards each half is split up the
middle, which parts the cone into four divisions. This is by far the best and least destructive to the seeds
of any method we know ; because the cones so split, when exposed to the heat, are suddenly opened, and
readily discharge the seeds ; which, consequently, are less injured by the fire-heat. Besides the above me-
tho<l of splitting, there are others. Some people use a cone-mill, which has large sharp teeth in a con-
cave cylinder, and others fixed in a corresponding roller. The mill is wrought by tumuig the roller by
a handle resembling that of common fanners. The cones are let into the mill by a hopper. This instru-
ment is very difficult to work, and bruises the seeds very much ; many of which are of course destroyed.
We have several times made use of the common improved bark-mill, for separating the seeds from larch
fir cones ; but the cones are thus so much compressed and bruised, that the seeds suffer exceedingly ;
and we would by no means advise it : indeed, among all the methods which we have known adopted, to
perform the painful and laborious work of extracting the seeds of the larch, the plan of splitting them
singly is much the best and safest for the seeds, and ought to be adopted by every one who has occasion
to use only small quantities of seed. None of the other kinds of cones require so much labor as the
larch, excepting, perhaps, those of the cedar of Lebanon, and black American spruce. Cones, which
have given out all their seeds, are generally, and very properly, used as fuel for drying other cones. This
sort of fuel requires the attention of a very steady feeder ; indeed, the most careful and attentive are apt
to set the full or drjing cones on fire, from the resinous nature, and tendency to flame, of the empty
cones used as fuel. Such kilns should, therefore, be erected in situations far removed from a dangerous
neighborhood.

6986. The cones of Scotch pine, the larch and the spruce, " are the principal kinds which are opened by
kiln-heat The cones of the silver fir, the balm of Gilead fir, and the Weymouth pine, give out their
seeds with very little trouble : indeetl, if they be not gathered soon in autumn, and kept from severe
drought, they will fall to pieces of their own accord. Seeds of the white American spruce are only pro-
cured from warm situations, and from America, and are generally sold in a clean state, or separated" from
the cones. Cones of the black and red spruce are brought from America, and sold in the state of cones.
These should be split, and exposed in a sieve tilted before a gentle fire, with a sheet of paper below the
sieve to receive the seeds as they fall out The seeds should be removed every quarter of an hour; be-
cause they are small, and are very easily injured by the heat"

6987. The cones of cedar of Lebanon " should be kept for one year at least, after they are taken from
the tree, before the seed be attempted to be taken out This is necessary, on account of the soft nature
of the seeds, and the great quantity of resinous matter which the cones contain when growing, and which
is discharged bv the keeping. The best way to take out the seeds of the cedar, is to split the cones, by
driving a sharp' conical piece of iron through the heart of them. This work, as well as the taking out of
the seeds is greatly facilitate<l, by steeping the cones in water for a day or two, previous to splitting them.
The coats of the leaves should be opened with the hand, and the seetls carefully taken out The cones of
the cedar are brought from the Levant, and may be purchased with safety for seed, although it be several
years since they were taken from the tree." {Plant. KaL 325.)

6988. Soicing. April is the best season for all the species ; the soil should be in ex-
cellent condition, well mellowed by the preceding winter's frost and snow, carefully dug
and raked as fine as possible. All the sorts are sown in beds, excepting the cedar of
Lebanon and some pines ; and the manner of sowing is by cuffing or bedding in, already
described. (1875.)

6989. The soil for the Scotch pine, before being dug over in February, should be thickly coated wjth rot-
ted hot-bed dung : the seeds should be sown so as to rise at tlie distance of a quarter of an inch from one
another ; and the covering should be half an inch thick. The best preparation for larch-seeds is a previ-
ous crop of two-years' seedling Scotch pines, and next, a similar crop of tlie larch. The soil should be
dunged and prepared as for the Scotch pine ; after sowing the seeds, both of this tree and the Scotch pine,
previous to covering them, draw a light roller along the ted, to press the seeds firmly into the earth ;
then cover a quarter of an inch thick. The larch should rise at the same distance as the Scotch pine ; but
the seeds being generally more or less injured in separating, many do not come up, and they are therefore
sown thicker than the other. _ , „ . . , . . . ,

6990. The seeds of the spruce fir are to be treated like those of the Scotch pme ; and the bahn of Gilead

976 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

fir-seeds, like those of the larch, only the covering should not be less than half, nor more than three
'^"Sr'i''"irf?«////e«7t;eryjranrfp/;i«sto-requ*ire the same sort of treatment as those of the larch
« They must not be sown to rise nearer one another than three in an mch. The covering should be a
full inch thick, and performed with great accuracy : for if any of the seeds be lef too hghtly covered, or
if any of them be too deeply covered, they will alike be destroyed." {Plant. KaL6oZ.i

Im The seed of the Weymouth and stone pines may be treated like those of the Scotch pine, but the
former covered three quarters of an inch thick, and the latter an inch and a quarter. Sang states, that
the only \vay to get stately trees of these, as of most of the pine tribe, is to sow them where they are to

^' 699?"r™u.Me? American spruce^eeds " are smaller than those of any of the preceding kinds, and there-
fore reauire a lighter covering than any of them. One fifth of an inch is quite sufhcient. 1 hey should be
sown on a piece of fine dry sandy loam, and be covered with earth of rotten leaves of trees to the above
thickness, by sifting it upon them." (Plant. Kal. 333.) „ j. , t,u *-ii o,«o1i„-

699i The seeds of black and red American spruce fir " are very small and tender. They are still smaller
than the seeds of the white American spruce, and therefore require a covering still lighter than men-
tioned for it The black and red American spruce should be sown on rich boggy earth, which has been
made very fine ; and should be covered as lightly as possible. Rich mossy earth, containing a good \k,t.
tion of white sand answers best. This should be siftetl over the seeds with a fine sieve^ ^elther of these
American spruces will allow the roller to pass over them previous to covering. The whole ot them snouia
be shaded from the mid-day sun in the time of coming up, and for some time after, by means of hoops and
matting, or spruce fir branches stuck in the opposite alleys, so as to form an arch over the beds.'
Plant. Kalen. 334.) , ^ r i

6995. Cedar of Lebanon seeds should be sown in boxes of light sandy loam ; or on a spot ot properly
prepared well sheltered soil, and covered half an inch : the red and white cedar-seeds may be similarly
treated, covering a quarter of an inch thick. Arbor-vitje seeds will come up best under a frame or hand-
glass : they should be sown on light sandy soil, and covered a quarter of an inch.

6996. The strictest attention should be paid to the foregoing directions, both in regard to quality of soil,
and thickness of covering the seed ; for, though resinous trees are extremely hardy when grown up, yet
they are all very tender in infancy. The raising regular crops of this tribe is, therefore, justly reckoned
the masterpiece of nursery culture in the open ground j and is supposed to be best understood in the
northern counties.

6997. Transplanting. This tribe benefit less by transplanting than the non-resinous
trees ; and therefore where circumstances admit, the better plan is, after the seedlings
have stood two years in the seed-bed, to remove them where they ai-e finally to remain.
The exceptions are those sorts which are transplanted into pots, as the cedars and cy-
presses, and some of the more delicate pines, which may be kept in the nursing state, in
pots, several years, as their roots can be turned out entire. About the middle of April
is the proper time for transplanting all the resinous tribe, excepting the larch ; for, as this
tree pu.shes earlier than the others, it should be transplanted in February and March.
The first operation common to all seedlings is to loose© the roots of the plants in the
seed-bed with a fork, so as, when drawn out by the hand, they may come up with all
their fibres entire. The ground, which must be mellow, need not be so rich as for sow-
ing the seeds ; being previously prepared, they should be immediately planted in the
trench manner. (208,5.) The Scotch pine is generally planted in lines twelve inches apart,
and the plants a foot distant in the lines ; if intended to remain two years in the lines,
they should be placed six inches apart in the line ; but they always rise with the best
roots, after being only one year transplanted. The spruce and balm of Gilead firs
should generally be transplanted at two years ; but, if weak in tlte seed-bed, may remain
till the third year. They should be planted at the same distances as the Scotch pine, in
humid rich earth. The silver fir may be treated in the same manner, but it requires ra-
ther more space. If to be nursed only one year, they may be planted in lines nine
inches apart, and at six inches' distance in the lines ; but if to remain two years, then fif--
teen inches between the lines, and eighteen inches in the line will be necessary. The
Weymouth pine should be transplanted at two years into a well pulverised, rich, and sub-
humid soil, where it should remain two years before final planting ; distance between the
lines twelve inches, and from plant to plant eight inches.

6998. The pinaster and stone pine generally rise to well sized plants the first season after sowing, and
should then be transplanted into a rich well comminuted soil, rather sandy and dry, at nine inches be-
tween the lines, and four inches apart in the lines. After remaining there one year, they should be re-
moved to their final situation. Great care is requisite in moving these plants, especially the stone pine,
which sends down very long roots.

6999. The white American spruce, after remaining two years in the seed-bed, should be nursed two years
in rich sandy and rather dry soil, in lines distant twelve inches, and the plants six inches apart in the
lines. The black and red American spruce are much more delicate than the white. After being two
years in the seed-bed, they should be planted out in beds of sandv or subpeaty soil, at six inches apart, to
stand for one year ; at the end of this period, they should be lifted and planted in rows at the same dis-
tances as the white American spruce.

7000. The cedar of Lebanon, when one year old, should be lifted and planted in pots of the finest soil ;
or in lines, at the same distance as the silver fir ; after being two years nursed, it should be removed to its
final situation, as it never does much good if planted finally at a greater age, unless in pots, which is much
the best method. The red and white cedars and cypress may remain two years in the seed-bed, and then
be treated like the cedar of Lebanon.

7001. 7%etercAmay be moved from the seed-bed into the nursing lines, at one or two years. The soil
to receive them should be soft, tender, and prepared by a crop of esculent vegetables with dung the pre-
ceding season ; but they should never be planted in land newly manured with fresh dung. One year's
seedlings, to be nursed one year, should be planted four inches apart in the lines; but if to stand fo'r two
years, five inches, and fifteen inches between the lines. The two years' seedUngs should be sized, as in
the seed-bed they never all rise to the same height ; the larger size may be placed six inches apart in the
lines, and twelve or fourteen inches between the lines, to stand one year ; the smaller, at five inches, and a
foot, for standing the same period : they should then be removed to their final situation.

7002. Care qf the roots. No description of tree-plants receive so much injury from the loss of roots ;

Book III. CULTURE OF A TREE-NURSERY. 977

from the roots being exposed to the air by being kept long out of the soil ; or from compression and ex.
elusion of air and mojstiireby bemg kept in close bundles, or thick layers, as those of the resinous tribe •
they should therefore be finally planted as soon as possible after removal from the nursery ; and indeed'
whenever It is practicable, no more should be taken up in one day than can be planted that day or the
next, ^or are any plants more easily deprived of the vital principle, by racking and carriat'e either
by sea or land; though, being all evergreens, excepting the larch, they do not readily show it. This has
been stated to us, by experienced planters in Wales and other parts of England, as the reason why so few
trees are hnally produced trom the immense numbers of Scotch pine and larch fir annually sent Uiere bv the
iscotch nurserymen. j t c uj me

7003. Pruning is not required by any of the resinous tribe in the nursery, unless to
pinch off a contending leader, or amputate a bruised part of the root or top.

Sect. IT. Trees and Shrubs beanng Nuts, Acorns, Masts, Ktfijs, ^c. tlieir Sowing and

Rearing.

7004. The principal hardy trees bearing nuts, acorns, masts, &c. are the following : —

Fraxinus excelsior, November
Fagiis syivatica, Septemter, October
Castanea vesca, November
Aisculus luppo-castanmn, October
Carpinus betulus, November
Quercus robur, Noveniber

Quercua prinus, November

— alba, November
Platanus occicIenta'.Ls, December
Acer pi«udG-jilatanus, October
Juglans regia, September.

Shrubt.
Amygdalus communis, September
Staphjlea pinnata, October

vir^iana, October
nums, & '

Acer communis, & various species, Sept.
Corylus avellana, October.

7005. Gathering and keqnng. These being gathered, if circumstances permit, should
be immediately sown ; but where this cannot be done, or where they are to be sent to a
distance, they should be thinly spread in an airy loft till thoroughly dried, when they
may be preserved till spring in bags or barrels, or sent off to any distance in these ot:
other packages. When the seeds of the ash, sycamore, platanus, and hornbeam, are only
to be kept for the purpose of spring sowing, the best plan is to take them to the rotting-
ground (6979.), mix them with their bulk of dry sand or ashes, spread them in a stratum
of ten inches in thickness, in the form of beds, cover with sand to tlie same thickness, and
leave them in that state till wanted for spring sowing.

7006. Sowing. The bedding-in manner (2091.), or by drills, may be adopted for all
the kinds. Acorn.s, horse and Spanish chestnuts, almonds, and hazel-nuts, should be
sown in February, in strong loam, in good heart and well comminuted : the seeds should
be placed half an inch apart, and covered two inches thick. Walnuts require a similar
soil and covering, but should be placed two inches nut from nut. Ash-seeds will come
up in soil of middling quality, but it should be well dug, and in an open situation, that
the plants may not be drawn. Place the seeds half an inch apart, and cover one infch.
Sycamore-plants when young being liable to be killed by the frost, the seeds should not
be sown till the end of March or beginning of April ; they should be sown in exposed,
dry, sandy soil, an inch apart, and covered one inch in thickness. On rich moist land
Uiey will rise so tall and soft, tliat the extremities of their shoots will not ripen in autumn,
and the plants will in consequence be unfit for use. Beech-plants, when newly risen,
are still more tender than those of the sycamore kind, and therefore should generally be
sown in April, but not later than the middle of the month ; for if verj' dry weather set
in, they will not rise till the following spring, and so have a great chance of them perish-
ing by the frost. Tlie soil should be tender and rich, previously under a culinary crop
with dung ; and It should receive a small dressing of well rotted manure previously to
digging for semination. Tlie seeds should lie an inch apart, and oe covered a full inch.
The best time for sowing the hornbeam is in October; but it may also be sown in Fe-
bruary : the soil should be light, but not very rich : the bed form answers best : the
seeds should lie half an inch apart, and be covered half an inch in tliickness. The
plant is seldom raised from seeds; but when this is done, a soft peat-earth soil is the
best, and the covering should not be more than a quarter of an inch. The seeds of the
bladder-nut, if sown as soon as gathered, will come up the following spring ; if not, a
part will not rise till the second year : sow in light rich soil, and cover an inch and a
half deep.

7007. Transj)la7iting. The operation of loosening the plants, sorting them into sizes,
and pruning their roots and tops, require to be first performed. As these plants have
generally long and strong tap-roots, these require to be cut in the operation of loosening ;
which, for this purpose, must be performed w'ith a sharp spade, and care taken in
thrusting it down, that the root is not cut too high ; care should also be taken to pre-
serve uninjured all the lateral fibres. In sorting the plants into two or three sizes, the
fractured tap-root of each must be cut smoothly off with a sharp knife, and any side
shoots on the stem cut close off. If the plants cannot be immediately planted, they
may be laid in by the heels, or shoughed ; that is, thickly bedded in the bedding-ground
(6979.) till wanted. Here they may remain in layers not more than three or four
inches thick, for a month or two in the winter season ; and for a week or two even in
February and March. None of the kinds should remain in the seed-bed longer than
two years ; but in drills they may remain three years ; and more especially if tha
operation of tapping be performed ; that is, cutting through their tap-roots about eight
inches below the surface. " This is most effectually and readily done by two men with

3 R

g78 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Paet III.

sharp spades ; rutting or cutting the ground obliquely with their spades, on each side
die line at once, and exactly opposite to each other. After this operation has been
performed, the plants should be made firm, by a person treading the rows with a foot
on each side. These kinds, so tapped, will, in the course of the following season, in
consequence of being thus root-pruned, push many more fibres on the upper part of
their roots, than they otherwise would have done; and thus will the plants be better
fitted for being transplanted info shallow soils, or indeed into any soil, than they would
have been by being allowed to remain in the ground untapped till the time of lifting."
(Plant. Kal 135.)

7008. Trenck-plantingis decidedly the best for all plants to be placed in lines ; but more especially for
lleneous sorts. DibbiTig in is an easier and more rapid mode ; but by trench-plantmg the fibres are
spread out and regularly disposed on each side of the main root; whereas, by dibbing, as Sang observes,
thev are " huddled together into a hole probably not more than an inch and half m diameter " Dibbing,
however may be adopted in the case of such seedling trees as have been robbed of most of their fibrous
roots bv'being pulled out in thinning beds intended to stand lor two years. ^ ■, • . i

7009 The aee at which most of these sorts should be transplanted is one year ; and the soil most desirable
for removing them to, is the same as recommended for the seed-bed. The distances between the hnes
and the plants in the line depend partly on their kinds, but principally on the length of time they are to
stand before retransplanting or final removal. The larger-growing broad-leaved sorts, as the chestnuts
and walnuts, to stand only one year, should not be nearer than eighteen inches by six inches ; and the
oak ash beech, &c. not nearer than fourteen inches by three inches ; if to stand for three years, the in-
terspaces may be two or three inches more : something depends on the openness of the situation, and a
sood deal on the soil. The judicious nursery-gardener will consider all the circumstances, and adopt such
variations of the ordinary distances as shall produce plants with weU ripened shoots, and numerous fibrous
roots.

7010. Pruning, culture, and taking up for final planting. When the plants are to
remain two or more years in the nursery lines without removal, dig the ground between
the rows in winter. At midsummer cut close off the lower side shoots ; some defer this
work till winter ; but, besides the loss of sap avoided by midsummer pruning, the
wounds heal the same season. In taking up for final planting, such plants as have been
trench-planted must be loosened on the side which was solid at planting ; if they have
been in training for several years they should be lifted by throwing out a trench on one
side, fully to the depth of the roots, and then putting in the spade on the opposite side,
so as to get below all the roots.

Sect. III. Trees and Shrubs with berried Stones, their Soioing and Rearing.

7011. The principal hardy trees with berried stones are the following : —

Sorbus aucuparia, August

— domestica, November
Ilex aquifolium, November
Pyrus torminalis, November

_ aria, September
Taxus baccata, November
Prunus cerasus, Jul

— domestica, October.

i, July
ica, Oct

Rhamnus frangula, Sejitember

— communis, November
Laurus nobilis, November
Rosa, various species, October

— lusitanica, September

— virginiana, August

— spinosa, October

— canadensis, August

— laurocerasus, September

Hedera helix, April
Daphne laureola, June

— mezereon, June
Viburnum tinus, June
Phillyrea angustifolia, February
Mespilus oxyacantha, October
— azarolus, October

Juniperus communis, October.

7012. Rotting. The whole of these when gathered, require to be taken to the rotting-
ground ; mixed with their bulk of dry sand or ashes, laid in beds of ten inches in thick-
ness, and then covered with ten inches of sand, light sandy earth, or ashes. Here some
sorts, as the holly, will require to remain two years ; the haw, mountain ash, and yew,
one year ; and the other sorts, one winter, or till the following February. During this
time the beds of each kind should be uncovered, carefully turned over, and the covering
replaced. ■- ■ The advantage of rotting off their exterior covering in heaps rather than in
the soil, where they are to germinate, is the saving of ground ; for though some of the
holly and haw, for example, will come up the next or the second season after sowing,
yet, by keeping them one or two years in the rot-heap, we are sure all the seeds will ger-
minate the same spring in which they are committed to the soil. To the above general
remarks, the gean forms an exception ; for if sown immediately after being gathered in
July, it will come up the following spring ; but it will keep in the rot-heap a year. When
any of these seeds are to be sent to a distance, instead of being carried to the rot-heap,
they are spread thin in lofts, dried and packed in barrels ; great care must be taken that
they are sufficiently dried, otherwise putrescent fermentation will commence, and the ve-
getative principle will be destroyed by the heat evolved.

7013. Sowing. The season is generally February, and the manner by bedding in, as
before. The haw, the most important of this class, should be sown in the lightest rich-
est land in the nursery ; and if not very rich, some dung may be added. Sow in beds
three feet four, or three feet six inches apart ; the seeds should lie within a fourth of an
inch of each other, and be rolled with a roller of fifty or sixty pounds' weight, and exactly
the breadth of the bed, previously to covering, which should be one inch deep. If the
seeds are too moist to admit of dravidng a roller over them, beat in the seeds with the
back of the spade. This operation of rolling in seeds not only fixes them in their places,
so as to admit of applying the covering with greater freedom, but by consolidation is cal-
culated to retain moisture, exclude too much air, and thereby promote germination.
Holly and yew seeds should be sown on rich friable soil, shaded by a wall or by wattled

Book III. CULTURE OF A TREE-NURSERY. 979

hurdles, or other means, from the mid-day sun, The distance is the same as for haws ;
they should be rolled, or beat in, and covered not more tlian half an inch. If previously
rotted for two years, they will all come up the following May ; but if only one year in
the rotting-bed, a part will not come up till the second year : in this case they should be
sown thin> as the growing plants will impede the otliers in breaking tlirough the soil.
IVIountain ash seeds require a fine and rather rich soil ; the seeds should not lie nearer
tlian an inch, and the covering should be only a quarter of an inch. The gean should
be sown, as soon as gathered, in deep sandy loam, the pulp being previously bruised ; it
need not be very rich, but must be dug deep before sowing : pjace the seeds an inch
apart, and cover three quarters of an inch thick. Gean-stones, which have been preserved
in the rotting-ground for spring sowing, will not come up regularly the summer follow-
ing, but a part will lie till the second spring. The advantage of sowing as soon as ga-
thered, is therefore obvious. ' Great care should be taken not to sow the cherry for the
gean, as the former is not nearly so well calculated for a timber-tree. The seeds of the
common and Portugal laurel, laurel-bay, mezereon, spurge-laurel, phillyrea, and the
like, should be sown as soon as gathered, in rich soft soil, on a dry bottom : the seeds
should be an inch apart, and be covered an inch. During the severest weather of win-
ter, it will be advisable to protect them by hoops and mats. The seeds of the service,
buckthorn, bird-cherrj', and other species of prunus, rhamnus, and mespilus, may be
treated like those of the laurel, but will not at all require so deep a covering, nor will any
of them require protection in winter.

7014. Transplanlifig. What has been advanced on transplanting plants from nuts,
keys, &c. will apply here. Most of tliese species being smaller, will not require so great
distances l>etween the rows and plants. All the deciduous sorts may be transplanted in
February or early in March ; and all the evergreen species from the middle of April to
the middle of May, and during the month of August. The greatest care will be requi-
site in lifting evergreens from the seed-bed, where they have been already once moved,
so as not to injure their fibres ; and on no account should more be taken up at a time
than what can be planted the same day. Select for them the soils most suitable to their
natures (6974.), as far as the limits of the nursery will permit; and in general, rather
prefer a shady situation, especially for the holly, yew, and all the laurels. Hollies hav-
ing few fibrous roots should be frequently transplanted ; but this is not necessary with tlie
yew, which has fibres in greater quantity. In transplanting the deciduous sorts, prefer
narrow spaces between the lines, and wider intervals in the rows, to wide rows, and
plants crowded in the row. One year's seedling thorns, for instance, to be nursed one
year, may stand nine or ten inches by two inches j if for two years, twelve or fourteen
inches by three or three and a half inches.

7015. For pruning, culture, and Itfting for final planting, see nut-bearing trees, &c,
(7004.)

Sect. IV. Trees and Shrubs bearing Berries and Capsules loilh small Seeds,

7016. The principal hardy berry and capsule bearing trees are the following : —

TUia europaea, November

Pyrus communis, October

— malus, October.

Comus mascula, October

— virginiana, October
Sambucus nigra, September

— racemosa, September

— canadensis, Sejiterabcr
Lonicera, various species, August
Jasminura firuticans, October

LiRUStrum -nilRare, October
Euonymus latifolius, November

— europajus, November
Viburnum lantana, Se)>teniber

— opulus, October
Ribes f^osstuarioides, September.

Shnb*.
Berberis vulgaris, September
Buxus serapervirens, September

7017. Gathering and keejmig. As this class of seeds are only wanted in small quan-
tities, the most convenient way of preserving them is in the seed-loft or root-cellar in dry
sand. They should be frequently turned over to separate the seeds from the pulp and
husks, and cleaned by sifting and fanning early in February. For sending to a distance,
they are to be treated like berried stones ; or they may be separated and cleaned previ-
ously to deportation.

7018. Sowing. All of them require a soft and rather moist soil, with the exception of
the box, which°should have a soil rather sandy and dry. They may be sown in Febru-
ary, in beds, and covered not more than a quarter of an inch ; and when the seeds first
begin to vegetate, it will be an advantage to shade them from tlie sun, by wattled hur-
dles; place them across beds which lie north and souUi, and along those lying in a di-
rection east and west. , .

7019. Their IransplaiUing and future culture are the same as for the foreign division.

Sect. V. Trees aiul Sh-ubs bearing leguminous Seeds, their Sowing and Rearing.

7020. The jwincipal liardy leguminous trees are as follow : —

Cvtis»salpint«,Oct.ober ^"""^ c'jl^^l^c'lo'^r'"" I '''^ I^l^^'^lSf
Robiniapseud-acacia, November. — cruenta, iitiooer I . «^. ,

Shruht.
Robinia carafiana, November t • i i i i •

7021. Gatliering and keeping. These being collected are to be dned Uioroughly m an

3 R 2

_ iwcockii, November \ — austnacus, Septembfer

_ media, October - tomentosus, September

Coronillaemerus, October I - laburnum, October.

980 " PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

airy loft, and the pods being afterwards threshed or opened, the seeds may be preser\'ed
in bags or boxes till spring, or sent to any distance.

7022. Sowing. The season for sowing all of them is February ; the soil should be
light, deep, and sandy, and the seeds placed an inch apart, and covered three quarters of
an inch thick. This should be particularly attended to in the case of the laburnum, the
seeds of which, being generally sure growers, if they rise thick, they lose their leaves

. about midsummer, become mildewed, and die. Attention should be paid not to inter-
mix the tree-laburnum (C. a/;«nMS,'W. en.) with the shrubby sort.

Sect. VI. Trees and Shrubs bearing small soft Seeds, their Sowing and Rearing.

7023. The jmncipal hardy trees with small seeds are as under : —

'Alnus glutinosa, November
Betula alba, October
Ulmus campestris, June

— glabra, June
Populus nigra. May

Poprulus alba. May ^

— balsamifera. May *

Salii alba, June.

Shrubs.
Syringa vulgaris, October

Cistus, various species, September
Philadelphus coronarius, October
Salix pentandra, August

— babylonica, June
Rhus cotinus, and other species, July.

tremulaj

7024. Gathering and keejnng. All these require to be gathered as soon as ripe, other-
wise some are apt to drop out of their capsules, as the alder, birch, and lilac ; and
others to be blown away and lost, as the elm, poplar, willow, and sumach. They should
be gathered perfectly dry, and spread ihin in a airy loft, till fit to put up in bags or boxes,
for keeping or deportation.

7025. Sowing. Most of the sorts may be sown immediately after being gathered, in
which case they will be more certain of germinating ; and a number of elms, poplars, and
willows, will come up the same autumn. But as protection during winter will, in that
case, become requisite, the better way, in general, is to defer sowing till March or April,
when all the sorts may be sown in light rich earth, rather moist, and covered not more
than half an inch. Tlie principal tree of this class is the broad-leaved elm, which, where
intended for two-year seedlings, which, in most cases, is the preferable age for trans-
planting, should be sown to rise at least two inches apart, as the plants grow with great
vigor even the first year.

7026. Tlieir transplanting siwdi future culture are the same as directed for berried stones,
keys, &c.

Sect. VII. Culture common to all the Classes of Tree-seeds.

7027. Insects and vermin. New-sown seeds of most kinds are greedily devoured by
various descriptions of vermin. Mice attack " acorns, sweet chestnuts, hazel-nuts, wal-
nuts, and holly-seeds. They not only eat them on the spot, but they carry to their re-
treats great numbers of the seeds of which they are most fond. The cheapest, and per-
haps the most effectual trap for their destruction, is the well known but neglected fourth
figure trap. (Jig. 668.) The new-sown haws and
mountain ash berries are a prey to the chaffinches,
green linnets, and other birds. If the quantity sown
be not great, the beds may be hooped over and co-
vered with small-meshed nets. But if a great breadth
of ground be sown, it must be constantly watched
after sowing. If the watching be vigilantly attended to,
for a few days immediately after sowing, the seed will
not need much more attention till they begin to break
the ground ; at which period the M^atching should be
closely and regularly continued. As they are always the strongest and best-ripened seeds
which rise first; it is therefore of much importance to prevent these from being picked
up." (Plant. Kalend. 250.)

7028. JFeeds. Before the tree-seeds come up a crop of weeds will probably have made
their appearance ; these are to be removed when young, otherwise drawing out their roots
will materially disturb the vegetating seeds. " It not unfrequently happens, that the land
in which fir and larch seeds have been sown, becomes battered by heavy rains. This will
certainly happen if rain fall immediately after sowing before the surface become dry ;
but if it once be fully dried after sowing, and before the rain fall, it will seldom or never
batter. Suppose, however, the seed-beds are battered, so that the tender seeds cannot
rise with freedom, the best way to relieve them is to draw over them a wooden roller,
Stuck over with lath-nails at half an inch distance, and driven in so as to remain half an
inch beyond the wood of the roller. The roller should not be more than thirty inches
long and not more than thirty pounds weight. By drawing this roller along the one
side of the battered bed, while walking in the alley, and returning with it over the other,
an ordinary-sized bed will be completely relieved. Some people rake their battered beds,
in order to enable the seeds to rise. This is a most dangerous and destructive method of
relieving vegetating plants. From their tender state, the smallest twist breaks them
over, and consequently destroys them. We have experienced much advantage from using

Book III. CULTURE OF A TREE-NURSERY. 981

the light armed roUer, here recommended. It is, however, much better when no such
are required. Tlie surest way to guard against the need of such means, is to work the
land when it is in a proper condition, and to sow the seeds in such weather as that the
surface after sowing will be fully dry before rain come on. There is no dispensing with
this precaution, when it is wished to secure an equal and good crop of seedlings." {Plant.
£mI. 367.)

7029. Birds. In May the pines and firs will begin to pierce the ground with the
husks of the seeds still on tlieir tops, and then watching the birds becomes of the utmost
importance ; not one ought to be allowed to light on the beds ; to prevent which will
require unremitting attention from break of day till sunset, for five or six weeks, till the
plants are all up, and have tlirown off their husks. After the nuts, mast, and haws have
come up, they are no longer in danger from mice, but they may be attacked by snails,
and grubs of beetles and cockchafiers at their roots. These are to be hand-picked.

7030. muering and shading. In June severe droughts very often set in, and these are
very prejudical to small seeds, especially those of the resinous tribe, when rising through
the soil. At this time watering and shading may be applied with great advantage, pro-
vided the former is accompanied by the latter, and daily attended to from the time it is
commenced till rain falls. The best mode of shading is by tlie wattled hurdle. By the
end of July the seedling plants of most sorts will be out of danger, and excepting a few
of the tender sorts specified as requiring protection in winter, or by a hand-glass or cold^
frame, will require no otlier care but weeding till fit to be transplanted. .

Sect. VIII. Of jrropagating Trees by Layers, Cuttings, Suckers, Grafting, ^-c.

7031. Layering is next to rearing from seeds the most general mode of propagating
hardy trees and shrubs. The more common species of forest trees to which this mode
is applicable, are the Acer Platanoides, pseudo-platanus, tartaricum, dasycarpum,
opalus, negundo, and other species ; Betula lenta, populifolia, and rubra ; Fagus fer-
ruginea ; Platanus occidentalis and orientalis ; Fopulus graica, monolifera, and cane-
scens ; Tilia alba, americana, europeea, and pubescens ; and Ulmus campestris, ne-
moralis, and suberosa. Some of these, as the poplars and planes, are also propagated by
cuttings ; but layers make the strongest plants. "Whenever seeds can be procured, how-
ever, it is best to propagate in that way, as likely to produce the largest trees. The other
trees propagated by layers, will be found in our Encyclopcedia of Plants, and in the
arbaricultural catalogue ; and also all the shrubs so propagated. The situations and dis-
tances for planting stools in tlie nursery have been already mentioned (6981.) ; and, as
there is nothing peculiar in the operation of layering timber-trees or shrubs, we have
merely to refer to the general directions as to layers and stools. (1993.) The young or
preceding year's shoots of all the sorts above enumerated, if layered in autumn or winter,
will be fit for being detached and planted in nursery lines by that time twelve months.
They should be transplanted into well comminuted soil, as far as practicable, suitable to
the nature of each ; the distances should be regulated by the size of the layers and the
time they are to be nursed. For ordinary purposes layers need not be nursed more tiian
two years ; but for single trees and ornamental plantations, they should be several times
removed, and close pruned, till they have attained six or eight feet in height. Evergreen
trees and shrubs, as being more tender than the others, should be layered in March and
April, and from August to October. Some sorts root most freely when the wood is in a
succulent state ; and of such the current year's shoots are laid about midsummer.
This is practised with Stuartia, Arbutus, Andromeda, Kalmia, Azalea, Magnolia,
Alaternus, Phillyrea, Laurus nobilis and sassafras, Zanthoxylum, Pyrus japonica, &c.
The same practice is adopted with other free-growing sorts that it is wished to multiply as
rapidly as possible; as the Rosa (6546.), Hibiscus, Lonicera, Aristotelia, Mespilus,
&c. Layers of the last sorts made during summer from the same year's _ shoots, will be
fit to detach by the winter or the following spring ; of the other sorts seldom sooner than
the second August or autumn ; but even then a season is gained, as the layers of those
plants made in autumn, generally require to remain two years before they have made suf-
ficient roots. Tlie layers of all evergreens should be removed at the proper seasons for
pruning, laying, or transplanting that tribe 3 that is, in April and May, and in August
and September.

7032. By cutting is the next most general mode of propagating trees and shrubs, and the
common forest trees generally so multiplied are as follow : Platanus occidentalis and
orientalis ; Fopulus angulata, balsamifera, dilatata, grseca, monolifera, nigra, pendula,
and trepida ; Salix all the tree species ; and Sambucus nigra. These are also propagated by
layers, and a few of them by seeds ; which last, it should never be forgotten, is by far the
best mode where timber-trees is the object. The numerous tribe of shrubs propagated by
cuttings, will be found in the Encyclopcedia of Plants already referred to.

7033. The manner qf forming and planting cuttings has been already described. (2063.) The season
for deciduous and evergreen woody plantfi are the same as for layering j and a;9 in the latter mode of

3 R 3

982 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

propagation, so in multiplying by cuttings, some sorts succeed best when the current year's wood is taken
at midsummer : as for example, Laurus ffistivalis, benzoin, and sassafras, Bignonia, l^uphorbia, Fhlomis,
Rosa, Santolina, &c. Cuttings of some of these sorts, made of year-old wood m sprmg or autumn, re-
quire to stand two seasons before they have made sufficient roots to admit of their removal ; by midsum-
mer cuttings one year is gained. The same practice may be ai)plied to deciduous sorts ; but the plants
produced are not so strong as by cuttings of ripened wood. All cuttings require to be planted in a shady
situation, and sandy soil, dry at bottom ; but kept somewhat moist by occasional watering in dry weather;
their lengths are generally made in proportion to the length of the year-old wood, but seldom exceed-
ing six or eight inches. The shoots of some sorts, as poplar, willow, honeysuckle, &c., are divided into
several cuttings of this length. An inch of the former year's wood is often preserved in autumn-made
cuttings ; but this is not essential ; as more important points are, making a smooth horizontal section at
a bud, and in planting, pressing the earth very firmly to the lower extremity of the cutting. Midsum-
mer cuttings should in almost all cases be covered with hand or bell glasses. , The alder, most willows,
the Lombardy, and some other poplars, will grow from cuttings or truncheons of several feet long, and
of several inches in diameter. " This method is occasionally adopted, when it is requisite to form expe-
ditiously some rough plantation, to serve as a hedge or screen along an outward boundary. Cuttings
for this purpose may consist of long slender rods of one or two years' growth, or as %veU of large trun-
cheons or stakes from three to six feet in length. Further, the willow, in particular, will increase from
large pole-cuttings of from six to ten feet, planted out at once to form either pollard-stems, or be trained
into full standards." {Abercrombie.)

"7034. The season for transplanting struck cuttings into nursery lines, are those already mentioned as
the most fit for moving deciduous and evergreen trees, originated by other modes. (6983. to 7023.)

7035. By suckers. A few common trees, and a number of shrubs are propagated by
suckers. The timber-trees are the Ailantus glandulosa, Robinia pseud -acacia, Populus
canescens, alba, and tremula, and Ulmus campestris. Of hedge plants, the common sloe
and other wild plums, crabs, and pears, are, or may be so propagated. Various
shrubs are propagated by suckers. Suckers make better trees than plants raised from
cuttings, and also very good hedge plants. To induce a tree to send up suckers, the
horizontal roots may be laid bare, notched in different places, and the earth mixed with
sand and replaced ; a powerful co-operative would be to cut the tree over by the surface,
by which means all the sap would be employed in root-shoots. At the end of one, but
sometimes not till the end of the second season, the suckers will be fit to slip off, or to
separate by the knife with a part of the parent root attached ; they may then be pruned
as required, and planted in nursery lines.

7036. Grafting, budding, and inarching, are modes applicable to a few hardy trees and
shrubs. The common forest trees are the Fraxinus americana, Populus candicans,
heterophylla, and laevigata, Pyrus Aria, Quercus exoniensis, and Ulmus campestris and
suberosa. These, and the ornamental trees and shrubs so propagated, are worked on
stocks of the more hardy species of the same or of the next allied genus ; and, probably,
make as durable plants for timber-trees as layers ; by which mode the above enumerated
sorts are also propagated. Tlie stocks should be at least one year established, previously
either to grafting or inarching : the operation for deciduous sorts is performed in spring
at the rise of the sap. (2010.) Evergreens are almost always inarched either in April, or
May, or August. Budding is performed in June and July, and is chiefly used in pro-
pagating the rose. (6553.) Some inarched sorts require two seasons before the scion can
be detached from the parent plant.

7037. General culture and management of a private nursery. There is nothing ma-
terial to be advanced on this head, but what has been already recurred to in this chapter,
or in treating of the general management of the kitchen-garden. The first grand point
is so to arrange the rotation of crops, that a crop of culinary vegetables shall intervene
between every crop of trees, where that crop remains on -the same soil two or more years ;
and between every two or three crops, where the crop of trees is lifted annually or the
second year. The next thing is changing the surface of the soil, as in horticulture
(2557.), weeding, stirring the surface, watering, shading, pruning, training, staking,
and protecting. The important points of management are to procure the proper quanti-
ties of seeds or stools requisite to produce the quantity of trees to be annually furnished ;
to proportion the number of plants taken up daily to the number replanted in the nur-
sery or forest the same day, and to attend to general order and neatness.

Chap. IX.

Arboricvltural Catalogue.

7038. In our arboricultural catalogue we mean to enumerate, and shortly describe, the
principal timber-trees which may be cultivated with advantage as such, in the climate of
Britam, and also the most useful plants for hedges. We shall arrange the whole as
resinous, hard-wooded, and soft-wooded trees; including in each section the hedge
plants l>elonging to it, and in the last, the willows proper for osier-plantations • the
generalcultureof the trees contained in each of these sections, has been given in chapters
111. IV. VII. and VIII. *^

Book III. RESINOJJS OR CONIFEROUS TREES. 983

Sbct. I. Resinous or Coniferous Trees.

7039. The resinous forest trees are comprised in three genera belonging to the natural
order of ConifertBy J. ; viz, Pinus and CujrressuSy Moncec. Monad. L., and Juniperus,
Dicec. Monad. L. The trees which are valuable as timber are comprehended under
the genus Pinus, which comprises the three subdivisions of pines, lai-ches, and firs. The
first is distinguished by fasciculated leaves in different sheaths, but proceeding from the
same sheathing base ; the second by fasciculated
leaves from solitary sheaths ; and the third by " 1
solitary leaves. The branches of the whole genus
are frondose or spreading, and caducous : those of
the pine tribe spread the least ; those of the larch
tribe rather droop ; and those of the firs are thin
and much spread, and are peculiarly frondlike.

7040. The tuiM or Scotch pine, erroneously de- '
nominated Scots fir, is the Pitius sylvestris, L.
{Lam. pin. 1. t. 1 .) Piri, Fr. ; Keifer or Fohre,
Ger. ; and Pino, Ital. {fig, 66^. a) It is an
evergreen sub-conical tree; the foliage inclining]
to dark -blue or grey; shorter and broader than
those of the stone pine (6) ; it is common in most
parts of Europe, particularly the nortliem coun-
tries, and is the only species of the genus indigenous
to Britain, being a native of Scotland, and natu-
ralised in England and W ales. Under favorable
circumstances it attains the height of seventy or eighty feet : it flowers in May, and
the cones are fit to gather in December. Tlie finest pine-woods in Britain are at Inver-
cauld, in Invernesshire, and Gordon Castle, in Aberdeenshire.

7041. Use. The timber of this tree is the red or yellow deal of the north of Europe, and is the most
durable and valuable of any of the genus, unless we except the common larch. The universality of its
application is known to every one. The Highland pine, Sang states to be not inferior to any imported,
either in cleanness or durability, when it has been grown on a proper soil, and to a sufficient age. " But
the planted Lowland pine," he adds, " is seldom applied to offices higher than that of roofing sheds or
huts, lining of carts, lathing, or making of packing-boxes ; while the natural or self-sown is fit for the
finest purposes." Pontey considers the English-grown wild pine, if properly pnmed and grown to a
sufficient age, as likely to equal that of foreign growth. The tree is of great value as a nurse-plant;
being next to the common birch and bastard mountain ash, or mountain sorb {Pi/rus hybridal, the most
hardy timber-tree. Among its minor uses we shall only mention the production of tar by incision.

7042. Varieties. Of these, several have been noticed by botanists, and some consider the P. maritima
( Willden. ) as nothing more. According to Sang, the variety commonly cultivated is least worth the
trouble. " The P. sylvestris, var. montana," he says, " is the'variety which yields the red wood : even
young trees of this sort are said to become red in their wood, and full of resiri very soon. The late dis-
tinguished Don, of Forfar, exhibited specimens of cones of each variety to the Highland Society of
Scotland, and likewise to the Caledonian Horticultural Society. The variety preferred by Don, is
distinguished by the disposition of its branches, which are reniarkable for their horizontal direction,
and for a tendency to bend downwards close to the trunk. The leaves are broader and shorter than in
the common kind, and are distinguishable at a distance by their much lighter and beautiful glaucous
appearance. The bark of the trunk is smoother than in the common kind. The cones are thicker, and
not so much pointed. The plant is more hardy than the common sort, grows freely in almost any soil or
situation, and quickly arrives at a considerable size." Sang says, he has seen trees of this variety at
Caristoun and Brechin Castle : and it is much to be wished that he or some other competent nurseryman,
in that quarter, would collect the seeds, and propagate it extensively. Thouin {Notes sur la Culture de
Pin^, 8vo. 1819,) mentions a variety, which he calls P. st/i. var. pin de riga, as affording the best timber.
"Whether the pine which forms the extensive plantations along the sea-coast at Bourdeaux, and is called
by foreign authors, Pinus niarititna, be a variety of P. sylvestris or a distinct species, does not appear to
^ ascertained. The plant is tender, and easily killed by frost when young ; but its timber is said to be
of excellent quality. {RadcWs Flanders, 250.)

7043. Soil and native site. " This tree is naturally the inhabitant of mountainous districts, and of rocky,
gravelly, or poor sandy soils, where its timber becomes most valuable and durable. On the sides of moun-
tains, in dells and hollows, among stones and rocks, beside rapid rivulets or mountain torrents, it is found
in high perfection ; and if it stand single, it is of great beauty. In many parts of the Scots Highlands,
where the soils are extremely various, and much mixed, the Scots pine has arrived at a good size, and
often attained remarkable dimensions. In any kind of soil from a sandy to a clay, provided the substra-
tum be rubble or rock, it will grow and flourish ; but in wet tilly soils, it ought never to be planted ;
because whenever the roots have exhausted the turf or upper soil, and begin to perforate the sub-soil, the
tree languishes and dies." [Plant. Kal. 65.)

7044. Insects. The larvte of Noctua Pinastri, L. {Xylena, Hub.) are deposited in the leading buds, and
often perforate the young shoots, and leave the tree without a leader. The a/)AjSjoini infests the tender
shoots ; and various dermestidce live in the bark, and perforate the soft wood.

7045. T/ie Corsican pine (P. laricio, P. S.) is a native of the mountains of Corsica and is nearly allied
to the Scotch pine. There is a specimen in the Paris gardens, planted in 1784 and bd feet high in 1821,
thus described by David Don. '*P. laricio is a much handsome and finer tree than P. sylvestris with
which however it in some respects agrees. It is of a more pyramidal habit, and its branches are shorter
and more regularly verticillated. Its leaves are a third longer, and of a lively green, with their sheaths
nearly entire." Its cones are shorter, ovate and quite straight, with depressed scales : and its bark is finer
and much more entire. The enlightened Professor of Agriculture informed us, that it is equally hardy
with P. sylvestris, and that its wood is much more weighty and resinous, and consequently more compact,
stronger, and more flexible. It grows wild on the summits of the highest mountains in Corsica. It
seems to bear cones very freely, which ripen nearly about the same time as those of P. sylvestris.

7046. The iiitch or red Canadian jnne {P. resinosa) {Lam. pin. 20. t. 4.) is an Ameri*

3 B 4

984

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

can tree, introduced in 1 756, not unlike the Scotch pine, and " receives its name from
the color of the bark. From the high geographical range of this pine, it is well adapted
to associate with the P. sylvestris. It has been imported in the form of masts into this
country. Like the P. sylvestris, it affords an inferior timber on a damp and unsuitable
soil." {Caled. Hort. Mem. i'". 367.)

7047. The pinaster or cluster-pine (P. pinaster, L.) {Lam. pin. 9. t. 5.) {fiir. 669. b)
grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet, with broader, thicker, and longer leaves than the
common pine (a) : the branches are also farther apart, and grow more horizontal than
in that tree. As tlie tree advances in age it becomes naked and unsightly below ; but
the top grows highly picturesque, and may readily be distinguished in the landscapes
of the Roman and Florentine painters. It grows naturally on the mountains of Italy
and the south of France ; in Switzerland it is cut into shingles for covering their houses,
and also for making pitch. It flowers in April and May, and the cones are fit to be
gathered in December. It was introduced in 1596, but never much cultivated, being
less, hardy and much less valuable as a timber-tree than the common pine. It is very
picturesque, and well merits culture in that point of view. There are some large speci-
mens at Culzean Castle, on the sea-coast of Ayrshire.

7048. The stone jnne (P. pinea) [Lam. pin. 11. t. 6, 7, 8.) (Jig. 669. c) grows to a
considerable height, with a straight stem and rough bark, llie leaves are not quite so
long as those of the pinaster, and are of a greyish or sea-green color. Tlie cones are five
inches in length, round, thick, and obtuse ; the kernels are large, and frequently served
up in desserts during the winter season in Italy and the south of France, and they are
also much relished by the Chinese, for the same purpose. It is a native of the south
of Europe ; very common about Ravenna, and forming a distinguishing ornament of
the villas of Rome and Florence. It was introduced here in 1570 ; but as the wood is
not so resinous as most of the other sorts, it has been only cultivated for ornament.

7049. The sivamp, Georgia, pitch, or long-leaved pine (P. palustris) (Lam. pin. 27.
t. 20.) (fig. 669, d) is a valuable and a lofty tree in America, affording planks, which,
imported in this country, are valued 20 per cent, higher than any other American tim-
ber excepting the black larch. The leaves are a foot or more in length, produced in
tufts at the ends of the branches, and having a singular appearance. It grows in a
warmer climate than most other pines ; and if it were found to produce equally valuable
timber in the low warm situations of England, which it does in America, it would be a
most valuable tree. It was introduced in 1730, but has been yery little _cultivated,

7050. 27ie Weymouth or New England larch,
commonly called Weymouth pine, (P. Strobus)
(Lam. pin. 31. t. 22.) (Jig. 670.) forms the con-
necting link between the pine and larch tribe.
It is one of the tallest of the genus, attaining in
America the height of 100 feet and upwards.
The bark is smooth and delicate, and the leaves
soft and of a bluish green. Vast quantities of
the timber, under the name of the white pine,
are imported from America ; but the tree seems
to be of so delicate a habit, as to prevent our
expecting it ever to become a large or valuable
tree with us, especially in exposed situations.
It was introduced in 1 705, and has been a good
deal cultivated, having foj-merly been^ supposed
the most valuable tree of the genus, next to the
common pine. The largest specimens are at
Mersham-hatch, Sir E. Knatchbull's seat in Kent,
and at Whitton Park in Middlesex.

705L The cedar-larch, or cedar of Lebanon, is the P. cednis, L. (Lam. piti. 59. t.
37.) Cedre, Fr. ; Cederbaum, Ger. ; and Cedro, Ital. It is distinguished from all otlier
trees of the genus by its strong ramose branches, which, in some cases, deviate from the
common character, and become ;irregular in shape, and permanent in duration. The
general character of the shoot, even when the tree is young, is singularly bold and pic-
turesque, and quite peculiar to the species. The tree is a native of the coldest part of
the mountains of Libanus, Amanus and Taurus ; but it is not now to be found in
those places in great numbers. Maundrell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem
m 1696, could reckon only sixteen large trees, though many small ones: one of the
.argest was twelve yards six inches in girth, and yet sound ; and thirty seven yards in
the spread of its boughs. The forest of Libanus never seems to have recovered the
bavoc made by Solomon's forty score thousand hewers : so that we have now, as Pro-
fessor Martyn observes, probably more cedars in England than there are in Palestine.
Ihe tree is supposed to have been introduced here in 1683. The oldest specimens are

BcoA III. RESINOUS OR CONIFEROUS TREES. 985

two in Chelsea-garden ; but there are more magnificent ones at Whitton Park, Zion
House, Pains-hill, Warwick Castle, and other places.

7052. Use. The tree has been very generally planted for ornament, and from its branchy head, and its
aversion to pruning, it is not likely ever to become a valuable timber-tree in this country. When planted
for that purj>ose, it should, as Sang recommends, be sown in groves, and thus by proximity drawn up with
few branches. Much has been said of the timber which borders on the miraculous ; as far as experience
has gone, it is greatly inferior to that of the common larch, or the wild j)ine. Its great use is as a single
tree in lawns, where it combines beauty and singularity in a degree not to be found in any other tree. It
has also an excellent effect in the margin of plantations^ and one or two plants will give force and character
to the dullest front of round-headed trees, and effect a great deal even in the fronts and sky outlines of
plantations with spiry tops. {Jig. 560.)

7053. The common larch is the P. larix, L. (Lanu phu 53. 35.) Lariv or Meleze,
Fr. ; Lerchenbaum, Ger. ; and Laricio, Ital. It is the only species of the genus, the
leaves of which are deciduous ; it rises to eighty or a hundred feet high, forming a nar-
row cone of small white-barked caducous, pendulous branches, with delicate drooping
spray. It is a native of the Alpine mountains, on the north sides of which, in hollows
and chasms, it attains to its greatest height and thickness, and most durable timber. In
returning from Italy, by the Simplon, the silver fir will be found in great perfection in
tlie hollows on the south side, the common Scotch pine on the summit, and the larch
in descending to the Vallais. It appears to have been cultivated by Parkinson in 1629;
and Evelyn, in 1 664, speaks of a tree of good stature, " not long since to be seen at
Chelmsford, in Essex, (also mentioned by Harte,) which sufficiently reproaches our
not cultivating so useful a material for many purposes." Harte, in his excellent essays,
published in 1715, gives a figure of the larch, and strongly recommends its culture.
It was first introduced into Scotland by Lord Kames in 1734 (i«/n. jnn. t. 35.), and
afterwards in 1741, planted by the Duke of Athol at Dunkeld, and these last trees have
prospered so astonishingly^ and the timber produced from such as have been cut down,
has so fully answered all the eulogiums that have been bestowed on it, that the larch is
now considered on the whole, as decidedly the most valuable timber-tree, not even ex-
cepting the oak. Some of the first-planted larches in the low grounds, near Dunkeld,
have grown to the height of one hundred and twenty feet in fifty years, which gives an
average of two feet four and a quarter inches a-year. It is stated by the Duke of Athol,
in a communication to the Horticultural Society, made in June, 1820, that on moun-
tainous tracts, at an elevation of fifteen or sixteen hundred feet, the larch, at eighty
years of age, has arrived at a size to produce six loads (300 cubic feet) of timber, ap-
pearing in durability and every other quality, to be likely to answer every purpose, both
by sea and land. \Hort. Trans, iv. 416.) Professor Martyn (Miller s Did. in loco)
has brought together a mass of valuable information respecting the historj' of the larch
in this country, and its uses in others. Tliat singularly accomplished agricultural
writer. Dr. Anderson, did much to promote its increase by his essays and other works
from 1750 to 1790; and subsequently die Bishop of Llandalf, Marshall, Nicol, Pontey,
and Sang, have each, in practice, and by their popular publications, contributed to
spread the tree ; and now several millions are annually planted in tlie mountainous dis-
tricts of the empire. The larch, Sang observes, passes all other timber-trees, for the
first ten or twenty years after planting, and will arrive at a timber size in almost any
situation or soil. It bears, he says, " the ascendency over the Scots pine in the follow-
ing important circumstances : that it brings double the price, at least, per measurable
foot ; that it will arrive at a useful timber size in one half or a tliird part of the time, in
general, which the fir requires ; and, above all, that the timber of the larch, at thirty or
forty years old, when placed in soil and climate adapted to the production of perfect
timber, is in every respect superior in quality to that of the fir at a hundred years old.
In short, it is probable that the larch w ill supersede the Scots pine in most situations in
tliis island, at no very distant period." The finest specimens of this tree are at Dun-
keld, Blair, and jNIonzie, in Perthshire.

• 70r>4 Use. Much has been said of the durability of larch-timber in Italy : its resistance to fire, acconJ-
ing to some (Matthiolus), and its great combustibility, according to others (Du Hamel) ; its durability
under water (at Venice^, and its not being liable to warp (Harte). We shaU confine ourselves to its uses
as experimentally proved in Britain ; and perhaps we shall do this with most effect by stating that it may
be used for all the purposes for which the best foreign deal is applied ; for many of those of the oak ; and
that it is more durable than any other timber when placed in a situation between wet and dry, especially
if the bark be not removed, it being still more incorruptible than the wood. The bark is also of consider-
able value in tanning ; a circumstance of great importance, since it is found that disbarking a year or more
previously to felling is the bestmode of seasoning the timber (6955.), and preventing it from wari)mg, or being
attacked bv the dry or wet rot (5927. and 6926.) One property almost peculiar to the larch is, that the timber
is exceedingly valuable at every period of its growth ; so that a dead hedge of larch-boughs, or a hurdle
wattled with larch-spray, will last longer than dead hedges orwattle<l hurdles of any other siK^cies ot tree.
Planted in rows in cxiKised gardens it forms a useful hedge plant in point ot shelter ; but in this rcsi)ect is
defic cnt as a. fence, and getf soon naked below. Kods, stakes, pales, rails, posts, and esi>ecially gate-posts,
of this tree are therefore more valuable than of any other ; the spruce fir api>roaching the nearest to it in
these respects Tunientine is extracted from it in the Tyrol; but that being always injurious to the
timtK-r, Kin never be recommended for adoption in this country: it is also peculiarly valuable as a

""l^^'rnru'/us or spfcks. Of the P. larix, there is a variety with red and another with white fiowejN.
onc^th dnereous birk, caUcd the Russian larch, and one with pendulous branches. There arc also the

986 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

black larch (P. pendula) and red larch {P. microcarpa), natives of America, by some considered distinct
Bpecies; the timber of both of which is said to be harder than that of the common white larch As
these trees are only to be met with in the nurseries, originated by layers, they cannot be recommended to
be planted as timber-trees. There are, however, a few large specimens at Dunkeld and other places ;
and from these the trees will probably soon be propagated by seed, and a practical estimate be formed of
their merits There are some trees of the red larch on the Athol estates, but they do not contain one
third as many cubic feet of timber as the white larch at the same age. The wood is so ponderous that it
will scarcely swim on water. {Hort. Trans, iv. 416.) ., , . . . .

7056. SaU and site. The larch will grow and attain a large size in every soil and situation, excepting in
standing water : but a certain elevation of surface, or coldness of climate and inferiority of sod, is abso-
lutely necessary to produce the timber in perfection. The quality of the timber of all trees is more or less
afffected by climate and soil ; but that of the resinous tribe particularly so. We pointed out several
instances in 1806. {Treatise on Countnj Residences, ii.) Sang mentions a number as havmg occurred since
1812 (Plant. Kal. 59.), and observes generally that he has " known it in many places make the most rapid
progress for 30 or 35 years, and though there was no external signs of disorder, yet, when it was felled,
the wood had begun to rot in the hearts of the trees ; so that there was scarcely a sound tree over a large
extent of ground ; yet here, the oak, the chestnut, the elm, and the ash, amongst which the larch
had been used as a nurse, are not only in the utmost vigor, but their wood is perfectly sound. Some
larches in a similar soil and situation had attained seven feet each, and were quite hollow a good way
upwards." , , . , .

7057. Insects. The Coccus lancea, and the others mentioned as inhabiting the common pine.

7058. The Norway fir, or common sj^ruce fir, (P. Abies, L. (Lam. pin. 73. t. 25.)
Sapin, Fr. ; Fickle, or Tanne, Ger. ; Abiete, Ital.) is the first species of that section of
pinus in which the leaves are solitary. It is one of the tallest of European trees, attains
from 100 to 150 feet in height, with a very straight but not thick trunk, and throwing
out its spreading frond-like branches so as to form an elegant narrow cone of vivid green.
It is a native of the north of Europe, and particularly abundant, as the name imports,
in Norway : its timber being the white deal received from that country and the Baltic.
It is supposed to have been introduced about 1548, and has been, and still is, more
cultivated than any species of the genus, excepting the common pine and the larch.
Some of the finest specimens are in Harefield Park, at Blenheim, and at Temple
New sham.

7059. Use. The timber is inferior to that of the common pine in durability and bulk ; and being often

knotty, is not proportionably strong for horizontal bearings with that timber. White Norway deal, how-
ever, is used for a great variety of purposes in building ; and the entire trees are more prized than any
other for masts for small crafts, for spars both for marine purposes and on land. What constitutes the
value of this fir is, that its timber is equally durable at any age, like that of the larch ; and what renders
it pecuharly adapted for masts, spars, scaffolding, poles, &c. is its habit of almost in every case, whether
standing single or detached, growing perfectly erect and straight. The tree may be cut for rods, stakes,
and scythe or other implement handles, when the trunk at the base is not more than two inches in dia-
meter, and the bark being kept on it, it will prove almost as durable as the larch. Pontey says, that poles
of spruce are so far inferior to those of the larch, that they are more apt to crack when exposed whole to
the influence of the sun and air ; but in all other respects it is nearly equal to it, and in straightness sur-
passes it. The tree is peculiarly valuable as a nurse, from being evergreen, and closely covered with
branches, by which radiating heat is retained ; from its conical shape and rigid stem, by which it does
not suffocate or whip the adjoining trees ; from its being valuable at whatever age it is thinned out ; and
from its being an excellent shelter for the most valuable game. It will not, however, grow in situations
where the common pine and larch will flourish. It is also an excellent hedge plant for shelter, but is
deficient in point of defence and durability. By incision, it yields a resin, from which, by various pre-
parations, turpentine and Burgundy pitch are formed. The tops or sprouts [spruytsen, Ger.) give the flavor
to what is called spruce-beer.

7060. Varieties and species. Linnaeus has five varieties of P. abies ; but the principal are, the white
{P. alba) {Lam. pin. 39. t. 26.), the red (P. rubra) {Lam. pin. 43. t. 28.), and the black (P. nigra). {Lam.
jpin. 41. t. 27.) These are all natives of N. America, and their timber, which is white, possesses nearly
the same properties as that of the European species. The white spruce rises only to 40 or 45 feet with
pale bluish-green leaves. The black spruce is reckoned the most durable of the tribe. " In America, the
black spruce is used for knees in ship-building, where neither oak nor black larch can be easily obtained •
these knees are not prepared from two diverging branches, as in the oak ; but from a portion of the base
of the trunk connected with one of the largest diverging roots. Tlie timber of the red is universally pre-
ferred throughout the United States for sail-yards, and indeed imported for this purpose into Livenx)ol
from Nova Scotia, where it is also used for constructing casks for salted fish. It is chiefly from the decoc-
tion in water of young shoots of the black, and not exclusively from those of the white spruce as sup-
posed by Lambert, that the celebrated beer is prepared by fermentation, with a due proportion 'of sugar
or molasses. The essence of spruce of the dealers is prepared by evaporating this decoction to the con
sistence of honey." —'■ -

7061. Soil and site. Pontey says it grows rapidly on every description of soil, from a very stiff loam
and such as possess a very considerable degree of humidity, to a very dry sand, provided the situation be
not very much exposed. Sang says it luxuriates much in deep low situations : in shallow soils and ex
posed places it never succeeds. It " should never be planted for the sake of its wood, excepting in masses
or groves by itself; otherwise its timber is so coarse and knotty, that it is hardly worth working • but in
the mass way, if planted thick, and properly pruned and thinned afterwards, it maybe trained to tall clean
timber."

I 7062. Insects. The Coccus abietis, and occasionally the others which infest the common pine.

7063. The silver fir (P. Picea) {Lam. pin. 46. t. 30.) (fig. 671. a) is a lofty ever-
green tree, forming a cone broader at the base, in proportion to its height, than the
spruce, and displaying a more stable and majestic figure than any of the other firs.
It is more thinly covered with frond-like branches than the spruce, and differs from it
also in regard to the frondlets, which, when they grow old, and begin to decay, do not
droop down as in that tree, but remain rigid till the last. ITie upper surface of the
leaves is of a fine vivid green, and their under surface has two white lines running length-
wise on each side of the midrib, giving the leaves that silvery look, whence has ansen
the narne. It flowers in May, and the cones are ripe in December. It is a native
of the Alps and Germany, was known here in 1601, and has been a good deal planted

Book III. HARD-WOODED NON-RESINOUS TREES.

937

as an ornamental tree. It grows faster for the first
twenty or thirty years of its growth than any other
tree of the genus, excepting the larch. Some of the
finest specimens in England are at Woburn, in the
evergreen-drive, planted by Miller. The tree
called the grand silver fir there, measured, in 1810,
nine feet ten inches in diameter, at four feet from
the ground ; it has a clean-pruned stem of seventy-
five feet, and the estimated height is upwards of
110 feet.

7064. Use. The timber is reckoned inferior to that of the
common pine, and is not of much value till of forty or fifty
years' growth. According to Sang, though till of late years
planted only as an ornamental tree, " yet there is, perhaps,
none of the genus more worthy of cultivation for the sake
of its timber." It is more prolific in resinous matter than
any of the fir kind.

7065. Its soil and site are nearly similar to those most
desirable for the common spruce ; but it requires a climate
rather milder, and a more loamy earth. On poor sands,
where the common pine and larch will thrive, it dies off in
a year or two after planting. None of the genus are more majestic on a lawn : but its characteristic or
natural situation, is in dells, and on the sides of sheltered rocky steeps-

7066. The balm of Gilead fir {P. Balsamea) {Lam. pin. 48. t. 31.) (fig. 671. 6) is
an American tree of much smaller stature, and more delicate habits than tlie silver fir.
Its timber is of little value ; nor can the tree be reckoned very ornamental, though fre-
quently planted for the sake of variety. The balm or resin procured from it possesses
no medical properties superior to those of common turpentine ; but the tree during sum-
mer sends out a pleasing terebinthinate odor.

7061
671.

67. The hemlock-spruce, or hemlock fir, (P. Canadensis) (Lam. pin. 50. t. 32.) (fig,
c) is a drooping, low, evergreen tree, which may be considered as entirely ornamental.

Sect. II. Hard-wooded non-resinous Trees.

7068. Of hard-wooded trees we shall give a few descriptive traits of the principal species;
the most important of which are the oak, ash, elm, chestnut, and beech.

7069. The oak is the Quercus, L. Moncec. Polyan. L, and Amentaceee, J. Chme, Fr.;
Eich, Ger.; and Quercia, Ital. The following species and varieties are planted for their
timber.

7070. TTie common oak (Q. robur) {Eng. Boi. 1845.) is a native of Britain. It grows to the height of fifty
or sixty feet when in a heavy loam ; flowers in April, and ripens its acorns in October and November.
The most valuable variety of the common oak is said {Caled. Hort. Mem. iii. 376.) to be the pedunculata
{Eng. Eot. 1342.), or the stalk-fruited ; by some considered a distinct species. It is distinguished from
Q. robur by the marked circumstance of the aconis being placed on long fruit-stalks, whilst those of the
robur are nearly sessile. Besides, the superior utility and hardiness of the timber, the pedunculated oak
is, in fact, the more magnificent of the two British sorts. Miller says, this variety of the Q. robur (and
which he calls the famitia,) is more rare than the sessile- fruited ; but Professor Martyn says, this is not
the case, and that the pedunculated is equally general as the other. It is observed by Du Hamel, that
oaks in forests being propagated from the acorn, there are so many varieties that it is difficult to find two
resembling each other in every respect. Professor Martyn obser^'es, that the figures in ancient authors
have the fruit uniformly on foot-stalks, which shows that that variety had been most common : and Ray
considers it as the common oak of England. Du Roi affirms, that the timber of the sessile-fruited is red-
dish, and brittle, whilst that of the stalk-fruited is whitish and hard. From these and various accounts,
as well as our own obser\'ation, we consider ourselves justified in recommending to nurserymen and others,
who gather acorns for seeds, to take effectual precautions that only the stalked sort be gathered.

7071. The Turkey oak {Q. cerris) [Du Roi, 2. t. 5. f. 1.), a native of the south of Europe, introduced in
1735. This species is distinguished by oblong, pointed, and frequently IjTate leaves, jagged, and a little
hoary on the under side. The acorns are small, and have rough prickly cups. The tree grows from forty
to sixty feet high. There are several varieties, but the best is that called the Devonshire or Lucombe, from
the name of the person who raisetl it from seeds, saved from a tree of the Turkey oak grown in Devonshire.

7072. Other oaks. There are about forty species of exotic oaks introduced in this countrj-, which may
be considered as timber-trees, and are such in effect, in their native countries. Of these the greater part
are natives of America ; and it has been recommended {Caled. Mem. iii. 378.) to cultivate the Q. tinctoria
or Quercitron on account of its bark, which affords a valuable yellow dye ; aU these species, however, are
either too tender, or too scarce, or too dwarfish, and slow-growing, to warrant us in considering any
other than the common and Lucombe oaks, as fit for the purposes of profitable planting.

707a Use. The oak cannot be considered
so valuable a tree for general purposes as the
common pine and larch; but its great
strength and durability will probably long
maintain its superiority in Europe, and the
other temperate regions of the globe, as<
a material for naval architecture. Thel
timber is useful at every age, and more dur-
able when of small diameter than that of
anv other of the hard woods ; the value of
the bark of young trees is greater than that
of such as are old.

7074. SoU and site. It grows best in a deep
clayey loam, not beyond a moderate elev-
ation above the sea ; but it will grow in any
soil not marshy, not attaining, however, a
large size in poor sands or at a considerable elevation.

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

7075. Insects. The egger moth {Phaleena Quercus, L. ; Lasiocampa, Leach) {fl^. (Ti'J,.) inhabits all tne
species, and its larva; sometimes denude entire branches. The small gnat ( Cynips Quercus
foliiy L. Diplolepis, Leach) {fig. 673.) pierces the leaves with its sting, and deposits its
eggs in the wound ; the extravasated juices rise round it, and form a gall, which be-
comes hard, and in this the larva lives and feeds, and changes to a pupa. The oak-
galls of commerce are so formed : the best are imported from Turkey and Greece.

7076. The ash is the Fraxinus, L. Polygavi. Dioec L. and Oleirue,
B. P. Freney Fr. ; Asche, Ger. ; and Frassino, Ital. There are two species wliich may
be considered as forest trees.

7077. The common ask (F. excelsior, L.) (Ens. Bot. 1692.) is a native of Britain, and grows from sixty to
eighty feet in height, with a straight stem. It has pinnate leaves, which come out late in spring, generally
from April 22d to May the 15th, and fall early in autumn ; it flowers in April and May, and the female and
hermaphrodite plants ripen their seeds or keys in November. Of this there is a variety, the simple-leaved
{simpHcifolia), possessing no advantages as a timber-tree, and rather to be avoided by the profitable planter,
as generally propagated in the nurseries by layers. Raised from seeds it produces pinnate leaves.

7078. The white or American ash, F. Ainericana, W. {Mich. Arh.) This is a lofty tree like the other,
distinguished by the whiteness of its bark, narrow leaves, and smaller seeds. It is found in Jersey and
Pennsylvania, where it attains the height of eighty feet, with about three feet in diameter at the base.
It is patient of cold, thrives in deep fresh soil, by the banks of rivers, and unites all the good properties
of the common ash. There are two varieties, the 7ed and blue : by some accounted distinct species. They
are smaller trees, and present no advantages to the profitable planter over the two species mentioned.

7079. Use. The ash is unquestionably the most valuable indigenous timber next to the oak ; and in
some places, as copse, is more valuable than that tree. It is more especially used by the coachmaker and
agricultural carpenter. The wood is useful when the stem is only three inches in diameter. Toughness
and elasticity seems to be its characteristics, and for this purpose, the faster the tree grows the better.
Timber from a tree of slow growth, and considerable age, is uniformly found to be more or less brittle, and
therefore more or less unfitted for the purposes to which this tree is applied, especially shafts or poles of
carriages. As underwood, it is fit to cut every seven years for crate-ware for the potteries, hoops, and hop-
poles, requiring for those products little or no thinning or culture, but merely periodical cutting. It forms
excellent fuel, burning when green or new better than any other tree. " A few ash-pollards," Professor
Martyn observes, " will produce many loads of lop, which makes the sweetest of all fires." The ashes af-
ford more potash than those of most trees j and the bark is used occasionally for tanning, and will dye
yellow.

7080. Soil and site'. It will not thrive on thin soils, where the bottom is wet, nor in mossy earth or
gravel ; but in most others it will do well : and above all, in a hollow, where a friable loam has accumu-
lated from the debris of surrounding rocky heights, and is drained by a rivulet. Such rocky dells and
dingles abound in Perthshire and Fifeshire, and in them the ash is to be found in great perfection. It will
not thrive at a great height above the sea, nor in bleak situations anywhere.

7081. The elm is the Ulmus, L. Pentand. Dig. L. and Amentacece, J. Onne, Fr. ;
Ulmebaum, Ger. j and Oltno, Ital. Tliere are two species which may be regarded as tim-
ber-trees.

7082. The English or narrow heaved eltn, U. Campestris.
(Eng. Bot. 1886.) (fig. 674. a) It is considered a native, or
naturalised in England, by Sir J. E. Smith and others; but Dr.
Walker considers it as brought originally from the Holy Land.
It wouldbediflSculttopointoutany situation where ithas the
appearance of having sprung up from seeds ; though it is said
to be common in the woods of tlie north-west of England. It is
certainly the loftiest of the deciduous trees ofthis country, be-
ing often found upwards of eighty feet high It flowers in
April and May, and ripens its seed in a fortnight or three
weeks after the decay of the flower. This species requires
a dry soil, rather good than indifferent, and also a good cli-
mate. It does not thrive in the north of England or in Scot-
land, unless in good soils and moderately sheltered places.
Professor Martyn says, it is not found north of Newark on
Trent. It grows to" a great size in a short time. Evelyn
says, in little more than forty years it will arrive to a load
of timber. Marshall says, the largest narrow-leaved elms
he has seen, are in the Vale of Gloucester, and of these, the
best is Piffe's elm, near the Baddington oak. At five feet
high it girts sixteen feet ; at ten feet it throws out large
arms, which rise seventy or eighty feet. Some of the elms
in the mall of St James's Park are upwards of 200 years
old. Boutcher says, that he sold a line of English elms,
above Sixty in number, whicJi at twenty-four year's growth
were about eighteen inches in diameter, a foot above ground, and forty feet high,

7083. The Dutch elm (introduced with King William), U. major (E. B. 2161.), U. svberosa, W. It is cJiiefly
remarkable for its fungous rough bark, large rugose leaves, and rapid growth. The timber is of little use

7084. The Scotch or smooth-harhed elm {U. glabra) (E. B. 2248) {fig. (Tii^b) is readily distinguished
by its smooth dark lead-colored bark, and by its leaves, which are nearly smooth on the upper surface. It
is the most useful timber-tree of the genus, and is almost the only tree of the elm kind planted in Scotland
where it also forms stocks for grafting the Dutch and English elm. A new variety of this species has at'
tracted notice at Downton, which Sabine {Hort. Trans, vi. 146.) proposes calling the Downton elm A
very rapid-growing variety, called the Scampston elm, is in vogue in Durham and Northumberland
{Agr. Surv. of Durhajn, ch. x.)

7085. Other species. The genus ulmus, like salix, is one of those whose species are so nearly related as
to be often confounded. Linnsus considered all the European elms as forming only one species. At
present botanists make five British species, besides an equal number from America. The U campestris
and glabra, however, are the only sorts worth cultivating for their timber. {Don, in Hort. Tour, 539 )

7086. Use. Elm-timber is used in all works where it may be continually dry or wet ; as, for water-pipes
pumps, water-wheels, &c. It is also very generally used for weather-boarding, and for common cabinet-'

^^ ^^u^ '^"°,"y P^^*^ ^"^^ *^*^*^ *^^ ^^^ ^^^' ^^^ "*^^ ^or naves and hubs. The lop and top make good
luel and charcoal.

7087. Soil anil site. The narrow-leaved elm requires a light dry soil and warm situation, and will do
little good in sand or gravel, in exposed places ; but the smooth-barked sort is a very hardy tree, and will
grow m thin clayey soil on retentive substrata better than most others. It will also thrive in situations
elevated and exposed on all sides.

Book III. HARD.w60DED NON-RESINOUS TREES. 989

7088. The beech is \he Fagus sj/hatica, L, (Eng. Bot. 1846.) Moncec. Polyan. L.
and Anientacece, J. Helre, Fr. ; B'dche, Ger ; and Foggio, Ital. It is a native of Eng-
land, and grows in its natural soil and situation to sixty or eighty feet high. It is found
congregated in forests, in chalky flinty soils, thrives well in sheltered bottoms : but not
^vhere it is exposed to the west. There are fine specimens of this tree at Castle Howard,
Woburn, Newbottle, and Dalkeith Park. It is not so long-lived as the elm, nor will it
grow in situations so much elevated as will the Scotch elms.

7089. Use. The timber is brittle, and decays soon in the air ; but under water it is more durable. It
is used by the millwright, turner, carver, last and wheel maker, chair and cabinet maker, and more or less
in other branches. It is much used by bakers and in glass-houses as billet-wood j and the stack -wood
forms an excellent charcoal

7090. Soil and site. Dryness and some degree of calcareous matter are the characteristics of the soil in
which the beech delights j and the declivities of hills facing the east or south are its favorite situations.

7091. The common hornbeam is the Carpinus Betulus, L. {Eng. Bot. 2032.) Moncec.
Polyan. L. and Amentacece, J. It is a native tree, nearly allied in habits and ap-
pearance to the beech, but is less lofty, and thrives in colder stiffer soils, arid in rather
more elevated situations. It floAvers in April, and ripens its seeds in November.
•' Although Evelyn is perhaps too partial to the hornbeam, yet, raised from seed, it forms
a tree of the first rate, equalling the common beech in magnificence ; but unfortunately
the hornbeam, like several of our best forest trees, may with ease, almost at any period
of the year, be propagated from layers, and the usual consequences of this practice, fol-
low, — a stinted, bushy, dwarf-like progeny. This tree, however, retaining its decayed,
shrivelled, pale-russet leavel during winter, like the common beech, forms most valua-
ble shelter planted in hedges." (Cat. Mem. ii. 397.)

7092. Use. Chiefly in turnery, being white and tough as the name imports. It is frequently used as a
substitute for the beech.

7093. Soil and situation. A dry soil is essential, whether cold or chalky. It is a social tree, and found
in natural copse-woods, as in Hertfordshire; but never at any great height above the level of the sea.

7094. The Spanish chestjint is the Castanea vesca, W. ; Fagus Castanea, L. (Eng. Bot,
886.) Moncec. Polyan. L. and Amentacece, J. It is the Chataignier of the French;
Casta nieiibaum of the Germans ; and Castagno of the Italians. It is one of the most
magnificent of European trees, exceeding the oak in height, and equalling it in bulk
and extent. It is doubtful whether it be a native of Britain, though it ripens its fruit in
sheltered valleys even in Scotland. It seems a very long-lived tree, of which the best
proof is the specimen on Mount Etna, two hundred and four feet in circumference.
Boutcher says, the shade of the chestnut, like that of the ash, is injurious to other plants,
'llie leaves which continue late in autumn are not liable to be eaten by insects like those
of the oak. The Spanish chestnut has been already described as a fruit tree. (4745.)
As a timber-tree it is used for the same purposes as the oak ; though by some con-
sidered as more brittle when old. The roof of Westminster Abbey, and that of the
Parliament House in Edinburgh, with many other antient works, are said to be con-
structed of it ; but considering that it is not a native tree, this is extremely improbable ;
and it is much more rational to suppose, with Professor Martyn and Daines Barrington,
that what is by many taken for chestnut, is only oak of a different grain. It is used by
the cabinet-maker and cooper ; makes an excellent coppice- tree for poles and hoops ; the
bark is equal in astringency to that of the larch and mountain-ash for tanning ; and the
leaves and nuts afford food both for men and deer.

7095. Soil and situation. The soil in which it thrives best is a deep sandy loam, and the situation one
somewhat sheltered. In Calabria, and on the Apennines between Florence and Bologna, where we have
seen it in abundance, it does not attain a great size on the higher and more exposed parts of those moun-
tains, but is, as Sang observes, a surprisingly magnificent tree in the hollows. Pontey says, " on sandy
soils, where the oak would make but slow progress, I have seen the chestnut grow extremely quick, and
therefore, in such cases, the latter should be used instead of the former."

7096. The walnut (Juglans regia) has been already treated of as a fruit-tree. (473.)
Its timber, when of mature age, is valuable as a cabinet wood, and for gun-stocks, being
light, hard, and durable.

7097. The common sycamore is the Acer Pseudo-platanus, L. (Eng. Bot. 303.) Polyg.
Moncec. L. and Acerece, J. It is one of our hardiest native trees, and equal in mag-
nitude with, though more tame in its outline and form than, the oak. It flowers in
April and May, and ripens its keys or seeds in November. Its foliation is earlier than
that of most trees, and its decadence is next to tliat of tlie ash. It is a quick grower,
will endure the sea-breeze better than most trees, and is not liable to grow to one side
when exposed to winds that blow chiefly in one direction.

7098. Use. The timber is chiefly used by the turner and millwright, and formerly, when earthenware
was less common, it was in great request for trenchers and other table and household utensils. It affords
a saccharine juice, like the sugar and other American maples, from which a wine may be made.

• 7099. The Norway maple (A. platanoides) is a tree common in the native woods of Li-
thuania ; and in Norway it clothes the hills from the sea-shore to their sumirjits. It
grows to a large size, and its leaves die to a golden color. Its timber does not differ ma-
terially from that of the sycamore.

990 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

7100. Soil and situation. Both thrive best in a soil similar to that preferred by the ash, but will grow
In all inferior soils, and exposed to the sea-breeze as well as at a great height above the level of the sea.

7101. The mountain ash is the Pyrus aucuparia, E. B. (Eng. Bat. 337.) Icos. Di-
Pentag. L. and Rosacece, J. It is a low and very hardy native tree, attaining the height
'of twenty or thirty feet, with a straight, clean, erect stem, and globular compact head.
It flowers abundantly in April and May, and ripens its berries in August or October,
according to the situation.

7102. Use. In profitable planting it is chiefly valuable as a nurse-tree, growing very fast when young,
and enduring the most severe exposures. The timber is used by wheelwrights, ami for other common
country purposes : the bark is used by tanners ; and the berries afford a dye. As an undergrowth it affords
tolerable poles and hoops.

7103. Soil and site. It will grow In any soil, ary or wet ; and as to situation, it is found on the sea-
shore, and near the tops of the highest mountains. It seems to thrive best on the sides of most rocky
dells and dingles.

7104. The whitebeam-tree {Pyrus aria) {Eng. Bot. 1S58.) is a very hardy native tree,
growing to the height of thirty or forty feet, with an erect stem. Its uses and culture
are the same as those of the mountain-ash. Its white leaves, and coral berries mealy to
the taste like those of Pyrus torminalis (4768.), have a fine effect in autumn.

7105 The acacia, or locust-tree. — Robinia pseud-acacia, L. (Schmidt, arb. 1. t. 32.)
Diadelph. Decan. L., and Leguminosce, J. This is a thorny fast-growing tree, of mid-
dling stature, a native of America, of no great beauty as a tree, but ornamental when
young, and very well adapted for copse-wood and rough timber. It flowers in June and
July, and ripens its seeds in September. The leaves come out late in spring, and fall
off early in autumn like those of the ash.

7106. Use. The timber Is much valued In North America, and said to be superior to that of the labur-
num ; " being close-grained, hard, and finely veined ; and In America more valued by the cabinet-
maker than any other native timber whatever. Pursh, In his late valuable Flora, asserts, that being
nearly Incorruptible, it is equally useful for posts and gates. We are Informed by a friend, that gate-posts
of this timber, on a property near Baltimore, have remained fresh for nearly a century. The finely pin-
nated leaves, and pendulous white odorous flowers, add greatly to its beauty. Its value is scarcely known
in this country." (Caled. Mem. il. 414.)

7107. Soil and site. It prefers a deep sandy soil, and rather sheltered situation; being very apt to
throw up suckers from the running roots, and as It stoles freely, it seems peculiarly calculated for cop-
pice-woods. Beatson (Com. to Board of Agr.) has cultivated It In this way to great advantage.

7108. The birch is the Betula, L. Moncec. Poly. L. and Amentacece, J. Bouleau,
Fr. ; Birchenbaum, Ger. ; and Betulla, Ital. There are two species which may be con-
sidered valuable as timber-trees. The common birch (B. alba, var. pendula) (Eng. Bot.
2198.) is a middle-sized native-forest tree, distinguished by its white bark, fragrant
leaves, and graceful pensile form. It grows in the coldest regions of the north, and
farther up the sides of the British mountains than any other timber-tree. In the swampy
grounds of Sweden and Russia it grows to a much greater size than in the more temper-
ate climate of this country. It is of importance to cultivate the pendulous variety as a
taller and more rapid-growing tree independently of its variety.

7109. The Ameiican birch, mahogany -birch, mountain 7na-
hogany, or cherry. Urch of Canada, is the B. lent a. {Mich.
at-h. 2. p. 145. t. 4. J {Jig. 675.) This Is a more lofty tree than
the common birch, with a brown-colored bark spotted with
white. " It abounds most In the middle states of Pennsyl-*C^^
vanla. New York, and the Jerseys, where It attains a height ^^^^
of seventy feet ; but disappears altogether In the higher latl. ^-^"
tudes of the northern states, and Is scarcely to be found In
Nova Scotia. It Is therefore likely to succeed with us In the
moist and deeper soils of our Highland valleys, especially
when closely associated with other trees. The probability
of this is heightened by various facts already ascertained.
The value of the timber Is well known to our cabinet-makers ;
and we have seen tables, bed-posts, and other articles of fur-
niture made of It, equalling In beauty those of mahogany,
which It resembles, when some time exposed to the light, the
newly wrought boards being of a rose-color. Although of
an exceeding quick growth, the grain being naturally close,
it takes a fine polish in cabinet-work. We add to this, that
the leaves, which appear early In spring, are said to possess
a peculiar fragrance, which they retain when dried by means
of a stove, affording, on Infusion of boiling water, an agree-
able diluent, superior to some of the common teas of com.
merce." {Caled. Mem. il. 380.)

7110. TTie poplar-leaved birch {B. populi/olia) {Jig. 676. a)
and Hudson's birch {P. Hudsonii) {Jig. 676. b) are elegant rapid-growlng trees, and when once thev are
so common as to be propagated from seed, will deserve culture a! timber-trees! ^ ^

Kyurd%tTor^ ""' ^^^^^^- ^''' ^^^^'•'^•^^ '^^ --"^- ^'' -" iriKorev^r?

7112. The wild cherry is the Prunus avium, L. (Blackw. t. 425.) Icos. Bi-Pentas.
L and Rosacea, J Guigne Fr. ; Wild Kirschen, Ger. ; and Ciriegio SUvatico, Ital.
It IS a native tree above the middle size, the timber of which is of considerable value.
It thrives best m dry sandy loams ; and in such situations, Sang observes, its timber
becomes of most value. It is of peculiar beauty in spring when in flower, in August

\

Book III. HARD-WOODED NON-RESINOUS TREES.

when in fruit, and in autumn when its leaves
change to a beautiful red and yellow. Its timber
is chiefly used by the cabinet-maker and chair-
maker.

7113. The tree-laburnum. — Cytisus alpinus, W.
en. (Bot. Mag. 176.) Diadelph. Decan. L. and
Leguminosce, J. It is a low tree, a native of
Switzerland, cultivated chiefly for ornament, but
affording also a valuable timber. For this pur-
pose the variety or species (C. aljnnus), with broad
leaves and long racemes, is decidedly to be pre-
ferred, as being much more of a tree than the
other. Sang says, it has a full claim to the cha-
racters of useful and ornamental ; is beautiful
when in flower, and may, in a grove, be trained
to a fine stem of very considerable size.

7114. Use. The timber (the false ebony of the French) '
is much prized by cabinet-makers and turners, for its
hardness, beauty of grain, and durability. The tree is frequently sown in plantations infested with
hares and rabbits, who will touch no other tree as long as a twig of laburnum remains. " Though eaten
to the ground in winter," as Boutcher observes, " it will spring again next season, and thus affordfa con-
stant supply for these animals, so as to save the other trees till of a size to resist their attacks. The timber
has been sold for upwards of half a sovereign per foot." It becomes most valuable in light loams and
sandy soils.

7115. The holli/ is the Ilex aqiiifolium, L. {Eng. Bot. 496.) Pent. Monog. L. and
Rhamni, J. Houx, Fr. ; Siechbaum, Ger. ; Agrifoglio, Ital. It is an elegant, shining,
evergreen tree, rising from twenty to thirty feet high, affording a timber of considerable
value, and much in use as an ornamental hedge plant. It is a native of Britain, of
great longevity, and found growing in woods and forests, as an undergrowth to the
oak, beech, ash, and fir. It thrives best in a free deep loam, rather light, as in Need-
wood Forest, in Staffordshire, and the fir-forest of Blackball, near Aberdeen. It is a
cheerful-looking tree from its shining leaves and coral berries, and peculiarly fit for
ornament.

7116. Use. The timber, which is as white as ivory, is chiefly used in inlaying and veneering, and by
turners and mathematical-instrument-makers. The straight shoots, of five and six feet in length, make
excellent coachmen's whips. Birdlime is made from the bark by washing and separation of the woody
fibre. Sheep and deer eat the croppings. It is the best of all hedge plants. It thrives best in cold loamy
soils, and rather sheltered situations.

7117. The hazel {Cort/lus aveleana), aXready treated of as a fruit-shrub (4752.), forms a
hardy useful undergrowth in most situations, supplying hoops, crate-ware, basket-stuff,
walking-sticks, rods, poles, withies, fence-wood, fuel, &c. ; besides the fruit, where the
soil is tolerable, is worth something, and an excellent charcoal is made from the
stack- wood.

7118. The box-tree {Buxus sempervirens, L. (Eng. Bot. 1341.) Moncec. Tetran. L.
and EuphorbiacecB, J. Buis, Fr. ; Buchsbaum, Ger. ; and Bosobo, Ital.) has some
claims to attention as a valuable timber, being in considerable demand for inlaying,
turnery, mathematical instruments, and wood-engravers' blocks. It thrives in any light
soil and under the drip of trees. Raised from the seed it will attain the height of twenty
or twenty-five feet, and be fit to cut down in thirty years. (Afiller's Diet, in loco.) As
an ornamental undergrowth and edging plant, it is of the greatest value.

7119. The elder-tree {Sambucus nigra), already treated of as a fruit-tree (4627.), forms
an excellent nurse-plant in exposed situations, and a rapid hedge in most places. The
wood is very hard, and used by the toy-makers and turners. When grown as a nurse,
or for timber, it should always be raised from the seed.

7120. T/ie hawthorn. — Cratcegusoxyacantha, E.B. {Eng. Sot. c. ic.) Icos. JDi^Pentag.L,.
and Rosacece, J. Aubejnne, Fr. ; Hagedom, Ger. ; Branca spina, Ital. It is a native
shrub, of great importance as a hedge plant, and is also frequently introduced into nar-
row plantations as an undergrowth. It will not grow, however, under the drip of trees,
and therefore, in a profitable point of view, is only to be considered as affording the
impermeable, close, durable, and easily raised fences, called quickset-hedges. The
timber of such plants as grow singly, and attain a tolerable size, is valued by the mill-
wright and turner, and the roots by the cabinet-maker. It is often spoiled. Sang ob-
serves, through inattention after cutting ; if it be allowed to lie in entire logs or trunks,
it soon heats, and becomes quite brittle and worthless ; it therefore ought to be in-
stantly cut up into planks, and laid to dry. The haws and foliage afford excellent food
for deer.

7121 SoU and sUe. It will not thrive in a wet soil, nor one very dry and poor, much elevated or much
shaded ; a free deep loam in an airy situation suits it best. For hedges it may be raised from cuttings ot
the roots, planted where they are finally to remain. Such cuttings are only to be procured in quantities

992

PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

where an old hedge is to be removed, and the labor of selecting and preparing them falls bttle short of
tlie price of good two-year seedling plants ; so that unless in a season when thorn-plants are scarce and
dear, few advantages attend this practice.

7122. The yew is the Taxus haccata, L. {Eng, Bot. 746.) Polyg. Moncec. L. and
ConifercB, J. If, Fr. ; Eihenbaum, Ger. ; and Tasso, Ital. It is a low, bush-like, dark,
evergreen tree, of great longevity, slow in growth, and affording a hard, white, valuable
timber. It flowers in April and May, and its berries are ripe in November. It is found
in a wild state in bleak situations, and on a variety of soils, dry and moist. It is very
common in ancient churchyards, in many of which it has attained a great size and age.
Evelyn, and after him, Professor Martyn, have referred to a great number of examples
of notable trees of this species.

7123. Use. The timber is used by the cabinet-maker for inlaying, and by the mathematical-instru-
ment-maker, and whipihaker. It is sometimes used as a substitute for box and other hard woods, and
every one knows it was formerly used for bows, and the spray as palm-leaves by the ancient Christians.
It forms one of the best hedge plants for gardens, topiary work, &c. and for this purpose was much em-
ployed when tlie geometric style of gardening prevailed.

7124. Soil and situation. Almost any soil, not over-wet, will suit the yew, and it will grow on the
bleak sides of mountains, and under the drip of trees.

Sect. III. Soft-wooded Trees,

11^5. The sft'Wooded timber-trees may be considered as characterised by great rapidity
of growth, comparatively limited duration, and timber of inferior value.

7126. The horse-chestnut {^sculiis hippocnslanum, L. {Schmidt, arb. 1. t. 38.) Hep-
tand. Monog. L. and Aceres, J. MarronierSf Fr. ; Marronienbaum, Ger. ; and Mar-
rone, Ital.) is a magnificent and beautiful tree, when in May it is covered with its
digitate foliage, and fine large spikes of white flowers. It is of rapid growth, and
speedily produces a considerable bulk of timber, which, however, is of no great value.
Being highly ornamental as a single tree, and in the outskirts of plantations, it need
never be planted in ihasses for timber. It was brought from the northern parts of
Asia into Europe, about the year 1550, and was cultivated by Gerrard and Tradescant.
As Gilpin observes, it is far from being a picturesque tree, its outline being that of
a parabola : but all beauty is not picturesque beauty, and the foliage and flowers will
ever advocate the cause of this tree, (which the Hon. D. Barrington compares to a giant's
nosegay,) though "its leaves begin to drop early in summer, and make a litter around
the trees during the remainder of the season."

7127. Soil and situation. It requires a good, rather dry soil, and suffers materially from storms of every
kind when planted in exposed situations. It used formerly to be much used as an avenue tree, especially
by the French, and is particularly adapted for this pur^jose, and the margins of plantations.

7128. The lime. — Tilia Europcca, L. {Eng. Bot. 610.) Fob/and. Monog. L. and
Tiliaceee, J. Tilleul, Fr. ; Lindenbaum, Ger. ; «and Tiglio, Ital. This is one of the
most beautiful, graceful, and fragrant of our native trees, rising to the height of seventy
or eighty feet, and finely clothed with pendulous recurved branches, from the ground
or tlie browsing line formed by cattle upwards. It is found wild in woods and grassy
declivities, sends out its leaves in April, flowers in May, and ripens its seeds, though
sparingly, unless under favorable circumstances, in October.

7129. Use. It was much valued by the Romans for its shade, and the multiplicity of purposes to which
the timber was applied. It is now more a tree of ornament than of profit, but the timber is still used for
various common purposes in general economy, and by the carver,- turner, and musical-instrument-
maker. It forms an excellent charcoal for gunpowder ; and of its inner bark, macerated in water, is
formed, in the north of Europe, the bass mats of commerce. This bark is called in Sweden and Russia,
bast, whence, by corruption, bass. It is the fittest of all trees for avenues, and forms good tree-hedges.
The famous Kowno honey is made exclusively from the blossom of this tree.

7130. Varieties and species. There are several sorts noticed in our EncycloptEdia of Plants, but
the best, both for effect and timber, is the red-twigged {T. Eu. var. corallina), and the broad-leaved
American {T. Americana), which is a distinct species, distinguished by the larger size of the leaves, and
elegant pendulous flowers.

7131. Soil and situation. All the sorts prefer a deep loam, and rather sheltered situation, for though
patient of cold, they are much injured by storms. In Sweden, the common species abound among the
debris of granite and trap rocks j and in Russia it covers extensive tracts of deep, soft, black earth. In
bleak situations, where it is not covered by snow in winter at the roots, or sheltered by other trees, it will
not thrive.

7132. The alder {Alnus glutinosa, W. {Eng. Bot. 1505.) Moncec. Tetrand. L. and
Amentace<x, J. ) is a middle-sized native aquatic tree of no great value, either as timber
or ornament farther than that it will grow where few other trees will thrive, excepting
the birch, poplar, and willow. It flowers in May, and ripens its s.eeds in September and
October.

7133. Use. The timber is used in water-works, and by the turner, millwright, lastmakers, and others,
as well as for common country purposes, and charcoal.

"134. The poplar. — Populus, W. Diosc. Dodec. L. and Amentaceee, J. Peitplier, Fr. ;
Po])])elbaum, Ger. j and Poppio, Ital. There are several species which may be reckoned
timber-trees.

\

Book III.

SOFT-WOODED TREES.

■7135. The abele-tree, P. alba. (Eng. Bot. 1618.) {Jig. 677. a)
The variety called the hoan- poplar is distinguislied from the
common wild abele by its larger three, four, or five lobed
leaves, dark above and downy under, and by the young shoot*
having a purple bark covered with white down. It is a rapid-
growing tree, speedily attaining great bulk of timber, a height
of &j or 70 feet, and great extent of branches. The P. vistu-
lensis seems a variety of this tree ; and on the banks of the
Vistula, particularly at Villeneuve, near Warsaw, grows to
upwards of 100 feet high, with a clean trunk and ample head.

713& The common black poplar (P. nigra) [Eng. Bot. 1910.)
{fig. 677. b) is a native tree, of lofty growth, distinguished by
its light-green leaves, lightly notched on the edges, and
ash-colored bark. It is, by some, considered a mere
variety of the alba, and for the purposes of profit may be so
considered.

7137. The trembling poplar (P. tremula) {fig. 671. c) and
the common poplar (P. canescens) (d) are hardy native* ; but
being of less rapid growth than the species mentioned, are
little cultivated as timber-trees. The common poplar in the
northern counties may be frequently seen in a pollard state
in hedges, where it furnishes lop for fuel, and sometimes for
handles to hay-rakes, &c.

7138. The Lombardy poplar (P. dilatata) grows to a lofty
tree, occupies little space, and is not very injurious by its
shade. It will not thrive, however, in exposed situations, or in very indifferent soils. Some of the
^^^ *^^ ?^ ^^^* species are at Blenheim. Sang and Nicol say it seldom thrives in Scotland.

7139. The black Italian poplar {P. dtlatata, var.) o{ the northern nurseries, so strongly recommended
by Pontev, is thus described by him. by comparison with a Lombardy poplar. " The leaves of both are
very much alike in color, shape, and turn, the only difference being in the latter producing them somewhat
larger than the former, though not near so large as the other poplars, whose leaves are of similar shape.
The branches of the latter grow much less erect, and likewise much thinner upon the stem. The only
other distinction necessary is the bark, which, on a stem or branch of from two to four or five years'
growth, is always found smoother, and of a much darker color than any of the poplars that are at all like
It in other respects." He says it was first sent to Scotland from America, and disseminated by Dicksons
and Co. of Hassendean-burn. Sang says, " many have ventured to assert, that it is merely a play on the
vanity of possessing new sorts, and that it is not really distinct from those formerly cultivated." Pontey
says, he measured, in December, 1813, « a tree growing in the garden of Richard Atkinson, of Hudders-
field, which has been planted twenty-five years, being then about six feet high j the height is now about
sixty feet, and contains forty-six feet of good timber. It grows on the side of a garden where the soil is
light, and about a foot deep, upon a very coarse gravel, having been formerly a water-course." We could
never find any poplar in general cultivation, or wild, in Italy, but the Lombardy and alba, and occasionally
in elevated moist places in the Alps and Apennines, the tremula.

7140. The black Athenian {P. gr^ca), black Aynerican or birch-leaved {P.betnUfolia), the Canadian (P.
monilifera), and Carolina poplars (P. angulata), are all rapid-growing lofty trees, which, in favorable soils
and sheltered situations, speedily produce great bulk of head and timber ; but the hoary and the black
Italian appear the best for the general purposes of the profitable planter. They are all short-lived trees;
flower in March and April, and ripen their seeds from a fortnight to a month afterwards.

7141. Use. The wood being soft is used by the sculptor, tanner, and toymaker, and also occasionally
by the cabinet and musical-instrument maker, as a substitute for that of the lime. But no limited appli-
cation of poplar-timber, like the above, can be depended on by the profitable planter, and, therefore, the
safest way is to consider it as useful for the common purposes of domestic and rural economy, and more
likely to afford profit from bulk than quality. The bark of the black is so astringent, Sang states, as to be
used for tan. Alluding to the black Italian sort, Pontey says, " In that sort of planting which perhaps
may be considered a« most of all profitable, namely, that which adds to the comfort and consequence, and,
of course, the value of a place, previously scantily furnished with that important appendage, wood, this
tree is excellent ; as, in judicious hands, it may be made to produce very considerable effects, while many
others (highly esteemed) would produce them in prospect only. In short, for distant scenery, where wood,
not species, is the immediate object, this plant, hitherto in many places a stranger, is clearly superior to
all the family of the forest." Of the timber of the hoary poplar, he says. Lord Sheffield " has lately made
some floors, which, in appearance, are superior to any floor I have seen, whether of deal or oak ; and, as
to durability, I see no reason to doubt of that, if the density and weight of the article be considered, in
connection with such testimonies as books afford relative to the point Floors, however, are only one of
the many inferior purposes for which it is applicable ; as it is certainly proper for almost every article of
furniture usually made of mahogany. For the lighter descriptions of it, now so fashionable, it may be
made a very gooid substitute, without any other addition to the natural color of its heart than the means
cabinet-makers generally resort to, in order to heighten the color of such wood ; and with respect to the
sap, and where more of color is required, the aquafortis stain will instantaneously produce it, so far as that
it would be difficult to distinguish it from real mahogany. Indeed, it is equal to the best in color and
smoothness of surface, and much superior to the plain or inferior sorts in those respects, as well as in
transparency and variety ; and it has the further advantage
over mahogany, and most other woods, that it takes but little
of either oil or rubbing, to produce upon it the sort of mel-
low shining surface, so much admired in furniture that has
been some years subjected to proper attention." Of poplars
and willows in general, he obser\'es, " were we but half as well
apprised of the various purposes to which their timber might be
properly applied, as we are of the quickness of their growth, I
am persuaded they would then be considered as subjects worthy
of general attention."

7142. Natural soil and situation. None of the sorts men-
tioned are ever found wild in very poor soils, but generally in
such as are deep and moist, but not springj- ; by rivers and in
bottoms, where the soil has accumulated from the surround,
ing heights, or alluvial deposits have taken place, for ages,
poplars are found in the greatest perfection.

7143. The willoiv. — Salix, L. Dicec Monan. L.
and AmentaceiB, J. Saule, Fr. ; Weidenbaiim, Ger.;
Scdici, Ital. There are two species which seem
more immediately to merit cultivation as timber-trees,
and several as fit for cultivating in osier-grounds.

3 S

994

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

7144. The Huntingdon or common white Lincolnshire swallow-tailed willow (S. alba) (Eng. Bot. S4%.)
{fig. 678.) grows to a lolly tree, with a branchy stem, and tapering flame-shaped head. It seems com-
mon to Europe, being found pollarded by way-sides in Sweden, the south of Russia, and Italy. As a
timber-tree it produces a great bulk in a short time ; and as a pollard or coppice wood, on suitable soils,
it is prolific in fuel, poles, and bark for the tanner.

71*5. The Upland, or red-twigged willow of Pontey {Profit. Plant. 72.), appears to be a variety of the
S. alba, being distinguished from it by its hoary or silver-like leaves, and deep red shoots. The timber
and mode of growth appear to be the same as those of the Huntington willow, but being of slower
growth, the former is to be preferred. Of the red-twigged willow of Sang, there are large trees near
Dunfermline, upwards of 60 feet high.
7146. The Bedford willow {S. Russelliana) {Eng. Bot. 1808.) (^^. 679.) is also a lofty bulky-headed tree, in

general appearance and habits very much resembling the
S. alba.

7147. Use. The timber may be used generally in rural
economy, and the poles form a light and convenient hurdle.
Pontey says, the timber is " considerably durable ; a pro-
perty which, it appears, may be much augmented by steep-
ing some months in water, as is frequently done with oak-
saplings." The bark of all the sorts mentioned is found to
be sufhciently astringent to be now generally used by tan-
ners.

7148. The best willows for osier-grounds are the
following : —

7149. The common osier, Salix Viminalis. {Ens. Bot. 1898.)
fig. 680) The leaves are long, waved at the edges, but not
serrated; shining green above, and silvery underneath.
The shoots grow long, straight, and tough, and are well
adapted for the larger sorts of baskets, hampers, crates, and
hoops.

7150. The auricled osier, S. stipularis. {Eng. Bot. 1214.)
" The two-year-old shoots make excellent rods for baskets,
cradles, bird-cages, and such articles; and the one-year
shoots are used as fillings. The shoots are long, nearly equal
in thickness throughout their extent, and somewhat downy,
or hoary, particularly at the tops or extremities. The leaves
are alternate, with footstalks, long and narrow, somewhat

notched on the edges, green and smooth above, woolly below. The stipulae or leaf-scales are conspicuous
and remarkable, resembling a pair of ears."

7151. The green osier {S. rubra) {Eng. Bot. 1145.) is an excellent
basket willow. " The shoots are very long, tough, smooth, and
of a grey color, occasionally inclining to purplish. The leaves are
narrow and very long, from three to four inches, bright green
on both sides, and serrated."

7152. The basket-osier, S. Forbyana. {Eng. Bot. 1344.) " Tlie
best willow for the finer sorts of basket-work. The shoots are
of a yellowish ash-color, sometimes purplish ; smooth, very
flexible and tough. The leaves are alternate, on foot-stalks,
from two to three inches long, somewhat serrated, chiefly to-
wards the top; dark-green above, and glaucous or pale-bluish
beneath."

7153. The long-leaved triandrouswUlaw {S. triandra) {Eng. Bot.
1454.) " is common in osier-beds, and its stools afford most ex-
cellent shoots for basket-work, long, slender, pliable and tough ;
they are smooth, of a brownish color, and towards the top they
are fluted or grooved. The leaves are long, and closely and
strongly serrated."

7154. The velvet osier, S. mollissima. {Eng. Bot. 1509.) " Its
leaves are very smooth and green above, and very silky and soft
beneath. Shoots long and very numerous, but not tough ; when
allowed, however, to remain for two years, they make most
capital rods."

■^^^\rl^ y^^°^ '^llow, or golden osier (5, vitellina), {Ens
\ ^^'^ produces " handsome shoots, of a yellow color at

work.'

and shining, and well adapted for basket.

BOOK IV.

LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.

7156. iTnlan^cape-gardening, the art of the gardener is directed to different obiecls"
and some of them of a higher kind than any belonging to gardening as an a'rof cuTure'
pran's' wir' W rf "tf -^ --^.d-d; art is ?hiffly e'mployeTin ^.e t^^^^k
£ artifexerHLfn"? '"^ ^^^ P'"?"^'^ ' ^"* ^^ *« branch now under consider-
ation, art IS exercised m disposing of ground, buildings, and water, as well as the ve<.etatinff

whlt^! ' t"^ ^T '"*^ *^" ^on-position of yerdan*^ landscape. This s in a strkt ense^

Ld _ j^3irL:.:r'5^:^:s^- z^:^ ^-- —
aependo::£rr5-er:L^=r^^

Book IV. PRINCIPLES OF LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 995

wealth and taste of individuals. This art would be a very simple one in rude ages and
mild climates, when man had few wants, and scarcely any desires ; but, like other arts,
would become more intricate as mankind betook to more variable climates, and became
more refined in habits and manners. Taking a view, as far as history permits (see Part I. ),
of the past and present state of landscape-gardening in all countries, the objects desired
in tlie country-residence of a wealthy man, wishing to display his riches, are funflament-
ally the same. These were and are, adaptation to the habits of genteel life for the time
being, as to matters of use and convenience ; and distinction from the common scenery of
the country, as to matters of taste or beauty in landscape. The first object would prin-
cipally affect the mansion and accompanying erections for men or cattle ; and these
would, at first, be merely of greater dimension than those of the common mass of rustics;
but, as society improved, they would be distinguished by more perfect execution, and ap-
pendages indicative of the habits of genteel life. The second object, distinction in the
surrounding scenery, was and is effected by such dispositions of tlie common materials of
landscape, as ground, water, trees, &c. as indicate the employment of art and expense.
In early times, this would produce regularly level or sloping surfaces of ground, and
water and trees bounded by straight or geometrical lines, which would distinguish the
country-residence from tlie natural or open unenclosed scenery around. In late or modem
times, when the general face of the country was disposed in artificial forms, a contrary
practice would be pursued, and natural-like scenery would be created for precisely the
same object as in Uie other case ; the display of wealth and taste, and the attainment of
distinction.

7158. Hence the origin of what are called the geometric and natural styles in landscape-
gardening, both evidently founded on the same principle, the love of applause and distinc-
tion. Tlie first has been generally condemned as unnatural and absurd ; and so it is, if
we look upon it as an imitation of nature ; but as it never pretended to this, but, on the
contrary, was avowedly a display of the power of art over nature, it ought to be judged,
like every other work of man, by the end in view ; and if, as we have already observed
(526. ), it be considered as designed to distinguish the garden-scenery of the man of wealth
from the common fortuitous scenery of the country in rude or less cultivated times and
places, it will be found admirably calculated for that purpose, and just as natural to man
as any other part of his habits or manners. But we will even go farther, and maintain
that the geometrical disposition of landscape-scenery has powerful beauties, both of the
inherent kind, as that of a long broad avenue, or of general or particular associations, as
its suitableness to Gothic architecture, very ancient residences, &c. Disapproving, there-
fore, of that absolute preference of tlie modern or natural stj-le, which totally excludes the
other, we have, in treating of planting (Book III. Chap. IV.), not lost sight of the geo-
metrical dispositions of trees ; and we shall, in considering the present branch of our sub-
ject, notice also the dispositions of ground, water, roads, &c. peculiar to the geometric
style. A knowledge of both will be desired by the liberal-nunded practical designer ;
and the occasional adoption, in part, at least, of the ancient style, will be dictated by ge-
neral good taste, as well as by the particular tastes of individuals, and the circumstances
of peculiar situations. We shall consider, in succession, the principles of composing
landscape ; the treatment of the materials of verdant scenery ; the union of these materials
in forming landscapes ; and the union of landscapes in connection with scenes of use and
convenience in forming country-residences.

Chap. I.

Of the Principles of Landscape- Gardening.

7159. The jninciples of landscape-gardening, like those of every other art, are founded
on the end in view. " Gardens and buildings," Lord Kames observes, " may be destined
for use solely, for beauty solely, or for both. Such variety of destination bestows upon
these arts a great command of beauties, complex not less than various. Hence the diffi-
culty of forming an accurate taste in gardening, and architecture ; and hence, that differ-
ence or wavering of taste in these arts, greater than in any art that has but a single
destination." {Elements of Criticism, 4th edit. vol. ii. 431.) Not to consider landscape-
gardening with a view to these different beauties, but to treat it merely as " the art of creat-
ing landscapes," would thus embrace only a small part of the art of laying out grounds,
and leave incomplete a subject which contributes to the immediate comfort and happiness
of a great body of the enlightened and opulent in this and in every country ; — an art, as
the poet Mason observes,

" Which teaches wealth and pride,

" How to obtain their wish — the world's applause."
3 S 2

996 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

7160. The ancient authors on architecture and gardening have rarely attempted to lay
down any general principle of composition. Vitruvius hints obscurely, that the different
parts of buildings, should bear some proportion among themselves, like that which subsists
between the different members of the human body ; that the quantities constituting the
magnitudes of temples, should have certain ratios to one another, and he lays down canons
for the individual proportions, and collective arrangement of the columns of the different
orders. These, however, are not principles, but mechanical rules, formed on very limited
associations. The same remarks will apply to the directions respecting the walks, walls,
hedges, and borders of the ancient style, laid down by D'Argenville, Clarici, Le Blond,
and Switzer. It is in the writings of modern authors, therefore, and chiefly from the en-
lightened investigations of the Rev. A. Alison, that we are to draw our information as to
the principles by which the artists of the ancient style were instinctively guided in their
productions.

7161. With respect to tfie modern style, considered as including what belongs to the
conveniences of a country-residence, as well as the art of creating landscapes. Pope has
included the principles under, 1st, The study and display of natural beauties; 2d, The
concealment of defects ; and 3d, Never to lose sight of common sense. Wheatley concurs
in these principles, stating the business of a gardener to be " to select and to apply what-
ever is great, elegant, or characteristic" in the scenery of nature or art ; " to discover and
to show all the advantages of the place upon which he is employed; to supply its defects,
to correct its faults, and to improve its beauties." Repton, whose observations on land-
scape-gardening bear on the title-page, to be " written with a view to establish fixed princi-
ples in these arts," enumerates congruity, utility, order, symmetry, scale, proportion, and
appropriation, as principles, " if," as he observes, in one place, " there are any principles."
Mason places the secret of the art in the ' ' nice distinction between contrast and incon-
gruity;" Mason, the poet, invokes "simplicity," probably intending that this beauty
should distinguish the English from the Chinese style ; simplicity is also the ruling prin-
ciple of Lord Karnes ; Girardin includes every beauty under " truth and nature," and
every rule "under the unity of the whole, and the connection of the parts ;" and Shen-
stone states, "landscape or picturesque gardening" to "consist in pleasing the imagin-
ation," by scenes of grandeur, beauty, and variety. Convenience merely has no share
there, any farther than as it pleases the imagination. Congruity and the principles of
painting are those of Price and Knight; and nature, utility, and taste, those of Marshall.
From these different theories, as well as from the general objects or end of gardening,
there appear to be two principles which enter into its composition ; those which regard
it as a mixed art, or an art of design, and which are called the principles of relative
beauty ; and those which regard it as an imitative art, and are called the principles of na-
tural or universal beauty. The ancient or geometric gardening is guided wholly by the
former principles ; landscape-gardening, as an imitative art, wholly by the latter ; but as
the art of forming a country-residence, its arrangements are influenced by both principles.
In conformity with these ideas, and with our plan of treating of both styles, we shall first
consider its principles as an inventive or mixed, and secondly as an imitative art.

Sect. I. Of the Beauties of Landscaj^e- Gardening, as an inventive and mixed Art, and of
the Principles of their Production. •

7162. Works of art, Alison observes, maybe considered, either in relation to their
design or intention — to the nature of their construction for the intended purpose — or to
the nature of the end they are destined to serve ; and their beauty accordingly will de-
pend, either upon the excellence or wisdom of the design, the fitness or propriety of the
construction, or the utility of the end. The considerations of design, of fitness, and of
utility, therefore, may be considered as the three great sources of the beauties of works
of inventive art. They have been called relative beauties, in opposition to those of nature
and imitative art, which are hence denominated natural or independent beauties. There
is a third source of beauty common both to arts of invention and imitation, which is that
of accidental beauty, or such as is produced by local, arbitrary, or temporary associations.
The beauties of objects, whether natural, relative, or accidental, are conveyed to the senses
by the different qualities of matter, forms, sounds, colors, smells, and motion ; but form
is the grand characteristic of matter, and constitutes in a great degree its essence to our
senses. In our remarks, therefore, on the beauties of inventive art, we shall chiefly con-
sider design, fitness, and utility, in regard to form.

7163^ The expression of design is displayed by such forms and dispositions, as shall at
once point out that they are works of art. Thus regularity and uniformity are recog-
nised in the rudest works of man, and point out his employment of art and expense in
their construction. Hence the lines, surfaces, and forms of geometric gardening should
be different, and in some degree opposed to those of general nature. Irregular surfaces,
lines, or forms, may be equally u^ieful, alike works of art, and, considered with reference
to other beauties, may be more agreeable than such as are regular ; but, if too prevalent.

Book IV. BEAUTIES OF LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 997

they might be mistaken for the production of nature, in which case they would lose the
beauty of design ; but forms perfectly regular, and divisions completely uniform, im-
mediately excite the belief of design, and with this belief, all the admiration which follows
the employment of skill and expense. Ground in level or regular slopes, or in hills or
hollows of symmetrical shapes ; woods of right-lined boundaries ; trees, and especially
such as are foreign to the soil, planted equidistantly in masses, in quincunx, or in straight
rows ; water in architectural basins, regular canals, or fountains ; walks and woods, of
uniform width and perfectly straight ; straight walls and hedges are easily distinguished
from nature's management of these materials, and are highly expressive of the band of
man.

7164. Regular forms are satifactorj/y Stewart observes (Philosoj)hical Essays, 238.),
** from the principle of a sufficient reason, adopted by Leibnitz. What is it, that in any
thing which is merely ornamental, and which at the same time does not profess to be an
imitation of nature, renders irregular forms displeasing? Is it not, at least, in part, that
irregularities are infinite ; and that no circumstance can be imagined which should have
decided the choice of the artist in favor of that particular figure which he has selected ?
The variety of regular figures, it must be acknowledged, is infinite also ; but supposing
the choice to be once fixed about the number of sides, no apparent caprice of the artist in
adjusting their relative proportions, presents a disagreeable and inexplicable puzzle to the
spectator."

7165. Whereyer SI/ mmetri/ *'is useful to the soul, and may assist her functions, it is
agreeable to her ; but wherever it is useless, it becomes distasteful, because it takes away
variety : therefore, tilings that we see in succession ought to have variety, for our soul has
no difficulty in seeing them : those, on the contrary, that we see at one glance, ought to
have symmetry ; thus at one glance we see the front of a building, a parterre, a temple ;
in such things there is alw:ays a symmetry which pleases the soul, by the facility it gives
her of taking the whole object at once." (Montesquieu.)

7166. The exj)ressioji of design, in the progress of the arts, though at first difficult, be-
comes afterwards easy, and renders regularity and uniformity only expressive of common
design. Hence, to confer a character of supeiiority in works of design, variety would
be introduced ; and as uniformity was the sign of design, so uniformity and variety would
become the sign of improved or embellished design. " Considering, therefore, forms in this
light as beautiful, merely from their expression of design, the observation of Dr. Hutcheson
may perhaps be considered as an axiom with regard to their beauty, viz. that where the uni-
formity is equal, the beauty of forms is in proportion to their variety ; and when their variety
is equal, tlieir beauty is in proportion to their uniformity." {Alisons Essays, p. 106. ) To this
stage, in the progress of design, may be referred the architectural ornaments introduced
in garden-scenery, such as seats, buildings, statues, urns ; and in the later stages of the
art, serpentine walks, labyrinths, verdant sculpture, and many other improvements. The
variety and embellishment thus conferred on gardens produced in time many absurdities, .
that we would not wish to see resorted to with a revival of the ancient style, unless in
examples considered solely with a view to imitation. The sculpture of trees, however,
might, when first introduced, be greatly admired,. even by men of sense, for its novelty,
and the discovery of a certain degree of skill in the artist ; but as, in our times, they would
neither be new nor meritorious, they could scarcely be consistently introduced with a view
to embellish design.

7167. To prevent variety from degenerating into confusion, and as Professor Stewart
characteristically expresses it, "puzzling the spectator," unity of intention must never be
lost sight of. This, indeed, is necessarily implied in every work of art, since, without
it, the slightest attempt at design would only end in a chaos of materials.

7168. Fitness, or the proper adaptation of means to an end, is the second source of the
relative beauty of forms. Considered in relation to the parts of a building, it is generally
denominated proportion, and refers to the adequate strength of certain parts to bear certain
weights, &c. In the detail of the ancient, and in scenes of relative beauty in the modern
style of gardening, it relates to the magnitude and situations of buildings, and other
artificial objects, relative to natural ones, — to the extent of the diflferent scenes or consti-
tuent parts of a residence, compared to the whole, — to the propriety and congruity of
certain objects as ornaments, — and, in general, to the adequacy of means to an end,
whatever these means or that end may be.

7169. Utility h the third source of the relative beauty of forms. None of the other
beauties will compensate for the entire want of utility in any scene of architecture or
gardening. Objects at first thought beautiful, soon lose this expression when they are
found to be of no use ; and others, with first impressions the most disagreeable, are felt
to become beautiful as they are known to be useful. " ITiis species of beauty," Alison
observes, " is in itself productive of a much weaker emotion than that which arises from
the dirtercnt sources of ornamental beauty; but it is of a more constant and permanent
kind, and much more uniformly fitted to excite the admiration of mankind." {Essays on

3 S 3

938 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

Taste, vol. ii. p. 201.) " To unite these different kinds of beauty ; to dignify ornamental
forms by use ; and to raise merely useful forms into beauty, is the great object of ambi-
tion among every class of artists. Wherever both these objects can be obtained, the
greatest possible beauty that form can receive will be produced. But as this can very
seldom be the case, the following rules seem immediately to present themselves for the
direction of the artist : — 1 . That where the utility of forms is equal, that will be the
most beautiful to which the most pleasing expression of form is given. 2. 'i hat where
those expressions are at variance ; when the beauty of the form cannot be produced with-
out sacrificing its utility ; that form will be most universally and most permanently
beautiful, in which the expression of utility is most fully preserved." (E ssaj/s, \o\. ii.
p. 202.) Some of the various modifications of utility, as applied to country-residences,
may be here enumerated.

7170. For the purpose of habitation, for example, good air and water, a genial climate, fertile soil, cheer-
ful prospect, and suitable neighborhood, &c. are known requisites. Convenience must be joined to use,
comforts to conveniencies, and luxuries to comforts. Exercise, whether in the shape of walking, riding,
or driving, requires to be provided for ; and recreation, whether in the common field sports, athletic games,
or in botanical, agricultural, and other useful, elegant, or scientific pursuits, must be kept in view : rural
fetes and amusements might also be enumerated.

7171. Accidental associations form the last class of relative beauties, and are " such associations as,
instead of being common to all mankind, are peculiar to the individual. They take their rise from edu-
cation, from peculiar habits of thought, from situation, from profession ; and the beauty they produce is
felt only by those whom similar causes have led to the formation of similar associations." {^StewarVs
Essays.) Among these may be reckoned, —

7172. Classical and historical associations. The influence of the former in architecture is well known ;
the latter often adds charms to a spot, in no respect remarkable to those who are unacquainted with its
history. " Classical associations," Stewart observes, " have added immensely to our natural resources,
but at the same time, warped our taste in various instances ;" acquiring, as Alison adds, " a superiority
over the more permanent principles of beauty, and determining for a time the taste of nations."

7173. National associations are also frequently at variance with such as are universal, and have, perhaps,
greater influence than any other associations whatever. {Stewart's Essays.)

7174. Personal associations, or such as arise from the accidental style of natural beauties, to which we
have been accustomed in our youth. Many particulars come under this head, which it would be tedious
to enumerate ; but one mode of vanity and selfish feeling deserves particular notice, as intimately con-
nected with the business of the landscape-gardener. It is that interest which the attachment to property
creates in men's minds, " rendering them alive to every trifling recommendation belonging to what is
their own, while it blinds them to the most prominent beauties in the property of their neighbors."
{Stewart's Essays, p. 468.)

7175. Appropriation, or such an arrangement as shall, either in reality or appearance, render all, or the
greater part of what we see from a country-seat our own, is a consequence of personal associations. The
simplest way of effecting this, is by shutting out all objects which do not correspond with the idea, by
means of walls or plantations. A more refined mode is, by harmonising the scenery ; by adopting some
of the forms, colors, and arrangements in our own territory (6769.), which appear in those of our neigh-
bors, as seen from the house, or some particular points of view. According to Wheatley, " one property
of a riding is to extend the idea of a seat, and appropriate a whole country to the mansion." For this
purpose, he requires the road of the riding to be diircrent from common roads in form and preservation,
and distinguished by accompaniments borrowed from a park or garden, &c. Knight strongly objects to
appropriation, and ridicules certain attempts of this sort, made by placing the family arms on the inns
and public-houses of the neighborhood, and on " stones with distances," as, he savs, was recommended
by one improver. Girardin also objects to the principle ; but Repton, and we believe, almost every other
professional man, finds it a very principal object of attention. Repton defines appropriation to be, " that
command over the landscape visible from the windows, which denotes it to be private property belonging
to the place." " A view from a London house into a square or into the parks may be cheerful and beau-
tiful, but it wants appropriation • it wants that charm which only belongs to ownership — the exclusive
right of enjoyment, with the power of refusing that others should share our pleasure. The most romantic
spot, the most picturesque situations, and the most delightful assemblage of nature's choicest materials,
will not long engage our interest without some appropriation ; something we can call our own ; and, if
not our own property, at least that may be endeared to us by calling it our own home." (Frag?nents of
Landscape-Gardcning, p. 206.) This etivie de s'arrondir seems to have existed, and the proximity and
intermixture of property to have been felt as an evil among landed proprietors from the earliest ages.
Ahab desired the field of Naboth, that he might convert it to a garden of herbs Cor flower-garden),
because it was near to his house j and Marvel, the attorney, says to his patron, —

" What course take you

(With your good patience,) to hedge in the manor

Of your neighbor. Master Frugal ? As 'tis said.

He will not sell, nor borrow, nor exchange ;

And his land lying in the midst of yours.

Is a foul blemish." Massinoer. Nerv Way' to pay Old Debts, Act 2. Scene 1.

" I stick stiU in the inn of a hired house," writes the amiable Cowley to Evelyn, " without that plea-
santest work of human industry, the improvement of something which we can call our own."

Sect. II. 0/tJie Beauties of Landscape- Gardening, considered as an imitative Art, and of
the Principles of their Production.

7176. The chief object of all the imitative arts is the production of natural or universal
beauty. Music, poetry, and painting, are the principal imitative arts ; to these has been
lately added landscape-gardening, an art which has for its object the production of
landscapes by combinations of the actual materials of nature, as landscape-painting has
for its object their imitation by combinations of colors. Landscape-gardening has been
said '« to realise whatever the fancy of the painter has imagined" {Girardin) ; and, « to
create a scenery more pure, more harmonious, and more expressive, than any that is to
be found in nature herself" {Alisoji.) Such are Alison's ideas of the powers of this art ;
and such appear, in some degree, to have been those of Wheatley and Girardin. A more
correct idea of its capacities, in our opinion, is suggested by the remark of Lord Wal-

Book IV. BEAUTIES OF LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. Q90

pole, when he represents it as <' proud of no other art than that of softening nature's
harshness, and copying her graceful touch." It has also been said, that it is <• to poetry
and painting, what the reality is to the representation." (^Girardin.) But experience
proves, that the former (the reality) is always exceeded by the latter, both in respect to
natural and picturesque beauty. Suppose, for example, any given variety of ground,
rocks, and distance, as the basis to be furnished with wood, water, and buildings ; the
rocks shown, or concealed, as the gardener may wish, or as the genius of the place may
require, and every other purpose effected, which is in the power of gardening to perform.
WJien all this is done, it will be a scene greatly inferior in beauty to the imitative cre-
ation of a painter from the same groundwork and materials ; or, let there be a natural
landscape, either of mediocrity or of any given beauty, witli every circumstance so
arranged, as to be alike suitable for both arts ; and let a painter and a gardener, each
attempt to copy it according to their art, with or without permission, to improve its
beauties. Which of the two imitations would be most beautiful, considered in the
abstract, and witliout reference to any selfish or arbitrary association ? Decidedly, in our
opinion, tlie production of tlie painter. In short, no comparison between the powers of
landscape-painting and those of landscape-gardening can be instituted, that will not
evince the superior powers of the former art. The great source of the beauty of every
verdant landscape is wood ; and so much of the beauty of all woods depends on acci-
dental circumstances, in their progress from the time of planting, till they attain a con-
siderable age, and which circumstances cannot be said practically to be under the control
of tlie gardener, that however high our aim, however we may study the natural effects of
time, and however correctly we may imitate them, at the end of all our labors, any wood
of art will always be far inferior to a wood of nature under tlie same circumstances. For
further illustrations, we have only to appeal to such painters as have made landscape
their particular study, and who certainly must be considered in this case as the best
judges with regard to scenic truth or picturesque beauty.

7177. To u'hat khid or degree, of beauty then., can landsca])€-gardening aspire ? To this
we answer, that, abstracted from all relations of utility and design, it can seldom succeed
in producing any thing higher than picturesque beauty, or such a harmonious mixture of
forms, colors, lights, and shades, as will be grateful to the sight of men in general ; and
to such, more particularly, as have made this beauty in some degree their study. This
harmonious assemblage of objects may be grateful and agreeable, without being accom-
panied by any, or at all events, by much general expression ; for example, of gaiety,
melancholy, grandeur, simplicity, or elegance ; but it may also combine one or more of
these poetic or general beauties in a high degree, and this, too, with or without being
picturesque. It may recall many other pleasurable epaotions, if we admit the consider-
ations of fitness, novelty, or its contrast to surrounding scenery, and utility or its adapt-
ation to man. Such is our opinion of the capacities of landscape-gardening. If it is
lower than that of some authors and artists, we can only say, that it has been formed
from tlie observation and experience of what actually takes place. The artist may and
ought to aim at the highest degree of beauty, which his own imagination, the genius of
the place, and the views of the owner, will admit of; but let him not proceed with, or
hold out to the world, mistaken views of what his art can and cannot perform.

7178. The principles of imitative landscape-gardening, in that view of this term which
limits it to *' the art of creating landscapes of picturesque beauty ;" we consider with
Girardin, Price, Knight, and other authors, to be those of painting ; and in viewing it
as adding to picturesque beauty some other natural expression, as of grandeur, decay,
melancholy, &c. we consider it, with Pope, Warton, Gray, and Eustace, as requiring,
both in the designer and observer, the aid of poetic mind ; that is, of a mind conversant
in all these different emotions, or pleasures of imagination, which are called up by cer-
tain signs of affecting or interesting quaUties, furnished by sounds, motion, buildings,
and other objects.

7179. If taking a third view of imitative landscajte-gardening, as " the art of laying out
the grounds of a country-residence,'''' then, with popular opinion, we comprehend under the
term all the above beauties, with those of relative beauty, the principles of which have
been the subject of the preceding section. The principles of landscape-gardening then,
as an imitative art, we conclude to be derived from nature, as developed by the prin-
ciples of landscape-painting ; and, as recognised by poetic mind, or a mind alive to those
general beauties or associations universally felt in civilised society. We consider this,
perhaps to many a tedious developement of the principles of landscape-gardening, called
for by the vague and indefinite manner in which they are spoken of by authors, no less
than by artists ; and, as a proof of this, we refer our readers to the volumes of the late
Repton, who, whatever may be the merits of his practical taste, has certainly, when-
ever he has touched on the subject of principles, written in a very unsatisfactory manner.
To those who are conversant with the literature of landscape-gardening, it must appear a
very gratuitous task to write a book ♦' with a view of establishing fixed principles" in the

3 S 4

1000

PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

principles could i^w v.^^,^^-- . , w_ . i 4.u

considerations of relative fitness or utility, and comparative proportion or scale ; the
former may be referred to the mind, the latter to the eye." (Obs. on L. Gardening by H.
Repton, Esq. Introduction, p. 2.) While we disapprove of this disingenuous mode ot
writing, the frequency of which we must regret in this artist's works, we willingly pay
tribute to his practical good taste, and more especially in architecture,

7180. As an Ulustration of the theory of landscape-gardening, which we have adopted, we
subjoin a slight analysis of the principles of a composition, expressive of picturesque and
natural beauty. For this purpose, it is a matter of indifference, as far as respects pic-
turesque beauty, whether we choose a real or painted landscape ; but, as we mean also to
investigate its poetic or general beauty, we shall prefer a reality. We choose then a per-
fect flat, varied by wood, say elms, with a piece of water, and a high wall, forming the
angle of a ruined building ; it is animated by cows and sheep j its expression is that of
melancholy grandeur ; and, independently of this beauty, it is picturesque in expression ;
that is, if painted it would form a tolerable picture.

7181. Unitv is the first obvious principle which pervades this picture. No ideas of gaiety or prettiness
are excited by such a scene. All the parts unite in forming a whole, which the eye can comprehend at
once, and examine without distraction. " La vue," says Girardin, " le plus vagabond de tous les sens, a
besoin d'etre fix^e pour jouir avec plaisir et sans lassitude." Were this principle not prevalent, the groups
of trees, the lake, and the building, would only please when considered separately, and the result would be
as poor a production as a machine, the wheels of which are accurately, finished and nicely polished, but
which do not act in concert so as to eft'ect the intended movement.

7182. It is true to nature j that is, the objects or materials are what they appear to be. The trees, which
are neither very old nor very young, though in the distance diminished by their remote situation, we dis-
cover by their trunks and contour, to be still trees. They are not shrubs placed near the eye, with a view
to produce a false perspective ; nor is the fragment of building merely a disguised wall, because it has open-
ings which have once been windows, and is crowned in one part by battlements. The water is natural, its
surface being below the level of the adjoining ground, not raised above it, as is often the case in artificial
waters. This completes the truth or reality of the scene. The necessity of adhering to truth is still greater
in painting, in which all objects must appear to be natural, not only in forms and color, but also relatively
to the forms and colors around them. Objects, especially those whose forms and dimensions are familiar to
us, as men or horses, painted of different heights in the same plane ; as, for example, in the distance, of
the same magnitude as that in which they appear in the foreground, would, from the acquired habit of
measuring unknown by known objects, give a falsehood to the scene, and appear as animals of a diflerent
species, or as monstersi It seems to be from the same principles of being true to nature, that a gradation
of scene, or what is called distance, is required, or at least is so satisfactory in landscape. The mind, after
being impressed with the effect of a whole, delights in examining its parts in succession ; the more simple
and obvious the arrangement of these parts, therefore, the more readily does the mind acquiesce in their
effect. The eye of the artist, seizing on the nearest and most remote parts of a scene, readily marks an in-
termediate or middle distance ; no given extent seems necessary for this purpose :

" To make the landscape grateful to the sight.
Three points of distance always should unite;
', And howsoe'er the view may l)e confined.

Three marked divisions we shall always find." The Landscape, by ICnight.

■ 7183. The disposition of the parts is the next object of analysis, and the enquiry is how in this respect
they concur in forming a whole. 1. As to forms, we find that their disposition is in groups or masses.
The largest group, for example, is placed towards one side of the picture in the foreground, another to-
wards the opposite side of the middle distance, including the building and adjoining lake ; and the remote,
or third distance, consists of a low line of wood, with projecting groups or masses. 2. As to colors, we
find only different shades of yellow and green on the trees and ground. 3. As to the light, we find one
large and principal light near the middle of the view, diverging into shade as it approaches the sides ; the
clearest part is the water, and the next clearest the building, and the third light spreads over a broad space
of ground, near the water. The groups in the foreground are all in a deep shadow. One of these, near
the water, partakes of the principal light, and those in the third distance are distinguished by a sort of
neutralisation of light, color, and shade. Such is the disposition of the groups or parts, in order, in a com-
plex view of the whole, to fix the eye, and prevent it from being distracted by scattered lights, confusion
of forms, and inharmonious color.

7184. The connection which subsists between these different parts is a subordinate but important con-
sideration. 1. They are connected in each distance by a real nearness of situation ; and, 2. In the view
as a whole, from the one group coming in part before the other, so as to produce connection by apparent
proximity. Suppose the reverse to be the case, and that the groups were unconnected either by real or
apparent distance of situation, the consequence would be, that each group being suriounded by light
would become a distinct object. The eye would have no resting place, and the assemblage would not com-
pose a whole.

7185. The relation which subsists betiveen the parts, composing each individual group, is next to be ex-
amined. 1. In regard to the form of the parts of each group, as they are all groups of the same sort of
tree, we find one elementary form prevalent, but differing in magnitude, and in combination, by their con-
trasted disposition, to such a degree, that each group differs in form from the others, without at the same
time being of opposite forms.

7186. In regard to color, the same kind of color prevails in each and in all of the groups, but is varied in
degree by the same contrasted disposition. In some parts a yellowish-green prevails, in others a greenish-
yellow, in others a russet or red-green, and occasionally a bright-green, as on tliat part of the turf where
the light strikes with the greatest force.

7187. In regard to light and shade, those parts of the groups which rise above the horizon, and are
backed by the sky, are dark, and generally darker than such as are backed by the ground, or by other
adjoinmg groups. The promment parts of each group are lighter than the retiring parts or recesses
among the spray and leaves. These prominent and retiring parts, in the near groups are very numerous •
m the distance they are lost in the general aerial shade of the group. It may be observed as a general
principle, that trees, from their rough surface, and consequent imperfect reflection of light, are always
comparatively darker than water, buildings, or ground. In creating real landscape, they serve in some
measure as shades, as the other materials mentioned serve as lights.

7188. The sky the cows, and the sheep, must be noticed in order to complete the sketch. Suppose
then, that the sky w merely grey and cloudy, and the cattle and sheop grouped in the middle distance'

Book IV.

BEAUTIES OF LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.

1001

what will be the expression of the view ? We think it would express very little to general observers ; but
tliere being nothing glaringly offensive in the arrangement, it would be expressive of some beauty to him
who had bestowed some attention to the subject of landscapes ; for though it exhibits but little harmony
of forms and colors, light or shade, it still possesses enough of these ingredients to render it worth looking
at as a picturesque view.

7189. The general or natural expression of melaticholy and grandeur remains to be accounted for.
For this purpose, let the building be the ruins of an ancient castle, whose lofty quadrangular form may be
readily imagined from the walls we mentioned, as composing a part of the scenery. The character of
grandeur, then, is not in this instance communicated to the picture, by the picturesque effect of the walls,
which have no variety of form, light, or shade, in themselves, but by the mental associations to which they
give rise in a cultivated mind.

7190. As another example of picturesque, and poetic, or sentimental expression, imagine the cattle and
sheep removed, the surface of the ground covered by smoothly mown turf, and the luxuriant branches
of some of the foreground trees nearly reclining on the ground. The first expression would be that of
beautiful, or elegant picturesque ; the next that of stillness, and consecration to man, — stillness, as lieing
without animals or moving objects ; and consecration to man, from the mown surface, greatly heightened
by the circumstance of the branches of trees reclining on the ground, which never can happen where
sheep or cattle are admitted, and which forms the leading visible distinction between a group of trees in
a park, and a group on a mown lawn. It is not from the smoothness of the turf, or any jiarticular mix-
ture of light and shade in the reclining branches, that this expression is produced, but from reflecting on
the cause of this appearance.

7191. As a third example, imagine, instead of the smooth turf, uncouth rough ground, covered in some
places with furze, briars, brambles, and tangled thickets; the water fringed with rushes, and partially
concealed by aquatic shrubs ; and wild horses and deer forming the animated part of the scene. The ex-
pression would be eminently picturesque ; but there would also be an expression of wildness, not result-
ing from the picturesque qualities as such, but from mental reflection on the difference between this
scene and one of cultivation.

7192. As a fourth example, imagine the view deprived of the lake and the building, and consisting only
of the wood and ground, with the heads of a straggling row of willow-trees appearing in the middle dis-
tance, and the sound of a distant waterfall heard through the trees. Here, to picturesque beauty we have
an idea of water — of an immense body of it in the lake or river which supplies the waterfall — and of the
rocks, which oppose their powerful o'/struction to a body of water. The reader will here remark, how
much of the sublime beauty of this scene depends on sound, which can never be included under pictur-
esque beauty. The leading expression is that of sublimity, accompanied by various associations of dignity
produced by the rocks, and of grandeur suggested by the stream, after the waters have renewed their
tranquil course, and rolling, as we may imagine, majestically along under the shade of the line of willow-
trees.

7193. Other examples, of a more striking nature, might be adduced; but these in-
stances we consider as better adapted to show the difference between a composition
merely picturesque, and one expressive of general or natural beauty, and to prove our
position, that both poetry and painting enter into the principles of imitative landscape-
gardening. They will also show, how very little the production of natural beauty is
within the power of the landscape-gardener. He may display it to more advantage.
In the first example of expression, for instance, the building, or such parts of it as more
obviously show its real character, might be displayed by the removal of some over-ob-
truding branches ; and in the second, a garden-seat, and some garden-trees, as the lime,
cedar, &c. might add to the idea of consecration to man. In the tliird, a corn-field or a
barn in the distance, would aid the effect by contrast ; and in the last, a bridge would
determine the situation and reality of the river. But to attempt effecting these expres-
sions by building a ruin, placing a garden-seat in a paddock, or erecting a bridge where
there was no water, would, however common in the infancy of the art, be now justly
considered ridiculous. Much more, it is true, might be done in improving the pictur-
esque beauty of each of these scenes, provided the trees were already grown to ma-
turity, and too numerous rather than too few ; but if the trees are yet to plant, it is
evident that only the ground-plans of the masses and groups of trees, and of the breadth
of the lawn, could be formed by the artist.

7194. A very common error, since the introduction of the modem style, has been to sup-
pose that picturesque beauty is the only beauty to be aimed at in laying out grounds ;
but so far from this being the case, it will often happen that the alterations required for

1002

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

the purposes of convenience and character, will lessen that beauty, whilst it increases
that of dignity, refinement, and appropriation to man. As an example, we may refer
to Rivenhall Place, in its state before being improved by Repton {Jig. 681.), and the

residence subsequently to improvement, or as intended to be improved. (Jig. 682.)
Every one will allow that its unimproved state (fig. 681.) presents the most picturesque
landscape ; while its dressed state is the more dignified and desirable as the landscape of
a considerable country-residence.

Chap. II.

Of the Materials of Landscape- Gardening.

7195. The materials of landscape-gardening with which we work in order to obtain the
desired effect, are the same whatever style we adopt. Those of nature, are ground,
wood, water, and rocks ; to these, art lias added buildings, roads, walks, fences ; and

accompaniments only

animated or moving objects, sounds, &c. may be considered
partially under our control.

Sect. I. Of operating on Ground.
7 1 96. The oiKrations of art on this ponderous material are necessarily of a very limited
description. The most extensive and costly operations, to restore or create natural sur-
faces, even when attended with the desired efiect, afford less pennanent gratification
to personal feeling than most other improvements. If a deformed space has been restored
to natural beauty, we are delighted with the effect, whilst we recollect the difference
between the present and the former surface ; but when this is forgotten, though the
beauty remains, the credit for having produced it is lost. In this respect, the operations
on ground under the ancient

style, have a great and striking ____ n^ r^ ,-^ r/^

advantage; for an absolute per- "-^ ^^ » ^ * -^ -'"^ ^ ■^'- " "^
fection is to be attained in the
formation of geometrical forms,
and the beauty created is so "|f|
entirely artificial (fig. 683.) as
never to admit a doubt of its
origin. Long, therefore, after -i
the improvement is finished, the i j
credit and the beauty remain to \\
gratify and charm the owner,
improvements on surfaces, what-
ever be their object, ought to be
made in scenes which are near
the eye, or intended to be fre-
quently seen ; at a distance they
are lost if the effect be on a small
scale, and often better effected
by wood, if on one of consider-
able magnitude. Attempts to remove distant inequalities, by lowering heights anu

Book IV. OPERATING ON GROUND. 1003

filling up hollows, very seldom are attended by results sufficient to justify the expense
incurred ; but when art is employed to heighten distant eminences the success is greater :
in the last case art may be said to act positively, in the former negatively — to produce
or increase a beauty, instead of only removing or lessening a deformity. All operations
on ground may be included under, 1. Tliose vrhich have for their object the beauty of
art or design ; and, 2. Those where natural beauty is intended to be produced.

7197. Operations u<ith a view to relative or artificial beauty. The forms in use for this
purpose are few and simple. They originate in, and are influenced by, those of the
liouse ; and are, for the greater part, bounded by right lines ; and the surfaces are levels
or slopes of different degrees of abruptness. The magnitude as well as form of each of
the figures in the ground immediately adjoining a house, or in a detached walled en-
closure, should be regulated chiefly by the magnitude of the mansion, or extent and
grandeur of the whole place, though they are often obliged to conform, in some degree,
to the natural surface. "When the ground slopes from the house in all directions, narrow
parallelograms will be the prevailing forms both of the levels and slopes. The broadest
level, and greatest perpendicular depth of slope, will generally be placed next the house,
and the next broadest level, &c. in succession, till, after three or four levels, and as many
slopes are obtained, the artificial surface shall finally blend with the natural ; unless, as
is frequently the case in the geometric style, a kitchen-garden wall, or some similar
work of art, forms the termination. In this case, separation by some architectural or
other accompaniment, will, by forming a break in the order of forms, admit of adopting,
in continuation of the artificial surface, such levels and slopes as the character of the scene
may require, or a due regard to economy dictate. Wlien the mansion, or scene of oper-
ations, is on a surface naturally flat, the levels will be of greater dimensions, the slopes
smaller, and both fewer in number. But though parallelograms are the common figures
employed, sections of polygons, trapeziums, circles, and curvilinear figures, are fre-
quently admitted. They are used in architectural elevations, and in fortifications, which
are the prototypes of this part of ancient gardening ; and, therefore, when apparent in the
mansion, should be reflected, as it were, by the grounds. {Jig. 684.) The forms to be
used, however, is a matter easy to determine. The principal difficulty is to arrange
tliem together, so that they may con-
cur in producing a whole, or a good
effect. In disposing, connecting, re-
lating, and contrasting them for this
purpose, the artist will preserve regu-
larity and uniformity in the complex
view of the whole, varying and har-
monising the detail according to the
degree of beauty and variety he intends
to produce. If he has duly prepared
his mind by theoretical studies, and
practised architectural and landscape drawing, his own feeling of their impression will
suggest when he has attained the desired effect ; for the models of artificial surfaces
which remain of ancient gardens are poor productions compared to what might be
created in this way, through the judicious application of the principles of relative beauty.
A good deal depends on adjusting the extent of geometrical or architectural surface to
the size of the house and surrounding grounds ; and in this matter much depends on the
regularity or irregularity of the ground plan of the former, and on the evenness or vari-
ation of the surface of the latter. ■ A square house on a level, or on a gentle swell, will
require least extent of architectural platform around it, and a straggling gothic ciistle on
an irregular declivity the greatest extent of terraces, angles, ramps, and slopes.

7198. Natural heautij of groxind. *- As the right lines and geometrical forms of the
architect, take the lead in grounds of artificial beauty, so the flowing and broken lines,
and undefined forms of the landscape-painter, take the lead in those of natural beauty.
To create them in ground, is generally impracticable and unadvisable ; but where they
exist concealed by accidental deformities, or incomplete in expression, through dulness
in their leading features, art may relieve from the impediments to beauty, even though
the situation is at some distance from the eye. In recluse scenes immediately under
view, art may aspire to create beauty even from a tame flat, but especially from its op-
posite, a flat abounding with deformities. In effecting all those purposes, the same
principles applv. The first thing to fix in the mir.d is the desired surface, or that style
of natural ground which is best to be imitated. The next thing is to examine on what
parts, forms, and lines, the natural beauty of this ground chiefly depends ; if undulatmg,
whether the concave or the convex prevails ; if broken ground, whether horizontal and
perpendicular, or curved and inclined lines prevail. These are then to be imitated in
the improvement, ever keeping in view the important principle of a whole as the end of
the connection, and harmony of the parts of which it is composed.

1004

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

7199. The removal of accidental deformities forms one of the comrnoncst operations on
ground. Old quarries and other pits, useless cattle-ponds, open drains, mounds of earth,
marks of ridges, are to be considered of this description. As they have been raised by
art, so in dispersing them, the best general rule is to restore the natural surface ; but
sometimes the remains of fences are so numerous, that advantage may be taken of the
earth to be removed, and some variety given to a surface otherwise dull and featureless.
If the fence consists of a great number of turns of different lengths, by removing both
the mound and part of the surface on each side of the drain, a small winding hollow or
vale may be formed : the effect of which may be heightened, by placing the earth re-
moved on adjoining indications of natural eminences ; not so as to form knolls, but so as
to connect and harmonise with the prevailing idea of expression. The most simple and
obvious improvement of exhausted quarries and dry pits, is to plant them {fg' 685.) ;
this, though it will form a series of pleasing scenes, is not always consistent with the

general expression to be created, and such groups as would arise from theee spots, might
destroy breadth of light and connection, independently of excluding distant objects. In
tliis case, they must be filled up by under-growths, or by lowering the adjoining surface
in such a way as not to interfere with general effect, or a sufficient descent for the surface-
water. Where broken ground enters into the idea of the composition to be effected, open
drains, or hollow pits, afford fine sources of picturesque beauty, especially if the ground
is dry, or can be readily under-drained. This character, however, can seldom be intro-
duced as an original feature ; but in ground naturally leading to abrupt and broken lines,
it may be more desirable to improve this expression, than attempt creating a more polished
surface. In cases of this sort, almost every thing depends on the introduction of wood,
copse, and verdant roughnesses, to harmonise the broken surface ; for mere broken ground,
without a character of luxuriance and wildness communicated by wood, is seldom better
on a smaller scale than a surface deformed by scars.

7200. Natural bumps or excrescences (fg- 686. a), as well as pits (6), are not un-
common in many grounds which have not been subjected to agricultural improvement.

^^' ■ -^^^^

When these are not large, the process of fallowing with the plough will remove them ;
when they are of some magnitude, they may often become sources both of polished and
picturesque beauty. If they are numerous and favorably distributed, by the removal
of some, and the enlargement through that means of others, they may give an impres-
sion of undulation, especially if situated on a naturally irregular surface. If on a de-
clivity, and covering rocks or huge stones, a mixture of flowing lines with abruptnesses
may be happily introduced.

7201. A varied but yet dull surface may often be improved by a skilful artist. By
studying the character indicated by nature, it will generally be found, that the defi-
ciency of expression is owing to the hollows being in part clogged up, either naturally or
by long continuation under the plough ; and the swells lowered in a corresponding de-
gree by the same process. In this case, the obvious improvement is to remove earth
from the hollows, and place it on the eminences, ever keeping in view the natural ex-
pression, and avoiding to end the improvement, by leaving the hollows gutters, and the
eminences pointed ridges. This sort of improvement is not a very obvious one, though
often attended with surprising effects, for every foot of depth taken from a hollow, and
laid on an adjoining hill, adds two feet to the height of the latter. All these observ-
ations will be understood as referring to grounds near the house.

7202. Distant scenes of a park, as hills, or mountains (fg. 687.), are only to be im-
proved by wood ; and these remarks, in so far as they extend, will suggest not what is
to be removed, but what must be concealed. Many excellent hints on this part of
the subject are to be found in the picturesque tours of Gilpin, referring to ranges of

Book IV.

OPERATING WITH WOOD.

1005

hilly scenery in different parts of the country, of much of which he lias given views. With
respect to ground, as respects garden-scenery, almost the only writer who has treated of
it at length is- Wheatley, whose excellent lK)ok, so frequently refeiTed to by all succeed-
ing writers on gardening, ought to be in the hands of every man of taste. In the
chapter on ground in that work, the author concludes witli a salutary caution, which
ought ever be taken in connection with the wisest rules ; " a caution which has more
than once been alluded to, must always be had in remembrance ; never to suffer general
considerations to interfere in extraordinary great effects, which rise superior to all
regulations, and perhaps owe part of their force to their deviation from them. Singu-
larity causes at least surprise, and surprise is allied to astonishment. These effects are
not, however, attached merely to objects of enormous size ; they frequently are produced
by a greatness of stj'le and character, within such an extent as ordinary labor may
modify', and the compass of a garden include. The caution, therefore, may not be useless
within these narrow bounds ; but nature proceeds still farther, beyond the utmost verge
to which art can follow, and, in scenes licentiously wild, not content with contrast, forces
even contradictions to unite. The grotesque, discordant shapes which are often there
confusedly tumbled together, might sufficiently justify the remark. But the caprice
does not stop here ; to mix with such shapes a form perfectly regular, is still more extra-
vagant ; and yet the effect is sometimes so wonderful, that we cannot wish the exiravar-
gance corrected." (Obs. on Mod. Gard. p. 23.)

Sect. II. Of oj>erati7ig with Wood.

7203. Wood produces almost all the grand effects in both styles of improvement ;
for trees, whether in scattered forests, thickets, or groups, or in compact geome-
tric squares, avenues, or rows, constitute the greatest charm of every country. Trees
improve the most varied outlines of buildings {Jig. 688.), and without them the grounds

of a residence (^. 689.) would often be nothing more than an unmeaning profusion of
winding roads or walks. A tree in itself is, indeed, the noblest object of inani-
mate nature ; combines every species of beauty, from its sublime effect as a whole, to
the individual beauty of its leaves ; exhibits that majestic uniformity and infinite
variety which constitute the essence of relative -beauty ; and the natural expressions
of individual species are as various as are their forms and magnitude, their utility
to man, and the situations, soils, climates, and other general and accidental circum-
stances of which they are indications.

7204. The effect or exjrression of trees, individually and in masses, has been entered on
at length in the preceding book ; we shall here, therefore, confine ourselves to a few
general observations on the effect of planting in the geometric and modern manners.

7205. In planting in the geometric style, the first consideration is the nature of
the whole or general design ; and here, as in the ground, geometric forms will still
prevail, and while the masses reflect forms from the house, or represent squares.

1006

PRACTICE OF GARDENING

Part III.

triangles, or trapeziums, the
more minute parts, charac-
terised by lines rather than
forms, such as avenues, rows,
clumps, and stars, &c. are
contained in parallelograms,
squares, or circles. In regard
to the parts, masses and ave-
nues should extend from the
house in all directions, so
far as to diffuse around the
character of design ; and as
much farther in particular di-
rections as the nature of the
surface admits of, the distant
beauties suggest, and the cha-
racter of the mansion requires.
In disposing these masses,
whether on a flat or irregu-
lar surface, regard will be had
to leave uncovered such a
quantity of lawn or turf as
shall, at all events, admit a
free circulation of air, give
breadth of light, and display
the form of the large masses
of wood. Uniformity and
variety as a whole, and use
as well as beauty in the parts,
must be kept constantly in
view. Avenues, alleys, and
vistas, should serve as much
as possible as roads, walks,
lines of fences, or screens of
shelter or shade ; but where
this is not the case, they should
point to some distant beauties,
or near artificial objects, to be
seen at or beyond their termi-
nation. The outer extremities
of artificial plantations may
either join natural woods,
other artificial scenes, culti-
vated lands, or barren heaths
or commons.

7206. When artificial plant-
ations join natural woods, the
avenues, alleys, and circular
glades of the former may be con-
tinued a certain length in the
latter, so that the point where the natural wood begins, and the artificial plantation ends,
may not be discoverable. In aid of this effect, the sort of tree which prevails in the natural
scenes, should also prevail in the adjoining parts of the artificial wood. When artificial
scenes join other artificial scenes, nothing can be easier than by the reciprocal continuation
of avenues, strips, or masses, so far to unite the two seats, as to conceal the boundaries of
each, while the two mansions will thus each borrow a splendor from the other. There
are still existing proofs of the attention paid to this subject in former times, an instance
of which occurs in the apparent connection by avenues between Blenheim, Ditchley,
and Heythrop, though the last mansion is nearly ten miles distant from the first.

7207. W7ien artificial scenes join cultivated lands, if those lands are enclosed, broad
strips, hedge-rows, square or round clumps in the angles of the fields, with such reci-
procal disposition of lines or forms as the case may suggest, will continue the character
of artificial plantation ; and where roads are necessary, if utility does not forbid, they
should be formed in part as avenues, in continuation of those within the artificial scene.

7208. When artificial plantations are bounded by barren heaths or commons, all that can
be done is to advance beyond the boundary of the place portions of avenues, and rows
of trees of different lengths. Sometimes an inequality, crowned by a clump or thicket.

^

Book IV.

OPERATING WITH WOOD.

1007

may promote the idea. On other occasions,- where the heath or waste may be so bleak
as to convey no agreeable expression, and therefore is, of course, struck out entirely
from the improved scene, a sort of connection may be given, by advancing strips or
rows from the boundary plantation into the heath. Even single or scattered trees, if
they can be protected in that situation, will have a tendency to produce tliat sort of con-
nection required ; and, while it gratifies the proprietor's love of appropriation, will please
the eye of the traveller, who views the country as a whole, and delights to observe the
harmony and beauty of its principal features. Having disposed of the whole, and of
the parts, as far as respects their general effect and connection, what remains to be
considered is, the sort of tree, manner of disposing the plants, fences, and future
management.

7209. JV/ien the object in view is the expression of airt and design, the propriety of employ-
ing species of trees different from those which are natural to, or most abound in the
surrounding country, is obvious. In a country of common pine, the spruce and silver firs
and cedar afford a choice. In a country of oaks or elms, chestnuts, limes, and planes,
form suitable contrasts. Where the plantations are extensive, the value of the timber
must always be a principal object ; and, therefore, the contrasted trees should be chosen
accordingly. Some species, however, are so happily adapted for this style, and as orna-
mental trees in both styles, that they ought seldom to be omitted excepting near the
house : such for example, as the horse-chestnut, lime, Spanish-chestnut, plane, luccombe
oak, cedar, stone pine, &c. As the four last species mentioned are, in exposed situations,
liable to injury from extraordinary severe winters, a few hardier sorts, resembling them
in general appearance, should be intermingled in tlie plantation, to preserve the larger
masses in case of accident, but to conform with the general effect in color and style of
foliage, as well as in form. Different species ought not in general to be mixed together
in the masses ; one, or at most two, conforming varieties are sufficient ; more would de-
stroy the breadth of color of the mass, and the character of its surface. Different
masses, avenues, and more minute parts, may, however, be planted with different spe-
cies of trees ; rare sorts may be also introduced in lines, along the front of many of
the masses, ranged along stars, crosses, &c. The snowdrop-tree, from its beautiful
blossoms, and the birch and hazel, for the display of their catkins during winter, are
well calculated for walks adapted to that season of the year, and should be planted in
front of pines, or other evergreens. Such also is the principal situation for flowering
shrubs, and no plants can be more showy than the horse-chestnut, common lilac, acacia,
guelder-rose, Portugal laurel, holly, bird-cherry, pyrus, mespilus, and laburnum, in similar
situations, and for general purposes. In distributing the species of tree in extensive masses,
the same general principles of composition must be attended to, which we have pointed
out, as far as respects form. The colors and character of the heads of the trees must be
connected, and, at the same time, to a certain degree contrasted, in order to produce an
artificial and yet harmonious eflfect, ggQ

7210. Whether the new va-
rieties of American and other J'
trees, obtained since the intro-
duction of landscape-garden-
ing, are to be admitted under
this style of improvement may
be questioned by some. We
answer, certainly, unless where
the object is the imitation of an
ancient residence {fig' 690.) ;
and there can be no doubt that
where such is the object, exotic
trees will destroy part of the
illusion ; but we do not con-
tend for the revival of the an-
cient style solely as producing
imitations and allusive charac-
ters, or on account of its an-
tiquity, but as a distinct mode '^"* — -^^
of gardening. We would
therefore not copy its faults

or study its defects, but add to its beauties from all the resources furnished by the pre-
sent improved state of the arts of design, as well as by the continued accession to our
stock of trees and shrubs. If however a positive imitation of an ancient residence is
intended, then the species of tree should be limited to those used in ancient times, as well
as the forms and lines of their disposition.

7211 . Tlie manner of disposing tlie plants is influenced by the same principle of avowed

n

1008

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

art ; in rows, equidistant masses, in squares, or in quincunx, and in every case so as
never to be mistaken for trees or shrubs sprung up accidentally.

7212. Fences. Here the ancient style has a grand advantage over the modem, in
which, as far as respects the imitation of nature, all fences are to be considered as tem-
porary, and, therefore, to a certain degree, looked on as nuisances to be afterwards re-
moved. Besides, their irregular and circuitous line is displeasing to many who do not
understand ground-plans, with a view to picturesque beauty, when the trees are grown
up. But in geometric gardening, fences are to be considered in many cases as objects,
and when not regarded in this light, their directions and limits are so minutely pointed
out by the determined outline of the plantations, that the eye acquiesces in their situ-
ation and use. Fences of any common and economical description are employed to
protect the trees of open avenues, open groves, and single open rows. But the more
common kind are walls, which in the prominent parts ought to be well built of shaped
stone, and substantially finished by raised or flat copings, bearing some relation to the
copings of tlie simpler parapets of the house. The gates necessary in these walls, as
well as in some sorts of permanent verdant fences, supply occasion for such architectural
forms and lines, as are advantageous in reflecting those of the mansion, and strengthening
the prevailing idea of dignity, art, and design. Every sort of fence belonging to the
modern style, may be occasionally- employed in the ancient ; and besides walls, half-sunk
walls, and raised mounds with a walk at top, we may enumerate hedges of holly, yew,
laurel, and other shrubs, either simple or chequered, by alternate deciduous or evergreen
species, varied by arcades and standards, shorn into shapes, or in their natural growth.
Hedges of flowering shrubs may also be introduced ; of creepers on open palisades ;
and various others of great beauty may be invented, or are to be found in books on this
style of gardening.

7213. Management. In this respect also, the advantage is greatly in favor of the
ancient style ; for as all operations of pruning and thinning in the other should be done
under the eye of the landscape-gardener, so all these operations here may be performed
by any laborer ; the object being simply to produce a straight, upright, smooth stem, to
a certain height according to circumstances, and allow each particular tree to attain its
full size. Shearing or clipping is always a mere mechanical operation ; plain hedges
and close alleys require only a line for a guide ; and in the case of arcades or verdant
sculpture, there is, or always should be, a frame of trellis-work of correct design to guide
the operator. From the comparative brevity of this view which we have taken of plant-
ing under the ancient style, the reader will perceive, that we are far from supposing it
to take the lead of the natural method to which we now proceed, referring for more
particular information to Le Blond, and other French authors ; and to Switzer's Ichno-
graphia Rustica.

7214. In planting with a view to natural beauty, the effect of the whole is here also
the first and the grand consideration. All planting, as respects the formation of a
country-residence, must necessarily be
materially influenced by the character
and situation of the house, as the capital
feature in the composition. To this
feature, the leading masses of wood and
lawn, answering the end of light and
shade in painting, must invite and
direct the eye in the general view of
the place. (^ Jig. 691.) Each must em-
brace it on one or on more sides, and
diverge from it in masses suitable to
its magnitude and the extent of tlie
grounds, and in forms and characters
of woody surface, suitable to the na-
tural situation and the expression to be
created. If the mansion is on a decli-
vity, the principal light should embrace
the front which looks down, rather
than those which look up, or on either
side. The views from the windows
suggest this arrangement, and will
point out in every other situation, whe-
ther a flat, a hill, or an irregular sur-
face, on which side or sides the leading
masses are to have their origin. To
deteimine their magnitude, forhi, and
number, would be impossible, without

Book IV.

OPERATING WITH WATER.

1009

a particular case to refer to. To point out their style is sufficient, which must always
be irregular like nature ; generally stretch along such rising ground as the situation
affords ; and, like her, always combine a certain degree of uniformity or recognisable
shape, even amidst the greatest seeming deviations from this quality of figures. As the
house indicates the commencement of the masses, the character of country surrounding
the scene of improvement must determine the limits and style of their termination. If
the lands are laid out in regular enclosures, bounded by hedges and hedge-rows, frag-
ments of these {Jig. 692.) must prevail in the margin of the park ; at least in as many-

places, and to such a degree, as will produce connection ; and, if possible, as much
farther as will harmonise the scene within, with the country without. If it is entirely or
in part surrounded by forest scenery, the termination is easily and completely effected,
by attending to the style of wood and species of tree prevailing without, for a moderate
distance witliin the boundary. If bounded by the
sea, or a large lake, an abrupt termination will be as
natural as it would be formal on the margin of a cul-
tivated surface. Abrupt terminations, how^ever, are
often unavoidable, as in examples of villas, where the
owner having no demesne, has no control beyond his
boundary fence. All that can be done, therefore,
in such cases, is, to create as much beauty and in-
terest as possible within the given Kmits. Where one
villa joins another, this sort of isolated abruptness
is avoided or lessened ; and, in the case of suburban
villas {Jig. 693.), it is seldom felt as any deformity,
though, even here, connection and general harmony
with what is exterior, will add beauty to what is
•within.

7215. Tlie details of lylaiUing in this style have
already been given at length in the preceding book.

Sect. III. Of operating with Water.

7216. Water is a material of so captivating and interesting a description in the diffa*-
ent characters in which it occurs in nature, that no view can be reckoned complete in
which it does not compose a feature. It forms a part of every garden in the ancient
style, in tlie various artificial characters which it there assumes of oblong canals, ponds,
basins, cascades, and jeux-d'eau (Jig. 694, ) ; and in modern improvement, such is the

-r'r^of^

3 T

1010

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

value attached to its effect, that no place is deemed perfect without a river or lake ; and
such the indiscriminate desire of obtaining them, that nature has been too frequently dis-
regarded in their form and situation. Of the characters which water assumed under
the geometric style, we can only observe, that their names convey, in a great degree, an
idea of the forms. Their situations were near the mansion ; and their marginal accom-
paniments of masonry, turf walks, and hedges, were determined by the architectural
forms and lines of the capital feature in the scene. The choice, from the most intricate
and curious fountains to the plain oblong canal, depended on the splendor of the general
design ; very little on natural situation. The supply was generally obtained from some
concealed reservoir.

7217. To imitate lakes, rivers, or rills, and their accompaniments, is tlie object of land-
scape-gardening ; and of each of these natural characters we shall remark the leading
circumstances in the originals and the imitations. All water is either running or stag-
nant. Lakes, ponds, and pools, are of the latter class ; rivers, rivulets, and rills, of the
former description. In certain situations, lakes may be created where their supply is
moderate ; rivers and rills only when it is abundant. Both characters, when they exist
in nature, may be improved by studying the natural characteristics of each species.

7218. Situation, relatively to the character of the ground's surface, is the first consider-
ation respecting water, in whatever form it may appear. No situation in which this
material may be supposed to exist and expand itself into a body, can be truly natural, that
is not a vale, plain, or hollow. Mountain streams are out of the question ; and small
lakes or pools, in hollows or elevated grounds, are more to be considered as accidental
than as general nature. Even artificial lakes or rivers on a considerable scale, to be
natural must either be, or seem to be, situated in the lowest part of the landscape then
under the eye. If otherwise, if placed on the side of a declivity over which the eye can
range at the same time, it may be attractive to a stranger at first view ; but the want of
truth or fidelity to the thing to be imitated, will soon bring on an increasing aversion in
the mind of genuine taste.

7219. Ponds in different levels, seen in the same view, are very objectionable on this
principle. The little beauty they display as spots, ill compensates for the want of pro-
priety ; and the leading idea which they suggest, is a question between tlieir present situation
and their non-existence. The choice, therefore, as to the situation of water, must ever
depend more on natural circumstances than proximity to the mansion. Is then all water
to be excluded that is not in the lower grounds ? We have no hesitation in answering
this question in the aflSrmative, so far as respects the principal views, and when a lower
level than that in which the water is proposed to be placed is seen in the same view. But
in respect to recluse scenes, which Addison compares to episodes to the general desio-n,
we would admit, and

even copy the ponds on
the sides or even tops of '
hills, which may be de-
signated accidental beau-
ties of nature. In con-
fined spots they are often
a very great ornament
{fg. 695) ; as a proof of
which, we have only to
observe some of the sub-
urban villas round the
metropolis, where a small ^
piece of water often comes
in between the house and
the public road with the |
happiest effect.

7220. ^beautiful lake,

or part of a circuitous

body of water, considered as a whole, will be found to exhibit a form, characterised by
breadth rather than length ; by that degree of regularity in its outline as a whole, which
confers that, which, m common language, is called shape ; and by that irregularity in
the parts of this outline, which produces variety and intricacy. Supposing the situation
to be fixed on for the imitation of ajake {fg. 696.), the artist is to consider the broadest
and most circuitous hollow as ^^^^^^^^^^^^^gj;==^^^^^^ gog
his principal mass or breadth of ^y^-^^^-^^^^*---^ — -=^^^^^

water, and which he will extend ^^ ^^

or diminish according to the ex- ^^^^p^^
tent of aquatic views the place '^*==^=^^^ -^
may require. From this he

Book IV.

OPERATING WITH WATER.

1011

may continue a chain of connected masses of water, or lakes of different magnitudes and

shapes, in part suggested by the character of the ground, in part by the facilities of

planting near them, and in part by his own views of propriety and beauty. The outUne

of the plan of the lake is to be varied by the contrasted position of bays, inlets, and

smaller indentations, on the same principles which "

we suggested for varying a mass of wood. To

the irregularity of outlines so produced, islands

and aits (Jig. 697. ) may be added on the same

principle, and for the same objects as thickets

and groups. TTiis will complete the character

and beauty of the plan of the water.

7221. But tlie grand effect of water in land-i
scape, depends on wood as its accofnjKiyiiment. The|
variety and intricacy of outline, the reflection of
forms and colors, the shady recesses and flicker-
ing lines of light, all depend on trees. These are not to be sparingly or indiscriminately
scattered around the margin, but liberally in some places, for the sake of a contrasted
mass of grateful color or shade, to relieve the brilliancy of the water ; and with discrimi-
nation everywhere to mark the beauties, and heighten the variety of the outline, without
destroying breadth of effect, or a whole, either as respects the water alone, or the entire
residence.

7222. The marginal banks of water in nature, are tame or bold, gravelly or sedgy,
stony or rocky, according to tlie character of the surrounding ground. Art, therefore,
must imitate each in its proper place, not always by a studious picturesque arrangement
of the marginal accompaniments in each case, but by excavating the ground-work,
planting the trees and shrubs, and leaving the rest to the motion of the waves of the
water. After the effects of one winter, stones or gravel may be deposited in spots suit-
able for stony or gravelly shores. But to enter into this, and many other circumstances
in the imitation of lakes, would exceed the proper limits. We add two cautions : tlie
first is, in all cases of the beautiful picturesque, so to arrange by puddling and under-
draining, that a marshy appearance may not surround the lake ; and that rushes, and such
aquatic plants, may not extend farther than a few feet or yards from the margin of the
water. The other respects islands, which are the greatest ornaments to lakes. But that
island which is placed in the centre, or in any situation where it does not connect with
other islands, or with tlie shore, so as to form part of a prominence or recess, is injurious
to the effect of the whole inversely as its beauty, when properly placed.

7223. Rivers and rills, we have said, are rather to be improved than created ; for we
cannot sympathise witli that taste which directs the mimicry of so noble a character as a
river, or is satisfied with a nearly stagnated rill. We do not consider the river at Blenheim
as an exception, because that piece of water was formed by widening a considerable
brook. We allude to those wavy serpentine canals, which are never mistaken for natural
scenes, and, in almost every case, might be advantageously exchanged for a lake. A
rill, however, may have its course rendered more varied, may be expanded at proper
places into regular shapes, and all the alterations accounted for and harmonised by plant-
i"g- (fS- 698.)

7224. Progress and imiietuosity are the two leading ideas which belong to running
waters. The first expression may be heightened by counteracting any tendency to ex-
pansion ; by removing some of the circuitous and oblong projections of earth or stone in
the banks ; and sometimes by deepening its bed, or by substituting a more direct line for
a circuitous course. The idea of impetuosity is indicated by its effects, in reverberating
against high banks, or common banks, on which trees are situated, and may be increased
by augmenting the cause or the effect, and thus either digging and undermining the trees,
cutting down the high banks on which the water acts, or placing very slight piers as jetties
on the opposite shore. Picturesque additions to the marginal accompaniments both of

3 T 2

1012

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

rivers and rills will readily suggest themselves. Cascades and waterfalls may sometimes
be created ; and the occasional expansion of natural brooks into pools, affords a fine hint
for imitation, when this form of water comes within a scene of improvement. One of the
greatest improvements that can be made in many places laid out in Brown's time, and
subsequently, consists in widening in some places, and varying the margin in others, of
those tame serpentining canals, then so much in fashion. By this means, and by adding
islands and trees, they may often, without deranging the place as to other details, be
rendered highly beautiful at a moderate expense, {fig- 699.)

7225. A waterfall, or cascade, is an obvious improvement where a running stream
passes through a demesne {fig. 700.), and is to be formed by first constructing a bank of
masonry, presenting an inclined ,«^

700

/

an inclined
plane («) to the current, and ren-
dering it impervious to water by
puddiing( 1 720. ) or the use of proper
cements, and next varying the
ridge (b) and under side (c), with
fragments of rock, so chosen and
placed, as not to present a charac-
ter foreign to what nature may
be supposed to have produced there.
The adjoining ground generally requires to be raised at such scenes, but may generally
be harmonised by plantation.

7226. Where running water is conducted informs belonging to the geometric style of gar-
dening, waterfalls and cascades -—
are constructed in the form of
crescents, flights of steps, or
wavy slopes ; all which have ex-
cellent eflPects of their kind when
appropriatcfy introduced, as at
Chatsworth, Hatton, and many
other places.

7227. A natural stream may
sometimes be improved by altering
its direction, and bringing it
through a more interesting part
of the grounds; and we have
known an admirable effect pro-
duced by bringing a distant
river close to the house, even so
much so as to wash the base of its terrace- wall. {fig. 701.)

Book IV.

OPERATING WITH ROCKS.

lOlS

Sect. IV. Rocks.

7228. The imitation of rocks forms no part of the geometric style of gardening, and
are a material of the natural style, equally unsuitable to be created. But though rocks
cannot readily be imitated, their expression may sometimes be heightened when desirable,
and concealed when disagreeable.

7229. The character of rocks may be savage, terrific, sublime, jncturesque, or fantastic.
By attending to the forms of the milder characters, and their connection with ground and
trees, we shall discover whether, and to what extent, they may be improved. Savage
rocks are too inhospitable to be permanently admitted, in any extent, near the eye. All
rocks convey something of this idea that are not accompanied by vegetation ; and, there-
fore, planting among or near them is, in every case, an improvement where trees do
not exist. All rocks are expressive of dignity ; tiiose eminently so, are not greatly varied
by projections from their surface : their beauty is to be augmented, either by increasing
their surface in height or depth, or by connecting it if too scattered. The removal of a
few feet of earth, or part of the bushes or trees from the bottom of a precipice or ridge,
and the emplacement of a line of wood along its summit, will increase its real and appar-
ent height ; a similar process, with respect to the sides, will add to tlie idea of stability
and continuation. If the parts are too much scattered, a few trees placed before, or
bushes or creepers planted in the intervals between the parts, will connect them, and give
the idea of a whole, partly concealed. But in this case, a considerable breadth of surface
is necessar)-, at least in one place, otherwise dignity muSt give way to picturesque beauty.
But the least indications of rocks that are not very fantastic in their form, even including
such whose chief expression is picturesque beauty, are, to a certain degree, expressive of
dignity. The slightest indication of a stratum or ledge appealing above the surface, con-
veys something oi this idea, and ought not to be neglected. When they are discovered by
alterations in the ground with a view to the formation of roads, fences,- and water, or to
the erection of buildings, occasional advantage may be taken of their appearance. A
road across a declivity may be accompanied by a ledge of rocks instead of a bank of earth.
Grounds which are broken and picturesque, will display a more sufficient reason for the
appearance. The walls of a terrace evidently in part founded on a rock, will give an
idea of dryness, dignity, and security to the house ; and the margin of a stream displaying
even large stones, increases the idea of impetuosity ; or, in lakes, of the action of water in
washing away the earth. Among imitations of wild scenery, detached stones heighten
the illusion, and carry back the mind to the aboriginal state of the country. Loose or de-
tached fragments of rocks may often aid the effect of real or supposed masses. The ap-
pearance of a large rude stone near a wooded steep, unless of one evidently rounded by
water or art, always leads the mind to the larger mass up tlie acclivity from which it has
been broken and rolled down ; if partly sunk in the ground, and concealed by vegetation,
the fertility of the imagination considers them as parts of magnitudes which lie buried
under the surface. All this, however, can only be successfully accomplished in a coun-
try which, by the character of its general surface, does not preclude the idea of rocks. On
a flat or a champaign countrj', the want of truth, or seeming truth, would render them
disagreeable ; and, indeed, did rocks exist in such a landscape, they should be hidden
rather than displayed, unless of such extraordinary magnitude and effect, as to form an
exception to general principles.

/^ ii^^— ----—>-- -^—^r

7230. The judicious distribution of stones, in situations where they are not evidently
foreign to the character of soil and surface, may greatly heighten wildness and picturcsq[ue
beauty. ( fig. 702.) Every thing, however, will depend on the manner in which this is
done ; they must not be merely laid down at random on' ^,. ^q^
the surface (a), or formally joined together (6), or merely
connected, which, however, is better {c) ; but grouped with
taste {d), and partially concealed by vegetation and sunk in
the soil. (/, g). . J ■

7231. Fantastic stones {Jig. 703. a) should l>e avoided in
all cases, unless in some peculiar scene ; and where there
are already indications of stratified or regular masses of]
rock (b , it can never appear natural to place near them
round, water-worn stones (c). Where angular and laminated stones are near ; or where

3T 3

1014

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III-

such as can be quar-
ried in forms suitable
for building may be
procured, grand ef-
fects may be pro-
duced ; either by
using them in form-
ing imitations of na-
ture, or by combin-
ing them in a mixed
style of artificial form_
and natural conglo-
meration. {Jig. 104.)

Sect. V.

Buildings.

7232. Buildings, as materials of scenery, are entirely under the power of man ; and,
from that circumstance, were carried to an unwarrantable excess in the decline of the
ancient, and the infancy of the modern style. Improvements on ground are forgotten
by their effect ; that of planting may be accounted too distant or too slow by ordinary
minds ; but a building is complete the moment it is finished. It affords immediate
satisfaction to the owner ; and being known as a costly object, full credit is given to him
for the expense incurred. Thus wealth, confiding in its powers, multiplied garden-
buildings to an excess, which ended in creating a disgust, still existing, in some degree,
at their appearance in improved scenery. Before proceeding further, it may be proper
to offer some remarks on the style or architecture of buildings.

7233. It is a common error to consider nothing as architecture hut what is Grecian ; to
fancy that all architectvire must have what are called orders ; and to consider tlie Gothic,
Chinese, or Hindoo modes of building, as mere barbarous compositions. But nothing
can be more unphilosophical than this mode of viewing the subject ; and it may just as
well be said that there is no true language in the world but the Greek ; that every lan-
guage ought to correspond with it in the tenses and moods of the verbs ; and tliat every
other mode of speech is mere jargon. A style of building, and mode of oral communi-
cation, must have a sufficient claim to be considered as complete, when they answer the
purposes for which they are intended ; and, applying this principle to the architecture
and language of different countries, we shall find that each is complete relatively to
those countries. That any style of building, or any language can be universally suitable,
is to suppose that the same climate and the same degree of civilisation prevails over the
whole globe. Thus, as there are different languages, and different manners and customs,
so there are different styles of architecture ; and though we may prefer the Grecian, as
having been used by the most refined nations of antiquity, let us not hastily reject every
other style as devoid of congruity, or unsuitable for being applied to constructions of use
or beauty.

7234. Tlie origin of the different styles of architecture are usually traced to imitations of,
temporary structures formed of timber or of rough trees ; and thus the Grecian column,
with its capital ornamented with foliage, has been called an imitation of the trunk of a
palm, with the petioles of its recently dropped leaves still adhering ; the Gothic arches
and tracery have been likened to wicker-work, or the intersecting branches of an avenue ;
and the Chinese style to the imitation of a tent supported by bamboo. But the imitation
of nature is the last thing that occurs in the progress of improvement ; and though the
above opinions may not be without their use as a sort of hypothesis for composition ; yet
it appears much more probable

that styles of building have taken ««Ri 705

their origin, jointly from the ma-
terials the country afforded, and
the wants of the people. Ac-
cording to this hypothesiii}, the
Grecian may be considered as
founded on the use of planks of
stone, in the same way as beams of timber {Jig. 705. a) ; the Gothic, by the use of small
stones, held together by their position (b) ; and the Hindoo, by the use of small stones,
held together by superincumbent weight (c). The Doric temple {Jig. 706.) is easily
traced in this way to its prototype of wood ; but though the idea be supported by the
authority of Vitruvius, it should never be considered as any thing more than mere
conjecture.

7235. The progress which architecture has made in Britain, in modern times, is matter
of greater certainty ; and Repton, with his usual taste, has furnished an ingenious

Book IV.

OPERATING WITH BUILDINGS.

1015

706

vignette (Jig. 707.}, which indicates that the
most remote style of domestic architecture,
was that of the castellated Gothic ; to which
succeeded the ecclesiastic Gothic ; next the
style prevalent in the seventeenth century,
being a mixture of Gothic and Grecian, com-
monly called the Elizabethean style; after
that the Grecian ; and last of all, the Hindoo,
just coming into notice, and which he con-
siders (Designs for the Pavilion at Brighton^
&c. 1810) as likely to become fashionable.
The most suitable style for domestic purposes in Britain, he considers to be the
Gothic, as admitting every description of interior form and arrangement, an un-
bounded variety in the external forms and lines, and as being favorable to future additions,
without deranging the effect or ordonnance of the original composition.

707

7236. With respect to the effects of buildings, as component parts of verdant scenery ,
Shenstone observes, that a landscapej to him, is never complete without a building or
rocks ; and certainly, considering it merely in the light of a picturesque view, a building,
in addition to merely verdant scenery, forms a better picture, by giving a desirable feature
or resting-place for the eye. Considered, however, in the light of natural expression,
the meanness of root-houses and grottos, the absurdity of hermits' cells, heathen temples,
triumphal arches, mock chapels, &c. ; and the inutility of all of them, render them positive
deformities in scenes of natural or picturesque beauty. They break in upon repose,
simplicity, and all allusion to natural ^_— r,.-

scenerj' by their frequency, and suggest c~^^^^^ '*^^

ideas of ostentatious vanity in the :^^^SC^^ 708
owner, rather than of propriety and
elegance of taste. But though their
excess is so general and so obnoxious,
the occasional introduction of some
sorts may be made with propriety.
Garden- seats are necessary for shade or
shelter ; bridges, for communication
between the banks of rivers or rills ;
cottages, gate or entrance lodges (fg.
708-.), as abodes for laborers ; and
open sheds as places of resort for cattle.
Even a prospect-tower is a desirable
object in a flat country, affording no
other means of obtaining a bird's-eye view. A temple, after all, is in many cases but a
garden-seat ; and if beautiful in itself, and judiciously placed, we can see no objection
to its introduction in the garden-scene of a princely mansion ; certainly none to more
than one of them, under the geometric style of planting. To raise a monument in
memory of a great public character, or consecrate an urn to private friendship, or paren-
tal memory, can hardly be offensive to any mind. A sundial is both a useful and an
agreeable object ; and statues and busts, in highly polished scenerj', by the contrast in
the kind of beauty displayed, recall the mind for a moment, from contemplating the wide
range of nature, to admire the hand of art concentrated in a single point. In this view
there are various objects of this description admissible in the more polished scenes of
gardens, &c., as marble fountains, fragments of antiquity, &c. But when simplicity
and natural-like beauty are the prevailing idea, all works of art must interfere more or
less with tlie idea ; and unless they can raise up and maintain a more interesting ex-
pression, they must be regarded as injurious rather than beautiful.

7237. But simplicity and nature, continually repeated, become tiresome in their turn,
and man is then pleased to recognise the hand of art, if judiciously exercised, even

3 T 4

. 1016

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

on an artificial ruin (Rg. 709.); but then the execution must be such as to silence
every idea as to its history ; it must be so like truth as to mterest by the likeness,
not by deception, which is disgusting. Artificial ruins, however, need seldom be
resorted to while there are so many other architectural and sculptural decorations to
which we can have recourse. Nothing gives more general satisfaction than a neat and
comfortable picturesque cottage [Jig. 710.), with a good garden in neat order and cul-
tivation : and such buildings may always be appUed to some useful purpose, evenin
the grounds of small villas orfernies omdes. In more extensive scenes, cottages of

diflferent styles may be introduced from that of the Greenlander or Norwegian to the
Hindoo; and there can be no reason why a proprietor, if he chooses to go to the
expense, should not ornament the dwelling of an upper servant in any style he pleases,
even that of a Chinese mandarin, {jig. 711.)

ii^Sttiy

Sect. VI. Of the jiccidentat Accompaniments to the Materials of Landscape.

7238. Of accidental accompaniments the first are roads : and of roads, the principal is
the ajijrroach. The approach, or road to the house, ought to display to advantage tlie
beauties of that part of the place it passes tlirough, and as many other beauties as may
be displayed without showing the principal, which are generally those of the garden-
front. In both styles, it ought to ascend to the house rather than descend, and pass
along a flat or hollow rather than over inequalities of surface.

7239. The apjrroach in the geometric style was generally a wooded avenue, in one or in
several lines. In the modem, it is generally a bold, free, gently waving line ; every turn of
which is, or seems to be, produced either by some gentle variation in the surface, or by the
position of a group of trees. It may pass through wood only, or through forest-like
scenery. The first view obtained of the house ought to be as favorable as possible, and not
of any particular front, but rather an angular view, bosomed in trees. The second, or if there
are two or more, the last view, on a nearer approach, should be distinct, and show the en-
trance-front, and porch, or portico ; the road approaching it at such a distance, obliquely,
as that the eye may now readily comprehend the whole, and to the greatest advantage.

7240. In conducting the spectator to view objects, whether by approaches, roads, or walks,
it is a matter of some nicety to determine a jrriori, the exact distance at wliich he should
be permitted to obtain a full view. There is a certain point of distance from whence
£yery object appears at its greatest magnitude. The apparent height of any object will

Book IV.

ACCIDENTAL ACCOMPANIMENTS.

1017

vary according to its distance, the inclination it makes with the horizon, and our rela-
tive elevation or depression. A correspondent of Repton states, that " any two of the
above three things continuing the same, the apparent magnitude will decrease with the
third, though not in exact proportion to it. Thus, the object being perpendicular to the
horizon, and our elevation remaining the same, its apparent height will decrease with the
distance. Our elevation and the distance remaining the same, the apparent height of the
object will decrease with its inclination to the horizon. The inclination and distance
being tlie same, the angle, or apparent height, will decrease with our elevation or de-
pression, supposing our height was at first the middle point of the object. This last
being liable to some exceptions, the general rule is, that the distance from the object,
measured by a perpendicular to it, the point at which its apparent height will be
greatest is, where tJie perpendicular from the eye falls upon the centre."

7241. JTie difficulty in this subject is to know what the conception is that vie shall form of the height and
magnitude of an object according to different circumstances ; its apparent height, as well as its real height,
remaining the same. This cannot be reduced to rules, but depends
chiefly on a careful comparison of particular instances. One cause,
Repton considers, may proceed from the position of the eye itself,
which is so placed in most foreheads as to view a certain portion of
the hemisphere without any motion of the head. This portion
has been variously stated at from sixty to ninety degrees. The eye
surveys more in breadth than in height, and more below the axis
of vision {Jig. 712. a) than above it Much depends on the pro-

jection of the forehead and eyebrows, prominency of the eye, &c.

i; yet the upper angle (« &) will seldom be

greater than one half of the lower angle {a c) ; and Repton ascer

in different individuals ; yet the upper

712

be-

tained that he could not distinguish objects more than twenty
eight degrees above his axis of vision, though he could distinctly
see them fifty-one degrees below it. From hence, he concludes,
" that the distance at which an object appears at its greatest

height is, when the axis of vision, and the summit of the object, form an angle of about thirty degrees j
cause, under this angle, the eye perceives its full
extent without moving the head." Thus, supposing
the eye {Jig. 713. a) to be five feet six inches from
theground, a tall object [b], at thirty feet distance,
will be seen to the height of twenty feet ; at fifty
feet distance (c), to the height of thirty feet; at
seventy feet distance (d), to the height of forty
feet ; at eighty-seven feet distance {e), to the height
of fifty feet ; "and at a hundred and five feet dis-
tance (/}, to the height of sixty feet. {Observ-
ations on Landscape Gardening, p. 21.) / g ^ C ^

7242. The apjrroach in tlie modern style was well understood by Repton, and the fol-
lowing excellent observations by this artist seem to sum up every thing that can be said
on the subject : — The road by which a stranger is supposed to pass through the park or
lawn to the house is called an approach ; and there seems the same relation betwixt the
approach and the house externally hat there is internally betwixt the hall or entrance
and the several apartments to which it leaas. If the hall be too large or too small, too
mean or too much ornamented for the style of the house, there is a manifest incongruity
in the architecture, by which good taste will be offended ; but if the hall be so situated
as not to connect well with the several apartments to which it ought to lead, it will then
be defective in point of convenience : so it is with respect to an approach ; it ought to be
convenient, interesting, and in strict harmony with the character and situation of the man-
sioa to which it belongs.

First. It ought to be a road to the house, and to that principally.

Secondly. If it is not naturally the nearest road possible, it ought artificially to be made impossible to go
a nearer.

Thirdly. The artificial obstacles which make this ro.id the nearest ought to appear naturaL

Fourthly. Where an approach quits the high road, it ought not to break from it at right angles, or in
such a manner as robs the entrance of imix)rtance, but rather at some bend of the public road, from
whence a lodge or gate may be more con.«picuous ; and where the high road may appear to branch from
the approach rather than the approach from the high road.

Fifthly. After the approach enters the park, it should avoid skirting along its bouudarj', which betrays
the want of extent or unity of property.

Sixthly. The house, unless very large and magnificent, should not be seen at so great a distance as to
make it appear much less than it really is.

Seventhly. The first view of the house should be from the most pleasing point of sight.

Eighthly. As soon as the house is visible from the approach, there should be no temptation to quit
it (which will ever be the case if the road be at all circuitous), unless sufficient obstacles, such as
water or inaccessible ground, appear to justify its course. {Enquiry into the Changes of Taste in Lands.
Card, p. 109.)

724S. Walks are the next accompaniment to home scenes, without which they cannot
be viewed but in particular states of the weather and the surface. They were straight,
angular, or in regular curves, in the geometric style, and are in easy natural-like lines
in the modern manner. Tliough avowed objects of art, they ought always to bear a cer-
tain analogy to the scenes they pass through ; with formal-kept hedges in highly finished
scenery, and edges blending with the gravel in the picturesque manner, recommended by
Price in more wild scenes. Taste must determine their general course, from tlie
range of beauties to be displayed ; and their particular turns, from local beauties and ac-

1018 PRACTICE OF GARDENING Paht III.

cidental circumstances. The principle of a sufficient reason ought never to be lost sight
of in laying out walks and roads ; that is, no deviation! from a straight line should ever
appear, for which a reason is not given in the position of the ground, trees, or other ac-
companying objects.

7244. The finest description of kilt or mountain walk is where the path is carried along the declivity on
a perfect level, or where it winds round the hill by a gradual and regular ascent, here crossing a smooth
slope and there forcing its way through rugged rocks, always preserving the same easy ascent or descent.
When the views from such walks are grand and extensive, and especially if they mclude part of a river,
a lake, or the sea seen through a proper foreground of trees, nothing of the kind can be more noble.

7245 Of vallei/ walks, one on the wooded banks of a winding river, with cascades, or running over a
rocky bed, the path sometimes accompanying the stream, at other times both retiring or separating from
each other, till the sound of the water is scarcely heard through the wood, and then meeting again,
accompanied by open glade or meadow, with the other variations of which such scenery is susceptible,
may be reckoned among the finest of the kind.

7246. Fences are accompaniments common to both styles of landscape ; they are
either permanent or temporary, and, in both cases, have been treated of in considering the
subject of planting (6820.) and wood. (7203.)

7247. Animated nature. Deer, wild and tame hares, cattle, sheep, game, singing
birds, all belong to a residence, and are necessary to complete its beauty. Pheasants
and other game, ranging un- ^^. a ^«Ht. ;^>,-,
dismayed by man, in garden- ^^^-r;^ 2^ -^ '^^^'^i^^^

scenes, give a high idea of se- ^ ~ "' ' ""*^

elusion and removal from com-
mon nature ; the finer sorts
may be retained in appropriate
structures {fig. 714.), and the
common left to themselves, but
liberally supplied with food.
Tlie cawing of rooks,the shriek-
ing of the owl, the screams of
peacocks, the notes of birds,
are all desirable circumstances
in certain situations, and ought
to be attended to, by intro-
ducing such trees or plants as
are favorable to their increase.
The smoke of a cottage or a
farm-house, the view of a distant village, the spire of a church, a water-mill, or a ruin,
all become interesting in certain cases ; and with a thousand other irrstanres of natural
expression, in a great measure beyond the reach of art, will be sought for, and turned to
account by the judicious artist.

Chap. III.

Of the Union of the Mate-rials of Landscape- Gardening, in forming the constituent Parts
of a Couiitry- Residence.

7248. Having applied the principles of natural and relative beauty to the materials of
gardening separately, we shall next apply the same principles to the formation of those scenes
of use, convenience, or elegance, which form the constituent parts of a countrij-residence.

7249. The mansion and offices first demand attention, as the central feature of art and
refinement. What relates to the design of these groups of buildings belongs to archi-
tecture ; but the situation, aspect, style, and accompaniments are within our province.
In determining the situation, a great variety of circumstances, soiue of a general, and
others of a local or peculiar nature, require to be taken into consideration. Natural
shelter, dry sub-soil, the view of the house from a distance, and the distant prospect seen
from' the house, belong to the former ; and removal from the boundary of a public road,
suitableness of the adjoining grounds for the garden-scenes which accompany mansions,
trees already there, or so situated as to aid the effect, &c. belong to the latter. Accord-
ing to Repton, the choice of a situation ought to be founded on, " First, The natural
character of the surrounding country : Secondly, llie style, character, and size of the
house : Thirdly, The aspects or exposure, both with regard to the sun and the prevalent
winds of the country : Fourthly, The shape of the ground near the house : Fifthly,
The views from the several apartments : and. Sixthly, the numerous objects of comfort ;
such as a dry soil, a supply of good water, proper space for oflSces, with various other
conveniences essential to a mansion in the country ; and which in a town may sometimes
be dispensed with, or at least very differently disposed."

T^"^' '^" arrange these considerations according to their respective weight or influence is hardly possible ;
this must depend on a comparison of one witli the other, under a variety of circumstances ; and even ov

Book IV.

FORMING THE SCENERY OF RESIDENCES.

1019

tjie partiality of individuals, in affixing different degrees of importance to each consideration. Hence it is
obvious, that there can be no danger of sameness in any two designs conducted on principles thus estab-
lished ; since in every different situation some one or more of these considerations must preponderate ;
and the most rational decision will result from a combined view of all the separate advantages or disad-
vantages to be foreseen from each. It was the custom of former times, in the choice of domestic situa-
tions, to let comfort and convenience prevail over every other consideration. Thus the ancient baronial
castles were built on the summits of hills, in times when defence and security suggested the necessity of
placing them there ; and difficulty of access was a recommendation : but when this necessity no longer
existed, (as mankind are always apt to fly from one extreme to the other,) houses were universally
erected in the lowest situations, with a probable design to avoid those inconveniences to which lofty posi-
tions had been subject ; hence the frequent sites of many large mansions, an J particularly abbeys and mo-
nasteries, the residence of persons who were willing to sacrifice the beauty of prospect for the more solid
and permanent advantages of habitable convenience ; amongst which, shelter from wmd, and a supply of
water for store fishponds, were predominant considerations." {Enquiry, &c. p. 83.)

7251. In hilly countries, or in any country where the surface is varied, the choice is
neither made in the bottoms {Jig' 715. a), nor on the summits of the eminences (c), but

7:(ril

generally on the south-east side of the latter (b), on a raised platform, the rising grounds
behind being planted both for effect and shelter.

I 7252. The Jield of vision, or portion of landscape which the eye will comjrrehend, is a
circumstance frequently mistaken in fixing a situation for a house ; since a view seen
from the windows of an apartment will materially differ from the same view seen in
the open air. Much evidently depends on the thickness of the walls {fig. 716.), the
width of the windows (a), and the distance of the spectator \ j y

from the aperture. Near the centre of the room (^<), the \ \ / y^^

spectator will not enjoy above 20 or 30 degrees of vision; \ '^^ n\ jy^
but close to the window (c) his eye will take in from 70 to \ t.^xxxv,-w^ ° -^i^s^ssgg
100 degrees. Hence, to obtain as much of the view from a^ \ ^ \c/ |

room as possible, there should not only be windows on two ~~~^~~^- *'

sides of a room, but one in the angle, or an oblique or bow- ^ "

window on each side, instead of the common form. {Obs. /
on Landscape Gardening, p. 24.).

7253. Tlie aspect of the principal rooms deserves particular attention in every case, and
most so in bleak or exposed situations. The south-east is most commonly the best for
Britain {fig. 717.); and the south, and due
east, the next best. The south-west. Rep-
ton considers the worst, because from that
quarter it rains oftener than from any other ;
and the windows are dimmed, and the views
obstructed, by the slightest shower, which will
not be perceptible in the windows facing the
south or east. A north aspect is gloomy, be- ^^ ^
cause deprived of sunshine ; but it deserves to
be remarked, -tliat woods and other verdant
objects look best when viewed from rooms so
placed, because all plants are most luxuriant
on the side next the sun. " The aspect due
east," he considers, " nearly as bad as the ^N. S

nordi, because there the sun only shines while j/a^d

we are in bed ; and the aspect due west is in-
tolerable, from the excess of sun dazzling the eye through the greatest part of tlie day.
From hence we may conclu*, that a square house, placed with its fronts duly opposite
to the cardinal points, will have one good and three bad aspects." {Fragments on Land-
scape Gardening, &c. p. 108.) _ j n ■ ■

7254. A mansion for the country, if a mere square or oblong, will thus be deficient m
point of aspect, and certainly in picturesque beauty, or variety of external forms, lights,
and shades. An irregular plan, composed with a combined view to the situation, dis-
tant views, best aspects to the principal rooms, effect from different distant points, and as
forming a whole with the groups of domestic offices and other architectural appendages or
erections, will therefore be the best ; and as tlie genius of the Gothic style of architec-
ture is better adapted for this irregularity than the simplicity of the Grecian, or the
regularity of the Roman styles, it has been justly considered the best for country-resi-
dences. Another advantage of an irregular style is, that it readily admits of additions
in almost any direction.

>

ffojd

X020

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III,

7^55. Convenience, as well as effect, require that every house ought to have an entrance-
front, and a garden-front ; and, in general cases, neither the latter, nor the views from
the principal rooms, should be seen fully and completely, but from the windows and
garden-scenery. Not to attend to this, is to destroy their contrasted effect, and cloy the
appetite by disclosing all, or the greatest part of the beauties at once. The landscape
which forms the back ground to a mansion, the trees which group with it, and the archi-
tectural terrace which forms its base, are to be considered as its accompaniments, and in-
fluenced more or less by its style. The classic pine and cedar should accompany the Greek
and Roman architecture ; and the hardy fir, the oak, or the lofty ash, the baronial castle.

7256. Terrace and conservatory. We observed, when treating of ground, and under
the ancient style, that the design of the terrace must be jointly influenced by the mag-
nitude and style of the house, the views from its windows, (that is, from the eye of a
person seated in the middle of the principal rooms,) and the views of the house from a
distance. In almost every case, more or less of architectural form will enter into these
compositions. The level or levels will be supported partly by grassy slopes, but chiefly
by stone walls, harmonising with the lines and forms of the house. These, in the
Gothic style, may be furnished by battlements, gateways, oriels, pinnacles, &c. ; or, on
a very great scale, watch-towers may form very picturesque, characteristic, and useful
additions. • The Grecian style may, in like manner, be finished by parapets, balustrades,
and other Roman appendages.

7257. The breadth of terraces, and their
height relatively to the level of the floor of the
living-rooms, must depend jointly on the height
of the floor of the living-rooms and the sur-
face of the grounds or country to be seen over
them. Too broad or too high a terrace will
both have the effect of foreshortening a lawn
with a declining surface, or concealing a near
valley. The safest mode in doubtful cases is,
not to form this appendage till after the prin-
cipal floor is laid, and then to determine the
details of the terrace by trial and correction.

7258. Narrow terraces are entirely occupied
as promenades, and may be either gravelled
or paved : and different levels, when they ex-
ist, connected by inclined planes or flights of
steps. Where the breadth is more than is
requisite for walks, the borders may be kept
in turf with groups or marginal strips of flow-
ers and low shrubs. In some cases, the ter-
race-walls may be so extended as to enclose
ground sufficient for a level plot to be used as

a bowling-green or a flower-garden. These

are generally connected with one of the living-rooms or the conservatory, and to the latter is frequently
joined an aviary and the entire range of botanic stoves. Or, the aviary may be made an elegant de-
tached building, so placed as to group with the house and other surrounding objects. An elegant struc-
ture of this sort (Jig.718.) was designed by Repton for the grounds of the Pavilion at Brighton.

7259. The Jlower-garden should join both the conservatory and terrace ; and, where
the botanic stoves do not join the conservatory and the house, they, and also the aviary and
other appropriate buildings and decorations, should be placed here. (See 6076. and 6161.)

7260. The kitchen-garden should be placed near to, and connected with the flower-
garden, with concealed entrances and roads leading to the domestic ofl^ces for culinary
purposes, and to the stables xmd farm-buildings for manure. (See 2382. )

7261. The situation of the orchard should, all other circumstances being suitable, be
near to the kitchen-garden ; and between them may be very properly placed the garden-
er's house, connected with the furnace, sheds, fruit-rooms, &c. (See 2527.)

7262. Thelaivn, or that breadth of mown turf formed in front of, or extending m dif-
ferent directions from, the garden-front of the house, is, in the geometric style, varied
by architectural forms, levels, and slopes; and in the modern by a picturesque or
painter-like disposition of groups, placed so as to connect with the leading masses, and
throw the lawn into an agreeable shape or shapes. In very small villas the lawn may
embrace the garden or principal front of the house, without the intervention of terrace-
scenery, and may be separated from the park, or park-like field, by a light wire fence ;
but in more extensive scenes it should embrace a terrace, or some avowedly artificial
architectural basis to the mansion, and a sunk wall, as a distant separation, will be
more dignified and permanent than any iron fence. The park may come close up to
the terrace-garden, especially in a flat situation, or where the breadth of the terrace is
considerable.

' 7263. The shrubbery generally connects the house and flower-gardens, and forms,
strictly speaking, a part of the pleasure-ground scenery. It is a scene in which the ob-
ject IS to arrange a collection of foreign trees and shrubs in a dry border, generally on
the north side of a walk, or in dug groups and patches. One very principal consider-
ation IS, to connect, partly in appearance only, the dug patches. The distinct uncon-
nected obtrusion of such scenes is justly reprobated by Price, who gives excellent in-

Book IV.

UNION OF CONSTITUENT SCENES.

1021

strucdons for creating the beautiful picturesque among dug groups, and preserving all
the polish and appearance of high keeping with the most delicate culture of the plants.
(See 6187.)

7264. The pleasure-ground is a term applied generally to the kept ground and walks
of a residence. Sometimes the walk merely passes, in a winding direction, through
glades and groups of common scenery, kept polished by the scythe, and from whence
cattle, &c. are excluded. At other times it includes a part of, or all the scenes above
mentioned ; and may include several others, as verdant amphitheatres, labyrinths,
(Jig. 719.) a Linnaean,Jussieuean, American, French, 719

or Dutch flower-garden, a garden of native, rock,
mountain, or aquatic plants, picturesque flower-gar-
den, or a Chinese garden, exhibiting only plants in
flower, inserted in the ground, and removed to make
room for others when the blossom begins to fade, &c.

7265. The jmrk is a space devoted to the growth
of timber, pasturage for deer, cattle, and sheep, and
for adding grandeur and dignity to the mansion. On
its extent and beauty, and on the magnitude and
architectural design of the house, chiefly depend the
reputation and character of the residence. In the
geometric style, the more distant or concealed parts
were subdivided into fields, surrounded by broad
stripes or double rows, enclosed in walls or hedges,
and the nearer parts were chiefly covered with wood,
enclosing regular surfaces of pasturage. In the mo-
dem style, the scenery of a park is intended to resem-
ble that of a scattered forest, the more polished glades
and regular shapes of lawn being near the house,
and the rougher parts towards the extremities. The
paddocks or small enclosures are generally placed
between the family stables and the farm, and form a
sort of intermediate character.

7266. The farm, or that portion of agricultural surface, retained in the hands of the
owner for private cultivation, was, in both styles, placed without, but adjoining the park ;
and when circumstances admitted, near to the paddocks. In some cases, on a moderate
scale, part of the park constitutes the whole, or a part of the farm, and is kept in aration.
The trees in this cultivated space are arranged in natural-like masses, so as to give the
idea of part of a forest-scene subjected to the plough. "\Mien the park is extensive and
truly forest-like, the effect of the whole is much improved by the contrast, and recalls to
mind those charming scenes in the woody districts of Germany, where cultivation smiles
in the glades and recesses of eternal forests.

7267. The riding, or drive, is a road indicated rather than formed, which passes through
the most interesting and distant parts of a residence not seen in detail from the walks,
and as far into the adjoining lands of wildness or cultivation, as the property of the
owner extends. It is also frequently conducted as much farther as the disposition of
adjoining iwoprietors permits, or the general face of the country renders desirable.

7268. Original arrangement. Though the above arrangement of the component parts
of a residence will be found, in general, tiie most convenient on a flat surface, or one
gently varied, we are far from recommending its universal adoption. Situations are
always fertile in suggesting new ideas, which

" Start even from difficulties, strike from chance ;"

and a mind already stored ^vith a knowledge of every part of the subject, works from
principles, and fortuitous suggestions, rather than models. "VVe would rather see an
original idea attempted than the most beautiful arrangement imitated.

Chap. IV.

Of the Union of the conslittient Scenes in forming Gardens or Residences of ixirticular
Characters; and of laying out Public Gardens,

7269. To complete a country-residence is the end of all landscape-gardening, whether
imitative or geometric. In the preceding chapter we have given a general idea of the
parts or scenes, and their connection, which enter into a complete residence of the first
order. We have now to notice their arrangements in diflTerent gradations of residences

i022

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part IIL

and these, we must previously acknowledge, are so intimately blended, that we hardly
know how to separate them, and give a distinctive character to each ; every country-
gentleman, from the occupier of the palace to the cottage, adopting such luxuriant scenes
as suit his particular taste, without reference to any thing but his own desires ; and this
happy circumstance contributes, perhaps, as much as the difference of situations, to the
variety in the beauty and style of British country-residences. Mansions, villas, tempo-
rary residences, cottages, and public gardens, may be said to include the leading dis-
tinctions. Public gardens are much less various than private ones, because there are
fewer publics than individuals.

Sect. I. On laying out Private Gardens, or Residences.

7270. The specific distinctions of private residences may be considered as the mansion
and demesne, the villa, the farm, the temporary residence, and the cottage ; but each of
these branches out into a number of subspecies and varieties.

7271. The mansion and demesne. The characteristic of the mansion and demesne, is the demesne or
surrounding lands in tenancy. Any residence of which the dwelling-house is of a higher character than
that of the mansion and demesne, as the castle, abbey, and palace, has the same general arrangement in
the grounds, and differs chiefly in extent, and in the arrangements of the courts and other exterior ap-
pendages of the house.

7272. As a specimen of this style, we shall give the arrangement at Michel Grove in Sussex, the residence
of R. Walker, Esq. from the works of Repton : —

7273. In determining the situation for a large house in the country, there are other circumstances to
be considered besides the fences and appendages immediately contiguous. These have so often occurred,
that I have established in imagination certain positions for each, which I have never found so capable of
being realised as at Michel Grove.

7274. I would place the house, with the principal front, towards the south-east.

7275. I would place the offices behind the house ; but as they occupy much more space, they will of
course spread wider than the front. I would place the stables near the offices. I would place the kitchen-
garden near the stables. I would put the home-farm buildings at rather a greater distance from the
house ; but these several objects should be so connected by back roads as to be easily accessible.

7276. I would bring the park to the very front of the house.

7277. I would keep the farm or land in tillage, whether for use or for experiment, behind the house ;
I would make the dressed pleasure-grounds to the right and left of the house, in places which would
screen the unsightly appendages, and form a natural division between the park and the farm, with walka
communicating to the garden and the farm.

7278. The villa may be nothing more than a park with a house of smaller size
than that of the mansion and demesne^ surrounded by a pleasure-ground, and with
the usual gardens. Moderate extent and proximity to other villas, constitute the cha-
racteristic of this class of residences; but though adjoining lands are not necessary
to the character, they do not, where they exist, change it, unless their extent be con-
siderable. Two villas joined together often mutually aid each other in effect, especially
as to water and trees. {Jig. 720.)

7279. The villa farm. A villa being originally a farm-house, we tliink that the
Roman arrangement, in which the farm-offices were joined to, or at least so near, as to
form with it and the domestic offices one group of buildings, might be adopted as the
characteristic distinction of this class of residences. The farm-buildings should, in that
case, be dignified with more architectural design than when placed at a distance j but

Book IV.

PRIVATE GARDENS, OR RESIDENCES.

1023

still in due subordination to the man-
sion. Instead of deer, sheep may
graze the park on the garden -front,
separated from the house by an archi-
tectural barrier, or in some situations,
with a platform of gravel, and walks
and knots of flowers. A glacis of
turf, with a light fence below the
slope, will be sufficient protection
from sheep or cattle, and not impede
tlie view of the lawn from the win-
dows. The entrance-front may be
approached through grass fields, not
separated with common hedges, but
with picturesque fences {Jig. 721.)
in the modem, and double hedges
and slips of planting in the geometric
style. All or any part of the other
constituent parts of a mansion and
demesne residence, such as hot-houses,
gardens, orchards, pleasure-grounds,
&c. may or may not be added, ac-
cording to its extent, and the parti-
cular taste of the proprietor.

7280. Theferme omee difiers from a conamon farm in having a better dwelling-house,
neater approach, and one partly or entirely distinct from that which leads to the oflBces.
It also differs as to the hedges, which are allowed to grow wild and irregular {Jig. 722. ),
and are bordered on each side by a broad green drive, and sometimes by a gravel-walk
and shrubs. It differs from a villa farm in having no park. A dry hilly soil is best

suited for this description of residence, of which there are some fine examples in Surrey,
Kent, and the Isle of Wight.

7281. Temporary residences, as marine villas, sporting orshooting boxes, seldom con

1024

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

tain much land attached. No hot-houses, and but little pleasure-ground is here re-
quired. What land there may be, should be applied to use ratlier than to beauty.
Speaking of hunting-boxes, Marshall observes " a suit of paddocks should be seen from
the house ; and if a view of distant covers can be caught, the back ground w^ill be com-
plete. The stable, the kennel, the leaping-bar, are the apppendages, in the construc-
tion of which simplicity, substantial ness, and conveniency should prevail."

7282. A cottage omee, we think, might be
characterised by the garden-front opening into a
picturesque orchard ; or a lawn, varied by groups
of fruit-trees, instead of a lawn or park planted
with forest trees. It may contain any part of the
scenes of the villa, at the will of the owner. If
the situation of the house is elevated, so as to
give a view from the principal rooms of a great
part of the farm, it will be the more desirable. A
desirable foundation for this improvement is an
old English farmhouse ; by adding to which one
or two principal rooms, a very interesting group
may be formed at little expense.

7283. Cottage en verger. An agreeable va-
riety of this species sometimes adopted in France,
consists in surrounding an enclosed space of one
or two acres, with an irregular strip of walnut,
cherry, chestnut, and other tall-growing trees
{Jig. 722. a) which produce both fruit and
timber ; and then planting the interior space (b)
with the finer sorts of fruit-trees, especially pears
and plums, as standards, on turf. Winding
walks are led through the whole, and groups of
flowers and kitchen-vegetables introduced.

7284. The citizen's villa {Jig. 723.) is a spot
of one or more acres laid out in lawn and shrub-
bery, but without a kitchen-garden. As the
space contained is very limited, and often under
an acre, only the most select trees, shrubs, and flowers should be employed ; and great
part of the trees and shrubs should be evergreens. Seats and other decorations may
be introduced,
of the most se-
lect designs, and
best workman-
ship ; and what
is of the last con-
sequence, none
but a good gar-
dener should be
employed in or-
der to preserve
the whole in the
highest order
and keeping, at
every season of
the year. Gar-
dens or residen-
ces of this sort
are almost pecu-
liar to the neigh-
borhood of Lon-
don ; and the
occupant pro-
cures his culinary productions and fruits cheaper and better than he can grow them,
from that first of all gardens, Covent-garden.

7285. The suburban villa {Jig. 724.) is of limited extent, but contains a small
kitchen-garden and stables, with a field planted either in the ancient style (a), or mo-
dern style {b) ; with a neat lawn, and groups of flowers (c). Such villas are occupied
more by professional men and artists, than by the lesser merchants and rich tradesmen,
who (those of the metropolis at least) prefer the citizen's villa. When two or more of
such villas can be formed adjoining each other, the happiest effects may be produced if

i3ooK IV,

PRIVATE GARDENS, OR RESIDENCES.

1025

tlieir owners act in concert at their first planting ; and a sort of community of scenery
may be enjoyed, witliout lessening individual privacy and comfort. On the contrary, a
gain might result to each proprietor ratlier than otherwise ; for if two villas, adjoining
each other, are laid out in tlie modern style, tlien by placing tlie masses of wood of the
one, against the masses

of the other, less ground vr..;;:v:.\,- _- ^ 725

would require to be occu-
pied in plantation by each.
Office-buildings might be
placed against, or near
office-buildings, so as to
be simt out, or partially
concealed with less than
the usual quantity of
trees, and so on. In the
ancient style, avenues
and vistas might be con-
trived to pass tlirough
each other's grounds, and
tlie ornamental objects
which formed tlieir ter-
mination, serving both
parties, only half the
usual number would require to be erected by each.

7286. The suburban house {Jig- 725.) is a large commodious dwelling, in a village-
like collection of houses, or streets, on the outskirts of the metropolis, or of large towns ;
and occupied as the constant residence of wealthy professional men cr merchants. It has
a carriage-entrance to the house and stables in
front, and a small kitchen-garden behind.

7287. The house ivith carriage-entrance (Jig'
726.) occurs very commonly in the suburban
streets of large cities ; it contains a small gar-
den behind, not however sufficient to employ a
gardener ; and it is without stable or coach-
house ; the fore-court is varied by shrubs and
a few trees, and the central circle of turf, orna-
mented with baskets of flowers or roses ; and in
tlie middle a statue, sundial, fountain, pond,
or a cedar, or other evergreen tree.

7288. IVie house with covered entrance (Jig.
727.) is similarly situated to the other, but
generally further frOm town, to and from which
the occupant passes by the local public con-
veyances. It contains a garden-court before, and a garden behind the house, like the
other ; but the former is entered
by a porch (a), connected with
the house by means of a glass or
opaque roofed passage (6) ; and
along tlie front of the house is an
open veranda (c, c) communi-
cating with a vestibule (rf). This
sort of suburban house is well
suited for invalids, who may take
exercise, and enjoy the plants
under the glass roofs in rainy
weather.

7289. The house and conserva^
tory {Jig. 728.) is similarly situ-
ated to the last, with one or two
wings (a and 6), as conserva-
tories ; or, the one a conservatory,
and tlie otlier a botanic stove, or
a vinery. These communicate
with the two principal living-rooms, and also with the fore-court (c) ; the latter entrance
is that made use of by the gardener. Heat is supplied from the under-ground offices of
the house ; and if the latter is heated by hot air, in Sylvester's excellent manner, or by
the more simple operation of steam, it will be accomplished so much the more readily

3 U

1026

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

The

and effectually. They may be also lighted up by
gas, if there is a public gasometer in the neigh-
borhood.

7290. The house and Jlower-garden entrance
{Jig. 729.) requires a more airy situation than
either of the three last varieties ; and is generally
situated in some road or street, a mile or two
from town, or in some suburban hamlet. The
flowers may be variously arranged, and may be
either florists* flowers or herbaceous perennials,
with a mixture of dwarf ornamental shrubs.
A very complete mode is to grow the flowers in
the garden behind the house, and bring them to
the front as they come in flower. This sort of
residence is well suited for retired tradesmen,
■who act as their own gardeners ; and some fine '

examples are to be found at Hammersmith, Hampstead, and round Manchester.
French and Dutch, and also the
Germans, excel in this kind of
garden, and produce the most
pleasing effects by a judicious
combination of very few species
of flowers. They take care to se-
lect such as are showy, of brilliant
and distinct simple colors, as
white and scarlet lilies, red and
white roses, nasturtium, candy-
tuft, daisy, larkspur, &c. They
admit few yellows, or small
scattered flowering plants ; but
study to have masses of the same
colors and forms, contrasted by
different colors also in masses.
There are many fine gardens of
this sort in Picardy and the
Netherlands, and some in Hanover.

7291. The house and French parterre (Jig. 730.) can hardly be considered a distinct
variety from the last ; though it differs in this, that the front garden of the latter contains
turf around the flower-compartments, whereas the former is composed entirely of eartli,
and gravel, edged with box, or some other plant.

730

731

7292. The common Jront garden (Jig- 731.) is a variety so well known as to require no
description ; but, like the six preceding varieties, it is introduced here chiefly to suggest,
that these humble scenes may be greatly improved in design, and also in cultivation and
keeping. There is little danger of the gardens of the wealthy being neglected ; but it is
of great importance to the advancement of gardening, that the art should be displayed to
as great perfection as possible in those gardens which are most universal ; which are con-
tinually under the eye of a large city population ; seen by the whole country-inhabitants,
when they visit the towns ; and which chiefly come under the eye of foreigners.

Book IV. PRIVATE GARDENS, OR RESIDENCES. 102?

T293. TJie farmer s garden should not be placed adjoining the rick-yard, on account of
the straw liable to be blown into it : and should be well enclosed to exclude poultry, pigs,
and other domestic animals. Supposing the farm-buildings to occupy three sides of a
square, and the farm-house to be placed in the middle of the south side, and tlie rick-yard
to be placed beyond the north side ; then the kitchen-garden may be placed adjoining tlie
east or west side of the squai-e ; the grass-orchard, which may also be the drying-ground,
and area for rearing young poultry, on the opposite and corresponding side ; and a small
flower-garden may serve as an entrance-court to tlie farm-house. But in the case of
farmeries on a larger scale, where the house is detached from the court of offices, the three
gardens should be united with a small portion of lawn, and a pond, so as to form about
an acre (more or less, according to circumstances), of garden and pleasure-ground round
the house. {Jig- 662.) The part destined for the growth of culinary vegetables should be
laid out in right-lined plots and borders ; the orchard-trees planted in rows or quincunx ;
and the flowers and flowering shrubs arranged in groups or beds on tiirf. The most use-
ful and prolific fruit-trees should be chosen ; including some plants of hops, and one or
two walnut or chestnut trees in the exposed side of the orchard, if the climate is such as
will ripen their fruits. No class of men have it in their power to form and cultivate a
garden at less expense than that of the farmer ; but unfortunately few farmers have a
taste for the subject ; perhaps, because gardening is not sufficiently contrasted to agri-
culture, to aflford the farmer that sort of relief sought for in recreative and pleasurable
pursuits.

7294. The laborers' cottage and garden. This may be reckoned too humble a country-
residence for the consideration of the landscape-gardener ; but we conceive it to be of very
great importance to the general good, that these should be improved, and their inhabitants
ameliorated. What w^e shall advance is founded on the principle, that whatever renders
the cottager more comfortable and happy at home, will render him a better servant and
subject, and in every respect a more valuable member of society. Besides, one of the most
constantly occurring objects in the country is the laborer's cottage, whether detached by
the road-side, or grouped in hamlets and villages ; and therefore to render such buildings
and their scenery more ornamental must, independently of every other consideration, be a
very laudable object.

7295. The accommodation contained in the cottage, avid the size of the garden, should, no doubt, be regu-
lated by the family of the cottager, and the facilities afforded him by his line of employment to live well,
or bring up a large family, &c. But we shall take the lowest case that can occur, and state what we con-
sider to be the minimum of accommodation, which a humane employer in England would wish to be en-
joyed by his serving laborer, even if he had no other family than his wife.

7296. The whole space to be enclosed, including the garden and the site of the house, cannot be less than
one eighth part of a statute acre. The cottage should, if possible, be placed in the centre, fronting the
south-east, by which means, if it be a square or a parallelogram, the sun will shine on each of the four sides
a part of every day in the year. Its floor should be raised two steps alx)ve the level of the garden ; its
principal windows to the south-east. A gutter sliould be placed under the eaves, to prevent the ground,
at the base of the walls, from receiving extreme moisture, and thus rendering the interior damp and un-
wholesome. The cottage should consist of the following parts : —

7297. A porch to throw off the rain from the steps of the door, and prevent it from being blown in bv the
wind. On the smallest scale, two broad boards, or two slates or flag-stones, placed pediment-wise over the
door will suffice.

7298. A lobby, Inoad passage, or other space inside the door, to contain lumber, fuel, garden-tools, and to
serve as a place for washing, or working at coarse work, &c.

7299. A cooking and living-room entered by the lobby or outer room j the fire-place, with an oven and
small boiler, both included in a cast-iron grate.

7300. A sleeping-room over the living-room, and entered by a stair from the lobby or outer room.

7301. A garret, or children or lodger's sleeping-room, or small room for any purpose, over the lobby or
outer room.

7302. A pantry, taken off the lobby, with a small window to the north-west.

7303. A closet, for utensils and articles used in the living-room, taken off that room, with a window to
the north-west or south-east.

7304. A hen-roost, forming part of the garret over the lobby, and entered by a poultry-ladder, placed
against a small opening near the bottom of the outer wall.

7305. In the garden should be a well, with a pump, if deep ; unless some other source of good water is
near.

7306. A water-closet placed in a hidden part of the garden, l)ehind the house, so contrived that the visitor
may neither be seen from the windows of the cottage nor the public road, with a going and returning, or an
incidental approach, instead of the direct cul de sac paths which commonly lead to such places.

7307. A pigsty attached to the north-east or south-west front.

7308. A dunghill, or a small spot adjoining the pigsty, surrounded by a dwarf wall.

7309. A niche in the wall of the south-east front of the house, to hold two or more beehives, with
two iron bars, joined and hinged at one endj and with a staple at the other to lock them up to prevent
stealing.

7310. TTie surrounding fence may be a wall, close pales, a holly, thorn, sloe-thorn, or damson-plum hedge,
according to circumstances ; if a hedge of any kind, then standard plum, pear, apple, or cherry trees, may
be planted in it ; if a wall, the same sorts may be trained against it. Next to the fence, a border should
be carried round the whole ; a similar border may be formed round the house ; and the area for culture
will then be thrown into two compartments, one behind the house, and one in front of it. The compartments
may be surrounded with a line of gooseberries and currants, and a few standard apples or plums (as being the
two most useful cottage fruits) scattered over the whole. Against the house may be planted currants, pears,
or a vine, according to the situation and climate. Honeysuckles and monthly roses may be planted next
the porch ; ivy against the water-closet ; and the scented clematis against the pigsty. The border round
th« house should be devoted to savory pot-herbs, as parsley, thyme, mint, chives, &c. and to flowers and
low flowering shrubs. The surrounding border, under the "wall or hedge, should be devoted to early and
late culinary crops, as early potatoes, pease, turnips, kidneybeans, &c. No forest trees, especially the ash

3U 2

1028

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

and elm, should be planted In, or if possible, even near the cottager's garden ; as these are ruinoiis to
crops ; the first both »jy its shade and roots, and the latter by its roots, whicli spread rapidly to a great ex-
tent, close under the surface. The oak is the tree the least injurious to gardens.

7311. Variation may be made in this extent of accommodation, by adopting a different form for the
groiind-plan of the plot ; by different inclinations of surfaces, kinds of fence, sort of materials used for the
roof and walls of the house, coloring of the walls, and above all, by adopting different styles of architecture.
But wliatever is done in this respect, no attempt at ornament or picturesque effect should be made which
is at variance with comfort ; — latticed windows are cold and comfortless ; chimney-flues tortured in their
direction, with a view to fixing the stack of chimney-tops in some particular point, occasion smoky apart-
mcjits. A variety of other deviations from common practice made to gratify the eye of the beholder,
without any reference to the inhabitant, might be mentioned; but we shall only add, that whatever is
most comfortablfe and durable will please the best in the long run.

Sect. II. Public Gardens.

7312. Public gardens are either.designed for recreation, instruction, or commercial pur-
poses. The first include equestrian and pedestrian promenades ; the second, botanic and
experimental gardens ; and the third, public nurseries, market-gardens, florists' gardens,
orchards, seed-gardens, and herb-gardens.

Si;bsect. 1. Public Gardens for Recreation.

7313. Public ])arks, or equestrian promenades, are valuable appendages to large cities.
Extent and a free air are the principal requisites, and the roads should be arranged so as
to produce few intersections ; but at the same time so as carriages may make either the
tour of the whole scene, or adopt a shorter tour at pleasure. In the course of long roads,
there ought to be occasional bays or side expansions to admit of carriages separating from
the course, halting or turning. Where such promenades are very extensive, they are fur-
nished witli places of accommodation and refreshment, both for men and horses ; this is a
valued part of their arrangement for occasional visitors from a distance, or in hired vehi-
cles. Our continental neighbors have hitherto greatly excelled us in this department of
gardening ; almost every town of consequence having its promenades for the citizens d
cfieval and also au jned. Till lately, Hyde Park, at London, and a spot called the Mea-
dows, near Edinburgh, were the only equestrian gardens in Britain ; and neither were
well arranged. But in 1810, the Regent's Park was commenced from a suggestion of
W. Fordyce, Esq., the late surveyor of woods and forests, and it promises to be a scene
worthy of the metropolis. It is only to be regretted, that the space available to the public
is so much curtailed by interspersed villas, and surrounding rows of houses and gardens :
for though from the number of trees, the wealthy citizen who can view the scenery from
his horse or coach may recognise tlie park character ; yet by rendering so great an extent
of the surface private property, the wanderings of the pedestrian are limited, and his views
of the scenery confined. ^og

7314. The public garden qfi
Carlsruhe [Jig. 7S2.), and the I
town, founded by the ]Mar-

grave Charles William in 1715,
are formed to correspond with
each other. The palace (a)
is .noticed by Sulzer {Theorie
des beaux Arts, &c). and by
Hirschfield {Thiorie des Jar-
dins, &c. vol. iv. p. 416.), as
one of the finest in Germany,
and remarkable for having the
wings at an oblique angle to
the main building. Behind,
exactly in the centre of the cir-
cular carriage-promenade (6),
IS a tower (c), which commands
a bird's-eye view of the whole
park, pleasure and kitchen gar-
dens (d), and the town and
church {e). The whole is on
level ground, and joined to a
natural forest. In the town
many English and other foreign
artisans were settled. Among
the trees near the palace, are
some of tlie finest old tulip-trees, planes,
exotic trees in Germany

nonias, sumachs, acacias, cedars, and other
7315. Boulevards {JBoulevard, Fr., or round work j a bulwark, or great bastion, or ram-

Book IV. PUBLIC GARDENS FOR RECREATION. 1029

part, generally round). Many of the continental cities have a species of equestrian pro-
menade within tlieir boundaries, which is deserving of imitation. These are broad roads,
accompanied by rows of trees, near the margin of the city, originally formed on the
ramparts, or surrounding fortifications, and completely encircling it. They are highly
interesting promenades, especially to a stranger, to whom they give an idea of the topo-
graphy and most remarkable points of the scene in the most agreeable manner. The
boulevards at Paris, Vienna, and Moscow, are particularly to be admired in these
respects.

7316. A jrronienade might be formed in the margin of London^ of a very interesting
kind, by continuing the street called the New Road through Hyde Park, entering close
to where Kensington Gardens leave off, proceeding thence across the Serpentine River,
and coming out exactly opposite Sloane-street : then along tliis street and part of the
King's Road, to the road leading to VauxTiall Bridge ; from this bridge along roads al-
ready formed, and as may be seen by the map, well suited to lead to Blackheath ; then
turn towards London through Greenwich Park, so as to display the best views of the me-
tropolis over Greenwich Hospital ; form a viaduct or road, on a cast-iron colonnade, across
the river, sufficiently high to admit ships in full sail to pass under : descend this, and
join the City Road, which joins the New Road, and completes the circle. This course
which, with the exception of the bridge, might be formed at no great expense or de-
rangement of property, would give a grand view of the metropolis, and by no%v and
tlien deviating from the direct road and returning to it, Kensington Gardens, Haminer-
smitli Nursery, the King's Road Gardens, Chelsea Garden, the garden of Loddiges' at
Hackney, the Regent's Park, Highgate, Hampstcad, and all the most interesting gar-
dens, scenery, and objects close to London, might be rapidly glanced at in one day.

7317. Mounlain jyromenade. One of the finest equestrian promenades that can be
imagined might be formed on the hill of Arthur's Seat at Edinburgh. From the base
at IJolyrcod Park, let a road ascend winding round the liill, including the appendage
of Salisbury Craigs, and the knoll to the east, if desirable, to tlie summit, at a rise not
greater than two inches in six feet. Having arrived at the summit, let it wind down
again at a similar slope, intersecting the other road, and arriving also at Holyrood Park.
Then let or sell the ground to individuals to build on or plant, each according to his
taste. The slope of the road would be found so gradual that a two-wheeled chaise
might be driven up or down at a trot, which can be done on the Simplon road,
•where the slope is 2\ inches in six feet. Taking the height of the hill from the park
at 700 feet, this would give less than five miles of ascending promenade, and the same
number descending. By the formation of these two roads, hundreds of the finest situa-
tions in the world, for summer villas and cottages would be formed, and probably in
time let or sold, so as to cover much more than the expense, both of purchasing the hill
as it now is, and forming the roads in the verj' best manner.

7318. Public gardens, or pedestrian promenades. These, with very few exceptions,
have been in all ages and countries laid out in the geometric style. The Academus at
Athens is an ancient example. The summer garden at Petersburgh, a modem one.
Even in China, where irregularity in gardening is so much desired in general, Ellis
{Journal of the Embassy of \S\ 6) informs us, that " the Fatee gardens at Canton, the
resort of the fashionables, consist of straight walks." And however much our garden-
ing has been praised and copied by private persons on the continent of Europe, yet, with
the exception of Count Rumford's walk at ^Munich, and the late Earl of Findlater's at
Carlsbad, almost all the others are verj' properly in straight lines. The object of public
gardens is less to display beautiful scenerj' than to afford a free wholesome air, and an
ample uninterrupted promenade, cool and shaded in summer, and warm and shelteretl
in spring and winter. In a limited extent, these must be attempted in one principal
walk, which, for that purpose, should as much as possible be laid out in a norUi and
south direction. In more extensive scenes, certain covered walks may be devoted to
summer, and certain east and west open walks, to spring and winter. The broad open,
and narrow covered avenues of the ancient style, are valuable resources on a large
scale ; these conjoined and laid out in a scoatli and north direction, give in the
centre an open, sheltered, sunshine walk in mid-winter ; and a close or covered a\-enue
being lined out along each side of tlie open central one, will afford shady walks for
summer, and occasional places of retreat from casual showers in spring. Oxford and
Cambridge afford some fine open and covered avenues, though far inferior to many on
the continent.

7319. Public squares, of such magnitude as to admit of being laid out in ample walks,
open and shady, are almost peculiar to Britain. The grand object is to get as extended
a line of uninterrupted promenade as is possible within the given limits, A walk
parallel to the boundary fence, and at a short distance within it, evidently includes the
maximum of extent ; but if the enclosure is small, the rapid succession of angles
and turns becomes extremely disagreeable, and continually breaks in upon the jyas

3U 3

1030

PRACTICE OF GARDENING.

Part III.

733

ties promeneurs, the conversation of a party, or
individual contemplation. The angles, therefore,
must be avoided, by roxinding them off"m a large
square ; in a small one, by forming the walk into
a circle ; and in a small parallelogram, by adopt-
ing an oval form. In laying out a large square
{Jig. 733.), four objects ought to be kept in view.
1. Sufficient open space (a), both of lawn and
•walk, so as the parents, looking from the windows
of the houses which surround the square, may not
long at a time lose sight of their children : 2. An
open walk, exposed to the sun, for winter and
spring (b) : 3. A walk shaded by trees, but airy
for summer (c) : 4. Resting-places (d) ; and a
centrical covered seat and retreat {e), which, be-
ing nearly equidistant from every point may be
readily gained in case of a sudden shower, &c.

The statues of eminent public men

are obvious and appropriate decorations for squares.

7320. Russel Square, laid out from a design of Repton in 1810, is one of the most complete in these re-
spects in London. It has been objected to as over-planted ; bni this is only a piece of vulgar injustice,
applied indiscriminately to every rural artist, all of whom, as a matter of course, conclude, that when mag-
nitude effects the purposes of number, the superfluous plants will be rooted out.

7321. Sloane Square is very ingeniously laid out as a botanic garden, by which means the surrounding
inhabitants have an easy opportunity of blending recreation with instruction. This plot being a parallelo-
gram or long square, and the ground being low, Repton proposed to form it into a winding valley, con.
taining a piece of water ; the walks to be winding, the trees grouix;d, and the whole contrived so as to
produce an appearance of nature in the midst of art : but his advice was not complied with. The late poet-
laureate, Pye [Essat/s), purposed to lay out a square, in imitation of a wild overgrown quarry or gravel-pit,
and plant it with thorns, hollies, furze, brambles, ferns, &c. This mode he would adopt on account of its
originality.

7322. Edward's Square, Kensington, was laid out, in 1819, in groups and winding walks, in a manner
different from most other squares, by Aiglio, an eminent landscape-painter. A small city square might

laid out in terraces, like the Isola' Bella, or the gardens of Babylon, and the space beneath usefully dis-
posed of as vaults for goods, or a cattle- market.

SuBSECT. 2. Public Gardens of Instruction.

7323. Botanic gardens. Tlie primary object of botanic gardens is to exhibit a collec-
tion of plants for the improvement of botanical science ; a secondary object to exhibit
living specimens of such plants as are useful in medicine, agriculture, and other ai-ts ;
and a third is, or ought to be, the acclimating of foreign plants, and their dissemination
over the country. In choosing a situation for a botanic garden, the leading object must
be proximity to the town, city, or university to which it is to belong ; and the next, if
attainable, a variety of surface and soil, to aid the necessary formation of composts and
aspects for different plants. In general, however, there is little choice in these respects, it
being sufficiently difficult to procure an adequate extent of surface of any kind near
large towns. As the leading object or feature in the view of a botanic garden is the
range of hot-houses ; and as these must always face the south, it is generally desirable
that ground on the north side of the principal public street or road by which it is to be
approached, should be preferred to ground on the south side. In the latter case, the
hot-houses must be approached from behind, and then the spectator must turn round to
look at them, by which their grand effect is lost. The Liverpool and Oxford gardens are
in this respect unfortunate ; that of Edinburgh fortunate.

7324. The extent requisite for a botanic garden depends upon that of the collection intended to be formed ;
as well as on the magnitude to which the tree-plants are intended to be grown. A good deal will depend
also on whether tender exotics are to be principal or secondary objects of collection, and also on the man-
ner of growing the hardy herbaceous plants. An immense collection of herbaceous i)lants may be included
in a small space, if the soil is loamy, rather inclined to moisture, and if the plants are separated from each
other in the rows by bricks or thin tiles, which at once completely divides them and stints their growth, so
as to admit a great number being planted on the same space. The extent of the Chelsea garden is little
more than three acres; that of tlie Liverpool garden is five acres; and in both are extensive collections.
Messrs. Loddiges have above a thousand sj)ecies of herbaceous plants, which they keep constantly in small
pots, set on beds of scoria. These occupy very little space, and the plants thrive well. Of course the larger-
growing kinds are excluded.

7325. The form of a botanic garden is a matter of very little consequence : where the extent is small, a
square or parallelogram may undoubtedly be made to contain most plants ; but where it exceeds four or
five acres, any form will answer ; and, indeed, if there is a suflicient quantity of ground, the more irre-
gular the form, so much the more variety will there be in the circumferential walks of the garden. The
Chelsea, Cambridge, Oxford, and Edmburgh gardens, are square, or nearly so ; those at Liverpool, Glas-
gow, Hull, and the Dublin Society's garden, are irregular. The two latter both in outline and surface.
The most irregular botanic gardens, both as to form and surface, with which we are acquainted, are
those of Koningsberg and Warsaw. A small rill runs through the former, with the most irregular
•wavy banks on each side ; and the latter is on the steep, broken, and almost inaccessible banks of the
Vistula.

7326. In laying out the area of a botanic garden, the objects already mentioned, and
various others, must be kept in view. If it be merely desired to have a general collec-
tion, then a surrounding border for the trees and shrubs j internal compartments for the

Book IV. PUBLIC GARDENS OF INSTKUCTIOX. 1031

beds of herbaceous plants ; and a space at one end or side for the hot-houses, frames,
compost-yard, &c. will be sufficient ; surrounding the whole with a walk, which may
also cross the garden in one or more places. Such a walk to display in succession every
remarkable feature, is essential to all gardens, whatever may be their extent or kind.
7327. In a complete botanic garden, tlie following seem to be requisites : —

1. A curalfir'i hoiue, ■with seed-room, office for business,
library of reference, herbarium, room for lectures or demon-
gtrations. This is most generally situated at or near the
entrance of the garden. Some consider it preferable to iilace
a lodge al the entrance for the under.gardeners, and to place
the curator's house with its accompaniments as above, in con-
nection with the range of hot-houses; and this the more
especially as botanic gardeners are rarely family men, at least
in Briton.

2. A rangt r>f hot-houses, either in one line, or in a semi-
circle, circle, square, half square, &c. according to taste and
other circumstances ; with back sheds for all tlie usual purposes
of such, including rooms for the journeymen, where there is
no lodge ; and lodgings for one man, even if there is a lodge, in
order to attend to the fires.

3. An adjoining arrangement of pUs and frames, but not in
front of the range of hot -houses, as m a nursery.

4. A cumposi-ground for all the usual purposes.

5. An aquarium, includi <g a bog, pond, spring, and salt-
water cistern, for marine algse.

6. A rock-work and underneath pendent walls, tunnels,
vaults, and caves, open in ditferent degrees and directions for
the growth of mosses, ferns, fungi, &c.

7. Borders, shaded and kept moist in different degrees for
fiems anc! other ajipropriate plants.

8. A fu)up-grouud, shaded by trees or vaults, and containing
stumps ajul roots of trees of different kinds, and other means
for the preservation, as far as art will go, of a collection of native
or hardy fUngi, edible, and poisonous.

9. An American, or iog-earlh ground, either a border, or
connected groups, or a comjjosite hgure surrounded by walks.

10. An eslivakum, or jiaved area, for setting out the green-
house plants in summer for air and exercise by wind. In the
pavement cu^ht to be holes, in which to insert iron rods to be
connected with wires, to which to tie the taller and more flex-
ible plants.

11. A frrats-grouiid or gramineum, for bringing all the grasses
together.

12. A c
to the Pharmacopccias of the (

13. A compartment for the harily poistnunii plants.

14. Comi>artments for the plants and trees used in agriculture,
horticulture, dyeing, and other branches of general economy.

15. A cojnpartment for Jlorists' and border Jlowers.

16. A compartment, or, what is generally preferable, sur-
rounding boraer or belt, for trees and shrubs.

7328. Various other sub-arrangements or compartments of this nature may be contrived,
as for creeping plants, climbing natives of particular countries, succulents, bulbs, &c. ;
and the association of plants in this way by strong natural and artificial (alluding to their
use) affinities, is well calculated to facilitate both their culture and stu;ly. The most
complete arrangements of this kind are to be fourd in the Paris, Dublin Society's, and
Glasgow gardens. The size and shape of these sub-arrangements will, of course, be
various, which will add greatly to the interest of the walks. They will, in general, be
most advantageously placed round the outskirts of the garden, within the marginal plant-
ation, and should be separated by difterent sorts of rustic walls, or mounds of rock- work,
hedges, thickets of evergreens, and other means. Tliey should all be connected by a walk
in such a way as that a general spectator may see each scene without being obliged to
enter minutely into it ; and that whilst none can escape the botanist, he may have an easy
opportunity of entering minutely into each or any of them.

7329. The central, or princijml part of the ground, should be devoted to one general
arrangement of all the phanerogamous plants, including hardy exotic trees and natives.
The trees may be kept dwarfed, by being propagated from cuttings, or layers, and by
planting in pots, and pruning ; and the stove, and other exotics, will of course only be
plunged in their appropriate places for a few weeks in the warmest part of each summer,
as in the Paris garden. Every plant ought to have its name painted on strong cast-iron
tallies, on a bevelled face, in letters so large as to be legible without stooping. If to
the name, systematic and English, could be added the Linnaean and Jussieuean class,
native country, and time of flowering, it would obviously greatly facilitate the peripatetic
study of plants. The tallies once placed there, shoidd never be removed, excepting when
the arrangement is to be enlarged, because the name will show that the plant exists, or
ought to exist, somewhere in the garden ; and will or ought to be placed there in the
proper season. Such a collection should, in short, be a transcript of the catalogue of the
garden ; some of the Alices, and most of the fungi, algae, and musci excepted.

7330. Whether the arrangement in the compartments or ?nain area of such a general col-
lection ought to be Jussieuean or Linnaean, must depend on tlie opinion of those con-
cerned. In the present state of botanical science, that of Linnteus is the best for the
study of nomenclature and technology ; it is that generally adopted in Britain and the
north of Europe ; whilst that of Jussieu is almost universally adopted in France and Italy.

7331. The botanical arrangement in the hot-houses, and as far as that kind of arrange-
ment is applicable, in the different subsidiary or habitat arrangements, should, in our
opinion, decidedly be Jussieuean, as presenting the strongest natural affinities, and cal-
culated to promote variety in general appearance, facility in recollecting names, and
often answering as to kind of culture, Tlie Paris garden is the most complete in Eu-
rope as to comprehensive arrangement ; though the collection of plants is inferior to
that at Kew or Liverpool. It is remarkable also for its menagerie, containing a collec-
tion of living animals of many kinds, lodged in appropriate buildings with surrounding
enclosures of different degrees of extent. It also contains specimens of ail the different
soils, composts, and operations of horticulture and agriculture. A plan of this garden,
which contains about seventy acres, and was arranged in its present form by the chevalier
Molinos, has been given by Professor Thouin, in the Annales du 3 fusee ; and another
published more recently by tlie professor's brother, G. Thouin {^Artiste Jardinier) , in
PUins Raisonnees des Jardins, See. This plan f^^r. 734.) not only contains the ichno-
graphy of the garden (1 to 21 \ but in the margin are placed elevations (22 to 42) of
the housev in which the living animals are kept, of the immense buildings in which the

3 U 4

1032

PRACTICE OF GARDENING,

Part III.

museum of natural history is contained (24), and of the hot-houses (23), and entrance-
gates (32).

7332. TTie entrance to ifie garden is through a handsome iron railing Between lodges (1, and the elev-
ation 32), opposite the bridge of Austcrlitz (42). On the left is the menagerie, commencing with the fe-
rocious animals, in a long building, with wings and a fore court ; and next in order is a number of small
irregular-shaped enclosures of pasture, covered by trees, each devoted to one genus of animals, aiwl con-
taining a building in the centre for their repose or shelter (2 and 3). Passing these we arrive at the
dwelling-houses of the professors of natural history; and the large amphitheatre (4, and elevation 26)
in which the lectures are given. Here is also the hot-house department (7, and elevation 23), witii
a sunk area in front for pots and frames ; a space called the seed-garden for raising seeds, and for
nursing them till they flower. Adjoining is an artificial mount, crowned with a kiosque (5), which
overlooks, not only the whole garden, but great part of Paris; it contains a sundial, which, by mean.s
of a lens, is contrived to discharge a cannon every day at noon. The museum of natural history
is a large building at the upper end of the garden, exactly opposite the entrance (6, and elevation
24) ; it is separated by a handsome low wall and iron rails from the open garden, which consists of 36
plots, enclosed by lattice-work from the walks, which are at all times open to the public. These
plots contain specimens of the mode of propagating all herbaceous vegetables, all trees and shrubs
(8) — a dei)artment which is particularly rich in specimens of grafting and inarching (9) ; a large basin
lor aquatics, and aquatic birds and reptiles, situated at the bottom of an excavation, more than ten

Book IV. COMMERCIAL GARDENS. 1033

feet below the level of the general surface of the garden (10) : the sides of thU excavation are planted
with marsh trees and shrubs. The next divisions consist of florists' flowers arranged according to their
colors and times of flowering (11) ; medicinal plants (12); illustrations of the operations of agriculture
on plants, as the different kinds of hedges, live fences, rows, &c. (13) ; all the sorts of fruit-trees, vines,
and fruit-shrute, which grow in the open air in France, with different modes of pruning and training
them (14) ; all the sorts of vegetables used in rural economy throughout EuroiK>, the more tender sort«,
as the convolvulus battatas, being protected early in the season by glass (15). The general arrangement
of all the plants grown in France, tender and hardy, occupies ten plots (16) ; the classitication adopted
is that of Jussieu. The tender species are brought from the hot-houses in June, and iiluhged in their
places in the beds, where they remain till September ; the hardy tree and shrub kinds are kept dwarf
by pruning, and brought into flower by ringing. The different sorts of annual plants, and the mode of
raising seeds of every kind, is displayed in a large plot (18). There is a general arboretum (17) ; one of
winter or evergreen trees (19) ; of trees in perfection in autumn (20) ; of summer trees (21) ; and of spring trees,

7333. The principal buildings are the menagerie for ferocious animals (22) ; the conservatory (23) ;
museum (24) ; lodge for East India deer (25) ; lecture-theatre (26) ; near which is situated the office of
administration for the garden ; retreat for buffaloes (27) ; stable .for the equus tribe, with pigeon-house
over (28); Merino and other sheep-cots (29); cot for goats (30), for camels (31), for elephants (35), for
foreign oxen (37), for red deer (39), for the drome<lary (40), for packing plants (41), and for a public coffee
and milk house, situated at the base of the mount (38). There is a restaurateur in the spring arbore-
tum (21), also a numberof other buildings of less note; and so complete is this establishment, that in some
of the areas destined to show certain branches of culture, there are lodges containing specimens of all
the implements in use in that branch. [Annates du Musee; Bayer's Descriptive Uistojy of the Paris
Garden.)

7334. In the qffice of administration, which is remarkably complete, is the botanical cabinet {fig. "735.),
thus described in the Horticultural Tour : " In the staircase (a) is preserved 735

a tall palm-stem from South America, which had been naturally clasped in a
very extraordinary way by some liane or twining shrub, and evidently strangled
by the deeply indented grasp of its invader. Professor Desfontaines' working,
room (6) adjoins, and next, the working-room for the professor's assistants (c).
Here a respectable-looking female was now employed in fixing dried specimens of
plants to sheets of white paper, after they had been arranged for that purpose by
Professor Desfontaines. There is a room (rf) appropriated to the keeping of the
specimens of dried plants. They are contained in close presses, and so accurately
and conveniently arranged, that the specimens composing any particular genus

can be produced' for examination the moment they are called for. Another (e) contains specimens of
woo<l of very many species of trees, we believe of almost all that are figured in the quarto volume pub-
lished by Sepp of Amsterdam, and edited by Dr. Houttuyn, and of many unknown to these laborious
Dutchmen. The samples are in general smoothed with the plane, the better to display the grain, and
the extreme beauty of some kinds. A va.se, nicely formed out of the stem of a date-palm, is a curious
object : it is about a foot and a half in diameter, and somewhat more in height. A large apartment (/),
extending the whole breadth of the building, contains the seeds and seed-vessels of plants, with speci-
mens of vegetable products in general. In the same room several commodious presses and drawers are
appropriated to the reception of the seeds saved in the garden from the more rare or tender plants, par-
ticularly those of only annual duration. We may add, that the great attention paid to this part of the
business of the garden, the saving of seeds, and keeping them in the nicest order, received our unquali.
fied approbiition. A glazed frame containing numerous skeletons of leaves and flowers, had a very
pretty and unusual effect. Fronds of the great umbrella-palm of Ceylon {Corypha umbracultfera) deco-
rate the ceilings of two of the rooms." (,Hort. Tour, 353.)

SuBSECT. 3. Commercial Gardens.

7335. Public nursery-gardens come first in order. In choosing a situation in which to es-
tablish a nursery, two points are to be considered, fitness as to the disposal of the produce,
and fitness as to shelter, aspect, and soil. Wliere it is intended to attempt a general nur-
sery business, regard must be had to the leading roads of the district, the means of carriage
by land or water, the kind of objects that will be most in demand, whether seedlings, fruit-
trees, or tender exotics, or all of these. Where a local business is to be commenced, it is
evident much will depend on the choice of a conspicuous situation in some line of road
of general resort, and as near as possible to some town or city. As £ar as respects shel-
ter, aspect, and soil, the remarks already submitted in reference to private nurseries
(6974. J may suffice. The best general soil is evidently a free tender loam ; and the
best general aspect or exposure, one inclining to the north ; as precocity is no advantage
in a nurser)', but the contrarj-, and all seedlings and tender plants will be the safer
till they come up, and come up more vigorously, when brought on not so much by the
direct rays of the sun as by his indirect influence on the atmosphere. Another great
advantage of a northern exposure is, that plants and trees may be taken up, as well as
planted, later in the season, than in one of a contrary nature. Grafting also, and making
good deficiencies and other nursery-operations, which are generally deferred to the last
moment, may be done with less injur)' to the trees and plants.

7^36. The exteiit of a nursery must depend on the means of the occupier, and the pro-
bable extent of market. It will also depend, in some degree, on the kind of articles to
be chiefly cultivated, and tlie mode of cultivation to be pursued. WTiere manure is
scarce, such a system of alternate nursery and market-garden crops must be adopted as
shall preserve the ground in heart ; but where manure is more abundant the severe crops
may succeed one another more closely. Where thorns and seedling forest-trees are to be
the chief articles grown, it is evident less ground will be required than when transplanted
forest-trees are to be the chief article produced.

7337. In laying out a nursery, the objects to be cultivated, and the kind of business to
be expected, must be leading guides in the design, and tlie duration of the tenure will
naturally have a material influence on the execution. Tlie following seem objects de-
sirable for a complete nursery :

10S4 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

7S58. Tlie dioelllnghouse of the master; this in a nursery for local demand, and in which public attrac-
tion is an object, ought to be placed near the road ; and at the same time as centrically as possible in
other respects. In general, the living-rooms ought to be elevated so that their windows may command,
as far as practicable, the whole nursery ; but, at all events, the following objects, more or less : —

73."39. A seed-shop and counting-house or office, which should be connected with the house for the
master's convenience ; but, at the same time, have each distinct entrances. The counting-house should
have a good clock, and a rope or chain communicating to a bell placed over, or in some conspicuous
situation for regulating the hours of labor ^ also a speaking-pipe to the packing-court and centre of the
hot-houses.

7340. A journeyman's living-room, and a number of sleeping-rooms for the whole or a part of the jour-
nejTnen employed by the year, or otherwise, communicating with the packing-court, or in some cases, on
H small scale, occupying part of the ground-floor of the house. From this appendage should be a speak-
ing-pipe and bell to communicate with the counting-house and the master's sleeping-room.

7^1. A tool-house, sufficiently commodious and properly arranged, communicating with the seed-shop.
The tools should be at least weekly examined by the foreman before paying the men. The larger num-
ber-sticks or tallies, not in use, should also be kept here.

7342. A museum and herbarium-room, in which models (in plaster, Roman cement, or papier mdche) of all
the fruits, and dried specimens of all or most of the plants grown in the nursery, should be kept, in order
to show to purchasers, in seasons when the plants to be purchased are not in fruit or in flower.

7343. Padiing-sheds, surrounding a part or three sides of a packing-court, one of these being open to, or
commanded by, the windows of the office and common living-room of the house. Over these should be a
range of seed and store lofts.

7344. A stable^ cart-shed, cowhouse, and pigsty, if such conveniences are desired, communicating on
anjs side with the packing-court, and on the other with the wall : a coal-shed, a horsedung-heap, and
other simiXir objects in the back area of the dwellinghouse.

7345. A store-ground, or laying-in-grmmd, three or more times the size of the packing-court, in which to
inhume the roots of plants taken up, to be ready for sale or packing.

73*6. A plot for the hot-houses, square, octagonal, or polygonal in the circumference or boundary, and
the central part for the pits, and all the framing, hand-glasses, &c. with space sufficient for setting out the
green-house plants during summer. If the whole boundary cannot be at once, or perhaps not at all,
covered with glass, the naked part may be a wall for training fruit-trees, and the north border for auricula
frames or stages, striking cuttings, &c. But in a general nursery, the whole of the boundary of a square
may be very properly covered with glass, facing the centre; that of northern aspect being well adapted
for striking plants, and preserving, or retarding such as are in flower. The exterior of this boundary line
should be arranged for pots, potting, tan-furnace, and general working sheds ; or, if this be not wanted on
the south side, that part of the wall may be devoted to the training of fruit-trees.

7347. A compost -ground for different sorts of earths, gravel, manure, and the rubbish-heap.

"7348. A rottmg-ground for depositing tree-seeds, in layers of sand or ashes, in order to rot off their ex-
ternal coats, and promote the decay of nuts or other hard covers of seeds. (6079.)

7349. A parterre for the culture and display of such of the border and florists' flowers as are grown in
the nursery, and for a specimen of rock-work, a flower-stage, aquarium, apiary, and covered seat for
visitors.

7350. The main area of the nursery should be laid out, as nearly as the circumstances
will admit, in parallelograms, of any convenient dimensions, but not wider than the ordi-
nary length of a garden-line, say under 150 feet, which allows of a row sufficiently long
for any purpose. ITie chief reason for the parallelogram form is, that all rectangular
figures are most easily cultivated and measured, and the reason for their being all of the
same size is, in order that the master may readily, after a little experience, form a toler-
ably accurate idea of the quantity of every kind of nursery labor requisite for a plot of
this shape and size. Thus, supposing each division to contain half an acre ; then one
man will dig it in one day, trench it in two days, hoe it, if in wide rows, in a fourth of a
day, if in narrow rows, in half a day. A woman, if in beds, will weed it, if very thick
of weeds, in two days ; if thin of weeds, in one day, and so on. The compartments
should, as much as possible, be cropped with one general class or kind, and by rotation.
As, for example, for seven years : 1st, Break up from grass with turnips after trenching ;
2d, Transplanted forest trees, two years; sd, Green crop, one year; 4th, Annual
flowers, for seed, one year; 5th, Seedlings, one year; Gth, Transplanted fruit-trees,
four years ; 7th, Bedded thorns, two years ; and so on. Some compartments must be
set apart for common stools ; and if the circumferential borders are not sufficient or
proper for stools of rare or peculiar sorts, others must be contrived by means of hedges,
pales, or walls, to produce shelter and shade for cuttings, fit situations for bog-earth
borders, American stools, bog plants in general, and similar purposes. If the borders
are all of the same width, say ten or twelve feet, it will simplify all future calculations as
in the compartments.

7351. A grajid central, and a circuriiferential tvalk, with some cross walks, should be
contrived to display the whole nursery to the best advantage. A narrow or common
sized border should accompany these walks, excepting where the broad circumferential
border comes in ; and in the narrow borders should be displayed single specimens of all
the more rare trees and shrubs grown either from seed, or by other means, for sale, and
of all the perennial, biennial, and annual border-flowers sold to the public in the form of
plants, roots, or seeds. Those may be excepted which are grown in the flower-garden,
rock-work, and aquarium.

7352. A nursery-orchard should be formed of some compartments near the house ; and
in these, one or better two plants of each of all the hardy standard fruit-trees should be
planted, in order to come into bearing, and admit of proving the kinds ; and from whicli
alone the grafts and buds should be taken, (unless on the introduction of new and valuable
sorts, in which case such grafts as can be got must be taken till some of the progeny moved
to tlic nursery-orchard come into a bearing state,) which are to be used in the nursery. This

Book IV.

COMMERCIAL GARDENS.

1035

736

orchard should be surrounded by a wall, on which to grow specimens of such sorts of
plums, cherries, and pears, as do not ripen well as standards ; the hardier sorts of grapes,
and peaches, nectarines, and apricots. The tenderer sorts of vines, and some few peaches,
which are tender in the northern counties, may be grown, one of a sort, under each rafter
in the range of hot-houses.

7353. T/te comjmrtments Jhr stools of every descriptioiii and the borders for cuttings, should
be as near the house as possible, as on these, men are employed a greater number of
days in the year than on any other of the compartments, and therefore it is desirable such
compartments should be more immediately under the eye of the master.

7354. Fi-uit-tree and seed-bed compartments should come next ; then transplanted
shrubs ; next young forest trees transplanted ; and, in the most distant parts, the larger
forest trees, as requiring least culture of all. But a proper attention to rotation will not
admit of this arrangement being completely attended to ; and to keep the ground ia
good heart is as essential to success as keeping the men at work.

7355. In sortie of the jrrincipal nurseries which have risen to their present degree of
eminence by degrees ; and where consequently one building or additional object has been
added to another as wanted, without having any general plan in view, the greatest confusion
in appearance, and a considerable loss of labor, is the final result. The best way in such a-
case is to pull down great part of the hot-houses and outbuildings, and re-arrange the
whole on some plan which will admit of a regular tour of inspection, either by the master
or stranger-visitants. A fine example of this has recently been given by Messrs. Lod-
diges; whose arrangement, and mode of displaying the whole to strangers, is so per-
fect, tliat the time saved in conducting visitors through the premises will be no small
gain.

7356. The Hackney nursery {fig. 736.), or commercial botanic garden, affords an example of a small ir-
regular spot, laid out both with due consideration as to effect, botanical science, and economy as to cul-
ture. The entrance {a) leads to the range of hot-houses, and commences with the stoves ib" proceeds to
the grand palm-house (c), thence to the drj' -stove bulbs, and other articles (rf), to the double camellia-house
(e), and the green-house plants (/). The area enclosed by these buildings is devoted to the culture of planU
in pits and frames, to beds of rare American and herbaceous plants, and to collections in pots ready for sale
The outside space on the north side [g) is used as a depository for soils, pots, and other agents of culture - and
for propagating-pits (A), and nursery.plantations of delicate articles. The visitant having '
arrived at the end of the artificial climates, next enters on the course of the arbo-
retum (i, », i), which is arranged alphabetically, and occupies one side of a winding / H

walk, till it has exhausted all the trees and shrubs, which will grow in the open
air, with the exception of some of the more common species, of the roses
and American select shrubs. This walk crosses a public lane (A), on an 'y//y^ X\ >•
elevated bridge, and entering an irregular piece of ground, winds round y^:/yy .^;=^C^ )l
it till it terminates in an American ground in the centre {m), com
posed of a series of revolutions of grass-walks, with intervening beds,^^ ^^ ^^ y^
of bog-earth, displaying a complete collection. The arboretum y^o<<^>^>^^_ ft \\ t%-
alphabet is only carried along the right hand of the arboretum yy/^y/^ .^^ y^ ,^^i \ \ \S
walk (i, i, f), and on the left hand is a complete collection of roses
for a certain length, and then herbaceous plants for the rest
of the space. The beauty of this arrangement is, that there is
no interruption to the series when once entered on, while
at the same time any of the genera along the winding
paths may be gone to at once by small path.s, which
occur here and there across the borders. A visitant
wishing to see the American collection only, will
proceed at once to its commencement (/),'
wind along it till he arrives at its terraina-
tion (/«), and so on. The arboretum con
tains a number of species and varieties
not Ixjfore introduced, or hitherto
neglected in this country. Every
species commences with a named
specimen, left to attain its na-
tural size and shajie next the
walk ; behind, in a line, arc
stools for laying or stocks
for grafting, and the
next two or three lines
are devoted to the recep-
tion of the young plant<»
till sold or disposed of.
This mode saves much
trouble in culture, and
at once shows the pur-
chaser the sort of tree he
is to get, and assures him
that he is getting its real
progeny. The names of
the trees and American
shrubs, and the numbers
of the herbaceous plants
and roses, arc painted on
the ends of bricks, which
are let half their length
into the ground, in an
oblique manner, so as
their ends may meet the
eye at a favorable angle.

and

srm

7357. Offlcrrists gardens there are
two sorts ; the first for the purpose
of forcing flowers in pots, for draw-
ingroom gardens, and raising others
in the open air for the flower-mar-
ket ; the second for the propagation
and culture of florists' flowers, in
order to vend their bulbs and plants.
Both should be situated near a large
town, as a market for the produce of
the first kind ; and to ensure visitors
to the flower-shows of the second.
A low situation, if possible near tlie
sea, but at all events with a humid
atmosphere, is to be preferred for the
L^ culture of bulbs j and no floribts'

1036 PRACTICE OF DARDENING. Part III.

flower will thrive in an atmosphere impregnated with coal-smoke. Very little skill is
requisite for laying out either of these gardens to those who understiind the culture they
require. Tlie hot-house, pit, and frame departments should be kept together; close to
them the compost, dung, and tan grounds or sheds ; next the ground where pots of roses,
&c. are plunged ; and the least near parts remain to be devoted to the culture of flowers
or flowering shrubs in tlie open ground. For the conveniency both of culture, without
treading on the plants, and of gathering the flowers, the whole is generally laid out in
beds, sometimes with box-edgings, but more commonly without any, which for bulbs
and plants to be annually removed, admits of more eflPectual cultDre.

7358. Market-gardens are of two kinds ; those cultivated by manual labor, and those
wholly or in part by the plough. In choosing a fit situation for a market-garden, regard
must not only be had to the requisites for a good kitchen-garden, as to shelter, soil,
water, &c. (2382. to 2430.), but to the probable market-kind of produce to be grown,
&c. The extent must depend jointly on these circumstances and the capital to be em-
ployed. The smallest extent of surface and capital is that in which a man performs the
whole of the labor himself, and this so entirely d(?pends on the articles cultivated, the
nature of the soil, and mode of culture, that it may vary from one to two acres, and
where grain and seed crops are introduced, to a greater number. As to the quantity
of ground which a man of capital may manage by this way, no limits can well be as-
signed to an active and vigilant master. Some London gardens of this description, en-
tirely cultivated by manual labor, exceed 100 acres. In laying out a market-garden
there cannot be said to be any thing peculiar : the general points of order, distinctness
of compartments, and keeping the plots as much as possible in squares and parallelograms,
are of obvious importance.

7359. Public orchards are of various kinds ; garden-orchards, where the ground is cul-
tivated and cropped with culinary vegetables or small fruits ; arable orchards, where the
trees are in rows, and the spaces between in aration ; and pasture-orchards, where the
trees are scattered over pasture-lands. In fixing on a situation for either kind, the three
chief points are soil, sub-soil, and shelter, which have been already considered in treating
on private orchards, as well as the planting and kinds of fruit-trees.

7360. Physic or herb-gardens, if for growing aquatic herbs, as mint, should be situated
in a low moist soil ; if for aromatic herbs, as lavender, rosemary, &c. on a dry poor soil ;
and if for roses and similar plants, for producing flower-leaves, for the distiller, the soil
should be loamy and ricli. In laying out this kind of garden, the only point in which
skill is requisite, is the contrivance of a system of irrigation for the mints.

7361. Seed- gardens, or seed-farms, require a dry soil ; and two should never be
situated together, if destined for the same sorts of seeds. All the art in them consists
in cropping, so as to ensure seeds true to their kind. Indeed, the culture is by far the
most important consideration, not only in this, but in the four preceding descriptions of
public gardens; and this is still more the case M'ith respect to gardens for peculiar cro]>s,
as for the bulbs of white lily, rhubarb-roots, licorice, &c. which, as to laying out, require
no further notice.

Chap. V.
O/lhe Practitioners of Landscape- Gardening.

7362. The practice of landscape-gardening has been thought such a simple business,
tljat every proprietor might perform it for himself. The same thing, indeed, may be said
of the practice of medicine, law, or cookery, for every one can prescribe a cure, decide a
quarrel, or boil an egg. " Had the art of laying out grounds," Repton observes,
" still continued under the direction of working-gardeners or nurserymen, the proprietor
might supersede the necessity of such landscape-gardeners, provided he had previously
made tliis art his study ; but not (as it is frequently asserted,) because the gentleman
who constantly resides at his place must be a belter judge of the means of improving it,
than the professor, whose visits are only occasional ; for if this reason for a preference
were granted, we might with equal truth assert, that the constant companion of a sick
man has an advantage over his physician. Improvements may be suggested by any one ;
but tlie professor only acquires a knowledge of effects before they are produced, and a
facility in producing them by various methods, expedients, and resources, the result of
study, observation, and experience. He knows what can and what cannot be accom-
plished within certain limits. He ought to know what to adopt, and what to reject ; he
must endeavor to accommodate his plans to the wishes of the person who consults him, al-
though in some cases they may not strictly accord with his own taste. " (^Observ. onLandsc.

Book IV. PRACTITIONERS OF LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.

1037

Card. p. 10.) A more wise plan than that of doubting on the subject would be to have
the separate opinions of different landscape-gardeners and arcliitects ; for no opinion
need be followed if disapproved of; while the probability is, that there would be some-
tiiing valuable in each, and the proprietor might finally, aided by the artist he preferred,
decide for himself, never, however, forgetting the idea of a consistent and beautiful
whole. As to the expense of opinions, Girardin observes on this subject, " N'allez pas
le regarder — il vous en cofttera bien davantage pour des variations, et des retouches
continuelles. "

7363. The intimate connection betiveen landscape-gardening and architecttire ; the pro-
priety and advantage of the joint consultations of the landscape-gardener and the
architect, as to tlie situation, aspect, and style of the house ; together witli the almost
unavoidable encroachments of the former on the latter, by designing and executing
garden-buildings, has given rise to an opinion, that the landscape-gardener ought to
combine the functions of the architect. Repton justifies the idea, by referring to the
many excellent houses built by Brown, with no other knowledge than that acquired by
observation of all the best houses ; and of Kent, who was at once landscape-gardener,
architect, and historical painter. We are of opinion, that in the case of garden-build-
ings and small villas, or ornamented cottages, the knowledge both of the theory and
practice of architecture, which it is necessary every landscape-gardener should possess, may
sometimes enable him to combine- the duties of both professions ; but such are the advan-
tages of a division of labor in the fine, as well as in the useful arts, that in all more exten-
sive buildings, and indeed even in those we have mentioned, we would recommend the em-
ployment of a regular architect, jointly with a landscape-gardener, as a surgeon consults
with a physician in important cases. — The duties of the landscape-gardener resolve them-
selves into tlie formation of a plan or design, and the carrying of it into execution.

Sect. I. Of the Study of the given Situation and Circumstances^ and the Formation of a
Plan of Imjrrovenient,

7364. Whatever may be the situation and circumstances where the opinion of a land-
scape-gardener is desired, he should be furnished with a written or verbal instruction as
to the points to which he should chiefly direct his attention ; with a complete map of the
estate, and an accurate detailed history and description of its localities and peculiarities.
From these, from topographical and county surveys, and a residence of a few days or
weeks, according to the extent of the subject and season of the year, (spring, before the
leaves expand, being the most favorable time,) he will be able to procure every requisite
information, and to establish in his memory every thing relating to the situation and
vicinity. He is then, and not before, to embody and mature his ideas of improvement ;
directing his attention fii-st to the situation and aspect of the house and offices, the extent
of the park, and the emplacement of the kitchen -garden ; next to the general masses of
wood ; and then, successively, to the breadth of lawn, tlie situation and character of water,
the pleasure-ground, farm, and other details. Before making up his mind on any part
of tiie subject, he will often find it of importance to have sections taken of the grounds
in difTcrent directions, levels of springs, and rills, &c. ; and most frequently he will have
occasion for stakes, for marking out lines on the ground ; of flagstaffs or poles, from six
to fifty feet high, to represent the effect of trees {Jig. 737.) and other objects; of strips

of white slieeting, to show the effect of water, by forming a white outline on a perfect
level ; of frames partially covered with boards, to show the effect of buildings ; and he
may even require boring-irons, or pits dug, in order to enquire into the nature of the sub-
soil. Being furnished with a plan of the present state of the grounds, (such as_^. 351.)
he will, as he makes up his mind on particular improvements, mark them down on this
map in pencil, and when the whole is finally adjusted, he will put them in red, or in any
distinguishing color. And on one or more general or panoramic views (Jig. 355.), as well
as on the particular views which he may have taken on different spots, he will also mark

1038 PRACTICE OF GARDENING. Part III.

in red the outlines that will be made by the improvements adapted to tlie different situ-
ations, lu addition to these, he will show the effect, by geometiical sections taken in
different directions across the grounds {Jig. 349.)> to show the ground's surface. His
next operatiort is to make a vertical profile {jigs. 353, 354. \ showing the effect of
the whole, supposing the alterations to be fifteen or twenty years completed, with cor-
responding, panoramic, or general views {fig. 355.), and with particular landscapes.

7365. It remains for him to give reasons in writing for all that he proposes ; a practice
which no employer or artist should ever omit to have done, as such opinions reinain as
data, to be referred to concerning the management and future effects ; as well as in
point of present or future justification of the taste, both of the artist and proprietor.
This may be done in the following order : 1 . Recapitulating the given instructions ;

2. The characteristic features, and other details, of the given situation and vicinage ;

3. A description of, with the reasons for, the general outline of improvement ; 4. The
description of, with the reasons for the detail ; 5. An outline of the future management ;
6. Directions for the execution ; and, 7. An estimate of the expense.

7366. In all these discussions proper references will be made to the maps and sketches.
Simple language will of course be employed in describing future effects ; but, above
all, simple sketches, which shall owe little of their effect to shading, and none to color-
ing, or finishing, are essentially necessary.

7367. Gi7-ardin seems to have been the first whasuggested this mode of obtaining an opinion systematically;
and his remarks on the fallacious effect of beautiful drawings instead of outlines, are well deserving of atten-
tion. " Vous tacherez meme que cette esquisse ne soit qu'un simi)le trait, et ne presente d'abord que les
formes principales des objets, et la disposition g^n^rale des grandes masses de votre ensemble. Un dessein
bien finie ne manquera pas de vous scduire par I'agr^ment de la touche d'un habile artiste; vous vous
dttermineriez d'apres un dessein dont vous ne r^ussiriez peut-etre pas a obtenir I'effet dans la nature, et
il faut bien mieux avoir a gagner qu'a perdre dans I'execution."

7368. Repton has the merit of first employing this system elegantly and extensively in England, and
of adopting, instead of one entire landscape to show the previous taste, and another to show the effect of
the alterations, a slip of paper of the size and shape of those parts of the landscape which require alteration.
This is fixed at one edge of the entire landscape, and lies fiat over part of it, so that when lifted up it
shows the full effect. It must be confessed, however, that, though an elegant mode, it is not perfectly
fair, since the view in which the cut paper forms a part can never look so well as the other, even from
the mere circumstance of the bounding line of the paper. For some cases, however, it may be used,
though in general it will be found, that two entire landscapes afford the most impartial means of judging
of the effects of an improvement. The discussion and sketches of the place, and improvements being
finished, and bound in a book, the ground or working plan is to be put on canvass, or copied on parcJi-
ment, for the common use of the gardener, or whoever sets out the work ; and the profile put on rollers,
to be preserved along with the book of notitia. These being delivered to the proprietor, he will determine,
after mature deliberation, whether or not he will adopt the whole, or any part of the improvements,
previously consulting those friends whose taste or judgment he considers adequate to forming a judicious
opinion on the whole, or any one part of the subject. " Lorsque I'esquisse de votre ensemble sera faite,
alors vous refl^cherez, vous concerterez, vous discuterez avec des gens de gout, I'ordonnance generale de
la disposition qu'elle vous pr6sente." In this example of forming a plan, we have had in view a dull and
nearly flat site, where nothing has been done ; but it is evident that the same general principles are ap-
plicable to such places as are to be altered, diminished, or enlarged.

7369. By a general plan, accompanied by others more detailed, of tlie kitchen-garden,
pleasure-grounds, terrace, &c. and by the explanatory details of the book of notitia, any
gardener of ordinary intelligence may execute the most intricate design, and if this design
has been carefully formed from inspecting the premises, and proper general views have
been minutely taken from different points, the landscape-gardener may show the effect
of future improvements with confidence, and leave behind him the Notitia, or Book of
Improvements, or, in other words, such plans, sections, views, and written instructions,
as may enable the gardener gradually to produce them, with nearly as much certainty as
an architect directs a builder to raise an elevation of masonry. Distantly situated pro-
prietors, ambitious of displaying some refinement of ideas on rural matters, might in this
way first procure, and then work to a general plan ; instead, as is often the case at pre-
sent, of working according to their own crude notions ; and producing scenes which
afford no pleasure to any one but their owner, and only to him whilst he remains in statu
quo as to taste.

Sect. II. Of carrying a Plan into Execution*

7370. Wliether a plan be carried into execution by contractors, or by the proprietor at
his own risk, must depend on circumstances, both respecting the knowledge, taste, and
leisure of the proprietor, and the nature and extent of the improvements. Where an en-
tire new house and grounds are to be created, an eminent substantial contractor for the
buildings, and another for the ground operations, will be found the most speedy and
certain as to expense ; the work, in both cases, being liable to be regularly examined at
stated periods by a neutral surveyor, accompanied by the original designers of the im-
provements. If this mode is not adopted, the whole or greater part may be done under
the eye of the owner and his steward ; various, and as many parts as possible, being let
by the job. We shall take a cursory view of the chief objects of alteration or addition ;
and indicate some things in each, which may in most caies be more profitably done by
the job, premising, that whenever the cost or intricacy of any piece of work is consider-

Part IV. STATISTICS OF BRITISH GARDENING. 1039

able, unless a contractor of some respectability is employee!, the work is mucli better done
by the laborers of the proprietor.

7371. JBuildin^s. All alterations or new erections may be readily estimated and exe-
cuted by contract, and, almost in every case, at less expense to the proprietor. The
mere difference between the trade price and the gentleman's price of the materials and
labor, and between the hours kept, and quantity of work done in a given time by a
journeyman to a master-tradesman and to a gentleman, will (if the former should, by
error in estimating, find no other gain), alibrd a certain profit to the tradesman ; and thus,
suppose a contractor to estimate a piece of work at 1000/., and which ^the proprietor,
changing his mind, instead of letting to the contractor, executes himself, and finds the
amount 1100/., the contractor, had he got the job, would have actually had a profit, and
the owner been a gainer of 100/. The mansion, domestic and farming offices, garden-
walls, and hot-houses, may all be separately contracted for.

7372. Ground. The removal of ground, fences, or digging, may in every case be let
by the job, and with decided advantage to both parties. The extent of particular con-
tracts should, of course, be in proportion to the responsibility of tlie contracting parties.

7373. Planting. The enclosures and the preparation of the soil may, in all extensive
cases, be executed by contract ; but the planting or insertion of the plants, on which so
much depends, should uniformly be done by day-work ; excepting, however, those cases
in which a respectable nurserjTnan will engage to put in a certain number of plants of a
certain kind, size, and age, and maintain them there for at least three years. In some
extensive cases, the land may be prepared by fallowing, which the adjoining farmers will
generally undertake at a very moderate price per acre. In most cases, the contractor for
fences, of whatever description, should undertake to uphold them for a given number of
years ; and in cases of thorn-hedges, or other live fences, until they become sufficient
barriers.

7374. Boad and walk making may frequently be contracted for ; but in this case, as in
every other, much will depend on the skill, activity, and experience of the gardener or
general overseer. This subject will be found illustrated at greater length, and in a man-
ner incompatible with the nature of this work, in the second edition of our Treatise on
Country-Residences, 4to.

PART IV.

STATISTICS OF BRITISH GARDENING.

7375. After having considered gardening as to its history, as to the scientific princi-
ples on which it is founded, and the application of these principles to the different branches
of practice ; it remains only to take a statistical survey ajid estimate of its present state and
future progress in the British isles.

BOOK I.

OF THE PRESENT STATE OF GARDESIKG IN THE BRITISH ISLES.

7376. Tlie irresent state of British gardening, as to knowledge, has been the subject of
the former parts of this work ; but its importance, in the general economy of society, can
only be learned by a statement of the manner in which it is actually carried on ; the mo-
difications to which it has given rise in the pursuits of those M^ho have embraced the art as
a source of livelihood ; of the kinds of gardens employed by men of different orders in
the state ; of the principal gardens as distributed in the different counties of Britain and
Ireland ; of the British authors who have written on gardening , and of the private or
professional police, and public laws relative to gardeners and gardens.

1040 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

Chap. I.
Of the different Conditions of Men engaged in the Practice or Pursuit of Gardening.

7377. Gardeners may be arranged as operators or serving gardeners ; dealers in gar-
dening or garden-tradesmen ; counsellors, professors, or artists ; and patrons.

Sect. I. Of Operators, or Serving Gardeners.

7378. The garden-laborer is the lowest grade in the scale of serving gardeners. He
is occasionally employed to perform the common labors of gardening, as trenching,
digging, hoeing, weeding, &c. Men for the more heavy, and women for the lighter em-
ployments. Garden-laborers are not supposed to have received any professional instruction,
farther than what they may have obtained by voluntary or casual observation. In all
gardens where three or four professional hands are constantly employed, some laborers are
required at extraordinary seasons.

7379. Apprentice. Youths intended for serving, or tradesmen-gardeners, are generally
articled or placed under master or tradesmen gai-deners, for a given period, on terms of
mutual benefit : the master contracting to supply instruction, and generally food and
lodging, or a weekly sum as an equivalent ; and the parents of the apprentice granting
the services of the latter during his apprenticeship as their part of the contract. The term
agreed on is generally tliree years ; or more if the youth is under sixteen years of age
but whatever may be the period, by the laws as to apprentices it must not extend beyond
that at which the youth attains the age of manhood. No one can ever expect to attain to
the rank either of master-gardener or tradesman, who has not served an apprenticeship to
the one or the other. In general it is preferable to apprentice youths to master-gardeners,
as there the labor is less than in tradesmen's gardens, and the opportunities of instruction
generally much greater. {

7380. Journeyman. The period of apprenticeship being finished, that of journeyman
commences, and continues, or ought to continue till the man is at least twenty-five years
of age. During this period, he ought not to remain above one year in any one situation;
thus, supposing he has completed his apprenticeship in a private garden at the age of
twenty-one, and that his ultimate object is to become a head-gardener, he ought first to
engage himself a year in a public botanic garden ; the next year in a public nurseiy ; that
following, he should again enter a private garden, and continue making yearly changes in
the most eminent of this class of gardens, till he meets with a situation as head-gardener.
The course to be followed by an apprentice intended for a tradesman-gardener is obvious ;
having finished his period in a private garden, let him pass through a botanic and nursery-
garden, and then continue in the most eminent of the class of public or tradesmen's gar-
dens, to which he is destined.

7381. Foreman (before-man, oriirst man). In extensive gardens where a number of
hands are employed, they are commonly grouped or arranged in divisions, and one of the
journeymen of longest standing employed as foreman or sub-master to the rest. When-
ever three or more journeymen are employed, there is commonly a foreman, who has a
certain extent of authority at all times, but especially in the absence of the master. This
confers a certain degree of rank for the time being, but none afterwards.

7382. Master-gardener. A journeyman has attained the situation of master-gar-
dener, when he is appointed to the management of a garden, even if he has no laborer,
apprentice, or journeyman under him ; but he has not attained to the rank of master-
gardener till having been a year in such situation. Afterwards should he be obliged to
work as journeyman, he still retains the rank and title of master-gardener but not of
head-gardener.

7383. A head gardener, or upper gardener, is a master who has apprentices or journey-
men employed under him. Out of place and working as a journeyman, he retains tlie
rank and tide of master-gardener, but not of head-gardener.

7384. Nursery foreman. This is an important situation, the foreman being entrusted
with the numbered and priced catalogues of the articles dealt in ; authorised to make
sales; entrusted to keep an account of men's time, &c. (see Time-Book, 2338.) ; and in
consequence it entitles the holder to the rank of Iiead-gardener while so engaged, and to
that of master-gardener ever afterwards ; the same may be said of foremen to public botanic
gardens, and royal or national gardens.

7385. A travelling gardener is one sent out as gardener, or collector of plants, along
with scientific expeditions ; he is generally chosen from a botanic garden ; and his busi-
ness is to collect gardening productions of every kind, and to mark the soil, aspect, climate,
&c. to which they have been habituated.

7386. Botanic curator. This is the highest situation to which a sei-ving gardener can
attain next to that of being the royal or government gardener. He superintends the cul-
ture and management of a public botanic garden ; maintains an extensive correspondence

Book I. TRADESMEN-GARDENERS. 1041

with otlier botanic curators ; exchanges plants, eeeds, and dried specimens, bo as to keep
up or increase his own collection of living plants, and herbarium siccum. Abroad, for
want of sufficiently intelligent practical gardeners, they have what are called directors and
inspectors of botanic or other government gardens ; but no such office is requisite in this
country.

7387. Royal gardener, court-gardener, or government-gardener ; Jardinier de la Cour, Fr.;
Hoffgartjiery Ger. ; and Giardiniere della Corte, Ital. This is the highest step, the sum-
znum bonum of garden-servitude. In foreign countries, the court-gardener wears an ap-
propriate livery, as did formerly the head gardeners of the principal nobility, as well as
the court-gardeners of this country. At present this remnant of feudal slavery is laid aside
in every grade of British garden-servitude.

Sect. II. Tradesmen- Gardeners.
738S. Of tradesmen-gardeners, the first grade is the jobbing gardener, who makes and
mends gardens, and keeps them in repair by the month or year. Generally he uses his own
totds, in which he is distinguished from the serving gardener; and sometimes he supplies
plants from a small sale-garden of his own.

7389. Contracting gardeners, or neiv-ground workmen, are jobbers on a larger scale.
They undertake extensive works, as forming plantations, pieces of water, roads, kitchen-
gardens, and even hot-houses, and other garden structures and buildings. Formerly, and
especially in Brown's time, this branch of trade wais combined with that of the artist-gar-
dener, but now since the principle of the division of labor has been so much refined on,
they are generally separated.

7390. Seed-groioers are as frequently farmers as gardeners ; their gardens or fields are
situated in warm districts, and they contract with seed-merchants to supply certain seeds
at certain rates, or to raise or grow seeds furnished to them by the seedsmen on stipulated
terms. The great test of excellence here is never to grow at the same time such seeds as
may hybridise the progeny by impregnation.

7391. Seed-merchants, or seedsmen, deal in garden-seeds and other garden-productions;
in general they combine the business of nurserymen or florists, but sometimes confine
themselves entirely to dealing in seeds wholesale, or to a sort of agency between the seed-
growers and the nursery-seedsmen.

7392. Herb-gardeners grow herbs, either the entire herb, as mint, or particular parts,
as the bulb of lilium, and the flower of the rose for medical purposes, or for distillation
or perfumery.

7393. Physic-gardeners, herbalists, or simplicists, not only grow herbs for the pur-
poses of medicine, or perfumerj-, but collect wild ])lants for these purposes. For-
merly, when it was the fashion among medical men to use indigenous plants as drugs,
this was a more common and important branch of trade. They have commonly shops
appended to their gardens, or in towns, in which the herbs are preserved, and sold in a
dried state.

7394. Collectors for gardens. Tlie first variety of this species is the gipsy-gardeners,
who collect haws, acorns, and other berries and nuts, and sell them to the seedsmen ; the
next are those who collect pine and fir cones, alder-catkins, and other tree-seeds, which
require some time, and a process to separate the seeds from their covers, and clean them
before they can be sold ; and the highest variety are those gardeners who establish them-
selves in foreign countries, and there collect seeds and roots, and prepare dried specimens
of rare plants for sale.

7395. Orchardists of the simplest kind are such as occupy grass-orchards, where the
produce is chiefly apples, pears, and plums, for cider or kitchen-use ; tlie next variety
occupy cultivated orchard-grounds where fruit-shrubs, as the gooseberry, currant, straw-
berry, &c. are grown between the fruit-trees ; and the highest variety occupy orchards
with walls and hot-houses, and produce the finer stove-fruits and forced articles.

7396. Market-gardeners grow culinary vegetables and also fruits ; the simplest kind
are those who grow only the more common hardy articles for the kitchen, as cabbage,
pease, turnips, &c. ; a higher variety grow plants for propagation, as cauliflowers, ce-
lery, and artichoke-plants, and pot-herbs, as mint, thyme, &c. ; and the highest variety
possess hot-beds and hot-houses, and produce mushrooms, melons, pines, and other
forced articles and exotic fruits. They have often shops at their gardens, or in towns,
for the disposal of their produce ; and these, when fruit is chiefly dealt in, are called
fruit-shops; where culinary vegetables are joined, green-grocerj' shops. Most com-
monly, however, the culinary vegetables are carried to market, and there disposed of to
such as retail them in shops or on stalls. Occasionally they are deposited for sale in the
hands of agents or brokers, and sometimes shops are supplied regularly on certain con-
ditions.

7397. Florists are either market-florists who grow and force flowers for the market, and
of this subspecies are two varieties, those who grow only hardy flowers to be cut as nose-

3 X

1042 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

gays, and those who deal chiefly in exotics or green-house plants to be sold in pots. The
other subspecies is the select Jlorist, who confines himself to the culture of bulbous-rooted
and other select or florists' flowers, who has annual flower-shows, and who disposes of the
plants, bulbs, tubers, or seeds.

7398. Botanic gardeners are such as devote themselves exclusively to the culture of an
extensive collection of species for sale ; these may be either limited to indigenous kinds,
as yvas the botanic garden of the late Don of Forfar, embracing all hardy plants, or ex-
tending to tender exotics. Botanic gardeners also collect and dry specimens of plants,
and also of mosses, fungi, algae, &c. for sale : to this they often join the collecting of in-
sects, birds, and other animals.

7399. Nicrsery-gardeners, or nurserymen. This is the highest species of tradesman-
gardener. Their business is to originate from seed, or by other modes of propagation,
every species of vegetable, hardy or exotic, grown in gardens, to rear and train them
for sale, and to pack or encase them, so as they may be sent with safety to distant places.
The nurseryman is commonly also to a certain extent a seed-grower, and is generally a
seed-merchant, supplying his customers annually with what seeds they require for crop-
ping their gardens as well as with the trees they use in stocking them. The simplest
variety of nursery-gardener is he who confines himself to the rearing of hedge plants and
forest trees ; the highest, he who in addition to all the hardy trees and plants maintains at
the same time a collection of tender exotics.

Sect. III. Garden Counsellors, Artists, or Professors.

7400. The first species of this genus of gardeners, is the garden surveyor, or valuator.
His business is to estimate the value of garden labor and produce, and of garden struc-
tures, edifices, and gardens themselves. When a proprietor lets his house and garden
to a tenant for a certain number of years, the stock of the garden is valued, and either
entirely paid for by the tenant, or it is again valued when the latter quits the premises,
and the difference in value paid either by the tenant to the landlord, or by the latter to
the former, as the case may be. It is the business of the garden-surveyor to estimate
the value of the stock, crop, and business of nurserymen, and other tradesmen-gardeners,
quitting or entering on premises, or purchasing or disposing of their establishments. The
garden-surveyor is sometimes also a garden-auctioneer ; but generally his business is con-
fined to valuing, and practised by nurserymen or other tradesmen-gardeners.

7401. The tree-surveyor, or timber-surveyor, limits his occupation to arboriculture : he
measures and values standing timber or copsewood ; estimates the value of young plant-
ations, the expense of forming them, of managing them during a certain number of
years ; of enclosing with live hedges of every kind, and their management till fence
high : he determines what trees shall be felled, thinned, or pruned, and directs the man-
ner of performing these operations.

7402. The horticultural architect {Planner, Scotch) gives designs for kitchen-gardens
and flower-gardens, with their structures and buildings : he sometimes also lays out
shrubberies and pleasure-grounds, when on a small scale. In this case he takes the title
of ornamental gardener {Planner of policies, Scotch), or ground-architect.

7403. The horticidtural artist is employed in designing and painting fruits, flowers,
plants, implements, and horticultural structures and gardens, but chiefly in drawing fruits
and flowers, tlie gardens and structures being more commonly drawn by the horticultural
architect, or landscape-gardener.

7404. The landscape-gardener, or layer out of grounds ; Artiste jardinier, TngSnieur des
jurdins jnttoresques, or Anglais, and Jardinier paysagiste, Fr. ; Garten kUnstler, Ger. ; and
Artiste giardiniere, Ital. This species of counsellor gives designs for disposing of the
plantations, water, buildings, and other sceneiy, in parks or landscape-gardens, and ge-
nerally for every thing relating to the arrangement of a country-seat, excepting the archi-
tecture of the mansion, offices, and other buildings; but in what respects the site of these,
and^hc exposure of the principal fronts and apartments of the house, his counsel is re-
quired jointly with that of the architect.

7405. The gardening author may be considered the most universal kind of garden-
counsellor, since his province extends to every branch of the art. The simplest variety
of this species is the author of remarks, or an essay, or treatise on one particular plant
or subject ; the most comprehensive, he who embraces the whole of the science and art
of gardening ; but the most valuable, he who communicates original information.

Sect. IV. Patrons of Gardeyiing.

7406. Every man who does not limit the vegetable parts of his dinner to bread and
potatoes, is a patron of gardening, by creating a demand for its productions. He is a
consumer, which is the first species of patron, and the more valuable varieties are such as
regularly produce a dessert after dinner, and maintain throughout the year beautiful
nosegays and pots of flowers in their lobbies and drawingrooms.

Book I. BRITISH GARDENS. 1043

7407. Aviateurs (lovers of gardening). Tliese promote the art by the applause they
bestow on its productions, of which, to a certain extent, they become purchasers.

7408. Connoisseurs (critical or skilful lovers of gardening). These promote the art in
the same way as the amateur ; but much more powerfully, in proportion as approbation,
founded on knowledge, is valued before that which arises chiefly from spontaneous affec-
tion. By the purchase of books, engravings, and drawings, from wliich, in great part,
this species of patrons acquire their knowledge, they may be said to be eminent en-
couragers of counsellor-gardeners.

7409. Employers of gardeners, whether of the serving, tradesman, or counsellor classes,
are obvious and undoubted patrons of the art.

7410. Occupiers of gardens of necessity employ both serving and tradesmen gardeners,
and when they are amateurs or connoisseurs, are often great encouragers of the art ; for
every one is not so fortunate as to rank among the

7411. Proprietors of gardens, who are the most eminent of all patrons, promoting
every department of the art, and employing serving, tradesmen, and artist gardeners. A
man whose garden is his own for ever, or for a considerable length of time, whether tliat
garden be surrounded by a fence of a few hundred feet, or a park-wall of ten or twelve
miles, will always be eftecting some change in arrangement, or in culture, favorable to
trade and to aitists. " I pity that man," says Pope, " who has completed every thing
in his garden." " Apres mes enfans et deux ou trois femmes que j'aime, ou crois aimer
k la folic, mes jardins sont ce qui me fait le plus de plaisir au monde ; il y en a peu
d'aussi beaux." {Memoires et Let Ires du Prince de Ligne, torn. i. 117.)

Chap. II.

Of the different Kinds of Gardens in Britaiii, relatively to the different Classes of Society, and
the diffh'ent Species of Gardeners.

7412. In order to form an estimate of the importance of gardening to a people, and
of the duties of gardeners in filling different situations, it is not only necessary to notice
the different species of gardeners to wliich it has given rise, but also the different kinds of
gardens ; the classes of society u'hich enjoy them ; and the sjyecies of operators and patrons who
cultivate and encourage them. In this view, gardeners may be arranged as private, com-
mercial, or public establishments.

Sect. I. Private British Gardens.

7413. Of jrrivate British gardens, the most numerous class of gardens, and those the
most regularly distributed over the British isles, are those of the country laborer, or what
are usually denominated cottage-gardens. Next to his cottage, the laborer finds his
garden the most useful and agreeable object, by supplying a part of his food, affording an
agreeable source of recreation, and presenting an opportunity of displaying his taste in
its cultivation. To the laborer who has no cottage or garden, human life presents no
hopes ; his future extends only to a few days ; he has no consolation but in the contem-
plation of fixed wages, which the most fatiguing exertions can in no degree increase, and
of which, in the case of illness, he has only tlie amount of a week to interpose between
ithe absolute want of lodging and food. But tlie laborer who rents a cottage and garden
is secure at all events of a roof to cover him ; he can multiply his pleasures and pains by
the addition of a wife and children ; and he knows that he can live for a certain time on
the produce of his garden. By these hopes he is consoled. Besides, he has that most
desirable object, something that he can call his own ; and is thus enabled to participate
in the feelings which belong to the love of property and progeny — feelings often, indeed,
mixed with pain, but wliich nevertheless, have been an object of ambition from the earliest
ages of the world.

7414. Cottage-gardens, in a moral and political point of view, are of obvious importance ;
attaching the cottager to his home and to his country, by inducing sober, industrious, and
domestic habits ; and by creating that feeling of independence which is the best security
against pauperism.

7415. The extent of the garden of a laborer ought never to be such as to interfere with his employment
as a laborer ; unless it is sufficiently so to enable him to dispose of part of the produce in the manner of
a market-gardener ; or to keep a cow and dispose of her produce. But as it will rarely happen that in
either case he can compete in the market with the regular market-gardener or farmer, tlie most useful
extent of garden is that which shall occupy his own leisure hours in the oi)erations of digging and plant-
ing, and those of his wife and children in hoeing, weeding, and watering. This will generally, as already
stated (7296.), be something between one eighth, and three sixteenths of an acre, including the space on
which the cottage stands.

7416. The vegetables which may be most profitably cultivated by the occupants of this description are,
cabbages of the early heading sorts, hardy borecoles, as the German greens, early potatoes, parsneps, tur-

3X2

i044 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Paut IV.

nips, carrots, onions, leeks, pease, beans, and kidneybeans ; a plant or two of celery (not to be blanched),
thyme, mint, and chives for seasoning ; and a few plants of rhubarb for tarts.

7417. The fruit-shrubs, which ought never to be omitted, are the gooseberry, and black and red currant,
as standards, in the margins of the plots, or against the walls or jxiles, if the garden is surrounded by
these : tl>e kinds of gooseberry should be those which grow with straight upright shoots, as the Manches-
ter and Warrington reds, the amber, yellow globe, rough green, and crystal. The fruit-trees should be
of the best l)earers among the baking apples and plums ; as the hawthorndean, and any of the codling ap-
pies for early use, the grey russet and winter pearmain for winter and spring ; and the damson, bullace,
and winesour plums ; thg may-duke cherries, or yair, an I a winter bergamot pear may be added. If the
climate and aspect is favorable, the most southerly sides of the house may be covered with a white musca-
dine, or black July grape, or otherwise with pears in the best aspects, currants in the worst, and a rose and
honeysuckle on the poi oil. (See 7310.)

7418. In the vianagement of cottage-gardens, no opportunity should be neglected by the
cottager of collecting manure from the highways, from the grass, weeds, and mud of ditches
and lanes ; leaves of trees, soot-ashes, and all household refuse, should be collected, and the
whole mixed together in the dungliill (1977.)j and turned frequently over before using.
In the culture of these gardens, the principle of -a change of surface (2549.), and of a ro-
tation of crops (2556. ), should be attended to ; and also that of continually stirring the soil
among growing plants as deep as possible ; of watering in dry weather, regularly every
evening, and of gathering by hand all worms, snails, slugs, grubs, and other insects, as
fsoon as they appear. Of potatoes only tlie early sorts should be cultivated in the cottage-
garden, because that plant is now so generally a subject of field-culture, that for a main
supply the cottager will find it cheaper to purchase from the farmer ; or to rent a few
square yards of a field devoted to drilled green crops, and cultivate himself as many as
may serve his family and his pigs and poultry. Besides, in either of these ways, he is
more certain of obtaining potatoes of good quality, as even thougli the sorts be changed,
still tlie quality is much deteriorated by repeated culture on the same spot.

7419. Improvement of cottage-gardens. It would be a most desirable circumstance, if
proprietors who keep head gardeners would desire them to attend to the gardens of the
cottagers on their estates ; to supply them with proper seeds and plants ; to propagate for
them a few fruit-trees, and distribute them in the proper places in their plots ; to teach
them modes of culture suitable for their circumstances ; and to enforce them by adequate
motives of hope or fear, of reward or removal, as the case might require. In this way, at
no additional expense whatever to the proprietor, much happiness might be diffused ; and
constantly recurring objects too often indicating wretchedness, or at least slovenlinese,
rendered useful, neat, and even ornamental.

7420. Domestic improvement of cottagers. It would also be a very desirable circumstance if some of the
female servants, or even some of the charitably disposed female members of the family, would instruct
the cottagers' wives on their estates in improved modes of cookery, washing, making, and mending. It is
astonishing how ignorant and how extravagant the humblest classes are in these respects ; it is rare to
find in operation any principle of action, or much regard to economy in domestic management. It ap-

if soup to the baking of pastry. Much might be done
different ways before her. For example, soup from

ifferent that made by merely boiling the ingredients
aunatmcl, and that by burning a part of the butter; adding toasted crumbs of bread, a few leaves of
chives, and half a leaflet of green celery ! How few cottagers know how to make the most of their bees,
which, besides honey, aflfbrd a most refreshing and enlivening drink, little inferior, when properly made,
to champagne. Man, in the condition of a day-laborer, is generally so much engagetl in procuring the
raw materials of subsistence, that he is without leisure to invent the machinery, or resort to the manipu-
lations necessary for manufacturing them into the best fabrics. But let him once be properly instructed
in this matter; let him once feel the enjoyments of which, even his condition of life is susceptible, and he
■will not easily afterwards relinquish them. In a state of labor and servitude, man is generally so dull and
stupid, that almost every degree of refinement, or sensation beyond that of mere animal feeling, is lost on
him. The rich man is happily willing to put his hand in his pocket to help him ; but that merely affords
a temporary relief from evil. To supply instruction in plain practicable economy, and patiently to follow
it up till it becomes a habit in the instructed, is to effect a radical improvement in this condition of life ;
which will be felt by the subjects of it during their lives; and being transferred to their posterity like
other habits and customs, must ultimately ameliorate this most numerous and efficient order of society.

7421. Supplying economical knowledge to cottagers. Something in furtherance of the above ideas might be
effected by distributing tracts on cottage-gardening and house-economy ; but man, grown up in ignorance
without the habit of reading, does not readily receive instruction from books. His want of experience in
book-knowledge prevents him from discerning what is practicable from what is speculative, and conse-
quently he cannot, like the man who is conversant both with books and practice, seize on what is valuable
and appropriate it to his use. The mind requires a certain preparation before it will receive new ideas ;
and its faculties must have been exercised on ordinary matters, before reason can be properly employed,
on any subject not common. Tracts, therefore, among the laboring classes are chiefly useful to their
children ; and if children were taught the common labors and operations of husbandry and domestic
economy at school, which they might easily be by the Lancasterian method of instruction, it would fit
them for entering on a life of labor with superior advantages, both in point of performing their labor,
and in making the most of its reward.

7422. Tlie cottage-gardeTis of artificers, that is, of operative mechanics and manufac-
turers, small tradesmen, and other country artisans, differ from those of the common la-
borer in being somewhat larger, and in having a larger portion of the space devoted to
the culture of fruit-trees and flowers. Tliey are cultivated by the occupier and his family,
and very frequently sufficient ground is connected with these gardens to enable the oc-
cupier to keep a cow or horse. These indeed are often half-starved animals, producing
little benefit to their owners beyond the feelings of satisfaction which the idea of possess-
ing them confers. In several parts, and especially the north of England, and generally
in Spptland, the gardens of artisans differ from those of the cottager, in being held on a

pears to be all work at random, from the making of soup to the baking of pastry. Much might be done
by taking any one cottager's dish, and cooking it in different ways before her. For example, soup from
vegetables, water, and a little butter only. How different that made by merely boiling the ingredients

Book I. PRIVATE BRITISH GARDENS. 1045

long building-lease, and In being situated in or around large towns. The most re-
markable gardens of this description for riches, order, and beauty, are at Norwich, where
they first originated (373.); at Spitalfields, near London, amon^ the residences of the
silk weavers ; at Manchester, and other Lancashire and Cheshire towns ; and at Paisley
and Glasgow. The occupiers are generally their own masters, having their looms or
other implements of trade within their dwellings, and being employed by merchant-
manufacturers, or taking their goods to a common market. They are generally an intel-
ligent, industrious class of men, who take great delight in their gardens, and the point of
practice in which they excel is in tlie production of florists' flowers. Norwich is, or used
to be, noted for carnations. Spitalfields is still noted for all the competition flowers,
but especially for auriculas and tulips. Manchester for auriculas and polyanthuses, and
also for the production of new varieties, and large specimens of gooseberries ; and Pais-
ley and Glasgow for pinks. The florists in Lancashire, indeed, excel in every branch of
their profession, and are also famous for their success in cultivating the potatoe, which
was in general use in this county long before it was known in many others. The artisans
of Paisley are, perhaps, the most intelligent of their order in the world ; even the speeches
of what were called the radical reformers of this town, astonished by their argument and
style ; and the success of the florists, and the laws of their association, are not less surpris-
ing. (See Lancashire and Renfrewshire, in the succeeding chapter.)

7423. The farmer's garden (7293.) varies in extent from an eighth part to a whole acre
or upwards, according to the kind of farm. Lord Kames ( Gent. Farm. 297. ) considers
a fruitfiil kitchen-garden as the chief accommodation of a farm ; yet farmers in general
pay very little attention to their gardens, even where the best systems of agriculture are
preserved. They are managed in the smallest farms by the farmer himself, with the oc-
casional assistance of his men, and of the female part of his family ; in tliose of a
higher kind, where the farmer is not personally an operator, they are noanaged by a
laborer, who is generally kept on the farm for cleaning hedges, clearing out furrows, and
doing such extra field-work as cannot be performed by the regular hands of the farm.

7424. In tradesmen's farms, large, or what are called gentlemen's farms, villa farms, and fermes crnies
the gardens are commonly managed by a gardener, who is expected to assist in the fi«ld during the hay
and corn harvests j and, therefore, he seldom rank^ high in his profession.

7425. The products of common fanners' gardens are of the most useful and hardy kinds ; but those of
villa and ornamental farms contain hot-houses, and often produce many of the luxuries of regular viUa
or mansion gardens. Indeed, were farmers disposed to excel in gardening, no class of country residents,'
excepting landed proprietors, have an opportunity of indulging their taste so variously and extensively,
and at so httle expense. In the first place, supposing a farmer to have a lease for twenty-one years, at a
fair rent ; whatever state he finds the farm in ; if it be enclosed and subdivided, he may render it a ferme
ornee, by leaving strips of pasture round all the arable fields, and connecting these by gates in such a way
as that he may form a drive or riding (7280.) round and through the whole. Secondly, he may form, or
enlarge and arrange, the kitchen-garden, flower-garden, orchard, and the portion of lawn and pleasure-
ground round or beside the farm-house, at pleasure. Thirdly, he may heat hot-houses, pits, and hot-beds,
at the expense of labor only, by fermenting his farmyard-dung in such pits as West's ^fig. 230.}, in such
vineries as Anderson's [Jig. 461.), or in other vaults for pines {fig. 4fi2.), or behind walls or pales, to force
fruit-trees. Perhaps one of the simplest modes for a farmer to take the benefit of his fermenting dung
would be to have a line of pales to serte as a wall for training on, hinged at the surface of the ground.
On these, when placed in a position forming an angle with the ground of 45°, the trees should be trained.
Then, when the dung is to be placed behind, the ^es should be elevated to the perpendicular, and the
dung dropped down in cart-loads, and laid up in a regular ridge, sloping towards the pales, but perpen-
dicular on the north side. Tliis being formed, the pales should be folded back en the slope, and the ad'
vantage of this plan over that of fixed upright pales would be, that as the dung sunk the pales would
sink with it, and by being always in close contact, would receive more heat than by the usual mode, in
which, when the dung sinks, it separates from the pales, and then the whole surface of the dung being
exposed, the heat ascends, and is lost But an exceeding good plan for every description of forcing or
exotic culture, .would he to construct houses on the plan of West's pit, with all that part of the north
wall under the level of the earth or floor for the pots substituted by cast-iron or stone pillars, and wooden
gates between. These would facilitate the putting in and taking out of the dung, and, being shut close,
no part of the heat would escape. These plans are only for amateur, or proprietor farmers, for the'
common commercial or market farmer could not devote either sufficient capital or attention to the
subject. He, in general, leaves the care of his garden to his wife, whose taste and ambition does not
often carry her ideas farther than a cucumber-frame ; though a small green-house, and even a vinery, as
it requires so very little attention (see 3041.), might often be added, in order to enhance the enjoyments of
this class of society.

7426. Street-gardens, and the smaller suburban gardens (7287. to 7292.), are the next
classes in point of number. They differ from the former in being almost always gardens
of pleasure, consisting of a grass-plot (complot, Fr. a design or device,) with a border,
or a few patches of flowers in front of the house, and a gravel-plot or grass-plot behind,
sometimes substituted by a plot for culinary vegetables and small fruits. Their
extent may be from an eighth to half an acre, and they are managed by jobbing-garden-
ers by the day or year. As the jjlants and turf are soon injured by the smoky and con-
fined atmosphere incident to their situations, the finer plants and trees do not tlmve in
them, and the sorts which do succeed, and even the turf, require frequent renewal.
Evergreens and early spring flowers, both of the tree and herbaceous kinds, are most
to be desired as permanent plants for these gardens ; and in summer a display of an-
nuals is made from transplanted plants furnished by the jobber, whose great object ought
to be to keep up a succession of flowers, and to keep the grass and gravel in order, and
the whole perfectly neat.

3X3

1046 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Tart IV.

7427. Tradesmen's villas (7284.), of the smaller kind, may contain from a fourtlj part
to a whole acre, and are commonly managed by a sort of hybrid gardener, who acts
also in the capacity of groom, or of house-servant. On a larger scale they are managed
by master gardeners of the lowest kind, as from such situations they can seldom rise to
be head gardeners. Besides attending to the duties of the jobber, as to suburban gar-
dens, the citizen's gardener ought to study to procure early and late crops of the ve-
getables most in use ; as peas, kidneybeans, potatoes, turnips, &c., because at these
seasons they are dear to purchase. Main summer crops are of less consequence, as they
may be procured cheap at market. For similar reasons, he ought never to be deficient
of salads, pot and sweet he! bs, tart plants, &c., as these are dearer to purchase in pro-
portion to other vegetables, because less in demand. If there are frames, hot-beds, and
hot-houses, the same general principles are to be observed, viz. when the whole of what
is necessary for the consumption of the family cannot be raised, to raise such crops as,
whether from their kind, or the seasons at which they are grown, are most dear to
purchase.

7428. Where amateurs of gardening have gardens, they are generally cabinets of rural
beauty, however small. We may offer as examples that of R. A. Salisbury, Esq. which
consists entirely of plants in pots, which fdl a court of a few yards square in Queen-street,
Edgeware Road, London ; and that of Topham, of Elkins's-row, Bayswater, which is
not much larger than that of Salisbury, but in which the choicest flowers are sunk in
pots, and changed whenever they begin to fade. This garden i? a speck of perfect beauty
in its kind. There are a few plots round London similarly treated, and but a few. On
a larger scale are numerous amateur gardens; that of the Comtc de Vandes, at Bays-
water, contains two acres, and is remarkable for its botanical collection, its standard
roses, and the neatness with which it is kept : but the plan of the garden, its cul de sac
walks, ill proportioned borders, and paltry boundary fence of pales, spoils every thing.

7429. The gardens of connoisseurs vary in extent; perhaps the largest and best fur-
nished is that of Knight, the first of all horticultural connoisseurs, at Downton Castle,
which, with the experimental ground, contains several acres, and various hot-houses, pits,
and frames. In general these gardens are to be considered as horticultural workshops,
and beauty and order is not to be looked for. Regular gardeners are very seldom em-
ployed. Knight says (Hort. Trans, iv. 17.), " My gardener is an extremely simple
laborer, he does not know a letter or a figure." One horticulturist with whom we are
acquainted, employs only women ; another, only boys ; and several do all the work
themselves.

7430. Suburban or citizens^ villas (7285.) may be considered as occupied by a more
wealthy class of citizens ; or if not more wealthy, possessing more of the taste and ton of
good society. These gardens or residences contain always a portion of lawn or field, as
well as a kitchen-garden and shrubbery, and may extend from one to ten acres. They
generally contain hot-houses of some kind, and are managed by a regularly bred master-
gardener. Besides attending to the duties of a tradesman's gardener, he must bear in
mind two things ; first, as the families who occupy such places are generally constant
residents, he must provide enjoyment both of the agreeable kind from the flower-garden
and plant hot-houses, and of the useful kind from the culinary and fruit-garden, for
every month in the year ; and secondly, he must attend to the habits of the family as to
the kinds of productions and enjoyments preferred. The great art of deriving enjoyment
from a country-residence of this description, is to provide an interest, a hope, and a
fear, for every season, or even for every month in the year. By observing the chapter
of monthly productions of horticulture (6038.), and the table of monthly floricultural
productions (6741.), the resources which these branches afford are readily discovered.
There are also other resources in the nature of culture ; such, for example, as raising
flowers or fruits from seed. In this view it is good to have some seedlings of early and
late flowers, as of the polyanthus and dahlia ; of early and late fruits, as of the currant
or strawberry, and apple, to come into flower and bearing every season. Other devices
for exciting and keeping alive interest will readily occur to the reflecting gardener.

7431. With respect to the habits of a fa mill/, it is not only the duty of a gardener to
grow those vegetables, fruits, and flowers, of which the members consume the most, or
of which they are fondest ; but he must also look for other habits of enjoyment ; as
whether they are fond of walking in the garden, and at what times and places, so as to
have every thing in the condition and order best adapted for those purposes. Some de-
light in smells, and for such, the most odoriferous plants should be distributed along
the walks ; others in sounds, and for these, the trees and plants which produce the fruits
preferred by singing birds should be planted ; or birds, in portable avaries, distributed
through the grounds. Some, in walking, may prefer not being seen by workmen, or
at least not meeting them in the paths on which they enjoy this mode of recreation ;
others may take delight in seeing work going forward, and even in asking questions
of the operators. >

Book I. PRIVATE BRITISH GARDENS. 1047

7432. In all families there are invalids at some dme or other, and a great object is to
render the garden an alleviation to tlieir sufferings. Some afflicted in the lower ex-
tremities can only walk, on grass-walks ; others, from asthma, may not be able to stoop
to smell to or gather a rose or a gooseberry ; others may require to be carried round the
hot-houses in a chair, or wheeled along the walks reclining on a couch, and covered with
a glass case. Grass-walks, standard roses, and gooseberries, elevated pots of plants, hot-
house paths uninterrupted by pots, and gravel-walks smoothly rolled, are obvious luxuries
for such persons. A sick horticulturist, confined to his chamber, may derive some en-
joyment from having pots of plants brought before him for a few minutes, to show him
their progress ; and also by relations of what work is going on, and what articles are
vegetating in the garden. When life is under the pressure of disease, any object or
measure which can divert the attention for a moment affords relief; for though night
cannot be turned into day without tlie presence of the sun, its darkness may be lessened
by a speck of the dimmest day-cloud. It does not often happen that residences are laid
out purposely for invalids ; but where tliis is the case, the designer ought to contrive
gently inclined planes instead of steps or stairs, and to avoid all comers in walks and
paths. Easy turnings in walks are also a great luxury to studious persons, who tliink as
they walk. For this reason, an author, if he can afford any other garden than a pot of
mint, should surround his plot with an oval path, that he may walk on without end, and
without any sensible change in the position of his body.

7433. Whether a famili/ is of retired or public habits ought to be noticed by the gar-
dener. A retired family will derive most satisfaction from the useful products, and the
personal recreation tliey can take in their garden. A public or fashionable family, on
the contrary, from its beauty, high order, and keeping. Beautiful objects are formed to
be admired, that is their use, and what renders them so desirable, and their possessors
so much envied ; therefore those who possess beautiful objects in order to derive the
enjoyment they are calculated to confer, must court applause by inviting such friends as
are likely to become admirers. Let no man shut himself up in the midst of beautiful
rural nature and think he will be perfectly happy, lest he should be forced with the satirist
to ask —

— — " What is nature ? ring her changes round.
Her three flat notes are water, plants, and ground."

7434. To be condemned to jklss ayi eterniti/ in a pleasure-ground, would be perhaps as
dull as to pass it in a conventicle. Man is a social being, and never can reject the habits
to which this part of his nature gives rise with impunity. To be happy he must see and
be seen : it is the operation of tliis principle that has rendered tlie most beautiful seats of
the country show-places, or places which all the wOrld are invited to come and admire, as
Blenheim, Mount Edgecumbe, Hackfall, &c. ; which induces others to publish accounts
of their seats, as Dr. Letsom of Grove Hill, the late T. Johnes, Esq. of Hafod, &c. ;
which leads the citizen to place his box or lodge, and the artisan or laborer his cottage or
cabin by the roadside ; and which, in short, impels the humblest individual to court
applause by making his powers, either of purse or mind, known to those around him. A
gardener, therefore, must attend to these general principles of our nature, and apply them
in his department as well as he can ; for much, it is evident, depends on his studying the
effect of the scenes under his charge, and keeping them in the most perfect order and
neatness for inspection.

7435. Villas. (7278.) The grounds and gardens of tliis class of residences may occupy
from ten to a hundred acres, or upwards ; they are generally managed by a head gardener,
with one or more journeymen, and probably an apprentice, and with the occasional assist-
ance of men and women laborers. The kitchen and flower gardens of places of tliis sort
are generally good, and well furnished with hot-houses ; the shrubbery also is carefully
laid out, and planted with choice shrubs and trees ; and as the proprietor is generally an
opulent commercial man, he is liberal in his annual expenditure. The gardeners at such
places are generally well paid, no limits put to the dung, implements, structures, or
assistance they may want, and left more entirely to their own discretion than those in the
service of country-gentlemen. Their responsibility is, tlierefore, so much the greater,
and they are quite unpardonable if they do not excel in their art, and, above all things,
in keeping the whole scene under their charge in tlie utmost order and neatness. It fre-
quently happens, however, that soon after a gardener has got into such a situation, and
become familiarised with his garden, and the habits of his family, he begins to consider
his place as a sinecure {sine, adv. and cura ; i. e. without care), and instead of arduously
endeavoring that the productions of the current year shall surpass those of the year past ;
instead of adding more and more to the enjoyments of his employers, he begins to try
witli how little they may be put off; and the object of his ambition, which ought to be to
delight and astonish his family, is ultimately lowered to that of contenting them. This
sort of lethargic indifference, brought on by plenty and ease, is not peculiar to gardeners ;
it is a condition of our nature, wliich also furnishes checks to its increase after a certain

3X4

1048 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

period ; but it is the business of cultivated man to apply these checks at an early stage,
and thus to lessen the evils to all parties.

7436. Tlie mnplest check to indolent gardeners is the demands of their masters, who
seeing at other tables, and in other gardens, productions superior to their own, and know-
ing that they spare no expense, &c. naturally enquire into the cause of the default. This
sort of observation when abroad, and comparison with home, ought never to be neglected
by tliose who wish to keep servants of any description to their duty. The deficiencies and
bad points of other gardens and gardeners may be let alone ; but their excellencies should
always be particularised, and dwelt on to our own ; and where a failure happens in the
one case, the reasons required for the other's superiority in that particular, and our in-
feriority. If the master ultimately becomes dissatisfied with the condition and produce
of his garden, let him first call in the nurseryman who recommended the gardener, as
counsel for both sides ; and let him consign him to this nurseryman, with such a charac-
ter as he may be considered to merit.

7437. On the order and neatness with tvhich a garden is kept, so much of its beauty
and effect depends, that often as we have mentioned the subject in the course of this
work, we must again advert to it. Many excellent gardeners are deficient in these par-
ticulars, from causes which, at first sight, would seem calculated to have a contrary
effect ; such as staying constantly at home in their own gardens, and daily inspecting
every part of them. The consequence of this is, that the changes which take place in the
growth, decay, or deterioration of objects is so gradual as not to be observed, and that an
object seen twice every day for ten days, seems the same thing the twentieth lime which
it did the first, when, in fact, and to the person who has only seen it two or three times,
it is something different. To illustrate this, let us suppose a collection of green-house
plants, newly shifted, surfaced, pruned, trimmed, tied, washed, and replaced on the stage,
and that one man attends to the watering of them regularly every day for a month.
They are newly shifted plants the first day, and consequently require nothing done to
them ; so they are the second, third, fourth, and so on, even after a week or ten days
tliey are so considered, and this notion now becomes habitual to the attendant. Every
day as he enters the green-house to w ater, he sees, wdthout even opening his eyes, (that
is, the idea recurs,) a stage of newly shifted plants, all fresh, and free from weeds and
decayed leaves, and wanting nothing ; therefore weeds and decayed leaves he never
thinks of looking for, but waters on ; whilst a stranger, or one who has not seen them for
a few days, is struck with the slovenliness displayed, and though perhaps the same thing
may take place in his own garden, or his own department in the same residence ; he goes
away not willing to benefit the other by corrective advice, but " thanking God he is not
like this man."

7438. This cause of slovenliness we think there are few gardeners who will deny to be
correctly stated ; and we think, the cause being discovered, the remedy very easily pre-
sents itself. Let master gardeners not inspect every part of what is under their care eveiy
day at the sayne time, and in the same order, but let them omit some parts on some days,
occasionally omit the whole, and often vary the time and order of their visits. Let them
also, instead of going round to look if such and such scenes are in order, go impressed
with the idea of finding them in bad order, in search of particular sorts of weeds, of de-
cayed, damaged, or straggling parts of plants, insects, &c. It may seem ludicrous to add,
let him go round sometimes in the night instead of during day ; but we are persuaded
that viewing particular scenes by the light of a lantern or the moon, would present them in
such a new aspect, as would probably show deformities or deficiencies. It is a common
observation of servants, that after their master has been a day or two confined with illness,
or on the morning after an evening of dissipation, he is generally very apt to find fault
and be cross, and diflScult to please. This is actually the case, and is satisfactorily
accounted for without reference to humor or temper : the master sees faults which before
escaped him, because the machinery of his faculties has been deranged, and he sees dif-
ferently. But why does he see faults rather than beauties ? Because it is his business
to seek for them, and this impression being habitual on his mind, the strongest images re-
flected by the eye are of that nature.

7439. Visiting neighboring gardens is another important part of a head gardener's duty.
This should be done with a view not only to order and neatness, but also to good culture,
intelligence as to the state of gardening, &c. ; he should not limit his visits to those
near him, but include all the principal gardens for forty or fifty miles round ; and he
should, at least, once a-year, visit the capital or the metropolis, to inform himself, by
means of the nurseryinen, and among the numerous first-rate gardens that are always found
round capital cities, the horticultural societies, and agricultural libraries, of what is going
pn in the gardening world.

7440. The mansion and demesne (7270. ) is less common than the villa near large towns,
but more so in the country. The proprietors are sometimes coinmercial men, but inore
generally country-gentlemen. Their extent varies from a hundred to a thousand acres,

Book T. PRIVATE BRITISH GARDENS. 1049

or upwards, and, in addition to the park and gardens, they contain a home or fkmily
farm managed by a bailiff. The garden-scenery, as in the case of a villa, is managed
by a head gardener, sometimes more circumscribed in his operations, but always re-
spectably provided for, both as to his person and garden. The worst point attending
residences of this description is, that the business of gardener and bailiff is, sometimes
in England, and often in the other districts of the empire, united ; and the consequence
almost universally is, that the business of both situations is very imperfectly performed.
The master's object in attempting this union is obviously the saving of a bailiff's wages,
which, it is allowed, is an apparent saving, though certainly not always so ultimately.
The gardener and bailiff cannot be present at one time, both in the garden and on the
farm ; he must pass alternately from the one to the other, and it may be questioned
whether the time lost in his absence from both, while going between them or at market,
and from the one while on the other, does not more than counterbalance tlie wages of
a bailiff, independently of any other consideration. But the loss both to the farm and
garden, in cases of this sort, though not very obvious at first sight, is very considerable
when details are entered on. No man brought up as a gardener can at once become a
good bailiff ; and admitting that he may become one in time, yet he acquires his ex-
perience at his master's expense. It is generally imagined that a gardener makes a
good arable farmer j: but tliis he does not become without experience ; for though he may
know what good culture is, and may bring the fields of com or green crops under his
charge into a state of good cultivation, yet he may do this at much too great an expense
to afford any profit. But the management of arable land is but a small part of a bailiff 's
duty ; the grand object is the breeding, rearing, fattening, buying, and selling of live
stock ; and a knowledge of these parts of farming cannot be acquired under several
years' experience. In the mean time, the losses to the master by bad marketing must
be most considerable. Suppose the gardener and bailiff goes to purchase a few scores of
sheep, and a dozen of oxen for feeding, every grazier knows that on the natiu-e of the
Jeel alone, which no man can communicate to another by description, much of the value
of the animal depends. But a gardener knows nothing of tliis feel, and the tact of dis-
covering it is not to be acquired but after such a course of experience as no prudent
master, who knows any thing of the subject, would wish a bailiff to acquire in his ser-
vice. As much might be said on the con-ectness of judgment required in selecting
animals to breed together, and in the shrewdness required for marketing ; the latter, a
duty totally inconsistent with the retired habits of a gardener.

7441. Thdt some gardeners may become good bailiffs we readily allow, because a man of moderately good
natural faculties and persevering application, will acquire any thing ; but from the nature of the duties
which a bailiff has to perform, and the time he must occupy on the farm and at market, it is impossible he
can attend sufficiently to the garden. We have never yet known an instance where the duties of both the
offices were well i>erformed by the same person, but almost universally found both the garden and farm
deficient in the products expected from them. That the master is content is no proof to the contrary, for
knowing no better, he naturally considers what he has as the best

7442. From the country-gentleman^ s gardener, who does not unite the duties qfhaUiff, a good deal is ex-
pected ; he must know his profession well ; he cannot probably from limited extent and means produce
all he could wish, or that a g.irden should afford, but what he undertakes to raise he must raise in per-
fection, according to the kind and season, and the main crops in sufficient quantity, because he cannot,
like the citizen's gardener, have recourse to Covent-garden, nor like the villa-gardener, surrounded by
neighbors, borrow from them melons, mushrooms, or asparagus, in cases of emergency. He has one
duty also which does not belong to either of these classes of gardeners, that of packing and sending fruits
and other garden products to town when the family reside there.

7443. The mansion-residence may be considered as including all those between the
villa and the royal palace. The dwellinghouses are called houses, halls, courts, or
palaces, according to the custom of the country, where they are situated ; or castles,
abbeys, or Grecian buildings, according to their style of architecture ; and mansions or
palaces, according to their extent and magnificence. The mansion-residence consists of
the same parts as in the mansion and demesne (7270.) ; it may contain from five hundred to
ten thousand acres, or upwards, and the whole is managed in the first-rate establishments
by the following officers : — A secretary, who receives the commands of the master, and
conveys them to the house-sleioard, who manages the expenditure of the house and offices,
and gamekeeper ; to the land-steuard, who manages the tenanted lands, receiving rents,
and seeing to the fulfilments of covenants in leases, repairs, &c. ; to the bailiff^, who
manages the family farm ; and to the gardener, who manages the garden-scenery, in-
cluding the park, as far as respects the trees and grass, and the internal plantations or
forests.

7444. The gardener ivho occupies ajirst-rate situation has under him a forester, for the
demesne-woods and park-trees ; a pleasure-ground foreman for the lawns and shiubbery ;
a flower-garden foreman, a forcing-department foreman, and a kitchen-garden foreman.
A horse and two-wheeled chaise is kept for his use, by a boy, who also acts as his mes-
senger and house-servant. He lives in a respectable house, near the kitchen-garden,
with a stable and cowhouse not far distant. His wages are from 150/. to 300/. a-year,
independently of a free house, fuel, and other advantages. He should be at the head of

1050

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

his profession when he enters on it ; and keep himself at the head of it, by taking care
to be informed of every improvement and invention in his line, as they are discovered
and made public. He must not only know all that is in books, but must be in advance
in knowledge ; not only ready to apply all the best practices, but fertile in expedients
on extraordinary occasions, and in cases of novelty, difficulty, or emergency. Necessi-
ties and difficulties, as they occur, excite the inventive faculty far beyond reflection or
study ; therefore we can afford little assistance here, except recommending the gardener
who is ambitious to excel in his profession, first to store his mind with all tiie resources
of gardening, and next to lay up in his memory as many ideas as he can on all other
subjects, but especially on art and science. Next to books on gardening and agricul-
ture, and the topographical surveys of every kind, he should have frequent recourse to
the best encyclopaedias of general knowledge, and observe the operations, and converse
much on professional subjects with mechanics and artificers of every description. Much
useful information is to be obtained from carpenters, millwrights, and smiths, and all
kinds of information may occasionally be applied to use in so varied and extensive an art
as gardening. '

7445. Some idea of the extent of the duties of a fiead gardener who fills a first-rate
situation, may be had from the chapter of monthly horticultural productions, the table of
floricultural productions, and arboriculture and landscape-gardening, as treated of in
this work ; and therefore all that we shall attempt here, in addition to what has just been
offered on the subject of the duties of gardeners holding inferior situations (7426. to 7442. ),
is to enumerate a few of the expedients, some of them common and others uncommon,
which every description of gardener will have occasion to practise more or less ; but
which more particularly demand tlie attention of gardeners of the highest class, who, not

eing limited in expense, are expected not to be deficient in producing all the comforts
and luxuries that a garden can afford. We shall arrange these hints under the four de-
partments of practical gardening.

7446. Expedients and anomalous practices in the horticultural department.

To have early crop* ofherbaeeous vegetables in the open air. Sow
in pots early in spring, one seed in a pot of the smallest size,
place them in a gentle hot-bed, shift into larger pots as they
grow, and when all danger from frost is over, transplant
with the balls entire in the finely pulverised rich soil of
a warm bonder. Peas, beans, turnips, potatoes, carrots,
saladingofaU sorts, and spinage may be hail very early in

* this way.

Stable-dumr is very scarce, and a great quantity is wanted for hot-
heds and pits. Collect the spray of trees, copsewood, and
hedges ; cut it into lengths of three or four inches, with a
straw-cutter, and mix it with the dung. Add cai-penters'
shavings, flax-dressers' refuse, leaves, reeds, rushes, peat,
moss, heath, or any substance capable of undergoing the pu-
trescent fermentation.

Tamiers' bark is scarce. Add spray, furze, or heath, chopped
with the straw-cutter to the length of the chips of bark, also
chopped shavings of wood, parings of leather, &c.

Autunm-planted cabbages and caulijlon'ers, and also spinage and
onions have failed. Sow early in spring single see<ls in small
pots on heat, shift often, and transplant in the warmest litu-
atiou when all danger from frost is over.

To forward early seedling crops. Sow in the usual way under
cold-frames, and remove them when all danger from frost is
over. Peas, spinage, and turnips, may be had tliree weeks
earlier than usual by this practice.

AU your ground is cropped, atid some crops not lik ly to be remolded
in time to let those tvhich are imtnediaiety to succec.I them, he got

'kem,
in season. Forward the succeeding crop in pots, and
veu, transplant

ilh the

soon as the preceding crop is reinovt
balls entire.

The garden is too small for the cidinary produclions. Forward
the brassica tribe in pots, and only head or flower them in the
compartments. Instead of hot-beds, which oc^cupy much hori-
zontal space, have cucumbers and melons on hot- walls cover-
ed with glass: train other creepers, as love-apples. New Zea-
land spinage, gourds, &c. on upright trellis-work or pales, the
})otatoe-hauIm to stakes ; stick all peas ; train gooseberries,
currants, and all dwarf trees as espaliers.

Sorts of fruit not approved of. Engraft or ir.oculr.te ether sorts.

You. have some exelleiU sorts of peac/ies or oilier soft tree fruits,

7447. Expedients and anomalous practices inJloricuUure.

The gravel-walks earthy and ill colored ; a large parly is expected.

which you wish some person to taste at a distance, too great or
too inconvenient to sejmlhe fruits themselves. Send some blos-
som-buds either in spring to be scollop-budded, when they
will produce their fruit the same year, or in the usual bud-
ding season.

Trees old and not productive. Head down and renew the soil,
and see that the roots are not too deeply buried.

To have late crops of hardy legumes and leai^es. Plant the latest
crops in large pots or boxes ; keep them plunged in the open
air, and remove them when there is danger of frost to any of
the forcmg-houses not in operation. In damp weather, light
gentle fires in the daytime, but not at night; in frosty
weather, light gentle fires at night. In this way peas, beans,
kidneybeans, cauliflower, spinage, &c. may be had in a good
state till January or later.

The furnaces or flues of a house in adion are suddenly deranged
daring a severe frost. Distribute pots of burning charcoalor
peat over the floor or paths of the house, and cover the glass
with mats.

To lessen the danger of the sun scorching plants in hot-houses cr hot-
beds. Fill them with clouds of steam, by pouring water on
the ground or otherwise.

You have lately renewed yotir tun-b€d, and the heat is too great for
the vines which are plunged in it. Begin at one end of the pit,
and take out a row across the pit ; then whelm hot saucers at
the bottom of each hole left by the pots ; lift the second row,
and set the pots on the saucers : they will thus be surrounded
by air instead of earth. When the tan cools replace them as
before.

Grafts nf fine fruits are received, for wliichyou have no stocks, and

you do not wish to put them on old trees. Dig up some roots
of trees of the proper kind, and make stocks of them; graft-
ing, and afterwards planting in Knight's manner. (20,'57.)

Never forget that grafting aiid Inulding may lie perform' d at any
season 07 Me year, (though best in certain seasons,) and on herba-
ceous as welt as woody plaids, on roots and tubers as well as on
stems, stalks, and ligneous shoots.

Consider the sap of plants as a stream that you may direct and
nwdify almost at pleasure : that a great many plants may be
propagated from leaves alone, &c.

wish to give the walks a fresh and good appearance

thi ■ ■ ■ " •■" '- • ■■

:cor
be yellow or brown

■\Vater them with water impregnated with hme and yellow
red ochre, according as the natural color of the gravel may

The pleasure-ground is deficient in singing lirds. Distribute
cages of Canary and other birds in song, hanging them on the
trees in unseen situations.

Thf, flower-garden atul shrubbery deficient in odoriferous plants, to
produce an immediate remedy. Distribute pots of mignonette
(or Persian irisearly in the season), and also bottles of water,
containing the ends of sprigs of sweetbriar, birch, baLsam-
iioplar, balm of gilead, and other firs , place these so as not to
be conspicuous, and renew them as they decay.

To diff'use odors in the atmosphere on pariiciddr occasions and
during dry weather. Sprinkle the odoriferous plants with the
water-engine.

A large party is expected at a particular time ; to give freshness
ami odor to the whole flower-garden. Sprinkle every part
with water, excepting the walks; if with rose-water, which
may be made at little expense where there is extensive shrub-
berries, and kept for sprinkling the hot-houses; so much
the better.

Y'oii expect a large party to Hsit the plant hot-liouses, and they
liave been fumigated with tobacco the night before. In one
distribute sprigs of terebintliinate trees, as the spruce and
sUver firs ; m another, sprigs of briar ; in another, birch,
verbena triphylla, mignonette, bruiseil leaves of acorus ca-
lamus, and so on: then sprinkle with pure water. Or
do not use plants, but merely water the whole witli rose-
water; or use a little musk, orange-water, or other artificial
odors.

Some of your houses are very unsightly from accidents to plants,
insects, or other causes ; bitt company is expected to go through
them at a particidar hour. Contrive to have them filled with
sweet smells at that time. Distribute a few choice tilings in
pots near the eye; which, by attracting the attention of the
spectator, will help to divert his eye from defect or disease,
and to estimate what is concealed by what is seen.

After a dry summer your lawn is covered wi h brmvn bl"tclifs,
on account of the shallowness of the soU, it is desired to give
a temporary green appearance. Water these places v.iih
lime and water, mixed with green color, the lime serving
as a body.

A quantity qf large green-house plants suddaily arrive, and I'o
house it ready to put litem into. Place jiolcs agaiivit a louih

Book I.

PRIVATE BRITISH GARDENS.

1051

wa!l, and place the sashes of your spare hotbeds over them
in the manner of slates.
To form temporary jcii of rraler. Procure one or any number
of cast-iron, or other strong vessels, which may hold from
six to thirty, or fifty gallons or upwards : let each vessel have
a tube reaching from what is to be its top within an inch of
its internal bottom ; this tube must have a nozade to unscrew,
and also a stopcock. The vessel being half filled with water,
an air-condenser is to be screwed to the pijie, and the air
powerfully condensed, then turn the stopcock to prevent
the escape of the water ; unscrew the condenser, and screy
on the nozzle for the jet. All is now ready for operation, and
the vessel may be placed in the situation where the jet is
desired : here it may be either set in an excavation made to
fit ; or concealed by plants ; or the vessel may be a vase, or
made in any ornamental form. Being placed where it is to
operate, it may remain for any length of time before using :
to set it at work, it is only necessary to turn the stopcock,
and according to the diameter of the orifice of the nozzle, it
will throw the water from ten to fifty feet or more in height,
irraduallv diminishing in height, as the water is expended,

gradually diminishing in height, as the

the quantity of water con-

Thk principle admiu of great variety,
n, and might be made to j
though 1
teinporary , they would not be objectionable oa that account.

I produce
very splendid efiects ; and though these ettects would be but

as in this 'climate, already cold and moist, the constant play
of jets of water is by no means desirable.
To produce harmonious toundt in the Jlorrer-^arden, in the het-
houtet, or near arbors, seats, 4c. Place i£oUan harps in proper
situations, as in Germany.

To disperse an agreeaiUe odur suddenly and porrerfullxf. Charge
one of the jet-vessels with air, having previously mtroduced
some of the odor in the form of oil or essence, &c., then
operf

• again
: the !

produce the discharge at the proper time and place, or charge

with rose-water. ... . ,

To direct a stream of ddeterioiis air against insects m hot-houses at

a distance from the path. Direct the stream through a long

tin tube, or charge a jet- vessel with the smoke or air.
To syringe plan's rvithout a syringe or engine. Use a brush or

birch-broom dipped in water.
To recover plants in hot-houses injured by fr&st. Shade two or

three days from the sun, and keep the temperature Terj Uttte

above the freezing point.

To shore the e^ict of buildings. Erect poles, and stretch canvass,
or nail boards on them, so as to torm the sky outline of the
nrooo^ed edifice.

ground. Stud it over -with

7448. Erpedienls and anomalous jJractices in landscape-gardening.

To render a dtUl part of the park more interesting. Build a

hay-stack there ; or erect a shelter for cattle ; or on tem-
porary occasions pitch a tent ; or place a portable hay-rack

with food to attract deer or cattle ; or send some men to work

on the spot.
To vary on an extraordinary occasion a dull, uninteresting part

of the horizon. Cause a fire to be lighted of green wood, or

such materials as by the ascending smoke will break the line

in the proper place.
To vary for afetv seasons the front of a mass of rcood. Disbark

one or two trees at proper places at the surface of the ground,

and when dead they will produce a break. For a few neeks .-

cut a tree while in leaf, so as its leaves may wither and

remain on, or water with the engine and lime-water.
To give an idea oftlte effect n'hich a piece of water in a particular

fiace, and of a particular shape, n-ill have. Mark out the

shape, and "water the surface with lime-water ; when dry the

effect will be obvious.
To give a foreknowledge of the effect of a gravel-walk in any par-
ticular place. Mark it out, and water with lime and yellow

ochre.
To show the effect of frees. Use jioles with crosses at top, or

better, uae eistire trees, the thinnings of plcUitations.

7449. Expedients and anomalous practices in arboriculture.

A handsome tree has lost some branches on one side, or is disfigured
by the removal of another tree. Trv and arrange the branches
by cords or strong wires, as is done in greenhouse plants
with threads.

To cover a tree rapidly with creepers. Place leathern bags of
earth, containing plants of the sort of creeper desired, nere
and there on the trunk and principal branches ; tie them flat
to the tree, so as they may not appear conspicuous.

To

or even green straw or hay-ropes, over these. Uay-rop
from well-got hay, are cheapest, and, if of sullicient numb
answer perfectly.

To give a poetical and pastoral air to a scene for the i
Kmploy a person with a flute to play at particular times ;
drive cattle to drink at a sueam; pass a flock of sheep that
way, &c.

To give a forest character to particular parts of the park or rroody
scenery. Introduce shagged horses, and asses ; show the re-
mains of a fire ; leave some branches or felltd trees, &c.

To direct the eye to a particular point, either to oliserve its beauties,
or to preieiU it from obseriing some deformiUes in the same
scene. Place a white object there, as a hay -rick, man

tng s
Place a white object there, as "a hay -rick,
work with his coat off, white cow, or horse, &c. if the back-
ground be ground or wood; and adarkob/;ct, if sky or water,
if the scene be a lake, then place a boat at the point to which
you would attract the eye.

A quantity of valuable trees arrive .from a distance, very much

injured aiul driid up, and too ItUefor planting in the usual way.

Immerse in water, or bury entirely in earth ; then puddle

and plant; or plant for one se.ison in a shady part of the

nursery ; or plant in pots, and place these on heat, when rare

kinds, till they begin to grow.
A violent wind has bloivn down a nundier of trees. Lop their tops,

and prune and arran^ their roots, replacing them upright ;

they will produce effect much sooner tnan young trees.

' 7450. To some of these expedients it may be objected, that they are deceits or temporary
tricks ; but if they are so, they are in the spirit of the scenery to which they belong, and
they are calculated only to produce pleasure, not pain to any one ; none of them are false-
hoods, or calculated to make a thing of one nature appear to be of another. We have not
directed the display of artificial fruits on wall-trees, of the fruiting of orange-plants from
the shops, of milliners' flowers in green houses, or living figures placed on pedestals as
statues, of fountains in mourning by making them run out ink, of altars and temples,
with persons in proper costume sacrificing on them, of mock buildings or animals, scoops
or painted perspectives ; all which and other deceptions are recommended and practised
by the French and Dutch.

7451. Gardens of royal palaces. The government-gardens of this country are tliose of
Windsor, Hampton Court, and Kensington ; that of Kew being a private royal garden.
None of them are in any respect worthy of their rank : the garden at Windsor is without
hot- houses ; that at Hampton Court consists chiefly of some pine-pits and a \-inery ; at
Kensington, great part of the kitchen-garden is cultivated by the plough, and the only
two tilings which render it wortli notice are its pine-stove.5, and the public gardens or
pleasure-ground. The garden-structures at Kew are in a state of decay, and the gardens
are never in first-rate order, often slovenly, and always confined as to arrangements. It
is said these tilings arise from want of funds ; and from the low rate at which the oper-
ators are paid in these gardens. This seems to be the case, and it is much to be regretted,
as it prevents the royal gardeners from displaying their skill and taste. Judging from
the pine-apples grown in the forcing-departments at Kensington and Hampton Court,
there is reason to believe this would be highly creditable to tliemselves, and exemplary- to
the nation.

7452. The royal gardeners were formerly much consulted by private gentlemen on the
subject of their profession ; this is still the case, though in a much less degree, and more
noAv as to garden structures or culture, than as to matters of design and taste. With re-
ference to this circumstance, the professional skill of royal gardeners ought to be of the
first order, as their opinion will always be law to a certain number of the court ; but for
tlie culture and produce of the gardens (situated as tliese now are), less professional skill
is wanting in a royal gardener than in a private head gardener, as deficiencies in products
can always be made i:p from the commercial gai'deners, or from Covent-garden.

10554 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

Sect. II. Commercial Gardens.

7453. Of comtnercial gardens, the lowest species are what are called ploughed or Jar-
mers" gardens. One or two are to be found near all large towns, and a number round
London. They extend from fifty to a hundred and fifty acres or upwards, and are almost
entirely cultivated by the plough and other a.gricultural implements. Their possessors
are small farmers, and the chief difference between this farm-gardenings and common
farming is, that the green crops that intervene between the corn crops are more highly
cultivated, and instead of being consumed on the farm, are sent to market as culinary ve-
getables, or food for stall-fed cows. The crops of every kind, but especially the green
crops, are cultivated in drills, two close together, witli a wide interval, by which means
abmidance of room is left to plough and horse-hoe the broad interval, and to sow a suc-
ceeding crop there before the other is removed. In this way two crops are obtained most
years, as a specimen of which we shall mention one of the common rotations, viz. 1. Peas,
with dung, two rows near each other, and a wide interval ; 2. Turnips in the intervals ;
3. Drilled wheat between the turnips ; 4. Turnips, with dung, in drills after the wheat.
These four crops are put in, and removed witliin two years, the ground being in good
heart.

7454. Tlie seed-garden is the next species, and forms one of the points of union between
horticulture and agriculture. These gardens or small farms are not numerous, and con-
fined chiefly to two or three counties near the metrojwlis. They consist of from five to
twenty acres or upwards, in part cultivated by the plough ; the occupier is not generally
a bred gardener, but sometimes is so, and unites with the business of seed-grower that of
market or nursery gardener. The seeds he cultivates are generally limited to a few
kinds ; thus chervil, radish, and cress seeds are grown chiefly in the neighborhood of
Saffron- Wal den in Essex ; cabbage-seeds at Battersea ; onions at Deptford ; peas in Kent,
turnips in Norfolk; rape in Lincolnshire; mustard in the county of Durham, &c. The
great art is to grow the seeds true to their kind, for which purpose one grower must not
attempt too many varieties of the same species, but he may grow a number of different
species, and of varieties of the same species, provided they do not come into flower at the
same time. Such seeds as are raised in large quantities, as turnip, mustard, cress, maw or
poppy-seed, p^,s, &.c. are either sold privately by samples, to the London or other seeds-
men, or exposed publicly in the seed-market in Mark-lane, London, or in local country
markets. But for the greater number of seeds, the practice is for the nurserymen abou;
London to grow a sample of it in their own grounds as pure and perfect as possible, and
then to send it to the seed-farmer to be sown and cultivated by him, and the seed ripened,
cleaned, and sent to the nurserymen, at a fixed rate, by the cwt. or bushel. Flower-seeds
are generally grown by nurserymen themselves ; many of the other sorts by maiket-gar-
deners, and many kinds are received from the head gardeners of private gentlemen.

7455. Grass-orchards ( Vergers agrestes, Fr.) form the next point of union between farm-
ing and gardening. There are a number of them in the cider counties, and in die Vale
of Clyde, and Carse of Gowrie. A suitable soil and site are chosen, the surface, if not
in pasture, is sown with grass-seed, and standard fruit-trees, chiefly apples and pears, and
sometimes, as in Shropshire, plums and walnuts are planted in rows, and properly fenced.
They receive little pruning, and generally receive no other care but that of gathering the
fruit, which is either made into cider ; stored in cellars ; or sent immediately to market.
As the trees get old and covered with moss or mistletoe, or infected with canker, shakes,
or rottenness, they are scarified, headed down, and sometimes regrafted or rooted out and
renewed, according to circumstances. (See The Orchardist, by Bucknal, and Hints to
Proprietors of Orchards, by W. Salisbury. )

7456. Ploughed orchards differ in nothing from the grass-orchards but in being con-
stantly or occasionally under aration. The trees stand in quincunx, and every year the
direction of the furrows is changed : thus, the first year it may be ploughed east and
west ; the second, south-east and north-west ; the third, south and north ; and the
fourtli, south-west and north-east. The stem of each tree is thus left in the centre of a
square or rhomboid of turf of four feet on the side. The ground is cropped as in com-
mon farming, or fami-gardening.

7457. Market-gardens. (7358.) The number of these is considerable; their situation
is near large towns or seaports, and their extent from one to fifty acres or upwards ;
some near London extend to upwards of a hundred acres. The object of all is to pro-
duce culinary vegetables and fruit for public sale, either as called for at the garden or
garden-shop ; as wanted by the green-grocer ; or exposed in the public market. Some
of these gardens are general, producing every description of culinary fruit and vegetable,
hardy, exotic, and forced, in demand ; of which, as examples, may be mentioned ihe
Earls Court garden, of upwards of sixty acres, and with extensive hot-houses, by Gunter ;
the Hoxton garden, nearly equally extensive, by Grange ; and the Isleworth gardens, by
Wilmot and Keens. Other gardens near the metropolis are devoted chiefly to particular

Book L COMMERCIAL GARDENS. 1053

crops ; as that of Biggs, at Mortlake, to asparagus ; some at Battersea, to cabbage and
cauliflower ; at the Neats-houses, to celery ; at Deptford, to asparagus and onions ;
Charlton and Plumstead, to peas, &c. In some gardens attention is chiefly paid to
forcing early, and growing late crops ; in others, as at Lambeth, by Andrews, exotic
fnn'ts, as pines and grapes, are chiefly grown. At a greater distance from town, articles
of easy carriage, as gooseberries, strawberries, asparagus, tart-rhubarb, sea-kale, &c. are
leading articles ; and in small gardens in the immediate vicinity of the metropolis,
nothing is sent to market ; but salads, as water-cress, radishes, lettuce, parsley, herbs,
and flowers are the chief articles grown, and they are sold in small quantities on the
spot. The market-gardeners near seaports direct their attention chiefly to the produce
of cabbage, onions, turnips, and such vegetables as are in demand as ships' stores. In
most parts of the country" it happens, that from bankruptcies, absence of families, and
such like causes, the produce of a number of private gardens is sent to market. This is
a good deal the case near London ; but so much so round Liverpool and Blanchester,
that scarcely a market-gardener is to be found near these towns. Indeed, many of the
citizens there who possess villas and gardens, cultivate them as much for the sake of the
disposal of the produce as for their own enjoyment.

7458. Market-gardeners on a sjnall scale have generally been master or head gardeners,
•who have acquired a capital from a number of years' servitude ; those occupying more
extensive concerns are generally the sons or successors of other market-gardeners, and
possess considerable capital. An important point in the culture of these gardens is to
supply abundance of manure and water in dry weather ; these always produce luxuriant
and succulent crops of leaves, though obviously injurious in respect to flavor. A proper
rotation and change of surface are also important ; and in smaller crops it is a material
point to have the rudiments of one crop always ready to succeed another. Thus radishes,
lettuces, and onions are sown on asparagus-beds ; the radishes are soon drawn, and suc-
ceeded by the lettuces and onions, which are left only in places where they will not injure
the asparagus ; the lettuces come into use soon after the asparagus is cut, part of the
onions are drawn young, and tlie rest left to bulb. In the alleys between the beds,
cauliflowers are i)laiited early in the season, and between these, at a later period, cucum-
bers, which, with their runners, cover the vacant parts both of the alleys and beds. Thus
six crops are obtained in succession, and the ground is clear by October for landing up
the beds. Early cauliflowers are generally a profitable crop. The seeds are sown in
August, pricked out, and planted under hand-glasses, six under each, in October. The
glasses are placed in rows, ten feet apart, and at four feet distance from centre to centre
in the row : thus an acre contains 1092 glasses. After the cauliflowers are planted, the
ground is sown with lettuces and spinage ; if the lettuce stands the winter, it is valuable,
and grows fast when the soil is stirred round it in INIarch. About this time, four of the
six plants under each glass are removed, and planted in a warm situation, or in the shel-
tered alleys of the asparagus-beds. About the beginning of May the cauliflowers are too
large for the glasses, and are just coming into flower. As they are gathered and their
roots removed, they are replaced by cucumber-plants, previously raised in hot-beds, and
now containing two or more proper leaves. In July the middle of the intervals between
the rows of glasses is planted witli endive, and between each glass two cauliflower-plants
are planted to come in late. Thus five crops are raised, all valuable ones, if the ground
was pre\-iously in good heart, and was kept frequently well stirred, and quite free from
weeds. The following are common rotation : 1 . Radishes, carrots, savoys or cabbages, or
coleworts ; 2. Early turnips, autumn cabbage ; 3. Spring turnips, French beans, savoys,
or peas and spinage, and leeks or broccoli.

7459. In S(m<ing broad-cast crops it is found of advantage to sow several sorts of seeds together, because
«ome of them may fail or be destroyed by insects after they come up : if all come up and thrive, then such
sorts as are least valuable may be treated as weeds. Thus onions, radishes, lettuce, and carrots, are often
sown together ; sometimes the carrots are wed out, and the best crop is the onions ; at other times the
onions partially fail, and are drawn for salading or transplanting, and the lettuce is the main cropj
Radishes are often sown with turnips, as a sacritice to the fly, while the turnips escape.

7460. In general all transplanted crops, and as many sown ones as possible, are drilled ; and for bulky
crops, as cabbages, peas, beans, &c. it is an approved practice to sow or plant two rows near to each other,
and then leave a wide interval, in which a dwarf early crop, or crops of short duration, as spinage, let-
tuce, &c. is sown. By the time the main crop is at its full size, the inter-crop is removed ; the ground is
then dry, and another crop, as cabbages or turnips, introduced, which is ready in its turn to succeed as
the main crop. In this way, no part of a market-garden is ever left naked or cropless, at least during
summer, and though these intervening crops are often injured when young by the shade of the main
crops, yet, if the ground be in high order, they soon recover when freely exposed to the air, and the
ground is stirred. If the land, however, is not in good heart, it is a better system to adopt a rotation, and
stir the whole ground well between each crop, because here, the soil being poorer, a greater volume is
required to supply the same nourishment : quantity is substituted for quality.

7461. With respect to the comparative market value of crops, they must, on the general average, be nearly
on a par ; if one crop is at any time dearer than another, it is in consequence of being more precarious or
expensive to raise ; if one article is very dear at one time, it is immediately overgrown, and becomes pro-
portionally cheap. To grow something of every thing is safe for those who have extensive concerns ^
select things for those who devote their whole attention to small spots; and things long of coming to per-
fection, as tart-rhubarb, sea-kale, asparagus, &c. to those who have capital - It is never advisable to
propagate a dear article very extensively, as every body is likely to be doing the same thing ; it is better
even to adopt a contrary practice.

1054 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Pari IV.

7462. A good deal qf the profit qf market-gardening depends on studying the state of the market ; in
gatliering crops sparingly when things are low, and in sending liberal supjAies at times, where, from
weather or other causes, they are, or are likely to be high. This requires both judgment and capital, for
the needy grower must sell at any price.

7463. Orchard-gardens. These are distinguished from the parterre or field orchards,
in being cultivated with the spade, and cropped like a market-garden ; indeed, they are
so much allied to market-gardens, as hardly to require any separate discussion. In
general, several kinds of fruit-trees are cultivated together, as tree-fruits, shrub-fruits,
and herbaceous fruits ; but some spots, from the soil, and probably superior culture, are
noted for particular kinds of fruit, as Twickenham and Roslin, for strawberries ; Maid-
stone, for filberts and cherries ; Pershore for currants, &c. An account of the Isleworth
mode of growing strawberries has been given in the Horticultural Transactions by Keens,
an eminent grower of fruits and culinary vegetables. The filberts are planted in rows
alternately with rows of cherry-trees ; and, as temporary crops, a row of gooseberries,
currants, or raspberries, are planted in each interval. Currants are grown extensively
round Pershore, and the fruit sold to the manufacturers of British wines. They are also
grown in Kent and Essex in rows eight feet asunder, and four feet from tree to tree.
Early in spring the ground is dug, and sown with spinage ; to that succeed potatoes,
and to those cabbages, which last are gathered as coleworts before winter : four crops,
including tlie fruit, are obtained in one season.

7464. Herb and phi/sic gardens. 'Iliese are of limited number and extent, and gene-
rally occupied along with market or seed gardens. There are one or two for peppermint
and a few other herbs, near Edinburgh, and the rest are in the vicinity of the metropolis,
and chiefly at Mitcham in Surrey. Peppermint is a principal crop, which requires a
moist soft soil, and to be taken up and replanted every three or four years. Lavender is
grown to a considerable extent on lean soil, as is chamomile, wormwood, rosemary,
thyme, &c. Licorice and rhubarb require a deep free soil ; roses, which are grown in
large quantities for their flowers, require a rich soil ; white lilies and colchicum, grown
for their bulbs, require a new soil. In one or two gardens near the metropolis, many
species of herbs are grown to gratify the demand of certain classes of medical men, of
self-doctors, and of quacks and irregular practitioners. Formerly there were many gar-
dens of this sort ; apothecaries generally grew a great part of their own herbs, and col-
lected the rest in the fields ; and hence the reason why so many of them formerly were
eminent as botanists ; but at present the only remarkable herb-garden is that of Messrs.
Dicksons and Anderson at Croydon. These herbalists and seedsmen have constantly
on sale, at their long established and respectable shop in Covent-garden, upwards of 500
species, including all the varieties mentioned by Culpepper and other herbalists of the 1 7th
century. There are still one or two herb-shops which collect their simples in a wild
state ; but land is now so generally cultivated, that even if there were a demand for
native herbs, this mode would not be very successful. It may be mentioned as a curious
fact, that in Weston's time, (say about 1750,) winter savory, chamomile, pennyroyal,
peppermint, &c. were grown in the common fields -near London, where cattle were
turned out all the winter ; the scent of these herbs being so disagreeable to these animals
as to cause them to avoid them. (JVestons Tracts, &c. 71.) All herbs should be
gathered dry, and in sunshine after dry weather ; they should be dried in the shade, and
when perfectly dried, pressed close by a press or weights, and enclosed in paper. Tlie
packets should then be deposited in a dry place, and when opened for use always carefully
shut afterwards. The practice of hanging up herbs in loose bundles, tends to dry them
too much and dissipate their flavor.

7465. Market Jlower-gardens. These are devoted to the culture of flowers for sale
when in blossom ; either cut as nosegays, or in pots. They are chiefly to be found in
the neighborhood of the metropolis, where a sort of division of objects exists among
them. Some gardens are noted for their roses ; others, as that of D. Carter at Fulham,
for growing the narcissus tribe ; Colville in the King's Road, for geraniums ; Henderson
at Paddirigton, for cheap heaths ; the Bedford nursery for mignonette ; and Smith, at
Dalston, for forced flowers of all sorts. These gardens are not large ; generally from
one to a dozen of acres, and they are occupied by gardeners who have been brought up to
this department of their profession. The standard articles of cultivation are roses, espe-
cially the moss-rose for nosegays ; the monthly rose is also much grown in pots for spring
and autumn sale. The sweetbriar is in demand for its odor ; honeysuckles, lilacs,
mezereons, rhododendrons, azaleas, spiraaas, double and scarlet-blossomed jasmines,
laburnums, rose-acacias, are in great repute, especially when forced. All sorts
of evergreens, as pines, firs, laurels, cypresses, arbor-vitaes, hollies, yews, and above all,
laurustinus and box, are much in demand for decorating balconies, flat roofs, areas,
courts, lobbies, &c. Potted fruit-trees in bearing have generally a ready sale, and espe-
cially the grape and peach.

EOOK I.

COMMERCIAL GARDENS.

1055

Tlu common forvert fv
narcissi, hyacinthS;

■ notegmt an snowdrops, anemones,
(iimculusc

__ uses, tulips, liliums, auriculas,

polvanthu^, carnations, pints, sweetwilliams, sweehieas,
waililowers, many other border-flowers, and most of the
biennial and annual kinds.

T'l? liorrert ynionged in duration In/ being placed under gtats
before frost approaches, being in pots, are nii>3ionette,
gtxjcks of all trie sorts, nasturtiums, Teronicas, violets, gen-
tians, monthly roses, laurustinus, clematis, dahlia, and chry-
santhemum.

The forced ,flotcers are chiefly the pink tribe, violeU, wall-
flowers, ten- week stocks, common stocks, hyacinths, crocuses.

narcissi, tulips, tuberoses, irises, roae-campums, sweet-
peas, lupins, roses, lilacs, sweelbriars, mezereons, &c.

Tne exotics in tnost conimun demand are myrtles, seraninms,
hydrangeas, heaths, camellias, Chinese roses, heliotropes,
fiicKsias, &c-

The fiotrering plants generalltf kept in pots are auriculas,
polyanthuses, pinks, czmtiations, violets, foxgloves, vero-
nicas, dahlias, chrysanthemums, phloxes, and saxifragas of
sorts, most of the bulbs and many of the annuals and biennials-

Tht flowers blonrn in rraier-glasse's are the hyacinth and nar-
cissus chiefly, and also the crocus, tulip, amaryUis, cclchi-
cum, iris, &c.

7466. Of mignonette, perhaps more pots are sold in aiid near tlie metropolis than of any
otlier potted plant whatever; fifty years ago it was hardly known. Next to mignonette
may be named stocks, pinks, sweetpeas and wallflowers, among the hardy plants;
hyacinths, among the bulbs ; and geraniums and myrtles, among the exotics. Some
years ago heaths and camellias were chiefly in repute ; these being found diflicult to
keep in living-rooms, the public taste has changed, and the flower-grower varies his pro-
ducts accordingly. All these, and other sorts of plants in pots, are also lent out by the
market-florist, to decorate private or public rooms on extraordinary occasions, but espe-
cially for those midnight assemblages called routs. This is tlie most lucrative part of
the grower's business, who generally receives half tlie value of the plants lent out, as
many of them, and generally those of most value, are so injured by the heat as never to
recover.

7467. Florists' gardens are devoted to the culture of florists' or select flowers for tlie
sale of the plants and roots. There are not many exclusively devoted to this branch, ex-
cepting near Manchester and the metropolis. Those near Manchester, Paisley, and
most otlier provincial towns are generally on a small scale, and cultivated by men who
have auxiliary resources of livelihood ; but near London are some extensive concerns of
this sort, particularly those of Milliken and Curtis of Walworth ; Davy of the King's
Road ; Mackie of Clapton, &c. ; the first is celebrated for tulips and most bulbs ; the
second for pinks and carnation ; the last for auriculas. This is one of the most delicate
and diflicult branches of gardening, and is only successfully pursued by such as devote
their exclusive attention to it. The great diflBculty is to preser\-e fine varieties, and keep
them from degenerating or sporting ; many gardeners, excellent propagators and culti-
vators of hot-house and green-house plants, find it a very diflScult task to grow a fine
auricula or carnation ; and their flowers would cut but a poor figure at the florists' shows,
either near London or in the countr)'. Much depends on the soil, which requires to be
rich and well mellowed by time. It is also the most precarious branch of commercial
gardening as a means of subsistence, since tlie purchasers are not so much the wealthy
mercantile class who possess villas, or the independent country gentlemen, in whose gar-
dens fine florists' flowers are seldom seen, as the tradesman and middling class. The
income of these being temporary, that is, depending in a great measure on personal ex-
ertion, and the current demand for their produce is, of course, easily aflfected by political
changes, which make little diflTerence to the man whose income arises from a fixed
capital.

7468. Nursery-gnrdens. ~ (7335.) In these are propagated and reared all sorts of trees
and slinibs, and all other herbaceous plants in general demand : the culture of florists'
flowers is often combined to a cei-tain extent, and the dealing in seeds imported, bulbous
roots, and garden-implements and machines, is generally considered a part of the busi-
ness. Hence the designation of nurseryman, seedsman, and florist, formerly, and still,
to a certain degree, common on their sign-boards. Of this class of commercial gardens,
there is one or more in most counties of Britain, and a few in Ireland ; but the greater
number, and by far the most important, are in the vicinity of the metropolis. Their ex-
tent near town is limited ; some contain only an acre or two, but others occupy forty or
fifty acres ; in the country where land is cheap, some are of double or treble that extent.
Ill general they have been commenced by head gardeners, who had acquired a little capi-
tal, and continued by their sons or successors. In country nurseries, the commoner
hardy fruit-trees, and tree and hedge plants, are the chief products : near Edinburgh
and the metropolis some embrace every article of nursery produce, as the Hammersmith
nursery, unrivalled in the world ; otliers deal chiefly in fruit-trees, green-house plants,
or American plants ; and some almost limit themselves to particular species, as the ca-
mellia, erica, geranium, &c. Tlie Scotch nurseries, and especially those of the northern
districts, as that of Gibbs at Inverness, are famous for the raising of forest tree seedlings,

, wliich they send in large quantities to all parts of the three kingdoms.

7469. Tlie subject of nursery. culture embraces almost every part of gardening ; since no department
requires a more general knowledge, or so much attention and practical adroitness. The essential part of
the business is the art of propagation ; which, in some cases, as in multiplying heaths, and other Cape
and Botany-bay plants, by cuttings, and in raising even the pine and fir tribes from seed, requires very
delicate and accurate manipulation, and constant svib^equent care and attention. Even grafting, bud-
ding, and layering, require to be carefully, skilfully, and expeditiously performed, and the future pro-
gress of the scion, bud, or shoot, carefully watched. Next to propagating, rearing requires attention, and
especially tracspbnting and pruning j on the former depends the state of the roots, and of course the

1056 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

fitness of the plant for removal ; and on the latter, very often, the future figure of the tree. The Dutch
and French nurserymen are in some respects superior tradesmen to those of Britain : tliey generally re-
move all plants for sale, especially the ligneous sorts, every second or third year, and continue doing this
with fruit-trees for seven or ten years, training their heads at the same time in particular forms. The
purchaser finds tlieir heads already formed and bearing fruit, and with such tufts of fibrous roots that
they suffer very little from removal. Even thorn, j)rivct, yew, and other hedge plants are trained in this
way, and readymade hedges may be purchased by the foot or yard. {Hort. Trans. 201.)

7470. TJie ?nost skUful and vigilant nurseryman can seldom mahe his practice conform to his knowledge.
Tims, many customers, from ignorance, indolence, or unforeseen circumstances, defer ordering what they
want from their nurserymen till the last moment, which consequently prevents him from applying the
requisite details of culture to his stock of plants and trees in the proper season. Thus the heading down
of fruit-trees is often delayed, in deference to late purchasers, til! the buds begin to push ; and to cut
them at that time, particularly vines, apricots, and cherries, would endanger their existence, and, at all
events, enfeeble their shoots. In this case it is necessary to wait till they have made shoots of a few
inches, when they may be headed down not with much regard to shoots which have appeared, but more
as they would have been cut in the proper season when nothing ajjpeared but buds. The plant in a
healthy, vigorous state, when so headed down to apparently dead or dormant eyes, will soon push, and
regain in a great degree, the lost time ; and, indeed, it may always be considered safe to rub off all shoots,
not in desirable situations, from healthy trees, provided it be done early in the season. Trees which are
not in full health, whether recently transplanted or not, should, in general, be left with their tops on ;
the leaves on which will prepare nourishment to strengthen their roots, and they can be headed down
the following season. Some persons, after the drawing season, fill up the blanks in the lines of fruit-
trees, with stocks to be budded the same season. This may do in new and excellent soils, and where
there is little demand for fruit-trees ; but, in general, the best way is to fill up all blanks that cannot be
filled up with the tree kind in the proper season, with culinary vegetables, either for the kitchen or for
seed, or with flowers to produce seed.

7471. The following are leading objects of nursery-management : —

7472. Correctness in the names given to plants and seeds of every description, and particularly to fruit-
trees. To facilitate this, as to seeds and roots, their names should be painted on the various boxes, sacks,
and chests in which they are kept ; and as to fruit-trees, they should be designated by numbers painted
on wooden, or better on cast-iron, tallies. Stools and stock-plants of every description, not very generally
known, and, if possible, the whole of those planted along the borders, whether known or not, should
have their systematic and English names painted on similar tallies ; and smaller herbaceous plants in pots,
and all exotics in pots, excepting such as come under the head of fruit-trees or plants, as vines, pines, &c.
should be named on small wooden tallies, written with a black-lead pencil on white-lead newly rubtjed on.
Seton's number-stick {fig. 161.) is by far the best fbr temporary numbers to fruit-trees, or for numbering
sown seeds or small plants. Some employ leaden, iron, or cojjper tallies, painted, but these are too con-
spicuous, and require too much labor in the preparation for a nursery. It appears to us, that, to prevent
the chance of substituting one sort of fruit-tree for another, either by accident or design, the following
mode might be adopted : le't a catalogue of fruit-trees be printed by the nurseryman, and let it contain
against each name the number placed against the plant in the nursery ; then every autumn before the
drawing season commences, let a person with steel types of the numerals, and a marking-iron with the
initials of the nurseryman, go through the rows of fruit-trees and beginning at No. 1., say of apples,
put type 1. in a proper socket prepared in the marking-iron, and mark each tree fit to m.ove, a few inches
above the graft ; let him next do the same with No. 2., having changed the t>-pe ; and so on with the
apples and all other fruit-trees, not excepting the peach. This would not supersede the use of parch-
ment labels to plants sold, but it would afford both to the nurseryman and the public who purchased
his catalogue and his trees, a certain means of detecting error ; as, should the label drop off in the hurry
of carrying the trees to the packing-court, or in unpacking when arrived at their final destination, the
number on the bark and the published catalogue could readily be referred to. If performed with a
email sharp instrument, this practice could do no harm to the tree.

7473. Punctuality, accuracy, and despatch, in executing all orders.

7474. Rather procuring or omitting an article than sending off a bad one, unless under peculiar cir-
cumstances, to be explained to the party.

7475. Cateful packing, and such as suits the sort of articles, the season, the distance, or the climate
to which they are to be sent, mode of carriage, &e.

7476. Keeping an exact account of men's time, and being particular in mustering them every morning
before the hours of commencing work, and again at the hours of rest and refreshment. This may be
greatly facilitated by causing them all to enter and go out at the same gate, which ought to be that at
the counting-house ; and a bell or horn should call them to or from work.

7477. Keeping a vigilant eye to the men while at work, especially with strangers, till you have proved
to them that you know what they can do by day or hour, by fair labor.

7478. Having one principal foretnan or partner for the whole, and sub-foreman for the exotic, Ameri-
can, herbaceous, general nursery, and seed departments.

7479. Having a proper person employed as a traveller ; or yourself or partner taking that department.

7480. Acting on all occasions with the utmost impartiality between gentlemen and their gardeners,
leaning rather to the latter, in all doubtful cases, as the weaker party, according to the common consent
and practice of all mankind.

7481. Paying all workmen, and, at all events your foremen, such wages for their labor as may not
tempt them either to idleness or pilfering themselves, or to countenance these practices in others.

7482. Publishing a printed catalogue on a scientific principle, of every article you have, or intend to
have, for sale, with the names, synonyms, some description of the fruits, and reference to a figure of the
plant or fruit in some generally known work ; and placing, as above observed (7472.), the same num.-
ber opposite the names of your fruit-trees in the catalogue, as is actually placed against them on cast-
iron tallies in the nursery, and annually in autumn, before the drawing season, impressed on all of them
fit for sale, with a marking.iron and types.

7483. Attending at all times and seasons ; and in every part of the nursery to fi-ugnhty (avoidmg mean-
ness) and neatness, keeping every where a vigilant eye, and always being beforehand rather than be-
hind, with the different operations of cultivation. Much of neatness depends on the master's insisting
that every workman shall clean up and finish as completely as practicable, every operation as he goes
along. Having taken up a tree or a plant, he ought never to forget to level up the hole ; having pruned
one, he ought at the same time to pick up the shoots, or if in a course of pruning, he should have a boy
or woman going after him to do so, or, at all events, they ought to be picked up the same day. A cor-
responding attention to order and neatness is requisite in every other operation ; and this attention once
become a habit, will be found a saving of labor, and a source of profit as well as of pleasure.

7484. The management of the seed (Iqmrtment is comparatively simple. The chief
difficulty for seedsmen who are beginners, and at a distance from the metropolis, is the
ordering the proper quantities of each seed from the growers or wholesale dealers. The
guides to this are the proportions of the different crops usually grown in private gar-
dens, and the wants of the class who are likely to become purchasers. Tlie same diffi-

Parslev will grow at six years. Dill and Fennel, five yean.
Chervil, six jears. Marigold, three ;ears. Borage, four
years.

Swai herb*, generally two years ; bat Rue and Rosemary,
three years ; and Hyssop, ax years.

Plant! lued in tarts, fie. generally two years; but the Rhubarb
only one year ; and Gourd, Pompion, &c. ten years.

Herbaceous fruits. The Cucumber and Melon, ten or more
years. Love-apple, Capsicum tribe, and Egg-plant, two years.

Annual and biennial JU)n-er. seeds, generally two years ; but
some grow with difficulty the second year: thej are sel-
dom kept by seedsmen longer than one year.

Perennial Jlower-setds, the same.

Tree-seeds. Stones, two years ; and some, as the Haw, three;
but they are in general of very doubtful success the second
vear. Acorns will scarcely grow the second year; Elm,
Poplar, and WUlow seeds, not at all. ',

Book I. PUBLIC GARDENS. 1057

culty occurs in beginning almost every busipess, and is only to be overcome by experience.
The different periods to which different seeds retain their vegetative powers require to be
known by seedsmen, as well that they may not furnish lifeless seeds to their customers,
as that they may not throw away as useless such as are possessed of the vital principle.
Though few seeds are kept by respectable seedsmen above a year, yet in cases where a
partial failure has taken place in the seed crop, most sorts will grow the second year after
that in which they have ripened. Some, however, will keep from two to five or ten or
more years ; and others for an unknown length of time.

7485. The latest periods at which the seeds viost generally in demand may be expected to
grow freely are the following : —

Cabbage tribe. Four years.

Veguminous culinary vegetables. One year.

Esculent roots. Beet, ten years. Turnip, four years. Carrot,

one year. Parsnep, one year. Radish, two years. SaUiiy,

two years, Skirret, four years. Scorzonera, two years.
Sfinaceous plants. Spinage, foirr years. \\Tute beet, ten

years. Orache, one year. Purslane, two years. Herb-
; patience, one year.
Alliaceous plants. Two years.
Asparaginous plants. Asparagus, four years. Sea-kale, three

years. Artichoke, three years. Cardoon, two years. Ram-
■ pion, two years. Alisanders, and the thistles, two years.
Acetarious plants, in general two years. IjCttuce, three

years. Endive, four years. Burnet, six years. Mustard,

four years. Tarragon, four years. Sorrel, seven years. Celery,

ten years.
Pot-herbs and garnishing plants, in general two years; but

7486. All seeds ought to be kept dry, and the air as much as jwssiMe excluded ; but tliose
liable to be attacked by insects, as the pea, bean, turnip, radish, &c. should be occasionally
exposed to air and friction, by being passed through a winnowing machine. (^5'. 283. ) The
more rare seeds should be kept in their pods till the season for using. Seeds received
from foreign countries should, in general, be sown as soon as possible after their arrival.
In packing seeds for the home demand, no particular process is requisite ; but in sending
seeds to America or the East Indies, the sorts which soon lose their vitality should be
enveloped in clay, tallow, or wax, or put up in bottles rendered air and water tight. (231 1.)

7487. Bulbous roots, with the exception of the anemone and ranunculus, can only be
kept out of ground a few months with propriety, though some are often found in tlie
seed-shops as late as May. When thoroughly dry tliey may be kept in bags or boxes,
and the more delicate sorts wrapt up in papers separately. Ranunculus and anemone
roots retain their vegetative powers two, and sometimes three years.

7488. The English seed-groivers and seed-collectors furnish the greater part of culinarj',
flower, and indigenous tree-seeds sold in the shops, but a part also are obtained from
other countries ; as of onion-seed from Genoa ; anise, basil, &c. from the south of
France ; carrot, onion, and a variety of seeds, when the English crop fails, from Holland.
The hardier bulbs, as crocus, daffodil, &c. are for tlie most part grown in England : the
other hardy sorts are obtained from Guernsey, as tlie Guernsey lily ; the Cape of Good
Hope, as ixia, gladiolus, &c. ; from South America, as the tuberose ; or China, as the
Japan lily, &.C. The seeds of tender exotic trees and shrubs are obtained from the seed-
collectors at the Cape, New Holland, and other foreign settlements; and of others from
North America.

7489. The recommendation of head gardeners forms an important part of a nurserjmaan's
duty and care, and one in which he may render essential services to horticulture. He
ought to select such as are well qualified for what they undertake, and consider himself
as in some degree responsible for the conduct of the person recommended. In addition
U> this, the nurseryman, in the yearly tour he generally makes among his country cus-
tomers to receive payments and take orders, should observe whether the person recom-
mended has acted according to his expectations, and should exhort, reprove, or approve,
accordingly. The nurseryman, while on this tour, by seeing a number of gardens and
gardeners, must, by comparison, be well able to judge of their merits ; and by judiciously-
dealing out approbation or blame, might do much good. Tlie good gardener, who had
become slovenly, from not seeing other gardens, or from the indifference of his employer,
might thus be recalled to his duty, and the art not suffered to be disgraced by his prac-
tice. This is also the time for gentlemen to state to nurserymen the faults they have to
find with their gardeners, so that they, by their advice, may endeavor to correct them.
The nurseryman who has recommended a gardener, is the only person who can act as a
mediator between this gardener and his employer ; and we repeat, that by the judicious
interference of well informed and experienced nurserymen, much good might be done ;
gardens kept in better order, and gardeners improved and retained, instead of being
removed from their situations \N-ithout being properly informed of their errors, and a
proper opportunity afforded them of amendment.

Sect. III. Public Gardens.

7490. There are very few publix: gardens in Britain ; and we can only refer to the
enclosed areas of the public squares and parks of the metropolis and principal cities, to

3 Y

1058 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

Ae botanfc gardens of the unlvefsities and other public bodies, and to the gardens of
the two horticultural societies.

7491. The public squares are generally kept in order by jobbing gardeners at a certain
rate by the year. Tlie principal part of their business consists in keeping the grass
short, by mowing once a fortnight in summer, and rather seldomer in spring and
autumn ; in keeping the gravel clean, and keeping up a display of flowers in the dug
groups.

7492. The public parks and other equestrian promenades are mostly managed by
officers appointed by government ; being once formed, and the trees grown up, they
require little annual expense. The Mary-le-bonne or Regent's Park is in part let as a
nursery-ground, and, instead of a rent, the occupier is bound to plant a certain number
of trees the first year of his lease, to nurse up these, and leave a certain number of them
on each acre at the end of his lease. A considerable part of this park is also, as already
mentioned, let to private persons for the purpose of erecting villas, which, though it will
control the rambles of the pedestrian, will give and maintain a woody appearance,
without any expense to the public.

7493. The botanic gardens of the universities are under the general direction of the
professor of botany, and managed by a head gardener or curator : those, founded by
subscribers, or a society, as the gardens of Liverpool, Hull, Glasgow, and Dublin, are
under the direction of a coimnittee, and similarly managed. Tlie duties common to
curators are the keeping up and increasing the collection of plants ; those who manage
university-gardens, have, in addition, to furnish specimens of certain plants in sufficient
numbers for the use of the professor and students. In some cases, the curator is required
to instruct students ; and in others, he is permitted to do this, and to take pupils or ap-
prentices for his own emolument. Most gardens exchange, and some, as that of Liver-
pool, sell plants and seeds.

7494. On the cultivation of botanic gardens we shall offer only a few general hints. Instead of the prin-
ciple oi rotation, is here substituted that of a renewal, partial or wholly, of the soil. On shallow soils it is
to be effected by removal of the whole, or a proportion of the old soil, and the introduction, and thorough
mixture of a proportionate quantity of good virgin loam, or of virgin peat, bog, or sand, according to the
plot or border to be renewed. In rock-works, and bogs, American grounds, and in most of what may be
called particular habitats, there is no other way ; but in the plots which contain the general arrange-
ments, deep trenching may partially or wholly supply its place.

7495. Manure cannot altogether be dispensed with in botanic gardens, "particularly for some or most of
the vegetables which will be included under the culinary, agricultural, and flower-garden departments ;
but, in general, decayed leaves is the best manure for all other plants and trees, not in a state of mon-
strosity or otherwise changed by cultivation.

7496. SAe//^rm» and s^admg^ are parts of culture which demand very considerable attention in botanic
gardens, especially in warm climates. Delicate plants which require a moist atmosphere, as some alpines
and Americans, require to be closely covered with a hand-glass, and this again partially with a wicker case
during the whole summer, even if under the shade of a wall or hedge.

7497. In sowing, and causing to vegetate, seeds ivhich have been brought from a distance, a good deal
of skill is often requisite. Sowing in very fine earth in pots, covering them with a bell, and placing them
in the shade and in moist heat, is the most likely mode to succeed, whatever climate the seeds may have
been sent from. To this, some add previous steeping of the seed in pure water, and in water impregnated
with oxygenated muriatic acid. Others water with water impregnated with this acid or with its gas ;
some charge the earth of the pot with the gas, and others invert a bell-glass over it, containing an at-
mosphere partly or wholly composed of the gas. (See Hill, in Hort. Trans, vol. i. 233.) All these modes,
and others suggested by vegetable chemistry, may be tried ; but where the vital principle is not extinct,
the first mode will generally be found sufficient. Numerous annual and biennial seeds require to be
sown every year, independently of seeds of new sorts from foreign countries. For collections of these in
beds or in a general arrangement, the mode of sowing in rows across the bed, is obviously the best ; and
Several rows radiating from a polygonal tally in the centre, is the most economical, as admitting of the
greatest number of sorts in the least space.

7498. With respect to management, there are various duties belonging to the office
of curator of a public botanic garden which are peculiar to the situation ; some of which
we shall briefly enumerate.

7499. Gathering and drying specimens to maintain the herbarium, and to exchange or give away ; fre-
quently inspecting the herbarium to guard against damp and moths j collecting and preserving seeds of
every kind for the purposes of exchange.

7500. Collecting wild plants, and seeking for new species in proper situations ; in unfrequented haunts
for herbaceous plants ; in haunts much frequented by birds, for trees ; in bays, and sheltered creeks, and
shores, for aquatics ; in rocky shores for marine plants; among the tops of snow-clad mountains in win-
ter, for mosses ; in old forests in winter for lichens, and in spring for fungi, and so on.

7501. Acclimating plants, by raising them from seeds, one generation after another, till the final progeny
will endure the open air throughout the year. Dr. Walker (Essays) states how the passiflora caerulea
was acclimated in Scotland, merely by time, without propagation from seed. Sir Joseph Banks {Hort.
Trans, vol. i. 21.), by sowing the seeds of succeeding generations of the zizania aquatica from 1791 to 1804,
" proved that an annual plant scarce able to endure the ungenial summers of England, became, in four-
teen generations, as strong and as vigorous as our indigenous plants are, and as perfect in all its parts
as in our native climate." Next to the ordinary duties of a botanic curator, this appears to us much the
most important of the services he can render the horticulture and agriculture of his country.

7502. Distributing seeds, cuttings, and plants of all sorts, among all who are likely to keep them, and
set a due value on them, but to none else. The illiberality of the administrators of some gardens, in this
respect, has been much and deservedly blamed. The surest mode of preserving a plant in the country is,
to render it as common as possible ; and the easiest mode of effecting this is, to distribute a few specimens
among the nurserymen. From an opposite conduct, many of the plants introduced at Kew, and described
in the Hortus Kewensis, are not to be found in the Kew garden ; and, thus, never having been dis-
tributed, are lost to the country. The policy of this garden, for a number of years past, is considered as
hishly reprehensible : being supported by the public, it ought to have been devoted to its service.

Book I. PUBLIC GARDENS. 105fl

7503. Gii4ng the name and history of plants to aU eager enquirers, in order to encourage a desire of
botanical knowledge : to induce a taste for botany and the vegetable kingdom, by pomting out striking
peculiarities of plants to superficial observers, in order to attract their attention ; trying to point out
things which may assimilate with the taste or foible of the person addressed ; recollecting that sexual
matters and matters bordering on the mar\'ellous, are the most generally attractive to volatile or vacant
minds : in this way " becoming all things to all men, in order, by all means, to gain some."

750*. Disseminating and dispersing seeds and plants of scarce natives, or of foreign sorts not yet na-
turalised, by placing them in their proper soils and habitats. Thus, when the aquatic plants are reduced,
throw the parts teken from rare ones, into an adjoining ditch, lake, canal or river ; scatter the seeds, and
plant the roots of wood-plants in plantations ; arenarious plants on sandy soils or shores, and so on.
Curator Anderson of the Chelsea garden scatters all his spare seeds on Battersea, Clapham, and Wandsworth
commons, and throws his spare aquatics into the Tliames. The consequence is, that though only a few
years practised, some rather scarce plants seem already naturalised in these places. Dickson, an enthusi-
astic lx)tanist, naturalised that beautiful plant, the freeh-water soldier, in the ponds about Croydon ; as
we have done the same plant, and several others, in the Serpentine canal in Hyde Park. Salisbury, one
of the first botanists of the age, and equally eminent as a horticulturist, thinking he could naturalise
on our sandy shores the pancratium maritimum, planted a bulb in the Isle of Wight, among chelidonium
comiculatum, and emigium maritimum, with which he saw it growing wild below Montpelier {Hart.
Trans, vol. i. 341.) ; " and when at school, in the neighborhood of Halifax, in 1769, he was flogged in the
Whitsuntide holidays, for helping to propagate the narcissus triandrus, and for running out of bounds to
know the name of it at North Bierly."

7505. A catalogue of every botanic garden should be printed for exchange, distri-
bution, or sale. Very complete gardens, such as those of Kew, Cambridge, and
Liverpool, find it answer to publish printed catalogues, with a view to remuneration by
sale ; but the legitimate object of a botanic-garden catalogue is, to exchange it with that
of other botanic gardens, foreign and domestic ; in order, that by comparison of riches,
exchange may be made for mutual advantage. For this purpose, it seems desirable,
that every thriving establishment should print or prepare a catalogue once a-year, or
once every two or three years. To facilitate this, it might be printed by the lithographic
process, from a list written in a small hand on prepared paper. By printing only the
botanic names, each sheet would contain nearly four thousand names, and consequently
three sheets, all the plants, native or introduced into Britain. This might be produced
stitched together, all expenses included, for a trifle ; and as the present law respecting
letters stands, might be franked in separate sheefc;. Thus a cheap communication be-
tween British botanic gardens might be formed, and tlm)ugh our foreign ambassadors,
these catalogues might be distributed all over the world.

7506. A catalogue viay be formed of Jigures, where it is not convenient to form one of
printed names. Thus the possessed or desired plants might be indicated by putting down
the numbers placed against the names of the plants in some generally circulated botanical
catalogue. If, in the excellent catalogue of Sweet, the genera had been niunbered as
in the synopsis of Persoon, it would have been the best ; in tlie mean time, Persoon's
work, as it is in the hands of most botanists, foreign and domestic, may be referred to j
and as an example of the brerity of this kind of catalogue or reference, let us suppose
one curator wishes to write to another for Varronia crenata, lineata, bullata, and globosa ;
all he has to do is to write for Per. (Persoon), 371. (the number of the genus), and 1. to4.
(the numbers of the species desired), and similarly as to all tlie plants described in
Persoon's Synoj)sis. Ten thousand plants would in this way be represented by about
11,500 figures, which might occupy one sheet of letter-paper. But ovu" EncycloptBdia
cf Plants, and catalogue entitled Hortus Britannicus, are numbered in such a way as to
render communication more facile than any mode of using Persoon, or any other spe-
cies plantarum or catalogue whatever.

7507. The gardens of the horticultural societies^ being at present in a state of embryo,
do not admit of description. The published plan of tliat of the London Society (Report
on the ForvuUion of a Garden, &c. 1823), appears to us most defective in general arrange-
ment. It is in part executed ; and if completed according to that plan, tliere will be,
as we think, a want of grandeur and unity of effect as a whole, and of connection and
convenience in the parts. One obvious error that must strike every one that has had
no part in making it, is, the forming the arboretum in a large rectilinear clump ; and
another is scattering the hot-houses and other buildings here and there over the garden.
There should, in our opinion, have been three grand parts : a centre for all tlie buildings
of every description, with the exception of entrance-lodges and resting-seats, or shelters,
&c. ; a circumference, displaying the arboretum, fruticetum , and ornamental flowers ;
and the intermediate space laid out as culinary, dessert, floricultural, experimental, na-
turalisation, and nursery gardens. The hot-houses requisite for these different depart-
ments might easily have been arranged so as to be included in each of them, and yet
forming with the other buildings a whole or connected chain round the central area, and
these might have been all heated from the same steam apparatus, and the sheds and
other parts and buildings lighted, if desired, by gas. The grand entrance should have
presented three carriage-roads : one to the centre, to which visitors could drive and inspect
the hot-houses of all the departments, and just take a coup d 'ceil of the open gardens be-
longing to them ; the two others proceeding to the right and left, and forming a circum-
ferential one, along which visitors might drive round the whole arboretum or shrubbery,
and enter if they chose by six or eight communications, at different distances, the six or

3 Y 2

1060

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Tart IV,

eight different, open gardens. This is but a first rough sketch of what might have been,
but such as it is we leave it as our protest against the present plan, from tlie details of
which the reader will judge for himself.

7506. The London Horticultural Society's garden contains 33 acres, of which 1 74 are
devoteii to horticulture (A), 13f to floriculture and arboriculture (B), and H to lodges,
roads', yards, &c. (C). v ^' 4 e >

The fruit and kitchen depuHmmt (A) conlsdni —

Eastern slip for herbs, perennial esculents, and strawberries,
and border of east wall, A 1

Orchard, A 2

Southern slip for strawberries, gooseberries, currants, and rasp-
berries, and borders of south wall, A 3

Kitchen-garden, A 4

Miscellaneous standard fruit compartment, A 5

hite for fruit glass, A 6

Pits and forcing ground, A 7

Garden for small fruits, A 8

Western slips for stocks, and fruit- wall border, A 9

Experimental garden, A 10.

The ornamental department (B) contains —
Entrance to flower-garden, B 1
i2

Site for omanental glass, B 3
Arboretum, B 4
Rose-garden, B 5
Experimental garden, B 6

The lodges, roads, and yards (C) are —
Entrance from London, and ornamental gardener's proposed

lodge, CI 6 f »~

Assistant secretary's proposed lodge, C 2
Space unoccupied at S.h. angle, C 3
Private road outside of the fence on the south, C 4
I^tchen-garden proposed lodge, C 5
Space unoccupied at S.W- angle, C 6
Yards for stables, sheds, composts, &c., C 7
Private road to Tumham-green, C 8
Entrance by the National School from Tumham-green, C 9.

Flower-garden, B !

7509. The garden of tlie Caledonian Horticultural Society is not yet in a state to be
discussed.

Chap. III.
Topographical Survey of the British Isles, in respect to Gardening.
7510. The British isles are naturally and politically more favorable to the practice of hor-
ticulture in all its branches than any other country ; in no country is so great a proportion
of the surface covered with gardens, including, under this term, the parks or landscape-
gardens, which surround gentlemen's seats. The beauty and magnificence of these parks,
and the villas, mansions, castles, and palaces, of which they are the appendages, far sur-
pass what is to be met with in any other part of the world. The palaces and scenery of
Italy are more interesting to artists and classical antiquaries, from the particular associ-
ations necessarily connected with their pursuits ; but the views of an accomplished and
well regulated mind will extend to other kinds of excellence, as well as those of pictur-
esque or classic beauty ; and a man that knows to what extent civilisation and refinement
are carried in different parts of the world, will look into the interior of these casinos and
palaces, their gardens and farms, and enquire to what extent they would contribute, in
their propriety, salubrity, furniture, produce, and management, to the gratification of the
wants of an Englishman in his present state of refinement. In these particulars he will
find them so very deficient, as to admit of no sort of comparison with those of Britain.

Book I. GARDENS AND COUNTRY-RESIDENCES. 1061

7511. Of the state of gardening in each of the different counties of the United Kingdom,
the following notices are necessarily imperfect to a certain extent ; from defective inform-
ation some things are omitted, and erroneous statements may exist as to others. In the
selection of the names of the principal country-residences, some are undoubtedly admitted
which may not have that claim, in comparison to others which are excluded; and others,
though they once had that claim, may now have it no longer, from neglect, change of owner-
ship, or even destruction as a country-seat. Most of the descriptive hints, added after the
names of country-residences, refer to the state they were in some years ago, some as far back
as 1805 ; and the changes in the names of the possessors that may have taken place since
that time must no doubt be the cause of various errors, though we have spared no pains
to avoid them. The descriptive epithets, added to the names of places in the southern
kingdom, are taken generally from the Beauties of England and Wales (London, 26 vols.
8vo. published from 1801 to 1815) ; those of Scotland from the beauties of that country
(5 vols. 8vo. Edin. published from 1802 to 1809); and those of Ireland from The
Traveller s Guide (1 vol. 8vo. Dublin, 1819), and from the information of a correspondent
there, well acquainted with every part of that country. We have visited all the counties
of Britain ourselves in 1804, 5, and 6, and since been professionally engaged in several
of them ; and we have also made a general tour of Ireland in 1811. When any remarks
occur which are not found in the books referred to, they may, for the most part, be con-
sidered as the result of our own observation at these periods or since. From the limited
space that we can devote to this part of the work, these remarks are necessarily very few ;
we have omitted stating any tiling as to the indigenous plants ; and said very little as to
the natural woods or artificial plantations of each county. All the seats which are of
established celebrity, and are, or were, what are called show-places, are distinguished by
a cross ( x ) : of most of these places accounts have been published in the local guides, sold
in country-towns.

Sect. I. Gardens and Country-Residences of England.

7512. The surface of England is estimated at 32,150,000 acres, almost everywhere
cultivated, and nowhere incapable of cultivation ; in most places varied — gently and
beautifully in some districts, and abruptly and on a grander scale in others. The most
hilly and mountainous districts are those of the north, and the most level those of the
east. The most humid climates are those of the western and northern counties, as Lan-
cashire and Cheshire ; and the most dry those of the east and south, as Norfolk and
Sussex. The richest soils, and those in which gardening, as an art of culture, and as a
trade, has been carried to the greatest perfection, are those round the metropolis ; there,
within the circuit of ten miles, it is estimated (Li/son's Environs of London, pub-
lished 1792 to 1796), 500 acres are employed in raising culinary vegetables; 800 acres
covered with fruit-trees and shrubs ; 300 acres in medicinal herbs ; 500 as nursery and
florists' gardens ; besides not fewer than 1 200 acres employed by farming gardeners in
growing potatoes for the market; and 1200 occupied -wdth turnips, cabbages, parsneps,
and white beet for milch-cows. Gardening, as an art of design and taste, may be con-
sidered as nearly equally advanced in almost all the counties. Some of the most highly
kept gardens and country-residences are in Middlesex and Surrey ; of the most extensive
and magnificent in Oxfordshire, Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, and Devonshire. The best
examples of cottagers' and farmers' gardens are in Essex, Kent, Norfolk, and Lanca-
shire ; the seed-gardens are chiefly in Essex and Kent ; orchards in Herefordshire, War-
wickshire, and Devonshire ; and market- gardens and nurseries are distributed according
to the extent and population of the different counties. These counties are forty in num-
ber, and we shall take them in the order of the circuits made by tlie judges, being that
in which their names are most generally associated in our memories, and that also in
which they are not unaptly classed in regard to beauty and character.

7513. MIDDLESEX, occupies the north side of a vale watered by the Thames, and containing 179,200
acres, of which one part is clayey and another marshy, but the greater part productive As containing.the
metropolis, it may be considered tlie richest county in the United Kingdom as to culinary and flower
gardening. The dep6t or market, where chiefly these productions are exposed for sale, is Covent-garden,
an open square, laid out with fixed temporary wooden shops and stalls. The vegetables and commoner
fruits and flowers are brought in by carts and waggons three days in the week, Tuesday, Thursday, and
Saturday, so as to arrive in the market between three and five o'clock ; they are then sold by regular
salesmen to the retailers of the market, or to green grocers, fruiterers, and stall-keepers from different
parts of the town. In general the terms are adjusted, and the market cleared of the vehicles and horses
by ten o'clock or earlier in the summer, no more remaining in the market than what is found by the
different tenants to be suflScient for the local consumption. The more valuable fruits and flowers, such as
forced strawberries, peaches, grapes, and pines, and forced roses, hyacinths, and nosegays, during winter
are generally sold by private contract to the fruit-shops in the market, or to others distributed in different
parts of the town. The principal fruit-shop is that of Grange, in Piccadilly, who is the king's fruiterer •
the principal flower-shop that of Smith, in Covent-garden market. Besides the central market of CoventI
garden, there are others in different parts of the town, as the Fleet, Newgate, Borough, &c. which re-
ceive very considerable supplies of the leading kinds of vegetables direct from the country ; but the forced
productions, and the more expensive fruits, are generally brought to Covent-garden, when not disposed
©f to the shops bv private contract.

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Jiiiilii|ilililiiliriii

Book I.

GARDENS OF MIDDLESEX.

109S

7515 The geed.marhet is held twice a-week, on Mondays and Fridays, in a large rooffed space fat
Mark-lana Here the growers or holders of garden-seeds, and of such agricultural seeds, as are commonly
sold by nurserymen, as clover, rye-grass, &c attend and transact business by sample. The purchasers
are the London retailers, or the wholesale dealers for their country customers ; nothmg is there sold by

^^15\6 The produce qf the nursery^ardens is sold on the spot ; as is also that of the florists' gardens ; the
herb-growers se\i. their productions to the wholesale druggists and manufacturing chemists by sample.

7517." The public gardens of Middlesex are as under :

'public Promenadea. — The principal public promenades of
the metropolis are the verdant areas of the squares, especially
Finsbury, Russel, Grosvenor, and Berkeley Squares ; and the
public equestrian, and also walking promenades in this coimty,
are the parks of St. James, the Hyde, and Mary-le-bonne.

Bolanic Gardens The only public botanic garden is that

of Chelsea, containing between three and four acre;. The
origin of the Chelsea garden is involved in obscurity ; the
first notice of it in the books of the Apothecaries' Society is in
1674, when it was proposed to wall it round ; and two years
afterwards, in 1676, they agreed to purchase the plants growing
in Mrs. Gape's garden at Westminster ; which garden, if is
thought, mav have been the one mentioned in Evelyn's Diary
for 1658, as " the medical garden at A\'estminster, well stored
with plants, under Morgan, a skilftd botanist." I'iggott is the
name of the first curator, noticed in 1676. Watts, mentioned
both by Ray and Evelvn, was an apothecary by profession, but
undertook the care of the garden m 1680, at Ml. per annum.
MUler was appointed in 1722, at the time Sir Hans Sloane,
when applied to for a renewal of the lease of the garden,
granted it to the Society in perpetuity at a rental of 5/. per
annum, and on condition that sjiecimens ot fifty new nlants
should annually be furnished to the Royal Society till the
number amounted to two thousand. Miller resigned his
situation as curator two years before his death in 1770, and was
succeeded by Forsyth, who went to be royal gardener in Ken-
sington in 1784, and was succeeded by Fjiirbaim, who died in
the garden in 1814. His situation is now filled by W'm.
Anderson, who has greatly enriched the garden, and con-
tributed materially to restore its high character. It may be
noticed as a warning to gardeners, and indeed to all of us, that
the two first curators. Watts and Miller, are said to have
relaxed from their activity and got careless ; and that Fairbaim
neglected the garden for a number of years together. No
proper catalogue of this garden has ever been published ; with
the exception of one, of the medical plants, by Miller and
Rand, in 1750, and another of the same kind in 1739.

Farmers' Gardens The principal of these are in the parishes

of Chelsea, Hammersmith, and Fulham, to the west ; and at
Hoiton, Kingsland, Hackney, &c. to the east of the Metropolis.
George Matvear of Fulham, Samuel Hutchins of Earl's Court,
Kensington', Cock and Dancer of Chiswick, and Brown and
Reid of Hoxton and Kingsland, have the most extensive
ploughed gardens ; the smallest exceeding a hundred acres.
Southfield Farm, near Parson's Green, in Fulham, has been
occupied jointly as a market-garden and a nursery for upwards
of two centuries, and the whole of that time till the beginning
of the present centurv, in the fwiiily of Rench. In this garden
were produced the first pine-strawberry, and the first auricula,
by the father of the late Mr. Rench, who also instituted the
first amiual exhibition of flow ers. He died at the age of ninety-
nine vears, having had thirty-three children. The late Mr.
PkCnch, mentioned by P. Collinson, as famous for forest trees,
introduced the moss-rose ; planted the elm-trees now growing
in the Bird-cage Walk, St. James's Park, from trees reared in
his own nursery ; married two wives, and held thirty-five
children, and died in 1783, in the same room in which he was
bom, at the age of a hundred and one years. The grounds are
now occupied as a market-garden by Mr. Fitch, who married
one of the daughters.

Vegetable Gardens and Garden Orchards — abound in the same
parishes. The principal are those of Grange of Hoxton, and
Gunter of Earl's Court, each of which contains between sixty
andi seventy acres, extensive forcing-houses and pineries, and
walls for fruit-trees. The open garden is regularly planted with
standard fruit-trees, and is more devoted to the production of
fruits than of culinary vegetables. The garden of \V'ilroot at
Isleworth is of the same character, and nearly equally extensive ;
and next is that of Michael Keens of the same place. The
gardens of Brentford and Twickenham are famous for straw-
berries ; in those of the \asi parish there are about four hundred
acres covered with this fruit. Almost the whole of the parish
of Fulham is occupied in fruit-trees and vegetables. The
gardens of the Neats' Houses in Chelsea have long been famous
for celery and cauUflower ; water cresses are grown in irrigated
trenches at Bayswater and in the parish of Isleworth.

Market Flower-Gardens . — For forced flowers and shrubs, the
principal garden is that of Smith of Dalston ; for geraniums
and green-house plants in general, Cohille in the King's
Road ; and for hardy flowers, D. Carter's of Fulham. Some of
the nurservmen deal extensively in forced flowers, as Jenkins
of Marv-le-bonne, Henderson of the Edgeware Road,&c.

Florists' Gardens Of these the principal in Middlesex is

that of Davy in the ling's Road ; then Bailey at Clapton, and
also of the 'King's Road; Moore in the King's Road, and
some at Brentford and Hounslow.

7518. Nurseries. The principal British nurseries
are in this county ; and as almost all the country
nurseries are supplied with their more rare articles
from them, we shall particularise the names of a
few : —

The Vinevard, — at Hammersmith, is unquestionably the first
nursery in Britain, or rather in the world. At the beginning
of the last century it was a vineyard, and produced cumually
a considerable quaiitity of Burgimdy wine. A thatched house
was built in the grounds; the upper part occupied as a
dwelling house, and for selling the wine ; and underneath
were the wine-cellars. The ground was taken by Messrs. Lee
and Kennedy, the fathers of the present, or late occupiers of
that name, and continued by their sons, who dissolved partner-
ship in 1818, and the concern is now the sole property of Lee.

This nursery owes its celebrity, in a great measure, to the
late James Lee's knowledge in botany, and to his publishing
the Introduction to tliat science at a'Ume when its principles

were not generaUy diffused. Lee was patronised by a great
many of the nobility and graitry, for his general knowledge in
natural historv, and for his sound sense and strong under-
standing. The nursery is now carried on by his son to greater
extent in everv department than any other nursery in Europe.
J. Lee, jun. has four sons, whom he intends to bring up to the
busine^ in four separate departments: the teed business, the
counting-houst, exotics in houses and fruit-trees, forest trees and
hardy plants. ....

Besides an extensive correspondence, and a vigilant attention
to procure everv new plant as soon as introduced by others, a
great manv plants have been introduced to the country direcUy
by this establishment. Among the collectors they sent out
for this purpose, may be mentioned a person collecting oaks
and other plants in America; another, for eight years, at the
Cape of Good Hope, in partnership with the Empress Josephine,
collecting ericas, bulbs, and other plants ; Euid a man in South
America.

The whole concern, from its first establishment to the
present moment, has been conducted with singular spirit and
skill ; no expense spared to procure new plants from abroad,
and preserve and propagate them when received. The green-
houses are ext«isive, and a house two hundred feet long has
lately been erected for friiiting the different sorts of grapes,
and another for figs. The proprietor has grounds for the com-
moner descriptions of stock in different parts of the country :
as at Bedfont for stocks for fruit-trees, and for cherries ; at
Hounslow and Bagshot for stocks, and also for seedling firuit-
trees, and other commoner articles, &c.

The Fulham Hursiry — was established by ChristopherGray,
about the beginning of the last century. Catesby, Collinson,
Miller, Dr. Garden, and other eminent botanists, and travellers
contributed many rare plants, and great part of Bishop
Compton's collection was purchased by them from the bishop's
successor. Some fine old exotics are still existing in this nur-
sery, as the quercus suber, celtis occidentalis, ailanthus glan-
dulosa, diospyrus virginiana, &c. The first magnolia grandi-
flora was planted here ; the original tree, the parent of most of
the older trees of this kind in the country, died some years ago;
the dead trunk, which is still preserved, measured four feet ten
inches in circumference; its branches extended twenty feet;
it was as many feet high, and its fr^ance perfumed the' whole
neighborhood. This nursery passed successively from Gray to
Burchall, and from him to Messrs. Whitley, Brames, and
Milne, the present occupiers.

The Brompton Park AuMfry — was founded by ;Messrs. Cooke,
Lucre, London, and Field, in 1681. In 1694, all the partners
having died or sold out but London, he took in Henry Wise,
who ^d been an apprentice to Rose, the royal gardener, as
London had also been. At that time the grounds exceeded
100 acres in extent. This nursery passed successively from
London and 'Wise to Swinhoe, Smith, and Co.— in 1756 to
Jeffries and Co. — in 1788 to Gray, Wear, and Co. — in 1810 to
Gray Jind Sons, in whose occupation it is at present. The
grounds are now reduced to thirty acres, and the establishment
has unavoidably fallen off In reputation. In the time of
London and A\'ise it was spoken of in terms of the highest
approbation by Evelyn. In his preface to the translation of
Quintiney's Cmnp/rfe Gari/i'ijer (published 1701) he says, "the
proprietors, Mr. George London, chief gardener to their
majesties, and his associate, Mr! Henry ^V'ise, are recommended
for their assiduity and industry ; they have not made gain the
, only mark of their pains, but with extraordinary and rare
industry, endeavored to improve themselves in the mysteries
of their profession ; from the great advantages and now long
experience they have had, in being emuloyed in most of the
celebrated gardens and plantations which this nation abounds
in, besides what they have learned abroad, where horticulture
is in high reputation." He adds " the grounds and gardens of
noblemen and persons of quality, which they have planted ab
origine, and which are still under their care and attarition,
justify what I have said in their behalf."

Bowack, who wrote an account of the parish of Kensington
in 1705, says, that some affirm that if the stock of these nur-
series were valued at one penny per pl^it the amount woitld
exceed 40,000/.

The Kensington Nursery — was established by Robert Purber,
in the beginning of the last century, and was of note for fiiiit-
trees in Miller's time ; it has oassed successively from this
family to Grimwoods, and to Messrs. Malcolms, the present
spirited and judicious' possessors.

The Brentford Nursery, — Messrs. Ronalds and Son, has been
established upwards of a century. It is cliiefly devoted to the
culture of fruit-trees.

The Brotnpton Agrictdlural Nursery, — Messrs. Gibbs and Co.,
was originally part of the Brompton Park nursery ; but was
established chiefly for a display of the grasses and plants used in
agriculture, during the present century.

The Hackney Botanic Nursery — was established by Conrad
Loddiges, a German gardener, about the middle of the last cen-
tury. It is particularly devoted to the propagation of rare
plants, and contains the best general collection of green-house
and hot-house exotics of any commercial garden. In palms,
tree-ferns, and scitaminete, it particularly excels, and of the first
tribe, possesses upwards of eighty species. For the better dis-
play of these plants, Messrs. Loddiges have lately erected the
largest hot-house in the world; it being 80 feet 'long, 60 feet
wide, and 40 feet high. It is heated by steam, as are all the
others, extending to upwards of a thousand feet, forming three
uninterrupted sides of a parallelogram. In the area are the
pits and frames. Two houses are devoted to the camellia: one
is roofed with copper sashes, by Timmins of Birmingham ;
the other is a curvilinear-roofed house, formed of our baz
{.fig. 739 .), it is 120 feet long, 2.3 feet wide, and 18 feet high.
(For other detaUs, see 7356. and^. 736.)

The Kingsland Nursery — was in part in the occupation of
Fairchild, and also of Cowel, in the banning of the last cen-
tury. The present possessors are Messrs. Bassuigtons.

3Y 4

Kxm

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

The Baie*-pond JVurjsTT/, — Messrs. Brooks and Co., has
been established upwards of half a century, and is carried on
•with much spirit, collectors being sent out to distant coun-
tries, and naany new plants imported. Among these are several
chrysanthemums, psidiums, &c.

The Mile-end Nursery —vas established by James Gordon,
gardener to Dr. Sherrard, at Eltham, and passed successively
to Gordon, Dermer, Thompson and Co. ; Gordon, Forsyth,
and Co. ; and Thompson and Co-, by whom it is at present
kept up in a very respectable style.

The Mary-U-lionne Nurtery, — Thomas Jenkins, has been
established within the present century ; it is of considerable
extent ; contains extensive hot-houses for forcing flowers, for
jjreen-house plants, and pits for pine-apples. It also contains
a subscription botanic garden.

Other Nuraeries. — Of these there are, perhaps, a hundred

In this county that might be deservedly mentioned. That of
Fraser and Co., in the King's Road, noted for American her.
baceous plants; of Harrison and Co., Old Brompton, for its
antiquity ; Schaler and Co., King's Road, as famous for roses ;
Joseph Knight for a general collection of exotics and hardy
flowers, and for excellent management ; that of Kirk and Son
for its antiquity, the grounds being in part surrounded by the
walls of Cromwell's garden ; Henderson's, in the Edgeware
Road, for pine-apples ; Forsyth (one of the principal London
seedsmen), at Mile-end ; Ross, at Kingsland, &c.

7519. Private gardens corae next in order.

Street-Gardens {Jig. 740.) — are necessarily numerous in the
outlets of the metropolis ; many of them in theNewlload,
Hammersmith Road, and in the parishes of Chelsea, Fulhani,
and Kensington, are very neatly kept.

The Cottage-gardens of Laborers,— neax town, are not remark-
able for management, but in the western and eastern extre-
mities of the county they are better.

The Cottage-gardens of Artificers — axe often very neatly kept ;
particularly those of the Spi'talfields weavers, and other opera-
tives who have a taste for flowers.

Farmers' Gardens As many of the farmers near the metro-
polis are retired or speculative London tradesmen, they have
often very neat gardens. Those to the west of London may be
referred to cis examples.

Suburban and Citizens' Villas — are in considerable number,
of various degrees of extent ; but generally neatly kept.

7520. Villas are numerous in every part of the
country ; a few may be enumerated :—

Amo's Ka/f, — near Southgate; J. Walker, Eso. A noble
mansion, chiefly by Sir R. Taylor : the grounds comprise
woods watered by the New River ; the flower-garden is rich,
and there is an extensive range of hot-houses containing £in
abundant collection of exotics.

Culland's Grove, — nejir Southgate; Sir W. Curtis. A sub-
stantial villa, and good kitchen-gardens, with hot-houses, on
which no expense is spared.

Canons, — near Edgeware ; Sir Thomas Plumer. A dull flat
of rich pasture, intersected by rows of elms, and surrounded by
a brick wall.

Thus olace is remarkable as having been the site of the
improvements of the celebrated Duke of Chandos, who rose
from the rank of a private gentleman. James Bridges, Esq.
married into the family of Lake, then proprietors of Canons.
Having made his fortune as a paymaster in the German war,
and acquired his title, he built the magnificent mansion of
Canons about 1712. It stood nearly in the centre of the
park, at the end of a spacious avenue, being placed diagonally
>o as to show two sides of the building, which, at a distance,
gave the appearance of a front of a prodigious extent. Vertue
describes it as a " noble square pile, all of stone ; the four sides
almost alike, with statues on the front ; within was a small
square of brick, not handsome, the out-ofBces of brick and stone,
very convenient and well disposed," &c. The architect was
James, of Greenwich, and the whole expense of the building
and furniture is said to have amounted to 200,000/. Dr. Alex-
ander Blackwell, author of a treatise on agriculture, who
afterwards went to Sweden, where he died, and whose widow
published figures of plants, was employed to superintend the
works out of doors. Lysons thinks it is probable he laid out the

5 leisure-grounds ; but it is not unlikely that the architect,
ames, who tr.inslated Tx: Blond's Gardening, disposed of the
(grounds as well as of the house. The duke's manner of living
corresponded with the magnificence of his mansion, and fell
little snort of the state of a'sovereijfii prinoe. Canons and the

duke were satirised by Pope under the chararter of Timon
and his villa, in 1731. Pope at first denied it, and afterwards
wrote an exculpatory letter to the duke, who answered it with
great magnanimity, as by a man who accepted his excuse with-
out believing his professions. There is a print of Hogarth's, in
which he represents Pope whitewashing the Earl of Burling-
ton's house, and bespattering the Duke of Chandos's carriage
as it passes by

■\Vhen "the duke died, the mansion being thought to require
an establishment too expensive for the income of his successor,
after fruitless attempts to dispose of it entire, was pulled down,
and the materials sold by auction in 1747. Tliegrjind stair-
case,of which each step was a single block of marble above twenty
five feet in length, is in Lord Chesterfield's house in May Fair ;
the equestrian statue of (Jeo. I . in the centre of Leicester Square ;
the park was purchased by an upholsterer (Hallet), who built
the house now existing, ajid successively occupied by himself,
by O'Kelly, and the present proprietor. Two poems were
written on Canons ; one by S. Humphreys, in 1728, the other
by Gildon.

Cranford lA)dge, — Taeax Norwood; Countess of Berkeley.
Remarkable for its pheasants, which, in the late earl's time,
were everywhere as abundant, and 'seeking their food on the
green sward with all the confident serenity of domestic fowls.

iV/a/onZ Par/e, — near Uxbridge; C.Clowes, Esq. A hand-
some mansion ; and grounds finely undulated, well wooded,
Eind Avatered by the river Colne.

Durham Park, — near South Mims ; J. Trotter, Esq. A
good house, well wooded grounds, and a productive kitchen-
garden.

Ealing Grove, — near Ealing; C. Wyatt, Esq. A substan-
tial and commodious, house, and forty acres of ground arranged
with much judgment.

Earl's Court Villa, — at Earl's Court; John Baynes, Esq.
AVas the villa for the late celebrated surgeon, John Hunter.
Here he had a curious menagerie.

Flambards, — near Harrow; Lord Northwick. The liouse
being in the village, from its elevation commands astonish-
ingly fine views ; the grounds are disposed in good taste.

Fordhook, —xieax Ealing; Charles Duval, Esq. A good
house, once the residence of Fielding ; the grounds eoonomicallj
and tastefully disposed.

Forty Hail, — near Enfield; J. Meyers, Esq. The house
oripinally by Jones, but altered ; the grounds extensive, imdu-
lating, abounding in lofty elm and ash-trees,.and adorned with
some fine pieces of water.

The Gro)t, — near Stanmore ; C. Poole, Esq. The grounds
are remarkable for containing an island and tomb, in imitation
of the Isle dea Pcupliers, at Ermenonville, and of Rousseau's
tomb, formerly there, but now in the pantheon of Paris.

X Guniurslmry, — ne:ir Ealing; A. Copland, Esq. A de-
sirable villa, with seventy acre* of grounU, adonied by twu

Book I.

GARDENS OF SURREY.

1065

fine sheets of water, andnumooug cedars, supposed to ^Te
been planted by Kent, who laid out the grounds shortly after
1740. There are extensive forcing-houses and plant-stoves.

Hendon Place, — near Heiidon ; J. Carbonel, Esq. A hand'
some stately mansion, and grounds rendered attractive by
various picturesque undulations, watered by the river Brent.
Among the trees are some tine cedars, and one of remarkably
large growth.

Kempton Park, — near Sudbury ; Mrs. Fish. Great improve,
ments were made here a few years ago by the late Mr. Fish,
both in building, excavating for pieces of water, and in plant-
ing. At liis death, however, tlie hot-houses and other articles
Were sold bv public auction, and what remains is neglected.

Marble H'iU, — neai Twickenham; C. A. Fulk, Esq. The
grounds were laid out by Pope, at the time the house was the
property of the Countess of Sutfolk. They contain much vener-
able wood, and a dilapidated grotto.

Marble Hill Coftape, — near Twickenham; T. Brent, Esq.
An embellished dwelling; fitted up with great delicacy of

taste by the late Lady Diana Beauclerk, and standing on a spot
of peculiar beauty, close to the Thames.

Hotsli/n House, — Hampstead; General Sir M. Disney. A
good house, commanding extensive views of London and
Surrey, over the Regent's Park ; the extent of the grounds con-
siderable for the situation.

South Lodge, — near Enfield Chase; N. Gundry, Esq.
Celebrated as having been the residence of the great Earl
of Chatham, who expended a considerable sum in laying
out the grounds; which, according to G. Mason, he did
much in the manner recommended by U. Price. The place is
now much neglected. The Temple of Pan, which stands in
the pleasure-grounds, is described byWheatley, in Obtervations.
It was afterwards the residence of Mr. Sharp, (the friend of
Collinson,) in 1764, who had a good collection ; and whose gar-
dener, ^\'atts, (who worked under Miller, and is now an old
man and nursery-gardener at Acton,) propagated the mistletoe
on most sorts of trees, resinous as well as non-resinous.

X Southgate Gruie. — aeax Soathgate; W. Grav, Esq. A.
beautiful Ionic building, by Nash, to which an elegant con-
servatory is attached. The lawn declines from the house,
and then rises in an opposite bank, finely clothed with oaks :
the walks were laid out by H. Kepton. On the whole, this is
one of the most romantic and beautiful villas in Middlesex : it

maj kable as having been the residence of the late eminent
President of the Royal Society, and patron of all natural science.
There is an excellent kitchen-garden ; and pines and mush-
rooms grown to great perfection by J. Oldacre.

X Strawberry Hill, — near Twickenham; Countess of^\'al-
degrave. The house, a composition of the late Lord Orford's in
the Gothic stvle, built from time to time, and great part being
wood covered with plaster, it is gomg fast to decay : the grouniS
are of very limited extent, and much less interesting than has
generally been imagined j without the Thames they would be

Ttvickenham Villas. — These are numerous; that of Ba-
roness Howe is in the garden of Pope, and not for from the
site of his house. Pope purchased his ^-illa, and removed there
in the year 1715, and continued improving it till his death,
in 1744. It was then sold to Sir AV'Uliam Stanhope, who
added wings, and enlarged the gardens. It then passed to
Wellbore Ellis, Esq. afterwards Lord Mendip, who married his
daughter ; next to Viscount Clifden, who sold it to Sir John
Briscoe, Bart and after his death it was purchased by Baroness
Howe, in 1807, who levelled the villa to the ground, and built
a new house about 100 yards from its site. The weeping-
willow, planted by Pope, perished in 1801.

The villa of George Pococke, Esq. was the residence of Secre-
tary Johnstone from 17'^0. Mackey, in 1724, says he had the
best collection of any gentleman in England; 'that he had
slopes for his vines, from which he made some hogsheads of
wine a year, and that Dr. Bradley reckoned him among the
first gardeners in the kingdom.

Twickenhant Park —was once the property of Lord Chan-
cellor Bacon, who esteemed it " a fit residence for persons to
study in." About 1740, this seat was the property of M.
Vernon, a merchant of Aleppo, who brought the weeping-
willow from the Euphrates, and planted it here. Peter Col-
linson says he saw it growing there in 1743, and that from
that tree originated all the weeping-willows in Britain.
ILatnbert, in Linn. Tram.) Lysons obsenes, that Twickenham
has so long been the favorite retreat of the scholar, the poet, and
the statesman, that almost everv house has its tale to be told.

T^ord Houw, — near Wilsden; WiUan, Esq. A com-

modious Gothic residence, the elfect of which is much adrni-
red, by Atkinson ; the attached lands agreeably ornamented
with wood ; a small portion dedicated exclusively to pleasure-
groimds, jmd the rest managed as a hay-farm.

Whitton P/ace, — near Hounslow ; lately the residence of
Sur William Chambers, was built bv Archibald, Duke of
Argyle, celebrated in the earlv part of the last century for
the introduction of exotic trees. Many of the plants and
trees were moved to Kew in 1762; but a number of the cedars
sown here in 1725 still remain, and constitute the finest
assemblage of that tree in the country-. The house, after the
death of the duke, became, by purchase, the residence of Sir
\Villiam Chambers, the architect. The grounds were divided,
and an elegant viUa buUt on a part of theni by the father of
the present proprietor, George Gosling, Esq. A lofty tower;
the old green-house, now formed into a dwellinghouse ; and
the fine pieces of water and venerable pines, firs, and cedars,
still remain.

Wembly Manor Hou<e,— near Kilbum ; J. Grav, Esq. A
neat house, most agreeably situated in a grass-farm, orna-
mented from the designs of H . Repton.

»:tyfce ffouK, _ near Brentford ; E. Ellis, Esq. Remarkable
for Its good and well-managed kitchen-garden.

7521. Villas with demesne-lands
residences are not very numerous.

Bm//«/ Pn<>,T/,_near Stanmore; Marquis of Abercom.
An uregular bnck edifice, of no architectural pretensions, but

7524. SURREY,

occupymg an elevated site, and commanding extensive
prospects.

Boston House, — near Brentford; Colonel Clitherow. The
grounds umbrageous and ornamental, and noted for large cedars.

X Caemvood, — Hampstead; Earl of Mansfield. An elegant
building, by Adams and George Saunders, and some additions
by Atkinson ; with fifty acres of pleasure-grounds, beautifiiUy
disposed, containing some fine old wood, and undergrowtha
of rhododendrons, and other American plants; there is a line
terrace-walk, flower-garden, and excellent kitchen-garden,
home-farm, and dairy.

X Chisrvick //ou^je, — near (^hiswick ; Duke of Devonshire.
An el^ant Corinthian edifice, by the Earl of Burlington and
Kent, with two wings by Wyatt. The gardens were origi-
nally laid out by Lord Burlington, in the Italian style, with a
redundancy of sculptural embellishments, but have since been
modernised. They now contain a large flower-garden, a range
of hot-houses 500'feet in length, and a group of aviaries tor
hardy birds : there is also a large kitchen-garden.

Stanmore House, — near Stanmore ; G. H. Drummond, Esq.
The house and grounds origin«dly by Holland ; the grounds,
since improved by Repton, contain some fine views.

X Sion Hi7/,— near Brentford; Duke of Marlborough. The

Trent Place, — neai Enfield; J. Gumming, Esq. A spaci-
ous brick structure on a fine swell in the midst of a pjurk of
500 acres, more varied by irregularities, and of a bolder cha-
racter than is usual in Middlesex.

n^rotham Place, — near South Mims; G. Byng, Esq. A
spacious architectural pile, by Ware, on a commanding emi-
nence : the park is rather deficient in wood.

75522. The first-rate residences of this county are
chiefly in London, but there are a few in the
country.

X Holland House, — neai Kensington; Ix)rd Holland. A
magnificent Elizabethean mansion, with a demesne of SCO
acres, of which 63 are in pleasure-ground, and remarkable for
a flower-garden, beautifiUly laid out and managed. Here the
ruins of a stable become a line object ; for the stalls having
been arched with masonry, remain and resemble a ruined
aqueduct. In this garden the dahlia was first successfiillj
cultivated in England.

X Sion House, — near Brentford ; Duke of Northumberland.
Once the property of the Duke of Somerset> whose phvsician.
Dr. Turner, author of The Herbal, mentions a botanic gar-
den formed here. The house, a magnificent quadrangxilar
structure of stone, improved by Adams, and more recently by
Hardwick. The grounds are flat ; but abound in fine trees,
and the pleasure-grounds with many venerable cedars, and
other exotics. Thev were laid out by Brown ; lately imder
the care of Hoy, F.L.S., and now of Stroud, author ot an In-
troduction i " *

and mansion-

7523. Royal Gardens. Of these there are four,
Carlton Gardens, Hampton Court, Kensington, and
Pimlico.

Carlton Palace Gardens — were originally laid out by Kent, for
Lord Ccirlton ; and afterwards by Brown and Holland, for the
present king when Prince of Wales. They are secluded, but
not much enriched with flowers and shrubs, or in high keeping.
Attached to the palace is a conservatory ; a copy of the skeleton
of Henry VII. 's chapel in AVestminster Abbey ; but thourfi
handsome as a piece of architecture, it is of little use as a plant-
habitation, being in fact intended more as a lounge and re-
source for an extra room on great occasions.

X Hamp/on Court, --the most capacious, and perhaps the
most magnificent, of all the roval palaces : principally built by
Cardinal A\'olsey ; but enlarged by Henrs- X'lIL, and in part
rebuilt by "William and Mary. It consisted originally of five,
but now only of three quadrangles, and several minor courts ;
the style impure Grecian. Its situation is upon the north bank
of the Thames : it is embraced bv fortv-four acres laid out in
the Dutch taste in the time of AVilliam'and Marv, by London
and ^Vise. The ground belonging to it as park, is of consider-
able extent, and is distinguished bv the different divisions of
Bushy Old Park, New Park, MidcUe or Hare Warren, and
Hampton Court. The gardens contain a labvrinth, one of
the most perfect, as to preservation, in England : the privy
garden is ornamented with terrace-walks, and near it is a
grapery, seventy feet by fourteen, occupied by a Hamburgh vine
planted in 1769, which has been known to produce in one
year 22001bs. of grapes. Its rooU are said to have found their
way to a drain leading from the offices to the river, from which
it is supposed to derive moisture and nourishment. There is
a kitchen-garden of twelve acres, with nine pits, and various
hot-houses heated by steam, and managed by PadJey, the royal
gardener. '

X Kensington. — The palace a large brick building, badly
placed, in relation to the surroimding gardens, being lower
than the greater part of their surface. The gardens are three
miles and a half in circumference, and contain grass and
gravel, open and shaded walks, with a circular basin and river.
The finest point of view is on entering from the Uxbridge
road. The kitchen-garden was formerly famous as exhibiting
the effects of the late W. Forsyth's mode of managing fruit-
trees; at present the forcing-department is remarkable for
its hot-houses, in which the pine is better cultivated than
in any of the royal gardens. The original extent of the
gardens was only thirty-six acres. Queen Anne added thirty
acres, which were laid out by her gardmer. Wise. Queen
Caroline added nearly 300 acres from Hyde Park, which were
laid out by Eridgeman. Being roval gardens, several poems
have been published to celebrate tliem ; one by Tickell, in
his works ; another in 1722; and a third in the pastoral kalen-
darinl763.

Pimlico, or Buckingham-House Gardens — -vexe enlarged and
laid out soon after the middle of the last century, by Robinson
brother to Ramsay Robinson, the king's farmer. They oc-
cupy a triangular spot of a few acres, and have scarcely any
other beauUes to recommend them than those of seclusion
and verdure.

narfr m-»«oii « /^ surface of 519,040 acres, generally beautifuUy varied in surface : the soil in a great
part gravelly or sandy ; poor in many places ; but from the salubrity of the air this couBty is particiulriy

1066

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

adapted for villas and other residences. That part of the metropolis which is within the county, contains
a garden-market for the commoner fruits and vegetables, but it is not extensive. There are several re-
spectable seed-shops, and the greatest seed-factors reside here; in the suburbs and suburban villages,
are some good market-gardens, the principal herb-gardens in the kingdom, and some seed-gardens : ju-
niper-berries and cranberries used to be gathered on the commons on Box Hill and Leith Hill, and sold
in the metropolis. There are a few nurseries : the county abounds in villas, and contains some mansion-
residences. There are no public gardens in the county ; but the promenade of Greenwich Park, in Kent,
adjoins the metropolis. In Stevenson's survey of the county, it is stated, that 3500 acres are employed as
farmers' market-gardens. The greatest gardening author this county has produced is Evelyn, of Wootton
House, and the most celebrated gardens which have existed in this country those of the Carews, at
Beddington.
: 7525. There are various commercial gardens.

Farmer^ gardeiu. — Of these there are a considerable number
in the low part of the county, adjoining the Thames. Turnips
are grown m abundance and in great perfection, for the cow-
feeders.

Market-Gardens. — There are some highly cultivated and of
very considerable extent on the banks of the Thames, especially
at Barnes, Mortlake, and Camberwell. The two former
places are famous for asparagus, and Battersea for cabbages.
There are generally about eighty acres under aspeiragus in the
parish of ^'fortlake : the greatest grower is Biggs, who has had
forty acres under this crop at one time. There are some good
gardens near Chertsey, and here the Chertsey or great Surrey
carrot is better grown than anywhere else, and the London
seedsmen are supplied from the growers with its seeds. The
hardy fruits are less generally grown for the markets in
Surrey than in Middlesex and Kent; but there is one cele-
brated grower of exotic and forced fruits, Isaac Andrews at
Lambeth, famous for his pine-apples, and being annually
among the first who send early grapes and cherries to market.
HLs hot-houses, like those of Gunter and Grange in Middlesex,
are all heated by steam.

Herb and Physic Gardens. — These are chiefly m the parish
of Mitcham, where the soil is poor and gravelly. The oldest
establishment of this description is that of I'otter and Moore,
■who formerly grew most of the articles in the vegetable
materia medica then in vogue. They now grow chiefly roses,
lavender, chamomile, the mints, opium-poppy {Paptiver som-
mfsrum), balm, blessed-thfetle, borage, clary, hyssop, sage,
scurvy-grass, angelica, thyme, fennel, pot-marigold, «c.
Messrs. Dickson and Anderson, of Covent-garden, seedsmen
and herbalists, have a garden at Croydon for a general collec-
tion of such herbs as are only in demand in small quantities.

Market Flower-Gardens. — There are several of them near the
metro^lis, but none eminently deserving description.

Florists' Gardens — The principal of these is that of Messrs.
Milliken and Curtis, at Walworth, who have the first collec-
tion of hardy bulbs grown in this country. It was founded by

the late Maddock, author of the Florists Director}),

about the middle of the last century. There are also one or two
other very respectable gardens of this description.

Nursery-Gardens, — Before London was so much extended
on this side, there were some old and extensive nurseries,
such as those of the Drivers, Malcolms, North, &c. ; but the
grounds which occupied these gardens, are now generally built
on, and the existing nurseries are of 'less note though highly
respectable. Of these may be mentioned that of Ronaldson at
Tooting, noted for the best collection of ericie in the vicinity
of the metroi»lis; Chandler at Vauxhall, noted for camellias;
Griffins of South Lambeth, for bulbs; Phillips at Lambeth,
for fruit-trees ; and Buchanan at Camberwell, for a general
collection. Near Bagshot are a number of nurseries, devoted
chiefly to the growth of stocks for fruit-trees, with which they
supply the trade in London, and elsewhere. Among these may
be mentioned Donald at AVoking, Cobbett at Horsehill, Ham-
monjd, and others, at Ripley and Trimley ; Lee, of the Vine-
yard, has also extensive nurseries in this quarter, for raising
the commoner articles.

Botanic Gardens That of Tradescant at Lambeth, and a

medical garden by Morgan, mentioned by Evelyn, the lease of
which was bought by the Apothecaries' Company in 1676,
may be noticed as belonging to the garden -antiquities of the
county. Curtis, the botanist, had formerly a subscription
botanical garden at Lambeth Marsh ; which was afterwards
removed to Queen's Elm, Brompton. Benjamin Robertson
formed a valuable botanic garden, at a great exjiense, at
Stockwell; he died in 1800, and bequeathed the whole of his
estates for the purpose of establisl "
garden ; but his will was set aside.

7526. Private gardens, as already observed, are
very numerous, and generally well managed, com-
pared with those of most other counties. Cottage-
gardens are neat, and often ornamental, and the
farmers' gardens are general'y well attended to,
this class of cultivators being here, as round most
large towns, in groat part retired tradesmen.

Suburban Villas ( fig. 741.) — are certainly more numerous, and
better laid out than anywhere else. They border the diiferent

Ereat roads for some miles from town, and render them de-
ghtful to the passing traveller.

7527. VUlas. We have selected a few ; but the
number that merit attention is more than double
those here named.

Addiaeton Place, — near Croy Aon; Archbishop of Canterbury
A good house in the centre of a park, much varied and well
planted : Ui« house lately colaj^ged aud improved.

Aldhury Place, — near BlaclLhenth; S. Thornton, Esn. An
elegant Ionic mansion, greatly altered and improved by the
present proprietor. The park, a beautiful piece of ground of
$50 acres, finely wooded, especially with old Spanish chestnuts.
There are some small pieces of water in the park, and a basin
and fountain in the garden. This place was noted m k-velyn s
time ip'ZT.) for U»c subtenraneous pas6age of 100 yards m length.

Book I.

GARDENS OF SURREY.

1067

made nearlj through a hiU, but a rock at the south end p»e-
vaited the design from being completed.

BM^, — near Chertsey ; Sir J. Mawbey. An elegant stone
mansion, in a park well stocked with timber, and adorned
with a fine piece of artificial water, with a bath at one end
of it.

BumH»xi Park, — near Walton ; Sir J. Frederick. An de-
gant house, in a park of 300 acres, vzJued here because not in-
tersected by a sii^e footpath.

Bysthe Court, — near GodsU
of notice on account of the kitchen garden, which is surroun
by a moat, the area enclosed being that on which the former
mansion stood.

X Deepdene,—neai Dorking; T. Hope, Esq. A man of
great taste in all the fine arts, and eminently so in architec-
ture and gardening. His essay on gardening, and work on
household furniture, are highly esteemed. This Italian villa
was built by the Duke of Norfolk, but improved and deco-
rated with sculptures and a Tuscan tower, by the present
proprietor. The grounds are not extensive, but are highly
romantic, and intersected with walks in various directions,
which, with admirable liberalitj-, are at all times open to the

Egham Park,— near Egham ; Parry, Esq. A neat

bouse, in a well wooded park of sixty acres, lying on the south-
west side of Cooper's Hill ; a conservatory and colonnade added
to the house, and the kitchen-garden much improved by the
present proprietor.

Ember Court, — near Thames Ditton ; Colonel Taylor. A
stuccoed house, and a park of late years greatly enlarged and
unproved.

Grore HiU, — near Camberwell ; the late J. C. Lettsom, JI.D.
A plain mansion ; the gardens laid out with great taste and
beautT, and ric'n in exotics. There are also various orna-
mental buildings, and the whole is in the highest state of
preservation.

Kijigtrvood Lodgt, — rxeax Egham; Flounder, Esq. A

substantial stuccoed house ; the grounds modernised by us in
1805, for Gideon Bickerdvke, Esq. the proprietor at that
time. They are chiefly remarkable for their commanding
prospects, and as forming a part of Cooper's Hill, celebrated
fcy Denham.

Stonk't Grove, — near Chertsey ; Lord Montford. Remarkable
only for its kitchen-garden, suiik in the side of St. Anne's HiU,
St a great expense.

Mordtn Park, — near Morden ; G. Ridge, Esq. A handsome
quadrangular house, on a rising ground, agreeably diversified
with extensive plantations of ^mibs and flowers, and embel-
lished by two sheets of water.

X Iforbury Park, — near Mickleham ; W. Locke, Esq. A
simple but grand mansion, in an elevated commanding
situation, " well fitted to reign over the domain in which it
is placed." The park is extensive, and the wood in judicious
masses branching away from the house in opposite durections.
It contains many walnut-trees, the nuts of which in some years
are said to fetch 6O0i., and in other seasons scarcely a bushel is
produced.

X i^ain'* Ha/, — near Cobham ; Lord Carhampton. One of
the most beautiful and meritorious pljices in England. The
extent is 213 acres, great part taken from a barren heath ; but
the surface being naturally varied, juid the river Mole border-
ing the estate, laid a foundation for every improvement. By
a simple contrivance the water was raised so as to supply
a large and beautifully varied lake, and the buildings and
woods were judiciously adapted to the grounds. A vineyard
was planted on the so'uth side of a gravelly hill, from which
wines were made for several years. The woods were planted
so as of themselves to produce variety, by adopting the man-
ner of grouping the natural orders ; thus, in one part the
puie and fir tribes prevailed, in another atjuatics, and so on.
This place was celebrated by AMieatley, ^V alpole, and other
writers, and much admired by the public, to whom it was open,
till it fell into the possession of the present proprietor.

Petersham Lodee, — near Kew ; Sir W. :\lanners. The hotise
a desi^ of the Earl of Burlington ; the grounds spacious and
beautifiil, and adjoining Richmond Park.

PJesdon, — near Leatherhead; . The

grounds remarkable for a fine terrace- walk 900 feet in length.

The Priory, — near Ry egate ; Lord Somers. A modem bouse,
with 76 acres of pleasure-ground*, very well laid out.

Puttenham Prion/,— near Godalming; Admiral Cormick.
A neat Corinthian house in a judiciously arranged area of fifty-
four acres.

X Richmond BUI, — Richmond. Among the many fine
villas here, we may notice that of the Marquis of Queens-
bury, as affording an example of grounds on both sides of a
public road judiciously connected by a subterraneous com-
munication.

Roehampttm Grove, — Roehampton ; W. Gosling, Esq. An
elegant modem structure, by Wyatt, with a highly poUshed
lawn and shrubberies, and a fine piece of water, supplied by
pipes from a conduit on Putney Common. There are above a
dozen other structures equally deserving attention at Roe-
hampton.

That of Lord Viscount Fitzwilliam was the house of Sir
Matthew Decker, maternal grandfether of his Lordship, a
wealthy Dutch merchant, who first brought pine-apples to
pafection at this place. Mackay, in his tour through Engiand,
about the year 1724, savs, that there was in the garden the
longest, the largest, and the highest hedge of holly that he
ever saw. In the house was the picture of a pine-apple gather-
ed there in 1720, on account of a visit of George 1. for whose
reception Sir Matthew built a room on purpose. He died in
1749. The hedge no longer exists. Lord Fitzwilliam died

, and the picture is now in the FitzwiUiam museum at

Cambridge.

Rook'i >>*/,— near Ryegate; H. Turner, Esq. An old
mansion, recently enlarged and beautified, standing in a de-
lightful park, with fine old woods; a large lake, and good
kitchen ^rdens and hot-houses.

The RjxJcery, — near Dorking ; FuUer, Esq. Purchased

in 1759, by Daniel .Malthus, Esq. author of the translation of
Girardin Sur let Paytaget, &c. from Abraham Tucker, Esq. of
Beechworth Castle, the celebrated author of The Liehi of
Ka!vre nurnied. Mr. Malthus took advantage of its beauties
ot hill, dale, wood, and water, converted it into an el^ant seat,
and sold it in 1768.

Sherrvood Lod^, — neat Battersea; J. Wolfe, Eb^. Tb«
house has received an elegant addition in the tiothic stytej
the grounds of limited extent, but in hid> keeping.

Shrub HUI, — n&a Dorking; Lord Leslie. A commodiooa
and pleasant villa.

atreatham Park,— near Streatham ; A. Atkins, Esq. The
grounds contain 100 acres, surrounded by a shrubbery and
gravel-walk, forming a circuit of two miles; the kitchen-
gardens remarkably extensive, and enclosed by a wall fourteen
feethi^.

S. .Inne** fliC, — near Chertsey ; Mrs. Fox. The gardens
and pleasure-grounds of moderate extent, but laid out with
much taste by the late eminent statesman, whose widow
now resides here.

Tilburtter HiU, — near Godstone ; Alexander Mac Leay, Eso.
F.R.S. L.S. &c. The bouse on the south side of a green hill
finely bosomed with trees, and looking across a rich vale, to
firkely wooded hills beyond. The gardens and pleasure grouiids
small, but rich in American plants-

We*t Bcechjctrrih, — neai Dorking; H. Pe'ers, E^. An old
mansion, the grounds greatly enlarged and improved by the
present owner ; the old park 'remarkable for its noble tunber;
especially chestnuts, elms, and limes.

Woburn Farm, —near Chertsey ; Sir J. St. Aubin. A brick
house ; the grounds Hat, but agreeably varied bv a piece of
water ; but chiefly remarkable from having been first planned
and laid out bv the late P. Southcote, Esq., ihe inventor of the
ferme om^e. l"© such a character they have now scarcely any
pretensions.

7528. The mansions with demesnes^ in Surrey,
are few compared with the number of villas.

Athled Park,— near Rye^te ; Hon. F. G. Howard. An
elegant mansion, with magnificent stables, in a park of 140
acres, enclosed with a brick wall.

Beddingion, - near Croydon ; W. Gee, Esq. Celebrated
in the sixteenth century for its gardens, and for the first
orange-trees grown in England. The attention paid by Sir
Francis Carew to other plants as well as orange-trees, is proved
by his showing to Queen EUzabeth, who used frequently to
viiit him, a cherry-tree with ripe fruit, kept back a month
beyond the usual time. Over the w^hole tree he strcuned a
canvass, which was occasionally wetted ; by this means the
cherries grew large, and continued pale; when assured of the
queen's coming he removed the canvass, and a few sunnv davs
brought them to their color. (PlaU't Garden of Eden, 165.J Tfie
present mansion was erected about 1709; the park contains
some fine elms, is not varied nor very extensive.

J. Gibson, in an accomit of the gardens near London, written
in 1691, says the orangery at Beddington was above 200 feet in
length; that most of the"trees were thirteen feet high and that
the gardener had the year before gathered at least 10,000
oranges. The heir of the' Carew femily was then in his minority,
and the estate was let to the Duke of Norfolk. At present,
Richard Carew, Esq. is in possession of the estate, and the mancr-
house is in the occupation of William Gee, Esq. his younger
brother.

X Claremtni, — near Esher ; Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg.
The park was chiefly planted by Kent, for Pelham E.irl of
Clare, and afterwards Duke of Newcastle, who built the pro-
spect tower and called it Clare (clear) -mount. After the Duke's
aeath, it was purchased bv Lord Clive, who, when setting out
on his last voyage, gave directions to Brown to build a house,
without limiting him to expense. He performed the task to the
satisfaction of his employer, at a charge somewhat above
100,000/. It is a beauufui Corinthian building of freestone, an
oblong square open on aU sides, the offices under ground, and
connected with the stables by a subterraneous communication.
The situation is well chosen, the execution good, and the m-
temal arrangement unexceptionable. Brown had often altered
houses, but this house, ana that of Crome, are the only in-
stances of his having erected new ones. The grounds want
water, and are rather deficient in distant prospect ; but in
other respects they are singularly and beautifully varied, and
planted with the greatest taste. I'n the late Princess Charlotte's
time, government built a green-house on an eminence in a very
bad style ; it is ^omnosed of large painted windows and fon
lights like an assemblage of shop fronts. A good collection of
plants is scattered among the hot-houses of the kitchen-gartien,
which stand in need of renovation and reformation.

Claiidon Plate, — neax Guildford; Earl of Onslow. A noble
mansion, by Leoni, built in 1731, the stables more recently by
Brown, who also laid out the grounds, and transformed a chalk*
pit into a rich scene of picturesque beautv.

Cob/iam Par*:, — Cobham ; H. C Combe, Esq. A substan.
tial mansion, and ground of considerable beauty ; the kitchen-
garden well seen to, and the hot-houses in good condition.

EaMnick House,- neax Leatherhead; J. Laurel, Esq. A
brick house, improved in design, and stuccoed by the present
proprietor, standing in a park of 400 acres.

X Errood, — near Merstham ; Duke of Norfolk. A house
built by the late duke for an occasional residence. It stands in
a park of 600 acres, on the brow of an eminence, commanding
extensive views of the home grounds, which contain a piece of
water of sixty acres, and over the beautiful wooded heights of
Dorking, and the adjacent country.

Gatton Park, — near Ryegate; "Sir M. Wood. A handsome
house in a park of considerable extent, much varied in surface,
and containing several detached pieces of water.

MartdenPark, — neai Godstone; J. Hetsel, Esq. A good
house, delightfully situated in a valley, and mentioned by Erelyn
as being a noted improvement.

Moor Park, — near Famham; Simpson, Esq. A large

white house of simple architecture, in a park not very extensive,
but abounding in scenes beautifully romantic. This was formerly
the residence of Sir William Temple, who died here, and was
so attached to this retirement, that by his own directions his
heart was buried in a" silver box im^ the simdial in his
garden, opposite to a window from which he used to contem-
plate the landscape.

Kontuch Park, — near Cheam ; S. Farmer, Esq. A part of
what was the park of the royal palace of Ncmsuch, on which a
handsome Gothic mansion, by Wyatt, has been erected by the
present proprietor.

TA« OoA:/, — near Mitcham; Earl of Derbv. Originally an
alehouse, but greatly enlarged and improved by the present pro-

1068

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

prietor as a hunting-seat j the park surrounded by a hUl of two
miles, and spotted with numerous clumps.

X Oa</a;jd«, — near Walton; Duke of York. A demesne of
3000 acres, almost entirely park, with a house by Holland ; a
fine terrace-walk ; a serpentine lake, by Wright, which has
often been mistaken for a part of the Thames ; and a much ad-
tnired grotto.

X O&Aam Pa rAc, — near Guildford; Lord King. The grounds
have been lately much improved, the piece of water enlarged,
and the whole adapted to the modem taste.

Pepper Harrow, — near Haslemere ; Lord Middleton. A good
mansion, on the banks of the Wey, sheltered on the north and
east by rising grounds, covered with plantations ; with an ele-
gant conservatory at the west end of the house, and a kitchen-
garden of three acres, containing a good range of hot-houses.

X Wimiiledon House, — Wimbledon ; Earl iSpencer. A man-
sion by W. Holland, in a park of 1200 acres, agreeably diversi-
fied in surface, containing fine distant views, and tastefully laid
out by Brown, who formed a sheet of water, which covers a
surface of 50 acres. The manor-house of Wimbledon was
formerly one of the first in the kingdom. A survey of it was
taken in 1649, and a copy of part of it is inserted in the 10th
volume of Archifologia. The house was painted in fresco ex-
ternally, .like the palace of Nonsuch : in the gardens was an
orangery, containing forty-two trees, in boxes, valued at 10/.
each, lemons, citrons, pomegranates, figs : in the mazes, wild-
erness, knots, alleys, were a great variety of trees and shrubs, a
bay-tree, and an Irish arbutus. There was a mask milion groimd
*' at the end of the kitchen-garden, trenched, manured, and
very well ordered for the growth of inosk inilions." The house
vras pulled down, rebuilt, burnt down, ."uid rebuilt again in 1786.

Wootton House, — near Dorking; Hon. and K,ev. J. Evelyn
Boscawen. A seat of the Evelyns since the time of Elizabeth.
It is a low spreading building of no pretensions, surrounded
by hills, clothed with copse-woods ; but open to tlie south, and
containing some good pasture-ground round the house.

7529. Royal residences.

Kerv, — near Brentford , the private property of the king, was
estabUshed by the Princess Dowager of Wales, in 1760, and
has become univeriially celebrated, chiefly from the number of

seeds or plants sent there from fcrelgn countries, and the ex-
cellent description of them published in the Hortus Ketvensis,
A catalogue of the plants was first published by Dr. Hill in
1768, in one volume; that by the late W. Alton in 1789, in
three volumes, 8vo. The present catalogue, completed in
1812, extends to three volumes. Sir W. Chambers published
a description of the house and gardens in 1763, with upwards
of forty plates, and they have also been the subject of two
poems, one by J. Ritso in 1763, and the other by Henry Jones,
author of the tragedy of the Earl of Essex, in 1767.

From the first establishment of the garden, a number of col-
lectors have been sent abroad, and maintained there for the
purpose of sending home plants and seeds. Tliis has added a
great many names to the catalogue, because every plant is in-
troduced there wiiich has once been in the garden ; but unfortu-
nately, from want of that liberality in giving away or exchang-
ing plants, wliich ought to, and does characterise almost every
institution of this description, many of the plants which have
been introduced are lost, and no where to be found but in the
catalogue. We have only to instance the natural order of pro-

banks of the Thames, the design is by Wyatt, and rather
crowded; the situation more beautiful than wholesome. It
has never been completed.

Hichtrwnd Park, — near Richmond. The palace long since
taken down ; the park 2253 acres, surrounded by eight miles of
brick wall. It is well wooded, and contains some large pieces
of water. A part of what is called the Old Park is occupied by
his present majesty as a dairy ; the remainder constitutes the
royal gardens, which were first laid out by Bridgeman in
avenues, and afterwards opened and improved by Brown.
They have the advantage of being situated on the banks of the
Thames, and exWbit some beautiful views. Queen Caroline,
who was very partial to this spot, had here a cEiry and mena-
gerie. Several ornamental and grotesque buildings were dis-
I>ersed about the gardens ; one ot which, called Merlin's Cave,
contained several figures in wax ; another, called the Hermitage,
was adorned with busts of Sir Isaac Newton, Locke, and other
literary characters. A description of these gardens was pub-
lished in 1735. ,

• 7530. SUSSEX. A surface of 935,040 acres, gently varied, the soil generally rich, great part bordering
on the sea, consists of low undulating hills, or what may be called hilly plains, known by the name of
Downs (from Duno, Sax. a hill). The northern parts, towards Essex and Kent, abound in natural woods,
or remains of woods called wealds. This county is not remarkable for its gardening ; on the coast, how-
ever, and especially about Worthing, the fig thrives better in the open air than it does any where else in
England. It is grown to great perfection in the gardens of the Duke of Norfolk, at Arundel, and in
some commercial gardens near Worthing. These trees, and also the fig-orchard, of nearly an acre, at
Tarring, near Worthing, occupied by Loud, and containing 100 standard trees, have already been referred
to. (4853.) Market-gardens, in the neighborhood of Lewes and Worthing, are rather on the increase,
for the purpose of supplying the latter village and Brighton, both rapidly increasing, with culinary Vege-
tables. The garden-market at Bri-ghton is at present supplied with all its more valuable articles from
London, excepting peaches, grapes, and figs, which in autumn, are imported from France. The severity
of the sea-breeze renders this part of the coast peculiarly unfavorable to gardening. The principal nur-
spry in Sussex is that of Chichester, by Silverlock, distinguished as the inventor of a hollow wall
(fig. 238.) which promises to be of real utility both in gardening and cottage-building. There are also
nurseries at Horsham, Lewes, and other places, but they are of no great note. At Brighton there is a
florist, who grows chiefly auriculas and geraniums. Furze-seeds are collected for the seedsmen from the
wealds, and some tree-seeds from the woods of the Duke of Richmond and Lord Sheffield. The cottage-
gardens near the coast are neatly managed, and productive ; as are some of the farmers' gardens. There
are a few villas near the marine towns j but the principal country-seats are mansions with demesnes.

G/ynrfe, — near Tunbrldge Wells; Lord Hampden. A noble
pile, of Elizabethean arcliitecture, with a terrace commantUng
a fine view of the surrounding country. The grounds much
improved by the late Dr. Trevor, but at present rather neglected.

Heathficld Park, — near Winchelsea ; F. Newberry, Esq.
The park, environed with holly, able to keep in any game in
Evelyn's time ; some of these hollies still exist, and many have
been cut down for their timber.

X Michel Grove, — near Clapham, Su: J. Snelly. A spa-
cious Gothic mansion (fig. 742.), of cream-colored brick, and
in the most florid taste of that style of architecture : the ar-
rangement, both internal and external, harmonious and scien-
tific. Thegrounds, by Repton, display some fine marine views.

ParA«»n, — near Arundel; Sir C. Bishop. A singular old
Elizabethean house, not much aliered either . exteriorly or
within; the park abounding m stately groups of oaks.

X Sheffield Place,— near Lewes; Lord Sheffield. The
mansion stands low, in a park of between 5 and 600 acres,
long famous for its large oak-trees, and more recently so for
other plantations, and for the care and judgment with which
these are managed in every part of the demesne. There is 100
acres oi' pleasure-ground, and above 1400 acres managed as a
home farm, and with experiments in culture, and breeding,
for which Lord Sheffield has been long celebrated.

Stanmer, —near Lewes; Earl of Chichester. A plain stone
edifice, fornoing three sides of a square, in a park much diversi-
fied by nature and planted

with judgment.

Staiistead-house, — near
Chichester ; L. Way,
Esq. One of the most
delightful situations in
the kingdom ; the house,
an elegant Ionic pile, with
•wings, an observatory,
and cupolas; the park
650 acres, finely varied
and wooded.

West Gritistead Park,
— near West Grinstead ;
William Burrel, Esq. A
handsome stone mansion :
the grounds lately much
improved, and some hot-
houses added to the kit-
chen-garden.

7531. Of villas and 7nansions, the following are
but a few of those deserving note : —

AshburnJiam Abbey, — near Beachy Head ; Earl Ashbum-
ham. A spacious modem edifice, in the midst of an exten-
sive park, containing much fine timber, and a large sheet of
water.

X Bayham Abbey, — near Tunbridge Wells; Marquis of
Camden. A small habitation in the Gothic style, badly placed ;
but the demesne extensive, and aflfording a situation for build-
ing, for which a maguiticent design has been given by H. Rep-
ton. (Observations on Landscape Gardening.) Near the present
buildiug the interior of an old church and cloisters have been
laid out as a flower-garden, which is much admired.

X Buckhurst Park, — near Lewes; Lord Whitworth. Both
house and grounds have been greatly improved by this noble-
man and his lady, the Duchess of Dorset.

Cannon House, — near Westdean; Lord Selsey. A small
place, too near a churchyard , and a small brook, which is dry
in summer : the etlect of both, however, much diminished by
judicious planting.

Bridge Castle, — near Tunbridge Wells ; Earl Abergavenny.
An irregular castellated edifice, embattled and flanked with
round towers, but without any imitation of ancient architecture
in the doors, windows, or other details. It stands on a bold
eminence, in a park of 2000 acres, well wooOea and watered.

Book I.

GARDENS OF KENT.

1069

Vp Park, — ne&r Eastboum; Bir H. Featherstone. A majf-
nificentiiouse,and well wooded park ; the timber-trees, in 1743,
valued at 19,000/.

7532. The following are first-rate residences : —

X Arvndel Cattle, — at Arundel ; Duke of Norfolk. A
magnificent castellated structure, partly venr old, and partly
re-erected on a more sumptuous style. It is founded on a cir-
cular knoll, effected partly by nature and partly by art ; the ad-
joining grounds flat towards the sea, but the' rest of the park
varied and well wooded. The kitchen-gardens are good, and
noted for their old and proUfic standard fig-trees.

X Good rt'oorf, — near Kast I.avant ; Duke of Richmond. A
magnificent house in the Grecian style, chiefly by Wyatt ; the
walls built of small flints collected on the South Downs. The
stables and offices form a handsome quadrangular building
near the house, and are inferior to few if zmy in the kingdom,
and the dog-kemiel exceeds in magnificence and convenience,
even to luxury, every structure of the kind ever raised for such
tenants. The park includes 2000 acres ; behind the house is a
fine grove of cedars, mentioned by Collinson ; of the true
service, mentioned by Miller ; and everywhere abundance of old
timber ; and it contains a beautiful summer-house ; on the
pleasure-grounds is a tennis-court ; and on a hill beyond the
park, a race-course.

X Ptitvorth House, — at Egremont; Earl of Egremont. A
magnificent mansion, fronted with freestone, and surrounded

bT statues ; in the front an artlflclal lake formed at an expense
of not Jess than 30,000/., the water collected from numerous
small springs in surrounding hills and conducted thither in
pipes. The park is 12 miles round It was formerly little
better than morass and waste, but 5\as lately been drained and
well stocked with every variety of British oxen, and also those
of the Calmucks and of Astracan ; there is also a breed from
the East Indies ; the Scottish bison, and the shawl goat of
Thibet. His lordship farms extensively, and has used every
exertion to encourage the breeding of oxen as beasts of labor
rather than horses. The gardens and hot -houses are on a scale
of design and management suitable to CTcrj other part of this
truly noble demesne.

7533. Royal residence.

X Tlie Pavilion, or Palace, — at Brighton, is in a mixed style
of Chinese, Gothic, and Moresque architecture, in which
the former greatly prevails. Exteriorly it forms a singular
and beautifiil whole; but is badly arranged within, and,
excepting the dining-room, the others are low or of dis-
agreeable forms and proportions; or, like the music-room,
over-labored in attempting to keep up the Chinese character.
The grounds contJiin only a few acres, in which are a magni-
ficent pile of stables, formed round a circular court, covered
by a dome partly glazed. The garden-scenery is tasteless,
stocked with the meanest flowers, and shows no exertions for
approbation.

7534. KENT. A surface of 935,600 acres, considerably diversified by ridges of chalky eminences in
some places ; low marshy grounds on the Thames and Medway ; open downs near Dover ; and an inland,
flat, and woody part, towards Sussex, called the Weald ; a Saxon word signifying wood, or the woody part
of a country. ' It is one of the oldest cultivated counties in England ; and, from some laws peculiar to it,
landed property is much divided, and there are a great many small proprietors who reside on, and
cultivate their own estates. Hence the garden-like appearance which prevails in great part of this tract,
and particularly about Maidstone, and on the road from London to Canterbur}'. The cottage and trades-
men's gardens on this tract are remarkably neat, perhaps more so than any where in the world, unless in
some parts of Holland. It is also very productive in vegetables and fruits for the market, and in seeds of
different kinds for seedsmen : it contains some beautiful villas, and one or two fine old mansion-residences,
and one public, formerly a royal park. Philip Miller appears to have been bom in this county, near the
metropolis, but where is uncertain. The most celebrated gardens in former times were those of Knowle,
and of Dr. Sherrard at Eltham.

latter ripen in October, while in the low part of the town they
seldom ripen at all. The whole in a sute of neglect.

Belridere, — near Plumsted ; Lord Eardley. A spacious
brick edifice on an elevation, rapidly declining towards the
north, with fine views over the Thames into Essex; the
grounds, though small, agreeably diversified, and well
wooded.

X Dlendon JIaU, — T\eai Bexley ; J. Smith, Esq. A good
house, and the groimds agreeable, with some natural oak-
woods and a piece of artificial water. The present owner has
greatly improved them, from the designs of H. Repton.

Charlton Houte, — near Charlton ; Lady Wilson. A good
specimen of the style of James I. ; the groimds occupy 70 acres,
include some beautiful scenerv, and fine old trees, especially
cypresses. '

£>a7uon Hill, — near Bexley ; J. Johnstone, Esq. A hand-
some mansion, by Sir Robert Taylor : and grounds con-
taining fine woods, and a spacious sheet of water, laid out bv
Brown. ■'

Eden Farm,— near Beckenham ; Lord Auckland. An
elevated healthy situation, surrounded by fine beech-trees.

£arf-C/i^/x)d^,_nearRamsgate; Lord Keith. The house
a good specimen of modem Gothic ; the grounds, which contain
thirteen acres, remarkable for a curious subterraneous passage
500 yards in length. ^

GoJmersham Place, — near Canterbury ; Knight, Esq.

A handsome mansion, backed by extensive woods.

Hatfes Place, — neaz Beckingham ; P. Dehanev, Esq. The
mansion erected by the late Earl of Chatham; who, as
G. Mason informs us, took much delight in improving the

7535. Public garden.
Greenwich Park; — near Greenwich, originally belonging

to Greenwich Palace, but that being formed into an Hos-
pital in the reign of 'William III., it is now disjoined. It
contains 188 acres, walled roimd by James I., and planted
with elms and Spani^h chestnuts in intersecting rows and
avenues by Le Notre, in Charles II's time. The coup ifceil of
the Metropolis, from this park, is as interesting a thing of the
kind as exists.

7536. Comrnercial gardens.

Farmert' and Market Gardens, — abound along the Thames,
for the supply of the shipping. Immense quantities of green
peas are grown round Dart&rd, both in farm market-gardens
and in common farmed lands for the Loudon market. At
Sittingboume, and in the Isle of Shepev, |)eas and beans are
grown ; and at Greenwich and Deptford great quantities of
asparagus, sea-kale, onions, cauliflowers, &c. Edmonds at
Deptford is the greatest grower of asparagtis, and sometimes
has 70 or 80 acres under this crop.

Orchards — These are chiefly about Lewisham, Maidstone,
and along the banks of the Medway ; the principal fruits of the
county are the cherry and the filbert, but most of the others
are also grown, from the walnut to the strawberry. The latter
fhiit is brought to great perfection at Fordwick, a village near
Canterbury, belonging to Earl Cowper.

Secd-Gardens. — Great ouan titles of seeds are grown for the
seedsmen ; canary, radish, kidnevbeans, and formerly turnip
in the Isle of Thanet ; toker or Sandwich beans at Sandwich,
and also kidnevbeans. \'arious seeds are also grown round
Maidstone, and much canary-seed in the hundred of Heme.
The Kentish perennial rje-grass is collected through the
county, and shipped for the seedsmen at Feversham. About
twenty acres in the parish of Deptford are generally devoted to
the growth of onions for seed, the Deptford variety being in
great repute.

Of Floristt" MarkH-Gardent — Qieie are two at Greenwich:
and there are also some Florists' Gardens there.

Nurseries — are not unfrequent, though the count? is al-
ready fully planted, and most of the orchardists raise their
owji trees. The princinal is that of John A\'illmott and Co.

^wisham. It was founded by Mr. John Russel, about the
middle of the 18th century, who raised himself by his skill
and mdustiT to a state of affluence rare among nurserymen ;
and, after keeping his carriage, and living many years like a
genUeman, died in 1794, aged 63, leaving property to the
amount of 20,000/. The nursery is no w carried on bv his son-
in-law with increased spirit ; the grounds contain 150 acres ;
'Ol^^ds are employed, and about 3000/. a-year paid for

The Nerv Crou Nursery, — near Deptford, W. Cormack and
SOTS, IS extensive, and has long enjoyed a respectable reput-

7537. Cottage and villa gardens.

Cottage-Gardens. — Besides bemg neater, as abreadv men-
tioned, these gardens are stocked with finer kinds of ve^tables,
as kidneybeans, early potatoes, lettuces, &c. than in most
counties ; and they abound more in flowers.

Private Gardens of Farmers — are also superior to those in
most counties; fruit is here a necessarv of life, evervwhere
cultivated; and all that is not consum'ed at home finds a
ready market at Maidstone or London, or is purchased by
the fruit-hawkers and the agents who travel through the
county. °

Suburban VUlas — A few of these line the roads near the
TTiames, and especially about Deptford and Greenwich, and
there are a number round Blackheath, among villas of a
larger description. A few also exist round every town in the
county, and aU are highly kept.

Terrace-Garden at Doi^ C<«</f. _ The governor, pro temp.
ronr gradations or terraces cut in the shelving chaU and flint
rock. On the barren walls Tines and figs are trained ; the

Heath field, — near Ashford ; Earl Thanet. A square edifice
of Portland stone ; the grounds skirted by the Stour, and much
improved by the present Earl, who dedicates great part of his
time to agricultural pursuits.

Hill Park, — near Westerham ; J. H. Barrow, Esq. The
grounds beautifully varied by nature, tastefully planted, and
containing a curious artificial cascade m front of the house.

HUtvood House,— neax Beckenham ; the favorite retreat of the
late prime minister Pitt. A small house, but the grounds ex-
tensive and beautifully laid out by H. Repton.

Lee, — near Ickham ; T. B. Bridges, Esq. A Gothic
mansion by James Wyatt, Esq ; praised by Lord Walpole;
the park displaying some fine thriving trees over undulatins
grounds. ^^

Quarry Hilt, — near Tunbridge; J. Burton, Esq. an eminent
Ix)ndon builder. A castellated mansion by the roadside, built
of the stone and flints of the cotmtrv, witfi an extensive park,
abounding in imdulations and wood.

Wooton Court, — near Dover ; Rev. E. T. Brydges. A white
house on a bold hill, nobly crowned with woods ; the grounds
much varied with hiU and valley.

Woodlands, — near Blackheath ; J. J. Angerstein, Esq. An
elegant mansion of Portland stone, in a commanding situatitm;
the grounds agreeably varied, and the gardens remarkable for
the quantity of glass they contain. There is a very large con-
servatory and numerous vineries, the mvention and execution
of Mr. D. Stewart, when this gentleman's gardener; also an
excellent collection of exotics.

7538. Demesne and first-rate residences.

X Chtvening, — near Seven Oaks ; Earl Stanhope. A good
mansion by Inigo Jones, with grounds flat and rich, but not
much varied by plcuitation. The present earl is much attached
both to horticulture and agriculture.

Coliham Halt, — near Cobnam ; Earl Damley. A house in
the form of a Roman H, the centre partly by Inigo Jones ; the
park of 1800 acres, nearly seven miles in circumference, be'auti-
fully diversified, abundaiitly wooded ; with remarkably line
oaks, and a noble avenue of lime-trees. On an elevated site
is a large magnificent mausoleum, which cost 9000/.

Footscray Place, — near Footscray ; .
of freestone, copied from

■Harris,
design by

The
?8lladio.

1070

STATISTICS OF GARDENING,

Part IV.

erected near Vatioe; th« park well planted, and embellished
with a canal, formed from the Cray nver, which flows through
the grounds.

Knowle Park, — near Seven Oaks ; Duchess of Dorset. A
maf^nificent Elizabethean palace, the most modem part of
which is dated 1605 ; it covers five acres. The park is between
five and six miles in circumference, varied in surface, and
clothed with venerable oaks, beeches, ashes, and elms. The
pleasure-grounds, for the greater part, remain in their original
taste, and contain some fine old limes, cedars, and other trees.
Extensive conservatories, modem rosaries, and tlower-gardens,
■with other improvements, have been added by the present pro-
prietor, who is much attached to gardening.

Affrfe.-inear Maidstone; Earl Romney. Formerly a cas-
tellated mansion, surrounded with a moat ; now a splendid
Structure on a knoll, commanding fine views, " but having too

much the air of a citizen's Tilla." The park te extensive,
timbered with large trees ; with a broad sheet of water, and a
handsome bridge.

Mount MorrU, — near Monks Horton ; the late Lord Rokeby.
A large square brick house by Gibbs, and a well wooded park
of 1000 acres, greatly improved in its pasture by the owner,
who took great delight in farming.

X PerwAurii, _ near Tunbridge; J. S. Sydney, Esq. An
extensive castellated pile of the 13th and 14th centuries ; the
park now reduced to 400 acres, but containing many fine old
lime, oak, chestnut, and beech trees.

Sumrmr HUl, — near Tunbridge; W. Woodgate, Esq. A
celebrated and beautiful seat, granted by Queen Elizabeth to
the Earl of Leicester. The mansion erected in Jsunes I.'s time ;
the grounds richly wooded and highly picturesque.

7539. ESSEX. A surface of 1,240,000 acres, of which one part, bordering on the Thames, is marshy,
and chiefly under pasture ; another part southwards is occupied with the remains of Hainault and Epping
Forests ; and the remainder in the middle of the county, and towards Cambridge is a mixed tract of
arable lands, on which, besides corn, the coriander, caraway, and hazel, are grown. The rest abounds
in pasture and gentlemen's seats. There is a good market at Colchester for vegetables, and in the
corn -markets there, and other places, samples of the commoner garden-seeds are generally exposed
for sale.

7540. Commercial, cottage, anA farmers^ gardens.

Farmers' Slarket-Gardem. — These are extensive in most
paru of the county. About Ilford, Barking, and Plaistow,
immense quantities of early potatoes are grown for the London
market.

Market-Gardens. — The principal of these are near the metro-
polis, and at Chelmsford and Colchester ; the latter town and
Eveley, and Purfleet, supply the first ejurly peas from the
east side of the metropolU. Few of the market -gardens in this
county, in Kent, or indeed any where, excepting those, of
Middlesex and Surrey, have much glass.

Sced-Qardent The London seedsmen receive more of

their stock from this county than from any other. In the
low district on the Thames, great quantities of rape-seed
are grown ; brown and white mustard are grown in most
places ; small garden-seeds of almost all sorts round Cogges-
hall, Colchester, and in the Isle of Mersey; carrot seeds at
Wethersfield ; coriander, caraway, and mawe seed (Papaver
tomniferum, var. with blue seeds), round Coggeshall ; from
the Marquis of Buckingham's woods at (Jossheld Hall, near
Braintree, most sorts of fir-seeds which are sown in Eng-
land are procured, and hornbeam-seeds from Epping Fo-
rest.

Phytic-Gardent. —There are none of these worth mention-
ing, unless one or two near Saffron Walden,' in which the
saffron is sHU cultivated fbr the apothecaries ; but this article
being procured so much cheaper from abroad, its culture in
England is nearly given up.

FloriiW and Nursery Gardens. — There are few of any conse-
quence.

Cottage-Gardens, Farmers' Private Garderu, and StJmrban
Villas, {_fif;. 743.) — abound and are in general very neatly kept :
formerly the tradesmen of Chelmsford and Colchester were
much attached to the culture of florists' flowers, and they «tUl
continue to.be so in a considerable degree.

743

7541. Of Villas there are a considerable number,
from which we select only a few.

Coopersale, — near Thoydon Gemon ; Archer, Esq. A

spacious edifice, surrounded by lawns and pleasure-grounds.

Debden Hall, — near Thaxted ; Mrs. Chiswell. A handsome
stone mansion, designed by Holland, surrounded by thriv-
ing pleasure-grounds. ^ ^ ,

Eastbury House.— neai Barking; Sterry, Esq. A spa-
cious brick edifice, with octangular towers and chimneys ; the
grounds rather confined. ^ „r . i,. t^ »

Filz-WaUers, — neaT Brentwood; T. VV right, Esq. Ati
octangular house, with chimneys in the centre ; the grounds of
limited extent. , .r, ^ j t. a »

Greenslead Hall, — near Greenstead ; C Ord, Esq. A neat
house and good garden. , , ,, . , t:. a

Halinf;buru Place, ^ncax Stansted ; J.Houbloun, Esq. A
desirable and pleasant residence, lately much improved.

Hare-street Cottage, — in Hare-street; the late H. Kepton,
Esq. llemarkable as having been Uie residence of this justly

'^^ Larries,— near Great Waltham ; J. J. Tuffnell, Esq. A
handsome house, on a pleasant eminence, and the park and
grounds well laid out. . „ t, » x. j

Liston Hall, — near Boxley ; Campbell, Esq. A handsome

modem building, with piazzas, encompassed by a small park

^Ma^/d^'park, — near Miserden ; Sandys, Esq. The

house is ancient ; the park seven miles in circumference, and
rarely equalled for birch woods, picturesque, sequestered, ana
romantic scenes. , ,, . _

Ttvinstead HcUl, — near Twinstead ; J. Mamot, Esq. A spa-
cious handsome building, surrounded by pleasant gardens, over
"^hich is a bridge to the adjoining meadows.

7542L Mansion and demesne residences.

Audtey End,-- near Saffron Walden ; "Ix)rd Baybrooke. A
magnificent Elizabethean structure, of which, according to
Lord Walpole, John Thorpe and Bernard Janson were the
architects. The model was procured from Italv, and cost
500/., and the expense of erection was 190,000/. The park is
finely wooded, and some improvements, it is believed, were
made from the designs of H. Kepton.

X Claybery Hall, — near Woodford ; J. Hatch, Esq. A neat
house, and greatly improved scenery ; the park contains some
fine timber.

Colne Park, — near Little Colne ; P. Hills, Esq. A handsome
mansion of white brick, surrounded with woods and plantations,
among which is an Ionic column, erected by J. Soane, Esq.
architect, in 1791.

Copford Hall, — near Colchester ; J. H. Harrison, Esq. A
handsome house and pleasant grounds, containing severed pieces
of water.

CoppedHa//, — near Epping; J. Conyers, Esq. One of the
greatest ornaments oi the county. The house, of white
brick, has been much improved by Wyatt : the park is exten-
sive, irregular and well wooded, and the distant prospects
grand.

Easton Lodge, — ne&T Dunmow; Lord Maynard. An Eli-
zabethean mansion in an elevated situation, surrounded by a
spacious park, with water and shrubberies.

Foulkbourne Hall, — near \Vitham , J. Bullock, Esq, A
stately old mansion ; and, in the grounds, one of the largest
cedar-trees in the kingdom.

i^e/ij Ha//, _ near Kelvedon ; C. C Weston, Esq. A neat
modem building, and the grounds laid out with much judg-
ment.

X Gosfield Hall, — near Gosfield ; Marquis of Buckingham.
A mansion of the domestic architecture prevalent in Henry
VII's reign. The grounds are of limited extent.

Hare Hall, — near Romford ; J. A. Wallenger, Esq. An ele-
gant mansion of Portland stone, with wings joined by colon-
nades; the pleasure-grounds are well laid out by Wood, a
local landscape-gardener.

Higham Hills, — near Woodford ; J. Harman, Esq. The
house is on a high ridge, to the west of which is a fine park,
bordering on Epping Forest, and containing a fine piece of
water and many exotic trees.

fli7/Ha//, — near Thevdon Mount; Sir W. Smith, A hand-
some quadrangular builcUng on an eminence, with fine prospects
over a well wooded park.

Ingatestone Hall, — near Ingatestone ; I>ord Petre. An irre-
gular pile in a low situation, noted for its fishponds.

LangfordHall, — ne!a Langford ; N. Westcome, Esq. A
modem white house, in a finely wooded park.

Afi/<«/i7n//, — near Manningtree; F. H. Rigby, Esq. The
house has lately been much improved, and some plantations
and pleasure-grounds laid out with taste.

JVarerfocJt/fa//, — near Navestock; Earl Waldegrave. A
plain brick building, pleasantly situated amon;;st gardens and
pleasure-grounds.

Shortgrove, — r\ea.T Audley ; Smith, Esq. A handsome

mansion on an eminence, with the river (Jranta at the foot of
a lawn in front, from which the house is supplied by water
from a machine designed by the celebrated mechanician. Dr.
Desaguliers. The plantations and pleasure-ground are thriving
and beautiful. , .„ ^,

Thorndon Hall, — near Brentwood ; Ix)rd Petre. The man-
sion, from a design by Paine, in the Corinthian style. The park
and grounds well stocked with wood, and many of the trees of
great rarity and value, having been planted by a former I.ord
Petre, mentioned by Ellis, in a letter to Linnaeus, as one of the
greatest encouragers of botany of his time, and in short the
Mfpcenas of the age. „ . , ,

Fa/e»i/ine», — near Wanstead; C. Cameron, Esq. A venerable
mansion and grounds; the hot-house remarkable for a vine of
the black Hamburgh kind, planted in 1758, and nearly as large
and prolific as that at Hampton Court.

Wanstead House, — near Wanstead ; Wellesley Long Pole,
Esa. (1820.) A large and magnificent structure, the princiiial
front 260 feet. The park is very extensive, and almunds in old
avenues, water, &c., laid out by London and Wise. The
present proprietor has made great improvements; erected ex-
tensive hot-houses in the kitchen-garden, and formed one of tte
largest American gardens in the kingdom, from designs by
LewU Kennedy, Esq. The whole lately sold in lots.

H'eaW Ha//, — near Brook Street; C. Towers, Esq. A
handsome building in a large park, with nch gardens and
plantations, and distinguished by an embattled prospect-

^lvhitley, — r\ea.T Badbrook; T. Walford, Esq. An elegant
residence with fine plantations, extensive pleasure-grounds,
rich in exotic trees, and containing some well constructed
ornamental buildings and a fine collection of tnglisJi plants.

Book I.

GARDENS OF BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.

1071

75ta HERTFORDSHIRE. A surface of 302,080 acres, the north part forming part of a chalky ndge
which extends across the kingdom in this direction, the rest agreeably varied. The soil is generally loamy
or clayey, on a chalky sub-soil : there are many private gardens in the county of almost all descriptions ;
a number of small nurseries and market-gardens, and some florists' market-gardens. The gardens at
Moor Park and Cashiobury were formerly the most celebrated in the county.

ten miles in circumference. UTien Cromwell's survey wat

7544. The viilus are less numerous than the de-
mesne-residences.

Btechrcood Park, — near Market Street ; Sir J. Sebright. A
handsome mansion in a delightful well-wooded park, abound-
ing in stately beech-trees. There is a farm of 700 acres, onl-
tivated in the first style bv the proprietor, who is distin-
l>:uished both as a grower ot'com, and a breeder of domestic
animals.

BrecArf Ha//, — near Welwyn; Lord Melbourne. A hand-
some dwelling, from the designs of Paine; the park and
grounds beautiful, and much enriched by the river L«a,
which is here formed into a hjindsome sheet of water.
The park farm is scientifically cultivated,; chiefly by the
direction of Lady Melbourne.

Brukenden Bury, — near Hertford ; Morgan, Esq.

The park is large, and well ftimished with wood and water.

Brojrbourn Bury, — near Broxboum ; J. Bosanquet, Esq.
The house is spacious, and with the park has lately been
much improved.

Cockenhatch, — near Royston ; Lady Wills. A singular,
but not unhandsome mansion, in a pleasant park.

Colney House, — near London Colney ; G. Anderson, Esq.
A handsome and regular mansion, with wings ; the offices
ccamected by an underground passage, and completely en-
Teloped in evergreens. The park contains some fine oeik and
elm trees ; the pleasure-grounds are extensive ; the kitchen-
garden well stocked with the best sorts of fruit-trees ; and
there is a large green-house full of choice plants.

GuAiOTU, — near North Mims; J. Hunter, Esq. In Henry
VIl.'s time the seat of Six John More, &ther to the illus-
trious Sir Thomas More. The gardens ware then, and in
the succeeding reign, celebrated for their splendor in the
ancient taste.

X Gorhambury Houte. — neax St. Albans; Earl Verulam.
A Corinthian house of brick stuccoed, by Sir Robert Taylor ;
and a park of 600 acres, well stocked with fine timber, par-
ticularly beech.

The Grm-e, — near M'atford ; Earl of Clarendon. An
irregular brick structure in a park three miles in circum-
ference, through which the river Gade flows in a divided
stream. There is a farm of 600 acres assiduously cultivated
by his lordship, who pays the greatest attention to every
branch of farming.

HameU, — near Sacombe ; G. Mellish, Esq. The grounds
laid out with much taste.

Henated iiury, — near Hemel Hempsted ; Hilton, Esq.

A neat hous« and pleasant grounds in a mixed style be-
tween the geometric and the modem manner.

X Panshanger, — near Hertford ; Earl Cowper. A fine
situation, the house lately improved, and the groimds plea-
sant. The park contains a remarkably large oak.

T/udbaJd't Park, — near Cheshunt ;' Sir G. B. Prescot. A
residence of 300 acres, with a handsome mansion erected
on what was formerly a palace and park of James I., who,
having got possession of the park, by exchange, flrom the
Earl of Salisbury, enlarged and surroimded it with a wall

taken in 1650, it contained 2508 acres, diversified with
avenues and other masses of trees. The gardens were large,
and ornamented with labyrinths, canals, and fountains.
The great garden contained several acres, and there was
besides a pheasant, privy, and laimdry garden. La the
former were nine knots, artificially and eiquisJtely made,
one of them in imitation of the kingVarms-

Tring Park, — near Tring ; Sir D. Smith. The house is
large and convenient, and the park consists of between 300
and 400 acres, beautifully varied both with undulations of
surface and fine trees.

Watton W'oodAo//, — near Watton ; S. Smith, Esq. A spa-
cious and elegant mansion, occupying one of the hnest situ-
ations in the countv, built bv Sir Thomas Rumbold, and the
kitchen-garden formed by Malcolm. The park is large,
diversified by hill and dale, and watered by several small
streams, which flow into the river Beane, in its course
through the grounds ; it contains fine oaks, many of which
are ofgreat magnitude. The kitchen-garden is excellent and
well managed.

Wormievbu ry, — neax 'VVoiinley; Sir A. Hume. A good
house and pleasant grounds, but chiefly remarkable for its
horticulturad productions. Sir Abraham having introduced
various new plants from China and India.

7545. The following may be considered as first-
rate residences.

X CoiAiofcury, — near Watford; Earl of Essex. -A. spacious
Elizabethean mansion ; and a park between three and four
miles in circumference, abounding in rich scenery and noble
timber, originally planted by Le Notre. The pleasure-grounds
are extoisive, and contain a beautiful flower-garden in the
Chinese style. The kitchen-garden is well cultivated, and
also the home farm. The Earl of Essex, in Evel\-n's time,
was a great encourager of gardening, as is the present earl.

X Hatfield Houte, — near Hatfield ; Marquis Salisbury. A
magnificent Elizabethesm mansion, in a finely diversified
park watered by the river Lea, and containing some of the
finest oak, ash, elm, and other trees in the county. There
were originally two parks, one for red and the other for fal-
low deer ; and in one of them wjis a vineyard which was in ex-
istence at the time Charles I. was a 'prisoner at Hatfield.
In 1795, a piece of ground of 17 acres in extent, was set apart
for agricultural experiments, which are conducted with great
science and assiduity by the marchioness.

X Moor-Park Houie, — nezi Rickmansworth; Wil-
liams, Esq. A magnificent Corinthian mansion, by Giacomo
Leoni, and the grounds laid out under the direction of the
celebrated Lucy Countess of Bedford, and afterwards mo-
demised by Brown, when the estate was in the possession of
Lord Anson. The park is finely diversified with oak, ash, dm,
and lime trees, so old as to be much decayed at their tops. This
celebrated seat has been praised by Bacon and Sir W. Temple ;
and one of its possessors B. H. Styles, Esq. was unfairly satir-
ised bv Pope, for removing a bill from the nco^ front at aa
expense of 5000/.

places
but cc

ID

7546. BUCKIXGHAMSHIRR A surface of 318,400 acres, hilly, and abounding in some
natural beech-woods, the soil ricli, and on chalk. It does not abound in gardens or residences,
tains one long celebrated — Stow. The seedsmen procure many of their tree-seeds from the natural
woods of the county ; as beech-mast, from Amersham and High Wycombe, and also hornbeam, holly,
haws, and juniper. Some of the nurserymen procure their stocks for standard roses from the same woods,
and fiom copse- woods at their periodical fellings, or when they are to be rooted out.

7547. ViUas and demesne-residences.
Bulsirode, — near Beaconsfield ; the Duke of Somerset.

The house is in no respect remarkable ; the park contains
5000 acres, aboimding in old oak and beeches. The gardens
were formerly kept in good order, and also the farm.

Chaljinit Home, — near Chalfont St. Giles; in 1800,
Thomas Hibbert, Esq. The grounds were laid out by the
former possessor with much taste and judgment; and are
finely ornamented with wood, and adomed with a pleasant
piece of water. The gardens, in Mr. Hibbert's time, were
richly stocked with tender exotics, eq)ecially heaths, and
other Cape plants.

Cliefden, — near \Vobum (Bedf.) ; a seat founded by George
Villiers, second duke of Buckingham, in the reign of
Charles U. Bumt down in 1795. The grounds are finely
varied bv woods, which descend on the side of a steep hill
to the Thames, and are celebrated by Pope in his Mor(U
B*$ayt.

Farvley Court, — neai Fingest ; Strickland Freeman, Esq.
The mansion is handsome and spacious, with four fronts :
it was built in 1684, from a design of Sir Christopher Wren.
The grounds round the house are rather flat ; but the distant
scenery is hilly, well wooded, and the windings of the Thames
are seen along a beautiful vale.

X HaU Bam, —near Beaconsfield ; Edmund Waller, Esq.
descendant of the poet, by whom the grounds were laid out
in the ancient style, verging into a sort of wildness at Ae
extremities of the walks. The ground near the banqueting-
house has been moved and remodelled by the poet at verv
considerable cost, and the place, on the 'whole, must hav'e
deserved the encomiums that were made on it when in its
perfection, and in high keeping ; at present it is rather
neglected.

Hedtor Lodge, _ near Wobum ; Ixjrd Frederick Boston.
The house is modem and elegant ; the grounds are distin-
guLshed for their high sloping hills, deep vallevs, and the
wild luxuriance of the woods, which, combining with the bold
swells or abmpt depressions of the surface, produce some very
beautiful and picturesque scenery. The view from the brow of
the hill, with the village church : the winding Thames, and
the distant hills clothed with beech-wood, is very tine.
(1800) •'

near Chesham ; I>ord George Cavendish. A

small place of no great note, but here introduced, because
referred to by G. Mason as having been laid out by Brown.

Shardeioet, — near Amersham ; T. D. T. Drake, Esq. Th»
house is a respectable modem edifice, from a design, bj
M. Adams, it is situated on the brow of a hill, overlooking
a broad sheet of water, planned by Bridgeman. The park
is much varied in stuface, and richly clothed with beech-
woods.

Sioke Parkf—nesae Stoke Fogies; John Penn, Esq. The
house was built in 1789, fix)m the designs of James Wyatt,
Esq. ; and the grounds laid out by H. Kepton, are beautiful,
though of limited extent.

tVolmm Farm, — near Wobum; Earl MTiarton (1770).
This place was laid out as aferme omA, and was celebrated in
the time of Wheatley, who gives a full description of it. It is
now entirdy obliterated, and the grounds let as a common
farm.

X Wycombe Abbey, — near Wycombe ; Lord Carrington.
The house situated in a bottom, has lately been much im-
proved In the Gothic style bv A\yatt. The grounds
contain a curious artificial 'cascade, ei'ecuted by J. Lane, a
stonemason, who executed the cascade at Bowood, in Wilt-
shire, and is celebrated for his talent in this way. The park
contains 200 acress, well wooded and watered, and bounded

— "- " • • • " "Us.

near Wycombe ; Sir J. D. King, Bart.
3V W. M'are, in the Grecian style and ele-

on the south by high hill;
Wycombe Park.

The house is small,

gant. The grounds form part of a vale, bordered by a stream,
and are deservedly much admired for their wood and water.
They were laid out by Brown, and received some improve-
ments ftDm H. Repton.

7548. The following are first-rate residences : —
X Aihridge Park, — near Hempsted ; Earl of Bridgewater.
The ancient abbey, lately pulled down, and a magnificent
Gothic mansion, erected from the designs of J. Wvatt in 1815.
Thepark is five miles in circumference, pleasingly varied with
hill and dale, and furnished with some very fine o'ak and beech
trees. The gardens are extensive ; the culinarv department is
under the care of T. Torbron from Kew, an excellent gar-
dener; and the flower-garden contains several acres, full rfva-
nety, and laid out from the designs of H. Repton, Esq. in 1814.
The &rm is managed by a Northumbrian bailiff.
X Siow, — near Buckingham ; Marquis of Buckingham.

1072

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV,

several formalities ; and amonff other improvements substW
tuted the sunk fence for the high wall. A stranger, in passing
through the grounds, is astonished at the number, the beauty,
and the magnificence of the buildings ; and the house, with iu
extended front, elevated site, eind extensive prospects, is a truly
grand object. The gardens of every kind are kept in high

order, especially the llower-gardens, lawns, and shrubberies,
near the house. The buildings and other objects are too nume-
rous to be even enumerated here ; a copious account of them,

The chief ornament of the county, and celebrated for nearly a
century for its gardens. When beheld at a distance, this place
appears Uke a vast grove, interspersed with columns, obelisks,
and tower^, which apparently emerge from a luxuriant mass of
tohage. 1 he gardens obtained their celebrity from the alter-
ations effected by Lord Cobham, in the early part of the last
century. The first artist employed was Bridgeman, whose
drawmgs are stiU in possession of the marquis. Stowe was the
most emment place in the ancient style, and set the fashion of
employing numerous statues and architectural ornaments.
K.ent was called in probably about 1755 or 1760; he abolished

7^. BEDFORDSHIRE. A surface of 260,000 acres, not much varied; the soil sandy in many
places, and a strong clay m others. It contains a few mansions, and the princely residence of the
Duke of Bedford; and the village of Sandy, on the borders of the county, has long been famous for
growing pickhng cucumbers, which are sent to the London market, and sold by the bushel.

Ampthill Park, — Ampthill ; Earl of Upper Ossory. The
mansion, a superb edifice, built in the Grecian :tyle ; the
park contains 2000 acres, extensive and flat, but furnishes
some pleasant prospects ; it has a fine water view, and many
ancient oaks.

Luton Hoo, — near Luton ; Marquis of Bute. The house is
large, and contains one good front by Adams; the library is 146
feet m length, and inferior only to that of Blenheim. The park
IS extensive, well wooded, and watered by the river Lea, which
expands into a lake, varied by islands at the base of the emi-
nence on which the house is situated. The gardens of the farm
were formerly kept in high order, but are now (1821) much
neglected.

Vrert, — near Selsey ; Baroness Lucas (1800). An ancient
soat, the groundji of which were submitted to Brown, who

formed here a noble serpentine river, their principal ornament,
and has occasioned this place being called the Stow of Bed-
fordshire. They abound with architectural ornaments, and
contain many fine large trees.

X Woburn Abbey, — near Wohvtm ; Duke of Bedford. A
first-rate residence. The abbev, or palace, is in the Ionic stvle,
very extensive, and was much improved in the end of the last
century, from the designs of Holland. From the duke'a
apartments a covered way leads to a green-house, 140 feet in
length ; and from the end of the green-house a piazza of
nearly a quarter of a mile leads along the margin of a flower-
garden to the dairy, a handsome Chinese building, ornamented
with stained glass. The park is very extensive, varied in sur-
face, and abundantly clothed with trees ; but it wants one fea-
ture of essential importance, water. This might be given, but
it would be at considerable expense. At present there
are several small pieces or lakes ; but thev have no ef-
fect in a general point of view, though some of them are
pleasingly picturesque as recluse scenes. One of them,
contrived to fall in the way of the approach, is crossed
by a viaduct Ifig. 744.) designed by Repton. There
are many fine old cedars, silver firs, and pines, in
one part of the park, which were planted under the di-
rection of Miller; and there is a very tall beech with
an erect stem, which has been noticed by Pontey. The
gardens are extensive, and abundant in every thing ;
and the farm has long been celebrated for the an-
nual meeting of ajpriculturists, called sheep-shearings,
to which it gave rise, and at which all tne eminent
agrioulturists of the country, and many foreigners,
Jire annually pnesent. The late duke, Francis, it has
been trtily observed, did as an individual what is ge-
nerally done by society; he rewarded invention, fos-
tered ingenuity, and gave a fair trial to every new
agricultural scheme. The present duke has not the
same taste as his late brother, but still keeps up '.ha
annual meetings, and cultivates the park farm.

7550. HUNTINGDONSHIRE, A duU, flat, humid, unhealthy surface, of 240,000 acres.
Hinchinbroke House, — near Huntingdon ; Earl of Sandwich. I Cromwells, in the time of Elizabeth ; the park flat, and not

A large irregular building, built of stone and brick by the | extensive.

7551. CAMBRIDGESHIRE. A surface of 500,000 acres ; little varied, but fertile and healthy. It is
not remarkable as a gardening county ; but it contains a good botanic garden at Cambridge, and one or two
extensive seats. The parent tree of the weeping-ash still exists in this country, at Gamblingay, in a field,
close by a farm-house. It is a tall tree, with a naked stem and weeping top. The first graft taken from
it was presented to the father of Miss Plumtree, who had the living of Wimpole, and the second to Lord
Hardwick's steward, about 1760, or later. {Plumtree's Residence in Ireland, p. 93.) The seedsmen re-
ceive a good deal of clover-seed from Royston, and of white and yellow mustard from the Isle of Elv.
Clark is the principal nurseryman at Cambridge.

Public Promenades. — There are a few shady walks belonging
to some of the colleges open to the public in general, and some
private gardens ; but none of them of any note.

The Cambridge Botanic Garden — was established in 1765,
by Dr. Walker, vice-master of Trinity College, who purchased
nearly five acres about 1761 for that purpose, and gave it in
trust to the Chcmcellor, Masters, and Scholars of the Uni-
versity, for the purpose of a public botanic garden. Tho-
mas Martyn, the titular Professor of Botany, vras appointed
reader on plants, and Charles Miller, son to Philip Mil-
ler, (who had Lssisted Dr. Walker in choosing the ground,)
was made first nirator. To him succeeded Donn, who died
in 1817, and was succeeded by Mr. A. Biggs, the present
curator. This garden has obtained considerable celebrity en-
tirely through the exertions of Donn, who, in a short time,
formed a very extensive collection, and published the Hortu*
Cantabrifriensis.

Madingley, — near Long Stanton ; Admiral Sir Charles
Hinde Cotton, Bart. The house is in the Elizabethean Gothic,

and resembles that much-admired example of this style, Hol-
land House. The grounds are umbrageous and picturesque.

Chippenham ParA:, — near Newmarket ; John Thorp, Esq. A
magnificent mansion ; it was erected from a design of "Inigo
Jones, about the end of the seventeenth century, and the
grounds laid out in the geometric style. The present proprietor
has increaised the property, and made very great improvements
on the grounds. There is a beautiful sheet of water near three
quarters of a mile in length, the joint work of the late Mr.
Eames and Mr. Lapidge. The hotvhouses form a range of
nearly 500 feet. In the plantations upwards of a million of
trees have been planted.

X Wimpole, — near Gamlingay ; Earl Hardwicke. The
most splendid private residence in Cambridgeshire- The man-
sion is a large brick structure ; the park is extensive, but rather
flat ; the river Cam flows through it, and there are three lakes.
The whole has been greatly improved, and the farming estab-
lishment is eminently distinguished, and ranks with those of
Wobum and Holkham.

7552. SUFFOLK. A surface of 800,000 acres, generally level, the soil sandy towards the sea, but clayey
inwards. It is an old county, and contains some venerable seats and woods. Great quantities of peas are
grown for the London market at Woodbridge, and especially the pearl pea; Lowestoft is famous for car-
rots ; a good deal of clover, with some turnip-seed, is furnished from the different parts of the county ;
and there are good nurseries at Bury, Ipswich, and Barton Mills.

Bury Botanic Garden — was established in 1819, by W. Hud-
son, of Chapel House, formerly of the War-office, a great lover
of plants. Its extent is between two and three acres, and the
collection of hardy plants is already considerable. The ex-
penses are defrayed by annual subscribers at two guineas each.
It is in contemplation also to establish a botanic garden at
Ipswich.

Amptot Hall, — near Bury ; Lord Calthorpe ; and Liver-
mere, N. L. Acton, Esq. adjoining. The owners have made
a noble river through both parks at their joint expense, by
which means they have ornamented their estates to a degree
otherwise impossible. In Mr. Acton's grounds the river ter-
minates in a tcoop, or painted perspective, in the Dutch
style ; a thing rarely to De met in England. The Rev. M.
Young, author of the Agricultural Survey of the County, has
given a description of the river, and says, " the scoop has an
excellent effect."

Elvedon Hall, — neat Elvedon; Earl Albemarle. A demesne
of 4000 acres : a few years ago, of barren sand, but now
planted and improved ; the agriculture conducted with great

skill and assiduity by the proprietor, who ranks high as a
farmer and breeder.

X Boston Hall, — near Thetford ; Duke of Grafton. A com.
modious red-brick mansion, with little decoration, surrounded
by immense trees, and watered by the Ouse. The park con-
tains 1450 acres, and an elegant temple designed for a ban-
queting-house, by Kent, and erected m 1746. The late duke
was an able and successful agriculturist, and kept upwards of
3200 acres in his own hands.

Flixton Hall, — near Bungay; A. Adair, Esq. A noble
structure, near the river Waveney, in Inigo Jones's Gothic,
built in 1615, butin excellent preservation. The grounds con-
tained originally some fine old woods, and have lately been
enlarged and embellished with extensive plantations.

Finborough Hall — near Stow-market; R. Pettiward, Esq.
An elegant building of Woolpit brick, from a design by
F. Sandys. The park, of 200 acres, gently slopes from the
mansion, into a circular valley, through which runs a stream :
there is a fine winding walk to the church, and beau^ifiJ
groups of straggling thickets of trees.

Book

GARDENS OF OXFORDSHIRE.

1073

Livermere, — neai Fakenham ; S. 1. Acton. An elegant
teat of white brick ; the grounds flat, but adorned with a ftnc
piece of water, and well wooded.

Redgrave Hall, — near Botesdale ; Admiral Wilson. A
spacious mansion of Woolpit brick, with Jonic columns; the
park charmingly- woodt-d, and adorned with a tine piece of
water in front ot the house.

Hendlesham House, — near Rendlesham ; Lord Rendle&ham.
A princelj residence : the mansion of great extent, modern,
but in the Elizabethean stjie. The park and pleasure-grounds
extensive, and highlj kept. The former abounds in old wood,
though rather deficient in undulations of surface.

flitjAirooA Ha//, — near Fakenham; R. Roshbrook, Esq. A
noble spacious mansion with wings, forming three sides of a
square; the park very eitensire and well wooded, both with
timber-trees, and undergrowths, furce, hollies, &c. for game.

Sudborne Hu//, — near Orford; Marquis of Hertford. A
sporting residence of the marquis ; the hall a plain quadran-
^lar building, covered with composition ; the park abounding
in copse and other covers for game, with cultivated patches
sown with com and buck-wheat for the same purpose.

Woolverlon Hall, — near Woolverton ; C. Bemers, Esq. A
house of the cream-colored brick of Woolpit, with an Ionic
portico, placed on the banks of the Orwell; the stables de-
taclied and rendered ornamental. The park is neatly laid out,
and contains a handsome monumental obelisk of freestone.

tfrii/uii/1,— near Henham ; Karl of Stradbroke. An elegan^
modem mansion, and an extensive park and pleasure-grounds,
kept in excellent ordtr.

Helrmngham Hall, — near Helmingham; Earl Dysart. A
house built in the time of Henry V'lll., surrounded bv a moat,
which, as well as the basin in the park, is frequented by great
numbers of wild fowl. The park comjirehends 400 acres, and
contains some of the finest old oaks m this part of the king-
dom. The church is close to the park, and near it a pic-
turesque cottage, inhabited by a person, whose business it is
to take care of the vaults and splendid monuments of the
Tolemache family, who possessed the estate in the reign of
Edward I.

Heveringham Hall, — aear Huntingfield ; I.ord Huntingfield.
One of the finest seats in the county ; the house a modem
erection from the designs of Sir Robert Taylor, and finished
by Wyatt ; the front 200 feet long, and adorned with
Corinthian columns. It is situated on an eminence in an ex.
tensive park, which abounds irv fine plantations, and is diver-
sified by a noble piece of water near the house. The whole of
this extensive projieny has beep improved by plantations, which,
in a few years, will give a new character to this part of the
country.

Icktvorth Park, — near Bury; Earl Bristol. An unfinished
mansion, on a grand scale, from a desigji sent from Italy ; the
park eleven miles in circumference, and containing 1800 acres.

7553. NORFOLK. A surface of 1,240,000 acres ; every where flat, fenny towards Lincolnshire; sandy
in most places ; and the rest a strong clay. It contains some good residences. At Norwich florists'
flowers were first introtluced into England by the refugee manufacturers from Flanders, about the
middle of the sixteenth century. The principal nurseryman in the county is Mackie, of Norwich. The
London seedsmen receive mustard-seed from NVisbeach, and some turnip and clover-seed from other
quarters.

7554. y'iUasa.nd. demesne.
residences.

BtidclineHaU,— near Aylsh&m ;
Right Hon. W. A . Harbord. An
interesting ancient mansion, sur-
rounded with a moat, completed
in 1628 : the gardens, at that
time, containing an elegant wil-
derness and lake; The park con-
sists of 1000 acres, abounds m
old trees, and the lake extendi,
in a crescent shape, for a mile,
and its greatest breadth is 400
yards.

Felbrig^, — near Cromer ;

Windham, E^q. .A. house partly
of the time of Henry VIII. but
subsequently enlarged; the park
abounding in old woods, and
greatly improved by the late poi-
sessor, whose taste in such matters
is e%Tnced in his letter to Repton.

GillingKam Hall,— near Yar-
mouth ; Lord Beresfbrd. A neat
venerable Gotlac house Utg.7A5.),
with some fine old trees, a hand-
some piece of water, and ivied
ruins of zui old church.

X Gunlon Hall, — near Cromer
remarkable for its very extensive plantations.

Hanworih, — near Cromer; R. L. Doughtv

Lord Suffield. The park

. . Esq. An ex-
cellent modem house, sitaated in a small but very pleasant
park, well wooded, and laid out with great taste.

Hillington Park,—nex Sechey; Sir M. B. Folkes. A resi-
dence lately much improved, and the gardens, hot- walls, and
hot-houses,' rendered very complete.

KimberUy //a//, — near Downham ; Ixjrd Wo lehouse, A
convenient house, in an extensive and beautiful park, richly
ornamented with wood and water.

X Rainliajn, — neai 'Wells; Marquis Townshend. A fom-
fbrtahle house, built in 1650, by Inigo Jones; the grounds
extensive, naturally suited for improvement, but not much
unproved.

Waltingham HQtue,—ne!a Walsinghara ; H. L. Warner, Esq.

A commodious honse, and grounds which have been under
a course of improvement for several vears, and are now
highly beautiful. A rivulet is swelled to a lake, and a judioioua
use made of the ruins of a priory which formerly existed

-near Aylsham; Ladv Waldegrave. An
elegant modem mansion, built by Riplev'the architect, under
the direction of Horace Walpole, in 1730. The park is larxs
and well ornamented with wood and water.

7555. The following aTeJirsf.rafe residences : —
X HMham Hall,- near Wells ; T. W. Coke, Esq. One rf
the best mansions in England, in point of comfort and ar-
rangement. The park exte-.isive, flat, and sandv ; but varied
by trees and farming processes continually going'on, and con-
taining a piece of water for which Repton contrived a boat
^J^/f- "'IS.) so constructed, that bv means of
a cylinder and rope (B), and machinery
enclosed in a box (C), and connected with
the rope (D), the boat may be moved from
one side of the water to the other, according
as the handle (E) is turned to the right
_^^^^^ <"■ left-

' ' *^/tij»_ ^ Houghion Ho//, — near Ronghain ;

/Zie?^ — if Earl Cholmondelev . .\ noble fre^one

structure, with two fronts, wings with cu-
polas, and one of the best dining-ropms
tor proportions and conveniences in Eng-
land. The park is extensive, but dull and
flat : it contains some fine old beech-tmes.

7556. OXFORDSHIRR A surface of 450,000 acres, considerably varied by ridges, approaching, in
some places, to the character of hills ; the climate cold, and the soil in most parts thin, on a stony subsoil.
It contains the magnificent residence of Blenheim ; some others of great extent, and a botanic garden at
Oxford. There are no commercial gardens in the county worth mentioning.

75o/. Public gardens.

Piiblic Promenadea and College Gardttu The promenades of

Magdalen College are umbrageous and varied, considering that
they are merely walks round meadows on raised mounds,
bordered by hedges and hedge-row trees. The public avenues
are magnifi'cent, and as well adapted for display as the others
are for retired exercis<> or conversation. There are private
gardens to most of the colleges ; their form is generally square
or oblong, surrounded by a broad walk zmd' intersect«l by
others; that of Christchurch is famous for its fig-trees, planted
in 1G4S; Oiat of Trinitv for its verdamt sculptures; and that
of St. Johft's College, for being laid out by Brown, in the
modem style, in 17?3.

Tlu: Botanic Garden of Oxford— was founded by Henry Earl
of Danby, in 1632; it contains five acres, a green-house and
stove, and a gardeners' house. The first curator was Bobart

3

from Brunswick, in whose lime, and in that of his son, who
succeeded him in 1679, it was more worthy of notice than it
has been since. Its present curator is William Baxter, A. L. S.
andP.H.S.

7558. Villas and demesne-residcnces.

Bad^moor, — near Henley; J. Grote, Esq. Forty acres of
pleasure-ground and a house ; in the former a summer-house,
from which fine views are obtained through vistas formed by
shrubs, the holly and other dark greens being placed jj the
fore-ground.

Cow/lie Lodge, — neaz Henley; S. Gardiner, Esq. A flat
place, rendered interesting by every thing that art could effect
by planting.

'Groie Cw/a^f, — near Stokenchurch; R. Davis, Esq. Trulv
an elegant cottage-dwelling; neat, commodious, simple, and
harmonised with the rural scenery around.

z

1074

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

X Middleton S{otUf/,—nexe Bicester; EarlJersey. An ei-
tensive unvaried residence ; hut greatly improved both as to
the house and grounds by the i)resent possessor.

Moiigervdl, — at Mongewell ; Bishop of Durham. The man-
ion unfavorably placed, but the attached grounds extensive,
and arrangtxl with much taste.

X JVHnWwwt-CouWenui/, — near Oxford; Earl Harcourt. A
Grecian house, in part by Brown ; the grounds laid out by this
artist, and the flower-garden, which has been much admired,
in part by him, and in part by Mason the poet. The park
contains 1500 acres, and a beautifully varied drive is conducted
through it.

Skerbourtie Castle,— near Wattlington ; Earl Macclesfield.
Surrounded by a broad and deep moat, and approached by
three drawbridges, the chief entrance guarded by a portcullis.
The park contains sixty acres, but is flat and uninteresting ;
the pleasure-grounds have been lately improved ; a flower-
garden laid out in a chaste taste ; an extensive conservatory of
stone and cast-iron erected: and also a pavilion for the recep-
tion of flowers in the more genial summer months.

Tfiame Park, near Thame ; Miss Wykham. Two hundred
acres of very rich pasture-land, skirted with wood, but rather
flat, originally laid out by Brown, and the pleasure-groimds,
now improving, contain a "good conservatory.

X WorwwZei/, — near Stoken Church; John Fane, Esq. The
house on a very elevated site, the grounds of little merit or
beauty, but the proprietor an excellent farmer and breeder.

Wroxton, — near Banbury ; Earl Guildford. A building in
the abbey style, of considerable antiquity ; and what renders
the place particularly interesting, the geometric style of garden-
ing IS kept up in every improvement introduced in the pleasure-
grounds.

7559. The following are first-rate residences: —

X Blenheim,— at Woodstock ; Duke of Marlborough. The
most ■princely private re.-.idence in Britain, or in E\irope, too
universally celebrated to require anv eulogium. The palace
and bridge by Vanburgh ; the grounds by lx)ndon and Wise,
and subsequently by Brown. The finest view is on entering
from the Woodstock gate ; but the scenery is everywheregrand
and magnificent. 1 he pleasure-ground walks are extensive
and varied ; and there is a drive of eleven miles round the
park. Part of the latter Ls cultivated as a farm. The lake is
the largest piece of artificial water in England : the diameter
of the centre arch of the bridge is 101 feet. There is little of
culture either in the kitchen or flower-garden; the latter
was an oval, with a basin of water in a centre; and radiating
walks, after the plan of that of Madame de Pompadour at
Versailles. Unhappily (as we think) it has lately been destroyed,
and an aviary erected on its site.

X^ Dilchley, — nea.T Woodstock ; Lord Dillon. A good house,
by Gibbs ; tlie grounds very extensive, and intersected by an
avenue of five miles, in the centre of which the house is placed,
and at the opposite extremities are seen in a clear day, the
palace of Blenheim and Heythorpe House. The natural
copses on the estate are intersected by narrow alleys in
all directions, clipped on the sides to facilitate the shooting of
game.

X Heythorpe, — near Enstone; Earl of Shrewsbury. A
superb mansion in the Italian style, approached by a magnifi-
cent avenue, formed by square platoons of elm-trees. The
grounds chiefly in the ancient taste, with curious artificial cas-
cades. There are also extensive hot-houses.

7560. BERKSHIRE. A surface of 476,160 acres, finely varied by low hills and vales, the air healthy,
and the soil good, and well cultivated. It contains numerous villas and mansions. The neighborhood
of Reading is noted for the white-skinned, or Reading onion, the bulbs of which are grown in quantities
for the London market, <ind the seeds for the seedsmen. Cabbage-seeds are also grown in quantities
there, and asparagus grown both for the Bath and London markets : and there is a good nursery occupied
by Swallow.

7561. Villas and demesne-residences.

Beaumont I/odfg-e, — near Windsor : Henry Griffiths, Esq.
The house is in the Gothic style by Mr. Elwyi% rrchitect, of
Windsor: the pailc contains one hundred acres, sloi)ing to the
Thames, and finely varied by wood.

X Betiham House, —near Speen ; Earl Craven. The house
is in the Ionic style, with an elegant portico ; the grounds
agreeably varied and richly wooded, and contain a haiidsome
sheet of water, supplied by the river Kennet.

Caueri/iam, — near Reading; C. Marsac, Esq., is in Oxford-
shire, though so near the capital of Berkshire. It is an old
place, celebrated m Observations on Modern Gardening,
for the beauty of the approach, which is between two hills,
•with the scatteretl trees descending their steep sides, and ap-
proaching and retiring from the road in beautiful variation.
The house is plain, elegant, large, situated on an eminence,
and forming . a conspicuous object from the surrounding
coimtry. The park is not extensive, but is much varied, so as
to apuear more considerable than the amount of its contents
■woula indicate. The garden-scenery is agreeable ; but the
horticulture not remarkable. The whole was laid out by Lord
Cadogan, with the Eissistance of Brown.

Chdsey Farm,— near AVallingford; in 1800 the property of
Lord Kensington, and formerly reputed to be the largest and
most compact farm in England. Rent 1000/. per annum.
Before the desolation of monasteries, it belonged to the Abbot
of Reading, who had a seat here. The great bam in which his
tithes were deposited is yet standing, and measures 101 yards
in length, and eighteen in breadth. The side walls are only
eight feet high, but the roof rises to a great height, and is
supported by seventeen stane pillars, each four yards in
circumference.

Coleshill House,— near Coleslnll; Viscount Folkstone. The
house is a perfect and unaltered specimen of the taste of Inigo
Jones, from whose design it weis erected in 1650. The park is
not large, but is very agreeable.

Donnington Grove, — near Speen j William Brammel, Esq.
The house is a handsome modern building. The park well
wooded, and enriched by views to Donnington Castle. It con-
tains apiece of water judiciously managed.

X Park Place, — near Henley; Earl of Malmsbury, son of
the celebrated author of Hermes. Originally formed at great
expense bv Field Marshal Conway, and mentioned by the
Prince de Ligne, in his Coup d'oeil sur les plus beaux Jardins de
I' Europe, as one of the finest seats in England. The present
proprietor purchased the estate from the widow of the marshal
in 1796, and greatly improved the mansion, with the assistance
of the architect, Holland. It is situated below the brow of
a lofty range of hills, which accompanies the winding of the
Thames for several miles. " The many interesting objects con-
centrated in this demesne, are calculated to excite even the
most latent energies of poetic description. The grounds com-
bine beauty, grandeur, and variety. The composition of the
home scenery is bold, and the distant prospects varied and ex-
tensive. The steep sides of the hills, with their chalky pre-
cipices, are overhung with grand masses of stately beech, in-
terspersed with evergreens, which extend to the margin of the
stream, and from various points of the landscape, appear like an
immense verdant amphitheatre. The projecting lawns corre-
spond with the sublimity of the contiguous scenery, and unite in
forming a diversity of rich jmd beautifiil prospects."

Selwood Park, — near Sunning Hill; James Sibbald, Esq.
The house is a handsome modem building from the designs of
Robert Mitchell; the grounds consist of 300 acres, the
principal part of which is laid out as aferme ornee. A fine ride,
of about four miles in extent, embraces the principal part of
the scenery, which is richly diversified with stately trees and a
large piece of water.

X White Kjug-A^i,— near Reading; Duke of Marlborough
(1S20). The house is a plain building, situated in the centre

of the grounds, rather low, and close to an irregular sheet of
water. This place is mentioned by Wheatley as one of the
earliest examples of a ferme vrn^e. The present proprietor has
rendered it celebrated for its botanic riches, in which, if it does
not surpass, it may vie with any residence in the empire.
There is a large walled garden studded with hot-houses of
every kind, and another surrounded by a hedge and sunk fence,
laid out in the ancient style, and abounding with seats and
curious rustic huts. The whole has been lately described and
illustrated by highly finished ])lates, from the pen of Mrs. and
the pencil of Mr. Hoffland. (See Description of White Knighit,
fol. 1S19.) J •/ o .

X Woodley Lodfre, — near Reading; James AATieeble, Esq.
The mansion is a neat modem edifice, built by the present
proprietor's fatiier, in the time of George II. The grounds
were tastefully laid out by Repton, who mentions this seat in
his work. The park having, in 1817, been greatly enlarged
by ail extensive enclosure; the author of the present work was
employed to give designs, which have since been executing
under the eye of the proprietor, who has great taste and con-
siderable skill in mral improvements ; and is a well informed
truly amiable man.

7562. Roi/al residences.

Frofimore (Frog-moor), -near Windsor; the favorite re-
sidence of the Queen of George III. The bouse is not large,
but neat; the grounds occupy a valley, thirteen acres of which
is laid out in pleasure-ground, highly enriched by flowers
and artificial objects. The whole is diversified with a piece of
water, of irregular shape, and winding in different directions,
in one place approaching the house, and in another retiring
beneath the thick woods. " In this sweet, sequestered spot,
every thing is serene and pleasant. The devious path, the
umbrageous thicket, the dilapidated niin, and secluded temple,
all conspire to render it peculiarly interesting. Exclusive of the
variety of mdigenous and exotic trees and shrubs, which are scat-
tered through the grounds, there are fine ornamental buildings
respectively denominated the Gothic Temple, the Ruin, the
Hermitage, the Temple of Solitude, the Chinese Cottage, and the
Bam. The Ruin was erected from a design by Vv . Wyatt ;
and being seated on the water's edge, partly embowered in
woods, and diversified with fractures in the walls, and ivy, it
constitutes a truly picturesque ornament when seen from
various points of view. The Hermitage is a small, circular,
thatched building, situated in the south west comer of the
garden, and completely embowered with lofty trees. It was
constructed from a drawing of the Princess of Hesse Homberg,
when Princess Elizabeth, whose taste and skill in drawing
are allowed to be considerable. The surrounding .scenery is
justly contrived to assimilate with the character of the place,
the view of every distant object l#ing excluded by trees and
underwood. These improvements were superintended by
Major Price, brother to Uvedale Price, Esq. the celebrated
author of the Essays r,n the Picturesque." (Beauties of Eng.
and Wales (ISO!.), i. 268.)

Since the doath of the queen, in 1818, the grounds have been
respectably kept up by the female part of the royal &mity who
reside there.

Windsor Castle The principal residence of the British

sovereigns. It was originally a hmiting .seat of William the
Conqueror; improved by Henry I., and the park surrounded
with a wall; greatly improved by Edward III., under the
celebrated architect, William de Wyckham, who, in 1357,
superintended the works at a shilling per day, and ultimately
made a fortune by the king's employment. Queen Elizabeth
raised the terrace on the north side ; Charles fl. repaired and
embelli.shed the whole structure, and much was done by
George III., under the direction of W. Wyatt. The avenues
in the park were planted by Charles II.,. who also formed a
bowling-green ; but this, with a flower-garden formed by Queen
Anne, were destroyed during the late and preceding reigns.

7563. GLOUCESTERSHIRR A surface of 800,000 acres ; elevated, hilly in many parts, and the
climate cold ; low, fertile, and humid, however, on the banks of the rivers, as in the Vale of Gloucester. On
the borders of Monmouthshire are some woods of lime-tree, from the bark of which ropes are made for fishery
and agricultural purposes. There are a number of nurserymen in this county, of which the principal are

Book I.

GARDENS OF MONMOUTHSHIRE.

1075

Sweet and MiUer of Bristol, who are the most extensive garden-tradesmen in the west of England. Miss

\Sll? has r nursery at Gloucester, which was founded by her father, the author of a Gardener's

Dictionary.

756i. The following are villa-residences : —

Blaize C<u</<, — near Bristol ; J. Harford, Esq. The house
is an elegant Grecian design by Nash; the Krounds are
recluse, weU-wooded and hishly beautiful. Not for distant
is a picturesque village of thatched cottages, also from the

designs of
prietor.

1 Ayrtt,

Nash, the habitations of pensioners of the pro-

sion, in a bold sitaation, containing a fine bird's-eye •view of

the village.

Hiehtiam Court,— aeax Gloucester; Sir B- W. Guise. A
mansion by Inigo Jones ; an extensive park, and pleasure

grounds, judiciously disposed. . „ „ .

X KingU Wetioit, — nezT Clifton; Lady de Chfford. The
house, one of \'anburgh's best desims, in a situation rarely
equEJied for beauty and grandeur. The park abounds in fine
oaks and elms ; the pleasure-grounds with American plants ;
and there are good kitchen and flower gardens. The views,
towards the Severn and the Avon, ravish the senses with their
grandeur and beauty, and render this place one of the finest in
the county.

Lydney Pari, — near Lydney ; Rt. Hon. C- B. Bathurst. An
old mansion, and near it some tine woods.

X OakUy Grot*, — near Cirencester; Earl Bathurst. A
mansion in the old French style, amidst pines and other ever-
green trees.

RemlcomLe,— ne2i Chcd worth, S. Barrington, Bishop of
Durham. The mansion is elegant and the park extensive,
abounding in wood, and furnishing fine prospects.

HherboriK House, — near Sherborne; Lord Sherborne. A
monasterial-llke mansion of two quadrangles; with two parks,
each between three and four miles in circumference.

Souiham House, — nezx ChelteiUiam; T. B. de la Bere, Esq.
a venerable and fer-£imed mansion of Henry ^■III. It is
of two stories, and more entire than almost any building of that
sera in England. The situation commands some fine pros-
pects in front, and is backed bv old and picturesqtie woods.

Stoke House, — nezT Clifton ;' Dowager Duchess of Beaufort.
A spacious castellated house k\ an extensive park, commanding
fine views along the \'ale of Bristol.

Stout's Hill, — near Lley ; L. Baker, Esq. A handsome mo-
dem edifice with octagonal projections, turreted and orna-
mented in the pointed style, ancl stixToimded by fine beech-
woods.

Store//,— near Xorthleach; Lord Stowell. The house is on
an eminence, in a pleasant park of 100 acres, embellished bj
well arranged plantations.

Toddington House, — aeax Toddington ; C H. Tracy, Esq.
A spacious Elizabethean building, with gardens and pleasure-
grounds in the modem style, and a park of 150 acres.

H'Ai/comie FarA-, — near Malvern; Sir A\'. Hicks. Situated
at the base of some commanding eminences, finely clothed with
beech-trees.

WiUiamstrip, — near Colne. An devated site, but the house
well shelterea by plantations.

7566. WORCESTERSHIRR A surface of 500,000 acres; hilly in many places, as at Malvern and
Broomsgrove, but in general low and very fertile, as in the Vale of Evesham. There are some good resi-
dences. The white onion is extensively grown near Evesham ; asparagus and cucumbers for the Bir-
mingham market j carrot-seed at Woolverley ; crab-stocks, and currants for their fruit, at Pershore j
from which place crab-pips are received by the London seedsmen.

Blackmore Park, — near Malvern; T. Homyold, Esq. An outlines, tufted with lofty trees, or smiling with cultivation

. „ „, _ near Painwick ; B. Hyett, Esq. The house

is a handsome modem edifice, judiciously joined to woods, and
embellished by new plantations. ,„ > ^

CA*tt«.Aum, — TomlvTis, Esq. The gardener (Evans) has
formed a brick drain 'along the front of his vine-border. This
drain is fumiJied with hopper funnels at each end, through
which liquid manure is supplied to the roots unaccompanied
by the unpleasant smells which are dispersed around when this
manure is poured on the surface. „ „ ,, . _ . ,

Prinknash. — neai Tewkesbury ; T. B. Howel, Esq. A low
Elizabethean house, on an elevated site, commanding extensive
prospects. Considerable improvemenU were made by the pre-
sent proprietor in 1S06.

7565. Mansion and demesne residences.

BadmingtM flou*e, - Sudbury ; Duke of Beaufort. The
bouse is an extensive building, on a French model, erected
in 16S2 ; the park is nine miles in circumference, intersected
by noble avenues. The gardens were celebrated in the first
duke's time ; but are at present rather neglected.

Barnsley Park, — near Bibun." ; James Jlusgrave, Esq. The
mansion is a sumptuous edifice, in the Italian style. The
park is three miles in circumference, and contains some exten-
sive plantations. , ^

X airWn^onHaa, — near Great Barrington; LordDynevor.
The house is an elegant Doric structure; in the grounds
is a good specimen of a fem\e ornee : the park is well wooded,
and three miles in circumference.

Clear WM, — near Newlands ; T. Windham, Esq. A hand-
some mansion and plantations around it well disposed.

Dyrham, — near Sudbur> ; \\'. Bralhwayte, Esq. A hand-
some mansion, with a front of 150 feet, and a park of 500 acres.

Dunstbounu Abbots, — near North Cemey; Sir M. S. Pley-
dell. A villa on a singular plan, situatal on an eminence
distinguished for the beautv of its scehery.

GuHing Park, — near ANithington ; Snell, Esq. The house

is elegant and compact, and the grounds beautifully varied

and well wooded.

, Highmeadorv, — near Newnham ; Lord Gage. A noble man-

elegant modem building ; the park well wooded, but rather in
too formal a manner.

XCroomeCour*, — near Upton; Earl of Coventry. Naturally
a dull flat place, but made what it is by Brown, who both
designed the house, and laid out the grounds. This place has
always been remarkable for the degree of neatness and order
in which it is kept.

Dailsfor,l, — at Dailsford; late the residence of

Warren Hastings, Esq. A handsome house, in a commanding
sitaation; the grounds tastefuUv laid out, and a piece of
water formed; but the design of the whole evidently incom-
plete.

Gaiannl) Park, — near Minchinhampton; David Ricardo,
Esq. A small j)Iace with a handsome house, beautifully dis-
posed groimds, and a good kitchen-garden.

Hagley,—neax Broomsgrove; Lord Lyttelton. A square
house, with raised pavilions at the angles, in a park long cele-
brated for the beautifiil undulations of its surface, and the
fine scattered groves and thickets of beech and other trees.
As a seat, however, it is deficient in having no pleasure-ground
or flower-garden scenery near the house, i'his must materially
lessen the comforts of its possessors in the winter months, who
must croii the open park before they can get to grave! -paths
of any kind. The ori-^nal dell of shrubbery and waterfalls,
forme<i by the first Lord Lyttelton and Shenstone, was denu.
dated some years ago, and only the timber-trees left.

Ham Court, — near Upton; J. Martin, Esq. An elegant
mansion, lately built, situated on a rising lawn, studded with
plantations in an elegant style of improvement.

Banbury Hall, — near Droitwich; J. \Jhillips, E-q. A fine
old mansion, dated 1710, full of large windows (the window
tax being then unknown), with every thing comfortable within,
and surrounded by a well- wooded park of 150 acres.

Hen-ell Graiiet, — near Brooiv.sj;:rove ; Eari Plymouth. A
very extensive house, dated ITl'-i, in the midst of a pleasant
park, with hills gently swelling, and a lake of about oO acres.
The plantations arc extensive, and aboimd with oaks, in various
stages of growth.

kyre »'i/re, — near Tenbury ; Pytts, Eso. An elegant

mansion, in a highly picturesque park, througn which runs
a rapid stream ; the distant views, like all those in this part of
the country, very pictviresque, from its broken and undulating

and enlivened by the meandering course of the A\'ye.

Lee Castle, — nezi Kidderminster; J. Knight, Esq. Re-
markable for its kitchen-gardens and lofty hot-houses for
fruiting rare exotics, and in which the lee-chee ripened its fruit
in IS 19, for the first time in England.

Madnsjidd (Mothersfield), — near Malvem; Lord Beau-
champ. A baronial castle modernised, surroiuided by a fine
extent of lawn and plantations.

tiorihfvick, — near Broadway ; Lord Xorthwick. An ancient
hou.*, modernised, with an extensive and well planted park.

0»iierj/et/ Ci)urf, — near \\'orcester; Marchioness of Down-
shire. A mansion recently much improved, in the midst of a
park, flat but extensive, and bordered by the Severn.

Stamford Court, — near Sludon ; Sir T. Winnington. A com-
modious and substantial house, situated in an ample park, con«
taining two large pieces of water; the whole rather deficient
in plantations.

Thorn Grore, — near Worcester ; Lamotte, Esq. A

plain mansion on an eminence, with an extensive lawn and
serpentine lake, bordered with thriving plantations.

TJckenhill, — at Bewdley ; Ingram, Esq. A delight-
fully situated house, in a well wooded park, commanding fine
wild views over a dell to Wyre forest. Through the indul-
gence of the possessor, it is used by the inhabitants cMf Bewdley
as a public promenade.

Whitby four*, — near Stockton; Lord Foley.. A newly
improved and improving seat, which, when the plantations are
grown up, will be truly magnificent.

Westn-otid House, — near I)roitwich ; Sir J. Packington. A
fine old Elizabethean mansion, surrounded by garden-courts,
flanked by towers and other architectural appendages. It
stands on an eminence in a very extensive park, much varied
in surface, and with extensive oak-groves, commencing at a
certain distance from the house, and extending outwards like
the gores of a circle, leaving large avenues between. There is
a piece of water of sixty acres, and situations whore other
pieces might be formed.

WiiUerdyne, — near Bardley ; Moseley , Esq . A most

elegant villa on a hill, embowo-ed in deep tufted shades, covered
in some places with ivy, and surrounded with ornamented
walks interspersed with'Gothic seats, towers, and hermitages,
and displaying fine views of the Severn and its banks.

75G7. MONMOUTHSHIRR A surface of 340,000 acres; hilly, romantic, rich in pasture and wood-
lands ; abounding in ruined castles, and containing some picturesque seats. The Vale of Usk in this
county, like that of Clwyd in North Wales, and Montgomerj-, presents the finest scenery in Wales.

Llatierth House, — near Llanerth; T. Jones, Esq. A good
house, by Nash, and agreeable grounds, with a piece of

laid out by Lappige.

Uauivern House, — near Newport ; late Sir Robert Salisbtiry,
Bart. A handsome brick hou->e, on an eminence, surrounded
by plantations, chiefly by Sir R. Salisbury, the late proprietor.

Z'ifrce/ie/J,- near 'Chepstow; N. Wells, Esq. An elegant
house of freestone ; the grounds extensive, celebrated by
tourists for their romantic walks and views along a precipice

3 Z 2

washed by the Wye, and described bv Wheatler in Observe
aiions. The place owes its celebrity to Valentine Morris,
Esq. who b^an to improve it about 1 740.

Ponl^pod Park, — near PontyTxwl; C. H. Leigh, Esq. A
substantial mansion, with most romantic groimds, well fiir-
nished with wood, water, rocks, some ornamental buildings
and excellent views.

Trfde^ar Par/c,_ near Abergavennv; Sir C. G. Morgan. A
substantial brick mansion of tlie time of Charles IL ; the park

1076

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part I\.

extensiTe, and finely dlverslfi?d with variegated features, soft I complete gentleman, delighted mnch In fine gardens and

and abrupt, champaign, and acclivous, covered with noble orchards." The same gardens were famous in Henry V'lII.'s

plantations of oak, beech, and Spanish chestnut. time, when in possession of William Herbert, who, we are in-

Troi/ H(>««e, — near Monmouth ; Marquis of Worcester. A formed by K vans (Letters on Wales, 1S4.), sent two men, by

house by Ini^ Jones, on the banks of the Trothy. This seat the names of Richards and Williams, to France and Flanders,

■was famed for its gardens in Charles I.'s time, and especially for the express purpose of studying horticulture, and importing

for its delicious fruits. In the apophthegms of the Marquis of esculent vegetables and choice "fruit-trees.
"Worcester, it is stated that " Sir Thomas Somerset, a very

75o8. HEREFORDSHIRE. A surface of 600,000 acres ; much varied by hills, some of which approach
the character of mountains ; it abounds in natural and planted woods, and in ploughed and grass or-
chards ; and the soil is everywhere deep and rich. There are some fine seats, and the county will
hereafter be celebrated in gardening history as being the birth-place or residence of Uvedale Price and
R. P. and T. A. Knight.

Belmont, — near Lower Eaton ; Matthews, Esq. A

romantic situation on the Wye.

jBern"«^'to)i, — near Leominster; Rt. Hon T. Harley. A
square modem edifice of white stone, in a pleasant park.

•)(. Diyrvnton Castle, — near Ludlow; T. A. Knight, Esq.
Pres. of the Hort. Soc., built by his brother R. P. Knight, Esq.
the celebrated author of Tlie Lamlscape, a poem ; of the
Analytical Im/uiry into the Principles of Taste, and other
elegant and classic works. The house is of stone, with towers,
and embattled walls, but internally finished in the Grecian
style. The park abounds in inequalities of surface and natural
woods, which stretch along the banks of the Tame; a stream
which flows through the grounds, to the extent of about three
miles, over a rugged bed. There is also a considerable hill in
front of the house, clothed with verdure and natural woods to
its summit. On the whole it is one of the most picturesque
residences in England, and having within these few years be-
come the residence of T. A. Knight, Esq. promises to be
equally celebrated in respect to horticulture.

Eyivood, — near Lyon's Hall ; Earl of Oxford. The grounds
display a great diversity of scenery, and axe ornamented with
some fine plantations.

Fox/ej/, — near Hereford ; Uvedale Price, Esq., the cele-
brated author of Essays on tlie Picturesque. A plain brick
mansion, beautifully varied by creepers, and surrounded by a
magnificent amphitheatre of woods, chiefly oak, beech, and
elm, planted by the father of the present proprietor; but
partly of cedars introduced by the present occupier. There are
fine views judiciously opened in many places, and small pieces
of water introduced as lights to fix the eye, with other improve-
ments which display the elegant and correct practical taste of
the great reformer of landscape-gardening.

Garmins, — near Bridge Sollers; Sir J. G. Cotterell, Bart.
Extensive and flourishing plantations, and fine prospects.

X Hamptmi Court, — near Hope ; Earl of Essex. A mag-
nificent Elizabethean mansion, on a lawn of nearly 100 acres,
surrounded by a park between seven and eight miles in circum-
ference.

Harervood, — near Llanfrother ; Sir H. Hoskyns. The man-
sion lately improved; the park well wooded.

X Holm Lacey — near Hereford ; formerly the Duke of Nor-
folk. The mansion Elizabethean, and kept in perfect preserv-
ation as a national curiosity ; the grounds pleasant ; the old gar-
den on the model of that at Hampton Court, Middlesex, with a
spacious terrace ; it abounds in yews, formerly dipt in shapes,
and not far distant is a pear-tree which covers nearly a quarter
of an acre, and yields aiuiually from twelve to sixteen hotheads
of perry.

Hope End,—ne3X Le<lbury ; .T. M. Barett, Esq. The house and
grounds recently improved from our designs ; the latter highly
romantic by nature, and well wooded.

X Kentcfiurch, — near Llanfrother; J. .Scudamore, Esq.
(Escuedatnours, Eanjer d'Anwurs, squire or assistant in love
matters.) A pleasant situation, with a park of three or four
miles in circumference.

Loiif^vorth, — near Bromyard ; J. Walwyn, Esq. A good
mansion, recently erected, and the grounds well timoered.

Meetid Park, -neax Llanfrother; Sir R. Symmonds. A
plain brick mansion ; but the grounds richly wooded.

Mnccas Court, — near Longtown ; Sir G. A. Cornwall. A
good house, delightfully situated on the southern bank of
the Wye, with a large i)ark, finely clothed with oak, and re-
markable for a variety of that tree with weeping spray. The
only other specimen we know of is in the botanic garden at
Amsterdam. The growth of the oak in this part of the coun-
try is supposed to be more rapid than anywhere else.

Rotheras, — near Hereford ; C. Bod.enham, Esq. A spacious
brick mansion, and grounds containing ome gooa timber.

Sholiden Court, — near Mortimer's Cross; Lady Bateman.
An elegant seat; tSie park between three and four miles in
extent, contains rich and picturesque scenery.

Stoke, — near Bromyard ; Lord Foley. A spacious brick house
with a terrace in front : the park and grounds well wooded,
and considerably improved under the direction of H. Repton.

Suflon Court, —near Bromyard; Hereford, Esq. A

handsome mansion of Bath stone ; the grounds improved by
H. Repton.

7569. SHROPSHIRE. A surface of 849,940 acres ; mostly flat, with some hills ; the soil generally
good. It contains a number of good nurseries j and sends to London baking-plums and walnuts in large
quantities.

Aston Park, — near Oswestry; W. Lloyd, Esq. A most
elegant mansion, and the natural beauties of the place much
improved by the correct taste of the owner.

X Hantkstone Park, — near Whitchurch; Lord Hill. A
good mansion, on a beautiful slope on the north side of a
romantic hill ; the grounds extensive, and combining beauty
and singularity. There are bold cliffs, grotesque rocks, most
romantic walks, a hermitage, and many other buildings and
seats ; a long artificial river formed along a slope, and
everywhere the finest trees. On the whole, it is, and has

7570. STAFFORDSHIRE. A surface of 780,800 acres; hilly and moory toivards the north, but plain
and fertile in the other parts. It contains a number of villas and mansion-residences, and nurseries are
established at most of the principal towns.

rude state {,fig. 747.), by the late Earl of Uxbridge, who,
with the aid of H. Repton, formed a large piece of water.

long been, a place to excite wonder, and also agreeable
emotions.

The Leasomes, — near Hales Owen ; . A pasture-
farm, chiefly celebrated as having been the residence and the
creation of Shenstone. Some of the root-houses and grottoes in
the paths which lead along the hedges, and in the strips of
copse and dingles, still remain.

Oakleu Park, — near Ludlow ; Lady Clive. The mansion on
the banks of the Thame ; the grounds naturally romantic, and
laid out with much taste and judgment.

Bailey, — near Newcastle ; J. Wedgewood, Esq. A superb
villa-mansion, surrounded by highly polished pleasure-grounds,
with an excellent kitchen-garden.

Beaudesari (fine desart), — near Stafford ; Marquis of Angle-
sea. A magnificent residence, improved from a comparatively

planted variously, and rendered the house more
{Jig- 748.)

Be/nuMrf, — near Ipstone; J. Sneid, Esq. The house, plea-
santly situated on a gei\tly rising hill, fronting the south-east ;
nearly surrounded by deep woods, furnished with underwood
of ash, hazel, birch, willow, &c., cut every six years for hoops
and crate-ware for the potteries. The walks through these
woods are rude natural paths ; and on the bordering spaces,
not covered with copse, are planted many hardy plants, and
there left to grow without farther culture. On the whole,
this is a place combining the iusteU taste, great knowledge
of culture, agricultural as well as borticultural, and a strict
regard in all things to economy in the first expense and future
management.

X Blithfield Parfc, — near Abbots Bromley, Lord Bagot.
An Elizabethean building, placed atone sideof the park, which

is rich in large oaks and picturesque views. Lord Bagot pays
considerable attention to horticulture, and cultivates success-
fully the loquat-apple, ofwhichhehas given some. account in
ti\e' Horticultural Society's Transactions.

Broughton-hall, — near Stafford; Sir T. Broughton. An
ancient mansion, surrounded by stately plantations of indi-
genous trees, especially sycamores. The park is divided by the
road ; but no art has been used to mark the appropriation of
the opposite part to that in which the house stands.

X Enville, _ near Enville ; Earl Stamford. The house,
a large brick structure of an impure Gothic character ; the
grounds formerly celebrated, but now chiefly remarkable
for a fine lawn, some old trees, and a cascade formed by
Shenstone.

Book I.

GARDENS OF DERBYSHIRE.

1077

Hagletf Hall, — near Ru^one ; Lord Curzon. A finely si-
tuated house, and the artificial scenery aroiuid it very judi-
ciously disposed.

X ingeslree Hall, — near Stafford ; Earl Talbot. A respect-
able Elizabethean edifice, surroinded by grounds in the an-
cient style, but in a great degree modernised by the present

• near Tamworth ;

A splen-

did mansion, surrounded by an extensive lawn, finely varied by
trees, and embellished with a noble lake. Over the latter is
thrown a very handsome stone bridge, and opposite to it stands
an elegant stone conservatory.

Preitwood, — near Dudley ; Sir Thomas Littleton. A fine
modern house, the stirrounding pleasure-grounds exhibiting
a most delightful variety of hill and dale, wood and water,
effected chielly by the hand of nature.

Sarulon, — near Newcastle ; Lord Harrowby. An elegant
mansion, finely situated on the decli\-ity of a considerable emi-

A quadrangular brick building, stwccoe<l, situated fa a roman-
tic vallev, and surrounded with a charming lawn, laid out with
the highest degree of taste and judgment.

X iVii/^ftoroH^'A Hi>u*e, — near Kudgeley : Lord Anson. An
elegant Grecian mansion, in a low situation, over-rvatered by
the' Trent. The grounds were laid out at great expense by the
late Thomas Anson, Esq. and contain numerous and well-exe-
cuted ornamental buildings, in different styles of architecture.
The i>resent proprietor cultivates a farm in a very scientific
manner.

X Treniham, —near Xewcastle-under-line ; Marquis of Staf-
ford, A low situation, with abundance of water, and some
rising grounds. Great expense has lately been incurred on
the house, and a fine mausoleum built opposite the entrance-
gates, from the designs of Tatham; but nothing will ever
render this place truly grand. The kitchen-garden is good,
and no nobIein:m encourages every kind oi improvement
more than the present marquis. (See Loch't AcaoutU of Im-
provements, &c. 8vo. 1819.)

7571. WARWICKSHIRK A surface of 639,700 acres; elevated, not much varied, well wooded to-
wards the north ; the other parts fertile in corn and minerals. There are many neat cottage-gardens in
the county, especially near Coventry. The principal nursery is at Birmingham, and there are several
"ens for the commoner culinary crops near that place.

market-gardens for

Ansley Hall,— neai Oldbury ; I. N. Ludford, Esq. An ir-
regular mansion, with an extensive park, in which, on an in-
sulated spot, is a Chinese temple, by Sir 'NV. Chambers ; and in
another appropriate sjwt is a hermitage.

Aubrexf HaU, — near Astley ; F. P. Newdigate, Esq. An ele-
gant specimen of the florid Gothic, divested of the exubersuit
and grotesque ; the park fine and extensive, well wooded, and
adorned with artificial expanses of wood and water.

BiUton House, — near Bilston ; Hon. J. Simpson. A spacious
but irregular mansion, entered by iron folding gates, which
conduct to a venerable porch. The gardens are extensive, and
preserved in all the formality of the old taste. Oie walk is still
termed Addison's, whose seat this was, and where he generally
resided after his mcuriage with the Countess of Warwick. The
grounds being let, are going fast to decay.

Guy's Cliff; — near Warwick ; B. Greathead, Esq. A singu-
Icirly picturesque combination of rock, wood, meadow, and the
windings of the Avon, with a mansion respectable both in size
and character.

Merevale, — near Atherstone ; D. S . Dugdale, Esq. A hand-
some residence ; the groimds particularly rich in fine and vener-
able oaks.

Whitby Hall, - near Coventry ; Lord Hood. A capacious

Elizabethean mansion of stone, comnianding agreeable views.
The park and gardens agreeable, but rather neglected.

7572. The following axa Jirst-rate residences : —

Coombe Abbey {Crvm, or Cur>\be, a low or hollow place),

near Coventr>- ; Earl Craven. A noble mansion, in part by
Inigo Jones, in a park of 500 acres, well varied by wood and
water.

X R<Jff'ej///a//, — near Alcester; Marquis of Hertford. A
sp3u;ious mansion, improved by 'Wyatt, on the summit of a
round knoll, in an extensive park abounding in majestic oak-
trees, and also in voung plantations, with a fine lake and every
feature worthy of this noble seat. The kitchen-gardens are
noted for the extent of their hot -houses, and tor the cultivation
lake of the pine-apple, especially of the Providence kinds.

X Warrvick Castle, — Warwick ; Earl of A\'arwick. An an.
cient Gothic structure, on a steep rock rising from the Avon,
with a large garden-court, flanked by towers, and witli a gate
and portcullis, &c. in a truly baronial style, and in excellent

Preservation . The park is very extensive and finely adorned
y wood, and watered by the Avon, as well as some artificial
lakes. The pleasure-grounds contain a fine course of broad
gravel-walks, and some luxuriant and bulky cedar-trees.

C<a«manor, — near Ashby de la Zouch ; W. Herrick, Esq.
The park extolled for picturesque beauty, combined with se-
renity and sublimity of character , it abounds in venerable oaks,
ash, elm, and willow.

X Donnington Park, — near Donnington ; JIarauis of Hast-
ings. A magnificent pile of ecclesiastic Gothic, bv VV. M'ilkins,
sen. surrounded by a park containing very old trees. The
building is in a bottom, half earthed up, and the approach
descending to it has a very bad etf:x;t. The pleasure-grounds
contain a small piece of water, and were laid out by H. Repton.

Gopsal Hall, — near Bosworth; Lady Howe. An elegant
mansion, which, with the improvements on the grounds, is
said to have cost 100,000/. In the park are some fine temples
ar.d carved seats.

7573. LEICESTERSHIRE. A surface of 522,240 acres ; low, generally flat, and one of the richest
grazing coimties in England. It does not abound in gentlemen's seats ; and the farmers, though often
rich, have seldom good gardens.

Lockinglon HaU, — near Keyworth ; Rev. P. Stony. The
grounds much improved bv the present possessor.

Presttvould Hall, — neai Vrestwould ; C. J. Packe, Esq. A
large modem mansion and finely wooded park.

Qufe;ii»/Ha//, — near Frisby ; Mrs. Latham. Alargebuild>
ing on a finely wooded avenue, with a terrace-wulk command-
ing vc-ry fine wrospects of hanging hills with scattered woods
and neatly cultivated enclosures.

StiitUon Harold, — neax Bredon; B^l Ferrars. A large
pile of brick and stone, in a nark of 150 acres, containing a
lake of thirty acres, and a handsome stone bridge.

Wanlip Hall, —r\ea.r Leicester; Sir G. C. Hudson. The
pleasure grounds laid out with much taste.

7574. DERBYSHIRE. A surface of 720,640 acres; hilly, irregular, and in some parts mountainous;
the valleys rich and beautiful. There is a good nursery and florists' garden at Derby, by Joseph Mason,
and some neat cottage-gardens in the county.

gooseberry-tree which covers a wall fiftv-one feet long, and six
feet high. It is of the small rough red sort, and bears well. A
grove of 100 birch-trees on this estate have been tapped for
upwards of sixty or seventy years for their sap : thirty or more
trees are tapped in a season, and the sap sold to the inakers of
British wine in the neighborhood. iSee Farcy's excellent
Survey of this County, 3 vols. 8vo.)

Shipley,— neai Belper; E. IM. JVIunday, Esq. The house
is modem and elegant, the grounds very well disposed and
wooded, and the gardens celebrated of late for their orange-
trees.

Willersley Castle, — near Matlock ; R. Arkwright, Esq. The
castellated mansion is romantically situated in Matlock Dale,
and surrounded by lawns, rocks, Euid natural woods, and washed
on one side by the" Dove. The kitchen-garden and hot-houses
are ^ood and well atterxJed to.

fVineernorth, —near Chesterfield; Sir William Hunlocke.
A noble seat, improved from a comparative bald state {Jig.
749.) by Repton, who enlarged the water, and planted some
trees, and gave breadth to the lawn in front of the bouse.
ifiS' 750.)

Brethy Park, — near Bretby ; Earl of Chesterfield. A fine
old structure was taken down some years ago, which is said to
have been surrounded with gardens disposed after the plan of
Versailles, with terraces, statues, and fountauis. (See a bird's-
eve view by Ivip, in ISouveau Theatre de la Grande Breiagne, and
the Topotrrapher, vol. ii.)

Chaddesdon, —near Derby ; Sir R. M. Wilmot. A neat villa,
with a good kitchen-garden.

Foreynark, — near Repton ; .Sir Francis Burdett, Bart. The
house is an elegant and substantial modem building ; and the
park and gardens respectable.

Locke Park, — near Locke ; William Drury Lowe, Esq. The
grounds are naturally much varied, and contain a handsome
artificial lake ; but the plantations having been made when the
geometric taste was in fashion, do not accord well with the
variations of surface.

Oahaston, — near Derby ; Sir Robert Wilmot. The house is
a large handsome edifice ; the grounds were laid out by Eames ;
the pleasure grounds occupy h\e acres, and are very agreeably
disposed.

Overton Hall, — near Derby ; Lady Banks. In the garden a

1078

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

7575. The following axe first-rate residences ;—

X CAa/«r»or<A, — near Bakewell; Puke of Devonshire. The
most celebrated seat in Derbyshire. The palace is an immense
quadrangle in the Grecian style; the park lies sloping to the
river Derwent, and is nine miles in circumference ; it is much
diversified with hill and dale, <»nd plantations. The pleasure
grounds are in the ancient taste, and contain the best artificial
■water-works in England.

X ATorfdon Ha//,— near Bakewell; Duke of Rutland. One
of the most complete baronial residences now remaining, and
though not inhabited, kept in good rep:i;r. Tne extent of the
builmne. and ths number of apartments and offices, are cal-
culated Tor the display of a very extended hospitality ; the hall,
or great public dining-room, is particularly admired. The
park was ploughed up many years ago ; the terrace-gardens

remain, and consist of terraces ranged one above another, each
having a stone balustrstde.

X Hardrvick Hall, — near Normanton ; DuVe of Devonshire.
The house is of stone, and built by Elizabeth Countess of
Shrewsbury, whose passion for building is well known: it i»
also celebrated as having been the place of confinement of
Mary Queen of Scots. The park abounds in fine old oaks,
and contains the ruin of a former castle, in which is a room
noted for the justness of its proportions, and said by Kennet,
to have been thought a fit pattern of measure and contrivance
of a room at IJlenheim.

X Keihlleston, — near Derby ; Lord Scarsdale. The house i»
a Grecian pile by Adams, and one of the handsomest in Eng-
land. The park is five miles in circumference ; it contains a
fine sheet of water, with cascades and islands, and a venerable
grove of oaks.

7576. NOTTINGHAMSHIRE. A surface of 495,360 acres ; gently varied, fertile, dry, and healthy,
containing the remains of the extensive forest of Sherwood. There are good nurseries, and also some
market-gardens and orchards at Retford and Nottingham, and tree-seeds are collected about Worksop
and other places.

Alston Grove, — near Nottingham ; Sir G. Clifton, Bart. The
approach to the house, through an avenue a mile in length,
covered with tur^ and broad enough for a dozen carriages to
drive abreast. The gardens on the side of a hill originally in
the ancient taste, but lately remodelled.

Clifton Hall, — near Nottingham ; Sir G. Clifton. Pleasantly
situated on the Trent, and deeply embosomed in groves of oak
and elm.

Colwick Hall, — near Nottingham ; Musters, Esq. A

house by Carr, in a bottom, but backed by rising hills, well
•wooded, and surrounded by neat pleasure-bounds.

X Clumber Park, — near Worksop ; Duke of Newcastle. A
large house: the park containing 4000 acres, and eleven miles
in circumference, abounds in jilantations, picturesque irrepi-
larities, a large piece of water, and a highly enriched bridge.
Near the house, however, it is dull and flat.

Kirklin^on Hall, — near Southwell ; Mrs. A\Tietham. A
large edihce, with an undulating lawn, descending to an um-
brageous piece of water, surrounded by easy swells.

Neillewortli,— nea.T Mansfield; embosome<l in wooded hills,
among which two brooks have been expanded by art into irre-
gular lakes.

X JVcwi/earf ylWiei/, — near Mansfield ; Toildman. The

building, and such of the grounds as have been purchased by
this gentleman, are undergoing improvements : but the place
is chiefly remarkable as having been the scene of improvements
of Lord Byron, grandfather to the present lord. When in its
splendor, the house was situated in a vale, in the midst of an
extensive park finely pljmted, with a winding lake flowing
almost up to the house, with two cannons on the banks, a
Gothic prospect house, a fine arch, &c. Tlie gardens con-
tained an ancient Gothic green-house, leading to a flower-
garden, formed on what was once the burying-ground of the
church, in which is a large circular vault, "with' a pedestal of
•white marble, and inscription in memory of the Newfoundlemd
dog buried below.

7577. LINCOLNSHIRE. A surface of 1,783,680 acres ; great part on the sea-shore, flat and fenny;
the wolds, which occupy the north-east, as the word (Saxon) imports, are hilly and void of wood. The
London seedsmen receive hemp, turnip, rape, and mustard seed, from this county; and sell there large
quantities of parsley-seed, which the farmers sow with their clovers, as a preventive to the rot in sheep.
Some garden-seeds for the supply of the Yorkshire seedsmen are grown in the Isle.

Burtvell Park, — near Bunvell ; B. Lester, Esq. A hand-
some mansion, in a commanding situation, surrounded
by a park, abounding in timber. Dr. Matthew Lester, great
grand&ther of the present owner, was physician to Charles I.,
and is mentioned by Parkinson as one of his patrons in
botany.

Co/eit/ Ha//,— near Lincoln; General Bertie. A fine old
house, with modern additions, and surrounded by thriving
plantations.

Grimathorpe Castle, — near Edinham ; Duke of Ancaster. An
irregular pile, chiefly by Vanburgh, on a beautifully undulated
lawn, descending to two lakes, comprising about 100 acres,
beyond which is a rising ^ound covered with trees. The park
is one of the most extensive in the kingdom; there are three
ridings in it, each four miles, in a straight line and in different
directions. There are some rough forest fcenery and great
extent of rich pasture, and if the vale below had been floated
as was intended, there would have existed here one of the
most magnificent pieces of artificial water next to Blenheim .

7579. RUTLANDSHIRR A surface of 123,000 acres; varied, but composed chiefly of fertile
valleys.

X Burley-on-the-hill, — near Oakham ; Earl Winchelsea.
The house, a magnificent structure, ranking with Burleigh,
Belvoir, Castle Ifoward, and similar edifices. It was built
after the Reformation, by the Earl of Nottingham, in the
Doric style. The park contains 1085 acres, abounding in
large oaks, and all kinds of forest-trees ; the lawn is' ex-
tensive, and contains a curious grotto, and other decorations.
The entrance-front of the house has a court-yaid, separated
from the road by a superb iron-railing; and on the garden-
front is a terrace- walk, 500 yards in length, and 12 broad.

7580. NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. A surface of 617,000 acres; fenny towards the north-east; but, in
general, elevated, varied, and abounding in country-seats. There are some nurseries ; and Cornfield, a
florist at Northampton, is considered one of the first growers of the carnation ; and in the market-gardens
onions are grown to great perfection.

Ossington Hall, —neax Laseton ; J. Dennison, Esq. The
house unites elegance and comfort; the pleasure-grounds
agreeably laid out, and the park extensive.

' Osterton House, — mai Retford; Folijambe, Esq. An

elegant modern seat, surrounded by thriving woods and
verdant glsides, and watered by a rivulet, which expands to
a lake.

Staunton, — near Newark; Stanton, Esq. A noble

mansion and gardens and pleasure-grounds, beautiful and
extensive

Trnmpt- t Hall, — near Barton; J. W. Emmerton, Esq. A
mansion i-. the style of James I. ; the gardens neat and agree,
able, and he surrounding scenery picturesque.

X Thot^iby Park, — near Worksop ; Earl Manvers. A com-
fortable house, in a low situation, well backed with risir.g
ground, thickly planted, and forming part of the park, wluth
is thirteen miles round, and contains some fine pieces of water.
The gardens were in part constructed in the French style, by
the late Duchess of Kingston.

X Wclbeck Abbey, — ncxcWoxVson; Duke of Portland. A
handsome lake by H. Renton : the kitchen-garden celebrated
in the time of Speechly^ hut for many years neglected. The
park, being part of the forest of Sher wootl, abounds in old oaks,
and contains numerous young plantations of oak, sheltered by
birch, sown or planted by Speechly.

X Jf'oo/a/on H«//, — near Nottingham ; Lord Middleton.
A square structure, with towers at the angles, and an ele-
vated prospect-ioom in the centre, executed by John Thorjie,
in Queen Elizabeth's time. It is approached by a winding
avenue of lime-trees, nearly a mile in length. The park is ex-
tensive ; the kitchen-garden well managed ; the goosebeiries
grown in pots, and sent to table in that state.

WhMorpe Hall, — near Muskham ; R. Pocklington, Esq.
An elegant building with plantations, and grounds very ex-
tensive.

Pan/on Howe, — near Wray ley ; E. Turner, Esq. A house
by Hawksmoor, a pu])il of Sir John Vanburgh, afterwards
enlarged by CaiT of York: the park much improved by
plantations.

7578. The following are first-rate residences : —

X Belvoir Castle, — near Belvoir ; Duke of Rutland. A
magnificent castellated structure, on the summit of a conical
hill, rebuilt from the design of H. 'Wyatt ; commanding views
over several counties. The park, of great extent, containing a
verj^^ comnlete dog-kennel, and the gardens good.

X Burleisrh, — near Stamford ; Marquis of Exeter. One of

ised by Brown, who formed a handsome expanse of water, and
removed many terraces at the house to form a lawn. A
copious account of this place, with views, has been published
by Mr. Drakard, of Stamford.

Bxton Hall, — near Stratton ; Noel, Esq. A grand

Elirabethean edifice, with a park of 1510 acre.=, planted in
the ancient style, by London and Wise: the gardens have
long been famous, and the water and cascades much ad-
mired.

Normanton House, — near Normanton ; Sir G. Heathcote.
An irregular modem mansion ; a well planted park of 400
acres ; and gardens neatly laid out.

X Allhorpe, — near Brington ; Earl Spencer. A large pile,
dated 1688, in a park distinguished by large masses of wood,
and considerable inequality of surface.

X CasU': Ashbi/,— near Ashby ; Earl Northampton. A
large pile, by Inigo Jones, on a gentle eminence, in a park
containing a large lake, by Brown.

X Craitford Brii/^^e,- near Cranford; Sir G.Robinson. A.
modem house, surrounded by an extensive lawn and pleasure-
grounds.

Deene Thorpe Pai-fc,— near Deene; Earl of Cardigan. A
low embattled structure, with a turret terminating each wing;

the grounds beautifiilly varied, well wooded, with a fine piece
of water, an island, an'd various ornamental buildings.

Pawsley House, — near Fawsley ; Knight, Esq. A motley

building of different ages ; the park, a fine improved demesne,
abounding with forest scenery and water.

Kelmarsh, — near Kelmarsh ; W. Hanbury, Esq. A large
mansion, with pleasure-grounds pleasingly diversified with the
contrasted positions of wood and water.

Rushton Hall, — near RothwcU ; A very

tastefully disposed seat, by the late possessor the Hon. \\'.
Cockayne.

GARDENS OF YORKSHIRE.

Book I.

r«tnn Ball -near Northampton; T. S. W. Pamwell, Esq. I ^^i<3^ f"^"
Ato«iSl"^di^^roragriveUysoU, displaying fine 1 Delight^y^ situated
Tiews of the distant scenery

1079

near Towccster; Duke of Grafton,
ma gentle eminence, which slopes to a
large lake, 'formed by Brown.

7581 YORKSHIRR A central, and, in part, marine county, of 3,698,380 acres ; the surface vaned,
confining sevVral mountains, extensive mooVs, and some royal forests ; the subsoil most generally rocky
^^S no public carden or park j a subscription botonic garden at Hull, and nurseries and market-
eardenJAt an thSrge towns It abounds in residences, especially in the AVest Rjding. where nearly
1^ are Sen ioned in rL Beauties of England and Wales, as worthy of notice. The farmers' gardens

are kent in a eo^sUte in the better parts of the county; and at Leeds there are some neat cottage
^^en? A^ IhStoVnl, in the West Riding, the wine-sour plum, one of the best baking sorts, abounds
f^^thrivcf on hmSlTn'e' soils, and the fruit% sent to Hull, York, London and other ^^^^^e^; The^e .3
a horticultural society held at Leeds, the chief promoter of which is J. Carr, of St Anne s , and the same
gentleman is active in his endeavors to set on foot a botanic garden. Chapel Allerton, near this town.
noted when in the possession of R. A. Salisbury, is now a public nursery.

The HuU Boiamc Garden- ^^eslahhshed in 1812, by sub- Bon-shnm Ha//, -near Kirkham; .Geo.Chplmley, Esq. A

scription. It occupies five acres, and is arranged on tn? «"ne
gen^l plan as that of Liverpool, havuig b^ ^^P^,
chiefly by Shepherd, the curator of that garden. The principal
walks which surround and intersect the ^rden are eight or
nine feet broad, and form a total length of nearly three quar-
ters of a mile ; particular compartments are set apart tor bog,
alpine, and green-house plants ; a pond tliirty yards m length,
for the growth of aquatics, and at the south-west comer ot the
garden a mount twelve feet high, admitUn^, .though itself
surrounded bv trees, an extensive view of the Humber, the
LincoUishire c^ast, and the Wolds. The country round HuU
being almost without trees, the shady walks of thi^ garden toira
an agreeable resource as a promenade for the familie ot the
suteCTibers. The curator is 5lr. \\ Uliam Donn, nephew to the
late curator of the Cambridge Garden.

A"«r»erie«.— There area number in this county, and some
are of great extent. The oldest estabushments are at "Vork
and Pomfret ; the first carried on by J. Backhouse. Fontey
has a considerable nurserv atHuddersrield,and there are others
of greater extent at Cottingham, near Hull, and at Doncaster.
The seed of the York cabbage is suppUed by Rigg and bon ot
York.

7582. Mansion and demesne residences.

Aldn-ark Hall — near Rotheram ; Geo. Foljambe, Esq.
Charmingly situated on an eminence rising from the Don, and
skirted with wood down to the river. »_,<::

AlUrton J/an/ererer, — near Ivnaresborough ; Lord Stourton.
An el^ant mansion, in a park of 400 acres of very nch land,
and charminglv picturesque. It contains a fine octagonal
tower, from which are obtained extensive views.

Bird««/, — near Malton; Lord Middleton. A spacious and
commodious mansion and pleasure-grounds, weU planted and

^'^^Wd. — at Bradford; Hustler, Esq. An ingenious

horticultural amateur, who has a good garden and coUecuon
of hardy herbaceous plants. ^ ■„ t- .

X Bramham Park — near Tadcaster; Geo. Fox, Esq ^
stately
the ancient

mansion ; the grounds laid out in the last century, in
cient style, alibrd a good specimen of geometrical

^Bruckeu'shy HuU, Lincohishire, — near Barton; Lord Varbo-
rough. ITie park extensive, and diversified with plantations and
rising grounds, containing a fine Gothic chapel and mausoleum,
by A\vatt Considerable improvements taking place m the
kitchen-garden bv substituting espaliers for standard firmt-trees,
which had rendered the garden Uke a closely planted orchard.

Bilham Hotue, — near Doncaster; \S'. Hewitt, Esq. Ihe
grounds contain a Belvedere (Bel, Italian, fine, beautiful ; and
ttdere, to see,) which commands the most extensive and richest
prospect in Yorkshire. ^

Burton CwtstaUe.-nezi Hedon ; Sir Cliflfbrd Constable, Bart,
A park spacious though Hat, abounding in trees, with extensive
walks, a large piece of water, and elcsant bridge.

Care CaMle, — near Southcave ; H. G. Barnard, Esq. A
small but extremely pleasant park, with very large gardens and
pleasure-grounds. .„ „ ^ t^ .

Copgrove, — near Knaresborough ; Thos. Duncombe, Esq. An
el^ant mansion on a rising ground, with a pleasing prospect
of the lawn, and a fine sheet of water, bounded with wood,
winding out of sight bevond a distant hill.

Ciisnurth H.i//, — nea'i Itoncaster; AY. \Yrightson, Esq. An
elegant mansion, in one of the finest situations in the kingdom.
The grounds are every thing that could be desired in a moderate
space ; the pros^»ects" extensive in all directions over a delight-
ful country embellished with gentlemen's seats, churches, and
other enlivening objects.

Denton Park,—ncsix Otlej ; Sir H. C. Ibbetson. A noble
structure, commanding fine views of the Yale of Wharf.

Ereri,i^htitn, — neai Market Brighton; M. Constable, Esq.
A large and lofty brick mansion in a flat coimlry ; the park
with a successful imitation of a river.

E»Mim Ha//,_nearGargrave; M.Wikon, Esq. A cottage
with a conical mountain in front wooded to the top, and
gardens liberallv provided for, and conducted by J. Douglass, a
skilful gardener. There is a good collection of bog plants for
which the cold, moist climate of this place is well adapted.

riiiiiingley Park Ctrf/a^'e, — near Bawtrey ; Harvey, Esq.

A curious and elegant shooting cottage, surrounded wi.h every
simrting convenience.

X Farnley Hall, —near Otley ; \Y. Fawkes, Esq. An elegant
mansicm, high on the side of an immense bank, commanding
extensiTe views of the bank opposite, across the Yale of AYharf.
The kitchen-gEurden and farm well attended to.

Grimshfte Gart/i ((jrimstone Hillj, — near Heydon ; Charles
Grimston, Esq. A superb baronial mansion, on an elevated
site in a hillv park.

X HackfCai (Hag-fall, i.e. Witch's fall or vaUey),— near
Ripon ; Miss Laurence. A singularly romantic scene, com-
posed of a steep- rocky declivity, descending to a woody glen ;
the walks along the declivity, showing finely varied views, a
cascade, and, at jui elevated point, Mowbray, a prospect which,
Gilpin says, nature has worked with her broadest pencil.

X Hackness, — near Scarborough ; Sir J. V. ^. Johnstone,
Bart. Remarkable for the gardens and pleasure-groimds, exe-
cuted in a superior style of elegance, in a vale, with a terrace-
walk commaniling extensive views, and a gre«m-hoiise richly
stocked with exotic plants.

Re-

^ ^ _ ell rising from a beautiful

Valley; the pTeasure-grounds finely embellished with plant-
ations, but the views rather coniined.

Ho/me, — near Howden; Hon. W.; Stourton. A seat on a
moor, susceptible of great improvemoit, and of possessing, at
no great expense, a range of pleasure-grounds, which, m mag-
nificence and picturesque beauty, not many places in England
could excel. », ,. . „

Kirkleatham Ball, — near Guisborough ; H. \ ansittart, Esq.
An excellent mansion by Carr ; the gardens extensive, and laid
out with much taste ; they contain an octagonal temple, and
with the house, the whole' has an air ofprincely grandetir.

Ledtton Lodi;e, — neax Abberford ; Chr. A\'ilson, Esq. A
handsome mansion, iu a tine open coimtry, with agreeable
pleasure-grounds.

3telMim, — ne3.x Pocklington ; Sir H. \avasonr. A hand-
some brick mansion, in a flat country, finely ornamented with
plantations.

UeHon-on-ihe-hiU, — near Doncaster ; B- F. Wilson, Esq. A
good house and fine groimds, with those extensive prospects so
general in this part of the country.

X ilulgrave CoiZ/e,- near A\ hitby ; Earl Mulgrave. A
Gothic house in a commanding situation on the sea-coast ; the
approach roads much admired, and the verdant and marine
views both very extensive.

Kenby Hall, — neai Ripon ; Lord Grantham. A brick man-
sion, supposed by Sur C. \\'ren, in 1705 : the pleasure- gnmnds
laid out with most correct taste.

OTrrion,— near Doncaster; Phil. Cooke, Efq. An elegant
structure on a rising groimd in the centre of a rich and fertiTe
coimtry ; the estate enlarged and a good arrvndUsement i
by the exertions and purchases of the present proprietor.

X Plumpton, — near Knaresborough ; Lord Harewood.
markable for its pleasure-grounds, which are studded witn
detached rocks resembling large coal -cinders ; it contains also a
lake abounding in sinuosities. The whole scene of twenty acres
is supposed to have been formed out of an old quarry ; like the
beau tiftil garden, mentioned by Brydone ( JVurri* fn SitUy), near
SyTacuse.

RiLstoite Ball, — near Knaresborough; .'Jir H. Goodrick. A
house on an eminence, the grounds remarkable for containing
the original tree of the Ribstone pippin.

Ripley, — near Knaresborough ; Sir W. Ingilby, Bart. The
house, buUt in 1530, is a capacious castellated mansion with
a park of old oaks, and a kitchen-garden, remarkable for its
complete arrangement of hot -houses, and its coUectiiHis of
culinary and floricultural exotics.

Sandbeck (Beck, i. e. stream), — near Tickhill ; Earl of Scar-
borough. A magnificent Grecian mansiwi in a valley, sur-
rounded by high grounds and plantations, containing a fine
piece of wjiter and many miles of gravel-walks.

Slalmere, — ncax Bridlington; Sir Tatton Sykes, Bart. A
mansion from the proprietor's own designs, executed in a sa-
perior d^ree of el^^ance; the paviliolis, hot-houses, green-
houses, and other ornjunental appendages, all in the most ele-
gant and appropriate style.

S<r«<Aorpe, — near Doncaster; G. C. Yarborough, Esq. A
handsome modem mansion, and the plajitations and pleasure-
groimds laid out with great judgmeit and taste.

Skellon Caxllc near Gainsborough ; J. M"barton, Esq. An

extensive fronted mansion, on the banks of a stream which
haa been expanded into a lake, and appropriate planting and
other alterations made in the groimds.

X SfxTjJ'urth, — near 'Wetherby ; Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert,
an eminent botanist and horticultural amateur. The gardens
are rich in curious bulbs and other rare jilants.

Sproibrmieh Hall, — near Doncaster ; Sir Joseph Copley. A
mansion of Charles the Second's time, commanding delightful
views of verdant scenery.

StockelJ Par*, — near Wetherby; W. Middleton, Esq. In
the grounds is a lake, and on its mctrgin near the house, a
rock of a very singular shape, 'sixty -five feet in circumference
and thirty fe« high. It is supiwsed to have given rise to the
name of the seat, as Stoctheldt, in Germany, signifies the base
or pedestal of an image or statue.

X Studley R'^al, — near Ripon; Miss Lawience. The
pleasure-grounds used to be reckoned the finest in England.
They occupy a valleyfumished with a brook swelled into ponds,
and forming various cascades, terminating in the fine ruin ot"
Fountains Abbey. Th^ abound in seats and buildings, and
contain ."jOO acres, and the park 700 acres.

Thirklehy ParJt,— near Tliirkleby : Sir T. Frankland. A
good house, by 'Wyatt, and the grounds and gardens re-
modell&i, partly from Uie proprietor's own ideas, and partly
from those of the late Mr. Meikle. They contain some fine old
common pine-trees (P. sylv.) and a good' kitchen-garden.

Weniirorth Castle, — neai Bamsley ; H. Yemon, Esq. An
extensive febric, rai a considerable eminence, surrounded by an
extensive park, ccmtaining a piece of water, half-way down
the slope, tbrming, from the house and grounds above,' a zone
of light which to a stranger has a strange and unnatural effect.
Near the house the grounds indicate the remains of the
geometric style, and contain some fine cedars and other exotics,
and a flower-garden of embroidery.

Wheatley Hall, — near Doncaster ; Sir Will. Cooke, Bart. On
the banks of the Don, in a low but beautiful situation, and
decorated with some of the finest oaks in the country.

3 Z 4

1080

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

I 7583. First-rate residences.

Cattle Hftwarrf, _ near Malton; Earl of Carlisle. A mag-
iriHcent palace by Vanburgh, with a front of greater extent than
that of Blenheim ; the grounds not favored by nature, but
containing a large jiiece of water and some old woods, consider-
ably enlarged and improved by the present earl. There are
several ornamental buildings in the grounds, and especially a
superb mausoleum.

Dunonnbe Park, — near Helmsley ; C. S. Buncombe, Esq.
.TV ouoerb house, by Vanburgh, with a" terrace adjoining, which
affords delightful prospects over a fertile valley to wooded

hills. The grounds contain an Ionic temple, euid other build
ings, and abound in fine trees.

X Harewood House, — near Leeds; Lord Harewood. An
extensive Corinthian mansion, by Carr, much esteemed for its
exterior effect as well as internal arrangement: the grounds
laid out by Brown, who formed a large piece of water, and
subsequently some improvements were made from H. Repton's
designs.

X Wenttvorth House, — near Rotherham ; Earl Fitzwilliam.
A most magnificent Grecian mansion, erected by the present
earl, consisting of a centre and two wings extending above
200 yards in length ; the park contains upwards of 1500 acres,
beautifully varied, embellished with a large expanse of water,
and containing a marble monumental column and family
mausoleum.

■ 7584. DURHAM. A surface of 610,000 acres, mountainous and moory towards the west, but
rich in pastures and woodlands towards the east and south. Mustard-seed has long been grown in
this county.

Bassingbourne Hall, — near Stanstead; Sir P. Parker. A
small place, but the mansion elegant.

Bradrvell /.orf^e, _ near Hockley ; . The house is an

elegant building designed by J. Johnson, Esq. with an observ-
atory on its summit. The grounds may be noted as containing
decoys for game.

Bathorne House, — near Birdbrook; G. Pjke, Esq. The
house was modernised in 1801, and stands in a large park,
finely disposed into pleasure-grounds.

Belchamp Hall, — near Belcnampwalter ; Rev. Sam. Ray-
mond. A spacious mansion, fine terrace, and beautiful lawn.

X Broxted Lodge, — near I^lvedon ; P. Du Cane, Esq. A
handsome mansion, pleasantly situated on an eminence, near
the centre of a small yark, commanding fine views.

Burnhall, — near Merrington; B. Salvin, Esq. A low, re.
cluse, and much improved spot.

Castle Edin {Dun, Sax. a hill; or Edin,.Gaelic, the steep face
of a rockl, — near Watergate ; R. Burdon, Esq. A handsome
castellated house, on the top of a woody precipice, which de-
scends to a romantic defile.

Croxdale Hall, — near Butterby ; W. SaMn, Esq. The house
occupies a lofty situation on the Ware, and the grounds are
beautifully wooded.

Egghston House, — near Eggleston ; Hutchinson, Esq.

Occupies a lofty situation on the banks of the Tees, surrounded
by plantations, enclosing a garden noted for its botanical
collection.

Grange Hall, —near Darlington ; G. Allans, Esq. A modem
mansion, pleasantly situated, containing an extensive museum
of natural history.

Greencrojl, — near Lanchester ; Sir T. Clavering. A plain
but large mansion; and pleasjmt grounds, ornamented with
buildings and plantations.

Netvtotx Hall, — near Durham ; Sir T. Liddel. A plain man-
sion, surrounded by plantations, and containing fine views.

Ravenstvorth Castle, — near Gateshead ; Sir T. H. Liddel,
Bart. A modem mansion, sheltered by a fine forest of oaks.

ShinelUf'e Hall, — near Durham ; R. Scott, Esq. A good
house, sheltered by a beautiful amphitheatre of hanging woods.

Stub House, — near Winston; Harrison, Esq. A re-
spectable modem building, with pleasant grounds and thriving
plantations.

Wiiniard, — near Gretham ; Sir H. V. Tempest. An elegant
residence, combining hospitable comforts, and an attractive
mixture of varied ground, woods, and waters.

Woodlands, — near Lanchester; T. White, Esq. son and

7.t86. NORTHUMBERLAND. A surface of 1,157,760 acres, much varied by hills and mountains;
fertile and well cultivated in the valleys, and abounding in ruined castles. Hexham is noted for the
f^rowth of onions, and there .^re extensive nurseries at Gateshead, near Newcastle, but on the Durham
side of Uie Tyne, carried on by Falla and .Son, and at Morjieth. Brown, the celebrated landscape-gardener,
was born at Cambol, or Camphill, near Hartburn, in this county.

Bahworth, — near Retford ; the Hon. ,T. B. Simpson. A com-
fortable residence ; the pleasure-grounds laid out in good style
by H. Repton.

Chipchase Castle, — near Wark ; J. Reedj Esq. A delightful
residence, with woods, rocks, and waters, £md scenery in all re-
spects enchanting.

X Go«/ortA HoiMe, — near Newcastle ; C. J. Brandling, Esq.
A mansion by Pain, and the grounds surrounded by a broad
belt of wood, and varied internally by clumps, and a piece of
water by Wliite. ;

Heaton Hall, — near Newcastle; M. W. Ridley. An elegant
house by Newton, the translator of Vitnivius, erected in
1713, on the steep and woody banks of Ousebum.

WhU field Hall, - near Newbrough ; W. Ord, Esq. The
house surrounded by high and bold rocks, and hanging woods
thick with hollies, with which the lawn, being in high keeping,
forms the finest contrast.

successor to the eminent landscape-gardener of that name.
A neat mansion, and extensive plantations on a dreary
and bleak moor, now rendered beautiful, comfortable, and
valuable.
7585. The following are first-rate residences : —

Gibside, — near Thyton ; Earl Strathmore. The mansion is
situated on the east side of the Der went ; the park is four miles m
circumference, much varied in surface, and well clothed with
fine old oak-woods. The winding approach to the house along
the brink of a wooded glen ; the banqueting-house ; the Ionic
column of 120 feet, crowned with a statue of liberty, the ter-
race, and chapel, are much admired.

Hardwicke, — near Stdgefield : M. Russel, Esq. Created
from bog by the former proprietor, J. Bindon, Esq. and now
celebrated tor the beauty of its pleasure-grounds and the ele-
gance of its ornamental buildings. The improvements were
commenced in 1750. The terrace, the bathing-house, the
lake, the winding river, the cascade, the temple, the rivors,
and the banqueting-house, are much admired.

Lamb'on Hall, — J. G. Lambton, Esq. A modem building
by Bonoiii ; the grounds lately much improved, and the kitchen-
gardens containing a great extent of hot-houses.

Lumley Castle, — near Chester-le-street ; Earl Scarborough.
The mansion is a quadrangle of the aera of Edward I. placed
on the brow of a well wooded valley. At each exterior angle is
an octagon turret, machiolated for the purpose of annoying as-
sailants, and in different parts are other arrangements of a
former age, rarely now to be seen in the oldest edifices.

Raby Castle, — near Staindrop ; Earl Darlington. A noble
Gothic pile, on an elevated rocky foundation. It affords a fine
example of magnificence and comfort in the large entrance-
hall, into which carriages drive before the visitors are set down.
The park, pleasure-grounds, and plantations accord with the
dignity of the castle. There is a terrace, commanding extensive
prospects, 750 yards in length. The farm is extensive, and
highly cultivated ; the farmyard is close to the castle, and ex-
cluded from the view by an enibattled screen. The dog-kennels
and stables are rendered interesting architectural piles, and on
the whole, few places in the emi>ire are so magnificent, so com-
plete, and so well kept up.

Sdlabif Hall,— near Sellaby ; Earl of Darlington. A free-
stone and blue slate villa; the grounds disposed with great
taste and judgment ; the stables are arranged so as to form
ail ornamental group subordinate to the mansion ; and the ef-
fect of the whole hiijhly beautiful.

most extensive castellated pile, with curious ornaments : the
grounds of great extent, watered by the river Alne, and wdl
wooded. The kitchen -garden lately much improved bv a
range of hot-houses erected from the designs of J. Hay, Edin-
burgh.

Btlsay Castle, — near Stamfordham ; Sir C. M. L. Monck.
A grey house, with a venerable tower, on rising ground, finely
interspersed with single trees, and thick groves of wood.

Chillingham Castle ; — near Chillingham ; Earl Tankerville.
A square heavy structure ; in a very extensive park, contain-
ing a large herd of deer, cUid another of the white Scottish bison,
shy, wild, and savage.

Howick, — neeur Alnwick ; Earl Grey. A noble structure by
Newton, of Newcastle, in a park near the sea, which has been
lately much improved.

Seatmi Delaval, — near North Shields: Lord Delaval. A man-
sion by Vanburgh, and a fine Gothic chapel : the groimds ex-
tensive, and containing an obelisk and mausoleum.

7587. First-rate residences.
Alnwick Castle, — Alnyrick; Duke of Northumberland.

7588. LANCASHIRE. A surface of 1,155,840 acres ; mountainous and rugged towards the north and
east, the other parts nearly plain, rich, but the climate moist. Near the large towns, and assemblages of
operative manufacturers, it abounds in neat cottage-gardens, remarkable for their excellence in the cul-
ture of the gooseberry, and of florists' flowers. This county has long been noted for its florists' societies,
and also a botanical society heH at Warrington ; and it is now distinguished by the Liverpool botanic
garden, one of the first in England. Onions are grown extensively near "Warrington, and asparagus to
great perfection in several farm market-gardens near Liverpool. The Isle of Man, which lies off this
couniy, contains nothing remarkable in the way of gardens ; but it is the birthplace of Kewley, the in-
ventor of the Regulating Thermometer.

Liverpool Botanic Garden — was established by stibscription,
chiefly through the influence of the celebrated W. Roscoe in
1800, and opened in 1803. It contains upwards of five acres,
in a triangular form. (J!^. 751.) It is entered between lodges
(1, 1), which contain the curator's house, committee-room,
&c. ; and to this a library of natural history is to be added as
soon as circumstances will permit. A walk surrounds the gar-
den, and leads successively to the stove (2), rock plants (3), bog
plants (4), green-house ground (5), conservatory (6), aquarium
(7), herbaceous plants (S), and gi'amineum (9). The garden
was laid out by Mr. John Shepherd, tlie curator, who pub-
lished a catalogtie of the plants in 1808 : and to whose indus-

try, and extensive correspondence, the garden ■ owes, in a great
part, its present flourishing condition.

Florists' Gardens. — The principal of these exclusively de-
voted to the culture of flowers for sale are Nicholson's and
Horrock's, both of Bolton. Taylor and Smith are extenslTe
florists at Manchester, and combine also the nursery business.
Thomas, at Middleton, near Manchester, has a good assort-
ment ; and there are above half a dozen good commercial florists
at Oldham.

Aillingion Hall, — near thorley ; Sir R, Clayton. A mo-
dem house, on a gentle elevation, finely embosomed in wood.

X Drowsholnv, — near Whalley ; "f . L. Parker, Esq. A

Book I.

GARDENS OF CUMBERLAND.

1081

Esq.,

picturesque

large EUzabethean mansion. In a conspicuous situation ;
the park, the remains of an ancient forest, but rather de-

"^Ducktnlieid Lodge, — ■ne&T Ashton; lately F- D. Astley,
author of Hini» tn Planters. An irregular pile, on
a steej. hill, with a broad terrace, and grounds particularly
erantl and romantic. m n- u i f a

Haddrnv Hall, — near Little Milton ; T. ^V eddel, Esq. A
most romantic and picturesque situaUon.

Huii'A i/u«, — near WiRaii ; tarl of Balcarras. A vener-
able mansion, and grounds, remarkable for a summer-house
built of Cannel coal. ,, ^ ^ , ,„.,.

Heaton Lodf.'e, — neai Manchester; Earl « ilton. A
1 andsome stone edifice, by the late Samuel Wyatt, Esq. on
a commanding situation, in the midst of a tine park, five
miles in circumference, and enclosed with a stone wall.
The entrance-lodges in Doric, and mansion In the Ionic style.

Crford Hall, — near Warrington; Mrs. Hornby. The
garden here was formerly rich m botany ; and a catalogue
of the plants was published by the gardener, Neale, in 1779.

Tt)ivnley Hall, — neai Burnley; J. Townley, Esq. A
large venerable structure, forming three sides of a quadran-
gle ; the park, enclosed in Henry V'II.'» time, contains some
• • which, with the contiguous mountains and

; combinations of grand and

Crostoit Redory, — newc Ormskirk. About twenty years
Rgo the garden here w^as remarkable for its melons, which
were trained on a hot-wall, and bv using the seed of succes-
sive generations, the plants were found to be in some degree
acclimated. The plants were rooted under bell-glasses on
a moderate hot-bed at the base of the waU, and trained
up it like the love-apple. „. , , . ^ ,

WiXMifvld. H. Sudell, Esq. near Blackbiu-n. A hand-
some house and an extensive park, well stocked with deer.
A kitchen-garden, prolific in forced and exotic productions,
and a flower-gaiden under a separate gardener.

Conmsion Priory, — near Ambleside ; Braddyl, Esq.

Chiefly remarkabte for its abundant horticultural products,
hardyl forced, and exotic.

7589. First-rate residences.
Ashton HaU, — near Lancaster'; Duke of Hamilton. An

old baronial castle, in a park abotmdiiig with noble woods
and fine marine views.

Kiumlesby Park, — near Prescot ; Earl of Derby. An an-
cient mansion and very extensive park, greatly improved by
the present owner. The kitchen-gardens are extensive and
well managed ; and near them is one of the largest aviaries in
England. The gardener here excels in growing cucumbers,
which he produces at table every day in the year, from a small

7590. CHESHIRE. A surface of 676,000 acres ; generally level, with a moist climate, and deep rich
soil. There are a number of market-gardens in this county, for the supply of Liverpool and the ship-
ping ; Altringhara is famous for the carrot, which bears its name. There are good nurseries at Nant-
wich and Knutsford ; and neat cottage and fine flower-gardens in several places.

Lyme Hall, — near Stockport ; John Legh, Esq. The house

is a quadrangle, in the style prevalent in James II. 's reign. The

park is not well wooded', but remarkable for its trees. At pre-

' " "^ " " ' alterations.

hot-honse or pit, with a Tanlt underneath, the first which
was heated by steam in England.

Alderley ParA", — near Alderley ; Stanley, Esq. Chiefly re-
markable for its beech-grove, the trees of which are among the
largest in the kingdom.

BramneJl Hall, — near Stockport ; W. Davenport, Esq. The
mansion is in the Gothic style, and very ancient. The site is
elevated, and the prospects' are pleasing, over a winding brook
in a wooded bottom.

Bolcsnorlh Castle, —near Bam Hill; Sir O. Mosely. The
house is spacious, and m the Gothic style ; and the grounds,
though possessing little natural beauty, have be*n judiciously
laid out.

Bromlxt:migh House, — near Bromborough; James Man-
waring, Esq. The mansion is a handsome building, of the red
stone of the country, and the grounds are pleasant and judi-
ciously laid out.

X Booth's Hall, — near Knutsford; P. Legh, Esq. The
mansion is plain, the park extensive, and varied by some fine
pieces of water.

Curt/en, — near Farm; John Leech, Esq. The mansion is
a venerable building, and tlie park and grounds are spacious
and beautiful.

X Durham SIassey,— neai Altringham ; Earl Stamford.
The mansion is a spacious brick quadrangle; and the park
which surrounds it is extensive, and full of fine timber. Some
of the oaks are of extraordinary magnitude; and in their tops
is a heronry, where many herons associate, and build in so-
ciety like rooks. The pleasure grounds are extensive, and well
arranged.

Hyde Hall, — near Hvde-Chapel ; George Hyde Clark, Esq.
The house ancient, and the grounds picturesque and elegant.

ait both house and grounds are undergoing great alterat
Poi/nton, — near Stockport ; Sir George Warren. The
sion is Eui elegant Ionic building ; the park extensive, and the
pleasure grounds beautifully di.-posed.

Peel Hall, — near Halton ; the property of the Earl of Ply-
mouth. It is one of the most magnificent old mansions in the
county, though now only occupied as a farmhouse.

7591. The following axe first-rate residences : —

Chdmondely ffaH, — near Malpas ; Earl Cholmondeley. A
spacious mansion has lately been erected ; and the grounds laid
out by Webb.

Crtrve Hall, — near AA'ybumbury ; John Crewe, E?q. The
mansion is a fine structure, by Inigo Jones ; and tlie grounds
are judiciously laid out.

X Eaton Hall, — near Eaton ; Earl Grosvenor [grot and rt-
nnir, Fr. or grand huntsman ; an ancestor of this femily
having been in this capacity to the king). The house was
originally built by Sir John X'anburgh, but has lately been
remodelled, in the Gothic style, by Hardwick. The park is
extensive, and, with the garduns, has been much improved
from the designs of Repto'n.

X Taiton Park,— near Knutsford; M'. Egerton, Esq. The
house is fi'om an elegant design of Wyatt ; the park con-
tains 2500 acres, including a mere, or lake, of some extent ; the
kitchen-garden is large, and contains a spacious well con-
structed pinery, and shady border for mosses.

7592. WESTMOREL.\ND. A surface of 462,080 acres ; much varied by lofty mountains, naked hills,
and moors, that call aloud for planting and draining.

Colgarth, — near A mble<iide ;

The residence of

the late Bishop of Llandafi'; chiefly deserving notice for its ex-
tensive and judiciously managed plantations.

Currven's Island, — in Wynandermere lake, near Ambleside ;
J. C. Curwen, Esq. .\ Roman villa, witli a dome, in the centre
of a small island, well wooded, and the walks and gardens ar-
ranged from the designs of the late T. 'White, Esq. the land-
scape-gardener of the north.

X lim'ther Castle, — near Lowther ; Lord Lonsdale. A first-
rate residence, the mansion castellated by Smirke, of rose-
tinted white stone, with an outer and inner court, and a ter-
race as a basement 500 feet long and 100 feet wide : the whole
building rather low for the style of architecture, but in other re-
spects excellent. The parks and pleasure grounds are of great
extent, and command a variety of prospects and scenery, not
surpassed perhaps in any other part of the British dominions.
There is a terrace of closely mown turf: the grasses of the

finest mountain kind. It is nearly a mile in length, and runs
along the brink of a limestone cliff, which overlooks a great
part of the park, irregularly scattered with forest trees of im-
mense growth, and well stocked with deer. It w as this park
that Lord Macartney compared to the garden of the Emperor
of China at Gehol.

-Rayrieg Hall, — near Kendal ; Rev. T. Fleming. On the
banks of Wynandermere ; and said to resemble Femey, the ce-
lebrated seat of Voltaire, near Geneva.

Rydal Hall (Rye-dale), — near Kendal ; Sir F. Le Fleming. A
romantic seat on a mountain side, clothed with natural oak-
woods, and celebrated for its waterfall.

Warton, — near Carlisle; J. Jackson, Esq. The gardens re-
semble those of Kensington ; and are said to have b^n laid out
bv Mollet, James II.'s gardener, for the ScaifFe familv, suc-
cessors from Edward II.'s time till within the eighteenth cen-
tury.

7593. CUMBERL.\XD. A surface of 970,000 acres, entirely mountainous, and abounding in lakes,
the most numerous and celebrated of any county in the empire : as in the other north-western counties,
the climate is severe, and winter long and dreary.

to lead walks through these grounds in 1706, and is said to
have been one of the first persons who broke through the tram-
mels of the ancient style of laying out grounds. The late Mb.

Cor6^ Castle, — near Carlisle ; Henry Howard, Esq. The
mansion has lately been improved from the designs of
Nicholson ; it is boldly situated on the banks of the'Eden,
which are well wooded by nature, and singiUarlv grand and
pieture«quc. The grandfather of the present 6»Tier began

the north of Englancf, was originally gardener liere.

J 082

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

PontonJiy Hall, — near Egremont ; , G. E. Stanley, Esq.
The house is modern and surrounded by numerous plant-
ations and agricultural improvements made by the present
spirited owner.

X Workington Hall, — near Whitehaven ; J. C. Curwen,
Esq. The house is a spacious quadrangular building ; the
park and pleasure-grounds are extensive, and the home ferm
ted, for it ranks Workington and Curwen with Holk-

Munauler House, — near Ravenzlass ; Lord Muncaster.
Great improvements have been made by planting the bleak
hills on this estate ; his lordship has also irrigated extensively,
and is a very spirited a^iculturist.

Nunnery,— neax Penrith; Rich. Bambey, Esq. The house
is ill a low confined situation ; but the grounds are extremely
beautiful, and laid out with great taste and judgment. They
lie along the banks of the Eden, whose i-ugged bed produces
several cascades and one waterfall of nearly twelve feet.

7594. HAMPSHIRE. A surface of 1,112,000 acres, considerably varied in character of surface, yet
without high hills. The Isle of Wight is a detached portion, remarkable, for its beauty and fertility; the
Downs, a chalky ridge, are bare of timber. The New Forest and Bere Forest occupy large tracts near
Southampton, and are the principal tree-bearing royal forests in the management of the government : on
the borders of Dorsetshire there are large tracts of heath, and on the sea-shore extensive marshes.
There are several nurseries at Southampton, of whicli the oldest established is that of Rogers, and the
next in repute that of Page. There is a horticultural society held at Winchester by some gentlemen
and gardeners of the county. In the Isle of Wight, at St. Laurence cottage, there was a vineyard man-
aged by a regular vigneron. At Fratton, near Portsmouth, is grown the Portsmouth broccoli, so much
esteemed.

Apvulldurcmiibe,— near GodshiU, Isle of Wight; The Hon.

Pelham. A Corinthian mansion of freestone, with four

fronts, in a spacious park in the midst of an amphitheatre of
hills, ornamented with trees of large size, and commanding
fine prospects.

Avington, — near Winchester; Duke of Buckingham. A
brick mansion, in a secluded well wooded valley.

Belle Vice, — near Southampton; Admiral Sir R. Bligh. A
superb modem house, commanding a most exquisite prospect
over the Southampton water, with extensive gardens and hot-
houses, and an excellent botanical collection.

Barw M(H"t/, — near Southampton; Henry Hulton, Esq. A
moimt in a bay of the river, and laid out as a wilderness, by
Charles Mordaunt, Earl of Peterborough, in Pope's time.
His lordship is said to have refused. to let strangers see the
ground, unless during high water.

Bonchurch Cottage, — near Bonchurch, Isle of AV'isht ;

Hatfield, Esq. A comfortable and picturesque house in a most
romantic situation.

BradWill Lodge, — near Hockley; . The

house is an elegant building, designed by J. Johnson, Esq., with
an observatory on its summit.

BramshiU, — near Hartley Wintney; Rev. R. Cope. An
Elizabethean edifice on an eminence, in a spacious park, and
one of the most commanding features of the county.

Broadlandi, — near Rumsey ; Lord Palmerston. A neat edi-
fice of white brick, in a well wooded park.

X Cadlatid, — near Southampton ; R. Drummond, Esq. The
house is plain, but commodious; the park was laid out by
Brown, and is five miles in circumference. The whole is in
high keeping.

Castle Malwood Cottage, — near Lyndhurst ; General AVy nyard.
A high situation, witii extensive views ; the garden kejit in
high order.

Cams Hill, — near Portsmouth ; J. Delm^, Esq. An elegant
-modem building, in a pleasant park, on the east side of the lake
of Portsmouth Harbour.

Cratibury House, — near Winchester ; Sir N. NoUand. An
extensive mansion ; good kitchen-garden and fine prospects.

Criuceaston, — near Lichfield ; . Once the seat of Edward

Lisle, Esq. author of Observations oh Agriculture ; he died
in 1722, having had twenty children, seventeen of whom sur-
vived him. Of these nine, sisters, constructed a grotto which
has been celebrated by Pope in his Rural Essays,

" This radiant pile nine rural sisters r£U£e,"
and of which only the skeleton now remains.

Cuffnells, — near Lyndhurst ; Rose, Esq. A handsome

residence, greatly improved by the late owner, the Right Hon.
G. Rose ; the grounds and part of the forest are every thuig
that can be desired. The late Mr. Eames, when called in to
give hLs professional assistance, found nothing to do but to ar-
range the pleasure-ground scenery and the' kitchen-garden.
The whole is now kept in respectable order.

X Dogmersjield Park, — near Odiham ; P. St. John Mildmay,
Esq. The mansion is extensive; the. park contains 700 acres,
much diversified in surface, and by old woods, new plantations,
and a lake of forty-four acres. The pleasure-grounds were laid
out by Eames. In the plantations the ash is much and success-
fully cultivated for hop-poles.

jE/crt/iam, — near Hatford Bridge; Lieut. Gen. Gwii-nne.
An eligible residence; the park and grounds two miles in cir-
cumference, laid out by Eame.5, who had a lease of this estate
for twentv-one vears.

Exhury House, — near Exbury; Col. Mitford, author of the
History of Greece, by whom the grounds have been greatly
improved. The demesne is about eight miles in circum-
ference.

Fairy Hill, — near Ryde; Rev. H. Oglander. A neat house,
and the grounds disposeil as aferme onufe.

Fern Hill, — nearWooten Bridge, Isle of Wight : S. Saunders,
Esq. The house bears some resemblance to a church ; the pros-
pects are remarkably fine, and the kitchen-garden good.

i^Yog-Ai//,— nearCalbourne; F. Banington, Esq. A small, but
elegant house, and grounds dis^wsed with much tast^.

Galcombe House, — near Carrisbrooke, Isle of Wight; A.
Campbell, Esq. Beautifully situated on the declivity of a hill,
and the park ornamented with natural oaks and coppice-woods.

Grange Park,— near Almsford; .Alexa-'der Baring, Esq.

best works : the grounds varied and beautiful. In the gardens
an extensive range of iron hot-houses by Jones and Co. of
Birmingham.

X Hackivood P«rA.- (Hawking AVood), _ near Oldleasing;
Lord Bolton. The house lately improved; the park very ex-
tensive, bold, and irregular, and iinely clothea with noble
beech-trees, many of which, near the house, are mantled with
ivy. The pleasure-grounds contain 100 acres, and afford ex-
amples of an aquatic menagerie, a verdant theatre, French
garden, and music temple.

X High Clere, — near Lichfield ; Eart of Camarvon. The
mansion an elegant modem structure of brick, stuccoed : the
park thirteen miles in circumference, and few in the kingdom
display a surface more varied, or scenery more interesting.
-Almost every thing has been done by the present owner, who
is also a great encourager of horticulture.

Hurstbmirne Park, — near Whitchurch ; Earl of Portsmouth.
The mansion by W- Wyatt : the grounds delightfully wooded,
and furnishing fine prospects.

Maffisjbnf House, — near Romsey ; Sir C. Mill. A spacious
and venerable edifice, with commodious gardens and pleasure-

grounds, noted for their plane-trees,

Moyle's Court, — near Ringwood; —
building in a park, small, but agreeable.

• Lisle, Esq. A good

Newtown, — near Boldre; H. C. Plowden, Esq. A spacious
and elegant mansion, with a circular room at the top, from
which extensive views are obtained. The gardens are small,
but neatly kept.

Norris, — near East Cowes, Isle of Wight : Lord Seymour.
A Gothic edifice, with an extensive front, by J. Wyatt, Esq.
The park tm.-iU, but afibrding fine marine views.

Northcourt House, — near Shorwell ; R. Bull, Esq. A buildin«
of the time of .Fames I., with the grounds nearly in the sam»>
state as originally disposed, in ranges of small terraces, witn
seats, and walls for fruit.

PauUons, — near Romsey ; S. Stanley, Esq. The whole de-
mesne is about five miles in circumference : it was submitted
to Brown, who thinned the natural woods, and opened ample
lawns.

Piletvell House, — near Boldre. A beautifully situated house,
with lawns and pleasure-grounds, extending to the sea-side.

Poriswood House, — near Southampton ; A. ]\I'Kinnon, Esq.
A handsome building by Crunden, situated close to South-
ampton M'ater, witli extensive pleasure-grounds, beautifully
diversified.

Priory, — near St. Helen's Green, Isle of Wight ; Sir Nash
Grose. This demesne consists of a narrow strip of grourd,
about a mile in length, extending along the shore : both house
and grounds have been much improved by their present

Red Rise, — near Sfockbridge ; H. Errington, Esa. Plea-
santly embosomed in woods, and surrounded by open downs.

Stoneham Park, — near Winchester ; J. Fleming, Es<}. An
old mansion, recently much improved : the park extensive, and
laid out by Brown.

St. Lawrence Cottage, — near UnderclifF; Sir R. Worslej,
Here a vineyard has been formed, and is now directed by a
French vigneron (vine-{;ardener). It was begun in 1792 ;
occupies three acres ot rocky ground, sheltered from the
north. Muscadines are chiefly planted in beds, twelve feet
wide, and the plants a foot and a half apart each way. The
stools are kept at about eight inches high, and two shoots are
annually grown from each, to succeed the two of the former
year then in fruit. These shoots are not allowed to extend
more than three feet and a half. A pleasant light wine is made
from the grapes.

X St ration Park, — near Winchester ; Sir F. Baring. The
house and grounds recently much improved : the gardens and
hot-houses extensive, and well managed.

yine, — near King's Clare ; W. Chute, Esq. The situation
rather low ; the grounds well wooded.

7595. First-rate residence,

S<ra/A/!e?(/iay, — near King's Clare; Puke of Wellington. The
house, now undergoing great alterations, is rather low ; the
park is extensive and well wooded. The alterations are by
\Vyatt, the architect of Drury-lane theatre.

The house by Inigo Jones, and said by Walpole to be one of his

7596. WILTSTIIRE. A surface of 821,120 acres; elevated, varied, but not much wooded: the
climate dry and cold. Gary and Moody, nurserymen, near Salisbury, grow the best crocuses in England,
of which they send large quantities annually to London, and other parts : there is a famous grower of
ranunculuses and anemones at Marlborough, and a good nursery at Devizes, besides various market-
gardens. Savernake Forest, in Tottenham Park, is the only one in the kingdom belonging to a subject, i

.4»7iconi/ie, — nearCranboume; P. Methuen, Esq. The house
is singularly situated on an isolated knoll, which has been, not
unaptry compared to an inverted basin, placed in the middle of
a large China bowl.

Brotr>TO»e, — near Downton ; R. Brestow, Esq. An Italian
villa, by Falkliam, of which the stables are of a very supe-
rior kinS. The grounds and exterioi scenery highly picturesque
aud beautiful.

Claredon Lodge,— near Salisbury; F. H. Bathurst, Esq. A
commodious modem edifice, surrounded by extensive grounds,
abimdantly wooded, and containing a natural lake, from which
issues a stream.

Cowesfield House, — near Bownton ; Sir A.Paget. A true
fenne ohi/e ; the fields regularly encomjiassetl with ornamental
hedgerows and trees, with generally a turf drive, or a gravel-
walk : the views from these hedge-paths are extensive.

Book 1.

GARDENS OF SOMERSETSHIRE.

1083

Prora Uie aper of a hiU, amidst a grore of ancient pines, rises
the lofty tower, turrets, pediments, and pinnacles of a mansion,
■which assumes externally the character of an ancient monastic
edifice. It consists of a central tower about 270 feet in height,
a loftv entrance-hall, a vestibule, a wing, or transept, extend-
ing firom the tower to the east, and two other wings, branching
OK from the centre to the north and south. The exterior ele-
vations of each of these portions is dissimilar to the others, and
each is appropriated to the dilferent accommodations and pur-
poses of an elegant imd commodious mansion. State-rooms,
gallery, libraries, eating-rooms, parlours, drawing-rooms, &c.
are fitted up in a truly splendid style ; and adorned with the
choicest works in literature and the tine arts. The arctiltect
of the whole was James AN'yatt, Esq-, and many of the most
eminent artists of the country were employed in finishing tlie
interior.

The abbey is approached by a broad avenue of turf, up-
wards of a mile in length, on the summit of a ridge, the sides
of which are thickly wooded. A public road formerly inter-
sected the park, biit that road is now in great part arched
over, and lifted by openings at intervals. There are numerous
green drives (the sub-soil being chalk, these are always dry,)
and gravel-walks, which conduct through the grounds, and
especially the woods, the under-growths of which, in many
places, are fomjed of the most choice sorts of roses and .-Vme-
rican plants, purchased and placed in their appropriate soils at
great expense, and afterwards left to run wild. There are
whole acres of azaleas, rhododendrons, magnolias, &c. which
have a most delightfiil effect. Herbaceous plants are equally
profusely scattered ; and there are a few seats and buildings,
but these are chiefly confined to the lower grounds, where there
are several Isir^ pieces of water, cascades, grottoes, &c. near
to the site of the former Grecian mansion. This we were
fcMtimate enough to see before its removal in 1806. The kitchen-
garden is good, and no expense spared to render it productive
in exotic as well as hardy esculents and firuits.

X Lo7ig/«rf, — near Warm-inster ; Marquis of Bath. A mag-
nificent mansion, and the proudest architectural ornament of
this part of Wiltshire, built in the latter part of the 16tli century
fiponi the designs of an Italian architect. The grounds were
laid out in Charles II. 's time by London and Wise, and sub-
sequently remodelled by Brown, whose plans were foUowed by
the late marquis to his death in 1796, and have been continued
by the present proprietor. .\ broad and luxuriant valley con-
tains the house and a large sheet of water : the park stretches up
the sides of the surrounding hills, covered by the finest old
timber, and fifteen miles in circumference ; the approach from
the south is a straight avenue nearly a mile ; the others are
different, and that from the Warmirista: road displays nearly
the whole of the ddmain.

Stoke Park, — near Devizes; J. Smith, Esq. A house and
offices, with a fr-ont of 3-56 feet, on the summit of an eminence,
surrounded by a well wooded and watered park, in which the
pleasure-ground occupies a narrow winding valley, containing
a ri>Tilet, the waters of which form several cascades. On the
whole, few suots in England pres«it such a combination of
lawn, hill, vale, waters, and diversified plantations.

X Stourheudj — neaxyiere; Sir R. C. Hoare. The mansion
from the designs of Colin Campbell, author of the Vitruritu Bri-
tanniciu : the grounds long not<^ for their sylvan beauties and
uicturesoue features. The scenery consists' of ridges of hills,
forming long extended terraces, and deep narrow valleys with
rivulets. The sides and summits of some of these eminences
are thickly, and others partially, clothed with wood. One of
the valleys is covered with water by means of a dam, and various
cascades'are formed on the brooks: throughout tlie whole place,
temples, obelisks, bridges, covered seats, and other buildings
are introduced.

IVardMir Castle, — near Salisbury ; Earl Arundel. A large
magnificent mansion, by Paine in 1776, the grounds are much
diversified in surfece and by planting, and they contain the
ivied ruins of the old castle.

X Wilton, — near ^\'ilton ; Earl Pembroke. An extensive
pile, of rather incongruous architecture, bv Hans Holbein,
Solomon de Caus, Inigo Jones or his successor Webb, and James
\\'yatt, Esq. The park contains some ornamented buildings,
old trees, and pieces of water.

7598. DORSETSHIRR A surface of 775,000 acres, divided into two parts by a range of chalk hills,
which run east and west : the climate dry and healthy, and the soil rich. Near this county is the Isle of
Jersey, which, with Guernsey, supply roots of the amaryllis samiensis to the seedsmen, and some
grapes to the fruiterers. Parsneps are grown to a great size, and there is a general taste for flowers, and
neatness in the gardens, to which their mild winters are particularly favorable. In these islands many of
our green-house plants thrive in the open air ; as several of the amarallide^, verbena triphylla, camellia,
celtis, nerium, corea, melaleuca, pittosporum, and even canna indica, which is a weed in some gardens.
It is suggested by Dr. M'CuUoch {Appendix to Qaayle's Agr. J'ieiv of the Sormcn Islands), that Guernsey
would form an excellent coast station in acclimating the plants of hot countries. The arum maculatum is
80 abundant in the Isle of Portland, that the common people gather its roots, prepare them as sago, and
send the produce to London, where it is sold as Portland sago.

Earrt stoke. — Connected with this spot is a rustic villaae by
dttign. It consists of several cottages placed on the sides of the
road, each detached from the others, imd every one accom-
panied bv its garden-creepers, trees, honey .suckle;, &c.

Lake Boiue, — near Ambresbury ; Rev. Edw. Duke. A
respectable, and truly picturesque edifice, with bay windows,
gables, yew-hedges, terraces, &c. in the genuine style of the
last age.

itrfrfi/ird ParA:,— nearWooton Basset; Lord Bolingbroke.
Extensive grounds abounding in fine old trees, and containing
a fine pond of water.

Longford Castle, — near Salisbury ; Earl of Radnor. A
houEe remarkable for its ground-plan, which was intended to
resemble the catholic monogram of the Trinity, erected about
1591, from the designs of John Thorpe. An entirely new
structure, in the castellated style, is in contemplation. The
park is rich in woods and picturesque views, and is watered by
the Avon.

Littlecot Park, — near Ramshury ; E. L. Popham, Esq. Four
miles in circumference, well wooded, and containing a hill,
and the river Kennet passing through the pleasure-grounds.

MeUhett Part, — near Downton ; J. Osborne, Esq. Tlie
sounds remarkable for a beautiful Hindu temple, erected by
the late owner as a tribute to the merits of ^V'arren Hastings,

JPyt Route, near Wardour; J. Bennet, Esq. A modem
Grecian edifice, with an elegant chapel attached, and pleasure
grounds extensive, a-id laid out with considerable taste.

Roche Great Court, — near Salisbury: F. T. Egerton, Esq.
An Italian house, by C. H. Faikham, Esq-, and iOOO acres of
ground, laid out as park, garden, and ferm scenery.

Rowd Athlon, — near Trowbridge ; R. G. Long, Esq. A
mansion lately improved, cind a park of considerable extent,
abounding in woods.

X Tottenham Park, — near Marlborough ; Earl of .Aylesbury.
This seat, including Saveniake Forest, is sixteen miles in cir-
inimference; the whole intersected by numerous walks and
avenues, eight of which diverge from a common centre. The
hotise is a square brick building with wings ; opposite to it is a
lofty column, erected by a late earl as a testimony of gratitude
to its former possessor-

WiUot House, — near f phaven ; Admiral Montague. A
modem mansion, adomed with a finely wooded park, txmnded
by a branch of the .\von.

Wilbury House, — near .\mesbury ; Sir C W. Malet. A
comfortable stone house, with a park recently planted, and
likely to be soon eminenUy deserving notice.

7597. First-rate residences.

X BoTvocd, — near Calne; IMarquis of Lansdo^vn. An ex-
tensive mansion, chiefly by .Adams, on an eminence, in a park
and pleasure-grounds, extensive, greatly diversified in natural
features, and richly adomed with plantations. Within the
boundary of the park are contained numerous valleys, each of
which is characterised by its own peculiar form, feature, and
scenery, and one is covered by a broad and irregular lake,
the waste waters of which flow over a much-admired artificial
cascade.

X Corsfield House, — near Corsham ; P. C. Methnen, Esq.
An Elizabethean house, altered and enlarged by Brown,
and subsequently, in a very superior style, by Xash. The
grounds, laid oiit by H. Repton, are extensive, but little va-
ried. A hot-house' and conservatory have been erected by
Stewart.

CAar/tonParA-,- near Malmsbury; Earl of Suffolk. -A noble
pile, by Inigo Jones, but unfurnished : the park extensive, but
at present cultivated as a farm.

X Fontliill Abbey, — near Hindon ; late W. Beckford, Esq. A
magnificent and unique mansion, in imitation of a Gothic
abbey, in style, situation, and surrounding scenery very pe-
culiar, and considered the most remarkable seat in the west of
England. The natural and scaiic features of this place are
bold, grand, and highly diversified. Nearly the whole of an
eminence, which gradually ascends from the open country on
the north, and from a fine enclosed country to the south, is
covered with woods, some of which are of ancient growth, but
the greater part planted by the father of the late possessor

Bryanstone House, — E. B. Portman, Esq. ; near Poole. A
splendid modem mansion, and extensive and beautifully varied
grounds. The gardens in a high state of cultivation and keep-
ing, and the whole one of the first residences in the county.
_ Encome, — near Ivimeridge ; A\'illiam Morton Pitt, Esq. The
situation is extremely fine, and the grounds are dis}-osed with
much taste. On this' estate, in 1753, was found a mushroom
that weighed eight pounds, was fifteen inches long, ten round,
eight deep, and the section almost in the form of the figure S.

Kingston Hall, — near Poole ; Henry Bankes, Esq. The
house was erected in 1663, and is large and substantial.
The kitchen-garden is well attended, and the park-scenery
good.

Lullrevrih Castle, — near Lullworth; T. Wild, Esq. The
house is a noble pile ; the park occupies a circuit of nearlv four
miles, and has lately been much improved.

X -Mt/toi .-l«Ki/, _ near Milton Abbas; Earl of Dorchester.
The house, by Sir W. Chambers, is one of the most magnifi.

7599. SOMERSETSHIRE^ A surface of 991,360 acres, hilly and stony towards the N.E, with ferns,
marshes, and moors, towards the centre ; the remainder high and hilly. There was a curious market-
gardener at Bath, about 20 years ago, who proposed ripening grapes under hand-glasses ; and in Switzer's
time, there was a seat there abounding in curious water- works. Salter is the principal florist and nursery-
man, and has published a tract on florists' flowers. There are ako good nurseries at Taunton, Froome,
and Bridgewater.

cent piles in the county ; the groimds beautiftiUy xaricd and
richly wooded, were in part laid out by H. Repton. A village
was transplanted from the vicinity of the house, and erected in
a regular stvle in a distant situation.

More Cri?cAf//, — Near AVinbome; Charles Stewart, Esq.
This is a romantic seat, with an excellent mansion, command-
ing extensive views.

'Waterboume Harrinfrion, — near Dorchester; Edward Wil-
liams, Esq. The house is a large quadrangular building, and
the grounds contain some fine oaks, and chestnuts of the growth
of two centuries and upwards.

Sherborne Castle, — near MUton ; Earl of Digby. The
mansion is a singular structure, in the form of a'R'omanM;
the centre part was built by Sir W. Raleigh, and is dated i514.
In the park is a grove, said to have been planted by Sir
Walter. The grounds were much improTed from the ti^ipn^
of Brown.

1084

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

Bnmore Castle, — near Enmore ; Earl Egmont. A Quadran-
gular embattled structure, the stables and oHiees all under
ground ; the shrubbery neat and elegant, and the views over a
finely cultivated and enclosed country.

7600. DEVONSHIRE. A surface
of 1,600,000 acres, abounding in moun-
tains, hills, and valleys; the former
barren and moory, the latter mild in cli-
mate, beautiful and fertile; orchards
abound in the southern part, and the
centre contains that barren, bleak
tract, called the Forest of Dartmoor,
now happily under a spirited course of
improvement. Ford at Exeter, and
Luccumbe of the same place, (who
raised the variety of the common oak
which bears his name,) are the prin- ^'
cipal nurserymen. The father of
Galpine, author of the Compend of
British Plants, had a nursery at
Brenton. The Duchess of Bedford
has a picturesque cottage retreat on
the banks of the Tamar [fig. 752.),
one of the last places at which the
late H. Repton was consulted.

nkton, — near Bicton ; Lord Rolle. The mansion _ _^

the park pleasantly situated, and well wooded.

Borififiion, — near I'lymouth ; Lord Borington. The house
was built at the end of the fourteenth centur)-, though now
occupied as a farmhouse ; the jiavk contains 500 acres riclily
wooded, to which continual additions are making on the bide of
Dartmoor.

X Caslle Hill,— near South IMoIton ; Lord Fortesctie. The
mansion is situated on the acclivity of a finely wooiled emi-
nence; the grounds are well diversified, and contain a fine
sheet of water.

Coll^riest House, — near Tiverton ! Thomas M^insloe, Esq.
The mansion has lately been enlarged, and the grounds im-
proved.

F.acot House, — near Honiton; Sir John Kennaway. The
house has been improved by H. Wyatt; the plantations are
among the most luxurizmt in Devonshire.

PunitfidoH House, — near Ottory St. Mary; J. T. Chelwick,
Esq. The grounds are pleasant, and the plantations par-
ticularly flourishing.

Gi-ea/ /''/(//orJ, near Exeter; B. Fulford, Esq. The mansion
is one of the most ancient in the county, and still retains much
of its original character : the park is much diversified internally
by undulations, and the judicious disjiosition of trees and the
distant river are interesting.

Haldon House, — near Exeter; Sir L. Palk. The house is
a moflel of Buckingham House in St. James's Park. The
ornamental grounds are extensive, and the plantations cover
many acres.

lAtmlrif^e, —near Chudlaigh ; Rev. J. Templar. The man-
sion is large ; the grounds are picturesque and finely wooded,
and contain some of the largest trees in Devonshire.

Lusamibe House,— neiuc Dawlish; C. Hoare, Esq. The
house is an elegant design of Nash, who has endeavored to
unite the picturesque, the lieautiful, and the ornamental. The
grounds are beautifully varied by nature, and well planted.

Manchead, — near Kenton; Ix>rd Lisburne. The mansion is
of considerable antiquity : the park abounds in fine plantations
of firs and other forest trees: and the lawn in the garden-front
of the house is beautifully varied by groups of trees.

7601. CORNWALL,
and the valleys rich.

Cardcn', — near Falmouth; Sir W. Lemon, Bart. The house
is of granite, in the Ionic style; the grountls are beautiful, and
much improved by plantation.

Ctowaiice, — near Hale; Sir John St. Aubyn, Bart. The
house Is envelopetl in wood, the park is large, and the pleasure-
grounds delightful.

Cutchele or Cirttayle House, near Calstock; Earl of Mount
Edgecumbe. The house is an irregular quadrangle, situated
on a bold knoll, on the banks of the Tamar. The woods which
descend from tlie house abound in some of the most magnifi.
cent oaks and chestnuts in England.

X JWeHoii//.!/, — near Menabilly; Philip Ilashleigh Esq. The
house is of stone, and commands an extensive prospect over the
British Channel : it contains one of the finest collections of
native minerals in the kingdom. The kitchen -garden is well
manapetl ; and the grounds are distinguished for their very
beautiful grottoes.

Petukirves, — neax Clowance; John Stackhouse, Esq. The
house is a large handsome granite edifice; and the grounds
contain a large lake.

X Purti!///o<,— near St. Germains; Lord fllliot. The mansion
is irregular, and the grounds very much so, and greatly im-
proveaand ernbellished, in part from the designs of Repton.

Ooaihurst, — near Enmore ; Sir C. Tynte. A noble building,
with a ^)ark, and hoine pasture-farm, of great extent, exhibit-
ing as fine scenery of the verdant and cultivated kind as any
in England.

X Mount Edgecumbe, — near Plymouth ; Earl Mount Edge-
cumbe. The house is a very ancient building : the grounds are
among the most remarkable in England for boldness, fine trees,
and marine views. The grounds have been considerably im-
proved by the present earl, and an account of them lately
published, entitled A Walk round Mount Edgecumbe, with
eight views, 1821.

Nutrvell, — near Topsham ; Lord Heathfield. The mansion
is large, and the park scenery highly interesting.

Oj:Um House, — near Kenton ; Rev. J. Swete. A new house
has been built, and the grounds, which had been laid out at
great expense in the old ityle, are modernised, and a fine lake
formed from a natural brook.

X Pon>dcr«/iam Corf/e, — near Kenton; Lord Courtenay. A
very ancient seat, with a venerable Elizabethean mansion, and
extensive grounds finely planted. The circumference of the
park is nearly ten miles : and the jileasure-grounds and kitchen-
gardens are replete with appropriate productions.

The Retreat, — near Kenton; Sir Alexander Hamilton. An
elegant seat, kept in good style.

Sultram, — near Plympton St. Mary ; Lady C. Parker. The
situation is eminently beautiful : the mansion is the largest in
the county : the new approach is particularly admired.

Tawstock, —near Barnstaple; Sir B. Wray, Bart. An im-
posing mansion and woods, remarked by authors as taking in
at one view the best manor, best mansion, finest church, and
richest rectory in the county : the house is in the Gothic style,
and the grounds have recently been much improved.

X Ughrooke, — near Chudleigh; Lord Clittbrd. One of the
most enchanting spots in Devon : the grounds contain every
variety of objects which constitute beautiful scenery — wood,
water, rock, and unevenness of surface; and the exterior
scenery is highly interesting.

Walford Lodge, — near Honiton; General Simcoe. The
house is large, and decorated with fine old woods and many
plantations, which clothe a declivity, and form a semicircle
around it.

Yeo Ka/e, _ near Bideford ; Rev. F. H. Morrison. An ancient
seat, recently much improved.

A surface of 758,000 acres, mountainous and hilly, but temperate in climate.

Pontillu Castle,— near Cotche\e ; Mrs. Tilly (1820). The
house, wiiich is modem but embattled, is finely situated on the
banks of the Tamar. The declivities towar"ds the river are
most luxuriously wooded with elms and limes, and the back-
ground scenery is distinguished by a tower in which the late
Mr. Tilly was inhumed sitting in his elbow-chair with bottles,
pipes, Sec. before him.

Tetredy Park, — near Redruth ; Lordde Dunstanville. The

from a design by Edwards; the park
roO acres, of which 1.50 are appropriated to a lawn

house is of granite,

contains

and sheep-walk ; on the rest extensive plantations have been

made. The situation is bleak, and it is said the pineaster is

planted as a nurse to other species, and that the larch will only

grow in sheltered situations.

Trelmrtha Hall, — near Launceslon; Colonel Radd. A tor-
rent dashing over immense rocks, amid mountamous and
woody scenery, renders this a singularly grand and picturesque
place.

Trclarvney House, — near West Cove ; Trelawny, Esq.

The mansion is in the Elizabethean style, and the views are
over the valley of the Love river, which contains some of the
finest scenes in England.

Sect. II. Wales.

7602. A hilly mountainous surface of 5,206,900 acres, with a climate colder than that
of England, and more moist in the proportion of 34, the average number of inches of
rain which falls in Wales, to 22, the number for England. The soil is generally of an
inferior description, and the great proportion of mountainous surface is fit only for plant-
ing, wliich is the principal branch of gardening followed in Wales : horticulture and
floriculture are chiefly confined to the low grounds near the sea and internal valleys.
There are no public gardens ; but few commercial ones ; and the number of gentlemen's
seats is very limited : cottage and farmers' gardens indifferent, though generally well
stocked with commoner varieties of cabbage or borecoles and leeks.

Book I.

GARDENS OF WALES.

1085

7603. ANGLESEA, or MONA. A hilly bleak island of 200,000 acres ; ill adapted for any branch of
gardening, but containing a few seats worthy of qotice.

Baron HUl -near Beaumaris; Lord Bulkelv. A house , X Pla* Neny<3d,-ueax the banks of the Menai; Marquis
im1.rov ed by Sam?\V^"^ but supposedto be top high for Us of Anglesea. An elegant .castellated niaiision, with ^ex-

elevated situation, 'the group is much varied by nature,
and improved bv lawns, groves, bridges, and other ornamental
buildings ; and trom a tower on Baron Hill the finest prospects
in the island are obtained.

Bixlorgan, — near Aberfraw
by Duffbrd, on an eminence, i
■wood.

a small park well clothed with

tended front by Potter, of Litchfield ; built of native marble.
The home grounds extend along the Menai, contain a fine
lawn, marine terraces, baths, green-houses, and gardens, and
are abundantly wooded ; the park is not very extensive, but
contains, some antiquated oaks, many new plantations, fine
drives and walks, and very picturesque views.

7601. CAERNARVONSHIRE,
sort whatever.

Vaenol House, — near Caernarvon; T. A. Smith, Esq. A
handsome modem structure, deeply embosomed with trees,
with an extensive lawn sloping to the Menai.

X Penrhyn Castle, near Bangor; Lady Penrhyn. A cas-
tellated mansion of considerable antiquity, improved by
antations. for the extent of which ana

A mountainous surface of 310,000 acres, with few gardens of any

for the various uses to which the Penrhyn slab is applied, this
residence is chiefly remarkable. Park-pales, gates, door^
window -shutters, troughs, mangers, stall-partitions, hot-bed
frames, and a variety of other articles are formed from it, and
found to be very durable.

Wyatt, surrounded by plantations, for tlic extent ■

7601 DENBIGHSHIRE. A hilly tract of 410,000 acres, the soil various, but not rich or favourable
for cultivation, excepting in the valleys. The seats are chiefly on the Chester side of the country.

Upftr Grversilt Hull, — neai Gresford; Mrs. Atherston.
The grounds most tastefiilly laid out, with highly romantic
walks, alternately umbrageous, and open on the banks of the
Alun.

Uatutrch House, — near Denbigh ; D. Leo, Esq. A beautiful
park, with a fine piece of water, commanding extensive views.
The gardens were formerly laid out by M. Uavies, Esq. on his
return from Italy, with formal walks, dipt trees and hydraulic
statues. Among the images and water-tricks was a sundial,
which, on the spectator's approach, spouted in his face, and
a|>ologised for the rudeness by an indecorous inscription. Tlie
whole place is now modernised, and the fine old house too
much so.

X Wynnsiay, — at Ruabon ; Sir W. W. Wynn. The house,
an extensive pile, erected at ditTerent times, approached
through a straight avenue a mile in length ; the trees, old and
large, elms, oaks, beeches, and planes. The park is eight miles
in circumference, surrounded by a high stone wall ; the sur-
face is not much diversified, but it contains a fine sheet ot
water and numerous plantations, with an admirable artificial
cascade, similar to that in Bowood Park, near Calne. The
horticultural and floricultural establishments are very com-
plete; and here the banana wsis fruited, and its fruit used at
the dessert, for the first time in England. There is a large Cirm
under the care of an excellent Berwickshire bailitf.

Uetveni Ho//,— near Denbigh; M. Hughes, Esq. Situated
on a flat lawn, with a bleathery too near, and not properly
planted out.

Pout rifJUh Farm, — neai Denbigh; Mrs. Lloyd. A ferme
orne'e, handsomely laid out and kept in good order.

Pool Park; — neai Ratliin ; Lord Bagot. DeUghtfuUy si-
tuated, and finely wooded with old chestnut-trees.

Plus Xen-yiU, — neai Llangollen; L-ailv Eleanor Butler, and
Miss Ponsonby. An elegant residence fitted up in the cottage
style, and the grounds beautifully laid out by the elegant and
accomplished proprietors.

Uandysilio Hat/, — near Llangollen; T. Jones, Esq. A
handsome structure of brick, in a flat situation, with a park
composed of this bottom, and part of the surrounding hills
finelv wooded.

Erddig, — near Wrekham ; S. Yorke, Esq. Chiefly remark-
able for the beauty of the approach through a dense wood ;
there are also other umbrageous walks, a rivulet, lawn, and
banquetting-house, much admired.

Bern Hall, — near Wrexham ; T. Lloyd, Esq. A handsome
mo<lem mansion, embosomed in fine rich plantations; the
situation flat, but the surrounding scenery hilly and grand.

Adon Ha//, — near Wrexham; Sir F. Cunlifte. A good
mansion, on an elevated lawn; the grounds extended, and
greatly improved by the present proprietor.

760o. FLINTSHIRE. A surface of 160,000 acres, less mountainous or varied than any of the Welsh
counties, and not unfavorable to gardening.

Dim'ning, — near AMiitford ; D. Pennant, Esq. A mansion
H-shaped, with Gothic wings, in a low sequestered situation,
surrounded by finely wooded grounds, which owe their tasteful
disposition to the late eminent natursilist, father of the present

Hanmer Hall, — near St. Asaph ; Sir T. Hanmer. A hand-
some brick structure, situated in grounds naturally fine from
their consisting of eminences and slopes. These are embel-
lished with woods and plantations, and a lake of 50 acres.

Heartalieaih Hall, — near .Alold ; G. L. AVardel, Esq. Beau-
tifully situated on a gentle slope, showing three fronts, with an

excellent range of stables and offices peeping through fine
plantations in the back ground.

Leesn-ood, — near Mold ; Sir G. Wynne. The grounds oc-
cupy a fine slope, and were laid out by Switzer above a century
ago,' whose magnificent iron gateway, through which the fore-
court of tlie house is entered, still remains.

Penguem, — near AVhiteford ; Sir E. P. Lloyd. A modem
structure, surrounded by grounds extensively planted, and
otherwise greatly improved by draining in some places, and
irrigation and levelling, and removing of detached stones, in
others.

7607. CARDIGANSHIRE. A surface of 500,400 acres, more mountainous than any in South Wales ;
the mountains generally bleak and bare of wood.

X Ha/orf, — near Aberystwith;

late the seat of

dence in either North or South \V'ales. The house, in a
peculiar style of Gothic or Moresque architecture, in the side
of a secluded basin, among high mountains : the apjiroaches to
it full of beauty and contrast, the numerous walks displaying
waterfells, precipices, views, prospects, cultivated scenes, rude
spots, seats, buildings, (Sic. singularly romantic and sublime.

The kitchen-gardens and farm ■(

I suceessf\illy

cultivated. This place has been described by many tourists;
■_ " — " jP. r ■
/, witn many views.
Stradmore Vale, — near Llandyssil; R. Taylor, Esq. An

but in the most ele^nt manner, by Sir J. E. Smith,?. L. S. in
a Tour to Hafod, with many views.

elegant mansion, desirably situated in a rich bottom, on the
banks of the Teivi, and backed by a luxuriant forest of oak.

imanuc ana suDUme.

7608. GLAMORGANSHIRE. A surface of 422,000 acres, mountainous towards the north, but more
level and suited to culture in the southern parts.

GnoU Castle, — near Neath; Grant, Esq. The house

rises with baronial pomp and grandeur, on the point of a hill,
overlooking the town and adjacent country. The grounds
most judiciously laid out by the late Sir H. Mackworth.

Uantryddyd, — near Cowbridge; Sir J. Aubrey. An
Elizabethean mansion, in a park richly wooded, of considerable
extent, and surrounded by a stone wall.

Margram, — at Margram ; Talbot, Esq- The house fallen

to decay ; but the park, which is extensive, and well wooded,
still preserve<l in its original state, and considerable attention
paid to the pleasure-grounds, which are remarkable for the
orangery. This is a Done edifice, built in 1787, 327 feet in
length, and 81 in width, with a square room, parted ofi'at each
end. There are 110 orange-trees, several of which are 18 feet
in height, and remarkably handsome. In summer they are

removed to the lawn, and arranged as a grove. Various tra-
ditions exist as to the bringing of the trees to Margram ; but
that generally credited is, that they were originally designed as
a present from the King of Spain' or Portugal to Elizabeth;
but that the vessel stranding on the Margram estates, they
became the proi>erty of the lord of the manor.

flA«)/«, — near Swansea; John Edwards, Esq. The gar-
dener, M'alter Hogg, an excellent cultivator of pines : one of
the new Providence kind weighing 91bs. 4oz. was presented to
the king in 1821. (See 2831. and HoH. Trans, iv. 555.)

Pettrice Castle, — near Swansea ; R. M. Talbot, Esq. A com-
modious and elegant mansion : the grounds laid out with .great
taste, and ornamented with some artificial pieces of water.

Stout Hall, — near Swansea; J. Lucas, Esq. Great taste dis-
played in the disposition of the pleasure-grounds and gardens.

76(19. PETJBROKESHIRK A peninsular surface of 33.5,600 acres; generally plain and fertile. Grapes
attain greater ix;rfection in the hot-houses of this county, than in those of any other of Wales.

Cattle ]HaelfrTvn, — neaT St. Dogmaels; Hammet, Esq.

The grounds embrace the Teivi, and are laid out with great
taste ; the mansion also materially improved by the late

proprietor.

Larvranny Hall, —near Milford; H. Barlow, Esq. A plea-
santly situated house, the grounds bordered by a creek on one
side, 'and Milford-haven on the other.

Picton Castle, -near Milford; Lord Milford. A mansion of
considerable antiquity, castellated, with a fine terrace in front,
and enlarged and improved to suit the mo<lem style of mag-
nificence in domestic economy. The grounds on an extensive
scale, nchly wooded, and watered by the confluence of two
mountain streams.

X Stackrool Court, — near Pembroke; Lord Cawdor. A
grand and. imposing building, situated on the precipitous
margin of a narrow valley, which has been converted into a
lake. Along the front next the water, a broad terrace has
been formed ; and the other, which contains the entrance,
looks into some elegant pleasure-grounds. The kitchen -garden
is most successfully cultivated by Buchan, who, in 1821, cut
120 to 200 pines, and upwards of 13 cwt. of grapes.

Pen/re, — near St. Dogmaels; Saunders, Esq. The

house in a pleasant rural spot embossomed in trees; the gar-
dens in the old style cartiully kept up; the whole greatly

7610. RADNORSHIRR A surface of 526,400 acres ; partly level and partly mountainous.

Mentluned ] WaUfm^—neai Old Radnor; R. Urwic, Esq. A handsome

BoxUtibrooke — near Presteigne ; Sir H. Jones,
at worthy of notice.

1086

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

Wellfidd House, — near BuUth ; D. Thomas, Esq. A neat I
modem house ; the grounds containmg some flourishing young I

7611. MONTGOMERYSHIRE. A surface of
dant, fertile, and wooded. Some of the vales are
residences.

N rvtown Hall, — near Newtown , Sir John Pryse. A finely
•wooded park of considerable extent.

Boilfuch, — near Llanfyllin ; B. Lloyd, Esq. A good man-
sion, and the grounds greatly improved by the late owner,
who was the greatest planter in the county, having planted 60
acres with 904,000 trees.

Porvy Castle, — near Welch Pool ; Earl Powis. A castel-
lated mansion of red sandstone, situated on the ridge of a
rock, the entrance by an ancient gateway, between, two massy
circular towers. The ascent by two immense terraces rising
one above another, connected by steps, and ornamented by

Maealoughf — neax Paine's Castle; W. Wllkhis, Esq. A re-
spectable structure ; the grounds watered by the Wye, and
their position extremely beautiful.

500,000 acres ; generally mountainous, but ver-
beautiful ; and there are many fit situations for

vases, statues, and other antique remains. There were hang-
ing gardens, in imitation of those of St. Germains, composed
of a series of terraces, connected by flights of steps cut out of
the solid rock, with water-works, &c. ; but these are now
altered, or, like every thing else here, going rapidly to decav.
The park is much varied by nature, and combines turf as
smooth, close, and gi-een, as the finest lawn, blended with
broken ground, rocks, and rough thickets of thorns and oaks.
It contamed much old timber, but great part of this has been
lately felled.

7612. MERIONETHSHIRR A much admired and romantic surface of 500,000 acres ; abounding in
streams, rocks, and ruined castles j but with few residences of wealthy proprietors, and conseouentlv
little display of gardening. ^ ^

Nannaw. — near Dolgelly ; Sir R. W. Vaughan. A sub-
stantial and elegant structure in a well wooded park, with fine
prospects, and remarkable for a small herd of deer, which
make venison of a superior flavor. There is a good kitchen-
garden, but the present proprietor is chiefly attached to agri-
culture, and is considered a good corn-farmer, and tolerable
breeder.

Tan-y-Bwtch Hall, — near Dolgelly ; Oakley, Esq.

An elejjant villa in a lawn, at the bottom of a hill, surrounded
by pleasure grounds tastefully disposed, and containing a good
kitchen-garden.

Dol.y-Mylbjnllun, — near Dolgelly ; , late

the property of W. A. Maddocks, Esq. A cottage as roman-
ticalljr situated on the side of a wooded hill as can well be
imagmed, with a fine mountain stream at the door, and hard
bye, one of the most remarkable waterfalls in Wales.

Tremadoc House, _ near Tremadoc ; late the property of
W. A. .Maddocks, Esq. A cottage villa on a protuberant
lawn, near the base of a hill side, surrounded l)y thriving
plantations, commanding fine views of Trath-mawer, the scene
of extensive embanking operations, unfortunately abortive for
want of means.

» 7613. BRECONSHIRE. A surface of 512,000 acres, entirely mountainous, with the exception of
some of the narrow valleys ; in general it is terra danmata as to every branch of gardening, excepting
planting.

Cj(/!ir<Aa, _ near Merthyr Tydvill ; William Crawshaw, Esq.
The hot-house department of the kitchen-garden extensive,
and the pine-apple extensively and successfully cultivated.

Dan-y-Park, — near Crickliowel ; E. Kendel, Esq. A good
house, with a meadow and some rising grounds formed into an
agreeable park, borderetl by the UsTc. The kitchen -garden
contains some substantial cast-iron hot-houses.

Uangard Castle, — near Builth ; J. Macnamara, Esq. A

7614. CAERMARTHENSHIRE. A surface of 228,000 acres ; fruitful in corn and grass, and the least
hilly of any county in South Wales.

Henllus, — near Llandovery ; Col. Williams. The grounds
occupy both sides of the river Tywi, and are connected by a
foot-bridge, raised upon two projecting rocks, and of a con-
struction that harmonises with the wild and romantic charac-
ter of the scene.

Abermarlais, — near Llandovery ; Admiral Foley. A mo-
dern house in a small park, but which contains some good trees
and picturesque views.

Edwituford, — near Llandeilo ; Sir J. H. Williams. The
mansion and grounds exhibit an appearance of magnificence,
and contain a lofty avenue, which serves as an approach.

Taliaris, — near Llandeilo ; Lord R. Seymour. Low, flat
ground, but well wooded.

Newton House, — near Llandeilo ; Lord Dynevor. A plain
square building, with a small turret surmounting each

new mansion commence<l, and other improvements in pro-
gress. According to Malkin {Scenery of South Wales, &c.
251.), this place may, and probably will, be one of the first in
Wales.

Penponi House, — near Brecknock ; P. Williams, Esq. A
respectable mansion, with a finely wooded park, watered by
the Usk.

angle, in a park comprising a considerable extent of ground,
and exhibiting, perhaps, a richer display of picturesque
beauty than any spot of equal size in the kingdom. The
scene is finely described by Dyer in his poem of Grongar

" Gaudy as the opening dawn
Lies a long and level lawn," &c.

Golden Grove, — near LlaadUo ; Lord Cawdor. An indif-
ferent house on low grounds, lately begun to be planted and
improved. The kitchen-garden and hot-houses are extensive,
and well attended to.

Middle/on Hall, — near Llandilo ; Sir W. Paxton. One of
the most si)lendid mansions in South Wales, by Cockrell ; the
grounds finely pla-^ed, and containing an elegant prospect-
tower, and a good knchen-garden.

Sect. III. Scotland.

7615. The surface of Scotland is estimated at 18,944,000 acres, in three natural
divisions. The first lies north of the chain of Highland lakes, which stretch from
Murray to Mull, and consists of little else than dreary mountains and some moors ; the
second, or middle division, extends from this chain of lakes to the rivers Forth and
Clyde ; it is mountainous, but cultivated in the valleys and on the eastern shore to a con-
siderable extent ; the remaining division is covered by hills with some mountains, but
everywhere cultivated or improvable, and highly favorable for most branches of gar-
dening. The country-residences of Scotland are almost entirely confined to the two last
divisions ; in general they excel those of England in the prominence of their natural
features, being generally backed by lulls or mountains ; encompassed by a river or
stream ; or situated on a lake, or the sea-shore. But they are inferior to those of the
south in magnificence, and even in taste, both as to architecture and landscape-garden-
ing. The gardeners of Scotland have long been in esteem for skill and assiduity in their
profession ; they excel in the culture and general management of the kitchen-garden,
those of a certain rank, as Neill has observed, being generally kept in much better order ;
and at less expense than gardens of the same kind and rank in England.

7616. The garden-product iojis in which Scotland excels are, turnips, potatoes, straw-
berries, raspberries, and gooseberries. In fruits, Scotland does not excel, nor can this
be the case till the practice of producing a dessert be more common among the ordinary
gentry of the country than it is, or was ten years ago. A dessert is rare among the
middling classes ; and fruit pies or cider are quite unknown to the operative inhabit-
ants. Tlie most extraordinary gardening exertions which have been made in Scotland
are in the planting department, and chiefly in the middle division of the country, which
already begins to assume a new and sylvan character. The cottage-gardens are generally
carefully cropped with the more common vegetables, and form a useful appendage to the
laborer's dwelling. The farmers' gardens are rather neglected.

Book I.

GARDENS OF SCOTLAND.

1087

7617. The j^rincijxil commercial gardens lie around tlie capital; taken altogether they
occupy about 530 acres, of which 130 are employed as nurserj' grounds by seven or
eight individuals, who hold from fifty to four acres each. Tlie four hundred acres of
market garden-ground are cultivated by nearly eighty gardeners, in holdings of from
half an acre to about twenty acres each. There aremaiket-gardens in almost every
county, and the total extent of ground occupied as nurseries in the kingdom is esti-
mated at 700 acres. Some of these nurseries raise and dispose annually of ten or twelve
millions of seedling and transplanted forest trees. Previous to 1 760, when the taste
for planting and rural embellishment in Scotland began to increase, tliere were not
above six nurseries in Scotland ; and these, taken together, did not occupy above sixty
or seventy acres. In 1812, one house in Edinbuigh shipped upwards of two million
of seedlings, chiefly larch and spruce fir, Scotch pine, birch, elm, ash, alder, and
hawthorns.

7618. MIDLOTHIAN. A sunace of 230,400 acres, varied by inequalities, and in some places by
hills. Round Edinburgh are some neat suburban cottage and villa gardens, some good market-
gardens, three extensive nurseries, and a botanic garden. The Caledonian Horticultural Society, and
also the Caledonian Gardener's Lodge, is held in the capital. There is a market for culinary produc-
tions and the common fruits ; and it is in contemplation to establish one for ornamental plants in pots
and flowers.

cascades, fijuntains, alcores, terraces, and an excellent kitchen-
garden. Thev are supposed to have been laid out by LondMi
and \S'ise, or some of their pupils, about the beginning of the
last cer.turj.

Dalmahoy, — near Edinbuigh ; I.ord Morton. A ^ood
houie, in a paik of between 4UU and £00 acres, enclosed oy a
well-built wall, and subdivided into lesser commodious en-
closures by strips of plantation.

CoilinfiiuH House, — neai Edinburgh ; Sir J. Fonlis. A sub-
stantial house, in a commanding situation, embosomed in
wood.

Drcghnm Cattle, — near Edinburgh ; Trotter, Esq. A

ma^ticent castle, in the (Jothic style, commenced, and
the grounds much improved and planted; the mountainous
parts from designs by the celebrated landlcape-painter, Na-
smyth.

Braid House, — near Edinburgh ; Gordon, Esq. A

neat square house, placed in the bottom of a ravine, or nar
row glen, wdl wooded, and watered by a stream.

Peuni^cuick House, — near I'ennycuick ; Sir G. Clerk. A
handsome Grecian house, finely situated on a level lawn, on
the Ksk ; the situation rendered interesting by a turn of the
river ; the ruins of a castle on its banks ; anS the Pentland
hills in the diiitai:ce. The kitchen-gatden contains an exten-
sive range of hot -houses.

Melrilie Catile, — ne.Tr Laswade ; Lord Melville. An ex-
tensive mansion, in the pseudo-Gothic style, in a romantic
situation on the Esk, and surroimded by 'high banks covered
with wood.

DaViousie Castle, — near I-aswade ; Earl of Dalhonsie. An
old castellated mansion, lately modernised ; .--urrounded by
extensive and romantic plea»ure-grcunds. The river Esk
washes the base cf the castle ; and its lofly wooded banks
afford delightful summer walk.'..

Xeirbtitile AkUy, — near Laswade ; INfanjuis of Lothian. A
large modem building, with a lawn of thirty acres, and a
jMurk beautifully varied, and well clothed with trees ; the
kitchai-garden good, and well manaced.

X Dalkeith Hoitse, — near Dalkeith ; Duke of Buccleugb.
A building without pretensions to style, nobly founded on a
naked rock ; which, however, was earthed up' about the be-
ginning of the last century. The park contains upwaids of
&K) acres, surrounded by a stone wall nine feet high; it is
magnificently wooded, and watered by two streams, the
Nortli and S^outh Esk, which pass near tlie house. Tha
kitcheivgarden contains twelve acres, and is reckcmed one of
the first in Scotland : the hot-houses and flower-garden are
proponionatriy extensive.

Morton Hail, — near Libert on ; Trotter, Esq. A massy

stone fabric, on the south bank of a hill, surrounded by a
beautifiil park.

DuJiliiii;tlon Hovse, — near Edinburgh ; Marouis of Aber-
com. A handsome Grecian house, by Sir ^V'. Chalmers, and
the grourds by Kobinson, neiihew I'o the royal gardener of
that naine at 'Kensington. 1 hey are thus described in the
Beaiiiis nj" Scotland. " This villa, with the pleasure-grounds
or park which have been annexed to it, exliibits an example of
all that money or art can do to adorn a nearly flat surface,
through which a small stream of water naturally runs ; clumps,
groves, canals, lakes, i=les, cascades, temples, 'shrubbery, ser-
]>entine walks, and spreaiUng lawns. In every comer, m and
expense have been ostentatiously displayed, and nature is
evidently employed merely as her handniaid. Such a place
as this, iwwever', has coniJderabJe beauty, and excites much
interest in a country like Scotland, where bold natural sceneiy
so much abounds, by the striking contrast which it exhibits to
the general aspect of the surrounding territory ." (Vol. i. 354.)

Wooilhmiteln — near Koslin ; Tytler, Ehj. A vener-
able and romantic house and grounds ; the latter remarkable
for containing the largest silver fir-tree in the county ; for a
fine terrace-walk, and superb holly-hedge. Some curious or-
naments, in the geometric style of gardening, wluch existed
here, were obliterated when the grounds were remodelled in
1787.

PidJic Promenade. — Holyrood Park is a piece of ground of
moderate extent, adjoining' the palace of Holyrood. The hill
of Arthur's Seat, and adjoiiiing inequalities and valleys, contain
upwards of 400 species of plants, and a great variety of mineral
productions, witii varied and extensive views and prospects.
(See 7317 )

The Edinburgh Bc/anic Garden, — as it existed till latelv,
contained five statute acres, of a varied surface, and properly
situated to the nortfl of the road which leads past it. It
was founded bv Sir A. Balfour about 1680; removed from
Its original to i'ls late site under the auspices of Dr. Hope in
1767, and is now (1821) removing to a more extensive arta,
under the superintendence of the present professor, Graham,
and his able garden -curator, M'Nab. This site contains 16
acres ; and will display extensive hot-houses, and both a Lin-
naean and Jus^ieuean arrangemeit.

Market CarJtus. — Few ot these, of any extent, are known
to have existetl previously to 1746. A't that time Henry
Prentice cultivated j>eas potatoes, tumips, and other culinary
articles, on an extensive scale: before his time, the supply
was limited to what could be carried in baskets. Next to
Prentice, Thomas Peacock may be mentioned as an extensive
grower about 1750; and his 'successor, who now occupies
about twenty acres, produces at this time the best asparagus,
cauliflower, ' and celery, sent to market. Ross's garden is
about the same extent ; the rest are considerably smaller.
Besides culinary herbs, most of these grounds are stocked with
standard fruit-trees; and since the custom of making British
wines became so fashionable as it now is in Scotland, great
part is occupied with currants, gooseberries, and rasp-
berries. Strawberries are grown to greater perfection than
probablv anywhere else in Britain, at Roslin, on the banks
of the £sk.

Orchards There are but few of these in this county, and

those are chiefly near Laswade and Dalkeith. Edinburgh
market is sujjpli'cd with fruit firom the standard trees in the
market-gardens, and from such private gardens as are let to
commercial gardeners by their occupiers, on account of ab-
sence or otherwise. Th'is is also the chief source of forced
aiid exotic fruits as very few of the market-gardeners ven-
ture to build hot-houses.' Fletcher, however, built a vinery,
and produces the best early grapes.

Seed- Gardens — are unknown in Scotland. Some cabbage,
borecole, and leek seeds, are rai^ed in the country ; but
most garden-seeds are procured from London, and some from
Holland.

Herb. Gardens There are one or two on a very small scale,

in which pep|>ermint is chieflv cultivated.

The Leith Walk Surseri/. — Messrs. Dickson and Shanklej" ;
a respectable establishment of nearly fifty year^' standing, in
which every description of nursery 'article" is propagated ac-
cording to the demand, and the whole kept in excellent order
and neatness.

The Bn-uehton or Adelphi Nursery (from AisXJCf, a
brother), — Messrs. Dickson, brothel's; an extensive establish-

Co.;

The Jock's Lodf;e Nurserij,
tensive establishment, judiciouslv managed.

The Comelu Bank Hursery, — Cunningham. This establish-
ment is conducted more on the plan of the London nurseries
than any of the others. Flowers and tender exotics are cul-
tivated with success ; and mushrooms also m flat beds, in the
open garden, not covered either with mats or litter. They are
originated without planting sj)awn, on beds like what are
called lazy beds of potatoes ; but the details of the method the
inventor is said to decline making public. *

There are some other nurseries, — but not of suflficient note to
require being particularised in our very limited space.

Colder House, — near Mid-Calder ;' Lord Torj'hichen. A
stately fabric, surrounded with very extensive plantations.

Hattcn House, — near Calder ; — — Davidson, Esq. A ve-
nerable, ancient house, the grounds, containing SOO acres,
till lately exhibited one of the most perfect specimens of the
old style in the county, or perhaps in Scotland ; with artificial

7619. EAST LOTHIAN. A surface of 190,368 acres, little varied on the east side, but hiUy and
mo'untainous towards the southern extremity. It is remarkable for the excellence of its agriculture ;
and it contains some good kitchen-gardens. There is a small nursery at Haddington ; and a number of
market-gardens in the county, of from half an acre to two and a halt" acres in extent, for local supply, and
for the supply of Edinburgh,' and the shipping of Leith, and other sea-ports along the coast. There are
small orchards at Ormiston and Prestonkirk.

of trees inUie Micient style ; the object being to combine the

North Bem-ick Hotae, — near Xorth Berwick ; Sir H. D. Ha-
milttxi. A good house, surrounded by an extensive suite of en-
clwures, subdivided by straight lines and strips, or double rows

general effect of a park as to wood and pasture, with the utility
and conrenience of enclosures.

1088

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

Wemyss House, — near Aberlady ; Earl of Wemyss. A mag-
nificent mansion, by Adams, in which the smoke of all the
chimneys is conducted to three stone domes, and issues by their
summits. The three principal rooms are of gigantic propor-
tions, with only one window to each. It is situated close to
the sea-shore, on level ground, laid out and planted by Ramsay ;
but the house is not yet finished.

Aims field, — near Haddington ; Earl of Weffiyss. A noble
building with wings, the central front 109 feet long. The park
is flat, and not extensive ; but there is a large and excellent
kitchen-garden.

Yesier House, — near Vester ; Marquis of T weedale. An ele-
gant and magnificent structure of s'.one, with a park containing
some fine old trees, and a good kitchen-garden.

Salton Hall, —near Salton ; Fletcher, Esq. An ancient

house, lately much improved, as well as the grounds, which
•were among the first in which exotic trees were introduced

about a century ago. Some fine specimen& of these still exist,
particularly of the cork-tree, and other species of quercus.
The park is extensive, divided by inconspicuous enclosures, and
managed as a grazing farm.

Duiiiilass House, — near Dunglass ; Sir J. Hall. Romantic-
ally situated on the banks of a stream, and surrounded bv an-
cient woods and new plantations.

Tytmingliam, — near Dunbar ; Earl of Haddington. Re-
markable for its fine old woods, planted in the beginning of
the last century, by a former earl, who wrote a treatise on
Planting. There is also a remarkably fine holly-hedge of the
same standing, and a good kitchen-garden. In 1805, pine-
apples were grown here in a pit, with a brick vault below, into
which steam was introduced. Some of the plants were in pots,
and the rest planted in the soil.

OrmUton, — nea.r Haddington ; Cockbum, Esq. A good

kitchen-garden, and well jjlanted pleasure-grounds.

7620. BERWICKSHIRE. A surface of 326,400 acres. The northern part mountainous, with few
country-seats : but the south and east districts gently varied in surface ; rich in soil in some places •
and everywhere under a system of farming which has been long celebrated. In this part of the county

a few gentlemen's seats, but none of any note.
Berwick, and near Dunse.

Dryburgh Orchard, — Planted by the Earl of Buchan in 1788,
and now very productive in pears and apples.

/te/ »■««<, —near Abbey ; Elarl of Wemyss. A singular house,
of a circular form, in a retired situation on the banks of the
Whitadder, in the heart of the Lammermuir moimtains, sur-

There are only two or three market-gardens near

rounded by natural woods, romantic dells, and extensive arti-
ficial plantations.

Du/ise Cattle, —near Dimse; Hay, Esq. A respectable

old place.

7621. ROXBURGHSHIRE. A surface of 472,320 acres, chiefly hilly and mountainous, and in great
part under pasture. There are a few acres of market-garden ground near Kelso and Jedburgh ; and
some orchards at these places, at Melrose, and at Gatton. At Jedburgh are pear-trees supposed to be
from five to six centuries old. Some account of these orchards will be found in the Caledonian Horti-
cultural Society's Memoirs. (Vol. iii. p. 286.)

Minto House, — near Minto ; Earl Minto. Finely situated on
the south side of a well wooded hill, with judiciously arranged
pleasure-grounds, and a good kitchen-garden.

Egerlon, — near Jedburgh ; Col. Rutherford. A romantic
situation at the van of the Cheviot hills ; the gardens with ex-
tensive hot -houses, but rather neglected.

Fleurs, — at Kelso; Duke of Roxburgh. A miserable house,
in one of the finest situations in Scotland. It stands on a ter-
race, at the bottom of which a fine lawn stretches to the Tweed ;
behind rise wooded hills ; and in front and on each side is ex-
tensive park-scenery, with the bridge and ruined abbey of
Kelso.

Hamick and Hass iideaii Nurseries Messrs. Dickson's exten-
sive establishments, at the villages bearing these names, begun
1729 ; they supply the north of England and south of Scotland;
and from them originated the Leifh Walk nursery^ in Midlo-
thian, and the Perth nursery, in Perthshire.

Orchards of Melrose aitd Jedburgh.— Ap\ile and pear trees,
planted by the priests of the abbeys of these towns, in the 16th
century, which are still very prolific, especially the pears : the
two principal kinds are called the duke's and monk peais.

C railing House, — near Crailing: Paton, Esq. A neat

villa, most romantically situate! on the high banks of the
Jed.

7622. SELKIRKSHIRE. A surface of 160^600 acres, of hiUs and mountains, almost entirely under
pasturage.

7623. TWEED ALE. A surface of 229,778 acres, hilly and mountainous, generally in pasture j but with
some barren moors and fertile vales.

7624. DUMFRIESHIRE. A surface of 644,385 acres, consisting, in great part, of hills and moun-
tains ; but with some low fertile lands towards the south. There is a nursery at Dumfries, and about
twelve market-gardens, averaging three acres each.

Langham Cottage, — near Langham ; Duke of "Buccleugh A
picturesque heath-covered cottage, built as a temporary resi-
dence by the late duke, in a romantic situation, with beautiful
pleasure-grounds.

Orchards. — There are a number of private orchards in th
county, some of them a century old, and very productive
greater part of the produce is sent to market.

The

7625. KIRCUDBRIGHTSHIRE. A surface of 561,641 acres, hilly, rocky, and with some mountains,
the greater part in pasture. There are some market and fruit gardens along the coast, which send their
produce to Dumfries and Ireland. An extensive orchard was formed by Lord Selkirk about 1790 ; and
small collections of fruit-trees have been planted at most of the farmhouses on his lordship's estates.

St. Mary's Isle, — near Kircudbright ; Earl of Selkirk. A
substantial house, lately much improved, in an island, lately
rendered a peninsula by an embankment. The grounds much
diversified by woods, interspersed with thorns, briars, and
brambles, in imitation of a natural forest, by a former possessor.

Droughton House, — near (Jatehouse ; Murray, Esq. A

good house of granite, with extensive pleasure-gproimds, laid
out by Ramsay.

Crce House, — near Gatehouse ; Sir S. Hannay. A substan-
tial granite house, in an elevated situation, surrounded by
plantations.

There is a handsome gravel-walk, by which a stranger makes a
tour of the whole.

7626. WIGTONSHIRE. A surface three miles broad, varied and fertile, with few hills and no
mountains.

Galloway House, — near Garliestown ; Earl of Galloway. A
large house surrounded by extensive plantations, enclosed by
substantial stone walls. Here figs ripen against a common
garden-wall.

Bartibarrom, — near Wigton ; John Vans Agnew, Esq. A

fine old place, greatly improved by the late and present pro-
prietor.

Castlewig, — near A^^lithorn ; Hawthorn, Esq. A good

house, situated on an elevated surface, and backed by old wood&
■nd young plantations.

7827. AYRSHIRE. A surface of 1600 square miles; partly hilly, and very generally under pasture
There some good gardens of almost every class : that of Ballochmoyle was formerly reckoned one of the
first private gardens in Scotland. There are ir plantation 25,000 acres.

Monkwood Botanic Garden and Nursery — is situated near Ayr,
and w£is founded by the present proprietor, Mr. James Smith.
It contains about two acres ; and the collection includes above
2000 hardy exotics, besides a very full collection of British, and
above 500 sorts ot green-house plants.

Kilmarnock Nurseries. — Messrs. Sampson hare an extensive
and highly respectable establishment; and there is another
equally respectable, but of more recent origin.

Market-Gardens, — there are several, from one to six acres in
extent, in the neighborhood of ICilmamock and Ayr. Their
main crops are onions and carrots, of which they export large
quantities to Ireland. There are also market-gardens at Irvine,
Stew -rtown, and Saltcoats. There are few or no orchards.

X Culzean Castle, — near Culzean ; Earl Cassilis. A noble
mansion, in the hybrid Gothic style of Adams, placed on a bold
precipice on the Carrick shore; the offices adjoining forming a
fine subordinate group. The park contains 700 acres, richly
wooded, and abounding in marine views; in the pleasure-
grounds is an extensive collection, both of hardy and tender

exotics ; and there is a productive kitchen-garden : the whole
in high keeping.

EgliiUon C(M</e, — near Kilwinning ; Earl of Eglinton. A
noble castellated mansion, which, with the grounds, were greatly
improved by the late earl. The trees of the park are large, of
picturesque "forms, and much admired. The kitchen-garden
one of the best in the county.

Loudon Castle, — near K ilmamock ; Marquis of Hastings.
An extensive Gothic building by Elliot, enclosing part of
the old castle; the grounds lately planted from suggestions by
Nasmyth.

Ballochmoyle, — near Mauchlin ; Alexander, Esq. Re-
markable for its excellent kitchen-garden, about 1790 reck-
oned one of the first in Scotland. The gardener's name, John
Livingston, formerly gardener to General Scott, of Bellvue,near
Edinburgh.

Burganny Park, — near Ayr; Sir H. D. Hamilton. A resi-
dence greatly improved, and most extensively planted by the
present proprietor.

7628. RENFREWSHIRK A surface of 153,307 acres ; abounding in hills, and moors, and with a cold
moist climate in the elevated district. The most remarkable gardening feature in this county is the flo-
rists' gardens of Paisley.

Market. Gardens and Orcliards. — There axe several market- I orchard at Paisley, which, owing to the extension of the town,
gardens round the sea-ports of (ireenock and Port Glasgow; is now situated near its centre: it contams two Scotch acres
and some orchards at the latter place. There is also a very old | and some pear-trees of a large size and venerable aspect.

Book I.

GARDENS OF SCOTLAND.

1089

established in the last year of tha past centurr, and which en-
courages and methodises a constant amicable coni)>etition.
Those which are called Comiietilion Flowers, are ei^iit in
number: viz. Auricula, Polyanthus, Hvacinth, Tulip, Ane-
mone, Ranunculus, Pink, and Carnation. There is usually
an annual comiietition of the best si>ecimens of one or other of
those ei^ht kinds.

Some idea of the zeal of the Paisley cultivators may be
formed, when it is stated that several of them can sliow "0
or SO of the most choice vjirieties of pinks ; others 200 varieties
of the choicest tulips ; others 60 or 70 varieties of the best car-
nations all named ; besides many excellent inferior varieties of
each kind.

RuJet of the FlorUt^ Society — The society have weekly
meetings every Thursday evening, from the flowering of the
Polyanthus, till the disappearance of the Carnation, and they
have also annual meetings for determining remunerations. At
the weekly meetings, every member may produce specimens
of as many kinds of the eight competition flowers as are in
season ; and the best s))€cimen of each kind entitles the pci-
sessor to one enrolment of his name in the society 's minute-book
for prizes. The successful competitor in the kind which the
judges declare to be the most frequent among them presented
for the night is enrolled in a department of the minutes appro-
priate to the competition for the predominant flower. The

Gar Jen* of tht Of endive Mamifiuttireri of Pauley. -The
operaUves of Paislev, taking them at large, odiibit a condition
of improvement verv rarely indeed, if at all to be paralleled
among persons in the same rank of life ; and they are jiarticu-
lailv remarkable in their taste for objects which j.lease the eye
by their beautv, for such occupations for amusement as require
nice attention, and for various intellectual gratifications. In
their dress, in the furnishing of their houses, and in mauers of
a similar kind, they study a great degree of neatness. Even
their pigeons, which thev keep in considerable numbers, are
known m the vicinity to be distinguished for their beauty and
variety. Several operatives greatly excel in the management of
bees; and communicate to each other their experiments and
success. It will perhaps be difficult to find elsewhere, in the
same classes of the community, an equal proportion of persons
who occasionally entertain themselves with making ixrtet. And
it is probable, that for miscellaneous information they arc not
to be equalled by the operatives in any place. The only oper-
atives in this nation, or j>erhaps in any other, who can be com-
pared with them for information, are the miners at I.ead-hills,
who work but six hours a-day, and have with success devoted
much of their leisure to the improvement of the mind. But
the intellectual attainments of the Paisley operatives must be
more various than theirs, and are probably in no department
inferior.

Bv a statement of the private reading societies in Great
Britain, which was some years ago exliibited in the newspapers,
it appeared that a very considerable proportion of the whole (it
is believed not less at that time than one third) existed in
Paisley. How fer any of these attachments and habits may
have been promoted by the inspirations of Flora, it may not be
easy to determine, but all of them in some measure preceded
the epoch of her homage and influence at Paisley.

It has been remarked by a gentleman of learning and philo-
sophical obser\-ation in Paisley, the Rev. William Ferrier, that
the attention to flowers which is so conspicuous there, is in a
considerable d^ree an effect of the peculiar manufacturing
habits of the people. It is well known, that not only for the
execution of the most delicate ornamental muslins, but for the
invention of patterns, the operative manufacturers of Paisley
stand unrivalled. Their ingenuity is continually in exertion for
new £uid pleasing elegancies, to diversify their febrics. Now,
where such habits obtain, the. rearing of beautiful flowers,
which is an object very congenial to them, will easily be adopted,
and pursued as a favorite" amusement. On the other hand, it
seems highly probable, that the rearing of flowers, by a re-
action, must tend to improve the genius for invention in el^ant
fancy muslins.

The florists of Paisley (it is observed by the same gentlie-
man) have long been remarked for the jieacefulness of their
dispositions, and the sobriety of their manners. The Florist
Club not onlv represses all 'irregularities at its weekly meet-
ings, which dismiss at ten in the evening ; but would erase
firom its lists any disreputable name. It is pleasing to think,
that not only the attachment of individuals to the culture of
beautiful flowers, but the association of persons possessing this
taste, seems to be favorable to social order.

Ori^n cfihe Florislt' Socirfy. — The cultiure of pinks became
an object of attention in Paisley and its vicinity, between the
years 1785 aad 1790. Till then, none but those' of the most or-
dinary kinds were known there. But at that period, some
see<lsj reputed of good quality, were procured from London : the
great bulk of these produced plain pinks. In a few instances,
however, /a<y<f sorts appeared ; which, being new, were greatly
admired. The seeds of these were carrfully preserved and
cultivated; and manv good sorts were procured from them.
The florisu persevered in cultivating these ; and, at the same
«ime, did not neglect other kinds brought year ajfter year from
London, where they were greatly excelled in varieties. And,
by proceeding continually on the simple principle of saving and
using the seeds of the fi'nest pinks, the original qualities were
not only preser»-ed but improved. For some years past, all im-
portation has ceased. On the contrary, plants reared in Paisley
have been sent by order to London, and have been pronounced
equal or superior to any in England.

The spirit for improving pinks, and many other kinds of
flowers, is cherished in Paisley by an appropriate institution,

7629. LAXARKSHIRR A surface of 556,8C0 acres, hilly and bleak, but with some fertile vallej-s.
There is a botanic garden, and some good nurseries and market-gardens round the capital ; Oydesdale
is noted for its orchards, and the total number of acres in the county occupied in this way is estimated
at 340. There are some gardeners' lodges, florists' meetings, and a horticultural society, held at
Glasgow.

Flowers. Should only one specimen of a kind be presented,
the enrolment still takes place; because none would cut down
their finest plants, were the accidental want of a rival spe-
cimen to render this sacrifice vain. But when each of the
competition flowers is in the prime of its season, a comiie-
tition for the best collection of specimens of six varieties of it
is announced at one meeting, and decided at the next ; and
the name of the gainer is twice inserted. The weekly com-
I>etition is determined, in ordinary cases, by two judges. If
these do not agree, a thirdsman 'is chosen by the club to
decide ; and should he demur, another judge is added. AVhen
the six best flowers of a kind are required, three judges are
appointed. .At the end of the year, those records are inves-
tigated ; and there is exhibited to the society a statement of
the different winners, of the number of the apiiearances of
each in the books, of the particular flowers in which he
excels, and even of the merits of those flowers. Honorary
rewards are then distributed. The most successful florist
receives perhaps a spade ; the next a rake; and the third a
trowel or knife.

In the books there is likewise a department for Border-
Flowers : and here the names of such members as from time
to time produce the best of each sort are entered. And there
is another department for the name of every member who
presents the earliest blown flower of its kind. When the
books are annually reviewed, the comparative merits of the
competitors in each of these last departments are estimated ;
but no prizes ju-e assigned. MTien the earliest specimen,
however, is a competition flower, the name of the florist
stands not only in the department for the earliest flowers,
but also in the prize minute-book.

At the annual meetings five jndges are appointed; of
whom, for the most part, two are strangers, who are known
to be skilful florists. Two guardians receive the articles for
competition, and affix to each a private number, so that the
judges cannot know to whom any of them belong till after
the decision. The first prize, which is a silver m.edal, of about .
the value of a guinea, with a suitable inscription, is awarde<l
to the person who presents, of his own rearing, the twelve
specimens of the competing flower, which, taken collectively,
are the best. The twelve next in general entitle the cultivator
to an inscribed silver medal, worth almut 15*. After the
decision, the flower for next annual comj>etition is annotmced.
Pinks are brought into competition twice as often as any
other species of flowers.

On these occasions from forty to a hundred manufacturers and
tradesmen of the place dine together ; and every one who has
formerly gained a medal is then expected towear'it. {G«i. Rev.
ofScotl. App. vol. i. ch. ix. )

Glasgow Botanic Garden. — This garden owes its origin in
a great measure to the exertions of T. Hopkirk, Esq. jun. of
Dalbeth, a gentleman attached to botany, advantageously
known as the author of Anomalies of Plants, and who has
long cultivated a collection amounting to .WOO species. It
contains eight acres, and is the joint property of^ the Col-
lege, and a number of subscribers, who are incor^iorated
under the title of the Royal Botanic Institution of Glasgow.

The plan of the garden (.fe. 753.) combines variation of
landscape and scientific arrangement in a very eminent
degree. It was devised by a committee of subscriliers, and
chiefly T. Hopkirk and R'- Austin, the latter a well known
nurseryman. It consists of the following details : —

1. A general collection of herbaceous plants.

2. A collection of grasses.

3. A Linncean arrangement.

4. Arrangement according to the natural method of Jus-
sien, &c.

5. British plants, with edgings of common heath [Catluna
rulmru), which bears clipping Uke common box.

6. Medical plants.

7. Plants used in agriciUture or commerce.

8. Forest trees.

9. WiUows.

10. Borders for annuals.

11. Collection ofbiennials.

18. Esculent vegetables, fhiits, tec.

13. Grass lawn.

14. American borders.

15. Aquarium.

16. Rock-work.

17. Collection of ro«es.

IS. Borders for flotiAt*" flo'vers, 6.< pinkn, carnations, &c.

19. Border for bulbs.

'iO. CoUection of vari^ated plants.

21. Alpine plants.

22. Green-house ground.

23. Shrubs.

24. Forcing-beds, frames, &c
2.5. Green-house.

26. Stoves.

27. .Stove ; a conservatorv, on the west end.

28. Medical plants in quantity, for sale.

29. Enclosure for cultivating'rare pl<uits.
."0. and 31. Duplicate borders.

32. North entrance from the Sandvford road, with the
lodge and lecture-room.

33. Queen Mary's yew, propagated from the famous tree at
Cruikston Castle twenty years ago.

34. South entrance ffo'm Dunbarton road.

35. Under -gartlener's rooms and iiottin^-sheds.

On the enclosing wall, which is ten feet high, and also in
the esculent dejiartment (12), the most approvwl sorts of hardv
miit-trees are cultivated ; so that this garden, like that o'f
Paris, will combine horticultural as well as b^anical in-
formation.

The plan was executed under the direction of Stewart
Murray, the present very intelligent and satisfactory curator
of the garden. It was Iiegun in Sfay 1S17, and completed in
two years. The total sum sulRcrilied hv the members of this
institution, amounts to nearly 11,000/: T. HorTtirk has pre-
sented to it the whole of his colle<tion ; and through his
exertions, and those of the other proprietors, and e>.i>eciallv of
that distinguished liotanjst. Dr. W. J. Hooker, the ccllfge
professor of Injiany, the garden, in 1S21, contained uiiwartls
of 9000 species.

A

lO90»

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

PAftt IV.

The surface of the area
vhich atld« preatly to the effect ...

ronipartraents ; and it is fortunate also in naving agreeable

is happily considerably Taried,
:ect of the Irrewilar groups and

aens» lorms a fine back-ground to the hot houses,
I same time shelters them from the north winds.

Glcufforv JVuncrtc*— occupy about CO acres; the principal
are carried on by Austin and Co. and Brown.

The Market-Gardens of Glasgow — are estimated to occupy
260 or 270 acres, which are cropped chiefly with the com-
moner articles; sea-kale, artichokes, beet, endive, French
beans, and shallots, are not in demand ; and other rarer sorts
are unknown. Thirty acres, however, cure occupied in raising
strav.- berries for tlie 01a>igow market, and an acre in a good
season is estimated to protluce from 800 to, 900 Scotch pmts,
or almut four times that number of pottles.

ClytlesdaU Orchards. — These are BO in number, and occupy
from 210 to 220 acres between Glasgow and Lanark. The

largest contains about 30 acres. The fruits produced are
apples, pears, plums, gooseberries, and currants. IVIany of
them occupy steep banks, and are never cultivated. The
others are chiefly ploughed, unless where the small fruit< are
grown in the intervals of the trees. The produce finds a reatly
sale in Glasgow and the sea-ports; and the demand seenu
increasinf^.

X Harmlton Palace, — at Hamilton ; Ihike of Hamilton. A
gloomy old fabric, situated on one side of an extensive park
watered by the Clyde; well wooded with old oaks, and dis-
tinguished by an extensive frontage, or false palace, on an
eimncnce, called Chatelherault (Herald's Castle), said to b«

Book I.

GARDENS OF SCOTLAND.

1091

in ImltaHon of the duke's r«Jdence of that name In the dr-
de of \'ienne, in France. The acorns grown in Hamilton
Park are reckoned the best produced in Scotland.
BMiTViU Hutut, — neaz Bothwell; Lord Douglas. A lo-

mantic and truly noble residence on the banks of the Clyde,
vith excellent gardens, an extensive collection of plants, and
most romantic walks and ru:>tic structures. The whole kept
in the highest order.

7630. DUMBARTONSHIRR A surface of 159,356 acres, chiefly mountainous, abounding in mosses
and moors, with some natural woods, in which the holly and yew are more common than anywhere else
in Scotland.

Orchardt. — These are rare, though fruit-trees thrive wdl in
the countv. Excellent api>les are produced in the tradesmen's
gwdens of Dumbarton ; and there ia an oi chard at I>jchlomond,
belonging to Macdonald Buchanan of Rois, which contains
two of the lanjest and most healthy golden pippin-trees in
Scotland, generally veiy productive.

RoMtdoe, — near Luss; Sir J. Cclquhoun. The house de
lightfuUy -dtuated on a peninsula projecting into Locblorr.ond:
the grounds well wooded by nature, and a good kitchen-garden
lately formed at considerable expense.

iJti*, — on Lochlomond ; H. AI. Buchanan, Esq. Remark-
able for its beautiful beech-trees.

7531. STIRLINGSHIRR A surface of 450,560 acres of hills and fertile valleys ; the latter generally
under aration. There is a nursery at Stirling, and some market-gardens of the commonest kind between
that town and St. Ninians, and at Falkirk.

Orchard4. — There are upwards of 20 of these in this county,
generally very prolific in pears, apples, and plums ; cherries
are little grown in Scotland. The green-gage plum ripens m
these orchards as a standard, and there are some large and
prolific pear-trees nearly two centuries old. The allu«al soil
of the C^rscland is from 30 to upwards of 100 feet in depth, of
rich mud, and in this the tap-rooU of the pear-tree find an
ample range.

Callander,— near Falkirk; Fortes, Esq. The grounds

remarkable for large and venerable oak, ash, and beech-trees,
which were among the earliest artificial plantations reared iu
Scotland.

ilynadoc CastU, — i\eai Buchanan; James, Cuke of Mon-
trose. A nolle place, surrounded by extoislve plantations,
the present duke having been one of the greatest planters in
ScoUand.

7632. LlisLITHGOWSHIRE. A surface of 71,580 acres, agreeably varied, generally tinder mixed
culture, and beautifully watered on one side by the Forth. There are a few market-gardens about

Borrowstounness and Linlithgow.

DaniiougU Park, — neax Queensferry ; Eari of
Roseberry. A castellated mansion on a rock
within high-water mark, lately much improved
by M'ilkins ; the park extensive and finely wooded,
and subdivided in the manner peculiar to the
country, so as to be rendered available sis a grazing-
farm. t. > *

Hopeion Hi>i«c,— near Queensferry ; Earl of
Hopeton. One of the most stately and imposing
mansions in Scotland, in the Grecian style, by
SirW. Bruce, and finished by Adams. It stands
on a lawn of a mile in length, washed by the
Forth, and is surrounded by extensive woods and
plantations, a pleasure and kitchen garden in high
cultivation.

KewluUm, — neax Ratho; Hogg, Esq. A

good house with extensive grounds planted by the
Earl of Stair, in the ancient style; the trees in
platoons, arranged, as it is vulgarly said, in the
order of two engaging armies. The grounds in some
places were formerlv cut. into curious flights of steps

and terraces {Jig. 7 Jo.) ; but much of this taste was
obliterated about the beginning of the pr^ent
century. The trees are for the greater part horn-
beams,' that species being at once of rapid growth
and patient of pruning and clipping. '1 he limber,
however, is of httle value, excepting for fuel.

7633. CLACKMANNAKSHIRR A surface of 30,720 acres, beautifully varied, with few hills, and
generally well cultivated. There is a market-garden at Alloa, of about five acres, and some small
nurseries.

; Ordiardt' — There are some near Culro&s : one called Castle-
hill is at least two centuries old. The apple-trees are nearly
exhausted with age, but the pear-trees remain in full bearing ;
the Crawford and sugar are the principal early, and the Acb^os
the late sorts.
Shaw Park, — near Kincardine : Earl of Mansfield. The

groimds contain pensive plantations of oak-trees, and ere
capable of being rendered a beautiful and extensive park.

TiUibodie, — neai Alloa: Sir Ralph ^bercrombie. The
house and grounds backed by the Ochil hills, one of which is
finely planted from the designs of Nasmyth, the landscape-
painter.

763*. KIXROSS-SHIRR A surface of 39,702 acres, considerably varied by hills, valleys, streams, and
a large lake.

! Blair Adam, — next Kinross: W. Adam, Esq. Remarkable I but now covered with finely sheltered grass fields, and the
for the extent of the plantations on a barren-Uke peat soil, | general climate improved by the drainage and warmth.

7635. FIFESHIRR A peninsular surface of 322,500 acres, finely varied by hills, vallej-s, a mountain,
some lakes, and bounded on one side by the Forth, the other by the Tay, and the third by the open sea.
It is an old comity, well cultivated, and containing some fine country-seats of moderate extent. Though
the climate is unfavorable for the larger fruits, yet in no county of Scotland are gardens so general from
the cottage to the mansion, or so well managed : as a proof, there is scarcely such a thing as a market.
garden in the county.

KirealJji Svrtery, — at Kircaldy ; Sang, editor of The
Planter' t' Kalendar, and an extensive contractor for planting
and managing planutions. There is also a nursery at Cupar,
and at some other towns.

Markft-Gardera. — TbeK is one of six acres, surrounded
by a high fruit-wall at Kircaldy ; one of nearly equal extent
at Pathhead, and one or two more at different parts of the
county.

Orc*orrf». — There are none of recent formation, excepting
one laid out by Sang in 1811 ; but the remains of fr^t-trees
are still to be seen at the ancient abbey of Lindores.

X Wemyt4 CasUe,- neax Kircaldy; Gen. 'W'emyss. Long

763G. PERTHSHIRR A surface of 4,068,640 acres, much varied by hills and mountains, but contain-
ing some fertile valleys called straths and carses. It contains some excellent country-residences. The
cream-colored cherry of Ardvorlich, and the black gean of Castle Menzies, are mentioned by Dr.
Robertson (Jgr. Surv. of Perthshire) as being much esteemed- There is a respectable nursery at Perth,
one at Dundee, and some lesser ones at Dunkeld, and other places ; there is also a Horticultiural Societr
held at Perth.

famous for its kitchen-garden, laid out by Xicol, and its
pleasure-grounds by ^\'hite of Durham. The house is sur-
rounded by extensive plantations, and the whole place is kept
in the highest degree of order and neatness.

X RaiiM, — near Kircaldy; Ferguson, Eso. Most excel-
lent kitchen -gardois also by Nicol, and finely-planted grounds
in high keeping.

Balgonx) Cattle, — neax Markinch: Earl of Levin. A qua-
drangular structure, on the banks of the Levin, of great anti-
quity ; surrounded by finely woo(}ed grounds, containing a
good kitcheni "—

Perih Hurterie* — contain between 50 and 60 acres ; the
principal is by Dickson and Brown ; in whose extensive and
nighly respectable establishment some fine varieties of the
Scotch rose have been originated from seed.

Uarket-Gardent. — Dundee is said to be better supplied with
Tcgetables than any other town in Scotland. The quantity of
Cround cm which they are grown is estimated at 100 acres ; and
James Reid, in 1750, was the first who excelled in this mode of
culture. The sliipping ensures a brisk demand
articles.

Orchards There are upwards of twenty in the Carse of

Gowrie, situated on the flat northern shore of the Tay,
chiefly trova Kinfeuns to the town of Dundee. The oldest are
about 100 years : the soil is a deep mud or clay. They occupy
in all nearly 130 acres. There are cilso a few old orchards
along the south base of the Ochil hills.

Scone Palace, — near Perth; Earl of Mansfield. A noble
castellated mansion by Atkinson, in one of the finest situations
in Scotland, with a lawn in frxxit of great ^tent, washed by
the Tay, and backed by rising grounds covered with wood.

A 2

1092

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

The gardens and pleasure-grounds estensive, complete, and
well managed.

Duplin Cattle — ne&T Perth; Earl of Kinnoul. A good
house, and well planted grounds.

Dunkeld House, — at Dunkeld ; Duke of Athol. A large plain
house in a bottom, surrounde<l by hills and mountains, cele-
brated for their extensive plantations, especially of the larch,
and for their romantic walks, waterfalls, streams, and rocks.
Obvious defects of this place are, that there is no jiroi)er walk
or wood to mate a tour of the whole, and that the walks on
the hill side, do not ascend in regular gradation, but are de-
sultory and deficient in grandeur.

Blair House,- near Blair; Duke of Athol. A genuine
Highland residence, cliiefly remarkable for the extent of the
kiirrounding plantations which clothe many hundreds of acres
of lofty mountains and craggy steeps and lulls.

X lilair Drutmnoud, — near Stirling ; Drummond, Esq.

Celebrated as being the residence where Lord Karnes dis-
played his taste in planting and improving in the latter half
of the last century. The evergreens planted at that time are
now singular ornaments to the grounds.

X Taymonih, — near Kenmore ; Earl of Bredalbane. The
most magnificent residence in the county. The house a
spacious .Gothic mansion, erected at different times, placed on
a lawn about a mile in breadth, between two mountains,
which open-to Loch Tay on one side, and the Tay river passes
within two furlongs of the house. The mountains, lawn, and

the banks of the waters, are richly clothed with wood, throng^
which are led magnificent walks. ()f the trees, the limes and
larches have attained to a ^eat size, and there is an ave-
nue of the former 450 yards m length, scarcely equalled any
where.

X Drummowl Castle,— near Crief; Lord Gwydir. The
castle enlarged, and the grounds extended and highly im-
proved by the present owner, assisted by his ingenious steward,
Lewis Kennedy.

Ochtertjjre, — near Crief; Sir P. Murray. A finely wooded
place, greatly improved by the jiresent owner j the kitchen-
garden and hot-houses laid out by Nicol.

Lmidie House,- near Dundee ; Lord Duncan. An excellent
kitchen-garden, by Hay of Edinburgh.

Valley Jielil , —near Culross; Sir K. Preston. A romantic
residence, laid out from designs by Rcpton, whose son vif ited
this place about 1804. The principal feature deserving a
stranger's notice is the approach through a wooded glen.

Gartmore, — near Crief ; (jraham Esq. A fine old place,

noted for its fine forests, old cedars from seeds brought from
Syria, and a good kitchen -garden by Nicol.

G/e)«;a^/e», — near Stirling; Sir K. Abercrombie. A house
in the mixed style of (iothic and Grecian, of ^dams, standing
in finely varied grounds, well planted, and containing a fine
piece of^ water, by AVhite.

Casile Grey, _ near Perth ; Earl Grey. A good house, by
Atkinson, in a delightful and well wooded situation.

7637. ANGUS, or FORFARSHIRE. A surface of 593,920 acres, consisting of mountains with exten-
sive and fertile valleys ; the former generally bearing good pasture, and the latter under aration. Mon-
trose and Arbroath have a few small market-gardens ; Brechin and Forfar have no market-garden ; but
many of the tradespeople cultivate .epots of ground for their recreation ; and besides supplying their
own families, produce a sufficiency of culinary vegetables and small fruits to meet the demands of their
townsmen. It is estimated that upwards of 33,000 acres are covered with plantations. In aftertimes
this county will be celebrated as having given birth to the Dons, a family of botanists of superior order.

There is also a small green-house, containing above 1000
different species. Don died m 1814 ; but the botanic garden is
still kept up.

Castle Glammis, — near Glammis ; Earl of Strathmore. A
vei'y ancient building, renovated by Inigo .Jones; the grounds
in the ancient style, and containing some fine old trees.

3,444 acres, mountainous towards the north, but more

The Forfar Botanic Garden — -was founded by George Don,
a well known botanist, who added more plants to the British
Flora than any botanist of his time. The garden contains
little more than an acre; but embraces almost all kinds of
soil and situation, and in it were crowded together nearly all
the hardy herbaceous plants and shrubs known in Britain.

7638. KINCARDINESHIRE. A surface of
level and fertile on the south-east.

Iproprie
noble a

Brodie House,— at Brodie; Alexander Brodie,Esq. F. L.S^
A fine old place, much improved, and planted, by the present

7639. ABERDEENSHIRR A surface of 718,806 acres, generally flat, but varied by knolls, wavy
ridges, and gentle inequalities, formerly moory and bleak, but now extensively planted. It is said, that
there is scarcely a gentleman in the county who has an estate of 100/. a year who has not planted some
hundred thousands of trees, and that there is above 50,000 acres in the county covered with artificial plant-
ations. There are a number of nurseries round Aberdeen noted for raising seedlings, many of which are
sent to the soutli of Scotland and to England.

able establishment chiefly devoted to the culture of
trees, and especially to seedlings of Scotch pine, larch fir, and
thorns. The father of the present occupier, who is also pro-
prietor of the soil (twelve acres), was gardener to Sir Archibald
Grant of Monymusk, the greatest planter in Scotljind.

Jiois's Nursery, — a newly established concern, carried on
•with great spirit. There are various other nurseries.

of the town and shipping. Almost the entire parish
Machar is laid out m this wav, and occupied by several
hundred industrious men. At Peterhead there are also gar-
dens for growing vegetables for the shipping of that place.

Orchards There is an extensive one at Pitfour, containing

ten acres, including the ruins of the ancient abbey of Deer
and its gardens ; one of five acres at Auchterie, and some in a
neglected state between Kene and Monymusk.

Crathes, — near A berdeen. Sir R. Burnet, Bart. An ex-
cellent kitchen -garden in the old style, with magnificent holly

hedges, abundance of prolific, fruit-trees, and venerable exotic
shrubs.

Monymusk, — at Monymusk; Sir A. Grant. Remarkable
for its extensive plantations, the late proprietor having planted
about fifty millions of trees; some of which, at the time ot
his death, were near one hundred feet high, and above six feet
in circumference. The gardens and pleasure-grounds are
beautiful and extensive.

Invercauld House, — near Invercauld ; Farquharson,

Esq. Famous for its pine-forests, the timber of which equals
that of Norway.

Siaines Castle, — near Slaines ; Earl of Errol. Situated on
the margin of the sea, with few trees around, but with a good
kitchen-garden.

Den of RiJjislan; — near Aberdeen; Professor Davison. A
romantic villa, the gardens forming terraces cut out of granite
rock, watered by a stream, near which grow naturally many
rare plants, and among others, Linmea borealis. The whole
kept in the highest order and neatness.

7640. BANFSHTRE. A surface of 6t9,600 acres; hilly and mountainous, with fertile valleys well
cultivated. There are some good market-gardens at Banf.

house; the grounds celebrated for their fine woods, extensive
gardens, and romantic walks.

Cidlen House, — near Cullen ; Earl of Findlater. Remark-
able for its fine old woods : the late earl being one of the
earliest and most extensive planters in the country.

X Duff House,— near Duff; Earl of Fife. A magnificent
quadrangular building, by Adams, in a park 15 miles in cir-
cumference, chiefly laid out by the late Mr. White. On the
ether parts of the estate more trees have been planted than on
any property in the country.

Gordon Castle, — neax Gordon; Duke of Gordon. A large

7641. MORAYSHIRE. A surface 42 miles long, by 20 miles broad ; great part hilly or mountainous,
with extensive pine-forests ; but with a considerable tract only gently varied and well cultivated. There
is a market-garden at Elgin, in which onions are chiefly grown for the parishioners, and two small
orchards : one at Logic, formed in 1786, and the other at Pitgaveny, formed in 1798.

7642. NAIRNSHIRE. A surface 17 miles long, by 10 miles broad; the greater part level and fertile.

7643. CROMARTYSHIRK A peninsular surface of 68,480 acres ; chiefly an elevated tract of heath,
but undergoing rapid improvement by the agriculturist.

7644. CAITHNESS. A surface of 395,680 acres ; generally flat ; described by Pennant as an immense
morass, with some fertile spots. From the materials which compose this morass, it appears to have been
formerly full of wood ; but recent attempts to raise plantations have not been very successful. There is
a market-garden at Thurso of seven acres ; a remarkable circumstance, as there are none in the counties
of Cromarty, Ross, or Sutherland.

Thurso Castle, — near Thurso; Sir J. Sinclair. Chiefly
remarkable for agricultural improvements, but displaying also

some plantations, and a kitchen-garden, and many ingenious
but abortive attempts at amelioration.

7645. The ORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES contain nothing that we have heard of worthy of
notice in the way of gardening. Such a thing as an orchard is unknown in these islands. In Orkney,
Neill observes {Gen. Bep. sect. ii. p. 180.), a few apples are produced on wall-trees ; in Shetland still fewer,
and that only in particularly good seasons.

7646. SUTHERLANDSHIRE. A mountainous uncultivated surface of 1,478,400 acres; about half
of which is the property of tLe Marquis of Stafford, who has enlarged tlie farms, built new fitrmerics.

Book 1.

GARDENS OF IRELAND

1093

and planted extensively. (See An Account qfthe Improvements on the Marquis of Stafford's Estates, Sjc.
by James Loch, Esq. 8vo. 1820.)

well, and every thing might be obtained by the use of
glass.

Skibo, — at Skibo ; Dempster, Bsq. Extensive plant-
ations have been formed, and in the gardens apricots and
walnuts have sometimes ripened.

Dunrobin Cattle, — at Dunrobm; Marquis of Stafford.
Tlvere Ls no mansion employed as a residence, but it is said
a magnificent one is in contemplation, and there is a nark
devoted to the breeding and feeding of 1000 mountain deer.
In tiie garden, apples, pears, and cherries thrive perfectly

7&i7. ROSS-SHIRK A surface of 1,776,000 acres ; the eastern part fertile, and containing some
country-seats ; but the rest rude, mountainous, and fit only for plantations and pasture. In no part of
Scotland have the proprietors been more assiduous in forming public roads, and in planting extensive
moory tracts.

park, that is, an assemblage of grass-fields, surrounded by
strips and varied by masses and groups.

Balaagotvan, — near Kilmuir; SirJ. C Ross, A most de-
sirable seat, surrounded by an immense extent of thriving
plantation.

New Tarbat, — near ICilmuir ; Earl of Cromarty. A superb
modem house, inferior to few seats in Scotland, surrounded
by extensive grounds and plantations, which join those of
lialnagowan.

Hr(&am Casile, — near Urray ; Lord SeafoTth. A fine build-
ing, plejisantly situated on the river Conan, and surrounded
by extensive and well planted grounds, containing a good
k'itchen-garden aad an extensive collection of exotic and hardy
plants.

Red Cattle, — near Loch BeauW ; Colonel Grant. An ancient
and respectable residence considerably improved.

7&iS. INVERNESS-SHIRR A surface of 2,000,000 of acres, being the largest county in Scotland.
It consists of two ranges of mountains, separated by a chain of lakes now united by the Caledonian
canal. The valleys are fercile ; many of the mountains are covered with natural forests inhabited by the
red and roe deer, the alpine and common hare, and other exquisite sorts of game.

Uarket-Qartknt and Orchardt. — There are none of the
former ; but there is an old orchard at Kedcastle, in which the
nonpareil ripens as an espalier. At Castle Braham, Novar,
and Braelangwell, are also orchards of recent formations.

JtivergvrdoH Castle, — near Invergordon ; AI'Leod, Esq.

A handsome house, by Gillespie, of Eduiburgh, surrounded
by thriving plantations, on grounds where eighty years ago not
a tree was to be seen.

Novar, — near Cromartj- ; Sir H. Monro. A great and
finished place, and one of the most complete in the north ; the
situation of the house is elevated, and it coimnands a fine view
of the bay of Cromarty.

Rnxburgh Houte, — neaT Avoch ; . A modem

edifice, substantially built and commodious. It is situated on
a beautiful bank near the sea, and surrounded by a Scottish

Inverness Nurterjj, — at Inverness; Messrs. Gibbs. A very
extensive establishinent for forest trees and hardy fruit-trees ;
with branch nurseries at other towns. Here is a very com-
plete nursery orchard of all the hardy fruit-trees which ripen
their fruits as standards, and from which the scions and cuttings
for propagation are taken.

Orduirdt There are but few public or commercial orchards,

but some private ones, of which a great part of the produce is
sent to market. One of the largest is at Auchnagaim, near
Inverness. It was planted in 1788, chiefly with the Hereford-
shire cider apples. The trees are now in a full bearing state.
They are placed thirty feet apart : till lately the interrtediate
spaces were regularlv'cropped, according to the rotation of the
fami, along with wluch the orchard is let ; now, however, the
branches nearlv meet, and grass is found to be the preferable
under-crop. ^fhe old garden at Castle Stewart, belonging to
the Earl of Moray, and situated seven miles north-east of In.
vemess, niav also" perhaps be ranked as an orchard. The trees
are chiefly morella and Kentish cherries, and the large black
gean. They are generally of great size, and many of them
shattered with age, having seen several centuries; yet they
otVea produce most plentiful crops. At Milltown, of Ketwall,
there are some remarkably large laramas and achan pear-
trees, about a century old. They are very productive. An
apple-tree here in the orchard of Easter Lovat, ou the river

Beauly, covers a space of forty-i

ly pea
sacks of fruit in a s

space
is spoki

feet in diameter.

Beauly pear-tree is Spoken of^ which used to produce sixteen

C«f</eBrflA«n», — at Braham; LordSeafbrth. The garden and
demesne greatly improved under the direction of Gibbs, now
anurseryman atlnvemess. The Canadian rice (Zixania uquatica)
is naturalised on the lakes and ponds ; and extensive ana
thriving plantations abound over the whole estate.

Kilravuck, — near Croy ; . Gardens laid out

with taste ; fruitful orchards and extensive woods, embracing
an elegant modem house, situated on a rock hanging over and
washed by the Navin,

Cantray, — near Croy ; Davidson, Esq. A commodious

house, and the grounds planted and greatly improved.

G/en^ain/ Houif, — at Glengairy; M 'Donald, Esq. The

house on the shore of Loch Orich, surrounded by wood,
approached from the lake by a fine old avenue.

Cattle Grant, — at Grant ; Sir J. Grant. The house consists
of three sides of a quadrangle, improved by R. Adam, beauti-
fully situated on the north side of the Spey. It commands an
extensive and noble landscapej including the park in which
it stands of 4000 acres, and the natural forest of Abemethy of
40,000 acres, at the base of the lofty mountains of Caim-
gorum. Eastward lies the wide-bending cultivated vale of
Cromdale watered by the Spey.

i, and

7G19. ARGYLESHIRE. An extensive surface of 3800 square miles, consisting of hills and mountains,
with several islands considered as belonging to it. It abounds in lakes and inlets of the sea, and con-
tains some natural woods ; but the climate is moist, and excepting in the department of arboriculture,
does not excel in gardening. There are some small market-gardens at Cambleton ; and a branch nursery
from that of Gibbs at Inverness, at Inverary.

Inrerary Castle, — near Inverary ; Duke of Argjle. A square'castellated
mansion,' with a tower at each comer, and a high glazed pavilion, ^
shooting up above the towers from the centre of the roof. It is built
of a grey stone {lapis Maris, or pot-stone) which becomes black with a
shower of rain, and is immediately restored by a gleam of sunshine,
which is a fertile source of singular eflects in this moist weeping cli-
mate. It stands on a lawn, which extends to Loch Fyne, an inlet of the
sea fifteen miles in circumference, surrounded by rising groves of plant-
ations on the sides, and reaching towards the summits of the highest
mountains and rocky steejis, sprinkled with rising trees. (Jig. 756.)
One of these mountains is Dunicoick, covered with wood, excepting
where the rugged rocks project through the trees, and add greatly to ita
grandeur. On its top stands a lonely watch-tower, which, like evety
thing useful or characteristic, has a good ettect. Had this hill been
crowntd with an ornamental building, the effect would have been
absurd. A plan was prepared for substituting ram|iarts and bastions,
which would have been equally fatal to its present simpUcity and
grandeur.

The lK)ld, and in some places savage, features of this part of the
country, require only a judicious disposition of wood to render them
more hospitable to the eye, and to improve the pasture and the climate.
The larch-tree has already effected wonders in Argjieshire ; and what
its effects mav be over the whole of the HiglUands by the time half a
century more has elapsed, it is difficult to imagine. Savage will then be
changed to, or at least combined with, sylvan grandeur.

7650. BUTESHIRE comprehends the islands of Bute
and Arran, and some smaller isles ; hilly, but with a mode-
rate climate, and in general favorable to the growth of trees
and hedges. There are two or three small orchards and
market-gardens near Rothsay and Mount Stewart

Mount Stewart, — Marquis of Bute. An elegant house, com-
manding a fine view of the Firth of Clyde, surrounded by ex-
tensive plantations, formed by the late marquis, abounding
with various sorts of game, and in which the turkey is natu-

ralised. The gardens contained a good collection of plants;
but, excepting the kitchen-garden, they are now in a stale of
comparative neglect.

Sect. IV. Ireland.
76.51. Tlie surface of /re/awrf, which is estimated at 11,067,712 Irish acres, is much
less varied than Scotland and Wales, but rather more so than England, thoi'ioh great
part of it consists of bog and wastes, yet these are everywhere improvable by draining
and culture, or planting. The climate is more temperate than that of Britain, but also
more moist ; it is, on the whole, highly favorable to die culture of leaves and roots •

4 A 3 '

10D4

SIATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

and favorable for all tlie other branches of gardening. The political situation of the
country, and the general absence of proprietors, have prevented much from being dene ;
but, from the clieapness of land and labor, and the natural advantages every where pre-
sented, the most extensive parks, pleasure-grounds, and kitchen-gardens, might be created
at a comparatively moderate expense.

7652. The names of residences here given are selected from the Traveller s Guide,
published in Dublin in 1819 : the characteristic epithets added are from that work, and
the English reader will of course make due allowance for Irish phraseology. We have
made the general tour of Ireland, and been engaged professionally in three or four coun-
ties, and we know that many places, styled delightful and enchanting in the " Guide,"
would cut but a poor figure if placed beside hundreds of seats in England whose
names we have omitted. 'Diere is very little old timber in Ireland, and very few of the
*' demesnes" that have any other park than a grass field, without trees, in which the
house stands. Deer parks are rare, and also kitchen-gardens with hot-houses. Mackay
of the Trinity College botanic garden, and M'Leish of Harold's Cross, are well calcu-
lated for furnishing designs for both these improvements, and happily there is at present
a spij-it for employing these gentlemen. If to this the proprietors would join a more
constant residence on their estates, much would be effected.

PROVINCE OF LEINSTER. '.

"JdoS. DUBLIN. A fertile surface of 147,840 Irish acres, little varied, but well adapted for horticulture
and floriculture. At Dublin is a royal park ; two excellent botanic gardens ; two good nurseries by Simp-
son, Toole, and Mackay, and Grimwoods and Keefe, with some culinary commercial gardens. In Dublin is
St Stephen's Green, a very large naked square, a design for ornamenting which by A. M'Leish is about
to be published.

The Ph(rnix Park, — near Dublin ; a public promenade and
a royal uai-k, seven miles in circumference, beautifully diversi-
ficd'with woodland, chaini)aign and rising grounds, tastefully
julomed with extensive sheets of watpr, and plentifully stocked
with deer. The civic regal residence here is respectable and com-
modious. Tlie kitcheii-garden of the (^hief Secretary's lodge
i8Tecko!ie<loneof the best managed in the county of Dublin.

Tlie liuiuttic Garden,— at Glassnevin {Jig. 757.) ; Dublin So-

ciety. Established with the commencement of the 19th cen-
lurv, chiefly through the exertions of Dr. Wade, author of
several works on Irish botany. It is situatetl at Glassnevm,
within two miles of Dublin CaStle, and contains 30 statute
acres. " Nothing," the authors cf the History of DuUm ob-
serve, " can exceed the command of aspect which the irre-
gular beautv of the surface presents, and of which the planners
(chiefly Dr." Wade) of the garden have been careful to avaU
themselves. Having ample room for every botanical purpose,
they liave not sacrificed taste to convenience, or lUsturbed .-.ucli
objects as contributed to the beauty of the old demesne, origin-
ally that of Tickel the poet. The summit, having considerate
elevation, gradually or abruptly slopes to the river folka,
which forms a sweeping boundary to one side of the garden.
Here large clumps of venerable elms, or other forest trees,
shade the sloping steeps, or, running along the ridges, separate
the ground into irregular divisions. Through these the ivy-
crowned ruin of some venerable arch presents a nassage, so
that many of the conijKirtments are approachetl by some
picturesque or striking entrance. Nor is the systematic ar-
rangement less judiciously managed. Nothing can be con-
ceivctl more ungraceful than the formal regularity necessary m
such an arrangement ; every plant following in its order, and
labelled with its name, presents to the eye an irLiomc saiuentii.

To avoid this appearance, each class is subdivided into smaller
compartments, insulated in green sward, and commencing by
pathways, and the intervals filled up with scattered shrubs ; so
that, while the most exact regularity is observed in the classi-
fication, and the series of plants follow each other in such
succession that the most minute can be immediately found, the
whole presents the aspect of unstudied confusion. '

This garden contains the following arrangements, or sub-
divisions : —

A Hortut Limueensis {a), subdivided into a herbaceous
division, and one for shrubby, fruit-bearing, and forest freest
Six acres are assigned to this division. To each plant is pre-
fixed a metal label, inscribed with its nmnber in the Glassnevin
catalogue.

A Hortus Jiusieuensis (i), rather limited, yet sufficiently ex-
tensive to comprise all the orders of which there are hardy
specimens introduced in Britain.

A Hortus Hibernicus (c), or garden of native Irish plants,
containing upwards of 134.5 species, including Cryptogameae.

A Hortus esculentus (d), containing not only the usual cu-
linary vegetables, but all others in which wholesome and nu-
tritious qualities reside, in such a degree that they can be con-
verted into human aliment. .

A Hortus medicus (e), or garden of plants used m medicine,
arranged on the plan of Woodville's Medical Botany ; and
containing every hardy plant in which any medical virtue is
known to reside. .

A Hortus pccuJarius (/), or cattle garden, m which are
arranged all plants which the animal to whom the plant is
appropriated is fond of eating, and which are wholesome food
for it; also such as he is not fond of eating, though not un-
wholesome. On the opposite side are arranged such plants
as the same animal will eat, but which are injurious to it,
and likewise such as it refuses to eat whether injurious or not.
Each of these particulars is noted on the label, pomtmg out the
plant,And likewise whether the plant be indigenous or foreign.
A Hortus rusticus {p), or garden of plants used in rural eco-
nomy, including the grasses, clover, &c. ^, , ^ , .

A Hortus tindorius (li), containmg aU the plants used in
dyeing, particularly those which are indigenous to Ireland.

4 Hortus plantarumwlubilium, repenlium, et scandenttum,
(i, k), or garden of twining, creeping, and climbing
plants, shrubby and herbaceous. , , , .

A Hortus plantarum saxatilium, or garden of rock plants on
rock-work This is formed on an artificial mound, construct,
etl on the most elevated part of the garden. " The fragments
of rock for this pun^se were transported firom the Hill of
Howth, and such was selected as were already clothed with
various species of mosses and lichens. These were piled
together without any anparent order, so as to give the apjiear.
ance of a natural rocky mound. But it so constructed that,
spiral walks winding round the sides, but not visible at a dis-
tance, conducts the visitor to the summit. Here, as he as-
cends, he sees every grey stone clothed with its appropriate
v»Ketation,and in every fissure of the rocks some alpine plants.
Wlien arrived at the summit of this mount, the eye is gratified
with a >-iew of the whole garden, Iving beneath displayed as in
a map." {Histoni of DulJin, p. 1298.) .

A Hortus lacusttis et palustris (»"). or garden of aquatic and
marsh plants. On the banks of the Folka lies an extensive
flat, lower than the bed of the river, in which an irregular
lake is formed, two hundred yards m length, for the aquatics;
and on the shores, and in an island formed on pun>ose at one
extremitv, the marsh i>lants are grown. At convenient in-
tervals green promontories project into the water ; wluch,
while thev give a picturesque variety to the banks, afford an
opportunity of approaching such plants as the botanist may
wi^h to examine. The grounds surrounding the lake are
varTed with American pin« and other transatlantic woods Uiaf
love a swampy soil, am\ beyond these the rising grounds are
pntirelv devoted to ornament.

AHo!^lsc^rtot;a.r,eus {,.) or garden of crjptoeamous
Plants. This s a rtct-p bank, shaded by lofVy trees. .

Aliortus Flor(e (o), or flower-garden, in which the flonsU,
nowers are cuiUvated in iwrtwics.

Book I.

GARDENS OF IRELAND.

1095

A Horiut tjmtieu* (p\, or garden for tender exotics, com-
prising a conservatory, two Kreen-bouses, and a hot-house
}Mirallel, cIo>e together, and commencing by a common pas-
ta^ at the north end.

A Profesmr't house and Lectiire'room (q), with a library
hortns siccus, &c. The house of the former proprietor, Tick^,
is jireserved, and arranfred for this purpose.

This garden is managed by a professor and lecturer, with
a salary of 300/., a superintendant at 100<., two assistants at
60/. each, twelve gardeners at 12*. per week, and six ap-
prentices at 9«. The total annual expense, including 73/. as
rent for the land, is about 15<X>/. a-year. Besides the usual
number of apprentices, six who having passed the usual period
under private gardeners, are received here to complete their
knowledge and experience, especially in the hortus esculentus.
After passing two years here they are received as gardener.s
into private houses, and are much sought after. A premium
of five guineas is given by the society to those who are recom-
mended by the superintendant for assiduity and good con-
duct ; and the superintendant receives 5/. as a gratuity for his
trouble in instructing them.

Tht Bolamc Ganleii at Trinity Colleiie This garden was

begun in 1807. It is situated in low grounds, and contains three
ai:^ a half acres, of an irr^ular shape, surrounded bv a wall
twelve feet high. There are separate arrangements iox trees,
shrubs, and herbaceous plants, according to the I.innaan
system ; and a very full collection of medicinal plants, ar-
ranged according to the natural method of Jussieu. To each
plant is prefixed a label containing the systematic and English
names, and class and order, both of Linnaeus and Jussieu.
Separate arrangements are formed for the uerennijil, the
biennial, and annual herbaceous plants, and for the grasses.
Only one wing of the intended range of glass has yet been
built, which comprises a stove thirty-five by sixteen, and a
green-house forty feet by sixteen. Iii front is a small aqua-
rium. This garden is rapidly increasing in riches under the
excellent management of its present curator, G. Mackay, who
is also botanical demonstrator, and lectures on botany and
horticulture.

7654. WICKLOW. A finely varied surface of 305,404 Irish acres; with fine dells anc» brooks, and
bordering on the sea.

Bdvifiv, — near Bray ; D. Latouche, Esq. A romantic resi-
dence, with extensive gardens and hot-houses, on which no
exi»ense is spared to preserve their reputation of being the first
in Ireland.

Glewnnre Cattle, — F. Synge, Esq. Extensive mountain
plantations going forward ; varied scenery in the home views,
and prospects reaching even to Wales ; hot-houses and flower-
gardens.

Clonmanning, — Rev. Dr. Trewel. Extensive kitchen-gar-
dens, and the first cast-iron hot-houses erected in Ireland,
firom the designs of A. M'Leish. Myrtles grow here in the
open air to the height of sixteen or eighteen ffeet.

Kilruddery, — near Brav ; Earl of .Meath. A romantic
coim try -residence, in a (fe
mountains.

Nerctonn Mount Ketmedy, — near the village of that name

7655. WEXFORD. A peninstilar surface of 315,396 Irish acres, of good soil, but little varied in
aspect

Camolen Park, — near Enaiscorthy ; Earl Mountmorris. A beautifiil demesne.

7656. KILKENNT. A surface, somewhat varied by hills, of 318,249 Irish acres. There is a good
nursery here, by John Robertson, who has distinguished himself by some excellent papers published in
the Transactions of the London Horticultural Society.

BiUlnragH House, — near Ballyraget ; Lady Ormond. A | DesaH, _ near Bennet's-bridge ; Lord Desart A masnifi-

charming demesne ; the mansion burned down during the | cent mansion and extensive demesne.

, but restored by her ladyship. Ashbrooke, — near Durrow ; Lord AshbnxAe.

I cent mansion, with :

leep valley, overshadowed by lofty

Of rata Gardunt — There are a tctj considerable number
that might be enumerated, such as St. Catherines, belonging

to the biinkers Latouche ; St. Woolstans, Kane, Lsq., Mount

Sackville, M'Kemmis, Esq.; Edmondberry, Needham,

Esq.; Donnybrook, Dr. Percival ; those of Miss Colville, Miss
Smyth, Mrs. M'Uanns, besides a number near Bray, Lucan,
Leixlip, Clontarf, &c.

Clare Hall, — neax Donnybrook; ■ Stupendoos

rocky scenerv, with old trees in the park.

Marino, — near Dublin ; Earl of Charlemont. A ddigfatfiil
edifice, in a demesne of 200 acres, judiciously and tastefully
planted, with a fine ornamental temple. 'Ihe grounds are
thrown open to the Dublin citizens two days a-week.

Men-ilie (sea villa), — near Donnybrook ; Lord Downes. A
beautifiil mansion and grounds. An extensive collection of
ornamental plants ; a green-house, stove, flower forcing-house,
by A. M'Leish, and culinary forcing-houses.

'Leopard's Torrn, — Lord t^astlecoote, situate at the bottom of
the Dublin mountains, and abounding in picturesque views
from the house and w<ilks in the pleasure-ground.

Teretmre, — F. Boame, Esq. Extensive hot-houses and
gardens ; and a varied collection of plants, judiciously ar-
ranged by J. Fraser, an excellent botanist and gardener, and
a man of general information.

Mount Merrion, —near Donnybrook ; Lord Fitz William. A
magnificent mansion, with gardeiis and trees.

A'en-/i>n>n Park, — near Donnybrook ; . A mag-
nificent mansion, and some trees in the park.

Kulister, — Lord Newcoraen. A fine situation ; the kitchen-
garden remarkable for its grapes and pines.

Kingstojvn, — The Right Hon. W. Saurin. A small garden,
but rich in exotic productions, fruits, and flowers, and espe-
cially of bulbous exotics.

Rathfarnham Castle, — near Rathfamham ; . A

magnificent castellated structure, with agreeable pleasure-
grounds.

ToUagh Palace, — at ToUagJi ; Archbishop of Dublin. An
ancient venerable structure, with extensive gardens, kept in-
fine order.

Lord Rossmore. Extensive plantations, and a vater&klTof 100
feet, in what is called the Devil's Glen.

Potverscourt, — near Ejmiskerty ; Lord Powerscourt. An
extensive-fronted edifice, in a demesne of 600 acres tastefully
planted, and omamoited with water and buildings.

Charleville, — near Enniskerry ; Lord Monck. Situated on
the river Dargle, with a luxuriance of rural beauties.

DlessingtonT'ark, — near Blessington ; Marquis of Dowu-
shire. A fine park ; the house consumed in «ie rebellion of
1798, and not yet rebuilt. This place was formerly £imous for
the first kitchein-gardens in Ireland.

Rusborough, — near Naas ; Earl Miltown. The front of
the house and offices form an extensive fiicade of hewn
stone, nearly 700 fieet long. The grotmds finely varied and
well planted.

rebellion of 1798,

7657. KILDARR A flat surface of 242,245 Irish acres of fine arable soil

Bishop-court, — near Kill ; Lord Ponsonby. A magnificent
mansion and highly cultivated demesne.

Belan, — near Tinolin ; Lord Aldborough. A beautiful seat
■with extoisive plantations.

Castletown, — near Celbridge ; A mansion

on the banks of the LifFey ; as superb an edifice as any in
Ireland, and the plantations correspond in magnificence.

KiLuloon, — near Celbridge ; Lord Leitrim.

Carton, — near Maynootb ; Duke of Leinster. A superb

7658. KING'S COUNTY,
bog or waste.

Charleville Forest, — near Tullamore ; Earl of Charleville.
A demesne of 1500 acres, partly the remains of a natural
forest, on which the present earl has built a magnificent and
commodious mansion in the castellated stvle, and laid out the
grounds with great taste.

mansion, the demesne extensive, a vast lawn waves over gentle
hills, interspersed with plantaUons to a great extent, aftbrding
a variety of beautifiil prospects. A stream winding through
the whole has been widened to a river, over which an el^pmt
bridge is constructed, and a lofty square prospect tower has
been erected on one of the most elevated knoUs.

Lord Haiberton. A

A surface of 282,200 acres, little varied, and of which nearly one half is

Frankjbrd, — near Frankford ;

antique mansion, with a fosse and drawbridge, in
sive flat demesne.

235,300 acres.

Stradbaily Bail,
beautiful seat.
Brockley Park, ■

QUEEN'S COUNTY. A surface, consisting chiefly of bogs, mountains, swamps, and wastes of

- near Stradbally , Cosbie, Esq.

. near Stradbally ; Earl Roden.

Darptonscourt
A magnificent

Balltfroan, —
cent residence.

near Stradballj ; Lo^ PortarUngt(».
scat. "

near Ballyroan; Lord De Vescey.

S" S'^?'J'■2i^; ^^ surface of 137,000 acres of grand and picturesque surface and good soil.
roiSJn S to and wUe ^ ^^f^e of 227,900 acres, generaUy flat, but with only a moderate

Dunsofi Castle, — near Dunshauglilin ; Lord Dunsay.

Ardbraccan Palace, — near Trim ; Bishop of Meath. A chaste
and simple building. ^'<^vc

Headfort, — near Kells ; MarquU Bective. A magnificent
manaon, and extensive and beautiiitUy planted deme^e.

Gormanstoicn House, — near White Cross : Lord Oormans-
town.

Slatie Castle, — near Slane ; Earl Convngham. A splendid
mansion, now erecting, and the grounds, through which flows
the Boyne, planting and being otherwise improved.

grIS. ^^'^'^^^^''^^^ A surface of 249,913 acres of bogs, hills, a number of lakes, and some fertile

sul^Se^"*^'-'^ Gaulstown: I.,rd Kilmaine. A I tensive views, commanding hills, rocks, mined tower,, and

i/e^^^.-EarlofBecUve. A princely re^dence. with ex- | "pta^^f t JeWe%^otSt^^aie*°s^. '^f^e'li' mU^blli

4 A 4

1096

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

timber, and ths finest larches In Ireland. The house, gar-
dens, and grounds had been much neglectetl, but are reno-
vating and improving under the guidance of M'Leish.

Crai;gan, — near Moat-a-(irenogue ; . A

fine mansion and beautiful demesne.

Trastentau/rh, — near lUorinstown ; Sir P. Piers.

Lackeii, — near MuIIingar ; . A beautiful

mansion and demesne.

Dallinlmi^h, — near MuIIingar ; H. O'Reilly, Esq. A
charming residence.

Castletown Delvin, — near MuIIingar ; Earl of VVestmeath.
A charming residence.

PackeiJiam Hall, — near Castle Pollard ; Earl Longford. A
splendid seat.

I/ianabin Castle, — Captain. Purdon. A house, offices, and
conservatory, in the Gothic style, by M'Leish ; extensive pros-
pects, some old trees, and numerous young ones.

Kiwck Drin, — Sir R. IjCvinge, Bart. A large castle, by
Shiels of Dublin ; upwards of 100 acres of oak and holly

7663. LONGFORD. A surface of 134,700 acres of rich and beautiful spots, interspersed with bogs,
mountains, morasses, and fens.

Castle Forbes, — near Newtown Forbes ; Earl Granard. A splendid residence.

7664. LOWTH. A surface of 126,960 Irish acres, fertile, undulating, and thickly interspersed with
lofty hills.

Darmeath, — near Clogherhead ; Sir E. Pellew. A charm- 1 Clermont, — near Lurgan Green ; Earl Clermont. An ele-

ing mansion, encircled with an extensive and well planted gant seat.

demesne. Colon, — near Slaine ; Hon. John Foster. A. demesne taste-

1 fully ornamented with extensive plantations.

PROVINCE OF MUNSTER.
A surface of 262,800 Irish acres, rough, rocky, and mountainous, with a soil

woods, and nearly 400 acres of artificial plantations judiciouslv
managed. There is an approach of two miles, and a drive o"f
six miles, both atmunding in picturesque views. There is a
conservatory, terrace-garden, English and Dutch parterre,
rosary, botanic ground, and kitchen-garden, all connected, and
in a suitable scale to the castle, by M'Leish.

Balli^7te^all, — J. (jibbons, Esq. An excellent house in the
Grecian style, by Johnston of Dublin ; abundance of old
timber, and dressed grounds and gardens laid out by M'Leish.

St. Lucys, — Sir T. Chapman, Bart. A good castellated
house, and well managed grounds and gardens, laid out by
M'Leish.

Ramiala, — R. M. Reynella, Esq. A pretty English-looking
seat, by M'Leish.

Lotcgh Crerv, — J. L. iVapier, Esq. A house by Cockerel of
London, in the Grecian style, and much natural and artificial
•wood, and every promise of magnificence. The proprietor is
one 01 the best landlords in Ireland.

Litmore, — near Lismore ; Duke of Devonshire. A mag-
nificent pile, now repairing, and the grounds being im-
proved.

7665. WATERFORD
varying through all the gradations of loam and peat.

BalHnamoam, — near Traraore ; . A well

planted demesne.

Curraghmoretg— near Waterford ; Marquis of Waterford. An
extensive derri&ne, which for beauty and variety cannot be
surpassed in any part of tlie united kingdom.

7666. CORK. The largest county in Ireland, comprising a surface of 1,048,709 Irish acres, of which
231,959 are bogs, mountains, and waste. There is a nursery by Thomas Sheehan.

Cork Botanic Garden — was founded in 1809, by the Roval
Cork Institution (a socielv of gentlemen incori'orated after
the manner of the Dublin Society, and like that society sup-
ported by annual grants from Parliament) ; six acres are en-
closed by a heilge, and one acre near the centre by a wall ;
includes a hot-house and green-house. The jjlants in the,

barden are arranged in the Linnaean manner ; it is managed
y a committee, and the curator is Mr. James Drummond,
A.L.S-, a good practical botanist and intelligent gardener.

7667. TIPPERARY. A surface of 554,950 Irish acres, rugged, coarse, and mountainous in the west,
but level and fertile in the east, where the lands are considered amongst the most productive in Ireland.

Of late years the funds of the Cork Institution have been so
low that it has been found necessary to turn the gi-eater part
of the garden into a nursery, and dispose of the produce.

Castle Martyn, — near Youghal ; Earl of Shannon. A mag-
nificent mansion and demesne.

Rastillion, — near Middleton ; Earl Inchinquin. A noble
seat. The tide gently flows to the garden-walls.

Moorfield, — near ICilworth ; Lord Mount-Cashel. A su-
perb residence.

■ near Clonmel ;

Bagnal, Esq.

A beautiful
neat

Kilmore,

Nenlonm, — near Clonmel ; Sir T. Osborne,
mansion. , , „

Knocklofly, — near Clonmel ; Lord Donoughmore. An en-
chanting residence on the banks of the Suir, finely planted.

ShunlHilltj, — near Clogheen ; Lord Lismore. A splendid

Killanvhi, — near Ballyporeen ; Sir W. Barker. A delight-
ful residence. _

Cashel Palace, — near Cashel ; Bishop of Cashel. The gar-
dens beautiful and tastefully arranged.

Cashier, — near Cashier ; Lord Butters. A delightful resi-
dence.

Ballygrijfin, — near Goldeer ; Earl Clanwilliam. An en-
chanting residence.

Snir Castle, — near Golden ; Lord Massay. A beautiful situ-
ation on the banks of the river Smr.

Dancers Court, — necir Tipperary ; Lord Milton. A fine
residence.

Castletown, — near Templemore ; Marquis of Lansdown. A
fine romantic seat.

Templemore, — near Templemore ; Sir J. C. Carden. An
elegant seat.

7668. LIMERICK. A surface of 386,750 Irish acres, generally flat and very rich, especially the tract
of lowlands on the Shannon, which are deemed the richest and most prolific in Ireland. There is a
nursery at the county town, by Thomas I^ees.

Ballijmort, — near Askeyton ; IMassey, Esq. A beautiful seat.

7669. CLARE. A surface of 476,200 Irish acres, of which more than half is bog, mountainous, and
waste ; the mountains numerous, and the soil and surface of the lower grounds very various.

Innislynun, — in the village ; the castle of the elder branch of the O'Brien family.

7670. KERRY. A surface of 647,650 Irish acres, much varied in surface and soil, and to a tourist the
most interesting county in Ireland, as containing the lakes of Killarney.

Mount Meredith, — near Castle Island ; O'Donohue, Esq A
charming residence. . ^t j

Kenmare Lodge, — near Kenmare ; Marouis of Lansdown.

Kenmare House, — T^esi Killarney; Lord Kenmare. A de-
lightful demesne along the banks of the river Deneagh, at
the mouth of which the aquatic excursion of the lakes is

nitude : it is generally in pasture.
Clorer Hilt, — near Mount Talbot ;

commenced. Roimd the lakes of Killarney is Bellview, and
various other houses of little or no interest, otherwise than
from theirsituation. The banks and islands of the lakes are rich
in botany ; and display truly interesting copses and single
specimens of arbutus unedo, as well as grand and picturesque
views.

PROVINCE OF CONN AUGHT.

7671. ROSCOMMON. A surface of 346,650 Irish acres, with some lofty hills, but no lakes of any mag-
■ ■ I pasture.

Latouche, Esq. I S/afce»for»n, — at Sfokestown ; R. Midion, Esq. A magnifi-
A beautiful residence.

French Park, — near Belanager ; A

delightful mansion and demesne. I

7672. G ALWAY. A surface of 989,959 Irish acres ; varied and rich, but without hills or mountains \
generally in pasture.

Portumna Castle, — near Portumna ;
ard. A venerable mansion.

F/nn'er//i7/,— near Portumna; Lord Riverton.
f ul residence. „ _,

Sprin/j Garden, — near Eyrecourt ; Pearce, Esq.

l)eaui;ful residence. _^ „ „ ^ ,

Dalffstown, _ near M'oodford ; Right Hon. D. B. Daly.
fine mansion and well planted demesne.

Qiieeishoroufih, — near Eyrecourt ; Karl Louth. A tine seat.

Gt,rt House, — near Gort ; B. Smyth, ICsq. A fine seat.

«rtrha//v, — near Ballinasloe, Lord Clancarty. A splendid
rssidence.

Marquis of Clanrick-
A ddight-
A
A

■ near Aghrim ;

. Abeatf

Blake, Esq. A

A splendid

Ornmnre Castle, — near Oramore ;
venerable mansion.

Dnnsandle, — near Kilconnel ; J. Daly, Esq.
and magnificent mansion.

C/i»i/>ro(*, — near Ahaseragh ; Lord Clonbrook. A beauU
fid mansion, and highly imjjroved deme<;ne.

Bellew, — near Newtown Bellew ; Sir E. Bellew. A beau
tiful seat.

Book I. LITERATURE OF GARDENING. 1097

767a MAYO. A surface of 790,600 Irish acre* ; a great portion mountainous and waste, and the rest
chiefly in pasture.
Ciailebar Hmise, — near Castlebar ; Lord Lucan. A Tener-

Tfervpark, — near Swinefard , Sir A. Brabazon.

Hollynumiii, — near HoUyraount ; Lind^y, Esq. A

fine mansion and demesne.

Setebrook Home, — near Hollymount ; Lord ClanmorrU. A
magnificoit mansion.

aMe structure, solidly situated on the brow of a steep emi'
uence overhanging the river.

Hoot, — near llall ; Sir R. B. Lynch. A delightful resi-
dence.

fieal, — near Ballinrobe ; Lord Kilmaine. A magnificent
mansion and extensive demesne.

7674. LEITRIM. A surface of 255,950 Irish acres; hilly, with fertile valleys, and numerous streams
and lakes ; the whole well adapted for every branch of gardening.

Lurgan, — near Lurgan Bay ; Right Hon. S. Winne. A beautiful residence.

7675. SLIGO. A surface of 247,150 acres, nearly the third quite waste, the rest fertile in com and
pi tatoes.

HasUrvood, — near Sligo, on Lough Gill ; • The house and demesne aptly composed m elegant magnificence.

PROVINCE OF ULSTER.

7676. CAVAN. A surface of 301,000 Irish acres, abounding in fenny pastures and coarse grounds.
Florence Court, — near Swadlinben ; Earl Enniskillai. A I lakes, hedgerows, and meadows ; an extensive demesne-farm,

splendid residence. I under the care of a Northumbrian agriculturbt. All the up-

FariUiam House, — near Kilmore; Lord Famham. A I per servante English,
splendid residence, in an extensive demesne, abounding in '

7677. FERMANAGH. A surface of 283,400 Irish acres, chiefly boggy and mountainous ; interesting
to tourists as containing Loch Erne.

Bellule, — on an island in Loch Erne ; Earl Ross. The i erected, firom which a panoramic view is obtained, not only of

island contains 200 acres, charmingly diversifitd by hills, dales, I this, but of all the other wooded islands of the loch. One of

and gentle declivities, which are richly clothed with old tira- I tliem is exclusively used as a deer park.'
ber, tlu-ough which gravel-walks are conducted, and a temple I

7678. MONAGHAN. A surface of 179,600 Irish acres, much encumbered with bogs and mountains,
but in part rich and cultivated.

Ctulle BlaivTj, — near the village of that name ; Lord I a lake, thickly interspersed with islands richly planted with
Blaney. A deiightftil residence, commanding a fine view of 1 trees.

7679. TYRONE. A surface of 467,700 Irish acres, a great portion rough and mountainous.
Baron Court, — near Newton Stewart ; Marquis of Aber- i Aghinuiu, — near Caledon ; Lord Belraore. An elegant

com. A magnificent mansion, but no park-srenery or gardens
deserving notice. Extensive plantations, however, have been
made in various parts of the demesne.

CuleJonHUl,—ne3Lr Caledon; Lord Caledon. A delightful
residence.

mansion and extensive demesne.

Farm Hill, — near Duiigannon ; Lord Northland. A n:ag-
nificent residence.

SYen-ur* fiu//, — near Stewartstown; Lord Castle>te wart. A
magnificent residence.

7680. DONEGAL. A surface of 679,550 Irish acres ; the greatest portion reclaimable a»id irreclaim-
able mountains.

7681. DERRY. A surface of 318,500 acres j its surface varied but without moimtains, and the soil
generally fertile.

7682. ARMAGH. A surface of 181,450 acres, with an irregular surface that has not unaptly been
compared to eggs placed on end in a bason of salt.

Lurgan Hotue, — neax Lurgan ; Right Hon. W. Brownlow.
A delightful residence. Near this seat is Lough Neagb, a lake
of 60,3til acres.

Cattle Gosfiird, — near Markethill ; Lord Gosford. An ex-
tensive demesne fringed with trees.

Castle Dillon, — near Righill ; Sir C. Molyneux. An
extensive demesne, containing a handsome sheet of water, skirt-
ing the base of a hill oovere^ with a very thriving plantation.

7683. DOWN. A surface of 348^500 Irish acres, considerably varied, with but few moilntains and
moors.

>/oira C(iri?*, — near Moira; Marquis of Hastings. Contains [ Lissige, — near Newry ; Earl Clan william. A splendid rest-
some old trees, and also some young plantations ; gardening dence.
in all its branches having been here attended to by the present Ballymoney, — near Rathfryland; Marqtiis of Downshire. A

fine country -residence.

Iiri:annford, — r\eax Narrow AVater; Lord Clanbrassil. A
deUghtful and sequestered residence,
river, and a succession of picturesque <

owner's &ther, when neglected in almost evory other part of
Ireland.

Hillsborough Castle, — near Hillsborough ; Marquis of Down-
shire. A magnificent residence.

Belvoir, -_ near Newtown Breda ; Lord Dungannon. A
magniticent residence.

7684. ANTRIM. A surface of 420,999 Irish acres, considerably varied with mountainsand hills, fertile
valleys, bogs, and dry wastes. It is noted by tourists as containing the Giant's Causeway. There are two
nurseries at Belfast.

Shane's Castle, — near Antrim, on the borders of Lough | Castle V]fton, — zxeax Templepatrick ; Lord TempletoQ. A
Nea«h ; Lord O'Neil. An enchanting residence. beautiful seat.

G/<7iannC<irf/e,— near (ilenarm; Eai-l -•Vntriin. A venerable I
and magnificent mansion. I

Chap. IV.

Of the Literature of Gardening.
7685. The first books on agrictikure and gardening were written by the Greeks some
centuries before tlie Christian sera, and by the Romans about the commencement of tliat
period. Among the ancient Greek writers, Hesiod, Homer, Theophrastus, Xenophon,
and ^^lian, may be mentioned as having touched more or less on gardening. The
works of the modern Greeks, or those who wrote after the seat of the Roman govern-
ment was transferred to Constantinople, are collected under the title of Geoponica ; and
have been translated by T. Owen, who also translated Varro and Palladius. Aniono-
the Latins, the works of Varro are the first in the order of time ; next Cato, and Pliny^
and Columella, and, lastly, R. T. E. Palladius, supposed to have lived in the fourth
centur)'. Passages relative to the subject may be found in most of the Roman poets,
especially in Martial, Virgil, and Horace ; but Pliny's natural history, and Columella's
1 1th book on gardens, are those from which the most correct ideas may be obtained of
Roman gardens. In the ages which succeeded the fall of tlie Roman empire, few books
were written, excepting on religion : the first which appeared on rural matters was by

i098 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Paiit IV.

Crescenzio, in Italy, early in the fifteenth century; and soon after one or two in
France, Germany, and Britain. We shall enumerate the whole of the British works
on gardening, as far as we have been able to collect their titles ; and next, the leading
works of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, Russia, and America.

Sect. I. Of the Literature of British Gardening.

7686. The first British work on htisbandry is that of Judge Fitzherbert, published about
the middle of the 1 6th century. Before the end of the same century appeared Tusser,
Mountain, Mascal, and Hyll, who wrote expressly on gardening, partly from their own
experience and observation, and partly by translating from the Latin and Greek
authors. In the seventeenth century appeared as gardening authors. Plat, Lawson,
Gardiner, Standish, Parkinson, Plattes, Austin, Tradescant, Evelyn, Cowley, Blake,
Rea, Worlidge, Meager, Temple, and some others. Those of the succeeding century
are numerous, and consist in great part of practical or professional gardeners, who
wrote from their own experience ; of these are London and Wise, Collins, Switzer, Fair-
child, Miller, Cowell, Hitt, Hill, Wheeler, Boucher, Swinden, Abercrombie, Speechly,
Forsyth, Maddock, M'Phail, Repton, and Nicol.

7687. Of amateur gardeners and botanists, who wrote on gardening during the eigh-
teenth century, there are Laurence, Bradley, Evelyn, Justice, Hanbury, Weston,
Wheatley, Chambers, G. Mason, Mason the poet, Anderson, R. P. Knight, T. A.
Knight, U. Price, M. Marshall, and C. Marshall. The nineteenth century has pro-
duced one or two" practical authors, as Pontey, Hayward, Emmerton, and Hogg ; one
gentleman writer on the subject, Hope ; besides a number of authors of botli classes,
who have contributed papers to the Horticultural Societies.

7688. The old gardening books jn-evious to the Restoration, Professor Martyn observes
{Pref. to Mill. Diet, xxxv.), " are of very inferior value, with scarcely any pretence to
originality, if we except Scot, Lawson, Parkinson, and Austen. Evelyn made a new
asra in planting and gardening. His first work was from the French, and published be-
fore the Restoration; but his great work, The SUva, was original, delivered before
the Royal Society in 1662, and first printed in 1664. The same year his Gardeners
Almanac was also published, and maintained its ground until Miller's Kalendar ap-
peared. Cook assisted him in the article of planting ; Sharrock and Rea in that of
gardening, which Cowley and Rapin ornamented with the flowers of poetry. Quintiney,
with his followers, London and Wise, figured in gardening at the end of the same cen-
tury : Liger, Laurence, and Bradley, at the beginning of the next ; these were followed
by Switzer and Fairchild, who lead us to the time of Miller, in 1724. Contemporaries
with Miller were Batty Langley and Cowell. Miller, during his long career, had no
considerable competitor, until he approached the end of it, when several writers took
the advantage of his unwearied labors of near half a century, and fixed themselves upon
him, as various marine insects do upen a decaying shellfish. I except Hitt and Justice,
who are both originals ; as is also Hill, after his fashion ; but bis gardening is not much
founded in experience."

'^689. The first considerable treatise on omame7ital gardening is *' "VVheatley's, entitled
Observations 07i Modern Gardening, and published without his name. Shenstone pub-
lished his Unconnected Thoughts in 1764. There is an anonymous pamphlet on the
Bise and Progress of the j)resent Taste of Planting Parks and Gardens, in 1767 ; and an
Essay on Design in Gardening in 1768, by George Mason. The English Garden, a
poem by Mason, appeared in 1772. Knight published The Landscape, a didactic poem,
in 1794. Repton, the same year. Sketches and Hints on Landscape Gardening.
Marshall, a Revieiv of the Landscape j and in 1796 he treated on ornamental gardening,
in the second edition of his work on planting. Essays on the Picturesque, by Uvedale
Price, Esq. in 1798. In 1803, a second magnificent work by Repton, entitled Ob-
servations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, appeared ; and another.
Fragments on Landscape Gardening and Architecture, in 1716. Loudon's Observ-
ations on Planting and Landscape Gardening appeared in 1804; and his Treatise on
Country Residences in 1806."

7690. The most useful works on gardening at the present time are, in horticulture, those
of Forsyth, Nicol, and Abercrombie ; in floriculture, that of Maddock ; in arboricul-
ture, those of Pontey and Sang ; and in landscape-gardening, those of Wheatley and
Repton. In the transactions of the horticultural societies are some valuable and original
communications on the first branches, and especially on horticulture. In enumerating
the principal British works on gardening, including some few of those on husbandry
and botany, naturally connected with our subject, we shall adopt the order of the ap-
pearance of their authors, as writers on gardening ; and when we can, we shall give
short biographical notices. Those authors who have merely written articles published
in the transactions of societies, or in public journals or magazines, are not here included,
unless they liave also written separate works.

Book 1.

BRITISH WORKS ON GARDENING.

1099

SuBSECT. 1. British

1502. Amofde, Richard, an ancient English chro-
nicler, and haberdasher, in St. Magnus's parish,
London ; flourished in the end of the fifteenth and
beginning of the sixteenth century; died about
1521.

The Cits'oms of London, from the time of Richard I.,
Sec. conimonlv entitled Arnold's Chronicle, and tiist printed
at Antwerp iii lo02, fol. ; reprinted along with a series of
English chronicles. London, 4to. 1811. It is divided into
chapters, and contains the following artUles: —

The act for trees above i:0 veres growint; to pay no tvths.
Tl-.ecraf»e of graflrvnge and plantvnge and altennge of firujts,
as well in colours as in taste. A treatjse of the four ele-
inentvs and four seasons, &c. and of the canvciilare dayes.
The fourme and mesur to mete land bj. Fercely (i;robaWy
cress) to grow in an hour space, &c.

1527. Anon.

The Grete Herbal, which pjvetli parfNt Inowledse and
xinderstandyng of the boke lately printed by me Peter Tre-
veris.

Peter Treveris was the first printer in Southwark ; the
book to which he alludes was "the Grete Herbal, 1516," and
the first or second ]>roduction which b&ued from his press.

1557. Tusser, Thomas, gent., born near Witham,
in Essex, 1515, received a liberal education at Eton
school, and at Trinity-hall, Cambridge ; lived many
years as a fanner in Suffolk, and afterwards removed
to London, where he published his first work in
15o/, and died in 1580.

1. Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, as well for
the Champagne and Open Country as for the Woodland.
J>ond. 1557. 4to.

2. Another edition, entitled, Fiue Hundred Points of
Good Husbandry, vnited to many of Good Huswifere; first
deuised and now lately augmented, with diuers approved
Lessons concemlng Hopps and Gardening, &c. Lonu. 1573.
4to.

1571. Mountain, Didymus.

1. The Gardener's Labyrinth; containing a Discourse of
the Gv.rdener's Life, in the yearly trauels to be bestowed on
hts plot of earth, for the vse of a Garden ; with Instructions
for the choise of Seedes, apt times for Sowing, Setting, and
I'lanting, and M'atering ; .md the \'essels and Instrunientes
seruingto that vse and purjiose; wherein are set forth, diuers
Herbes, Knottes, and Mazes, cunningly handled for the
lieautifying of Gardens ; also the Physike of eche Ilerbe, &c
Gatherevl out of the best approued' Writers of Gardening,
Hu.sbandrie, and Physicke, &c. Lond. 1571. 4to.

'2. The Second Part of the Gardener's I-abyrinth ; vttering
suche skillful experiences and worthy Secrotes, about the
particular sowing and remouing of the moste Kitchen Hearbes ;
with the wittie ordering of other daintie Hearbes, delectable
Floures, pleasant Fruites, and tine Kootes, as the like hath
not heretofore bin vttered of anv ; beside the Physicke bene-
tites of each Hearbe annexed, with the comnioditie of Waters
Histilled out of them, right necessaric to be knowen. LoncL
1577. 4to.

1574. Hill, Hyll, or Hyle, Thomas, a London au-
thor of various works on Dreams, Physiognomy,
Mysteries, an Almanac, Astronomy, Arithmetic,
&c. ; died in the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury.

The Profitable Arte of Gardening ; to which is added
much necessarie matter, and a number of secrets, with the
Physicke helps belonging to eache hearlie, and that easily pre-
pared. To this is annexed two profier Treatises, the one
entitnled the Marvailous Government, Prcpertie, and Bene-
fiteof Bees, with the rare Secretes of the Hcnnieand Waxe.
And the other, the Yerely Conjectures mete for Husbandmen.
To these is likewise added a 'Preatise of the Arte of Gratr-
ing and Planting of Trees. Gathered by Thomas Hyll, citi-
7en of London. Lond. 1574. 4to.

15M. Piatt, Sir Hugh, author of various philo-
sophical works, and apparently a lawyer. " Sir
Hugh Piatt (says V.'eston) spent part of his time
at Copt-hall in Essex, and at Bishop's- hall in Mid-
dlescx, at each of which places he had a country-
seat; but his town-residence was Lincoln's Inn."
In the Jewel House of Art and Nature, he is named
Hugli Platte or Piatt, (for it is spelt both ways,) of
Lincolnes Inne, gentleman. By the same book it
appears that he then (1594) lived at Bishop's-hall,
and that he had an estate near St. Alban's.

He does not inform us what profession he was of,
only that it was alien from the stuilies of husbandry
and gardening. He must have had a numerous
family, for six of his children died of the worms.

It apiwars from his Garden of Eden (p. 96.), that
he was living in the year 16G6; and that he had a
garden in St. Martin's-lane.

1. The Jewel House of Art and Nattire, contening divers
rare and protitable Inventions, together with sundry new Ex-
jieriments in the Art of Husb.indry, Distillation, aiid mould-
ing. Faithfully and familiarly set'downe, according to the
Author's own experience, by Hugh Platte, of Lincolnes Inne,
gentleman. Lond. 1594. 4to.

2. Tlie Garden of Eden, or an accurate Description of all
Flowers and Fruits now growing in England, with particu-
lar Rules bow to advance their Nature ar.d Grow^th, as well
in Seeds and Hearbes, as tlie secret orderiiTg of Trees and
Plants. Bv that learned and great observer. Sir Hugh Piatt,
knight. The fifth edition. Lond. IGGO. small 8vo

.^. The Second Part of the Garden of Eden, (Sec. Never
b«.lore printed. Jxjnd- 1G60.

Works on Gardening.

1597. Gerarde, John, a surgeon and famous her-
balist, was boni in Cheshire, 1545 ; died about 1607.
He lived in Holbom, where he had a large botanic
garden, one of the first attempts of the kind in
England. ^ ., t ,.

The Herbal, or General History of Plants, ^thcted byJohn
Gerarde, Master in Chirurgerie; with cuts. Lond. 159/. fol.

1597. Laivson, Wtlliatn, a practical author, who
wrote, besides his Orchard, Tractatm de Agricultvra
1656. 4to. He professes to write wholly from expe-
rience, and not to delight in curious conceits as
planting and grafting with the roots upwanis,
inoculating roses on thorns, and such like.

A New Orchard and Garden ; or the best way for PlaJiU
ing, Graffing, and to make any Ground pood for a rich
Orchard: particularly in the North, and generally for the
whole Commonwealth ; with the Country Hous-wife's Gar-
den for Herbs of common Use ; their Virtues, Seasons, Pro-
tits, Ornaments ; variety of Kjiots, Models for Trees, and
PloU, for the best ortlering of Grounds and A\'alks. .4s also
the Husbandry of Bees, with their several Uses and Annoy-
ances : all being the exi>trience of forty and eight years' labor,
and now the third time corrected, and much enlarged
Whereunto is newly added, the Art of Propagating Plants,
with the true ordering of all manner of Fiuits, in their
Gathering, carr-.ing Home, and Preservation. London. 4to.
Followed by a inost profitable new Treatise, from approved
experience, of the Art of Propagating Plants. By Simon
Harward.

1604. Anon.

The Fruiterer's Secrets, 4to. black letter. It contains
some curious directions for preserving fraits aod other garden-
productions.

1612. C R .

An Old Thrift newly revived, by R. C. of Planting and
Preserving of Timber and Fewel, by R. C. 1612. 4to. in four
parts.

1613. Standish, Arthur.

New Directions of Experience, authorised by the King^
most excellent Majesty, as may api>ear, for the Planting of
Timber, and Fire-wood, &c., and now as great store of fire-
wootl may be raised from hedges jis may plentifully maine-
taine thc'kingdome for all purposes, without losse of grounde,
so as within thirty yeares all siiring woods may be converted
to tillage and pasture. Lond. 1CI5. 4to.

1620. Bacon, Francis, Viscount of St Albans, a
most distinguished philosopher, and high-chan-
cellor of England in the reign of James I., was
bom in London 1560, and died 1626.

Essay on Garden.', ^c. in Instauratia Magna, sive Novum
Organum, iScc, of vihich there are numerous editions both in
Latin and English : one by Shaw, with notes. Lond. 3 vols.
4to. 1725.

1622. BonfeU, John.

Instructions how to plant and dress lines, and to make
wine, and how to dry raisins, figs, and other fruits, and also
olives, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, almonds, and many
other fruits. Printed with hi» ^Treatise on the Art of making
Silk, page 36— .S8. Lond. 4to.

1623. Markham, Gervase, Jarvise, or Gervas, an
English author who wrote on a great variety of
subjects during the reigns of James I. and Charles I.,
and died about 1685. He appears, says Harte
{Essays, ii. 32.), to be the first Englishman who de-
serves to be called a hackney writer. All subjects
seem to have been alike easy to him. His thefts
were innumerable, but he has now and then stolen
some very good things, and preserved their memory
from ix^rishjng.

The Country Housewife's Garden, by Gervase Markham.

1d'29. Johnston, Thomas, MD.," a learned botanisl^
a native of Yorkshire, bred an apothecary, and es-
tablished in that profession in London ; he made
various botanical tours, and published the first Itx^
Flora, which appeared in Englahd; died 1643.

The Herbal ; or General History of Plants, gathered bjr
John Gerarde, enlarged and amended. Lond. 1629. fol.

1629. Parkinson, John, a celebrated herbalist and
botanist ; bom in 1567, bred an apothecary, and
acted in that capacity and as herbalist and botanist
to James I. and Charles I. ; died about 1640. Pro-
fessor MartjTi says his Paradisus is the first garden-
ing book worth 'mentioning, and that considering
what had been done before it, it has the greatest
merit.

1 . Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris ; or, a Garden of all
sort of pleasant flowers which our English avre will admitt
to be noursed up : with a Kitchen Garden of all manner of
herbes, rootes, and fruites, for meate or sause used with us ;
Orchard of all sorte of fruitbearing trees and shrubbeg

fit for our Land, together with the right orderinge, planting,
and jireserving of them, and their uses, and vertues. Col-
lected by John Parkinson, apothecary of London, 1629. fbl.

There is an engraved tit'.epage by Switzer, representing the
Garden of Eden ; with 109 wooden cuts of flowers and fruits,
and a portrait of the Author. Dedicated to the Queen.

2. Theatrum Botanicum ; or, an Herbal of great extent.
Lond. 1640. 2 vols. fol. 1746 pages, with many wood cuts.
1631. Austen, Francis.

Obser\-ations on Sir Francis Bacon s Natural Historv, so far
as it concerns fruit-trees. 4to.

1100

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

1633. Pintles, Gabriel, a poor man, but a useftil
writer. Harte says, lie had a bold adventurous
cast of mind, and preferred the faulty sublime to
faulty mediocrity. As great a genius as he was, he
was allowed to drop down dead in London streets
with hunger ; nor had he a shirt upon his back when
he died. He bequeathed his papers to Hartlib, who
seems to have published but few of them.

1. Treatise of HusJjandry. Lond. 1633. 4 to.
, Vi. Discourse of infinite Treasure, hidden since the World's be-
einnini;, in the way of Husbandry. Lond. 1C59. 1653. 1656. 4to.

IftiO. Aaon. .

1 The Countryman's Recreation ; or, the art of Planting,
Graffinjt, and Gardeninj?, in three bookes. Lond. IGIO. 4to.
With a jterfect Plalforme of a Hop-Uarden.

i!. The exi)ert Gardener, collected out of Dutch and French
Authors. 1610. An edition with cuts in 1654.

Ifi45. Weston, Sir Richard, of Sutton, in Surrey.
He was ambassador from England to Frederick V.
Elector Palatine and King of Bohemia, in 1619. He
was present at the famous battle of Prague, and his
curious relation of it in a letter is still preserved in
MS. It is remarked in the Philosophical Transac.
tions, that England has profited in agriculture to
the amount of many millions in consequence of the
Flanders husbandry having been made known by
Sir K. Weston's book.

A Discours of Huslwindrie used in Brabant and Flanders ;
shewine the wonderful improvement of land there ; and
serving as a pattern for our practice in this Commonwealth.
Lond. 1645. 4to. 24 pages.

1645. Hall, Joseph. This author lived at Shedley,
in Yorkshire ; an extract from his work may be
seen in the Museum Rusticum.

An Essay on TimlKT Trees.

If>t9. Blith or Blythe, JValter, an officer in Crom-
well's army, who, with other English gentlemen,
holding commissions at that time, was eminently
useful in introducing improvements into Ireland
and Scotland

The English Improver Improved ; or, the Survey of Hus-
bandry Surveyed, discovering the Improveableness of all
Lands ; by \Va. Blith, a lover of Ingenuity. Lond. 4to.

This is an original and Incomparable work for the time.

1651. Hartlib, Samuel, an ingenious writer on
agriculture, and author of several theological
tracts, was the son of a Polish merchant, and came
to England about 1640. He was a great promoter of
husbandry during the times of the commonwealth,
and was much esteemed by all ingenious men in
those days. Milton addressed to him his treatise
on education^ and Sir William Petty inscribed two
letters to him on the same subject. Cromwell al-
lowed him a pension of a hundred pounds a-year.

A Designe for Plentie, bv an universall Piantina of FruiU
trees ; teiidered by some \Vel-wishers to the Public. Lon-
don, without date, but probably 165'^. 4to. Published by
Hartlib, who had the MS. from the Hon. Colonel John
Barkstead, lieutenant of the Tower. The author was an
aged minlst'jr of the Gospel, at Loving-land near Yarmouth.

1653. Austen,- Ralph, author of several works on
theology, all printed at Oxford, where he seems to
have lived, and died probably about 1680.

1. A Treatise of Fruit-Trees. Showing the manner of
<jrafting. Setting, Pruning, and Ordering of them in all res-
yecU ; according to divers new and easy Rules of experience;

fathered in the space of twenty yeares. Whereby the value of
rands may be much improved, in a short time, by small
cost, and little labour. Also discovering some dangerous Er-
rors, both in the Theory and Practice of the .Art of Plant-
ing Fruit-trees. With the Alimentall and Physicall use of
Aruits. Togeather with the Spirituall use of an Orchard.
Held forth in divers Similitudes betweene Naturall and Spi-
ritual Fruit-trees; according to Scrijjture and Experience.
By Ra. Austen. Practiser in the Art of Planting. Oxford,
1653. 4 to.

1656. Tradescant, John, a Dutchman, but the pe-
riod of his coming to England is unknown. He is
said to have been some time in the service of Lord
Treasurer Salisbury, and Lord Wooton. He tra-
velled as far eastward as Russia ; was in the fleet
that was sent against the Algerines in 1620, on
which occasion he collected plants in Barbary and
the isles of the Mediterranean. About 1629 he ob-
tained the title of gardener to Charles I. When he
founded his garden at Lambeth is not exactly
known ; but there he collected the first considerable
collection of natural history ever formed in this
country. His museum was called Tradescant's Ark,
and was much frequented by the great. He had a
son of the same name, who took a voyage to Virginia,
and brought home many new plants. Tradescant's
epiderwort and aster are among the number of
plants introduced by them. In what year the elder

f radescant died is uncertain, but he was an old man
when his book was published. The son inherited the
museum, and bequeathed it by a deed of gift to Elias

Ashmole, Esq., who lodged in Tradescant's house.

It afterwards became part of the Ashmolcan mu-
seum, and thp name of Tradescant was unjustly sunk

in that of Ashmole. John, the son, died in 1662 :
his widow contested the will, and upon losing her
cause, it is said she drowned herself. A curious ac-
count of the remains of the Lambeth garden, drawn
up in the year 1749 by Sir W. Watson, is printed in
the 46th vol. of the Philosophical Transactions ; and
of the family monument erected by Mrs. Ashmole, in
the 63d vol. of that work.
Catalogue of the plants in his garden.

1657. Beale, John, a Herefordshire gentleman.

1. A Treatise on Fruit Trees, shewing their Manner of
Grafting, Pruning, and Ordering : Of Cider and Perry : Of
Vineyards in England, &c. Oxf. 165.3, 1657, 4to. 1665, l2mo.

2. 'I'he Hereford Orchards ; a pattern tor the whole of Eng-
land, lyond. 1657, l2mo. 1724, 8vo.

3. Observations on some parts of Bacon's Natural History, as
it concerns Fruit Trees, Fruits, and Flowers. Oxf. 1658. 4to.
Printed along with the work entitled, A Treatise on Fruit
Trees, 1665. 12mo.

4 . General Advertisement conoeming Cider. — I^etters about
Improvement of Nurseries, Orchards, &c. I/ond. 1677. 4to.

1658. Browtw, Sir Thomas, M.D., an eminent phy-
sician and antiquary, was born in London, 1605,
died 1682.

1. Hydriotaphia ; or, a Discour-e of Sepulchral Urns lately
found in Norfolk ; together with Ihe Garden of Cyrus, or the
Quincuncial Lozenage, or Net-work Plantation of the An-
cients, artiKcially, naturally, and mystically considered. Lond.
1658. 8vo.

M. Certain Miscellany Tracts in Scripture, of Gardens.
Lond. 1684. 8vo.

1658. Evelyn, John, F. R. S., an eminent natural
philosopher and patriot, was born at Wotton, in
Surrey, the seat of his father, Richard Evelyn, Esq. ;
the 31st of October, 1620 : after he had finishetl his
education at Oxford, his philosophic turn of mind
induced him to quit his native country, rather than
engage in the civil war then breaking out, and in
1644, he set out to make the tour of Europe. He
wrote on a variety of subjects, philosophical, politi-
cal, and literary, and died on the 27th of February
1705-6, in the 86th year of his age, and was interred
at Wotton.

In 1819, Memoirs of .1. Evelyn, Esq., including his Diary,
were published by William Bray (in 2 vols. 4to.), a very interesu
ing book, as affording a taithful picture of the times in which
he lived, and a good idea of the gardens on the continent at the
time he travelled, and those of England at the end of the 17th
century.

1. The French Gardener, instructing how to cultivate all
sorts of Fruit-Trees and Herbs for the Garden ; together with
directions to dry and conserve them in their natural state.
Loud. 1658, 8vo.

2. Fuinifugium ; or, the Inconvenience of the Air and Smoke
jndon dis! "

proposed.
His Majesty King Charles 11., and published by his express

of London dissipated ; together with some Remedies humbly
»roposed. Lond. 1661. 12mo. This work was addressed to

command. The author proposes the removal of such trades as
require great fires, five or six miles out of London, towards
Greenwich; also of slaughter-houses and chandlers; and to
plant fragrant rurseries and gardens in the low grounds near
the city. The lime-trees in St. James's Park were planted in
consequence of this suggestion.

3. Sylva; or, a Discourse of Forest- Trees, and the Propaga-
tion of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions. To which is an-
nexed, Pomona ; or, an Appendix concerning Fruit Trees in
relation to Cider, the making and several ways of ordering it.
Ivoiid. 1664. fol. Dr. Hunter, of New York, published an ele-
gant edition, with copious Notes and Engravings, in 1776,
2 vols. 4 to.

4. Kalendarium Hortense; or, the Gardener's -Almanac, di-
recting what he is to do monthly throughout the year, and
what Fruits and Flowers are in their prime. Lond. 1664. 8vo.

5. Terra ; a Philosophical Discourse of Earth, relating to the
Culture and Improvement of it for vegetation and the propa-
gation of Plants, as it was presented to the Royal Society,
April 29. 1675. Lond. 1675. fol.

6. Pomona; a Discourse concerning Cider. Lond. 1679. fol.

7. Monsieur de la Quintinye's Treatise of Orange-Trees, with
the raising of Melons, omitted in the French editions, made
EngUsh by J. E. Lond. 1698.

8. Acetaria; or, a Discourse of Sallets. Lond. 1699. 8to.
1660. Shar7-ock, Robert, LL. D., prebendary of

Winchester, born in Buckinghamshire in the 17th
century, author of various judicial and theological
works ; died 1634.

1. The History of the Propagation and Improvement of Ve-
getables by the concurrence of Art and Nature. Written ac
cording to Observations made from Exj)erience and Practice.
Oxford, 1660. 8vo.

2. Improvements to the Art of Gardening; or, an exact
Treatise of PlanU. Lond. 1694. fol.

1662. Cowley, Abraham, an eminent English poet,
was bom in London 1618 ; began to write poems at
the age of fifteen ; lived in terms of intimacy with
Evelyn and other eminent men of his time j went to
court ; but at last, Spence informs us, he grew sick
of going there, " took a house first at Battersea and
then at Chertsey, always farther and farther from
town, where he died in 1667. His death. Pope ob-
serves, was owing to a mere accident. He went
with Dean Sprat, who afterwards published his life
and writings, to dine at a neighbor's house, who ac-
cording to the fashion of the times, made them too
welcome. They did not set out for their walk home
till it was late, and had drank so deep that they lay

Book I.

BRITISH WORKS ON GARDENING.

1101

out in the fields all night. This gave Cowley the
fever, which carric<l him off." He dislike<l women,
and was fond of retirement m idea, and pants after
it in his poems ; but, according to Dr. Johnson, was
unhai)py when he had attained his wishes.

Flantaruin, Herbarum, Florum, et Sylvamm, Lond. 1662.
8ro.

1664. Blake, Stephen.

The complete (iardener's Practice, 4to. Lofid.

It)fi5. Hughes, Uli/iam.

1. The Coiiivlete Vineyard; or, an excellent way for the
planting of Vines, and ordering of \\'ines and Wine-presses,
according to tlie German and French manner. Lond. 1670.

8 TO.

2. The American Physician, or a Treatise of the Roots,
Plants, Trees, &c., growing in the English Plantations ; with
a Discourse on the Cocoa Tree, and the ways of making
Chocolate. Lond. 1672. l'2mo.

3. The Flower Garden; how most Flowers are ordered,
increased, &c. Lond. 1672. l2nio.

16t>5. Rea, John, gent. He seems to have been a
professional gardener, and to have given plans for
laying out grounds.

Flora, or a complete Florilege. furnished with all reqtiisitej
belonging to a Florist. Lond. 166.^. fol. with cuts.

1666. Beale, Dr. John, an ingenious English divine
and philosopher, was bom in Herefordshire, 1603,
died 16S3.

1. Exjieriments and Observations on Vegetation and the
KunningoftheSap, &c. (P/iiV. Tr/m*. 1669. Abr. i. p. 50t.)

2. 1 he Connection of certain Parts of the Tree with tho;>e
of the Fruit, (lb. 1669. p. 354.)

3. Remarks on the Vjnetum Britannicum.

4. Agreslick Observations and Advertisements.

1666. Rose, John, gardener to Charles II. at St
James's.

The English Vine>ard vindicated, and the wav of making
wine in France. Lond. 12mo. 1690. 8vo. first printed
with Evelvn's French Gardener, in 1690.

1668. Worlidge, John, gent.

1. Svstema Agriculturse ; the Mvstery of Husbandry dis-
covereil. By J. W. (John Worlidge)' gent. JLond. 1668. 'foL

2. The Art of Gardening. Lond. 1700. 8vo.

1672. Drope, Francis, B. D., a native of Cumner
in Berkshire, where his father was vicar, and his
brother a physician. Francis died at Oxford, and
this work was published after his death by his
brother, and dedicated to Lord Windham, w^ho is
stated to have a fine orchard at Brackley.

A short and sure Guide lo the Practice of" Raising and
Ordering of Fruit Trees. Oxford, 12mo.

1675. Cotton, Charles, Esq., an English poet, bom
in Staffordshire in livX); author of a number of po-
litical works, memoirs, poems, &c., and editor of
Walton's Angler; died 1687.

The Planter's Jfanual of Raising, Planting, and Cultivat-
ing all Sorts of Fruit Trees. Lond. 8vo.

1676. Cooke, Moses, gardener to the Earl of Essex
at Cashiobur>-. Evelyn in his Diary mentions him
as a skilful artist in the mechanical part of garden-
ing, not ignorant in mathematics, and with some
pretensions to astrology. He afterwards became a
partner with Lucre, Field, and London, in the
Brompton Park Nursery.

1. The Manner of Raising, Ordering, and Improving
Forest Trees. By Moses Cooke, Lond. 4to.

2. The Art of making Cider, published in Evdyn's vorks.

1677. Lawraice, Anthony.

Nurseries, Orchards, Profitable Gardens, and Vineyards en-
couraged. Lond. 4to.
1681. Langford, T.

1. Plain and full instructions to raise all Sorts of Fruit
Trees that prosper in England ; with Directions for making
Liquors of several Soru of Fruit. Lond. 1681. Svo.

2. The Practical Planter of Fruit Trees. Lond. 1681. 8vo.

3. Systemte Agricultune ; being the Mystery of Husbandry
discovered. Lond. 1681- fol.

1652. Meager, Leonard.

1. English Gardener; or, a Sure Guide to Young Planters
and Gardeners. Lond. 1683. Svo.

2. New Art of Gardening; with the Gardener's Almanack.
Lond. 1697. 8vo.

5. The Mystery of Husbandry. Lond. 1699. I'imo.

1653. Gilbert, Samuel, author of Fans Sanitatis ;
or, the Healing Spring at Willowbridge in Stafford-
shire.

1. The Florist's Vade Mecum. Lond. 12mo.

2. The (iardener's Almanack. By Sara. Gilbert, Phileremus.
In this small book is a particular description of the Roses
cultivated in the English gardens at that period, and verv
accurately described.

1683. Read, John, gardener to Sir George Mac-
kenzie of Rosehaugh in Aberdeenshire, one of the
earliest Scotch gardening authors.

The Scots Gardener ; whereunto is annexed, the Gardener's
Kalendar. Edin. 16S3, 4to.

1684. Bobart, Jacob, curator of the botanic garden
at Oxford.

Effects of the Great Frort on Trees and other Plants. iPhd.
Traiu. 1684. Abr.iii. page 89.)

1685. Tem})le, Sir William, a statesman of de-
served eminence, and a miscellaneous writer, was
born in London in 1628. He was ambassador for
many years at the court of Holland, and there ac-

quired his knowledge and taste in gardetiing. He
introtlucetl some good sorts of grapes antl other fruits,
and one variety of nectarine still bears his name ; he
had an excellent walled garden at Sheen in Surrey,
in which his contemporary Evelyn says his trees were
most exactlv trained. He had another seat at Moor
Park near Farnham in Surrey, where lie died in
1698, and his heart, by his desire, was buried in a
silver um under a sundial in the garden. He was
warmly attached to gardening and retired leisure,
and declares one of the greatest pleasures in life to
be " such a degree of liberty, as to be able to walk
at one's own pace, and one's own way."

Upon the Gardens of Epicurus ; or, of Gardening in the year
1685. (In his works, vol. i. Miscellanea.)

]t)85. Anon.

The Complete Planter and Ciderist. Svo.

1691. Gibson, J.

A short Account of several Gardens near London, as viewed in
1691. (Archaolnffia Britannica, tol. xii. p. 181.)

1699. Facia, Nicholas, of Duilhier, F.RS., a ma-
thematician, was bom in Switzerland in 1664. He
studied at Geneva, after which he settled at Utrecht
as a tutor, but was there suspected of Spinosism. In
1687 he came to England, where he taught mathe-
matics, was tutor to the Marquis of Tavistock, and
had a patent for jewel-watches; but when the
French prophets made their apjxjarance, he joined,
them in all their extravagancies, for which he stood
in the pillorj- in 1707. He died at Worcester in 1753.
Some of his papers are in the British Museum.

Fruit AValk improved bv inclining them to the Horizon ; or
a M'ay to build Walls for Fruit Trees, whereby they may re-
ceive "more Sunshine and Heat than ordinarv. By a Member
of the Royal Society. Lond. 4to. ^Vith Plates by Gribelin.

This is a very ingenious and scientific work, in which the
advantages of receiving the sun's rays at right angles are ma-
thematically and optically demonstrated.

1699. London and Wise, nurserymen and garden-
architects, and the most eminent in their line at
the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the
eighteenth centiury. George London -was appren-
tice to Rose, the royal gardener, and sent by him to
France to study the beauties of Versailles. On his
return he was made head gardener to Dr. Compton,
Bishop of London, and at the beginning of the
revolution, superintendant of the royal gardens,
at a salary of 2001. a-year, and page of the back-
stairs to Queen Mary. Of Wise little is known,
excepting that he laid out grounds ; and in parti-
cular Blenheim. Switzer says, London was a man
of singular activity ; and when on a tour of the
places at which he had concern, used to ride, at an
average, sixty miles a-day, which at last brought on
a fever, that occasioned his decease after a fort-
night's illness, in 1717.

The Complete Gardener : or Directions for Cultivating and
right_ Ordering of Fruit Gardens and Kitchen Gardens. With
the Gardener's Kalender, directing what is to he done every
Month in the Year. By Monsieur de la Quintinev. Xow
compendiously abridged, and made of more use; w'ith very
CMisiderable ImnrovemenU. By George London, and Henry
Wise. To which is prefixed, an Address to the Xobilitv and
Gentry. By J. Evelyn, Esq. L<Hid. 1717. Svo.

17(>4. Anon.

Dictionarium Rusticum ; or, a Dictionary of Hnsbandry,
Gardening, Trade, and Commerce. 2 vols. 8vo. with Cuts.

1706. Gentil.

Solitary or Carthusian Gardener ; being DiaI(K;ues between
a Gentleman and Gardener. Lond. Svo. Mtt>t probably a
translation from the French.

1707. Fleetwood, William, snccessively Bishop of
St. Asaph and Ely, and much ailmired as a popular
preacher, was born in London in 1656, published a
great number of sermons, and other works, and died
in 1723.

Curiosities of Nature and Art in Husbandry and Garden-
mg._ lx>nd. Svo.

1707. Mortimer, John, author of some tracts on
religious education. His works on husbandrv were
translated into Swetlish, and published in Stockholm
in 1727.

The whole Art of Husbandrv, in the way of managing and
improring of l«ind.

1712. Addison, Joseph, was bom at Milston in
Wiltshire, 1672, educated at Salisburv, Litchfield,
and Oxford ; he addressed some verses to Drvden
at the age of twenty-two ; obtained a pension of
oOO/. a-year in 1699 ; travelled on the continent for
three years; returned and assisted Steele in the
7rt//erand Spectator; married the Countess-Dow-
ager of Wanvick in 1716; became secretarv of
state; resigned on a pension of 1500/. a-vear,"and
died in 1719 at Holland House, Kensington, leaving
only one daughter, who died unmarrietl in 1797.

1. On the Causes of the Pleasures of the Imagination,
arising from the Works of Nature, and their Suiieriouiy over
those of Art. (Publi.hed in the Upectaior, No. 1 14.)

2. DescnpUon of a Garden in the Natural Style. (Ibid.
No. 477.)

1102

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

1714. Lawrence, or Laurence, John, M. A., an
eminent naturalist, admitted of Clare-hall, Cam-
bridge, B. A., 1688 ; presented to the rectory of Yel-
vertofi; in Northamptonshire, in 1703 ; where in three
years he improved a garden of thirty-two yards
square, the soil a wet white clay, so that it pro-
duced some of the choicest fruits. In 1721 he was
presented to the rectory of Bishops Wearmouth,
county of Durham, where he died in 1732. He is
described as of a hospitable and benevolent disposi-
tion, and taking great pleasure in presenting a rich
dessert of fruit to his friends. He was fond of gar-
dening, and considered it as a recreation particu-
larly suitable for a clergyman. " The most whole-
some kind of exercise, being ad rubore?n, twn ad
sudorem j such an exercise as studious men require ;
less violent than the sports of the field, and more so
than fishing; in fine, the happy medium."

The Clergyman's Recreation : shewing the Pleasure and
Profit of the Art of Gardening. Lond. fol.

1715. Snow, T , author of Apopiroscopy.

Arts, Improvements : or Experiments in Building, Agri-

culture. Gardening, &c. Lond. 8vo.

1715. Switzer, Stephen, a seedsman and artist-gar-
dener. To be addressed " At the Flower-pot over
against the Court of Common Pleas in Westminster
Hall ; or at his garden in Millbank, Westminster."
He is said to have been brought up under London
and Wise. He appears to have been well educated
for the time in which he lived, and it is remarkable
that so little is known of his history. He died in 1745.

1. Ichnographia; or the Nobleman, Gentleman, and Gar-
(flener's Itecreation : Directions for the General Distribution of
a Country seat into rural and extensive Gardens, Parks, Pad-
docks, &c. with a general System of Agriculture, illustrated
With a great variety of Copi)eri>lates, from the Author's
Drawings. Lond. 1718. 3 vols. 8vo.

2. The Practical Fruit Gardener. Lond. 1724. 8vo.

3. Compendious Method of raising Kitchen Vegetables.
Lond. 1729. 8vo.

4. An Introduction to a General System of Hydrostatics and
Hydraulics. Lond. 1729. 2 vols. 4to.

5. Dissertation on the true Cytisus of the Ancients. Lond.
1731. 8vo.

6. Universal System of Water and Water-works, Philoso-
phical. and Practical ; with Cuts. 1730. 2 vols. 4to. The
Third Edition, made very i)erfect and complete, especially
ttiat part which relates to the burning of clay.

1716. Bradley, Richard, F.R.S., a popular ivriter
of very considerable talent and indefatigable indus-
try, author of various treatises in natural history,
hu«bandry, &c. and Professor of Botany at Cam-
bridge. According to Professor Martyn, " he was
chosen into that otiice November the 10th, 1724, by
means of a pretended verbal recommendation from
Dr. Sherardto Dr. Bentley, and pompous assurances
that he would procure the university a public bo-
tanic garden by his own private purse and personal
interest The vanity of his promises was soon seen,
and his total ignorance of the learned languages
known. In 1731 it was in agitation to turn him out
of his professorship ; and he died in the latter end
of 1732. It may seem strange to assert, that the
translator of Xenophon's (Economicks did not un-
derstand Greek ; it is, however, true. Mr. Brad-
ley's being then a popular name, he was paid by the
booksellers for permitting them to insert it in the
title." He first made himself known to tTie public
in 1713, by two papers, printed in the twenty-ninth
volume of the Philosophical Transactions ; one On
the Motion of the Sap in Vegetables ; the other,
Microscopical Observations on Vegetation, and
on the quick Growth of Mouldiness on Melons.
From this time to his death he published two
volumes in folio, four in quarto, and nearly twenty
in octavo, on gardening, botany, and agriculture,
besides other publications on natural history and
the arts. Though Bradley's writings do not abound
in new discoveries, yet they are not destitute of in-
teresting knowledge, collected from contemporary
gardeners and from books. He was an advocate
for the circulation of the sap, and made several new
observations on the sexes of plants, in consequence
of the production of hybrid species, by which he
added strength to that doctrine. He wrote instruct-
ively on the germs of trees, on bulbs, on grafting,
and particularly on the methods of producing varie-
gated and double flowers ; and, on the whole, his
writings, coinciding with the growing taste for gar-
dening, the introduction of exotics, and improve-
ments in husbandry, contributed to excite a more
philosophical view of these arts, and diffuse a gene-
ral and popular knowledge of them throughout the
kingdom.

1. The History of Succulent Plants, with their Descrip-
tions and Manner of Culture, in five Decads. 1716.

2. New Improvement of Planting and Gardening, both
Philosophical and Practical, 1717. 8vo.

3. A new Improvement of Planting and Gardening, both
Philosophical and Practical, explainmg the Motion of the
Sap, and Generation of Plants ; with other Discoveries never
before made Public ; for the Improvement of Forest- "Trees,
Flower-Gardens, or Parterres; with a New Invention,
whereby more Designs of Garden Plats may be made in one
Hour, than can l)e found in all the books now extant. Like-
wise several rare Secrets for the Improvement of Fruit Trees,
Ivitchen Gardens, and Grcen-house Plants. To which is
now added, the Gentleman's and Gardener's C2ilendaT. The
whole illustrated with Copper Plates. 1720.

4. A Philosophical Account of the \Vorks of Nature ; en.
deavouring to set forth the several Gradations remarkable in
the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Parts of the Creation,
tending to the Composition of a Scale of Life. "To which is
added, an Account of the State of Gardening, as it is now in
Great Britain and other Parts of Europe, together with
.several New Exi)eriments relating to the Improvement of
Barren Ground, and the propagating of Timl»er trees. Fruit-
trees, &c. With many curious Cuts. 1721. 4to.

5. A Treatise on Husbandry and Gardening. 1721. 8vo.

6. The Monthly Register ot New Exiwriments and Observ-
ations in Husbandry and Gardening ; made for the months dl
-'Vpril and May 1722; .wherein is explained; 1. The Method
of" bringing Herbs, Flowers, and Fruits, to Perfection in the
Winter ; with an Account of a new invented wall, to forward
the ripening of Fruit, &c. 'A. An Account of transplanting
Forest-Trees and Fruit-Trees, of any bigness, in the Summer
season ; so that gentlemen may make complete Plantations in
a few days, as effectually as if they had been growing for
many years. Also a New Method for the Improvement of
Tulips. The second edition ; to which is added, 3. An An-
swer to some Objections lately made against the Circulation
of the Sap, mentioned in the Chapter of the Improvement of
Tulips. 1723. Svo.

7. A General Treatise of Husbandry and Gardening, con-
taining such Observations and Experiments as are new and
useful for the Improvement of Land ; with an Account of
such extraordinary Inventions and Natural Productions as
may help the Ingenious in their Studies, and promote uni-
versal learning. With variety of curious Cuts, Svo. 1723.
Dedicated to Sir Nicholas Carew, of Beddington, Surrey,
Bart., " whose delightful gardens would alone be enough to
draw upon him the admiration of that part of mankind who
study the pleasures and tranquility of life ," and whose " won-
derful orange-trees, first made familar to an English climato
by his noble ancestors, and the agreeable structure raised for
their preservation," are honorably noticed. The third and
last part (for August, September, and the remaining part of
the second year^ is inscribed to the Earl of Burlington,
" whose palaces and gardens give an example of his distin-
guishing genius ;" and has in it, among many other interest-
ing articles, " Observations concerning Vineyards and their
Produce, with some Account of the Vineyard near Bath."
This celebrated vineyard, it is stated, contains six acres of
ground; and in 1718 produced 66 hogsheads of wine, which
was then worth 660/. We are told, also, that in 1722, there
were still superior vines at Mr. Fairchild's at Hoxton, and at
Mr. Warner's at Rotherhithe.

8. A Philosophical Treatise of Agriculture; or, a New
-Method of cultivating and increasing all sorts of Trees,
Shrubs, and Flowers; being a very curious work, enriched
with useful Secrets in Nature, for helping the Vegetation of
all Sorts of Trees and Plants; and for fertilising the most
stubborn Soils. By G. A. Agricola, M. D. and Doctor of Phi-
losophy at Rattisbonne. Translated from the German, with
Remarks. Adorned with Cuts. The whole revised and
compared with the Original ; together with a Preface con-
firniing this new Method. 1723.

9. tamily Dictionary, containing the most approved Me-
thods for improving Estates and Gardens. 1726. t vols. fol.

10. Practical Discourses concerning the Four Elements, as
they relate to the Growth of Plants. 1727. 4to.

11. Botanical Dictionary, for the Use of the Curious in
Husbandry and Gardening. 1728. 2 vols- This was, it is be-
lieved, the first attempt of the kind in Bngland.

12. The Vineyard ; being a Treatise showing, 1. The
Nature and Method of Planting, Manuring, Cultivating, and
Directing of Vines ; 2. Proper Directions for Drawing, Pressing,
Making, Keeping, Fining, and Curing all Defects in the Wine ;
3. An Easy and Familiar Method of Planting and Raising
Vines to the greatest Perfection ; illustrated with several
useful Examplcs.jl728. Svo.

13. The Gentleman and Gardener's Kalendar, directing
what is necessary to be done in every Month in the Year, in
the Kitchen Garden, Fruit Garden, and Nursery ; Manage-
ment of Forest Trees, Green Houses, and Flower Garden,
with Directions for the making and ordering Hoj) Grounds.

14. A General Treatise of Husbandry and Gardening;
containing a new System of Vegetation ; illustrated witli
many Olwervations and Experiments, formerly published
Monthly, and now methodised and digested under jiroper
Heads, with Additions, and Alterations; in Four Parts.
2 vols. Svo.

1716. Stevenson, the Rev. Henry, of East Retford,
Nottinghamshire.

1. The Young Gardener's Director. Lond. 12rao.

2. The GenUeman Gardener Instructed. 8th edition. Lond.
1769. 12mo.

1717. Collins, Samuel, Esq., of Archerton in North-
amptonshire. ,

Paradise Retrieved ; demonstrating the most beneficial
Method of managing Fruit-Trees, with a Treatise on Melons
£ind Cucumbers. Lond. 1717- Svo.

1717. Evelyn, Charles, Esq., son of John Evelyn.

The Lady's Recreation ; or the Third and I-asl Part of the
Art of Gardening improved. Lond. 1/17. Svo.

1722. Fairchild, Thomas, commercial gardener at
Hoxton, where he had an excellent vineyard, and
was one of the principal nurserymen and florists of
his time. He first made himself known by a paper
in the Royal Society's Transactions (vol. xxxiii.
p. 127.), on the " different and sometimes contrary
motion of the aap in plants," and assisted in expe.

Book I.

BRITISH WORKS ON GARDENING.

1103

riments on vegetable eexuality. He died in 1729,
and left funds for a botanical sermon, which is deli-
vered annually on Whitsun Tuesday, at St. Leon-
ard's Shoreditch ; it was preached for many years
by Dr. Colin Milne, by whom it was published in
1779, and has since been continued by the Rev. Mr.
Ellis, of Merchant Taylors' school, who receives
three guineas out of the funds left by Fairchild for
each sermon.

The City Gardener; containing the Method of Cultivating
such Plan'u as will be Ornamental, and thrive best in the
London Gardens. 17'22. 8vo.

1724. yiiUer, PhUip, F.R.S., a celebrated botanist
and gardener, author of the Gardener's Dictionary,
and of several other works, was bom 1692. His
father, according to Professor Martyn, " was gar-
dener to the Company of Apothecaries, and he suc-
ceeded his father in that office in 1722." We have
been informed, however, by Watts, a nurserj-man
at Acton, one of the few surviving gardeners who
worked under him, that Miller's father was a mar-
ket-gardener, somewhere about Deptford or Green-
wich, and that Miller himself was a commercial
florist, and had a small garden near the situation of
the present King's Bench Prison in Surrey. He
was considered an ingenious florist, and was selected
by the apothecaries as their gardener, on the per-
petual grant of the garden-ground by Sir Hans
Sloane in 1722 It appears also from Field's History
of the Chelsea Garden (pub. 1821) that there is no
evidence that Miller succeeded his father. MiUer
" raised himself, by his merit, from a state of obscu-
rity, to a degree of eminence, rarely, if ever before
equalled, in the character of a gardener. He added
to his knowledge of the theory and practice of gar-
dening, that of the structure and characters of
plants, and was practically versed in the methods of
Hay, Toumefort, and Linnaeus. He adopted the
system of the latter in the seventh edition of his
work with great reluctance ; but was convinced at
length by the arguments of Sir W. Watson and W.
Hudson. He maintained a correspondence with
the most eminent botanists on the continent ; among
others, with Linnaeus, who said his Dictionary was
not merely one of gardening, but of botany. 'Son
erat Lexicon Hortulanorum, sed Bofanicorum. By
other foreigners he was emphatically styled Hortu-
lanorum Princeps, the * Prince of Gardeners.' To
his superior skill the curious owe the culture and
preservation of many fine plants, which would
otherwise have been lost" His infirmity. Professor
Martj-n continues, " induced him to resign his office
a little time before his decease, which took place in
1771, in his eightieth year." He was consulted by
gentlemen on the subject of planting and laying out
grounds, and particularly by the Dukes of Bedford,
Northumberland, and liichniond. He had many
pupils, among whom were the late Mr. Forsyth
and W. Aiton. John Ellis, who seems to have had
some pique at Miller, says, he was turned out of the
garden for his obstinacy and impertinence to the
apothecaries, but his salary continued. His vanity,
he says, was so raised by his voluminous publica-
tions, that he considered no man to know anything
but himself; "though Gordon, Aiton, and Lee,
have been long infinitely superior to him in the
nicer and more delicate parts of gardening." Ac-
cording to Field's tract, he gave in his resignation
in consequence of some altercation or misunder-
standing with his employers. This happened in
1769, when he removed to a house close by that
part of the Chelsea churchyard where he was
buried, and near which an obelisk was erected to
his memory by the Horticultural Society in 1810.
He was succeeded by the late W\ Forsyth, F.A.S.

!• The (jardener's and Florist's Dictionary, or a complete
System of Horticulture. 2 vols. Svo. Lond.

This work was recommended by the most famous garden-
ers and nurserymen of that time ; bv Thomas Fairchild at
Hoxton, Robert Furber at Kensington, Robert Smith at
Vanxhall, Samuel Driver at Lambeth, .Moses .Fames at Stand-
Mte, Obadiah Low at Battersea, Christopher Gray at Fulham,
Benjamin Whitmill at Hoxton, Francis Hunt' at Putney,
and William Gray junior at Fulham. Weston savs, these
persons were united in a society for the improvement of gar-
dening ; that MiUer acted as "their secreUry ; and that this
work was in som^degree the produce of their joint efforts.

2. Seven years after this .Aliller published his Gardener's
Dictionary in folio. This is commonly regarded as the first
edition, and is entitled " The Gardener's Dictionary ; con-
taing the Methods of cultivating and improving the Ritchen,
Fruit, and Flower Garden. As also, the Physic Garden,
Wilderness, Conservatory, and Vineyard, according to the
Practice of the most experienced Gardeners of the present
age. Interspersed with the History of the Plants, the Cha-
racters of each Genus, and the Names of all the particular
Species, in Latin and English; and an Explanation of all
the Terms used in Botany and Gardening. Together with

Accounts of the Nature and Use of Barometers, Thermo-
meters, and Hygrometers pro|>er for Gardeners ; and of the
Origin, Causes, and Nature of the Meteors, and the particu.
lar Influences of Air, Earth, Fire, and Water upon Vegeta-
tion, according to the bekt natural Philosophers. Adorned

th Cooper Plates. By Philip MiUer, Gardener to the
Botanic Garden at Chelsea, and V .R.S.

The seventh edition is entitled, " The Gardener's Dic-
tionary : containing the best and newest Methods of culti-
Tating and improving the Ivilchen, Fruit, Flower Garden,
and Nursery. As also for performing the practical Parts cA
Agriculture : including the Management of Vineyards, with
the Methods of Making and Preserving the Wine, accordme
to the present Practice of the most skilful \'ignerons in the
several Wine Countries in Europe. Together with Directions
for Propagating and Improring, from real Practice and Ex-
perience, all Sorts of Timber Trees.

The nmth or Professor Martyn's edition, is distinguished
by the arrangement of the matter, and the completeness ot
the enumeration of sf^cies ; all being included which are to
be found in the fourteenth edition of Linnsus's Sifttenm Vegt
taliilium, with the exception of the minute tribes of mosses,
algae, or seaweeds, and ftingi or mushrooms; of which th^
generic characters are commonly given, together with such
si>ecies as are used in food, or in any of the arts. In all the
former editions of the dictionary, the culture was generally
mixed with the descriptions of the sjiecies, and was frequently
repeated several times under the same genus, but here th*
scientific, popular and practical parts being kept sc]>arate
they may each be consulted with facility ; and what was bt'
fore confused, now becomes distinct andobvfous.

This laborious work. Professor Martyn observes, is the re-
sult of the unwearied application of what talents he possesses,
and time he could spjire from the duties of his profession
during tiveiity years ; no attention or industry has been want
ing on his part ; and he has strained every nerve to render it
as complete in its kind as the nature of so extensive an under-
talcing will allow.

3. On a .Alethod of Raising some Exotic Seeds. (Phil. Trans,
Abr. vii. 250. l"2S.j^

4. On the early Flowering of Tulips, and other Bulbooa
Plants, when placed in Bottles filled with Water. (lb. 4C7.)

1726. UTiitmiU, Benedict.

The Gardener's Universal Calendar. Lond. Svo.

1727. / . S .

The Vineyard ; being a Treatise, showing the Manner of
Planting and cultivating Vines, in Foreign Parts; Directions
for making Wines: Method of Planting \'ines in Englaisd.
New Experiments in Grafting and Inoculating all .Sorts ct
FVuits; the best Methodofraismg several Sorts ^comiwunded
FruiU. Svo

1728. Castel, Robert, a London architect and an-
tiquary.

"The villas of the ancients, illustrated with cuts. Lond. fol.

1728. Langley, Batty, an architect of houses and
gardens; born 1696, at Twickenham, where he
resided J author of several architectural works.

1. Practical Geometry, applied to the Arts of Building
Surveying, Gardening, and Mensuration. Lond. 17V!6.

2. The Sore Method of Improving an Estate by Plantations
of Oak, Elm, Ash, Birch, and o'her Timber Trees. Lond.

1728. 4to.

3. Pomona, or the Fruit Garden Illustrated : being the sure
Method of Preserving the best Kinds of Fruit ; with Direc-
lions for Pruning, Nailing, Thinning, &c. With Cuts. Lond.

1729. fol.

4. New Principles of Gardening ; or, the Laving out Pastures,
Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, farks, &c.

1729. Cowel, John, gardener at Hoxton.

1. Account of the Olive in Blossom, Torch Thistle, and
Glastonbury Thorn. Lond. Svo.

2. Curious and Profitable Gardener, containing the newest
Methods for improving Land by Grain or Seed, also a Descrip-
tion of his Great Aloe, and other exotics, with his Manner of
preserving them in Winter. Svo.

1729. Triewald, Martin, Director of Mechanics,
Sweden, author of some papers in the transactions
of the Royal Society. An account of tulips and such
bulbous plants, blowing much sooner when their
bulbs are placed upon bottles filled with water, than
when planted in the ground. {Phil. Trans, vol.
xxxvii. 80, 81.)

1730. A Society of Gardeners. This society con-
sisted of the most eminent florists and nurserymen of
the time, who state in their preface, that'finding
great inconvenience from the unsettled and vague
nomenclature of plants which then existed, they re-
solved to undertake this work for the public benefit.
The/ published only one part, dedicated to Thomas
Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, and a preface
enumerating the most eminent encouragers of gar-
dening of the time. Weston and Martin conjecture
that this work gave rise to the folio edition of
Millers' Dictionary, which appeared in 1731 (the
Svo. in 1724.), Miller being secretary to the society.

1730. The Gardener's Catalogue. — Catalogus Arborum Fru-
ticumque turn Exoticarum tum Domesticarum, Sec. or The
Gardener's Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs, both Exotic and
Domestick, which are hardy enough to endure the Cold of our
Climate in the open Air, range«l in an Alphabetical Order,
according to their most approved I>atin Names ; with an Index
of the English Names referring to the Latin. To which is
added the Characters of each (Jenus in English, and a short
-Account of the different Growths of each Tree or Shrub, illus-
trated with 21 Copper Plates, in which there are above 50 beau-
tiful Plants which were designed by the famous Mynheer Van
HuTsum, and are represented in their proper Colours. Done
by a Society of Gardeners, price 1/. lU. 6d. stitched, in foL

1104

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

1732. Anon.

1. Essay concerning the best methods of Pruning Fruit-
trees, also the Method oF Pruning Timt)Cr Trees, and also a Dis-
course concerning the improvement of the Potatoe. London. 8vo.

'2. The Flower Garden displayed, in above 400 represent-
ations of the most beautiful Flowers, with the description and
history of each plant, and the method of their culture.

1732. Furber, Robert, of Kensington, nurseryman,
who published a number of separate prints of all the
different kinds of fruits grown in this country. His
nursery is now in the possession of Messrs. Malcolm
and Co.

1. Fruits for every month in the year, in fol. 12 Plates.

2. An Introduction to Gardening, or Guide to Gentlemen
and Ladies in furnishing their Gardens, being several useful
Catalogues of fruits and (lowers. Loud. 8vo. 1733.

1732. More, Sir Thomas.

A Flower Garden for Gentlemen and Ladies, or the Art of
raising Flowersto blow in the depth of winter, also the method
of raising Salletin;,', Cucuniliers, &c. at any time of the year.

1732. Murraij, Sir Alexander, of Stanhope, author
of some political works relative to Scotland.

The nature and method of Planting, Manuring, and Diet-
ing a Vineyard.

1735. A Lady.
' Merlin: a Poem; humbly inscribed to her Majesty. To
\rhich is added. The Royal Hermitage, a Poem. Both by a
Lady, with several curious representations both of the Cave
and Hermitage. 1735. 8vo.

1735. Anon.

The Rarities of Richmond : being exact Descriptions of the
Hermitage, and Merlin's Cave, in the Gardens there. 1735.
8vo. with his Life and Prophecies. 1756.

1738. EUis, William, a farmer at Little Gaddesdon,
near Hempstead in Hertfordshire, author of Com-
plete Husbandry, and other farming works.

The Timber Tree improved ; or the best practical methods
of improving different lands with proper timber. Lond. 8vo.

1738. Anon.

The Complete Seedsman's Monthly Calendar, shewing
the best and most easy Method for raising and cultivating
every sort of Seed belonging to a Kitchen and Flower Garden :
with necessary Instructions for sowing of Berries, Mast, and
Seeds, of Evergreens, Forest Trees, and such as are proper
for the improveing of Land. \Vritten at the command of a
Person of Honour. Lond. 8vo.

1739. Anon.

An Essay upon Harmony ; as it relates chiefly to Situation
and Building. 8vo. 1739.

1739. Trowel, Snfuuel.

A new Treatise of Husbandry and Gardening.

1740. Gray, Christopher, a nurseryman at Ful-
ham ; a correspondent with many of the eminent
botanists of his time, and the first who received the
magnolia grandiflora from America, and propa-
gated it extensively.

A Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs which are prepared for
sale by Christopher Gray, Nurseryman at Fulham.

1744. A/ion.

Adam's Luxury and Eve's Cookery, or the Kitchen Oarden
displayed. 8vo.

2. Curious Experiments in Gardening ; modes of Propaga-
tion, &c. illustrated by woodcuts. 12mo. 1730.

1744. Watson, William, M.D. F.R. S. was born in
Ix)ndon, in 1715, educated at Merchants-taylors'
school, and served his time to an apothecary. He
made discoveries in electricity, for which he ob-
tained the Copley medal, and was honored with
the degree of doctor in physic by two German uni-
versities. He died May 10. 1787. Besides papers in
the Philosophical Transactions and the London
Medical Observations, he wrote An Account of
Experiments on inoculating for the Small-pox.

1. On the Culture of Mushrooms.

2. Account of the Remains of John Tradescant's Botamc
Garden at Lambeth. ,, , „ „

3. Account of the Bishop of London's Garden at Fulham.

1746. Stephenson, David, M.A. author of ^ ]S,ew
Mechanical Practice of Physic.

■ Gentleman's Gardener's Director of Plants, Flowers, and
Trees; with a Garden Kalendar. Lond. 1746. 8vo.

1747. Ano7i. ^ ,„^

The Compleat Florist, 8vo. It consists ot 100 copper-plates
and flowers, colored and plain.

1748. Anon.

A Dialogue upon the Gardens of Lord Viscount Cobham, at
Stowe in Berks. 8to.

1749. Dickson, James and Co., nurserymen and
seedsmen, Edinburgh. ^ „ ^.

Catalogue of Hot-house, Green-hoUse, Hardy, and Herba-
ceous Plants, Flowering and Evergreen Shrubs, Fruit and
Fruit Trees. Edinb. 8vo. An enlarged e<Ution in 1796,
enumerating in alpbabeUcal order all the plants described m
the Hortus Kewensis.

1750. Bickham, George.

The Beauties of Stowe, with cuts, 8vo.

1752. Anmi.

An Account of the Emperor of China's Gardens at Pekm.
8vo.

1753. Anon.

The Kitchen and Flower Garden complete, in four sheets.
1753. Coventry, Francis, was born in Cambridge-
shire, and educated at the Magdalen-college, Cam-
bridge, where he took his master's degree in 1752,
and entered into orders. He died in 1759, having

just before been presented to the donative of Edge-
ware. He wrote Penshurst, a poem in Dodsley's
collection, and a poetical epistle to the honorable
Wilmot Vaughan.

Strictures on the Absurd Novelties introduced in Garden-
ing, and a humourous Description of Squire Mushroom')
villa. (Published in the World, a periodical work. No. XV
April 12. U53.)

1753. llocque, Bartholomew, a florist of Walham
Green ; author of some agricultural works : a great
advertiser of grasses; sowed mixtures in his grounds,
and sold the turf at so much per square foot to pro-
pagate from ; extolled the burnet and lucern, parti-
cularly the former : patronised by the Duke of
Cumberland. Switzer speaks of a similarly named
person, probably the father, who had a vineyard
planted in a common field-garden, from which he
made wine for thirty years ; and althougii the
ground was flat, the wine was as good as that of Or-
leans and Auxerre.

A Treatise on the Hyacinth ; containing the manner oi
cultivating that Flower, on the experience lately made by
the most eminent Florists in Holland ; translated from the
Dutch. Lond. 1755. 8 vo.

1754. Justice, James, Esq., F. R. S., one of the
principal clerks of session, or civil court of law, in
Scotland. His father was a merchant, and dealing
with the Dutch, imported flower-roots, which it has
been said first gave the subject of this memoir a
taste for gardening. He had a villa and large gar-
den at Crichton, near Dalkeith, where he finally
spent his fortune, in gardening pursuits, and was
obliged to dispose of the property. Here, he prac-
tised gardening for thirty years : went twice to Hol-
land to study the culture of bulbs, and also visited
Italy ; and " satisfied the most learned societies in
Britain of his practice and knowledge of the culture
of the nicest flowers, and of plants, both exotic and
indigenous, which adorn our British gardens. The
Ananas," he says (1754), "though now in many gar.
dens, were first brought to fruit in Scotland by me ;
I can with truth affirm, that no person in this coun-
try bestowed more liberality upon improvements in
gardening than I did, for the truth of which I can
appeal to many of my countrymen. " He died about
1762 or 3.

1. The Scots Gardener's Director. By James Justice.
Edinb. 8vo.

2. A new edition, entitled. The British Gardener's Director,
chiefly adapted to the Climate of the Northern Counties :
directing the necessary works in the Kitchen, Fruit, and
Pleasure Gardens, and in the Nursery, Green-house, and
Stove. By James Justice, F.R.S., one of the principal Clerks
of Session. Edinburgh, 1764. 8vo — The Advertisement, dated
September 1763, sets forth, that the first impression beiiig sold
off, the author set about correcting mistakes, and making
additions ; but that his death deprived the world of his after-
labors, which the memorandums and notes left behind him
gave room to think he intended to have laid before the pub-
lic. — This is an original and truly valuable work, founde<l
upon reflection and experience.

3. An edition in 17G4, arranged as a Monthly Kalendar,
and very different from any of the others.

1754. R S .gentleman.

The Gardener's Pocket Book, or Country Gentleman's Re-
played in Alphabetical Order.

; being the Kitchen, Fruit, and Flower-Garden, dis-

1755. HUl, John, M.D., a miscellaneous writer,
was the son of a clergyman, and born about 1716.
He served his time to an apothecary in Westminster,
and in that situation studied botany, which procured
him the patronage of the Duke of Richmond and
Lord Petrc, who employed him in their gardens.
In 1746 he translated the tract of Theophrastus On
Getns; which was followed by^ General Natural
History, in 3 vols, folio. He next engaged in com-
piling a supplement to Chamber's Cyclopaedia j and
at the same time published a periodical paper called
The Inspector. Having obtained a doctor's de-
gree from St. Andrew's, he endeavored to get
elected into the Royal Society; but being disap-
pointed, he attacked that learned body, first m a
pamphlet, and next in a quarto volume, written
with asperity and acuteness. His facility in writing
was very great, and there was hardly a popular sub-
ject on which he did not exercise his pen, so that in
some years he is said to have realised fifteen hundred
pounds. He also gained considerably by quack me-
dicines, and was much encouraged by the Earl of
Bute, under whose auspices he published A System
of Botany, in 26 vols, folio ; for which he received
the order of Vasa from the King of Sweden. He
died Nov. 22. 1775. Besides the works already men-
tioned he wrote some novels and farces. Hill had a
dispute with Garrick, and another with Woodward
the comedian ; the former answered him in an epi-
gram, and the latter in a pamphlet, with this motto
from Shakespeare : " I do remember an apothecary
cuUing of simples." This alluded to a story that

Book I.

BRITISH WORKS ON GARDENING.

1105

Hill was excluded firom some nobleman's gardens
for having carried off several valuable plants.

A short account of his life, writings,_ and cha-
racter was published at Edinburgh in 17/9, and his
widow, Lady Jane Hill, published An Address to
the Public, setting forth the Consequences of his
Acquaintance with the Earl of Bute. 1788. 4to.

I. A Method of raising Trees from the I>eaves. By John
Hill, M.D. Svo. 175S, under the name of Thomas Barnes.

?. Eden ; or a complete Body of Gardening. London, fol.
Colored plates 60.

3. Complete Body of Husbandry, with plates, fol.

4. The Gardener's New lialendar. By John Hill, M.D.
Lond. with plates.

5. An Idea of a botanical Garden in England, 1738.

6. An Account of a Stone, which on being watered pro-
duces Mushrooms. London, 1758. 8to. Plates 2.

7. A Method of producing Double Flowers from Single,
bj a regular Course of Culture, illustrated with Figures.

' Lond. 1758. Plates "• „ „

8. The Origin and Production of Proliferous Flowers,
with the Culture at large for raising Double from Smgle,
and Proliferous from the Double. Lond. 1759. Svo. Plates 7.

9. THe Practice of Gardening by T. Perfect, a pupil of
Dr. Hill. London. 1759. Svo.

10. Botanical Tracts. Lond. 1762. 8to. — A title prefixed to
pamphlets published at different times.

II. The Construction of Timber explained by the Micro-
soope. 1770. Svo.

1755. Hitt, Tho7nas, gardener to Lord Robert
Manners, at Bloxholme in Lincolnshire, afterwards
a nurser>-man in Kent and a designer of gardens.
He wrote on husbandry, and the improvement of
barren lands in Aberdeenshire, of which county he
seems to have been a native. He died about 1770,
and his papers came into the possession of Hea-
der, gardener to the Duke of Northumberland, who
published from them the Universal Gardener.

A Treatise on Fruit Trees, Lond. Svo. An original work,
valuable for its mode of training trees.

1756. Anon.

On the Heat and Cold of Hot-houses.

1757. Chambers, Sir WiHiam ; an eminent archi-
tect, was born in Sweden 1726, but his ancestors
were of Scottish origin. He was brought to England
at the age of two years, and placed in a school at
Rippon. His tirst entrance into public life was in
the capacity of supercargo to a Swedish East India
ship, in which he made one vojage to China. On
his return he quitted the sea, and applied to archi-
tecture, under the patronage of Lord Bute, by whose
interest he was appointed drawing-master to the
late king, then Prince of Wales. His first employ-
ment as an architect was in building a villa for Lord
Besborough, at Roehampton, after which, he was
engaged to lay out the royal gardens at Kew, where
he introduced the Chinese ornaments. In 1771 he
was honored with the Swedish order of the Polar
Star, and in 1775 appointed to conduct the building
of Somerset House. He was at this time a fellow of
the royal society, and a member of that of anti-
quaries ; besides which he held the places of archi-
tect to the king, surveyor-general to the board of
works, and treasurer of the royal academy. He died
in 1796, aged 69.

1. Designs for Chinese Buildings, Furniture, Dresses, Ma-
chines, and Utensils, engraved from the originals drawn in
China ; to which is annexed, A Description of their Temples,
Houses, Gardens, &c. Lond. 1757. max. fol.

2. Plans, Elevations, Sec;ions, and Perspective Views of
the Gardens and Buildings at Kew in Surrey, the seat of her
Royal Highness the Princess of Wales. Lond. 1763- fol. 1765.
fol.42r. A very splendid work.

3. Dissertations on Oriental Gardening. London, 1774.
4to. 5*.

1757. Spence, Joseph, D.D., Professor of poetry in
the university of Oxford, author of an essay on
Pope's works, Crito, and other well known and
esteemed works. He was the friend of Lord Wal-
pole ; is styled by the latter a man of judgment and
taste in gardening. He was bom in 1698, and died
in 1768.

Some Account of the Emperor of China's Gardens, &c. By
Sir Jlarry Beaumont. Lond. 8vo.

17o/. Anon., erroneously attributed by Nichols
{Lit. Anecdotes) to John Baynes, who died before
the poems below were published ; by some to
Mason, the author of the English Garden.

1. An Heroic Epistle to Sir W'm. Chambers. 4to.

2. An Heroic Postscript. 4to. 1758.

These poems are ranked junong the most spirited satires of
Oieage.

1757. Tho77ipson, John, a commercial gardener at
Newcastle upon T>-ne.

1. The distinguishing Properties of a fine Auricula. New-
castle. Svo.

2. The Dutch Florist. Newcastle. 12mo. 1758.

1758. Hanbury, the Rev. William, rector of Church
Langton, Lancashire, died 1778.

1. An E>say on Planting, and a Seheme to make it con-
ducive to the glorv of God, and the advantage of Society. Svo.

2. A complete liody of Planting and Gardening, contain-
ing the Natural Historv, Culture, and Management of Deci-

4

duous and Evergreen Forest -trees, &c.; the whole forming a
complete History of Timber-trees, whether raised in ForesU,
Plantations, or Nurseries ; as well as a general System oi
the present Practice of the Flowor, Friiit, and Kitchen-
Gardens. To be completed in about 140 sixpenny weekly
numbers, from December 1769, in two volumes, folio.

1758. Marsham^ Robert, Esq. F.R.S., of Stratton,
in Norfolk.

1. Observations on the Growth of Trees. {PkU. Trans.
Abr. xi. 320. 1758.)

2. On the Usefulness of Washing and Rubbing the Stems
of Trees to promote their Annual Increase, (lb. xiv. Iic4.
1776.) The same. (lb. xv. 138. 1781.)

3. Indications of Spring, (lb. xvi. 561. 1789.)

4. On the Measures of Trees, (lb. xviii. 100. 1797.)

1759. Barnes, Thmnas, a fictitious name adopted
by Sir John Hill for his first gardening publication.
(See HUl, John, 1755.)

1759. North, , a nurseryman at Lambeth, on

the grounds now occupied as a nursery by John
Hay.

1. Treatise on Grasses, and the Norfolk M'illow.

2. Gardener's Catalogue of Hardy Trees, Shrubs, Flowers,
Seeds, &c. Svo.

1759. Perfect, Thomas, inventor of the new Oiinese
parterres, a name adopted by Sir John Hill, and
supposed to be that of a famous nurseryman si Pom-
fret in Yorkshire. See HUl, John, 1755.)

1759. StUlingfieet, Benjamin, an ingenious natur-
alist and miscellaneous writer, bom about 1702;
died 1771.

His Literary Life and select Works, by William Cox. Lond.
1811. 3 vols. 'Svo. They contain a Calendar of Flora, and
some curious essays towards a history of husbandry.

1760. Anon.

The London Gardener. Svo.

1760. Haddington, Earl of, a Scotch nobleman,
whose residence was at Tynningham, near Dunbar,
where he made considerable plantations for the time
and country ; he was a general encourager of im-
provements ; died about 1787.

A Treatise on Forest Trees. Edin. Svo.

1760. Lee, James, of the firm of Messrs. Kennedy
and Lee, nurserymen at the Vineyard, Hammer-
smith, a native of Scotland ; some time under Miller
at Chelsea, afterwards gardener to the Duke of Ar-
gyle at Whitton, and next he commenced the nur-
sery with Kennedy, then gardener to I^rd Bolton
at Chiswick. Lee was a correspondent of Linnseus*
and most of the American botanists of the time,
and is mentioned by John Ellis as one of the tirst
gardeners. His elements of botany have contri-
buted, perhaps more than any other work, to spread
a knowledge of the Linniean system among garden,
ers. He died in 1795, and was succeeded by his son
of the same name, an ardent lover and liberal pro-
moter of gardening improvements. (See 7518.)

1. Introduction to Botany ; containing an Explanation of
the Theory of that Science, and an Interpretation of its
Technical Terms, extracted from the Works of Linneeus, &c. ;
with 12 plates. Lond. Svo.

2. Catalogue of Plants and Seeds, sold by Kennedy and
Lee, Nurserymen at the \'inevard. Hammersmith.

1760. P'ullein, Samuel, 'M. A., author of different
publications on the silkworm, mulberry, and cotton-
plant.

Observations towards a Method of Preserving the Seeds
Plants in a state rf Vegetation, diuring long Voyages, hood.
Svo.

1760 to 1780. Various authors. The following
works contain some pleasing and valuable observ-
ations on modem gardening, and are generally con-
sidered as having contributed to spread a taste for
that style : —

1. Warton's Essay on t)ie Writings and Genius of Pope.
Vol. ii. from p. 236. to p. 248. and p. 262. 1762.

2. The first article in the 2d volume of the Antiquarian Re-
pertory is a pleasing description of " AMiite Knights, the seat
of Sir Henry Englefield, Bart, one of the first examples rf the
fermeornSe.^ 1761.

3. Letters concerning the present state of England. Svo.
1772. Letter 26.

4. A Tour to London, by Grodey; translated by Ntigent.
Svo. 1772. Vol.u. p. 115.

5. Knox's Essays- Vol. U. 4th edit. No. 91. and No. 1 17-

6. Laelius and Hortensia. By Dr. Stedman.- Svo. 1782.
Letters 5 and 6.

To these may be added from the poets: The Description
of the Grotto of Calypso, and of the Garden of Alcinous, in
Pope's Odyssey ; of the old Corycian's Garden, in Dnden's
Virgil ; of the Garden of Armida, in Hoole's Tasso ; various
passages in Milton's Paradise Lost, Thomson's Seasons, and
other poems.

Among prose writers may be referred to : The Description
of the Vale of Tempe, in -SHian's Various History ; of Vaucluse
and Petrarch's Garden, from Mrs. Dobson's Life of Petrarch ;
Petrarch's Description of Sylva Piana; Smollett's Travels
through France and Italy, vol. ii. Letter ^1. dated 1765 ;
Gouijh's British Topografihy, p. 138. Oxfordshire ; Critical
Review for October, 177 . p 312. and August, 1783 ; and the
preface to Girardin's Landscape. To these might be added,
various papers in the Gentleman's, Universal, and other ma-
gazines, published about this lime, ai ~
topographical works of the same date.

B

1106

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

1760. Anon.

Adam armed : or an Essay endearourtng to prove the Ad-
vantages and Improvements the Kingdom may receive, and
the Inconveniences and Impediments it may avoid and re-
medy, by the Means of a well-ordered and duly rectified
Charter for Incorporating and Regulating the Professors of the
Artof Gardening ; humbly offered and presented by the Master
and Company of the same. Fol. no date ; supposed about 1760.

1762. Home, Henry, . commonly called Lord
JCaimes, from his official legal situation ; an
eminent Scotch lawyer, philosopher, and critic, was
born at Kajmes in Berwickshire, 1696 ; died 1782.
He was originally bred a writer or attorney, but by
assiduous application raised himself to be a judge.
He farmed his own estate at Kaimes for several
years ; and afterwards resided at Blairdrummond
in Stirlingshire, his wife's estate, where he displayed
his taste in laying out grounds. His life has been
written by Lord Woodhouselee.

Essay on Gardening ; in the Elements of Criticism. Lond.
3 vols. 8vo. In this work he recomnjends a judicious use of
both the ancient and modem styles.

1763. Wheeler, James, a nurseryman at Glou-
cester. After his death the nursery was carried on
by his two daughters, who separated some years
ago, and it is now carried on by one of them.

The Botanist's and Gardener's New Dictionary ; containing
the Names, Classes, Orders, Generic Characters, and Specific
Distinctions of the several PlanU cultivated in England, ac-
cording to the System of Linneus : to which is prefixed, an In-
troduction to the Linnean System of Botany. Lond. 1763. 8 vo.

1764. Dodsley, Robert, an ingenious English poet,
miscellaneous writer, and bookseller ; was born in
Nottinghamshire, 1703.

A Description of the Leasowes, the Seat of William Shen-
Btone, Esq., accompanied by a Plan. Lond. I'imo.

1764. Museujn Rusticutn, a periodical work, con-
taining various papers on planting and horticulture.
Museum Rusticum et Commerciale ; or select Papers on Ag-
riculture, Commerce, Arts, and Manufactures. Drawn from
experience, and communicated by Gentlemen engaged in these
PursuiU. Revised and digested by several Members of the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and
Commerce: in 6 vols. 8vo.

The Museum Rusticum was succeeded by a similar work in
17GS, entitled De re rtutica, completed in 2 vols. 8vo. in 1770.
1764. Shenstone, Willinm, Esq., a poet and coun-
try gentleman, celebrated for his taste in landscape-
gardening; bom in Shropshire 1714, died 1763.

Unconnected Thoughts on Landscape Gardening. In his
works collected after his death, in 3 vols. 8vo. Lond.

1766. Abercrombie, John, son of John Abercrombie,
who had a nursery and garden in the neighborhood
of Edinburgh ; and was in the habit of supplying
the markets of that city with vegetables.

John Abercrombie, our author, was born in 1726;
and was educated at a grammar school, till he at-
tained an age to be of service in his father's busi-
ness, for which he had always a predilection. After
he had arrived at manhood, on some trifling family
differences occuring, he left his father, and came
to London ; in the vicinity of which he worked for
some years as a journeyman gardener. To note the
particulars of most interest, he was long employed
in the Royal Gardens at Kew, and at Leicester
House, now Leicester Fields; and in these situ-
ations he occasionally contributed to the boyish
diversions of his present majesty. He lived as
principal gardener with several noblemen and per-
sons of high rank and respectability, and particu-
larly with that eminent botanist. Doctor Munro
(father of the present celebrated physician), at
Sunning Hill, near Windsor : here he continued
several years, and was married while in the doctor's
service, to a young woman in the family of Sir
James Douglas, where he had before lived. He
afterwards had a garden and nursery at Hackney,
whence he sent his goods to Spitalfields Market ;
and the profits of his business enabled him to sup-
port his increasing family with comfort and decency.
At this crisis, some time about 1770, Mr. L. Davis,
an eminent bookseller of London, accompanied by
Dr. Oliver Goldsmith, having previously ordered a
handsome entertainment at an inn in Hackney,
surprised Abercrombie with an invitation to dine
with them with a view to induce him, by encou-
raging overtures, to compose an original work
on Practical Gardening. Abercrombie consented,
with reluctance, fearful it might call off his at-
tention too much from his garden and nursery;
and at last, only on the condition of his materials
being revised, and the style improved by Dr. Gold-
smith. This celebrated writer, however, did not
perform his part of the undertaking: after the
papers had been handed to him by the humble
gardener, then an inexperienced writer, and anxious
to have his luxuriances pruned, the doctor said, as
an apology to the bookseller for returning the MS.
unrevised, that " Abercrombie's style was best

suited to the subjects of which ittreated." Abercrom-
bie, however, frequently lamented, and the public
possibly may do the same, that this very perspicuous
and elegant writer did not fulfil his engagement.

Abercrombie's first work was entitled Every
Man his own Gardener, which had a rapid sale;
and, from the temporary profits being considerable,
he was induced to neglect, and soon after to give
up, his nursery ; and to enter upon a course pf au-
thorship on horticultural subjects.

On first publishing Every Man his own Gar-
dener, the dififidence of Abercrombie induced him
to affix to the title-page the name of Mawe, who
was gardener to the Duke of Leeds. After the
publication of a second edition, he accepted of an
invitation from the nominal author of his book,
who had been much flattered by the compliment,
to visit him in Yorkshire. When introduced to
Mawe, whom he had never before seen, poor Aber-
crombie (as he used facetiously to narrate) encoun-
tered a gentleman so bepowdered, and so bedaubed
with gold lace, that he thought he could be in the
presence of no less a personage than the duke him-
self However, they soon came to a right under-
standing ; for he continued his visit for more than
a fortnight, and " fared sumptuously every day."
He likewise received much information from
Mawe, as the groundwork of improvements which
he afterwards made in his book. Every Man his own
Gardener, and in other publications. They subse-
quently maintained a friendly correspondence for
years.

About the year 1774, Abercrombie took a tea-
garden at Hoxton, near the Shepherd and Shep-
herdess ; and exhibited In the grounds his practical
skill in raising exotics and choice fruits: his arbors
there are, to this day, spoken of as rural curiosi-
ties. In different parts of the garden he was ac-
customed to fix pieces of his own humble poetry.

At length he left it, on the expiration of the
lease, which he was unable to get reneweii. Un-
fortunately, just before the lease had expired, the
original proprietor of the grounds under whom
Abercrombie held, and who was disposed to do him
the most friendly offices, died. This gentleman was
an eminent goldsmith, and an alderman of the
city of London : during his illness, his relations
prevented Abercrombie from visiting him, or from
access to the house. On his death, Abercrombie
experienced another severe disappointment, in not
being noticed in the alderman's will ; although he
had been led, by professions of friendship and pro-
mises of assistance, to form the highest expectations
from this quarter.

Previous to the year 1790, Abercrombie's family
had grown up and had settled away from home.
From this period to the time of his death, he
chiefly depended for support on the occasional im-
provements which his several works required.
From 1796 to the time of his decease, he resided at
Charlton Street, Somers' Town, except when he
was visiting a friend at Cambridge, or was engaged
in any professional pursuit at a considerable dis-
tance from town. When out of business, he waa
a constant visitor, being a great walker, of the
nursery-grounds and botanic gardens around the
metropolis, with the object of collecting horticul-
tural and botanical information. He was also oc-
casionally employed in planning new gardens and
ornamental grounds, as a horticultural surveyor
and improver ; for which he was sometimes hand-
somely remunerated.

In the spring uf 1806, being in his eightieth year,
Abercrombie met with a severe fall, by which
he broke the upper part of his thigh-bone. This
accident, which happened to him on the 15th of
April, terminated in his death. After lying during
the interval, in a very weak exhausted state, with-
out much pain, he expired in the night between
April and May as St. Paul's clock struck twelve.
He was lamented by all who knew him, as cheer-
ful, harmless, and upright.

1. Every Man his own Gardener, being a New Gardener's
Calendar, with complete LisU of Forest-trees, Flowering Shrubs,
Fruit-trees, Evergreens, annual, biennial, and perennial Flow-
ers : Hot-house, Green-house, and Kitchen-garden Plants, with
the Varieties of each Sort cultivated in the English Gardens.
Lond. ItJmo.

Of this very useful and popular work the editions have been
numerous. From " a diffidence in the writer, it was first pub-
lished as the production of Thomas Mawe, gardener to His
Grace the Duke of I^eds, and other gardeners ; but it was en-
tirely written by Abercrombie, whose claim has since been,
in some measure, asserted, by subjoining in the tiUepage the
name of John Abercrombie, to the more popular one of Mr.
Mawe." It is to be lamented, Professor Martyn observes, that

Book I.

BRITISH WORKS ON GARDENING.

IIOY

M respectable a y tformance should be accompanied by this
deceit and book-craft. , „."

2. The Universal Gardener and Botanist, or a General Dic-
tionary of Gardeninff and Botany, exhibiting, in Botanical
Arranjjement, according to the I.innaean System, every Tree,
S!mib, and Herbaceous Plant that meriu Culture, &c Lond.
1778. 4to. , „ , . .

3. The Garden Mushroom, its Nature and Cultivation, ex-
hibiting full and plain Directions for producing this desirable
Plant in Perfection and Plenty. Lond. 1779. 8vo.

4. The British Fruit Garden, and Art of Pruning ; com-
prising the most approved ."Methods of planting and raising every
lueful Fruit Tree and Fruit-bearing Shrub. Ixjnd. 1779. 8vo.

5. The Complete Forcing Gardener, for the thorough Prac-
tical Management of the li^itchen Garden, raising all early
Crops in Hot-beds, and forcuig early fruit, &c. Lond. 1781.
12mo.

6. The complete U'all-tree Pruner, &c. Ixmd. 1785. 12mo.

7. The Propagation and Botanical Arrangement of Plants
and Trees, useful and omamental. Lond. 178-^. 2 vols. I'imo.

8. The Gardener's Pocket Dictionary, or a Systematical Ar-
rangement of Trees, Hertw, Flowers, and Fruits, agreeable to
the Linneean Method, with their Latin and Kngliah Names,
their Uses, Propagation, Culture, &c. Lond. 1786. 3 vols. 12mo.

9. Daily Assistant in the Modem Practice of English Garden-
ing for every Month in the Year, on an entire new plan. Lond.
1789. 12mo.

10. The universal Gardener's Kalendar'and System of Prac-
tical Gardening. Lond. 1 789. 12ino.

11. The Complete Kitchen Gardener and Hot-bed Forcer,
with the thorough Practical Management of Hot-houses, Fire-
walls, &c. Lond. 1789. 12roo.

12. The Gardener's Vade-mecum, or Companion of General
Gardening; a Descriptive Display of the Plants, Flowers,
Shrubs, Trees, Fruits, and general Culture. Lond. 1789. 8vo.

13. The Hot-house Gardener, or the General Culture of
the Pine Apple, and the Methods of forcing early Grapes,
Peaches, Nectarines, and other choice Fruits in Hot-houses,
Vineries, Fruit-houses, Hot-walls, with Directions for raising
Melons and early Strawberries, &c. Plates. Lond. 1789. 8vo.

14. The Gardener's Pocket Journal and Annual Register,
in a Concise Jlonthly Display of all Practical A\'orks of
General Gardening throughout the year. Lond. 1791. 12mo.

15. A new edition of the Practical Gardener revised, with
considerable additions, by Mr. James Mean, Head-gardener
to Sir .-Vbraham Hume, Bart. 12mo. 1816.

16. The Practical Gardener's Companion, or Horticultural
Calendar, containing the latest Improvements in Horticul-
tural Practice. To which is annexed, on a plan never be-
fore exhibited, the Garden Seed and Plant Estimate ; edited
from an original Manuscript of J. Abercrombie, the whole re-
Tised by J. Mean. Lond, 18mo. 1816.

1766. Jones, Henri/, a poetical and dramatic writer,
a native of Drogheda in Ireland ; died 1770.

Kew Garden, a Poem in two cantos. Lond. 4to.

1766. Lightoler, J , a London architect.

The Gentleman and Farmer's Architecture, being Plans
for Parsonage and Farm-houses, with Pineries, Green-houses,
Sec. on 25 plates, in fol.

1766. Locke, John, one of the greatest and most
distinguished philosophers this country has pro-
duced ; bom in Somersetshire 1632 ; author of nu-
merous works ; had a fine seat at Norbury Park
in Surrey ; died 1701.

Observations upon the Growth and Culture of Vines and
Olives, the Production of Silk and the Preservation of Fruits.
Written at the request of the Earl of Shaftesbury, to whom it is
inscribed : now first printed from the original manuscrijit, in
the possession of the present Earl of Shaftesbury. LondL 8vo.

1767. Anon.

The Rise and Progress of the present Taste in planting
Parks, Pleasure Grounds, Gardens, &c. from Henry the
Eighth to King George the Third. In a poetic Epistle to the
Right Honourable Charles Lord Viscount Irvin, 4to.

Very scarce, only observed by us in Mr. Forsyth's library.

1767. Giles, John, gardener to Lady Boyd at Lew-
isham in Kent, and from 1777 foreman in the nursery
of Messrs. Russell there. He died in 1797, in his
seventy-second year.

Ananas ; or a Treatise on the Pine Apple, in which the
whole Culture, Management, and perfecting this most excel-
lent Fruit is laid down in a clear and explicit Manner. To
which is added, the True Method of raising the linest Melons
with the greatest success, &c. Lond. 8vo. 1 plate.

1767. Maive, Tho?nas, gardener to the Duke of
Leeds, the nominal author of the first publication of
John Abercrombie, entitled Evert/ man his mvn
Gardener. Abercrombie wrote this work in prison,
and being desirous of sending it into the world under
a great name, applied to Mawe, then unknown
to him. Mawe went to see Abercrombie, and
feeling for his situation, permitted him to use his
name. This Abercrombie told to Watts of Acton,
who is our authority for inserting it.

1767. Butter, James, gardener at Wandsworth,
and Daniel Carter, gardener at Battersea ; respect-
able market-florists, the latter is the father of Thomas
and Daniel Carter, esteemed flower-cultivators at the
present day.

Modern Eden ; or, the Gardener's Universal Guide ; con-
taining plain instructions for performing every branch of
Gardening, whether relating to ornament or utility ; in which
are laid down the best methods for raising all the products of
the kitchen and flower-garden, and the training, pruning, and
entire management of Fruit-trees, &c. Lond. 1767. 8vo.

1768. Gibson, John, M. D., a native of Scotland,
surgeon in the royal navy, and author of some me-
dical works.

The Fruit-Gardener, containing the method of raising

Stocks for multiplying Fruit-trees, with directions fijr fajring
out and managing Fruit-gardens. 8vo.

1768. Gi/pin, the Rev. miliam, M. A., an inge-
nious divine, born in Carlisle 1724, educated at Ox-
ford ; kept for many years a school at Cheam in
Surrey, and afterwards became vicar of Boldre, in
Hampshire, and prebendary of Salisbury, where he
died in ISOi. The whole of his tours and other
works on the picturesque, well merit the study of
the landscape-gardener.

1. Observations on the River \Vye, and several Parts of
South Wales, &c. relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, made
in the Summer of 1770. Lond. 1783. 8vo.

2. Observations relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, made
in the year 1772, on several Parts of England.; particularly the
Mountains and Lakes of Cumberland and Westmorland. Lond.
1787. 2 vols. 8vo.

3. Observations chiefly relative to Picturesque Beauty, made
in the year 1776, in several parts of Great Britain ; particu-
larly the Highlands of Scotland. Lond. 1788. 2 voN. 8vo.

4.' Remarks on Forest Scenery, and other Woodland views,
relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty. Illustrated by Scenes of
New Forest, In Hampshire ; in 3 books. Lond. 1791.2 vols. 8vo.

5. Three Essavs : on Picturesque Beauty ; on Picturesque
Travel ; on Sketchir^ Landscape. To which is added ; a Poem
on Landscape Painting. Lond. 1792. 8vo.

6. Observations on the Western Parts of England, relative
chiefly to Picturesque Beautv. To which are added, a few re-
marks on the Picturesque Beauties of the lile of Wight ; 18
Plates. Lond. 1798. 8vo.

7. Observations on the coasts of Hampshire, Sussex, and
Kent, relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty, made in the
Summer of 1774. Lond. 1804. 8vo.

8. Observations on several parts of the Counties of Cambridge,
Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex; also several parts of North
Wales, relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty ; in two Tours,
the former made in the year 1769. and the latter in 1773.
Lond. 1809, Svo.

1768. Mason, George, Esq., a classical scholar and
critic; author of an Appendix to Dr. Johnson's
Dictionary, and of some other translations and phi-
lological works. He lived chiefly in London, and
was connected with the Sun Fire Insurance OUice.

1. Essav on Design in Gardening. Svo.

2. An ilssay on Design in Gardening; first published in
1768, now greatly augmented. Also a Revisal of several Pub-
lications on the same Subject. Lond. 1795. Svo. Two Ap-
pendices. 1798. 8vo.

1768. WUdman.

Treatise on the Culture of Pear-trees, to which is added a
Treatise on the Management of Bees. 12mo. Dublin.

1769. Dicks, John, gardener to His Grace the
Duke of Kingston at Knightsbridge.

A New Gardener's Dictionary, or the whole Art of Garden-
ing fuUv and accurately displayed; containing the most ap-
proved ilelhods of cultivating all kinds of Trees, Plants, and
Flowers. In 60 numbers, small folio, completed in 1771.

1769. Duncombe, John, author of some works on
antiquities, but chiefly known as the inventor of the
dendrometer.

A Treatise upon the Dendrometer, a new invented Instrm-
ment for the more certain and ready Measurement of Standing
Timber by Inspection only ; for facilitating the practical oper-
ation of Engineering, Land-surveying, &c. Lond. 1769. 8to.
1769. Garten, James.

The Practical Gardener, and Gentleman's Directory for
every Month in the Year; with proper Directions for raising
Mushrooms. To which is prefixed, an Es.say upon \'egetation.
Soil, 3Ianure, and the nature and form of' Stoves, Hot-beds,
&c. With a Copperplate, exhibiting at one view the several
Aspects for planting a Fruit-Garden. Lond. 1769. 12moi
1769. Powel, Anthony, Esq., gardener to George XL

The Roval Gardener; or, complete Calendar of Gardening
for every '^lonth in the Year, digested in regular order, and
so contri'ved as to exhibit, in a clear and comprehensive man-
ner, the business to be done in the Flower, Fruit, and Kitchen
Garden at all Seasons. Likewise Directions, founded on ex-
perience, for Sowing, Planting, Pruning, Transplanting, En-
grafting, and every other particular necessary to be known by
such as desire to aim at a perfect knowledge of this most
ancient, healthy, and agreeable of all sciences. Lond. 12mo.
1769. Taylor, Adam, gardener to J. Sutton, Esq.,
at New Park, near Devizes, in Wiltshire.

Treatise on the Ananas, or Pine-.\pple, containing plain
and easv Directions for raising this most excellent fruit without
fire, an'd in much higher perfection than from the stove. To
which "are added, full Directions for raising Melons. Devizes.
Svo. One Plate.

1769. Anon.

Stowe : a Description of the magnificent House and Gardens,
&c. Svo. Cuts.

1770. Ellis, John, Esq.,'a distinguished naturalist;
a native of Ireland, celebrated for his discovery of
the animal origin of corals. He wrote a variety of
tracts, and numerous papers in the Transactions
of the Royal Society i and died 1771.

1. Directions to Voyagers for bringing over Plants, &c. from
the East Indies, and other distant Countries, in a state of
Vegetation. Lond. 1770. 4to.

2. Some additional Observations on the Method of preserving
Seeds from foreign parts, for the benefit of the American
Colonies. Lond. 177j. 4to.

3. Historical Account of Coffee; with an Engraving, and
Botanical Description of the Tree. To which are addetl, many
Papers relative to its culture and use as an article of tUet and
of convenience. Lond. 1774. 4to.

4. Description of the Mongostan and the Bread Fruit, the
first esteemed the most delicious, and the other the most usO^
of all the Fruits in the East Indies. To which are .-Klded

4 B 2

1108

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

Directions to Voyacers for bringing over them and other veeet-
able productions. Plates. Lond. 1775. 4to.

1770. Hunter, Alexander, M.D. P\R.S. was born
at Edinburgh 1733; settled as a physician at Gains,
borough, at Beverly, and finally at York j author of
various agricultural and medical works, and of a
cookery-book : died at York 1809.

New Kdltion of Evelyn's Sylva and Terra.
1770. Ockenden, — , Esq.

Letters describing the Lake of iilUarney and Rueness Gar-
dens. Dublin. 8vo.

1770. Weston, Richard, Esq. an amateur gardener,
who derived his information chiefly from inspecting
the commercial gardens near London.

1 Tracts on Practical Agriculture and Gardening, in wliich
tlie advantage of imitating the Garden Culture in the Field is
fully proved by a seven years' Course of Experiments. To
which is added, a Complete Chronological Catalogue of
£ngllsh Authors on Agriculture, Gardening, &c. Lond. 1769.
8vo.

2. The Universal Botanist and Nurseryman, contaming De-
scriptions of the Species and Varieties of all the Trees, Shrubs,
Herbs, Flowers, and Fruits, Natives and Exotics, at jiresent
cultivated in the European Nurseries, Greenhouses, and Stoves,
as described by modern Botanists ; arranged according to the
Linnsean System, and their Names in English. To which are
added, A copious Botanical Glossary, several useful Catalogues
and Indexes. Plates. Lond. 1770 1774. 4 vols. 8vo.

3. The Gardener and Planter's Calendar; containing the
Methodof raising Timber Trees, Fruit Trees, and Quiclcs for
Hedges ; with Directions for forming and managing a Garden
every Month in the Year; also, many new Improvements in
the Art of Gardening. Lond. 1773. Svo.

1770. IVheatley or Whateley, Thomas, Esq. of Non-
such Park, Surrey, secretary to the Earl of Suffblk.
He had a brother who fought a duel with John
Temple, Esq. in 1773 {Gilchrist's Trials by Ordeal,
p. 107.), and another, a clergyman. He died about
1780 ; and some remarks on Shakspeare were pub-
lished after his death, in a thin li^mo. tract. It is
remarkable, that so little is known of a writer, the
beauty of whose style and the justness of whose
taste arc universally acknowledged. Alter enquiring
at his publishers and other sources, we have not
been able to ascertain to a certainty the mode of
spelling his name.

Observations on Modem Gardening, illustrated by De-
scriptions. Lond. 1771. Pp. 257. An edition, in quarto, in
1798, with Walpole's History, inserted as notes, and an ap-
pendix, consisting of an Essay on the natural Situation of
Gardens, originally published by Dodsley.

1771. Header, James, gardener to the Duke of
Northumberland at Sion House, and afterwards to
the Empress Catherine at Peterhoff, near Peters-
burgh. Ho was a very satirical person, and wrote
verses both on his friends and enemies.

1. The Modern Gardener, or Universal Kalendar ; contain-
ing IMonthly Directions for all the Operations of Gardening,
to be done either in the Kitchen, Fruit, Flower, and Pleasure
Gardens, as likewise in the Green-house and StoVe ; with the
Method of performing the different works, according to the
best practice of the most eminent Gardeners. Also an Appen-
dix, giving full and ample Instructions for forcing Grapes,
Vines, Peach, Nectarine Trees, ttc. in a new manner : never
before published ; selected from tlie Diary Manuscripts of the
late Mr. Hitt. Revised, corrected, and improved by J. M.
Lond. 1771. 12mo.

• 2. The Planter's Guide, or Pleasure Gardener's Companion ;
giving plain Directions, with Observations for the proper Dis-
position and Management of the various Trees and Shrubs for
a Pleasure Garden Plantation. To which is added, a list of
Hardy Trees and Shrubs for ornamenting such Gardens. Em-
bellished with Copper-plates. Lond. 1779. oblong 4to.

1772. Boutcher, William, a nurseryman at Comely
Garden, near Edinburgh.

Treatise on Forest Trees; containing not only the best
■ Methods of their Culture hitherto practised, but a variety of
new and useful Discoveries, the result of many repeated Ex-
iieriments. To which are added. Directions for the Disi>osi-
tion, PlanUng, and Culture of Hedges. Lond. 1772. 4to.

1772. Mason, ■Willia?n, a divine and celebrated
Jyric and descriptive poet ; born in Yorkshire 1725 j
died 1797, precentor, and canon of York.

The English Garden ; a Poem in four books. Lond. 1772-82.
4to. A new edit, corrected. To which are added, a Com-
mentary and Notes, by W. Burgh, Esq. Lond. 1785. Svo.

1772. Pierre, Louis de St., a native of South Caro-
lina, and proprietor of lands there.

The Art of Planting and Cultivating the Vine, &c. according
to the most approved Methods in France. Lond. 12mo.

1774. Anon. ^^, ^

An Essay on the different Natural Situations of Gardens. 4to.
U.Gd. 1774.

1775. Pye, Mrs. Hampden.

A Peep into the principal Seats and Gardens in and about
Twickenham (the residence of the JIuses) descriptive of their
Beauties, internal and esternal, with a suitable Companion for
those who wish to visit Windsor or Hampton-court. To which
is added, a History of a liitle Kingdom on the Banks of the
Thames, and its present Sovereign, &c. Svo. , „. ,

1776. Ellis, Thomas, gardener to the Lord Bishop
of Lincoln.

The Gardener's Pocket Kalendar. Lond. 12mo.

1777. Anderson, James, LL. D., an agricultural
writer of great versatility of genius, was born at
Herdmanston, in the county of Edinburgh, 1730, on
^ farm which his parents had possessed for some

generations, and which he was destined to inherit
and to cultivate. He lost his parents at an early
age, but his education was not neglected ; he studied
chemistry under Dr. CuUen, and soon leaving his
farm near Edinburgh, took one in Aberdeenshire of
1300 acres, which, after improving and cultivating
lor twenty years, he let, and enjoyed an annuity
from It during his life. He settled after leaving
Aberdeenshire in the neighborhood of Edinburgh,
where he published the Bee, in weekly sixpen!
ny numbers, till it extended to eighteen volumes
In 1797 he removed to Isleworth, near London
where he published Recreations in Agriculture
in six volumes, and his Description of a Patent
Hot-house. Here he enjoyed his garden, and died
of a decline in 1808, aged 09. Besides tJie works
which bear his name, he wrote the reviews of books
on rural matters for the Monthly Review for many
years. '

1. IMiscellaneous Thoughts on planting and training Tim-
ber-tiees, by Agricola. Edin. 1777. 8vo '^

2. Recreations in Agriculture, Natural Historj-, Arts, and
miscellaneous Literatiu-e. Lond. 1799. 1802. 6 vols. Svo.

3. A Description of a Patent Hot-house, which operates
ohielly by the heat of the Sun, and other subjects ; without
the aid of Flues, or Tan-bark, or Steam, for the purpose of
heating it, &c. Lond. 1801. 12mo. F F se oi

1777. Bastard, William, Esq. of Kitley in Devon-
shire.

-..Pm- *^^ Culture of Pine-Apples. An extract of a letter from
William Bastard, Esq. of Kitley in Devonshire, to Samuel
Musgrave, Esq. M.D. F.R.S. dated Kitley, March 15. 1779.
communicated to the Society Ijy Dr. Musgrave.

The writer states that he fruits his pines in pots set in pans
of water, on a shelf close under the roof against the back wall;
prefers a cistern over the flue in that situation ; found a i)lant
without roots grow well, and produce a fruit which weight
two pounds.

1777. Heelcy, Joseph, Esq.

1. Letters on the Beauties of Hagley, Envil, and the Lea-
sowes ; with Critical Remarks and Observations on the Mo-
dem Taste in Gardening. Lond. 1777. 2 vols. 12mo.

2. Description of Hagley Park. 1777. Svo.

1777. Loddiges, Conrad, and Sons, eminent botani-
cal nurserymen at Hackney, where their ground.s
are remarkable for orderly arrangement, and for
the magnitude and extent of the hot-houses.

1. A Catalogue of I'lants and Seeds, in English and German.
Svo.

2. The Botanical Cabinet, containing figures of new or rare
Plants, with Directions for tlieir Culture, 1817. 4to. In
monthly parts.

3. A Catalogue of Plants for Sale. 12mo. 1820.

1777. Maurice, the Rev. Thoinas, M.A., chaplain
to the 97th regiment, author of various poems and
tracts on Indian history and antiquities.

1. Hagley ; a Poem.

2. Grove Hill, the seat of Dr. Lettsom, a descriptive Poem ;
with an Ode to Mithra, and many plates. Lond. 1 799. 4to.

1777. Wilson, William, a native of Scotland ;
worked some time under Miller, and was sent by
him to Sir James Cockburn, Bart, at Petersham ;
afterwards gardener to the Earl of Glasgow, near
Paisley.

A 'I'i-eatise on the Forcing of Early Fruits, and the It^an-
agement of Hot-walls. Lond. 12mo.

This is a useful little treatise ; he uses the heat of ferment-
ing dung in his peach and vine houses, as well as the heat of
flues ; and directs not to prune peach-trees to be early forced
till the fires have been made for a fortnight, because " the sap,
when it begins to ascend, will spring more regular after the ,
Icnife than after a dry wound." (p. 13.)

1778. Anon.

The Practical Gardener, directing, in the most plain and
easy manner, what is necessary to be done in the Kitchen,
Fruit, and Flower Garden, the Green-house, and Wilderness.
Lond. Svo.

1778. Swinden, N , an ingenious gardener
and seedsman at Brentford- End, Middlesex.

The Beauties of Flora displayed, or Gentleman and Lady's
Pocket Companion to the Flower and Kitchen Garden. Lond.
Svo. 177S.

1779. Neale, Adam, gardener to John Black-
bourne, Esq. near Warrington, Lancashire.

A Catalogue of the Plants in the Garden of John Black-
burne, Eso. alphabeti'cally arrange<l according to the Linneean
System. Lond. Svo.

1779. Speechly, William, gardener for many years
to the Duke of Portland, at Welbeck in Notting-
hamshire; afterwards a farmer; died at an ad-
vanced age in 1820.

1. A Treatise on th-; Culture of the Pine-Apple, and the
Management of the Hot-iiouse ; together with a Description
of every sj)ecies of Insect that infests Hot-houses, with effec-
tual .Methods of destroying them. York, 1779. Svo.

2. A Treatise on the Culture of the Vine, exhibiting new
and advantageous methods of propagating, cultivating, and
training that Plant, so as to render it abundantly fruitful.
With new Hints on the Formation of Vineyards in England.
York. 4to.

3. Practical Hints on Domestic and Rural Economy, re.
lating partly to the utility, formation, and management of
Fruit, Kitchen, and Cottage Gardens, and Orchards, &c.
Lond Svo. 1820.

1780. Walpole, Horace, afterwards Earl of Orford,
youngest son of Sir Robert Walpole born in 1718 ;

Bock I.

BRITISH WORKS ON GARDENING.

1109

a man of taste and genius, author of the Castle of
Otranto, several papers in the World, &c. ; lie
sat in parliament from 1741 to 1768, when he retired,
and devoted his time to the improvement of his
villa. Strawberry-hill, near Twickenham. In 1791
he succeeded his nephew as Earl of Orford, but
never took his seat in the House of Lords. He died
in 1797.

1. On Modem Gardening, published tn the Anecdotes of
Painting ; in a later edition of 1782 are some additional
notes.

Various Remarks on Gardening occur in his correspond-
ence with Mr. Montague, published in 1818, in 4to.

1781. Darwin, Erasmus, M.D. F.R.S., an eminent
physician and poet, bom at Elton near Newark, in
Nottinghamshire, in 1731. Completed his medical
studies at Edinburgh, settled at Litchfield, where
he resided the greater part of his life : but went to
Derby in 1781, and died there in 18U2. As a poet
he is esteemed rather gaudy and fanciful ; as a phi-
losopher, he is apt to indulge in hjiiothesis ; but he
possesses the great quality of being totally exempt
from everv kind of prejudice.

Ph>tologia, or the rhilosophy of Agriculture and Garden-
ing, with the Theory of Draining Mora»ses, and with an im-
proved construction of the Urill Plough. Lond. 1800. 4to.

1781. FtUnwr, Samuel.

The Young Gardener's best Companion for the Kitchen and
Fruit Garden. Lond. 12n)o.

1781. Lcttsom, John Coakley, M.D. F.R,&, zn
eminent physician in London, was born on a small
isle called little Van Dyke, near Tortola, in 1744 ;
died 1815.

1. Hortus Uptonensis ; or a Catalogue of Stove and Green-
house Plants in Dr. Fothergili's Garden, at his death. Lond.
1781. 8ve.

2. Grovehill; a Rural and Horticultural Sketch. Lond.
1801. 4to.

3. On the Beta Cicla, or Root of Scarcity. (Caled. Sort.
Mem. i. 420.)

1783. Anon.

Some thoughts on Building and Planting, addressed to Sir
James Ixiwther, Bart, published in Dod:>le>'s collection of
poems for this vesur.

1783. Bryant, Charles, of Norwich.

1. Flora Diaetetica, or the Historj- of Esculent Plants, both
Domestic and Foreign, in which they are accurately described
and reduced to their Linnsean, generic, and specific names,
with their English names annexed- Lond. 1785. 8vo.

2. A Dictionary of the Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, and
Plants, most commonly cultivated in the Plantations, Gar-
dens, and Stoves of Great Britain ; arranged according to the
Liimaean generic names, and containing full and accurate
Descriptions of the Genera and Species, with the names
proi«rly accented. Norwich, 1790. 8vo.

1783. Falconer, William, M.D. F.R.S., physician
to the general hospital, Bath ; author of a num-
ber of medical works, and of Remarks on the
influence of climate, situation, nature of country,
population, nature of foot!, and way of life ; on
the disposition and temper, manner aiid behaviour,
intellects, laws and customs, forms of government,
and religion of mankind. A most interesting
work.

1. An Historical View of the Taste for Gardening and
Ikying out Grounds among the Nations of Antiquity. Svo.
The principal parts of this tract were originally printed in the
Literary ajid Philosophical Memoirs of the i\Ianchester So-
ciety. 8vo.
. 2. An Essay on the Preservation of the Health of Persons
employed in Agriculture ; and on tlie Cure of Diseases mci-
dent to that way of life. Lond. 1789. Svo.

3. Miscellaneous Tracts and Collections relating to Natural
History ; selected from the principal vrriters of antiquity on
that subject. Lond. 1793. 4to.

1784. Curtis, William, a botanical writer, was bom
at Alton in Hampshire in 174(5. He served his ap.
prenticeship as an apothecary to his grandfather,
and while in that situation cultivated botany with
eagerness. At the age of twenty he came to Lon-
don, and entered into the service of Mr. Talwin of
Gracechurch-street, to whose business he succeed-
ed. His love of botany, however, induced him to
give up the shop, and he became a lecturer and de-
monstrator in his favorite science. His first garden
was at Bermondsey, and afterwards he occupied a
more extensive one at Lambeth, which he ex-
changed for another at Brompton. In 1771, he pub-
lished Instructions for. Collecting and Preserving
Insects ; and in the following year a translation of
the Fundamenta Entomologlce'oi Linnaeus, with the
title of an Introduction to the Knowledge of In-
sects. In 1777, appeared the first number of his
Flora Londonensis, which was completed in six
fasciculi of seventy-two plates each. This work
was followed by the Botanical Magazine, in monthly
numbers. In 1782 he published a History of the
Brown-tailed Moth ; besides which he wrote Prac-
tical Observations on the British Grasses, and some
papers in the transactions of the Linnzean Society,
of which he was a member. He died in 1799, and

was buried at Battersea ; after his death his lectures
were published with colored plates.

1. A Catalogue of British Medical, Culinary, and Agricul-
tural Plants, cultivated in the London Botanical Garden.
Lond. 1784. 12rao.

Mr. C. commenced the Botanical Magazine in 1787. A
■work which has met with great encouragement, and has done
much to diftuse a general taste for botany. It is still coc-
tinued by Dr. Sims.

2. Observations on Aphides, chiefly intended to show that
they are the principal cause of Blights in Plants, and the xle
cause of the Honey Dew. (Train. Linn. Hoc. xi. 75. 1802,
posth.)

1784. Rodenhurst, T.
A Description of Hawkstone in Shropshire, the seat of Sir

Richard Hill, Bart, in 1799. 12mo.

1785. Anon.
Miscellanies on Ancient and Modem Gardening, and on

the Scenery of Nature. Lond. Svo.

1785. Kyle, Tho?nas, gardener to the Hon. Baron
Stewart of Moredun, near Edinburgh. One of the
first gardeners in Scotland of his time.

Treatise on the Management of the Peach and Nectarine
Trees, either in Forcing-liouses or on hot and common Walls,
Bdin. Svo.

1785. Marshall, William, Esq., a native of York-
shire, brought up to trade; was some yearsjn the
West Indies, as a planter ; returned about 1775, and
took a farm in Surrey ; went down into Norfolk as
agent to Sir Harbord Harbord's estates in 1780 ; .
left this situation in 1784, and went and resided at
Statfold, near the junction of the four counties of
Leicester, Warwick, Stafford, and Derby, where lie
remained till 1786, occupied in collecting materials
for his economical survey?, and in printing some of
his works. From this time, till about 1808, lie re-,
sided chiefly in Clement's Inn, London, in winter,
and visited ditTcrent parts of the country during
summer. He silent one summer in Perthshire,
chiefly on the Earl of Bredalbane's estates at Tay-
mouth ; and partly also on the Earl of Mansfield's at
Scone. He proposed arrangerpents for the tenant-
able lands, and also the park and woody scenery on
various estates ; and finally retired to a considerable
property lie purchased in his native county, in the
Vale of Cleveland, in 1808, where he died at an ad-
vanced age, in 1819. He was a man of little educa-
tion, but of a strong and steady mind ; and pursued,
in the most consistent manner, from the year 1780
to his death, the plan he originally laid down ; that
of collecting and condensing the agricultural prac-
tices of the different counties of England, with a
view to a general work on Landed Property, whicli
he published; another on Agriculture, which he
did not live to complete ; and a Mural Institute, in
Which he was supplanted by tlie Board of Agri-
culture.

1. Planting and Rural Ornament, 1 vol. 8to. A second
edition in 2 vols, in 1796.

2. A Review of the Laudscajie, a didactic poem ; also en
Essay on the Picturesmie ; together with Practical Remarks
on Hural Ornament. Lond. 1796.

1786. Brocq, Philip Le, M. A., chaplain to the
Duke of Gloucester. About the time he published
his work on the Vine, he took out a patent for
" training all sorts of fruit-trees or vines near the
ground," as suggested by Lord Bacon, and practised
at the time the patent was taken out by F. X. Vis-
pre, at Wimbledon, and subsequently at Chelser.
(See Speechtey, 2'reutise on the Vine, Svo. edition,
p. 205.)

1. A Description of certain Methods of Planting, Training,
and Managing all kinds of Fruit Trees, Vines, &c. Lond.
1786. Svo.

2. Sketch of a Plan for making the Tract of I-and called the
New Forest, a real Forest, and for various other purposes of
the first national importance. Stockdale, 1793. Svo.

1786. Browne, Robert, gardener to Sir Harbord
Harbord, Bart, at Gunton, in Norfolk.

A method to preserve Peach and Nectarine Trees from the
Ellects of the Jlildew ; and for the destroying the red spider
in melon frames, and other insects wliich infest plants in
stoves, and trees, shrubs, &c. in the open garden. Lond.l2mo.

1786. Vispre, Francis Xavier.

A Dissertation on the Growth of Wine in England. Bath,
Svo.

1789. Emmerich, Lieutenant-colonel A., a Ger-
man gentleman, author of a tract on his own pro-
fession, and deputy-surveyor of the woods and
forests under Mr. Robinson.

The Culture of Forests ; with an Appendix, in which the
state of the Royal Forests is considered, and a system proposed
for their improvement. Lond. 17S9. Svo.

1789. Grader, John, a native of Germany, who
came to England about the middle of the eighieenlh
century, and after being some time under Milkr,
was gardener to James Vere, Esq., of Kensin{;ton-
Gore. Afterwards he joined Thompson, a gardener,
and Gordon, a seedsman, in establishing a nursei v at
Mile-end. When Gordon died, the nursery becime
the sole property of Thompson, the present j-ro-
4 B 3

1110

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

prietor ; and GraefFer, sooii afterwards, received from
Sir Josepii Baiilis the appointment of gardener to the
King of Naples, at Ca>erta. Here he laid out an
English garden, and riciily stocked it with exotics
from the Hammersmith nursery. He was employed
by Admiral Lord Nelson to look after his estate of
Bronte, and by various native noblemen to lay out
their grounds ; he remained in his situation as gar-
dener at Cascrta during Murat's reign, and died
there, or was in part murdered when he fell from
his gig, within a mile of his own house in 1816.

columns, exhibiting, at one view, the names, magnitude, height
and situation, time of flowering, color of the flowers, and native
country of each species. With a List of Hardy Ferns, for the
decoration of Northern Borders, and the most ornamented
Annuals. Lend. 178!i. Svo.

1789. Sowerby, Ju7nes, F.L.S. A botanical drafts-
man and engraver to whom science is much indebted.
He formed a rich museum of botany and miner-
alogy, and published different valuable works on the
latter subject ; he died in 1822.

1 . The Florist's Delight, containing six Coloured Figures,
■with the Botanical Descriptions, i.ond. 1791. fol.

2. Figures of English Fungi, or Mushrooms. Lond. 1797 —
1803. 3 vols. fol.

3. Notice on the EfTect of Watering Fruit Trees early in the
Spring. (Horl. Tnina. ii. 271 )

1790. Brulles, .

Hints for the Management of Hot-beds, and Directions for
the Culture of early Cucuml)ers and Melons. To which are
added, brief Instructions for Pruning Wall and Espalier Trees.
Bath, 1790. Svo.

1791. Forsyth, William, Esq. F.A.S., a native of
Scotland, born at OldMeldrum in Aberdeenshire in
1737 ; came to England in 1763, and was some time
employed under Miller at Chelsea. He was after-
wards gardener at Sion House, till Miller's removal
in 1769, when he succeeded him as curator of the
Chelsea garden ; and at the death of t!ie late Thomas
Robinson, Esq. royal gardener at Kensington, in
1784, he was appointed to that situation. Here,
finding the fruit-trees in an old worn-out state, he
began a system of renovation by heading down, and
renewing the soil, in which he was highly successful;
and for discovering the ingredients of a composition
with which he covered over the wounds, received
a parliamentary reward. His works procured him
the published animadversions of Knight, M'Phail,
Pontey, and others. He died in 1804, and left a son
an eminent London seedsman, and author of a bo-
tanical catalogue, &c.

1. Observations on the Diseases, Defects, and Injuries in all
kinds of Fruit Trees ; with an Account of a particular method
of Cure, invented and practised by the Author. Lond. 1791.
Svo.

2. Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees;
in which a new method of pruning and training is fully de-
scribed. With plates. Lond. 1S02. llo.

1791. Linncean Society,

Transactions of the Linna;an Society, vol. i. 4to. : vol. xii.
completed in 1820. These volumes contain some papers con-
nected with gardening; such for example as : 1. Biographical
Memoirs of several Norwich Botanists, vol. vii. 2. Notes re-
lating to Botany, and collected from the manuscripts of the

late Peter CoUinson, Esq. F. K. S. and , vol. x. 270. 8. On

the supposed Effect of Ivy upon Trees, vol. xi. 27.

1791. Salisbury, Richard Anthony, Esq. F.RS., a
learned botanist, enthusiastically attached to that
study, and to gardening. Salisbury was educated
at North Bierly and the university of Edinburgh.
He had a fine garden (now a public nursery)
at Chapel AUerton, near Leeds, and afterwards
possessed that of the late Peter Collinson, Esq., at
Mill-hill, near London. He now resides in the me-
tropolis, and is an active member of and contributor
to the Linnajan and Horticultural Societies.

1. On the Cultivation of the Polianthes Tuberosa, or Tube-
rose; with its Botanical Description and Figure. (Trans.
Hortic. SocA. i\. 1812.)

2. Observations on the different Species of Dahlia, and the
best Method of cultivating them in Great Britain, (lb. 81.)

3. A short Account of Nectarines and Peaches naturally pro-
duced on the same Branch. (lb. 103.)

4. Some Account of the Red Doyennd Pear, with a Figure.

5. Some Account of two New Varieties of Grape. (lb. 258.)

6. On the Cultivation of Rare PlanU. (lb. 261.)

7. On the Cultivation of the Jamrosade (Eugenia Janibos.
L.) in the National Garden at Paris. (lb. Append. 11.)

8. On the Vegetation of High IVIountains; translated from a
Paper of M.Raymond's, (lb. 1.5.) _, .

9. Description of a Bank for Alpine Plants, by Mons. Thoum,
abridged, (lb. 24)

10. On the Cultivation of the MonopsisConspicus. (lb. u. 37.
1815.)

11. Some Account of the Chiogenes Serpyllifolia, or Snow-
berry, a fruit nearly allieil to the Cranberry, (lb. 9t.)

12. Some account of the Melidora Pellucida, a beautiful
Evergreen Shrub firom China, (lb. 156)

12. Description of Ord's Apple. (lb. 285. 1817-)

1792. Aladdock, James, originally from Warring-
ton in Lancashire, a quaker, and commercial florist
at Walworth, died about 1806.

Florist's Directory, and complete Treatise on the Culture
and Management of Flowers, with a Su))plementary Essay on
Soils, ."Manure, &c. ; with plates. Lond. 1/92. 8vo. 10*.

1792. Marty n, Thomas, B.D. F.U.S. son of Dr.
John Martyn, who read botanical lectures at Cam-
bridge, before he was elected professor, on Bradley's
neglecting to perform his office. He succeeded his
father as Professor of Botany in 1761 ; is author of
a Sermon, a Tour in Italy, some translations and
commentaries, and various botanical works.

1. The Gardener's and Botanist's Dictionary of the late
Philip Miller, corrected and newly arranged, with additions.
Lond. 1803-1807. 4 vols. fol.

1792. Smith, Sir James Edivard, M. D. F. R. S.
P. L. S., a distinguished naturalist, founder and
president of the Linnaean Society ; author and edi-
tor of many botanical works, the principal of which
are the Flora Britannica and Flora Grceca.

\. Sketch of a Tour on the Continent, in the years 1786 and
1787. (Containing some account of the gardens of France and
Italy.) Lund. 179.3. 3 vols. Svo.

2. Tour to Hafod, in Cardiganshire, the Seat of Thomas
Johnes, Escj. Lond. 1810. super fol.

3. Directions for raising Ferns from Seed, as practised by
Mr. Henry Shepherd of Liverpool. (Hort. Trans, iii. p. 358.)

1793. Steele, Richard, gardener at Thirsk in York-
shire.

An Es.say upon Gardening ; containing a Catalogue of Exotic
Plants for Stoves and Greenhouses of British Gardens ; the best
Alethod of planting the 'Hot-house Vine, &c.; with the History
of Gardening, and a Contrast of the ancient with the modern
taste. York, 1793. 4to.

This work is little more than a catalogue of trees and plants,
but contains an elevation of the stove erected by R.A. Salisijury,
Esq. at Chapel AUerton.

1793. Truster, Rev. John, LL.D. a singular liter-
ary character and low popular compiler, was born in
London in 1735. He was brought up to physic in a
very humble line ; but contrived to get into orders,
and for some time officiated as a curate. At length,
in 1771, he began to publish abridgments of popular
sermons, printed in imitation of manuscript; and
next he established a bookselling business upon an
extensive scale. Having thus acquired a fortune, he
purchased an estate at Englefield-green, where he
died in 1820.

1. The Art of Gardening. Lond. Svo.

2. The Lady's Gardener's Companion. Lond. ISmo. 1816.

1794. Haworth, Adrian Hardy, Esq., F. L. and
H. S., of Cottenham near Beverley, Yorkshire, a bo-
tanist and horticultural amateur, author of a work
on insects.

1. Observations on the Genus of Mesemhryanthemum, in
two parts; containing Scientific Descriptions of above 130
species, about 50 of^ which are new ; Directions for their
management, new arrangements of the Species, Reference
to Authors, and a great variety of critical, philosophical, and
explanatory Remarks. Lond. 1794. Svo.

2. Sj-nopsis Plantarum Succulentarum, cum Descriptionibus
Synonymis, Locis, Observationibus Anglicanis Culturaque.
Lond. 1812. Svo.

3. A new Arrangement of the Genus Narcissus. ( Trant. linn.
Soc. 1799. vol. v.)

4. A new Arrangement of the Genus Aloe. (lb. 1801. vol. vii.
p. 1.)

5. On the Cultivation of Crocuses, with a .short account of the
different Species known at present. ( Trans. Hort. vol . ii. p. 122.
1815.)

1794. Hayes, Samuel, Esq. M. R. I. A., an Irish
author.

A Practical Treatise on Planting. Dublin. Svo.

1794. Knight, Richard Payne, Esq., a gentleman
of great classical attainments, and of refined taste ;
proprietor of a fine demesne and park near Ludlow,
on which he built an elegant mansion from his own
designs. After residing there many years, he gave up
the possession to his brother, the celebrated horticul-
turist, and now lives chiefly in London.

The LEUidscare, a didactic poem. 4to. two plates. This
pro<laced a Sketch from the Landscape, a poem in 4to. gene-
rally attributed to the poet aiason ; and a Review, by W. Mar-
shall ; the latter a very virulent production.

1794. M'Phail, Jajnes, a native of Aberdeenshire ;
gardener for twenty years to Lord Hawkesbiiry
(now the Earl of Liverpool), at Addiscombe Place,
near Croydon. An excellent grower of pines and
melons ; author of some tracts on Agriculture and
the Poor Laws.

1 . Treatise on the Culture of the Cucumber ; shewing a new
and advantageous method of Cultivating that Plant, with full
Directions for the Management thereof, and the degree of Heat
it requires on every Day of the Year, &c. To which are added.
Hints and Observations on the Improvement of Agriculture.
Lond. 1794. Svo.

2. The Gardener's Remembrancer throughout the \ear,
exhibiting the surest and most improved Methods of Manuring,
Digging, Sowing, &c. ; the Nature of Earth, Wafer, Heat,
Air, and Climate, best adapted for the Culture of Plants, and
Pio<luction of Fruits, Flowers, and esculent Vegetables, in the
forcing way ; the Causes and Symptoms of Disease and Barren-
ness in Trees of every kind, with means of Prevention and
Cure. To which is prefixed a View of Mr. Forsyth's Treatise
on Trees. Lond. Svo.

1794. Price, Uvedale, Esq., of Fox ley, near He-
reford. A gentleman and scholar of great taste;

Book I.

BRITISH WORKS ON GARDENING.

nil

enthusiastically fond of pictures, statues, and pic-
turesque beauty in all objects and mental impres-
sions ; and who has greatly improved and beautified
his own estate.

1. An Eisav on the Picturesque, as coini>ared with the Sub-
lime and the' Beautiful, and on the Use of Studjing Pictures
for the Purpose of improving Real landscape. Ixmd. 17'J4.

8 TO.

2. A Dialogue on the Distinct Characters of the Picturesque
and the Beautiful, in Answer to the Objections of Mr. Knight.
Land. 1801. 8vo.

3. Letter to H. Repton, Esq. on the Application of the Prac-
tice, as well as the Principles, of Landscape Paintinp, to Land
scape Uardenuig, intended as a Supplement to the Essay on the
Picturesque ; to which U prefixed Mr. Repton's letter to Mr.
Price. Lond. 1795. 8vo.

179*. Shaw, James, author of a Tour in the Ne->
therlands.

Plans, Elevations, Sections, Observation^, and Explanations
of Forcing-houses in Gardening. Whitby. Fol.

1795. Knight, Thomas Andrew, Esq. F. R. S. L. S.
&c. president of the Horticultural Society. A dis-
tinguishetl vegeUble physiologist and horticulturistj
brother to R. P. Knight, R-q. (See 17iH.)

1. A Treatise on the Culture of the Apple and Pear, and on
the Manufacture of Cyder and Perry. Lond. 1797. I'^mo.

2. Some Doubts relative to the Efficacy of Mr. Forsyth's
Plaister, in renovating Trees. Lond. 1S(»2. 4to.

3. Report of a Committee of the Horticultural Society of
London. Lond. 1S05. 4to.

4. Pomona Herefordiensis ; or, a Descriptive Account of
the old Cvder and Perrv Fruits of Herefordshire. Lond. 1809.
4to.

5. ObservaHons on the Grafting of Trees. (Phil. Tratu. Ahr.
xvii. 569. 1795.)

6. Experiments on the Fecundation of V^etables. (lb. xviii.
504. 1799.)

7. Account of some Experiments on the Ascent of Sap in
Trees. (lb- 533. ISOl.)

8. Account of some late Experiments on the Descent of the
Sap in Trees. (lb. 277. 1803.)

9. Experiments and Observations on the Motion of the Sap in
Trees, (lb. 183. 1804.)

10. Concerning the State in which the true Sap of Trees is
deposited during Winter. (lb. 88. 1805.)

11. On the Reproduction of Buds. (lb. 257.)

12. On the Direction of the Radicle and Germen during the
Vt«eta»ion of Seeds, (lb. 99. 1806.)

13. On the inverted Action of the Albumous Vesselsof Trees,
(lb. 292.)

14. On the Formation of the Bark of Trees. (lb. 103. 107.)

15. On the Economy of Bees. (lb. 234.)

16. On the Inconvertibility of Bark into Alburnum. (lb. 103.
1808.)

17. On the Origin and Office of the Alburnum of Trees. (lb.
313.)

18. On the Origin and Formation of Roots. (lb. 169. 1809.)

19. On the comparative Influence of Male and Female
Parents on their Offspring. (1 b. 392.)

20. On the ParU of Trees primarily Impaired by Age. (lb.
178. 1810.)

21. On the Causes which influence the Direction of the
Growth of Roots. (lb. 209. 1811.)

22. On the MoUons of the TendriU of Plants. (lb. 314.
1812.)

23. On Ice found in the Bottoms of Rivers. (lb. 286. 1816.)

24. On the Action of detached Leaves of Plants. (lb.
289.)

25. L'pon the Extent of the Expansion and Contraction of
Timber in different Directions, relative to the Position of the
Medulla of the Tree. (lb. 269. 1817.)

26. Introductory Remarks relative to the Objects which the
Horticultural .Society have in view. {Hort. Trans, i. 1. 1806.)

27. Observations on a Method of producing new and early
Fruits. (lb. 67.)

28. On raising New and Early Varieties of the Potatoe.
(lb. 57.)

29. On the Advantages of Grafting 'Walnut, Mulberry, and
Chestnut Trees. (lb. CO.)

, 30. On a New Method of Training Fruit Trees. (lb. 70.)

31. A Description of a Forcing-house for Grapes. (lb. 99.)

32. On the proper Construction of Hot-bed Frames. (lb.
142.) ^

33. A short Account <rf a new Apple called the Dowuton
Pippin. (lb. 145.)

34. On the Alanagement of the Onion. (lb. 1.57.)

35. An improved Method of cultivating the Alpine Straw-
berry, (lb. 159.)

36. On some \'arieties of the Peach. (lb. 165.)

37. On a new Variety of Pear. (lb. 178.)

38. On Potatoes. (lb. 187.)

39. A new and expeditious Mode of Budding. (lb. 194.)

40. On the best Method of Constructing a Peach-house,
(lb. 199)

41. On the Culture of the Potatoe in Hot-beds. (lb. 211.)

42. View of the Theory of Vegetation, (lb. 217.)

43. A short Account of some Apples and Pears, of which
Grafts were presented to the Members of the Horticultural
Society, (lb- 226.)

44. A new Method of Grafting, with a figure of it. (lb. 239)

45. On the -Advantages of employing \'egetable Matter as
Manure in a firesh state, (lb. 24S.)

46. On some Early Varieties of the Potatoe. (lb. 244.)

^ 47. On facilitating the Emission of Roots from Layers. (lb.

48. Some Account of Two new Varieties of Grape. (lb. 258.)

49. Some Account of the Elton Pear, with a figure,
(lb. ii. 1.)

50. On the Transplantation of Blossom-Buds. (lb. 7.)

51. On an early V'ariets of Grape from Amiens. (lb. 10.)

52. On the proper Stock for the .Moor Park ApricoU (lb. 19.)

53. On inarching leafless Branches of Peach Trees, (lb. 35.)

54. On the Prevention of the Disease called the Curl in the

Potatoe. (lb. 64.;

^ 55. On the Culture of the Mulberry. (lb.

4B

56. On the early Puberty of the Peach Tree. {Hurt. Tram. ti.
70.)

57. On the Culture of the Pear Tree. (lb. 78.)

58. On the Prevention ofMiidew in particular Cases. (lb. 82).

59. On the Culture of the Shallot, and some other bulbous -
rooted Plants, (lb. 97.) *

60. On the Prcmagation of the Mulberry Tree by Cuttings,
(lb. 114.)

61. On the beneficial Results of planting Potatoes, which
have grown late in the preceding year. (lb. 125.)

62. On the Application of Manure in a liquid form to Plants
in Pots. (lb. li7J

63. On the ill EffecU of excessive Heat in Faraag Houses
during the Night. (lb. 130.)

64. An Account of two VarieUes of Cherry, raised at
Downton. (lb. 137.)

65. An Account of a new Variety of the Peach. (lb. 140.)

66. On the Want of Permanence of Character in \'arietie»
of Fruit, when Propagated by Grafts and Buds. (lb. 160.)

67. On the Mode of Propagation of the Lycoperdon cancel-
latum, a species of Fungus, which destroys the Leaves and
Branches of the Pear Tree. (lb. 178.)

68. On the Preservation of Fruiu during Winter and
■ • (lb. 193.)

the Effects of different kinds of Stocks in grafting,
(lb. 199.)

70. Some Account of three new Cherries, the Elton, Black
Eagle, and Waterloo. (lb. u. 208.)

71. An .^.ccount of three new Peaches, in a letter to
Joseph Sabine, Esq. (lb. 214.)

72. On the Culture of the Peach and Apricot, as Espalier
Trees. (lb. 219.)

73. On the Ventilation of Forcing-houses. (lb. 224.)

74. Upon the Advantages of Propagating from the Roots <d
old ungrafted Fruit Trees, (lb. 252.)

75. On the Means of preservmg Broccoli in Winter. (lb.
304.)

76. Observations on Mr. Brown's Account of his SteamioK
Apparattis, with some Suggestions for the improvement
thereof. (lb. 324.)

77. Observations on the Verdelho Grape. (lb. 327.)

78. Su^estions for the Improvement of Sir George Stuart
Mackenzie's Plan for Forcing-houses, (lb. 350.)

79. Upon the proper Mode of Pruning the Peach Tree in
cold and late Situations, (lb. 364.)

80. Observations on the proper Management of Fruit Trees,
which are intended to be forced very early in the ensuing sea
son. (lb. 368.)

81. An Account of a Peach Tree, produced from the Seed
of the Almond Tree, with some Observations on the Origin at
the Peach Tree. (lb. iu. IJ

82. On the best Mode of^ Pruning and Training the Mul-
berry Tree, when trained to a wall in a cold climate. (lb. 63.)

83. Upon the Variations of the Red Currant (Ribes rubrum)
when propagated by Seed. (lb. 86.)

84. Upon the Propagation of Varieties of the Walnut Tree,
by budding. (lb. 155.)

85. On a MeUiod ot Forcing Rhubarb in Pots. (lb. 154.)

86. Upon the Pruning and Management of Transplanted
Standard Trees. (lb. 157.)

87. Upon the Variations of the Scarlet Strawberry (Fra^;aria
^'irginiana) when propagated by Seeds. (lb. 207.)

88. Description and Account of a new early Black Cherry,
(lb. 211.) '

89. Description of a new Seedling Plum. (lb. 214.)

90. L'lKwi the Preservation ot FruiU from Wasps. (lb. 259.)

91. On Training the Fig Tree. (lb. 307.)

92. On the superior Healthfiilness of Scions taken f^om the
Trunks of Apple Trees, to those cut Aom the Extremities ot
the Branches. (lb. 387.)

93. Observations upon the most advantageous Forms ot
Garden PoU. (ib. 5-89.)

94. Upon the Culture of the Guemsev Lily. (Ib. 399.)

95. Upon the different Oualities of the Alburnum of Sprine
and Winter felled Trees. "(Phil.Trant. 1820.)

96. UjHjn the .Means of giving Strength to the Stems ot
Plants growing under Glass. {Bort. Traiu. iv. 1.)

97. Lpon the Culture of the Pine Apple without Bark, or
other Hot-bed. (Ib. 72.)

98. On the most economical Method of employing Fuel in
heating the Flues of Forcing-houses, (lb. 156 J

99. Physiological Observations upon the Effects of partial
Decortication, or Ringing the Steins or Branches of Fruit
Trees. (Ib. 159.)

100. Further Particulars of the Downton Strawberrr.
(lb. 197.) '

101. L^n the Culture of the Fig-Tree in the Stonk

102. On the CulHvation of the Cockscomb. (Ib. 321.)

103. Observations on Hybrids. (Ib.367.)

104. Directions for preserving Buds of Fruit Trees in a re.
getative state, when sent to considerable distances. (Ib. 403.)

105. On the Management of Fruit Trees in Pots. (Ib. 439.)

106. An Account of an improved Alethod of raising earlT
Potatoes, (lb. 447.) ^^

107. On Grafting the Vine. (Ib. 495.)

108. Further Observations on the Culture of the Pine Apple.
(Ib. V. 142.) "

109. Notice of a new Variety of Ulraus Suberosa, and on
grafting tender Scions. (Ib. 146.)

110. Description of a Melon and Pine-pit. (Ib. 223.)

111. On the advantages and disadvantages of curvilinear
hot-houses. (Ib. 227.)

112. A new and improved Method of cultivating the Melon

115, On the flat Peach of China. (Ib. 271.)

114. On the injurious influence of' the plnm-stock on tfaa
Moor Park Apricot, (lb. 287.)

115. An Account of some iVIule Plants- (Ib. 292.)

116. On obtaining early Crops of Peas. (Ib. 321.)

1795. Repton, Humphrey, Esq., a distinguished
landscape-gardener, was bom at Bury St. Edmund's,
in Suflfblk, in 1752. He accompanied Mr. Wyndham
to Ireland in 1783, and for a short time held a lu-
crative situation in the castle of Dublin ; but when
his friend quitted that kingdom, Repton also re
4

1112

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

turned to England. He now directed his attention
to drawing, architecture, and particularly landscape-
gardening ; in which last line he obtained consider-
able empjoyment. He died in 1818, leaving several
sons, one of whom married the daughter of Lord
Eldon. Repton published some books on miscel-
laneous subjects ; but his principal works are on-
landscape-garden ing.

1. Letter to Uve<lale I
794. 4to.

2. Sketches and Hints on Landscape-Gardening; collected
from designs and observations now in the possession of the
different noblemen and gentlemen for whose use they were
originally made ; the whole tending to establish fixed princi-
ples in the art of laying out grounds : 16 colored plates. Lond.

3. Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape-
Gardening, including some Remarks on Grecian and Gothic
Architecture, collected from various MSS. in the possession
of different noblemen and gentlemen ; the whole tending to
establish 6xed principles in the respective arts : with many
plates. Lond. 1803. 4 to.

4. Observations on the Changes in Landscape-Gardening.

5. On the Introduction of Indian Architecture and Garden,
inc. 1808. folio.

6. On the supposed Effect of Ivy upon Trees. (Linn. Trans.
1810, vol. xi. p. 27.)

1796. Anon. Generally attributed to Mason the
poet, author of the English Garden. (See 1772.)

A Sketch from " The Landscape," a Poem, by R. P.
Knight, Esq. Lond. 4to.

1766. Bonn, Ja7nes, F.L.S. H.S. curator of the
botanic garden at Cambridge ; died in 1817.

Hortus Cantabrigiensis ; or, a Catalogue of Plants, indi-
genous and foreign, cultivated in the Walkerian botanic
garden, Cambridge. Camb.8vo.

The ninth edition, edited and accented by Frederick Pursh,
in 1819, and one subsequently by Lindley.

1796. Lindley, George, nurseryman at Catton,
near Norwich.

1. The Plan of an Orchard ; exhibiting at one View a select
quantity of Trees, sufficient for Planting an acre and a half
of Land, properly arranged according to their usual size of
growth, and hardiness of bearing, &c. Lond. 1796, a folio
sheet.

2. An Account of some of the best Varieties of Apples pe-
culiar to, or cultivated in, the county of Norfolk. {Hort.
Trans, iv. 65.)

1796. Marshall, the Rev. Charles, vicar of Brixton,
N ortham ptonsh i re.

Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening ;
■with Hints on Fish Ponds. Lond. 1796. I'imo.

1797. AsUey, Francis Duckenfield, Esq. ofDuck-
enfield Hah, near Aston, in Lancashire, member of
the Manchester Agricultural Society ; now resident
on the continent.

1. A few Minutes' Advice to Gentlemen of Landed Pro-
perty, and the Admirers of Forest Scenery ; with Directions
for Sowing, Raising, Planting, and the Management of Forest
Trees. To which is added a Catalogue of Forest Trees, Fruit
Trees, and Flowering Shrubs, with their usual prices, as sold
by the nurserymen and seedsmen. Chester. 12rao.

2. Hints to Planters, collected from various authors of es-
teemed authority. Manchester, 1807. 8vo.

1797. Busch, Peter, father to Joseph Busch, gar-
oener to the Emperor of Russia.

Method to destroy or drive away Earth Worms, and various
other Insects hurtful to Fields or Gardens. [Phil. Mag. i. 169.)

1797. Bucknal, Thomas Skip Dyot, Esq.

The Orchardist, or a System of close Pruning and Medication
for establishing the Science of Orcharding, &c Extracted
from the xi. xii. xiii. and xiv. vols, of the Society's Transac-
tions for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. with additions.
Lond. 1797. 8vo.

1797. Salisbury, William, nurseryman and botan-
ist, botanic garden, Brompton j formerly of Sloane
Square.

1. Hortus Paddingtonensis ; or, a Catalogue of Plants culti-
vated in the garden of J. Symmons, Esq. Paddington House.
Lond. 1797. 8vo.

2. Method of packing Plants and Trees intended for Ex-
portation, so as to preserve the Vegetative Powers for many
months. (Nicholson's Journal, xxx. 339. 1811.)

3. The Botanist's Companion, or an Intrmhiction to the
linowledgeof Practical Botany, and the Uses of Plants, either
growing wild in Great Britain, or cultivated for the Purjioses
ot Agriculture, Medicine, Rural Economy, or the Arts.
Lond. 2 vols. 12mo. 1816.

4. Hints to the Proprietors of Orchards. 1817. 12mo.

5. The Cottager's Companion, or a Complete System of
Cottage Gardening; intended to instruct the Industrious
Poor of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. To which is
added a d>'scriptive List of Plants growing wild, which are
useful for Culinary Purposes. Lond. 12mo. 1818.

1798. Andrews, Henry, botanical painter and en-
graver in London.

1. Engravings of Ericas, or Heatlis, with Botanical Descrip-
tions. Lond. 1796. folio.

2. The Botanist's Repository, with colored figures of such
Plants as have not appeared in any similar publication. Lond.
1797-99. 2 vols. 4to.

3. A Review of Plants hitherto figured in the Botanist's
Repository. I^ind. 1801. 4to.

4. The Heathery, or Monograph of the Genus Erica. (Pub.
lished in monthly numbers.) vols. i. to vi. 1804 to 1812.

1798. Archer, Clement, Esq. M.R.I. A.
Miscellaneous Observations on the Effect of Oxygen on
the Aiiimal and Vegetable Systems ; and an Attempt to prove

why some Plants are Evergreen and others Deciduous. Part I.
8vo. Bath.

1798. Nicol, Walter, a Scotch horticultural archi-
tect, and author of merit; son of the gardener who.
planned and executed the gardens and pleasure-
grounds of Raith in Fifeshire. After receiving the
rudiments of his horticultural education at Raith,
he went to England, and soon afterwards became
head gardener to the Marquis of Townshend, at
Rainham Hall, in Suffolk. He afterwards returned
to Scotland, and became head gardener to General
Wemyss, at Wemyss Castle, in Fifeshire. About
1797 he left his situation, settled in Edinburgh, and
commenced his career as horticultural architect.
In the year 18lb he undertook an extensive journey
through England, for the purpose of visiting the
principal seats and plantations, with a view, on his
return, to compose the Planter's Calendar. This
work had scarcely commenced, when he was seized
with an illness which carried him ofF suddenly in
March 1811.

1. The Scotch Forcing Gardener; together with Instruc-
tions on the Management of the Green-house, Hot-walls, &c.
Illustrated with Plates. Edin. 1798. 8vo.

2. The Practical Planter ; or, a Treatise on Forest Planting : "
comprehending the Culture and Management of Planted anA
Natural TimBer ; also the Management of Hedges, Fences,
and the Construction of Stone Walls, ftc. Edin. 1799. 8vo.

3. The Villa Garden Directory ; or Monthly Index of Work
to be done in the Town and Villa Gardens, Shrubberies, Par-
terres, &c. Edin. 1809. 8vo.

4. "The Gardener's Kalendar ; or Monthly Directory of
Operations in every Branch of Horticulture. Edin. 1810.

5. The Planter's Kalendar; or, -the Nurseryman and
Forester's Guide in the operations of the Nursery, the Forest,
and the Grove. Completed by Sang. Edin. 1812. 8vo.

1798. Robinson, , a London architect,

nephew to Thomas Robinson, Esq. gardener to Geo.
HI. at Kensington.

Forms of Stoves used for Forcing-houses. Lond. oblong

°i800. Hill, Daniel,M.T>. F.H.S.

1. Practical Observations on the Use of Oxygen, or Vital Air,
in the Cure of Diseases ; to which are added a few Experi-
ments on Plants. Part I. Lond. 1800. 4to.

2. On the Use of Oxygen Air, in promoting Vegetation.
(^Hort. Trans, i. 233. 18150

1800. Pontcy, William, planter and forest pruner
to the Duke of Bedford, and ornamental gardener ;
resident at Huddersfield, where his brother is a
respectable nurseryman.

1. The Profitable Planter; a Treatise on the Cultivation of
the Larch and Scotch Fir Timber, shewing that their excel-
lent quality, esi)ecially that of the former, will render them so
essentially useful, as greatly to promote the interests of the
country. Huddersfield, 1800. 8vo.

2. The Forest Pruner, or Timber Owner's Assistant ; being
a Treatise on the Training or Management of British Timber
Trees, whether intended for use, ornament, or shelter ; includ-
ing an explanation of the causes of their general diseases and
defects, with means of prevention, and remedies, where practi-
cable ; also, an examination of the properties of English Fir
Timber, with remarks on the defects of the old, and the ouU
lines of a new system for the manaiiement of Oak Woods.
With eight ex|ilanatory plates. Lond. 1805. 8v6.

7i. The rural improver, &c. Huddersfield, 1823. 4to.

1802. Society of Practical Gardeners ; evidently,
however, a compilation by a hackney writer who
knew little of the subject.

Rural Recreations, or the Gardener's Instructor ; exhibiting
in a clear and perspicuous manner all the Operations necessary
in the Kitchen, Flower, and Fruit Gardens, &c. for every
Month in the Year ; with a Treatise on the Management of
Bees, &c. and Catalogues of Plants. Lond. 8vo.

1803. Loudon, John Claudius, landscape-gardener,
and author of some works on agriculture ; born in
Lanarkshire in 1782, began to practise in 1803 ; to
farm extensively in Oxfordshire in 1809, and in
Middlesex in 1810 ; travelling on the continent in
1813-14-15, again in 1819, now residing at Bays-
water.

1. Observations on laying out the public Squares of London.
(^Literary Journal, 1803.)

2. Observations on the Formation and Management of
Useful and Ornamental Plantations; on the Theory and
Practice of Landscape Gardening, and on gaining and em-
banking Land from Rivers, or the Sea. Edin. 1804. 8vo.

3. A short Treatise on some Improvements lately made in
Hot-houses. Edin. 1805 8vo.

4. A Treatise on forming, improving, and managing
Country Residences, and on the choice of Situations appro-
priate to every class of Purcha.sers. With an Appendix, con-
taining an Enquiry into the utility and merits of Mr. Repton's
Mode of showing Effects bv Slides and Sketches, and Stric.
tures on his Opinions and I'ractice in Landscape Gardening.
Illustrated bv Descriptions of Scenery and Buildings, by
references to Country Seats, and passages ot Country m most
parts of Great Britain, and by 32 engravings. Lond. 1806. 2
vols. 4 to.

5. Hints on the Formation ot Gardens and Pleasure-Grounds,
&c. 4to. v)lates. 1812.

6. Remarks on the Construction of Hot-houses; pointing out
the most advantageous Forms, Jlaterials, and Contrivances to
be used in their Construction ; with a Review of the various
Methods of building them in foreign countries, as well as in
England ; with 10 plates, from etchings on stone. 1817. 4to.

7. Sketches of CurviUnear Hot-houses ; with a Description

Book I.

BRITISH WORKS ON GARDENING.

1113

of the Tarious purposes In Horticultural and General Architec-
ture, to which a solid iron Sash-l)ar, lately inTented, is ai)pli-
cable. 1S18.

8. A comparative View of the common and curvilinear
Mode of rooting Hot-houses. Lond. folio. 1818.

9. Encycloiwedia of Gardening. I^oitd. 8vo. 1822.

10. The different modes of cultivating the Tine Apple from
its first introduction to Euroiie to the improTemenbs of T. A.
Knight, Esq. in 1H'Z3. Lond. Svo. 1822.

1803. Moriarty, Mrs. Henrietta Maria, author of
several novels.

\'iridariuin ; or, Greenhouse Plants ; containing fifty plates,
drawn and colored from Nature. 1803. Svo.

1804. Amos, Wiltiajii, formerly a gardener and
bailiff to a nobleman, and afterwards a farmer at
Broth ertoft, Lincolnshire, author of some works on
the drill husbandry.

Minutes of Agriculture and Planting, &c. Lond. 1S04. 4to.

1805. Banks, Sir Joseph, Bart., president of the
Royal Society, was tlie son of William Banks, Esq.
of Revesby Abbey in Lincolnshire, and born there
in 1745. He received his education first at Eton,
and next at Oxford, but left the university on the
death of his father in 1761 ; and two years afterwards
made a voyage to Labrador and Newfoundland.
In 1768, he and Dr. Solander went with Lieutenant
Cook to Otaheite; in which voyage Mr. Banks
narrowly escaped perishing by the frost, on the
island of Terra del Fuego. After his return he re-
ceived the degree of doctor of laws at Oxford ; and
in 1772 undertook a vojage to Iceland and the West-
em Isles of Scotland. In 1//8 he received the
Order of the Bath, and was elected president of the
Royal Society. In 1781 he was created a baronet ;
but about two years afterwards his conduct in the
Royal Society gave such offence to the scientific
members as had nearly produced a schism : this
tempest, however, was dispersed, and the president
retained his seat without any farther opposition to
the end of his life. Sir Joseph, though afflicted for
many years with the gout, continued his exertions
for the improvement of agriculture and the exten-
sion of natural historv to the verv last of his long
and uieful I'fe. He died May 9. 1820. He has some
papers in the Philosophical Transactions, and pub-
lished besides a tract on the Rust on Wheat

1. An Attempt to ascertain the Time when the Potatoe
(Solanum TubCTOsum), was first introduced into the United
Kingdom, with some Account of the Hill Wheat of India.
(Bort. Trant. i. 8.)

2. Some Hints respecting the inuring Tender Plants to our
CUmate. (lb. 21.)

3. On the Revival of an obsolete Mode of managing Straw-
berries, {lb. 54.)

4. An Account of the Method of CulUvating the American
Cranberrv at Spring Grove, (lb. 75.)

5. On the Horticultural Management of the Sweet or Spanish
Chestnut Tree. (lb. UO)

6. On the Forcing-Houses of the Romans, with a list of Fruits
cultivated by them now in our (iardens. (lb. 147.)

7. On some Exotics which endure the open Air in Devonshire,
in a Letter to him, by A- Hawkins- (lb. 175.)

8. A short .-iccount of a Colored Figure of a new Apple,
called the Spring-Grove Codling, (lb. 197.)

9. On Riptaiing the Second Crop of Figs that grow on the new
Shoots, (lb. 252.)

10. Some Horticultural Observations, selected from French
Author^ (lb. 4. Appendix^

11. Notice from a work of ^Monsieur Lelienr, on the Here-
ditary Diseases of Fruit-Tiees. (lb- 27. -Appendix.)

12. Notes relative to the first appearance of the -Aphis Lani-
"" or the Apple- Tree Insects in this Country. (lb. vol. ii.

!!?)'

13. On the Advantanges of turning the Branches of Fruit-
Trees over the ^^*aas against which tliey are planted.

1805. Dickson, Mr. James, E.L.S. V.P.H.S., of the
respectable and long established firm of Messrs.
Dickson and Anderson, seedsmen and herbalists in
Coven t-garden, London. James Dickson was bom
at Kirke House in Peebleshire, in 1738, and acquired
his first knowledge of gardening in the garden of the
Earl of Traquhair. He afterwanis improved him-
self in the Brompton nursery, then the j^roperty of
Jefferey ; he was head g.trdener in several places till
1722, when he established the well known seed and
herb shop in Covent-garden. Dickson's attention
was first drawn to botany when a boy, by hearing
one of his playmates enquire of another the name
of a plant (Star of the Earth, Plantago Coronopus)
which grew near them. Finding the boy able to
answer the question h.e felt an impulse to obtain that
kind of knowledge and sui>eriority, and ever after-
wards pursued his object with unremitting ardor.
By directing his attention to a then neglected branch
of botany, the mosses, he established for himself,
says Sabine, " an imperi^hable reputation." He was
one of the earliest members both of the Linnasan
and Horticultural Societies. (See A Biographical
Memoir, in Hort. Trans, v. App. 1.)

1. On a Variety of the Brassica Napus, or Rape, which has
long been cultivated upon the Continent. {Hort. Trans, i. 26)

2. ObKiTations on, and an Account of, the Tubers of Oie

Lathvrus tuberosus, with Instructions for the Cultivation of the
Plant in a Garden. (Hort. Trant. u. 359. 1817.)
3. On the Cultivation of the Rampion. (lb. iu. 19. 1818.)

1805. Macdonald, Alexander, a fictitious name
adopted by R. W. Dickson, M. D. formerly of Hen-
don, Middlesex, author of Practical Agriculture,
and other works on fanning.

A convulete Dictionary of Practical Gardening. 2 vols. 4to.
plates. The plates of ilowers &om paintings by the late Sydcn-
nam Edwards.

1805. Parkyns, G. J., author of Monastic Re-
mains; and generally reputed the author of the Six
Designs for laying out Grounds, 1793, published
with Soane's Designs for Villas.

Architectural Sketches, folio. No. 1. TTiese contain plans
for laying out grounds, according to the dilfcrent natural situ-
ations, with descriptions: among others, a plan of Gen. Wash-'
ington's groiuids at \'ermont.

1806. Anon. A lady, author of Conversations on
Botany and some other works.

The Florist's Manual. Land. 12mo.

1807. £llis, Daniel, Esq. of Edinburgh.

1. An Inquiry into the Changes induced on Atmospheric Air
by the Germination of Seeds, the \'eKetation of Plants, and the
Respiration of Animals. Edin. 1807. Svo.

2. Further Iciquiries into the Changes induced on Atmo-
spheric Air by the Germination of S^ds, the V^etation of
Plants, and the Respiration of Animals. Kdiu. 1811. Svo.

1807. Shaw,nHJiam.

The Pracf.cal Gardener. Lond. Svo.

1808. Griffin, William, formerly gardener to John
Manners Sutton, Esq., at Kelham Hall near Not-
tingham, and now to Samuel Smith, Esq., at Wood
Hall, in Hertfordshire.

1809. Knight, Joseph, F.H.S., nurseryman in the

King' s Road, Chelsea ; formerly gardener to

Hibbert, Esq., at Clapton, whose collection of plants
he now possesses.

1. An tssav on the Cultivation of the Plants belonging to the
Order of the Protese. GeneraUy attributed to R. 11. Saasburr.
Lond. 1809. 4to. '

2. On the Cultivaticm of Horse-Radish. [Hort. Trant. i. 207.

1810. Aiton, William Townsend, Esq., gardener to
the king at Kew and Kensington. To the first
situation he succeeded on the death of his father,
William Aiton, in 1793, and to the other on the
death of William Forsyth, Esq., in 1804.

1. Hortus Kewensis, or a Catalc^^uc of Plants cultivated in
the Royal (Jardens at Kew ; by the late Mr. W. Aiton ; a new
edition enlarged. Lond. 1810-13. 5 vols. Svo.

2. An Epitome of the 2d edit, of Hortus Kewensis, for the
L'se of Practical Gardeners ; to which is added, a Selection of
Esculent \egetables and Fruits cultivated in the Royal Garden
at Kew. Lond. 1814. Svo.

5. Brief Practical Observations on the Cultivation of the Ct»-
cumber in the Royal Gardens at Kew, during the Autumn and
M mter Months. {Hort. Trant. vol. ii )

1810. Denn, R. and W., printers, Manchester.

1. An Accoimt of the different Goo»eberrv Shews used in
Lancashire, Cheshire, ic in the year ISIO. To which is added,
a Statement exhibiting at one view the number of Prizes won
by each sort of berry at the several Meetfajgs. Alanchester*.
l^mo. continued annually.

2. -An .Account of the Flower Shews in Lancashire, Cheshire
occ. for 1817, continued annually. Manchester. l2mo.

1810. The Caledonian Horticultural Society.
Founded in 1809, chiefly through the exertions ot
Dr. Andrew Duncan, Senior Professor of the In-
stitutes of Medicine in the University of Pxiinburgh.
It is a prosperous, well conducted, and most useful
society.

Jfem'oirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society. Edin
3 vols. 8vo. tolS24.

1811. Undegaard, Peter, gardener to the King of
Denmark, at the royal gardens of Rosenburgh near
Copenhagen.

1. On the mode cf forcing the vme in Denmark. Lond. Svo.

2. An account of the methods of forcing peaches in Den-
mark and Holland. (Hort. Trant. v. 320.)

1811. Haynes, Thomas, nurser}man, at Oundle,
Northamptonshire.

2. Interesting Discoveries in Horticulture ; being an easy,
rauonal, and efficaciotis System of pro|>agalmg all hardv
American and Bog Soil PlanU, with Ornamental Trees ari
Shrubs of general Description, Green-house Plants, including
Botanv Bav and Cape Plants; Herbaceous Plants, affbrdine
favorable Shoots and Fruit-trees in every variety, bv plantire
Cuttings, chietly in the warm months, without artificial hta^
Lond. 1811. roy. Svo.

3. Treatise on the Improved Culture rf the Strawberry
Raspberry, and Gooseberry. Lend. 1812. Svo.

4. On collerting Soils and ComposU and preparing them
for use, &c. Lond. 12mo. 1821.

1811. Hooker, William, Esq. F.L.S. H.&, horti-
cultural draughtsman and engraver.

Pomona Londinensis; containing representations of the best
PruiU cultivated in British Gardens; with DeuriuUons.
1813. 4ta To be completed in about 18 numbers.

III4

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

1811. Wade, Walter, M.D., Professor of Botany
to the Dublin Institution.

1. Salices, or an £;iba; towards a General History of Sal-
lows, Willows, and Osiers. Dublin. 8vo.

ii. Prospectus of the Arrangement in the Dublin Society's
Botanical and Agricultural Garden at Glasnevin. Dublin,
1818. 12mo.

181:2. Cashing, , a native of Ireland, late fore-
man of the hot-house department to Messrs. Lee
and Kennedy, at the Hammersmith nursery.

The Exotic Gardener, &c. London. 8vo.

1812. Hogg, Thomas, master of an academy at
Paddington, Middlesex, and a very successful grower
of the carnation.

1. A concise and practical Treatise on the Growth and
Culture of the Carnation, Pink, Auricula, Polyanthus, Ra-
nunculus, Tulip, &c. Lond. 12mo. 1 plate.

i;. On the Cultivation of Pinks. {Hort. Tram, iv.)

1812. Todd, George, surveyor and hot-house
builder, employed by W. T. Alton, Esq., the late Sir
Joseph Banks, and other eminent horticulturists.

Plans, Klevations, and Sections of Hot-houses and Green-
houses, an Aquarium, Conservatories, &c. recently built m
different parts of England for various Noblemen and Gen-
tlemen, &c. Lend. ful.

1813. Lj/on, Peter, an apothecary and physic gar-
dener at Comely-garden, Edinburgh.

1. Observations on the Barrenness of Fruit Trees; the Means
ofPrevention and Cure. Edin. 1813. 8vo.

2. A Treatise on the Physiology and Pathology of Trees ;
■with Observations on the Barrenness and Canker of Fruit
Trees; the means of Prevtntion and Cure. 1816. 8vo. Edin.

1813. Sinclair, Sir John, Bart, of Ulbster, in Caith-
ness, a distinguished patriot and voluminous agri-
cultural writer ; founder of the Board of Agricul-
ture.

Account of some Experiments to promote the Improvement
of Fruit Trees, by peelmg the Bark. Lond. 1813. 8vo. These
experiments were made by P. Lyon, of Edinburgh. (See Lyon,
X813.)

1814. Phillips, Leonard, jun., an extensive grower
of hardy fruit-trees for sale, at Lambeth.

1. Catalogue of Fruit Trees for Sale. Lond. fol.

2. Transactions in the Fruit-tree Nursery at Vauxhall.
Lond. 1815. 8vo.

1814. Weeks, Mr. Edward, late gardener to Vis-
count Kirkwall, in Wales, patentee of a forcing-
frame (1535.) ; and now hot-house builder at the Hor-
ticultural Repository, King's Road, London.

The Forcer's Assistant; a Treatise with useful Hints on
Forcing, by a new device for the application of Frames to the
Culture ot Melons, Pines, and other chpice Fruit from Dwarf
Plants ; and of the Early Esculents usually in demand for the
first tables ; including a few plain Directions for Forcing the
Grape, Cherrj-, and Peach in Houses; with an Appendix de-
scribing the Patent Forcing ^ame, and exhibithig some of its
advantages ; to which is prehxed an introduction, connecting
the principal parts of the theory of Vegetation, with the prac-
tice of Horticulture. Chipping Norton. 8vo. 84 pages.

1815. The London Horticultural Society, com-
menced by a few individuals in 1804, and established
by charter in 1809. It is perhaps one of the most
flourishing and best conducted societies of the kind
in existence.

Transactions of the London Horticultural Society. Lond.
4 vols. 4to. many plates, 1815 to 1824.

The papers of the first writers are dated 180o.

1616. Emjnerton, Isaac, formerly a nurseryman
and florist at Barnet, and an enthusiastic cultivator
of the auricula.

A Plain and Practical Treatise on the Culture and Manage-
ment of the Auricula, &c. Lond. 12mo.

1816. Salter, J , nurseryman, seedsman, and

florist, WeUs Road Nursery, Bath.

A Treatise upon Bulbous Roots, Green-house Plants, Flower
Gardens, Fruit Trees, the Culture of the Sea Kale, Destruction
of Insects, &c. 12mo. Bath, 1816. » »^ ^

The author, in an advertisement, " humbly requests that
those who purchase his book will not give the rules therein
laid down to others, as it wiU materially injure Uie sale

* mi. Brookshaw, George, a teacher of flower-

1. Pomona Britannica, or a Collection of the most estabU.;hed
Fruits at present cultivated in Great Britain ; selected from
the royal gardens at Hampton Court, and from the most cele-
brated gardens round London, accurately drawn, and colored

2. The Horticultural Repository, containing Delineations of
the best Varieties of the different Species of English Fruits; to
•which are added the blossoms and leaves, in those mstances m
•which thev are considere<l necessary, accompanied with tull de-
scriptions of their various properties, time ot ripening, and di-
rections for planting them, so as to insure a longer succession of
fruit ; such being pointed out as are particularly calculated for
forcing. Part I. 8vo. 1821. . .. ,,

1818. Baldwin, Thomas, gardener to the Marquis
of Hertford, at Raglej', in Warwickshire.

Short Practical Directions for the Culture of the Ananas, or
Pine Apple. 8vo. Warwick.

1818. Blaikie, Francis, steward to T. \\'. Coke,
Esq., of Holkham, in Norfolk, author of some tracts
on agricultural subjects, and of various papers in
the Farmer's Journal.
' A Treatise on Hedges and Hedgerow Timber. 12mo.

;1818 Uayward, Mr. Joseph, gent., an amateur

gardener, formerly a Yorkshire clothier, now resid-
ing at Plumstead in Kent.

The Science of Horticulture. Lond. 1818. 8vo.

1818. Macwilliam, Robert, a native of Aberdeen,
and surveyor in London.

An Essay on the Origin and Operation of the Dry Rot; to
whit;h are annexed. Suggestions for the Cultivation of Forest-
trees, and an Abstract of the Forest Laws. 1818. 4to.

1818. Page, Mr. William Bridgewatcr, C.M.H.S.,
nurseryman, at Southampton, and son-in-law of
Kennedy, late of the Hammersmith nursery, who
is the reputed author of Page's Catalogue.

Page's Prodromus ; as a general nomenclature of all the
plants, indigenous and exotic, cultivated in the Southampton
botanic gardens; arranged alphabetically, as they are con-
sidered hardy or tender to the climate of Britain, under their
different characters of trees and shrubs, herbaceous, &c. The
generic and specific names after the Linnaean system ; with the
English names, propagation, soil, height, time of flowering, na-
tive country, &.c. ; also occasional hints for their cultivation.
.'Vn Appendix, containing selected lists of annuals; all the
choicest kinds of fruits now in circulation, with their characters,
&c., and a short tract on the sexual system, from the Philoso-
phica Botanica of Linnajus. London. 8vo.

This, w*ien the errors with which it abounds in every page,
are corrected in a new edition, will be tlie best Gardener's Ca-
talogue that has hitherto been published ; that of Sweet is
much more correct and extensive as a botanical work, but this
is more instructive in what relates to culture. No gardener
ought to be without both works.

1818. Sweet, Robert, F.L.S., an excellent practical
botanist, and experienced cultivator.

1. Hortus suburbanus Londinensis ; or, a Catalogue of Plants
cultivated in the neighbourhood of London, arranged accord-
ing to the Linnaean system; with the addition of the natural
orders to which they belong, reference to books where they
are described, their native places of growth, when introduced,
timeofflowerinij, and reference to figures. London. 8vo.
2. Geraniace-<E ; or, Natureil Order of Geraniums. 8vo. London,
1820. in numbers.
3. The Botanical Cultivator. Lond. 8vo. 1820.

1819. Monteith, Mr. , timber valuer at

Stirling, inventor of a composition, which he sells
for destroying all manner of insects.

The Forester's Guide, &c. Stirling. 12mo. plates.

1819. Winch, Nathaniel John, F.LS., an able prac-
tical botanist.

Essay on the Geographical Distribution of Plants through the
Counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Durham.
Newcastle. 8vo.

1820. Field, Henry, member of the Society of
Apothecaries.

Memoirs Historical and Illustrative, of the Botanic Garden
at Chelsea; belonging to the Society of Apothecaries of Lon-
don. Lond. 8vo.

1820. Hojiand, Mrs., formerly Mrs. Hoole, now
the wife of an eminent landscape-painter, author of
various novels and some poetry.

An Historical Description of White Knights, a scat of the
Duke of Marlborough, near Reading. Lor.d. linj). fol.

The literarj- part is by Mrs. H., and the engravings by her
husband.

1820. Hope, Thomas, Esq., of Deepdene, nearGod-
stonc, in Surrey, a gentleman of higlily cultivated
taste, author of a splendid work on household fur-
niture, and of Anaitasius, a novel displaying much
genius.

An Essav on Gardening, published in the Description of
White Knights, by Mrs. Holland.

1820. Phillips, Mr. Henry, formerly master of an
academy at Bayswatcr.

1. Pomarium Britannicuin, an Historical and Botanical Ac-
count of Fruits known in Great Britain. 8vo.

2. The History of cultivated Vegetables. Lond. 1822. 2 vols.
8vo.

3. Sylva Florifera ; or, the Shrubbery. London. 2 vols. 8vo.
1823.

4. Flora Domestica. 1 vol. 8vo.

1820. Pigott, Richard, florist, Dutch Villa, Sher-
dington, near Cheltenham.

A short, plain Treatise on Carnations and Pinks. 8vo.

1821. Cobbetf, William, a well known political
writer, son of a farmer, bom at or near Farnham,
in Surrey, 1776 ; in 1783 he werit to London, and was
employed in an attorney's office ; in 1784, he en-
tered into a regiment sent to America, went to
France in 1792, returned the same year to America,
and was engaged in literary pursuits till his return
to England in 1801, went to America again in 1816
(?), and returned in 1820, and now resides in Ken-
sington, where he has a largo garden.

The American Gardener; or, a Treatise on the Situation,
Soil, Fencing, and Laying out of Gardens, on the Making and
Managing of Hot-beds and Green-houses, and on the Propaga-
tion and Cultivation of the several Sorts of Vegetables, Herbs,
Fruits, and Flowers. London. 12mo.

Though the author shows great ignorance of botanv and phy-
siology, he has contrived by his style, by many shrewd remarks,
and by curious and bold assertions, sometimes at variance with
facts, to make an interesting book, from which it may be
gathered, that horticulture in America is but in its infancy,
and from the climate must ever have great obstacles to contend

'*'l821. Neill, Patrick, Esq. A.M. F.LS. secretary to
the Natural History Society of Edinburgh, and to
the Caledonian Horticultural Society, author of a

Book I.

FOREIGN LITERATURE OF GARDENING.

1115

tour through the Orkney and Shetland islands, pub-
lished in 1§)6 ; and of various essays and papers on
natural history in the Scotch oricyclopfedias : a
most benevolent and intelligent man, and a skilful
horticultural connoisseur.

1. Notice of Mr. Kni^l's Doctrines regarding Fruit Trees.
(Co/. Alrm. ill. 218.)

2. The articles Horticulture in the Edinburgh EncyclopiEdia,
and in the Appendix to the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

3. On the Gardens and Orchards of Scotland. (Printed in
Sir John Sinclair't General Report qf Scotland, 1814, \ol. ii.
p. 450

4. Report to the Highland Soci«
[Gi^. Rep. bf ScotJand. App. toI.

5. .Journal .^f a Horticultural T

idSocietv concerning earl; Potatoes.
;I.i.p.419.)

Tour throughout some parts of
Flar.ders, Holland, and the north of France, in the autumn of
1817, bv a Deputation of the Caledonian Hortictiltural Society.
Drawn up by P. Neill, one of the Deputation. Edinburgh. 8to.
18'i3.

1823. Harrison, Mr. Charles, F.H.S., gardener to
J. & Wortley, Esq., Wortley Hail, near Shetlleld,
Yorkshire.

A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees.
Sheffield. 8vo.

Sect. II. Of the Literature of Gardening in Foreign Countries.
7691. Italy having been the country in which the revival of arts and literature took
nlace, was the first to produce books on agriculture and gardening: that of Crescenzio is
well known. The adjoining countries of France and Germany produced the next books ;
and those of Belon, Etienne, and Ileresbachius, may be cited as among the best of the
16fh century. Conimelin is among the earliest Dutch authors on gardening ; Rudbeck,
his contemporar}', one of the first who wrote in Sweden : both published after the middle
of the 17th century. Herrera, one of the few Spanish writers on agricultural subjects,
wrote about the end of tlie 16th century. Tlie other countries of Continental Europe
have produced little worthy of notice ; and but few gardening books have hitherto apfKjared
in America. Of such as are most generally known in this country, or apparently most
interesting as illustrating the state of gardening at tlie time of their production, we give
the titles in tlie following subsections.

SuBSECT. 1. IForks oil Gardening published in France, eidunve of Translations.
7692. Of French works on gardening we have given a more copious list than of
those of Germany, because the French language is more generally known, and the
books not difficult to obtain. Many of them are in the libraries of the British Museum,
tlie Horticultural Society, or in the Banksian collection. One of the best books on the
state of culture in France is, the Nouveau Cours d' Agriculture, 13 vols. 8vo. 1810.

1533. Champier, Symphorien, a physician, a native
of Lyons, who distinguished himself in the battle of
Aignadel in 1509, and was made chevalier of the
two gilt spurs : he wrote several works, and died in
1532 or 1540.

Campus Elysius Gallise amcenitatc refertus, in quo quidquid
Spud Indos, Arabes et Poenos reperitur, apud Gallos demon-
stratur posse reperiri. Lugduni. 8to.

1535. Etienm; Charles, a physician of Paris, who
wrote several tracts on gardening and agriculture,
and first united them in one work in 1529, un-
der the title of Prcediu?/i Busticum. Having
married his daughter to Jean I>eibault, also a phy-
sician, he produced, with his son-in-law, the Maison
Riistique in lo/O.

1. De Re Hortsnsi. Par. 1535. 8vo.

2. Seminarium et Plantariura, Fructiferarium, &c. Par.
1536. Svo.

3. \'inetuni, in quo Taria Vitjum, Uvarum, &c. Par. 1537.
Svo.

4. Arhustum, Fonticulus Spinetum, &c. Par. 153S. Svo.

5. Sylva Fruticum ColUs. Par. 1558. 8vo.

6. Pratum, Lacus Arundinacum. Par. 1513. 8vo.
All these were united in Pnedium Rusticum. Par. 1554.

7. L'Agriculture etMaison Uustique, &c. Par. 1570. 4to.
This work has gone throutrh upwaids of 50 editions, the last

entitled. La Maison Ivu-.tiqup, ou Cours complet d'Apricul-
tur, d'economie rurale tt doniestique, edition entierement re-
fo"due. Paris, chez Leciivain. 2 vols. Sro.

S. Columella de Hortis. Svo. 151-2.

1546. Cognatus, the name adopted by Gilbert Cousin,
a canon of Nozerai, who died in 156/ in the prison
of Besangon, where he was shut up on account of
his religious opinions.

De Hcrtorum laudihus. Bail, 1>16.

1552. Brassard, Davy or David, a Benctlictine
monk at Mons, belonging to a family which stili
exists in the Maine.

L'Art et Alaniere de semer Pepins, faire Pepinieres et Sau-
Tageons ; enter eti toutes sortes d'arbres, et faire vergers ; avec
tin autre Traite de la maniere de semer Grains en jardins, le
terns, et la salson de planter, replanter, recueiilir graines, et cul-
tiTer toutes sortes dlierbes, &c. Mons. Svo.

1553. Belon^ Peter, a French physician, was bom
in the province of Maine about the year 1518. He
travelled into Palestine, Greece, and Arabia, and

?ublished an account of those countries in 1555, 4to.
le was assassinated at Paris in 1564.

1. De Arboribus conifeiis, resiniferis, aliisque semper viren-
Ubus: deCedrino, Cedrio, Agarico, Resinis,&c. Paris. 4to. fig.

2. Lei Remonstrances nir le Default du Labour et Culture
de< PLiTite;, et de la cognoissance d'icelles, contenant la ma-
niac dV.ffranchir et apprivoiser les Arbres sauvages. Paris,
155S. Svo.

1540. Cornus, Georges, or Gorgole de Come, ac
coidins to some writers a native of Florence.

1 . ?.f dj iii're d'Enter, Planter, et Xourir les Arbres et Jardins,
avcc mielques autres traites d'Agriculture- Paris. Svo.
, 3- De la Maniere de Planter, Arrachcr, Labourer, Semer et

et Bois Taillis

1550. Davy, P , that is, Pere David, or David

Brassard. (See Brossard, 1552.)

15^. Palissy, Ber/tard de, bom at Agen in 1524,
was a potter, according to some, and a China-ware
manufacturer, according to othi rs. He cultivated
chemistry and the arts, and went beyond his age ;
he wrote various pieces, which have been collected
and published in several volumes. Those which
relate to agriculture and rural economy, are en-
titule<l. Mot/en de devenir riche. He died between
1602 and 1604.

Recepte veritable par laqueUe tous les hommes de la France
pourront apprendre k augnienler leurs Tresors, avec le Dessin
Q'un .Tardin d&lectable et utile. Rochelle. 4to. 15C3.

1564. Mixnuld, , bom at Montlu<pon, in 1575 ;

died at Paris at an advanced age. He studied ma-
thematics and medicine with reputation ; but his
love of novelty, singularity, and astrology, made him
lose in succession the little glory which he had ac-
quirctl, his fortune, and his life. He published
many works, chiefly in Latin, the first of which, on
gardening, appeared in 1564; and all those which
relate to the subject have been collected and pub-
lished by Caille, a physician, under the following
title : —

J.eJardinage de Alizauld Paris, 1578.

\oiO. Leilxiulf, Jean, a physician, bom at Dijon,
dietl at Paris in 1596 ; author of various works on
medicine, and jointly with his fathor-iu-law, Eti-
enne, of the Maison Rustiqiie. (See Etienne, 1535 )

1580. I.undrie,—.

AvertL<vsetnent et maniire d'enter assur^ment les Arbres en
toutes saisons, &c. Bourdeaux, in Svo.

l.'SS. J. P. D. ■«., that is, Jacques Pous, Doctor of
Medicine.

Sommaire traite des Melons. Lyon de Toumes. Svo.
1631. Gamier, Claude.

La maniere d'enter, planter, et semer, aT-jc les remddcs contre
les moucherons, limacons, et autres betes qui gatrait le» herbes
et jardins. Troyes. 16nio.

Ki38. Boyceau, Jacques, ^cuycr; sieur dela Barau-
derie, intendant of the gardens of Ix)uis XIII.

1. Trait* du .Tardinage selon les Raisons de la Nature et de
I'Art, ensemble divers desseins de parterres, peIou-e<, bosqu-?!*,
et autr<^ omements servant a rembellissement des Jardins.
Paris, folio. ir>58. Several times reprinted.

2. Traite du Jardinage qui enseigne les Ouvrages quHl feut
faire p'.-ir avoir un Jardin dans sa perfection, et la maniere de
faire des jiepinieres, de greRer, enter, &c. 12mo. 1639.

1651. Mollef, Andre, a relation and contemporary

of Claude Mollet, who was gardener to Henrj- IV.,

and Louis XIII. of France, as the ether is said to

have been to Jimes I. of England.

1. Le JarUn de Plaisir, contetumt plusieors Desains de Jar>

1116

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

diriM^e, tant Parterres en Broderie, Compartimens de Gazon,
que Bosquets et autres, avec un Abrfeg^ de I'Asriculture tou-
chant ce i\ui peut etre le plus utile et necessaire a la construc-
Uon et acconipapiement du dit Jardin de Plaisir, par Andre
Mollet, intendaiitdes Jardins du roi d'Angleterre. Sstockhclm.
folio.

2. Manidre i>our elever les Melons. Paris. 12mo. le.'JD.

1652 Le Gendre, an assumed name j that of the
real author being, according to Quintinie, Robert
Arnauld d'Andilly, a clergyman, born at Paris in
1589, author of various theological works and me-
moirs of his own life, who died in 1674. But the
compilers of the Bibliographie Agroiwmique, con-
sider that the Abbe of Pont-chateau, a monk of
Portugal, was the real author. Baillet, a noted
French bibliographer, ascribes it to M.M. Guillaume
de la Moignon, et Olivier Lefevre d'Ormesson :
Rapin ascribes it to La Moignon ; and Gregoire is
of the same opinion as Quintinie. All agree in the
excellence of the work.

De la Maniere de cultiver les Arbres Fruitiers, par le Sieur
Le Gendre, cure de Henonville. Paris. 1662.

An English translation appeared in 1G60, entitled The
right Manner of orderln;; Fruit-trees, &c. translated from the
French of Le Gendre. London. 8vo.

1652. Mollet, Claude, head gardener to Henry IV.,
and of Louis XIII. ; he created in France, in 1582,
the parterres d compartimens ; in 1595, he planted
the garden of Saint Germain-en-Laye, of Monceau,
and of Fontainbleau; in 1607, he had planted at Fon-
tainbleau 7000 fruit-trees ; he had, in 1608, made
fine plantations of cypresses in the gardens of the
Thuilleries, which were killed by the rigorous winter
of 1608. On the whole, he effected a great deal for
the time in which he lived, and his name and me-
mory has been too much forgotten. His relation,
Andrew Mollet, was gardener to James I. in Eng-
land. (See Mollet, Andre, 1651.)

Theatre des Plans et Jardinages, contenant des Secrets et In-
ventions inconnus a tous ceux qui jusqu' a present sesont meles
d'fecrire sur cette matiire ; as-ec un Traite d'Astrologie, pro-
pres pour toutes sortes de Personnes, et j)artlculierement pour
ceux qui s'occupent a la Culture des Jardins. I'aris. 4to. 22
plates. The designs invented by Andr^, Jacques, and Noel,
sons of the author.

Several editions of this work have been printed at Paris, but
none lately.

1651. Bonnefons. , author of a letter on the

agripulture of Italy.

jardinier Franfjais et Delices de la Campagne. Paris. 2 vols.
12mo.

1653. Triquel, R. , prior of St. Mark.

Instruction poMr les Arbres Fruitiers.

A third edition, with a Treatise on the INIanagenient o
Oranges, Pomegranates, Olives, and Spanish Jessamine, in
16.58.

1654. Chesnee, MonstereuU, Charles de la.

Le Fleuriste Franfjais, traitant de I'Origine des Tulipes;
avec un Catalogue des noms des Tulipes. Caen.

This appears to be the first treatise written on Tulips ; the
second was by d'Ardenne in 1G6(). A plagiarism from Chei-
nee's work api)eared in 1G78, entitled Traite des Tu!ii>es.

1658. Marin, Pierre, a florist at Paris, mentioned
by Evelyn ; he devoted 40 years of his life to the
culture of flowers, and was, the French authors say,
the Vilmorin of his time.

1. Remarques n^cessaires pour la Culture des Fleurs.

2. Instruction facile pour connoitre toutes sortes d'Orangers,
et de Citronniers; qui enseigne aussi la maniere de les cultiver,
semer, &c. Paris, 12mo. 1680.

1658. Stephanus, Morinus, a protcstant divine,
born at Caen in 1625, where he was settled as a cler-
gyman, and afterwards as a professor of the Oriental
languages at Amsterdam; he published various
theological works, and died in 1700.

Observationes circa Culturam Plantarum.

1660. Saint Etienne, Claude de, a Bernardin monk.

X. Instruction pour connaitre les bons Fruits et les Arbres
Fruitiers, selon le mois de I'annee et la fa^on de les cultiver.
Paris. I'iino.

Several etlitions, with the title somewhat varied, as Nou-
Telle Instruction ))our connaitre, Ike 1667.

2. Traitd de la Connaissance des bons Fruits, par MM. Mer-
let et Saint Etienne, 4th edit. 1782.

1665. Rapin, Rene, or Renatus, a Jesuit, was born
at Tours in 1621. He taught polite literature with
great reputation in the colleges cf his order j and
died at Paris in 1687.

1 Kenati Hapini de Hortorum, libr. 14 166.'). item Ultraj.
1672. 8. praeter ejus libellum de Cultura Hortensi, et Meursii
arlioretum sacrum.

2. Nemus; translated into English verse by Evelyn junior,
printed with the Sylva. Rapin's 4 books translated by him
■were published separately, 1673. 8vo. LonJ.

1675. Laurent, Jean.

Abrege pour les Arbres nains, et autres, &c. Paris. 4to.

This author believes in the influence of the moon, and
enjoins many curious superstitious practices to secure successful
culture.

167.'>. Merlet,Jean,oiSt. Stephen.

Abrege des Bons Fruits avec la maniere de les connaitre, &c.
Paris. l2mo.

lt)77. Arisfote, jardinier de Puteaux, considered
by the French bibliographers as an assumed name,
and designation

1. Observations sur le Llvre du Cure d'Henonrilk, cu de
I'Abbfe de Pont-chateau de Cambout de Coislin, Ja.dinier de
Port Royal. 12mo. 1677.

2. L'Art de cultiver toutes sortes de Fleurs; avec Instruc-
tions pour cultiver et greffer les Arbres Fruitiers. Paris.
12mo.

."5. Instructions pour le Jardin Potager,avec I'Art de cultiver
les Fleurs et les Arbres Fruitiers. Paris. 12mo. 1678.
1683. R. n. C. D. W. D.

I^e Jardinier Franjais, qui enseipne & cultiver les Arbres et
les Herbes Po ageres, avec la Maniere de conserver les Fruit<!,
dedie aux Dames. Rouen. 12mo.

This work has come through a great many editions in France,
and was translated by Evelyn in 16o8, under the title of the
French Gardener.

1692. Chataigneraye, le Sieur de.

I.,a parfaite Comiais.sance des Arbres Fruitiers, &c. Paris.
12ino.

1696. Dahuron, Rene, gardener to the Duke of
Brunswick, at Luneburg.

Nouveau Trait«5 de la TaiUe des Arbres Fruitiers, contenant

1690. Quintinie, Jean de la, born in 1626, at Cha-
banois, near Angouleme, died in 1700. He was
destined for the bar, but a passion for gardening de-
termined him to that pursuit. He became tuvor to
a young gentleman, M. Tambonneau, and made the
tour of Italy with him, where his passion for his
favorite study increased At his return, the father
of his pupil submitted his gardens to his direction.
Here he acquired experience and reputation. The
great Conde used to take pleasure in conversing with
him, and Charles II. of England invited him to su-
perintend his gardens, with a considerable pension.
Louis XIV. created for him the otiice of director of
the royal fruit and kitchen gardens. It is uncertain
whether any other work by him appeared during his
life than the first of those enumerated below.

1. Traits des Jardins Fruitiers et Potagers. Amsterdam.
4to. fig.

2. Instructions sur les .Tardins Fruitiers et Potagers, avec un
Traite des Grangers, et des Reflexions sur I'Agriculture. 4to..

Both works have come through numerous editions in the
French language, and were translated into English by Evelyn,
and by London and Wise.

17. . . Chomel, Noel, a curate in Lyons, who died
in 1712. His nephew, a physician, published in
1761, Histoire des Plantes usueTles.

Abri^g^ de I'Histoire des Plantes usuelles, &c. An Edition in
180.1, with the Linnsean names by Maillaud.

17. . . Lemarie, Fr .

Supplement a I'Ami des Jardins d'Utilite et d'Omement;
contenant des notions sur la culture de diverses plantes ; entre
autres le rutabaga au chou-navet de Laponie, qui ne gele jamais
en terre, et qui remplace le colsa; sur de nouveaux arbres et
arbrisseaux, tels qu'un nouveau Rosier, le Mangoustan, et
autres; avec deux listes des panaches, dont Tune des plants
vivaces en pleine terre, et I'autre des arbres et arbrisseaux.
Paris. 12mo.

17. . . Pelee, M. de St. Maurice, member of the
Paris Agricultural Society.
L'Ait de Cultiver les Peupliers d'ltalie, &c. Paris, 12mo.

17. . . Renault, , a civil officer in the district of

Rouen.

P.Iemoire sur la Culture des Pommiers dans toute I'^tendue
de la France. Rouen, 8vo.

1701. Marchant, , of the Academy of Sciences.

Dissertation sur la Preference que nous devons donner aux
Plantes de notre Pays, jiar-dessus les Plantes etrangeres.

1703. Liger, Louis, born in 1658, died in 1717;
author of various works on rural and domestic
economy, and of a Theatre d' Agriculture, in se-
veral volumes, and a new edition of the Maison Rus-
tique.

1. Traits facile pour apprendre 'a. Clever des Figuieres.
12mo.

2. Le Jardinier, Fleuriste, et Historiographe, 2 vols, in
12mo. 1703. An edition with the title somewhat varied in
1704.

3. La Culture parfaite des Jardins, Fruitiers, et Potagers.
12mo. 1714.

1705. Besnier, , a physician in Paris, father-
in-law to the celebrated physician Dionis.

Le .Jardinier Botaniste, ou la Maniere de cultiver toutes
sortes de Plantes, Fleurs, Arbres, et Arbrisseaux, avec leur
usage en medicine et pour rembellissement des jardins. Paris.
8vo.

1705. Francois, , one of the brothers of the

Chartreuse in Paris.

Le Jardinier solitare, ou Dialogues, contenant la m^thode de
cultiver un jardin fruitier et potager, 8vo. An edition in 1770,
with the title somewhat varitd.

1705. Vallemont, I'Abb^ de, a naturalist and anti-
quarian, author of several works.

Curiosites de la Nature et de I'Art sur la Vegetation, ou
I'Agriculture et le Jardinage dans leur perfection, &c. Paris.
12mo.

The same work in English. 8vo. 1784.

1707. Andry, .

Le Th<$ de L'Europe, ou les Propri(!t& de la Veroniquc.
Paris. 16mo.

1707. Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, a physician
and botanist, was born at Aix, in Provence, June 5.
1656. He was intended for the church, but on the
death of his father he relinquished the study of

Book I.

FRENCH WORKS ON GARDENING.

IIJ

theology, to indulge his inclination for natural his-
tory. To gratify this passion, he made numerous
journeys in Europe and Asia ; after which he be-
came professor of physic in the royal college, and of
botany in the king's garden at Paris, where he died
Dec. 28. 1708. His botanical publications are nu-
merous ; the most important is his Institutiones ret
Herbarue, which method of arrangement was fol-
lowed in this country as well as in France, till sup-
planted by the systems of Linnaus and Jussieu.

Observations sur la Naissance et la Culture des Champignon*.
Mem. de I'Acad. de Vans, 1707.

1712. Angran de Rueneuve, a lawyer.

Observations sur I'Ajiriculture et le Jardinage, pour servir
d'lnstruction a ceux qui desirent de s'y rendre habiles. Paris.
2 vols. l'2mo.

1712. BouUay, , canon of Orleans.

Mani^re de bien cultiver la Vigne, de faire la Tendange et le
Vin dans le Vignoble d'Orleans, utUe a tous les autres Vignobles
du Rojaume. 2d edit, in 12mo.

1713. D'Argenvilk, DexalUer Ant. Joseph, bom in
Paris, where he died in 1765. He held a public si-
tuation, and his principal study was natural history.
The articles Hydrographie and Jardinage in the
Dictionnaire Encyclopedtque were furnished by him.

1. La Thterie et la Pratique du Jardinage, ou I'on traite k
fond des beaux Jardlns de Plaisance et de Proprete, contenant
plusieurs Plans ef Dispositions generales des Jardins, nouveaux
dessins de Parterres, de Bosquets, de Boulingrins, Salles, Cabi-
nets, &c. Paris. 4to. 171.'i.

Onlv the first edition of this work appeared with the name of
the author, who afterwards adopted that of Le Blond, by whose
name the work is best known. It was translated into English
by John .Tames of Greenwich, architect, and entitled

The Theorj- and Practice of Gardening, containing all that
relates to tine" gardens, &c. &c.

2. Dictionnaire du Jardinage. Liege, 1783.

Besides the above, he remodelled and published the works of
Roger Schabol, after his death. (See Schabc), 1767 )

1716. Ressons, Jean-Baptiste Deschiens de,hoTn at
Chalons ; died in 1736. He was lieutenant-gene-
ral of artillery, and member of the Academy of
Sciences ; united a taste for arms with that for
study, and excelled in both.

Maniere de greffer les Arbres des Fruits ^ Noyaui, sans
perdre aucun tems, en sorte qu'un arbre qui aura fait de
tres-mauvais fruits I'annee prec-edente en pourra porter de
tres-bons I'annee suivante. Paris. 8vo.

1719. Lanaistre, M , curate of Joinville.

Fruitier de la France, ou Description des Fruits, k Xoy-
aux et a P^pins, qui se cuUivent dans le royaume ; avec une
dissertation historique sur I'origine et les progres des Jardins.
4 to.

1722. Saussai, le Sieur de, gardener to the Prin-
cess of Cond^, at Anet, afterwards inspector of the
gardens of the Duke of Bourbon.
Traite des Jardins. Paris. 12mo.
1730. Hamel du Monceau, Henri/ Leivis du, a dis-
' tinguished naturalist, was born at Paris in 1700.
• He became a member of the Academy of Sciences,
to whom he communicated a number of papers on
vegetable physiology. He died at Paris, where he
was dean of the academy, in 1782.

1. De I'importance de I'Analogie, et des Rapports que les
Arbres doivent avoir entre eux i>our la reussite et la dur^
des gretfes. (M^m. Acad. Par. 17.^0. 31.)

2. Sur les Plantes qu'on peut Clever dans I'Eau. (Mem.
Acad. Par.)

3. Traits des Arbres et Arbustes, qui se cultivent en
France en pleine terre. Par. 1755. 2 vols. 4to.

4. Physique des Arbres, ou il est traite de I'Anatomie des
Plantes, et de I'Economie V^getale; avec une Dissertation
sur rUtiiite des Alethodes de Botanique, et une Explication
des Termes propres a cette science. Par. 1758, 2 vols. 4to.

. With numerous copperplates. This is his most important
work, and on it his merit as a Physiologist chiefly rests.

5. Traile complet des Bois et des Forfits. Par. 1758-67.
6 tom. 4to.

6. Des Semis et Plantations des Arbres, et de leur Cul-
ture. Par. 1760. 4to.

7. Art du Charbonnier. Par. 1761. fol.

8. De I'Exploitation des Bois, ou moyen de tirer parti des
taillis demi futayes et hautes futayes. Par. 1764. 2 vols. 4to.

9. Du Transport, de la Conservation, et de la Force du
Bois. 1767. 4to.

10. Traite des Arbres Fruitiers. Paris, 1768, 2 toIs. 4to.
With fine colotired plates of fruit-trees, &c. This is his
most splendid w^ork.

1732. Guerin, M .

Traits de la culture parfaite de I'Oreille d'ours. 12mo.

1735. Jussieu, Bernard de, born at Lyons in 1699 ;
practised physic, and became curator of the plants
in the royal garden of Paris, and superintendant of
that at Trianon. In this last garden he first dis-
played the celebrated system which bears the family
name, and has been so much perfected by his ne-
phew, Antoine de Jussieu. All the members of this
family have devotetl themselves to science.

Catalogue des Arbres et Arbrisseaux, qui se peuvent flever
aux environs de Paris, &c. Paris. 12mo.

1737. Thouin, Andre, le Chevalier de. Professor
of Culture in the University of Paris ; author
of various memoirs on gardening and agriculture,
in.serted in the French encyclop^ias, dictionaries,
and periodical works, and in tlie transactions of

their learned bodies : an excellent man, and es-
teemed one of the first gardeners in Euroi*.

1. Memoire sur I'Usage du Terreau de Bruyfere dans la
Culture des Arbrisseaux el Arbustes etrangcrs, regardes jus-
qu'a present coinme delicats dans nos jardins. (Af/m. de
I'Acad. dct Sc. de Paris, 1787, p. 481-4U5.)

2. Sur les Avantages de la Culture des Arbres, Strangers
pour I'eiTiploi de plusieurs Terrains de difFereiite nature aban-
donnes comme steriles. {M^m. de la Six. It. d^Agricult. de
ParU, 1786, p. 43-49.)

3. Description du Jardin des semis du Mu.s^ d'Histoire
Naturelle, de sa culture et de ses usages. {AnttaJes du Mut.
d'Hitt. Nat. tom. 4)

4. Description de I'Ecole d'Agriculture pratique du Mus6e
d'Histoire Naturelle. {An. da Mus. tom. 10, II, & 12.)

5. Mdmoires sur des nouvelles Modes des greHes. (Ibid,
tom. 12, 13, 14, &c.)

6. Notes sur la Culture des Palates et des Pommes de terre.
Sur la Culture des Plantes Alpines. (Ibid. tom. 3. p. 183.)

7. M^nioire sur la Culture des Bruydres. (Ibid. tom. 2.
and 3.)

8. M^mnire sur la Culture des Dahlias, &c (Ibid. tom. 3)

9. Alonographie de greff'es, ou Description technique de
diverses sortes de Greftes, employes pour la multiplicatit.n
des V^^taux. Paris, 1821, in 4to. avec 13 pi. in Ijthog.

10. Instruction sur I'Etablissement des Pepinieres. Paris.
8vo.

11. Notes sur les Semis du Pin de Riga. Paris, 8ro.

12. Note sur la Culture et les Usages du Pin Laricio de
Corse. Paris. 8to.

1739. Buffon, George Louis le Clcrc, Count de,
was the son of a counseller of the parliament of
Dijon, and born at Montbard, in Burgundy, in
1707. He studied at Dijon, and was intended for
the law, but his inclination lay to the sciences, par-
ticularly astronomy and geometry ; and it is said he
was never without Euclid's Elewents in his pocket.
At the age of twenty he made the tour of Italy,
after which he visited England. On his return he
divided his time between Montbard and Paris, and
in 1735 published a translation of Hale's Vegetable
Statics, which was followed by one of Newton's
Fluxions. In 1739 he was appointed superintend-
ant of the royal garden and cabinet, which by
his care were considerably enriched. He was a
member of the French Academy, treasurer of that
of Sciences, and in 1771 he was created a count.
His private character was that of a libertine, and
he was extremely vain of his person and talents.
" The works of eminent geniuses," he would say,
" are few ; they are those of Newton, Bacon, Leib-
nitz, Montesquieu, and my awn .'" He died of the
stone in 1788. His only son was guillotined in 1793.

1. Mimoire sur la Conservation et le KetabUssement des
Forets. {Mem. Acad. Par.)

2._Memoire sur la Culture des ForSts. (Id. ib. 1742.)

1737. Riviere, de la, and du Moulin.

Methode pour bien cultiver les arbres k fruit, et pour
elever les treilles. Utrecht. 8vo.

1741. Bazin, Gilles-Augustin, a physician of Stras-
bourg ; author of some tracts on insects, trees, &c. ;
died in 1754.

1. ObservaUons sur les Plantes, et leur analogic avec les
Insectes. ^

2._Traite de I'Apcroissement des Plantes. 8vo.

1745. De Combles, a native of Lyons, began to
write on agriculture in 1745 ; and after having led
a life of agitation, he retired to a country-house near
Paris, where he gave himself up to gardening

1. Traits de la Culture des Pechers. 12mo.

2. L'EcoIe du Jardin Potager. 2 vols. 12mo.

In 1802, these two works were published together in 2 vols,
l^mo. which made the fifth ediUon of L'Ecole du Jardin
Potager.

• V^' ^''''^'"^. J^^f^ -Pa"' <'<'. bom at Marseilles
in 1689, where he became a priest and superior of
the congregation of the oratory. He had a country,
house at Fortcalquier, where he devoted great part
of his time to the culture of flowers and to deeds
of charity. He was reckoned among the most fa-
mous florists of his time. He diet! in 1769.

1. Traite des RenoncuUs. Paris, 1746. Svo.

2- Traite des Tulipes. Plates, Aug. 1760. 12mo.

5- I""^'? ^^ CEillets Plates. Avignon, 1763. 12mo.
j-'*jTraile des Jacinthes. lUustrated with plates. Avignon,

5. Traitfe de I'OreiUe d'Ours, 8vo. Avignon, 1759. 2 vols.

6._Ann^ Champetre. Lyons, 1769. 3 vols. 12mo.
^J:'^-^oujr, Ausustin, born in 1726; died in
17/6; Member of the Royal Society of Agricul-

1. Traits Physique de la Culture et de la Plantation des
Arbres, avec la mani6re de les exploiter, de les debiter. &c.
x^aris. I ^mo.

2. Traill de la Culture des Arbres a ouvrier. 12mo.
I/ol Desbois, Francis Alexander Aubert de la

Chesruiye, born at Emay on the Maine in 1699, died
in an hospital in Paris in 1784. One of the most
indefatigable compilers of the 18th century.
P^ir'2""?f ^41^"'^'**"^ d'Agriculture et de Jardina^.
1753. Franchemlle, Joseph Dufresne de, of the
academy of Berlin, bom at Dourlens in Piccardy

m«

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

in 1704; better known by the first edition of Vol-
taire's Steele de Louis XIV., which appeared under
his name, than by any of his other works.

f:alaloinn-' nouveau de bons Fruits. 12mo.

17.54 Moer, M .

Traits de la Culture des Renoncules, CEillets, Auricules,
et Tulipes. 12mo.

1757. Bcrtrand, Francis, a citizen of Paris, en-
thusiastically attached to the country, but not being
able to retire to it, he amused himself by collecting
passages from the poets on the pleasures of a coun-

try life.
Ku

<uris delicine. Collectae ex melioris notae LatinU Gallicis-
que Poetis. Paris- 12mo.

1757. Morel, N , of Lyons, born 172-. An

ancient architect, who introduced the modern
style of gardening in France, fie assisted Girardin
in laying out Ermenonville, and afterwards was
employed at the extensive concerns of the park of
Mereville.

1. L'Artde Distribuer les Jardins suivant I'usage des Chi-
nois. Londres. 8vo. 1757.

2. Theorie des Jardins, ou I'Art des Jardins de la Nature.
8vo. 1776

A new edition, enriched with a list of trees, their heights
and colors, bv C Morel, in 1803.

.•5. Tableau "Dendrologique, contenant la Liste des Plantes
Ligneuses, Indigenes et Kxotiques acclimat<Ses ; la maniere
dont elles se projiagent, le terrain et Texposition qui leur
conviennent. Lyons. 12mo. 1800.

1758. Gouges de Cessieres ; advocate at Laon.
l«s Jardins d'Omement, jiogme. 8vo.

1759. Bidet, M , of the agricultural academy

of Tuscany, and officer of the royal household j a
native of Champagne,

Traite de la Culture des Vignes. 2 vols. 12mo. 1759.
An improved edition by Duhamel du Monceau, in 1752.

1760. Buchoz, Pierre Joseph, a physician and
member of several societies ; born at Metz in 1731,
died in great distress at Paris in 1807. He wrote
above three hundred volumes relative to medicine,
agriculture, the veterinary art, and natural hi&tory.
A plant {Buchoziana) was named after him by
L'Heritier.

1. Catalogue Latin et Francois des Plantes, Viavces, &c.
pour la Decoration des Jardins, 1786, ISmo.

2. Dissertation sur la Cedre du Libon, le Platane et le
Cytise. Par. 8vo. 1S04.

He printed numerous other dissertations of thus descrip-
tion separately, which are all collected in the following
work.

3. NouTeau Traitd Physique et Economique per forme de
Dissertations de toutes les Plantes qui croissent sur la Sur-
face du Globe. In fol. 1786. 2 vols.

4. Lettre sur la Methode de s'enricher promjitement, et
de conserver sa sante par la Culture des Vegetaux. Svo.
1760.

5. M^moire sur I'Hortensia, le Cestrau, &c. augrnent^ de
deux memoires sur le Lagerstrom et le Fothergill. Svo.
1804.

6. Monographie de la Rose, et de la V'iolette. 8vo. 1805.

7. Observations sur Quatre Genres d'Arbustes; I'Azalia, le
CMre, le Kalmia et le Rhododendron, que m^ritent d'etre
cultiv^ dans les Jardins 8vo. 1782.

S. Prospectus d'Histoire Naturelle des V^g^taux, de la
France, &c. ; ou la Botanique, la Medicine, I'Agriculture,
le Jardinage et les Arts reunis dans le rdgne vegetal de la
France. Metz, in Svo. 1765.

Buchoz was at this time botanical demonstrator to the
Royal College of Physicians, at Nanoy.

9. Reflexions sur le Genre du Robinier. Svo.

10. Traits de la Culture des Arbres et Arbustes qu'on
peut elever dans le royaume. 12mo. 1785.

1760. Duchesne, Ant. Nicolas, professor of natural
historj', in the central school of Versailles, author
of some geological works.

1. Traite des Fraisiers. 12mo. 1760.

2. Sur la Formation des Jardins. Par I'auteur des Con-
siderations sur le Jardinage. Paris. Svo. 1775.

1760. Thierrat, , a lawyer, and an officer in

the woods and waters ; author of various tracts on
agriculture.

Observations sur la Culture des Arbres k haute Tige, par-
ticulidrement des Pommiers.

1763. Bonnelle, Charles, born at Artois.
Le Jardinier d'Artois, ou El^mens de la Culture des Jar-
dins Potagers et Fruitiers. Svo.

1763. Maupin, , valet-de-chambre to the

queen ; author of a number of works on rural
subjects.

1. L' Art de la Vigne, &c. Svo. 1779.

2. Almanach, ou Manuel de Vignerons de tous les pays.
Paris, Svo. 17S9.

.1. .4 vis sur la Vigne, &c. Paris. Svo. 1786.

4. I^ttre de r Aulcur de la nouvelle Methode de cultiver la
Vigne, fic. Paris. 12ino. 1764.;

5. Nouvelle Methode de cultiver la Vigne, &c. 12mo. Paris,
\ie7>.

A new e<lition, with additions, by Buchoz in 1799.

1763. Mandirola, .

Manuel du Jardinier. Svo.

176.5. Chambray, Z,oj«.?, Marquis de, born in 1703,
occupied himself much in cultivating the apple, and
in making cider.

Art de cultiver les Pommiers, les Poiriers, et de faire les
Cidres, selon I'usage de Normandie. Paris. 12mo

1765. Delille, Jacques, an eminent French poet,

member of the French Academy, born at Clerraont,
in 1738, died at Paris in 1811.

1. Les Jardins.

There is an English translation by Mrs. Montolieu, in 1797.

2. Le Jardin d'Eden^ suivi d une Epitre a deux Knfans Voy-
ageurs. Paris. ISmo. 1817.

1765. Dupuy, .

Observationes sur la Culture de la Vigne.

X765. Saint-Peravi, Guermeau de, born inBeauce,
author of some tracts on political economy and agri-
culture.

_ Traits de la Culture de ditterentes Fleurs, des Narcisses,
Giroffliers, Tuberouses, Anemones, Jacinthes, JonquUles, Iris,
Lis, et .Amaranths. 12ma.

17(56. Lataille-deS'Essarts, .

M_^moire .sur le Safran. Orieaiis. Svo.

1766. Masse, Jean , advocate.

1. Dictionnaire portalif des Eaux et Forets. 2 vols. Svo.

2. Traits des Bois et des diff ereutes, Manieres de les seiner,
cultiver, planter, exploiter, &c. Paris. 2 vols. Svo. 1769.

1767. Chartreuse, les reverend Peres de, de Paris.
The nursery of these reverend fathers was for a long
time the only one on the continent.

Catalogue des Arbres a Fruits, les plus excellens, les plus
rares, et les plus estimees, qui se cuitivent dans les P^pinieres
des Pdres Chartreuse, avec la Description tant des arbres que des
fruits, &c. Svo.

1767. Schahol, Jean-Roger, a deacon, the son of a
sculptor, who occupied himself much in gardening,
and wrote several works, not elegantas to style, but
original, and entirely from his own experience. He
died in 1768, aged 77 years.

1. Theorie et Pratiquedu Jardinage, avec fig en taille douce.
Paris. 3 vols. I'inio.

This work was prepared from the author's papers, and pub
lished after his death, by Dezallier d' Argenville, who collected
all Schabol's works, and published them imdei the title
" Manuel du Jardinier, ou Journal de son Travail distribu^
par Mois. Paris. 12mo. 1772.

2. Dictionnaire du Jardinage. 1vol. 12mo. 1767.

3. Observations sur les villages de Montreuil, Bagnolet,
Vincennes, Charonne, et villages adjacens, a deux lieues ou
environ iie Paris, au sujet de la Culture des Vegetaux, avec
une idee de la Methode qu'on-y-emploie your traiter les Arbres,
surtout les pechers. 1755. (Inserted in the Juunuil (Economique
for that year.)

4. Elemens du Jardinage utile, ou Mfethode de cultiver avec
succte le Potager, et le Verger, d'apr^s les Experiences de
Roger Schabol, &c. Metz, in 12mo. plates. 1786.

1767. JVenc/celer, Jean George, commonly called
Eg7icr.

Instructions sur le Jardinage, que renferment en abr^g^ ce
qui a rapport a la Culture des Fleurs, des Fruits, et des
Legumes, &c. Paris. Svo.

1768. Saint Simon, Marquis de, aide-de-camp to
Prince de Conti j died in 1794. He wrote also on
bees.

Des Jacinthes, de leur Anatomie, Reproduction et Culture.
Paris. 12mo.

1768. Tschoudi, Jean-Baptiste-Loim-Theodore,
Baron de,author of some articles in the Encyclopcedia,
and translator of Miller's Dictionary ; died at Paris,
in 1784.

1. De la Transplantition, de la Naturalization, et du per-
fectionnement des V^g^taux. Svo. 1778.

2. Traite des Arbres rfesineux conif^res, extrait et traduits
de I'Anglais de Miller, avec des notes. Svo. 1768.

Essais sur le grefte de I'herbe, &c. Strasbourg. Svo. 1819.

1769. Bearde, de V Abhaye, died young at Paris in '
1771, author of a dissertation on a subject in political
economy, which obtained the prize of the academy
of St. Petersburg in 1769.

Essais d' Agriculture, ou Tentatives Physiques, &c. Par.
Svo.

1769. Larivierede, et M Dumoulin.

Methode pour cultiver les Arbres a Fruits et pour les ele-
ver en treilles, par le Sieurs de Larividre et Dumoulin. Piris.
12mo.

1769. Toustain-de-Limesy, Charles Francois, an
officer in a regiment of Champagne, under the old
regime, member of several agricultural societies.

Memoires sur les Plantations.

1770. Anon.

Le Jardinier pr^voyant, Almanach suivi des Considerations
sur le Jardinage. Paris. 16mo.

This work has been improved, and continued to the present
time, and now appears annually under the title of

Le Bon Jardinier, Almanach, avec Supplement, contenant
des pr^ceptes g^neraux de culture, &c. par M. M. Loiselenr
des I.«ngchamps, Vilmorin, et Noisette. Paris. 12ino. plates.

1771. Herissant, Louis Antoine Prosper, born in
Paris in 1745. His father was a celebrated printer,
and the son was educated as a physician, but died in
1770, at'the early age of twenty-five.

Jardin des Curieux, ou Catalogue raisonnfe des plantes les
plus belles et les plus rares, soil indigenes, soil ^trangeres, avec
les noms Franf,ais et Latins, leur culture et les vertus par-
ticuli^res de chaque esii^ce ; le tout ur^c^d^ de quelques notions
sur la culture en general. Paris. Svo.

This work is the description " raisonnee" of a fine garden
which Mr. Cochin, an ancient magistrate of Paris, had formed
atChatillon near B.Tgneux, within two miles of Paris. Heris-
sant died before his work was completed, and it was finished
by M.Coquereau. ,,,„ , .

1771. Latapie, , the translator of Wheatley's

Observations on Modem Gardening; to which he
added, a Discourse on the Origin of the Art, notes

Book I.

FRENCH WORKS ON GARDENING.

1119

to the text, and a description of Stow, where he is
said to have resided some time with Lord Temple.-

L'Art de former les Jardins Modemes, ou I'Art des Jardins
Anijlais, traduit de I'AnslaU, &c. Paris. 8vo.

1772. Broussc, M de la.

Traite de la Culture du Figuier, suivi d'Ob^ervations et
d'Er,>erieiices sur la meillure maniert de la culUver. 12mo.
i773. A Society of Am -teurs.
Essai sur la taille des arbres fruitiers. Pans. 12mo. fig.

1773. Pelletier, de Frepsllon, .

Eisai sur la tai'.le des Arbres Fruiuers. 12mo.

1773. Trotlier, .

I'Art de tertiliier les Terres, et de preserver de la gelee
coinmodement et a i>eu de frais, les Arbres, et Arbrisseaux,
les Vi^nes, &c. Paris. 3 vols, in 8vo.

1774. Velan, V Abbe de.
Traite de la Culture de Molon. 8vo.

1774. WateL't, Claude Henri, receiver-general of
finances, member of the Academy of Sciences, and
other learned bodies, was born at Paris in 1715. He
was celebrated for his love of arts and letters, and
enjoved himself at his country-house, called le
Moulin joli, near Paris, where he created an English
garden, and wrote on the subject. He died in 1785.

Kssai sur les Jardins. Paris. Svo.

1775. Maliet,Robert Xavier,authoi of several works
on agriculture.

I. Culture des A^perge-, et des petits Pois. l'2?no.

a. Beauve de la Nature, Fleurimanie Raisonnee, &c.

3. Dissertation sur la Mani^re de cultiver des Plantes
choisis dans les Chassis Physiques du Sieur .Mallet leur In-
Tenteur, avec la Description de ces Chassis. Paris. 4 to. p. 33.
pi. 1.

1775. Roubo, , joiner and architect, author of

several works on joinery, died about the end of the
18th century.

L'Art de Treillaseur, ou ^Vlenuiserie des Jardins. Par. fol.
Du Hamel is said. to have praised this work, in which the au-
thor has exhausted his subject.

1775. Vallet, A N -, a lieutenant-general

under the old regime, and procurator fiscal of the
barony of Roraainville, near Paris.

Manuel CKconomique your les B-atimens et Jardin.s, tres-
utiles am Propri^taires et Enterpreneurs, !ic. Paris. Svo.

1777. Durival, Clement, brother of N. L. Durival,
an agricultural writer, was bom at St. .\ubin, in
1728 ; he wrote on the finances and rural economy,
and his memoir on the vine was crowned with the
prize at Metz, in 1777.

La Vitjne, Memoire Couronne, a 1' Academie de Metz, par
M. Durival le Jeune. Svo.

1777. Girardin, L. W.Vicompte d' Ermenonville, a
military otficer of high rank, who travelled in Eng-
land about the time when the new style of laying
out grounds was coming into fashion j and when he
returned to France, laid out his seat at Ermenonville
in this style.

La composition des Paysages sur le terrain, ou des moyens
d'embellir la Nature aulour des habiutions, en y joignant
I'utile a I'aereable. Svo.

This work has been translated into En!<Iish, with an his-
torical introduction by Daniel Malthus, iisq. ; and also into
German and Italian.

Another edition, with notes, was published a few years ago,
by Kene Girardin, the son of the author, and present pro-
prietor of Ermenonville.

1778. Prudent, P , a capuchin friar.

Reflexion d'un \'igneron de Be^an9on, I'Abb^ Bovarel, en

1777, sur les Causes d'une .Maladie qui' attaque plusieurs
X'ignobles de Franchecomt^. Vesaul. Svo.

1779. Calonne, , advocate.

Essai d' Agriculture en forme d'entrentien, sur les P^piniires
des arbres, etrangeres, et firuitiers, &c. Paris I'^mo.

1780. Lamoignon-Malsherbes,Chretien.Guillaume,
born in Paris in 1721, and guillotined there by the
revolutionary faction in 1793. He was an excellent
man, attached to the arts, and introduced on his
estates many exotic trees.

Oliservationssur le Pins, les Orchis, le Meltee, &c.

1780. Marechal, Pierre Sylvain, bora at Paris, in
1750, died in 180.3 ; author of a great many works,
the principal of which is a Dictiotiary of Atheists.

Decades du Cultivaleur. Paris. 3 vols. Svo.

1781. Henriqtiez, Jean, a lawyer, author of different
works on forests and the chase.

1. Memoire sur les movens de multiplier les plantations de
bois saivs nuire a la production des subsistences. Kheims.
I'^mo. 17S9.

V. t)bservations sur le menagement des bois Verdun. Svo.
17X1.

3._Code )ienal des Eaux et Forets. 2 voU. 12mo. 1782.

1781. Parmcntier, Antoine- Augustin, born 1737,
at Montdidier, in the dei^rtmcnt of La Somme,
one of the most distinguished chemists, and
active and careful philosophers which has api)eared
in France. Author of a great number of works, and
co-operator in many others, as the Annates de Chi-
niie, Nouveau Coiirs d" Agriculture, &c.

1. Recherches sur les V'egetaiix nourrissans qui, dans le
terns de disselte, ptuvent reniplater les alimens ordinaire;
avec des nouvelles Observatioiu sur la Culture des Pommes de
Terre. Paris. «vo.

2. Mfemoire sur la Culture, et les usages de la Patate (Con-
Tolvulos Batata.). {Mem. de PAcad. de Touloute, torn. 3.
p. 183 — 196.) . ,, J

n82.L'arruel-Beauvert, captam of dragoons under
the old regime.

1. Plaiiite du Chou et du Navet contre les Jardins de
I'Abbe de Lille. Svo.

In verse, and coivsidered a " plaisanterie agreable, piquante
et fondee." , , ...

2. Lettres Critiques sur le Poeme des Jardins suivies du
" Chou et du Navel." Amsterdam and Paris. Svo.

1782. Porcelin de la Boche-Tillac, doctor of laws,
canon of Montreuil-Bellai, in Anjou ; born in 1746
at l)issai.>i.

Le partait \'igneron, ou I'Art de TravaiUer les \ ignes, de
faire le V'in et de le conserver. 12mo.

1783. Bre tanner ie. M dela.

1. Correspo.<dcnce Kurale, sur la Culture des Tenes, et def
Jardins ic. Paris. 12mo.

2. Ecole du Jardinier Fruitier. 2 vols. 12mo.

3. Ecole du Jardinier Potagere. 2 vols. 12mo.
1783. Durdos, .

Me-noire touchant 1m Pepini^res. Svo.

1783. Filassier, N , director of a nursery near

Meudon ; member of several academies, born at
Warwick in Flanders.

1. Cultuje de la Grosse Asperge, dite de HoUande, be
Paris. 12 mo.

2. Dictionnaire du Jardinier Fran^ais, Paris. 2 vols. Svo.
1791.

1784. Durand, , a physician of Dijon, where

he died in 1799, author of several works on botany.

Nouveau nioyen de multiplier les Arbres Strangers. Nouv.
Mem. de I'Acad. de Dijon. 2 sem. p. 7 — 6.

1784. Mustel, .

Traite Theorique et Pratique de la Vegetation, contenant
plusieurs experiences nouvelles et demonstratives sur I'econo-
mie vegetale, et sur la culture des arbres. Paris. 4 vols. Svo.

1785. Secondat de Montesquieu, son of the cele-
brated author of C Esprit des Lois, died in 1795,
aged 79 years. He never would assume the name
which his father had rendered illustrious ; and had
so great a resj)ect for his memory, that he pre-
.served in the Chateau of Brede the furniture
and the library, exactly in the order in %vhich his
father had left them. He occupied hiiu-elf chiefly
in the study of natural history, and in agriculture.

Memoires sur I'Histoire Naturelle'du Chene, sur la resistance
des Bois a etre rompus par les poids dont ils sont charges
sur la culture de la vigne, &c Paris, fol. 15 plates.

1786. Cabanis de Salagn.ic, born at Issoudun in
1722 ; died in 1786 ; advocate of parliament, mem-
ber of the Agricultural Society of Limoges.

Essai sur les I'rincipes de la Grette.

A new edition in 1S02. Paris, in 12mo. By Chambray.

1787. Le Rouge, geographical engineer to the
king.

Recueil des plans et des vues des plus beaux Jardins de I'Eu-
roi>e, &c. Paris, oblong folio, 14 parts, 17S7 to 1790.
An interesting and valuable wcnrk, now become scarce.

1787. Lezay-de-Marnesia, , bom at Besan-

con, and died at Paris in 1800, aged 66 years j a
member of the assembly, &c.

De la nature Champetre : Poeme. Paris. Svo.
A very pleasing poem, which has passed through several
editions.

1788. Baumann,F. G.

Catalogue des .\rbres Fruitiers les plus recherchft et les

flus estimes qui peuvent se cultiver dans notre Climat.
aris. Svo.

1788. Bousviard, , a Frenchman, a captain

in the Prussian service, supposed to have been slain
at the siege of Dantzic.

Memoire sur cette Question : quelle seraient les moyens de
multiplier les Plantations des Bois, sans trop nuire a la Pro-
duction des .Subsi.tances ? Svo.

1788. Fontaines, Louis de. Grand Master of the
University of Paris, and President of the legisla-
tive body, &c.

Le \'erger, poeme. Svo.

1788. Saint Martin, M de.

Traits de la Culture du ChSne. Svo.

This is esteemed a good work on sowing and planting
woods, and disposing of their produce.

1789. M. L B., Mr. Le Berriays.

Traite des Jardins, ou le nouveau la Quintinie, contenant
la Culture : lo. des arbres fruitiers ; 2o. des plantes potage-
res: 3o. des arbres, arbrisseaux, tteurs el plantes d'ome-
ments; 4 to. des arbres, arbrisseaux, et plantes d'orangerie et
serre chaude. Paris. 4 vols. Svo. figures,

1790. Chassel, , formerly president of the

parliament of Metz.

Supplement au Dictionnaire des Jardiniers, qui comprend
tous les genres et toutes ies esp^ces non detaillees dans le Dic-
tionnaire de Miller. Metz. 4to.

1790. MgssoH-de.Blamont, Charles-Francois Phil-
libert, born at Blamont in Montbelliard in 1762:
became major in the Russian army j exiled from
that coimtry in 1797 ; in 18tJ2 became secretary of
the prefecture of Coblentz, and associate of the in-
stitute. He translatetl Mason's English Garden,
and \\'heatley's Observations, into French.

I.es Jardins de .Saniboursky, poete Russe, tradoit du Rusm
en Iranvais. Svo. ^*

1120

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

' 1790. Herve, M. Fille, director of the Royal Gar-
den of the Luxembourg. Mr. Herv^'s father was
gardener to the Chartreux monastery, where fruit
trees had been collected and propagated for up-
wards of half a century before the revolution. In
the early part of this revolution, the elder Herv^,
foreseeing that the establishment would be put
down, applied for and obtained permission from
the existing government to establish a national
garden of fruit-trees, and the garden of the Luxem-
bourg was made the receptacle ol this collection.

Taille raisonnee des Arbres fruitiers. Paris. 8vo.
. A new edition, with a supplement, sur la Greffe, in 1802.
8vo.

Catalopie M^thodlque el Classique, de tous les arbres, ar-
bustes fruitiers et des vignes, furmant la collection de I'ecole
imperiale etablie pr^s le Luxembourg. Paris, 4to. 1809.

1790. Hosier, Francois, born in Lyons, in 1734,
and killed there on the 29th September, 1793, dur-
ing the siege of that city, by a bomb-shell, which
buried his shattered remains in the ruins of the
apartment which he occupied. He began his ca-
reer as an author, by writing in the Journal de
Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle, of which Gau-
thier Dagoty was editor. He next occupied himself
with his Agricultural or Rural Dictionary, which
is the work by which he is chiefly known. He cul-
tivated a farm near Beziers, which Arthur Young
went to see when on his tour in France in 1787 ;
but the abb^ had left it, on account of the Bishop
of Bezieres, who kept a mistress somewhere near,
and, for his more commodiously visiting her, got
a road made across the farm at the expense of the
province. This occasioned a quarrel between the
abb^ and the bishop, which ended in the former
being obliged to quit his farm. The abbe, like all
other men who depart from common practices,
was looked on as a fanciful and wild cultivator, and
because he paved his stables and cow-houses, it was
reported by his neighbors that he paved his vine-
yard. He wrote a great many works, chiefly on
agriculture.

1. Manuel du Jardinier, mis en pratique pour chaque Mois
de I'Annde. 2 vols. ISmo.

2. Cours complet d'Agriculture thfeorique, pratique, ^cono-
mie, &c. 15 vols. 4to.

3. Cours complet d'Agriculture pratique, d'economie, ru-
rale, et domestique, &c. 6 vols. 8vo.

4. Nouveau Cours complet d'Agriculture th^rioue, et pra-
tique, contenant la grande et la uetite Culture, I'Economie
rural et domestique, la Medicine V^terinaire, &c. ; ou Dic-
tionnaire raisonn^ et universal d'Agriculture. Ouvrage re-
dig& sur le Plan de celui de feu I'Abbe Rozier, duquel on a
conserve tous les Articles dont la Bontfe a fet^ prouv^e par
I'Kxperience; par les Membres de la ijection d'Agriculture
de rinstitut de France, viz. par MM. Thouin, Parnientier
Tessier, Huzard, Silvestre, Bosc, Chassiron, Chaptal, Lacroix,
De Perthjus, Yvart, DecandoUe, Du Tour. 13 vols. 8vo.
1810.

This is by far the best general work on the agriculture
and gardening of France, and supersedes the use of a great
many others.

1791. Nectoux, .

Observations sur la Preparation des envois des Plantes, et
Arbres des Indes Orientales pour I'Amferique, et leur traite-
ment pendant la travers^e. (A/^m. de la Soc. R. d'Agricult.
de Paris, Trimestre d'Hiver, p. 110.)

1791 Tessier, Henri-Alexandre, Professor of
Agriculture and Commerce to the Central Schools,
Member of the Institute, and Doctor of Medicine,
&c. ; author of a great number of works, and, jointly
with Professor Thouin, of the article Agriculture,
in the Encyclopedic Methodique.

M6moires sur les Plantations des Terrains vaques, sur-tout
sur relies des grandes routes, et sur les causes du dep^risse-
ment des Bois, et les movens d'y remedier. 8vo.

1792. Ceruti, Joseph Ant. Joachim, born at Turin
in 1738, became a member of the society of Jesuits,
and rendered himself famous at the suppression of
that order by his Apologie de rinstitut. He was the
friend of Mirabeau, and the principal editor of the
Feuille Villaeeoise.

Les Jardins de Betz, Pogme accompagn^ de Notes instruc-
tives sur les Travaux Champ^tres ; sur les Arts, les Lois, &e.

This w<a* «ras written in 1785, but did not appear till
1792.

1723. JPauiet, .

Traits des Champignons, Ouvrage dans le quel on trouve
la Description d^taillez, les Qualit^s, les Eftfets, les diffSrens
Usages des Champignons, &c. Paris. 2 vols. 4to. plates.

1794, Tr^audeau-Chemilly, Eugene, cultivator
at Bourneville, in the department of Oise.

Des Hides consider^; comme Clotures ; de leurs avantages,
et des rnoyens de les obtenir. Paris. 8vo.

1795. Butret, , gardener.

Taille raisonnfee des Arbres Fruitiers, et Operations relatives
h leur Culture, d^monstr^es clairement par des raisons phy-
siques lirees de leur difftrente nature, Paris. 8vo. A tenth
edition in 1804.

1797. Rossignol, I'Abbd de.

Le Jardinier Universel, ou I'art de cultiver les jardins po-
iagers, les arbres fruitiers de toutes esp^ces ; tous les oignons,

et plantes h fleurs; les arbres et arbrisseaux d'omement, I0
chene, les fourrages, &c. Liege. 12mo.

1798. Bridel, , an officer employed in the

management of the national woods and waters at
Orleans.
Manuel Pratique du Forestier. 12mo.

1798 Curten, , architect and garden-engincer

at Grenoble.

1. Le Guide des Cultivateurs. Grenoble. 8vo.

2. (^oujJ-d'oeil Politique et Economlque sur I'etat actuel des
Bois et i orSts en France, suivi d'un projet d'Institution Fo-
restidre. Grenoble. 8vo. 1804.

18-. Tatin, A , of Paris.

Principes raisonnes et Pratiques de la Culture des Arbres
Fruitiers, d'Agr^ment et Forestiers, Arbrisseaux et Arbustes
d'agrement, des graines, plantes potageres et legumeneuses,
des prairies naturelles et artittcielles. Paris. 2 vols. 8vo. 4th
edit. 1811.

18-. Larochcfocavld-Liancourt, a proprietor of
considerable extent, who studied agriculture under
Arthur Young, and travelled in North America.
He has published his travels, and some other works,
but is best known in France by the vastes entreprises
which he made on his estates.
Notes sur le Chene. Par. 8vo.

1800. Bcrtholon, native of Lyons, where he died
in 1799. He was profe^-sor of physical science at
Montpellier, and afterwards of history at Lyons ;
the friend of Franklin, and author of several works
on rural, political, and domestic economy.
Traite de la Taille de la Vigne. 8vo.

1800. Bornei, Charles Henry, agent to the admi-
nistration of forests in the circle of Turnehem, in
the department of the Pas de Calais.

1 . Code de la Conservation genferale des Bois et For§ts na-
tionales. 12mo.

2. De I'Agriculture des Bois d'aprfes les Prinplces de la Cul-
ture Vegetale, 1804. 1 vol. 8vo.

180-. Charpentier de Caussigny.
' Note sur les Moyens k employer pour transporter au loin,
par raer, dans des Voyages de long cours, les V^f^etaux et Ics
Graines exo;iques. Mem. des Societ^s Francois, torn, i.
p. 481.

1800. Cointereaux, Franqois, professor of rural
architecture, and author of several works, particu-
larly of the mode of building en pise.

) . Traite de I'ancien Pis^ des Remains.

2. Traits qui enseigne le nouveau Pis^, la mani^re de le
faire lors des pluies, des neiges et des frimas.

3. Nouveaux Murs de Terasses solides et durables, et qui
disjjensent de cette profusion de mat^riaux qu'on y einploie ;
ouvrage utile a tous les Pays principalement aux architects,
ingenieurs, magons, &c. ovo. 1805.

4. Instruction agr^able et utile pour embellir les jardins
k peu de frais. 1814. 8vo.

1801. Cadet, Charles Louis.

1. Memoire sur I'Arbre Cirier de la Louisiane et de la
Pensylvanie. Paris. 8vo.

1809. Deleuze, J. P. F. The translator of Dar-
win's Loves of the Plants j secretary to several
learned institutions at Paris.

Recherches sur les Plantes d'Omemenf, et sur leur Intro-
duction dans nos Jardins. {Annales du Museum d'Hist. Not.
torn. 8:et 9.)

1800. Dalmar, Basse N — , a native of Germany,
purchased the estate of Villegcries. near Paris, and
greatly improved it both as to use and beauty.

De la Utility et de la Culture de I'Acacia-Robinier : d<5di6
aux Cultivateurs. Paris. 8vo.

1800. Guillemeau, Jean Louis Marie, in the em-
ploy of government, born at Niort in 1766.

Histoire Naturelle de la Rose. Paris. 12mo.

1800. Joltjclerc,N .

Phytologie Universelle, ou HistoireNaturelle et Methodique
des Plantes, de leurs propriety*, de leurs vertus, et de leur
culture : ouvrage consacre aux progr(5s des sciences utiles, de
I'agriculture et de tous les arts. Paris. 5 vols. 8vo.

1800. Querber,J .

Moyens d'Encouragement pour les Plantations Artificielles,
&c. Metz. 4to.

1801. Lemoine Leonor, founder of an academy of
theoretical and practical gardening, held in Paris,
Rue-d'Enfer.

1. Manuel du Pepini^riste de Paris. 12mo. 1805.

2. Cours de Culture des Arbres a Fruits, et de la Vigne des
Jardins. Paris. 8vo. 1801. , „. ^ . ,, v

3. Cours complet sur la taille du Pecher et autres Arbres k
Fruit, &c. Paris, 12mo. 1803.

1801. L^ebvre, E A^ assistant chemist to the

school of health at Strasbourg. , ,. _^

Experiences sur la Gernaination des Plantes Strasbourg^

'18OI. M. M. Chaptal, Rozier, Parnientier, et
DussieuT, eminent chemists and naturalists, mem-
bers of the Institute.

Traite Th^oretique et Pratique sur la Culture de la Vi^e
avec I'Art de faire le Vin, les Eaux de vie. Esprit ae *»»
Vinaigres simplts et composes, &c. Paris. 2 vols, 8vo. Plates

1801. Ranch, B. A , engineer of roads and

bridges. „ ^ ..

Harmonie Hydro- V6gttale'et Metferfologique, ou Recherches
sur les moyens de Reorder, avec nos for&ts, la force des tem-
peratures, et la regularity des saisons, par deses plantations
raisonn^es. Paris. 2 vols. 8vo.

Book 1.

FRENCH WORKS ON GARDENING.

I12J

1811. Boi/n, C——, cultivator.

Observations en faveur de I'Acacia. Paris. 8vo.
1802. Calvel, Etienne, member of several literary
and agricultu'-al societies, and d scientific experi-
menter in the latter art

1. Traits complete sur les P^pini^rss, tant pour les Arbres
fruitiers, et Forestiers que pour les Arbrisseaux. Paris. 3 vols.
8vo.

2. Notice Historique sur la P^pinl^re national des chartreux
au Luxemburg, liimo, 1804.

3. Mfemoire sur I'Ajonc ou Genet epineui, consid^r^ sous
le Rapport de Fourrai;^, de I'Amendement des Terres St^riies,
et de Supplement au Bois. Paris. 8vo. 1809.

4. Du Melon et de sa Culture sous chassis, sur couche, et
en pleine terre. Paris. 8vo. 1805.

5. Manuel Pratique des PlantaUons, &c Paris. 12mo.
1804.

6. Des Arbres Fruitiers Pyramidaux, vulgairement nom-
mes Quenouilles, avec la maniere de elever, sous cette forme
tous les Arbres a Fruit. Paris. ISmo. 1802.

7. Principes Pratiques sur la Plantation et la Culture des
Chasselas et autres V ignei Pr^co. es, principalement sous la
latitude de> environs de Paris, avec la Liste des Nouvelles
Varietes, FiRures, &c. Paris. 8vo

1802. Castel, Rene Richard, professor of literatiu-e
in the Pry tan ^e Francais.

Les Plantes ; Poeme. Paris. 18mo.

1802. Dumont- Courset, born at Boulogne-sur-ni^r
in 1746, member of several societies. He retired to
Courset, near Boulogne, in 1809.

Le Botaniste Cultivateur, ou Description, Culture, et tTsages
de la plus Grande Partie des Plantes euanseres, naturalisees,
et indigenes, cultivees en France et en Anpleterre, rangeeS
suivant la Methode de Jussieu. Paris. 5 vols, in Svo.

This is generally esteemed one of the best French books on
gardening.

1802. Dupfessis, F. S.
Des V'egetaui resineux.

Des V'egetaui resineux, tant indigenes qu' exo^iqnes, avec le
proc^fe pour extraire les r^sines, &c. Paris.- 4 vols. >>ro.

1802. Hatmner, F L , and Dictricht. Tlie

first, formerly professor of natural history at Calmar
and Strasbourg ; he is author of several articles in
the Journal d'Economie Rurale. Of Dietricht
nothing is known.

M^moires sur les .\rbres qui peuvent f tre emplovfa aux
plantations le long des routes. Svo.

1802. Richard, , an officer in the department

of woods and forests.

IiJanuel du Forestier, ou Traite ^^mentaire, contenant le
balliva;^, le martilage, les ventes et exploitations des coupes
annuelles, reslimalion d'icelles, leur r^colement, Tamenajje-
ment, le bomeinent, et la regeneration des forets, suivi du
Traite des P^pinieres, leur culture, samer, et plantations, ap.
puye par la pratique. Paris. 12 mo.

1803. Cubieres, Aine, an esteemed writer,

member of the agricultural society of Versailles.

1. Memoire sur le Tulipier. Svo.

2. Memoire sur I'Erable k fetiille de chtoe,ou Acer Neeundn.
Versailles. 8vo. 1804.

1803. Francois, Nicolas, bom in 1752, at Neufchi-
teau, which name is generally joined with his own.
He has been successively a deputy, advocate, and
judge ; and for some years past has occupied himself
much in agriculture. He was several years presi-
dent of the Paris Agricultural Society, in which are
a number of his papers.

Lettre sur le Robinier, connu sous le nom impropre de
Faux Acacia, avec piusieurs pieces relatives i.la culture et aux
usages de cet arbre. Paris. ICmo.

1803. Lorenz, J B .

Manuel du Forestier, ou Traite compact de tout ce qui a
rapport a I'Histoire Naturelle des Arbres. Strasbourg, 2 vols.
Svo.

1803. Une Societe des Savaiis.

Biblioth^ue des Propri^taires Ruraux, ou journal d'^co-
noraie rural et domestique, &c. 8vo.

A periodical work begun in 1803, and of which 74 numbers
had api>eared up to May 1809.

1804. Dubois, Louis, born at Lisieux, in 1770,
librarian of the department of I'Ome, member of
various societies.

1. Du Pommier, du Poirier, el du Cornier, consid^res dans
leur histoire, leur physiologic, et les diverses usages de leur
firuits, &c. Paris. 2 vols. l2mo.

Des IMelons, et des Icurs Varietes, consider^ dans leur his-
toire, leur physiologie, leur culture naturelle et arUficielle, &c.
Paris, in 12nio.

1804. Fanon, , author of various works on

rural economy.

1. Des Arbres a fruits, et nouvelle methode d'affructer le
pommier et le poirier, fondu sur 28 ans d'experiences coniccu-
tives. Paris, 12mo.

2. Causes dn Deierissement des For^, &c. ISOG, Svo.
Suiiplement in 1811, Svo.

1804. Poinsot, .

L'Ami des Jardiniers. Paris. 2 vols. Svo.

1801. Sonnini de Manoncourt, Charles Sigisbert
born at Luneville, in the department of MeurtJie,
in 1750 ; formerly an officer of the marine, a learned
man, who travelled in Egypt and South America,
and wTote a number of esteemed works. He was
one of the principal writers in the Dictioiinaire
eTHistoire Naturelle.

1. C
iao4.

Culture de la Julienne comme plante utile. Paris. Svo.

2. Traill de I'Arachide, ou pistache de terre; contenant Is
description, culture, et usages de cette plante, &c. Paris. Svtv
1808.

1805. Bastien, Jean Francois, a bookseller of Paris,
who put his name as the author of several books on
agriculture which he procured to be compiled.

1. Calendrier du Jardinier. Paris. 12ino.

2. La Nouvelle Maison Rustique, ic. Svo.

3. La Flore Jardiniere, &c. 8vo. 1809.

1805. Jaume, Sint HUiaire, a co-laborer with
Jussieu in tlie Dictioiinaire des Sciences NatureUes.

ExposiUon des Families NatureUes, et de U Generation des
Plantes. Parts. 4 vols. Svo.

1805. Leschemn, C, member of the agricultural
society of the Seine.

De I'usase de la Fum^ dans les Vignes, contres les gel^
tardives du Printems. Paris. Svo.

1805. Michaux, F A , a celebrated natural-
ist, who has travelled in North America, and pub-
lished an account of the trees of that country.

1. Memoire sur la Naturalization des Arbres, Forestiers de
I'Am^rique, Septentrionale, dans le quel on indique ce que
I'ancien Gouvemement avait fait pour arriver a cet but, et les
moyens qu'il conviendra't d'employer pour j parvenir ; suivi
d'un tableau raisonne des Arbres de ce Pays, compart avec
ceux que produit la France. Paris. Svo.

Histoire des -\rbre« Forestiers de TAm^rique Septentrionale
2 vols. 1810.

3. Histoire des Chenes de TAmeriati". -^u Dtscripticns et '
Figures de toutes les esneces et variAf* &(.' Chenes cu!Uvees
dans I'Amerique Se^iKnitrionale, in fol. ftg.

1805. Hoard, I. L., director of the dyers of tl:e
imperial manufactory.

Abrege du Traite sur la Culture de la ^'igne, avec I'Art de
feire le \'in, et les Eaux-de-vie. Paris. Svo.

180d Caylus, N dc, formerly insi)ector of the

royal nurseries.
Histoire du Rapprochement des V^Maux. Paris. 12mo.

1807. Cadet-de.Vaux, Antmne-Alexis, born in 174S,
a patriot, incessantly engaged in the interests of
humanity, has founded, or led to the foundation of
several useful establishments, and among others, of
public nurseries in the departments. He translated
the chemiFtrv of Spielmann.

1. De la Restaiu-ation et du Gouvemement des Arbres k
Fruits, mutil^ et degiades par la succession annuelle de
I'ebourgeonnement et de la taille. Paris, Svo. 1807.

2. Proc^^s de la Culture des -\sperges de HoUande, Decade
Philosophique. 6 .-imi^e.

1808. Cherrier, J B , gardener at Wassy,

in the department of Haute Marne.

Memoire sur la Culture de la \'igne. Svo.

1808. Douette.Richardot, cultivator (or yeoman)
at Langres, who has planted extensively, and if not
the inventor, was the first to publish in France the
mode of cutting and felling trees by removing a part
of the ground's surface, and cutting over close lay
the roots, or what the French term cutting erUie
deux terres.

Le la Coupe des Bois entre deux Terres. Paris. Svo.

1808. Un Amateur.

Traite complet sur le Jardin Potager, &c. avec tme Grande
Planche oflrant les Plans, coupe et elevation d'une serre k le-
gumes. Paris. l2mo.

181 . . Lasteryie, Ch. Ph. Comte de, an active
patriot and philanthropist, author of various works
on agriculture and general economy ; but chiefly
known by his treatises on wool, Merino sheep, and
education.

Culture dn Sonchet tuberculeux. (DcroJe PhilosuphiqtUf
7 Annee.)

Collection des Machines emploves dans I'CKconotnie Rurale.
2 vols. 4to. 1821-2.

181 . . Loisleur de Longchamps, M.D., one of Jthe
compilers of Le ban Jardinier. (See Anon. 1770,
and Delaunay, 1811.)

Nouveaux Duhamel, ou Traits des Arbres, et Arbustes
qu'on cultive en France en pleine terre. Paris, fol. 71 livrai-
sons, in 1815.

181 . . Laborde, Alexandre, Comte de.

Description des Nouveaux Jardlns de la France, et de ses
Anciens Chateaux. Les Desseias, par C. Bourgeois. Paris.
folio.

181 . . Noisette, Louis Claude, botapist and nur-
seryman at Paris, one of the compilers of Le bon
Jardinier. {Anon. 1770, and Delaunay, 1811.)

1. Le Jardin Forestier, contenant I'Historie, et la Cultuiedei
des Arbres Forestiers, &c. Paris. 4lo.

2. Le Jardin Fruitier. 12 livraisons. 4to. 1813.

S. Catalogue des Arbres Fruitiers. Paris. 4to. 1821.
181-. Lair, P. A.

1. Description des Jardinsdu Courset. Paris. Svo.

2. Notice sur M. Le Berriays, auteur du Nouveau de la
Quintinie. Svo.

1810. Kraft, J Charles, a German architect

and designer, author of an esteemed work on car-
pentry.

1. Plans de plus beaux Jardins Pittoresques de Prance, d'An-
gleterre, et d'AUemagne, et des editices, monumens, fabriques,
etc. oui concourent a leur einbellLssement, dans tous les genres
d'architecture, tela que Cliincis, Egyptien, Anglais, Aiabe.
Moresque, &c. Paiis. imper. fol.

2. Recueil des plus Jolies Maisons de Paris, et de ses envi.
rons, comprenant les Elevations interieures et ext^eoKs dc
chaque maiscn, &c. Paris, folio.

4 C

1122

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

1811. Belaunay, Mordaunt, one of the librarians
of the Jardin des Plantes, principal editor of the fol-
lowing works. (See Anon. 1811.)

1. Le bon Jardinier. Paris. 12mo.

2 Figures pour I'Almanzich du bon Jardinier. 12mo.

1811. Gallesio, George, sub-prefect of Savonna,
near Genoa.

Traitfe du Citrus. Paris. 1 vol. 8vo.
1811. Lelieur de Ville-sur-Arc, le Comte, ad-
ministrator-general of the parks, nurseries, and gar-
dens of the king.

1. La Pomone Fran^aise, ou Traits de la Culture Fransaise
et de la taille des arbres fruitiers. Paris. 8vo. 8 plates.

2. Memoire sur les Maladies des Arbres Fruitiers. Paris.
12mo. 1811.

3. De la Culture du Rosier. Paris. 12mo. 1811.
1813. Guerin et Schwartz.

■ Vues et Description du Jardin des Plantes. Paris, folio.

1813. Felleport-Saune, M , member of the

Toulouse Agricultural Society.

Traite de la Maniere de planter, d'^Iever et de cultiver la
Vijine. Toulouse. 1 vol. 8vo.

1814. Percier^ Charles, et P. F. L. Fontaine, archi-
tects.

Choix des plus c&Idbres Maisons de Plaisance de Rome et de
ses environs. Paris, fol.

This splendid work contains, in mort cases, plans of the gar-
dens attached to the villas.

1815. Montpelier,A , cultivator in the depart-
ment of I'Aude.

De la Cmture des Arbres a Fruits. Castlenaudary. 8vo.
1815. Malo, Charles.

Guirlande de Fleurs, ou Origine et Histoire des jolies Fleurs
qu'on cultive en France, &c. Paris. 18mo. 16 jilates.

1815. Mozard, Jean, propri^taire cultivateur at
Montreuil, near Paris, a village famous for its
peaclies. Mozard was successor to Pepen, who was
distinguished as the first cultivator of peach-trees at
Montreuil, or, indeed, in France, from 1720 to 1770.

Principes Pratique sur I'Education, la culture, la laille, et
I'ebourageonnement des arbres fruitiers, et principalement du
Pecher,"d'apr^s la Methode de Pepin et autres Cultivateurs de
Montre\iil : ouvrage qui a obtenu deux M&dailles d'Or de la
Socifet^ Royale d'Agriculture du departement de la Seine.
Paris. 8vo. 4 i)lates.

1816. De Caumels.

Tables Synoptiques des Charact^res differentes de la Visne.
Touloux. 8vo. p. 235.

These tables are for the most part taken from dementi's
■work, which De Caumels translated from the Spanish.

1816. Du Petit Thouars, le Chevalier Aiibert
Aubert y director of the government garden of the
minister of the interior.

1. Recueil de Rapports et de Memoires sur la Culture des
Arbres Fruitiers lue dans les stances jiarticulieres de la Societe
d'Agriculture de Paris. Paris. 8vo. plates.

2. Histoire d'un Morceau de Bois, precedee d'un Essai sur la
S^vc, considerfee comrae r^sultat de la vegetation, &c. Paris.
8vo. 1 plate.

3. Le Verger Fran^ais, ou Tiait^ G^n§rale de la Culture des
Arbres Fruitiers qui croissent en pleine terre dans les environs
de Paris. 1 vol. 8vo.

1816. Julien, A , author of the Manuel du

Sommelier ; inventor of some instruments in use
for the filtration of liquids.

Topographie de tous les Vignobles connus, &c. suivie d'une
classification generale des vins. Paris. 8vo.

1816. Jaunez, J P , of the city of Metz,

engineer, and member of the Agricultural Society
of the department of Moselle.

]NIanual du Vigneron du Departement de la Moselle.
Metz 8vo.

1816. Thouin, Jean, C, M. H. S., brother to the
professor, and to Gabriel Thouin ; foreman of the
Jardin des Plantes, Paris.

Memoir sur I'Emploi de Machefer dans le Jardinage, 4to.

1817. Lambray, M , nurseryman at Mandrcs,

in the canton of Boissy-Saint-Leger, in the depart-
ment of the Seine and'Oise.

Expose d'un Moyen mis en pratique pour empecher la Vigne
de couler, et hater 'la maturite du raisin. Paris. Svo.

This author practices ringing when the vme is in flower,
•which he finds has the effects to which he alludes in his title.

1817. Redoutt, J P , painter of flowers to

the Classe de Physique of the Institute and of the
Museum.

Les Roses. Paris, fbl. many colored plates.

1818. Lalos, J , architect des jardins Anglois

in Paris.

De la composition des Pares et Jardins i)ittoresques, om6e
de i>lanches par Reville. Paris. 1 vol. 8vo.
1818. Pronville, Auguste de.

Nomenclature raisonee des Espdces, Vari^tes, et Sous-vari-
§tes du genre Rosier, obseivees au Jardin Royal des Plantes,
dans ceux de Trianon, de la Malmaison, et dans les Pepinidres
des environs des Paris. Paris. 1 vol. Svo.

1818. Risso, A., of Nice, and A. Poiteau, of Vcr-
sailles.

Histoire Naturelle des Grangers. Paris. 2 vols. fol. many co-
lored plates.

1819. Rose, Louis Auguste Gumaume,¥.'L.S. H.S.,
inspector of the government garden at the Luxem-
burg ; author of various articles in the Nouveau
Cours d'Agriculture, and in other works.

Exposition du Plan de Travail adopte pour etudier et classer
les diverses varietes des Vignes cultivees dans les P6pini6res
du Luxembourg. {Journal de Physinue, torn. 66.)

1819. Redoute,J. P. painter of flowers, and C. A.
Thory, a clerk in the office of the mayor of Paris.

J..es Roses. Paris, folio, many colored plates. 1 vol. com-
pleted.

1819. Thouin, Gabriel, cultivator and architect of
gardens, brother to Professor Thouin, of the Jardin
des plantes. .j^.

Plans raisonn^s de toutes les Espfeces de Jardins. Paris.
folio, 60 lithograiihic plates.

1819. Thory, Claude Antoine, clerk in the office of
the mayor of Paris, member of several learned
societies.

1. Ro.w CandoUeana, seu Descriptio novae Speciei Generit
Rosae, dicata, Pyr. Aug. de Candolle a CI. Ant. Thory, &c.
addito Catalogo inedito Rosarum qua* Andreas Dupont in
horto suo studiose colebat, anno 18 lo, cum Figurae senea piota.
Paris. Svo. 1819.

2. Rosa Redouteae, seu Descriptio novae Speciei Generis
Rosa, dicata Petro Joseph Redoute, Svo. Paris. 1817.

3. Prodromieet Alonographie des Especeset Varietes connues
du Genre Rosier, divisees selon leur Ordre naturel, avec la
Synonymic des noms vulgaires, un Tableau synoptique, et des
Planches gravees en nouleur. Paris. 1 vol. 12mo.

1819. Viart, , proprietor and creator of Jardins

Pittoresques at the park of Brunehaut.

Le .Jardiniste Moderne, Guide des Proprielaires qui s'ocsu-
pent de la Composition de leur Jardins et de I'Embeliissement
de leurs Campagnes. Paris. 12mo.

1820. Reaunier, , author of a treatise on bees.

Le Guide des Propridtaires et des Jardiniers pour le Choix,

la Plantation, et la Culture des Arbres, &o. Paris. 1 vol. Svo.
«g-

1820. Ckesnel, Marquis de.

Histoire de la Rose chez les peuples de I'antiquite et chez les
modernes ; description des esueces cultivees ; culture des Ro-
siers ; et leurs diverses proprietes alimentaires et domestiques.
Toulouse. 1 vol. Svo.

1820. Pierard, Charles Frances, C M. H. S.

Notes sur le Saugier ou Poirierde Sauge. Paris. Svo.

1820. Vibert,J P .

Observations sur la Nomencl.iture et la Classement desRoses*
suivies du Catalogue de celles cultivees par J. P. Vibert. Paris.
Svo.

1821. Calvert and Co., nurserymen, Rouen.*
Catalogue of Roses. Rouen. Svo.

1821. Lebret, M , Isidore, pharmacien et pro-

priiitaire rural.

Memoires siur la Trappa Natans, ou la Chataigne d'eau*
Rouen. Svo.

1823. De Candolle, A. P., professor of botany in
the academy of Geneva, author of Regni Vegetabilis
Systetna Naturale,nov/ publishing ; of various other
botanical works, and of several articles connected
with culture, in Nouveau Cours, &c.

1. Memoir on the different species of the genus brassica, and
of the genera allied to it. [Hort. Tram. v. 7.)

2. Catalogue des arbres fruitiers du Jardin Bntanique d«
Geneve. Geneva. Svo.

3. Memoire sur la famille de cruciteres. Geneva. 4to.

SuBSECT. 2. Works on Gardening published in Germanj/, including Denmark and Switzer^
land, exclusive of Translations.

7693. The Germans have an immense number of books on every subject, and in the
gardening department are more especially prolific on the subject of planting and forests.
We have made a selection, with a view to giving an idea of the progress of gardening in
Germany, and also to include the books contained in the Banksian and other public
libraries of this country. Every English work of merit is translated into German as soon
as it appears, and the same may be said of the best works of France, and of every other
country. Two of the most desirable books for giving an idea of the state of culture in
Germany, are Dietrich's Worterbuch, with the Supplement to 1820, 10 vols. Svo. ; and
Sickler's Deutsche Handwirtschaft, many vols. Svo.

849. Anon., ascribed to the learned Benedictine, I Hortuius. r i . . «

Wallafrid Strabon, of the diocese of Constance, who ^^ ^^^g^"* P"*" »" '^^ '^"""'^^ "^ p^^"*" ^"'^ ""^*"-
died in 849. 1 1578. Heresbachius, Conradus, counsellor to the

Book I.

GERMAN WORKS ON GARDENING.

1123

Duke of Cleve ; was born in 1508, died in 1576. H^
wrote various theological works; besides Ji is if«
Rmticca libri IV., which was published in la/0, and
his' Legum rusticarum, et operarum per singulos
Menses digesia, in 1595. The former was translated
by Barnaby Gooch, of Lincolnshire, with the follow-
ing title :

Foure Bookes of Husbandrie, containing the iirhole art and
trade of Husbandrie, Gardeninir, Gralfing, and Planting, with
the antiquitie and commendation thereof. Xewly Englished,
and increased bv Bamabe Uooge, Esquire. At London. 4to.
1578. Leaves 194, besides the Dedication, Epistle and Table
at the beginning ; and Olde English rules in verse, for pur-
chasing Lande, at the end.

His authorities extend from the Bible and Doctors of the
Church, through the Greek and Roman writers, Homer, Cato,
tic. to the moderns as low as Ruellius, Fuchsiiis, Matthiolus,
Cardanus, and Traj^us. He subjoins a list of his friends and
others, who assisted him. S.Nich. Malbee, M. Cap. Byng.
ham, M. John Somer, M. Nicas, Vetzwtnrt, M. Fitzherbert,
M. Willi. Lambert, M. Tusser, M. Tho. HTietenhall, M. Ri.
Deering, M. Hen. Brockhull, >I. FrankUn, H. King, Richard
Andrewes, Henry Denys, \ViIliam Pratte, John Halche, Phil-
lip Partridge, Kenworth Daforth.

The work is in dialogue. The persons are, Cono, a gentle-
pian retired into the country ; Rigo, a courtier ; Metella, wife
of Cono; and Hermes, a servant.

1597. Peschelius.

Garten Ordnung. Eisleben, 1597. folio, with wood cuts.

1620. Caus, Salomon, author of some works on
perspective, hydraulics, and dialling.

1. Hortus Palalinus a Frid. Rege Boemiae, HeidelbergK
extractus. Frahcf. fo!.

2. Les Raisons des Forces raouvantes, avec divers Desseins
de Fontaines. Paris, fol. 1624.

1630. Clusius, Carolus (not the celebrated botanist
of the preceding century).

Catalog! seminum, cum regulis circa eorum stationem.
Printed with Herbario Horstiano, 3S5— 411. Marburg. 8vo.

1631. Laurenberg, Peter, of Rostock, who died in
1639.

1. Horticulturaet apparatus plantarum. Frankfort. 4to.

2. De HortictUtura libri duo, regulis obserrationibus, expe-
rimentis et figuris novis instructa, &c. Frankfort. 4to.

16*-. Royer, Johann.

Unterricht wie ein feiner lust-obst-und Kiichen-garten
anzulegen, allerley schone Gewachse darein zu zeugen, zu
verpflangen, zu warten. Printed with this author's Bechrei-
bnng des Gartens zu Hessem. 45—96.

1647. Vredmannm, Johannes Frisius, a German
architect, who published some works on his art.

De Hortorum, Viridariumque, formae elegantes. Col. 1647.
«b).

1647. Anoiu ; attributed to Stengeline.

Hortorum, floriim et arborum historia. Mimich. 2 vols.
12mo.

1662. Jomton, Johann, bom at Sarabter, in Po-
land, in 1603, died on his estate at Ziebendorf, in
Silesia, In 1675 ; a learned naturalist, author of se-
veral %vorks which have been collected in six folio
volumes.

Dendrographia, slve historia naturalis de arboribus et frac-
tibus, tam nostri quam peregrini orbis, libri x. Frankfort, fol.
et figuris seneis, 1662.

1663. Eltxholz, John Sigismond, an eminent Prus-
sian botanist, was born at Frankfort on the Oder
1623, practised with great reputation as court phy-
sician at Berlin, and died in 1688.

1. Flora Marchica, or a Catalogue of Plants, cultivated in
the principal gardens at Brandenburg. Berlin, 8vo.

2. De Horticultura. Berlin. 4to. 1682-

3. VoTCi Garten-bau, oder L'nterricht, von der Gartnerey
auf das Clima der Chur-Marck Brandenburg, wie auch der
benachbarten eutichen Lander gerichtet. Berlin. 4to. p. 595.
plates, 1681.

1871. Hiebern, John Christian.
Horticultura.

1695. Fackbusch, Stephanus Ludomcus, author of
some medical works.

Dissertatio de varia plantarum pronagatione. Leipsic. 4to.

1696. Anon. ; attributed to Tschiffeli.

Ecole des Jardiniers, oil Ton apprend a semer des arbres
fruitiers, ^ les mettre en Pepiniere, Sec. Berne. 1 2mo.

1697. Stisser, John Andretv.

Botanica Curiosa, oder Anmerckgunen, wie einige fremde
Krauter in seinem garten bishero cultivixet. Helmstadt. 8vo.
p. 244. 12 plates.

1700. Volkamer, Johann Christoph, a physician in
Nuremberg, and the director of the botanic garden
there.

1. Numbergische Hesperides. Numb. fo!.
! 2. Hesperidum Xorimbergensium sive de Malorum Citre-
orum Limonum, Aurantiorumque cultura et usu, libri 4. No-
rirabergse. fol.

1702. Siegelsteiner, George.

Wohlfiindirte Zwergbaum Schule, oder L'nterricht wie die
Zwergbaume beschnitten werden-Frzudrfbrt-on-the-Maine. 8vo
p. 124. plates.

1702. yf/ioM., thought to be F.C.Weber, who trans-

lated Quintineye's works,
Grtindliche Anweisang zu c

chule. Hamburgh. 8vo. p. 15

170-. Schtnersai/, Eli is Frederick.
Abbandlung von dem Baum&chnitte. Hamb. Mag. 10 band,
4266.

1712. Waldtschmidt, WUhelmus Huldericus.

Programma de industriacevi hodiemi, qua propagatio plan-

4 C

tarum, veterum circa res hortenses occupationes post se re
Unguit. Kiel, 1712.

1713. Hesse, Henry.

Neue Garten-Lust. Leipsic. 4to. p. 389, plates.

1715. Anon.

Historischer und verstandiger Blumengartner, nnd von An-
legung, U'artung und Ptlegung eines Baum und kiicben-
gartens. Leipsic. 4to. p. 785, 21 plates.

170-. Agiicola, George Andrew, M. D., author of
several agricultural works, which have been trans-
lated into French and English.

1. The Artificial Gardener, translated from the German.
London, 1717, 12mo.

2. Philosophical Treatise of Husbandry and Gardening, &c.
translated from the German, by Bradley. London. 4to. cuts,
1721.

There is a volume on planting " by Agricola," oi which
Dr. Anderson (see Sect. 1.) is the author.

1735. Deuso, Johann Daniel, author erf a natu-
ralist's kalendar, and some other works.

\'on Anlegung und Vermehrung wilder Obstbaume. Printed
in his Bevtrage zur Naturkunde. Berlin, 7 stuk. p. 620 — 627.
1752 to 1765.

1738. Krause, L. Ph. , born in Berlin, where he wa»
a nurseryman.

Kluger und sorgf iiltjger Gartner. Leipsic. 8vo.

1711. Ungehciuer, John Andrew.

Dissertatio de-cultura plantarum. Leipsic, 4to.

1750. Lehmann, John Christian, an amateur, who
lives in Leipsic.

%'ollkomner Blumen-garten in Winter. Leipsic. 4to.p.7I,
1 plate. •

1750. Grotjan, John August.

1. Physikalische \V'inter.belustigung mit Hyacintben, Jon-
guiUen,"Tazzetten, TuUpanen, Xelken imd Leucojen. Nord.
nausen. 8vo. p. 120.

2. Ergotzlige Sommerbelustigung, &c. mit Garten Kalendar.
Nordhausen. 2voIs. 8vo. 1759.

1750. Seligmann, J. Mich.

1. .A.bbildung des lieblichsten Blumen mit Beschreibnng.
Nuremburg, fol.

2. Hortus Xitidissimus. (By Seligmann and Cp. Jac. Trew .)
Also in German. Leipsic, folio, ' "

1751. Biedel, J. Cp.
i-Lex

io, many plates.

\'ennehrtes Garten-Lexicon benebset nOtzlicben Garten
Kalendar. Xordhausen. 8vo.

1753. Gesner, John, a canon of Zurich, and pro-
fessor of mathematics and natural philosophy in that
university, was born in 1709. He studied at Leyden
and Basle, where he contracted an intimacy with
Haller ; and their epistles have been printed. He
died in 1790. Gesner published two dissertations on
plants, inl741, in which he announced the new system
of Linneeus, of whom he says, that he was a man des-
tined to refonn all natural history. Besides these
he was the author of eleven dissertations, published
under the title of Phytographia Sacra. He also
wrote on extraneous fossils ; and compiled an index
to\Veinmann'sP/<i'/o^ra»A«a. But he was grossly
imposed on, as well as Kaller, by the present of a
meadow crowfoot, on the branches of which the
flowers of the daisy had been so neatly fastened as to
escape detection till after Gesner's death. Of this
rarity he published a description, in a learned dis-
course on vegetable monsters, entitled, De Ra~
nunculo Bellidifloro. The cheat was discovered by
Sir Joseph Banks, who procured the specimen, and
separated the parts by the application of steam.

1. De Ranunculo Belliditloro, et de Plantarum generibtis.
Zurich. 4to.

2. Theses Physics Miscellaneae speciatim de Tberraoscopio
Botanico. Zurich, 1755. 4to.

3. V'om Gebrauche des Thermoscops Thermometer bey
Wartung der Pflanzen. {Hamburg Hag. 16 band. p. 288.)

1753. Reichard, Ch., a celebrated writer of Guides,
and other compilations, who lived at Erfurt, and
died some years ago.

Land-und Gartenschatz. Erfurth. 8vo.

A new edition in 1802, bv J. \"olkmer Sickler.

1761. Boehmer, George Ralph, professor of botany
and anatomy at Witteraberg, was born in 1723;
studied under the celebrated JLudwig ; wrote various
botanical works, and died in 1803.

1. Programmata, De sereudis vegetabilium seminibus mo.
nita. Wiltemberg. 4to.

2. Bibliotheca scriptorum historiae naturalis, ceoonomis^
aliarumque artium et scientiarum ad ilium pertinentium realis
systematica. Leipsic, 1785-89. 9 vols. 8vo.

This is considered a very valuable work-
1761. Schaffer, Jac. Ch.

Der wunderbare Eulentzwitten nebst der Baumraupe, ans
welcher derselbe entstanden, &c. Regensburg. 4to. plates.

1764. Plaz, Anthony JViHiam, author of a tract on
vegetable physiologj', published in 1745.

Programma de plantarum snb-diverso coelo nascentium cul-
tura. Leipsic. 4to p. 13.

1765. Gleditsch, John GoUiebb, a naturalist, waa
bom at Leipsic in 1714. He took his doctor's de-
gree in physic at Frankfort on the Oder, where he
was appointed professor of botany, physiology, and
medicine. He was also a member of the Academy
of Sciences at Berlin, and died in 1786.

1. Vermisrhte Phystealisch Botanisch-(Economische Ab.
handlungen. HaUe, 1765-67 3theil. 8vo.
2

1124

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV

2. Pflanzenveryeichniss zum Nuzen und VergnilKcn der
Lust-und BaumKartner, nebst Anmerkungen, diedeien PfleRe,
Vermehrung, I'llanz und Blutezeit betreflen. Berl. 1775,
8vo.

3. VoUstandiije Theoretisch-Praktische Geschichte aller
in der Azeny, Haushaltung und ihrer verschieiienen Nahning-
gzweigen nUzlich befiindenen Pflanzen. Berl. and Leips.
1777, 8vo.

4. tjeber die Ursachen einer unsichem Verpflanzung der
bereits erwachsenen Fichten und Wachholdem, aus ihren
natUrlichen Standplazen, in uriiern Heyden. In his Phjs.
Botan. fficen. Abhandl. I theil, p. 39—57.

5. Gedanken Uber die Fragen : durch was fUr Wege ges-
chiehet die Hauptvermehrung des wilden Holzes in unsem
Forsten am besten P und welches ist die vorgUglichste Art,
die Eichen zum Nuzen des Forstwesens zu saen ? lb. 69-93.

6. Systeniatische Einleitungin dieneuere Forstwissenschaft.
Berlin, 1775, 8vo. 2 vols.

1765. Rettelet, K. Cp.

Praktischer Beweis dass die Mathesis bey der Forstwessen-
ibuft unentbehrliche Dienste thue. Eisenach. 8vo.

1766. Cramer, John Andrew, a metallurgist, was
bom at Quedlinburg in 1710, and died in 1777. He
was the tirst who formed the art of assaying into a
system.

Anleitung zum Forstwissen. Brunswick, fol. p. 200, 60
plates.
1768. Von Brocke, Henrich' Christian.

1. Wahre GrUnde der Physicalischen und experimental
Allgemeinen Forstwissenschaft. Leips;

2. Beobachtungen von einigen Blu
Zubereitung der Erde. Leii)s. 1771,

1768. I41 Societe CEconomique de Berne.
Traits des Arbres Fruitiers, extrait des meilleurs auteurs.
Paris. 12mo. Translated from the German.
1768. Luder, Fr. Hm. H.

1. Briefe Uber die Bestellung eines KUchengartens in Nie-
dersachsen. Hanover. 3 vols. 8vo.

2. Nachricht von Anbau und Erhaltung des griinen Kohls
in Winterzeit. Flensburg, 1772, 8vo.

3. Briefe Uber die Aniegung und Bestellung eines Blumen-
gartens. Hanover, 1777.

1771. Munchausen, 0. F. von., an amateur.

MonatUche Beschaftjgung fur Baum-und-Plantagen Gart-
ner, ftc. Hanover. 8vo. plates.

1771. Henne, Sm. D. I..

Anweissung wie man eine Baumschule von Obstbaumen in
Urossen Aniegen soil. Halle. 8vo.

1771. Ossenfelder, H. A.
• Vom Weinbau in den sachsischen Landen. Dresden. 8vo.

1773. Hirschfeld, Ch. Cai. L., counsellor to his
Danish Majesty, and professor of the fine arts at
Kiel. He laid out several gardens in Denmark, and
formed a large fruit-tree nursery there

?xpenme

Leipsic, 1768-75, 4 vols. 8vo.

gen von einigen Blumen deren Bau, und

Erdi ' ■ "

1. Remarques sur les Maisons de Campagne et I'Art des
'ins. (Also in German.) l^eipsig. 12mo.
Theorie de I'Art des Jardins. (Also in German.) Leip-

Jardi

«ig. 8to. 1775.

3. The>rie de I'Art des Jardins. (Also in German.) 6 vols.
4to. many plates. Leipsic and Amsterdam, 1777 to 1782.

In tbe Gazette Litteraire de I'Europe, for Janij^jy 1781, it
is said of this work, that reading it '* expands the heart, ex-
alts and ravishes the soul, so much so that one would say,
pleasure had taken the pencil and painted the most agreeable
scenes, to re^al the idea of the charms of the finest day."

4. Gartenkalender, Hamburgh, 16mo plates. 1782 to 1790.
; 5. Gartenbibliotheke. Kiel. 8vo. 1790.

6. Handbuch der Fruchtbaumzucht. Brunswick, 1788.
2 vols. 8vo.

7. Uber die Verwandtschafl der Gartenkimst und der Malery
(im gothaish. Magazine.)

1773. Krause, Ch. L.

Fttnfzigjahrige erfahrungsm^ssige Unterrichte von" der Gart-
nerey, Berlin. 2 vols. 8vo.

1774. Glaser,J.F.

. Physikalishe <}konomische Abhandlung von den schdalichen
Raupen der Obstbaume und bewahrten Hillfsmittein, solche
abzunalten. Leipsic. 8vo.

1775. Weiss, Frederick William, author of Florse
Gottingensis, and other botanical works.

Entwurf einer Forstbotanick. Gottingen, 1 vol. p.'358. Eight
plates.

1775. Saussure, Nicolas de, father of the famous
natural philosopher (Horace Benedict de Saussure),
was born in Geneva, in 1709, and died in 1790. He
devoted himself to agriculture, and obtained a prize
from the CEconomical Society of Auch, for a memoir
on the subject.

1. Mani^re de Provigner la Vigne sans engrais. 8vo.

2. Le feu, principe de la fecondite des plantes et de la fer-
CUt^ des terres. 8vo. 1783.

3. Essai sur la Taille de la Vigne ; et de la Rosde. 8vo.
1780.

1776. Mayer, or Meyer, John, gardener to the
Bishop of Wurzburg, in Franconia. He appears to
have worked some time in the royal gardens at
Paris, and to have travelled in England. His work
is understood to have considerably promoted the
culture of fruits in that part of the country where he
lived. ^ . .

1. Pomona Franconia, ou Description des Arbres Fruitiers,
les plus estim^s en Europe, de la cour de Wirtemberg, 3 vols.
4to. Fr. and Ger. 264 plates. ^ .

2. Pomona Franconia, ou Description des Arbres Frui-
tiers, les plus estime en Europe, qui se cultivent, maintenant
au Jardin de la rour de \Vuriburg. Nuremberg- 2 vols. 4to.

^1776. Schmidt, J. Ch. E., gardener to the Duke
of Mecklenburg, at Ludwigslust.

GeprUfte Anweisung zu der Erziehung, Pflanzung urd Be-
handlung der Hochstammen und Zwergfruchbaunie. Man.
heim. 8vo.

1776. Fon Dieskav, Christian John Frederick.

1. Das regelmassige Versezen der Baume in Waldem und
Gorten. Meiningen. 8vo.

2. Vortheile der Gartnerey, &c. Coburg. 2 vols. 8vo.
177. . F. A. M.

Gedanken Uber diejenigen Unterhaltunganstalten, die durch
Holzsaat, und dasAnflanzen in unsem M'aklungen, nach der
Natur derselben, unserer Kameralverfassung und dera Holz.
handel geschehen konnen. Berlin in Gesch. Naturf. Fr.2Band4.
p. 307.

177. . Anon,

Anleitung fUr die Landleute in Absicht auf die Pflanzunf;
der W Ider. Abhandl. der Aatmforscher Gesellschafl in
Zurich 3 B. and p. 205-266.

1777. Anon.

Die beste Art und VVejse Ananas zu pflanzen, aus einer
franzosischen Handscrift Ubersetzt ; or. The best manner to
plant ananas, and to keej) them through summer and winter in
vineries and frames, so as to obtain ripe fruit ; with a correct
description of the insects, and particularly of the Coccus Bro-
melia, or the ananao' shield, which is so injurious and even
deadly to this noble plant ; and a sure method of destroying
them. With three plates. Translated from a French manu-
script. Stutgard. 8vo. 1778. A plate of a pine and grape-
house, one ot pits for pines, and one of the Coccus Bromelia.

It is chiefly an abridgment of La Court's Directions for
Cultivating the Pine Apple, {^ee Dutch author* on gardening,

"1777. HUtenhrand, Ant.

Oistericher VVeinkatechismus, o<ler kurzer Unterricht von
Weinbau in Qistreich. Vienna. 8vo.

1778. Mayer, J. F.

1. Von Gartenbau. Frankfort on -Maine. 8vo.

2. Der Maykafer als Wurm und Vogel, in Garten, auf ^Ekem,
und auf Wiesen, &c. Nurenburg. 8vo. 1768.

1778. Voch.

Erste GrUnde fur Gartenrisse. Aug)>b. 8vo.

1779. Walther, I. lac.

Praktische Anleitung zur Gartenkunst; oder des SchwM-
bischen Gartners getreuer Unterricht. mit einem dreyfachen
Gartenkalendar. Stutgard. 8vo. plates.

1779. Weismantel, J. N., a florist at Leipsic.
Blumisterey. Leipsic. Svo. plates.

1780. Faudcl, Fredericks Gulielmus.

Specimen insug. de Viticultura Kichovillana Argent. 4to.
p. 30.
1780. Got:6, J. F.

Anweisung zur vortheilhaf igen Aniegung der Baumschulen,
Baum und Kuchengarten aut dem iSuide, &c. Altenbtirg.
Svo.

1780. Feuercisen, K. Glo.

Praktische Abhandlung ueber einige wichtige Gegenstande
in der schonen Gartnerey; nebst einem -\nhang von einigen
in Gartenhausem, Mistbeeten und in freyen Garten befindli-
chen fruchten. Han. Svo.

1781. Beckmann, John, professor of economy in
the university of Gottingen, was born at Haye, in
the kingdom of Hanover, in 1739 j he wrote a num-
ber of works, but is best known by his History of
Inventions. After a life of great industry and use-
fulness, and loaded with academical honors, he died
in 1811.

1. Gartenblumen, in his Geschichte der Erfindungcn, 2 Band,
p. 296-308.

2. Versuche und Erfahrungen Uber die iCunst Holz zu saen.
Leipsic. 2 vols. Svo.

1781. Salzmann, F. Z., gardener to Frederick II.
of Prussia, at Potsdam.

GrUndliche Anweisung wie man allerley KUchengewachse
und Spicerey Krauter durch das ganze Jahr

behandeln

2. Pomologie. Berlin, 1774.

1781. Matter, Fr, Jos., a commercial gardener near
Vienna.

Verzeichniss der oesterrichen Baume, Stauden und Busch-
gewachse, mit Kurzgefeatsten Anmerkurgen Uber die Natur
und okonomische Geschichte deselben. Vienna. Svo.

1782. Ehrhart, Frederick.

Garten Anmerkungen. (Printed in the Hanover Xagagine,
p. 529. 524.)

1782. Medikus, Frederick Kasimtr, author of a
number of works on botany and natural history.

1. Beitrage zur schonen Gartenkunst. Manheim, Svo. p. 378.

2. Anmerkung Uber die Versuche, ausiandi.'fcher Baume und
Strauche an unsem Himmelsstrich anzugewohnen.

3. Bemerkung der Kuhrptaltzischen. Phys. okon. Gesellsch,
1778, p. 29-61. _. . .„

4. Versuche Uber die beste Art der Anpflanzung, oder aus-
landische Baume an unsem Himmelsstrich anzugewohnen.
lb. 1780, p. 131-177. ,,,. ^ , . T u

5. Von dem Einflusse der strengen Winter der drei Jahre
von 1782 bis 1785 auf die Kultur fremder an unsem Himmels-
strich angewohnter, oder anzugewohnender BHume und
Straucher, &c. Vorles. dersclb. Ges. 1 Band, p. 39 — 176.

6. Ueber das A usdaurungsvermogen des Cannacoms in freyer
Luft. Usteris Annalen der Botanick, 13 stuck, p. 39—43.

7. Briefe uber die Robinia. 12mo. 1804.

1783. Von Wilke, G. W. Cst.

1. Sammlung der wichtigen Regeln in der K Uchengartnerey,
nebst hauslicher Benutzungslehren. Halle. 8vo.

2. Sammlung der witchligen Regeln in der Baumgart-

"^f^Handbuch' fur Lustgartner und Blumenfriende. Halle,
Svo. 1785. ... , T •

1783. Von Burgsdorf, Frederick Augustus Loms^
Professor of Forstwissenschaft (Forest manage-
ment) at Tegel near Berlin, where he formpd an

Book 1.

GERMAN WORKS ON GARDENING.

1125

extensive collection of American trees at the govern-
ment expense, with a view to their propagation
and naturalisation in Prussia. Since his death the
establishment has been managed by Mr. Hartig.

1. Von den eigentlichoi Theilen und Grenzen der systema-
tischen Forstwisseuschafe. Berlin, in Ges. Naturf. Fr. 4 band,
99.

2. Versuche einer voUstandigen Geschichte vorzttgUcher Hol-
tarten. Berlin. 2 vols, plates.

3. Anleining zu sieherer Erziehung und Zweckmassiger
Anpflanzung der einheimischen und freraden Holzarten,
-welche in Deutschland im &eien fortkonmien. 2 tbeile, Berlin,
179A. 8vo.

1783. Heppe, John Christopher.

Von der Forstkentniss. Printed in his Jagdlust. 3 thdl,
p. 351 — 754.

1783. Klupfel, I Alb. .

1. Journal fUr die GSirtnerey.

2. \'ortheile zar Erdehung eines jjuten Nelkensaamens,
Stutgard. 17S0. Svo.

. 1784. Von Vothman, J. G.

1. Wartung und Anlegung des Spargels. Fleusburg. Svo.

2. Oekonomischer praktischer Gartenkatechismus. Leipsic.
4 vols. Svo.

1784. Plenck, Jos. Jacques, M. D., a physician at
Vieftna, author of a number of medical works, and
of some on botany.

Bromatalogia, seu Doctrina de EsculentU et PotiUentes.
Vienna. Svo.

1786. Seidel,Cp F.

1. Kurze Anweiiung den Spargel zu bauen. Krlangen. 8to.

2. Bluniengartner Kalender. Leipsic, Svo. 1790.
1786. Schmahling, L. Cp.

Aesthetik der Bluraen. (The sublime of flowers.) Dessau.
8to.

We have no English word answering exactly to the German
term Aesthetik ; which means the highest degree of refinement
or perfection, to which the thing to which it is applied, can be
carried.
1786. Kob, J. And.

Die wahre Ursache der Baumtrockniss der Nadelwalder
durch die Xaturgeschichte den Er phalaene (Phal. noct.
Pinip. L.) erwiesen und durch einen Versuch erl&utert. Nuren-
berg. 4to. 3 plates.

'.1787. Gmelin, John Frederick.
"Abhandlung uber die ^\'urmt^ockniss. Leipsic. 8vo.
1788. Samrow, Cp. L.
' Verfahrung einer praktischen Anleitung zum Tdtower
Rttbenbau. Berlin. Svo.
1788. Gerthing, Joseph.

Gedanken, W'Unsche und X'orschlage zu Emporbringung der
nut/baren Gartnerev. Jena. Svo.
1788. Ka7{fft, J. F.

1. Beschreibung einer sehr TortheilhafWgen Nelken und
Aurikel-Stellage. Fre^burg. Svo.

2. Bemerkungen und Regeln uber die Cultur und Charakter
der Aurikel. Bey J. F. RanHt. J. Tim. Val. SeeUg und J. Sm.
Schroter. Erfurth. Svo. 1803.

1788. Rode, a celebrated landscape-painter in
Berlin.

1. Ground Plan of the Garden of Worlitz. Dessaux. 8to. plates.

2. Der Garten zu neu AValdeck mit den Grand Plan des
Gartens zu WorUtz, 1788.

1788. Et/er, J. Ch.

1. Die Farben der Nelken unter gemeinschaftlichen Namen
Torgpstellt, nebst Angabe eines Mahlers V'erfahren bejm
Nachcopiren. Gera. Svo. 1 plate.

2. Benihmte Nelkensammlung nach der Natur gezeichnet ;
mit Erklarung unter alter und neuer. Classification, &c.
LeiMic. Svo. 1805.

1790. Von Sierstorpff, Kp. H.

Einige Bemerkui^en uber die im M'inter 1788 und 1789.
erfi-omen Baume. Brunswig. 8to.

1790. Gurnfh, Amelia.
^ 1. Gartenokonomie fur Frauenzimmer. Zoll. 4 vols. Svo.

2. Gartenfreundinn. Glc^au Svo. 1S07.

1790. Feige, K. Theodore, L. of Berlin.
Anweisung zum Vertilgen des schadlichen BlUthenwicklers

nebst einer Beschreibung von mehrem shiidlichen Obstraupen
Berlin. Svo.

1791. Romer, John Jacques.

Garten der Flora, odor Beschreibung und Abbildung vers-
ehiedener Pflanzen fUr liebhaber der schonen Gartenkunst
W'interthurm. 4 vols. Svo.

1792. Miiller,J.G.

Deliciae Hortensis, oder voUstandiges Gartenbuch nebst einem
Anhang Baumschulen anzul^en. Stutgard, 1772.
1792. Kraft, John.

1. Abhandlung von den Obstbaumen, 2 'theil. Vienna. Svo.

2. Pomona Austriaca, oder Abbildung von 576, Obstguttun-
eun in der \'erfassers Pflanzenschulen, zu ^\'al<ring und Wein-
hans. Vienna, 18 parts, 4to. many plates.

1792. Huber, Cand.

1. Den Ebersberg HolzbibUothek.

■ It consists of 100 boxes in the form of books of as manv dif-
ferent sorts of wood; each book contains specimens of the
bark, leaves, blossoms, twigs, seeds, limber, and charcoal of
the particular wood or tree designated.

2. Ezlautung zu Hubers Holzcabinet, &c.

This explanation and the books are sold at Munich.

1793. Mayer, J. Jac.

Physische iikonomische Baumschule ; nebst einer Anweisung
:ur wilden Baumzucht fur das kleine Nutzhotz in der Land-
wirthshaft, auch von Anpflanzen und Abbolzen der Weiden.
Stettin. Svo.
1793. Anon.

Rettungsmittel bev Obst-und-Waldbiiumen und anderen
Gewachsoi, die im '\\'inter der Gefahr des Erfrierens ausgesetzt
und. Leipsic Svo. i

4 C

1793. Von Hass, J Ad. . „ . .»^ ^

Beobaohttmgen Uber den Rinden und BorkenkSier, &a

Erlangen. Svo.

1793. Bernstein, J. Glo.

AnUtvpographus, oder \\iderlegen der Meynung, dass die
Borkenkafer an der Trockniss der fichten-Waldungen schuld
sey. Leipsic- Svo.
17W. Anon.

Anweisung fur Anlegung der Garten im Englischen Gescb
mack. Leipz. 4to. plates.

1794. Anon.

A\'Urdigung und Veredlung der regelmSssigen GSrten oder
Versuch die nach dem franfosischen Geschmach angelegten
Garten nach den Grundsatzen der Englischen Gartenkunst xa.
bearbeiten. Leipsig. Svo.

17&1. Sickler, the Rev. T. Volkmar, who main-
tains a nursery for the propagation and sale of fruit-
trees.

1. Der TeutscheObstgftrtner. 2bande. Weimar. Svo.

2. Garten memorandum f ilr Liebhaber, welche ihren Oar-
tenbau entweder selbst besorgen, oder doch richtig Uberseheu
und leiten woUen. Rudolst. Svo. plates.

3. Pomological Cabinet enthalt alle ina deutschen Obstgan-
ner beschriebenen Friichte, &c. (A collection of models in
wax of all the fruits in Germany, made under his direction,
and sold in collections, &c.)

4. Die deutsche Landwirthschaft. Erfurth, many vols. Svo.
with piates.

5. AUgemeines deutsches Gartenmagazin, &c Weimar.
Svo. 1804.

6. Des KurfOrst Augusts ru Sachsen kostlich Obstgarten-
bachlein. (Printed from the edition of 1620.) AVeiinar. Svo.

17M. Leibitzer,J.

2. Vollstandiges Handbuch der .Kiichengartnerey. Vienna.
Svo. 1797.

3. Vollstandiges Handbuch der Obstbaumzucht. Vienna.
8vo. 1798.

4. Praktisches Handbuch du Zwergbaumzucht und Obst-
Orangerie, f Ur alle die sich damit beschaftigen wollen, &c
Leipsic. Svo.

1/95. Anon.

Taschenbuch fiir Natur und Gartenfreunde. Tubingen.
1795-1806. Svo. plates.

1795. Bechstedt, I. Kp.

Der Kiichengarteubau fur die Gartner und gartenliebhaber.
Schleswig. Svo.

1795. SchUler, I. Kp.

Baumzucht im Grosseu, aus 20 yahrllcher Er&hrung im
Kleinen. Giesscn. Svo.

1795. Albonico, J. H.

Niitzliche Bemerkungen f ilr Garten \md Blumenfrennde^
&c. Leipsic. Svo.

1795. Becker, W. Glo., an amateur residing in
Leipsig.

Taschenbuch fur Natur imd Gartenfreunde. Leipsic, 1795
to 1799. This work was discontinued during the war, but is
now resumed.

1795. Ideler, G. F.

1. Der Gartenfreund, oder Inbqnriff des Wesentlichen aiu
alien Theilen der Gartenkunst. (The preface by Willdenow.)
Berlin. Svo.

2. Plan zu Verbesserung der Obstkultur in der Kurmark.
BerUn. Svo. ISOO.

3. Brieffe uber die wirthschaftliche Obstbaumzucht. Ber-
Un. Svo. 1S02.

4. Die wirtschafHiche Gartnerey in Briefen. BerUn. 2 toIs.
8vo. 1798.

1796. Kirchner, I. F.

Praktische -Anweisung zur Gartenktmst, besonden Treibunc
Ananasse, ice- Leipsic. Svo-
1796. Geiger, Fr. X.

1. Kurtzer Cnterricht in der Baumgartnerey ; eine gekronte
Preiichrift. \-ienna. Svo- 1796.

2. Die Baumzucht. Munich, Svo. 1804.
1796. Genssler, Ch. Jac.

Der Maykaftr und seine Larve, &c. nebst per Mittein, ihre
schadliche N\'irkungen zu mindem. Gotha. Svo.

1796. Neuenhahn, K. Ch. Adf. of Erfurth, an
amateur.

1. Annalen den Gartner^. Erfurth, 1796 to 1800, 12 parts.

2, Die Blumenzwiebel- Gartnerey ; oder Beschreibung von
alien auf der Erde bekannten lillienarten Gewachsen, nebst
Anzeige ihrer Cultur, (in Alphabetischer Ordnung-) Leipsio.
2 voU- Svo. 1804.

0. Ueber die Aurikel-Systeme ; nebst \'ersuchen einer gana
neuen Classification der Aurikel. Frankenbeim, 1791, Svo.

1796. Von Derczen, J.

Leber Tokays Weinbau, dessen Fechstmg tmd Gahning mit
geognoslichen Bevlagen. \'ienna. Svo.
1797- Mulled, J. C. F.

1. Der voUstandige Monatscartner, oder deutlicne und
vollstandige Anweisung zu alien Geschanen im Bauai-Kucben
und Blumengarten. Franf. on the Maine. Svo.

2. Deutschlandiiher Weinbau nach Grunden, &c. Leipsic.
ro. 1803.

Anweisung zu Zweckmassiger Behandlimg der Obst und
lUsegartens, nebst einem Anhang
Maine. 8vo.

GemiJ

tens, nebst einem Anhangvon-Bluraen. Frankf. on

1797, Siemssen, Adf. Ch.

NatuiTgeschichte der grossen Tannrairaupe. Schwerin, 8ro*

.1797. Jacob, R.

bekonomisches Handbuch zur Bef orderung des finlhen An
ziehens der GemiUe-und Obstgarten in Mistbeeten und Treib-
hausseem, n\it dem nothwendigen Luftmaass-stahl und stand-
liche ^V'ettertabelle versehen. Frankfort on the Maine. Svo.
4 plates.

1797. De Ligne, Prince, a native of Austria, a

1126

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

distinguished military character and courtier, who
wrote 14 volumes on military, and 14 on mixed
subjects. He commanded under Frederic the Great,
and the Empress Catherine, and visited England and
every country in Europe. He was universally es-
teemed and beloved. He died in Vienna at an ad-
vanced age in 1814.

Coup d'(Eil sur Bel-(Eil (a seat of his own near Paris), et sur
un grand partje des jardins de I'Europe. In tomes 1 and 2 of
his Giuvres melees, and abridged in

1798. Spitz, Am. Cp.

1. Ueber Erziehunc guter und neuer Obst-und Spielarten
aus Kemstiimraen. Erfurth. 8vo.

2. Bemerkung iiber die durch das Abschalen der Baumrinde
vermehrte Fruchtbarkeit der Baume. Erfurth. 8vo. 1802.

1798. Achard, Franz. Karl, director of the phy-
sical class in the Royal Academy of Sciences, Berlin.

AusfUhrliche Beschreibung der Methode, nach welcher bei
der Kultur der RunkelrUben verfahren werden muss, um ihren
Zukkerstoff nach MBgliehkeit zu vermehren, und sie so zu er-
halten, das sie mit Vortheil mr Zukkerfabrikazion angewerdit
•werden kann. Berlin. 8vo. 63.

Translated in Nicholson's Journal, vol. iii. 237.

1798. Grohmann.

1. Schone Gartenkunst. Leipsig, eight plates.

2. Ideemagazin fUr Liebhaber von Garten und Englischen
Aniagen. 60Hefte. Leipsig, 1779 and 1805, 4to. plates. This is
one or the most popular works in Germany in retpect to plans
for gardens.

3. Kleines Ideemagazin oder Sammlung von Ideen die mit-
weni^ Kosten aus zufOhren, &c.

This work may also be had in French under the following
title : Magasin petit, ou recueil d'idees peu dispendieuses a ex-
ecute. Leipsic, fol. 12 cahlers. plates.

4. Plans nouveaux pour distribuer et omer des petits Jar-
dins. Leipsic. folio.

1798. Anon.

Nelkenflor, oder nach der Natur gemaltc^s Verzeichnis aller
schonen und g\iten Sorten Nelken. Meissen. 8vo.

1798. Hildt, I. Adf.

Sammlung inheimische und auslandische Holzarten, zur
technologische Kenntnisse, Charakten und Waarenkunde aller
kunst farb und apothekholzer. Weiraer. 4to.

Sold with 144 specimens of woods, of two inches in length
each, for 14 dollars, or of five or six inches long each, for 36
dollars. (See 1792. Huber.)

1798. Gatterer, Cp. W. Jac, author of a work on
zoology.

Forst Kalendar, oder Verzeichnis den Verrichlungen in je-
dem Monate. Ulm. 8vo.

1798. Ballinger, Prosp.
-' 1. VoUstandige Geschichte der Borkenkafers, Fichtenkrebses,
oder sogennanten schwartzen Wurms. Weisenbach. 8vo.

2. Gesammelte Nachrichten und Bemerkung ilber die Fich-
tenspinner oder die Baumraupe Phalaena : Bombyx pini,Linn.
Weisenbach. 8vo. 3 plates.

1798. Jordens, J. H.

Geschichte der kleinen Fichtenraupe, oder der Larve von
der Phalaena Monacha, Linn : mit Beytragen zur Berichtigung
der Ausrottungsmittel dieser Waldverheererin. Hof. 4to. plates.

1798. Zoph,K.

Die Nonne im Walde und ihre Schwestem ; kein Roman.
Leipsic. 8vo.

1798. Bretschneider, K. Beat.

Beytrage zur Kentniss der verderblichen Fichtenraupen.
■yVeimar. 8vo.

1799. Erbstein, K. F. TV.

Aurikelflor, oder nach der Natur gemalte Versamlung aller
vorztiglich schonen Sorten Aurikel. Meissen. 8vo. plates.

1799. Diet, Augustus Frederick Adrian, M.D. of
Nassau, Dietz ; a scientific writer on gardening.

1. Versuch einersystematischen Beschreibung der in Deutsch-
land gewOnlichen Kemobstsorten. Frankfort on the Maine ;
10 vols, of Apples, and 5 of Pears, to 1807.

2. Uber die Anlegung einer Obstorangerie in Scherben, und
die Vegetation der Gewachse. Frankfort on Maine. 12mo.l796.

1800. Keyser, G. Ad.

Ueber die Veredlung des Obstes und der Verhandlung der
Obstkemstamme. Erturth. 8vo.

1800. Von Wdss,-K.

DeutlicheAnweisung der Nelken durch SchnitUnge zu verm-
ehren; nebst einigen Gedanken Uber die Entstehung und
Fortpflanzung der Nelkenlauseundderen Vertilgen. Halle. 8vo.
1800. Anon.

1. Einige Bemerkungen eines Rheinlanders uber den Wein-
des seits des Rheins zwischen Mayne und Bingen. Nau's
Neue Entdeckung. 1 Band. 63.

bau des seits i
Jeue Entdec „ „ , „ .

2. Ueber das besetzen, der rottfelder, und die frage ob Vei
flinge Oder Blindholzzum Anpflanzen junger Weingarten am
vortheilhaftesten seyn.

1801. Fukker, F. Jac.

Beschreibung des Tokayer Gebirgs, nebst Belehnmg wie
bey der Weinlese zer verfduren. Vienna. 8vo.

1801. Hermes, I. Gf.

Beschreibung der vorzUgUchsten OartenWumen nach der
Zeitfolge betrieben. Zerbst. 8vo.

1801. HUbncr, K. Jos. , ^, .

1. Blumisterey Bemerkungen aus dem Jahr 1800, tUr Nel-
kenliebhaber, &c. Brezlau. 8vo.

2. Sirisas, vollstandiger charakter der Gartennelke oder
Grassblume. Reichenbach. 8vo. 1814.

1802. Bereer, Ch. Glo.

1. Taschenbuch fUr Blumenfreunde, oder kurze Charak-
teristik und Anweissung zur Cultur der vorzUglichsten in neu-
deutachen Garten befindliche Gewachse. i.eipsic, 2 vols. 8vo.

2. Handbuch zur Pflanzenkenntniss fUr okonomische Gar-
tenUebhaber und Forstliebhaber zur leiditcn imd vortheilhaf-
tigcn Betreibung ihrer Ge-xhafte. Leii>sic. 8vo.

1802. Goring, E. H. I. B?n. Trommsdorjffl and
F. K. L. Sickler.

Deitscher Gartenschatz ; herausgegeben von J. Volkmar
Sickler. Erfurth . 5 vols. 8 vo.

1802. Sickler, Francis Karl Ludwig, son of Dr.
Volkmar Sickler, a scholar and antiquarian. He in-
vented, in 180.5, a drill-plough, called the spirodi-
phere, and in 1816 came to England, to submit to

fovernment a plan for unrolling the Herciilanean
ISS., which, however, was not attended with
success.

1. AUgemeine geschichte der Obstkultur von den Zeiten der
Urweltan, bis auf die gegenwartigen herab. 1st vol. Fra)ikfort.
8vo.

2. Der voUkommene OrHngeriegartner, oder voUstandige
Beschreibung der Ijimonen, Citronen, und Poineranzen, oder
der Agrumi in Italien, und ihrer Cultur. Weimar, 1815. 4to.
plates.

An analysis of this work is given in the third volume of the
Horticultural Transactions, by Dr. Noehden.

1802. Dietrich, Fr. Gli. court-gardener at Eise-
nach, to the Duke of Saxe Weimar.

1. VoUstandiges Worterbuch der Gartnerey und Bofanique
(the Introduction by Sprengel). Berlin. 10 vols. 8vo.

2. Oekonomischer botanischer Garten-journal. Eisenach. 6
vols. 8vo. 1795.

3. Wintergartner, oder Anweisung der beliebten Modeblu-
men und oekonomischer Gewachse ohne Treibhauser und
Mistbeete in Zimmem, Kellem, und Andem Behaltem zu
liberwintem, oder sie filr den ofthen Garten vorzubereiten.
Weimar. 8vo. 1801.

4. Unterhaltungen fUr Gartner und Gartenfreunde. Tu-

ber, &c. Weimar. 4 to. 6 parts, many plates.

6. Die Weimar Flora, oder Verzeichmss der im Ilerzogli-
chen Park, in Weimar, befindlichen Baume, Straucher and
Stauden. Eisenach. 8vo. 1800.

7. Nachtrag zum Lexicon der Gartnerey und Botanick.
Berlin. 8vo. 1820.

1802. Schrbter, I. Sm.

1. Erfahrungen in Meineni Blumem-obst-und Gemuss-
garten. „

2. Abhandlung Uber Gartnerey und Blumisterey. Eisen-
bach. 8vo. 1802.

1802 Friederich, I. P.
Den KUchengarten, Schweriu. 8vo-
1802. Rudolphi, J. Ch.
1. Garten- Kalender fUr das ganze Jahr. Meissen. 8vo,

2. Nelkentheorie, Oder eihe in systemaUscher Ordnung nach
der Natur gemalte Nelkentabel. Meissen, fol. 1787.

1802. Siegel, .

Description Pittoresque des Jardins du gout le plus modeme,
om6e de 28 planches. Leipsick. 4to. 1802.

1803, Leonharde, F. G. and J. H. Seidel.

1. D^r FrUhlings und Sommer Gartner, oder Anweisung,
iede Art von Blumen, wohlriechende niedrige Strauch Stau-
den, und rankende Gewachse, nebst KUchengarten- Krautem,
so wie auch Obst-Orangerie nach art der Chinesen in Scherben
zu erziehen — und fUr den Winter aufzubewahren, und zu er-
halten. Leipsic, 8vo. 2 phites. _

2. Forst und Jagd- Kalendar- Leipsic. 1 / 94, 8vo.
1803. Rocholl,A.

Die Kunst Zwergobstbaume und unter diesen besonders S) a-
lierbaume zu erziehen und zu Behandeln. Leipsig. 8vo.

1803. Weber, F. Bd.

Handbuch der Oekonomischen Litteratur ; oder systematische
Anleitung zur kentniss der deutschen okonomischen Scliriften,
&c. Berlin. 2 vols. 8vo.

1804. Wendf, G. T. K.

Deutschlands Baumzucht, oder Verzeichniss der Holzarten,
welche das Klima von Deutschland im Freyen aushalten;
nebst Angabe ihrer Grosse, Erforderliche ihres Bodens, Standes,
der Bluthezeit, Reife und Au.sdauer. Eisenbach. 8vo.

1804. Bitter, Ch.

Tafel der Culturgewachse in Europa, geographisch nach den
Klimaten dargestellt. Schnepfenthal. 1 large sheet.

1804. Frege, Ch. A.

Versammlung einer Classiiication der Weinsorten nach ihren
Beeren. Meissen. 8vo.

1804. Sprengel, Kurt, Professor of Botany at Hull,
son of the celebrated botanical author of that name,
and author of an Introduction to Botany, and other
works

Garte'nzeitung. Halle, 1804 to 1806. 4 vols. 8vo.

1805. Mayer, Frederick.

Der Monats-gartner. Giessen. 8vo.
1805. Theuss, Theodore.

1. Monatlich Garten-Handbuch Uber obst und GemUsegar-
tenerey. Halle. 1805.

2. Allgemeines Blumenlexicon. 2 Band. 8vo. Weimar.
ISU.

3. Handbuch fUr Gartenbesitzer die keine gelemte Gartner
sind, &c. Gotha. 8vo. 1805.

4. Der Obstbaumzucht nach theoretischen und praktischen
Grundsatzen bearbeitet. Halle. 8vo. 1804.

1805. Kannegiesser, F. A.

1. Die Gattungen der Rosen. Freyburg. 4to.

2. Aurikeliloren. Dresden, 1800, 2 vols. 8vo.

3. Abhandlung der I^vkoyen. Dresden. 4to. 1807.

4. Abhandlung 'der Ranunkeln und Anemoneu. Dresden,
4to. 1807.

1805. Von Hagen, F. W., a forester.

Ueber die VerwUstung der Borkenkafer und die Mlttel ihnen
zu begegnen. Giittingen. 8vo.

180.5; Breitenbach, Ph. Fr.

Die Obst-Oekonomie, oder vollstandiger Unterricht in Erzie-
hung Wartung und Pflege der Obstbaume, &c. Berlin. Z
vols- 8vo.

Book I.

GERMAN WORKS ON GARDENING.

1127

1805. Burchardt, Th. H. O.

Pomologische Bibliothek, oder alphabetisches Verzeichnis
der PomoloKischen Schriften; mit Zuschreiben und Berich-
tung, nebst Uitheilen alter »md neuerer bhriftsteller Uber Po-
mologie. Coblentz, 1806.

1805. Weissenbruch, J. W. Jos.

Das Ganze des KUcheii^rtenbaues. Frjinfcf. on the Maine.
2 voU. 8to.
^ 1806. Gotihardt, J. Ch. and R. Eyscrbock.

1. Der deutsche Saamengartner, oder Anweisung zur Kent-
niss, Erdehung und Aufbewahrung der in Deutschland ein-
heimischen KJrchensamereyen, &c. Krfurth. Svo.

4. Der Deutsche Gemiis-und Kiichengartenbau. Erfurth.
8vo. 1797. ^ „ ^ ^

3. Vollstandiger Unterricht von der Erziehung und Behand-
lune der Obstbaume, nebst Anziehung ilirer Feinde und
Itrankheit. lb. 8vo. 1798.

4. Deutschlands VV'eisnbau, &c. lb. 2 vols. 8vo.

5. Der Rathgeber in der Obstbaumzucht, fur Biirger und
Landleute, U. ^. \V. lb. 8vo. 1804.

6. Der Theoretische Praktische Weiu und Kellermeyster,
Oder vollstandige Unterrichtung in der Cultur und Behand-
lung des Weins. lb. Svo.

1806. Windt, L. G.

Der Berberitzenhauchein Feind des Wintergetreides. Ha-
nover. Svo.
180. . Von Stetterkeim, Frederick.

Pomologie. Svo.
1806. Gunther, J. Jac.

Anweisung f iir \Veinbauer wider das Beschadigen durch
Frahjahr und Herbstfroste. Heidelburg. Svo.

1806. Waller, K. Alxi.

Der Stubengiirtner — nebst einem Anhang wie im Winter
schone Blumen zu erziehen. Nordhouse. Svo.

1807. Rossig, K. Glo. of Leipsic, an amateur.

1. Versuch Uber den Garteninohn, &c. Leipsic, Svo.

2. Tractate uber Cultur aller sorten Obstbaume, &c. Sch-
neeberg. Svo. 1792.

3. Oekonomische Beschreibung der vorzuclichen Arten, Ab-
handiuiifC und Svielarten der Ro»en, &c. Leipsig. 1799.

, X, ,, v,j__x-. :-•. — » «.„ "Ijg^.

4. Die Pioseu nach der Natur gezeichnet, &c. Xeipsic, folio,
8 parts.
1808. Poscharsky, Ch. F.

1. Der Monats Gartner. Pima. Svo.

2. Der Stuben-giirtner, &c. lb. Svo.

1808. Rosenberg, O. F.

Anleitung Fruchtbaume durch das Copuliren zu veredeln.
Konigsberg. Svo. 1 plate.

1809. Hellbach, J. Ch.

Handbuch iiber den Kucheng-artenbau filr die grosse Volk-
classc ; mit Z\veckmassi.:;cr Literature versehen. JGrfurth. Svo.

1809. Boucht, Pierre, a Frenchman. A florist
at Berlin, the first who introduced bulbs in green-
houses in Prussia.

Die Zimmer und Fenstergarten, oder Anweisung die beleib-
testen Blumen und Gewaschse in Zimmem und Fenstem zu
Ziehen und zu Uberwintem ; nebst elner Anweisung zur Blu-
mentreiberv. Berlin. Svo.

1809. Dreyssig.

Der Levkoyen Gartner, oder Anweisung zur Cultur der Lev-
koyen, u. s. w. Erfurth. Svo.

1809. Christ, I. L.,a. clergyman at Kronberg, near
Frankfort on the Maine.

1. Beobachtungen iiber die heisse und trockne Witterung des
Sommers 1800, deren Ursache, und Mittel die weitem Zunah-
me des L'ebels zuvorzukommen. Frankfort on Maine. Svo.

2. Praktisches Gartenbuch. HeUbrun. 2 vols. Svo. 1811.

3. Der Baumgartner auf den Dorfe, oder Anweisung wie der
gemeine Landmann Obstbaume erziehen und benutzen konne.
Frankfort on Main.-. Svo. 1792.

4. Handbuch der Obstbaumzucht und Obstlehre. lb. Svo.
1791.

6. Pflanzung and "Wartung der ntttzliclisten Obstbaume,
&c. lb. Svo. 1789.

6. Pomologisches, th'orelisches, praktisches Handworter-
buch. Leipsic. 4to. 1802.

7. Plan zum Anlegen eines Obstgartens. lb. fbl. 1799.

5. Die Krankheit Uebel und Feinde der Obstbiiume imd ihre
Abhulfe. Frankfort on Maine. Svo. 1808.

9. Von \\'einbau, &c. lb. 1793. Svo.

, bauen.

Svo.

sung, Roggen in Weinbergen ;

1 1. Vollstandige Pomologie, und zugleich systematisch rich
tiges und beschreibung Verzeichnlss der vomehmsten Sorten
des Keen und Steinobstes, &c. die Christische Baumschule zu
Kronberg. lb. Svo. plates.

1810. Fan Sponeck.

Forsthche Aufeatze und Beraerkungen. Manheim. 8to.

18 1-. SternAerg,BaronVon,ofBohemia,an amateur.

1. Ueberdie Kultur der AJpenpflanzen. Bot. Ges. in Re-
genbarg Abh. i.

2 Flora subterranea.

1817. Boettinger,C. A. ,a.n eminent German scholar
and antiquary, author of Sabina, or Morning Scenes
at the Toilette of a Roman Lady s of Zusammen
Neiiesten Literatur, &c.

Racemazioncai zur Gartenkunst der Alten. (Translated un-
der the title of Fragmens sur le jardinage des anciens, in
the 3Iaff. Encyc. * th Ann^e.)

1810. WiUdenow, C. L. professor of botany at
Berlin, author of various botanical works, and of a
new edition of the Species Plantarum of LinnjEus.

1. Ueber die Anzucht auslandischer Baume tmd Strauche.
(J/o^'. dii G. p. 212.)

2. Gekronte Preisschriften Uber die von der Kurf ttrstlichen
Akademie nilzlicher Wissenschaften zu Erfurt aufgegebenen
pomologischen Preisfiragen. {Nov. Art. Acad. MagviU, tom.
ii. 159?

3. Berlinishe Baumzucht, &c. Berlin. Svo. 7 plates, colored.
1810. Altcnbiog Pomological Society.

Annalai der Altenburgischen pomologischen Gesdlschaft.
Altenberg. Svo.

1810. Kalb. Bhd. H.

Der Weinbau nach theoretischen tmd praktischen Kent-
nissen. Stuttgard. Svo.

1810. Laurop, P.

Aimalen der Forst-und Jagdwissenschaft. Darmstadt. Svo. A
volume appears occasionally.

1810. Ri^elson,Pt.

Beschreibung und Abbildung der von ihm erfundeneii
grossen Ivraft-und Hebemaichine, mittelst welcher in wenig
zeit Baume von ansehnlicher Grosse samt ihren W'urzeln aus
der Erde gehaben, und ungeheure Lasten von der Stelle ges-
chafft werden Ktinnen. u. s. w. Hamburgh. 4to. 3 plates.

1810. Guimpel, R, a botanical draughtsman and
engraver at Berlin.

Abbildung der deutschen Holzarten fttr Forstmanner tind
Liebhaber der Botanik ; mit Beschreibung desselben von K.
W. AV'illdenow. Berlin, in numbers in 4to., colored platesw
Nos. 55 and 36 were published in 1821, containing specimens
of the woods of the following trees and shrubs : .luniperus sa-
bina, communis and nana ; Taxas baccata ; Atriplex portula-
coides ; Acer pseudo platanus, platanoides, austriacum and
campestre ; and Fraxinus excelsior.

1811. Cro?ne, G , of Hanover.

Der Boden und sein Verhaltniss, &c. (Method of knowing
soils by their plants, turf, &c.) Hanover. Svo.

1811. Ransleben holds a government situation
at Berlin, and propagates fruit-trees for sale in his
garden there.
Einige Aufaatze fiir Gartenfreunde, &c. Leipsic. Svo.

1811. Fritsch, A .

Versuch eines Bim systems. Altenburg, folio, colored plates
of fruit.

1812. Fischer, V. F.

Anleitung zur TTlifteliagd,&c. (Tmflfle hunting, in Germany,
is considered as part of forest manjigement.) Carlsrotihe. Svo*

1812. Walroth.

Geschichte des Cbstes der Alten. 1st Heft. Halle. 8vo. p.l69.

1813. Kellerrnann.

Bemerkungen iiber de Felpe. Magdebourg. Svo.

1813. Kecht,J. C. a varnisher of carriages at Berlin.
Versuch einer durch Erfahrung erpvcbten Methode den

Weinbau zu verbessem. Berlin. Svo. 1 plate.

1814. Geist, J , M.D.

Ueber die Verbesservmg des ^\'embaus. WUrtzbarg. Svo.

1814. Corthum, J. E., a lady.'

Handbuch filr Gartenfreunde, &c. Zerbst. 2 vols. Svo.

1815. Bockmann, A., professor of forest manage-
ment at Geissen.

Beschreibung eines h6chst einfachen und wohlfeilen Hiiben-
messens, womit in Gebirge, wie in der Kbene, die Hohoi der
Baume ohne Gehillfen leicht geschwind und genau gemesseK
werden Konnen. Giessen. Svo. plates.

1815. Zcyher, and G. Rdmer, the former director
of the Duke of Baden's gardens.

Beschreibung der Gartenanlagen zu Schwetzingen. Man-
heim. Svo. 9 plates, and a plan of the garden.

1816. Hempel, G. E. L. a clergyman.

Der Pomologische Zauberring. Ein leichtes Mittel jeden
Obstbaum zum Tragen zu zwingen. Nunneberg. Svo.

1817. Lindegaard, Peter, C.M.H.S. gardener to
the King of Denmark.

A new Method of Forcing Grapes. London. Svo. Trans-
lated from the Danish.

1817. Roitlet, Jean Antoine, cultivator at Poseur.

Recueil de M^moires sur la Culture de la \'igne successive-
ment presentfes et couronnes par la Soci^t^ d'emulation patri-
otique de Neufchatel. Neufchatel. Svo.

1817. Cotta.

Anweisung von Waldbau. Dresden. Svo. p. 226.

1818. Bechstein, D. I. M., author of a work on
domestic animals, and professor of forest economy
at Nurenberg.

Forstinsectologie, oder Natur-geschichte der filr den Wald
schadlichen und niltzlichen Insecten, nebst Einleitung in die
Insectenkunde Uberhaubt. Nurenberg. Svo. colored plates.
l^]^. Hundeshagen, C .

Ai'Ieitung zum Entwerfen von Bauholzanlagen, imd zur
zweckmassigen Aufarbeitmig, &c. Tubingen. Svo. plates.

1820. Wetzhausen von Truchsess.

Systematische Classification der Kirschensorten. Stutard.
Svo. '

Two hundred and thirty-thiee sorts of cherries are here
described.

1820. Schreiber,J. C.

Anweisung zum Beschneiden der Fruchtbaume. Zullichau.
Svo.

1820. Blotz, F. and J C. Christ.

Die Gartenkunst. 3d edit. 5 vols. 8vo.

Lupin, an amateur,
rten. Vienna. 12mo.

4 C 4

Die Garten.
1821. Anon.

1. Neue Erfindung wie man im AVinter Ananas, Spargel
Melonen, &c. und andere Vegetabilien ingleichen Rosen Vell-
chen, Hyacinthen, &c. ohne Mistbeet una sogar in Zimmem
erziehen und zur Reife bringen kan. Nuremberg. Svo.

This piece of horticultural quackery is sold in a sealed en-
velope. The pamphlet contains a few pages, illustrated bv a
plate. The mode is to introduce boiling water into a leadoi
cistern, enclosed in a case or frame, containing the plants ; to
renew it as it cools, and give very little air.

2. Neue Gartenban Kunst, oder Sammlung zur Verzierung
des Parks und Garten. Leipsic. folio, 8 plates.

1821. Bertuch, M., author of air'Essay on Hiero-
glyphics.

Garten-Magazin. Weimar. One or more numbers annually.
5 vols, and 6 numbers, published up to June 1821.

1128

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

SuBSECT. 3. Works on Gardening published in Italy, exclusive of Translations.
7694. ui considerable number of books on rural avoirs have been published in Italy ;
but there, where garden and field culture are so nearly allied, gardening and agricul-
ture have been so blended by the writers, that it is difficult to know under which depart-
ment to include the books. The best work for giving a general idea of the state of cul-
ture in Italy is, the Ayinali deW Agricultura, 22 vols. 8vo. by F. Re. 1809 to 1814.

1546. Alamanni, Louis, a Florentine gentleman,
an eminent poet, born in 1495. Having conspired
against Julius de Medicis (Pope Clement VII.), he
took refuge in France, where he was well received
by Francis I., and sent in embassies to several
courts. He wrote several poems, beside the follow-
ing, and died in 1556.

Delia Coltivazione.

It is translated into French with the title of Georgiquei
lialiennes.

1596. Bacoil, A .

De Natural! Vinorum Historic, de Vinis Italian, et de con-
▼iviis antiquorum, libri viii. folio, Rome.

1622. Soderini, Giovanvettorio, e Bernardo Dava-
xati.

ColtiTazione toscana delle Titi e d' alcuni alberi. Agffiun.
tovi la coltivazione degli olivi ; di Piero Vettori. Firenze. 4to.
. 1629. Rendella, Prospero.
1 Tractatus de vinea, vindemia et vino. Ven. fol.
' 1633. Ferrari, John Baptist, a Jesuit of Sienna,
author of a Syriac dictionary, and other works j died
in 1665.

1. Hesperides, sive de Malorum aureorum Cultura at Usu,
libri It. Rome. fol. 1646.

2. Flora, seu de Florum Cultura, lib. iv. Rome, 4to. 1633.
: 1670. Falli, Francesco.

Dialogo intemo alld Cultura della vite. Florence. 8vo.
p. 79.
167-. Caronelli, Conte Pietro de

Memoria sulla Coltivazione delle viti. {Atti della Soc. Pa-
triot, de Milam, vol. iu. p. 3. 83.)

167-. Bratnieri, Don Giulio.

Transunto delle riporte al quesito della Societa Patriotica
de Milano, intorno alia Coltivazione delle viti. {Atti Patriot.
de Milano, vol. iii. p. 84. 157.)

1697. Sacconi, Agostino.

Ristretlo delle piante, con sui nome antichi e modemi,
della terra, aria, e sito, ch' ainano. Vienna. 4to. p. 127.

J 726. Clarici, Paolo Bartolomeo, a Benedictine
monk of Padua.

Istoria e coliura delle piante che sono pel fiore piii rag-
guardevoli, e piu distinte per ornare un giardino in tutto il
tempo deir anno; con un trattato degli Ajp-umi. Venice.
4to. with a plan of the garden of Gerarde isagredo.

1763. Arrigoni, Stefano.
■ Trattato sulla cognizione e coltura de giacinti. Viterbo,
1703, in 8vo. fig.

1767. Cattaneo, Giacomo.

Delia Idropisia de' Gelsi. Milano, 1767, in 8vo.
! 1769. Anon.

Maniera di coltivare gli alberi fruttiferi, opera postuma d'
illustre autore. Fireuze, 1769, in 8vo.

1773. Anon.

Trattato de' fiori, che provengono da cipolla, in cui si con-
tiene tutto cio, ch' 6 necessario per ben coltivarll. Cremona.
12mo. p. 108.

1777. Toxxetti, Octavianus Targioni, M.D. regius
professor of botany and agriculture at Florence;
author of various works on agriculture; and his
son has translated the Agricultural Chemistry of
Sir H. Davy.

Des ditterentes especes de Mcuriers qui se cultivent dans
le territoire Florentin. (3/^m. Acad. Scien. Paris, 572.)

1777. Broc/iieri, Francesco, gardener to the King
of Sardinia, at Turin.

Nuovo Metodo, adattato al CUma del Piemonte, per cul-
tivare gli Annanas senza Fuoco. Turin. 12mo. 1 plate.

He recommends pits and dung, or tan : this, he says, is
the English and Dutch method, both which countries he had
visited. ^

1780. Freylino, di Buttigliera, Conte.
Sulla maniera di rescaldare economicamente le serre degli
Ananassi. In the Opusculi, scelti. Florence. 8vp. tom xi.

His' improvement consisU in mixing sawdust with tan or
dung, to lessen exjwnse, and prolong the heat.

1780. Borch, Michael Jean, Comte de, a Pied-
montese gentleman, author of various works on
lithology.

Lettres sur les TrufFes du Pifimont. Milan. 8vo. 3 plates,

1783. Picciuoli, Guiseppe, curator of the garden
of the illustrious Marchese Niccolo Panciatechi, at
the Villa Loggia, near Florence.

Memoria sulla coltivazione degli Ananassi. Printed at the
end of Horfo Panciatico, p. 24—32. Florence, 8vo.

His method is nearly the same as that of La Court, and
Brocchieri. See sect. ii. and A.D. 1777 above; he notices
Bastard's mode of ripening the fruit in water, translated and
published in Oimsculi scelti, tom. ii. and Count Freylino's,
of mixing sawdust with the dung. Brocchieri, he says, is
one of the first gardeners in Italy.

1783. Gardini, M , a physician at St. Da-

tniens, near Asti, in Piedmont.

De influxa electricitatis almospheriooe in vegctantia, disser-

tatio ab academia Lugdunensi proemio donata anno 1782.
Turin, octavo, 1783.

1787. 4ffaitata, Casimiro.

L'ortolano in Villa, e I'accurato glcurdiniere in Citttt. Bas-
sano, in 12mo.

1794. Bussato, Marco.

Giardlno di Agricoltura nel quale s'insegna tutto quello
che appartiene ad un perfetto giardiniero. Bassano, in 8vo.
tig.

1798. Comparetti, Andrea, a physician at Turin,
author of some anatomical dissertations.

1. Saggio sulla coltura e govemo de' Boschi. Padova,in 8vo.

2. Dinamica degli insetti. lb. 1800, 2 vols, in 8vo.
180-. Finorchi, Anton. Maria.

•Louis, abb6 of Vallora-

181-. Fernaini, D-
brosa.

Dissertations sur la culture des sapins. Paris. 8vo. plates.
Translated by M. Desacres Fleurange.

1803. Silva, Sigismondo, a physician at Milan,
who has a handsome villa in the suburbs.

Arte de' giardinl luglesi. Milano, 1803, 2 vols, in 8vo.
fig. An edition afterwards in quarto, in great part trans-
lated from Hirschfield.

1804. Bruley, C , a proprietor of lands at

St. Domingo.

Kapport sur les essais de culture des plantes, exotiques,
dirigfa il la venerie, (at Turin) du departement du P6. Turin.

8 TO.

1807. Carradoi-i.

Degli organi assorbenti delle radici delle piante. Milano,
1807, in 8vo.

1808. Barelle, Giuseppe.

Descrizione esatta del Funghi nocivi o sospetti, con figure
colorate. Milano, 1807, in 4to.

1809. Re, Filippo, librarian to the Patriotic So-
ciety at Milan, afterwards in the employ of govern-
ment, at Turin, where he died in 1820 or 21. He
wrote a great number of works on rural and econo-
mical subjects.

1. Lettera su alcune particolaritk osservate nella coltivazl
one dei giardini del Milanese. Milano, 1811, in 8vo.

2. Lettera sopra alcune di quelle produzioni che volgar.
mente dicono rose di querela, e sulla michrorhizomania.
Verona, 1814, in 4to. fig-

3. Elementl di giardinajlo. Milano. 1806, in 8vo.

4. Delia poesia didascalica Georgica degli Italiani dopo !I
ristoramento delle scienza sino al presente. Saggio. Bologna,
1809, in 8vo.

5. Annali dell' agricoltura del regno d'ltalia comminciati
in Gennajo 1806, e terminati in Giugno 1814, 66 parU,
forming 22 vols, in 8vo. with about 30 plates.

6. II Giardiniere avviato nell' esercizio della sua professione,
terza edizione. Milano, 1812, 2 vols, in 8vo. con figure co-
lorite.

7. L'Ortolano dirozzato. Milano, 1811, 2 vols, in Sro. con
figure.

8. Saggio Teorico Pratico suUe Malattie delle piante. Se-
conda edizione. Milano, 1817, in 8vo.

9. Saggio sopra la Storia e il Coltivamento dell' Erba Me-
dica. Seconda edizione rifusa e notabilmente accresciuta.
Milano, 1817, in 8vo.

1810. Anon.

Delia scelta degli alberi ne' giardini e delle loro buone e
cattive qualita. Venezia, 1810, in 8vo.

1810. Pozzi, George.

Del vino, delle sue malattie, de suoi remedi, &c. Milan,
8vo. plates.

1810. Spadoni, Paolo.

Dello stabilimento, piantagione e conservazione delle siepi,
con il disegno per ben formarle. Venezia, in 8vo.

1811. Savi, Gcetano.

1. TratUto degli alberi della Toscana. Firenze, 2 vols, in
I2mo.

2. Memoria sopra una piante Cucurbetacea. 8vo. Milano,
1818.

3. Sul Cedro dell Libano. 8vo. Firenze, 1818.

4. Su:ia Magnolia grandiflora e sulla M. acuminata. 8vo.
Firenze, 1818.

1811. Soderini, S.

1. Trattato di agricoltura. Firenze, 1811, in 4to.
2 Delia Cultura degli Orti e Giardini. Firenze, 1814, in
4to.
3. Trattato degli arbori. lb. 1817, in 4to.

1811. Gallesio, Georgia, a magistrate at Savonna.

1. Traite du genre Ci/rus. Paris. 8vo.

2. Pomona Italiana, ossia Trattato degU Alberi fruttiferi,
in folio, con fig. Pisa, 1817, in parts, 11. lis. 6d. eaih.

1813. Benigni, Fortunato.
Sugli insetti distruggitori delle Viti. Milano, in 8vo.

1813. Colla, Luigi.

L'Antolegista Botanico. Turino, 1813-14, 6 vols, in 8vo.
fiR-

1815. Gautieri, Giuseppe, inspector-general of the
royal forests of Lombardy.
1. Noticie elementari sui boschi. Naples. Svo.

Book I.

DUTCH WORKS ON GARDENING.

1129

1817. Pindemonle, Ippoliio di, an Italian poet,
who has spent some time in England, and Luigi
Mabil, a gentleman of Lombardy.

Su i Giardini Inglesi, e sul merito in cio' dell' Italia, Disser-

tazione d" I. P e sopra I'indole dei giardini moderai saggio

di L. M. Con altre operette sullo stesso arKomento. Veroaa.
8vo. 1 plate.

1817. Atwn. ^ ^^. ^. ^. .

1. Accurate agricoltore per Campi, Orti e Giardim, txn
tutte le regole della Coltivazione sulla fbndatd esparienza Oi
uomini periti. Milano, 1817. 12rno.

2. La Coltura dei fiori a seconda del clima Iiombardo. ID.
1817. 12mo.

2. Deir Influsso de' Boschi sullo stato fisico de' Paesi, e
sulla prosperita della nazione. Milano. 8vo. 1817.

3. Meraoria sul pascolo de' Boschi resinosi, da fronda, d alto
fiisto e cedui. Milano, 1815. 8vo.

1816. Sartorelli, Giorgio Batiisti.
Degli alberi indigeni ai boschi del Italia snperiore. Milano,
1816. 8vo.

1816. Anon.
Manuale del Giardinicre pratico, &c. Milan. 8vo.

1817. Mabil, Sig. Luigi, of Verona.
Saggio sopra r indole dei giardini modemi. Verona, 1817.

8vo.
181- Anon.
Dell' Arte de Giardini Inglesi. 2 vols. 8to.

SuBSECT. 4. JVorks on Gardening originated and 2>ublished in Holland, exchmve of

Translations.

7695. The Dutch excel more in the practice than in the literature of gardening. The
works of La Court, and Van Osten, the former little known, are among the best that
have been produced. There are none of recent date of any consequence. The
Jourjial of a Horticultural Tour in HoUand, Flanders, ^c. by a deputation of the
Caledonian Horticultural Society, gives the best idea of the state of gardening in that
part of the Continent in 1817.

• 1550. Curtius, Benedictus.

Hortorum libri xxx., in ciuibus contenetur arborum histona,
partim ex. probatissimis quibusque auctoribus, partim ex auc-
toris obsenratione collecta. Leyden. fol. _

1613. Meursius, Jean, died at Leyden, in 1613, m
the flower of his age.

De arborum fructicum et herbaceum proprietate usu et qua-
litatibus, lib. iii. Leyden. 8vo.

1631. Clut/t, Outger Augerius, author of some
works on minerals and insects.

Memoire der \Teemden blom-boUen, wortelen, kruyden,
planten, struycken, zaJen ende vruchten, hoe men die sal wel
gheconditioneert bewaren ende over seynden, that is.

Memoir on the mode of preserving and sending over in good
condition foreign bulbs, rooK, herbs, plants, shrubs, seeds, and
fruits. Amsterdam. 8vo.

1699. Vander, Grocn, I , gardener to the

Prince of Orange.

Le Jardinier Hollandais, avec environ deux centes modeles
de parterres a fleurs et autres ; labyrinthes, pavilions, ou^-rages,
treUlis et mailles de lattes, et de quadrans et horloges solaires.
Amsterdam. -Ito.

1672. Munliguis, Alrahoue, pliysician, and pro-
fessor of botany at Groningen ; bom in 1626, died
in 1682.

De cura et cultura plantarum. Amstel. 4to. fig.

1676. Came, D. H.

De Konmelvcke hovenier (the Royal Gardener.) Amster-
dam, fol. p. §'24, plates.

1676. Commelin, John, a botanist, was born at
Amsterdam in 1629. He succeeded his father as
one of the magistrates of his native city, where he
formed a new botanical garden, and died in 1692.
His nephew. Gasper Commelin, a physician, was
appointed professor in botany, and director of the
garden at Amsterdam.

Nederlandtze Hesjierides. Amst. fol. with many plates.
Englished bv G. V. N. London, 16S3. 8vo.

1682. Fan Sterbeeck Francis.

Citricultura, of regeringhe der uythenische boomen. (Of the
culture of the orange tribe, and the management of exotic
trees.) Antwerp. 4to. p. 2<J6, 14 plates.

1703. Osten, or Ooslen, Henry Van, curator of
the botanic garden at Leyden.

1. Der Neiderlandische Garten. lyeyden. 8vo. 5 plates.
Translated into German and French ; and into English, as

2. The Dutch Gardener, &c. Lond. 1710. 8vo.
1713. Anon.

De nieuwe naauwkeurige Xeederlandse hovenier. (Tlie New
Improved Dutch Court Gardener.) Leyden. 4to. p. 286, plates.

1721. Du Jli'ier, Jean, supposed to be a French
Protestant refugee.

Le Jardin de Hollande plants et garni ds fleurs, de fruits, et
d'orangeries, &c. Le tout apr^s une longue experience, mis au
jour pour I'interet public. Amsterdam. 12mo.

1737. Anon. ; the author Mr. La Court, a Dutch
merchant, who had a country-house and fine gar-
den at Driehoek, (triangle,) near Leyden, where
he was the first to introduce and cultivate, with
success, the pine-apple and the tuberose. He died
between 1737 and 1740.

Aenmerkingen overhet aenleggen van landhuizen, lusthoven,

Elantagion, enz, enz. (Remarks on the laying out of country-
ouses, pleasure-gardens, plantations, &c. &c.) Leyden 4to.
p. 412, with 15 plates.

These plates contain plans of pits for growing the pine and
the vine ; a general plan of Driehoek, and figures of the pine-
apple, tuberose, and some varieties of oranges and lemons. The
book is very scarce; only a few having been printed. The only
copy we have seen is in the Hanksian library.

1750. Cuno, John Christian, of Amsterdam. De-
scription of his own garden, in Dutch verse.

1752. Voorhelrn, George, commercial florist at
Haerlem, of the firm of Voorhelrn and Van ZompeL

Traite sur la Jaccinthe.

1760. Van Kampen, or Campen, et fits, florists,
at Haerlem.

Traits des Fleurs a oignons. 8vo. with plates; translated
with this title.

The Dutch Florist ; or, true method of managing all sorts of
Flowers witji bulbous roots. 4to.

1771. Knoop, Jean Herman, a gardener at Leu-
warden, in Friezland, died about the end of the
18th century.

1. Pomologie, ou description les meilleures sortes de pommes
et de poires que Ton estime et cultive leplus, soitaux Pays-bas,
soit en AUeinagne, soit et Angleterre. Amsterdam, fol. fie.

2. Fructuologie, ou description des arbres firuitiers, ainsi que
des ftuits que Ton j)lante et qu'on cultive communement dans
lesjardins. Amsterdjun. folio.

1772. Poederle, I'aine.

Manuel de I'arboriste du forestier Belgique, ouvrage extrait
des meilleurs auteurs anciens et modemes, et souteiiu d'obser-
vations faites dans differens pays ou I'auteur a voyage. Brussels
and Paris. 2 vols. 8vo.

1784. Burtin, Francis Xavicr, a physician in Lor-
rain, author of some works on mineralogy.

Memoire sur la question ; quels sont les vtjg^taui indigenes
que Ton pourrait substituer dans les Pays-bas, aux v^getaux
eiotiques. Brussels. 4to.

1805. Serrvrier.

Fruit Kundig U'oordenbock. 2 vols. Amsterdam.

1817. Musche, curator of the botanic garden at
Ghent.

Hortus Gandensis. 12mo. Ghent.

1817. Huthem.

JMscours sur I'etat ancien et modem dc Tagriculture et de la
botanique dans les Pays-bas. Ghent. 8to. p. 70.

SuBSECT. 5. Works on Gardening, jniblished in Sweden, N'onuai/, and Icelandf exclusive

of Translations.
7696. Scandinavian books on gardening are feiv, and chiefly by Linnaeus or his pupils.
A knowledge of the present state of culture in Sweden is best obtained by reference to
the transactions of the Stockholm and Upsal Academies.

the chair of medicine till his death in 1702, having
resigned the professorships of botany and anatomy,
some years before, to his son, of the same name.

1. Praeside, Dissertatio : Horticultiura nova UpsaUensis-
Re^p. Gust. Lohrman. Upsalite. 4to.

2. Catalogus Plantarum Horti Upsaliensis.
5. Campi Elysii, liber primus. L'psal, 1702. Liber secundus.

Upsal, 1701. 2 vols. fol.

This was to be a vast work, in which all the known planu in
the world were to be represented by wooden cuts, in twelve to-
lumes, folio. The two first volumes however, were so unfor-

1643. Anon.

Een ny traSgarden Book. (X new garden book.) Printed
with Arv. Maiisons Ortabook. Stockholm. 8vo.

1664. Rudbeck, Olaits, a Swedish physician, was
the son of the Bishop of Vesteras, and born in
1630. While a student at Upsal, he discovered the
lymphatics in the liver, and other parts of the body ;
though his claim of priority was contested by Bar-
tholine. He also cultivated botany, and founded a
garden for the university of Upsal, where he held

1130

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part IV.

tunate, as to put an end to this stupendous project. A dreadful
fire having broken out in Upsal in 1702, among its ravages re-
duced to <tihes the printing-office, when onW a few copies of the
■work had been removed. These are, of course, extremely
valuable.

1686. Rudbeck, 0/aus,filius, the son and successor
of the professor of the same name, was born at Up-
sal in 1660. He took his doctor's degree at Utrecht,
and in 1720 joined BerzeHus in founding the Swedish
Academy of Sciences, the memoirs of which learned
body contain a number of his dissertations on sub-
jects of natural history. He also published some
works on the plants and animals mentioned in Scrip-
ture. He died in 1740.

Propagatio Plantarum Botanico-physica. Upsal. 8vo. p. 142.
■with wood cuts and copper-plates.

17 — . Fragreeus, Jonas Theodor.

Konsten at skara frukt trad. (The art of nursing fruit-trees.)
Wetensk. Acad. hand. 2. 45.

1728. Dahlman, G. T.

Den fUrdige tradgardmastaren. (The successful Gardener.)
Stockholm. 8vo. «. 230.

1738. J. P. B.

En tragardsbok. (A Garden-book.) Stockholm. 8vo. p. 212.

1739. Linneeus, or Von Linne, Charles, was the
eon of a clergyman at Rashult, in Sweden, and born
there May lr3. 1707. He was educated at Lund,
from whence he removed to Upsal, where he was
appointed to read lectures on botany, in 1730 ; and
the year following he received a commission from
the Academy of Sciences, to travel in Lapland and
Norway. In this journey he paid attention to the
art of assaying metals, on which he afterwards de-
livered a course of lectures. In 1735 he went to
Harderwyck, in Holland, where he took his doc-
tor's degree, and while in that country he became,
through the introduction of Boerhaave, superin-
tendant of Mr. Clifford's garden, at Hartecamp, of
which he drew up a catalogue. While in this si-
tuation he published also his Flora Lapponica ;
after which he visited England. On his return to
Holland, he continued his Genera Plantarum,
and was chosen a member of the Imperial Academy.
In 1737 he printed the Uortus Cliffortianus, in
fol. ; and his Critica Botanica. He returned to
Sweden in 1738, and was chosen a member of the
academy at Upsal ; and soon afterwards he laid the
foundation of that at Sto*kholm. In 1740 he was
chosen professor of medicine at the former place,
where he undertook the reform of the botanical
garden, to which he gave many valuable exotics.
In 1745 he published his Flora Suecicaj which
was followed by the Fauna Succica. At this
time his merits were so well appreciated, that a
medal was struck to his honor, and he was ap-
pointed archiator to the king. In 1749 appeared
his Materia Medica ; and in 1751 he published
the Pliilosophui Bofanica. His most splendid
publication came out in 1754, with this title,
Musceum Regis Adolphi Frederici, comprising a
description of the natural curiosities in the royal
museum. While conducting this work through
the press, Linneeus was honored with the order
of the Polar Star ; and in 1756 he was ennobled.
In the mean time he prepared for publication his
Species Plantarimi, which was followed by the
Systema Natune. This illustrious naturalist
died at Upsal, Jan. 10. 1778, and his remains were
interred with great solemnity, in the cathedral of
that city, where his pupils erected a monument to
his memory. His son, Charles Linnaeus, born in
1741, became demonstrator in the botanic garden,
and published some valuable works. He was ill-
used by his mother, which is supposed to have has-
tened his death, in 1783. His sister, Elizabeth
Christina, discovered a luminous property in the
flowers of the nasturtium.

1. Ron om vaxters plantering, grundat pa naturen. (Expe-
riments on the planting of vegetables, founded in nature.)
Vetensk, Acad. Handling. IT.IS, p. 1-24.

2. De cultura vegetabiliuni naturae convementer mstituenda.
Analect Transalpin. tom.i. p. 1-15.

3. Dissertatio de Horticultura Academica. Upsal, 17j4.
4to.

4. Uissertatio Hortis Culinaris. Stockholm, 1764. 4to.

5. Handling om skogars plantering. (Treatise on planting
■woods.) Vetensk, Acad. Handling, 1748, p. 264. 269.

1740. Cederhehn, Baron Carl Wilhelm.
Tal on wiUla triids plantering! Sverige. (Discourse on plant-
ing trees indigenous in Sweden.) Upsal. 8vo.
1740. Triewald, Marten.
Anmaikningar vid utlSudska fruktoch andra trads planter-

ande i Sverige. (Remarks on exotic Fruits and other Garden
Plants in Sweden.) Vetensk, Acad. Handling, 204. 207.

1752. Wallcrivs,Johann(s Gotschalk.

Prseside, Dissertatio de artificiota tecundatione, immersiva
seminum vegetabiliuni. Stockholme. 4to. p. 24.

1754. Kalm, Peter, a naturalist, was born in Fin-
land, in 1715. He became professor of botany at
Abo, and in 1747 went to North America, for the
purpose of exploring that country j where he re-
mained two or three years, and then returned to
Abo. He aftenvards made an extensive tour in
Russia, with the same object, and died in Sweden
in 1779. His Travels in A?7ierica were translated
into English by Forster, in 1771.

1. Almanna anmarkingar wid en Kryddoch tragards aniag-

fande. (General Remarks on the laying out of a Kitchen and
ruit-Garden.) Abo. 4to. p. 8.

2. Om mojCligheten och nyttan af Kryddoch tra-gardars
aniaggande i Finland. (On the Practicability and Advan-
tage of laying out Kitchen and Fruit Gardens in Finland.)
Abo. 4to. p. 12.

3. Dissertatiopossibilitatem varia Vegetabilia exotica fabrieis
nostris utilia in Finlandia colendi. Abo, 4to. p. 11.

4. IJtkast til en blomstergard af inhemska vaxter. (Sketch
of a Flower Garden of Native Vegetables.) Abo, 1766. 4to.
p. 15.

5. AnmHrkningar om vara Furuoch Gran-skogars ommare
ward, tagne af deras alder. (Observations on Fuel and Tim-
ber Woods, &c.) Abo, 1757. 4to.

6. Anmarkningar rorande nodvandigheten af Ekskogamas
battre vaord och ans i Finland. (Observations on Oak Woods
in Finland.) Abo, 1757. 4to.

7. Anmarkningar vid fruct-trano planterande i Finland.
(Remarks on Planting Fruit Trees in Finland.) Abo, 1757.
4to. p. 12.

1759. Gadd, Peter Adrian, professor of chemistry
at Abo, author of a number of tracts on chemistry,
natural history, &c.

1. Om Branne-torf. (On Burning Turf.) Abo. 4to.

2. Upmuntran och underrSttellse til n>ttiga plantagcrs
vidlaggande i Finland. (Encouragement and Instruction to
take Measures for useful Planting in Finland.) Abo. 4to.
1765.

3. Academisk Afhandling om medel at underhalla och oka
skogsvaxten i Finland. (On Oak Woods in Finland.) Abo.
4to. p. 26.

1768. Lissander, Andrew.

Anmarkningar vid Svenska tragardsskotstein. (Remarks on
Swetlish Gardening.) Stockholm. 8vo. p. 351. 4 plates.

1770. Olafsyn, Olaf, author ot a voyage in Ice-
land, made by order of the Danish court.

Islendsk Urt.-igards Bok. (Iceland's Garden Book.) Kaup-
raaimaofn. 8vo.

1771. Osbeck, Peter ; Alof Toreen, and Captain
Eckeberg, natives of Sweden, who made a voyage
to Chin.1.

A voyage to China and the East Indies ; together with a
voyage'to Surrate, by Alof Toreen ; and an account of the
Chinese Husbandry, by Captain Eckeberg. Translated from
the German. To which is added, a Formula and Flora Sin-
ensis. Lond. 1771. 2vols. 8vo. Vol. ii. contains a Speech,
shewing what is most worthy to be attended to in voyages
to China. Translated from the Swedish, by John Reinhold
Forster, LL.D. F.RS., a distinguished Prussian naturaUst.

178-. Sommerfeldt, Christian.

Af handlingom nyttige have-vexters dyrkning for Norge.
(Treatise on the Culture of Vegetables in Norway.)

178-. Schmidt, Christian Francis.

Kort anvisning til vildetraers opelskring og skovesrette anlag,
behandling og vidligeholdelse i Dannemark.) On the manage-
ment of wootl in Denmark.) Danske Landhmf h. Selsk. Skrift.
3Decl. p. 1.170.

1780. Troxelius, Clas Bleehort.

Landtmarina genvog til fnikt-tran. (An easy mode of having
fruit-trees.) I.und. 4to. p. 16.

1780. Bergius, Peter Jonas, a physician, and pro-
fessor of natural history at Stockholm, published
several botanical works, and a Materia Medica;
died 1791.

Den Obstbaumgarten hi Schweden. Translated from the
Swedish. Leipsig, 1794, 8vo.

1784. Englebert, Jortin.

Flora maccelli Hortensis. Svenska Koks-och kryddigardeii
forsvenskad. Lund. 8vo. p.44.

1789. Hellejiius, Charles Nicolas, professor of
botany at Abo, in Finland ; died 179-.

1. Strodole anmarkningar rorande frukttrilns skotsel i Fin-
land. (On nurseries offruit-tree plantations in Finland.) Abo.
4to. p. 13.

2. Anmarkningar vid fruktbarande buskars skotsel. (Re-
mark? on nursing fruit-bearing shrubs.) Abo. 4to. j). 10.

1799. Thunberg, Sir Charles Peter, M. D., pro-
fessor of botany in the university of Upsal, author
of the Flora Japonica, and various papers in the
LinncBan Transactions.

1. De Nntritione Plantarum. Upsal. 4to.

2. Omplantoring Frukt-Trad, Buskar och Blomster Vaxt^,
som kunna va'a Svenska Klimatu. (On planting fruit.bushes,
and flowering vegetables, suitable to the Swedish climate.)

(On planting Hedges, &c.) Upsal. 4to.

Book 1.

POLICE AND LAWS OF GARDENING. ;

1131

SuBSECT. 6. Works -on Gardenings published in Poland and Russia.

7697. Of original Polish or Russian books on gardening there are very few ; but a
number of translations were made in Poland during the early part of the 18th
century. There are agricultural transactions published occasionally by a society at
Warsaw, which, with the transactions of the Economical Society of St. Petersburgh, may
be considered as the best books for obtaining some idea of the state of culture in these
countries.

1788. Samhoursky, a Russian poet, author of a
number of works chiefly in verse, and of a poem on
gardens, which has been translated into French,
with the title

Lejardinsde SambOiirsky. Svo.

1793. Georgi, a physician, and member of several
learned societies.

Description de la VUle de St. Petersburg et de ses Ennrons.
Petersburg. 8vo.

18 — . Lomonosow, a Russian poet and miscellane-
ous writer, author of a poem on glass, and the ad-
vantages- resulting from its use in a northern cli-

SuBSECT. 7. Works on Gardening, publisJied in Poi-tugal and Spain.

7698. The transactions of the royal agricultural society at Madrid, are almost the
only recorded source of obtaining any knowledge of the state of culture in Spain.

mate. The subject of hot-houses forms a consi-
derable part of the poem.

1808. Czartoryska, Princess Isabella, a lady of
one of the most ancient families in Poland in the
royal line. She spent a considerable time in Eng-
land, where she acquired a taste for the modem
art of laying out grounds, introduced it on her es-
tate at Lublin, and wrote the following work on
the subject.

Mysli Rozne o Sposobie Zakladania Ogrodow, &c. (Thoughts
on the manner of Planting Gardens.) Warsaw. 4to. plates.

1557. Herrera, GabrieUo Alplionso.

Libro di Agricultura. One book treats " De las Huertas," or
of Gardens.

178-. Cavanilles, Antonio Joseph, an eminent
botanist, author of various works, and among
others, of Figures and Descriptions of the Plants qf
Spain,

De la Juncla pvellanada, o'chufes de Valencia. {Amiales de
Cienc'uu Naturrl^^, torn. iii. 234.)

1807. Clemento y Rubio, Don Simon de Roxas.

Ensayo sobre las variedades de la Vid comun que vegetan en
Andalusia. Madrid. 4to.

Translated into French by de Caomels of Toulouse.

1817. Anon.

Notice sur im Arbre k Suore, (Arbutus Unedo ?) d^couverte
en Espagne. Traduit de I'Espagnole par D.A. Armesto.
Paris. Svo.

SuBSECT. 8. Works on Gardeni?ig, published in North America,

7699. A number of American essays connected loith gardening will be found in the
agricultural transactions of the Philadelphia and New York societies, in the transactions
of the Society of Arts of New York, and in Dr. Dean's New England Farmer s Dic-
tionary. Cobbett's American Gardener may be considered as affording a tolerable pic-
ture of the state of gardening in the United States, where it appears the long and severe
winters are material drawbacks to every branch of the art.

1755. Belgrove, William.

A Treatise upon Husbandry and Planting. Boston, New-
England. 4to. pp. 86.

1785. Marshall, Humphrey.

The American Grove; a catalogue of the trees and shrubs
which grow naturally in North America, with notices of their
culture. New York. Svo.
I 1790. Peterkin, Joshua.

A Treatise on Planting, from the origin of semen to ebulli-
tion, 2d edit. Bassaterre, St. Cristopher's. 4to.

179-. Johnson, John B.

On the Culture of the Vine. (Sen York Soc. Transactioru,
vol. ii.)

1806. M'Mahon, B., an American seedsman.
The American Gardener's Kalwidar. 12mo.

1810. Peters, Richard.

On Peach-trees. {Matmchus. Snc. Trans, to!, ii. 48.)

1811. Hosack, David, M.D. F. R. & L. S. &c.
professor of medicine in the university of the state
of New York.

1. Hortus Elginensis. New York. Svo. 2d edit.

2. Statement of Facts relative to the Elgin Botanic Garden
New York. Svo. 1811.

1817. Coxe, William, Esq. of Burlington, in New
Jersey.

View of the Cultivation of Fruit-trees, with the ^fanagement
of Orchards and Cider, with accurate descriptions of the most
estimable varieties of native and foreign Apples and other
Fruits, cultivated in th« United Stetes of America. Philadel-
phia. Svo.

Chap. V.

Of tlie Professiomd Police, and Public Laivs relative to Gardeners and Gardeniw^.

7700. By professional j^olice, we mean those associations which gardeners have formed
at different times, for mutual benefit or instruction, or the improvement of their art •
by public laws, those of the legislature.

7701. A fraternity of gardeners, we have already remarked, has long existed in Ger-
many as regularly organised as that of masonry. A fraternity also exists in France, but
less extensive and systematic. Their principal lodge is at Versailles ; the confreres de St.
Fiacre, being there, as Neill observes, to France, what " Adam's lodge of Aberdeen is to
Scotland." There are also a few similar fraternities in this country, who hold meetings,
and have secret signs and other rites nearly similar to those of masonry ; but these soci-
eties have no systematic connection like those of Germany. From masonry they have
undoubtedly taken their origin ; but how, when, and where, and for what object, in the
first instance, though we have corresponded with competent persons in all parts of the
kingdom, we have been unable to ascertain.

*I32 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

7702. The oldest gardeners' lodges seem to be those in Aberdeenshire, and Adanis lodge,
held m the city of Aberdeen, is considered the oldest in Britain : there is another of
nearly equal antiquity, called Solomons lodge, held in Banf. These lodges profess to
be for the mutual instruction of the members in their art ; for the assistance of brethren
m distress ; and for the benefit of travelling members. ITie first object is attained both
by secret instructions, and also by competitory exhibitions of garden productions, as
flowers and fruits ; the second, by annual subscriptions, from which a fund is formed,
managed by a committee of the .society ; and the third, by signs and pass- words, as in
masonry. They have a general meeting, formal procession with symbols and flowers,
and afterwards a feast, once a-year. There were formerly a number of gardeners' lodges
in Scotland, and there are still a' few besides those of Aberdeen and Banf, but chiefly
confined to the counties of Aberdeen, Forfar, and part of those adjoining.

7703. The principal Scotch gardeners' lodge, though it has no connection or control
over the others like the metropolitan masons' lodge, is the Caledonian lodge of Edin-
burgh, founded about the end of the last century : its object is the same as that of the
Aberdeen lodge ; but it has no shows of flowers, or other garden productions. Their
meetings are respectable, their processioiis pompous, and their funds considerable.

7704. There are very few gardeners' lodges in England ; the only one of which we have
been able to obtain any distinct account is " Adam's Lodge, of London," founded
June 4, 1781, of which the rules and orders have been published. This lodge is de-
scribed in the Bules, &c. as a " Fraternity or community for improving the art of
Gardening ; to establish a fund for the mutual support and relief of each other in the
time of sickness, lameness, or distress ; and also to ascertain the characters and abilities
of such gardeners who shall belong to, or may be recommended by this society, to
obviate the difficulty so commonly complained of by the nobility, gentry, and others, of
obtaining skilful and experienced persons to undertake the employment." At present it
consists of about one hundred and fifty members, and is on the decline. Tlie allowance
to the sick or disabled has been gradually diminished from insuflSciency of funds ; and
from having been originally fixed by a random guess, instead of estimations of the value
of lives, &c. as ought to be done in all benefit societies.

7705. Gardeners' charter. About the middle of the last century, Lee, Gordon, Rus-
sel, and Malcolm, all Scotch gardeners, commenced their nurseries at Hammersmith,
Mile-end, Lewisham, and Kennington. Their success excited the jealousy of the esta-
blished commercial gardeners, who, between 1760 and 1770, held several meetings, and
entered into resolutions not to employ young men from the north. These resolutions
were not long adhered to ; but a tract, entitled Adam armed (see p. 1106. A.D. 1760.),
published by this association at the time, shows the extent of what they intended. From
this tract it appears, that James I. had granted a charter to certain persons inhabiting within
London, and six miles of it, who were capable to educate and instruct young men in the art of
gardening. Tliis charter was granted in the third year of this king's reign, and renewed in
the fourteenth ; but in the tract alluded to it is stated never to have been put in force, and
not to be sufficiently extensive ; and therefore it is proposed, that a charter be granted to
extend over the whole kingdom, to prevent mere laborers and other unqualified person*
from assuming the profession of gardeners, and thereby doing " great injury to the nobi-
lity's and gentry's gardens and plantations," as well as to proprietors who let ground to
such as ** undertake to furnish the market with eatables." Only a certain number of
gardeners were to be licensed to take apprentices, and of these the number was to be
limited, &c. This attempt at monopoly of skill does not appear to hav^ met with serious
attention, and all that resulted from the association, as far as we have been able to leai-n
(from a gardener, Duncan, upwards of 90 years of age), was the partial exclusion, for a
year or two, of young Scotchmen from a few of the nurseries and gentlemen's gardens
near town, which were managed by Englishmen.

7706. The origin of florists' societies we have not been able to discover. It is more than
probable that meetings for the display of fine flowers and the estimation of their merits,
were first held at Norwich, where, as Sir J. E. Smith informs us (^Supp. Encyc. Brit. art.
Bot. 336.), a love of flowers, and a great degree of skill in their culture, had been intro-
duced into that city with its worsted manufactures, about the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury. At all events, there were florists' feasts held there so early as 1637 ; a play called
Rhodon and Iris, being extant, which was acted before the company in that year.
{Linn. Trans, vol. ii. p. 226.) The next florists' meetings, it is probable, sprang up
about London ; and Nathaniel Rench, of Fulham, is said {Faulconers Historical Account
<f Fulham) to have been the first who established them, probably about the end of the
seventeenth century. According to Davey, florist. King's Road, whose father was also an
eminent florist, and lived to be upwards of ninety years of age, the florists' feasts and
meetings were at their greatest height about London^ between 1 740 and 1 770. They were
then attended by many noblemen and gentlemen, as the horticultural societies are at pre-
sent. They declined towards the end of the last century, but have since revived, and are

Book II. FUTURE PROGRESS OF GARDENING. 1133

at present rather on the increase. Tlie florists' meetings, and those of gooseberry-growers
in Lancashire and the adjoining counties, are very numerous, and rather on the mcrease.
When they were first adopted in that part of England is not exactly known. From the
best accounts we have been able to collect, they were in vogue there in 1760, and are re-
collected so far back as 1740. Some florists' societies existed in Edinburgh durmg the
latter end of the last century ; and on one of these the Caledonian Horticultural Society
was founded. The principal florists' societies in Scotland are at Paisley.

7707. The principal modem societies for the encouragement of gardening are, the London
and Caledonian Horticultural Societies, whose transactions are so frequently referred to
in this work.

7708. There are few jniblic laws specially formed for the two first branches of ^den-
ing, horticulture and floriculture ; the general laws being quite suflScient for their pro-
tection. Robbing of orchards or gardens, of fruit growing therein, is punishable crimi-
nally by whipping, small fines, imprisonment, and satisfaction to the parties wronged,
according, to the nature of the offence. (43 Eliz. c. 7.)

7709. Tliere are a number of acts relative to arboriculture^ and especially against the
cutting down of young trees. (See Tomlins^s Law Diet, vol. ii. art. Timber.)

BOOK IL

OF THE FUTURE PROGRESS OF OARDKKINO IN BRITAIN.

7710. The improvemerU of gardenings like that of every art or commodity, necessarily
depends on demand and production. These causes operate reciprocally on each other : a
nicety of taste in the purchase of vegetables and fruits exposed in public markets, will occa-
sion articles of better quality being brought there ; and articles of a superior quality, by
improving and rendering more fastidious the taste of the purchaser, will ensure the conti-
nuance of their production. In like manner, if those wIk> have private gardens were a
little more difficult to please in selecting a gardener, and in the quality of the produce sent
to table, the consequence would be, an improvement in that produce, and more scientific
gardeners. More scientific gardeners would surprise and delight, by their superior fruits
and flowers, and the greater order, beauty, and high keeping of their gardens ; and the
habits of both parties accommodating themselves to this improved state of things, would
be the ground on wliich to rely for its continuance. In this view of the subject, the fu-
ture progress of gardening depends on two causes ; the improvement of the taste of the
patrons of gardening j and the improvement of the science and art of practical gardeners.

Chap. L
Of the Improvement of the Taste of the Patrons of Gardening.

7711. Improvemeyit is the characteristic of civilised man, and implies progressive ad-
vances. Men rest satisfied with what they have, when they know of nothing better ; and
therefore, one of the first sources of improvement in the taste of the patrons of gardening,
whether of the tradesman who has recourse to the public market, or the private gentleman
who is in possession of a garden, is the increase of knowledge. The wealthy tradesmen
of DubUn and Edinburgh should look into Covent Garden market in London ; and, not
to mention fruits, and forced or exotic productions, let them compare the cauliflowers and
salading of the three markets. Those who have once acquired a taste for such salads of
endive as are aflforded in the London market throughout the winter, would not very
readily reconcile themselves to the acetarious productions of Dublin and Glasgow during
that season.

7712. Tlie ignorance of (lie proper mode of cooking vegetables, and especially of dressing
salads, which exists among the middling classes, is another retarding cause. A French
laborer, out of a few leaves of dandelion and wild sorrel, which may be gathered by the
hedge-sides anywhere, and almost at any time, will produce, merely by the aid of the
common condiments, what the wives of the greater number of respectable British trades-
men have no idea of. There can be no great demand for a thing, of which the use is not
thoroughly understood ; and, therefore, an improvement in the knowledge and practice
of cooking must take place among a certain class before much can be expected in the
quantity, kind, or quality of the gardening articles which they commonly consume.

1134 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

7713. The more general use of dessert fruit among the middling classes, is another requi-
site wanting for the improvement of horticulture in Scotland and Ireland. If fruit, phy-
siologically considered, is less wholesome after dinner than before it (which is question-
able), it is at least more so than where drinking is substituted in its place. To prolong
the period of eating, and the conversation of female society, are not only objects which
afford immediate satisfaction ; but, by moderating the use of stimulating liquors, tend to
ensure future health. But, even in England, where a dessert is universal among the in-
dependent class, there is a great want of nicety of taste ; fruit is valued by many only as
a symptom of the presence of wine ; others contentedly use pears and plums that would
be rejected at the most common French dejeune ; and many rest satisfied with melons
and grapes, who, at almost no additional expense, might have pine-apples. Wherever
the litter of four horses is at command, pine-apples may be grown in Baldwin's manner
(2G49. and 2698. &c.) with very little trouble to the gardener, and, indeed, at much less
trouble than trying to have very early cucumbers or melons. But why speak of pines, when
not one family in a hundred is properly supplied with mushrooms, which ought to be on
the table in some form, every day in the year. On a small scale, the grand secret is, to
employ a gardener who knows his business ; and to direct his attention less to raising or-
dinary productions at extraordinary seasons, than to raising first-rate crops of everything
in due season. On a larger scale, all ordinary and extraordinary things should be at-
tempted that art and wealth can accomplish.

7714. A taste for fne Jloivers and rare exotics must be preceded by some knowledge of
plants, or a taste for scientific botany, and the history, geography, and uses of plants.
These branches of knowledge may be considered as gaining ground. A good deal also
depends on the fashion of using flowers as chamber ornaments, and on having green-houses
attached to dwellings ; both are most agreeable and rational luxuries ; and it is much to
be desired that a taste for them was more general, especially in provincial towns, and in
the cities of Scotland and Ireland.

7715. The taste for planting has attained a greater height, during the last twenty years,
than any other department of gardening ; the beneficial consequences of which are already
powerfully felt in Scotland, and the exposed parts of England. An essential requisite
in this department is attention to the future management, thinning, and pruning of
plantations.

7716. The taste for landscape-gardening has been nearly dormant in England, during
the last thirty years ; in Scotland it has been more active, but not of the purest kind ;
little has been done in Ireland generally, though there are some patriots there, who have
been active in improvement. A taste for deer-parks is not common in Scotland j and rare
in Ireland. A park in Scotland is a grass field ; and what in that country corresponds
■with the park of a mansion in England is a number of green enclosures lying contiguous
to each other, and surrounded by strips or rows of trees. In Ireland a mansion and park
is a naked house, in a naked grass field, surrounded by a stone wall. There are excep-
tions in both countries ; and many lawns or sheep-parks in Scotland of considerable
beauty. Besides, a union of pasturable wooded enclosures, as a park, may be very well
defended on the principle of utility ; but there can be no defence of the naked parks of
Ireland.

7717. The taste for public gardens, as promenades and botanic gardens, seems on the
increase ; but unfortunately these are seldom founded on a sufficiently secure basis. The
funds of the recently established botanic gardens have been generally raised by the sub-
scriptions of a certain number of individuals, to whom, and to certain annual subscribers,
the garden is alone accessible. Perhaps it would be better, if, as in the case of public
promenades, the funds were raised by the whole town or community, and the garden
thrown open to all, like that of Paris. Public umbrageous promenades, either equestrian
or pedestrian, are very desirable additions to all aggregations of houses.

7718. Choice of a gardener. Very much of the comforts and pleasures which a private
gentleman derives from his garden, and garden-scenery, depends on the qualifications of
the gardener which he employs to manage them. It was formerly the practice, in books
of gardening, to give directions to gentlemen how to choose a gardener. These might
have been of use when the qualities desired differed little from those sought for in a com-
mon laborer ; such as sufficient strength and health, and good morals, disposition, temper,
&c. But every master can judge of these and other similar points ; and for any gentle-
man who has not a knowledge of gardening to go further, would be more dangerous than
useful. We are clearly of opinion, that in almost every case the best mode is to apply to
a respectable nurseryman ; to describe to him the sort of garden and garden-scenery to be
managed, and the sort of productions desired, and to rely on his recommending a fit per-
son for accomplishing the intended objects. If this person should not turn out so well
as was expected, the nurseryman will be in some degree responsible for his conduct, and
will feel doubly anxious to replace him by a more competent person.

I>,,„K II. EDUCATION OF GARDENERS. 11S5

Chap. II.
Oftlie Education of Gardeners.

7719. JByeducnZion is generally understood that portion of knowledge which is obtained
at schools ; but we shall here use the term in a somewhat more extended sense, and con-
sider it as the means which may be employed to render man competent for performing the
part which he underukes to perform in life with increased satisfaction to himself and
others. Education may thus be considered as extending to everything which operates on
the body or mind, from the earliest period of our existence to the final extinction of life.
With this object in view, we shall consider in succession tlie professional, intellectual,
moral, religious, physical, and economical education of gardeners, previously submitting
some general remarks.

Sect. I. On tlie degree of Knowledge which may he attained by Practical Men^ and on the
General Powers of the human Mind, as to Attainments.

7720. The knowledge of languages, history, geography, arts, sciences, and literature,
which a gardener daily occupied with his profession may acquire, provided he begins at
the commencement of Ids apprenticeship, and continues to employ his leisure hours in
reading till he is twenty or twenty-five years of age, is by no means inconsiderable : not
that he can, or need become learned ; but, if desirous, he may become generally intelli-
gent ; render himself fit, as far as conversation is concerned, for good society ; prove in-
structive and entertaining to others by his conversation ; and provide a reserve fund of
enjoyment for himself, by laying up a store of ideas for reflection in misfortune, disease,
or old age.

7721. Tlie terms knowledge and ignorance are entirely relative : the knowledge of a modem chemist's
porter would have subjected him to be hanged and burned in the days of the first popes ; and any brick-
layer's laborer who reads the London newspapers, has more correct ideas on the principles of political eco-
nomy than nine tenths of the nobility in Russia and Spain. It is impossible to set limits to the knowledge
which mav be obtained by those who are destined even to the most severe and constant labor. The intel-
ligence of the miners in Scotland and Sweden may be referred to as proofs. The miners at Leadhills have
a regular library and reading society ; and the works they make choice of are not only histories, voyages,
travels, &c. but even works of taste, such as the British classics, and best novels and romances. The de-
gree to which knowledge will prevail among any class of laboring men, will depend jointly on their own am,
bition ; on the demand for, or reputation in which, knowledge is held ; and on the opportunities of acquiring
it A dull, stupid person, with little native activity, will never desire to know more than what enables him
to supply the ordinary wants of hfe. Where the workmen of any art are required to have technical know-
ledge of any particular kind, they will be found invariably to possess it Thus carpenters and masons re-
quire some knowledge of the mechanical principles of architecture, and working engineers of the strength
of materials ; and these kinds of knowledge are acquired by them without an hour's interruption of their
daily labor : on the contrary, the habit of evening study renders them more steady, sober, and industrious
thaii other workmen ; than bricklayers and paper-hangers, for example, whose emplojinents require much
less intellectual skill. If every cook-maid, before she could obtain a tirst-rate place, were required to be
able to read Apicius Redivivits in the original tongue, there would be no want of learned cooks ; and if no
gardener could obtain a first-rate situation who had not written a thesis in Greek, or who had not made
the tour of Europe, there would soon be found abundance of gardeners so qualified. A Caledonian, when
he comes to the low country, soon acquires the English tongue, and if he has been taught Latin, thus
knows three languages. The servants at the inns on some parts of the Continent, frequented by different
nations, often acquire a moderate knowledge of three or four languages. A late custom-house ofiicer on the
island of Cronstadt spoke and wrote ten languages ; and the bar-maid, at the hotel (de Loiidres) at which
we lodged in Moskwa, in 1814, C(Bild make herself intelligible in Swedish, Russian, Polish, German, French,
Italian, and English.

7722. The certain way of obtaining anything is to be impressed with the necessity of possessing it; either to
avoid the evil of being without it ; to satisfy the desires of others as to ourselves ; or, our own desires.
There is scarcely anything that a rational man can desire that he may not obtain, by maintaining on his
mind a powerful impression of the necessity of obtaining it ; pursuing the means of attainment with un-
ceasing perseverance, and keeping alive that enthusiasm and ardor which always accompany powerful de-
sires. Even the most extravagant desires, when sulticiently powerful, are often gratified. To attain emi-
nence, as a literary character, natural or experimental philosopher, mathematician, divine, lawyer, or
physician, it is only necessary to have a powerful desire for that kind of eminence, and to apply
unceasingly to the subject, and to that alone. All may not acquire, by the same degree of labor, the
same degree of eminence ; but any man by labor may attain a knowledge of all that is already known
on any subject, and that degree of knowledge is respectable ; what many never attain to, and what few
go beyond.

772S. The grand draivback to every kind of improvement is the vulgar and degrading
idea that certain things are beyond our reach ; whereas, everything is attainable by the
employment of means ; and nothing, not even the knowledge of a common laborer, with-
out it. There are many things which it is not desirable to wish for, and which are only
desired by men of extraordinary minds ; but let no man fancy anything is impossible to
him, for tliis is the bane of all improvement. Let no young gardener, therefore, who
reads this, even if he can but barely read, imagine that he may not become eminent in
any of the pursuits of life or departments of knowledge, much less in that of his profes-
sion : let him never lose sight of this principle, — that to desire and apply is to attain, and
that the attainment will be in proportion to the application.

^136 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part l^

Sect. II. Of the Professional Education of Gardeners.

7724. In order that a professional man should excel as such, every other acquiremei
must be kept subservient to that of his profession. No branch of knowledge should I
. pursued to any extent, that either of itself, or by the habits of thinking to which it giv<
rise, tends to divert the mind from the main object of pursuit. Something, it is true,
due to relaxation in every species of acquirement; but judicious relaxation only serves f
whet the appetite for the vigoi-ous pursuit of the main object. By the professional edi
cation of gardeners, we mean that direction of their faculties by which they will best ac
quire the science and manual operations of gardening : and we shall suppose the youn
man to be instructed, to have no other scholastic education than some knowledge c
arithmetic, and the first problems of geometry and land-surveying. The sort of garde
which ought to be the scene of the days of apprenticeship should, if it can be so foresee:
and arranged, be that which the learner is ultimately intended to possess or manage. A
the great majority of young men who learn this art, are intended for serving-gardeners t
private families ; a private garden, where every department is respectably conducted, i
the best to begin with. Here, or in any other garden in which he may be placed, he wil
have to learn the names of things, their uses in gardening, how to use them in thi
best manner singly, and how to combine their use in performing the different operation
of gardening.

7725, T/ie grand foundation for every hind of acquirement, is the cultivation ofthefacul
ties of attention and memory. Unless we pay attention to what is addressed to us, whethe
by the eye or the ear, it is impossible we can remember, because the sight or sound ha
made no impression on the memory, and without memory, there can be no knowledge.

7726. Many pass through life without seeing or hearing anything hut what immediately concerns their avo
cations. It is a common thing for a personto walk out and return without being able to describe, or evei
mention, any one thing he has seen ; or to read a newspaper without being able to tell what he has read
farther than to give some vague idea of the subject. All this is the result of neglecting to rouse and exer
the faculty of attention ; or of limiting our attention to one single object or class of objects. One of thi
first things, therefore, that a young man should do, is to cultivate the faculty of attention, which he ma'
do every hour of the day, by first looking at an object, and then shutting his eyes and trying whether hi
recollects its magnitude, form, color, &c. ; whether he would know it when he saw it again, and by wha
mark or marks he would know it or describe it. When he goes from one part of the garden to another, o
is on a walk or journey, let him pay that degree of attention to everything he sees and hears, which wil
enable him to give some account of them when returned from his walk or journey ; and let him try nex
day, or some days afterwards, if he can recollect what he had seen then, or at any particular time an(
place.

7727. The attention must be exercised systematically, in order not only to impress the memory, and cnabl*
the observer or hearer to recollect objects, but to describe them. A thing or a discourse must be attendee
to, not only as a whole, but as a composition of parts ; and these parts must be considered not only as tc
their qualities of dimension, color, consistency, &c., but as to their relative situation and position.

7728. To be able to give an account of a town or village, for example, the first thing is to get a general ide?
of the outline of its ground-plan, which may be done by looking from a church-tower or adjoining hill
next, its relative situation to surrounding objects ; as what hills, or woods, or waters join it, and in whai
quarters ; next, the direction of the leading street or streets must be noticed ; then the intersecting or se-
condary streets ; the principal public buildings ; the principal private ones ; where the lowest houses anc
narrowest streets are situated ; and what is the character ot the greater number of houses composing the
whole assemblage.

7729. To be able to recal to mind or to describe the figure of any person before us for the first time, it ii
necessary to attend to height, either absolute, by estimation in feet and inches ; or comparatively with oui
own, or that of any other person or object present at the time ; to figure or shape generally, as whethei
tending to excellence or defect ; then to hands and feet, gait, manner, &c. ; and, above all, to the form ci
outline of the countenance, the complexion, and other details of the face. One untutored person looking
at another with a view to recollect or describe him, would only stare ; but an attentive and systematic ob-
server would survey both the party generally and in detail, and in such an order as would readily occur to
the mind on reflection. He would not, for example, after estimating the height, proceed next to the color
of the eyebrows, but would take the breadth and shape, as more congenial to the accustomed train of ideas.
The young gardener will apply these hints to recollection of jjarks, pleasure-grounds, walled gardens, hot-
houses, and also to the study and recollection of individual plants.

7730. To be able to recollect and relate written or oral discou?-ses, the same general principles will apply ;
the first thing is to attend to the object in view, and next to the order or form in which the whole is pro-
posed to be treated of or delivered ; lastly, to the manner in which the details are filled up.

7731. The study of natural history and drawing are well adapted for improving the faculties of attention
and memory. The former by its systematic arrangement, and the i)recision of its details, tends to habits ol
order, accuracy, and distinctness, and to the ready discrimination and recollection of single or na-
tural objects : the latter contributes to the same end, and also to the recollection of objects in groups or
combinations. Hence, the importance of a gardener's attending to botany, zoology, and drawing, even
with a view to general improvement, independently of their special utility in his profession.

7732. The recollection of names and numbers is a more mechanical process than the re-
collection of objects. Names are either descriptive, that is, when they consist of a word,
or are composed of words which describe something of the object to which they are ap-
plied, as Longtown or Hillhouse ; or they are arbitrary, meaning nothing, or nothing
now known or definable, as William, Thomas, &c. The first are of easy recollection,
because, even though the object may never have been seen, its image may be presented to
the imagination by the name, as a town of great length, and a house on a hill top ; the
second are only to be recollected by seeing the objects to which they are applied, and
then associating in the mind the name with the tiling ; or by seeing the description or
portraiture of the objects, and associating the name with these ; or by finding a resem-

Book II. EDUCATION OF GARDENERS. 1137

blance between the new name and a known name, as William, wild yam ; Thomas, to
mass, &c.

' 7733. The principal names which a gardener has to recollect are those o( plants; to assist him in this know-
ledge, the etjrmologies of all the generic names, and of the specific names, which are substantives, is of great
advantage ; the ordinary specific names being adjectives, are easily understood and recollected. The generic
names of plants and animals are of three kinds ; those composed of words indicating something of the na-
ture, or appearance, or uses, of the plant, as Gypsophila, Helianthus, Linum, &c. ; those composed of
the name of some eminent individual, as Hellenia, Gordonia, or after some town, as Colchicum ; and those
composed of native or local names, as Elettari, Acacia : the first are of easy recollection, because the na-
tural soil, the sight of the flower, or the recollection of its image or its uses, will recal to mind the name ;
the second mav be recollected by considering who the name-father was, and by associating his figure and
some action of his life, real or imaginary, with a specimen of the plant. Thus Gordon was a nurseryman
at Mile-end, a short, lame, sailor-looking man, who dressed in blue trowsers, chewed tobacco, and was
without offspring; it is easy to imagine his wife reproaching him with the last circumstance, while he
points to Gordonia Lasianthus. All those names, whether of science, or those which occur in the common
intercourse of life, as of persons and places, are to be recollected on the same principle; that is, either by
the name itself calling up an image, by its resemblance to some other name already known, or by forming
an association between it and some known or familiar visible object ; and the more ludicrous the associ-
ation, the better will it be recollected. In forming these associations, it is essential that the object em-
ployed to aid the memory be one capable of being seen ; to associate any particular object with a sound,
smell, touch, or taste, would give Uttle aid to the memory ; and to associate it with abstract nouns or
ideas, none at all. " If I am told that the Dutch merchant Schimmelphenninck was a very wealthy or re-
ligious man, that will not assist me in recollecting his long name ; but if I say to myself there is some re-
semblance between Schimmelphenninck and skim-milk.pen.and~ink, the resemblance may enable me todo
so ; or if I have recourse to a Dutch dictionary, and discover that schimmel is grey, and phenninck a penny,
I have greypenny, as a synonym, which, with the operations the mind has undergone in getting at it, will
most probably impress the original name on the memory. If a Highlander tells me his name is Macpher-
son, I immediately interpret it mac-pearson — mac parson, — son of a parson — son of a Catholic priest and
a Highland maid."

7734. Figures may be recollected by gardeners with readiness and certainty. For aU num-
bers not exceeding 24 they have only to associate the figure with the name of the corre-
sponding Linnaean class, or with one of the plants of it. Thus, if a lad in a nursery is
sent to the fruit-tree ground for plants of number 19 and 21 of pear?, he has only to think
of Syngenesia and Monoecia. For all numbers exceeding 24, and under 250, he may make
use of the terms of the first ten orders, in addition to the 24 classes ; and thus, No. 24 1
will be Cryptogamia monogj-nia, 249 Cryptog. enneagjnia, 208 Gynandria octogynia,
and so on. To any one but a gardener or botanist, this mode of recollecting numbers
has no advantages over any ordinarj' system of artificial memory ; but as there can be no
gardener to whom these classes and orders are not perfectly familiar during the whole
period of his life, or at least of his practice as a gardener, to him it is superior to all the
artificial systems. It is easy to add to the certainty of remembrance by associating the
figure of any known plant or plants belonging to the class or order ; thus, for 24 he may
think of Osmunda regalis, for 245 Osmunda regalis and Daucus carota, or a fern-frond
and a carrot-leaf, for 16,213 he may think of a nosegay composed of a Canna glauca.
Narcissus triandrus, Olea fragrans, and Rosa provincialis, or he may fancy himself plant-
ing tliese plants in a row or in a pot. If a gardener rides through twenty turnpike-gates
in a day, he may recollect the pass-number of them all. He has only, in passing through
them, to place a pot of the indicating plants on each of their gate-posts.

7735. Numbers may also be recollected by gardeners by their going through the oper-
ation in imagination, of cutting them on a number-stick, either by the common [Jig. 160.),
or by Seton's metliod. [Jig. 161.) Names may be recollected in like manner, by their
going through the operation mentally, of writing or printing them, or writing them in
some particular hand, or imagining how some particular friend, with whose handwriting
they are acquainted, would write them. They may be supposed to be written on any scrap
of paper, or against the day of the month in a common pocket-book, or what is prefer-
id>le, after the last entry made in the pocket memorandum-book (7741.), to be afterwards
described.

7735. The memory, both as to figures and ivords, may also be materially assisted by study-
ing the postures of the human figure, corresponding to the first ten Italic numerals, and
the letters of the Roman alphabet. Plates of these are to be had in the juvenile libraries.
Some useful hints on the subject of memory will be found in Feinagle's work on the sub-
ject, and especially in a tract by Jackson, in which Feinagle's system is greatly improved ;
but the machinery of both systems, though they enable a student to recollect an astonish-
ing deal in a short time, yet, like other complicated machinery, it soon goes out of order
when not in constant use. It is, therefore, unfit for practical men.

7737. The uses of things and their history, is the next thing which a gardener has to acquire. The uses
of the implements, tools, utensils, and machines of gardening, he will acquire by manually exercising them
in performing the labors and operations of gardening under the direction of his master. He should not only
know how to use them, but how to use them in the best manner ; and also the history of each implement
or machine, derivation of its name, why one form is preferable to another ; in short, he should know the
rationale of the formation and operation of all of them. The essential part of this he may acquire by reading
Part II. of this work, and the rest from the study of the principles of mechanics, and by conversing with
intelligent carpenters, millwrights, and engineers.

7738. The uses of the commoner garden plants he will find in the third part of this work. Books I , II , and
III., something more he will find in Book IV., and for the rest he must have recourse to books on cook-
ery, medicine, chemistry, and farming, which go more into detail. Much information on all the art* con~

4 D

1138

STATISTICS OF GARDENING.

Part I

nected with the vegetable world will be found in our Encyclopaedia of Plants, and in the Encyclopedic
Agriculture.

7739. The study of systematic and physiological botany must go hand in hand with prs
tical acquirements ; for which, and also for forming an herbarium, he will find gene
information in Part II. Book I., and for more minute details, he may consult the authc
there referred to. Some idea of vegetable chemistry and geology'he will obtain frc
Books I., II., and IV. of Part II. ; and also of the different insects and vermin whi
are enemies to gardens and garden-productions., The study of landscape-gardening,
being the highest part of the profession, should not be attempted till the apprentice 1
made himself master of the three departments which precede it.

7740. A knowledge of the weather and the seasojis, so as, in some degree, to be able
predict them from signs, is an important part of a gardener's acquirements. Our obsei
ations in Part II. Book II. will aid liim in this study, and he should also keep a weatht
book, or naturalist's journal, such as we have already suggested. (2349.)

7741. A pocket manorandum-book, for taking notes of everything interesting, whether professional
general, is a useful help to the young gardener. He should begin this sort of memorandum-book with
leaving school ; and he will probably find it useful to continue it all his life after. Its size should be sm
octavo, to suit the pocket ; it requires no ruling, but a line across the page half an inch from the top.
writing on one page, the opposite one should always be left blank for corrections and additions, for sketch
or for taking down temporary memorandums in pencil. The following may be considered as a specimi
in which it is to be particularly observed, that a margin is left on the written page, on which margin ea
article is begun %vitn a word written or printed in large letters. These words, thus conspicuously plac(
serve as an index to each article, and in future reference will be found of material use, as they can
glanced over like the words in a dictionary. Any thing to be inserted, should always be done instantly,
never later than the same day. If it is done out of doors, it may be written on the blank page in pen*
and afterwards copied on the opposite page in ink.

Pocket Memorandum-Book qfj. Gott, Apprentice, at Aubrey Hall.— January 27M and 28</i, 1821

27th.

PEAS. — Last night's frost and this day's Sun have killed
the peas in the south border : but those sown in the
north side of the wattled hurdles escaped, being
shaded from the sun.

LIZARD- — Caught a new species, and took it to Twigg.
It had no tail, which convinced him it must be a
distinct species.

28th.

ROSES. — Idea of a conic iron tree, covered with any of
the climbing roses, all over inociUated with monthly
roses.

PARSNEPS. — GurkinO'Doolittle caught distilling par-
snep whiskey in the tan-3he<i: discharged without a
character. His still two watering pots placed top
to top, and closed with a wet cloth ; the top kept
cool by pouring water on it.

NEW IDEAS. — 'TorrielJoss, the parson, called; says
there are two ways of getting new ideas; by shuf-
fling what ideas we have together, like a pack of
cards, (which is to be done by a free glass of wine,
opium, or tobacco,) when new combinations may
occur to the mind accidentally : or by a studied
selection of ideas suitable to the subject' on which it
is desired to invent, which can only be done by
scientific persons, as Sir H. Davy in his invention of
the S2ifety-lamp.

These were covered with drill hand-glasses, and the rroj
is now, June 2d, fit to gather.

N. B. — It turned out to be only the common lizarc
{Laceria vulgaris, Linn.) which had lost its tail by som<
accident, and the wound had healed over.

Afrni. — Cobbler's name White, lives
Cat and Fiddle.

»o doors from th«

7742. Apprentices are often required to keep a ivritten journal of work done in the garden for their o'
use, and this may be advisable in cases where no regular books are kept by the master ; but where su
books and tables are kept as we have recommended (2338. to 2350.), the apprentice performing his part
making entries in, and daily seeing them, need keep no other books for his own improvement than a r
turalist's kalendar (2349.) and the journal or memorandum-book just described. In the last he can enl
such facts belonging to gardening as are commonly entered in gardeners' journals.

7743. Progress when a journeyman. An apprentice, besides studying his art in t
garden of his master, should, as often as may be, visit those of his neighbors, and obser
what is going on there. His apprenticeship completed, he should move to a different pj
of the country, performing the journey leisurely on foot ; botanising and collecting inse(
and minerals, and visiting every distinguished garden on his way. When he settles,
should be in a different kind of garden to that in which he was before, and there he shou
continue a year, and then remove and travel to another part of the country, and settle the
a year, and so on as already suggested (7380.), till he attains his twenty-fifth year, wh
he may undertake the situation of master. During the whole period in which he is jot
neyman, he should be steadily and unceasingly employed in improving himself, first in 1
own art, and the branches of knowledge, as botany, natural history, chemistry, weatlK
&c. on which it more immediately depends ; and next, if his ambition permits, on genei
subjects of literature, arts, and sciences.

Sect. III. Of the Intellectual Education which a Gardener may give himself indqyenden

of acquiring his Profession.

7744. Self-education may be carried to a greater extent by a gardener than by alm<

any other artisan No gardener, in our opinion, ought to be employed as a masi

under the age of twenty-five years. Suppose him, therefore, to be put an apprentice

Book I) EDUCATION OF GARDENERS. 1139

fifteen, he has ten years in which to acquire his profession, and generally to improve him-
self. In that period he may not only acquire his profession, but, according to the extent
of his ambition and application, a considerable degree of knowledge on almost every
subject. Everytliing, as we have more than once observed, depends on his ambition ;
without this he will not even acquire his profession, and at all events will find no leisure
time for any other kind of improvement. When we consider, however, that the labor of
a gardener is not severe, and that it is only during the hours of daylight, the time he has
for self-improvement is very considerable. It may surprise some when we state, that this
time equals (taking the whole year), that employed in study by professional students at
colleges. A gardener, in the shortest day, begins work at eight o'clock and leaves oflP at
four o'clock ; which, allowing two hours for breakfast and dinner, gives six hours of la-
bor ; in the longest day he works only ten hours, and tlierefore it will not be far from the
truth to consider eight hours per day as the average duration of his labor throughout the
year. Dividing the twenty-four hours which compose the day in three equal parts, we
have eight hours for rest, dressing, and undressing ; eight hours for labor, and acquiring
the practice of gardening ; and eight hours for refreslunent and study. On comparing
this time for study with that which is usually devoted to it by young men at college ; not
the generality of young men, but those even who attain to eminence ; we will find the dif-
ference very inconsiderable. The student requires the same time for rest, and at least two
hours more for dressing and undressing (say ten hours) ; for breakfast he requires an
hour ; dinner and tea, at least three hours ; and for exercise (which if he neglects he will
soon be unable to study at all), at least tAvo hours ; in all, for exercise and refreshment,
six hours ; which added to ten of rest and dressing, gives eighteen hours, leaving exactly
the same number of hours for study which every gardener has, taking the average of the
year. It is true the eight hours of the gardener are subject to the time employed in eat-
ing ; but that may well be considered as compensated by the knowledge of botany he ac-
quires in the garden during his hours of labor. Add also, that the gardener may (unless
his health forbid) draw still more time than we have mentioned from the hours of sleep ;
we think it will not be denied, that, taking all circumstances into consideration, he has as
much time as studious men, taking the average of the year, usually devote to study.

TiiS. The branches of education best deserving a gardener^s attention are next to be considered. As one
branch of knowledge is as much as any person ever does or can excel in, and as that branch, in the case of
every professional man, ought to be his profession, it seems to us that a gardener ought not to attempt to
excel in any one branch of science besides that of gardening ; but rather to make himself acquainted, to
the degree that circumstances may permit, with the whole cycle of human knowledge. If he attempts any
thing else, it is impossible, isolated as he must be, in comparison with others who study the same subject
among abundance of books and fellow-laborers, that he can attain to the highest degree of eminence. It
is impossible, for example, that he can arrive at great perfection, even in the study of botany, from not
having an opportunity of consulting the herbariums and books which are only to be found in the metro-
polis. He may, however, and ought to, attain a respectable degree of knowledge, not only in botany, but
also in the other branches of natural history : such for example as will enable him to refer any natural pro-
duction to its place in the Linnaan system, and describe scientifically any new production. But that he
should be expert at chemical analysis, dissection of animals, solving problems in any of the higher branches
of mathematics, or excel in painting, music, or poetry, is what we by no means propose, or think practi-
cable ; though we are convinced he may know something of all those subjects, and of all others on which
there are published books.

7746. The source from which he is to derive his general knowledge, it may easily be conceived, is chiefly
from books ; with such aid as opportunity offers from profeissional men, public lectures, men of talents
and learning wherever he has an opportunity of conversing with them ; artists, artisans, and manu-
facturers of every description ; and also manufactories, engines, mines, dock-yards, and all other works
displaying human skill. But the grand source is books, and the question is how a journeyman gardener,
whose wages are often less than those of a common laborer, is to procure them ? Our answer is, borrow
them ; and make it a fixed rule to purchase no books excepting grammars, dictionaries, and other ele-
mentary works ; and of these used or cheap copies. The head gardener will always he able and willing to
lend his apprentices and journeymen a certain number of books; and the jjatron under whom they serve,
will generally be found equally liberal.

7747. The sorts of books desirable to borrow, independently of those connected with the professional
acquirements, such as treatises on Chemistry, Zoology, Mineralogy, &c. will depend on the degree of
advancement of the student. But that which we are of opinion cannot be dispensed with, is a good en-
cyclopaedia. One systematically instead of alphabetically arranged would be the best ; but as most
country libraries are now stocked with the Encyclopcrdia Brit, or Ilees's Cyclopcedia, these must be taken
till a well executed one on the plan of the Encyclopcedia MetropolUana, now publishing ^but badly exe-
cuj;ed), finds its way into general use.

7748. The studies to be commenced with is next to be determined. It is necessary to premise here, that
the mind, before it can derive much improvement from reading, must undergo a certain degree of culture.
To improve by reading it is not sufficient to be able to read ; we must be able to analyse language and dis-
course ; to recognise the real or apparent object of the writer ; and to trace the order'of his ide.is from the
commencement to the conclusion. The foundation of this is the exercise of the faculty of attention,
already dwelt on ; and es.'sential aids to it is the study of grammar, and of languages. Another excellent
help is the study of systematic natural history; a circumstance highly in favor of gardeners who are de-
sirous of improving themselves in general literature; since, if they know their profession at all, they must
liave a tolerable knowledge of systematic botany, which gives the mind an orderly and systematic mode
ofthinkmg. It is not uncommon, for example, to hear gardeners who have no pretensions to general
Lterature, applying the terms, genera, species, subspecies, and varieties, to manners of thinking, or acting,
to religion, weather, forms of governments, &c. For want of this preparation of the mind, there arc many
persons who read a great deal, and derive very little benefit from it. Their minds are not competent or
not habituated to view the subject which they read as a whole, and to take a view of its general scope aiid
tendency. All they see of it is the parts as they pass before their eves, their relation and connection
they think nothing of, and the whole passes as it were through the mind, instead of remaining on it
Keadmg to such men, in comparison with those whose minds have been prepared by dementary studies,

4 D 2

1140 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

may be said lo resemble pouring water on ground with a hardened surface, in comparison to pouring it on
soil which has been loosened with the spade.

7749. English grammar and a foreign language are suitable studies to commence with. Another excel-
lent aid to forming the mind to precision and accuracy is the knowledge of quantities ; for which reason
we would join to the study of languages, those of arithmetic and geometry. These, with a portion of
general reading, some species of personal accomplishments, and the requisite professional studies, are all
that we would have an apprentice commence with, and this only in a certain order to be afterwards
desfcribed.

7750. With respect to personal accomplishments, we would have dancing, fencing, boxing, wrestling,
the infantry manual exercise, whist, backgammon, chess, the flute, and violin, attended to as far as op-
portunity offered; considering dancing, boxing, and the violin as the most essential objects. Inmost
country.places these ami all the other acquirements may be learned from retired valets, old soldiers, or
from some of the servants in a great family, at an easy rate. Swimming and horsemanship should not be
negleclel if opportunity offers. The acquirement of some knowledge of some or all of these accomplish-
ments will occupy very little time ; once attained, they are resources for self-defence, for social entertain-
ment, or of relief from ennui when alone. Dancing and the manual exercises are particularly useful as
improving the gait, and habituating to good postures both in standing and sitting. To a man who has no
other resources for advancement in life than such as are personal, every exterior acquirement is of the
utmost importance. — These remarks will to many appear sufficiently extravagant ; but we would ask,
whether there is any young man who does not, to a certain extent, possess most of these acquirements as
it were accidentally"? Why then may he not improve them by art, if opportunity offers ; or, if they are of
use^ why should he not seek occasion both to improve and extend his knowledge in this department.

7751. Ill study, as in everything else, much depends on the economy of time ; the march of time is re-
gular and constant, and as there is only a certain portion of the twenty-four hours which a gardener can
devote to study, everything depends on his employing every moment of that portion. To be convinced of
what is lost by delay, let two persons commence walking along a road in company ; then let one of them
stand still for half a minute while the other walks on ; at the end of the half ipinute the distance at which
the former will find himself from the latter will be found astonishing. Again, supposing them walking
together, and that one, instead of walking along the road with the other, deviates and diverges from it —
the distance at the end of half a minute, at uhich the deviator is found from the one who walked
straight on, will be still more astonishing, and is greatly more ruinous, because not only is the time
required to return to the direct road equal to that taken to diverge from it, but when returned, the devi-
ator will be a whole minute's walking behind the other. These two simple exjieriments it would be well
for two young gardeners to try, in order that tlie results may make a strong impression on their minds ;
and let them ever afterwards think of them when they feel inclined to be lazy or dilatory, or to depart
from the line of duty.

7752 To aid in the economy of tiiiie, it is desirable to form some plan of study ; where there is no re-
gular plan much time is lost in hesitating what to begin with ; and both lost and misapplied by fatiguing
the mind with too long intense application to one thing ; by which means a proportional relaxation is re-
quired, and the memory, being irregularly charged, will be less faithful. By a well ordered pre-disposition
of studies, the time v» hich would be lost in considering what would be done next is gained, and the one
study becomes a relaxation as it were from the other. We shall here suggest a general plan for a young
gardener's employment of time during the few years he has to pass previously to becoming master, and
leave him to fill up the details in his own wuy. W^e by no means offer this plan as the best ; others may
be equally good ; but the grand point is to fix on some plan, and to adhere to it strictly.

77.'>3. i'lan of study for languages. We shall suppose the apprentice, and indeed every gardener under
thirty, to rise at five o'clock throughout the year ; a necessary habit in the gardener, both for the hot-
house fires and for study. He will thus have nearly an hour in summer, and from one to three hours in
winter before he goes to work. These we would devote to languages throughout the ten years; on no
account would we study anything else at that time, and on no account %vould we study any language
during the rest of the day. Latin and English grammar may be taken on alternate mornings till the
latter is acquired ; and afterwards Latin may be taken two mornings, and Greek the third morning. In
two or thrt-e years the fourth day may be devoted to French ; and in the seventh year, or earlier, accord-
ing to circumstances, Latin, Greek, French, German, Dutch, and Italian may be taken in succession,
one morning to each. The object being such a knowledge of English as to be able to write it correctly ;
of Latin and French to translate them with ease ; and of the other languages to be able to make out their
meaning by the occasional help of a dictionary. There is nothing to hinder any jxjrson of even inferior
organisation, to attain this knowledge in ten years, at the average rate of one and half hour's study every
morning. The great thing is not to omit a single morning, unless from illness ; for even in the case of
absence from home, or during a journey, a grammar or any polyglot book, such as a Testament or a
Commenius, may be carried in the pocket.

7754. Rigid pursuit of the object in view. If at any time, through business or over-sleeping, but a few
minutes can be got in the morning, still these few ought to be applied in the usual channel; even half a
minute is worth something, for in that time a noun may be looked over, or a rule read and reflected on
during the walk to the place of working. If no time is left, even while dressing, a dictionary may be
opened and a word looked at, and recollected, and even a word per day gained is worth something.

7755. Progress is gradual. It is impossible to gain any end either in self-improvement or any
thing else at once : all art is gained by labor, and nothing is lasting but that which advances by degrees.
The independence which even a very moderate knowledge of languages confers on the possessor, whether
in general reading, or in reading foreign books, is invaluable, and amply compensates the trouble requisite
to acquire them. To any person going abroad for profit or improvement, they are essential. It is a
common thing to suppose, that a certain long number of years are requisite to acquire Latin, which may
be the case with children who learn it by compulsion, and is more or less the case as to everything they
are taught; but with a grown-up and voluntary learner the case is widely different. We have known
men in this country acquire one or two languages, after having attained their fortieth year; and the
thing is quite common among migrating tradesmen on the Continent.

775S. Books on grammar. In purchasing the grammars, that of Cobbett or Lindley Murray may be
selected for the English ; and for the other languages, any that can be got cheapest ; the last remark will
apply also to the dictionaries. To impress rules and words on the memory, read them aloud, sing, or
chant them, or write them down. Books in most languages may be had at book-stalls for a trifle ; or by
applying to a subscriber to the Bible Society, he will procure a New Testament in any living language,
and also in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, for two shiUings or half a crown. Used copies of the Janua
Linguanmi of Commenius, containing Greek, Latin, French, &c. are to be had even cheaper.

7757. Flan of study for general subjects. The spare time after breakfast and dinner we would devote to
botany for the first three years, and the seven years afterwards to botany and other branches of natural
history, gardening, and farming books. Thus the early part of the day is disposed of for the whole ten
vears : the next thing is to arrange for the evening. For this the arrangements must vary according to
circumstances, as it does not all depend on the will of the student ; thus lectures can only be attended,
when and where given ; and those who may have undertaken to give instructions in fencing or fiddling,
must be received at such evening hours as suits their convenience, &c. We would, however, never break
in on the day-studies with these acquirements ; and as far as possible devote two hours at some period of
every working-day evening, during the first three years, as follows : of the first evening to drawing plans
and architectural subjects ; the second to aritlimetic, mensuration, and land-surveying ; the third, to

Book II. EDUCATION OF GARDENERS. 1141

drawing landscape and figures; the fourth, to BacWd's Elements ; the fifth, to drawing plants, flowers,
insects, and minerals ; and the sixth to mechanics and cxijeriraental philosophy. The remainder of each
evening to be ciisiKJsed of in writing essavs and letters, both with a view tc improvement m the style, and
in penmanship; to miscellaneous reading, if |X)ssiblc, from an encyclopedia, assigning a due proportion
to each kind of study or acquirements. ... , ,

7758 A holidatj, when it occurs, we should recommend to be commenced with a language, as usual, and
to be included in the general rotation for that branch ; but the remaining iwrt of the day we would disiwse
of in portions of one, two, or three hours, in bringing forward those evening studies which we had
been least successful in during the week, or found ourselves most in want of for actual use. Holidays
are also jiarticularlv adapted for drawing, which, though it ought not to be neglected with artificial light,
yet goes on best with tliat of the sun. Nothing can be more mechanical than copying drawings, or draw-
ing from nature, and there is nothing (but want of will) that can hinder every gardener from being a
good draughtsman in all the three departments. To paint in oil, or make highly finished drawings, valued
as such, is quite a different thing, and not to be attempted but by such as have much leisure, or adopt
that pursuit as a jirofession.

7759. The books necessary for general studies are, any authors on arithmetic, mensuration, and land-
surveving, who are pretty full ; any used copy of Euclid, and of Young's Lectures on Natural Philoso-
phy ; 'or studv the articles on the last subject in a good encycloijjcdia. There is no very good drawing-
book for self-instructors, but some one may be borrowetl, and those iiarts of any encycloptetlia consulted
which treat on the subject. For the miscellaneous reading, all the books required are to be liorrowed,
and chiefly, if ])Ossible, an encyclopafdia, which ought to be read through volume by volume, and notes
taken in the pocket memorandum-book (.7741.) of such paits as are considered best worth remembering.

7760. Conclusion. A great deal more might be said on this subject, did our limits permit ; suffice it to add,
that if a student only wills and exerts himself, everything will be found imssible ; difficulties may occur, and
may retard for a time, but they will finally be over-.-omc. '1 he great thing is to be convinced of the impor-
tance of incessant application, by which any man may attain to eminence, and without which eminence
was never yet attaineii. The profession of a gardener is, more than any otlier, favorable for mental ac-
quirements ; his labor is easy ; his patron has a library : he has frequent opportunities in improving his
language and manner, by being asked questions by his patron and his family, and other sujieriors who
are educated and polished. He may also render himself useful to clergymen, medical men, and school-
masters, by collecting and preparing objects of natural history for them, for which in return he will re-
ceive useful hints, and the loan of books. A great object is, to accomplish all this, and yet have some
spare money for travel and accidents, which is to be done by great simplicity (avoiding what is meagre)
in footi and dress ; by neglecting the use of such luxuries as tea, sugar, spirits, and such other articles as
are much taxed ; by purchasing used clothes, and never new ones before having arrived at the degree of
head gardener, for the best dress ; and by having, for daily use, dresses of coarse grey stuflT, not enhanced
in price by much ornamental manipulation, or by taxes. — Though, in making these remarks, wc have
had in view chiefly young men, yet there is no pcrio<l of life at which improvement may not be com-
menced, and attempted with a degree of success that will amply repay. At any period under thirty, every
thing we have projwsed may be attained : a great deal, even at forty, and enough to meliorate and hu-
manise life, beginning even at the latest period. Let the gardener never forget that though something
will depend on his organisation, yet, that much the greater jxirt depends on education — on his desire of
raising himself, and on incessant application. To desire anything ardently, is, in truth, to be inspired
with the power of attaiument.

Sect. IV. Moral, Beligious, and Physical Education of Gardeners.

7761. The subject of morals (morales^ Lat. manners) regards the conduct of man
towards others ; that of religion [religio, L.at. devotion, devoted to), his opinions as to
God or the nature of things ; and that of physical education (j)hysicay Lat. the know-
ledge of nature) instructs him in the art of preserving health.

7762. Morality and religion are usually treated as depending on each other; the latter
is considered as the principal foundation of the former, and man is taught to be sober
and honest, not only to avoid the punishment awarded by tlie laws of his country, but
to avoid still greater punishment in futurity. But morality may and does exist apart
from religion ; for truth and justice, honesty and humanity, are essential to the existence
of regular society. Debauchery of every kind is attended with the loss of reputation,
and more or less of bodily health ; those who despise, and affect to treat with contempt
or ridicule, the opinions of the respectable part of society, are themselves despised and
excluded from society in return. In tlte intercourse of society, a man always receives
according as he gives ; and as he treats others so is he treated himself. If he wishes to
])e dealt with honestly, he must be honest ; and if he wishes to be respected by respectable
men, he must respect them, and their conduct and principles. In short, independently
of religious motives, it is necessary to be moral, in order not to be disreputable ; and
worth while to be highly so, in order to ensure confidence and respect. Whatever theory
therefore the young gardener may adopt, there is only one practice which he will find
to answer his expectations ; and that is, the strictest regard to truth, honesty, sobriety
decency, and purity in himself ; and respect for others, in proportion as these virtues
appear in their conduct and conversation.

7763. The moral larv of all countries is essentially the same ; because, in the rudest forms of society it
is found necessary to enforce justice and honesty ; but among rude nations, and even among those in a
comparatively advanced state, the more refined laws of nwrality are neglected. Thus in Russia, where
the people, from the boor to the czar, are the most religious in Europe, it is no discredit to a gentleman
to lead a debauched life, or to pilfer trifling articles from another, or to steal from shops [IiialVs Mos
cow, xxxix.) ; but in a refined and luxurious state of society, such as that in Britain the eiifovment of
ever>' individual deiiends not only on a strict, but a refined morality j and men must not only be civil

7764. Politeness may be considered the ornament or finish of morals or manners • and thoueh it i<
commonly thought to belong chiefly to the higher classes, yet it will be found both attainable and usefi l
m a a iph degree b v every class, and by none more than the gardener. Polite and amiable conduct like
a good figure and address, recommend themselves at sight, and make at once an impre<«ion in favor of
the man who possesses them. " Civility," Lady M. W. Montague observes, " is a sort o?ci "rem coin
which CD.ns nothing and Iniys everything." The greatest genius and abilities will never procure a

4 D 3

H43 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

man advancement, without a good address. We recommend the perusal of what Lord Chesterfield
has written on the subject, guarding against those slips of the pen where he seems to recommend im-
purity and deception. If these suit the character of a modern ambassador, they are practices which a poor
man cannot afford to deal in. ' j i h "

7765 The foundation of all true politeness is a desire to please others ; though some mistake it for a dis-
play of their own acquirements; and others, a cringing acquiescence to the opinions of others. The two
last errors are to be avoided, the first as immediately, and the second in a short time, incurring contempt,
lo be pohte witli permanent advantage it is necessary to be sincere ; and any degree of vanity, pride, or
arrogance, is certain of proving offensive. To please others, one of the first things requisite, is to be
or appear to be, pleased ourselves. A man may show his pleasure or displeasure, by his action, by his
speech, and by his features. An easy, graceful, and yet manly action, is to be attained by the practice of
dancing and the manual exercise ; a gracious and polite manner of speaking by much reading, and by
attending to the language of ladies and gentlemen, frequenters of polished society; and the features of
the face may be set to satisfaction, discontent, anger, or ill temper, according as either of these states of
mind are adopted. If the muscles of his face are put in training by a gardener at the commencement of
his apprenticeship, almost anything may be done with them, as may be proved by the case of comedians.
A gardener's object should be less the power of varying them, than of giving them a set expressive of
animation joined to a degree of satisfaction : this medium or central disposition he can occasionally alter
to that of pleasure on the one hand, or disapprobation on the other, as circumstances may require.

7766. An essential part of politeness is agreeable conversation, and taking part in the current amuse-
ments of the time and place. The art of conversation, like all other arts, is only to be acquired by reflec-
tion and experience. The first thing is to store .the mind with ideas on every subject by reading, and es-
pecially with anecdote, history and biography; the next thing is to adapt our conversation to the society
in which we happen to be ; and the last requisite is to endeavor to discover the precise part and quan-
tum of conversation which we ouglit to supply.

7767. The art of conversation is as little understood by the great bulk of mankind as the art of chemistry :
and the consequence is, that in ordinary society it consists in tiresome relations, as to the party or their
affairs ; attempts to obtain victory in argument, to display knowledge or acquirements ; or something
which may give superiority over the others present; or of criticisms on the absent; the source of all
which is unrefined selfishness. Polite conversation is a totally different thing from disquisition ; or mere
talking about any one thing, whether relating to ourselves or others. In disquisition, the object is to ascer-
tain truth ; in conversation, to pass the time in an interesting and agreeable manner. The object of every
one who takes part in a polite conversation ought to be to please ; whatever cannot be said on any subject
entered on, without giving offence to some one present, or to truth or decency, ought to be avoided.
By common consent, the party will pay due respect to the master of the house, as to the president of the
assembly ; and though all will contribute their share, those rich in talent and experience will naturally
contribute the most.

7768. Every master of a family ought to instruct the members of it in the art of conversation, and
to advise them more especially to avoid all subjects that lead to argument and discussion. These are of
little service to truth or instruction ; because men are seldom convinced by arguments carried on in
society. No man is willing to be publicly convinced of anything, and especially if he who has the better
side of the argument happens to be younger or of an inferior rank. Men may be willing to be instructed,
who would not submit to be convinced ; and some will consent to receive inform.ation, who would feel
hurt at the idea of instruction. Elderly persons, however, and such as are of acknowledged experience
and acquirements, may both instruct and inform : but even these must be cautious as to the manner in
which they correct, or contradict, or criticise; lest, as is often the case, they appear more eager to dis-
play their own superiority, than to improve and oblige the party addressed. The love of self is liable
at every moment to break in upon and spoil everything ; and therefore the grand object is to keep that
feeling continually under restraint by keeping alive the idea, that the object of all conversation is to
please. Three or four young gardeners, all eager for improvement, might practise conversation on this
principle, by assembling occasionally, and either conversing as equals, or for the sake of variety and im-
provement, assuming characters. Two, for example, may take the part of the parents of a family ; one
or two as strangers on a visit to them, and the rest as children, and so on. The party might first produce
that sort of family wrangling and snarling, which commonly occurs at fire-sides, as the conversation to
be avoided ; and next, a conversation as it ought to be, or as each gardener would desire to have it in
his own family.

7769. Whist, chess, 8;c. For the purpose of being able to join in the amusements of society, we have
already recommended the study of whist, chess, &c. These are essential- personal accomplishments of
every man who would find his way in society in England, where conversation is not nearly so well under-
stood as on the continent, and therefore less relied on for passing the time agreeably.

7770. Elevation of manners. There are two things in conduct which the gardener ought most particu-
larly to avoid, familiaiity and cupidity. When these qualities discover themselves either in manner or
conversation, they are a certain mark of low birth and breeding. A low, ignorant man, if he receives
the slightest civilities from a superior, immediately conceives the latter has a particular friendship for
hira ; and soon endeavors to turn this friendship to advantage, by asking to borrow money to forward
himself in business, or requesting a place under government, or a pension. If a gentleman, or indeed any
man, notices a low familiar woman, the latter immediately concludes he is in love with her; if she has
daughters, he has come to marry one of them ; and at all events, he is a particular friend to be boasted
of and relied on in time of need, who will certainly advance the family in some way or other. Such is
the self-love and ignorance of mankind betrayed by the vulgar ; for familiarity proceeds from that sort of
gross selfishness that puts no restraint on wishes that it does not consider grossly criminal ; and indulges
in the most absurd hopes, merely because, if realised, they would tend to their profit.

7771. A well informed and polite jnan is not familiar with anyone, because he knows that if he were
to lay bare everything respecting himself he would lessen respect ; and he does not show an impertinent
curiosity after the circumstances of others, because it might hurt their feelings to expose them. Cupidity
is out of the question with him, because he knows mankind too well, to suppose they will give him a
valuable thing merely because he asks it ; but even if there was a chance of getting it in this way, still he
would not ask, because he might be asked for something still more valuable in return. In this way po-
liteness becomes highly useful as a check upon gross selfishness ; and by serving to keep up a mutual re-
spect between man and man, it restrains the offensive passions, ameliorates the temper, and promotes
social enjoyment. A man of sense and experience will not be very familiar with his most intimate friend.
Respect is always lessened in proportion as familiarity takes place ; and without respect there is nothing
to hinder individuals, even the most intimately connected by ties of blood, affection, or interest, from
proving very offensive to each other. Where a weaker and stronger party, as man and wife, parents and
children, masters and servants, cease to act in such a way as to maintain a mutual respect, the stronger
party is obliged to have recourse to the principle of fear, — becomes of necessity a domestic tyrant, and is
obeyed and hated, instead of being obeyed and respected. What is it that makes a man hate his wife's
faults more than those of any other woman ? first, he knows them better : secondly, he knows he must
put up with them : thirdly, he knows that she knows his faults, and hates them more than she does the
faults of any other man. All this arises from familiarity.

7772. The want of mutual respect is the cause of many evils among the lower classes ; it is the origin
of almost all family quarrels, and of most of those between individuals ; the cause, familiarity, ought
therefore to be avoided, by all who would be respected j and a salutary restraint placed on all their feelings.

Book II. EDUCATION OF GARDENERS. 1143

both of love and hatred, curiosity and communicativeness. Judicious restraint is everything as to over-
coming bad or vulgar qualities ; a man properly under its influence may be compared to a well trained
tree: and as this figure is familiar to the young gardener, it may be well for him frequently to ask him-
self, whether, supposing he were a cherry-tree, he would be reckoned one finely spread against a wall
or an unpruned standard.

7773. Religion is a, subject which we leave every gardener to arrange with his own
conscience ; only observing, that as it concerns only the man himself, and unless joined
to enthusiasm and proselylism, can never injure others ; every one should be left at li-
berty to think in this respect as he chooses. Let no one, however, consider that difFering
from others as to religion implies a difference in morality, or a neglect of moral princi-
Ciples ; and let every gardener consider well what we have before said on this subject.
(7762.)

7774. Physical edtLcation. It may be supposed superfluous to say anything to gar-
deners in respect to health. But the truth is, that since the general introduction of hot-
houses, the profession of a gardener has become in some degree different from what it
was ; and he is now subject to heats and colds, which are liable to bring on inflamma-
tory and rheumatic complaints. Being heated excessively in a hot-house, and cooled
to a very low degree in the open air during winter, or in an ice-house (which is now in
almost daily use in good gardens, for preserving fruits and vegetables) during summer, do
not of themselves injure the constitution ; but the evil arises from the partial operation of
either extreme by which one part of the frame is cooled or heated sooner than another.
By this the circulation and perspiration are unnaturally accelerated or diminished in
these parts, and of course the action of the whole system deranged. WTien this takes
place, the consequences are fever, costiveness, and often St. Anthony's fire, ague,
rheumatism, &c. If taken in time, opening the bowels and the hot-air bath of the hot-
house, taking care either to go at once from it to bed, or to the dry-stove and green-
house, so as to cool gradually, will restore the system to order ; if neglected, time, open-
ing and sudatory medicines, and probably the doctor, will be required. The principal
danger is to be dreaded from the excessive heat and perspiration produced by work-
ing in the bark-stove or in pits, such as during shifting, syringing, &c. To guard
against these, the operator should limit his dress at the time to a loose flannel shirt and
wo(;den shoes, and when finished, should wipe himself perfectly dry before putting on his
ordinary clothing.

7775. The foundation of ail health is regularity in the time and qiiantity qf food talcen, and in the com-
mon evacuations. If these are strictly attended to, everything will go on well ; if suffered to become
irregular, every thing will go wrong. The stomach is the primum mobile, as it were, of the consti-
tution ; the cause, when disordered, of the most afflicting diseases, and the first thing to be restored in
order to their cure.

7776. A strict attention to personal propriety and sober habits need hardly be mentioned, with refer-
ence to young gardeners who mean to advance themselves ; to suppose, indeed, that they would indulge
in inebriety, or in alehouse society, is so entirely out of the question, that we shall not enter on the
subject

Sect. V. Of Economical Education, or the general Conduct and Economy of a Gar-
dener's Life.

7777. A gardener, who has attained his twenty-fifth year, and has carefully employed
the leisure time of the preceding ten years in improving himself, will now have formed
his judgment on most subjects ; and be able to determine a general plan for the future
economy or management of his life. A man may be learned, or have a genius and taste
in his profession, without having that taste or judgment as to the economy of life which
leads to fitness and propriety of conduct, and will induce him to fix on an object to be
acquired, and devise and pursue rational means of obtaining it. Bad taste in the common
business of life may lead to bad plans, to a desire to acquire property too rapidly, to
gambling, to match-making, to quackery, and, probably, even to crime and disgrace.
The principal cause of this bad taste is, that what is called education is much too
limited in its objects ; or that part which is commonly left to parents or masters is but
very imperfectly supplied. A youth ought not only to be instructed in the different laws
by which the conduct both of individuals and society is regulated, but also in the art of
forming a plan for the management of his talents, so as they may best contribute to his
happiness. Nothing is more conducive to happiness, than fixing on an end to be gained,
and then steadily pursuing its attainment.

7778. Forming a jylan of conduct. Though some things in every man's life and
often the most important things, are the result of accident; yet here, as in every other
case where a multitude of actions are to be performed with a view to an ultimate object,
a plan must be of importance for their arrangement. No man is born in possession of
the art of living, any more than of the art of gardening. The one requires to be studied
as well as the other ; and a man can no more expect permanent satisfaction from actions
performed at random, than he can expect a good crop from seeds sown without due re-
gard to soil and season. The greater part of mankind enter on life without any fixed

4 D 4

IH4 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

object in view ; or, if they form some general notion of acquiring wealth or distinction,
they form no plan by which it is to be accomplished ; the consequence is, that such per-
sons, after blundering on through their best years, arrive at the end without having gained
anything but experience, now of no use to them. When we look round and observe the
quantity of misery in the world ; the greater proportion is, or seems to be, the result of
a want of plan, or of a bad plan of life. How many parents are unsuccessful in their
struggles to maintain a large family ; the result of too early marriage, and a thoughtless
and unmeasured procreation ! How many tind themselves arrived at old age, with no
other resource for support but charity ; the consequence of want of foresight in expen-
diture ! How many are suffering under poverty brought on by their own want of fru-
gality, or positive extravagance ; or under disease from excesses and irregularities
committed in the hey-day of life ! And how many, among those not born to inherit pro-
perty, who, at no period of their life, have any other alternative between hard labor
and deficient food, than disease and want !

7779. Wani of plan may not, in every case, be the cause of all this misery ; because accident enters into
life for something, both in the unfavorable as well as the favorable side of the question ; but we have no
hesitation in asserting, that want of plan, as a cause of misery, is as ninety-nine to a hundred. Any plan
at all, even a bad plan, is better than none ; because those who set out on any plan will, in all probability,
sooner discover its errors, if a bad one, and correct them, than those, who set out on no plan, will disi
cover the want of one, and form a good plan. — Plan, in short, is predestination, as conduct is fate. The
young gardener, who is just setting out in life, may well tremble at the consequences of proceeding on the
journey without the guide of a judicious plan. This plan he must form himself : because he alone knows
the nature of his talents and resources ; — all that we can do is to offer a few hints.

7780. In order to be able to form a plan, it is previously necessary to determine the object to be obtained
by it. Happiness is the object of every action of human life, and consists in the gratification of certain
wants and -desires ; some of these desiderata are peculiar to youth, and others to old age; but many, as
clothing, food, rest, relaxation, entertainment, &c. begin with the earliest, and continue to the latest
period of life. All these gratifications are procured by labor; in savage life, by hunting, fishing, and
gathering fruits, till the man, no longer able for these labors, is obliged to lie down and die of want : in
civilised society they are also obtained by labor ; but here, what is called property exists ; and man, in the
vigor of his days, when the supplies of his labor are greater than the demands of his wants and desires, or
when he chooses not to gratify the latter to the full extent admitted by the former, can, as it were, em-
body a part of his labor to be made use of when he is no longer able to perform it with ease. A man, in
this case, is said to arrive at independence; instead of want, as in the case of the savage ; or of beggary,
as in the case of the improvident.

7731. Independence is the grand object which not only a gardener, but every man
destined to live by the exercise of his labor or talents, ought to have in view. At certain
periods of life, when the imagination is vivid, and health and spirits in their utmost vigor,
some may prefer glory, high literary or professional reputation, or even present pleasure ;
and it is a noble attribute of our nature to prefer these to mere accumulation of money :
but a great warrior, poet, or painter, arrived at old age and want, if the latter be brought
on by common. improvidence, will not find himself surrounded by many marks of dis-
tinction ; and, though it may possibly be some consolation to him, tliat the three or four
letters composing his name will be sometimes pronounced together after he is dead, ye^.
it will not be much.

7782. The exercise of his profession is the most rational mode in which a gardener, or
any person properly educated to one, can pursue independence. Only extraordinary cir-
cumstances can justify a change of profession ; in common cases it indicates a want of
steadiness of character, or a want of success ; and the latter is commonly attributed to
want of skill. It is better, therefore, to pursue unremittingly the profession to which we
have been educated, even though we should not be very successful in it, than to risk an
infringement on character by adopting another. The practice of gardening, as we have
already seen (7 S7 7.), is carried on by three different classes, serving, tradesmen, and
artist gardeners. The greater number of young men cannot do better than commence in
the first branch. To begin in the second, unless an established business is purchased, a
partnership in a respectable firm procured, or some situation discovered where there is an
effectual demand for produce, would, to a young man without connection, be attended
with at least a loss of time, if not .with greater losses. As to the third branch, the de-
mand is so very limited, that it can never be recommended in a general way. It remains,
therefore, for the young gardener to look to the serving branch, as that by which he will
the more certainly attain to independence.

7783. Of serving gardeners, there are two species, with their varieties ; the public
gardener and private gardener. The latter is the only species to be recommended in a
general way ; but whichever a young gardener adopts, it would be well if he could pre-
viously procure himself to be sent abroad for a year or longer, as gardener or collector
to some expedition ; or even if he could, at his own expense, visit Amsterdam, Antwerp,
Leyden, and Paris. All this he may do at present, proceeding by sea to Rotterdam,
either from London or Edinburgh, for less than twenty-five pounds ; and a judicious
young man, even though so much devoted to improvement as we suppose our young
gardener to have been, ought to have saved that sum by his twenty-fifth year. In times
of war it may be more expensive, or impossible.

7784. Situations. Though it be seldom that a gardener can choose a situation for him-

Book II.

EDUCATION OF GARDENERS.

1145

self, it may be proper to mention, that by far the best in the world are in England ; there
are some good situations in Scotland, and a few in Ireland ; and there are occasionally
good offers to go abroad as gardeners to the governors of British colonies, or to emment
merchants there. The principal foreign openings for British gardeners, however, are in
Russia, where the emperor employs nearly a dozen head gardeners, generally British ;
and where the same, or a greater number, are in the service of the first-rate nobility.
The salaries given are not very great ; but the accommodations and necessary advantages
are sufficient to admit a frugal man's saving the greater part of the salary. Great care
is requisite, however, to have a ^vritten arrangement before leaving this country, mclud-
ing a permission to return at pleasure, as no confidence can be placed in the verbal
agreements of most of even the highest Russian nobility. We know of no other foreign
situations worth notice. If a gardener tliinks of going to America, or any of the colonies,
on his own account, he will, of course, require a certain capital, and must also reckon on
spending his days there. Supposing a young gardener to have obtained a tolerably good
situation at home, and to have proved it for a year or two, he should, in our opinion, set
about two things ; tlie first is saving money, and the second is entering into the married
state. The first is absolutely essential to the scheme of being independent in old age ;
the second nearly equally so to passing through life comfortably.

7785. With respect to savhtg money, we shall not attempt to state the proportion of
neat wages that may be yearly saved ; nor how the money may be best laid out ; as these
depend on circumstances. All we need suggest, is the necessity of keeping the ultimate
object, and its great advantages, continually in view, and to prefer security of principal
to high interest. As some data to enable the reader to estimate the accumulation of
money saved, and put in a savings' bank, or in the funds, we shall suppose a gardener to
begin saving at the age of 27, and to continue saving till he attains his 50th year; laying
out every year's savings at only 4 per cent., adding half-yearly the interest to the prin-
cipal ; and at the end of that period purchasing an annuity for his own life, or the joint
lives of himself and wife, with the accumulated sum : then —

a-year, it will

in ^ years, to

£

S.

r366

31

549

5

732

7

915

9

1U98

10

1465

1

1850

18

2197

1

2563

5

2929

8

3295

12

L3661

16j

iihich will purchase an annuity for a
person aged 50 years, or for two lives
of that value, of

£ S.

29 0

43 10

57 17

72 5

86 15

115 15

144 11

173 11

202 9

234 7

260 6

.289 4

7786. By commencing master-gardener, and beginning to save at twenty years of age,
a gardener, or even a common laborer, .may attain the same advantages as to inde-
pendence ; but with inferior domestic comforts, as he cannot afford to spend so much
annually ; and with less enjoyment from literary and intellectual sources, because his
time for previous improvement is reduced one half ; and in the after part of his life,
as he will only be able to obtain inferior situations, he must calculate on laboring
personally. If he begins at twenty, however, and saves till he is fifty, the additional
time will bring his smaller sums to very nearly the same totals as those of the more ac-
complished gardener : thus —

£

5

8
10

a-year, it will

in 30 years, to

£

S.

r 280

81

448

12

560

16

841

4

1121

12

1402

"8^

M682

1962

16

2243

4

2S04

0

3364

16

.3645

4j

which will purchase :
person aged 50 vears
of that value, of

r 22

2

35

6

44

5

56

9

88

11

110

15

132

17

155

0

177

2

221

10

255

15

-288

0

7787. These calculations being made at the rate of 4 per cent, interest, and the
Northampton valuation of life, (by which a man at 50 is estimated to live 18 years longer,
while in London only 16 years,) must be considered as low rather than otherwise.

7788. The vulgar reason ivhy a young man ought to save money is, that he may get
together as much as may enable him to collect some furniture and get married. This,
however, may be called saving to produce want and misery. A young loving couple,
anxious to consummate their first wishes, will not be very nice in the quantity or quality
of their furniture. All they consider necessary is accordingly often acquired before either
are twenty. Housekeeping and propagation are commenced ; and thus the foundation laid
of a life of hard labor, scanty food, and their attendants, bad temper, and often disease.
After twenty-five years of bustle and distraction, half a score of children have been pro-
duced, and are most probably growing up in rags and ignorance ; and all that this couple
can say is that thpy have struggled hard to create nine times as much misery as that by

1146 STATISTICS OF GARDENING. Part IV.

which they are themselves oppressed. If the man had limited himself for twenty-five years
to making the heads of pins, he might have accumulated as much as would have made him
independent and comfortable, and still had sufficient time before him to marry, and enjoy
the comfort and solace of a wife and children. But the use of a wife to a gardener, and
to every man who is not independent, ought to be chiefly as the operative partner in his
domestic establishment ; to prepare his food, and keep in order his lodging and clothes.
If, in addition to these duties, she has cultivated, or will cultivate her mind so as to be-
come interesting as a companion, so much the better ; and if the parties further think
that they can attain their object of independence, and rear one or two children, let them
do so. Universal sources of happiness should never be rejected, when they can be
retained.

1147

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

The almanac thne in this kalendar is calculated for the meridian of London; but as
a kalendar of nature is given for the metropolitan district, the almanac time may, in
every part of the empire, be varied to suit the local climate and vegetation.

In general, other circumstances being alike, four days may be allowed for every de-
gree, or every 70 miles north or south of London : in spring, operations may be com-
menced earlier in that proportion southwards, and later northwards ; but in autumn the
reverse, and operations deferred as we advance southwards, and accelerated as we pro-
ceed to the north. In every case allowing a due weight to local circumstances.

JANUARY.

V\'eather
at

Average of
the Ther-
mometer.

Greatest Average
Variation „f ,,1^

TS.

REMARKS.
A cold January is reckoned seasonable. The gardener,
during this month, does not labor in the garden more
than five hours a-day ; allowing one hour more for
early and iate attendance on hot-house tires, and seven
hours for sleep, there remains eleven hours for personal
improvement. Let the young gardener, who is ambitious
of distinguishing himself from the common clay of hi«
profession, not let one of these hours run to waste, 7751.

Ix)ndon -
Edinburgh
Dublin -

35 9
34 5
29 92

6

29 56
29 194
29 721

1-957 inch.

2-994

2-697

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

Inthefir-t iwek : shelless snails (flip/zj) and earth-
worms {Lumbricus terrestiis) appear.

Second tveek .- redbreast {MotacUla rubicola)
whistles, nuthatch {Sitta eurojkea) chatters, misel-
toe-thrush {Turdus viscivoriis) sings, and wagtails
{MotacUla alba ctjlava) appear.

Third tveek .- the common lark {Alauda arvensis)
congregates.

Fourth week : snails {Helix hortensis) and slugs
{Limax ater et hyalinus) abound in sheltered parts of
gardens; the hedgc-spairo-w {Motaci/la ynodula?^)
whistles, the large titmouse {Parus major) sings, and
flies appear on windows.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In the first tieek : some plants accidentally in
flower ; and others, as the laurustinus, continued
from December.

Second week .- winter aconite {Eranthis hyemalis),
Christmas-rose {Heleborus fcetidus) in flower, and
hazel {Corylus avellana) catkins beginning to ap-
pear; common honeysuckle {Loniccra peiiclyme-
num) buds begin to api>ear.

Third tveek : primrose {Prinnda vulgaris) flowers
in sheltered places; daisy [Bellis jicrennis) and
chickweed {Alsine 7nedia) begin to flower.

Fourth tveek .- mezereon {Daphne viezereon) begins
to flower ; and sometimes spurry {Spergvla arvensis),
pansy {Viola tricolor), white scented violet {Viola
odorata), archangel {Lamimn rubruni), and colts-
foot {Tussiiago purpurea et odorata) show blossoms.

3.* Kitchen-garden. — Culinary vegeta-
bles.

Sow (2071.) early frame and Charlton peas about
the beginning, and some dwarf marrowfats about
the end of the month. (3601.) Early mazagan and
long-pod beans in the first week (3616.) and the last
(3617.) In the last fortnight, on a sheltered border,
sloping to the south, the hardy green Egyptian,
early and brown Dutch lettuces. (3970.) On a simi-
lar border, in the first and second week, early dwarf
short-topt radish ; in the last fortnight, the salmon-
colored. (37G0.)

Protect (2206.) by temporary coverings, newly
sown seeds, as lettuce, endive, celery, &c.

Transplant (2079.) strong plants of the brassica
tribe carrots, parsneps, &c., to run for seed.

Dig (1864.) and trench (1870.) vacant ground in
dry weather.

Prepare (1970.) composts and manures. Attend
to neatness (2359.), by picking up all dead leaves,
and removing all plants killed by the frost, &c.
(2355. to 2373.)

Insects, 8jc. (2276.) Destroy slugs, set traps for
mice, and remove all larvae, webs, eggs, &c.

4. Hardy fruit department.

Plant {QO".) fruit-trees in general, in open wea-
then

Protect (2206.) newly-planted trees from frost and
drought by mulching (,2098.) ; fig-trees by fronds or
mats, if you have neglected this business in October.
(4861.)

Prune (2110.) apples, pears, plums, cherries, goose,
berries, currants, and raspberries, preferring mild
weather, or only moderate frosts. Prune first such
trees as stand in compartments or borders that jou
wish to dig or dress (2579.) ; apricots in the last fort-
night, if very mild. (4535.) Loosen the extremities of
the shoots of such trees as it is not proper to prune at
present, and wash them with soap-suds and sulphur,
or scalding water if insects are suspected. (2276.)

Dig (18t>4.) and stir the earth round trees which
have been pruned ; trench ground intended for trees.

Stake newly planted trees. (2098.)

Clean trees from moss, mistletoe, &c. (2624.) Guard
against hares, by tarring or lime-whiting their
stems, or tying thorns round them. (2222.)

Destroy (2280.) insects by washes, or hot water,
applied both to walls and trellises, and to the trees.

Fruit.room and cellar. (2298.) Look over the
fruit in open boxes or shelves, and pick out decayed
or tainted ones ; but do not touch the casks of fruit
in the cellar. (2299.)

5. Culinary hot-house department.

Glass case without heat. (2686.) Sow radishes,
lettuce, carrots, small-salads (3399.) ; and peas and
beans for transplanting. (3616.)

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Prepare for making up
hot-beds for early cucumbers (3178.) and melons
(3281.), if you have not begun in November. Sow
early radishes, and small-salading on slight hot-beds.
(4078.) Sow carrot on a slight hot-bed, to produce a
crop for drawing in April and May. (3400.) Kidney-
beans, peas, potatoes (;3367. 3681. 3683.), &c. may be
sown and planted on slight hot-beds in small pots, to
fit them for transplanting. (7446.) Force asparagus
(3349.), sea-kale (3366.) and tart-rhubarb {S366.), on
hot-beds, or in pits, or in the open garden. (3398. and

Pinery. (2697.) Give air and water sparingly to
pmes ; sow kidneybeans ; take in strawberries.

Forcing.houses. (2940. and 3063.) Give air and
water, and, according to the progress your trees have
made, increase your stimuli of every description.
Attend to kidneybeans and strawberries, wherever
you have any stove-room. (3367. and 3338.)

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.
Plant {2(fn.) dried roots of border.flowers, if not

1148

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

done before ; but defer planting bulbs of the finer
florists' flowers till February, unless the weather is
very mild. (6502.)

Transplant (2079.) daisies, and other edgings, if
the weather is line, and it was not done before. (6528.)

Protect (2206.) choice i>lants by matting, litter,
cases of wicker-work, old bark, and all other proper
means, observing to do it with due attention to
neatness in this department of gardening. (2359.)
Attend to the finer sorts of tulips, which will emerge
from the ground by the end of the month ; hoop
them over, and apply mats. {o-25'-Z.) Ranunculuses
and anemones, which have been planted in Novem-
ber, will require a similar attention. (6270.)

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without heat. (2686.) Attend to the
alpines (6537.) : they should have air every dry day,
and must, in very severe weather, be protected by
mats, and even litter, to imitate their native snow
covering at this season. Mignonette and other
prolonged annuals, as stocks, sweetpeas, &c. will
require similar attention. (6486.) Look to choice
auriculas (6j75.) and polyanthuses (6398.) ; keep
them plunged in frames in old tan, or, what is better,
saw dust, or ashes. In general, never attempt to
keep a potted plant through the winter in a cold
frame, unless it be plunged, or the pots be standing
very close together.

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Begin to force roses
(p218.) and other shrubs, and hardy flowers, as
well as bulbs, if you have not begun in November :
put bulbs in blowing-glasses. (6503.)

Green-house. (6211.) Minim, temp, for this month,
40 deg., max. at fire-heat, 44 deg. See that the most
delicate plants be in the warmest part of the house,
in so far as is consistent with other arrangements :
give air freely in fine weather, and water at all
times sparingly. (6212 )

Dry-stove. (6176.) Min. temp, for this month 45
deg. with fire-heat ; water very sparingly, but give
«ir every fine day. (6212.)

Bark, or 7noist stove. (6214.) The minimum tem-
perature for this department, with fire-heat, may be
58 deg. and maximum 70 deg. : water and give air
with discretion.

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.
Plant [2011.) most sorts of deciduous trees in fine

weather, and deciduous hedges. (6838. and 6816.)

Pru'te (2110.) native and naturalised deciduous
shrubs and trees (6884.) ; cut deciduous hedges (6899) ;
attend to the weather: only the very hardiest
natives are to be cut during frosts and snows. (6889.)
Digging. (1864.) Continue this operation in the
interior of masses and groups, as well as in the
shrubberies and other screen plantations. Where
the exterior abounds with flowering shrubs and
plants, it should have been dug in autumn, and
must not be deferred till next month.

Dress turf (6191.) and gravel {WFu) : the former
may be done in moist, but the latter only in dry
weather.

Form and repair lawns and turf verges, in mild
weather. (2100. and 2101.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Lai/ out (6973.) ground for a nursery, if not done
in autumn ; gather all manner of tree-seeds. (6982.)

Dig (1864.) and trench (1870.) vacant ground be-
tween the rows of plants, which are to stand a yea.
longer : fill up any vacancies as you go along. (7470^

Lift (2081.') plants fit for planting out.

Prune (2110.) nursery plants before planting: do
this in sheds, and keep the roots covered with mat-
ting or moss.

Gather (2292.) cones of the larch and other firs,
and of the pine tribe. (6984.)

Protect (2206.) beds of germinating seeds with
straw or litter ; put other tender seedlings in pots
under frames, or mats and hoops, from birds, mice,
snails, and other vermin. (2220.)

Rotting-ground (6979.) : turn over the different
layers frequently, and see that none of them are
soaked with water.

Seed-loft and cellar (6980.) : look to all the sort."*
of seeds in these departments ; whether buried in
sand, or in heaps, layers, baskets, drawers, or bags.

Destroy (2280.) vermin, and, in bad weather, cut
and paint tallies and prepare parchment labels,
number-sticks, hooks for laying, &c. (1517.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Prepare (6817.1 ground for grove or screen planta-
tions ; for useful strips ; for detached, and for hedge-
row trees ; and planting in general. (6878.)

Plant (2077.), in dry weather, deciduous trees,
Scotch pine, and larch fir. (6997.)

Prune (2110.) deciduous trees, and also larch fir
and Scotch pine groves (6892.), hedge-row trees,
and indeed deciduous forest-trees in every form
(6884.) ; cut and plash, repair and renovate,
and complete hedges of deciduous plants or trees.

Enclose and fence (6820 1 ground intended to be
planted (6822 ) by posts and rails in all weathers
(6820 ) ; but by mortar walls, in mild weather only.
(682.3.') ^ .. , .

Fell (6954.) timber-trees, where the bark is no
object. ,. . ...

Thin (6005.) crowded plantations, distinguishmg
betweea such as consist of sorts fit for barkmg, or
transplanting, and sorts for consumption in any of
the usual forms of young trees, or coppices (6906.
and 6915.), and otherwise prepare for planting the
more extensive (6817.) sites. (6820. to 6851.) • _

E.rcavate and remove ground for forming pieces
of water, &c. (1945. and 7217.)

FEBRUARY.

London

Edinburgh

Dublin

42 3
36 6

43 78

Average

of the

Barometer.

29 94
'29 55)

30 091

0-S73 inch.
224

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week : hees {Apis mellifera) come out
of their hives, gnats {Culex) play about, insects (/«-
sectte) swarm under sunny hedges, and the earth-
worm {Lnmbricus terrestris) lies out; hen-chaf-
finches {Fringilla) flock, and the song-thrush, or
throstle ( Tardus tnusicus), and common lark {Alauda
arvensis) sing. , .,, , . n. \ „a

Second week : the buntings {Embcrixa alba) and.
linnets {Fringilla linota) appear in flocks ; sheep
{0ms aries) drop their lambs; geese {Anas anser)
begin to lay. ., , . • i.

Third iveek: rooks {Corvus frugdegus) begin to
pair, and resort to their nest-trees ; house-sparrows
{Frin<rilla domestica) chirp, and begin to build ; the
chaffinch {Fringilla carlebs) sings.

REMARKS.

This month (theipnng- or sprout kale month of the Saxons)
is usually subject to much rain, or snow ; ei her is ac-
counted seasonable : the old proverb being, " February
fill dike with either black or white." Early forced articles,
and especially cucumbers and peaches, require great
care during this month ; when the sun does not appear
lor several days, danger is to be apprehended from damps,
and at other times from chills.

Fourth week : the partridge ( Tetrad perdrix) begins
to pair, the blackbird {Turd^is mertda) whistles, and
the field and wootl larks {Alauda arvensis et arborea)
sing ; the lien {Phasianus gallus) sits.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In the first week : the snowdrop {Galanthus ni-
valis^, whin (L7(?;r europanis),^\\\te deadnettle {La-
mium albtimy, polyanthus {Primula veris) flowers ;
and the elder {Sambucus nigral, and some roses and
honeysuckles, begin to expand their leave.".

Second week : common crowfoot {Ranunculus re-
pens'', dandelion {Leontodon taraxacum), and the
female flowers of hazel {Corylus avellana) appear.

Third iveek : veronica agrestis in flower ; many of
the poplar and wiUow tribe show their catkins ; and

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

1149

also the yew {Tiuusbnccata),a}deT{Alnuscommftnis),
tile tulip \Tulipa), crown-imperial {Fritillaria iin-
perialiSy and various other bulbs, boldly emerging
Irom the ground.

Fourth voeek : the erica camea, wood strawberry
{Fragaria vesca), some speedwells (^Veronica), the
groundsel, and sometimes the stock and wall-
flower ( Cheiranthus', , in flower. Some sorts of goose-
berries, apricots, and peaches, beginning to open
their buds.

3. Kitchen-garden. — Culinary vegeta-
bles.

Sow (2071.) radishes at twice or thrice (3700.) ;
round-leaved spinage twice ,3771.), lettuce for suc-
cession (5970.^, peas snd beans in the beginning and
end of the month (ooOl. and .^616.) ; some early cab-
bages to replace any plants of the last August sowing :
at theendof the raonth,red cabbage. (34^. and 3518.)
In the last week savovs (3519.) ; in the last Ibrtnight
dill, chervil, and fennel C4097.to 4109), early Horn car-
rot near the end of the month (3718.), early Dutch
turnip in the last fortnight ,3698.\ small salads every
fortnight (4078.\ onions for a full crop in the last
week, and a few leeks at the same time. (3816. and
3835.)

Temporary coverings. (2206.) Cover with litter,
fronds of spruce and silver tir, mats, and other
means, as circumstances may require

Plant \^^in.) Jerusalem artichokes (3692.), chives,
gariic, shalots (3838. to 3847.), horse-radish (4113.),
licorice (4245.), ^nd potatoes. (3676.)

Propagate, by rooted offsets (1988.), mint, balip,
sorrel, penny- royal, tansy, tarragon, fennel, and
Lumet. V4081. to 4131.)

Transplant C^ld.) for seed, if it was not done in
autumn, the Lr.issica tribe, onions, carrots, turnips,
beet, cekry, endive, parsneps, and leeks.

Dig (1864) and trench ^1870.) vacant ground in
moiltrate weatiitr, and perform all other operations
of this kind only in dry weather.

Destroy insects by the usual means. (2280.1

Store-r.jom. Look over onions, and other dried
roots. (1704. and 1705.)

To<d rojiii. See that tools are always cleaned
before being laid by at this season. (1706.)

4. Hardy fruit department.

Plant iWli.) all sorts of fruit-trees, when the
weather is fine (4331.) : strawberries towards the end
of the month. ;4717.)

Protect roots of new-planted trees by mulching
(2o9S.} ; tops of apricot, plum, peach, andnectanne
trees com ng into blossom. (22o6.)

Prune (.2110.) apricots, peaches, and nectarines,
before the blossom-buds are much swelled (4480.
to 4550.) ; apples and pears before the end of the
month (4369. and 4433.) : finish vines ,2965.), and
naii them, and also gooseberries, currants, and rasp-
berries. (45.34. 4670. 4680. and 4696.)

Prepare ground for planting (2077.) ; spring-dress
strawberry-plants ; dig and dress ground where the
trees are pruned ; support newly planted trees with
stakes i209S.) ; clear the bark of trees of moss, &c. ;
fence orchard trees where sheep, cattle, or hares
muy be expected. (2624.)

Destroy insects. (2280.}

Fruit-room. (2298.) Keep continually examining
the loose Iruit, whether in the open shelves, or
close drawers : remove all tainted specimens.

Fruit-cellar. (2299.) Sucii fruit as is put up in
close casks, and sealed or plastered up to exclude
the air, will require no further attention than keep-
ing out extreme frosts, so as the temperature may
stand between 32 and 40 degrees.

5. Culinary hot-house department.

Glass case without heat. (£686.) Sow lettuces, small
salads, &c. as in last month (3399.), plant potatoes.
(3381.)

HotJ)eds and pits. (2678.) In the first week begin
to force cucumbers and melons : in general, the beils
now^ set to work produce finer fruit than those put
in action sooner. (3164. and 3271.) Continue sowings
of salads (3399.), and kidneybeans (3367.) ; begin
or continue to force asparagus, potatoes, sea-
kale, tart-rhubarb, &c. (4203.) ; sow a few seeds
of early cabbage and cauliflower plants for early
planting.

Mushroom-beds. Protect established beds, and
spawn new ones (3430.) : keep up the heat of all hot-
beds by linings. (1976.)

Pinery. (2697.) Attend to the proper temperature
(2847. and 2872. ) : pines want little air or water at th is
season. See that suckers on dung-heat are not too
moist.

Forcing department. (2910.) If you have not begun
before, this is a very good time to commence with
most sorts of fruits, peaches, cherries, vines, &c.
Set in strawberries ana other plants in pots, also
fruit-trees and shrubs, and plant kidneylieans ;
apply stimuh by degrees, but, having once begun to
excite, do not decline, otherwise you protluce an in-
jurious check to vegetation. See to the stems of
vines which are outside the forcing-houses and
stoves which are at work. (3012. and 3031.)

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Sow (2071.) a few hardy annuals in the last fort-
night, if the weather be fine : most of the sorts are
better deferred till the end of March. (6507.) Mig-
nonette and ten-weeks' stocks, in a warm border,
to be protected in severe weather. (2206. and 6486.)

Propagate hardy plants from the root and herb ;
but September or March are better seasons. (6490.)

Plant dried roots, when the weather is open and
dry. (6501.)

Transplant (2079.), if the last fortnight be fit
weather, the hardier biennial and perennial border-
fiowers. (6490. and 6505.)

Shelter and protect (2206.) by all the usual means;
but take care not to exclude air and light a moment
longer than is absolutely necessary.

Prepare vacant ground for plants and trees, also
composts for plants in pots. (1981.)

Bees. Feed such hives as are weak. (1748.)

7. Flower- garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without heat. (2686.) Dress select auri-
culas, and cover them at night to promote their
growth (6376); sow ten-weeks' stocks, and migno-
nette, for successional supply. (6218. and 6486.)

Hot-beds and pits. (,2678.) In the last week, prepare
for tender annuals, continue to force bulbs, a»d the
usual sorts of border-flowers and Dutch roots in
dung-beds and pits heatetl by fermentable substances,
steam, or by smoke-flues. (6503.)

GreenJiousc. (6211.) Minimum heat for this
month, 40 deg. maximum, with fire-heat, 44 deg.
Give air freely in fine weather, but water sparingly ;
the alternate' drying by fire-heat, and then mace-
rating by watering, is a sure way of killing tender
plants in small pots.

Park, or moist stove. (6214.) Give air whenever
the thermometer rises to 70 deg. or under it, if the
sun shines, keeping up your fire and bottom heat.
Begin to propagate by the usual modes ; attend to
neatness and routine culture.

Dry-stove. (6176.) Min. 45 deg., max. with fire-
heat, 50 deg. Give water and air as in January.

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.
Plant {^11.) deciduous trees and hedges, as iu

January ; deciduous shrubs after the middle of the
month. (6138. 6160. and 6189.)

Prune (2110.) as before, finishing most sorts by the
middle of the month, if possible. (6190.)

Dig (1864.) as before, and include the flower and
shrubbery borders towards the end of the month.
Sweep and roll gravel-walks and lawns (6191.) ; trim
the edges of verges with a weeding-iron ; remove
mosses and weeds everywhere. (6201.)

Form and prepare lawns and gravel-walks, as
directed for last month. ,2100. and 2101.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.
Fruit-trees. Sov/ kernels and fruit-stones (7011.

and 7016.) ; lay quince, walnut, and mulberry trees ;
plant cuttings of the gooseberry, currant, and elder.
Lay or graft the berberry, hazel-nut, and filbert.
7031.) Preserve cuttings of the vine and fig in
dry earth (4809.) ; plant suckers of the raspbern' ;
prepare for grafting. (204.3.)

Ornamental shrubs. Sow hardv deciduous sorts ;
lay and plant cuttings, and take o'ff suckers for pro-
pagation; plant out in nursery rows, and prune
deciduous kinds. (7031.)

Forest trees. (6982. to 7031.) Sow mountain ash,
hornbeam, wild cherry, hawthorn, ash-keys, hazel-
nut, aconis, walnuts, finish and horse chestnuts,
&c.

-/^ X-^X ^ 4^JX. /-r-^^i: i^i^^/d-

/^

V

1150

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

holly and yew in the last fortnight. Plant cuttings
of poplar, elder, and willow; lay in seedling larches;
gather pine and larch cones. (6982.)

Fork up (1872.), dig (1864.), or trench (1870.), be-
tween nursery rows, not intended for removal this
season (7037.) ; weed and remove decayed leaves,
attending as much as possible to order and neat-
ness. (2359.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations, and
park-scenery.

Plant (2077.) fences of deciduous trees (6820.) ;
forest trees of all the deciduous sorts, in mild

weather; ornamental deciduous sorts, not very
tender, in fine weather.

Pi-une (2110.) deciduous sorts, excepting such sorts
as are apt to bleed, as the wild cherry, birch, and
sycamore, or the resinous and evergreen tribes,
which are best pruned in summer, autumn, or late
in spring.

Thin and fell timber and young trees, as for last
montii : remember not to touch bark-woods this
month. (6905. and 6954 )

Operate (1862 ) on ground, with a view to forming
roads, pieces of water, and other effects of land-
scape-gardening. (7195 )

MARCH.

London -
Edinburgh
DuhUn -

Average of
the Ther-
mometer.

Greatest
Variation
from the
Average.

Average

of the

Barometer.

30 20

5>S 886
29 707

0-716 inch.

1-455

2-364

REMARKS.
The beginning of March usually concludes the winter ,
and the end of the month is generally indicative of the
succeeding spring; according to the proverb, "March
comes in like a lion, and goes out like a lamb. ' The
Saxons called this month the leni^theninj: month, in allu-
sion to the increasing of the days. The most laborious
period of the gardener's year is the last half of this
month ; and the first fortnight of April.

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week : the ring-dove {Columba palam-
bus) coos, the white wagtail {Motacilla alba) sings,
and the yellow wagtail {Motacilla flava) appears ;
the earthworm {Lumbricus terrestris), and the snail
{Helix), and slug (Limax), engender.

Second week : the jackdaw {Corvus monoedula) be-
gins to come to churches ; the tomtit ( Parus cceru-
leus) makes its spring note ; brown wood-owls
{Strix ulula) hoot ; and the small tortoise-shell
butterfly {Papilio urticce, L.) appears.

Third week : the marsh titmouse {Parus palustr is)
begins his notes; various flies {Muscte) appear;
the fox (Cams vulpis) smells rank; the turkey-
cock {Meleagris gallo-pavo) struts and gobbles.

Fourth week : the yellowhammer {Emberiza
citrinella) and green woodpecker (Picas viridis)
sing; rooks, ravens (Corvi), and house-pigeons
(Columbi) build ; the goldfinch {Fringilla carduelis)
sings; field-crickets (iSc«r«6^Ms) open their holes;
and the common flea {Pulex irritans) appears.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
liOndon.

In the first week : various species of the pine,
larch, and fir tribes in full flower ; the rosemary
{Ros??iarinus officinalis), the willow [Salix), and
bay {Laurus nobilis), in blossom ; various trees and j
shrubs beginning to open their buds. |

Second week : the common honeysuckle (Lonicera
periclymenuni) and some roses in leaf; crocus ver-
nus, and other subspecies, and some scillre, in
flower ; pilewort (Ficaria) and creeping crowfoot
(Ranunculus repens), hepatica and elder {Sambucus
nigra), sometimes in leaf.

Third week : saxifraga oppositifolia, draba verna,
daphne pontica and collina, and loniccra nigra, in
flower.

Fourth week : the peach and nectarine, apricot,
corchyrus japonicus, pyrus japonica, crown-imperial,
saxifraga crassifolia,buxussempervirens, and other
plants in warm situations in flower, or just ad-
vancing to that state.

3. Kitchen-garden. — Culinary veget-
ables.

Sow (2071.) the main crops of most esculents.
Drum-headed and Scotch cabbages for field-culture.
(3492.) Peas (3601.), beans (3616.), lettuce (3970 ),
spinage (3771.), and small salads every fortnight.
C4079.) Indian cress (4119.), a few savoys (3519.)
for an early crop ; and towards the end for a full
crop. Onions (3816.) for a full crop; and leeks
(3835.), some red and white cabbage (3492. and 3512),
full crops of carrots (3718.) and parsneps. (3727.)
Asparagus in the third week. (3862.) Cauliflower
in the last fortnight, for a full crop (3548.) ; bore-
coles (3529.), and Brussels sprouts for autumn and
winter crops. (3524.) In the last fortnight, sea-
kale (3902 ), cardoons (3933), turnips (3698.) celery
(4003.), alisanders (39.50.), and most culinary aro-
matics, as parsley, dill, fennel, &c. (4081.) In the
last week, summer savoys (3519.), and mustard for
«eed. (4(>27.)

Plant {2011.), in the first fortnight, horse-radish
(4114), licorice (4245.), chives, shallots, and gar-
lic (3810.), old store onions, as scallions or small
bulbs for a full crop of large bulbs. Jerusalem
artichokes and sea-kale, and in the last fortnight,
potatoes for a full crop. (3676.)

Temporary coverings (2206.) : continue these as
in last month.

Propagate edible perennials by sUps and oflTsets
(1988. and 1989)

Transplant the brassica tribe, lettuce, and aspa-
ragus. Fill up vacancies. (2496.)

Dig, &c. as in last month (;i864.) from composts
and earths in heaps or hills. (1977. and 1981.).

Destroy insects. (2280.)

Store-room. Remove decaying articles, and admit
plenty of air, &c. (1704. and 1705.)

4. Hardy fruit department.

Plant (2077.) fruit-trees in general. The fig (4851.)
and mulberry may now be planted. (4607.) Finish
planting gooseberry-trees before the middle of the
month, and currants and raspberries by the end.
(4642 4670. and 4696.) Alpine and wood straw-
berries may be planted, though autumn is preferable,
(4717.)

/Vo/fc^ roots by mulching (2098.), and trees coming
into blossom by the usual means.

Prune (2110) till the middle of the month; but
finish then if possible. If not, apricots may be
pruned till the 5th (4532.), peaches and nectarines
till the 15th (4498.), gooseberries to the 7th, red and
white currants to the 10th or 12th, and the black
currant to the 20th. (4646. and 4675.)

Dig and dress between rows of currant-trees,
and other fruit-trees where this operation has not
been done before. Dress any strawberry beds you
have not been able to do before. (4719.)

Destroy insects. (2280.)

Fruit-room. (2298.) Examine thefruit in the room;
take care not to leave open the door of the cellar so
as to raise its temperature above 40 degrees.

5. Culinary hot-house department.
Glass case without heat: Sow kidneybeans to

receive a few weeks' protection. Remove frames
from cauliflower-plants. (3545.)

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Go on with hot-beds for
cucumbers and melons. (3164.) Sow a few turnips
on a gentle hot-bed to come in early. (3399.) Sow
all sorts of culinary annuals. Give air and apply
linings to maintain the proper temperatures. (1976.)
Attend to pine suckers and crowns ; shirt any that
may require larger pots, and examine the roots of
such as are sickly. (2718.)

Pinery. (2697.) Keep sowing kidneybeans, and
filling spare corners with strawberry-pots for suc-
cession. See that your bark-pit be in proper heat,
and attend to the temperature for this month, and
the other points of culture. Pines are now generally
shifted. (2918.)

Forcing department. (2940.) Attend to the cul-
ture of each pjttticular kind ; and generally to keep
down insects by watering ; promote setting of fruit
by air, and encourage growth by steaming or filling
the house with vapors by powerful fires and water-
ings over the leaves and every part of the house .

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

1151

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground, de-
partment.

Saw (2071.) hardy annuals (6507.) in the second,
third, and last week ; and some of the more robust
half-hardy annuals about the end of the month.
(6513.) Such biennials as flower the same year, as
honesty, scabious, bastard rocket, sweet allyson,
clary, Chinese hollyhock, and Indian pink. (6505.)
Biennials in general, and also perennials towards
the end of the month. (6493.)

Propagate by rooted slips and offsets ; but next
month is preferable for rootless slips and cuttings.
(2063.)

P/ant dried roots : finish with the anemone_and
ranunculus in the first fortnight. (6256. and 687o )

Transplant annuals from the patches in the bor-
ders, and biennials and perennials from the flower-
garden nursery, into their final sites. (6110.)

Skelter choice border and all florists' flowers in
severe weather. (22u6.)

Dig, dress, hoe, rake, &c. only in dry weather.
Clean up all borders, and prepare vacant ground.
(186*. to 1881.)

Bees. Feed weak hives as in last month. (1748.)

7.' Flower garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without heat. (268&) Take care of
alpines and prolonged annuals, remove all weeds,
and be discreet in your waterings. (2078.) _ Cover
auricula- frames in very severe nights (6375.) ; by
keeping them rather warm at this season they will
come up with fine tall stalks to support their mag-
nificent trusses. Sow half-hardy annuals for trans-
planting, they will come into flower as soon as those
sown in the open air last month. (6513.) Take care
of the hardy succulents. (6592.)

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) In the first fortnight
sow half-hardy annuals on a slight hot-bed for
transplanting to come in first. (6513.) Sow^ tender
annuals at any period of the month. (6725.) Plant
tuberoses in pots for forcing. (6323.) Force roses
and other flowering or odoriferous shrubs and all
desirable hardy flowers in pots. Sow seeds of green-
house and hot-house plants to be propagated in this
way. Plant cuttings for the same end. (2063.)

Green-house. (6211.) Make no fires unless the
thermometer, in the open air, falls to 2>5 deg. ;
45 deg. with fire-heat will be a good medium heat
in this month. Begin to propagate by cuttings.
(6627.)

Dry-stove. (6176.) A good medium heat for this
month will be 55 deg. which may be kept up with
very little fire-heat. Give water uioderately, but
see that what you do give wets the earth, and does
not escape between the ball and the edge of the
pot. Give air freely in fine weather.

Bark, or moist stove. (6214.) Give air in general,
as in last month. If you wish to promote a vigor-
ous growth, shift your plants into a rich compost,
water over tlie top about three o'clock, and then shut
the house close up for the night. Do this only when
the temperature has been up to SO deg. (2205.)

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.

' Plant {2011.) deciduous trees and shrubs, also de-
ciduous hedges j finish as early as possible, unless

the season be unusually backward. Evergreens of
the hardier sorts towards the end of the month.
(6541. and 6572.) , ,

Prune (2110.) deciduous trees and cut hedges, and
finish this work as early as possible. In pruning
plants, where the chief object is their flowers,
attend to their mode of bearing these. In short,
never begin to cut a tree before having a clear and
distinct idea of what you wish to attain — is it
health, shape, size, leaves, shoots, flowers, or roots?

Dress winter and autumn dug shrubberies.
Mulch, stoke, water, and attend to neatness. (2359.)
Dress and roll turf and gravel ; attend to the mar-
gins with the turf-raser. (1317.)

Form and repair gravel- walks. In some situations
imitotion gravel-walks require to be turned every
two or three years and partially renewed. (1960.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.
Fruit-trees. Sow kernels for stocks ; lay the vine
and the fig (4808. and 4848.) ; plant cuttings and eyes
of the vine in the open air, or in pots, to be placed
in a moist heat. Graft towards the middle of the
month, or sooner or later, according to the season.
Plant out seedling stocks in nursery rows. (7031.)
Head down newly budded and gratted trees not
intended to be removed. (2039.)

Orimynental trees and shrubs. Sow seeds of the
hardier sorts. Evergreens may be sown in the last
week. Finish laying deciduous kinds, plant cuttings
and suckers, and gratt some rare sorts towards the
end of the month. Plant out layers, cuttings, and
suckers in nursery rows. (7031.)

Forest trees. (6982.) Sow nuts, keys, and berries,
and also birch and alder seed. In the last fortnight
begin to sow evergreens. Plant cuttings, suckers,
&c. as in February. Plant out from the seed-bed or
cutting-border in nursery lines. Dig between the
rows of trees and shrubs not intended to be removed
this season.

Weed, hoe, rake, and stir the surface in fine
weather. Dig between nursery lines, where the
plants are not to be removed. (6982. to 7031.)

Shelter and protect from cold, birds, and vermin.
(2206. and 2289.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Plant all sorts of deciduous trees and shrubs, the
Scotch pine and larch firs. (6983.) Towards the end
plant most sorts of evergreens. (6572.) Hedges of
evergreens. Fill up blanks in plantotions of two or
more years' standing.

Head down trees intended to stole for underwood,
or to produce single leaders for timber-trees or
poles. (6829 and 6894.)

Fell and thin trees and copse ; but the barking
sorts not till the end of the month, when they will
part with the bark. (6941.)

Sow forests and woods ; about the middle of the
month is a good time, as the crow*, rooks, and other
vermin will be less likely to annoy the seeds, having
the farmer's progeny toattock. (,6828.)

Operations on groilnd, and masonry, may now go
on with the utmost vigor; the days having attained
a suthcient length, and the weather being generally
dry : external brick walls for gardens, however,
are better deferred tiU May, when all danger from
frost will be over.

APRIL.

Average of
the Ther-
mometer.

Greatest

Variation

I from the

I Average.

London - [ 49 9
Edinburgh 46 3
Dublin - 51 125

Average

of the

Barometer.

of Rain.

29 77
29 873
29 909

REMARKS.
Qu^tity The weather of this month is distinguished by the lapidity
of its changes. It is generally stormy, interspersed with
gleams of sunsliine, hail, snow, some frost, and occasion-
ally violent storms of wind. Fruit-tree blossoms and
half-hardy plants require protection and particular at-
tention during this month. The young gardener, while
at work, may study the gemmation and foliation of trees,
and the gaiety and delicacy of newly expanded foliage.

1-460 inch.

2-414

2-561

1 . Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week : the viper (Coluber bents) and
woodlou«e {Onisais asellus) appear; the mistletoe-
thrush iTurdus viscivorus) pairs; frogs {Ranee) croak
and spawn ; and- moths (Phalcente) appear.

Second week : the stone curlew (Charadrius cedic-
vemus) clamors; young frogs (Rana temporaria)
appear ; the pheasant [Phasianus) crows ; the trout
fSalmo truita) rises ; and spiders (Aranece'i abound.

Third week ; the crested wren {Motacilla regulus)
sings ; the blackbird ( Turdus merula), raven (Corims
corax), pigeon (Columba domestica), hen (Phasianus
gallus), and duck {Anas boscha) sit ; various insects
appear ; and the MAfare (Turdus pilaris) is still here.

Fourth week .- the swallow (Hirundo rustica) re-
turns; the nightingale (Motacilla lucinia) sings;
the bittern (Ardea rotellaria) makes a noise ; the
house-martin (Hirundo urbica) appears ; the black-
cap (Motacilla atracapilla) whistles; and the common
snake (Coluber natrix) appears.

152

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In the first weele : the daffodil (Narcissus pseudo.
narcissus), the garden-hyacinth {.Hyacintlius orieii-
talis), the wallflower (Cheiranthus cheiri), the cowslip
Primula officinalis), the periwinkle (Tinea), sloe
Prunus spinosa), and various other herbs anri trees
in flower.

Second week: the ground-ivy (G/erAowa hederacea),
gentianella (Gentiana acaulis), pulmonana virginica,
the auricula, iberis sempervirens, cynoglossum om-
phalodes and most of the common Iruit-trees, and
fruit-shrubs in flower.

Third week : some robiniae, andromedfe, kalmi^,
and other American shrubs ; daphne laureola, ulmus
campestris, chrysosplenium oppositifolium, mercu-
rialis perennis, and other plants, in flower.

Fourth week : the beech (Fagus) and elm ( Ulmus)
in flower ; ivy-berries drop from the racemes ; the
larch in leaf, and the tulip and some white narcissi
and fritillaries in flower.

8. Kitchen -garden. — Culinary vegetables.

Sow; seakale for a full breadth ; lettuce, small sa-
lads, and radishes, twice or tlirice in the month. Peas
and beans (36()1. and 3617.), broccoli thrice (3555.),
borecoles in the first week (3529.), cabbages and
savoys twice (3492. and 3519.), spinage for succession
(3771,), turnips twice (3698.), silver-skinned onions
every three weeks during summer for drawing ;
onions, leeks, and cardoons, in the first week, for
a general crop (3929.) ; celery, in the first fortnight,
for a general crop (4(i03.), mustard for seed (4027.),
carrots, in the second or third week, for a main
crop (3717.), kidneybeans, in the second week, for
an early, and in the last week for a late crop (3634.);
asparagus andparsneps, in the first or second week,
but not later (3727.) ; red beet, in the third week,
for a full crop, and also nasturtiums, salsify, scor-
zonera and skirret. (3740.) Sow culinary aromatics
and herbs, if not done in March. (4131.)

Propagate by bulbs and dried roots. (1987.) Finish
planting the main crops of potatoes. (3676.)

Propagate perennial culinary plants by slips and
offsets, as all the pot-herus, aromatics, &c. (1988.)

Transplant lettuce, cabbages, seakale, celery,
and cauliflowers. (2079.)

Dress artichoke and asparagus beds, or compart-
ments. (3925. and 3884. ) Hoe and th in spinage, on lons,
turnips j earth up cauliflowers and cabbages, seakale
for blanching, peas, beans, and potatoes. Stick peas,
tie up lettuces, destroy weeds, and stir the ground
in fine weather. (2591.)

Attend to insects, and to the store-room. (2280.
and 6980.)

4. Hardy fruit department.

Plant cherries, plums, apples, and pears, till the
10th ; apricots and gooseberries till the 5th ; peaches
and nectarines till the 15th ; but defer till autumn
what you cannot accomplish by this period, unless
the season is unusually backward. {iOlT.)

P7otect as in last month. (2206.)

Prune, if you have delayed it ; but expect vines
to bleed, and stone-fruits in general to be much
injured by the operation, if not performed very
early in the month, and even that is too late. In
the last days of the month,, rub off the buds
of vines which appear where you do not wish
shoots. (4826.)

Routine culture. Water, mulch, stake, and fence.
Weed strawberry-beds, and pinch off runners,
where you do not wish to have young plants.

Destroy insects, and especially the thrips, which
will begin to appear on forward peach-trees ; pick
off caterpillars. .(2280.)

Fruit-roam. Turn, pick, wipe, and air the more
choice dessert fruits ; and look also to the baking
apples and pears. (2298.)

Fruit-cellar. Attend to the temperature, and
never break open a cask till you are in want of its
contents. (2299.)

5. Culinary hot-bouse department.

Glass-case without artificial heat. If the season
is backward, sow in the first week kidneybeans, to
be protected till the weather is mild. flK86.)

Hot-beds. Continue preparing a succession of beds
for ridging and hilling out cucumbers and melons.
Sow, transplant, shift, &c. all esculents, or pot-herbs,
which are tender annuals, as gourd, basil, love-
apple, capsicum. Maintain the proper degrees of

heat by linings. See to pine-suckers. Plant crowns
and suckers taken off in the winter. (2712. to 2717.)

Pinery. Attend to routine culture : shift the
plants, reinforce the bottom heat, water and give
air as judgment founded on experience, reflection, .
and vigilant attention shall direct. The pine is a
very diiHcult plant to kill, but it requires constant
and powerful heat, and rich loamy soil, and also
water more abundantly than is often given to it, to
produce largo, well flavored fruit ; attend to minor
articles grown or forced in the pinery, as vines,
fruit-trees in pots, cucumbers, kidneybeans, and
strawberries. (3338.)

Fo7-cing department. All that it is proper, in our
opinion, to say here, is " guard against supineness :
there is much less danger from your ignorance than
from your indifference or want of vigilance." (2360.)

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Soiu annuals ; all the sorts for a main crop, or for
a succession, if you have sown them in March (G507.) ;
half-hardy annuals in warm borders there to re-
main. ((5513.) Biennials and perennials should be
sown as early in the month as possible.

Propagate by rooted and unrooted slips and off-
sets. (1988.)

Transplant all sorts from the nursery to the bor-
ders (2079.) ; tender and half-hardy annuals from the
hot-beds to the borders. (6509.)

Routine culture. Weed, hoe, rake, stir the sur-
face, remove all decayed leaves and stalks as soon as
the plants have done flowering, unless you select a
stalk or two occasionally for seed. Never leave all
the flower-stems for this purpose, and seldom all
the pods or seed-vessels which are on a stem, as that
would weaken the plants.

Protect your auriculas from the extremes of every
description of weather : if placed on a stage facing
the north, or set on a shaded paved platform about
three feet high, they will be better than if conti-
nued in the frames. (6383. and 6384.)

Destroy insects, and especially pick the grubs
from the leaves of rose-trees : if you do not attend
to this, you will have no blow worth looking at.
(2280.)

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without artificial heat. Alpines may
now be entirely uncovered, and also prolonged an-
nuals and most half-hardy sorts ; a few half-hardy
annuals may still be sown, if not done in proper
season. ((5513.)

UotJjeds and pits. Shift frequently such tender
annuals as you mean to come to a handsome size,
more especially balsams. (6481.) Sow more seed, if
you have not enough of plants ; plant out some in
the borders to grow strong broad plants, especially
balsams and combs in very warm situations. Plant
tuberose roots, and shift those which are coming
forward, if they appear to be stinted in their growth.
(6323.) Attend to pots of cuttings, and seedlings
from either of the following departments (6683.) : —

Green-house. Fire-heat may generally be dis-
pensed with in this month. Go on propagating by
all the methods in use ; this is the fittest season
of the year : a good deal depends on taking off,
making, and putting in the cuttings, but nothing
will answer, if constant attention is not paid to keep
them in a medium state as to air, heat, and mois-
ture afterwards. (6634.)

Dry-stove. No fire will here be necessary, except-
ing when the thermometer in the open air is under
40 deg. or 42 deg. Propagate by the usual means,
which in general for succulents is cuttings; attend
to bulbs now coming into flower. (6654. and 6658.)

Bark or moist stove. Go on, as in last month,
shifting, propagating, and stimulating as the nature
of the different hot-house plants requires, and as
your views or duties inculcate : never forget neat-
ness, and removal of dust,* insects, &c. (6688. to 6716.)

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.
Plant (2077.) such sorts of deciduous shrubs as you

deemed too tender to plant last month ; but finish
this work in the first week. Plant a few roses as
late as you can, in order to retard their coming >nto
bloom : or, if you can afford the time and room,
place potted roses in the ice-cold cellar in autumn,
and do not take them out till the August following,
by this means you will have a fine show in Octobei

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

1153

and November (6554.) Evergreens, the hardiest
sorts at the beginning, and the less so at the end bf
the month. (6572.)

Pmiie such deciduous shrubs as you have ne-
glected last month ; evergreens from the middle to
the end of the month. (6884.)

Form arid repair lawns, by procuring and laying
turf, and bv sowing grass-seeds. Where it is de-
sired to destroy moss on extensive lawns, fold sheep
till it be trod down and killed by pressure and ma-
nure ; on small lawns, roll. In shady, damp situ-
ations, however, moss makes a better lawn than
grass, and it should be encouraged by forming the
surface of lawns of bog earth in all situations where
grasses do not thrive, as in towns, under close
trees, &c. Mow established lawns twice a-month j
attend to gravel and margins. (6191.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Fruit-trees. (4361.) Finish sowing kernels for
stocks, or new varieties. Plant cuttings of the vine,
fig, gooseberry, and currant, if it has been unavoid-
ably delayetl "till this unfavorable season. Graft
the pear, plum, and apple. (2013.) Attend to newly
grafted trees, and repair cracks in the clay, or renew
such balls as may have droi>petl off; eradicate all
suckers, and pinch off shoots that protrude below
the grafts.

Ornamental trees and shrubs. Finish sowing de-
ciduous sorts, as early as possible. Sow cedars, cy-
presses, and other ornamental evergreens about the
end of the month. Sow in pots or boxes, or in shady
borders of soft peat earth. Transplant evergreens.
(6982. to 7037.)

Forest trees. Rnish sowing common tree-seeds.

and commence with the resinous tribe, the larches,
firs, and pines j the cypresses, arbor-vitajs, &c.
Finish planting deciduous trees in nursery rows, as
early as jxissible. (7007.) Evergreens may be trans-
planted during the month. Kiln-dry the cones of
the cedar and fir tribe, but not of the pine tribe : and
get the seeds out in time for sowing the end of this
month or beginning of next (6984.)

Permanent plantations and

10. Trees,
park-scenerj'.

Soto for forests and woods, and all sorts of profit-
able plantations in masses. Observe it is rather late
for nuts, l)erries, and keys, but this is the proper
season for small seeds. (7016.)

Plant evergreen trees, as pine, fir, cedar of Le-
banon, holly, and yew during the month ; but finish
planting deciduous sorts as early as possible. (7007.)
Wherever the plants are to be, or have been long
out of ground, take good care to dry up their roots,
by exposing them as much as you can to the sun
and air ; do not be nice in planting.

Routine culture. Begin to hoe and clean the
ground in plantations, which have been made on
prepared ground. Crop the ground in newly made
plantations, where cropping is intended.

Operations on ground or rocks may now be pro-
secuted with ngor. This is also one of the best
months for buildmg. Road-making, draining, fenc-
ing, &c. are advantageously performed during this
and the two preceding months. But improvements
can neither be well designed nor executed after the
trees are covered with leaves, and the ground's sur-
face and qualities disguised by luxuriant herbaceou*
vegetation.

MAY.

Average of
the Ther-
mometei.

Greaiesf
Variation
from the
ATerage.

Average

of the

Barometer.

I REMARKS
Qj'^^'^y I Vegetation now goes on with great vigor, though there are
ofUam. I often very cold an<* ' •

London - 56 CI I
Edinburgh 60 4
Dublin - 52 193

very cold and even frosty nights, which materially
I injure exotics, natives of the warmer climates, such as

- the potatoe, dahlia, kidnejbean, &c. The human ani-

30 02 ' 0-794 inch ' '"^' *" co""""" »"ith most others indigenous to our cU-

29 585 I 1 945 "i '"3'^> "^ generally in high spirits and vigor during this

30 061 l'si2 month. \\'oe to the young gardener who exliausts his

1 I spirits in any other way than in self-improvement.

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week : the titlark (Alauda pratensis)
sings; the cuckoo {Cuculus canonis) is heard; the
gudgeon {Cyprinus gobio) spawns; the redstart
{Motadlla phcenicurus^, swift JUrundo apus^:, white-
throat {Motacilla sylvia), and stinging-fly [Conops
calcitrans) appear.

Secmid week : the turtle-dove [Columbu turtur)
coos; the red ant {Formica rubia), the laughing
wren (Motacilla curucca^, the common flesh-fly
{Musca votnitoria), the lady-cow [Coccinella bipunc-
tata)y grasshopper-lark {Alatida locustte voae}, and
willow-WTen {Motacilla salicaria) appear.

Third week : the blue flesh-fly {Musca t-otnitoria,
var.) appears; black snails {UellrnJgra) abound; and
the large bat appears.

Fourth iveek : the great white cabbage-butterflv
{Papi/io brassicce) and dragon-fly {Libellula i-macu-
lata) apjiear ; the glow-worm shines ; and the fern-
owl, or goat-sucker {Caprimulgus europeeus), re-
turns.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

Tn the first week : geum urbanum, artemisia cam-
pestris, lily of the valley {Convallaria majalis),
water-A-iolet {Hottonia palustris\ tulip-tree Lirio-
dendron tulipifera], and numeriJus other plants, in
flower.

Second tveek : the oak, ash, sweet chestnut {Fagus
castanea":, hawthorn {Mespilus oryacantha), the
common maple {Acer camy^stre), horse-chestnut
{Msciilus hi/rpocastanum), barberry {Berberis vul-
garis), and the ajuga reptans in flower.

Third week : the water scori>ion-grass, or forget-
me-not {Mt/osotis scorjtioides"^, lime-tree {Tilia),
milk-wort (Polygala vulgaris^, nightshade {Atropa
belladonna" , and various American shrubs, in flower;
and r\e {Seca.'e hybernum) in ear.

Fourth week : oaks, ashes, and beeches now ge-
nerally in leaf, and the mulberry {Motnts nigra) be-
ginning to (^n its buds ; the cinnamon-rose and

4 E

some other hardy roses in flower; and also the
bramble {Bubus/ruticosus), moneywort {Lysimachia
nummularia)^ columbine {AquUegia vulgaris\ and
various other trees and shrubs, in blossom.

Kitchen- G^den. — Culinary vegetables.

Soio hardy aromatic herbs, if not-done last month.
Small salads foiu- times in the month for a complete
succession. Radishes and lettuce thrice. (3760. and
3970.) Peas and beans once a-week. (3601.) Spinage
once a-fortnight. (3771.) Carrots, for late drawing,
twice in the month. (3718.) Borecole, in the first
week, for a second main crop. (3529.) Dwarf kidnev-
beans, in the first^veek, for a full crop in July ; i'n
the last fortnight, for crojis in August and Septem-
ber. (3633.) Borecole and Brussels sprouts for the
last crop, and German greens to come in for stiring
Savoys for the last crop. (3519.) Onions for draw-
ing, young leeks to be late transplanted, cauliflowers
m the second and third weeks for a Michaelmas
crop. (354£) The less hardy aromatic herbs, and
pumpkins, the last fortnight. (4207.) Cucumbers
for picklers on a dry warm border, in the last week.
(4876.)

Protection. Continue this, nightlv, for kidney-
beans and tender plants transplanted from hot-beds.
(,2206.)

Propagate by bulbs and dried roots. If abund-
ance of ix)tatoes have not been planted, effect this
as early as possible ; in late situations they may be
planted till the middle of June. (3676.)

Plant slips and offsets.

Transplant the brassiea tribe, lettuce, celery, ra-
dishes, and other plants for seed. (2079 )

Houtine culture. Stick peas, top earlv croiis of
beans, and also of ix?as ; earth up cabbages, bcan«!
peas, iwtatoes, &c. Thin, weetl, hoe, and stir the
suriace among seedling crops. Water in dry wea-
ther, supiK)rtsf*ms, pinch off all decayed leaves Sec

Destroy insects and vermin. (2280.)

4. Hardy fruit department.

11^4

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

' Prune -what trees you have neglected, and run the
risk of losing, or leave them unpruned till autumn as
a proof of vigilance and skill. (2360.) Summer prune
vines, peaches, and other early shooting trees against
walls, and such gooseberries as are planted there to
produce upon early fruit. (2522.) Remove aU suckers,
excepting selected ones of raspberries, and p;nch off
strawberry runners as directed for last month. (4717.)

Routine culture. Mulch, protect, and water where
necessary. Water strawberries over the herbage,
and especially after the fruit is set. (4717.)

Destroy insects, especially snails and caterpillars.
On the lirst symptoms of the leaves rolling up, un-
roll them and pick out the grub before it does fur-
ther mischief. Take special care it does not get at
the petals of apple and pear blossoms. (2280.)

Fruit-room. Look over the fruit of every descrip-
tion which the increase of temperature will now
cause to taint rapidly. (2298.)

Fruit-cellar. Open a few casks of such dessert ap-
ples and pears as are now wanted for the table.
Close them as soon as you have taken out the pro-
per quantity, and let them still remain in the cellar.
(2298, and 2299.)

5. Culinary hot-house department.

' Glass case without artificial heat. Remove glasses
from cauliflowers and kidneybeans, according to
the weather. Sow capsicum under frames or hand-
glasses in a warm border. (4271.)

Hot-beds. Go on with hot-beds for frames for
melons, and build dung-ridges for growing cucum-
bers under hand-glasses. (3262.) Sow cucumbers
and melons for late crops, and attend to the various
particulars in their culture. Attend to air, water,
shade, insects, &c.

Pinery. Attend particularly to your fruitmg
plants, give abundance of heat and water, and keep
down all manner of dirt, insects, &c. (2906.) Attend
to minor articles cultivated in the pinery, and to
routine culture of every kind. Think and act for
yourself; kalendars too often mislead the ignorant
who rely on them implicitly, not considering that no
two cases are ever to be found alike. (2607.)

Forcing department. Produce the required tem-
peratures, and attend to all the parts of good culture
and neat management. (2611. and 2940.)

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Sow annuals of all sorts for succession. Biennials
in the nursery compartment for a stock for next
year. (6507. and 6513.) . .u . „

Propagate, especially by cuttings from the Btalks,
asof wallflower, rocket, &c. (6505.)

Take up bulbs and tuber roots, as crocus, hyacinth,

' Transplant,' as directed for the last month, stocks
and other sorts in pots for winter. (2079.)

Protect tulip-beds and all rare florists' flowers from
the midday sun, the rain, and the winds. (2206.)

Routine culture. Hoe, rake, sti.^ weed, and clear
away dead leaves. Do not neglect whenever rain
has battered the ground, to stir it up and refresh it
as soon as it is nearly dry. Stir the surface round
close patches of annuals, and refresh and top-dress
all pots of prolonged annuals, now in full flower or
in seed Keep all the primula tribe rather dry at
this season, and in the shade of a north wall.
Plunge the pots in ashes or sawdust.

Destroy insects, and pick the grubs off roses. De-
tach seed-pods from all plants you do not wish to
rinen seeds Water, thin, and shade with judg-
ment, and keep a vigilant eye to order and neatness.
Shut yourself up in your room for two entire days,
or go from home a similar time, and when you re-
turn and look over the garden you w-iU see many
things that would have escaped you, had you gone
on plodding day after day. Remember that such
things are seen by others, and that though all may
anoear to you in good order, to another there may
bemuch sllvenlin^essand confusion. (74S7. to 7439.)

Store-room. Lay up crocus and other bulbs and
roots till wanted in the autumn.

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without artificial heat. These will now
be chiefly employed with annuals in pots, for pro-
longation and in striking from cuttings, &c. (2063.)

Hot-beds. (2678.) Go on as directed last month
with your tender annuals. Plant a few tuberoses for
succession. (6323.) Attend to cuttings and seedlings
from the hot-house and green-house departments.
Shift and transplant as occasion requires. (2079.)

Green-house. Give abundance of air every day,
and in mild nights leave some all night : water over
the top, and shut the house in the afternoon when
you water. This invigorates growth wonderfully.

Propagate as before. Shift most of the plants,
examine their roots.

Dry-stove. (6176.) Give abundance of air. Fires
will not now be wanted. Look to bulbs, as soon as
they have done flowering. Shift all such as require
it, putting them into larger or smaller pots, accord-
ing to their state, and your object.

Bark, or moist stove. (6214.) Give abundance of
heat, air, and water, if you wish the plants to grow
and flower vigorously. (6688. to 6716._

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.
Plant deciduous trees and shrubs, but only to fill

up a vacancy, or to cause a check for the purpose of
late flowering. Immediately after performing the
operation, mulch, shade, and water. (2098.) Ever-
greens, especially the more tender sorts, but finish
by the middle of the month. (6997.)

Prune (2110.) evergreens, finishing by the middle
of the month. (6997.)

Routine culture. Hoe, rake, weed, water, stake,
shade, shelter, &c. as circumstances require. Roll
and mow once a-week, if showers are frequent, but
once a-fortnight will do in dry weather.

Lay down turf, if not completed before, water well
and roll immediately afterwards. (2101.)

Gravel-walks may still be formed and repaired, but
the work should have been completed last month.
Roll well with a heavy roller. (1956. to 1968.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Fruit-trees. (4361.) Look over grafted trees.

Ornatnental trees and shrubs. Sow the seeds of
evergreens and American sorts, in the first and
second weeks of the month. Lay and graft the ten-
derer sorts of evergreens and Americans. Plant
out tender evergreens and Americans in nursery
rows, or in pots, for more convenient removal. (6562.)

Forest trees. Finish planting out evergreens,
seedlings, and nurslings as early as possible. Sow
poplar and willow seeds as soon as gathered. These
seeds will not come up if kept a very few days out
of the ground. (7024.)

Protect from all sorts of garden enemies, and at-
tend to order and neatness. (2206. and 2356.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Planting evergreens may still go on, if the wea-
ther is dull and moist, but the sooner it is finished
the better. (6977.)

Pruning. Sang recommends this as a good season
for pruning old oaks, because the wound heals
quicker while the sap is flowing.

Fell oak woods and coppices, and other barking
trees, but complete the operation about the middle of
the month, or before. (6941.)

Routine culture. Attend to planted ground un-
der, or to be put under, light culinary crops. (7037.)

Prepare ground for autumnal planting or forming
of plantations by sowing, as the tree-seeds ripen.

Operate on ground for water, or other territorial
improvements. Continue to build and execute plans
determined on at an earlier season.

JUNE.

Ixwidon •
Ei^nburgh
DubUn :

f '■ Greatest

■ °' 1 Variation

^- from the

^- Average.

6.5 22
57 8
68 76

ATerage

of the

Baioraeter.

29 93

29 666

30 06

0-332 inch

1-935

0-860

REMARKS.

The -weather is sometimes cold at the beginning, but is bb-
nerally agreeable and steady towards the middle of the
month. Bv observing the column indicating the great^t
variation of the thermometer in each month, it will be
seen that it varies, in London, only two degrees in June,
which is less than in any of the preceding months. In
July and August the variation is the iame ; but m Alarcn
and October it is twice as much.

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

ISS

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week : the sedge-sparrow {Passer arun-
dinacea\ the flv-catcher {Muscicapa atricajMla)^ the
wasp ( respa vulgaris), and several species of bee and
butterfly appear.

Second week: the bumet-moth {Sphinx filtpen-
diUee) and forest fly {Hippobosca equina) appear;
bees swarm.

Third week : several flies, butterflies, moths,
beetles, and other insects appear.

Fourth loeck : insects abound ; and singing-birds
begin to retire to the woods, and leave off singing.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In t/ie first week : water-lilies {Kymph^a et
Kuphar) flower; also iris pseud-acorus, anthemis
cotula, polygonum persicaria, malva rotundifolia,
and numerous other plants.

Second week: the vine, raspberry, and elder in
full flower ; also various Scotch roses {Rosa spinosis-
sima), broom {Spartium), nettle ( Urtica), and wheat
in the ear.

Third week : the orchis, epilobium, iris xiphium
and xiphioides, the hardy ixi£B and gladioli, and a
great variety of garden and field plants in flower ;
also the wheat and many of the pasture grasses.

Fourth week ; some black and red currants ripe,
strawberries in abundance ; young shoots of trees
and shrubs have nearly attained their length ; oats
and barley in flower ; blue-bottle, scabious {Centatu
rea cyaniis), and numerous others, in bloom.

3. Kitchen-garden. — Culinary veget-
abk-s.

Sow peas and beans once a-week or ten days.
(3601.) Cucumbers for picklers. (4876.) Gourds in
the first week. (4211.) Small salads and lettuce every
week or ten da vs. (4078. and 396i. ) Radishes and spin-
age in the first week. (3771.) Kidneybeans every fort-
night, for succession. {2053.) Endive about the 10th
or 24th, for the main autumn and winter crops.
(3981.) Chervil twice in the month for summer
use, also purslane. (4088.) Cabbages, of quick -grow-
ing sorts, for summer and autumn consumption,
about the beginning and middle of the month.
(3492.) Turnips in the first week, for succession ;
and in the second and third week for a full autumn
crop. (3698.) Carrots (3717.) twice, for drawing
young. Broccoli and borecole, in small portions,
for succession, late in spring. (35a5. and 3527.) Onions
to be drawn voung.

To save seed. Mark out cauliflowers, lettuces, &c.
and let them send up their flower-stems. (3553.)

Protect when and where necessary. (2206.)

Propagate by bulbs, roots, offsets, slips in showery
weather. (1987.)

Transplant (2079.) the brassica tribe, cardoons,
endive, lettuce, and other plants and herbs, also
plants reared in hot-beds.

Routine culture. Tie up garlic and rocambole
leaves in knots to check the progress of the flower-
stalk. Stick and top peas ; top beans ; earth
up finochio to blanch ; also white beet Thin,
hoe, weed, and stir the ground as before. Support
with stakes, and water as far as practicable ; in dry
weather.

Taking crops. (2290.) Cut and dry herbs for win-
ter use. Gather ripe seed. Discontinue cutting
asparagus at the end of the month.

4. Hardy fruit department.

Prune and train the summer shoots of all de-
scriptions of wall and trellis trees. (2110.)

Thin out the summer shoots of fruit-shrubs, and
of all fruit-trees, excepting high standards, which
do not require this nicety. (2o/6.)

\Routine culture. Mulch, water, fasten by stakes,
weed, hoe, and rake where wanted. Throw nets
over cherry-trees and protect the fruit from the
birds. Water strawberry plots every day in dry
weather, desisting a little as the fruit begins to
ripen.

Destroy insects. Strew sulphur over the mildew,
water for the acarus ; direct a stream of tobacco
smoke against the aphis and thrips, but depend on
your fingers for the thorough eradication of grubf,
which, at this season, are by far the most mischiev-
ous of garden enemies. (2280.)

Fruit-room and cellar. As in last month. (2298.)

4E

5. Culinary hot-house department.

Glass case without artificial heat. Raise hand-
glasses over cucumbers on props, and train out the
runners, in the second or third week. Ridge out
melons in good earth, in the last fortnight ; cover
with mats till the end of the third week. (S328.
and 3329.)

Hot-beds. Keep up adequate temperatures for
ripening the fruits by linings. Reinforce melon
ridges with linings. Train, prune, and impregnate
as circumstances require. Attend to air, water,
shade, and even nightly coverings after cold days.
Keep up proper linings to your beds of pine-
suckers. '

Pinery.' Attend to what was stated last month.
If you want extraordinary large fruit, and do not
mind losing the suckers, apply the usual means,
viz. heat, water, and removal of all stem and root
suckers. (2829.)

Forcing department. See last month. Keep up
successive supplies of kidneybeans, strawberry, and
fruit-trees in pots. (3338.)

6. Flower-garden — Open ground de-
partment.

Sow a few hardy and half-hardy annuals for suc-
cession, as before. (6507. and 6513.)

Propagate, by cuttings, .«uch plants as are proper
for this purpose, as they go out of flower. Pipe
and lay pinks and carnations towards the end of
the month. (6i06. and &140.)

Take up bulbs and other tuberous roots, dry them
in the shade and remove them to boxes or drawers
in the store-room, wrap the finer sorts in papers.
(6501.)

Transplant (2079.) annuals in the borders and in
pots for autumn and winter flowering. Biennials
and perennials may also be transplanted into nur-
sery rows at this season, or even where they are
finally to remain.

Routine culture. Mow, weed, hoe, rake, thin,
stir, and dress ; and keep up as complete an ap-
pearance of polish and high keeping as your
strength of men and other means will permit (6191.
to 6201.) Shade, shelter, water, and attend to
carnations coming into flower. Destroy earwigs
and all manner of insects. (2280.) Go round the
garden frequently and examine everything mi-
nutel};, and reflect on what might be done to pro-
mote its growth and beauty. To aid you, imagine
it to be a garden which you were sent to criticise,
and to be paid according to the number of faults
you found. Or imagine it your neighbor's garden, or
the garden of some one you hate. (7438. and 7439.)

7. Flower-garden — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without artificial heat. Prcmagate the
dianthus tribe bv pipings under hand-glasses and
frames. (&106.)

Hot-beds and pits. Put pots of carnations and
pink pipings in gentle heat, it will facilitate their
striking. (6406. and 6440.) Do not forget to give head-
room to your balsams and other tender annuals,
which should now be noble-looking plants. Attend
to pots of cuttings and seedlings ; also to young
stove plants put into this department for more rapid
advancement.

Green-house. As soon as the mulberry comes
into leaf remove the plants to a fit situation in the
open air. Some plunge them in ashes ; but the
major part set them on scoria, gravel, or pavement,
in a partially shaded situation, a cold bottom and a
certain degree of shade are essential to their well,
doing. (6635.)

Dry-stove. (6176.) Give abundance of air night
and day, but be moderate as to water. Cease to
water bulbs soon after they have done flowering ;
let them go slowly into a state of hybernation, and
then take them out of the pots and dry them.

Bark, or moist stove. Increase your heat with
the lengthening day, and prolonged sun, and by
consequence increase the concurring agents of vege-
tation. Propagate by the usual means ; save seeds
where vou can ; destroy insects, and attend to neat,
ness. (6688. to 6705.)

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.
Prune and regulate summer shoots, and take off

suckers where not wanted to extend the bush or
propagate the species. (6190.)
2

1156

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

^ Rautiru culture. Weed, hoe, rake, stir the sur-

\ .face, support climbers, regulate the shoots of

V creepers, &c. Water and roll any new-laid gravel

oj^ to combine it proi)erly with the rest. Dress, roll,

N and mow lawns and turf in every form. Keep your

{^[ eyes open to every part of the grounds at this

2 season; for now perfect neatness and the utmost

^ I polish and high keeping is expected. Do not trust
> ^ I \ to what you are told to do in kalendars, but think
J for yourself : kalendars frequently make mere ma-

\ .Nj ^ chines of gardeners ; for though man is a thinking
j» V ;^ animal, yet he is also a lazy imitative animal, and
\ ^ vi^''^ ""*' ^"^^^^ himself in any way, and not even
think, unless urged on by some strong motive. All
your faults will be discovered, sooner or later, and
rely on it you will receive a proportionate disgrace
from your neighbors or visitors ; if you are atten-
^ V tive to your duty your merits will be discovered in
;^ A \i like manner, and you will receive appropriate
V > N, credit and reputation, which is your capital stock
T^^^r^> *" trade, on which you depend for your livelihood.
J -i""^ (2372.)

^ A K . 9. Trees. — Nursery department.

V" Fruit-trees. Begin budding during the last fort-
> ^ V night. Look over all your newly grafted and all
{ > 'other trees ; rub off superfluous, irregular, or ill
i ^ . wTplaced shoots and suckers, and tie weak grafts and
} ^ I * dangling shoots from budded stocks to neat stakes.
I ^ b (2039.)
^ X Ornamental trees and shrubs. Lay the summer
^ shoots of roses, hard-wooded evergreens, and other

^

sorts which are proiier to be propagated in this
manner. Put in cuttings of young wood properly
ripened at the lower end. Bud rare sorts. (2056.)

Forest trees. Collect and sow elm-seed in the
third or fourth week ; or if you do not wish to sow
it, lay it in the store-loft. (7023.) Seedlings of the
more choice pines may be thinned where too thick,
and the thinnings planted and shaded about the
end of the month. (6997.) Gather Scotch elm-seed
from the middle to the end of the month. (7203.) At-
tend to kitchen crops among transplanted trees,
and in vacant places in general. (7037.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Fell oak-coppices, if it has not been done before.
The middle of this month will prove a better time,
as to the trees, than the middle of Mav, as they
will not bleed so much : but the bark will not peel
so well. (6941. to 6957.)

Prune and thin the side shoots of the present
season, from established trees. (6884.)

Routine culture. Stake newly planted tall hedge-
row trees, where not done before. Attend to weeds
everywhere, and to ground under-crop. Prepare
ground for autumn sowing or planting.

Operations on ground and buildings are carried
on at this season with less advantage than in the
three preceding montlis. The ground is hard and
difficult to penetrate ; and the moisture in new
built masonry dries too rapidly.

JULY.

Weather
at

Average of
the Ther-

Greatest
Variation
from the
Average.

Average

of the

Barometer.

Quantity
of Rain.

KEMARKS.
This was called hay moiUh by the Saxons, and in it are more
plants in flower than during any other. The young gar-
dener should now devote a considerable portion of his
time to collecting and drying specimens, duplicates, and
triplicates, in order to acquire a stock to exchange with
brother-gardeners or naturalists ; or with booksellers, apo-
thecaries, students, schoolmasters, and clergymen, for the
loan of books, and for aid and instruction in study.

Ivondon -
Edinburgh
Dublin •

66 3

60 6

61 13

2

29 89
29 445
29 929

2-194 inch.

2-546

2-61'l

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week: the cuckoo {Cuculus canorus)
leaves off singing; the stone-curlew {Charadrius
cedicnemus) whistles occasionally late at night ; and
the golden-crested wren {Motaeilla regulus) now
and then chirps.

Second week : the quail {Tetrao ferrugineus) calls ;
the cuckoo-spit, or frog-hopper {Cicada spumaria),
abounds.

Third week : young frogs migrate ; hens moult.

Fourth week : the great horse-fly {Tabanus bovinus)
appears ; and partridges fly.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In the first week': enchanter's nightshade (C/rc^a
lutetiana) and lavender {Lavandula spica) in flower,
and pinks and carnations in full bloom.

Second week : the fallen star ( Tremella nostoc) ap-
pears, also puff-balls [Lycoperdon bovista), and some-
tiir,es the common mushroom {Agaricus catnpestris).

Third week: raspberries and gooseberries ripe,
potatoes in flower, asparagus in berry, the liliums
in perfection.

Fourtli week: the truffle {Tuber cibarium) now
hunted or dug up in commons and forests ; night-
shade {Solanum nigrum), devil's bit {Scabiosa succisa),
burnet-saxifrage (Pimpinella saxifraga), and a great
number of plants in flower.

3. Kitchen-garden. — Culinary vegetables.

Sow (2071.) salads and lettuce in shady situations,
for successional crops. Turnip-radish for an autumn
crop. (3760.) Kidneybeans, in the first week, for a
late full crop. {3&'^.) Peas and beans, in the first
"W£ek, and a fortnight afterwards try a small sowing
for a late crop. (3601.) Endive, in the first week,
to come in at the close of autumn ; in the third
week, for a winter crop. (3981.) Broccoli, before
the loth, for a late spring crop. (3557.) Finochio,
for succession, in the first fortnight. (4099.) Round-
leaved spinage, in the first week, in a shady bor-
der for a succession. (3771.) Triangular-leaved, or
prickly spinage, in the last week, in poor ground to
stand the winter. (3775 ) York and sugar-loaf cab-

bages, in the first week, for autumn use, and in the
last week, for winter and spring. (3499.) Carrots,
in the first week, in a shady border. (3718.) Turnips
twice or thrice, in showery weather. (3698.) Welch
onions ; for autumn onions, sow the bulbing sorts
in the last week to stand the winter. (3816.) Cori-
ander and borage for young crops. (4222. and 4127.)

To save seed. Mark out the brassica tribe, and
other esculents in perfection, and let them shoot up
flower-stems.

Propagate by slips, offsets, &c. where not done
before, and where plants have completed their in-
florescence, and are to be cut down as tarragon
and other pot-herbs. (4093.)

Transplant (2079.) as before, and include celery
and celeriac, endive, &c.

Routine culture Sticflc and top peas and kidney-
beans, top common beans, train cucumbers and
gourds, earth up the leguminous crops and pota-
toes ; hoe, thin, and stir the surface wherever ne-
cessary, among all descriptions of crops ; water, as
far as your time will permit, and particular crops
require.

Taking crops. (2290.) Take up shallots, and dry
them for winter use; also rocamlwle and garlic
when ready. Gather ripe seeds and onions, and cut
herbs in blossom, drying and storing both. Gather
the fruit of young gourds for pies, stews, and pick-
ling.

Destroy insects, and ward oflf vermin. (2276.)

4. Hardy fruit department.

Plant strawberries in the open garden; and in
pots for next winter's forcing. (4717. '

Prune, train, thin, and regulate all the summer
shoots of wall and espalier trees, and dwarf and tall
standards. (2573.)

Routine culture. Hoe and weed fruit-tree bor-
ders. Hang up nets, water and mulch where neces-
sary. Water alpine strawberries, which will now
be in full bearing, every third or fourth day, unless
in a shady situation.

Destroy (2276.) insects : keep earwigs, ants, boys,
and idle women from fruits, as cherries, &c. ap-
proaching to a state of ripeness.

Fruit-room. (2298.) This will now be empty;
clean and wash every part of it, and air it well for
occasional summer and next winter's use.

KALENDARl M. INDEX.

1151

FrvH-ceUar. (2299.) If you have attended pro-
perly to casking up keeping-apples and pears, you
will still have a supply, and even of grapes in some
cases. If the cellar gets too warm, the casks should
be removed to the ice-house.

5. Culinary hot-house department.

Glass case without artificial heat. Plant out
melons and cucumbers shading and watering, &c.
(SIM. and 3271.)

Hot-beds and pits. Prune melons and cucumbers ;
give air and water, and attend to shading and weed-
ing; collect mushroom-spawn ; attend to young
pines. (2718.)

Pinery. You will now begin to cut fruit in
abundance. See to the stools : earth them up, so
as to cause the suckers to strike root : put them
into a brisk bottom-heat, and give proper supplies
of water. You will thus gain much time, and
profit from the expiring strength of the parent
plant as long as possible. This is the true way to
fruit a pine-plant in eighteen months or even less
time. Suckers thus treated will, next spring, be
equal to two-year-old plants. (2936.)

Forcing-houses. Kxpose those houses, where
crops are taken, to the natural climate, by remov-
ing, as far as possible, the roof, and even the ends
and front, if they are moveable. (3110.)

6". Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Sow a few annuals, for succession, and prolong-
ation in pots through winter. (6507.)

Propagate (G490.) from cuttings of plants going
out of flower; from rooted slips of such as are
ripening their seed, as auriculas and the primula
tribe ; go on piping and laying the dianthus tribe.
(&il2:)

Take up bulbs as they go out of flower : this work
should generally be completed by the end of the
first week, unless for the lily tribe, the colchicum,
and a few others.

Transplant late sowings of annuals, and also bi-
ennials and perennials, into nursery rows. (2079.)
I Routine culture. Eradicate all weeds the moment
they appear : keep the surface always fresh, and
rather rough, never smooth and battered. It is
better to have little clods and knots of earth, than
to have a naked or dug surface as smooth as a
table. The clods and knots make variety of light
and shade, and are besides more favorable for the
admission of air, heat, and water to the roots.
Shade, shelter, and water. Gather seeds as they
ripen, and dry them in the seed-room or lofts, the
windows being open. Destroy insects ; cut out
broken stalks, and diseased parts of plants. Cut
down stalks which have done flowering, and remove
all decayed leaves.

Gather flowers neatly with a knife, and so as not
to disfigure the plant. (6196.) Gather in general
from the reserve-garden, so as not to disfigure the
borders.

Store-room. (1704.) Look over your bulbs now
and then, to see that none get mouldy. See also to
your newly put-up seeds. (1705.)

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.
Glass case without artificial heat. (2686.) Most of

these, at this season, are given up to the kitchen,
garden, or used to protect at nights the tender an-
nuals, some of which, as the humble and sensitive
plant, cannot so well be put out in the borders.
(6724. and 6725.)

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Little use is now made
of them by the florist, unless for propagation of
stove plants. Attend to cuttings from whatever
department If you are endeavoring to flower the
more delicate aquatics, see to the keeping up a re-
gular heat.

Green-house. (6211.) This will now be filled with
pots of tender annuals, which only require shifting
now and then till of a certain growth ; and then
only common routine culture.

Dry-stove. (6176.) Some set out a part of the suc-
culent tribe at this season. If you do, let it be in a
very warm situation : heavy and continued rains
prove very injurious to succulents in the open air.

Bark, or moist-stove. (6214.) Increase the tem-
perature with the increase of light, and add air and
water accordingly. Attend to all the minor points
of culture. See that the floors or paths of your
stoves are swept every day, and wash your plants
well with the engine, otherwise they will soon get
unsightly. Be sure to dash this water on all plants
in blossom, in order to curtail their beauty, and lest
they should set fruit.

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.

Prune (2110.) as in last month : box-edgings and
evergreen hedges in the last week of this month, if
the season is a forward one. (6190.)

Routine culture as in June.

Laivns. (6191. and 6097.) Attend to these, accord-
ing as the weather may be showery or otherwise.
In dry weather, set your men to mowing at three
o'clock, and let them rest from eleven till three
o'clock : in moist weather the time of the day is of
less consequence. In France and Italy, the work-
ing gardeners, during summer, may be said to do
the principal part of their work early in the morn-
ing, and late in the evening.

Gravel-walks. Weed and roll these in moist
weather. When dry, and the gravel becomes loose,
water and roll (1957.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Fruit-trees. Attend to budding, and look over
your grafted trees ; pinch off all obtruding shoots
and suckers. (2039.)

Ornamental trees and shrubs. Continue laying
summer shoots, and plant cuttings and bud as in last
month. (2050.)

Forest trees. Sow elm-seed ; attend to weeding
and cleaning all beds and rows of seedlings, or other
nurslings, and of transplanted trees. (70^.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Prune (2110.) evergreens in the last week, if the
summer has been so favorable as nearly to ripen
the wood.

Routine culture. Attend to kitchen, or field
crops, among young plantations ; and to large
weeds everywhere. Do not forget hedges and
other fences : keep all sorts of fences at all times
in repair. (6820.) Few operations in landscape-gar-
dening can now be commenced ; but some, as exj
cavating for water, &c. may go on.

AUGUST.

Weather
at

mometer.

Greatest
VariaUon
from the
ATerage.

Average

of the

Barometer.

Quantity
of Rain.

REMARKS.
This is the barn, or haneit month of the Saxons ; many seeds
of herbaceous vegetables ripen m this month, and most
sorts of culinary crops, raised in the open gard«i, are now
in perfection. Insects, especially the winged tribes, now
abound ; and the young gardener should be assiduous in
collecting them for the same object as he coUecU speci-
mens of plants. Bj carrying a small box in his pocket, he
may pick them up while at work.

I^ondon -
Edinburgh
Dublin .

65 85
60 6
62 82

2

30 06

29 828

30 172

0-824 inch.

1-996

5-858

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week .- flying ants {Formica) appear ;
bees kill their drones ; and the swallow-tailed but-
terfly {Papilio machaon) appears.

Second week : young martins {Hirun/io urbica) and
swallows {Hirundo rustica) begin to congregate, and
swifts (Hirundo apus) to depart ; the whame, or
burrel-fly {(Estrus bovis), lays eggs on horses.

4

Third week : the black-eyed marble-butterfly
{Papilio semele) appears; various birds reassume
their spring notes.

Fourth week .- the nuthatch {Sitta europcea) chat-
ters ; the stone-curlew iCharadrius cedicnemus)
whistles at night; the goatsucker Caprimulgus
europteus) and young owls {Strix ulula) make a
noise in the evening ; robin-redbreast (Mofacilla
rubecola) sings; .and rooks roost on their nest-
trees.
E 3

1158

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In the first week: melilot {Trifolium officinale),
rue (Ruta graveolens), yellow succory {Picris hiera-
cioides), and burdock {Arctium lappa), in flower j
the bread-corns ripe.

Second week : wild clary (Salva verbenaca), mea-
dow-rue [Thalictrum flavum), ploughman's spike-
nard {Conyza squarrosa), and various other natives,
in flower.

Third week : the mallow {Malva), lavatera, holly-
hock {Alcca rosea), and lobelias, among the garden-
flowers, and the polygonums and potamogetons
among the wild plants, now in blossom.

Fourth week : the autumnal crocus {Colchicum
autumnale), aster, solidago, senecio paludosus, teasel
(Dipsacus fuUonum), and various other plants, in
flower ; the earlier varieties of all the hardy kernel-
fruits ripe.

S. Kitchen-garden. — Culinary veget-
ables.

Sow (2071.) turnip for "a main crop, in the first
week; but sowings made after the 15th seldom
fully succeed (3698.) ; make frequent sowings of
small salading, radishes, and lettuce (3760.) : the
latter for autumn and winter crops. Parsley may
now be sown for winter and spring use, this being
the most natural season for sowing biennials. (4282.)
Some of the large .sorts of cabbage, in the first
week, to come in in the autumn of the following year
and subsequent winter ; and early sorts in the first
week, for coleworts next winter and spring. Spin-
age, in the first or second weeks, for a main winter
crop. (3775.) Carrots in the first and third weeks
for drawing young in spring. (3718.) Endive and
corn-salad for winter and spring; chervil for a late
crop ; onions for a full winter crop ; angelica, fen-
nel, scurvy-grass, and blessed-thistle for next year.
Cauliflowers twice, in the third and fourth week,
for crops, to stand over the winter, in sheltered
borders, or under frames. American cress, in the
last fortnight, for a spring crop.

Propagate (1987.) by slips and cuttings, where ne-
cessary.

Transplant (2079.) as in last month, and include
leeks, perennial herbs, &c.

Routine culture. Displace the suckers from such
artichoke heads as you would grow to the greatest
magnitude ; stick peas and runner kidneybeans ;
earth up the brassica and leguminous tribe, and po-
tatoes in so far as requisite. Land up celery, endive,
white beet, finochio, &c. for blanching. Hoe, thin,
weed, stir the surface, water, shade, and attend to
neatness and order ; and clear off all crops the mo-
ment they are done with. (2367.)

Taking crops. (2290.) Take up the alliaceous
tribes as before ; gather pickling cucumbers ; cut
Jierbs ; gather ripe seeds.

Destroy insects. (2276.)

4. Hardy fruit department.

Plant {Wll.) strawberries, as directed for last
month.

Prune (2573.), regulate, train, and otherwise
arrange the summer shoots of all fruit-trees as
directed for last month.

Routine culture. Hoe, rake, weed, and stir the sur-
face under gooseberry compartments, and in general
under and around all fruit-trees. Where fruit is
beginning to ripen, be very moderate in thinning
the leaves. Mat up small fruits on north walls, in-
tended to be preserved till late in autumn ; Avater
spring-planted trees in dry weather, also strawberry-
plants in blossom and fruit. Dress strawberry-beds
that have done bearing. (4726. and 4727.)

Take (2290.) gooseberries and currants, with the
fruit-scissors or tongs. Apricots and such wall-
fruit as is ripe with the fruit-gatherer. (See Jigs. 141.
to 152.)

Destroy (2276.) insects ; the acarus will now be
your greatest enemy.

5. Culinary hot-house department. ■

Glass case without artificial heat. Sow long prickly
cucumbers for a late crop, to receive the aid of arti-
ficial heat in October and November. Sow in pots, or
make layers or cuttings for the same purpose. (3185.)

Hot-be{ls and pits. (2678.) Ilecruit the linings of
melon-beds, and prune, train, weed, water, and im-
pregnate all the cucunys tribe.

Mushroofns. Search for spawn, in cow .pastures
more especially, and take care of it when hot.

Pinery. See last month.

Forcing-houses. (2696.) Most of the forced peaches
will now be gathered ; fully expose the trees, unless
you have so great a proportion of grapes under the
rafters, or running along the top of your trellis, as
to render it worth while to keep the sashes on to
ripen them. It is however better never to have
them together in such contending proportions.
Cherry-trees and others in pots, and of which the
shoots are ripe, should be put in a state of hy-
bernation, by removal to a cold cellar, or shaded
border. This will fit them better for a succeeding
early artificial spring.

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Sow (6346.) auricula and other primula seeds in
pots and boxes, so as to admit of winter protection.
These seeds coftie up stronger now than if kept till
the following spring; and, though they will not
flower sooner than the second spring after sowing,
yet they will then flower much stronger than plants
just a year old. (6347. to 6349.) Mignonette, stocks,
and other annuals in pots, for prolongation through
the winter. (6486.)

Propagate (1987.) by all the usual means. This
is now the best time for taking off" rooted slips of
the auricula : the Lancashire florists will never
touch these till the third day of this month, when
their florists' sales commence. (6369.)

Take up bulbs and tuber roots of the few plants
which had not ripened their stalks before, as of the
martagon and red and white lily.

Plant dried offsets of bulbs, as these from their
small size and tenderness, rather suffer from being
long out of the ground. Plant autumn-flowering
bulbs and Guernsey lily. (6315.)

Transplant (2079.) most sorts of biennials and
perennials, and your latest sowings of annuals and
half-hardy annuals intended for the borders.

Routine culture. Prepare composts. Hoe, dig,
rake, stir, weed, thin, shade, shelter, prop, stick
sweetpeas, and other climbers. Water, and gather
seeds ; mow verges and glades where they exist in
the flower-garden, according as you find they re-
quire it.

Store-room. (1704.) Look once a-month at your
roots and seeds ; and gather, dry, clean, and store
up seeds as they ripen, attending to name and date
each packet or bag accurately.

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without artificial heat. See last
month.

Hot-beds. (2678.) Attend to such cuttings as are
forwarding in these, and to late crops of tender an-
nuals. Prepare successions of tender annuals for
the green-house.

GreenJiouse. (6211.) Attend to your tender an-
nuals ; and do not forget creepers, and vines, and
such plants as being planted in the ground cannot
be turned out. (6647. to 6651.)

Dry-stove. (6176.) About the end of the month,
it will be safe to replace such plants as you had ven-
tured in the open air. Any you put in cold-pits,
may remain a month longer. (6663. to 6668.)

Bark, or moist stove. (6214.) See last month. At-
tend to creepers, climbers, and vines, also aquatics,
which, if you have a proper aquarium, will now be
in great perfection, and highly beautiful. (6180.)

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.

Plant (2077.) evergreens towards the end of the
month ; water, mulch, and shade, for some days, if
very delicate sorts. (2098.)

Prw«(? evergreens (2110.) ; roses for forcing. (655a
and 6560.)

Routine culture. Hoe, rake, weed, &c. as before.
Prepare ground for planting ; dress gravel and grass
as in June and July.

Form and repair lawns, by turfing or sowing. It
is now an excellent season for sowing lawns. See
that you make use of the proper grasses, according
to the soil and situation. Attend to gravel walks.
(1957.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Fruit-trees. (20S9.) Finish budding of the late va-

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

1159

rieties of the stove fruits, before the middle of the
month. (2056.) Look over the grafted trees, and
slacken the bandages of your earlier and most ad-
vanced grafts and buds. .

Ornaniental trees and shrubs. Plant cuttings of
hardy evergreens, as laurel-bay, privet, box, &c. m
the last fortnight. (7032.) Provide heath and bog-
earth for American and other sorts. (1981.) tro on
with budding rare species.

Forest trees. Sow elm-seed, if you have not done
it before ; or do not choose to defer it till spring.

Routine culture. Hoe, weed, &c. and keep
every part in perfect order ; look to your kitchen-
crops and ripening-seeds. Prepare ground from
which kitchen-crops have been removed for
planting.

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Plant (2077.) evergreens in the last week, if the
weather is moist. Water to settle the roots^and
mulch and stake according to circumstances. (iJUyb.)

Prwn^ the birch, wild cherry, and maple tnbe, at
the end of the month, when the leaves are begin-
ning to fall, as they are apt to bud later or eariier.
(2110 ) Evergreens at the end of the month. (h5/^.)

Prepare ground for planting next month, either
by ploughing, digging, trenching, or pitting, as the
case may be. (6816. and 6817.) ,

Destroy ferns, nettles, and other bulky weeds m
park-scenery, by bruising their stems with the
weeding-pincers {fig. 146.), close by the surface : as
cutting them over is found a less permanent check
to their flowering again.

SEPTEMBER.

Weather
at

.„^,^^! Greatest
J ^ 1 Variation
mometer. j Averag..

Average

of the

Barometer.

K^

REMARKS.
The temperature begins now to decline and to yary ; the
nights b^n to len^en, and heavy dews and diminished
transpiraUon and evaporaUon render artificial wateimg ui
the open air less necessary, unless against trees on walls, to
keep ^own insects. Many varieties of fruits ripen during
this and the former month, which the young^ gardener
ought to study, and, when he can aiTbrd time from other
studies, he should make drawings of a few.

I«ndon - 1 59 63
Edinburgh 54 3
Dubli. - 1 59 35

3 5

30 09

0-482 uich.

3-470

3-021

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week : young broods of goldfinches
{Fringilla carduelis) appear ; the linnet {Frmgilla
linota) congregates; the bull {Bos taurus) makes
his shrill autumnal noise; and swallows {Hirundo
rustica) sing.

Second week : common owls {Strix flammea) hoot ;
the saff'ron-butterfly {Papilio hyale) and willow
red under-wing moth {Phalcena picta) appear;
herrings {Clupea harengtis) are now cheap.

Third week .- the ring-ouzle {Turdus torqucius)
appears ; the flycatcher {Muscicapa atricapilla)
withdraws.

Fourth week : the stare {Sturnus vulgaris) con-
gregates ; the wood-lark {Alauda arborea) sings ;
the woodcock {Scolopax rusticola) and feldfare
(TVrdMs pi/am) appear; and the swallow {Hirundo
rustica) departs.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In the first week : the fungus balotus albus ap-
pears ; traveller's joy {Clematis alba) and pamassia
palustris in flower.

Second week : catkins of the hazel and birch
formed; blossoms, and green, red, and black berries
found on the bramble at the same time ; leaves
of the sycamore, birch, lime, mountain-ash, and
elm begin to change.

Third week : the ivy {Hedera helix), laurel {Pni-
nus laurocerasus), and furze {Ulcx europaus) in
flower.

Fourth week : hips, haws, and nuts ripe ; leaves
of plane-tree (Platanus^ tawny ; of the hazel, yel-
low ; of the oak, yellowish green ; of the sycamore,
dirty brown; of the maple, pale yellow ; of the ash,
fine lemon ; of the elm, orange ; of the hawthorn,
tawny yellow ; of the cherry, red ; of the hornbeam,
bright yellow ; of the willow, hoary.

3. Kitchen-gai-den. — Culinary veget-
ables.

Sow (2071.) small salads twice or thrice on a south
border, chervil, corn-salad, cress of sorts may still be
sown to stand over winter. (40-32. to 4072.) Radish in
the first week for a late autumn crop. (3760.) Lettuce
in the first week for standing the winter under a
south wall, and under cold-frames. (3970.) Spin-
age in the first fortnight for use late in spring.
(3773.)

Protect cucumbers and melons, at night, by mat-
ting or otherwise as the case may be. (3164.)

Propagate (1985.) as in April, culinary herbs and
under-shrubs.

Transplant (2079.) all articles intended for use the
• current autumn, during the first week. The bras-
sica tribe, leeks, celery, endive, &c. for winter and
spring use. Seedling cauliflowers, where you think
you can ensure their standing through the winter.
Try a bed of sandy loam or lime rubbish under a

4

tree or south wall (3546.) Make plantations of
herbs.

Routine culture. Earth up and stir only in dry
weather. Stick, stop, supjiort, cut down, blanch,
and thin where you see it necessary ; no time is to
be lost at this season.

Taking crops. (2290.) Take up potatoes, and do
it effectually. Gather pickling cucumbers, onions,
nasturtium-seeds, and other pickling articles. Ga-
ther herbs and take ripe seed. Remove all de-
cayed leaves, haulm, stems, &c. and the remains of
all crops, which have been taken, so as to preserve
order and neatness, and make way for other crops
or winter fallows. (2600.)

Destroy insects and vermin. (2276.)

Store-rootn and cellar. Dress, sort, and put up
seeds which have been well dried. Finish housing
edible bulbs of the alliaceous tribe and potatoes
(2298. and 2299.)

4. Hardy fruit department.

Plant (9ffll.) strawberries for a main plantation,
this being the best month in the year for that pur-
pose. (4717.) Pot strawberries for forcing. (35iQ.)

Prepare ground for planting, and towards the end
of the month, if the wood of young peach and apri-
cot trees be ripe you may remove them.

Pi-une (2110.) and regulate summer shoots, but cut
little after the middle of the month. Thin leaves
sparingly.

Routine culture. Provide composts for recruiting
old borders and forming new ones. Protect choice
fruit, especially grapes, from birds and flies. After
the crops of wall-trees or compartment borders
are gathered, dig and dress the borders. Dress and
fork up strawberry-beds.

Take (2290.) pea'ches, grapes, early apples, pears,
plums, &c. the dessert sorts, with fruit-gatherer, and
sorts for the kitchen, with the hand gloved. Choose,
if possible, dry weather for gathering all sorts of
fruit.

Destroy insects, especially acarus, and guard
against wasps and large blue flies (2276.)

FruU-rootn. (2298.) Lay up apples and pears for
keeping a few months ; in general, the long keeping
sorts ripen late in the season.

5. Culinary hot-house department.

Glass case without artificial heat. Sow small sa-
lads under hand-glasses or frames in the last week.
(4078.) Take off the glasses from cauliflower-plants
in all mild days.

Hot-beds and pits. Attend to late crops of melons
and cucumbers ; keep up the temperature, and be
discreet in the use of water. (3164. and 3271.) Begin
to build mushroom-beds, either in or out of doors.
This month and March are the two best seasons.
Plant suckers and crowns of pines on rotten tan
placed on dung, or other fermenting beds or pits

Pinery. (2697.) You will still have abundance of

fruit ; attend to what was said in July. Renovate

your bark or leaf beds when necessary, and keep up

the fuU heat till vour fruit is chiefly ripened off, or

E 4

1160

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

removed (pot and all) to the fruit-room to ripen
leisurely. Your young plants will grow faster in this
month than in any month of the year.

Forcing-houses. (2396.) Late crops of grapes will
be coming in, but most of the forcing-houses will
now be in a state of rest. Keep ofF all the sashes,
unless you mean to force very early, in which case
cover the house with mats from the sun, and admit
■ air from the north, in order to promote a cool, dry
atmosphere as best for hybernation.

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Sow the primula tribe, if not done last month.
(6339. and 6388.) The seeds of most biennials and pe-
rennials may be sown this month with advantage,
provided you can afford protection to them in winter.
On the whole, however, it appears better to defer
the business till spring, unless with a few sorts
which sometimes lie a whole year before they come
up, when sown at that season. Among them may
be enumerated columbine, agrimony, chelone, &c.
If sown now their seeds will come up the following
spring, and they will flower the same season. (6493.*

Propagate (1985.) by all the modes, but more es-
pecially from slips, rooted or unrooted, the stalky
part of herbaceous plants being now of a proper
texture and maturity for this purpose.

Flajit crocus and other bulbs, and such autumn-
flowering bulbs as you have neglected to plant early
in spring. (6501.)

Transplant as in last month. (2079.)

Shelter. (2206.) If the end of the month be wet,
hoop and mat such plants as will be injured by over
much wet Among these are the primula tribe
and tender annuals planted in groups over the bor-
ders ; also bulbs, as the tuberose and Guernsey lily,
planted or plunged in the borders.

Routine cvlttire. Prepare ground for florists'
flowers. Trench and sift the earth where tulips and
hyacinths are to be planted, at least three feet
deep.

Store-room. See to roots and seeds. (1704.)

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without artificial heat. (2686.) Replace
the more tender auriculas in the frames, but keep
off the glasses, excepting when it rains.

Hot-beds. See last month. (2678.) Most of the
green-house and hot-house plants will now be ad-
vanced : remove them to cold-frames, or to the
green-house or dry-stove, according to their natures,
to harden them gradually. Some may go directly
to the stove.

Green-house. The beginning of this month is a
fit time to repair, paint, glaze, and clean the flues,
&c. of every description of house not in crop. Re-
place some of the more tender plants from the open
air at the beginning, and the whole in the course
of the last week of the month. Dress them pro-
perly and set them in natural groups, not in the
usual method. (See particularly 6S36.)

Dry-stove. Replace all the succulents and other
plants, which you had put in the open air, and ar-
range every part of your stage for the winter. If
you cannot form natural groups, at least put every
genus by itself (6205.)

Bark, or moist stove. Begin to lessen the stimuli
towards the end of the month, in order to harden
for the approaching winter. Plant bulbs which
have been taken up and dried. Attend to routine
culture. (6688.)

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.

Plant (2077.) evergreens generally ; deciduous spe-
cies in the last week.

Prune (2110.) evergreens all the month : deci-
duous species when the leaves are dropped.

Routine culture as in last month. Remove all de-
caying flowers that do not bear ornamental seeds or
berries. Dress and mow turf, and roll and clean
gravel.

For?>i and repair lawns, or verges, or grassy glades.
(2100. and 2101.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Fruit-trees. (2039.) Sow cherry and plum stones
for stocks, also peach and almond stones for the
same purpose, or for new varieties. Gooseberry and
currant cuttings may be planted in the last week of
the month, in sheltered dry situations, where they
will not be much damaged by alternate frosts and
thaws in winter.

Transplant (2079.) stocks from the seed-bed to
the lines, where they are to remain to be grafted.
Look to the budded and grafted trees. The matting
may generally be removed early in the month.

Ornamental trees and shrubs. (6570.) Sow brier
and other rose seeds. Plant cuttings of hardy ever-
greens. Take off layers of the sorts which have
been laid two years, or which root well within one
season. Plant cuttings of a few of the deciduous
shrubs which are most hardy, or of tree-currant,
ivy, honeysuckle, yellow-berried elder, &c. Take
off suckers, and plant them in nursery rows.

Forest-trees. Gather and sow all sorts of deci-
duous tree-seeds. If you do not sow them, take
them to the seed-loft, or rot-heap for preservation.
Plant and prune evergreens, as also the wild cherry,
birch, and sycamore. Gather seeds of all sorts now
ripe. (6982.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Thin woods and coppices ; and where the trees
are wanted, take them carefully up ; if they are
large, they should have been previously prepared a
year ago. (6955.)

Plant (2077.) deciduous trees, generally, and even
the larch, spruce fir, and Scotch pine.

Prepare for planting by fencing and all the sub-
sequent processes. (6820.)

Operate on ground, and recommence building
walls or other works belonging to the department
of landSv,ape-gardening.

OCTOBER.

Weather
at

mometer.

Greatest
Variation
from the
Average.

Average

of the

Barometer.

Quantity
of Rain.

REMARKS.
Grapes and other late fruits ripen during this month,
and some main culinary crops are gathered and housed-
A few specimens of plants may still be collected, and many
species of the animal kingdom. Not one animated being
should be neglected from the worm upwards. Collec-
tions of spiders are best made during this month, and
the young gardener may continue to dissect and study
the pulpy fruits.

London -
Edinburgh
DubUn -

52 81
49 7
51

4

29 69
29 3.'59
29 76

2-027 inch.

3-234

2-708

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week: the red-wing {Turdus iliacus)
arrives ; snakes and vipers bury themselves.

Second week : hooded crows {Corvus comix) and
wood-pigeons {Columba palumbus) arrive; hen-
chaffinches {Fringilla ccelebs) congregate, and pre-
pare for migration, leaving their males in this
country.

Third week : the snipe {Scolopax galhnago) ap-
pears in the meadows ; wildgeese {Ajias sylvestris)
leave the fens, and go to the rye-lands.

Fourth week: the tortoise (Testudo grtsca) be-
gins to bury himself in the ground, and rooks visit
their" ncst-trecs ; some larks {Alaudtv) sing, and

the woodcock {Scolopax rusticola) returns ; spiders'
webs abound.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In the first week .- strawberry-tree {Arbutus vnedo),
holly {Ilex amiifolium), China hollyhock {Alcea chi-
nensis), and China aster {Aster.chinensis), in bloom.

Second week : catkins of some species of salix
formed ; leaves of the asp almost all off; of the
Spanish chestnut, yellow ; of the sugar-maple {Acer
saccharinum), scarlet ; of the common birch, yellow
and gold-; and of the weeping-birch , gold and bright-
red colored.

Third week : clematis calycina in flower ; some
horse-chestnuts and acacias quite denuded of leaves.

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

1161

• Fourth week : various plants, esi>ecially annuals,
continue in flower ; leaves of marsh-elder {Sam-
lucus ebuhis), of a fine pink ; of stagVhorn sumaCh,
of a purplish red; of the American oaks, of hne
shades of yellow, orange, red, and purple.

3. Kitchen-garden. — Culinary veget-
ables.

Sow (2071.) small salads, lettuces, and radishes
in the first week. If mild weather contmues
they will come in about Christmas Mazagan
beans, and hotspur or frame-peas (3601.), m tne
third or last week, to see if they wiU stand the

"^^T^^' sam^Veed. Transplant cabbage, savoy,
beet, parsnep, carrot, turnip, bulbing and Welsh
Sn.^ Mark what is said (3508. andS^T) as to
the danger of bastardy among the cruciferffi family.

^ Protect aU newly risen annuals, and newly depo-
sited seeds, as also parsley on the approach of

^Propa^a'te (1985.) the aUiaceous tribe and culinary

^^Tmn^'ant (2079.) endive and lettuce on warm
borders, and cabbages in close rows or m beds, to
remain in that state till wanted as plants m sprmg.
Cauliflowers in the last week, to receive the pro-
tection of frames. (3545.) , . , r

Routine culture. Earth up and stir the surface
only in fine dry weather. Hoe, rake, thin, weed,
and dress off all beds of winter crops. Protect cau-
liflowers from heavy rains by breaking a large leat
and folding it over the flower. As crops are cleared,
dig and trench the vacant ground.
I Take up (2290.) potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes,
beet, parsnep, salsifv, scorzonera, skirret, tap-rooted
parsley, and horse-radish of two summers growth.
Preserve them in dry sand.
Destroy insects. (2280.) „ , ^ j.^u .

Root-cellar. See that this is perfectly dry, and that
abundance of sand is laid over the roots.

Store-room. Finish cleaning and putting up seeds,
and see that all you have are in a good state, and
not attacked by vermin. (1704.)
4. Hardy fruit department.
Plant (2077.) all sorts of hardy fruit-trees as soon
as the leaves have dropped oflT, but not before, as
some practise ; for in this state neither their shoots
nor roots are ripe. Give ample waterings after
planting. , . ,

Protect (2206.) fig-trees as soon as their leaves
have fallen. Shield late grapes from frost by mat-
ting. Immerse pots containing plants intended to
be forced, into dry old tan =ojr ashes to save their
roots from frosL " . ,,

Prune (2110.) all sorts of fruit-trees excepting the
raspberry, elder, and fig, which being trees of much
pith, or medulla, are apt to die back from the point
of section-cut place, when pruned at this season,
and are therefore better left till spring.

Routine culture. Prepare ground for new plant-
ations. Dig and xidge up where the trees are
already pruned. Winter-dress strawberry-beds.

■take (2290.1 grapes, apples, pears, and other
fruits.

Fruit-room. (2298.) Lay all fruits first here till
thoroughly dried, and then barrel up the longest
keepers, and remove them to the fruit-cellar.

5. Culinary hot-house department.
■ Glass case without artificial heat. (2686.) Plant
lettuces and cauliflowers under frames, to stand the
winter. Sow small salads in the second week, and
last fortnight under frames or hand-glasses.

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Keep up the declining
heat of such beds as have not yet ripened off their
crops. Dress those which have done bearing, and
prick in lettuce or cauliflower plants. Prepare
mint and other herbs for forcing, by putting them
in pots or boxes. Get up mushroom-beds if not
done in September. Plants pine-suckers in the open
bed or pit, as they are taken off. Cover well at
nights. (2206.)

Pinery. This is a general time for shifting and
renewing tlie bark-bed. Do not put the plants into
very large pots, as they will not grow much in win-
ter. Till the last week of the month your plants
will grow rapidly. (2697.)

Forcing-houses. (2940.) Prune and in general
cleanse and repair the houses and flues, mend

broken glass, and paint the whole when necessary.
(2695.)

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Sow (2071.) annuals in pots, for prolongation, in
cold frames and pits, and some of the hardier sorts
in warm borders, to come i" early next spring, if
the winter should prove mild. The sorts lit for
this are larkspur, adonis, belvedere, pansy, persi-
caria, annual stock, and strawberry bhte.

Propagate (1985.), but chiefly at this season by
dividing the root, as of daisies and of other edging

^ Plin^mok of the border-bulbs about the end of
this month ; and you may even plant florists ane-
mones in properly prepared beds. (20/7.) . , . ^.

Transplant (2079.) biennials and perennials, m the
flower-nursery, to stand till the spring Strong
plants mav be moved where they are finally to
remain. (6490. and 6505.) ^ .», ,

Protect WOO.) auriculas, carnations, and other
florists' flowers from heavy rains by mats and hoops,
or glass frames. Begin at the end of the month
to remove dahlia roots to be dried in an open shed,
and then carried to the store-room.

Routine culture as in last month. Prepare com-
posts. Stir the ground only in dry weather. If the
season has been very dry, flower-borders may be
dug over about the end of the month. Attend,
above all things, to neatness. Do not trust to
any kalendar for directions in this, or any point,
but endeavor to bring your own brain into work,
and try and look at your works with the eye
of a critic and an enemy, or even of a stranger.
(7438.)

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without artificial heat (2686.,
about the middle of the month to fill frames and
pits with pots of mignonette, stocks, &c. for pro-
longation through the winter.

Hotbeds and pits. (2678.) Roses which have been
some time in a state of hybernation and in the
shade, may now be put in bottom heat, as may
hyacinths and some other bulbs. Water-glasses
may now be brought into use. Observe, in the first
place, to plant the bulbs in earth for a week or fort-
night, which will make them strike roots more
freely,*and then take them up and put them in the
water-glasses. Force them forward a week or two
in frames, before you remove them to the drawing-
room. ^Continue to plant some every fortnight for
succession. (6502)

Green-house. (6211.) Replace all your plants, if
you have not already done so. All your winter's
credit depends on the style in wliich you do this :
give air night and day, unless the thermometer drop
to 35 degrees. Water sparingly. (6211. to 6213.)

Dry-stove. (6176.) Apply fires towards the end
of the night, so as to keep a medium temperature
with fire-heat of 46 or 48 degrees. Arrange the
plants for the winter. Pot and set in bulbs of most
sorts.

Bark, or moist stove. Lessen your temperature
by degrees ; and also your air and water. A good
medium heat for this month will be 70 degrees,
which will require fire-heat, even if the bark-bed is
in fuU force. (6214. to 6216.)

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.
Plant i^ll.) all the hardier trees and shrubs

where the ground is not apt to be rendered very
wet during winter : very delicate sorts leave till
spring. This is the best season for planting.

Prune (2110.) evergreens ; but finish, if possible,
in the beginning of the month. Deciduous sorts ajs
soon as the leaves fall.

Routine culture. Clear away all refuse, weeds,
and decayed twigs. Roll, mow, sweep, hoe, weed,
and remove moss and worm-casts.

Form and repair lawns as before. (2100. and 2101.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Fruit-trees. Sow for stocks as directed for last
month. The plum, cherry, almond, medlar, apple,
pear, quince, barberry, service-tree, walnut, filbert,
and common hazel-nut, may now be sown to greater
advantage than in spring, provided you can keep
the vermin from them during winter. Lay the

'%/

/A.

^/ /ax/^ ^"'

^lW^y\

h/A

162

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

mulberry, or any other sort generally propagated in
that way. Plant cuttings of elder ; but it is rather
too late for the ribes tribe. Remove raspberry
suckers. Remove fruit-trees to their final situations,
as soon as they have lost their leaves. This month,
in all dry situations, is the best month in the year
for transplanting fruit-trees.

Ornamental trees and shrubs. Sow the seeds of
deciduous sorts. Lay deciduous sorts as their wood
ripens. Plant out in nursery rows : shelter where
requisite. (2206.)

Forest trees. Sow most sorts, as directed for last
month ; but take care to guard against vermin.
Gather haws, sea and holly berries, hips, &c. and
take them to the rot-heap. Lay and propagate by
cuttings some of the timber-growing willows and
poplars. Plant and prune in the nursery lines as
required. (6983. to TOS^.)

1 0. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Plant {20u.) generally as long as the weather is
mild ; but prefer the spring for very wet, late, bleak
situations. (6838. to 6840.)

Thin, prune, and fell generally, but do not fell
barkmg-trees, or remove thinnings of the oak, larch,
&c. so large as to be worth barking.

Prepare for planting, as directed for last month.
This is a very fit season for draining, which may be
continued in all weathers, when men can work out
of doors, till the planting season returns. In this
way the men may be kept on without loss either to
themselves or you. (6817.)

Operations on ground should now be carried on
vigorously; but buildings should be completed, if
possible, by the middle of the month.

NOVEMBER.

Weather
at

Average of
the Ther-
mometer.

Greatest a„„^„^
Variation Zti^ Quantity

Average.

REMARKS.

This is the rvindy month of the Saxons ; it is generally
also cold and moist, and one of the most disagreeable
for the laboring gardener, but he may console himself
with the shortness of the day, and hail the approach of
evening, when he may lav aside his wet dress and fortify
his mind by converse with books. Roots, fruits, seeds,
dried herbs, and insects require looking over and pro-
tecting from damps.

London -
Edinburgh
Dublin -

44 44
41 1
43

4 29 68 2-557 inch.
5!9 638 4-.'>14
29 74 0-3U4

1. Kalendar of animated nature round
London.

In the first week: the buck {Cervus ciprUus)
grunts.

Second week : the golden plover {Charadrius plu-
vialis) appears.

Third week: snails {Helix) and slugs {Litnax)
bury themselves.

Fourth week : greenfinches {Fringilla montifrin-
gilla) flock; the winter moth {Geometra bru-
maria, Sam.) and the common flat-body moth
{Geonietra applana, Sam.) appear in gardens about
the end of the month.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

In the first tveek : a few plants in flower, by acci-
dent, chiefly annuals, according to the seas«n.

Second week : the fungus helvella mitra appears ;
laurustinus in flower.

Third week : calicanthus praecox in flower.

Fourth week : some primroses show flowers at this
season; and some plants, unnaturally in flower,
still continue if the weather is temperate.

3. Kitchen-garden. — Culinary vege-
tables.

Sow (2071.) short-topt radishes on a warm border
for the chance of obtaining an early spring crop.
(3760.) Peas and beans as directed for last month.
(3601. and 3616.)

Protect (2iJ06.) celery, endive, artichoke, seakale,
potatoes left in the ground to be taken up as wanted,
and any other outstanding edibles roots by litter or
leaves. Radishes, and parley with fronds of fern.
Cauliflowers by hoops and mats.

Propagate (1985.) perennial herbs, if not done last
month.

Transplant (2079.) any thing you have omitted in
October.

Routine culture. All operations on the earth,
excepting digging and trenching, must be per-
formed only in fine dry weather. Dress artichoke
and asparagus beds. Take up endive, brocoli, and
cauliflower, and lay them flat in dry ground, or in
some ofthe ways described. (2293 &c.) Guard against
the damping off" of cauliflower plants, and weed all
seedling crops. Dig, trench, and manure.

Take up all edible roots, which you intend to pre-
eerve, and remove them to the root-cellar.

Destroy (2276.) insects, and particularly snails, tt
this season.

Root-ceUar. (2299.) Keep out the frost, if it sets in
severe ; and equally so water, from above or below.

Store or seed-room. (1704.) Turn over edible roots
kept in the dry, as the alliaceous tribe, and pick out
decaying bulbs. See to your seeds.

Ice-house. (1730.) Fill the ice-house if the frost
is sufficiently strong.

4. Hardy fruit department.

Plant (2077.) all sorts of fruit-trees, as directed for
last month. Choose dry weather. Water to settle
the earth. Stake where required, and mulch (2098.)
both root and stem, where you wish the trees to do
well. Mulching the stem is particularly useful for
very tall standards, and especially for the pithy-
wooded sorts.

Prune (2110.) the vine, and other very hardy fruit-
trees ; the apricot, peach, and nectarine had better
be deferred till spring.

Routine culture. Dig and dress wherever pruning
admits ; or where you have not been able to over-
take the work last month.

Take (2290.) such apples and pears as still remain
on the trees during the first week; dry them well
in the fruit-room, and then barrel or jar up the
long-keeping sorts for the cellar.

Fruit-room. (2298.) Examine such bunches of
grapes, and branches of plums and currants, as you
have hung up to preserve the fruit ; and pick oft" all
decaying berries. Look over all the other fruits,
and attend to medlars, quinces, and services.

5. Culinary hot-house department.

Glass case without artificial heat. (2686 ) Sow small
salads and peas and beans, either to transplant or to
remain after moving the fr.^mes. Transplant let-
tuces and cauliflowers from frames to be covered
with hand-glasses. Attend to air and removing
decayed leaves.

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Sow small salads, force
mint, and other herbs. Try sowing of radishes on
a moderate hot-bed. Transplant lettuces from the
cold-frames to force them forward. Begin to force
asparagus six weeks before the expected demand.
Build mushrooms-beds; if under cover, it will be
better.

Pinery. (2697.) Moderate every stimulus to vege-
tation : because, for the proper well-being of plants,
it is requisite they should all go on in harmony. Heat,
air, and water, art can supply ; but light, in any
thing like adequate quantities for vegetation, is be-
yond the power of man : therefore let your heat,
air, and water, be in a proportion to your light.

Forcing-houses. Some begin this month ; it so,
begin the usual course. Dig and dress the borders ;
prune, train, paint, and cleanse the house, &c. if
not done last month, which is much the best time.
(2695.) Set in strawberries. (3338.)

6. Flower-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Plant (2077.) dried roots of border-flowers. (6502.)
Transplant (2979.) biennials at the beginning ofthe
month, if the weather is very fine : but this work
is better deferred till spring. (te04. and 6505.)

Protect (2206.) tender roots by litter, leaves, tan,
ashes, or landing up trees by mats, or straw co-
vered with mats or nets. Take care of seedlings.

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

1163

Routine culture. Collect earths, composts, and
manures; and, in general, finish digging among
herbaceous flowers by the middle of the month.
Asters and such-like plants arc often only checked
in their growth and flowering by the frosts and
rains ; attend to them, as they are apt to be blown
about, and be disfigured at this season. In cutting
them over after the ground is dug, choose a dry day,
and obliterate the prints of your feet with a fork.
Mow as occasion requires.

Store-room. (1704.) Look at such bulbs as you are
keeping for sjmng planting.

Bees. (1745.) See that these are properly protected
by straw covers, or by being placed in the bee-
bouse.

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case toithout artificial heat. (268&) Take
care of alpines and the primula tribe. Also of the
annuals and perennials intended for forcing. Guard
against damps by admitting air; and to do this
effectuallj', always remove the sashes in the day-
time ; or, if the frames being in front of stoves, do
not admit of this, tilt or elevate them in front, as
high at least as the plane of the sun's rays at noon.

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Go on forcing all man-
ner of flowering shrubs, bulbs, and jjerennial plants,
and take in now and then a few pots of mign nette,
to keep up a constant supply in full flower for the
drawingroom. Blow Dutch' roots in water-glasses
as before.

Green house. (6211.) Medium temperature, with
fire-heat, 42 degrees, maximum 44 degrees. Water
sparingly ; give air as the weather will permit ; and
see to neatness. Encourage mouldiness on the sur.
face of the pots, also weeds and decayed leaves;
these being great ornaments at this season, and
highly useful for the plants.

Dry-stoiv. ;;dl76.) Minimum temperature, with
fire-heat, 45 degrees, maximum 50 degrees. Suc-
culents require very little water at any time, but
especially at this season.

Bark, or moist stove. (6214.) Your medium tem-
perature may now be 65 degrees, or less, but never
exceeding a minimum of 55 degrees, and a maximum
of 75 degrees. Lessen water and air, as light and
heat are lessenetL See that bulbs receive proper
treatment, as these will produce your finest spring-
flowers, especially the crinums and amaryllidea?.

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.

Plant (2077.) deciduoos trees, and shrubs of the
hardier kind so long as the weather continues diy.

Prune and cut hedges. (2110.)

Prefect delicate American trees, as magnolia, and
shrubs not yet fully acclimated, as the Chinese rose.
Roll, mow, and sweep turf. Attend to fallen leaves.
(6195. and 6201.)

Turf may still be laid, but it is now too late to
form or repair lawns by sowing grass-seeds. (2101.^

Prepare for planting, by levelling, digging, trench-
ing, &c. (1803. to 1871.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Fruit-trees. (4361.) Plant only in mild and rather
dry weather ; mulch, water to settle the earth about
the roots, and stake as circumstances require. Pot-
ward delaved work as to fruit-trees, for after the
middle of the month it is better not to touch them
till February.

Ornamental trees and shrubs. Complete what
should have been done last month, as to planting,
laying, taking off layers, &c. (7031.) Prune the
more hardy sorts in the lines, and protect such as
are tender by the usual means.

Forest trees. Finish sowing the larger seeds before
severe weather sets in. Complete all other nursery
operations for the season, if possible. Pruning the
plants in lines may be the last operation. Gather
cones, acorn, masts, nuts, keys, and berries for im-
mediate sowings, or the loft or rot-heap, according
to their natures, and your skill and circumstances.
(6983. to 7037.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park -scenery.

Plant in all temperate weather, and moderately
dry situations. (2079.)

* Thin, fell, and prune deciduous trees, as in last
month. Cut, plash, and repair hedges ; and more
especially the hawthorn kind. (6917.)

Dead fences of every description, excepting mor-
tar-walls, may now be attended to ; but avoid
building in December and January-, even the sim-
plest wall Frost is certain at this season, and its
effects equally so.

Operate on ground, water, rocks, woods, and
timber erections ; but by no means on buildings
where mortar is used.

DECEMBER.

Weather
at

Arera^eof
the Ther-
mometer.

Greatest
Variation
fiom the

Average

of the

Barometer.

Quantity

RE.MAKKS.
Winler month. Sax. Cold, but drv. The gardener's oper-
ations are chieflv of the laborious kind ; but the days are
short and the nights long. In the last week the young
gardener shoiJd examine himself as to Ids professional

contents himself with merely excdling his fellows, he is
lost ; let him. aspire at professional perfection, aud high
/eputation among good and scientilic men.

London •
Edinburgh
Dublin -

41 4
38 9
36 34

3

29 64 1 1-124 inch.
29 66 2-598
29 723 2-916

1. Kalendar of animated nature round

Ixjndon.

The mole {Talpa europtsa) throws up hillocks ;
the December moth {Eriogaster populi, Sam.) ap-
pears about the beginning, and the yellow-line
quaker [Xoctua flavilinea, Sam.) about the end, of
the month.

2. Kalendar of vegetable nature round
London.

Some of the last month's plants continue in flower,
according to the weather.

3. Kitchen-garden. — Culinary veget-
ables.

Sous (2071.) peas and beans, and a few radishes
(3760. and 3601.), as for last month. Choose the very
mildest weather, and consider the final result as
extremely uncertain.

Protect (2206.) beans sown thick for transplanting,
and parsley intended for daily use, with fern ; ce-
lery, with litter ; any plants with litter which you
have not been able to land up, as artichokes, a^ia-
ragus.

To save seed. Transplant cabbages, if you have
neglected it until so unfit a season.

Routine culture. Attend to this only in the best
weather, and chiefly in the middle of the day.
Earth up peas and beans, or cover their stems with
ashes, sawdust, or old tan. Earth up celery when dry.
Tie up any endive, cardoons, and white beet which
has been neglected. Weed, but do not depend on
the hoe, and only attempt to stir dry grounds ; as
stirring clayey lands at this season will do much
more harm than good.

Take up edible roots and full-grown vegetables
with esculent leaves, as the borecoles, and plant the
latter in sand in an open shed for daily use.

Destroy (2276.) slugs, snails, mice, and other ver-
min.

Root-cellar, seed, and store-room, (1702. to 1705.)
See that these, and what they contain, be kept in
perfect order.

Ice-house. (1730.) Fill this, if not done last month.

4. Hardy fruit-department.

Plant (2077.) the hardier trees-, as the apple, pear,
gooseberry, currant, &c. in mild weather. (1361.)

Prune as directed for last month ; but remit the
operation in severe weather. (2110.) Partially unnail
or untie trained trees, and wash their boughs and
shoots, as well as the walls and trellises, with any
glutinous bitter fluid.

Routine culture. Trench, dig, and ridge up the

11 /J4

KALENDARIAL INDEX.

soil, but only in dry weather. Turn over composts,
dung, and earth lieaps. Prepare borders and or-
chards, &c. for planting in spring. Recruit ex-
hausted soils by the application or partial substi-
tution of such as is fresh and rich.

Destroy the larvas of moths and every description
of garden enemies, by usual or unusual means.

Fruit-room. Look over the loose fruit every ten
or twelve days.

Fruit-cellar. Keep this close to retain an even
low temperature, never under 32 nor over 40 deg.
till May, the earliest period when it should be
opened. (2299.)

5. Culinary hot-house department.
Glass case without artificial heat. (2686.) Sow small

salads, radishes, and lettuce ; if the weather proves
mild they may do some good. Weed, take off de-
cayed leaves, and give abundance of air in dry
weather. Protect, in severe frosts, by mats or Utter.

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Begin to force asjiaragus,
sow small salads, and transplant lettuce to be forced
forward. Use the transplanter, in order that no
check may be given, or any occasion for watering
produced. Prepare cucumber-beds ; or if you have
begun see to them. Light is the grand thing to be
attended to, for heat, air, water, and earth you can
command at pleasure. P'orce mint, attend to mush-
rooms, and compost-making ; procuring earth, ma-
nures &c. Cover up at nights with all care ; but
avoid damps, by always giving a little air on fine
days, and all night, when there is danger of steam
of dung.

Pinery. (2597.) Keep a steady heat ; but little
air or water will be wanting, excepting to the kid-
neybeans and strawberries which you set in last
month.

Forcing-houses. (29-10.) Go on with the routine
culture, for houses which you have begun to force ;
and dig and prepare the borders of the others, but
it is too late for pruning or repairs.

6. Flow^er-garden. — Open ground de-
partment.

Protect as directed for last month, and be liberal
in the use of ashes, rotten tan, litter, &c. to the
roots of the more tender plants ; as to beds of florists'
bulbs, tender and half-hardy shrubs, as China roses,
hydrangeas, &c. where such plants can be ventured
in the borders.

Routine culture. Prepare composts, manures, and
simple soils, and turn them over frequently. Much
of the value of all composts and soils, at least for the
florist, depends on their being sweet and mellow,
which is only to be attained by time and frequent
turnings. Attend to neatness in the application of
litter, ashes, and other protecting materials.

Store-roo7n. See that the frost is completely ex-
cluded. (1704, 1705.)

7. Flower-garden. — Hot-house depart-
ment.

Glass case without artificial heat. (2686.) Attend
to alpines, and florists' flowers in frames ; also to
annuals, as directed for last month.

Hot-beds and pits. (2678.) Go on forcing shrubs and
flowers, and blowing bulbs in water ; renovate by
linings, where nccessarj'. If you have begun in
October to force roses, you will have them as well
a« bulbs in blow by the middle of the month. See

to bulbs in water-glasses, and take care to keep up a
succession of roses, bulbs, and most popular forcing-
flowers and shrubs. (6217. to 6219.)

Green-house. (6211.) Minimum temperature 42
degrees, maximum 44 degrees, witli fire-heat.
Water sparingly ; give air freely in good weather,
and remove decayed leaves as they appear.

Dry-stove. (6176.) Minimum temperature for this
month 45 degrees, maximum, with fire-heat, 50
degrees. The more severe the weather out of doors,
give less water within ; but give air freely in fine
weather.

Bark, or moist stove. (6214.) Keep a medium heat
of 55 degrees, or 58 degrees, and lessen water and
air. Attend to routine culture; but the grand
thing at this season is, to keep the fire-heat as re-
gular as possible ; for the ratio of increase of heat
from flues, after they are heated to a certain extent,
is such as often to overheat the house, and scorch or
desiccate the plants : hence, in our opinion, one of
the many advantages of adopting steam, by which
the pipes can never be heated much above 200
degrees.

8. Pleasure-ground and shrubbery.
Plant as in last month. (2077.)

Pru7ie (2110.) in fine weather.

Protect as before. (2206.)

Routine culture. Hake up leaves, and sweep them
from the lawns and gravel. Repair walks, and roll
them J see that water stand on no part of their sur-
face.

Lay down turf, if you cannot help it ; but this is
not a good season : September and March are the
best. (2101.)

Prepare for planting by trenching, digging, &c.
(1870.) Rods and poles for tying up plants and for
twiners, spray or sticks for sticking climbers, as the
sweet-pea, &c. (1516.)

9. Trees. — Nursery department.

Fruit'trees. (4361.) Complete neglected work as
far as weather will permit ; byt if the season is
severe, defer it till February. Prepare tallies, &c.

Ornamenial trees and shrubs. (6539. and 6542.)
Finish delayed work, and attend to protecting tender
sorts. See to the seeds in store, and prune only in
very fine weather. Prepare tallies, labels, sticks,
stakes, poles, rods, spray, fronds, and other materials
of culture and management. Collect composts,
earths, and manures, and turn over those you have
got, so as the frost may thoroughly penetrate them.

Forest trees. (6983.) Attend to the rot-heap, seed-
loft, and compost-ground ; and plant, or take up, or
prune only in fine weather : much depends on the
season, and other circumstances. (6884.)

10. Trees. — Permanent plantations and
park-scenery.

Plant {2017.) only in fine weather, unless thorn-
hedges ; or large trees of common sorts, with balls
of earth.

Fell and prujie (6941. and 6884.) where the trees
are not for transplanting, nor of the barking sorts.

Thin out coppice-wood for poles, stakes, &c.
(6912.)

Prepare for planting by the usual processes, and
by fencing and draining. (6817. and 6820.)

Operate on ground and rocks, but not on build-
ings.

GENERAL INDEX.

V B Tfie Numbers refer to the Paragraphs, not to the Pages, excepting in the case of the List of Authors,
where they refer to the page and the year in which the Author published : in such cases the word page,
and letters A. D. are prefixed. x^or.. oo^ t> , ,

Abbreviations • H. Hardy, F. Frame, G. Green-house, D. S. Dry-stove, S. Stove, \. e. Bark-stove,
Peren Perennial, Bieii. Biennial, An. Annual. C. B. S. Native of the Cape of Good Hope, Austral.
Native of Australasia, N. S. W. Neva South Wales, N. Holl. New Holland, V. Diem. Van Diemen's
Island \V. Ind. West Indies, E. Ind. East Indies, S Eur. South of Europe, N. Eur. North of Europe,
S. Amer. South America, N. Araer. North America, Mex. Mexico, S^c. {See as an example of the
mode of applying these Abbreviations, article Abroma.)

XXBELK-TREE, populus alba, 7135.

Abercrombie, John, a Britbh writer on gardening,
page 1106. A. D. 1766.

Aberdeen nursery, 7639.

Aberdeenshire, gardens of, 7639.

Aberraarlais, a seat in Caennarthenshire, 7614.

Ablactation {ablactatio, to wean), grafting in surh
a way as to wean the scion by degrees from the
stock; that is, inarching, 2007.

Ablaqueation [ablaqueo, as, to lay bare), the lay-
ing bare the bottom of the stem, and the princi-
pal roots of fruit-trees, in order to render them
more fruitful, 2162.

Abroma, polvadeL decan. and malvaceae, S. tr.
K Ind. and N. S. W., (that is. Bark-stove trees
natives of the East Indies and New South
Wales,) which grow freely in common garden-
soil, and are propagated readily by seeds and cut-
tings.—For the general culture of bark-stove
plants, see Bark-stove.

Abrus, wild licorice, diadel. decand. and legu-
minoseas, a S. tr. Jamaica, which grows in
loam and i^eat, and is raised by cuttings, planted
in sand, and plunged in the tan-bed, under a
hand-glass.

Acacia, polyg. moncec. and leguminoseje, S. tr. and
G. tr. AustraL E. Ind. and C. B. S., which grow
in loam peat and sand, and are propagated by
cuttings taken off in the young wood, and planted
in sand under a bell-glass, and in bottom heat.
Most kinds may also be propagated by large cut-
tings of the roots similarly treated. The H. tr.
grow in similar soil, and propagate in the same
manner, or by seeds.

Accena, dian. monog. and rosaces, G. peren.
C. B. S. and Austral., which grow well in loam
and peat, and cuttings taken off at a joint, root
Ireely under a hand-glass. The H. peren. will
grow in common garden-soil, and are continued
y cuttings.

Acalypha, moncec. monad, and euphorbiaceae, S.
and H. an. K Ind. and N. Amer., the S. an.
should be sown in \wts in a hot-bed, and the H.
an. in the open garden. The soil for both, loam
and rotten dung, or leaf-mould.

Acanthus, bear's breech, didyn. angios. and acan-
thacese, a S. tr. E. Ind. and H. peren. Eur.
Both grow in common soil, and divide readily
at the root.

Acarna, syngen. polyg. aequal. and cynarocephaleae,
a H. peren. and' H. an. S. Eur. Both thrive
well in common soil, and propagate by the usual
means.

Acarus tellar-us, or red spider, described, 2271 : to
destroy in the different departments of garden-
ing, — see those departments.

Accelerating vegetation, operations for, 2181.

Acer, maple, polygam. moncec. and accrete, H. tr.
Eur. and N. Amer., which grow in any soil, and
propagate by layers or seeds, and some species by
cuttings,

Acer pseudo-platan us and platanoides, the com-
mon and other maples, 7097. and 7099.

Aceras, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a H. peren.
Eng. which thrives best in light loam and chalk,
and is only to be raised by seeds.

Acetarious plants, 3963.

Achania, monad, polyan. and malvacese, S. tr. Ja-
maica, which grow in common soil, or in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

AcJiard, Professor Francis, page 1126. ; his works
on gardening, A. D. 1798.

Achillea, milfoil, syngen. polyg. equal, and compo>
sit£e, hardy, peren. Eur., which grow in com-
mon soil, and are readily increased by dividing at
the root.

Achras sapota, pentan. monog. and sapotete, S.
tr. Amer. requiring a rich, loamy soil, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Achyranthes, pentan. monog. and amaranthaces.
The S. and G. tr. India, thrive in any rich soil,
and cuttings root freely. The ah. species should
be sown in a hot-bed.

Acidoton, moncec. polyan. and euphorbiacea?, a S.
tr. Jamaica, which will grow in loam and peat,
and may be increased by cuttings in sand imder a
bell-glass.

Acisanthera, decan. monog. and salicare^, a S,
tr. Jamaica, which may be treated like acidoton.

Acmella, syngen. polyg. frustran. and compo-
sitae, the S. and S. Amer. an. should be sown on
a hot-bed, and the H. an. in the open garden.

Acnida, Virginian hemp, dioec. pentan. and chcno-
podeae, a H. an. N. Amer., to be treated as such.

Aconitum, wolPs bane, polvan. trig, and ranuncu.
laceje, H. peren. S. Eur. of common culture.

Acorus, hexan. monog. and aroideae, H. peren.
Brit, and China, marsh plants of easy culture.

Acosta, a Spanish naturalist, 32.

Acrostichum, crjptog. filices, and filiceas, fenis;
S. and G. peren. E. and W. Ind. which grow in
loam and peat, and are increased by seed or divid.
ing the root.

Acrostichum calomelanos, 6739.

Actjea, polyand. monog. and ranunculacea, H. pe-
ren. Brit, and N. Amer. of common culture.

Actinocarpus, hexan. polvg. and alismaceae, G.
and H. peren. N. S. W. and Eng. aquatics,
which will only thrive in water, and proiagate
by seeds.

Acynos, didyn. gjmnos. and labiates, H. bien. and
an. Eur. of easy culture,

Adam's Lodge, of Ix)ndon, a fraternity of gar.
deners, some account of, 7704.

Adam's Lodge, of Aberdeen, 7702.

Adams's needle, — see Yucca.

Adanson, Michael, a celebrated French botanist,
author of Families des PJantes, and other works
who died in the beginning of the present century)

Adansonia, sour-gourd, monadel. polvan. and mal-
vaceae, a S. tr. Senegal, which grows best in rich

1166

GENERAL INDEX.

loam, and cuttings strike in sand, plunged in heat
under a hand-glass.
Addington Place, Surrey, 7527.
Adelia, dioec. monad, and euphorbiaceze, a S. tr,

Jamaica, which may be treated like adansonia.
Adenandra, iientan. monog. and diosmea:, G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow in sandy peat, and the young
. tender tops made into cuttings, and jilanted in
sand, will root under a bell-glass without bottom
lieat.
Adenanthera, decan. monog. and leguminoseje,
S. tr. E. Ind. which grow in loam and i)eat, and
large cuttings with the leaves not shortened, will
root in a iwt of sand plunged in heat under a
hand-glass.
Adiantum, maidenhair, cryptog. Alices, and filicere,
G. and H. peren. Madeira and Brit, ferns, which
grow well in loam and peat, and propagate by di-
viding the root or by seed.
Adina, tetran. monog. and rubiaccEe, a S. tr. China,

of easy culture in loam and peat.
Adonis, jwlyan. polyg. and ranunculaces, a H.
peren. and H. an. Eur. of easy culture in common
soil.
Adoxa, octan. tetrag. and saxifragese, a H. peren.
Brit, a diminutive plant, which does well in pots
in common soil.
Adrianople, gardens of, 307.

.a^gilops, hard-grass, polygam. monoec. and grami-
neae, H. peren. and an. Eur. of common cul-
ture.
JEgiphila, tetran. monog. and verbenace®, S. tr.
W. Ind. which thrive well in liglit loam, and cut-
tings root freely under a hand-glass in heat.
JEgle, Bengal quince, polyan. monog. and auran-
tieae, a S. tr. E. Ind. which requires a rich loam,
i and is propagated by ripened cuttings planted in
sand, without shortening the leaves, and plunged
under a hand-glass in heat.
JEgopodium, goutweed. pentan. dig. apd umbelli-

fereas, H. peren. Brit, of the easiest culture.
Aerides, air-plant, gynan. monan. and orchideJE, S.
V peren. China, parasites, which may be hung up
; in a basket of moss or pieces of bark, or fixed by
moss and bandages to the trunk or bark of a tree,
— see the Hon. Mr. Herbert's treatment detailed,
6736.
^rua, pentan. monog. and amaranthaceae, a S. tr.
and S. bien. W. Ind. which grow well in rich,
light earth, and cuttings strike freely.
JEschynoraene, diadel. decan. and leguminosse,
a S. tr. \V. Ind. which requires rich loam, a
good deal of heat, and is propagated by cuttings
under a bell-glass in bottom heat The S. an.
and H. an. India and Amer. may be treated as
tender annuals,
•ffisculus, horse-chestnut, heptan. monog. and
acereae, H. tr. Asia and N. Amer. which prefer
light, deep soil, and sheltered situations, and are
propagated by seeds or layers,
j&culus hippo-castanum, the common horse-chest-
nut, 7126.
JEthionema, tetrad, silic. and crucifereaB, a H. bien.

and H. an. S. Eur. of common culture,
.ffithusa, fool's parsley, pentan. dig. and umbelli-
fereas, a H. peren. and H. an. Brit. ; poisonous
weeds.
Affaiti, Casimiro, his works on gardening, page

1128. A. D. 1787.
African almond, brabejum stellulifolium.
African flea-bane, tarchonanthus camphoratus.
African fruits deserving cultivation, 6018.
African lily, — see Agapanthus.
African marigold, tagetes erecta.
Agapanthus, African lily, hexan. monog. and heme-
rocallideas, G. peren. C. B. S. which thrive in
loam, and a little rotten dung, and are propagated
by dividing the root, or by seed.
Agaricus campestris, garden-mushroom. See this
and various other species of agaricus described,
4339. Culture of the garden-mushroom, 3404;
what spawn is, 3406; where indigenous spawn
may be collected, 3410 ; preserving spawn, 3412 ;
procuring spawn artificially, 5413 ; propagating,
3415; methods of raising mushrooms, S423;
ridges in the open air, 3424 ; preparing the dung,
3425; forming the bed, 3426; moulding, planting,
covering the bed, 3427; culture on shelves, in
the German manner, as introduced by Oldacre,
3434; compost, 3435; making, spawning, earth-
ing, subsequent treatment, 3436 ; renovating old
beds, S140; growing mushrooms in pots, boxes,
&c. with dung, 3442 ; without dung, 3443 ; cul-
ture in rnelon-beds, 3445 ; in old hot-beds, 3447 ; "

in pits, 3448; in dark frames, S449; In a cellar
3450; general details, 3452.
Agathosma, iKjntan. monog. and diosmeae, G. tr.
C. B. S. soil, a sandy peat : propagated by cuttings
in sand under a bell-glass, but not plunged in
heat.
Agave, hexan. monog. and bromelea, D. S. and G.
tr. and peren. S. and N. Amer. soil, a rich loam ;
l)ropagated by suckers.
Agen, General" Lomet's villa at, 176.
Ageratum, syngen, polyg. asqual. and compositiB,
G. tr. requiring a light, rich soil; propagated by
cuttings under a hand-glass. The H. an. is of
common culture.
Aghinuas, a seat in Tj-rone, 7679.
Agr. Chem., Davy's Agricultural Chemistry.
Agricola, Dr. George Andrew, his works on garden.

ing, page 1123. A. D. 170-.
Agrimonia, agrimony, dodecan. dig. and rosacete,

H. peren. Eur. and N. Amer. of easy culture.
Agrimony, — see Agrimonia.

Agrostemma, rose-campion, decan. pentag. and
caryophylleae, H. peren. and an. of common
culture.
Agrostis, bent-grass, trian. dig. and graminejB, a S.
peren. E. Ind. and H. peren. and an. Eur. of
the easiest culture.
Agrumi, the Italian terra for bitter fruits, especially

the orange tribe.
Ailanthus, polyg. monoec. and terebintaceae, a S. tr.
and H. tr. E. Ind. which grow in common soil,
and are propagated by cuttings of the roots.
Aimsfield,a seat in East Lothian, 7619.
Air, its nature and properties, 1216.
Air-plant, — see Aerides.
Aira, hair-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae, H. peren.

and an. Eur. of the easiest culture.
Airthrie Castle, near Stirling, 364.
Aitonia, monad, octan. and meliaceae, G. tr. an.
C. B. S. soil, sandy loam and peat ; propagated by
cuttings of young wood, in sand, under a bell-glass,
and plunged in heat. Avoid planting too close,
and wipe tlie glass frequently, as they are apt to
damp off!
Aizoon, icos. di-pentag. and ficoideas, a G. tr. an.
and bien. C. B. S. and S. Eur. succulents, which
grow in lime-rubbish, and propagate readily.
Ajuga, bugle, didyn. gymnos. and labiatea;. H.

peren. Eur. of common culture.
Akee-tree, blighia sapida.
Alamanni, Luigi, his works on gardening, page

1128. A. D. 1546.
Alangium, polyan. monog. and myrtiace^, a S. tr.
E. Ind. soil, loam, and peat ; propagated by cut-
tings, in sand, under a hand-glass in heat.
Alaternus, rhamnus alaternus.
Albonico, J. H. his works on gardening, page 1125.

A. D. 1795.
Albuca, hexan. monog. and asphwleleae, G. peren.
C. B. S. bulbs ; soil, light, sandy loam, and veget-
able mould ; propagation by offsets ; or by leaves
tiken off with a scale of the bulb, and carefully
planted.
Alcazar, a palace and gardens in Spain, 291.
Alchemilla, ladies' mantle, tetran. monog. and
rosaceae, H. peren. and an an. Eur. of common
culture.
Alcina, syngen. polyg. nccess. and composita;, a

G. an. "Mexico, of easy culture.
Alcoves, 1810.

Aldbury Place, Surrey, 7527.
Aldea, pentan. monog. and hydrophyllse, a H. peren.

Magellan, of common culture.
Alder — see Alnus.
Alderlev Park, Cheshire, 7590.
Aldworth Hall, YorKshire, 7582.
Aletris, hexan. monog. and hemerocallideas, H.
peren. N. Amer. requiring a j)eat soil and shady
situation, and propagated by offsets from the
roots.
Alcurites, monoec. monad, and euphorbiacea^, a S. tr.
Society Isles ; soil, a rich loam ; ripe cuttings, with
their leaves on, strike in sand, under a hand
glass.
Alexanders — see Smyrmum.
Alexandrian laurel, ruscus racemosus.
Alisma, water-plantain, hexan. polyg. and ali.s-
maceas, H. peren. marsh plants, and aquatics of
easy culture,
Alison, the Rev. A., his Analysis of the Principles

of Design, 7160 — 7162.
AUamanda, pentan. monog. and apocyneffi, a S. tr.
Guiana ; soil, a rich loam ; cuttings strike freely
in moist peat.

GENERAL INDEX.

1167

AUantodia, crjrptogam. Gl'icea, and filices, a G.
peren. Madeira ; a fern ; soil, loam and peat ;
and propagation by dividing the root or seed.

AUerton Manlevere'r, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.

Alliaceous plants, 3810.

Alligator-pear, laurus persea, 5977.

Allionia, tetran. monog. and nyctagineae, H. peren.
N. Amer. which grow in common soil; and cut-
tings root readily under a hand-glass.

Allium, garlic, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, H.
peren. and bien. Eur. bulbs of easy culture.

Allium ascalonicum, the shallot, 3845.

Allium cepa, the common onion, 3830.

Allium porrum, the leek, 3811.

Allium sativum, the garlic, 3841.

Allium schcenoprasum, the chive, 3838.

Allium scorodoprasura, the rocambole, 3852.

Allspice — see Calycanthus.

Allspice-tree, myrtus pimenta.

Almond, — see Amygdalus.

Alnus, alder, moncec. tetran. and amentacese, H.
tr. Eur. and N. Amer. of common culture, pro-
pagated by seeds.

Alnus glutinosa, the common alder, 7132.

Aloe, hexan. monog. and hemerocallides, D. S. and
G. tr. and peren. C. B. S. which grow best in
sandy loam, with lime-rubbish or gravel, and
are propagated by suckers, or leaves stripped off,
and planted shallow in, or laid on the surface of
a pot of mould.

Alonsoa,diciyn angios. andscrophu'arineae, G. tr. S.
Amer. which grow in rich, light soil, and are in-
creased by seeds or cuttings.

Alopecurus, foxtail-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae,
H. peren. and an. Jamaica and Eur. grasses of
the easiest culture.

Aloysia, didyn. angios. and verbenace^, a G. tr.
Chili, which grows in light, rich soil, and iu-
creases by cuttings.

Alpinia, monan. monog. and scitamineae, S. per. W.
and E Ind. reedy or marsh hot-house plants of
common culture.

Alstroemeria, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, S. and
G. peren. S. Amer. which thrive in sandy loam,
and peat or vegetable earth, and increase by seeds
or dividing the root. A. ligtu is difficult to
flower, unless the roots are put into a state of
rest, by withholding water till the shoots are
quite dried up ; then give a good watering, and
put it in a moist heat, and it will flower abun-
dantly. (Sweet.)

Alstroemeria salsilla, the edible alstroemeria, 6030.

Alston Grove, Nottinghamshire, 757fi.

Altenburg, Pomological Society of, their annals,
page 1127. A. D. 1810.

Altemanthera, pentan. monog. and amaranthacejB,
a S. peren. S. bien. and G. peren. E. Ind. and
S. Amer. soil, light and rich, and cuttings root
freely in the shade.

Althaea, marsh-mallow, monad, polyan. and mal-
vaceae, S. peren. and bien. and H. peren. tr. and
an. all of common culture.

Althaea frutex, hibiscus syriacus.

Althorpe, a seat in Northamptonshire, 7580.

Alyssum, mad-wort, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, a
F. tr. and H. tr. peren. and an. Eur. of easy cul-
ture in common soil, and readily increased by
cuttings.

Amaranthus, amaranth, moncec. pentan. and ama-
ranthaceze, a S. an. and H. an. As. Amer. Eur.
of common culture.

Amaryllis, hexan. monag. and amaryllideae, S. G.
and H. peren. Eur. Amer. and Afr. bulbs of
common culture : some may be treated as aquatics,
— see 6317.

Amateurs of gardening, 7407 j their gardens and
management, 745?8.

Amber-tree, anthospermum aethiopicum.

Ambrosia, moncec. pentan. and corymbifereie, H.
an. of common culture.

Amellus, syngen. polyg super, and corymbifereae,
a G. tr. C. B. S. soil, loam and peat, and cuttings
root freely under a glass ; and H. peren. Amer.
which grow in common soil, and cuttings root
freely under a hand-glass.

American books on gardening, 7699.
American cowslip, dodecatheon meadia.
American garden, how to compos* the soil, 6568;

to arrange, 6122.
American shrubs, 6562 ; culture, 6568 ; final situ-
ation, 6569.
Amerimnum, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, S. tr.

"W. Ind. requiring a light loam; and cuttings.

not deprived of their leaves, root freely under
a hand-glass in a warm situation.

Amethystea, dian. monog. and labiatete, a H. an.
Siberia, of common culture.

Ammannia tetran. monog. and salicarese, a S. ai.
and H. an. W. and E. Ind. of easy culture.

Ammi, bishop's weed, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae,
H. peren. and an an. Eur. foetid, weeds.

Amomum, monan. monog. and scitamines, S. pe-
ren. Sierre Leone, reedy marsh plants.

Amorpha, bastard indigo, diadel. decan. and legu-
minoseae, F. and H. tr. Amer. which grow in
common soil, and increase by cuttings planted in
autumn, in a sheltered situation.

Ampthill Park, Bedfordshire, 7549.

Ampton Hall, Suffolk, 7552.

Amsonia, pentan. monog. and apocyneae, H. perm.
N. Amer. which grow in common soil, and are in«
creased by cuttings or dividing at the root.

Amygdalus, almond, icos. monog. and rosacea:, a
G. tr. and H. tr. Persia and Eur. requiring rich
loam, and which may be propagated by seeds, lay-
ers, grafting, &c.

Amygdalus communis and amara, the sweet and bit-
ter almond, 4542.

Amygdalus persica, the peach-tree, 4481 ; flat peach
of China, 4485.

Amygdalus, var. nectarina, the nectarine-tree, 4517;
to force the peach and nectarine, 3063.

Amyris, octan. monog. and terebintaceje, S. tr.
S. Amer. soil, loam and peat, and cuttings root
freely in sand under a hand-glass.

Anabasis, pentan. digy. and chenopodese, a G. tr.
Spain, which grows well in loam and peat, and
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass without
bottom heat

Anacampseros, dodecan. monog. and portulaceje,
G. tr. and peren. C. B. S. succulents which grow
in sandy-loam and lime-rubbish, and cuttings root
readily in similar soil.

Anacardium, cashew.nut, ennean. monog. and tere-
bintacesB, a S. tr. India, soil a light loam, and
cuttings from ripened wood, not deprived of their
leaves, will root in sand under a hand-glass.

Anacyclus, syngen. poly, super, and corymbifereae,
H. "an. S. Eur. of common culture.

Anagallis, pimpernell, pentan. monog. and primula-
ceae, a G. an. and bien. and H. peren. and an Eur.
all of easy culture, increased either by seeds or
cuttings.

Anag}ris, bean-trefoil, decan. monog. and legumi-
noseae, a G. and F. tr. Spain and Teneriffe, soil
loam and peat, and cuttings will root in sand under
a hand-glass.

Anarrhinum, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a
H. bien. of common culture.

Anastatica, rose of Jericho, tetrad, silicu. and cru-
cifereae, a H. peren. Levant, which will grow in
common soil, and cuttings under a hand-glass root
freely.

Anchovy-pear, grias cauliflora, 5979.

Anchusa, bugloss, pentan. monog. and boragineae,
G. and H. bien. and peren. Eur. and C. B. S.
which grow freely in common soil, and are in-
creased by cuttings or seeds.

Anderson, James, LL. D. 130. 140. a British writer
on gardening, page 1108. A. D. 1777.

Andersonia, pentag. monog. and epacrideae, a G. tr.
N. Holl. which grows freely in peat soil with the
pots well drained, and not overwatered; young
tops made into cuttings root in sand under a
bell-glass.

Andrachne, bastard orpine, moncec. gynan. and
euphorbiacea?, a H. an. Italy, of common culture.

Andrews, Mr. Isaac, an eminent grower of the pine-
apple at Lambeth, 2712.

Andrews, Henry, a British writer on gardening,
page 1112. A. D. 1798.

Andromeda, decan. monog. and ericea, S. G. and
H. tr. N. Amer. E. Ind. and Eur. which prefer
peat soil, and cuttings strike in sand under bells or
hand-glasses ; but the hardy sorts make plants
more rapidly by layers, 6562.

Andropogon, polygam. moncec. and graminese, S. G.
and H. peren. E. Ind. and Eur. grasses of easy
culture.

Androsace, pentag. monog. and primulaceae, H.
peren. bien. and an. Eur. which thrive best in small
pots in turfy loam and peat, the pots being well
drained ; they are increased by seeds, or dividing
at the root.

Andry, a French author on gardening, page 1116.
A. D. 1707.

1168

GENERAL INDEX.

Andryala, syiigen, polyg. aequal. and cichoraceas, G,
peren, and bien. and H. peren. and an. As. Afr.
and Eur.; the green-house sorts grow well in
light loam, and cuttings root freely under a
hand-glass ; the hardv sorts are of common cul-
ture.
Anemia, cryptog. schismatopterides, and filices, S.
peren. W. Ind. ferns of the usual culture.

Anemone, polyan. polyg. and ranunculace^, H.
peren. Eur. and N. Amer. which grow in loam
rather light and rich tlian heavy, and increase by
dividing the root or by seeds.

Anemone coronaria, and hortensis, the common gar-
den anemone, 6275.

Anethum, dill, pentan. dig. and umbelliferese, a H.
peren. and ah". Eur. of common culture, and pro-
pagated by seed.

Anethum foeniculum, the common fennel, 4097.

Anethum graveolens, the common dill, 4103.

Angelica, pentan. dig. and umbellifercce, H. peren.
and bien. Eur. and Amer. which grow in loamy
deep soil, and are increased by seeds.

Angelica archangelica, the garden angelica, 4216.

Angelica-tree, aralia spinosa.

Anglesea, gardens and residences of, 7603.

An^ran de Biicneuve, a French writer on garden-
ing, page 1117. A. D. 1712.

Anguria, moncec. dian. and cucurbitaceae a S. peren.
Carthagena, soil light and rich ; propagation by
cuttings or seeds.

Angus, or Forfarshire, gardens and residences of,
7637.

Anigozanthos, hexan. monog. and hemodoraceas, a
Gr. tr. N. Holl. which grows in loam and peat, re-
quires a good deal of water, and is increased by di-
viding at the root.

Anise, pimpinella anisum.

Aniseed-tree, — see Illycium.

Anisomeles, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, a S. an.
E. Ind. of the usual culture,

Ann. Bot. Annals of Botany, by C. Kiining and
J. Sims.

Annona, custard-apple, polyan. polyg. and annona-
ceae, S. tr. W. Ind. and S. Amer. requiring a rich
loam ; and ripened cuttings with the leaves un-
shortcned, will root in sand, under a glass in a
moist heat.

Annual plants, such as are of one year's duration,
and are therefore raised annually from seeds
ripened the preceding year. There are some ex-
ceptions in the cases of rare plants which do not
seed freely ; or where particular varieties are to
be preserved. In these cases propagating by cut-
tings or layers is adopted.

Annuals, bark-stove or hot-house, their culture,
6724, 6725.

Annuals, dry-stove, 6668.

Annuals, frame, their culture, 6596.

Annuals, green-house, their culture, 6660.

Annuals, half hardy, their enumeration, 6512 j cul-
ture, 6513.

Annuals, hardy, adapted for border-flowers, 6506 ;
their culture, 6507.

Anomatheca, trian. monog. and irideae, a G. peren.
C. B. S. a bulb of the irides family.

Ansley Hall, Warwickshire, 7571.

Ant, — see Formica.

Anthemis, chamomile, syngen. polyg. super, and co-
rymbiferese, a G. peren. and H. peren. and an.
Eur. and China, of easy culture, and propagated
by seeds, cuttings, or dividing at the root.

Anthemis artemisiaefolia, the Chinese chrysanthe-
mum, 6470.

Anthemis nobilis, the common chamomile, 4235.

Anthericum, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, G. tr.
peren. bien. and an. C. B. S. which grow in light
sandy loam, with the pots well drained ; the
bulbous kinds should have no water when not
in a growing state; the shrubby sorts root
from cuttings, and most of the species produce
seeds.

Anthocercis, didyn. angios. and solanese, a G.
tr. N. Holl. which grows in loam and peat,
and cuttings root readily under a bell-glass in
sand.

Antholyza, triand. monog. and irideas, G. and H.
peren. C. B. S. bulbs of the irides family,

Anthospermum, amber-tree, dicec. tetran. and ru-
biaceae, a G. tr. C. B. S. which grows well in loam
and peat, and strikes readily from cuttings.

Anthoxanthum, spring grass, dian. dig. and gra-
mineae, H. peren. Brit, and Morocco, of the easiest
culture.

Anthoxanthum odoratum, scented vernal grass,

4318. " '

Anthriscus, rough chervil, pentan. dig. and umbel-

liferea?, a H. peren. and an. common weeds.
Anthyllis, kidney-vetch, diadel. decan. and legumi-
noseiB, G. and F.tr. and bien. Eur. which grow in
loam and peat, and are propagated by seeds or
cuttings under bell, glasses in sand. The glasses
must be kept wiped, otherwise the cuttings are apt
to damp off.

Antidesma, dicec. pentan. and terebintaceze, S. tr.
E. Ind. which require a rich loam, and cuttings
will root in sand under a hand-glass in moist heat.

Antiquities, uses of, in gardening, 1840.

Antiquity, gardening authors of, 7685.

Antirrhinum, snap-dragon, didyn. angios. and scro-
phularinese, F. and H. peren. and an. Eur. of
easy culture, and propagated by cuttings or seeds.

Antrim, gardens of, 7684.

Antwerp, villas of, 126; botanic garden, 135.

Anychia, pentan. monog. and amaranthacese, a H.
bien. N. Amer. of common culture, 1660.

Aotus, decan. monog. and leguminosea;, a G. tr.
N. Holl. which grows well in sandy loam and peat,
and young cuttings root readily under a bell-glass
in sand.

Apargia, syngen. polyg. a-qual. and cichoracese, H.
peren. Eur. of the easiest cuUure, and propagated
by seed or division at the root.

Aphelandra, didynam. angios. and acanthacea?,
a S. tr. W. Ind. ; requiring rich loam, and
cuttings strike freely in a moist heat under ji
hand-glass.

Aphyllanthes, lily-pink, hexan. monog. and aspho-
deleffi, a H. peren. France, which grows well in
peat earth, and is increased by seeds, or dividing
at the root.

Aphis, or plant-louse, described, 2242.

Aphis, how to destroy, 2282.

Aphis lanigera, or American blight, 4431.

Apiary, a place for an assemblage of beehives,
1734. PolisI) beehives, 1738 ; common, 1739 ;
of glass, 1740 ; storying, 1741 : of Palteau, 1742 ;
of Huish, 1743 ; Howison, 1/44. Management
of hives, 1745 ; choice of bees, 1746 ; materials
and size of hives, 1747; feeding the bee, 1748;
covering the hive, 1750 ; swarming, 1752 ; taking
the honey, 1755; taking by deprivation, 1756 j
by sufTocation, 1758.

Apios, diadelph. decan. and leguminoseae, a H. tr.
and peren. N. Amer. both climbers, which grow
in common soil ; the first is propagated by layers,
and the other by tubers from the roots.

Apios tuberosa, 4332.

Apis mellifera, the honey-bee, 2262. 1733, — see
Apiary.

Apium, parsley, pentan. digy. and umbellifereiB,
H. bien. Eur.

Apium petroselinum, or garden parsley, 4-082.

Apium graveolens, or celery, 3997.

Apium Americanum, or arracacha, 6QS6.

Apocynum, dog's bane, pentan. dig. and apocynea?,
a H. peren. N. Amer. which prefers a little peat
added to common soil, and increases rapidly by
suckers.

Aponogeton, hexan. trig, and naiadeas, A. S. peren.
and G. peren. C. B. S. bulbs, which are to be
treated as aquatics, and are increased by otfsets
or seeds.

Apple, — see Pyrus.

Appleberry, — see Billardiera.

Apprentices in gardening, 7379.

A|jproach.road to a mansion, principles of forming.

Appropriation of scenery by planting, 6769; princi-
ples and use of appropriation in landscape-garden-
ing, 7175.

Appuldurcombe, a seat in the Isle of Wight, 7594.

Apricot, 4522. — see Armeniaca.

Aquarium for exotics, 6180 ; for hardy plants, 6519.

Aquatic herbaceous plants, hardy, 6521 ; exotic,
6726.

Aquilegia, columbine, polyan. pentag. and ranun-
culacese, H. peren. Brit, of the easiest culture.

Arabis, wall-cress, tetrad, siliq. and cruciferea?,
H. pereii. bien. and an. Eur. rock-work plants, of
easy culture, and increased by seeds or cuttings.

Arachis, earth-nut, diadel. decan. and legumino-
sea, a S. an. S. Amer. of common culture.

Arachis hypogtea. South American earth-nut, 6037.

Aralia, pentan. pentag. and araleee, S. tr. W. Ind.
and N. Amer. which thrive in rich loam, and cut-
tings strike readily under a hand-glass, in heat :

GENERAL INDEX.

1169

H. tr. which grow in common soil, and ripened
cuttings strike in a sheltered situation ; and H.
peren. of common culture, and increased by
seeds.

Aranjuez, a palace and gardens in Spain, 294.

Araucaria, diopc. monad, and coniferese, G. tr.
Chili and Norfolk Island, which grow in sandy
loam and peat, " and cuttings may be rooted,
though with difficulty, taken off at a joint in
ripened wood, and planted in a pot of sand under
a hand-glass, but not in heat." {Sweet.)

Arboretum of the Hackney nursery, 7336.

Arbor vitae, — see Thuja.

Arboricultural catalogue, 7038.

Arboriculture, 6742.

Arbors, 1811.

Arbutus, strawberry-tree, decan. monog. and eri-
ceas, G. and H. tr. Eur. which grow best in two
thirds of peat and one third of loam ; they are
increased by layers and seeds, and A. unedo com-
monly by budding or inarching.

Archangel, — see AngeUca.

Architect, horticultural, 7402.

Architecture, origin of the different styles of, 7234.

Architette rustici, 110.

Arctium, burdock, syngen. polyg. zequal. and cyna-
rocephaleffi, H. bien. Brit, common road-side
weeds.

Arctopus, polyg. dioec. and umbellifereae, a G. peren.
C. B. S. which grows in loam and peat, and is in-
creased by seeds.

Arctotheca, syngen. polyg. frustran. and corymbi-
fereffi, a G. peren. C. B. S. which grows in loam
and peat, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass in the open air.

Arctotis, syngen. polyg neces. and corymbifereae,
G. peren. tr. and an. C. B. S. which grow in loam
and peat, and are readily increased by cuttings,
or dividing at the root.

Ardbraccan Palace, in Eastmeath, 7661,

Ardenne, Jean Paul de, his works on gardening,
page 1117. A.D. 1746.

Ardisia, pentan. monog. and myrsine£B, S. tr. and
G. tr. E. and W. Ind. which grow in loam and
peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under a
hand-glass, in moist heat.

Arduina, pentan. monog. and apocyneae, a G. tr.
C. B. S. which thrives well in peat and loam, and
cuttings root freely under a bell-glass in sand.

Areca, cabbage-tree, moncec. monad, and palmeae,
S. tr. E. and W. Ind. palms which grow in light
sandy loam, and like other palms, can only be
raised from seeds.

Arenaria, sand-wort, decan. trig, and caryophylleae,
a G. peren. and H. peren. and an. Eur. all the
species grow best in sandy loam and peat, and are
increased by cuttings or by seeds.

Arethusa, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a G. peren.
N. Amer. a bulb which grows best in two thirds
peat and one third loam, and requires to be kept
moist as a marsh plant

Aretia, pentan. n)onog. and primulaceae, H. tr.
Eur. rockwork plants, which grow in loam, sand,
and peat, and are increased by dividing at the
root

Argemone, polyan. monog. and papaveraceae, H.
an. Eur. and Amer. of common culture.

Argenteuil, fig- gardens of, 193.
Argylesbire, gardens of, 7649 .

Aristea, trian. monog. and irideas, G. peren. C. B. S.
bulbs, which grow in loam and peat, and are in-
creased by dividing at the root.

Aristolochia, birth-wort, gynan. hexan. and aristolo-
chiae, S. and G. tr. Ind. and Amer. climbers and
twiners, which grow well in light loam, and cut-
tings strike freely under a hand-glass : the H. tr.
grow in common soil, and are increased by di-
viding at the root.
Aristote, a French author on Gardening, page 1116.
A. D. 1677.

Aristotelia, dodecan. monog. and rhamneae, a H. tr.
Chili, which requires a sheltered situation ; but
will grow in any common soil, and ripened cut-
tings, planted under a glass, will root freely.
Armagh, gardens and residences of, 7682.
Armeniaca, the apricot, icos. di-pentag. and rosa-
ceas, H, tr. Eur. of which there are two species,
the Siberian, an ornamental shrub, propagated by
budding on plum-stocks, and the common fruit-
bearing apricot, prunus armeniaca, 4522.
Armeria, thrift, pentan. pentag. and plumbaginea?,
a H. tr. and H. peren. Eur. which grow well in
common soil, and are increased by dividing at the

root Armeria vulgaris, the common thrift, is a

good edging plant.
Arnica, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,
H. peren. Eur. which grow best in light loam,

and are increased by dividing at the root
Arnopogon, sheep's beard, syngen. polyg. aequaL
and cichoraceffi, a H. peren. and an. Eur. of
common culture.
Arno's Vale, a seat in Middlesex, 7520.
Arnolde, Richard, a British writer on gardening,

page 1099. A. D. 1502.
Arracacha, — see Apium.
Arran, gardens of, 7630.
Arrigoni, Stephano, his works on gardening, page

1128. A. D. 1763.
Arrow-grass, — see Triglochin.
Arrow-head, — see Sagittaria.
Arrow-root, — see Maranta.
Artedia, pentan. dig. and umbellifereas, a H. an.

Levant, of the usual culture.
Artemisia absinthium, wormwood, 4247.

Artemisia dracunculus, tarragon, 4093.

Artemisia, wormwood, syn. polyg. super, and co-
rymbifereas, G. F. and H. tr. peren. bien. and an.
Eur. and Amer. all of easy culture and propaga-
tion.

Arthropodium, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, a
G. peren. N. S. \V. soil a sandy loam ; and pro-
pagation by dividing at the root

Arthur's Seat, a hiU at Edinburgh, how to improve
by a promenade, 7317.

Artichoke, — see Cynara.

Artiste jardinier, 196.

Artisti giardinieri, 110.

Artocarpus, the bread-fruit tree, monoec. monan.
and urticeae, S. tr. S. Sea Isl. and Ind. which
thrive well in light loam, and propagate readily
by cuttings, with their leaves entire.

Artocarpus incisa, the common bread-fruit tree,
6014.

Arum, moncec. polyan. and aroideae, S. tr. and
peren. and F. and H. peren. Eur. Ind. Amer. all

' of which thrive well in common soil, and are pro-
pagated by dividing the roots ; or the woody sorts
by cuttings.

Arundel Castle, Sussex, 7532.

Arundo, reed, trian. digyn. and gramineae, H.
peren. Eur. grasses of the easiest culture.

Asarabacca, — see Asarum.

Asarum, asarabacca, dodec. monog. and aristolo-
chiae, H. peren. Eng. and Amer. of common cul-
ture,

Asclepias, swallow-wort, pentan. dig. and asclepia-
deje, G. peren. which thrive best in peat and
loam, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass. The H. peren. are of easy culture.

Ascyrum, polyad. polyan. and hypericineae, G. tr.
and peren. N. Amer. which thrive well in loam
and peat, and are readily increased by cuttings
taken off in the young wood and planted under a
hand-glass.

Ash-tree, — see Fraxinus.

\shbrooke, a seat in Kilkenny, 7656.

Ashburnham Abbey, Sussex, '7531.

Ashcombe, a seat in Wiltshire, 7596.

Ashes, proportion in which tliey are afforded by
the combustion of different species of trees, 70S.

Ashridge Park, Buckinghamshire, 7548; flower-
garden, 6099.

Ashted Park, Surrey, 7528.

Ashton Hall, Lancashire, 7589.

Asiatic fruits deserving cultivation, 6021.

Asimina, polyan. polyg. anonaceae, H. tr. N. Amer.
which thrive in common soil, and are increased
by layers.

Aspalathus, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.
and G. tr. peren. C. B. S. which grow freely in
sandy loam and peat, and young cuttings root in
sand under bell-glasses, care being taken to wipe
the glasses frequently to prevent their damping
off.

Asparaginous plants, 3855.

Asparagus, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, S. G.
and F. tr. Eur. and C. B. S. climbers, which grow
freely in light loam, or loam and peat, and are
increased by dividing at the root, or by cuttings
under a hand-glass without bottom heat.

Asparagus officinalis, the garden asparagus, 3856 ;
to force asparagus, 3349 ; plants, planting, time of
beginning to force, temperature, air, water,
gathering, successional supplies, ^oO. 58 ; to force
in hot-beds, 3359 ; forcing the roots as they stand
in the open ground, 3364.

4F

1170

GENERAL INDEX.

Asperugo, German mad-wort, pentan. monog. and

boragines, a H. an. Brit, of common culture.
Asperula, woodruff, tetran. monog. and rubiacc«,

H. peren. and a H. an. Eur. of easy culture.
Asphodel, — see Asphodelus.
Asphodelus, asphodel, hexan. monog. and aspho-

deleee, H. peren. Eur. of common culture.
Aspidium, shield -fern, cryptog. filices, and filices,
G. and H. peren. Eur. and N. A. ferns of the
usual culture.
Asplenium, spleen-wort, cryptog. filices, and filicea;,
S. G. and H. peren. Eur. and S. Amer. ferns
which maybe cultivated as aspidium.
Association of ideas, its influence on the mind as to

the expression of scenery, 7171. to 7174.

Astankina, a seat near Moscow, 262.

Aster, star-wort, syngen. poly, super, and corymbi-

fereae, G. tr. and bien. Eur. C. B. S. and N. Amer.

of easy culture in loam and peat, and cuttings

root readily, in the same kind of soil, under a

i hand-glass, without bottom heat. H. peren. and

an. of any culture in any soil,
Astley, Francis Duckenfield, Esq., a British author

on gardening, p.ige 1112. A. D. 1797.
Aston Park, Shropshire, 7569.

Astragalus, milk-vetch, diadel. decan. and legumi-

noseae, G. and H. peren. and H. an. Eur. As. Af;

all of which thrive well in common soil, and are

increased by seeds.

Astrantia, master-wort, pentan. dig. and umbelli-

ferea;, H. peren. Eur. of the easiest culture.
Astroloma, pentan. monog. and epacridete, a G. tr.
N. S. \V. which thrives best in loam and peat,
and young cuttings root readily under a bell-glass
in sand.
Athamanta, spignel, pentan. dig. and umbelliferece,
H. peren. r.nd an an. Eur. of easy culture and
propagated by seeds.
Athanasia, syngen. polyg. Eequal. and corymbifercfe-,
G. tr. C. B. S. soil, a light loam, and cuttings root
readily under a hand-glass : the H. an. species re-
quires the usual culture.
Atractylis, syngen. polyg. aequal. and cynaroce-

phalea;, a H. peren. Spain, of common culture.
Atragene, polyan. polyg. and ranunculacea?, a S.
tr. G. tr. and H. tr. Eur. Afr. and Amer. climb-
ers of easy culture, and propagated by cuttings,
layers, or seeds.
Atraphaxis, hexan. dig. polygoneiB, a G. tr. and
peren. Eur. and C. B. S. which grow in loam and
peat, and cuttings root rapidly under a hand-
glass.
Atriplex, orache, polyg. monoec. and chenopodese,
Eur. of easy culture, and increased by cuttings ;
and H. an. to be treated as such.
Atriplex hortensis, the garden orache, 3787.
Atropa, pentan. monog. and solanese, a G. tr. Eur.
which grows in light loam, and is readily increased
by cuttings ; and a H. peren. of easy culture in-
creased by seeds.
Atropa mandragora, the mandrake, 29, — see Man-

dragora.
Aubletia, polyan. monog. and tiliaceae; S. tr. S.
Amer. which grow freely in light loam, and well
ripened cuttings strike under a bell-glass, if not
allowed to damp off; it flowers best when the
stem is ringed.
Aubrey Hall, Warwickshire, 1571.
Aucuba, monoec. tetran. and rhamneae, a H. tr.
Japan, which grows in common soil, and is rea-
dily increased by cuttings.
Audley-end, a seat in Essex, 7542.
Augarten, a public promenade at Vienna, 205.
Aulax, dioec. tetran. and proteaceae, G. tr. C. B. S.
which thrive best in sandy loam with a great
many sherds at the bottom of the pot. Cuttings
taken off at a joint will root in sand under a hand-
glass, care being taken to avoid damps.
Auricula, see Primula.
Austen, Francis, a British author on gardening,

page 1099. A. D. 1631.
Austen, Ralph, a British author on gardening, page

1100. A. D. 1653.
Avena, oat-grass, trian. dig. and gramineas, H. pe-
ren. and an. Eur. and Amer. of the easiest culture.
Avens, geum avens.

Averrhoa, decan. pentag. terebintaceae, S. tr. E.
Ind. which thrive well in light sandy loam ; and
ripe cuttings root freely in sand under a hand-
glass.
Aviary, 1760 ; for singing birds, 1761 ; parrots, 1762.
Avington, a seat in Hampshire, 7594,
Avicennia, didyn, angios, and myoporiness, India,

a S, tr, soil, loam and peat, and cuttings root In
sand under a glass, 4li moist heat.

Awl-wort, — see Subularia.

Axyris, monoec. tetran. and chenopodes, H. an.
Siberia, of common culture.

Ayenia, pentan. monog. and malvacea2, Jamaica,
a S. Ir. and S. bien. which grow in rich loam, and
cuttings root freely in sand in a moist heat.

Ayrshire, gardens of, 7027.

Azalea, pentan. monog. and rhodoraceJB, N. Amer.
and India, the G. tr. thrive best in sand and peat,
and young cuttings taken off close to the ripened
wood, and planted in pots of sand, will root rea-
dily ni moist heat under a bell-glass; the H. tr.
Eur. and Amer. require peat or sandy loam, and
vegetable earth, and are increased from layers or
seeds, 6562,

Azar, Gerib, of Ispahan, an encourager of garden-
ing, 459.

Azarole, mespilus azarolus.

B. P,, Brown's Prodromus Floras Novae Hollandis.

&c,
Babiana, trian. monog. and iridese, G. peren. C. B. S.
bulbs which grow in sandy loam and peat, and are
propagated by offsets or seeds.
Babworth, a seat in Northumberland, 7586.
Baccharis, ploughman's spikenard, svngen. polyg.
superfl. and corymb! ferefe, N. Amer". G. tr. which
grow in loam and peat, and cuttings root readily
in sand under a hand-glass.
Bacoche, the common name of the apricot in
Tuscany, corru|)ted from the original Arabic
word, Bercoch, 4522.

Bacoi, A , his works on gardening, page 1128.

A. D. 1596.

Bactris, monoec. hexand. and palmeje, S. tr. S.
Amer. palms, which thrive in sandy loam, and
like other palms, are only to be propagated bv
seed.

Badmington House, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Baeckia, octan. monog. and myrtiaccoe, O. tr,
N, S, W. which grow in loam and peat, are very
hardy, and cuttings of the youiig wood root rea-
dily in sand under a bell-glass,

Bahama red wood, ceanothus colubrinus, — see
Ceanothus.

Bailey, W. and D. list of curvilinear hot-house«
erected by them, 1587.

Balbisia, syngen. polyg. super. corymbifere£e, a H.
an. Mexico, of common culture.

Baldwin (of bald. Sax. bold, and winnean. Sax.
to overcome ; a bold man, a conqueror), Tho-
mas, late gardener to the Marquis of Hertford, at
Kagley, near Alcester, Worcestershire, one of
the first pine growers in England ; his work on
gardening, page 1114. A D. 1818.

Balgonie Castle, a seat in Fifeshire, 7635.

Ballinamoan, a seat in Waterford, 7665.

Ballinlough, a seat in Wcstmeath, 7662,

Ballochmoyle, a seat in Ayrshire, 7627,

Ballota, stinking horehound, didyn. gymnos. and
labiates, H. peren. Eur. for the most lart hedge-
weeds.

Ball's Pond nursery, 7518,

Ballydonnellan, a seat in Galway, 7672.

Ballygrilfin, a seat in Tipperary, 7667.

Ballymont, a seat in Limerick, 7668.

Ballymoney, a seat in Down, 7683.

Ballyraget House, in Kilkenny, 7656.

Ballyroam, a seat in Queen's County, 7659.

Balm, — see Melissa,

Balm of Gilead, — see Dracocephalum and Amyri».

Balnagowan, a seat in Ross-shire, 7647.

Balsam, — see Impatiens.

Balsam-apple, momordica balsamina.

Balsam-herb, justicia comata.

Balsam of Capevi, copaifera officinalis,

Bal.«am-tree, — see Amyris.

Balsamita, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereaj,
H. peren. Ital. of the easiest culture.

Balsamita vulgaris, the costmary, 4192.

Baltimora, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbifV*-
reaa, a H. an. Vera Cruz, of common culture.

Bamboo-cane, — see Bambusa.

Bambusa, bamboo-cane, hexan. dig. and gramineae,
S. tr. India reeds, which thrive well in a loamy
soil, and are readily increased by suckers.

Banana, ~ see Musa.

Bane- berry {barui. Sax. a murderer, and berry),,
actjea spicata.

Banfshire, gardens of, 7640.

Banisteria, decaii. trig, and malpighiacese, S. tr.
Amer. and NV. Ind. which grow well in sandy
loam, and cuttings of ripe wood root freely under
a hand-glass in sand.

Banksia, tetran. monog. and proteaceas, G. tr. New
Holl. soil one third peat, one third loam, and one
third sand, with the pots well drained, and the
plants never let flag for want of water, as they will
seldom recover. Cuttings must be well ripened
before they are taken off, cut at a joint, and
planted in pots of sand without shortening tlie
leaves ; cover with hand-glasses, but do not
plunge in heat.

Banyan-tree (priest's tree, Ind.), ficus religiosus.

Baptisia, decan. monog. and leguminoseas, H. peren.
X. Amer. which grow well in gooil garden soil,
and are propagated by seeds, or (though slowly)
by dividing the roots.

Bnrbadoes bastard-cedar, bubroma guazuma.

Barbadoes cherry, — see TVIalpighia.

Barbarea, winter-cress, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereie,
H. peren. Brit, which will grow in any soil, and
may be propagated by seeds, or dividing the plant.

Barbarea vulgaris, the common winter-cress, 4050.

Barberry (barb, a beard, and berry), —see Ber-
beris.

Bardie, Giuseppe, his work on fungi, page 11£8.
A. D. 1S08. .

Barganny Park, Ayrshire, 7627.

Bark for the use of tanners, trees from which it is
usually or may be obtained, 659. and 4754.

Bark, taliners', how to manage for horticultural
purposes, 1972.

Bark-stove, or moist-stove ; a hot-house in which
the mass of bark, earth, sand, or other materials
in which the pots containing the plants are

E lunged, or the plants themselves planted, is
eated from below; or by the fermentation of
the bed of materials, as well as by tlie atmosphere
of the house.

Bark-stove, used in horticulture, its construction
and management, — see Pine-stove.

Bark-stove, used in floriculture, its construction for
growing or flowering plants, 6177.

Bark-stove, used in floriculture, its general man-
agement, 6214.

Bark-stove, used in floriculture for propagation, its
culture, 1629.

Barking-irons, for the garden, 1341 : for the forest,
lSi3.

Barleria, didyn. angios, S. tr. bien. and G. peren.
India and Amer. all which grow in loam and
peat, with a little rotten dung, and cuttings root
freely under a hand-glass.

Barley, — see Hordeum.

Barnieath, a seat in Lowth, 7664. ^

Barn barrow House, Wigtonshire, 7626.

Bambougle Park, Linlithgowshire, 7632.

Parnes, Thomas, a name assumed by Sir John Hill,
as an author on British gardening, page 1105.
A. D. 1759.

Barnsley Park, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Bamton, a seat in Midlothian, 360.

Barometer, as a means of foreknowing the weather,
1279.

Baron Hill, a seat in Anglesea, 7603.

Baron's Court, a seat in Tyrone, 7679.

Barosma, pentan. moncg. and diosmea?, G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow well in sandy peat, and cut-
tings of ripened wood root readily in sand under a
bell-glass.

Barrenwort, — see Epimedium.

Barringtonia, monad, polyand. and myrtiaceac, a
S. tr. K Ind. a very tine plant, scarce, and sup-
posed difficult to manage; soil two thirds loam,
and one third peat kept moist, and cuttings of
ripe wood taken off at a joint, and put in a pot of
sand under a hand-glass, without shortening the
leaves, will root readily. {Sweet.)

Barrington Hall, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Barrow, different sorts of, 1441.

Barrow watering-engine, 1450.

Barruel-Beauvert, his works on gardening, page
1119. A. D. 1782.

Barth, a warm place, or pasture.

Bartholina, gynan. monan. and orchides, a G.
peren. C. B. S. which thrives best in sandy loam
and peat, with a little water when not in a grow-
ing state; it is propagated by dividing the
root.

ie or backlying field. (^ !^^0?Ct

GENERAL INDKX.

Barton {Sax.), a backside i

Bathorne House, Durham, 7584.

Bartonia, icos. monog. and rosaceae, G. bien. Mis-
souri, of easy culture, and projiagated by seeds.

Bartsia, tetrad, siliq. and scrophularineae, H. peren.
N. Amer. which are rather difficult to preserve,
and require a shady border of peat earth ; or to
be planted in pots of the same soil, and kept
moist : and H. an. Brit which grow freely in a
sandy soil.

Base-rocket, reseda lutea.

Basella, pentan. trig, and chenopodes, S. bien. and
an. of common culture.

Basella alba and rubra, as spinage plants, 4328.

Basil (Basil, a town in Switzerland), — see Ocy-

Bass mats, (from the Russian bast-bark), cloth of
liber, or inner t)ark, used in gardening, 1506.

Bassia, dodec. monog. and sapotejp, S. tr. R Indies,
which grow freely in light loam, or loam and
peat ; and ripened cuttings strike under a hand
glass in sand.

BassHigboume Hall, Durham, 7584.

Bastard balm, — see Melittis.

Bastard cabbage-tree, — see Geoffiroya.

Bastard cedar, — see Cedrela.

Bastard hare's ear, phyllis nobla.

Bastard indigo, — see Amorpha.

Bastard lupine, — see Lupinaster.

Bastard mangeueel, — see Cameraria,

Bastard orpine, — see Andrachne.

Bastard pimpemell, centunculus minimus.

Bastard toad-flax, .i— see Thesium.

Bastard vervain, — see Stachy tarpheta.

Bastard vetch, — see Phaca.

Bustard, William, Esq. a British writer oji garden-
ing, page 1108. A. D. 1777.

Bastien, Jean Francois, his works on gardening,
page 1121. A. D. 1805.

Batschia, pentan. monog. and fjoragineae, H. peren.
N. Amer. which grow well in common soil, aud
are increased by seeds, or dividing the roots.

Bauera, polyan. dig. and diosmea, G. tr. N. S. W.
which grow in loam and peat, and cuttings root
readily in the same soil under a bell-glass.

Bauhinia, mountain ebony, decan. monog. and le-
guminosese, S. tr. E. and W. Ind. mostly climbers
which thrive well in light loam, and cuttings
between old and young, do well under a bell-glass
in sand, in a moist heat

Bauman, F. G., his works on gardening, page 1119.
A. D. 1788.

Baven, faggots of branches and spray, with their
ends untrimmed.

Bavis Mount, a seat in Hampshire, 7592.

Bawd-money, meimi athamanticum.

Bay, — see Laurus.

Bayham Abl)ey, a seat in Sussex, 7531.

Baxin, Giles Augustin, his works on gardening,
page 1117. A. D. 1741. **

Beale, Dr. John, a British author on gardeninff.
page 1101. A. D. 1666.

Beale, John, a British author on gardening, page
1100. A. D. 1657.

Bean, — see Vicia.

Bean-tree, — see Zygophyllum.

Bean-trefoil, menyanthes trifoliata, — see Meny-
antbes.

Bearbind, — see Convolvulus.

Bear's breach, — see Acanthus.

Bear's ear, sanicle, — see Sanicula.

Bearberr}-, arbutus uva-ursi.

Bearde, 'de I'Abbaye, his Essay on Agriculture,
page 1118. A. D 1769. *

Beaudesart, a seat in Staffordshire, 7570.

Beaufortia, polyadelph. icosan. and myrtiace«
G. tr. N. Hoi. soil, two thirds peat and one third
sandy loam, and cuttings from nearly ripened
wood, strike root freely in sand under a bell-
glass.

Beaumanor, a seat in Leicestershire, 7573.

Beaumont, Sir Harry, a name assumed by Mr.
Spence, and affixed to letters from China, transi
lated from those of the Jesuits, and descriptive
of the emperor's gardens, 470.

Beaumont, Simon dc, a distinguished citizen of
Holland in the 17th centurj', a great encourager
of botany and gardening, who had a fine garden
at Beverning, 132.

Beaumont Lodge, Berkshire, 7561.

^S\^A ~Dlm ^^ ^"""^ °" gardening, page

Beauty, that property in objects by which th^ are
4 F 2

1173

GENERAL INDEX.

recommended to the power or faculty of taste ;
Uie reverse of ugliness j the primary, or most
general object of love or admiration. {Jeffrey, in
Supp. Encijc. Brit.) That which gives pleasure
to the mind in objects of sense. {M.A. Schbnmel-
penninck, chap, i.)

Though, in the common colloquial acceptation
of the term beauty, it is applied only to such ob-
jects as dehght the senses of vision and hearing ;
yet, in the strict and literal .sense of the word, a
fine view, a harmonious concert, the perfume of
a rose, or the taste of an anana, are each possess,
ed of beauty.

The authors quoted, and also Alison, Stewart,
and Knight, have discussed the subject of beauty
in a clear and satisfactory' manner, by which it
appears that the great error of preceding writers
on the subject, consisted in supposing that there
was only one kind of beauty ; whereas, there are
many kinds, though some are much more general
and universal than others. Nothing but mind
can either please or disgust mind ; and therefore
the beauty that we see in objects depends, as
D'Alembert has observed, on what is within our-
selves. Man is possessed of the origin of every
taste and refined enjoyment naturally ; but every
one of these, from the lowest sense to the highest,
requires cultivation before it become capable
of conferring much intellectual gratification.
Though in the nature of things, therefore, there
may be an absolute or universal beauty ; yet,
practically, all beauty may be said to be relative
to the state of man in different countries and
ages, and in different degrees of civilisation and
refinement- Fashion, therefore, or the prevailing
modes of the day, will by the great number of
persons, always be esteemed the true criterion of
beauty.

Beauty of kitchen-garden scenery, 2355; of the
flower-garden, 6201 ; of landscape scenery, 7157.

Bechstein, D. J. M. his works on gardening, page
1127. A. D. 1818.

Becker, William, Glo. his work on gardening, page
1125. A. D. 1795.

Beckett, the seat of the Rev. Lord Harrington,
near Farringdon, in Gloucestershire, 326.

Beckmannia, trian. dig. and gramine£E, a H. an.
Eur. a grass of the easiest culture.

Beckmann, John, 75, his writings relative to gar-
dening, page 1124. A. D. 1781.

Bcckstedt, J. Kp. his works on gardening, page 1125,
A. D. 1795.

Beddington, a seat in Surrey, 7528.

Bedfordshire, gardens and residences of, 7549.

Bed-straw, — see Galium.

Bee, — see Apis.

Bee-house, — see Apiary.

Beech, — see Fagus.

Beechwood Park, Hertfordshire, 7544.

Beet, 3731. — see Beta.

Beet (Sax.), to boot or help, a term used by gar-
deners in Scotland for filling up blanks in plant-
ations. To beet up, is with them synonymous
with to plant up, or fill up with plants, 6881.

Begonia, monoec. polyan. and bcgoniacea;, S. tr.
peren. and bien. S. Amer. succulent plants which
grow readily in sandy loam, and cuttings root
freely in the same soil.

Bejaria, dodec. monog. and rhodoraceje, a G. tr.
Florida, which thrives best in sandy peat, and
may be increased by layers and cuttings ; the
latter planted in sand under a bell-glass in a little
peat.

Belan, a seat in Kildare, 7657.

Belchamp Hill, a seat in the county of Durham,

• 7584.

Be/grave, William, his works on gardening, page
1131. A. D. 1755.

Belle-vue, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Bell-flower, — see Campanula.

Bell-glass, a curvihnear utensil, of glass, in one
piece ; called a receiver among chemists. It is
used for covering cuttings of plants, and differs
from a hand-glass, in the latter being larger and
composed of several pieces glazed in a frame,
1431.

Bellew, a seat in Galway, 7672.

Bellis, daisy, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbi-
fereae, H. tr. and an. Eur. of the easiest culture.

Bellisle, a seat in Fermanagh, 7677.

Bellium, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae, H.
jieren. and an . Italy, rock- work plants of common
culture.

Bellows for fumigation, used in gardening, 1488.
Belmont, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.
Belmont, a seat in Staffordshire, 7570.
BelcBil, a fine villa near Paris, which before the

revolution, belonged to the celebrated Prince de

Ligne, 169.
Belon, Peter, a French writer on gardening, page

1115. A. D. 1553.
Belvidere, a seat in Kent, 7537.
Belvoir Castle, Lincolnshire, 7578.
Belvoir, a seat in Down, 7683.

Belvue (pretty view, Fr.), a very common name of
country-seats in most parts of the world.

Binard, Mons. de, author of some papers on gar.
dening, published in Mt'moires de la Society du
Seine et Oise, during the present century, 185.

Bengal, its circumstances as to gardening, 500.

Bengalore, a royal residence with celebrated gar-
dens in the Ea.st Indies, 461.

Benham House, Berkshire, 7561.

Benijini, Fortunato, his work on gardening, page
1128. A. D. 1813.

Benjamin-tree, laurus benzoin.

Benningsen, General Von, a native of Germany,
and general of cavalry in the Russian service ;
a warm patron of arts and sciences, who had a
fine seat and botanic garden near Wilna, which
was burnt to the ground and destroyed in the
retreat of 1812, 283.

Bent-grass, — see Agrostis.

Bentley Priory, Middlesex, 7521.

Bents, bulrushes, — see Juncus.

Berardia, syngen. polyg. aequal. and cynarocepha-
leze, H. peren. Italy, of common culture.

Berberis, barberry, hexan. monog. and berberidece,
H. tr. Eur. and Amcr. of robust growth and
easy culture, propagated bv suckers and seeds.

Berberis vulgaris, the common barberry, 4620.

Berceau (cradle, arch, Fr.), an arbor or bower,
formed in horticulture and arboriculture as a
place of repose, — see Arbor.

Berckheya, syng. polyg. frust. G. tr. and bien.
C. B. S. which grow freely in loam and peat,
and root readily in common earth under a hand-
glass.

Berber, Ch. Glo., his works on gardening, page
1126. A.D. 1802.

Bergius, Peter Jonas, his work on gardening, paee
1130. A. D. 1780.

Berkshire, gardens and residences of, 7560.

Bernstein, J. Glo., his work on gardening, pasre 1125.
A. D. 1793.

Beroot, a seat of the Emir Facardine, near Jeru-
salem, in the 17th century, 457.

Berries, grown in horticulture, as edible fruits,
4595.

Berrington, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.

Berry-bearing alder, rhamnus frangula.

Berry. gatherer, 1356.

Bertholon, , his works on gardening, page

1120. A. D. 1800.

Bert rand, Francis, his works on gardening, page
1118. A. D. 1757.

Bertrand, Mons. of Bruges, his villa, 122.

Bertuch, M. his work on gardening, page 1127.
A. D. 1821.

Berwickshire, gardens of, 7620.

Besca {old Latin), a spade or shovel.

Besl. eyst, Besleri hortus eystettensis.

Be.sleria, didyn. angios, and scrophularineae, S. tr.
W. Ind. handsome plants, of easy culture in rich
light soil. Cuttings strike freely in rotten tan,
without any protection.

Besnier, a French writer on gardening, page

1116. A. D. 1705.

Besom, different kinds of, used in gardening,
1321.

Beta, beet, pent. dig. and chenopodeas, a G. bien.
Mad. H. peren. Hung, and H. bien. Eur. and
Brit, of easy culture in sandy loam, and propa-
gated by seeds.

Beta cicla, the white beet, a spinaceous plant, 3779.
It is from the roots of this last species that the
French and Germans obtained sugar with so
much success during the late war. The follow-
ing was the ordinary process : — Reduce the roots
to a pulp, by pressing them between two rough
cylinders ; put the pulp in bags and press out the
liquor it contains ; boil this liquor, precipitate
the saccharine matter by quick-lime; pour off
the hquor ; add to the residuum a solution of
sulphuric acid, and boil again ; the lime uniting
with the acid, is got rid of by straining ; and tVe

GENERAL INDEX.

173

liquor may then be gently evaporated, or left to
granulate slowly, after which it is ready for un-
dergoing the common process of refining raw
sugars.
Be^a maritima, a native plant which may be used

as an esculent, 4214.
Beta vulgaris, the common red beet, 3731.
Betonica, betony, didyn. gymnos. and labiates, H.

l»eren. Eur. of common culture.
Betonica odicinalis, a tea-plant, 4319.
Betoiiy, — see Betonica.

Betula, birch, nionoec. polyan. and amentaceae, H.
tr. ot easy culture ; the American sorts prefer
bog-earth and moisture, and are propagated by
6C«is or layers, and some curious sorts by grafting
or budding.
Eetula alba, and other species cultivated as timber-
trees, 7108. to 7111.
Bevel, or bevel-square, an instrument made use of
by carjienters and masons, and also in gardening
for the adjusting of angles.
Bib. Bank., bibliotheca banksiana.
Bickham, George, a British writer on gardening,

page 1104. A. D. 1750.
Bicton, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.
Bidens, syngen. ixilyg. a»}ual. and corymbifereje,
a S. an. H. peren. and H. an. E. Ind. and S. Amer.
the annual species may be treated as tender and
half-hardy annuals; tliey prefer a moist situation
and light soil. The perennials may be kept in
pots in similar soil, and propagated by dividing
the plant

Bidet, M , his writings on gardening, page

Ills. A. D. 1759.
Biennial plants, such as are of two years' duration
in their natural circumstances ; but by culture,
and especially by pinching off the flowers as they
appear, many of these may be rendered triennial
or of still longer duration. Many exotics, which
are annuals and biennials in their native coun-
tries, are perennials in our stov^.
Biennials, hardy, 6504.
Biennials, frame, 6595.
Biennials, green-house, 6660.
Biennials, stove, 6668.

Bignonia, trumpet-flower, didyn. angios. and big-
noniacea&, S. and G. tr. S. Amer. and China, some
are climbers, and all grow well in loam and peat,
and young shoots root readily, either in mould or
sand, under a hand-glass in heat. The H. tr. are
climbers, and grow well in common soil, and are
increased by cuttings from the young wood or
roots.
Bilham House, Yorkshire, 7582.
Bill, an edge-tool, at the end of a stale or handle ;
if short, it is called a hand-bill, and when long, a
hedging or hedgebill, — see HedgebilL
Billardiera, apple-berry, pentan. monog. and pittos-
porese, G. tr. Austral, chmbers, which thrive well
in loam and peat, and cuttings root readily in
' sand under a bell-glass.
Billet [billot, Fr.), a tree or log of wood, cut up for

fuel ; billet- wood.
Biscutella, buckler-mustard, tetrad, siliq. and cru-
cifereae, a F. tr. and H. peren. and an. Eur. of
common culture.
Biserrula, hatchet-vetch, diadel. decan. and legumi-

nosefe, H. an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Bishop's Court, a seat in Kildare, 7657.
Bishop's weed, — see AmmL

Bilston House, the seat of Addison, in Warwick-
shire, 7o/l.
Bindweed, — see Convolvulus.
Binnarium [Lut.), a pond or stew for the keeping

and feeding of fish.
Birch, — see Betula.
Bird-pepper, — see Capsicum.
Birds, or feathered enemies of gardens, 2223 ; how

to destroy, 22S0.
Bird's eye, primula farinosa.
Bird's foot, — see Ornithopus.
Birdsfoot-trefoil, — see Lotus.
Birdsal, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.
Birth-wort, — see Aristolochia.
Bitter-sweet, solanum dulcamara.
Bitter vetch, — see Orobus.

Bixa, anotta, polyan. monog. and tiliaceze, a S. tr.
W. Ind. which grows to a large plant before it
flowers, and therefore cuttings should be taken from
flowering plants, in order that they may flower
soon : they root freely under a hand-glass in
Band, and the plants grow well in loam and
peat.

-4

Blackberry ; in England, the berries of the bramble
are so named; and in Scotland, those of the
black currant
Black bryony, — see Tamus.
Black saltwort, glaux maritima.
Black snake-root, cimicifuga serpentaria.
Blackmore Park, Worcestershire, 7566.
Blackwell, Elizabeth, widow of Dr. Blackwell, who
dietl in Sweden ; author of a curious herbal,
containing 500 cuts of the useful plants.
Bladder-nut, — see Staphylea.
Bladder-senna, — see Colutea.
Blade [blad. Sax.), a leaf.

Blaria, tetran. monog. and ericeae, G. tr. C. B. S.
which thrive only in sandy i>eat, and young cut-
tings will root in sand under a bell-glass, or in a
* close frame in a shady situation.
Blair Adam, a seat in Kinross-shire, 7634.
Blair Drummond, the seat of the late Lord Kaimes,
and now of Mr. Home Drummond, in Perth-
shire, 7636.
Blair House, or Blair Athol, a seat of the Duke of

Athol, in Perthshire, 7636.
Blaize Castle, Gloucestershire, 7564.
Blake, Stephen, a British writer on gardening, page

1101. A.D. 1664.
Blakea, dodec. monog. and melastomese, a S. tr.
Jamaica, which thrives well in yteat and loam,
and requires a good deal of water ; cuttings re.
quire to be quite ripe, otherwise they rot ; plant-
ed in sand in moist heat imder a hand-glass, they
root freely.
Blakie, Thomas, Esq. of Beecbwood, near Edin-
burgh, CM. H.S., 170.
Blanching (whitening), a process for depriving

plants of part of their bitter qualities, 2156.
Blanching-pots, 1427.

Blandiordia, hexan. monog. and hemerocallideae,
G. peren. N. S. W. which grow in sandy loam and
peat, and are propagated by suckers or seeds.
Blarney Castle, in Ireland, 368.
Blast, plants, and especially the cereal grasses, are
said to be blasted when the seeds or ears are lank
and thin, — see Vegetable Pathology.
Blatta, the black beetle, or cock-roach, 2239.
Blechum, didyn. angios. and acanthacese, a S. peren.
W. Ind. which grows well in a rich light soil,
and cuttings root freely under a hand-glass in
heat
Blechnum, cryptog. Slices, and filiceas, G. and H.
peren. C. B. S. Eur. and N. Amer. ferns, which
grow in loam and peat, and are increased bv di-
viding at the root or seeds.
Blendon Hall, Kent, 7537.
Blenheim, a seat in Oxfordshire, 7559.
Blessington gardens, situated in the county of

Dublin, formerly of some note, 367.
Bletia, gynan. monan. and orchidea?, S peren.
China and W. Ind. which grow well in sandy
loam and peat, and are reaidily propagated by
dividing at the root.
Blickling Hall, Norfolk, 7554.
Blighia, akee-tree, octan. monog. and sapindeae, a

S. tr. 5975.
Blight, a common term for injuries received by the
vegetable kingdom when in a state of growth,
which cannot be referred to any obvious or cer-
tain cause, and coming suddenly is said to give
them the appearance of being blighted or blasted,
— see Vegetable Pathologv.
Blith or B/i/t/ie, Walter, 142. a British writer on

gardening, page llUO. A. D. 1649.
Blithfield Park, Staffordshire, 7570.
Blit, an ancient synonym for the beet, beta.
Blitum, strawberry-blite, monan. dig. and chenopo-

dese, H. an. S. Eur. of the easiest culture.
Bobait, Jacob, a British author on gardening, page

Boboli gardens, at Florence, 83.

Boc. mus., Museo di Piante rare di Don Paulo
Boccone.

Bocconia, tree-celandine, dodec. monog. and papa-
veracese, a S. tr. Ind. which grows well in sandy
loam, and rii)ens seeds plentifully ; and a H.
peren. China, which grows in rich soil, and is pro-
pagated by dividing the roots.

Bockmann, A , his work on gardening, page

112^/. A. D. 1815.

Bodfach, a seat in Montgomeryshire, 7611,

Bodorgan, a seat in Anglesea, 7603.

IBoehmeria, monoec. tetrand. and urtice«, a G. tr.
Canar, which thrives well in loam and peat, and
cuttings root freely in the same kind of soil
F 3

1174

GENERAL INDEX.

under a hand-glass. The H. peren. Virginia,
grows in peat soil, and is propagated by dividing
the root

Boerhaavia, hog-weed, dian. monog. and nyctagi-
neae, S. tr. and peren. Indies, which thrive well
in rich loam, and cuttings root readily.

JBccttiger, C. A., his works, page 1127. A. D. 1817.

Bog-rush, — see Schoenus.

Boissier, a beautiful villa near Geneva, 240.

Bolesworth Castle, Cheshire, 7590.

Boltonia, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereaj,
H. peren. N. Amer. of common culture, 7594.

Bombax, silk-cotton tree, monad, polyan. and mal-
vace«, S. tr. E. Ind. and S. Amer. which grow

, freely in loamy soil, and cuttings, not too ripe,
taken off at a joint, will root freely under a hand-
glass in heat. " •

Bonchurch Cottage, Isle of Wight, 7594.

Bonfe'd, John, a British author on gardening, page
1099. A. D. 1622.

Bonnelle, Charles, his work on gardening, page 1118,
A. D. 1763.

Bontia, didyn. angios, and myoporineje, a S. tr.
W, Ind. which tlirives in peat and loam, and cut-
tings root readily in heat, under a hand-glass.

Books on gardening, 7685.

Books of accounts and others required to be kept
by gardeners, 2337.

Booth's Hall, Cheshire, 7590.

Borage, — see Borago.

Borago, borage, pentan. monog. and boragineas,
H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. of the easiest cul-
ture.

Borago officinalis, the common borage, 4127.

Borassus, dicec. hexan. and palmeje, a S. tr. E. Ind.
which thrives well in sandy loam, and is propa-
gated by seed.

Borbonia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseas, G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow in loam and peat, and young
cuttings strike readily under a bell-glass in sand.

Borch, Michael Jean, Comte de, his works on gar-
dening, page 1128. A. D. 1780.

Border (bordure, Fr.), the edge, fringe, or margin
of any thing, especially when distinguished by a
line of demarcation, by ornament, or otherwise,
from the main piece or plot.

Border-flowers, herbaceous plants of hardy consti-
t^ition and easy culture, well adapted for orna-
' menting borders. In floriculture they are classed
under distinct heads, viz. as perennials, 64S9;
bulbs, 6500 ; biennials, 6504 ; hardy annuals, 6506 ;
half-hardy annuals, 6512 ; for particular purposes,
6515 ; for concealing ujmght deformities, 6516 ;
horizontal deformities, 6517; which will grow
under the shade and drip of trees, 6.518 ; for orna-
menting pieces of water, 6519; rocks, 6524; with
evergreen leaves for winter display, 6527 ; for
edgings to beds or borders, 6528 ; highly odorifer-
ous, 6529; dial plants, 6532; ferns and mosses,
6534 ; alpines, 6537 ; common showy sorts for a
small garden, 6538.

Borders for fruit-trees, 2484.

Borders for gardening are of general use in horti-
culture and floriculture, as accomi)animents to
walks, and walls or other fences. The former are
chiefly as ornamental compartments; and the
latter partly ornamental, but chiefly for the cul-
ture of fruit-trees, and the more delicate herba-
ceous esculents. The width of borders that
accompany walks, is generally guided by that of
the walk ;" but they are esteemed handsomer when
broader rather than narrower; wall or fence
borders should, according to the most approved
ideas, never be less than the height of the wall or
fence ; since the roots of a tree require as much
room to extend themselves as the shoots. For
the formation of fruit-tree borders in kitchen-
gardens, see 2484 ; and in flower-gardens, 6111.
to 6118.

Borecole (boreal cole, northern cole or cale), — see
Brassica.

Borghese, villa of, at Rome, 84.

Bornefond, , a French writer on gardening,

page 1116. A. D. 1653.

Boriiet, Charles Henry, his works on gardening,
page 1120. A. D. 1800.

Borning-piece, 1367.

Boronia, octan. monog. and diosmese, G. tr.
N. S. W. which thrive well in loam and peat, and
young cuttings strike readily under a bell-glass in
sand.

Borrington, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.

Borya, dicec. dian. and euphorbiacese, H. tr. N.

Amer. which thrive in any common soil, and are
increased by layers. Ripened cuttings planted in
autumn will also take root.

Bosc, Monsieur Louis Auguste Guillaume, F.L.S.
H.S., inspector of the government garden of the
Luxembourg, Paris ; his works on gardening,
page 1122. A. D. 1819.

Boscage {boscagium, Lat. or bocage, Fr.), a grove
or thicket of trees.

Boscus {old Lat.), all manner of wood.

Bose, Gaspard, proprietor of a fine garden near
Leipsic, at the end of the 17th century, 217.

Bosea, golden rod, pentan. dig. and chenopodeae, a
G. tr. Canar. which grows freely in loam and
peat, and cuttings root in sand, under a hand-
glass, without heat.

Bossiasa, diadel. decan. and leguminoseffi, G. tr.
Austral, which grow in loam and peat, with a
little sand, the pots being well drained ; and cut-
tings, not too ripe, will root in sand, under a bell-
glass, guarding against damp.

Boston House, Middlesex, 7521.

Bot. Cult, Sweet's Botanical Cultivator, 8vo. 1820.

Bot Mag., Curtis' Botanical Magazine.

Bot Reg., Kerr's Botanical Register.

Bot Rep., the Botanist's Repository for new and
rare plants, by H. Andrews.

Botanic garden, a garden for the culture of plants
with a view to botanical science, 7323.

Botanic gardener or curator, 7386; his duties,
7498.

Botanic gardens for the sale of plants, at Monk-
wood, 7627 ; at Forfar, 7637.

Botanic gardens of Chelsea, 7517 ; Kew, 7529 ; Ox-
ford, 7557 ; Cambridge, 7551 ; Hull, 7581 ; Liver-
pool, 7588 ; Bury, 7552 ; Edinburgh, 7618 ; Glas-
gow, 7629 ; Dublin, 7653; Cork, 7666.

Botanic gardens, public, their formation, 7323;
management, 7497.

BothweU House, Lanarkshire, 7629.

Botley, a seat in Staffordshire, 7570.

Botley, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Botrychium, moonwort, cryptog. stachyopterides,
and Alices, H. peren. N. Amer. and Brit ferns,
which grow in j)eat earth in shady situations, and
are proiiagated by dividing the root or by seeds.

Bouche, Pierre, his works on gardening, page 1127.
A. D. 1809.

Boulevard, a promenade, 7315.

Boullay, , a French writer on gardening, page

1117. A. D. 1712.

Boultibrooke, a seat in Radnorshire, 7610.

Bourbon palm, latania rubra.

Bourreria, pentan. monog. and boragineje, S. tr.
E. and W. Ind. of easy culture in loam and peat,
and cuttings root freely under a hand-glass.

Boursoalt, Monsieur, possessor of a tine garden in
Paris, 173.

Bousniard, , his writings on gardening, page

1119. A. D. 1788.

Boutcker, William, a British author on gardening,
page 1108. A. D. 1772.

Bouvardia, tetran. monog. and rubiaceje, G. tr.
N. and S. Amer. which grow in loam and peat,
and are increased by cuttings of the roots, or
young cuttings under a hand-glass in heat

Bowden, a seat in Wiltshire, 330.

Bower [bur, or bu)e. Sax. a parlor), an arbor
formed with trees, — see Arbor.

Bowood, a scat in Wiltshire, 7597.

Boxthorn, — see Lycium.

Box-tree, — see Buxus.

Br., Brown, Robert, Esq. F. R. S., possessor of the

, Banksian Library, one of the first botanists of
Europe, distinguished for his knowletige, and im-
provement of the Jussieuean system.

Brabejum, African almond, polyg. monoec. and pro-
teacese, a Gr. tr. C. B. S. which grows in sand and
peat, and ripened cuttings root in sand under a
hand-glass.

Brachysema, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, a G.
tr. N. Holl. a climber which thrives well in sandy
loam and peat, and is increased by layers or cut-
tings under a bell-glass in sand.

Bradford, a town in Yorkshire, gardens of, 7582.

Bradley, Richard, F.R.S., a British author on gar-
dening, page 1102. A. D. 1716.

Bradwell Lodge, Durham, 7584.

Bradwell Lodge, Hampshire, 7594.

Braham Castle, Ross-shire, 7647.

Braid House, Midlothian, 7618.

Brake, the fern pteris.

Bramble, — see Rubus.

GENERAL INDEX.

1175

Bramborough House, Cheshire, 7590.

Bramham Park, Yorkshire, 7582.

Bramieri, Don Giulio, his works on gardening,

page 11^:8. A. D. lb/.
Bramwell Hall, a seat in Cheshire, 7590.
Bramshill, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.
Brasiletto, — see Caesalpinia.

Brassavola, gjnan. monan. and orchidese, a S. peren.
W. Ind. a 'parasite, or air-plant, which may be
hung up in baskets of moss or tan, or tied in a belt
of moss to the trunk of a palm or other tree
Brassia, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a S. peren.
Jam. an air-plant, requiring the same treatment
as the brassavola.
Brassica, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereas, H. peren.

bieu. and an. Eur. of the easiest culture, 3483.

Brassica oleracea var. a. capitata, the white cabbage,

3487. „.^

Brassica oleracea var. j3. rubra, the red cabbage, 3o09.

Brassica oleracea var. y. sabauda, the Savoy cabbage,

3513.
Brassica oleracea var. y. sabauda subvar. y., the

Brussels sprouts, 3522.
Brassica oleracea var. 5. sabellica, the borecole, 3527.
Brassica oleracea var. e. Iwtrytis, the cauliflower,

3538.
Brassica oleracea var. ?. botrytis subvar. e., the broc-
coli, So55.
Brassica oleracea var. »}. napobrassica, turnip-rooted

cabbage, 3529.
Brassica napa, rape, used as a salad plant in gardens,
and grown in agriculture for food for sheep, and
for the seed to be pressed for its oil, 4028.
Brassica rapa, turnip, 3693.
Brassica eruca, a salad plant, 4063.
Bread-nut, — see Brosimum.
Bread-fruit, — see Artocarpus.
Brechin Castle, a seat in Forfarshire
Brecket Hall, Hertfordshire, 7544.
Brecon >h ire, gardens of, 7613.
Breitenbach, Ph. Fr. his works on gardening, page

1126. A. D. 1805.
Breitschiieider, K.B. his work on gardening, page

1126. A. D. 1798.
Brentford nursery, Middlesex, 7518.
Bretby Park, a seat in Derbyshire, loii.

Bretonniere, M , de la, his works on gardening,

page 1119. A. D. 1783.
Brickenden Bury, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.
Bridel, his works on gardening, page 1120. A. D.

1798.
Bridgeman, a landscape-gardener of eminence in

the early part of the 18ih century, 342.
Bridges, different kinds of, used in gardening, 1782.
British authors on gardening, 7<3S6.
Briza, quaking-grass, trian. dig. and gramineee, a H.
peren. and an. Brit grasses of the easiest culture.
Bro. Jam., the Civil and Natural History of Jamaica,

by Patr. Browne.
Broadlands, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.
Brochieri, Francesco, his work on gardening, page

1128. A. D. 1777.
Brockelesby Hall, Yorkshire, 7582.
Brockley Park, in Queen's County, 7659.
Brocq, Philip, le, M. A. a British writer on garden-
ing, page 1109. A. D. 1786.
Brodiaea, hexan. monog. and hemerocallideje, G.
peren. Georgia, which grow well in sand and
peat, kept moist, and are propagated by dividing
the root like agapanthus.
Brodie House, in Kincardineshire, 7638.
Bromborough House, 7590
Brome-grass, — see Broraus.

Bromelia, hexan. monog. and bromeliaceae, S. tr.
natives of South America and the West Indies, all
of which grow well in two thirds good fresh loam,
one third leaf mould or rotten dung, and as much
sand as will prevent the mixture from getting
hard and compact, with watering. A warm, and
rather moist atmosphere is required to grow the
fruiting sorts to any size ; but they are otherwise
very hardy. Most of the species bear that peculiar
production called a crown on the sucftmit of their
fruit, by which, or by suckers, they are usually
propagated.
Bromelia ananas, the common pine-apple ; its his-
torv and varieties, 4784 ; its general culture,
2697 ; preferable varieties, 2698 ; soil, 2700 ; arti-
ficial heat, 2706 ; propagation, 2712 ; nursing de-
partment, 2718 J succession department, 2753;
fruiting department, 2792 ; general directions
common to the three departments, 2842; insects,
2906; compendium of a course of culture, 2917;

4 F

recent improvements by Knight, Marsland, &c.

2924.

Brompton agricultural nursery, Middlesex, 7518.

Brompton Park nursery, Middlesex, 7518.

Bromus, brome-grass, trian. dig. and graminea,
H. peren. tr. and an. Eur. of the easiest cul-
ture.

Brooklime, veronica beccabunga.

Brookshaw, George, a British gardening author,
page 1114. A. D. 1817.

Brook-weed, — see Samolus.

Broom, — see Spartium.

Broom-rape, — see Orobanche. .

Brosimum, bread-nut, polygam. dioea and ......... ,

S. tr. Jam. soil, a light loam; propagation by
large old cuttings not divested of their leaves, in
a pot of sand under a hand-glass iu a moist
heat

Brossard, Davy, or David, a French writer on gar-
dening, page 1115. A. D. 1552.

Brossea, pentag. monog. and ericea!, a S. tr. S.
Amer. which grows in peat and sand, and young
cuttings will root in the same mixture under x
bell-glass on gentle heat

Brotera, syngen. poly. segr. and cynarocephales, a
H. peren. S. Araer. which will grow in common
loam, and is propagated by dividing the root

Broughton Hall, Staffordshire, 7570.

Broughton House, Kircudbrightshire, 7625.

Broughton, or Adelphi nursery, Edinburgh, 7618.

Broughtonia, gjnan. monan. and orchideae, a &
peren. Jam. an air-plant, requiring the same
treatment as brassavola.

Brousse, M de la, his works on gardening,

page 1119. A. D. 1772.

Broussonciia, pai)er-mulberry, dioec. tetran. and
urticeas, a H. tr. Japan, which grows in common
garden-soil, and is readily increased by layers.

Browallia, didyn. angios. and scrophularines, G. an.
S. Amer. of the usual treatment

Brown, Launcelot, Esq. a celebrated landscape-gar-
dener, born at Camtrol, or Camphill, a few houses
near the village of Hartburn, in Nortliumberland.
He died in 1782, without issue, holding at the
time the situation of head-gardener at Hampton-
court, and possessed of considerable wealth, which
he left to a nephew, 342.

Browne, Robert, a British writer on gardening, page

1109. A. D. 178&

Browne, Sir Thomas, M. D., a British author on
gardening, page 1110. A. D. 1658.

Brownea, monad, decan. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.
\V. Ind. which grows best in loamy soil, and cut-
tings of ripened wood will root in sand under a
hand-glass in moist heat

Brownsholme, a seat in Lancashire, 7588.

Broxburn Bury, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.

Broxmore, a seat in Wiltshire, 7596.

Broxted Lodge, Durham, 7584.

Brucea, dioec. tetran. and terebintaceae, a S. tr.
Abyssinia, which thrives in loamy soil, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass in heat.

Bruchus pisi, 3642.

Brugmansia, pentan. monog. and solanex, a S. tr.
Peru, which thrives in rich loam, and strikes
from cuttings in moist heat

B)ul€y, C , his works on gardening, page 1128.

A. D. 1804.

BruUes, — — , a British writer on gardening, page

1110. A. D. 1790.

Brunia, pentan. monog. and rhamnea, G. tr. C. B.S.
with heath-Uke leaves, which grow in sandy peat
with a moderate supply of water ; and young cut-
tings in sand, under a bell-glass, will strike root
freely.

Bryansford, a seat in Down, 7683.

Bryant, Charles, a British author on gardening,
page 1109. A. D. 1784.

Bryony, —see Bryonia.

Bubon, pentag. dig. and umbelliferese, G. tr. and G.
bien. Eur. and C.B.S. grow freely well in loam
and peat, and ripened cuttings taken off'at a joint,
and planted under a hand-glass in sand, will
root readily ; the H. bien. species is of easy cul-
ture.

Bubroma, bastard cedar, polyadel. dodec. and mal-
vacese, a S. tr. Jamaica, which thrives well in loam
and peat, and cuttings root freely in sand imder a
hand-glass.

Buch. ic, Buch's icones plantarum.

Buchnera, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a H.
peren. N. Amer. which grows best in pots in loam
and peat, and is increased chiefly by seed*.

4

IITO"

GENERAL INDEX.

Buchoz, Pierre Joseph, his works on gardening,

page 1118. A. D. 1760.
Bucida, olive-bark tree, decan. monog. and santala-
ceae, a S. tr. Jamaica, which grows best in loam
and peat, and well ripened cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass plunged in heat.
Buckbean, menyanthes trifoliata.
Buckhurst Park, Sussex, 7531.
Buckinghamshire, gardens and residences of, 7546.
Buckler-mustard, — see Biscutella.
Bucknal, Thomas Skip Dyot, Esq. a British author

on gardening, page 1112. A. D. 1797.
Buckthorn, — see Rhamnus.
Buckwheat, polygonum fagopyrum.
Buckwheat-tree, mylocarpum ligustrinum.
Budding, different modes of, 2050. to 2062.
Buddlea, tetran. monog. and scrophularineje, G. tr.
and a H. tr. Chili, and C.B.S. which thrive in any
loamy soil, and cuttings root freely under a com-
mon hand-glass.
Buenos Ayres, a seat in Gloucestershire.
Buffon, George Louis le Clerc, Count de, his works

on gardening, page 1117. A. D. 1739.
Buffbnia, tetran. dig. and caryophylleaa, a H. an. of

common culture.
Bugle, — see Ajuga.
Bugloss, — see Anchusa.
Bug- wort, — see Cimicifuga.

Buildings, how to operate with, in gardening sce-
nery, 7232. to 7236.
Buildings of the Greeks, 7234 j Indians and Chinese,

7235.
Bulbocodium, hexan. monog. and melanthaceae, a

H. peren. Spain, a bulb of common culture.
Bulbs, their management as articles of trade in the

nursery business, 7487.
Bulbs, what, 778 ; to propagate by, 83.5 ; to cultivate
hardy bulbous flowers, 6a01; exotic bulbs, — see
Frame, Green-house, &c.
Bull, herb , Herbier de la France, par M. Bulliard.
Bulstrode, a seat in Buckinghamshire, 7547.
Bumalda, pentan. dig. and rhamnefe, a G. tr.
Japan, which thrives well in an equal portion of
loam and peat ; and ripened cuttings root readily
under a hand-glass in sand.
Bumelia, pentan. monog. and sapoteee, S. tr. N.
Amer. preferring loamy soil, and propagated by
well ripened cuttings in sand under a hand-glass ;
and H. tr. which grow in common soil, and root
in sand under a hand-glass.
Bunias, tetrad, silic. and crucifereEe, a H. peren.

Eur. of common culture.
Eunium, earth-nut, pentag. dig. and umbellifereas,

H. peren. Brit, of common culture.
Bunium bulbocastanum, conunon earth-nut, 4303.
Buo.napartea, hexan. monog. and bromeleae, a S
tr. which thrives best in loam and decayed
leaves.
Buphthalmum, syngen. poly super, and corymbife-
reas, G. tr. and F. peren. Eur. and Amer. which
grow freely in loam and peat, and cuttings root in
the same soil under a hand-glass: and H. peren.
and an. of common culture.
Bupleurum, hare's-ear, pentan. dig and umbelli-
fereee, G. tr. and peiren. Eur. and C.B.S. which
grow freely in loam and jjeat, and cuttings root
readily in the .same soil, under a hand-glass ; and
H. peren. and an. of common culture.
Burchardt, Th. H.O.,his work on gardening, page

1127. A.D. 1805.
Burdock, — see Arctium.
Burleigh, a seat in Lincolnshire, 7578.
Burley-on-the-hill, a seat in Rutlandshire, 7579.
Burnet, — see Poterium.
Burnet-saxifrage, — see Pimpinella.
Burnhallf a seat in Durham, 7584.
Bur-parsley, — see Caucalis.
Bur-reed, — see Sparganium.

Bursaria, pentan. monog. and pittosporeae, a G. tr.
Ind. and Amer. a showy plant which grows best in
sandy loam and peat, and cuttings root readily in
sand under a bell-glass.
Bursera, polyg. dicec. and terebintaceae, a S tr. W.
Ind. which grows in loamy soil, and large cuttings
root in sand under a hand-glass in moist heat.
Burtin, Francis Xavier, his works on gardening,

page 1129. A. D. 1784.
Burton Constable, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.
Burtonia, decan. monog. and leguminosea2, a G. tr.
N. HoU. requiring attentive treatment ; it grows
in sandy loam and peat, with the pots well drain-
ed, and young cuttmgs will root in sand under a
bell-glass.

Burwell Park, a seat In Lincolnshire, 7576,

Burwood Park, Surrey, 7527.

Bury St. Edmunds, botanic garden at, 7552L

Bushey Park, at Hampton Court, 7523.

Bushnell's Wells, Oxfordshire, 1662.

Bussato, Marco, his work on gardeninsr, pairc
1128. A. D. 1794.

Butcher's broom, — see Ruscus.

Butea, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, S. tr. E.
Ind. splendid plants which grow in loam and peat,
and cuttings taken off at a joint, and planted in
sand, and not deprived of their leaves, will root
in moist heat, covered with a hand-glass.

Buteshire, gardens of, 7650.

Butler, gardener to the Earl of Derby, at Know-
lesley, and afterwards a nurseryman at Prescot-
1589.

Butomus, flowering-rush, ennean. hexag. and hy-
drocharideiB, a H peren. Brit an aquatic.

Butter-bur, tussilago petasites.

Butter-wort, — see Sanicula.

Buttneria, pentan. monog. and malvacete, S. tr.
Amer. which grow in loam and peat or rich loam,
and ripened cuttings root under a hand-glass in
sand.

Button-flower, — see Gomphia

Button-tree, — see Conocarpus.

Button-weed, — see Spermacoce.

Button-wood, cephalanthus occidentalis.

Butrct, , his works on gardening, page 1120.

A. D. 1795,

Buxus, moncec. tetran. and euphorbiaceae, H. tr. of
easy culture, and propagated by cuttings or layers.

Buxus sempervirens, the common box-tree, the
best of all edging shrubs, 6582 : as a timber-tree,
7118.

Bysshe Court, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Bystropogon, didyn. gymnos. and labiates, G. tr.
Canaries, which thrive in loam and jjeat, and cut-
tings root readily in the same soil under a hand>
glass:

Byzantium, gardens of, 306.

Cabanis de Salagnac, his works on gardening, page

1119. A.D. 1786
Cabbage, 3483 — see Brassica.
Cabbage, Chinese, 4330.
Cabbage-moth, phalaena oleracea, 2253.
Cabbage-tree, — see- Areca.
Cabinets de verdure, 6813.

Cacalia, syngen. polyg. asqual. and coryrabiferese, a
S. tr. and S. an. C.B.S. and Amer. succulents,
which grow in sandy loam and brick-rubbish, and
are propagated by cuttings; the H. peren. are
of the easiest culture.
Cachyris, pentan. dig. and umbelliferete, H. peren.
Eur. of common culture, and propagated by seeds.
Cactus, icosan. monog. and cacteae, S. D S. Indies
and Amer. and G. tr. succulents of easy cul-
ture.
Cactus opuntia, the Indian fig, 5966.
Cacucia, decan. monog. and onagrareae, a S. tr.
Guiana, which grows well in loam and peat,
and cuttings root freely in sand under a hand-
glass.
Cadet, Charles Louis, his works on gardening, page

1120. A. D. 1801.
Cadet-de- Vaux, Antoine Alexis, his works on gar-
dening, page 1121. A. D 1807.
Cadia, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.
Arabia, which prefers a light soil, and cuttings
root in sand under a hand-glass and plunged in
heat.
Cadland, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.
Caenwood, a seat in IMiddlesex, 7521.
Caernarvonshire, gardens and residences of, 7604.
Caesalpinia, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, S. tr.
E and W. Ind. prickly branchetl, which thrive
well in loam and peat, and cuttings sometimes
succeed, taken off in a growing state, but not too
young, and plunged in a pot of sand under a hand-
glass in moist heat.
Ca2sia, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, a G. peren.
N. S. W. which grows in loam and peat, and is in-
creased by dividing at the root or by seeds.
Caesulia, syngen. polyg. Eeqvial. and corymbifereae, a
S. peren. E. Ind. requiring a rich, loamy soil, and
cuttings root freely.
Caithness, gardens of, 7644.
Cakile, tetrad, silic. and crucifcreae, a H. peren. and

GENERAl INDEX.

1177

an. Eur ; the first best grown in pots, anck the
ether of common culture, and both increased by

* seeds.

Calabash-tree, — see Crescentia.

Caladenia, gynan. monan. and orchideae,ai G. peren.
N. S. W. which may be grown in loam and peat,
and increased by division at the root.

Calamagrostis, trian. dig. and gramineae, H. peren.
Eur. grasses of the easiest culture.

Calamint, — see Calamintha.

Calamintha, calamint, didyn. gymnos. and labiates,

F. tr. and H. peren. Eur. and Amer. of common
culture, and increased by seetls or dividing at the
roots.

Calamus, hexan. monog. and palmeae, S. tr. E. Tnd.
palms, which thrive best in sandy loam, and a
warm, moist atmosphere, and are propagated by
seed.

Calanchoe, octan. tetrag. and semperviveje, D. S.
tr. As. and Afr. succulents which thrive well in
sandy loam, but require bottom heat to make
them flower. " The leaves placed on a pot of
mould, or on the tan, will shoot out young plants
from the notches of the margin." {Swevt.)

Calathian violet, gentiana pneumonanthe.

Calceolaria, sliiiper-wort, dian. monog. and scro-
phularineae, G. peren. and an. Peru and Falkland
islands, of easy culture, and propagated by seeds.

Calcutta, gardening of, 500.

Caldasia, pentan. monog. and scrophularineae, a S.
an. New Spain, of common culture.

Calder House, Midlothian, 7618.

Calea, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corymbifereae, S. tr.
and a S. bien. W. Ind. which grow in rich soil,
and cuttings strike readily either in sand or
mould.

Caled. Depic, Chalmer's Caledonia Depicta, an an-
tiquarian work.

Caled. Hort. Soc., Caledonian Horticultural Society,
some account of, 410. and page 1113. A. D. 1810.

Caled Mem., Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticul-
tural Society, page 1113. A. D. 1810.

Caledon Hill, a seat in Tyrone, 7679.

Calendula, marigold, syngen. polyg. necess. corym-
bifereas, G. tr. and a' G. peren! Ear. and C. B. S.

; which thrive in loam and peat, and cuttings root

i freely in the .samef soil under a hand-glass ; and
H. an. of the easiest culture.

Calendula officinalis, the common pot-marigold,
4122.

Calla, heptan. monog. and aroideae, a G. and H.
peren. Eur. and CBS. the first an aquatic, and
the other a marsh plant of easy culture. C. Ethi-
opia will also grow well on the green-house
stage.

Callander, a seat in Stirlingshire, 7631.

Callicariia, tetran. monog. and verbenacea?, S. and

G. tr. E. Ind. and Amer., which grow best in loam
and peat, and ripened cuttings strike root in sand
under a hand-glass in heat.

Callicoma, dodec. dig. and cunoniacea?, a G. tr.
N. S. W. which thrives in loam and peat, and
cuttings of ripe wood root readily in sand under a
hand-glass.

Calligonum, dodec. tetrag. and polygoneae, a H. tr.
Caspian Sea, which may be grown m loam and
peat, and propagated by layers.

Callisa, trian. monog. and commelineas, a S. peren.
W. Ind. a creeper of easy culture.

Callistachys, decan. monog and leguminoseje, G. tr.
N. Holl., which grow fast and flower freely in
loam and peat, and cuttings planted in sand under
a bell-glass.

Callitriche, water-starwort, monandr. digyn. and
naidcse, a H. an. Brit, which grows on the sur-
face of shallow water, and sends down delicate
fibres to the soil below.
^Calluna, octan. monag. and ericeas, a H. tr. Brit,
(formerly erica) the common heath ; it requires
to be grown in peat soil, and may be increased by
seeds, layers, or cuttings of the young shoots
planted in sand under a hand-glass.

Calodendrum, pentan. monog. and pittospore£e, a
G.tr. C. B. S., which, as the name imports, is of
great beauty. It grows in loam and peat, and
cuttings of ripe wood root readily in sand under
a hand-glass.

Calodium, raoncec. polyan. and aroides, S. tr. and
peren. Ind. and Amer. most of which grow freely
in water, or in rich soil in a moist heat; they are
propagated by tubers of the root.

Calonne, , his works on gardening, page

1119. A. D. 1779.

Calophyllum, polyan. monog. and guttifereas, S. tr.
Ind. which grow well in hght loam, and cuttings
of ripened wood itrike freely in sand, under a
hand-glass in mo t heat.

Calopogon, gynan. monan and orchidca?, a F. peren.
N. Amer. which grows in peat, and is increased by
dividing at the rs ot.

Calothamnus jwlyadelph. icosan. and myrteacejc,
G. tr. N. Holl. which thrive in loam and peat,
and cuttings root in sand under a bell-glass.

Calotropis, penUn. dig. and asclepiadeae, S. tr. N.
Amer. which grow in light loam, young cuttings
root freely under a hand-glass in a pot of sand,
care being taken that they do not get mouldy.

Caltha, polyan. polyg. and ranunculaceae, H. peren.
Brit, marsh plants of the easiest culture.

Caltrops, — see Tribulus.

Calvel, Etienne, his works on gardening, page

1121. A. D. 1802.

Calvert and Co., their work on gardening, page

1122. A. D. 1821.

Calycanthus, icosan. polyg. and rosacea, H. tr.
N. Amer. which thrive in loam and peat, and
root by layers in the same soil.

Calypso, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a H. peren.
N. Amer. a bulb, which grows best in peat, or in
sandy loam and peat, and is increased by offsets
from the bulbs or by seeds.

Calyptrantcs, icosan. monog. and myrteaceae, S.
peren. W. and E. Ind. which thrive in sandy
loam, and peat ; and though cuttings do not strike
freely, ripened once sometimes root under a hand-
glass. Layers answer best.

Calystegia, bearbind, pentan. monog. and convol-
vulaceae, H. peren. Eur. and Amer. of common
culture.

Camb. Brit, Cambden's Britannia, an antiquarian
work.

Cambridge botanic garden, 7551.

Camden Park, in Wexford, 7655.

Camelina, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, H. an. Eur.
of common culture.

Camellia, monadel. polyan. and aurantes, G. tr.
China, of great beauty, — see 6612.

Cameraria, bastard maiigeneel, pentan. monog. and
apocynecB, Ind. which grows well in loam and
peat, and cuttings root in a pot of sand under a
hand-glass.

Campanula, bell-flower, pentan. monog. and cam-
panulese, G. tr. peren. bien. and an and H. peren,
and an. Eur. As. Afr. and Am. of common cul-
ture, and increased by seeds, dividing at the root,
or by cuttings.

Campanula rapunculus, the rampion, 3941 ; cam-
panula pyraraidalis, 946.

Camphire-tree, laurus camphora.

Camphorosma, tetran. monog. and chenopodeae, a
G. under-bhrub, S. Eur of easy culture in light
soil, not over- watered.

Campion, cucubalus baccifer.

Cams Hill, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Canada rice, zizania aquatica.

Canarina, hexan. monog and campanulaceae, a G.
peren. Canaries, requires a light soil, no water
where the leaves have died down, and to be put
in the stove to flower well. It is propagated from
cuttings of the roots or shoots.

Canary-grass, — see Phalaris.

Candleberry-myrtle, myrica gale.

Candy-carrot, athaman'ta cretensis.

Candytuft, — see Iberis.

Canella, dodec. monog. and meliacea?, a S. tr.
\V. Ind. soil loamy; and cuttings of large old
wood, with all the leaves taken ott' at a joint, in
sand, in a moist heat, strike, though with diffi-
culty.

Canna, Indian shot, monan. monog. and canneas, S.
peren. Ind. and S. Amer. ree<ly or marsh plants
of easy culture, and propagated by seeds or di-
viding the root.

Cannabis, hemp, dicec. pentan. and urticeae, a H.
an. India, of easy culture.

Canon House, Sussex, 7531.

Canons, a seat in Middlesex, 7520.

Cantaleupe melon, — see Cucumis.

Canterbury- bell, campanula medium.

Canton, Fa'ee gardens at, 7318.

Caiitray, a seat in Inverness-shire, 7648.

Cape of Good Hope, gardening of, 502.

Cape jasmine, gardenia florida.

Caper-Lush, — see Capparis.

Capparis, caper-tree, polyan. monog. and cappa.
ridea;, S. and G. tr. Eur. and W. Ind. chiefly

1178

GENERAL INDEX.

climbers and trailers, which grow freely in light
loam, and strike readily by cuttings.
Capparis spinosa, the caper-bugh, 6038.
Capsicum, pentan. monog. and solaneae, S. tr. G. tr.
and H. an. Indies, of easy culture, and propa-
gated by cuttings or seeds.
Capsicum annuum, cerasiforme, and grossum, 4272.

to 4277.
Caralluma, pentan. dig. and asclepiadea, D. S. tr.
E. Ind. succulents which grow iu brick rubbish
and loam, and increase by cuttings left till their
wounds dry up before planting.
Caraway, — see Carum.
Carclere, a seat in Cornwall, 7601.
Cardamine, lady's smock, tetrad, siliq. and cruci-
ferejB, a G. peren. and H. peren. bien. and an.
Eur. of the easiest culture.
Cardamine pratensis, common lady's smock, 4311.
Cardamom, elettari cardamomum.
Carden, a se.jt in Cheshire, 7590.
Cardiganshire, gardens and residences of, 7607.
Cardinal-flower, lobelia cardinalis, 6460.
Cardiospermum, heart-seed, octan. trig, and sa-
pindeas, S. an. India and Brasil, of common
culture.
Cardoon, cynara cardunculus, 3929.
Carduus, thistle, syngen. poly, aaqual. and cynaro-
cephaleffi, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. of com-
mon culture.
Carduus marianus, 3956.

Carex, monoec. trian. and cyperaceje, a G. peren.
and H. peren. Eur. and Amer. grasses of com-
mon culture.

Careya, monad, polyan. and ....« , a ^.

peren. E. Ind. which grows in light soil.
Carica, papaw-tree, dioec. docand. and cucurbitacese,
S. tr. India which grow vigorously in a loamy soil,
and large cuttings, not deprived of their leaves,
root in sand under a hand-glass in heat.
Carissa, pentan. monog. and apocyneje, S. tr. E. Ind.
which grow in loam and peat, well drained, and
without being much watered ; cuttings root in
sand under a bell-glass in heat.
Carlina, carline-thistle, syngen. polyg. jequal. and
cynarocephalese, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur.
of common culture, and raised from seeds.
Carline-thistle, — see Carlina.
Carlow, the county of, as to gardening, 7660.
Carlsruhe (Charles's peace or retreat), public gar-
dens of, 7314.
Carlton Palace gardens, London, 7523.
Carnation, — see Dianthus.
Carob-tree, ceratonia siliqua.

Carolinea, monad, polyan. and malvaceae, S. tr.
W. Ind splendid plants which thrive well in
loamy soil, and cuttings taken off at a joint, and
not deprived of their leaves, root in sand under
a hand-glass in heat.
Caronelli, Conte Pietro de, his works on gardening,

page 1128. A. D. 167.
Carpesium, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,
H. peren. Eur. and China, which grow in light
soil, and are increased by seeds.
Carpinus, hornbeam, moncec. polyan. and armen-
taceas, H. tr. Eur. and Amer. of common culture.
Carpinus betulus, the common hornbeam, 7091.
Carpopogon, diadelph. decan. and leguminoseae, S.
tr. E. Ind. climbers which grow in loam and
peat, and cuttings root freely under a bell-glass in
sand.
Carradori, his works on gardening, page 1128. A. D.

1807.
Carrot, 3712, — see Daucus.

Carthamus, syngen. polyg. aequal. and cyneroce-
phale«, G. tr. Eur. and Afr. which grow well
in a loamy soil, and cuttings root freely in sand
under a hand-glass. The H. peren. and an. are
of common culture.
Carton, a seat in Kildare, 7657.
Carum, caraway, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae, H

bien. Eur. of common culture.
Carum carvl, the common caraway, 4225.
Caryophyllus, clove-tree, icos. monog. and myr-
teaceae, a H. tr. Moluccas, which grows in loam
and peat, and cuttings, not deprived of their
leaves, root in sand under a hand-glass in a
moist heat.
Caryota, monoec. polyan. and palmeae, a S. tr. E.
Ind. a palm which grows in sandy loam, and is
propagated by seeds.
Cascades, 1827.

Caserta, a royal Neapolitan palace and gardens, 87.
Cashel Palace, in Tipperary, 7667.

Cashew-nut, anacardium orientale.

Cashier, a seat in Tipperary, 7667.

Cashiobury, a seat in Hertfordshire, described.

7545.
Cassava, jatropha manihot.

Cassia, decan. monog. and leguminoseee, S. and G,
tr. bien. and an. E. and W. Ind. which thrive in
loam and peat, and cuttings will root in sand
under a hand-glass in moist heat : many kinds
ripen seeds.
Cassine, pentan. trig, and rhamneas, a S. tr. and
G. tr. C. B. S. which grow freely in loam and
peat, and cuttings root readily in sand under a
hand-glass.
Cassinia, syngen. polyg. segr. and corymbifereae,

G. peren. N. HoU, of common culture, 1769.
Cassino (Ital.), a little house, a villa, or cottage

orn^e.
Castanea, chestnut, monoec. polyan. and amentaceze,

H. tr. Eng. and Amer. of common culture.
Castanea vesca, the sweet chestnut j as a fruit-tree,

475 ; as a forest tree, 7094.
Castel, llen€ Richard, his works on gardening, paae

1121. A. D. 1802.
Castel, Robert, a British writer on gardening, page

1103. A. D. 1728.
Castelleja, didy. angios. and scrophularineae, a H.

peren. Louisiana, of common culture.
Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire, 7580.
Castle Blaney, a seat in Monaghan, 7678.
Castle Dillon, in Armagh, 7682.
Castle Eden, Durham, 7584.
Castle Glammis, in Angus-shire, 7637.
Castle Gosford, in Armagh, 7682.
Castle Grant, in Inverness-shire, 7648.
Castle Gray, in Perthshire, 7636. •
Castle Hill, a .^eat in Devonshire, 7600.
Castle Howard, Yorkshire, 7583.
Castle Malwood Cottage, Hampshire, 7594.
Castle Upton, a seat in Antrim, 7684.
Castle Wig, a seat in Wigtonshire, 7626.
Castle Martyn, a seat in the county of Cork, 7666.
Castlebar House, a seat in the county of Mayo, 7673.
Castletown Delvin, a seat in VN'estmeath, 7662.
Castletown, a seat in Kildare, 7657.
Castletown, a scat in Tipperary, 7667.
Castor-oil plant, ricinus palma christi.
Casuarina, moncec. monan. and conifereae, G. tr.
Au.stral. which grow freely in loam and peat, and
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.
Cat-mint, — see Nepcta.
Cat's ear, — see Hypoohzeris.
Cat's tail, — see Typha.
Catstail-grass, — see Phleum.
Cat-thyme, teucrium marum.

Catalpa, dian. moi.og. and bignoniaceae, a S. tr.
W. Ind. which grow well in light loam, and
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass in
heat; the H. species thrives in common soil,
and is increased from seeds or cuttings of the
roots.
Catananche, syngen. polyg. a?qual. and cichoraceae,
a H. peren. and an. Eur. and Afr. of common
culture.
Catchfly, lychnis vescaria.

Caterpillar, the second or larva stage in the pro-
gress of insects generated from eggs, after which
they become pup^, or chrysalidte, and lastly,
imagcB or perfect insects, 2227 ; general prin-
ciples of palliating their effects and destroying,
2277; mode of destroying caterpillars on the cab-
bage tribe, 3593 ; gooseberries, 4656 ; roses and
other flowers, 6194.
Catesbaaa, lily-thorn, tetran. monog. and rubiacese,
S. tr. W. Ind. which grow in loam and peat, and
cuttings root in sand plunged in heat, and covered
with a bell-glass.
Cathartocarpus, decan. monog. and leguminoseaj,

S. tr. E. Ind. which may be treated as cassia.
Cattaneo, Giacomo, his works on gardening, page

1128. A. D. 1767.
Caucalis, bur-parsley, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae,

H. bien. and an. Eur. of common culture.
Cauliflower, 3i>38. — See Bransica.
Caulophyllum, hexan. monog. and berberideae, H.

peren. N. Amer. of common culture.
Cans. Salomon, his works on gardening, page 1123.

A. D. 1620.
Cause, D. H., his works on gardening, page 1129.

A. D. 1676.
Cav. ic. Ant. Jos. Cavanilles, Icones et Descrip.
tiones Plantarum qu£e aut sponte in Hisp'Uiia
crescunt, aut in Hortis hospitantur.

GENERAL INDEX.

1179

Cavallema (ItaL), a manage, or place for practising
horsemanship.

Cavan, county of, as to gardening, 7676.

Cavanilles, Antonio Joseph, his works on garden-
ing, page 1131. A. D. 178-.

Cave Castle, Yorkshire, 7582.

Cavershain, a seat near Reading, 7561.

Caves and caverns, as garden-decorations, 1814.

Cayenne, gardening ol, 505.

Caylus, N de, his works on gardening, page

1121. A. D. 1806.

Ceanothus, pentan. monog. and rhamneaj, S. tr.
and G. tr. Amer. and W. Ind. which grow in
loam and peat, and cuttings root freely in sand
under a hand-glass. The H. tr. grow in common
soil, and are readily raised from seeds or
lavers.

Cecropia, snake-wood, dioec. dian. and urticeas, a
& tr. Jam. which prefers a loamy soil, and
large cuttings planted in sand under a hand-glats
will .strike root.

Cedar of Goa, cupressus lusitanica.

Cedar of Lebanon, — see Pinus.

Cederhelm, Baron Carl Willielm, his works on
gardening, page 1130. A. D. 1740.

Cedrela, pentan. monog. and meliacese, a S. tr.
W, Ind. which grows well in loam and peat, and
cuttings root under a hand-glass in sand.

Celandine,— see Chelidonium.

Celastrus, staffltree, pentan. monog. andrhamneae,
G and H. tr. C. B. S. and Amer. requiring si-
milar treatment to ceanothus.

Celery, 3997. — see Apium.

Celosia, cock's comb, pentan. monog. and amaran-
thacea, a S. bien. and an. E. Ind. and China j
of common culture.

Celosia crisuta, the common cock's comb, 6483.

Cels, M. Francjois, C. M. H. S. an eminent nursery-
man at Mont-Rouge, Paris, 194.

Celsia, didyn. angios and solanese, S. an. F. bien.
and H. an. Eur. and E. Ind. of common culture.

Celtis, nettle-tree, polyg. monoec. and amentaceas,
S. tr. and H. tr. Eur. and Amer. which require
only common soil and culture, and are increased
by seeds or layers, or by cuttings.

Cenchrus, trian. monog. and gramine£e, a S. tr.
and H. an. India; grasses of the easiest cul-
ture.

Cenia, syngen. pMyg. super, and corymbiferese, H.
an. C. B. S. ot" common culture.

Centaurea, centaury, syngen. polyg. frustran. and
cynarocephaleae, G. F. and H. peren. bien. and
an. Eur. of common culture.

Centaurea benedicta, the blessed thistle, 4250.

Centaury — see Centaurea.

Centunculus, bastard pimpernel, tetran. monog.
and primulaceae, a H. an. Brit, of common
culture.

Cephaelis, pentan. monog. and rubiaceo?, S. tr.
Jam. and Afric. which thrive in loam and peat,
and cuttings roots freely under a hand-glass in
sand.

Cephalanthus, button-wootl, tetran. monog. and
ruhiace.-e, a H. tr. N. Amer. which grov/s best
in loam and peat, and is propagated by layers or
ripened cuttings.

Cephalophora, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corym-
biferese, a F. peren. Chili, which grows in sand
and peat, and young cuttings root readily under a
hand-glass.

Cerastium mouse ear, chick-weed, decan pentag.
and caryophyllea?, H. peren. and an. Eur. of the
easiest culture.

Ceratocarpus, monoec. monan. and chenopodeze, a
H. an. Tartary, of common culture.

Ceratonia, caro'b-tree, polyg. dioec. and legumi-
noseiE, a G. tr. Levant,' which thrives well in
loam and peat, and ripened cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass.

Ceratophyllum, horn-wort, moncec. polyan. and
naiadea?, H. peren. Bnt. aquatics, of easy cul-
ture, and increased by seeds.

Cerbera, pentan. monog. and apocyneie, S. tr. S.
Amer. and India, which grow in loam and peat,
ripened cuttings root readily in sand under a
hand-glass in moist heat.

Cercis, Ji;da.s-tree, decan. monog. and leguminoseze,
H. ir. Eur. and America, which grow in com-
mon soil, and are raised from seeds or layers.

Cerinthe, honey-wort, pentan. monog. and bora-
gineas, a H. tr. and an. Eur. of common culture.

Ccruti, Joseph Ant. Joach. his works on gardening,
pagelli'O. A D. 1792.

Cestrum, pentan. monog. and S. and solanea?,
G. tr. R and W. Ind. which grow well in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a
hand-glass.

Ceylon, gardening of, 501.

Chaddesdon, a seat in Derbyshire, 7574.

Chserophyllum, chervil, pentan. dig. and umbel-
lifereae, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. and N.
Amer. of the easiest culture.

Chalfont House, Buckinghamshire, 7546.

Chamtedorea, dioec. hexan. and palmeae, a S. tr.
Caracas, which grows in sandy loam, and a strong
moist heat, and is propagated by seeds.

Chamaerops, polyg. dioec. and palmea;, S. tr. S. Eur.
and N. Amer. palms requiring the same treat-
ment as chamaedorea.

Chambers, Sir William, as an author on gardening,
page 1105. A.D. 1757.

Chamhray, Louis, Marquis de, his works on gar-
dening, page 1118. A I). 1765.

Chamomile, — see Anthemis.

Clmmjner, Svraphorien, a French writer on garden,
ing, page 11 lo. A. D. 1533.

Champs Elysees, a public garden at Paris, 163.

Chapel Allerton, formerly the seat of R. A. Salis-
burv, Esq. situated near Leeds, 7581.

Chapial, the Count of, a distinguished French
chemist and philosopher, as a gardening author,
page 1120. A. D. 1801.

Chaptalia, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbifereae,
a H. peren. N. Amer. best cultivated in loam
and peat in pots.

Chara, monoec. monan. and naiadeae, H. an. Brit.
aquatics of easy culture.

Charcoal, propDrtion in which it is aSbrded by
different trees, 698.

Charleville Forest, a seat in the King's County,
7658.

Charleville, a seat in Wicklow, 7654.

Charlottenburg, a royal residence near Berlin, 209.

Charlton House, Kent, 7534.

Charlton Park, Wiltshire, 7597.

Charpentier de Caussigny, his works on gardening,
page 1120. A. D. 18—.

Charring wood, method of, 6962.

Chartreuse, les R^v. Peres de, their work on gar-
dening, page 1118. A. D. 1767.

Chartreuse nursery at Paris, 194.

Chartularies, deeds of tenure of the ancient reli-
gious houses.

Chassel, , his works on gardening, page

1119. A. D. 1790.

Chaste-tree, — see Vitex.

Chala/giien ye, le Sieur de, a French writer on
gardening, page 1116. A. D. 1692.

Chatelherault, a palace of the Duke of Hamilton,
in France, and the name of an ornamental build-
ing in Hamilton Park, near Glasgow, 358.

Chatswortb, a seat in Derbyshire, 7575.

Chawstick, gouania domingensis.

Cheese-rennet, galium verum.

Cheilanthes, cryptog. filjces, G. and H. peren.
As. and Amer. ferns which grow in loam and
peat, and require to be kept in a moist sliaded
situation.

Cheiranthus, wall-flower, tetrad, siliq. and cruci-
ferese, G. and H. tr. and peren. Eur. and As.
under-shrubs and evergreen herbs, of easy cul-
ture in light soil, and propagated by seeds or
cuttings.

Chelidonium, celandine, polyan. monog. and pajia-
veracecD, H. j)eren. Eur. of the easiest culture.

Chelone, didyn. angios. and bignoniacea?, H. peren.
N. Amer. elegant plants which grow in loam
and peat, and are propagated by cuttings or by
dividing the root

Chelsey Farm, Berkshire, 7561.

Cheltenham, a garden at, 7564.

Chemincreux (.hollow way), a suburban villa at
Paris, 165.

Chenar-tree, platanus orientalis.

Chenolea, pentan. monog. and chenopodsa;, a Gr, tr.
C. B. S. which grows in rich light soil, and cuU
tings root freely under a hand-glass.

Chenopodium, goose-foot, pentan. dig. and cheno-
l>ode£E, G. peren. and H. peren. and an. Eur.
and Amer. of the easiest culture.

Chenopodium bonus-henricus, 3791.

Chenopodium urbicum and album, 4290.

Cherleria, decan. trig, and caryophylleae, a H.
peren. Scot, a rock- work plant which grows in
loam and peat, and is increased by dividine' at'
the root.

180

GENERAL INDEX.

Chermes, a genus of plant-louse, nearly allied to
aphis, and generally confounded with the aphi-
dae, 2243.

Cherricr, J B , his works on gardening, page

Cherry — sec Prunus.

Cherry-house, 2674 ; its culture, 3117.

Cherry-pepper, — see Capsicum.

Chervil, — seeCha?rophyllum.

Cheshire, gardens and residences of, 7590.

Chesnee Monstereuil, Charles de la, a French author
on gardening, page 1116. A. D 1654.

Chesnel, Marquis de, his works on gardening, page
1122. A. D. 1820. . ^' ^ ^

Chestnut, — see Castanea.

Chevening, a seat in Kent, 7538.

Chick-psa, cicer arietinura.

Chick weed,— see Stellaria.

Chillingham Castle, Northumberland, 7586.

Chiraaphila, decan. monog. and ericea?, H. tr. N.
Amer. rather difficult to preserve ; they grow
best in a bed of peat, and seldom transplanted.

Chinampas, or floating gardens of Mexico, 491.

Chiococca, snow-berry, pentan. monog. and ru-

. biacese, a S. tr. Jam. which thrives well in loam
and peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under
a hand-glass.

Chionanthus, fringe-tree, dian. monog. and oleines,
H. tr. N. Amer. of great beauty, which grow in
good loamy soil, and are increased by seeds or
grafting on the common ash.

Chipchase Castle, Northumberland, 7586.

Chippenham Park, Cambridgeshire, 7551.

Chironia, pentan, monog. and gentianeaa, G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow in peat with a little loam, and
young cuttings root under hand-glasses in the
same soil.

Chiswick House, Middlesex, 7521.

Chlora, yellow wort, octan. monog. and gentianefc,
a H. an. of common culture.

Chloranthus, chulan, tetran. monog. and chlo-
rantheae, G. tr. China, which may be treated
as chenolea.

Chlorophytum, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, aS.
and G peren. Afr. grow in loam and peat, and are
increased by dividing at the root, or by seeds.

Chocolate-nut, — see Theobroma.

Cholmondeley Hall, Cheshire, 7590.

Chomel, Noel, a French author on gardening, page
1116. AD. 17— .

Chomelia, tetran. monog. and rubiaces, a S. tr.
W. Ind. which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root readily in sand under a hand-glass in
heat.

Chondrilla, syngen. polyg. £equal. and cichoraceae,
a H. peren. France, which grows best in peat
soil, and is increased by seeds or dividing at the
root.

Chorizema, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, G. tr.
N. Hoi. which grows in sandy loam and peat, and
produces seed in abundance.

Cnorispermum, tetrad, siliq. and crucifere«, a H.
an. of common culture.

Christy'l. L., his works on gardening, page 1127.
A.D. 1809.

Christ's thorn, zizyphus paliurus.

Christmas rose, — see Helleborus.

Chron. Scot , Chronicles of Scotland, by Pittscottie.

Chrysanthellum, syngen. polyg. frustran. and corym-
bifereaj, a S. an. W. Ind. of common culture.

Chrysanthemum, syngen. polyg. super, and corym-
bifere£e, a G. tr. and H. an. and peren. which
grow in common garden-soil, and are increased
by dividing the root, or by cuttings, or seeds.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, 4316.

Chrysanthemum indicum, — see Anthemis.

Chrysobalanus, cocoa-plum, icos. monog. and rosa-
ceae, a S. and G. tr. W. Ind. and Georgia, which
grow in sandy loam, and large cuttings taken
off at a joint, with their leaves uninjured, and
planted thinly in a pot of sand, under a hand-
glass, will strike root.

Chrysocoma, goldy-locks, syngen. polyg. «qual. and
corymbiferess, G. tr. C.B.S. and Eur. which thrive
in loam and peat, and cuttings root readily under
a hand-glass.

Chrysophyllum, star-apple, pentan. monog. and
sapoteffi, S. tr. W. Ind. which thrive in sandy
loam, and cuttings of ripened shoots root in
sand under a hand-glass, with a strong moist
heat.

Chrysoplenium, golden saxifrage, decan. dig. and
tifragese, H. peren. Eur. and Amer. which

saxitragese,

grow in shady moist pi.ices, and may be treated as
marsh plants.

Chrysurus, trian. dig. and graminea^, a H. an. of
common culture.

Chulan, — see Chloranthus.

Cicely, — see Scandix.

Cicer, chick-pea, diadel. decan. and leguminoseje, a
H. an. of the easiest culture.

Cichorium, succory, syngen. polyg. aequal. and ci-
choraceJB, a F. bien. H. peren, and H. an. Eur.
Afr. and India, of the easiest culture. C. endivia,
the garden endive, 3976. C. intybus, succory,
3988.

Cicuta, cow-bane, pentag. dig. and umbellifereae,
H. poren. Eur. and Amer. which grow best in
marshy places, and are increased by seeds.

Cimicifuga, bugwort, poiyan. pentag and ranun-
culaceae, H. peren. Eur. and Amer. of common
culture.

Cinchona, pentan. monog. and rubiace», S. tr.
which grow in loam and peat, but not very freely,
and ripe cuttings in sand under a hand-glass, in
moist heat, will strike root.

Cineraria, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereas,
S. G. and H. tr. and peren, Eur. and C.B.S. plants of
easy culture, and propagated by cuttings, division,
or seeds.

Cion, — see Cyon.

CircEea, enchanter's nightshade, dian. monog. and
onagrarias, H. peren. Brit, creepers, which prefer
moist shady situations, and grow in any soil.

Cissampelos, dioec. monad, and menisperme^e, a G.
tr. and S. peren. S. Amer. climbers which grow
freely in loam and peat, and cuttings root under a
hand-glass.

Cissus, tetran. monog. and vitiacete, S, G. and H.
tr. Amer. and Ind. of easy culture in peat and
loam, or in garden-earth, and readily propagated
by cuttings; the S. and G. sorts in a moist
heat, and the others in the shade under a hand-
glass.

Cistus, rock-rose, poiyan. monog. and cistineas,
G. F. and H. tr. Eur. and Amer. under-shrubs,
which grow in common soil, or loam and peat,
and may be increased by layers, or young cut-
tings taken off at a joint, and planted under a
hand-glass ; seeds are frequently producetl.

Citharexylum, fiddle-wood, didyn. angios. and ver-
benaceae, S. tr. VV. Ind. which grow treely in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Citizens' villas, 7285 ; management of, 7430.

Citrus, orange-tree, polyad. poiyan. and aurantia,
G. tr. India and China, — see 4879.

Citrus acida, the lime, 4899.

Citrus aurantium, the orange, 4884.

Citrus decumana, the shaddock, 5902.

Citrus medica, the lemon and citron, 4896, 4897.

Citrus tribe, their propagation and culture, 5905. to
5954.

Clackmannanshire, gardens of, 7633.

Cladium, trian. monog. and cyperaceae, a H. peren.
Engl, a grass of the easiest culture.

Clairs voyi^es (Fr.), open railings or barriers, 335.

Clarici, Paolo Bartolomeo, his work on gardening,
page 1128. A.D 1726.

Clandon Place, a seat in Surrey, 7528.

Clare, county of, as to gardening, 7669.

Clare Hall, a seat in the county of Dublin, 7653.

Claremont, a seat in Surrey, 7528.

Clary, — see Salvia.

Clayberry Hall, Essex, 7542.

Claytonia, pentan. monog. and portulacese, H.
peren. and an. N. Amer. and Silesia, of the easiest
culture.

Claytonia perfoliata, as a spinage plant, 4327.

Clear Well, a seat in Gloucestershire, 7565.

Clearing-nut, strychnos potatorum.

Cleavers, galium aparine.

Clematis, virgin's bower, poiyan. polyg. and ranun-
culaceae, S. and G tr. climbers, which grow in
light, rich soil, and young cuttings strike readily
under a hand-glass in heat. The H. species grow
in any soil, and are increased by layers, dividing
at the root or seeds.

Clemento y Rubio, Don Simon de Roxas, his work
on gardening, page 1131. A.D. 1807.

Clermont, a seat in Lowth, 7664.

Clcrodendrum, didyn. angios. and verbenaceae, S.
and G. tr. Ind. and China, soil half loam, a quar-
ter rotten dung, and a quarter peat ; they require
a large pot to flower freely, and young cuttings
root readily under a hand-glass.

GENERAL INDEX.

1181

Cleome, tetrad, siliq. and capparideae, S. tr. bien.
and an. Ind. and Amer. which grow in rich, light
soil, and are readily increased by cuttings or
seeds.

Clethra, decan. monog. and ericese, a G. tr. and
H. tr. N. Amer. the first thrives well in peat,
with a little loam, and is proiiagated by cut-
tings or seeds ; the hardy sorts grow in peat
and sandy loam, and are generally increased by
layers.

Cliefden, Buckinghamshire, 7547.

Cliffortia, dioec. polyan. and rosaceae, G. tr. C. B. S.
which thrive well in loam and peat, and young
cuttings root freely in sand under a bell-glass.

Clifton Hall, Nottinghamshire, 7o/6.

Climate, as it affects gardening, 518.

Climate of Great Britain, study of, 1290.

Climliers, vegetables which attach themseWes to
trees or other upright objects by their tendrils, or.
hooks, as the creepers do by their roots, and
twiners by the convolving of their stems. __

Climbing herbaceous plants, 6516; shrubs, 6a/3;
green-house plants, 665; dry-stove plants, 6665;
stove plants, &c. 6717.

Clinopodium, wild basil, didyn. gymnos. and labia-
tea?, H. peren. Brit, and Egypt, which grow in
any soil, and are increased by seeds or by dividing
the roots.

Clipping, or shearing plants, 1888.

Clitoria, diadel. decan. and leguminoseas, S. tr. and
an. Ind. and Amer. which thrive well in loam
and peat, and ripened cuttings will root under a
bell-glass in heat

Clonbrook, a seat in Galway, 7672.

Clothing, the stems of trees', 2540.

Cloud-berry, rubus chamiemorus.

Clouds, their terminology, &c. 1235.

Clove-tree, caryophvllus aromaticus.

Clover, — see Trifofium.

Clover Hill, a seat in Roscommon, 7671.

Clowance, a seat in Cornwall, 7601.

Clown's all-heal, stachys palustns.

Club-moss, — see Lyco'podium.

Club-rush, — see Scirpus.

Clugny, a seat near Paris, 162.

Clumber Park, Nottinghamshire, 7576.

Clusia, balsam-tree, polyg. moncec. and guttifereze,
S. tr. which require a light sandy loam, and cut-
tings root freely in sand under a glass ; in their
natural state they grow on decaying or rotten
barked trees.

Clusius, Carolus, his works on gardening, page 1123.
A.D. 1630.

Gut/t, Outger Augerius, (or Dirck, DuL) his works
on gardening, page 1129. A.D. 1631.

Cluytia, dioec gynan. and euphorbiaceae, a S. tr. and
G. tr. C. B. S. which grow in loam and peat, and
young cuttings root readily in sand under a bell-
glass.

Clydesdale orchards, Lanarkshire, 7629.

Clypeola, treacle-mustard, tetrad, silic. and crucife-
reas, a H. an. S. Eur. of the easiest culture.

Cneorum, widow-wail, trian. monog. and tere-
bintaceae, a G. tr. S. Eur. which grows in
light soil, and may be increased by cuttings or
seeds.

Cnicus, horse-thistle, syngen. polyg. aequal. and
cynarocephaleae, H. peren. bien. 'and an. Eur. of
common culture.

Cobbett, William, as a writer on gardening, page
1114. A.D. 1821.

Cobham Park, a seat in Surrey, 7528.

Cobham Hall, Kent, 7538.

Coboea, pentan. monog. and bignoniacese, a G. tr.
Mex. a climber of easy culture, and propagated by
seeds, or struck from cuttings under a hand-glass
in a little moist heat.

Coccinella, lady-cow, or lady-bird, an insect of the
coleopterous order, 6561.

Coccoloba, seaside grape, octan. trig, and polygo-
neas, S. tr. Ind. which grow freely in light loamy
soil, and cuttings taken off" at a joint will root in
sand under a hand-glass ; the leaves must not be
shortened.

Coccosypsilum, tetran. monog. and rubiaceae, a S.
peren. W. Ind. a creeper which grows freely in
loam and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a
hand-glass.

Cocculus, d:oec. dodec. and menispermeje, S. tr.
E. Ind. climbers which require plenty of room to
flower, and grow in loam and peat ; cuttings root
easily under a hand-glass.

Coccus, or cochineal msect, described, 2245 ; how to
subdue, &c. 2278.

Cochlearia, scurvy-grass, tetrad, silic. and crucife-

reae, H. peren. tr. an. and Eur. of common culture.
Cochlearia officinalis, the common scurvy-grass,

4067 ; armoracia, the horse-radish, 4111.
Cochlearium, or snailery, 1767.
Cockenhatch, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.
Cock's comb, — see Celosia.
Cocksfoot-grass, — see Dactylis.
Cocoa-nut, — see Coccus.
Cocoa-plum, — see Chrjsobalanus.
Cocos, cocoa-nut tree, monoec. hexan. and palmese,

S. tr. E. and W. Ind. palms of the usual culture.
Cocos nucifera, the cocoa-nut, 6009.
Codarium, dian. monog. and scrophularineas, a 8. tr.

Guinea, which grows in loam and peat, and ripen-
ed cuttings will root in sand under a band-glass

in heat.
Codon, decan. monog. and solaneae, a G. bien.

C. B. S. of easy culture.
Coffea, coffee -tree, pentan. monog. and rubiaceie,

a S. tr. Arabia and \V. Ind. which thrives well in

loam and peat, and ripened cuttings root easily in

sand under a hand-glass in heat
Coffee-tree, — sec Coftea.
Cognatus, a name assumed by Gilbert Cousin, a

French author on gardening, page 1115. A.D.

1546.
Cogwood-tree, laurus chloroxylon.
Cointereaux, Francois, his works on gardening,

page 1120. A.D. fSOO.
Coix, Job's tears, monoec. triand. and gramineae, S.

peren. E. Ind. grasses which grow readily in

light rich soil, and seed plentifully.
Colbertia, polyan. pentag. and dilleniaceae, a S. tr.

E. Ind. which thrives in loam and peat, and

ripened cuttings, not deprived of their leaves,

root freely in sand under a hand-glass.
Colchicum, meadow saffron, hexan. trig, and me-

lanthaceae, H. peren. Eur. bulbs flowering in

autumn, — see 6501.
Cold-houses, for plants, 1696. and 618^.
Coldenia, tetran. tetrag. and boragineae, a S. and E.

Ind. of common culture.
Cole, coleworts, cale, kale, {k^ale. Sax. or caulis, a

stem, Lat) cabbage-plants of the brassica tribe,

whose leaves are used before they form a head,

— see Brassica oleracea.
Coleby Hall, Lincolnshire, 7577.
Colesiiill House, Berkshire, 7561.
Colewort, — see Brassica and Crambe.
Colgarth, a .seat in Westmoreland, 7592.
CoUa, Luigi, his works on gardening, page 1128.

A.D. 1813.
Collectors for gardens, 7394.
Collington House, Midlothian, 7618.
CoUinSy Samuel, Esq. a British writer on gardening.

page 1102. A.D. 1717.
Collinsonia, dian. monog. and labiateae, a G. peren.

and H. peren. N. Amer. of common culture j

they prefer rather a moist situation.
CoUipriest House, Devonshire, 7600.
Colne Park, Essex, 7542.
Colney House, Hertfordshire, 7544.
Colon, a seat in Lowth, 7664.
Colpoon-tree, cassine colpoon.
Coltsfoot, — see Tussilago.
Columbarium, or pigeonry, 1767.
Columbine, — see Aquilegia.
Columnea, didyn. angios. and scrophularinese, S. tr.

W. Ind. of easy culture, and easily lost ; it grows

well in loam and peat, and strikes readily from

cuttings, but will soon rot or damp off" if it have

too much water, or stand in a damp part of the

house.
Colutea, bladder-senna, diadel. decan. and legumi-

noseae, H. tr. Eur. of easy culture, increased by

seeds.
Colwick Hall, Nottinghamshire, 7576.
Com. Got., Commentarii societatis regis scicnti-

arum Gottingensis.
Comarum, icos. polyg. and rosaces, H. peren. Brit.

marsh plants.
Comely Bank nursery, Midlothian, 7618.
Comfrey, — see Symphytum.
Commelin, John, his works on gardening, page 1129,

A.D. 1676.
Commelina, trian. monog. and commelines, S. and

G. peren. and an. and H. peren. and an. Amer.

all of which grow freely in sandy loam and peat,

and are increased by dividing the root or by seed.
Commersonia pentan. pantag.anduutmeriacea?, a S.

and G. tr. N. Hoi which grow well in loam and

peat, and cuttings root readily under a hand-glaia

in sand.

1182

GENERAL INDEX.

Common acacia, — see Robinia.
Common dragon, arum dracunculus.
Comocladia, maiden-plum, trian. monog. and tere-
bintacea;, S. tr. W. Ind. wliich grow in loam and
peat, and ripened cuttings in sand under a bell-
glass in moist heat will strike root.
Compaietti, Andrea, his works on gardening, page

1128. A.D. 1798.
Compost, composed soil, or composed dung; a
mixture of earths, or of earths and manures, or
of manures alone, and hence the terms ompost-
soil, and compost-manure : to collect and form,
1977.

Compost-ground, a place for laying and preparing
composts, 1984.

Comptonia, monoec. trian. and amentaceae, a H. tr.
N. Amer. which thrives best in peat soil, and is
increased by layers.

Coniferous trees, their culture and management,
6983.

Conium, hemlock, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae,
a G. tr. and H. bien. and an. Eur. C B. S. and
Barbary, which grow in any soil, and are in-
creased by seeds.

Connoisseurs of gardening, 7408; their garden
arrangements, 7429.

Conocarpus, button-tree, pentan. monog. and com-
bretaccas, S. tr. W. Ind. which thrive well in
loam and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a
hand-glass in heat.

Conservatory, a habitation for ornamental plants
of moderate temperature, in which the greater
part are planted in beds or borders of soil, and
allowed to attain a considerable size, 6174.

Constantinople, gardens of, 308.

Consumption in plants, 900.

Contortion in plants, 898.

Contracting gardeners, or new-ground workmen,
7389.

Contrajerva root, dorstenia contrajerva.

Convallaria, lily of the valley, hexan. monog. and
smilaccffi, a H. peren. Brit, of easy culture.

Convolvulus, bind-weed, pentan. monog. and con-
volvulaceae, tr. peren. and an. Eur. and Amer.
of all the departments of culture, mostly twiners,
which grow readily in any soil, and are increased
by the roots or seeds, and some by cuttings in sand.

Convolvulus batatas, the Spanish or sweet potatoe,
6026.

Convolvulus reptans, a spinage plant in China,
6037.

Convolvulus soldanella, 4313.

Conyza, flcabane, syngen. polyg. super, and corym-
blferese, ti;. peren. and an. Eur. As. Amer. of all
the departments which grow freely in loam and
peat, and are increased by cuttings or seeds.

Cook. Moses, a gardening author, page 1101. A. D.
1676.

Cookia, wampee-tree, decan. monog. and auran-
tia, a S. tr. China, which thrives well in sandy
loam, and ripened cuttings not deprived of any of
their leaves, root in sand under a hand-glass in
moist heat.

Coombe Abbey, Warwickshire, 7572.

Coombe Lodge, a seat in Oxfordshire, 7558.

Coopersale, a seat in Essex, 7541.

Copaifera, balsam of capevi, decan. monog. and le-
guminoseae, a S. tr. S. Amer. which prefers a
sandy lo.am, and ripened cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass.

Copford Hall, Essex, 7542.

Copgrove, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.

Copped Hall, Essex, 7542.

Coppice- wood, or copse- wood (from couper, to cut,
Fr.) ; woods which may be cut periodically, 6897.

Copse, — see Coppice.

Coptis, polyan. polyg. and ranunculaceae, a H.
peren. N. Amer. which grows best in pots and in
peat soil, and is increased by dividing at the root.

Coral-tree, — see Erythrina.

Corallorhiza, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a H.
peren. Scot, which grows best in peat soil, and is
increased by seeds.

Corby Castle, Cumberland, 7593.

Corchorus, polyan. monog. and tiliaceae, S. tr. and
an. Ind. Amer. which thrive in rich soil, and root
readily from young cuttings ; and a H. tr. of
easy culture, and which roots from cuttings as
readily as the common willow.

Cordia, pentan. monog. and boraginea?, S. tr. and a
peren. E. and W. Ind. which grows in loam and
peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under a
band-glass in heat.

Coreopsis, syngen. polyg. frustr. and corymbifereae,
S. peren. bien. and an. W. Ind. and Amer. which
grow freely in rich light earth, and cuttings root
under a hand-glass; and F. and H. poren. of
easy culture.

Coriander,— see Coriandrum.

Coriandrum, coriander, pentan. dig. and umbellife-
reae, H. an. Eur. of easy culture.

Coriandrum sativum, the common coriander, 4222.

Coriaria, dioec. decan. and , a H. tr.

S. Eur. of easy culture, increased by layers or
suckers.

Coris, peiitan. monog. and primulaceae, a G. bien.
S. Eur. of common culture.

Corispermum, tickseed, monan. dig. and chenopo-
deas, H. an. of common culture.

Cork botanic garden, 7666.

Cork-tree, quercus suber.

Corn-flag, — see Gladiolus.

Cornelian-cherry, cornus mascula.

Cornucopias, trian. monog. and gramineae, a H. an.
Levant, a grass of easy culture.

Cornus, Georges, a French author on gardening,
page 1115. A.D. 1560.

Cornus, dog-wood, tetran. monog. and caprifolese,
H. tr. and peren. Eur. and N. Amer. of easy cul-
ture, excepting the two perennial species, which
grow best ni pots, or in a bed of peat

Cornutia, didyn. angios. and verbcnaceae, a S. tr.
W. Ind. which thrives in loam and peat, and
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Cornwall, gardens and residences of, 7601.

Coronilla, diadel. decan. and leguminoseaa, G. tr.
Eur. which thrive well in loam and peat, and
increase by cuttings or seeds; and H. tr. "and
peren. of common culture.

Coronopus, wart-cress, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae,
H. an. Brit, of easy culture.

Corraja, octan. monog. and diosmacea?, G. tr. which
thrive well in sandy loam and peat ; and ripened
cuttings root freely in sand under a bell or hand-
glass.

Corrigiola, strap-wort, pentan. trig, and portulaceae,
a H. an. P^ng. of common culture.

Corsfiekl House, Wiltshire, 7597.

Corthum, I. E. her works on gardening, page 1127.
A. D. 1814.

Cortusa, bear's ear, sanicle, pentan. monog. and
primulaceee, a H. peren. Austria, which grows
best in pots in loam and peat, and is increased by
seeds or dividing at the root.

Corydalis. diadel. Iicxan. and papaveraceas, H. peren.
Eur. and Amer. which thrive in light, rich soil,
and are increased by dividing the roots, or by
seeds.

Corylus, nut-tree, moncec. polyan and amentaceae,
H. tr. Eur. and N. Amer.

Corylus avellana, the common nut-tree, and gar-
den-filbert, 4752.

Corypha, fan-palm, hexan. monog. and palmeee, a
S. tr. which grows in light soil and strong moist
heat.

Cosmea, syngen. polyg. frustran. and corymbifereae,
a G peren. and an. Mexico, of common culture.

Costmary, — see Balsamita.

Costula, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,
S. G. and H. an. C. B. .S. of easy culture.

Costus, monan. monog. and scitaminese, S. peren.
India and S. Amer. reedy or marsh plants, in-
creased by dividing at the root.

Coichell House, Cornwall, 7601.

Cotta, , his works on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1817.

CotUge, different kinds of, 749.

Cottage en verger, 7283 ; cottage and garden of
laborers, 7294 ; of artificers, 7422.

CotUige gardens, their management, 7418.

Cottage orn(5e, 7282.

Cotton, Charles, Esq., a British writer on gardening,
page 1101. A.D. 1675.

Cotton-grass, — see Eriophorum.

Cotton-rose, filago pigmaa.

Cotton-thistle, — see Onopordum.

Cotton-tree, — see Gossypium

Cotyledon, navel-wort, decan. pentag. and sem-
pervivcjE, G. tr. and a peren. C. B. S. suc-
culents of easy culture; and H. peren. rock-
work plants, propagated by seeds or dividing
the root.

Couch-grass, friticum repens.

Counsellors, or garden-artists, 7400.

Country-Residences of England, 7512 ; of Wales,
7602 ; of Scotland, 7615 ; of Ireland, 7651.

GENERAL INDEX.

1183

Cours Comp. J'Ag., Noureau Cours Completd' Ag-
riculture, &c. 13 vols. 8vo. Paris.-, 1810.

Covent, or Convent Garden market, its gardening
productions with their average prices, 7514.

Coventry, Francis, his works on English gardening,
page 1104. A. D. 1753.

Cow-bane, — see Cicuta.

Cow-itch, — see Stizolobium.

Cow-parsnep, — see Heracleum.

Cow-wheat, — see M'-lampyrura.

Cowel, John, a British author on gardening, page
1103. A. D. 1729.

Cowesfield House, Wiltshire, 7596.

Cowley, Abraham, the poet, as a British author on
gardening, page IICO. A. D. 1662.

Cowslip, — see Primula.

Coze, William, E«]., his work on fruit-trees, page
1131. A. D. 1817.

Cracow, garden of Marshal Loudon at, 282. -

Craggan, a scat in Westmeath, 7662.

Craiggie Hall, a seat near Edinburgh, 360.

Crailing House, Roxburghshire, 7621.

Crambe, colewort, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, G. tr.
and peren. and an. Eur and Amer. which thrive
in rich, light soil, and are increased by seed or
dividing the root.

Crambe maritima, the seakale, S898.

Cramer, John Andrew, his works on gardeniog,
page 1124. A. P. 1766.

Cranberry, — see Oxycoccus

Cranbury House, Hampshire, 7594.

Cranesbill, — see Geranium.

Cranford hridge, Northamptonshire, 7580.

Cranford Lodge, Middlesex, 7520.

CrassuUi, pentan. pentag. and semper^ivese, G. tr.
. peren. and an. and H. an. C. B. S. succulents of
easy culture.

Cratffiva, garlic-pear, dodec. monog. and capparidese,
S. tr. W. Ind. and Afr. which grow in loam,
peat, and rotten dung, and are increased by cut-
tings in sand, under a hand-glass.

Cree House, Kircudbrightshire, 7625.

Crepis, syngen. polyg. jeqiial. and cichoraceae, H.
tr. peren. bien. and an. Eur. of easy culture.

Crescentia, calabash-tree, didyn. angios. and sola-
neae, S. tr. W. Ind. which grow in loam and
peat; and well ripened cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass in moist heat.

Cress, — see Lepidium.

Cress-rocket, — see Vella.

Crewe Hall, Cheshire, 7590.

Crichton, formerly a distinguished seat near Edin-
burgh, 385.

Crinum, hexan. monog. and amaryUideee, S. G.
peren. Amer. and Ind. which grow in rich
loam with dung, in large pots, and are increased
by suckers, or by seeds.

Cristaria, monad, polyan. and malvaceze, a H.
peren. Missouri, which grows only in peat in
a shaded border, and increases slowly by seeds,
nr dividing at the root

Crithraum, samphire, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae,
a G. bien. and H. peren. which grow in light,
sandy soil, and are increased by seeds, or dividing
at the roots.

Crithraum maritimum, the common samphire, 4278.

Crocus, trian. monog. and irides, H. peren. Asia
and Eur. bulbs of the easist culture, 6285.

Cromartyshire, in respect to gardening, 7643.

Crome, G. his work on gardening, page 1127. A. D.
1811.

Crome Court, Worcestershire, 7566.

Crossandra, didyn. angios. and acanthacete, a S. tr.
E. Ind. which thrives well in rich, light soil, and
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Cross- wort, — see Crucianellai

Crotalaria, diadel. decan. and leguminoseje, S. and
G. tr. bien. and an. E. Ind. and Afr. which
grow in loam and peat, and are increased by
young cuttings in sand under a bell-glass ; some
species ripen seeds.

Croton, monoec. monad, and euphorbiaceje, S. tr.
and an. Ind. Amer. and Eur. which grow in
loam and peat, and cuttings with their leaves
on root in sand under a hand-glass.

Crowberry, — see Empetrum.

Crowea, decan. monog. a G. tr. N. S. W. which
grows in sandy loam and peat, in an airy situ-
ation, and not over-watered, and cuttings root
freely in sand under a bell-gUiss.

Crowfoot, — see Ranunculus.

Croxdale Hall, Durham, 7584.

Crucianella, cross-wort, tetran. monog. and rubia-

ceae, G. and H. tr. and an. Eur. of common
culture.

Crux Easton, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Crypsis, trian. dig. and gramineae, a H. an. Eur. a
grass of easy culture.

Cnptarrhena, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a S.
parasite, which may be treated as aerides.

Cryptospermum, tetran. monog. and nyctagineae, a
G. peren. N. S. W. which grows in loam and
peat, and cuttings root freely under a band-glass
in sand.

Cryptosttmma, syngen. polyg. frustran. and corym-
bifereae, H. an. C. B. S. of common culture.

Cubieres, , Aine, his works on gardening, page

1121. A. D. 1803.

Cuckoo-flower, lychnis floscuculi.

Cucubalus, campion, decan. trig, and carophylleae,
a H. peren. Eng. of common culture.

Cucumber, 4873. — see Cucumis.

Cucumis, cucumber, monoec. monad, and cueur.
bitaceffi, F. and H. an. India and C. B. S. of
common culture in rich soiL

Cucumis melo, the melon, under Iiand-glasses, 3263 ;
culture of, 3271; soil, 3272; time of beginning
to force, 3279; forming the seed-bed, choice of
seed, sowing, 3281 ; treatment till 4-emovcd to the
fruiting-bed, 3287; forming the fruiting-bed,
moulding, planting, S288 ; temperature, 3291 j
air, 3295 ; water, 3298 ; earthing, 3302 ; training,
33o3 ; setting, 3307 ; cutting the fruit, and sa ving
seed, 3312 ; second crop from the same plants,
3S15 ; late crops on old hot-beds, 3318 ; culture
of melons in a dung-pit, 3319; in a flued-pit, 33^0 ;
in M'Phail's' pit, 3321 ; under hand-glasses, 3322;
on a sloping bank, 3329; insects and diseases,
3330.

Cucumis sativus, the common cucumber, sorts of
described, 4873; culture of in hot-beds, 3164;
treatment till removed to the fruiting-bed, 3192 ;
forming the fruiting-bed, 3199 ; air, 3217 ; water,
3221; training, 3257 ; culture in a flued-pit, 3236 ;
in M'Phail's pit, 3238 ; in stoves, 3251 ; in Weeks's
patent frame, 3261 ; sorts described, 4^9.

Cucurbita, gourd, moncec. monad, and cucurbi-
taceiB, F. and H. an. Ind. and S. Eur. of com-
mon culture in rich soil.

Cucurbita pepo, the pompion; C. citrullus, the
water-melon; C. melo pepo, the squash-gourd;
C. verrucosa, the warted gourd ; C. lagenaria, the
bottle-gourd; C. aurantia, the orange-fruited
gourd ; and C. succado, the vegetable-marrow
gourd.

Cuffnels, Hampshire, 759t.

Culex, the gnat, a dipterous insect, 2267.

Culland's Grove, Middlesex, IS&d.

CuUen House, in Banfshire, 7640.

Cullumia, syngen. polyg. frustr. and corymbifereffi,
G. tr. C. B. S. which thrive in loam and peat,
and cuttings root in the same soil under a hand*
glass.

Culzean Castle, in Ayrshire, 7627.

Cumberland, gardens and residences (rf, 7593.

Cumin, cuminum cyminum.

Cuminum, cumin, pentan. dig. and umbelliferes, a
H. an. of common culture. .

Cunila, dian. monog. and labiateae, H. peren. N.
Amer. and Eur. of common culture.

Cunonia, decan. dig. and cunoniacea», a G. tr.
C. B. S. which grows in loam and peat, ripened
cuttings will root in sand under a hand-glass.

Cuphea, dodec. monog. and saUcariae, a S. tr. and
bien. and G. bien. and an. Amer. of common
culture.

Cupressus, cypress, moncec. monad, and conifereae,
G. tr. Amer. and C. B. S. which grow well in
loam, and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a
bell-glass ; and H. tr. which grow in common
soil, and are raised from seeds.

Curatella, polyan. dig. and magnolias, a S. tr. S.
Amer. which thrives in sandy loam, and cuttings
root in a pot of sand under a hand-glass.

Curculigo, hexan. monog. and asphodeleas, S. and
G. peren. E. Ind. bulbs of the usual culture.

Curculio, the weevil, a coleopterous insect which
inhabits grain, nuts, and other seeds, 2235.

Curculio nucum, the filbert-weevil, 4761.

Curcuma, turmeric, dian. monog. and scitamineae,
S. peren. E. Ind. reedy marsh plants, increased
by division at the root.

Curraghmore, a seat in Waterford, 7665,

Currant, — see Ribes.

Curt Spreng.,Curtii Sprengel HistoriaRei Herbarisfc

Curtains for shelter, — see Structures.

1184

GENERAL INDEX.

Curten, , his writings on gardening, page

1120. A. D. 1798.

Curtis, William, F. "L. S. a British author on gar-
dening, page 1109. A. D. 1783.

Curtisia, has.-^agay-tree, tetran. monog. and ,

a G. tr. C. B. S. which thrives in loam and peat,
and ripened cuttings root under a hand-glass in
sand.

Curtius, Benedictus, his works on gardening, page
1129. A. D. 1560.

Curvilinear hot-houses, list of, erected by Messrs.
Bailey, 1587.

Cuscuta, dodder, pentan. dig. and convolvulaceae, a
G. an. and H. peren. and an. Eng. and China ;
parasites which may be sown at the root of any
branchy plant, and they will spring up, and at-
tach themselves to it, — see 942.

Cashing, a British writer on gardening, page 1114.
A. D. 1812.

Cussonia, pentan. dig. and araliae, G. tr. C. B. S.
which thrive in sandy loam, and cuttings root in
sand under a hand-glass.

Custard-apple, — see Annona.

Cusworth Hall, Yorkshire, 7582.

Cutting, as an operation on plants, 1884.

Cuttings, to propagate by, 2063.

Cyanella, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, G. peren.
C. B. S. bulbs of common culture.

Cyathea, cryptog. Alices, and filicesB, a S. peren.
W. Ind. a fern of the usual culture.

Cycas, dicec. polyan. and palmeae, S. tr. E. Ind.
which grow in light soil and moist heat, and
are increased by seeds.

Cyclamen, pentan. monog. and primulacese, a G.
peren. and H. peren. Eur. which grow in loam
and peat, and are increased by seeds ; when not
in a growing state, the tubers should have no
water.

Cyclopia, decan. monog. and leguminoseffi, a G. tr.
C. B. S. which grows in sandy loam and peat, and
very young cuttings will root readily in sand
under a bell-glass, care being taken to wipe the
glass frequently, to prevent their damping off.

Cydonia, quince, icos. di-pentag. and rosaceas, F.
and H. tr. Eur. and Amer. of easy culture, and
increased by cuttings, layers, or grafting on thorn
stocks.

Cydonia vulgaris, the common quince, pyrus cy-
donia, L. 4459.

Cyfartha, a seat in Brecknockshire, 7613.

Cylista, diadelph. decan. and leguminoseae, S. tr
Ind. climbers which succeed well in loam and
peat, and cuttings will root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Cymbaria, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a H.
peren. Dauria, a rock-work plant, which prefers
light, sandy soil, and may be increased by seeds.

Cymbidium, gynan. dian. and orchideae, S. peren.
E. Ind. which thrives in sandy loam mixed with
potsherds and bits of woods, and well drained ;
the species are increased by dividing at the root.

Cynanchum, pentan. dig. and asclepiadesB, S. and G.
tr. Eur. and C. B. S. climbers which thrive in
loam and peat, and cuttings root freely in sand
under a hand-glass ; the H. peren. thrive in light
soil, and increase freely by seeds or the root

Cynara, artichoke, syngen. polyg. aequal. cynaro-
cephaleas, G. and H. peren. Eur. and C. B. S.
of common culture.

Cynara scolymus, the garden artichoke, 3917.

Cynara cardunculus, the cardoon, 3929.

Cynips, the gall-fly, a hyraenopterous insect, 2259.

Cynips quercus folii, the oak gall-fly, 7075.

Cynodon, trian. dig. and gramineae, a S. peren.
and H. peren. Eng. and E. Ind. grasses of the
easiest culture.

Cynoglossum, hound's tongue, pentan. monog. and
boragineae, a G. bien. an. H. peren. and an.
Eur. and Amer. of easy culture.

Cynometra, decan. monog. and legurainosese, a S.
tr. E. Ind. which grows in sandy loam, and large
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass in heat.
Cynosurus, dogstail-grass, trian. dig. and grami-
neae, a H. peren. and an. Eur. grasses of easy
culture.
Cvon (cion, sion, or fccion, a twig of a tree), in
graftings that part which is attached to the stock,
in order to become the future tree ; the shoot en-
grafted on a stock, — see Grafting, 7075.
Cyperus, trian. monog. and cyperacese, S. G. and
H. peren. and an. Eur. Ind. Amer. grasses of
easy culture.
Cyperus esculentus, the rush-nut, 6034.

Cyphia, pentan. monog. and campanulaceae, O.
peren. C. B. S. which thrive in loam and peat,
and cuttings root readily under a bell-glass in sand.

Cypress, — see Cupressu.s.

Cyprinus auratus, the gold carp fish, 6086.

Cypripedium, lady's slipper, gynan. dian. and or-
chidea;, H. peren. Eng. and N. Amer. which
will thrive only in peat soil and in the shade, and
are the better of protection during winter j they
are difliicult to increase, but sometimes they per-
feet seeds.

Cyrenaica, gardens of, 6.

Cyrilla, pentag. monog. and ericeae, a G. tr. Caro-
lina, which grows in sandy loam, and young cut-
tings root in sand under a bell-glass, but not freely.

Cyrtanthus, hexan. monog. and amaryllidete, G.
peren. C. B. S. bulbs which grow in sandy loam
and peat, require plenty of water when in a grow-
ing state, but scarcely any when dormant.

Cyrtopodium, gynan. monan. and orchideJB, S.
peren. Amer. requiring the same treatment as
cymbidium.

Cysticapnos, diadel. hexan. and papaveraceas, a H.
an. C. B. S. of common culture.

Cytisus, diadel. decan. and leguminoseje, G. F. and
H. tr. Eur. As. and Amer. chiefly shrubs which
prefer a light soil, and are propagated readily by
seeds or layers.

Cytisus alpinus, the tree or Scotch laburnum, 7113.

Cytisus laburnum, the shrubby laburnum, 7020.

Czartoryska, Princess Isabella, her work on gar-
dening, page 1131. A. D. 1808.

Dactylis, cooksfoot-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae,

H. peren. Eur. of the easiest culture.
Dffimia, pentan. dig. and asclepiadese, a S. tr. E.

Ind. which grows in loam and peat, and cuttings

root in sand under a hand-glass.
Daffodil, — see Narcissus.
Dahlman, G. T., his works on gardening, page

liao. A. D. 1728.
Dahuron, Ren6, a French author on gardening,

page 1116. A. D. 1696.
Dailsford, a seat in Worcestershire, 7566.
Dais, decan. monog. and thymeleae, a G tr. C. B. S.

which grows freely in loam and peat, and may

be increased by cuttings of the roots placed in a

warm situation.
Daisy, — see Bellis.
Dalbergia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, S. tr.

E. Ind. which do well in sandy loam, and ripened

cuttings root under a hand-glass in sand.
Dalea, diadel. decan. and leguminosese, S. and G.

an. and H. peren. Ind. and Amer. of common

culture.
Dalechampia, moncec. monad, and euphorbiaces,

a S. tr. W. Ind. a climber, which grows in sandy

loam, and roots freely in sand under a hand-glass.
Dalhousie Castle, Midlothian, 7618.
Dalibarda, icos. polyg. and rosacese, a H. peren. N.

Amer. a creeper, which prefers peat soil, and a

shaded situation.
Dalkeith Park, Midlothian, 7618.
Dallinser, Prosper, his works on gardening, page

1126. A. D. 1798.
Dalmahoy, a seat in Midlothian, 7618.
Dalmar, Basse N , his works on gardening,

page 1120. A. D. 1800.
Dalmeny Park, kitchen-garden at, 2455 j hot-houses

there, 2661.
Dalystown, a seat in Galway, 7672.
Damascena, the damson, or Damascus plum, — see

Prunus.
Damasonium, hexan. polyg. and alismaceae, a

S. peren. E Ind. an aquatic.
Dampiera, pentan. monog. and goodenoviae, a G.

peren. N. S. W. which grows well in loam and

peat, and young cuttings root freely under a

hand-glass.
Dan y Park, a seat in Brecknockshire, 7613.
Dancer's Court, a seat in Tipperary, 7667.
Dandelion, — see Leontodon.
Danson Hill, a seat in Kent, 7537.
Daphne, octan. dig. and thymeleae, a S. tr. which

thrives in loam and peat, and roots by cuttings

under a hand-glass ; and H. tr. beautiful under.

shrubs, which prefer peat soil, and are increased

by seeds or grafting on the D. laureola, 6562.
jyAreenvUle, Dezallier Ant Joseph, a French

autnor on gardening, page 1117. A. D. 1713.

GENERAL INDEX.

1185

Darnel, — see Lolium.

Darton Park, Yorkshire, 7582.

Darmn, Erasmus, M.D. F.R.S., a British writer on
gardcuiiig, page 1109. A. D. 1781.

Date-palm, — see Phoenix.

Date-plum, — see Diospyros.

Datisca, dioec. dodec. and resediacese, a H. peren.
Candia, of common culture.

Datura, thorn-apple, pcntan. monog. and solane£E,
H. an. Asia, Afr. of the easiest culture.

Daucus, carrot, pen tan. dig. and umbelliferea;, H.
bien. and an. Eur. of the easiest culture.

Daucus carota, the garden- carrot, 3712.

Davallia, crvptog. Alices and fiUcese, a G. tr. and
peren. N."S. W. and Canaries, ferns of common
culture as such.

Daviesia, decan. monog. and leguminoses, G. tr.
N. S. W. which grow in sandy loam and peat, and
cuttings, not too ripe, will root readily in pots
of sand under a hand-glass, without bottom
heat.

I>i:vt/, P^re, a ^ench author on gardening, page
1115. A. D. 1560.

Dawsonscourt Hall, a seat in Queen's County,
7659.

Day-lily, — see Hemerocallis.

De Cautnels, his works on gardening, page 1122.
A. D. 1816.

Be Combles, his works on gardening, page 1117.
A. D. 1745.

De Distrib. plant., Humboldt de distributione plan-
tarum.

Deadly carrot, atropa belladonna.

Deadly nightshade, — see Thapsia.

Decaiidolle, L. A. one of the most eminent French
botanists, distinguished like Brown in this coun-
try, by his knowledge and improvement of the
Jussieuean system of classification, page 1122.
A. D. 1823.

Deciduous trees with showy flowers, table of, 6540.

Decorative buildings used in gardening, 1768.

Decortication, 2165.

Decorum in garden operations, 2358.

Decumaria, dodec. monog. and myrtiaceae, a H. tr.
Carolina, which grows in common soil, and cut-
tings root freely in sand under a hand-glass.

Deene Thorpe Park, Northamptonshire, 7580.

Deepden, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Deeringia, pentan. monog. and amaranthaceae, a S.
bien. E. Ind. of common culture.

Delaford Park, Middlesex, 7520.

Delaunay, Mordaunt, his works on gardening, page
1122. A.D. 1811.

Deleuze, J. P. F., his works on gardening, page 1120.
A. D. 1809.

Delhi, gardens of, 462.

Delille, Jacques, the poet, his works on gardening,
page 1118. A. D. 1765.

Delphinium, larkspur, polyan. trig, and ranun-
culaceee, H. peren. bien. and an. Europe and
Amer. of common culture.

Delve {Sax.), to dig, — see Dig.

Dclville, a seat near Dublin, 368.

Demesnes, gardens of, 7271 ; management, 7443.

Den of Kubislaw, a seat in Aberdeenshire, 7639.

Denbighshire, gardens and residences of, 7605.

Dendrobium, gynan. monan. and orchide£B, S.
peren. N. S. W. parasite, which may be treated
as aerides ; and G. peren. which thrive in sandy
loam and peat, and are increased by dividing at
the root.

Dentella, pentag. monog. and rubiaceae, a H. an.
N. HoU. of common culture, 1662. __

Derbyshire, gardens and residences of, 7o/4.

Dermestes, leather-beetle, or chaffer, a coleopterous
insect, 2232.

Derry, county of, as to gardening, 7681.

Desbois, F. A. A. de la Chesnaye, his works on gar-
dening, page 1117. A. D. 1751.

Design, principles of, in landscape-gardening,
7163.

Desmanthus, polyg. moncec. and leguminoseas, S. tr.
bien. and an. K and Ind. which grow in loam
and peat, and some of them, as D. natans, may be
treated as aquatics ; they are increased by seeds,
or young cuttings planted in sand under a bell-
glass.

Deuso, Johann Daniel, his works on gardening, page
1123. A. D. 1735,

Devil's bit, scabiosa succisa.

Devon^hire, gardens and residences of, 7600.

Dew, theory of, 1243.

Dianella, hexan. monog. andasphodeleae, aS. peren.

4

and G. peren. which grow in sandy loam arid
peat, and are increased by division at the root.

Dianthus, pink, decan. dig. and caryophyllcae, a
G. tr. and peren. and H. peren. bien. and an.
Eur. and As. which thrive in light rich soil, aild
thrive by cuttings or pipings and layers, in sandy
loam under a hand-glass.

Dianthus caryophyllus, the carnation, 6406.

Dianthus hoftensis, the pink, 6440.

Diapensia, pentan. monog. and ericeae, a H. peren.
Lapland, an alpine, which must be grown in
small pots in peat soil, and protected during
winter.

Diaspyros kaki, the kaki-tree, 6016.

Dichondra, pentan. dig. and convolvulaceae, a S.
peren. and G. peren. N. S. W. and Jam. wh'ch
thrive well in loam and peat, and cuttings root
freely.

Dicks, John, of Knightsbridge, a British author on
gardening, page 1107. A. D. 1769.

Dicksonia, crvptog. Alices and filiccEe, a S. tr. and
peren. G. peren. and H. peren. ferns of common
culture as such.

Dictamnus, fraxinella, decan. monog. and rutaceae,
a H. peren. Germ, of easy culture, and may be
propagated by seeds, cuttings, or divisions at the
root.

Didelta, syngen. poly, frustran. and corymbifereae,
G. tr. C. B. S. which thrive well in any rich
light soil, and cuttings root freely under a hand-
glass.

Did, Aug. Fred. Adrian, M. D., his works, page
1136. A.D. 1799.

Diervilla, pentan. monog. and caprifolia, a H. tr.
N. Amer. a low shrub of easy culture, and in-
creased by suckers.

Dietrich, Fr. Gli., his works on gardening, page
1126. A. D. 1802.

Dig {dician. Sax. to make a trench about), to break
or open up the ground with a spade ; in garden-
ing, to raise, reverse, and pulverise the surface-
soil for eight or ten inches deep, — see Digging.

Digging, 1864.

Digitalis, foxglove, didyn. angios. and scrophula-
rineae, G. tr. and H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy
culture.

Digitaria, finger-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae,
H. an. of common culture, 1662.

Digitaria sanguinalis, Polish millet, 4335.

Dilatris, trian. monog. and hemodoraceae, G. peren.
grasses of common culture.

Dill, elt., Joh. Jac. Dillenii Hortus Elthamensis.

Dill, — see Anethum.

Dillenia, polyan. polyg. and dilleniaceae, S. tr. E.
Ind. which grow in light loam, and ripened cut-
tings, not deprived of their leaves, root freely in
sand under a hand-glass in heat.

Dillwynia, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, G. tr.
N. S. W. which grow in sandy loam and peat,
with pots well drained, and young cuttings root
freely in sand under a bell-glass.

Dimocarpus, octan. monog. and sapindeae, S. tr. the
litchi and longan of the Chinese, China, which
grow in rich loam, and have been cultivated for
their fruit, 5991.

Dionaea, Venus's flytrap, decan. monog. and drose-
raceae, a G. peren. Carolina, which thrives best
when planted in a pot of sphagnum, or common
moss, with a little peat mould at the bottom of
the pot, and the pot placed in a pan of water.

Dioscorea, dioec. hexan. and dioscoreae, S. peren.
E. and \V. Ind. climbers of easy culture.

Dioscorea sativa and alata, the yam, 6023. and
6024.

Diosma, pentan. monog. and diosmeae, G. tr. C. B. S.
which thrive best in peat soil, and young cuttings
root freely in sand under a bell-glass.

Diospyros, date-plum, polyg. dioec. and ebenaceae,
S. an. G. tr. Italy, Amer. and India, which thrive
well in hght loamy soil, and ripened cuttings suc-
ceed best in sand under a hand-glass in heat. D.
kaki, the Japan date-plum is increased by inarch-
ing or budding on the common kinds.
Diospyros lotus (Ziziphus lotus, W.), the Eur. date-
plum, 6016.
Diotis, moncec. tetran. and chenopodeae, a H. tr.
Siberia, which grows in any light soil, and is
readily propagated by layers, and cuttings may
be rooted under a hand-glass.
Diphylleia, hexan. monog. and berberidea?, a H.
peren. N. Amer. which grows freely in a light
rich soil, and is increased by dividing at the
root.
G

JI86

GENERAL INDEX.

Diplazmm, cryptog. Alices, a S. peren. Jamaica,
a fern which grows in loam and peat in the
shade, and is increased by seed or dividing at
the root
, Dipsacus, teasel, tetran. monog. and dipsacea;, H.
bien. Eur. of common culture.

Dipterix, tonquin-bean, diadel. decan. and legumi-
noseae, a S. tr. Guiana, which grows in lij,'ht loam,
and ripenetl cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass in a moist heat.

Dirca, leather-wood, octan. dig. and thymeleEe, a
H. tr. Virginia, which grows best in peat earth,
and is increased by layers : snails are particularly
fond of this plant.

Disa, gynan. monan. and orchideas, G. peren.
C. B. S, which thrive in sand and peat, and re-
quire very little water when not in a growing
state.

Disandra, heptan. monog.and scrophularineap,aG.
peren. Madeira, a trailing plant of common cul-
ture.

Disperis, gynan monan. and orchideje, a G. peren.
C. B. S. which may be treated as disa.

Diss, orient, gard., Chambers's Dissertation on Ori-
ental Gardening.

Ditchley, a seat in Oxfordshire, 7559.

Dittany, origanum dictamnus.

Diuris, gynan. monan. and orchideas, a G. peren.
N. S. W. requiring the same culture as disa.

Dock, — see Rumex.

Dodartia, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a H.
peren. Levant, which thrives in rich light soil,
and is increased by seeds or dividing at the
root.

Dodder, — see Cuscuta.

Dodecatheon, the African cowslip, pentan. monog.
and primulaccEB, a H. peren. Virginia, which
thrives in light loam, and is increased by dividing
at the root.

Dodonaea, octan. monog. and terebintacese, S. ar.d
G. tr. Austral. Amer. and Africa, which thrive
well in loam and peat, and are increased by cut-
tings under a bell-glass in sand.

Bodsley, Robert, as a British author on gardening,
page 1106. A. D. 1764.

Dogmerslield Park, Hampshire, 7594.

Dogsbane, — see Apocynum

Dog's cabbage, thelygonum cynocrambe

Dogtail-grass, — see Cynosurus.

Dogtooth-violet, — see Erythronum.

Dog. wood, — see Cornus.

Dolichos, diadel. decan. and leguminoseze, S. and
G. tr. bien. and an. which grow freely in light
rich soil, and are increased by cuttings under a
hand-glass or by seeds, which many produce
freely.

Dolichos soja, or soy plant, 6037.

Dol-y-Myllynllyn, a seat in Merionethshire, 7612.

Dombeya, monad, dodec. and malvaceac, a S. tr.
Mauritius, which grows in sandy loam, and ripen-
ed cuttings root in a pot of sand in moist neat
under a hand-glass.

Dow, David, Esq. F,L.S., librarian to the Linnaean
Society, 7045.

Don, George, of Forfar, a celebrated British bo-
tanist, 386.

Donegal, county of, as to gardening, 2278.

Donn, James, F.L.S., curator of the Cambridge
botanic garden, page 1112. A. D. 1796.

Donnington Grove, Berkshire, 7561.

Donnington Park, Leicestershire, 7573.

Doodia, cryptog. Alices and filiceEe, a G. peren.
N. S. W. a fern of the usual culture.

Dornbach, a seat, and also a mountain near Vienna,
204.

Doronicum, leopard's bane, syngen. polyg. super.
and corymbifere£B, H. peren. Eur. of common
culture.

Dorsetshire, gardens and residences of, 7598.

Dorstenia, tetran. monog. and urticeas, Eur. and S.
Amer. which grow freely in light rich soil, and
increase at the roots or by seed.

Doryanthes, hexan. monog. and amaryllideae, a G.
tr. N. S. W. which grows in loam and peat, and is
increased by suckers.

Dorycnium, diadel, decan. and leguminoseas, G.
tr. and peren. S. Eur. which thrive in loam and
peat, and young cuttings planted under a bell-
glass in sand, root freely, or they may be raised
from seeds.

Doucin-stocks, 4387.

Douette-Bichardot, his works on gardening, page
1121. A. D. 1808.

Down, county of, its gardens and residences, 7683,

Downing, a seat in Flintshire, 7606.

Draba, whitlow-grass, tetrad, silic. and cruc

fereae, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. of easy cu

ture.
Dracana, dragon-tree, hexan. monog. and asph(

dclea;, S. tr. E. Ind. which thrive well in ligl

loam, and large cuttings stuck in the bark-bt

when in a brisk heat root freely.
Dracocephalum, dragon's head, didyn. gymnos. an

labiatese, a G. tr. and H. peren. and an. Eur. an

Amer. of common culture.
Dracontium, dragon, heptan. monog. and aroidet

S. peren. India, which grow in light rich soi

and are increased by dividing at the roots.
Dragon, — see Dracontium.
Dragon's head, — see Dracocephalum.
Dragon-tree, — see Dracjena.
Draining, 1095.

Dreghorn Castle, near Edinburgh, 7618.
Breyssig, his works on gardening, page 1127. A. I

1809.
Drill (drUlen, Dutc. to bore boles with a drill),

lengthened excavation formed in gardening I

the hoe, for the purpose of inserting seeds. Som*

times drills are formed across beds by a larg

wide-toothed rake, and the same rake serve

when the plants are sprung up, to stir the so

between the rows, 1873.
Drill-rake, 1315.
Drimia, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, G. perei

C. B. S. bulbs which grow in sandy loam and d<

cayed leaves.
Dronningaard, a seat in Denmark, 61.
Drope, Francis, B. D., a British author on gardei

ing, page 1101. A. D. 1672.
Dropsy in plants, 883.
Dropwort, spirea filipendula. '
Drosera, sundew, pentan. pentag. and droseracej

H. peren. Brit, which grow in watery bogs i

peat earth, but which will thrive and flower we

when kept in small pots in the green-hous

" The pots should be filled three parts full i

peat earth, and some moss placed on it, th

droser£e then planted in the moss, and the po

placed in pans of water." {Sweet.)
Drottningholm, a royal garden near Stockholn

246.
Drummond Castle, in Perthshire, 7636.
Dry rot, — see Merulius destruens.
Dry-stove, its construction, 6176.
Dry-stove plants, 6663 ; woody sorts, 6664 ; climl

ing, 6665 ; succulent, 6666 j bulbous, 6667 ; he

baceous, 6668.
Dryander, Jonas, M. D., an eminent botanist an

bibliographer, who compiled the Bibliothe(

Banksiana, and the greater part of the Horti

Kewensis.
Dryandra, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G. t

N. Holl. which require the same treatment ;

banksia.
Dryas, icos. polyg. and rosacea^, a H. peren. Bri

which thrives best in a border of peat, and ma

"be increased by cuttings dividing at the roots (

by seeds, which it produces in abundance.
Dryburgh Orchard, in Berwickshire, 2220.
Drypis, pentan. tetrag. and caryophyllese, a I

bien. Italy, of common culture.
Dm Halde, a missionary who wrote on China an

its gardening, 479.
Du Ham., Du Hamel's Treatise on Fruit Trees.
Du Petit Thouars, Le Chevalier Aubert Ai

bert, his works on gardening, page 1122. A. 1

1816.
Dublin, county of, its gardens and residence

7653.
Dublin botanic garden, 7653.
Dublin society, 7653.
Dubois, Louis, his works on gardening, page 1121.

A. D. 1804.
Duchesne, Ant. Nicholas, his works on gardenin

page 1118. A. D. 1760.
Duck's foot, — see Podophyllum.
Duck-weed, — see Lemna.
Duckingfield Lodge, Lancashire, 7588.
Duddingston House, in Midlothian, 7618.
Duff House, Banfshire, 7640.
Dnfresnoy, a celebrated French landscape-gardene

165.
Duhamel, — see Du Ham.
Dumb cane, — see Arum.
Dumbartonshire, gardens of, 7630.
Dumfriesshire, as to gardening, 7624,

GENERAL INDEX.

1187

Dumont-Courset, his works on gardening, page 1121,

A. D. 1802.
Duncan, Andrew, M. D., page 1112. A. D. 1181.
Buncombe, John, a British author on gardening,

page 1107. A. D. 1769.
Duncombe Park, Yorkshire, 7583.
Dung, stable, how to manage for hot-beds, 1974.
Dung-fork, 1302.

Dunglass House, East Lothian, 7619.
Dankeld House, in Perthshire, 7636.
Dunrobin Castle, Sutherlandshire, 7646.
Dunsandle, a seat in Galway, 7672.
Dunsay Castle, a seat in Eastmeath, 7661.
Dunse Castle, Berwickshire, 7620.
Dunstbourne Abbots, a seat in Gloucestershire,

7565.
Dupitssis, F. S., his writings on gardening, page

1121. A. D. 1802.
Duphn Castle, in Perthshire, 7636.
Dupuy, , his tract on gardening, page 1 118. A.D.

ITto.
Duracina, the Roman term for hard-skinned cher-
ries, 52.
Durand, , his works on gardening, page 1119.

A. D. 178i.
Duranta, didyn. angios. and verbenaceae, S. tr.

Amer. and'W. Ind. which grow in loam and

peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under a

nand-glass.
Durdos. , his writings on gardening, page 1119.

A. D. 1783.
Durham, gardens and residences of, 7584.
Durham Massey, a seat in Cheshire, 7590.
Durham Park, .Middlesex, 7520.
Durio zibethinus, the durion, 5981.
Durival, Clement, his works on gardening, page

1119. A. D. 1777.
Dutch books on gardening, 7695.
Dwarf fan-palm, charaaerops humilis. -
Dyrham, a seat in Gloucestershire, 7565.

E.B.— seeEng. Bot.

EaUng Grove, Middlesex, 7520.

Eames, Mr., a landscape-gardener, who died the
begiiming of the present century, 342.

Earl's Court Villa, Middlesex, 7523.

Earl's Stoke, \Viltshire, 7596.

Earth-nut, — see Bunium.

Earth-pea, lathyrus amphicarpos.

East Hornden, a seat in Essex, 3038.

East Indies, gardens of, 461.

East Lothian, gardens of, 7619.

Eastbury House, Essex, 7540.

Eastclift' Lodge, Kent, 7537.

Eastmeath, county of, its gardens and residences,
7661.

Easton Lodge, Essex, 7542.

Eastwick House, Surrey, 7528.

Ebourgeonnement or disbudding, — see Pruning,
and Operations of Gardening.

Echinaria, trian. dig. and gramineae, a H. an. S.
Eur. of common culture.

Echinophora, sea parsnep, pentan. dig. and umbelli-
fereae, H. peren. Eur. which grow in light soil,
and are increased by seeds.

Echinops, globe-thistle, syngen. polyg. segreg. and
corjmbifereae, H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy
culture.

Echites, pentan. monog. and apocyneae, S. and G.
tr. \V. Ind. which grow freely in loam and peat,
and cuttings root readily under a hand-glass in
sand.

Echium, viper's bugloss. pentan. monog. and bora-
gmese, G. tr. C. B. S. which grow in loam and
peat, and may be raised from cuttings or
seeds; and H. bien. and an. Eur. of common cul-
ture

Eclipta, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereje,
a S. and H. an. of common culture.

Ed. Encyc, the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, conduct-
ed by Dr. Brewster.

Eden Farm, Kent, 7537.

Edible fuci, 4349.

Edible fungi, 4336.

Edible wild and other neglected plants, 4283;
greens and pot-herbs, 42»5 ; roots, 4300; le-
gumes, 4309 ; salads, 4311 ; teas, 4317 ; variously
applicable, 4320.

Edifices, anomalous; ice-house, 1723; bee-house,
1734; Polish hives, 1738; common hive, 1739;

4 G

glass hive, 1740 ; hive qf Palteau. 1742 ; Huish's
hive, 1743; Howison's hive, 1744; management
of bees, 1745 ; position of tlie aviary, 1735; choice
of bees, 1746; materials and size of hives,
1747; feeding of bees, 1748; covering the hives,
1750 ; swarming, 1752 ; taking the honey, 1755 ;
by total deprivation, 1757 ; by sufibcation,
1758.

Edifices, decorative, characteristic class ; rocks, 1837 ;
ruins, 1839 ; antiquities, 1840 ; rarities and cu-
riosities, 1841 ; monumental objects, 1842 ; sculp-
tures, 1843 ; vegetable sculptures, 1844 ; inscrip-
tions, 1845; eye-traps; 1846. — see Structures
used in Gardening.

Edifices, decorative, convenient class; prospect-
tower, 1S06: kiosque, 1807; temples, 1808;
porches and porticoes, 1809; alcoves, 1810; Ita-
lian arbor, 1812 ; French arbor, 1813 ; caves and
caverns, 1814; grottoes, 1815; roofed-seats, boat-
houses, moss-houses, flint-houses, bark-huts,
1816; elegant structures, 1819; exposed seats,
1820; swings, 1821; constructions for displaying
water, 1822; waterfalls, 1826; cascades, 1827;
jets and other hydraulic devices, 1829; drooping
fountains, 1832 ; sundials, 1834 ; vanes, 1835.

Edifices, decorative, useful class, 1769; cottages,
Gothic, Grecian, Chinese, Bengal, English,
Scotch, Italian, Polish, Russian, Swedish, Da-
nish, 1770; primitive huts, 1781 ; bridges, 1782;
fallen tree, foot-plank, Swiss bridge, 1785 ; bent
plank, 1786; of common carpentry, 1788; of ma-
sonry, 1789 ; of cast-iron, 1790 ; boat-bridge, 1791 ;
sepulchral structures, 1792 ; the gate, 1794; main-
tenance of a gate's position, 1795 ; gates as decor-
ations, 1800; gate with falling bars, 1799; rails,
1803.

Edifices of gardening, their farther improvement.
1847.

Edifices used in gardening, 1698; economical
buildings, 1699; head gardener's dwelling-house,
170O ; gardener's office, 1701 ; seed-room, 1702 ;
fruit-room, 1703; journeyman's lodge, 1707;
sheds, 1709 ; entrance lodges and gates, 1712 ;
buildings for raising water, 1713; wells and
pumps, 1716; conduits, 1717; reservoirs, 1718;
tanks, 1719.

Edinburgh botanic garden, 7618.

Education of gardeners, importance of, 7719 ; pro-
fessional education, 7724; intellectual, 7744;
moral, religious, and physical, 7761 ; economical,
7777.

Edward's Square, London, mode in which it is laid
out, 7322.

Edwardsia, decan. monog. and leguminose«, F. tr.
N. Zeal, which grow \n common soil, and are
generally raised by seeds, but cuttings will root in
sand under a bell-glass.

Edwinsford, a seat in Caermarthenshire, 7614.

Egger-moth, — see Phaljena.

Eggleston House, Durham, 7584.

Egg-plant, — see Solanum.

Egham Park, Surrey, 7527.

Eglinton Castle, a seat in Ayrshire, 7627.

Ehreta, pentag. monog. and boraginea, S. tr. R
and \V. Ind. which grow in loam and peat, and
cuttings root readily under a hand-glass.

Ehrhart, Frederick, his works on gardening, uaee
1124. A. D. 1782. ^^

Ehrhartia hexan. monog. and graminese, a G.
peren. C. B. S. a grass of common culture.

Fisenstadt (Iron Town), a seat in Hungary, 206.

Ekebergia, decan. monog. and meliacea?, a G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow in loam and peat, and cut-
tings without their leaves shortened, root readily
in sand under a hand-glass.

El£eagnus, oleaster, tetran. monog. and eljeagnejp,
S. and G. tr. Amer. and Ind. which grow in loam
and peat, and ripened cuttings root freely m a pot
of sand under a hand-glass.

Elffiocarpus, jx)lyan. monog. and guttifereas, a S.
and G. tr. £. Ind. and N. HoU. which may be
treated like eleaeagnus.

Elaeocharis, spike-rush, trian. monog. and cype-
race^, H. bien. Eur. Afr. and Austral marsh
grasses, is of easy culture.

Elasodendrum, olive-wood, pentan. monog. and
rhamnes, Afr. and Austral which grow in loam
and peat, and ripened cuttings root in sand under
a hand-glass.

Elais, oily-palm, dioec. hexan. and palmeae, a S. tr,
a palm of the usual culture.

Elate, monoec. hexan. and pahnefle, a S. tr. EL Ind.
a palm of easy culture.

2

1188

GENERAL INDEX.

Elatine, water-wort, octan. tetrag. and caryophylle^,
a H. an. of common culture.

Elder, — see Sambucus.

Elecampane — see Inula.

Electricity, 1210.

Elegia, dicecia, trian, and restiaceae, G. peren.
C. B. S. rush-like plants of easy culture.

Elephant-apple, feronia elephantum.

Elephantopus, elephant's foot, syngen. polyg. segr.
and corymbiferea;, S. and G. peren. E. and W.
Ind. which grow freely in loam and peat, and
cuttiuss root in the same soil under a hand-
glass.

Elephant's foot, tamus elephantopus.

Elettaria, monan. monog. and scitamineJE, S. peren.
E. Ind. reedy marsh plants of easy culture.

Eleusine, trian. dig. and gramineae, a S. peren. and
H. an. Ind. and America, of easy culture.

Elichrysum, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbiferea?,
G. tr. and peren. which grow in sandy peat well-
drained, and cuttings root freely in sand in a
frame on a hot-bed ; but not covered with a bell-
glass, otherwise they are apt to damp off!

Ellis, Daniel, Esq. a British author on gardening,
page 1113. A. D. 1807.

Ellis, John, a British author on gardening, page 1107.
A. D. 1770.

Ellis, Thomas, a British author on gardening, page
1108. A. D. 1776.

Ellis, William, a British author on gardening, page
1104. A. D. 1738.

Ellisia, pentan. monog. and boragineas, a H. an.
Virginia, of the usual culture.

Elm-tree, — see Ulmus.

Elsholtz, John Sigismond, his works on gardening,
page 1123. A. D. 1663.

Elsholtzia, didyn. gymuos. and labiatea?, a H. an.
Siberia, of common culture.

Elvedon Hall, Suffolk, 7552.

Elvetham, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Elymus, lime-grass, trian. dig. and gramineas, H.
peren. and an. Eur. and Amer. grasses of common
culture.

Ely traria, dian. monog. and acanthaceje, a H. peren.
Carolina, of common culture.

Ember Court, Surrey, 7527.

Embryopteris, dioec. polyan. and ebenaccce, a S. tr.
E. Ind. which grows in sandy loam, and ripened
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass in moist
heat.

Emmerich, Lieut.-Col. A., a British writer on gar-
dening, page 1109. A. D. 1789.

Emtnerton, Isaac, his works on gardening, page
1114. A. D. 1816.

Empetrum, crow-berry, dioec. trian. and ericeae, a
G. and H. tr. Eur. under-shrubs, which may be
treated like erica.

Empleurum, monoec. tetran. and diosmaceje, a G.
tr. C. B. S. which grows freely in sandy peat,
and cuttings strike root readily under a bell-glass

' in sand.

Enchanter's nightshade, — see Circasa.

Encome, a seat in Dorsetshire, 7598.

Endive, — see Cichonium.

Eng. Bot., English Botany, by Sir J. E. Smith, the
figures by J. Sowerby.

Enghien, botanic garden of, by Parmentier, 141.

Enghien, Due d'Aremberg's seat there, 130.

Englcbert, Jortin, his works on gardening, page
1130. A. D. 1784.

Enkianthus, decan. monog. and ericea;, a G. tr.
China, which grows in sandy loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings root readily in pots of sand under
a hand-glass without bottom-heat.

Enmore Castle, Somersetshire, 7599.

Enontekis, garden of the minister there, 250.

En quenouille {Fr.), a mode of training trees, 2120.

Entrance lodges and gates, 1712.

Enville, a seat in Staffbrdshire, 7570.

Epacris, pentan. monog. and epacrideje, G. tr.
N. S. W. which thrive in sandy peat, rough and
turfy, and they require frequent shifting. " Young
cuttings planted in pots in sand, under bell-
glasses in autumn or winter, or early in spring,
will root freely ; but not so in summer." (Sweet.)

Ephedra, dioec. monad, and conifereee, H. tr. Eur.
under-shrubs which grow in peat earth, and pre-
fer a moist situation ; they are readily propagated
by division at the root.

Ephielis, octan. monog. and sapindeae, a S. tr.
Guiana, which grows in light loam, and large
cuttings root best under a hand-glass in sand.

Epicurus, gardens of, 23

Epidendrum, gynan. monan. and orchidejc, S. peren.

W. Ind. parasites which may be treated asaerides.
Epiga;a, decan. monog. and rhodoracese, a H. tr, N.

Amer. which thrives in peat soil, and is increased

by layers 5 it requires to be protected during

winter.
Epilobium, willow-herb, octan. monog. and ona-

grareia, G. and H. peren. and an. Eur. and Amer.

of the easiest culture.
Epilobium angustifolium, 4298.
Epimedium, barrenwort, tetran. monog. and ber-

beridese, a H. peren. Eng. which prefers peat and

loam, and is readily increased by dividing the roots,
Epipactis, gynan. monan. and orchidece, H. peren.

Brit, which do best in pots in loam and peat, and

increase by dividing the roots ; they require little

water when in a dormant state.
Equestrian promenades, 7313.
Equisetum, horse-tail, cryptog. gonopterides, and

equisetaces, a H. tr. and H. peren. Brit, which

may be treated like ephedra.
Eranthemum, dian. monog. and acanthaceje, tr. E.

and W. Ind. which grow in rich light soil, and

root readily under a hand-glass.
Eranthis, winter aconite, polyan. polyg. and ranun-

culaccEG, a H. peren. Italy, the winter aconite,

of the easiest culture.
Erbstein, K. F. VV., his works on gardening, page

1126. A. D. 1799.
Erddig, a seat in Denbighshire, 7605.
Erica, heath, octan. monog. and ericeae, G. tr.

C. B. S. mostly under-shrubs of great beauty ;

table of species and varieties, 6607 ; propagation

and culture, 6608. The H. species grow in peat

soil, and are increased by layers, cuttings, or seeds.
Eridge Castle, Sussex, 7531.
Erigeron, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,

H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. and Amer. of com-
mon culture.
Erinus, didyn. angios. scrophularines, a G. tr. and

T. peren. Eur. and C. B. S. which thrive best in

peat, and increase by cuttings or dividing at the

root.
Eriocaulon, pipe-wort, trian. trig, and restiaceae, a

H. peren. Scot, which grows in bogs, and is in-
creased by suckers from the roots.
Eriocephalus, syngen. polyg. necess. and corym-

biferea>, G. tr. C. B. S. which grow in light rich

soil, and cuttings root readily in the same soil,

under a hand-glass.
Eriogonum, ennean. monog. and polygoneae, H.

peren. N. Amer. wliich thrive best in pots, and

are increased by seeds.
Eriopliorum, cotton-gra.-s, trian. monog. and cype-

raceas, H. peren. Eur. and Amer. bog grasses of

easy culture.
Eriosoma mali, — see Aphis lanigera.
Eriospermum, hexan. monog. and asphodeleas, G.

peren. C. B. S. with tuberous roots, of easy culture

in sandy loam and peat.
Erithalis, pentan. monog. and rubiacca;, a S. tr.

Jamaica, which grows best in loam and peat, and

cuttings root in sand under a hand glass in moist

heat.
Ermcnonville, one of the most distinguished coun-
try-seats in France, about ten leagues from Paris,

on the road to Flanders by Morfontaine, 167.
Erodium, heron's bill, monad, pentan. and gera-

niacecB, G. peren. and H. an. Eur. and Asia, of

easy culture, — see Geraniae.
Erucaria, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereae, a H. an.

of easy culture.
Ervum, tare, diadel. decan. and legurainosea?, H.

an. Brit, and Ind. of easy culture, — see 4310.
Eryngium, eryngo, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae,

a S. peren. and H. peren. Eur. and Amer. which

grow in any soil, and are increased by seeds or

dividing the root.
Eryngo, — see Eryngium.
Erysimum, hedge-mustard, tetrad, siliq. and cruci-

fere£B, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. of the easiest

culture, — see Barbarea.
Erythrffia, pentan. monog. and gentianeae, a G.

peren. and H. an. Eur. of common culture.
Erythrina, coral-tree, diadel. decan. and legumi-

noseee, S. and G. tr. which grow readily in sand

and peat, and cuttings, not too ripe, root in sand

under a hand-glass.
Erythronium, dogstooth-violet, hexan. monog. lilia,

H. peren. Eur. and Amer. with tuberous roots,

of easy culture.
Escot House, Devonshire, 7600.
Esculent roots, 3643.

GENERAL INDEX.

1189

Escurial, palace of, in Spain, 294.

Esher Place, formerly a seat in Surrey, 341.

Espalier trees, such as are suitable for, or are
planted against, espalier rails, 2508.

Elspaliers, or espalier-rails, railings of timber or
iron for the culture of fruit-trees, used as a sub-
stitute for walls, lo/6.

Essex, gardens and residences of, 7539.

Esterhazv, a seat in Hungary, belonging to Prince
Esterhazv, 206.

Ethulia, syligen. polyg. asqual. and corymbifereae, S.
an. India, of comrnon culture.

Etienne, Charles, a French author on gardening,
page 1115. A. D. 15o5.

Etiolation, a disease of plants, 892.

EUer, J. Ch., his works on gardening, page 1125.
A. D. 1789.

Eucalyptus, icos. monog. and myrteaceae, G. tr.
Austral, which grow in loam or peat, and cuttings
root in sand under a bell-glass, but not very
freely.

Euchllus, decan. monog. and leguminosca;, a G. tr.
N. Holl. which thrives in sandy loam and jicat,
and cuttings root freely under a bell-glass in
sand.

Euclea, dicec. dodcc. and terebintaceas, G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow freely in loam and peat,
and ripened cuttings root readily in sand under
a bell-glass.

Euclidium, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, a H. an.
Levant, of common culture.

Eucomis, hexan. monog. and asphodeleze, G. peren.
C. B. S. bulbs which grow in light rich soil, and
may be propagated by oflsets ; or, if leaves be
stripped oft" close to the bulb, and planted in
pots of mould, they will produce bulbs at their
base.

Eucrosia, hexan. monog. and amarjllideae, a S.
percn. Cape Uorn, a bulb which may be treated
as amaryllis.

Eugeiua, icos. monog. and myrteaceae, S. and G. tr.
Ind. and America, which thrive in two thirds
loam and one third peat, and ripened cuttings
root freely in sand under a hand-glass.

Eugenia jambos, the Malay apple, 5983.

Euonymus, spindle-tree, pentan. monog. and rham-
nea, a G. tr. and H. tr. Eur. and Amer. of easy
culture in common soil, and propagated by
layers, ripened cuttings planted in autumn, or
seeds.

Eupatorium, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corymbi-
fereae, S. tr. and H. peren. Amer. of easy cul-
ture.

Euphorbia, spurge, dodec. trig, and euphorbiaccce,
S. D. S. and G. tr. and peren. Eur. As. Afr. and
Amer. mostly succulents, which prefer loam and
lime rubbish. Sweet says, " the way 1 have suc-
ceeded best in striking the cuttings, is to stick
them in the tan amongst the pots in a good
heat, and not cover them with any glass." {Bot.
Cult. 55.)

Euphrasia, eyebright, didyn. angios, and scrophu-
larinea, H. an. of easy culture.

Euryale, polyan. monog. and nj-mphaeaceae, a S.
an. India, an aquatic which often protiuces seeds.
0728.

Eustace, the Rev. John Chetwode, a Roman Catho-
lic clergyman, author of an eloquent classical
tour in Italy, 2 vols. 4to. 1813. He died of a
fever at Naples in 1815.

Eustoma, pentan. monog. and gentianes, a H. an.
W. Ind. of easy culture.

Euston Hall, Suffolk, 7552.

Eustrephus, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, a G.
peren. N. S. W. a climber which gro\ys in sandy
loam and peat, and is increased by dividing the
root, or by cuttings under a hand-glass.

Eutaxia, decan. monog. and leguminoseje, a G. tr.
N. Holl. which thrives best in sandy loam and
peat, and young cuttings root freely in sand under
a bell-glass.

Euthales, pentan. monog. and goodenoviae, a G.
peren. N. Holl. which grows in sandy loam and
peat, with little water, and may be increased,
though slowly, by dividing the root or by
seed.

Evelyn, Charles, Esq., a British author on garden-
ing, page 1102. A. D. 1717.
EveS/n, John, F.R.S., his writings on gardening,
page 1100. A. B. 1658.

Evening flower, — see Hesperantha.

Evergreen trees, suitable for floricultural piuposes,

• 6541.

4 G 3

Everingham, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.

Everlasting, — see Gnaphalium.

Everlasting pea, lathyrus latifohus.

Evolvulus, ijentan. dig. and convolvulaceae, S. an
both Indies, of easy culture.

Ewood, a seat in Surrey, 7528.

Ex. Gard., Cushing's Exotic Gardener.

Exacum, tetran. monog. and gentianeae, a G. bien.
and H. an. Eur. of common culture.

Exbury House, Hampshire, 7594.

Excavation of ground, 1867.

Excoecaria, dicec. monad, and euphorbiaceae, a G.
tr. Chili, which will grow readily in light rich
soil, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Exotic culinary vegetables little cultivated in Bri-
tain, 6022.

Exotic culture, leading operations of, 2201.

Exotic esculents, not hitherto cultivated as such,
6022.

Exotic fruits, 4778.

Exotic fruits, little known, but deserving cultiva-
tion, 5974.

Exotic fruits, neglected as such, 4878.

Expedients in the management of gardens, 7446.

Exton Hall, Rutlandshire, 7o/9.

Eyebright, — see Euphrasia.

Eyetraps, in gardening, 1846.

Ey wood, Herefordshire, 7568.

Fabricia, icos. monog. and mjrrteaceiP, G. tr. Aus-
tral, which thrive well in loam and peat, and
young cuttings root readily under a bell-glass in
sand.

Facto, Nicholas, F.R.S., a British author on gar-
dening, page 1101. A. D. 1699.

Fagara, tetran. monog. and terebintaceee, S. tr. and
a G. tr. W. Ind. and Japan, which grow in light
loam, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Fagonia, decan. monog. and rutaceae, a G. bien.
and an. Candia and America, of common cul-
ture.

Fagus, monoec. polyan. and amentaceae, H. Brit,
and Amer. of easy culture, and increased by
seeds ; and some curious varieties by grafting or
budding on the others.

Fagus sylvatica, the beech-tree, 7088.

Faircbi/d, Mr. Thomas, his works on gardening,
page 1102. A. D. 1722.

Fairy Hill, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Falconer, William, M.D., his works relative to gar-
dening, page 1109. A. D. 1783.

Falkta, hexan. dig. and convolvulaceas, a G. peren.
C. B. S. a creeper of common culture and propa-
gation, in loam and peat soil.

Falkland Palace, in Fifeshire, 357.

FallL Francesco, Ills works on gardening, page 1128,
A. D. 1670.

Fanon, , his works on gardening, page 1121.

A. D. 1804.

Farm, the situation for the home-farm of a resid-
ence, 7277.

Farmer's gardens of Middlesex, 7519.

Farmer's gardens, their formation, 7293.

Farn Hill, a seat in Tyrone, 7679.

Farnham House, a seat in Cavan, 7676.

Farringdon House, Devonshire, 7600.

Farsetia, tetrad, silic. and cruciferea;, a G. tr. Eur.
which grows in loam and peat, and young cut-
tings root in the same soil under a hand-glass;
and H. peren. and an. rock-work plants, which
are increased by dividing the roots or by
seeds.

Fatee gardens at Canton, 477.

Fawley Court, Buckinghamshire, 7547.

Fea-berries, a local name for gooseberries, — see
Ribes.

Feabes, a local name for gooseberries, — see Ribes.

Feather-grass, stipa pennata.

Fedia, trian. monog. and diijsaceae. a H. tr. and an.
Eur. of easy culture.

Fetge, K. Theodore, L., his writings on gardenins
page 1125. A. D. 1790. => & s.

Felbrig, a seat in Norfolk, 7554.

Felcho Tarkan, a seat in Hungarv, 206.

Felix Hall, Essex, 7542.

Fcllenberg, M. , a celebrated Swiss agriculturist. 1034*

Felling trees, 6953. to 6960.

2190

GENERAL INDEX.

Felwort, swertia perennis.

Fence-wood, best trees for, 6793.

Fences, barriers for enclosure and defence ; they

are either live fences, formed by connected lines

of woody plants, or dead fences, formed of earth,

stone, iron, timber, or other mineral or dead ve-
getable matter.
Fences for plantations, 6820.
Fences in landscape-gardening, 6874.
Fennel, 4097. — see Anethum.
Fennel-flower, — see Nigella.
Fenugreek, — see Trigonella.
Fermanagh, gardens of, 7677.
Ferme orn^e, 7280.
Fernaini, D Louis, his tract on the genus

Pinus, page 1128. A. D. 181-.
Ferney, the seat of Voltaire, near Geneva, 240.
Fernhill, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.
Ferns, exotic, their culture, 6738.
Feronia, elephant-apple, polyg. moncec. and aurantia-

ce£B, a S. tr. E. Ind. which grows in loam and peat,

and cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.
Ferrari, John Baptist, his works on gardening,

page 1128. A. D. 1633.
Ferraria, monadel. trian. and irides, G. peren.

C. B. S. bulbs which may be treated as ixia.
Ferula, giant fennel, pentan. dig. and umbelliferese,

H. peren. and a bien. Eur. which grow in common

garden soil, and are increased by seeds.
Fescue-grass, — see Festuca.-
Festuca, fescue-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae, H.

tr. and an. Eur. of the easiest culture.
Feuereison, K. G., his works on gardening, page 1124.

A. D. 1780.
Feverfew, — see Pyrethrum.
Fever- wort, — see Triosteum.
Ficaria, pilewort, polyan. poljg. and ranunculacete,

a H peren. Brit, of common culture.
Ficus, fig-tree, polyand. dioec. and urticeas, S. and

G. tr. Eur. E. Ind. C. B. S. and Austral, v/hich

grow well in light loam, and cuttings with their

leaves uninjured, root in sand under a hand-glass

in heat.
Ficus carica, the fig-tree, 4839 ; culture of in the

fig-house, 3145 j in the stove, 3161 ; in the open

air, 4851.
Field, Mr. Henry, his history of the Chelsea garden,

page 1114. A. D. 1820.
Fifeshire, gardens of, 7635.
Fig-house, construction of, 2674.
Fig-marigold, — see Mesembryanthemum.
Fig-tree, — see Ficus.
Figwort, — see Scrophularia.
Filago, cotton-rose, syngen. polyg. super, and co-

rymbiferesE, a H. an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Filasier, N. his works on gardening, page 1119. A.D.

1783.
Filmy leaf, hymenophyllum tunbridgense.
Finborough Hall, Suffolk, 7552.
Finger-grass, — see Digitaria.
Finningley Park cottage, Yorkshire, 7582.
Finorchi, Anton. Maria, his work on gardening,

page 1128. A.D. 180-.
Fir-tree, — see Pinus.
Fischer, V. F., his work on truffle hunting, page

1127. A. D. 1783.
Fisherwick, formerly a seat in Warwickshire, laid

out by Brown, and described by Wheatley.
Fitness, a beauty in gardening, 7168.
Fitzwalters, a seat in Essex, 7541.
Fl. Dan., Icones Plantarum sponte nascentium in

regnis Daniae et Norvegiae. Editre a Ge. Chr.

CEder, Oth. Frid. Muller, et Mart. Vahl.
Fl. Grffic, Flora Grzeca, &c. Joh. Sibthorp et Jac.

Edw. Smith.
Flacourtia, dioec. icos. and tiliaceas, S. tr. E. Ind.

which grow in loam and peat, and cuttings root

in sand under a hand-glass.
Flagellaria, hexan. trig, and junceae, a S. tr. India,

which may be treated like flacourtia.
Flambards, Middlesex, 7520.
Flat-pea, — see Platylobium.
Flaveria, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbifereae,

a S. tr. Peru, of common culture.
Flax, — see Linum.
Flax -lily, phormium tenax.
Flea-bane, — see Conyza.
Flea-wort, inula pulicaria.
Fleetwood, William, a British author on gardening,

page 1101. A.D. 1707.
Flemingia, diadel. decan. and Icguminosca;, S. tr.

peren. and bien. India, which grow freely in loam
■ and peat, and cuttings root under a hand-glass in

liand plunged in heat.

Fleurs, a seat in Roxburghshire, 7621.

Flintshire, gardens and residences of, 7906.

Flixton Hall, Suffolk, 7552.

Flixweed, sisymbrium sophia.

Florence Court, a seat in Cavan, 7676.

Floriculture, 6075.

Floricultural catalogue, ^20.

Florimania, 145.

Florists, or floristry gardeners, 7397.

Florists' flowers, enumeration of, 6221.

Florists' gardens, commercial, their formation,

7357 ; management, 7467.
Florists' society of Paisley, its origin, rules, &c.

Florists' societies, 7706.

Flower Hill, a seat in Galway, 7672.

Flower-fence, — see Poinciana.

Flower-garden, formation of, 6076; exposure and
aspect, 6080 ; extent, shelter, soil, surface,
water, form, boundary-fence, &c. 6081. to 6090;
laying out the area, 6093; placing the hot-
houses, 6099 ; flower-nursery, 6104 ; walks, edg-
ings, basket-edgings, &c. 6105. to 6108.

Flower-garden, its culture and management, 6187 ;
times of planting or sowing, 6189 ; pruning and
training, &c. 6190 ; grass-plots, 6191 ; protecting
tender plants, 6192; water, 6193; insects and
vermin, 6194 ; cutting off decaying flowers
and herbage, 6195; gathering flowers, 6196;
ordering seeds and bulbs, &c. 6200; neatness.
6201.

Flower-garden, planting of, 6110; mingled garden,
6111 ; select garden, 6119 ; botanic flower-garden,
6126 ; decorations, 6127.

Flower-pot, 1407.

Flower-stage, for pots cf plants, 1526.

Flowering ash, — see Ornus.

Flowering fern, — see Osmunda.

Flowering rush, butomus umbellatus.

Flowers for borders, — see Border-flowers.

Flux of juices, a disease of plants, 885. '

Fogs, 1200.

Fontainbleau, blue or clear fountain, a royal resid-
ence near Paris, the gardens of which are noted
for the precocity and excellence of their grapes,

Fontaines, Louis de, his works on gardening, naee
1119. A.D. 1788.

Fontanesia, dian. monog. and oleinae, a H. tr.
Syria, a shrub rather tender of frost, but which
grows in common soil, and is increased by layers,
or cuttings planted under a hand-glass.

Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, 7597.

Fool's parsley, — see .S^thusa.

Footscray Place, Kent, 7538.

For , a Treatise on Fruit-trees, by W. Forsyth,
Esq. royal gardener, — see page 1110. A. D.
1791.

Fordhook, a seat in Middlesex, 7520

Foreign exotic culinary vegetables little cultivated
in Britain, 6022.

Foreign fruits deserving introduction and cultiv-
ation, 5974.

Foreign fruits of Africa, 6018.

Foreign fruits of Asia, 6021.

Foreign fruits of South America, 6020.

Foreign fruits of the West Indies, 6019.

Foreign hardy culinary vegetables little cuItiTated
in Britain, 4326.

Foremark, a seat in Derbyshire, 7574.

Foremen of gardens, 7381.

Forfar botanic garden, 7637.

Forfarshire, gardens of, 7637.

Forficula auricularia, the earwig, a coleopterous
insect, 2237.

Forking, 1872.

Formica, the ant, a hymenopterous insect, which
may be collected by whelming empty pots with
the holes in their bottoms closed, "near their
haunts. The pots should be moistened with
honied water or with milk, 2262.

Forskolea, octan. tetrag. and urticeje, a G. peren.
and H. an. Egypt, C. B. S. of common culture.

Forsyth, W. Esq., his works on gardening, page 1119.
A. D. 1791.

Forty Hall, a seat in Middlesex, 7520.

Fothergilla, polyan. dig. and amentaceae, H. peren.
N. Amer. which require a peat soil, and are in-
creased by layers.

Foulkebourne Hall, Essex, 7542.

Fountains and other hydraulic devices, 1829.

Foxglove, — see Digitalis.

Foxley, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.

Foxtail-grass, — see Alopecurus.

GENERAL INDEX.

1191

Fragaria, strawberry, icos. polyg. and rosaceae, H.

peren. Eur. and Amer. of the easiest culture.
Fragaria, the strawberry, to force, 3338 ; soil, choice

of sorts, potting and preparation of the plants,
: time of beginning to force, temperature, air

and water, treatment after gathering the fruit,

3334. to 3348.
Fragaria vesca and other species of garden-straw-
berries, their culture, &c. 4712.
Fragrceus, Jonas Theodore, bis work on gard«iing,

page 1130. A. D. 17—.
Frame exotics, 6590 ; woody, 6591 ; succulent, 6592 ;

herbaceous, 6593 ; bulbs, 6594 j biennials, 6595 ;

annuals, 6596.
Frames for hot-beds, their construction, 1522.
Francheville, Joseph Dufresne de, his work on

gardening, page 1117. A. D. 1753.
Francois, , a French author on gardening,

page 1116. A. D. 1705.
Francois, Nicholas de, his works on gardening,

page 1121. A. D. 1803.
•Frankenia, sea-heath, hexan. monog. and caryo-

phvUetB, a G. peren. and H. peren. Eur. and

C. 'B. S. which grow best in pots in loam and

peat, and are increased by seeds or cuttings.
Frankford, a seat in King's county, 7558.
Franseria, moncec. pentan. and corymbifereae, G.

tr. S. Amer. which grow freely in loam and peat,

and cuttings root readUy in the same soil under

a hand-glass.
Frasera, tetran. monog. and gentianeae, a H. bien.

Carolina, of common culture in loam and peat.
Fraternities of gardeners, or gardeners' lodges, 7701.
Fraxinella, — see Dictamnus.
Fraxinus, ash-tree, polygara. dioec and oleineae, H.

tr. Eur. and Amer. which grow in any soil not

over wet, and are increased by seeds ; the more

curious sorts by budding or grafting.
Fraxinus excelsior, the common ash-tree, 7077 j

American ash. 7078.
Frederick, J. P., his work on gardening, page 1126.

A.D. 1802.
Frege, Ch. A., his work on gardening, page 1126.

A. D. 1804.
French authors on gardening, 7692.
French honeysuckle, — see Hedysarura,
French marigoki, — see Tagetes.
French Park, in Roscommon, 7671.
Freylino, de Buttigliera, Conte, his work on the

pine-apple, page 1128. A. D. 1780.
Friar's cowl, arum ansarum.
Fringe-tree, — see Chionanthus.
Fritillaria, fritillary, hexan. monog. and liliacea?, a

G. peren. and H. peren. Eur. and Persia, bulbs

of easy culture.
Fritillaria imperialis, meleagris, &c. the crown-
imperial, common fritillary, and other species,

Fritillary, fritillaria meleagris.

F)itsch, A , his work on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1811.

Frog Hill, a seat in Hampshire, 159i.

Frog-bit, hydrocharis morsus-ranae.

Frogmore, the queen's gardens at, in Berkshire,
7562.

Frost, 1203.

Fruit- room and cellar, 1703.

Fuchsia, octan. monog. and santalaccie, G. tr.
Chili, which thrive in light rich soil, and young
cuttings root freely under a hand-glass, admitting
air occasionally to prevent damping offi

Fuci, edible, 4349.

Fuel, the most profitable trees for, 6753.

Fukker, F. Jac, his works on gardening, page 1126.
A. D. 1801.

Fulham nursery, 7518.

Fulmer, Samuel, his works on gardening, page 1109.
A.D. 17»1.

Fumaria, fumitory, diadel. hexan. and papaveracea?,
a H. peren. and an. Eur. of the easiest culture.

Furaigating-bellows, used in gardening, 1082.

Fumitory — see Fumaria.

Fungi, ^ible and dangerous, 4339.

Furber, Robert, a Briti:>h writer on gardening,
page 1104. A. D. 1732.

Furcroea, hexan. monog. and bromeliae, D. S. tr.
and a peren. S. Amer. succulents which thrive in
loamy soil,*and require but little water ; it is in-
creased by offsets from the roots.

Furze, — see Ulex.

Fusanus, polygam. monoec. and santalaceae, a G.
C. B. S. which will grow in loam and peat, and
may be propagated by young cuttings in sand
under a bell-glass.

4 G

G

Gabions, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.

Gadd, P. A. his work on gardening, page 1130. A. D.

1739.
Ga?rt. de Fruct, Jos. Gaertner de Fnictibus et Se-

minibus PlanUrum.
G«rtnera, decan. monog. and malpighiacex, a S. tr.

R Ind. a climber which thrives well in loam and

peat, and cuttings root readily in sand under a

hand-glass.
Gagea, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, H. peren,

Eur. bulbs of common culture.
Galactia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.

Jamaica, a climber which may be treated as

gzertnera.
Galactites, syngen. polyg. frustran. and cynaroce-

phaleae, a H. an. S Eur. of common culture.
Galangale, — see Kjempferia.
Galanthus, snowdrop, hexan. monog. and amaryl.

lides, a H. peren. Brit, a bulb of common cul-

ture.
Galardia, syngen. polyg. frustr. and coryTnbifere»,

a H. peren. Carolina, which grows only in peat

soil, and is increased by dividing the roots or by

seeds.
Galax, pentan. monog. and saxifrages, a H. peren.

N. Amer. which may be treated as galardia: it

prefers a moist situation
Galaxia, monad, tnand. and irideze, a G. peren.

C. B. S. bulbs which may be treated as ixiiE.
Galega, goat's rue. diadel. decan. and legumino-

sesE, S. tr. Eur. and India, which grow in loam

and peat, and cuttings root readily in sand

under a bell-glass; and H. peren. of commoa

culture.
Galenia, octan. dig. and chenopodes, a G. tr.

C. B. S. which grows in rich lignt soil, and cut-
tings will root readily under a hand-glass.
Galeobdolon, dead-nettle, didyn. gymnos. and la-

biateae, a H. peren. Brit, a common weed.
Galcopsis, hemp-nettle, didyn. gymnos. H. an.

Brit, a common weed.
Galinsogea, syngen. poly, super, and corymbiferes.

H. an. Amer. of common culture.
Galipea, dian. monog.and verbenaceee, a S. tr. Guiana,

which grows in light loam, and cuttings strike

freely under a hand-glass.
Galium, bed-straw, tetran. and monog. rubiaceae,

H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy culture, some of

them are marsh plants.
Gallesio, George, his works on gardening, page 1128.

Galloway House, a seat in VVigtonshire, 7626L

Gangrene, 890.

Garcinia mangostana, mangostcen, dodec. monog.

and guttifereje, a Java fruit-tree, 5998.
Garden, botanic, — see Botanic-garden.
Garden, kitchen, — see Kitchen-garden.
Garden counsellors, artists, or professors, 7400.
Garden-decorations, — see Edifices.
Garden-laborers, 7378.
Garden-line, 1362.

Garden-pot, different kinds of, 1407.
Garden-tradesmen, 7388.
Gardener, the profession of, arduous but agreeable,

and favorable for intellectual improvement, 2372.

and 2373.
Gardeners, their education, 7719 ; professional, 7724 ;

intellectual, 7744 ; moral, religious, and physical,

7761 J economical, 7777.
Gardener's house and ofBce, 1700 ; lodging-house

for journeymen, 1077.
Gardeners' lodges, or fraternities, 7701.
Gardenia, pentan. monog. and rubiaceae, S. and

G. tr. E. Ind. C. B. S. which thrive well

in loam and peat in moist heat, and cuttmgs

root freely in sand under a hand-glass id

heat.
Gardening, as affected by different climates, 518.
Garden iig, as aflected by different forms of govern-

ment, 508.
Gardening, as affected by different states of society,

Gardening, authors on ; of the Roman empire,
7685; Italy, /694; Holland, 7695 ; France 7692-
Germany, 7693; Russia, 7697; Spain, 7698; Swel
den, /696; Britain, 7686 ; America, 7699.

Gardening, history of, 1.

Gardening, history of, from the 6th century. B. C.
to the 5th century of our asra, 35.

Gardening, how arranged in this treatise, page 2

II92

GENERAL INDEX.

Gardening, its products, pleasures, arid cares,
page 2.

Gardening, origin and progress of, 3.

Gardening, what, page 1. .

Gardening authors, 7405.

Gardening in Britain, 312.

Gardening in China, 468.

Gardening in European Turkey, 306.

Gardening in France, 157.

Gardening in Germany, 201.

Gardening in Holland and Flanders, 114.

Gardening in Italy, 70.

Gardening in Mexico, 487.

Gardeniiig in North America, 481.

Gardening in Poland, 280.

Gardening in Russia, 253.

Gardening in South America, 492.

Gardening in Spain and Portugal, 289.

Gardening in Sweden and Norway, 244.

Gardening in Switzerland, 240.

Gardening in Syria, Persia, India, and Africa, 457.

Gardening in the ages of antiquity as to fruits,
culinary productions, and flowers, 26.

Gardening in the British colonies, and other foreign
settlements of European nations, 493.

Gardening in ultra European countries, 456.

Gardening of the Jews, 9 ; of the Babylonians and
Assyrians, 14; of the Persians, 19; of the
Grecians, 23.

Gardening of the Romans, 36.

Gardening patrons, 7406.

Gardens, commercial, 7453 ; seed-gardens, grass-
orchards, ploughed orchards, market-gardens,
orchard gardens, herb and physic gardens, mar-
ket flower-gardens, florists' gardens, nursery -
gardens, public gardens, squares, parks, botanic
gardens, 7454. to 7509.

Gardens, different kinds of, in Britain, relatively to
tlie different classes of society, and the different
species of gardeners, 7412 ; private gardens, 7413 ;
cottage-gardens, 7414 ; artificers' gardens, 7422 ;
of farmers, 74'23 ; of street-houses, 7426; of trades-
men, 7427 ; of amateurs, 7428 ; of connoisseurs,
of citizens, of villas, of villas and demesnes, of
mansions, of royal palaces, 7429. to 7452.

Gardens, royal, — see Royal Gardens.

Gardens, the most celebrated in different countries,
— see Gardening of these countries.

Gardens of England, 7512 ; Wales, 7602 ; Scotland,
7615; Ireland, 7651.

Gardens of the Horticultural Societies, 7508.

Gardens of the Neats' Houses, 7457.

Gardini, M , his works on gardening, page 1128.

A. D. 1783.

Garidella, decan. trig, and ranunculaceae, a H. an.
France, of common culture.

Garland-flower, — see Hedychium.

Garlic, — see Allium.

Garlic-pear, — see Cratasva.

Gartmore, a seat in Perthshire, 7636.

Gander, Claude, a French author on gardening,
page 1115. A. D. 1631.

Garnons, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.

Garten baurneister, 236.

Gartoti, James, a British author on gardening,
page 1107. A. D. 176a <•

Garuga, decan. monog. and , a S. tr. E.

Ind. which may be treated like galega.

Gastrolobium, decan. monog. and leguminoseas, a
G. tr. N. Holl. which grows in loam and peat,
and ripened cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Gatcombe House, Hampshire, 7594.

Gatcombe Park, Worcestershire, 7566.

Gates, different kinds of, 1794; maintenance in
position and repair, 1795.

Gates and lodges, 1712.

Gatierer, C. H. W. Jac, his works on gardening,
page 1126. A D. 1798.

Gathering vegetables, operation of, 2288. to 2290.

(ration Park, Surrey, 7528,

Gaulston Park, in Westmeath, 7662.

Gaultheria, decan. monog. and ericeas, H. tr. N.
Amer. creepers which thrive best in peat soil, and
are increased by layers or seeds.

Gaultheria serpyllifolia, the common snowberry,
4774.

Gaura, octan. rnonog. and onagraria?, a S. tr. F.
bien. and H. an. Amer. of easy culture.

Gautieri, Giuseppe, his works on gardening, page
1128. A. D. 1815.

Oazazi
a

sazia, syngen. polyg. frustran. and corymbiferea,
G. tr. C. B. S. which thrives in light, rich soil,

and cuttings root freely in the same soil under a

hand-glass.
Geiger, Fr. X. his works on gardening, page 1125t

A. D. 1796.
Geissorhiza, tile-root, trian. monog. and irideje, G.

peren. C. B. S. which may be treated like ixite.
Geist, J , M. D., his works on gardening, page

1127. A. D. 1814.
Gelonium, dioec. icos. and , a S. tr. E. Ind,

which may be treated like gardenia.
Gelsemium, pentan. monog. and apocyneae, a H. tr,

N. Amer. of easy culture.
Gems, to propagate by, — see Bulbs.
Gen. Rep. Scot., Sir John Sinclair's General Report

of Scotland.
Genip-tree, — see Genipa.
Genipa, genip-tree, pentan. monog. and rubiacese,

S. tr. S. Amer. which may be treated like gar-
denia.
Genista, diadel. decan. and leguminosea;, G. and H.

tr. of easy culture, and increased chiefly by seeds.
Genssler, Ch. Jac, his works on gardening, page

1125. A. D. 1796.
Gentian, — see Gentiana.
Gentiana, gentian, pentan. dig. and gentianese, H.

peren. Eur. and Amer. and annuals, which grow

best in peat and loam, and the smaller sorts in

pots ; they are increased by cuttings, or dividing

at the root.
Geiitil, , his work on gardening, page 1101.

A. D. 1706,
Geodorum, gynan. monan. and orchideae, S. peren.

E. Ind. which grow best in sandy loam and peat,

and the only mode of increasing them is by divi-
sion at the root.
Geoffroya, bastard cabbage-tree, diadel. decan. and

Icguminosa?, a S. tr. Jamaica, which grows in

sandy loam, and cuttings root in the same soil

under a hand-glass.
Georgi, Dr., his works on gardening, page 1131.

A. D. 1793.
Ger. herb., J. Gerarde's herball.
Gerania, table of species and varieties, 6601 ; pro-
pagation, 6602 ; culture, 6603 ; forcing, 6604.
Geranium, crane's bill, monad, decan. and gerania,

G. and H. peren. and an. Eur. C. B. S. and Amer.

of easy culture, — see Geranise.
Gerarde, John, a British writer on gardening, page

1099. A. D. 1597.
Gerardia, didyn. angios. and scrophularineas, a S.

peren. and H. peren. and an. E. Ind. and N.

Amer. of easy culture.
German authors on gardening, 7693.
Germander, — see Teucrium.
Geropogon, old man's beard, syngen. polyg. aequal.

and cichoraceae, a H. peren. and an. Italy, of

common culture.
Gerthins, Joseph, his writings on gardening, page

1125. A. D. 1/88.
Gesner, John, his works on gardening, page 1123. .

A. D. 1753.
Gesneria, dldyn. angios. and gesnerieas, S. tr.

Amer. which thrive well in light rich soil, and

cuttings root either in sand or mould, under a

hand-glass in heat.
Gethyllis, hexan. monog. and amaryllideas, G. pe-
ren. C. B. S. bulbs which may be treated like ixise.
Getonia, decan. monog. and combretaceas, a S. tr.

E. Ind. which grows best in loam and peat, and

cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass in

heat.
Geum avens, icos. polyg. and rosacea;, H. peren.

N. Amer. and Eur. of the easiest culture.
Ghent, villas of, 123 ; botanic garden, 138.
Ghinia, dian. monog. and verbenacece, a S. an.

W. Ind. of common culture.
Giant fennel, — see Ferula.
Gibside, a seat in Durham, 7.^85.
Gibson, John, M. D., his writings on gardening,

page 1107. A. D. 1768.
Gibson, T., his works on gardening, page 1107. A.D.

1691.
Giles, John, a British writer on gardening, page

1107. A. D. 1767.
Gillingham Hall, Norfolk, 7554.
Gilpin, the Rev. William, his works relative to.

gardening, page 1107. A. D. 176^.
Ginseng, panax quinquefolium.
Girardin, R. L., Vicompte d'Ermenonville, his

works on gardening, page 1119. A. D. 1777.
Girdling trees, 863.
Gisekia, pentan. pentag. and portulaceas, a S. aa

W. Ind. of common culture.

GENERAL INDEX.

1193

Glades in planting, regular or irregular, 6813.

Gladiolus, corn-flag, trian. monog. and iridese, G.
and H. peren. C. B. S. bulbs of easy culture, 6319.

Glamorganshire, gardens and residences of, 7608.

Glaser, J. F., his works on gardening, page 1124.
A. D. 1774.

Glasgow botanic garden, 7629.

Glasgow nurseries, 7629.

Glasswort, — see Salicomia.

Glass case, 1531. — see Structures.

Glaucium, horn-iwppy, polyan. monog. and papave-
racejB, a H. Bien. and ah. Eur. of common cul-
ture.

Glaux, black saltwort, pentan. monog. and salica-
rise, a K. peren. Brit which grows best in pots in
sand and peat, and is increased by dividing at the
roots.

Glechoma, ground-ivy, didyn. gymnos. arid labia-
tae, H. peren. Eur. of common culture.

GletUtsch, John Gotlieb (John Love-God), his
works on gardening, page 1123. A. D. 1765.

Gleditschia, polyg. dicec. and leguminos£e, a F. and
H. tr. Amer. and China, of easy culture, and in-
creased by layers or seeds.

Glengary House, in Inverness-shire, 7648.

Glinus, dodec. pentag. and ficoideas, a G. an. S. Eur.
of common culture.

Globba, dian. monog. and scitamineae, S. peren. R
Ind. reedy plants of easy culture, and increased
by dividing at the roots.

Globe-amaranth, — see Gomphrena.

Globe-flower, — see TroUius.

Globe-thistle, — see Echinops.

Globularia, tetran. monog. and globuiariee, G. tr.
Eur. which grow well in loam and peat, and cut-

i tings root freely in the same soil under a hand-
glass.

Gloriosa, hexan. monog. and lilia?, S. peren. K Ind.
with tuberous roots, d/23.

Glossodia, gynan. monan. and orchidc£B, a G. peren.
N. S. \V. which grows in sandy loam and peat,
and requires but little water when not in a grow-
ing state ; it is increa.<ed by ofl'sets and seeds.

Glossology of i)lants, 555.

Gloucestershire, gardens and residences of, 7563.

Gloxinia, didyn. angios. and gesnerie^, S. peren.
S. Amer. which thrive in light rich soil, and
leaves taken off close to the stem and planted
will root and make plants.

Glyceria, trian. dig. and gramineas, a H. peren.
Brit, a grass of the easiest culture.

Glycine, diadel. decan. and leguminosea?, Gr. tr.
Ind. and Amer. mostly climbers, which thrive in
loam and peat, and root readily from cuttings ;
and H. peren. of easy culture in similar soil.

Glycyrrhiza, licorice, diadel. decan. and legumino-
seae, H. peren. of easy culture.

Glycyrrhiza glabra, the common licorice, 2243.

Glynde, a seat in Sussex, 7531.

Gmclin, John Frederick, his works on gardening,
page 1125. A. D. 1787.

Gmelina, didyn. angios. and verbenaceae, S. tr. E.
Ind. which grow best in sandy loam and peat, and
cuttings root in sand under a' hand-glass in heat.

Gnaphalium, everlasting, syngen. polyg. super, and
corymbifereje, S. and G. tr. C. B.'S. and Eur.
which thrive in peat or in sandy loam, and cut-
tings taken off at a joint and planted in the same
soil, the pots placed in a steady situation, but not
luider glasses, root freely ; the H. species are of
common culture.

Gnidia, octan. dig. and thymeleae, G. tr. C. B. S.
which thrive well in peat soil, with the pots well
drained, and care being taken neither to over
water them, nor let them droop for want of
water, as they are easily killed ; very young
cuttings root in sand under bell-glasses.

GnoU Castle, Glamorganshire, 7606.

Goathurst, a seat in Somersetshire, 7599.

Goat's beard, — see Tragopogon.

Goat's rue, — see Galega.

Goat's thorn, astragalus tragacantha.

Godraersham Place, a seat in Kent, 7537.

Golden Grove, a seat in Caermarthenshire, 7614.

Golden rod, — see Solidago.

Golden rod tree, bosea yervamora.

Golden saxifrage, — see Chrysoplenium.

Golden thistle, — see Scolymus.

Goldylocks, — see Chrysocoma.

Gomesa, gynan. monah. and orchidete, a 3. peren.
Brasil ; a parasite, which may be treated as
aerides, epidendrum, &c.

Gomphia, biitton-flower, decan. monog. and och.

naceae,S. tr. Jamaica, which thrive in sandy loam,
and cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass in a
moist heat.

Gomphocarpus, pentan. dig. and asclepiades, G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow freely in loam and j)eat, and
cuttings in sand under a hand-glass in a little
bottom-heat, root freely.

Gompholobium, decan. monog. and leguminoses,
G. tr. Austral, which thrive in sandy loam and
peat, not over watered, young cuttings root with-
out dit&culty under a bell-glass in sand.

Gomphrena, globe-amaranth, pentan. monog. and
amaranthacese, a S. tr. peren. bien. and an. Ind.
and Amer. of easy culture.

Goniocarpus, tetran. monog. and onagrariap, a G.
an. China, of common culture.

Gonolobus, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeae, S. tr.
Amer. climbers, which grow freely in loam and
peat, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass : the other species are of easy culture.

Gootlenia, pentan. monog. and goodenovise, G. tr.
N. Spain, which grow freely in loam and pea^
and cuttings root under a hand-glass.

Goodia, diadel. decan. and legummosae, G. tr.
Austral, which thrive well in sandy loam and
peat, and young cuttings root freely under a
bell-glass in sand.

Goodwood, a seat in Sussex, 7532.

Goodyera, gynan. monan. and orchideas, a S. peren.
Eur. and Amer. which grow^s in loam and peat,
and is increased by suckers from the root, and H.
peren. which thrive in sandy peat, and may be
increased like the others.

Gooseberry, — see Ribes.

Goosefoot, — .sec Chenopodium.

Gopsal Hall, Leicestershire, 7573.

Gordonia, monad, polyan. and malvacea?, a G. and
F. tr. which grow in peat soil with a little loam,
and are increased by layers or ripened cuttings
under a hand-glass.

Gorhambury House, Hertfordshire, 7544.

Goring, E. H. J., Bm. Trommsdorf, and F. K. H
Sickler, their joint work on gardening, page 1126.
A. D. 1802. • ^

Gorinka, a seat near Moscow, 260.

Gormanstown House, in Eastmeath, 7661.

Gort House, a seat in Galway, 7672.

Gorteria, syngen. polvg. frus'tr. and corymbiferea^
a G. an. C. B. S. of easy culture.

Gosfield Hall, Essex, 7542.

Gossford House, East Lothian, commonly called
Wemyss House, 7586.

Gossford House, Northumberland, 7619.

Gossypium, cotton, monad, polvan. anti malvacese, -^
S. tr. bien. and an. Ind. and A'mer. which thrive
in rich light soil, and generally ripen of seetls i
or cuttings will root under a hand-glass in sand.

Gotthardt, J. Ch. and R. Evserbock, their work on
gardening, pge 1127. A. 'D. 1806.

Gotz, J. F., his work on gardening, page 1 124. A. D
1780.

Gouania, polyg. monoec. and rhamneaj, S. tr. W.
and E. Ind. which grow freelv in loam and peat,
and rijiened cuttings root in sand under a baud,
glass in heat

Gouges de Cessjeres, his work on gardening, page

Gould, Mr., an Englishman, in the service of Prince
Potemkin, considered in his day as the first gar-
dener in Russia, 277.

Gourd, — see Cucurbita.

Goutweed, — see .Egopodium.

Grc^ff'er, Mr. John, his works on gardening, page
11U9. A. D 1789. o. 1 o

Grafting, 2013.

Grafting, origin of, 33.

Grammitis, cryptog. filices and filiceae, a H. perco.
Bnt a fern of the usual culture.

Grange Hall, Durham, 7584.

Grange Park, Hampshire, 7594.

Grangea, syngeiT. polyg. super, and corymbifcrese.'
S. and H. an. E. Ind. of common cultur

Grape, — see Vitis.

Grape-gatherer, 1353.

Grape-hyacinth, muscari botrvoides

Grass of Parnassus,— see Parnassia!

if- "^' • ^ u"- ^""^ "• ^'^^ ^"'^- Ind. and Amer.
of common culture.
Gravel, 1957.

^"uA ^"rtT^"' ^^ """'^ "*" gardeniB«. pa«
Great bumet, — see Poterium.

1194

GENERAL INDEX.

Great Fulford, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.

Greek valerian, — see Polemonium.

Green dragon, arum dracontium.

Green-house, its construction, 61 ei : general culture,
6202.

Green-house plants, 6597; select sorts, 6598. to 6618 ;
woody sorts, 6621 ; climbers, 6652 ; succulents,
6654 ; bulbs, 6658 ; herbaceous, 1729 ; selections
for particular purposes, 660.

Greencroft, a seat in Durham, 7584.

Greenstead Hall, Essex, 7541.

Greenwich Park, Kent, 7535.

Grenada, gardens of, 292.

Grevillea, tetran. monog. and proteacese, G. tr.
N. S. W. which grow freely in sandy loam and
|x;at, and ripened cuttings root under a hand-glass
in sand.

Grewia, polyan. monog. and tiliacese, S. and G. tr.
Ind. and C. B. S. which thrive in loam and i)eat,
and cuttings do best in sand under a hand-glass
in heat.

Grias cauliflora, the anchovy-pear, polyan. monog.
and guttifereffi, a S. tr. Jamaica, 5979.'

Griclum, decan. pentag. and rosacea?, a G. pe-
ren. C. B. S. which thrives best in sandy gravel,
with the pots well drained, and cuttings root in
the same soil without glasses.

Griffin, Mr. William, his writings on gardening,
page 1113. A. D. 1808.

Grimsthorpe Hall, Lincolnshire, 7577.

Grimstone Garth, Yorkshire, 7582.

Grindelia, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbiferece,
G. tr. and a peren. Mexico ; which thrive well in
light, rich soil, and young cuttings root freely

f in the same soil under hand-glasses.

Grindstone used in gardening, 1467.

Giisenthxuaitc, Mr., an apothecary at Wells, Nor-
folk, and agricultural writer, 1050.

Grislea, octan. monog. and salicaria;, a S. tr. E. Ind.
which thrives in loam and peat, and young cut-
tings root freely in sand under a bell-glass in heat.

Grohman, , his works on gardening, page 1126.

A.D. 1798.

Gromwell, — see Lithospermum.

Groningen, botanic garden of, 133.

Gronovia, pentan. monog. and cucurbitaceas, a S.
peren. Jamaica ; a climber, which thrives well in
rich soil, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass in heat.

Grottoes, as decorations in gardening, 1815.

Ground, how to operate on, in landscape-gardening,
7196.

Ground compasses, 1366.

Ground-ivy, — see Glechoma.

Ground measure, 1363.

Ground-pine, ajuga chamaepitys.

Grounds, the art of laying out, — see Landscape-
gardening.

Groundsel, — see Senecio.

Groundsel-tree, baccharis halmifolia.

Grove, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.

Grove, a seat in Middlesex, 7520.

Grove Cottage, Oxfordshire, 7558.

Grove Hill, Surrey, 7527.

Grub (groben, Teut. to delve or dig), to root up
trees which are not to be planted again : to clear
the ground of ligneous vegetables by digging
round and cutting their roots.

Guaiacum, lignum vitae, decan. monog. and ruta-
ceae, a S. tr. W. Ind. which grows in loam and
peat, and ripened cuttings taken off at a joint,
root readily when thinly planted in a pot of sand,
and plunged under a hand-glass in heat.

Guarea, octan. monog. and meliaceas, a S. tr. S.
Amer. which grows freely in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Guatteria, polyan. polyg. and anonaceje, a S. tr. Ja-
maica, which requires a loamy soil, and ripe cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Guelder-rose, — see Viburnum.

Guerin, M , a French author on gardening,

page 1117. A.D. 1732.

Guerin and Schwartz, their work on gardening,
page 1122. A.D. 1813.

Guettarda, monoec. hexan. and rubiaceee, S. tr.
which may be treated like gardenia.

Guilandina, nicker-tree, decan. monog. and legu-
minoseee, a S. tr. India, which thrives in loam and
peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Guillemcau, J. L. M., his work on gardening, page
1120. A.D. 1800.

Guimpel, F , his works on gardening, page 1 127.
A.D.1810.

Guiting Park, Gloucestershire, '[BGS.

Gum-succory, chondrilla juncea.

Gundelia, syngen. polyg. segr. and cynarocephaleas,
a H. peren. Levant, of common culture.

Gunnera, gynan. dian. and urticese, a G. peren
C.B.S. which may be treated as an aquatic.

Gunnersbury, a seat in Middlesex, 7520.

GUnther, J. Jac, his work on gardening, page 1127.
A.D. 1806.

Gunton Hall, Norfolk, 7554.

Gurnth, Amelia, her works on gardening, page 1125.
A.D. 1790.

Gustavia, monad, polyan. and myrteaceae, a S. tr.
which thrives v/ell in sandy Ijain, and cuttings
root freely in sand under a hand-glass.

Guys Cliff, a seat in Warwickshire, 7571.

Gymnadenia, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a H.
peren. Brit, which grows best in sandy loam, peat,
and chalk, and may be increased by seeds; if
planted in pots they must be well drained.

Gymnema, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeae, a S. tr.
Ceylon, which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root freely under a hand-glass.

Gymnocladus canadensis, dioRC. decan. and legumi-
noseae, a H. tr. Canada, which grows in common
soil, and is increased by cuttings of the roots.

Gymnostyles, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbife-
reae, a G. an. S. Amer. of common culture.

Gypsophila, decan. dig. and caryophylleae, H. peren.
and an. Eur. well adapted for rock- work, and pro-
pagated by cuttings or seeds.

Gypsum, 1179.

Gyrotheca, trian. monog. and haemodoraceas, a G.
peren. N. Amer.-vwhich grows well in light soil,
and may be increa&ed by dividing at the root.

H.

Habenaria, gynan. monan. and orchideae, H. peren.
Eur. and Amer. requiring the same treatment as
gymnadenia.

Hack, a north country term for a pick-axe, — see
Pick-axe.

To hack {hackcn, Teut. to hew), to cut over or clear
away, by cutting ligneous vegetables.

Hackfall, scenery of, in Yorkshire, 7582.

Hackness, scenery of, in Yorkshire, 7582.

Hackney botanic nursery garden, 7356.

Hackwood Park, Hampshire, 7594.

Haddon Hall, Derbyshire, 7575.

Haddow Hall, Lancashire, 7588.

Hffimanthus, hexan. monog. and amaryllidea*, G.
peren. C.B.S. which thrive best in sandy loam and
peat, and like other bulbs require no water when
in a dormant state.

Hsematoxylon, logwood, decan.^monog. and legu-
minoseie, a S. tr. S. Amer. which grows in loam
and peat, and cuttings root readily in sand under
a hand-glass.

Ha;modorum, trian. monog. and hsemodoraceje, a
G. peren. N S.W. a bulb which maybe treated as
hasmanthus.

Hafod, a seat in Cardiganshire, 7607.

Haga, gardens of, near Stockholm, 246.

Hagley Hall, Staffordshire, 7570.

Hagley, Worcestershire, 7566.

Haigh Hall, Lancashire, 7588.

Hair-grass, — see Aira.

Hakea, tetran. monog. and proteacese, G. tr. Austral,
which thrive well in a third loam, a third peat,
and a third sand, the pots well drained, and too
much watering avoided ; ripened cuttings root
readily under a hand-glass in sand.

Haldon House, Devonshire, 7600.

Halesia, snowdrop-tree, dodcc. monog. and eben-
aceae, H. tr. N. Amer. which grow freely in com-
mon soil, and are increased by cuttings of the roots.

Halingbury Place, Essex, 7541.

Hall, Joseph, his work on gardening, page 1100
A.D. 1645.

Halleria, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a G. tr
C.B.S. which grows freely in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings root readily in sand under a
hand-glass.

Hallia, diadel. decan. and leguminosese, a G. tr. and
bien. and peren. C.B.S. which grow freely in loam
and peat, and young cuttings root under a hand-
glass in sand.

Haloragis, octand. tetrag. and onagrariae, a G. tr.
N. Zeal, which may be treated as hallia.

Halsewood, a seat in Sligo, 7675.

Ham Court, Worcestershire, 756G.

GENERAL INDEX.

1195

Ham House, Middlesex, 327.

Hamamelis, tetran. dig. and berberideae, a H. tr.
N. Amer. which thrives in common soil, and is
generally increased by layers.

Haniet du Monceau, or DuAamel, Henry Lewis du,
a French author on gardening, page 1117. A.D.
1730.

Hamels, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.

Hamilton, the Hon. Cliarles, of Painshill, a man of
great taste in gardening, 341.

Hamilton Palace, Lanarkshire, 7629.

Hamiltonia, oil-nut, polyan. dicec. and terebintaceae,
a G. tr. N. Amer. which grows in loam and
peat, and cuttings root under a hand-glass in
sand.

Hammer, 1345.

Hantmer, F , L , and Dietricht, their

wurk on gardening, page 1121. A.D. 1802.

Hampshire, gardens and residences of, 75&i.

Hampton Court, Herefordshire, 7568.

Ham])ton Court, Middlesex, 7523.

Hanbury Hall, Worcestershire, 7566.

Hand-glasses, of different kinds, 1429.

Hanmer Hall, Flintshire, 7606.

Hanworth, a seat in Norlolk, 7554.

Haram, garden of the, 308.

Hard-grass, — see Kottboellia.

Hard-wooded timber-trees, the most useful sorts of,
described, 7068. _

Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, 7o/5.

Hardwicke, a seat in the county of Durham,
7585.

Hardy fruits, catalogue of, 4361.

Hardy trees, with showy flowers, 6539 ; deciduous,
6540 J evergreen, 6541.

Hare Hall, i:sicx, 7542.

Hare-street Cottage, Essex, 7541.

Hares, to prevent from barking trees, 6934.

Hare's ear, — see Bupleurum.

Haresfoof-fern, davallia canariensis.

Harestail-grass, lagurus ovatus.

Harewood, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.

Harewood House, Yorkshire, 7583.

Harringay House, Hornsey, account of the exten-
sive steam apparatus erected there, 1669.

Hariison, Mr. t harles, F.H.S., his writings on gar-
dening, page 1115. A.D. 182.3.

Hai-tlib, Samuel, his works on gardening, page 1100.
A.D. 1651.

Hart's tongue, scolopendriura oificinarum.

Hart wort, — see Tordylium.

Hassagay-tree, curtisia faginea.

Hasselquistia, pentan. dig. and umbellifereas, H. an.
Egjpt, of common culture.

Hasseiidean nursery, Roxburghshire, 7621,

Hatchet-vetch, — see Biserrula.

Hatfield House, Hertfordshire, 7545.

Hatton House, Midlothian, 7618.

Hawick nursery, Roxburghshire, 7621.

Hawkstone Park, Shropshire, 7569.

Ha^vkweed, — see Hieracium.

Hawm, or haulm [healm. Sax.}, the lower part of
the straw alter the ears are cut off; in gardening,
the term is generally applied to leguminous
vegetables, after their produce has been ga-
theretl.

Haworth, Adrian Hardy, Esq., his writings on gar-
dening, page 1110. A.D. 1794.

Hawthorn, mespilus oxyacantha, — see Crataegus,

Hat/, Mr. John, planner of gardens, Edinburgh ;
an excellent horticulturist, and a good man,
2870.

Hayes Place, Kent Road, 7537.

Uaynes, Thomas, his works on gardening, page 1113.
A.D. 1811.

Hai/voood, Joseph, gent., his writings on gardening,
page 1114. A.D. 1818.

Head, or upper gardener, 7383 j who ought to re-
commend him, 7489.

Headfort, a seat in Eastmcath, 7661.

Heading, the growing of the leaves of a plant into
a roundish head or loaf, as in the common cab-
bage J called also cabbaging, or leaving.

Heart's ease, viola tricolor.

Heartseed, — see Cardiospermum.

Heartsheath Hall, FlinUhire, 760a

Heat, 1196.

Heath, — see Erica.

Heathtield, a seat in Kent, 7537.

Heathfield Park, Sussex, 7531.

Heaton Hall, Northumberland, 7586.

Heaton Lodge, Lancashire, 7588.

Habeustrctia, didyn. angios. and vcrbenacejc, G. tr.

and peren. C. B. S. which thrive in loam and peat,

and young cuttings root readily in the same soil

under a hand-glass.
Hedeoma, dian. monog. and labiateae, H. an. of

common culture.
Hedera, ivy, pentan. monog. and caprifoliae, a H.

tr. Brit- a well-known creeper of easy culture.
Hedge-hyssop, — see Gratiola.
Hedge-mustard, sisymbrium ofGcinale.
Hedge-nettle, — see Stachys.
Hedges, their formation and management, 6820.

6S99.
Hedsor Lodge, Buckinghamshire, 7547.
Hedychium, garland-flower, monan. monog. and

scitamines, S. peren. £. Ind. reedy marsh plants

of easy culture.
Hedyotis, tetran. monog. and rubiacea;, a S. an. E.

Ind. of easy culture.
Hedypnois, syngen. polyg. aequal. and dchoraceae,

H. an. Eur. and Candia, of common culture.
Hedysarum, diadeL decan. and leguminoses, S.

and G. tr. India and Amer. which thrive well in-

loam and peat, and young cuttings root in sand

under a bell-glass.
Heely, Josej)h, his works on gardening, page 1108.

A.D. 177/.
Heiligense, a royal seat at Potsdam in Prussia,

210.
Helenium, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbiferea?,

a F. peren. and H. peren. N. Amer. of easy cul-
ture.
Helianthemum, sun-rose, polyan. monog. and cisti-

nese, F. and H. tr. and H. an. Eur. and Amer.

which grow in sandy loam and peat, and root

readily by cuttings, or are raised by seeds.
Helianthus, sun-flower, syngen. polyg. frustran. and

corymbifereae, G. and H. peren. and an. Amer. of

easy culture.
Helianthus tuberosus, the Jerusalem artichoke,

3688.
Heliconia, pentan. monog. and musaceae, S. peren.

Ind. which grow in rich loam kept moist, and are

increased by dividing at the root
Helicteres, screw-tree, monadelpb dodec. and mal-

vacejE, S. tr. C. B. S. which thrive in loam and

peat, and are readily increased by cuttings taken

ofiat a joint, and plunged under a hand-glass in

a pot of sand.
Heliocarpus, dodec dig. and tiliaces, a G. tr. Vera

Cruz, which thrives in loam and peat, and cuttings

root in sand under a hand-glass.
Heliophila, tetradyn. siliq. and crucifereje, G. tr.

which grow in sandy loam, and may be increased

by seeds or cuttings uiider a hand-glasa ; and H.

an. of common culture.
Heliopsis, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,

a H. peren. N. Amer. of common cultiure.
Heliotropium, turnsole, pentan. monog. and bora-

gines, S. tr. and bien. and G. tr. Ind. and Amer.

which thrive in any rich, light soil, and cuttings

will root freely under a hand-glass.
Helix, the snail, and Umax, the slug, to destroy,

2275.
Hellbach, J. Ch., his works on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1809.
Helleborus, polyan. polyg. and ranunculaceae, H,

peren. Eur. of common culture.
Hellenia, monan. monogyn. and scitamines, a S.

peren. E. Ind. a marsh plant.
HeUenius, Charles Nicolas, his works on gardening,

page 1130. A. D. 1789.
Helmingham Hall, Suffolk, 7552.
Helminthia, syngen. polyg. super, and cichoracese,

a H. an. Brit, of easy culture.
Helonias, hexan. trig, and melanthaceae, H. peren.

N. Amer. which delight in peat soil and a moist

situation, and are increased by dividing at the

root or by seeds.
Hemerocallis, day-lily, hexan. monog. and heme-

rocallideae, H. peren. Eur. and China, of easy

culture in any soil.
Hemidesmus, pentan. dig. and asclepiadcae, a S. tr.

Ceylon, which delights in Ught, rich soil, and

cuttings root readily under a hand-glass in a pot

of sand plunged in a little heat.
Hemionitis, crypt og. Alices and filiceae, S. peren.

W. Ind. ferns of common culture.
Hemlock, — see Conium.
Hemp, — see Cannabis. _

Hemp-nettle, — see Galeopsis. '
Hempel, G. K L., his work on gardening, page 1I£7.

A. D. 1816.
Hempsted Bury, a scat in Hertfordshire, 7544.

1196

GENERAL INDEX.

Henbane,— see Hyoscyamus.

Henbit, lamium amplexicanle,

Hendon Place, Middlesex, 7520.

Henham, a seat in Suffolk 7552.

Henllys, a seat in Caermarthenshire, 7614.

Henne, Sm. D. L., his work on gardening, page 1124.
A. D. 1771.

Henriquez, Jean, his work on gardening, page 1119.
A. D. 1781.

Hentzner, Peter, a travelling tutor to a German
nobleman, who came to England during the reign
of Elizabeth, and afterwards published his travels,
323.

Hepatica, polyan. polyg. and ranunculaceae, H. pe-
ren. Eur. which prefer loam and peat, and are in-
creased by dividing at the root. The roots are
very liable to be eaten by snails.

Heppe, John Christopher, his work on gardening,
page 1125. A. D. 178-.

Heracleum, cow-parsnep, pentan. dig. and umbel-
lifereae, H. peren. Eur. of common culture.

Herb-gardens, or physic-gardens, and their manage-
ment, 7360.

Herb-gardens in Midlothian, 7618.

Herb-robert, geranium robertianum.

Herbage, first used by man as food, 27.

Herbalists, — see Physic gardeners.

Herder, a. German divine and philosopher who died
in the beginning of the present century, page 1.
(See Supp. Encyc. Brit.)

Herefordshire, gardens and residences of, 7568.

Heresbachius, Conradus, his work on gardening,
pape 1122. A. D. 1578.

Herissant, Louis Antoine Prosper, his work on
gardening, page 1118. A. D. 1771.

Heritiera, looking-glass plant, monoec. monad, and
malpighiacea;, a S. tr. E. Ind. which grows in
loam and peat, and ripened cuttings root readily
in a pot of sand plunged under a hand-glass in a
moist heat.

Hermannia, monadel. pentan. and tiliaceae, G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow in rich, light soil, and are in-
creased by cuttings in the same soil under a hand-
glass.

Hermas, polygam. monoec. and umbellifereae, G.
peren. C. B. S. which thrive in any light soil,
and are increased by cuttings or dividing at the
root.

Hermes, J. Gf., his works on gardening, page 1126.
A. D. 1801.

Herminium, gynan. monan. and orchidese, a H.
peren. Eng. which thrives best in loam, peat, and
chalk in pots, and is increased by seeds.

Hernandia, jack in a box, monoec. trian. and lauri-
nea^, a S. tr. W. Ind. which grows freely in sandy
loam and peat, and ripened cuttings not deprived
of their leaves root readily under a hand-glass in
sand.

Herniaria, rupture-wort, pentan. di^. and amaran-
thaceffi, a G. and H. tr. Eur. which grow in rich,
light soil, and are increased by cuttings under a
hand-glass ; and H. peren. which grow best in
loam and peat, and are increased by cuttings or
dividing at the root.

Heron's bill, — see Erodium.

Herpestis, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a S.
peren. and H. peren. India and Amcr. which
thrive well in rich, light soil, and root freely from
cuttings.

Herrera, Gabriello Alphonso, his work on garden-
ing, page 1131. A. D. 1557.

Hertfordshire, gardens and residences of, 7543.

Herve, Mons. Vill6, his works on gardening, page
1120. A. D. 1790.

Hesperantha, evening flower, trian. monog. and
irideae, G. peren. C. B. S. bulbs which ms
treated as ixi£B.

may be

Hesperis, rocket, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereffi, H.

peren. bien. and an. Eur. of easy culture.
Hesperis matronalis, 64:56.
Hesse, Henry, his work on gardening, page 1123.

A. D. 1713.
Heterospermum, syngen. polyg. super, and corym-

bifereas, a H. an. New Spain, of common cul-
ture.
Heuchera, pentan. dig. and saxifrageas, H. peren.

N. Amer. which thrive in rich, light soil, and are

increased by dividing at the root.
Heveringham Hall, Suffolk, 7552.
Hewel Grange, a seat in Worcestershire, 7566.
Heynea, decan. monog. and meliaceae, a S. tr. Na-

paul, which thrives in loam and neat.
Heythorpe, a seat in Oxfordshire, 7559.

Hibbertia, polyan. trig, and magnoliacejc, G. tr.
Austral, which grow in sandy loam and peat, and
cuttings root readily in the same soil under a
hand-glass.

Hibiscus, monadel. polyan. and malvaceas, S. tr.
and G. peren. India, C. B. S. which thrive in rich,
light soil, and ripen seeds, or root readily by cut-
tings in sand under a hand-glass.

Hibiscus esculentus, 6035.

Hiebern, John Christian, his work on gardening,
page 1123. A. D. 1671.

Hiefacium, hawkweed, syngen. polyg. asqual. and
cichoracese, H. peren. and an. Eur. and Amer. of
the easiest culture.

High Clere, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

High Meadow, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Highnam Court, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Hill, Daniel, M. D., his work on vegetable physio-
logy, page 1112. A. D. 1800.

HUdt, J. Adf , his works on gardening, page 1126.
A. D. 1798.

Hill, Sir John, M. D.,his work on gardening, page
1104. A. D. 1755.

Hill, Hyll, or Hyle, Thomas, his work on garden-
ing, page 1099. A. D. 1574.

Hill Hall, Essex, 7542.

Hill Park, Kent, 7537.

Hilla, hexan. monog. and rubiacese, S. tr. W. Ind.
which grow in sandy loam and peat, and cuttings
root in sand under a hand-glass.

Hillington Park, Norfolk, 7554.

Hillsborough Castle, a seat in Down, 7683.

Hiltenbrandt, Ant., his work on gardening, page
1124. A. D. 1777.

Hinuber, gardens of, in Hanover, 204.

Hip, the common name of the fruit of the rose
tribe.

Hippia, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbifereae, S.
an. and G. tr. C. B. S. and E. Ind. which grow
freely in any light soil, and cuttings planted under
a hand-glass will root readily.

Hippocratea, trian. monog. and acereje, a S.
tr. S. Amer. which grows well in loam and
peat, and cuttings root under a hand glass in
sand.

Hippocrepis, horseshoe- vetch, diadel. decan. and
leguminosccB, a G. tr. Minorca, which thrives in
loam and peat, and cuttings root readily under a
hand-glass ; and a H. peren. and an. Europe, of
common culture.

Hippomane, manchineel, monoec. monadel. and eu-
phorbiaceee, a S. tr. W. Ind. a powerful poison
which grows in sandy loam, and cuttings root in
sand under a hand-glass.

Hippopha?, sea buckthorn, diooc. tetran. and elseag-
neae, H. tr. Eur. and Amer. which grow in any
common soil, and are increased by layers or cut-
tings of the roots.

Hippuris, mare's tail, dian. monog. and naiadcic, a
H. peren. Brit, an aquatic.

Hirschfeldt, or HirchfieKl, Ch. Caius L., his works
on gardening, page 1124. A. D. 1773.

Hirtella, pentan. monog. and rosacea-, a S. tr W.
Ind. which grows in loam and peat, and cuttings
root in sand under a hand-glass.

Hitt, Thomas, his works on gardening, page 1105.
A. D. 1755.

Hoe, different sorts of, 1310.

Hoeing, 1873.

Hoffinanseggia, decan. monog. and leguminoseas, a
S. tr. Chili ; which grows in loam and peat, and
cuttings, not too ripe, will root under a hand-glass
in sand.

Hofland, Mrs , her writings on gardening, page 1114.
A. D. 1820.

Hofwyl, an agricultural establishment near Berne
in Switzerland, 1034.

Hog-plum, — see Spondias.

Ilog-wecd, — see BoeiJiaavia.

Holcus, soft grass, polyg. monojc. and gramines, H.
peren. and an. Eur. and Amer. grasses of easy
culture.

Holinshead, Ralph, an English historian, who died
about 1580, 420.

Holkham Hall, Norfolk, 7555.

Holland House, Middlesex, 7522.

Holly, — see Ilex.

Hollyhock, — see Althsea.

Holm Lacey, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.

Holme, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.

Holosteum, tetran. trig, and caryophylleac, a H. an
Eng. of common culture.

Holwood House, Kent, 7537.

GENERAL INDEX.

1197

\n

1114. A. D. 1812.

HoUyraount, a seat in Mayo, 7673.

Holmskioldia, didyn. angios. and verbenaceae, a S.
tr. India j which grows in loam and peat, and
cuttings will root in sand under a hand-glass in
heat.

Holt {holtz. Sax.), a small wood or grove.

Holvrood Palace and Park, Edinburgh, 7317. and
7618.

Hame, Henry, Lord Kaimes, his works on garden-
ing, page 1106. A. D. 1762.

Honesty, — see Lunaria.

Honewbrt, — see Sison.

Honey-dew, 881.

Honey-berry, melicocea bijuga.

Honey-flower, — see Melianthus.

Honey-suckle, — see Lonicera.

Honey- wort, — see Cerinthe.

Hooded milfoil, — see Utricularia.

Hooker, W. J., LL.D. F.R.S., &c. a distinguished
botanist, professor of botany in the college of
Glasgow, and author of several works, 387.

Hooker, William, Esq., F.L.S.,an eminent horticul-
tural artist, his works on gardening, page 1113.
A. D. 1811.

Hop, — see Humulus.

Hop-hornbeam, — see Ostrya.

Hope, Thomas, Esq., his writings on gardening,
page 1114. A. D. 1820.

Hope-end, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.

Hopea, polyad. polyan. and ebenacese, a G. tr. Caro-
lina, which grows in loam and peat, and cuttings
root easily under a hand-glass.

Hopeton House, Linlithgowshire, 7632.

Hordeum, barley, trian. digyn. and graminese, H.
peren. and an. Eur. As. and Amer. grasses of easy
culture.

Horn-poppy, — see Chelidonium.

Hornbeam, — see Carpinus.

Hornemannia, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a
S. an. E. Ind. of common culture.

Hornwort, — see Ceratophyllum.

Horse-chestnut, — see JEsculus.

Horse-radish, — see Cochlearia Armoracia.

Horse-radish tree, hyjieranthcra moringa.

Horse-shoe vetch, — see Hippocrepis.

Horse-tail, — see Equisetum.

Horse-thisde, — see Cnicus.

Hort Kew., Alton's Hortus Kewensis.

Hort. Trans., Transactions of the London horticul-
tural society.

Horticultural architect, 7402.

Horticultural artist, 7403.

Horticultural catalogue, 3468.

Horticultural productions which a first-rate garden
is calculated to aftbrd monthly, 6038.

Horticultural Society of London, 7707 ; of Edin-
burgh, 7707; of Winchester, 7594; of Lee;is,7581 ;
of Glasgow, 7629 ; of Perth, 7636 ; of Dublin, 392.

Horticultural S<jcietv of London, its transactions,
page 1114. A. D. 18'15 ; garden, 7508.

Hortus pinguis, or the fat, the cook's or kitchen-
garden.

Hosack, David, M. D. F. R. S. L. S. &c. his works
on gardening, page 1131. A. D. 1811.

Hot-bed frames, bottomless boxes with glass covers,
for placing over hot-beds, 1532.

Hosta, didyn. angios. and vcrbenaces, a S. tr. &
Amer. which may be treated as holmskioldia.

Hot-beds, beds of vegetable matter in a state of
active fermentation sufficient to heat a laver of
earth placed over them ; their formation, 1975.

Hot-beds, their culture and management, — see
Cucumis.

Hot-house, a garden structure, with the roof
principally of glass for the habitation of plants,
' 1583; principles of design in, 1591; how to
obtain heat 1592; light, air, soil, and water,
1593. to 1601.
Hot-house furnace and flues, iron doors, lime-kilns,
size of hot-house fire-places, flues, can-flue, em-
brasure-flue, cast-iron flue, size of flues, erection,
power of flues, dampers or valves, chimney-tops,
1648. to 1664.
Hot-house roofs, different methods of glazing, 1626;
common sash-glazing, 1627 ; with a leaden Lip,
improved lead lap, copper lap, fragment-glazing,
rhomboidal-glazing, perforated shield-glazing,
entire shield-glazing, curvilinear lap, reversed
curvilinear lap, ridge and furrow, and anomalous
surfaces, 1628. to 1637 j putty and paint, 1638. and

Hot-houses, contrivances for procuring water, wind,

and air, 1688.
Hot-houses, details of the construction of their
roofs, 1602 ; fixed roofs, moveable roofs, roofs
partaking of both characters, materials of fixed
roofs, of moveable roofs, upr.ghts, and objections
to metallic roofs, 1603. to 1625.
Hot-houses, their pits, stages, shelves, doors, paths,
&c. 1681 ; materials of the path, pits for tan or
earth, beds and borders, shelves, stages, 16b2. to
1687.
Hot-houses, their steam boilers and tubes, 1665;
steam-boilers, of cast-iron, of wrought- iron, of cop-
per, steam-pipes, hot water pipes, 1666. to 1670.
Hot-houses, their trellises, 1671 ; back wall trellis,
middle trellis, front or roof trellis, fixed rafter
trellis, moveable rafter trellis, secondary trellis,
cross trellis, 1672. to 1679; Hot-house entrance,
1680.
Hot-houses, their walls and sheds, 1640 ; front wall,
holes for vine-stems, back wall, back shed, 1641.
to 1647.
Hot-houses of the Chinese, specimen of, 480.
Hot-houses used in floriculture, 6161.
Hot-houses used in floriculture, their culture and

management, 6202.
Hot-houses used in horticulture, 2644.
Hot-houses used in horticulture, their culture and

management, 2696.
Hottentot cherry, cassine maurocenia.
Hottonia, water-violet, pentan. monog. and primu-

laceEB, a H. peren. an aquatic.
Houghton Hall, Norfolk, 7555
Hound's tongue, — see Cynoglossum.
House, or mansion, situations best adapted for,

7249 ; aspect, 7253.
House, with carriage entrance, as a residence, 2029 ;
with covered entrance, 2030 ; house and conser-
vatory, 2031 ; house and flower-garden, 2032 ;
house and French parterre. 2033 ; house and front
garden, 2034.
Houseleek, — see Sempervivum.
Houstonia, tetran. monog. and rubiace^, H. peren.
N. Amer. rock-work plants, which do well in peat
soil in pots.
Hovea, diadel. decan. and leguminosese, G. tr. Aus-
tral, which thrive in loam and peat, and young
cuttings may be struck under a be:l-glass in sand.
Hovenia, pentan. monog. and rharanesB, a G. tr.
Japan ; which grow in loam and peat, and ripened
cuttings root readily under a hand-glass in sand.
Howick, a seat in Northumberland, 7587.
Howsham, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.
Hoya, pentan. dig. and asclepiadese, a S. tr. Asia ;

a climber of easy culture.
Huber, Cand. his works on gardening, page 1125.

A. D. 1792.
Huber, Francis, a natural philosopher of Geneva,

who wrote on bees, 1738.
Hiibner, K. Jos., his works on gardening, page 1126

A. D. 1801.
Huernia, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeie, D. S. tr.
C.B.S. succulents, which grow in brick and lime-
rubbish, little watered ; cuttings root easily.
Hughes, William, his works on gardening, page

1101. A. D. 1665.
Huish, Robert, author and translator of some plays
and novels, and of a work on bees, of which in-
sect he is an enthusiastic admirer and cultivator,
1738.
Hull botanic garden, 7581.
Humble plant, mimosa pudica.
Humea, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corymbifereae, a

G. bien. N. S. W. of easy culture.
Humulus lupulus, hop, dioec. pentan. and urtices,
a H peren. Brit. — see 3945.

Hundeshaeen, C , his work on gardening, page

1127. AD. 1819
Hunter, Alexander, M. D. F.R,S. ; his works on

gardening, page 1108, A. D. 1770.
Huntingdonshire, gardens and residences of, 7550.
Hura, sandbox-tree, monoec. monad, and euphor-
biaceae, S. tr. S. Amer. which grow freely in light
loam, and large ripened cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass in heat.
Hurstbourne Park, Hampshire, 7594.
Hutchinsia, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, H. peren.
and a bien. Eur. rock-work plants which grow in
loam and peat, and root freely.

Huthem, , his works on gardening, page 1129.

A. D. 1817.
Huts, as garden buildings, 1781.
Hyacinth, — see Hyacinthus.

ii9d

GENERAL INDEX.

Hyacinthus, hyacinth, hcxan. raonog. and aspho-

deleae, H. peren. Eur. bulbs of easy culture.
Hyacinthus orientalis, 6222.

Hyaena poison, hyaenanche globosa.

Hyffinanclie, dicec. dodec. and hydrocharideae, a G.
tr. C.B.S. which grows in loam and peat, and may
be increased by cuttings in sand under a bell-glass.

Hyde Hall, Cheshire, 7590.

Hyde Park, London, 7517.

Hydrangea, decan. dig. and saxifragete, F. and H.
tr. Amer. and China, which grow in common soil,
and ripened cuttings root readily.

Hydrangea hortensis, 647fi.

Hydrastis, polyan. polyg. and ranunculaceae, a H,
peren. Canada, which grows best in light soil in
rather a moist situation, and is increased by tubers
of the roots.

Hydrocharis, frog-bit, dioec. enneandr. and hydro-
charides, a H. peren. Brit, an aquatic.

Hydrocotyle, pennywort, pentan. dig. and umbelli-
fereas, G. and H peren. Eur. Amer. and C. B. S.
which grow best in peat soil kept moist, and are
increased by division at the root.

Hydrolea, pentand. digyn. and convolvulacea;, a
S. tr. S. Amer. which thrives best in loam and
peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Hydropeltis, polyan. polyg. and ranunculacea, N.
Amer. a peren. will grow in loamy soil, or may
be treated as an aquatic.

Hydrophyllum, water-leaf, pentan. monog. and bo-
raginese, H. peren. Amer. which grow freely in
any light, rich soil, and are increased by suckers
from the roots.

Hydrophyllum virginicum, or Shawanese salad,
43S1.

Hydrostatic press, its use in gardening, 1470.

Hygrometer, its use in gardening, 1285.

Hymenaea, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, S. tr.
E. Ind. which grow freely in loam and peat,
and cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass in
heat.

Hymenopappus, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corym-
bifereffi, a F. bien. Louisiana, of common culture.

Hymenophyllum, filmy leaf, cryptog. Alices and
filiceffi, a H. peren. Eng. a fern, which grows best
in small pots in loam and peat.

Hyoscyamus, henbane, pentan. monog. and sola-
neae, G. tr. peren. and bien. Eur. which grow in
loam and peat, and cuttings root without being
covered by a glass ; the H. peren. and an. are of
common culture.

Hyoserig, swine's succory, syngen. polyg. zequal. and
cichoraceae, H. peren. and an. Eur. of common
culture.

Hypecoum, tetran. dig. and papaveraceae, a H. bien.
and an. Eur. of easy culture.

Hyperanthera, horseradish-tree, decan. monog. and
leguminosese, a S. tr. E. Ind. which thrives in
light loam, and cuttings root under a hand-glass
in sand.

Hypericum, St. John's wort, polyad. polyan. and
hypericinese, G. tr. Eur. and Amer. which grow
in loam and peat, and young cuttings root freely
under a bell-glass in sand ; the H. tr. and peren.
are of easy culture ; some are increased by cut-
tings under a hand-glass, and others by division
at the root.

Hypochaeris, cat's ear, syngen. polyg. aequal. and
cichoraceae, H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy cul-
ture.

Hypochaeris masculata, 4295.

Hypoxis, hexan. monog. and asphodeleas, G. and
H. peren. Amer. and C. B. S. which grow in loam
and peat, and are increased by offsets from the
roots.

Hyptis, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, S. and G. tr.
bien. and peren. Ind. and America, which grow
freely in rich, light soil, and the hot-house sorts
are mcreased by cuttings under a hand-glass in
heat.

Hyssop, — see Hyssopus.

Hyssopus, didyn. gymnos. and labiates?, H. tr. and
peren. Eur. and N. Amer. of easy culture.

Hyssopus officinalis, the common hyssop, 4321.

Iberis, candy-tufl, tetrad, silic. and crucifereas, G.
and F. tr. Eur. which grow in common soil, and
are readily propagated by cuttings ; and H. peren.
and an. of easy culture.

Ice-house, its construction, 1728 j management.

Ice-plant, mesembryanthemum crystallinum.
Ichneumon manifestator, 2261. and 3593.
Ichnocarpus, pentan. monog. and apocynea;, a S. tr.
E. Ind. which thrives well in loam and jxiat, and
cuttings root freely in sand under a hand-glass.
Ickworth Park, Suffolk, 7552.
Icolmkill, in the Hebrides, early improvements

there, 352.
Ildephonso, near Madrid, gardens of, 294.
Ilex, holly, tetran. tetrag. and rhamnea, G. and F.
tr. Eur. and Amer. which thrive well in loam
and peat, and ripened cuttings root freelv under a
hand-glass in sand ; the commoner H. tr. are in-
creased by seed, and the finer sorts by grafting
and budding.

Ilex aquifolium, the common holly, 7115.

lUecebrum, knot-grass, pentan. monog. and amaran.
thacesE, a H. peren. Eng. a rock plant which
grows best in pots in light soil, and seeds ripen
abundantly.

Illicium, aniseed-tree, polyan. polyg. and magno-
liaceae, a F. tr. Florida, which grows best in light
loam, and is increased by layers, or ripened cut-
tings in sand under a hand-glass.

Impatiens, balsam, pentan. monog. and geraniaceze,
H. bien. S. an. Ind. Amer. Eng. of easy culture in
rich soil.

Impatiens balsamina, the garden balsam, 6479.

Imperatoria, masterwort, pentan. dig. and umbclli-
tereae, a H. peren. Scot, of easy culture.

Implements, origin of, 31.

Implements of gardening, 1294; tools, 1295; the
pick, lever, spade, fork, shovel, diljber, forester's
dibber, planter's hack, planter's trowel, i)lantcr'8
pick-axe, garden trowel, transplanter, draw-hoe,
proiig-hoe, thrust-hoe, rake, drill-rake, hoe-rake,
turfing-iron, turf-raser, turf-beetle, turf-scraper,
wire-broom, dock-weeder, besom, wire-besom,
implement cleaner, 1296. to 1323.

Implements used in gardening, their further im-
provement, 1847.

Improvement, forming a plan of, 7364.

Improvement, rural, — see Landscape-gardening.

Improver, rural, — see Landscape-gardener.

Inarching, 2007.

Indian corn, — see Zea.

Indian cress, — see Tropeolum.

Indian cucumber, medeola virginica.

Indian fig, cactus opuntia.

Indian millet, sorghum vulgare.

Indian shot, canna indica.

Indigo, — see Indigofera.

Indigofera, indigo, diadel. decan. and leguminosese,
S. tr. bien. and an. Ind. and C. B. S. which grow
in loam and peat, and cuttings root readily in
young wood under a bell-glass in sand ; the H.
an. are of easy culture.

Inga, polyg. moncec. and leguminosese, S. tr. E. and
W. Ind. which grow in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand in bottom heat under a bell-
glass.

Ingatestone Hall, Essex, 7542.

Ingestree Hall, Staffordshire, 7570.

Inocarpus, Otaheite chestnut, decan. monog. and
sapoteae, a S. tr. South Sea Islands, which thrives
well in loam and peat, and ripened cuttings will
root in sand under a hand-glass.

Inoculating, 2050.

Inscriptions, their use and abuse in gardening,
1845. ^ **

Insects, the common injurious sorts described, 2220 ;
subduing them, 2276. The insects which infest
particular plants, and the mode of extirpation, &c.
are treatetl of in giving the culture and manage-
ment of the plant, or the department in the gar-
den to which it belongs.

Instruments of action, 1361 ; garden-line, ground-
measurer, timber-measurer, ground-compasses,
borning-piece, levels, adjusting horizontal level,
spirit-level, staff, straight-edge, stake, 1362. to
1374. — see Machines and Utensils.

Instruments of designation, 1375 ; designators or
naming instruments, common tally {tailler, Fr.
to cut) or number-stick, botanic tally, written
name-stick, permanent label, temporary label,
1376. to 1388.

Instruments of operation, 1325 ; common garden-
knife, common pruning-knife, folding pruning-
knife, grafting-knife, budding-knife, asparagus-
knife, grafting- chisel, forest-chisel, pruning-bill,
forest-axe, pruning-saw, averruncator {averrunco.

GENERAL INDEX.

1199

to cut or prune), French pruning-shears, hedge-
shears, verge-shears, turf-shears, scythe, garden-
scarifiers or bark-sealers, moss-scraper, blunt
knife, forest barking-irons, garden-hammer,
garden-pincers, weeding -pincers, grai)e-gatherer,
peach-gatherer, pear-gatherer, berry-gatherer,
apple-gatherer, seed and cherry gatherer, climb-
ing-spur, 1326. to 1359.

Inula, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae, S.
an. and H. peren. Eur. and Asia, of the easiest
culture.

Inula crithmifolia, samphire, 4281.

Inula helenium, elecampane, 4240.

Inverary Castle, Argyleshire, 7649.

Invercauld House, Aberdeenshire, 7639.

Invergordon Castle, Ross-shire, 7647.

Inverness nursery, 7648.

Inverness-shire, gardens of, 7648.

lonidium, pentan. monog. and violacese, a G. peren.
S. Amer. which grows freely in loam and peat,
and young cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass.

Ipomoea, pentan. monog. and convolvulaceje, S.
peren. bien. and an. Ind. Amer. Eur. twiners
which grow in rich light soil, and young cuttings
root freely in sand under a hand glass; the H.
peren. and an. are of the easiest culture.

Ipomopsis, pentan. monog. and polemoniaceas, a
G. bien. and H. an. N. Amer. of common culture.

Ireland, gardens and residences of, 7651.

Iresine, dicec. pentan. and amaranthaceee, a F.
peren. Amer. which grows in loam and peat, and
is increased by dividing at the root.

Iris, trian. monog. and irideae, G. and H peren.
Eur. As. and Amer. of easy culture in loam and
peat, and increased by dividing at the root ; some
of them may be treated as marsh plants.

Iris persica,' tuberosa, susiana, xiphium, &c. 6304.

Iron-tree, siderodendrum triflorum.j

Iroii-wort, — see Sideritis.

Irrigation, 1098.

Isatis, woad, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, a H.
peren. bien. and an Eur. of easy culture.

Ischaemum, polyg. moncec. and gramine£B, a S.
peren. and an. K Ind. grasses of common culture.

Isle of Anglesea, gardens and residences of, 7603.

Isle of Man, as to gardening, 7588.

Isles of Jersey and Guernsey, as to gardening, 7598.

Isjiardia, tetran. monog. and onagrareae, a H. an.
Eur. of common culture.

Isochilus, gynan. monan. and orchideae, S. peren.
\V. Ind. parasites which maybe treated as aerides,
epidendrum, &c.

oetis, quillwort, cryptog. hydrop. and marsiliacex,
a H. peren. Brit, a marsh plant.

Isola bella, gardens of, 82.

Isolepis, trian. monog. and cyperaceae, a H. peren,
and an. Brit, grasses of common culture.

Isopogon, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G. tr. N.
Holl. which grow in loam, peat, and sand well
drained, and ripened cuttings root under a hand-
glass, care being had to take off the glass occasion-
ally to avoid damps.

Isopyrum, polyan. polyg. and ranunculacese, a H.
peren. and an. Eur. of easy culture.

Italian books on gardening, /694.

Itea, pentan. monog. and saxifrageee, a H. tr. N.
Amer. which thrives well in sandy loam, and is
increased by layers.

Iva, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbifereat, a S.
an. and H. tr. Amer. both of common culture.

Ivy, — see Hedera.

Ixia, trian. monog. and iridea?, G. peren. C. B. S.
bulbs which grow best in sandy loam and decayed
leaves or peat, and require no water after they
have done flowering : they will do well in beds in
the open garden treated in the same manner as
ranunculus, guarding against frost and heavy
rains, — see 6319.

Ixodia, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corymbifereaB, a
G. tr. N. Holl. which thrives best in sandy loam
and peat, and young cuttings root freely in the
same kind of soil under a hand-glass.

Ixora, tetran. monog. and rubiacese, S. tr. E. Ind.
and China, of great beauty, which thrive well in
loam and peat, and cuttings root freely in sand
under a hand-glass.

J. or Jus., A. L. de Jussieu's Genera Plantarum.
Jac. aust., N. J. Jacquin Flora Aiistriaca.

Jac. ia, Icones plantarum rariorum. Edita k N. J,
Jacquin.

Jac. vind., N. J, Jacquin hortus botanicus vlndobon-
ensis.

Jaca-tree, artocarpus integrifolia.

Jack-in-a-box, hernandia sonora.

Jacksonia, decan. monog. and leguminosese, G. tr.
N. Holl. which grow in sandy loam and peat, and
young cuttings may be rooted in sand under a
bell-glass, or ripened ones imder a hand-glass.

Jacob, R,, his works on gardening, page 1125. A.D.
1797.

Jacobsdahl, a seat in Sweden, 248.

Jacques, of Rastadt, a German gardener, employed
by the Grand Seignior at Constantinople, 308.

Jacquinia, pentan. monog. and sapoteae, S. tr. W.
Ind. which thrive well in loam and peat, and cut-
tings (with care) will root in sand under a band-

' glass in heat.

Jalap, ipomcea jalapa.

Jamaica, botanic garden of, 499.

Jambolifera, octan. monog. and onagrareae, a S. tr.
which grows in light loam, and cuttings root
freely in sand under a hand-glass.

Japan, gardens of, 464.

Jardin Electoral de Saxe, at Warsaw, 281.

Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, described, 7331,

Jasione, theep's scabious, pentan. monog. and cam.
panulaceae, a H. peren. and an. Eur. which do
well in common soil, or in pots (being rather ten-
der of frost), and are increased by cuttings or
seeds.

Jasmine, — see Jasminum.

Jasminum, dian. monog. and jasmineae, S. and G.
tr. E. Ind. and C. B. S. chiefly climbers, which
grow in loam and peat, and cuttings root readily
in sand under a hand-glass in heat ; the H. tr
Eur. grow in common soil, and are increased by
layers or cuttings.

Jatropha, physic-nut, moncec. monad, and euphor-
biaceae, S. tr. peren. and an. W. Ind. which thrive
well in loamy soil, and cuttings root best stuck in
the tan in a good heat.

Jaume, St. Hillaire, his works on gardening, page
1121. A.D. 1805.

Jaunez, I P , his works on gardening,

page 1122. A.D. 1816.

Jeffersonia, octan. monog. and papaveraceaBj a H.
peren. N. Amer. which grows best in peat, and is
increased by seeds or dividing at the root.

Jet d'eau, spout or fountain of water, 1829.

Jock's lodge nursery, Midlothian, 7618.

Johnson, John B., his work on the vine, page 1131.
A.D. 179-.

Johnston, Thomas, M.D., his work on gardening,
page 1099. A.D. 1629.

Jones, Henry, his poem on gardening, page 1107.
A.D. 1766.

Jonesia, heptan. monog. and a S. tr.

E. Ind. which grows freely in light loam, and
large cuttings root well in sand under a hand-
glass.

Jordens, J. H., his works on gardening, page 1126.
A.D. 1798.

Jour. R. Inst, Journal of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain.

Journeymen gardeners, 7380.

Juglans, walnut, moncec. polyan. and terebintace»,
H. tr. N. Amer. increased by layers or seeds, and
some kindly budding and inarching.

Juglans regia, the common walnut j as a fruit-tree,
4733 ; as a forest-tree, 7096.

Julien, A , his work on garden in e, paRe 1122.

A.D. 1816. * "^^

Juncus, rush, hexan. monog. and juncese, H. peren.
Brit, grasses, generally marsh plants.

Juniperus, dioec. monad, and conifereae, F. and H.
tr. Eur. and Amer. the more delicate species pre-
fer peat and soil ; but the cedars and savin grow
in common garden earth : they are best managed
by seeds, but cuttings may be rooted under a
hand-glass.

Jussieu, Bernard de, his works on gardening, page
1117. A.D. 1735.

Jussieuia, decan. monog. and onagrareae, S. and G.
peren. and bien. Ind. and Amer. chiefly aquatics
of common culture.

Justice, James, Esq. F. R. S , his works on garden-
ing,page 1104. A.D. 1754.

Justicia, dian. monog. and acanthaceje, S. and G,
tr. and an. Ind. and Amer. of easy culture in
loam and peat, and cuttings root freely in heat
under a band-glass.

1200

GENERAL INDEX.

Kaempferia, galangale, dian. monog. and scitami.
nese, S. pcren. E. Ind. which grow freely in rich
light soil, requiring little water when not in a
growing state, and are increased by dividing at
the root.

Ka/b, Bhd. H., his works on gardening, page 1127.
A.D. 1810.

Kaleidoscope of Dr. Bradley, 6109.

Kalimar, gardens of, in the" East Indies, 462.

Kalm, Peter, his works on gardening, page 1130.
A.D. 1754. !

Kalmia, decan. monog and rhodoraceje, H. tr. N.
Amer. under shrubs which require peat soil, or
very sandy loam, and are increased by layers or
seeds.

Kanguru vine, cissus antarctica.

Kannegiesser, F. A., his works on gardening, page

1126. A. D. 1805.

Kecht, J. C, his works on gardening, page 1127.

A.D. 1813.
Keddleston, a seat in Derbyshire, 7575.
Kelham House, in Nottinghamshire, 2838.
Kellennann, , his works on gardening, page

1127. A.D. 1813.

Kelmarsh, a seat in Northamptonshire, 7580.

Kempton Park, Middlesex, 7520.

Kenmore House, in Kerry, 7670.

Kenmore Lodge, in Kerry, 7670.

Kennedia, diadel. decan. and leguminosese, G. tr.
Austral, climbers which grow in sandy loam and
peat, and young cuttings root freely in sand under
a bell-glass in a little bottom heat.

Kent, gardens and residences of, 7534.

Kent, William, a painter and architect, and the
father of landscape-gardening, 342.

Kensington gardens, Middlesex, 7523.

Kensington nursery, 7518.

Kentchurch, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.

Kerim Khan, gardens of, 450.

Kernel fruits, 4368.

Kerry, gardens and residences of, 7670.

Kew gardens, Surrey, 7529.

Kewley's alarum thermometer, 1489.

Kewley's automaton gardener, 1490.

Keyser, G. Ad., his work on gardening, page 1125,
A.D. 1800.

Kidneybean, — see Phaseolus.

Kiggeiaria, dioec. decan. and euphorbiaceae, a G. tr.
C. B. S. which grows freely in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings root under a hand-glass in sand.

Kiladoon, a seat in Kildare, 7657.

Kildare, gardens and residences of, 7657.

Kilkenny, gardens of, 7656.

Killarncy, lakes of, in Kerry, 7670.

Killcowly, a seat in Tipperary, 7677.

Kilmarnock nursery, Ayrshire, 7627.

Kilmore, a seat in Tipperary, 7677.

Kilravock, a seat in Inverness-shire, 7648.

Kimberley Hall, Norfolk, 7554.

Kincardineshire, as to gardening, 7638.

King's County, gardens of, 7658.

King's Weston, a seat in Gloucestershire, 7563.

Kingsland nursery, 7518.

Kingston Hall, Dorsetshire, 7598.

Kingswood Lodge, Surrey, 7527.

Kinrosshire, gardens of, 7634.

Kiosque, as an ornamental building, 1807.

Kircaldy nursery, Fife.shire, 7635.

Kirchner, J. F., his works on gardening, page 1125.
A. D. 1796.

Kirkleatham Hall, Yorkshire, 7582.

Kirklington Hall, Nottinghamshire, 7576.

Kitaibelia, monad, polyan. and malvaceae, a H. pe-
ren. Hungary, of easy culture, and very prolific
in seeds.

Kitchen-garden, formation of, 2381.

Kitchen-garden, its culture and management, 2545 ;
culture of the soil, manure, recent dung, crop-
ping, rotation of crops, thinning, thinning stone-
fruits, pruning and training, summer pruning,
winter pruning, pruning edgings and hedges,
weeding, stirring the soil, protecting, supporting,
shading, earthing, watering, vermin, incidents,
accidents, gathering and preserving vegetables,
and sending them to a distance, proportioning
the quantity of vegetables to be grown, miscella-
neous operations of culture and management,
2546. to 2612.

Kitchen-garden, situation, exposure and aspect.

extent, shelter and shade, soil, water, form, walls,
aspect of walls, height of walls, construction of
walls, materials of walls, open railings instead of
walls, hot or flued walls, cros.s-walls, of coloring
walls, ring-fence, placing the culinary hot-houses,
and raelonry, situation of the melonry, laying out
the area, laying out the compartments, making the
borders, laying out the walks, laying out the slips,
laying out a nursery, or reserve department,
season for forming a garden, distribution of fruit-
trees, selection and arrangement of wall trees,
sorts, selection, and arrangement of espaliers and
dwarf standards, of dwarf standards, distances,
of tall standard fruit-trees, fruit-slirubs, choice of
plants, record of sorts, 2382. to 2526.

Kleinhofia, dodec. monog. and malvacejB, a S. tr.
PJ. Ind. which grows in light loamy soil, and cut-
tings are not difficult to root under a hand-glass
in sand.

Kleinia, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corymbifereass, a
S. an. N. Amer. of easy culture.

Kliipful, J Alb., his works on gardening, page

1125. A. D. 1783.

Kn. Pom., Knoop's Pomologie.

Knappia, trian. dig. and gramineae, a H. an. Wales,
a grass of common culture.

Knapweed, centaurea scabiosa.

Knautia, tetran. monog. and dipsacca;, a H. bien.
and an. Levant, of common culture.

Knawel, — see Scleranthus.

Knife, garden, different sorts of, 1326.

Knight, Joseph. F. H. S., his works on gardening,
page 1113. A. D. 1809.

Knight, T. A. Esq. F. R. S., Pres. Hort. Soc, his
essays on pine-apple culture, 2924 ; result, 2935 ;
his works on gardening, page 1111. A. D. 1795.

Knocklofty, a seat in Tipperary, 7667.

Knoop, Jean Herman, his works on gardening, page
1129. A. D, 1771.

Knorr. thes.. Thesaurus Rei herbariae, hortensisque
universalis. Apud Ge. Wolfg. Knorrii Hsercdes.

Knot-grass, illecebrum verticillatum.

Knowle, a seat in Kent, 7538.

Knowlsley, a seat in Lancashire, 7589.

Knowltonia, polyan. polyg. and ranunculaceJE, G.
peren. C. B. S. which grow freely in loam peat, and
are increased by dividing at the root or by seeds.

Kob, J. And., his work on gardening, page 1125.
A. D. 1786.

Kochia, pentan. dig. and chenopodeffl, H. an.
Amer. and Siberia, of common culture.

KcEleria, trian. dig. and graminese, H. peren. and
bien. Eur. grasses of easy culture.

Koelrcuteria, octan. monog. and sapindese, a H. tr.
China, which grows well in common soil, and is
propagated by layers or cuttings of the roots.

Koenigia, tetran. trig, and polygonese, a H. an,
Ireland, of easy culture.

Kormond, a seat in Hungary, 206.

Krqft, John, his works on gardening, page 1125.
A. D. 1792.

Kraft, John Charles, his works on gardening, page
1121. A. D. 1810.

Krause, Ch. L., his work on gardening, page 1124.
A, D. 1773.

Krause, L. Ph., his work on gardening, page 1123.
A. D. 1738.

Krigia, syng. polyg. aequalis, and cichorace^, a H.
an. N. Amer. of common culture.

Kulzean, or Culzean Castle, Ayrshire, 7627.

Kyle, Thomas, his work on gardening, page 1109.
A. D. 1785.

Kyllinga, trian. monog. and cyperaceae, S. peren.
India, grasses of common culture.

Kyre Wyre, a seat in Worcestershire, 7566.

Labels for naming plants, different kinds of, 1385.

Laborde, Alexander, Count de, his works on gar-
dening, page 1121. A. D. 181-.

Laborer's cottage and garden, what they ought to
be, 7294.

Laburnum, — see Cytisus.

Labyrinth, a convoluted, plicated, or otherwise
rendered intricate, disposition of walks, separated
by hedges or shrubbery, sometimes called a wil-
derness, 7264.

Lachenalia, hexan. monog. and asphodclcas, G.
peren. C. B. S. bulbs, which thrive well in loam
and peat, or loam and leaf.mould, and are in-
creased by offsets or seeds.

GENERAL INDEX.

1201

Lachnaea, octan. monog. and thymeleae, G. Or.
C. B. S. wliich thrive only in sandy peat, and
young cuttings root freely in sand under a bell-
glass.

Lacken, a seat in Westmeath, 7662.

Lactuca, lettuce, syngen. polyg. aequaL and cicho-
races, H. bien. an. Eur. and Amer. of easy culture.

liBCtuca sativa, the garden lettuce, 396*.

Ladder, different sorts of, used in gardening, 1456.

Lady-fern, nephrodium thelypteris.

Lady's mantle, — see Alchemilla.

Lady's slipper, — see Cypripedium.

Lady's smock, — see Cardamine.

Lagasca, syngen. polyg. sequal. and corymbifereae, a
S. an. S. Amer. of common culture.

Lagerstrcemia, polyan. monog. and salicaris, S. tr.
E. Ind. which thrive in peat loam ; L reginae is
a splendid plant, wliich requires a great deal of
heat and little water in winter; all the species
increase by cuttings in sand under a bell-glass.

Lagetta, octan. dig. and thymeleae, a S. tr. Jamaica,
which grows in loam and peat, and ripened cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Lagcecia, cumin, pentan. monog. and umljellifereje,
a H. an. Levant, of common culture.

Lagunea, monad, polyan. and malvaceae, a S. an.
Bourbon, of common culture.

Lagurus, harestail-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae,
a H. an. Guernsey, a grass of the easiest culture.

Lair, P. A., his works on gardening, page 1121.
A. D. 181-.

Lakes, how to form or improve in garden scenery,
7217.

Lalos, J , his work on gardening, page 1122.

A. D. 1818.

Lam. ill. Tableau Encyclop^dique et M^thodique
des trois R^gnesde la Nature. Botanique; Illus-
trations des Genres. Par M. de Lamarck.

Lambertia, tetran. monog. and proteace^e, a G. tr.
N. S. W. which thrives well in loam and peat,
but is easily injured by over watering ; ripened
cuttings ta'ken off at a joint, just before they begin
to grow afresh, will root in sand under a hand-
glass avoiding damp.

Lambrau, M , his works on gardening, page

1122. A. D. 1817.

Lamb's lettuce, — see Fedia

Lambton Hall, Durham, 7585.

Lamium, archangel, didyn. gymnos. and labiates,
H. peren. S. Eur. of easy culture.

Lamoignon-Mahherbes, C. G., his works on garden-
ing, page 1119. A. D. 1780.

Lanaria, hexan. monog. and hjemodoraceae, a G.
peren. C. B. S. which thrives in loam and peat,
and is increased by dividing at the root.

Lanarkshire, gardens and residences of, 7629.

Lancashire, gardens and residences of, 7588.

Lancashire asphodel, — see Narthecium.

Landbaumeister, 236.

Landridge, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.

Landscape-gardener, or layer out of grounds, 7404.

Landscape-gardening, 7156; principles of, 7159;
materials of, "195 ; practitioners of, 7362.

Lang, or L Pom., Langley's Pomona,— see Langley.

Langford, T , his work on gardening, page 1101.

A. D. 1681.

Langford Hall, Essex, 7542.

Langham Cottage, Dumfrieshirc, 7624.

Langley, Battv, his works on gardening, page 1103.
A. D. 1728. ■

Langport, Somersetshire, pine and grape stove,
at, 2654.

Lantana, didyn. angios. and verbenaceze, S. tr. and
an. Ind. and Amer. of easy culture in loam and
peat, and cuttings root readily under a hand-glass
in sand or mould.

Lapeyrousia, trian. monog. and irideae, G. peren.
C. ^. S. bulbs which may be treated as ixia.

Lappago, trian. dig. and graminese, a H. an. S.
Eur. a grass of common culture.

Lappula, pentan. monog. and boragineas, H. bien.
and an. Amer. of common culture.

Lapsana, nipplewort, syngen. polyg. and cichora-
cese, H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy culture.

Larch, — see Pinus.

I.arkspur, — see Delphinium.

Larochea, pentan. pentag. and sempervives, G. tr.
C. B. S. succulents which may be treated as cras-
sula.

Larochefocauld-Liancout, his works on gardening,
page 1120. A. D. 18—.

Laserpitium, laserwort, pentan. dig. and umbeUife-
resB, H. ^xea. and bien. Eur. of common culture.

4

Laserwort, — see Laserpitium.
Lasiocampa, or egger-moth, Phaltena quercus, L.
7075.

Lasiopetalum, pentan. monog. and sterculiacea;, G.
tr. N. HolL which grow freely in loam and peat,
and ripened cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.
Lasteyrie, Comte de, his works on gardening, page

1121. A. D. 181-.
LataiUe-des-Essarts, his writings on gardening,

page 1118. A. D. 1766.
Latania, Bourbon palm, polyg. monoec. and palmeae,
a S. tr. Mauritius, which grows in light soil, and
requires a strong moist heat.

Latapie, , his work on gardening, page 1118.

A. D. 1771.

Lathrxa, toothwort, didyn. angios. and oroban-
cheae, a H. peren. Brit of common culture in
loam and peat

Lathyrus, diadel. decan. and leguminose®, H. pe-
ren. and an Eur. of easy culture, — see 4310.

Latimers, a seat in Buckinghamshire, 7547.

Laurel, — see Laurus.

Laurenburg, Peter, his works on gardening, page
1123. A. D. 1631.

Laurentinum, a villa of Pliny, 39.

Laurestine, — see Viburnum.

Laurop, P. , his works on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1810.

Laurophyllus, polyg. dicec. and , a G.

tr. C. B. S. which grows in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings root under a hand-glass in sand.

Laurus, laurel, ennean. monog. and laurincze, S.
and G. tr. E. Ind. and Amer. which thrive in
loam and peat, and ripened cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass, taking care to avoid damps.

Laurus persea, the alligator-pear, 1521.

Lavandula, lavender, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae,
G. F. and H. tr. peren. and an. Eur. and Ind.
which succeed well in light rich soil, and ripened
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Lavandula spica, the common lavender, 4183.

Lavatera, monadel. polyan. and malyacea, G. tr.
Eur. and Afr. which thrive well in loam and peat,
or any light rich soil, and ripened cuttings root in
sand under a hand-glass; most of the species
ripen seeds : the H. bien. and an. are of easy cul-
ture.

Lavender, — see Lavandula.

Lavender cotton, — see Santolina.

Lavenia, syngen. polyg. squal. and corymbifere»,
a H. an. E. Ind. of common culture.

Lariviire, de, et M Dumoulin, their work on

gardening, page 1118. A. D. 1769.

Lawn in gardening, a surface of turf or grasses,
kept short by frequent mowing, and generally
situated near the house.

Lawranny Hall, in Pembrokeshire, 7609.

Lawrence, Anthony, his work on gardening, page
1101. A. D. 1677.

Lawrence, John, M. A., his works on gardening,
page 1102. A. D. 1714.

Lawson, William, his work on gardening, page 1199.
A. D. 1597.

Lawsonia, octan. monog. and silicariee, S. tr. Ind.
which thrive in loam and peal, and cuttings root
readily in sand under a hand-glass

Layer out of grounds, — see Landscape-gardener.

Layers, to propagate by, 1993, 1994.

Laying in by the heels, or earthing in [sheuching^
Scotch), a temporary earthing or planting, to pre-
vent plants taken up for removal or replantmg,
from suffering between the operations.

Laying out grounds, — see Landscape-gardening.

La Zenki (or the bath, Polish), a royal residence at
Warsaw, 281.

Lead wort, — see Plumbago.

Leasowes, Shropshire, 7569.

Leatherwood, dirca palustris.

Leaves, their importance in vegetation, 739. to 752.
et seq. ; more especially to bulbs, 6501 j to cut-
tings, 2065.

Leaves, to ferment for hot-beds, 2860.

Lebeckia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, G. tr.
C. B. S. which thrive well in sandy loam and
peat, and young cuttings root freely in sand under
a bell-glass.

Lebret, M Isidore, his works on gardening,

page 1122. A. D. 1821.

Lechea, trian. trig, and caryophylleae, H. peren.
Canada, which grow best in small pots of loam
and peat, and are increased by cuttmgs luider ^
hand-glass.
II

1202

GENERAL INDEX.

Ledstone Lodge, Yorkshire, 7582.

I^um, decan. monog. and rhodoraceae, H. tr.

, Eur. and Amer. dwarf shrubs, which grow in

peat or sandy loam, and are increased by layers or

seeds.
Lee, a seat in Kent, 7537.
Lee Castle, Worcestershire, 7566.
Lee-Chee, dimocarpus litchi.
Lee, James, filius, of the Vineyard, 7518.
Lee, James, his works on gardening, page 1105.

A.D. 1760.
Leea, pentan. monog. and meleaceas, S. tr. and
I peren. R Ind. which grow freely in light loam,

and cuttings soon strike root under a hand-glass

in heat.
Leek, — see Allium,
Leersia, trian. dig. and graminese, a H. peren. and

an. Amer. grasses of common culture.
Leeswold, a seat in Flintshire, 7606.
Lefebre, E A , his writings on gardening,

page 1120. A.D. 1801.
Leguminous culinary plants, 3596.
Leguminous wild plants, which are edible, 4309.
Lehmann, John Christian, his works on gardening,

page 1123. A.D. 1750.
Leibitxer, J , his work on gardening, page 1125.

A.D. 1794.
Leibnitz, his principle of a sufficient reason applic-
able to gardening as an art of design, 7164.
Leicestershire, gardens and residences of, 7573.
Leith walk nursery, 7618.
Leitrim, county of, as to gardening, 7674.
Leland, John, an English antiquary, who died

about 1552.
Lemaistre, M , curate of Joinville, a French

author on gardening, page 1117. A.D. 1719.
Lemarie, Fr , a French author on gardening,

page 1116. A.D. 17—.
Lemna, duck-weed, monoec. dian. and naiadeae, H.
, an. Brit, aquatics which may be treated as calli-

triche.
Lemoine, Leonor, his work on gardening, page 1120.

A.D. 1801.
Lemon, — see Citrus.
Lemon-grass, andropogon schcenanthus.
Lentil, ervum lens.
Leonharde, F. G. and J. H. Seidel, their work on

gardening, page 1126. A.D. 1803.
Leonotis, lion's tail, didyn. gymnos. and labiatese,

G. tr. and a S. an. E. Ind. and C. B. S. which

thrive in light rich soil, and young cuttings root

readily under a hand-glass.
Leoiitice, hexan. monog. and berberidese, a G. and

H. peren. Levant; which grow freely in loam

and peat, and may be increased by dividing at the

root or by seeds.
Leontodon, dandelion, syngen. polyg. sequal. and

cichoracese, H. peren. Eur. of easy culture.
Leontodon taraxacum, the common dandelion,

3994.
Leonurus, motherwort, didyn. gymnos. and labia-
. te£e, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. of common

culture.
Leopard's bane, — see Doronicum.
Lepechinia, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, a H.

peren. Mexico; of common culture.
Lepidium, pepperwort, tetrad, silic. and cruciferese,
, G. and F. tr. and H. an. Eur. and Amer. of com-
mon culture.
Leptanthus, trian. monog. and , a H.

peren. N. Amer. which thrives in peat soil, and

IS increased by offsets from the roots.
Leptospermum, icosan. monog. and myrteaceae, G.

tr. Aubtral. which grow well in an equal mixture

of sandy loam and peat, and young cuttings root

readily in sand under a bell-glass.
Lescfievin, C , his works on gardening, page

1121. A.D. 1805.
Lessertia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseas, a G.

peren. and an. C. B. S. which grow in sandy loam

and peat, and are readily increased by cuttings or

seeds.
Lestibudesia, pentan. monog. and amaranthaceae, a

S. tr. and bien. W. Ind. which grows freely in

light, rich soil, and is readily increased by cuttings

or seeds.
Lettsorn, John Coakley, M.D. F.R.S. his work on

gardening, page 1109. A.D. 1781.
Lettuce, 3964. — see Lactuca.
Leucadendron, dicec. tetran. and proteacese, G. tr.

C. B. S. which grow best in light loam mixed
" vrith more than one third . sand, the pots well

drained, and over watering avoided. Ripened

cuttings, taken off early in spring at a joint, root
in sand under a hand-glass.

Leucas, didyn. gymnos. and labiates, S. an. Ind. of
common culture.

Leucojum, snow-flake, hexan. monog. and amaryl-
lideae, H. peren. Eur. bulbs of easy culture.

Leucopogon, pentan. monog. and epacridese, G. tc.
N. S. W. which thrive in sandy loam and peat,
and the tops of the very young shoots taken off
for cuttings, will root in sand under a bell-glass.

Leucospermum, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G.
tr. which may be treated as leucadendron.

Level, different kinds of, 1368.

Levelling, 1931.

Lever, its form and uses in gardening, 1297.

Lewisham nursery, 7536.

Leysera, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbiferese,
G. tr. C. B. S. which grow freely in peat soil with
a little loam, and cuttings planted under a hand-
glass in the same kind of soil will root freely.

Lezay de Mamesia, his works on gardening, page
1119. A.D. 1787.

Liancourt, Count de, his palace and gardens, 161.

Liatris, syngen. polyg. a;qual. and corymbifereae, a
G. and H. peren. N. Amer. which grow freely in
rich, light soil, and may be increased by seed or
dividing at the root.

Licorice, — see Glycyrrhiza.

Licuala, hexan. monog. and palmeae, a S. tr. E. Ind.
a palm which may be treated like latonia.

Lidbeckia, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,
a G. tr. C. B. S. which grows freely in loam and
peat, and cuttings root readily in the same soil
under a hand-glass.

Liebault, Stephen, his works on gardening, page

1115. A.D. 1570.

Liger, Louis, a French author on gardening, page

1116. A.D. 1703.

Light, the importance of, to vegetables, 1594.

Lightfootia, bell-flower, pentan. monog. and cam-
panulaceae, a G. tr. and peren. Eur. and C. B. S.
which grow freely in loam and peat, and cuttings
root readily in the same soil under a hand-glass.

Lightoler, J , his works on gardening, page 1107.

A.D. 1766.

Ligne, Prince de, a German soldier and statesman
of great personal acquirements, and a favorite at
most of the courts of Europe. He published
fourteen volumes on miscellaneous subjects,
among which are various remarks on gardens,
and especially on those of England. He flourished
during the reigns of Frederick the Great of
Prussia and Catharine II. of Russia, and died at
an advanced age at Vienna, in 1814.

Lignum vitae tree, guaiacum officinale.

Ligusticum, lovage, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae,
H. peren. Eur. and a bien. of common culture.

Ligustrum, privet, dian. monog. and oleinese, H. tr.
Brit, and China, of the easiest culture, and in-
creased by cuttings or seeds.

Lilac, — see Syringa.

Liliura, lily, hexan. monog. and liliacese, H. peren.
Eur. Amer. and India, bulbs, highly esteemed as
border-flowers, 6311.

Lily, — see Lilium.

Lily of the valley, — see Convallaria.

Lily.pink, aphyllanthes monospeliensis.

Lily-thorn, — see Catesbaea.

Limax, the slug, and helix, the snail, to destroy,
2275.

Lime-tree, — see Ulia.

Limerick, gardens of, 7668.

Limeum, heptan. dig. and portulaceae, a G. peren.
which grows in sandy loam and peat, and cuttings
under a hand-glass root readily.

Limnetis, trian. monog. and gramineaj, H. peren.
Eur. and Amer. grasses of easy culture.

Limodorum, gynan. monnn. and orchideae, a G,
peren. Japan, which thrives best in loam and
peat and some bits of sticks and stones mixed with
it, and is increased by dividing at the root.

Limonia, decan. monog. and aurantese, S. tr. India
and China, which grow in loam and peat with
some rotten dung ; ripened cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass in a moist heat.

Limosella, mudwort, didyn. angios. and scrophu-
larineas, a H. an. Brit, a marsh plant of easy
culture.

Linaria, tond-flax, didyn. angios. and scrophula-
rinese, F. and H. peren. and an. Eur. and Amer.
which grow freely in common soil, and the
more delicate kinds root readily by cuttingc
under a hand-glass.

GENERAL INDEX.

1203

Lancolnshire, gardens and residences of, 7577.
Lindegaard, Peter, CM. H S., his tract on forcing

grapes, page 1113. A.D. Ibll.
Landernia, didyn. angios. and scrophularineze, a H.

an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Liulithgowshire, gardens of, 7632.

Linnaaa, didyn, angios. and caprifoleae, a H. peren.
Scot a trailing plant, which answers well for pots
or rockwork ; it grows in loam and peat, and
strikes freely by cuttings.

Linnsan Society, their published transactions as to
gardening, page 1110. A.D. 1791.

Linrueus, Sir Charles Von, &c. his works on garden,
ing, page 1130. A. D. 1739.

Linociera, dian. monog. and oleina, a S. tr. W. Ind.
which grows freely in loam and peat, and cuttings
root under a hand-glass in sand.

Linum, flax, pentan. pentag. and caryophyllcae, G.
tr. Eur. and India, which grow in loam and ^at,
and cuttings root readily in the same kind ot soil
under a band-glass ; the H. peren. and an. are of
easy culture.

Lion's tail, — see Leonotis.

Liiparia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, G. tr.
C. B. S. which thrive well in loam and peat with
little water ; and very young tops root in sand
under a bell-glass.

Liquid manures, 1162.

Liquidamber, monoec. polyan, and amentaceae, H.
tr. Amer. which grow in any common soil, and
are increased by layers.

Liriodendron, tulip-tree, polyan. polyg. and magno-
liaceae, a H. tr. N. Amer. which grows in loamy
soil, and generally increased by seeds brought
from America, which are two years of coming up.

Lisianthus, pentan. monog. and gentianes, S. tr.
and a peren. W. Ind. which grow in loam and
peat, cuttings root readily in sand under a bell-
glass.

Ldsmore, a seat in the county of Waterford, 7665.

Lissander, Andrew, his works on gardening, page
1130. A. D. 1768.

Lissige, a seat in Down, 7683.

Ldstera, gynan. monan. and orchideae, H. peren.
Brit which grow best in a light soil and shady
situation, even under trees, and is increased by
dividing at the roots.

Lists and other ties used for fastening wall and espa-
lier trees, 1515 and 1519.

Literature of gardening, 7685.

Lithospermum, gromwell, pentan. monog. and bora-
gineae, H. peren. and an. Eur. of common cul-
ture.

Little Aston, Staffordshire, 7570.

Littorella, shore weed, moncEC. tetraa and planta-
ginea, a H. peren. Brit. an. aquatic

Livermere, a seat in Suffolk, 75o2.

Liverpool botanic garden, 7588.

Lizard's tail, saururus cemuus.

Llanarth House, Monmouthshire, 7567.

Llanerth House, Denbighshire, 7605.

Llangard Castle, Merionethshire, 7612.

Llantryddyd, a seat in Glamorganshire, 7608.

Llanwem House, Monmouthshire, 7567.

Loader, an anchorsmith and anabaptist, at Green-
wich, who had a fine garden and conservatory
in Evelyn's time, 227.

Loaving, — see Heading.

Lob. ic, Plantarum seu Stirpium icones.

Lobelia cardinalis, fulgens, and splendens, 6459.

Lobelia, pentan. monog. and campanulacea>, G. tr.
and F. peren. Amer. C.B.S. and Eur. which thrive
in any light rich soil, and cuttings root freely ;
the H. peren?are of easy culture, chiefly as marsh
plants ; L. dortmanna is an aquatic.

Locke, John, his writings on gardening, page 1107.
A. D. 1766.

Locke Park, Derbyshire, 7574.

Lockington Hall, Leicestershire, 7573.

Locust-tree of America, robinia pseudacacia, 7105.

Locust-tree of the bible, ceratonia siliqua.

Loddigcs, Conrad, and Sons, their works on garden-
ing, page 1108. A. D. 1777.

Loddigesia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a G.
tr. C.B S. which grows best in equal parts of sandy
loam and peat, and young cuttings root freely in
sand under a bell-glass.

Loeflingia, trian. monog. and caryophylleje, a H.an.
Spain, of common culture.

Logania, pentan. monog. and gentianeae, G. tr.
Austral, which thrive best in sandy loam and
peat, and ripened cuttings may be struck in sand
under a hand-glass.

4

Logwood, hsmatoxylon campecbianum.

Loisleur de Longchampt, M. D. 56 j his works on

gardening, page 1121. A. D. 181-.
Looking-glass plant, heritiera littoralis.
Lolium, darnel, trian. dig, and graminese, H. peren.

and an Eur. grasses of easy culture.
Lomatia, tetran. monog. and proteacese, G. tr.

N. S. \V. which grow in sandy loam and i)eat, and

ripened cuttings, taken off at a joint, root in sand

under a hand-glass.
Lombardy, gardening of, 82.
Lomonosow, his poem on gardening, page 1131.

A. D. 18. ^

Lonchitis, cryptog. Alices and filicesB, a S. peren.

W. Ind. a fern of the usual culture.
London and Wise, their works on gardeninir. Dsee

1101. A. D. 1699,
London Horticultural Society, their transactions.

page 1114. A. D, 1815.
Longford, county or as to gardening, 7663.
Longleat, a seat in Wiltshire, 7597,
Lon^orth, Herefordshire, 7568.
Lonicera, honeysuckle, pentan. monog. and caprifo-

leas, F. and H. tr. Eur. and Amer. climbers and

twiners, which grow in any common soil, and

cuttings taken off in autumn, and planted in a

sheltered situation, root readily.
Loose-strife, — see Lysimachia.
Lop (from loop, Dut. or laub, Teut. a leaf), the leaf

or tops of trees. To lop, i. e. to cut off the tops of

trees.
Lopezia, dian. monog. and onagrareaj, S. bien. and

a H. an. Mex. of common culture.
Lophiola, hexan. monog. and haemodoracese, a H.

peren. N. Amer. which thrives best in a peat soil

m moist situations, and is increased by dividing at

the root.
Loquat-apple, — see Mespilus
Lorentz, J B , his works on gardening

page 1121. A. D. 1803. *

Lotus, birdsfoot-trefoil, diadel. decan. and legu-

minoseas, G. tr. Eur. and Asia, which grow freely

in any light rich soil, and young cuttings root

freely under a hand-glass.
Loudon Castle, Ayrshire, 7627.
Loudon, John Claudius, his works on eardenlne.

page 1112. A. D. 1803, * *

Loureira, dioec. monad, and a S. tr.

Mex. which grows in loam and peat, and may

be increased by cuttings in sand luider a bell-glaw

in heat
Lousewort, — see Pedicularis.
Lovage, ligusticum levisticum.
Love-apple, — see Solanum.
Love-grass, poa megastachya.
Lowth, county of, as to gardening, 7664,
Luder, Fr. Hm. H., his works on eardeninc. oaee

1124. A. D. 1768. ** ^'^

Ludwigia. tetran. monog. and onagrarea, a H.

peren. and an. N. Amer. marsh plants.
Luffa, monoec. pentan. and cucurbitaceae, a F. an

Indian, of common culture, 1664.
Lullworth Castle, Dorsetshire, 7598.
Lunaria, honesty, tetradynamia sUiculosa, and

crucifereas, a H. peren. and bien. Germ, of com-
mon culture.
Lundie House, a seat in Perthshire, 7636.
Lundric, , a French author on gardening,

page 1115. A. D. 1580.
Lungwort, — see Pulmonana.
Lupin, , his works on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1820.
Lupinaster, bastard-Iupine, diadel. decan. and legu.
minosese, a H. peren. Siber. which thrives in light
loam, and is increased by seeds.
Lupine, — see Lupinus.
Lupinus, lupine, diadeL decan. and leguminoseae,

H. and F. peren. and an. Eur. which thrive in
light rich soil, and are increased by seeds, or the
peren. sorts by pieces of the roots.
Lurgan, a seat in the county of Leitrim, 7674.
Lurgan House, a seat in Armagh, 7Q32.
Luscombe House, Devonshire, 7600.
Luton Hoo, Bedfordshire, 7549.
Luxembourg, gardens of, at Paris, 161.
Luzula, hexan. monog. and junces, H, peren. Eur.

grasses of easy culture,
Lychnidea, — see Phlox.

Lychnis, decan. pentag. and caryophylles, G. and

H. peren. and an. Eur. and China, of common

culture in peat and loam.

Lycium, box-thorn, pentan. monog. and solaneae, S.

andG, tr. Eur. Air. and Asia, which thrive. in

H 2

1204

GENERAL INDEX.

loam and peat, and ripened cuttings in sand under
a hand-glass, root freely.

Lycopodium, club-moss, cryptog. stachyopterides,
and lycopodineje, H. peren. Eur. and Amer. bog-
plants, which grow in peat soil in pots placed
in pans of water, and are increased by suckers or
cuttings.

Lycopsis, wild bugloss, pentan. monog. and bora-
gincs, H. peren. and an. Eur. of common culture.

Lycopus, water-horehound, dian. monog. and labia-
tes, H. peren. Brit, of common culture.

Lydney Park, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Lygeum, trian. monog. and gramineas, a H. peren.
Spain, a grass of easy culture.

Lygodium, snake's tongue, cryptog. schismatop-
terides and filicese, H. peren. K Ind. a climbing
fern, which grows freely in loam and peat, and
may be increased by dividing at the root or by
seed.

Lyme Hall, Cheshire, 7590.

Lyon, Peter, his writings on gardening, page 1114.
A. D. 1813.

Lysimachia, loose-strife, pentan. monog. and pri-
mulaceae, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. and Amer.
most of them marsh plants, some trailers or
creepers, and all of easy culture.

Lysinema, pentan. monog. and epacridese, a G. tr.
N. S. W. which grows best in rough sandy peat,
and cuttings not too young, planted in sand under
a bell-glass, root freely.

Lythrum, dodec. monog. and salicareae, a G. peren.
and an. Brit, and H. peren. and an. Brit, and
Amer. which grows freely in any rich, light soil,
and are increased by cuttings under a hand-glass,
by division at the root, or by seeds.

M.

Maba, dioec. hexan. and dioscoreae, a S. tr. R Ind.
which thrives well in loam and peat, and ripened
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Mnbily , his tract on gardening, page 1129. A. D.

1817.

Macaw-tree, cocos fusiformis.

Macdonald, Alexander, a fictitious name adopted
by Dr. Dickson as the compiler of a gardener's
dictionary, page 1113. A. D. 1805.

Machines, meteorological, Sikes's registering ther-
mometer, Kewley' s alarum thermometer, auto-
maton gardener, 1488. to 1490.

Machines of defence, 1473 ; scare, bird-trap, bird-
net, mouse-trap, garden rat-trap, mole-trap, ear-
wig and beetle-trap, wasp and fly-trap, man-trap,
humane man-trap, spring-gun, concealed alarum,
common gun or musket (from mangon, a warlike
machine, used before the invention of fire-arms,
or musquet, from mous(juet, Fr.), fumigating bel-
lows, various means, 14/4. to 1486.

Machines of labor,- 1440; common wheelbarrow,
separating barrow, new ground-work barrow,
water-barrow, hand-barrow, barrow watering-
engine, curved barrel-engine, self-acting green-
house engine, roller, carriage water-barrel, water-
ing-roller, hand-spokes, common garden- ladder,
rule-jointed ladder, step-ladder, wheel-platform,
boat-scythe, grindstone, tree-transplanter, German
devil, hydrostatic press, seed-separater, 1441. to
1471.

Machines used in gardening, 1439.

M'Leish, Alexander, a landscape-gardener, resid-
ent in Dublin, 7652.

WMahon, B., his work on gardening, page 1131.
A. D. 1806.

WPhail, James, his works on gardening, page
1110. A. D. 1794.

Macrocnemum, pentag. monog. and rubiaceae, a S.
tr. Jamaica, which grows in loam and peat, and
strikes by cuttings freely.

Macropodium, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereae, a H.
peren. Siber. which grows in light, rich loam, and
cuttings root freely under a hand-glass.

Madder, — see Rubia.

Maddock, James, his work on gardening, page 1110.
A. D. 1792.

Madia, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae, a
H. an Chili, of common culture.

Madingley, a seat in Cambridgeshire, 7551.

Madresfield, a seat in Worcestershire, 7566.

Madwort,^see Alyssum.

Maeslough, a seat in Radnorshire, 7610.

Magnolia, polyan. and magnoliaceae, G. and H. trs

^ Amer. which require a peat soil and a moist situ-

ation, and are generally increased by layers or
seeds ; the leaves are large, and must not be cut
off when the layers are removed from the stools ;
— see 6562.

Mahernia, pentan. pentag. and tiliaceae, G. tr.
C.B.S. which grow in loam and peat, and young
cuttings taken off at a joint, and planted under a
hand-glass, in the same soil, readily strike root

Mahogany, — see Swietenia.

Maiden-hair, — see Ceterach.

Maiden-nut, justicia malabarica.

Maiden-plum, — see Comocladia.

Malabar rtight-shade, — see Basella.

Malachra, monadel. polyan. and malvaceae, a S. an.
W. Ind. of common culture.

Malaxis, gvnan. monan. and orchideae, H. peren.
Eng. and' N. Amer. which grow in sandy loam
and peat, and are increased by offsets from the
root or seeds.

Malay apple, eugenia malaccensis, 5986.

Malcomia, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereae, H. an. Eur.
and Afr. of common culture.

Mallet, Robert Xavier, his works on gardening,
page 1119. A. D. 1775.

Mallow, — see Malva.

Malo, Charles, his work on gardening, page 1122.
A. D. 1815.

Malope, monad, polyan. and malvaceae, a G. biea.
and an. Barb, of easy culture.

Malpighia, Barbadoes cherry, decan. trig, and mal-
pighiacese, S. tr. W. Ind. and Amer. which grow
in light loam, and ripened cuttings are not diffi-
cult to root under a hand-glass in sand.

Malta, gardening of, 506.

Malva, mallow, monad, polyan. and malvaceae, G.
tr. Eur. As. Afr. and H. an. and bien. Eur. which
succeed in any light, rich soil, and cuttings root
freely under a bell-glass in sand, or under a hand-
glass in any light soil ; seeds are also frequently
produced.

Mammea, mammee-tree, polyan. monog. and gut-
tifere£e. a S. tr. S. Amer. the mammee-tree, 5198.

Mammee-tree, — see Mammea.

Management of gardens, science of, 2334.

Mancnineel, hippomane manchinella.

Mandirola, , his works on gardening, page 1118.

A. D. 1763

Mandragora, mandrake, pentand. monog. and sola-
ncEE, a H. peren. Levant, which succeeds well in
light, sandy soil, and is increased by seeds.

Mandrake, — see Mandragora.

Manettia, tetran. monog. and rubiaceje, a S. tr.
Guiana, which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand under a bell-glass.

Mangifera, mango-tree, pentan. monog. and tere-
bintaceae, a S. tr. E. Ind. 5996.

Mango-tree, mangifera indica, 5996.

Mangosteen, — see Garcinia.

Manisuris, polyg. moncec. and gramineae, S. an. E.
Ind. of common culture.

Mansion and offices, their situation, 7249.

Mansion-residences, 7271 ; their management, 7443.

Manulea, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, G. tr.
bien. and an. C.B S. which grow in light, rich soil,
and are readily increased by young cuttings
planted under a hand-glass.

Manures, 1111; of animal and vegetable origin,
1112 ; theory of their operations, from land plants,
sea weeds, dry straw, inert i)eaty matter, wood-
ashes, animal substances, bones, blood, urine,
night-soil, dung of fowls, of cattle, preservation
of manures of animal and vegetable origin, 1113.
to 1162.

Manures of mineral origin, 1163; theory of their
operation, different species, lime, chalk, marl,
magnesia, gypsum, application of mineral ma-
nures, 1164. to 1194.

Maple-tree, — see Acer.

Maranta, arrow-root, monan. monog. and canneas,
S. peren. S. Amer. which thrive in light, rich soil,
and are increased by dividing at the root.
Marattia, crjptog. poropterides and filiceae, a S.

peren Jamaica, a fern of common culture.
Marble Hill, a seat in Middlesex,7520.
Marble Hill Cottage, Middlesex, 7520.
Marcgravia, polyan. monog. and capparideae, a S.
tr. W. Ind. which grows in loam and peat, and
roots by cuttings.

Marchant, , a French author on gardening,

page 1116. A. D. 1701.
Marechal, Pierre Sylvain, his works on gardening,

l>age 1119. A. D. 1780.
Mare's tail, — see Hippuris.

GENERAL INDEX.

1205

Marginal banks of water, how to improve, 722.

Margram, a seat in Glamorganshire, 7608.

Marica, trian. monog. and irideae, S. tr. and
peren. S. Amer. which grow in loam and peat,
and are increased by ofeets from the roots or
seeds.

Marigold, — see Calendula.

Marino, a seat near Dublin, 7653.

Mariscus, trian. monog. and cj-peraceae, S. peren.

E. Ind. mosses of easy culture.
Marjoram, — see Origanum.
Market for seeds in Mark Lane, 7515.

Market for vegetables and fruits in Covent-garden,

&c. 7514.
Market-gardeners, 7396.

Market-gardens, their formation, 7358 ; manage-
ment, 7-k}/ ; market-gardens of Middlesex, 7517.
Markham, Ger\ase, his work on gardening, page

1099. A. D. 1623.
Marrubium, horehound, didyn. gymnos. and labia-

tesB, Ci. tr. and H. peren. Eur. and C. B. S. of

easy culture.
Marsden Park, Essex, 7541.
Marsden Park, Surrey, 7528.
Marsdenia, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeaj, a S. and

G. tr. Syria and N. S. W. which thrive in loam

and peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under

a hand-glass.
Marsh-mallow, — see Althaea.
Marsh-marigold, — see Caltha.
Marsh plant*, table of, 652-.
Marshal, Humphrey, his work on gardening, page

1131. A. D. 1785.
Marshal, the Rev. Charles, his work on gardening,

page 1112. A. D. 1796.
Marshal, William, Esq., his works on gardening,

page 1109. A. D. 1785.
Marshallia, sjiigen. polyg. aequal. and corymbifereae,

F. peren. Carol which grow in loam and peat,
and are increased by cuttings or dividing at the
root.

Marskam, Robert, Esq. F.II.S., his writings on gar-
dening, page 1105. A. D. 1758.

Martagon, — see Fritillaria.

Martagon, — see Liliura.

Mariyn, Thomas, B.D. F.R.S. his works on gar-
dening, page 1110. A. D. 1792.

Martj-nia, didyn. angios. and bignoniacea, S. and

G. an. Amer. of easy culture.
Marvel of Peru, — see' Mirabilis.
Mary-le-bonne nurserj-, 7518.

Mason, George, Esq., his work on gardening, page
1107. A. D. 1768.

Mason, the Rev. William, the poet, his works on
gardening, page 1108. A. D. 1772.

Masse, Jean, his works on gardening, page 1118,
A. D. 1766.

Masson de Blamont, C. F. P., his work on garden-
ing, page 1119. A.D. 1790.

Massonia, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, G. peren.
C. B. S. bulbs which grow in loam and peat with
little water, and are increased by offsets or by

Masterwort, — see Imperatoria.

Mastick-tree, pistacia lentiscus.

Mat-grass, — see Nardus.

Materials of landscape-gardening, their union in

forming the constituent scenes of a country-resid-
ence, 7248.
Mathiola, stock, tetraad. siliq. and crucifereae, G.

tr. and bien. and H. an. Eur. of easy culture, and

increased by cuttings and seeds.
Matricaria, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbiferese,

a G. bien. and H. an. Eur. and C. B. S. of easy

culture.
Mattisfont House, Hampshire, 7594.
Maupin, , his works on gardening, page 11 18.

A. D. 1763.
Maurandia, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, G.

tr. Mex. cUrabers which thrive in any light,

rich soil, and are increased by seeds or young

cuttings under a hand-glass.
Maurice, tlie Rev. Thomas, MA. his works on

gardening, page 1108. A.D. 1//7.
Mawe, Thomas, as an author on gardenmg, page

1107. A. D. 1767.
^lay apple, — see Podophyllum.
Mayer, Frederick, his Gardener's Kalendar, page

liai. A.D. 1805.
Mayer, J. F., his works on gardening, page 1124.

A. D. 1778.
Mayer, J. Jac, liis works on ganlening, page 1125.

A. D. 1793.

4

Mayer, or Meyer, John, his work on gardenings
page 1124. A. D. 1776.

Mayo, county of, as to gardening, 7673.

Maze, — see Labyrinth.

Mazus, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, F. an.
China, of common culture, 1664.

Mtader, James, his works on gardening, page 1108.
A. D. 1771.

Meadow-grass, — see Poa.

Meadow Promenade, Edinburgh, 7313.

Meadow-rue — see Thalictrum.

Meadow-saxifrage, — see Seseli.

Meager, Leonard, his works on gardening, page
1101. A. D. 1682.

Medeola. hexan. trig, and smilacese, a H. peren.
Virginia, which succeeds best in light soil, and is
increased by dividing the root.

Medhurst, his weighing-machine, preferable for the
gardener's seed and fruit room, 1702.

Medicago, medick, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae,
F. and H. tr. and H. peren. Eur. all of easy cul-
ture, in light soil.

Medick, — see Medicago.

Medikus, Frederick Casirair, his work on gardening,
page 1124. A. D. 1782.

Medlar, — see Mespilus.

Meend Park, Herefordshire, 7568.

Melaleuca, polyad. icos. and myrteaceae, S. and G.
tr. Austral, which grow in sandy loam and peat,
and ripened cuttings not too old will root in sandy
loam under a bell-glass.

Melampodium, syngen. polyg. necess. and corym-
bifereae, H. an. W. Ind. of common culture. .

Melampyrum, cow-wheat, didyn. angios. and scro-
phularineae, H. an. Eng. of common culture.

Melananthera, syngen. polyg. aequal and corym-
biferejB, a S. bien. and G. peren. Amer. which
thrive well in loam and peat, and cuttings root
freely under a hand-glass.

Melanthium, hexan. trig, and melanthaceas, G.
peren. C. B. S. bulbs which may be treated like ixia.

Melasphaerula, triand. monogy'n. and iridea, a G
lieren. C.B.S. a bulb which "hiay be treated as ixia.

Melastoma, decan. monog. and melastomeae, S. tr.
which thrive in loam and peat, require little
water in winter, and young cuttings root readily
under a hand-glass in moist heat.

Melbum, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.

Melchett Park, Wiltshire, 7596.

Melhania, monadel. pentand. and malvaceae, S. tr.
St. Helena, which grow freely in sandy loam and
cuttings root in sand under a bell-glass.

Melia, bead-tree, decan. monog. and meliaces, a S.
tr. and G. tr. E. and W. Ind. and Syria, which
grow in loam and peat, and cuttings root imder
a hand-glass in sand.

Melianthus, honey-flower, didyn. angios. and ruta-
ce2e, G. tr. which thrive in rich, light soil, and
cuttings planted under a hand-glass will root freely.

Melic-grass, — see Melica.

Melica, melic grass, trian. dig. and gramineae, H.
peren. Eur. and Amer. grasses of easy culture.

Melicocca, honey-berry, octan. monog. and sa-
pindeae, a S. tr. Jam.' which thrives best in light
loam, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass in heat

Mehlot, trifolium melilot

Melilotus, melilot, diadel decan. and leguminoseae,
H. bien. and an. Eur. of easy culture, and in-
creased by seed.

Melimala (from mel, honey, and malum, an apple),
sweet apples, 52.

MeUssa, balm, didjm. gymnoa. and iabiateae, a H.
peren. S. Eur. 4253.

Melittis, bastard-balm, didyn. gymnos. and Iabiateae,
a H. peren. Eur. of easy culture, 4149.

Melochia, monad, pentan. and malvaceae, & tr. and
an. W. and E. Ind. which grow in light loam,
and cuttings root under a hand-glass in heat.

Melodinus, pentan. dig. and apocyneas, a S. tr. N,
Caledonia, a climber which grows freely in loam
and peat, and cuttings root readily in sand under
a bell-glass.

Melon, — see Cucumis.

Melon-pit, at Edmonstone, 2685.

Melon-pit, Knight's, 2684.

Melonry, 2479.

MtloUiria, trian. monog. and cucurbitaceae, a H.
an. Amer. of common culture.

Melton on the Hill, Yorkshire, 7582.

Melville Castle, Midlothian, 7618.

Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc., Memoirs of the Caledonian
Horticultural Society, page 1113. A. D. 1810.
H 3

1206

GENERAL INDEX.

Memecylon, octan. monog. and santalaceae, a S. tr.
^ E. Ind. which grows in sandy loam and peat, and
. young cuttings in sand under a hand-glass root

freely.
Menabilly, a seat in Cornwall, 7601.
Menageries of the Paris garden, 7333.
Menisciura, cryptog. filices, a S, peren. Martinico,

a fern of common culture.
Menispermum, moon-seed, monoec. dodec. and

menispermes, a H. tr. N. Amer. which thrives

in loam and peat, and cuttings root readily .under

a hand-glass.
Mentha, mint, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, a S.

peren. and H. peren. Eur. and Asia, of the easiest

culture.
Mentha piperita, the peppermint, M. viridis, the

spearmint, and M. pulegium, the penny-royal,

Mentzelia, polyan. monog. and loasese, a S. an. and
G. peren. Amer. which grow readily in loam and
; peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.
Menyanthes, buckbean, pentan. monog. and gen-

tianeee, a H. peren. Brit a marsh plant.
Menziesia, octandr. digyn. and rhodoraceae, H. tr.

Eur. and Amer. which thrive in peat soil, and

are propagated by layers.
Mercurialis, dicec. ennean. and euphorbiacese, H.

peren. and an. Eur. of the easiest culture.
Mercury, — see Mercurialis.
Merevale, a seat in Warwickshire, 7571.
Merionethshire, gardens and residences of, 7612.
Merlet, Jean, a French author on gardening, page

1116. A. D. 1675. ^ ^

Merulius destruens, a fungus commonly called the

dry rot, — to guard against in timber, 6956.
Merville, a seat near Dublin, 7653.
Mesembryanthemum, fig-marigold, icos. di-pentag.

and ficoideae, G. tr. peren. and an. C. B. S. and
; Austral, succulents of easy culture in loam and
1 lime-rubbish, and the annual species in rather

richer soil, 6657.
Mespilus, icos. di-pentag. and rosaceae, G. and H.

tr. Amer. and Eur. which grow in any common
I soil, and are increased by seeds or by budding on

the common thorn, M. oxyacantha.
Mespilus oxyacantha, the hawthorn, 7120.
Mespilus germanica, the medlar, 4465.
Mespilus japonica, the loquat-apple, 5994.
Metrosideros, icos. monog. and myrteaceae, G. tr.

which grow in loam and peat, and ripened cut-
; tings may be rooted, but not without difficulty,

in sand under a bell-glass.
Meum, bawd-money, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae,

H. peren. and bien. Eur. of common culture.
Meursius, John, his work on gardening, page 1129.

A. D. 1613.
Mich. Amer., Andr. INfichaux, Flora Boreali-Ame-

ricana.
Mich. Querc, Histoire des Chines de I'Am^rique

Septentrionale, par Andr^ Michaux.
Micnaux, F. A., his works on gardening, page 1121.

A. D. 1805.
Michauxia, octan. monog. and campanulaceas, a G

bien. Levant, of common culture.
Michel Grove, Sussex, 7531.

Michelia, tetran. monog. and rubiaceae, a S. tr. N.
, Amer. which succeeds well in light, loamy soil,
) and ripened cuttings do best under a hand-glass in

sand in heat.
Microchloa, trian. dig. and gramineffi, a H. an. E

Ind. a grass of common culture.
Microloma, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeae, a G, tr,

C. B. S. which thrives in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root readily in sand under a bell-glass.
Micropus, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbiferese,

H. an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Middlesex, gardens and country-residences of, 7513.
Middleton Hall, Caermarthenshire, 7614.
Middleton Stoney, a seat in Oxfordshire, 7558.
Midlothian, gardens and residences of, 7618.
Mignonette, — see Reseda.
Mikania, syngen. polyg. asqual. and corymbiferese,

S. tr. and a G. peren. W. Ind. which grow freely

in rich, light soil, and cuttings root readily.
Milburn Tower, a seat near Edinburgh, 7618.
Mildew, 880.
Mile-end nursery, 7518.
Milfoil, — see Achillea.
Milium, millet-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae, H.

peren. and an. Eur. grasses of common culture.
Milk-parsley, — see Selinum.
Milk-vetch, — see Astragalus,

Milk-wood, brosimum spurium.
Milk-wort, — see Polygala.

Mill. Diet., Professor Martyn's edition of Phil
Miller's Gardener's Dictionary, 4 vols. fol. 1807.
Mill, ic. Figures of plants, described in the Gar-
dener's Dictionary, by Phil. Miller.
Miller, Philip, F. R. S., his works on gardening,

page 1103. A. D. 1724.
Milleria, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbiferex,

S. an. S. Amer. of common culture.
Millet-grass, — see Milium.
Milton Abbey, Dorsetshire, 7598.
Mimetes, tetran. monog. and proteaceaj, G. tr.
C. B. S. which thrive in two thirds loam and one
third sand, with the pots well drained ; ripened
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass, care
being taken to prevent damping off.
Mimosa, polyg. monoec. and leguminoseas, S. tr.
bien. and an. E and W. Ind. which thrive well
in loam and peat, and cuttings of such sorts as do
not ripen seed will root, if planted young, in sand
under a bell-glass.
Mimulus, monkey-flower, didyn. angios. and scro-
phularineJB, a G. tr. G. and F. and H. peren.
Amer. which thrive in common soil ; the woody
species is increased by cuttings, and the others by
dividing at the root, or by seeds.
Mimusops, octan. monog. and sapoteee, S. tr. E Ind.
which grow in loam and peat, and ripened
cuttings root readily in sand under a hand-glass.
Mint, — see Mentha.
Minto House, Roxburghshire, 7621.
Minuartia, trian. trig, and caryophylleae, H. an.

Spain, of common culture.
Mirabilis, marvel of Peru, pentan. monog. and nyc-
tagine«, G. peren. India, which grow in light
rich soil, and will flower well in the open air in
summer; but their roots, which are fusiform,
must be taken up and replanted next year : they
are readily increased by seeds, and are generally
treated as half-hardy annuals.
Mirbel, C. F. Briseau, a celebrated French author

on vegetable physiology, 549.
Mirbelia, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, G. tr.
Austral, which grow in loam and peat, and young
cuttings root without difficulty in sand under a
a bell-glass.
Miscellaneous articles, flower-stand, basket flower-
border, parterre-edgings, earthenware border,
bass-mats, prepared coverings, straw-coverings,
reed-coverings, protecting bags, feet or shoe-
scraper, props for plants, spray or branches, wall-
tree nails, lists, mat-ties, osier-twigs, boards and
planks, tressels, — see Instruments, Implements,
and Utensils, and Structures of gardening.
Miscellaneous articles used in gardening, 1491.
Mistletoe, — see Viscum.
Mistey Hall, Essex, 7542.

Mitchella, polyan. polyg. and magnoliaceas, a H. tr.
E. Ind. a diminutive creeper which grows in peat
soil, and is readily increased by layers.
Mitella, decan. dig. and saxifrageae, H. peren. N.
Amer. rockwork plants, which prefer light rich
soil, and are increased by dividing at the root.

Mizauld, , a French writer on gardening, page

1115. A. D. 1564.
Moat, a seat in the county of Mayo, 7673.
Moccas Court, Herefordshire, 7568.
Moehringia, octan. dig. and car yophy Ilea?, a H. pe-
ren. S. Eur. a rockwork plant, or one well adapt-
ed for small pots ; it grows in loam and peat, and
is increased by dividing at the root.
Moenchia, tetran. tetrag. and caryophylleas, a H,
an. Brit of easy culture.

Moer, M , his works on gardening, page 1118.

A. D. 1754.
Moist-stove, — see Bark-stove.
Mollet, Andre, a French author on gardening, page

1115. AD. 1651.

Mollet, Claude, a French author on gardening, page

1116. A. D. 1652.

Mollia, pentan. monog. and amaranthacese, a G. tr
and an. Canaries, which grow in light soil, and
cuttings root readily under a hand-glass.

MoUugo, trian. trig, and caryophyllea;, a H. an.
Virginia, of common culture.

Molucca balm, — see Moluccella.

Moluccella, a H. peren. and an. Eur. and Asia,
of easy culture.

Momordica, moncec. monad, and cucurbitaces, a
H. peren. and F. an. E. and W. Indies, of easy
culture in rich soil, and increased by seeds.

Monaghan, county of, as to gardening, 7678.

GENERAL INDEX.

1207

Ifonarda, dian. monog. and labiates, H. peren. of

the easiest culture.
Mamhead, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.
Monetia, tetran. monog. and cordiaces, a S. tr.

E Ind. which grows in sand and peat, and roots

in sand under a hand-glass in heat.
Money Musk, a seat in Aberdeenshire, 7639.
Moneywort, lysimachia nummularia,
Mong'ewell, a seat in Oxfordshire, 7558.
Monkey-flower, — see Mimulus^
Monk's Grove, a seat in Surrey, 7527.
Monkshood, — see Aconitum.
Monkwood botanic garden and nursery, Ayrshire,

7627. .
Monmouthshire, gardens and residences of, 7567.
Monnieria, diadeL pentan. and , a S.

an. Guiana, of common culture.
Monotoca, pentan. monc^. and epacrides, G. tr.

Austral which grow in loam and peat, well

drained, and young cuttings root in sand under a

bell-glass.
Monotropa, yellow bird's nest, decan. monog. and

ericineiP, a' H. peren. Brit, which may be treated

as cuscuta.
Monsonia, monad, dodecan. and geraniacese, a G.
, tr. peren. and a bien. C. B. S. which may be treat-
ed as pelargonium.
MorUeiUi, , his work on planting, page 1114

A. D. 1819.
MonteUh's timber-measurer, 6970.
Montgomeryshire, gardens juid residences of, 7611.
Monthly Catalceue of Floricultural Productions,

6741.
Monthly Catalogue of Horticultural Productions,

6038.
Montia, water-chickweed, trian. dig. and portula-

ceae, a H. arL Brit of common culture.
Montinia, dicec. tetran. and onagrarije, a G. tr.

C. B. S. which grows well in loam and peat, and

cuttings root freely under a hand-glass.
Montreuil, a seat of the Princess Gremen^, near

Paris, 169.
MontpeUer, A , his works on gardening, page

1122. A. D. 1815.
Montreuil, gardens of, 193.
Monuments, as garden buildings, 1842.
Monza, a royal seat near Milan, 83.
Moon, supposed influence of in gardening, 448.
Moon-trefoil, medicago arborea.
Moonseed, — see Menispennum.
Mooiiwort, — see Botrychium.
Moor Park, Hertfordshire, 7545.
Moor Park, Surrey, 7528.
Moorfield, a seat in the county of Cork, 7666.
Moraea, trian. monog. and irid'ese, G. and H. peren.
, C. B. S. chiefly bulbs which grow in loam and
( decayed leaves, require no water when not in a
[ growing state, and should be fresh potted once

a-year ; they are increased by o£&ets and seeds.
Morayshire, as to gardening, 7641.
Morden Park, Surrey, 7527.

Mordun ,'more done;, a seat near Edinburgh, 414.
More, Sir Thomas, his works on gardening, page

1104. A.D. 1732.
More Critchet, a seat in DorsetsHTre, 7598.
Morea, gardening and botany of, 311.
Morel, N , his works on gardening, page 1118.

A. D. 1757.
Moriarty, Mrs. Henrietta Maria, her works on gar-
dening, page 1113. A. D. 1803.
Morier, James, author of two joumej-s in Persia,

in 1812 and 1818, 466.
Morin, Pierre, a French author on gardening, page

1116. A. D. 1658.
Morina, dian. monog. and dipsaceae, a G. peren.

Persia, which grows in rich light soil, and may be

increased by dividing at the root or by seed.
Morinda, pentan. monog. and rubiaceae, S. tr. Ind.
, which grow in loam and peat, and cuttings root

readily in sand under a hand-glass.
Moris, ftis.") Rob. Morison, Historia Flantarum
Moris. S. 3 Universalis Oxoniensis.
Morli, gardens of, in Derbyshire, 320.
Mortar, Fr. Jos., his works on gardening, page 1124.

A. D. 1781.
'Morthner, John, bis work on husbandry, page 1101.

A. D. 1707.
Morton Hall, Midlothian, 7618.
Morus, mulberry, moncec. tetran. and urticeae, a S.

tr. and H. tr. Ind. Italy, and Amer. which prefer

rich soil, and are increased by seeds, layers, or

cuttings.
-Morus nigra, the garden mulberrj-, 4596.

4

Moschatel, —see Adoxa.

Moss-houses, as garden structtures, 1816L ,

Motherwort, — see Matricaria.

Mould, finely comminuted soil.

Mould-scuttle, mould-basket, 1S96. and 1401.

Mount Edgecumbe, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.

Mount Meredith, a seat in the county of Kerry,

7670.
Moimt Merrion, a seat near Dublin, 7653.
Mount Stewart, a seat in Buteshire, 7650.
Mountain, Didymus, his works on gardening, page

1(j99. a. D. 1571.
Mountain ebony, — see Bauhinia.
Mouse-ear chickweed, — Cerastium.
Mouse-taU, myosurus minimus.
Mousetrap of^he planter, 7027.
Moving Dlant, hedysarum gyrans.
Mowing, 1891.

Movie's Court, Hampshire, 7594.
Movra, or Moira Castle, in Downshire, 7683.
Moxard, , his works on gardening, page 1122.

A. D. 1815.
Mudwort, limosella aquatica.
Mugwort, artemisia vulgaris.
Mulberry, — see Morus.
Mulching, 2098.

Mule's fern, asploiium hemionitis.
M nigra ve Castle, Yorkshire, 7582.
Mullein, — see Verbascum.
MiiUer, J. C. F., his works on gardening, page 1125.

A. D. 1797.
MiiUer, J. G., his works on gardening, page 1125.

A. D. 1792.
Mullera, diadeL decan. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.

Guiana, which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand under a bell-glass in heat
Muncaster House, Cumberland, 7593.
Munchausen (Monk-house}, O. F. Von, his work

on gardening, page 1124. A. D. 1771.
Munich, royal gardens of, 213 ; public gardois at,

7318.
Munliguis, Abraham, his work on gardening, page

lliS A. D. 1672.
Muntingia, polyan. monog. and tiliaceae, a S. tr.

which grows well in light loam, and cuttings root

in sand imder a hand-glass.
Murr. com, goett., Commentarii Societatis Regiae

Scientiarium Gottingensis.
Murray, Sir Alexander, his works on gardening,

page 1104. A. D. 1732.
Murraya, decan. monog. and aurantia, a G. tr.

India, which grows best in turfy loam with a

little peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under

a hand-glass.
Musa, plantain-tree, hexan. monog. and musaceae,

S. tr. Ind. and China,which grow in rich loam, kept

moist, and require a great deal of room ; they are

increased by suckers.
Musa paradisiaca, the common plantaio-tree: 6011.
Musa sapientum, the banana-tree, 6012.
Musca, the fly, a dipterous insect, £266.
Muscari, grape-hyacinth, hexan. monog. and aspho-

deleae, H. peren. S. Eur. bulbs of easy culture.
Musche, , his works on gardening, page 1129.

A. D. 1817.
Museum Rusticum, a periodical work on eardauii&

page 1106. A. D. 1761
Mushroom, — see Agaricus.
Mushroom-house, 1693. .
Mussaenda, pentan. monc^. and rubiaceae, a G. tr.

China, a chmber which grows well in loam and

peat, and cuttings root fireely in sand under a

bell-glass.
Mustard, — see Sinapis.
Mustel, , his work on gardening, page 1119.

A. D. 1784.
Myagrum, tetrad silic. and crucifereae, H. an Eizr.
- of the easiest culture.
Myginda, tetran. tetrag. and rhamneae, S. tr. which

grow in loamy soil, and cuttings will root in sand

under a hand-glass.
MylocarjTim, buckwheat- tree, decan. monog. and

eriacesB, a H. tr. which thrives well in loam and

peat, requires protection in winter, and ripened

cuttings root freely under a hand-glass in sand.
Mynadoc Castle, Stirlingshire, 7631.
Myoporum, did\-n. angios. and myoporineae, G. tr.

which grow in loam and peat, and are readily in-
creased by cuttings in sand under a hand-glass.
Myosotis, scorpion-grass, pentan. monog. and bora-

gineae, H. peren. and an. of the easiest culture.
Jlyosurus, mouse-tail, pentan. polvg. and ranuacu<

lacese, a H. an. Brit of common culture.
H 4

1208

GENERAL INDEX.

Myrica, candleberry-myrtle, dicec. tetran. and
amentaceae, G. tr. C. B. S. which grow in loam
and peat, and cuttings root freely under a bell-
glass ; the H". tr. Brit, and Amer. prefer a moist
peat soil, and are annually increased by seeds or
layers.

Myriophyllum, water-milfoil, monoec. polyandr.
and onagrariaBjH.peren. Brit, aquatics increased
by seeds.

Myristica, the nutmeg, dicec. monad, and myristi-
ceae, S. tr. Ind. which grow in light loam, and
have as yet been little propagated.

Myrodia, monadel. polyan. and malvaceae, a S. tr.
W. Ind. which grows readily in light, rich soil,
and cuttmgs root readily iu sand .under a bell-
glass.

Myrrh, — see Myrrhis.

Myrrhis, myrrh, pentan. dig. and umbelliferese, a
H. peren. Brit, of easy culture.

Myrsine, polyg. dicec. and myrsinaceae, G. tr.
C. B. S. evergreens which grow in loam and
peat, and cuttings root readily in sand under a
hand-glass.

Myrsiphyllum, hexan. trig, and smilaceae, G. peren.
C. B. S. climbers which thrive in loam and peat,
and are increased by division at the root.

Myrtus, myrtle, icos. monog. and myrteacese, G. tr.
Eur. and W. Ind. which grow freely in rich
loam, and are increased by cuttings ; M. tomen-
tosa requires the heat of a dry stove, and the
cuttings, which must not be too old, will root

■ under bell-glasses.

N.

N. Cours, &c., Nouveau Cours complet d' Agricul-
ture, &c. page 1120. A.D. 1790.

Nails and other fastenings for wall-trees used in
gardening, 1514.

Nairnshire, as to gardening, 7642.

Nama, pentan. dig. and convolvulaceae, a S. an. Ja-
maica, of common culture.

Nandina, hexan. monog. and berberideae, a G. tr.
China, which thrives well in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings, with their leaves not shortened,
will root in sand under a hand-glass.

Nannaw, a seat in Merionethshire, 7612.

Napaea, monad, poljfan. and malvaceae, H. peren.
Virginia, which grow freely in common soil, and
are increased by seeds or dividing the roots.

Naravelia, polyan. polyg. and ranunculaceae, a S.
tr. Ceylon, a climber which grows in loam and
peat, and young cuttings plantetl thinly in a pot
of sand, will root under a hand-glass.

Narcissus, hexan. monog. and amaryllideae, H.
peren. Eur. bulbs of common culture : — the
daffodil narcissus, the white narcissus, the jonquil,
and polyanthus narcissus, 6294.

Nardus, mat-grass, trian. monog. and gramineae,
H. peren. Eur. grasses of easy culture.

Narthecium, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, H.
peren, Brit, and Amer. ot easy culture in peat
soil.

Naseberry-tree, achras sapota, var. /3. zapotilla.

Nasturtium, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereae, H. peren.
and an. Eur. two of which are aquatics, and the
whole of easy culture.

Nasturtium officinale, the common water-cress,
4052.

Native or neglected fruits which might be cultivated
and improved, 4764.

Nauclea, pentan. monog. and rubiaceae, a S. tr.
Ind. which grows well in loam and peat.

Nauenburgia, syngen. polyg. segr. and corj-mbi-
fereae, a H. an. S. Amer. of common culture.

Navel wort, — see Cotyledon.

Navestock Hall, Essex, 7542.

Neal, a seat in the county of Mayo, 7673.

Neale, Adam, his Orford catalogue, 7588.

Neatness, its importance in gardening, 2531.

Nectoux, , his work on gardening, page 1120.

A.D. 1791.

Neill, Patrick, Esq, secretary to the Caledonian
Horticultural Society, his writings on gardening,
page 1114. A.D. 1821.

Nelumbium, sacred bean, polyan. polyg. and nym-
phaeace*, S. peren. India and Carolina, aquatics
increased by seeds, and dividing at the root,
6729.

Nemesia, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, G.
peren, and an. C. B. S. which grow in any light

rich soil ; and young cuttings planted under a
hand-glass, will soon strike root.

Neottia, gynan, monan. and orchideae, S. peren,
W. Ind. which thrive best in loam and peat with
little water, and the plants are increased by divid-
ing at the root.

Nepenthes, pitcher-plant, a S. peren. China, an
aquatic, as yet scarce in British gardens.

Nepeta, catmint, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, H,
peren. Eur. of the easiest culture.

Nephelium, monoec. pentan. and corymbifereae, a S.
tr. E Ind. which grows in light loam, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Nephrodium, kidney-fern, cryptog. tilices and fili-
cea?, S. and H. peren. ferns of common culture.

Nerium, oleander, pentan. dig. and apocynese, G.
and S. tr. Eur. and Ind. which thrive in light,
rich soil, and cuttings root readily in sand plungei!
under a hand-glass in a moist heat.

Netting, for shelter, 1512.

Npttle, — see Urtica.

Nettle-tree, — see Celtis.

Nettleworth, a seat in Nottinghamshire, 7576.

Neuenhahn, K. Ch. Adf , his work on gardening,
page 1125. A.D. 1796.

New Cross nursery, Deptford, 7536.

New-ground workmen, ■— see Contracting Gar-
deners.

New Jersey tea, — see Ceanothus.

New Tarbat, a seat in Ross-shire, 7647,

New Zealand tea, leptospermum scoparium.

Newbattle Abbey, Midlothian, 7618.

Newbrook House, a seat in the county of Mayo,
7673. / J .

Newby Hall, Yorkshire, 7582.

Newliston, a seat in Linlithgowshire, 7632.

Newpark House, a seat in the county of Mayo,

Newstead Abbey, Nottinghamshire, 7576.

Newton, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Newton, a seat in the county of Tipperary, 7667.

Newton Hall, Durham, 7584.

Newton House, a seat in Caermarthenshire, 7614.

Newtown Mount Kennedy, a seat in Wicklow,
7654.

Newtown Park, a seat in the county of Dublin,
7653,

Nicandra, pentan. monog. and solaneae, a H. an.
Peru, of common culture.

Niches, in arboriculture, 1813.

Nicker-tree, guilandina bonduc.

Nicol, Walter, his works on gardening, page 1112.
A.D. 1798.

Nicotiana, tobacco, pentan. monog. and solanaceae,
a G. tr. and peren. and H. an. America and
China, which thrive in any light soil, and are
readily increased by seeds.

Nigella, fennel-flower, polyan. pentag. and ranuncu-
laceae, H. an. Eur. and Syria, of common culture.

Nigella sativa and arvensis, as culinary plants, 4335.

Nightshade, — see Solanum.

Nipplewort, — see Lapsana.

Nissolia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.
S. Amer. which thrives in sandy loam, and
cuttings may be rooted in sand under a hand-
glass.

Nitraria, dodec. monog. and ficoideae, a H. tr. Si-
beria, which thrives best in sandy loam, with some
salt occasionally put round it, being a salt marsh
plant ; it may be increased by layers or cuttings
under a hand-glass in sand.

Nivenia, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G. tr. and
a peren. C. B. S. which grow in soft loam, peat,
and sand, the pots well drained and placed in any
situation ; ripened cuttings taken off at a joint
without shortening their leaves, will root in sand
under a hand-glass, in a cool shady situation.

Noisette, Mons. Louis Claude, his works on gar-
dening, page 1121. A.D. 181-.

Nolana, pentan. monog. and boragineae, a H. an.
Peru, of common culture.

Nolina, hexan. trig, and melanthacese, a H. peren.
Georgia, which thrives in peat soil, and is in-
creased by seeds or dividing at the root.

Nonsuch Park, Surrey, 7528.

Norbury Park, Surrey, 7527.

Norfolk, gardens and residences of, 7553.

Normanton House, Rutlandshire, 7579.

Norris, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Norih, , his tracts on gardening, i>age 110.5,

A.D. 1759.

North Berwick House, East Lothian, 7619.

Northamptonshire, gardens and residences of, 7580-

GENERAL INDEX.

1209

Northcourt House, Hampshire, 7594.

Northumberland, gardens and residences of, 7586.

Northwick, Worcestershire, 7566.

Norwich, celebrated for its florists, 7553.

Notelaea, decan. monog. and oleineje, G. tr. Aus-
tral, which grow in loam and peat, and ripened
cuttings root freely under a hand-glass in sand.

Notoceras, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereae, a G. an.
Canaries, of common culture.

Notre, Mons. Le, a celebrated French landscape-
gardener and architect, 163.

Nottinghamshire, gardens and residences of, 7576.

Nouv. El. de Bot., Reichard's Nouveau El^mens
de la Botanique.

Novar, a seat in Ross-shire, 7647.

Nuneham Courtenay, Oxfordshire, 7558.

Nunnery, a seat in Cumberland, 7593.

Nuphar, jpolyan. monog. and nymphaaceze, H.
peren. Eur. and Amer. aquatics of easy culture,
and increased by dividing at the root, or by
seeds.

Nurseries, public, of Middlesex, 7518 ; of Surrey,
7525 ; of Kent, 7536.

Nursery, public, its formation, 7335 ; management,
7468.

Nursery for trees, its formation, 6973; culture
and management, 6982.

Nursery foreman, 7381.

Nursery gardeners or nurserymen, 7399.

Nut-bearing fruit-trees, 4732.

Nut-tree, — see Cory 1 us.

Nutmeg — see Myristica.

Nuttwell, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.

Nyctanthes, dian. monog. and jasmineae, a S. tr.
E. Ind. which grows freely in loam and peat, and
cuttings, not too ripe, root readily in sand under

' a hand-glass.

Nymphaea, water-lily, polyan. monog. and nym-
phaeacese, S. and H. peren. Eur. and E. Ind.
aquatics.

Nyssa, tupelo, polyg. dioec. and santalaceae, H. tr.
N. Amer. which thrive in common soil, but

E refer a damp situation ; they are increased by
lyers or seeds.

Oak, — see Quercus.

Oakley Grove, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Oakley Park, Shropshire, 7569,

Oaks, a seat in Surrey, 7528.

Oat, — see Avena.

Oatlands, Surrey, 7528.

Obs. Mod. Gard., Wheatley's Observations on Mo-
dern Gardening.

Ochna, polyan. monog. and ochnacese, a S. and G.
tr. E. Ind. and C. B. S. which grow freely in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Ochroma, mciad. pentan. and malvacese, S. tr.
Amer. whic i grow freely in loam and peat, and
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass. •

Ochrus, diadel. decan. and leguminose£e, a H. an.
Eur. of common culture.

Ochtertyre, a seat in Perthshire, 7636.

Ockenden, , Esq., his work on gardening, page

1103. A. D. 1770.

Octomeria, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a S. peren.
W. Ind. a parasite, which requires the same
treatment as aerides.

Ocymum, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, S. tr. bien.
and an. and H. an. Ind. and China, of easy cul-
ture in light, rich soil, as tender annuals,

Ocymum basilicum and minimum, the sweet basil,
4174.

CEdera, syngen. polyg. segr. and corymbifereae, a G.
tr. C. B. S. which grows in any light soil, and
cuttings root readily under a hand-glass.

CEnanthe, water-dropwort, pentan. dig and umbel-
liferiae, a G. peren. and H. peren. Eur. and
C. B. S. of easy culture, and increased by seeds.

Oenothera, octan. monog. and onagrariae, H. peren.
bien. and an. Amer. of common culture.

Offsets, to propagate by, 1988.

Oil-nut, hamiltonia oleifera.

Oily gram, — see Sesamum.

Oily palm, elais guineensis.

Okeham Park, Surrey, 7528.

Olqfsi/n, Olaf, his works on gardening, page 1130.
A. D. 1770.

Old man's beard, — see Geropogon.

Oldenlandia, tetran. monog. and rubiacese, a S.

peren, and an. E. and W. Ind. of common cul-
ture.

Olea, olive and phillyrea, dian. monog. and oleinae,
G. and H. tr. Eur. and C. B. S. which grow in loam
and peat, and ripenetl cuttings root freely in sand
under a hand-glass.

Olea europea, the common olive, 5958.

Oleander, — see Nerium.

Oleaster, —see Elaeagnus.

Olive, — see Olea.

Olive bark-tree, bucida buceras.

Olive-wood, — see Elaeodendrura.

Oliveria, i>entan. dig. and umbellifercae, a H. an.
Bagdad, of common culture.

Olyra, monoec. trian. and gramineae, a S. peren.
W. Ind. a grass of easy culture.

Ombersley Court, Worcestershire, 7566.

Omphalea, monoec. monadel. and euphorbiaceae, a
S. tr. Jamaica, which grows in light loam, and
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass in beat,
care being taken not to injure the leaves.

Oncidium, gynan. monan. and orchideae, S. per-
en. Ind. which require the same treatment as
aerides.

Onion, — see Allium.

Oniscus asellus, the wood-louse, 2273.

Onoclea, cryptog. Alices and filiceae, H. peren. Eur.
and Amer. ferns of common culture.

Ononis, rest-harrow, diadel. decan. and legumi-
noseae, G. tr. and peren. Eur. and C. B. S. which
thrive in loam and peat, and are increased by
seeds or young cuttings under a bell-glass in
sand.

Onopordum, cotton-thlstle, syngen. polyg. aequal.
cynarocephaleae, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. of
common culture.

Onopordum acanthium, 3960.

Onosma, pentan. monog. and boragineae, a G. peren.
and H. peren. Br. and S. Eur. which succeed
best in rich, light soil, and are increased by cut-
tings under hand-glasses in sand.

Onosmodium, pentan. monogyn. and boragineae, a
H. peren. N. Amer. which may be treated as
onosma.

Operations of gardening, 1853.; mechanical, lifting,
carrying, drawing, pushing, &c. 1856. to 1861.

Operations, laborious, on the soil, 1862; picking,
digging, shovelling, excavating, levelling, mark-
ing with the line, trenching, ridging, forking,
hoeing, raking, scraping, sweeping, wheelin^j,
beating, rolling, sifting, &c. 1863. to 1881.

Operations, laborious, with plants, 1882; sawing,
cutting, clipping, splitting, mowing, weeding,
watering, &c. 1S83. to 1893.

Operations in which skill is more required than
strength, 1894 ; transferring designs from ground
to paper or memory, dimensions of simple objects,
forms of surface, irregular figures, raised and de-
pressed surfaces, delineating by ground-lines only,
elevations, profiles, circular profiles, bird's,eye
views, general views, &c. 1895. to 1912.

Operations, transferring figures or designs from
paper or memory to plain surfaces, 1914; per-
pendiculars, angles, ovals, gardener's oval, a spiral
line, centre of tiiree points, polygons, polygonal
gardens, fanciful figures, 1915. to 1924.

Oj)erations of gardening; transferring figures and
designs to irregular surfaces, 1925 ; straight lines,
continuous lines, curved lines, level lines, &c.
1926. to 1933.

Oj>erations for the arrangement of quantities, by
trial and correction, by measure superficial, by
solid measure, 1935. to 1939.

Operations for carrying designs into execution, 1940 ;
removing surface encumbrances, smoothing sur-
faces, drawing off water by under-drains, by
surface-drains ; forming excavations for retaining
water, removal of earth, forming the t)ed or bot-
tom, head, sluice ; surfaces to imitate nature, arti-
ficial surfaces ; walks, form of their surface, weeds,
resistance of walks to animals, to weather, 1941
to 1968.

Operations, scientific processes, 1969 ; preparations
for fermenting substances, stable-dung, tanner's
bark, leaves, preparation, formation of beds,
ashes, comixjsts, liquid manures, mould-composts,
composts for particular plants, compost-ground.
1970. to 19S4. > 1 6 .

Operations of prop.ngation, 1985 ; by seed, by bulbs,
ofiset.s, slips, division of the plant, runners,
suckers, layers, twisting, ringing, piercing, and
wire-layers, layering trees in the open garden,
stools, Chinese layering, inarching, grafting.

1210

GENERAL INDEX.

theories of whip-grafting, cleft-grafting, crown-
. grafting, side-grafting, saddle-grafting, shoulder-
grafting, root-grafting, terebration {terelrratio,
Lat. a boring with a wimble), stocks, free-growing
stocks, dwarfing-stocks, scions, grafting-clay, bud-
ding, shield-budding, shield-budding reversed,
scollop-budding, budding with double ligatures,
stocks for budding, instruments and materials for,
1986. to 2062.
Operating for propagating by cuttings, 2063 j choice,
, preparation, insertion, and management, 2064. to

Operations of rearing and culture, 2070.

Operations in sowing and planting, sowing, patches,

r broad-cast, planting, and watering, 2071. to 2078.

Operations in transplanting, 2079; preparation of
the soil, removal of the plant, inserting, spade-
planting, hole-planting, trench-planting, trench-
ing-in planting, slit-planting, holeing-in planting,
drill-planting, bedding-in planting, furrow-
planting, dibble-planting, trowel-planting, plant-
; mg with balls, planting by mudding-in, panning,

' mulching, edgings, verges, turfing, transplanting
in pots, shifting, 2080. to 2109.

Operations in pruning, 2110; for promoting the
growth and bulk of a tree, for lessening the bulk
of a tree, for modifying the form of a tree, to form
dwarf standards, concave dwarfs, convex or coni-
cal dwarfs, horizontal dwarfs, spiral dwarfs, fan
dwarfs, distaffs, natural dwarfs, pruning half and
entire standards, pruning trees on walls or espa-
liers, pruning for blossom-buds, pruning for the
enlargement of the fruit, for adjusting the stem
and branches to the roots, for renewal of the
head, for curing diseases, pruning roots, pruning
herbaceous plants, seasons for pruning, summer
pruning, 2111. to 2139.

Operations in training, 2140; object of training,
modes of training trees with flexible stems, fan-
training, horizontal training, horizontal training
with screw stem, oblique training, perpendicular
training, stellate training, open fan, wavy or cur-
vilinear training, performing the operation on
walls, shreds and nails, herbaceous training, 2141.
to 2155.

Operations in blanching, 2156 ; by earthing, by tying
together the leaves, by overlaying, by covering
with utensils, 2157. to 2160.

Operations for inducing a state of fruitfulness, 2161 ;
laying bare the roots, cutting the roots, notching
the stem, partial decortication, stripping off pieces
of the bark, ringing, renewal of the soil, bending
down the branches, application to herbaceous
plants, 2162. to 2175.

Operations for retarding vegetation, 2177 ; by the

, form of surface, by shade, by the ice-cold room,
2178. to 2180.

Operations for accelerating vegetation, 2181 ; by
the form of surface, by shelter, by soil, by pre-
vious preparation of the plant, by inducing a state
of rest, by housing, by artificial heat, by flued
walls, by glass cases, by hot-beds, by walled pits,
by hot-houses, temporary emplacement in hot-
houses, permanent, 2182. to 2200.

Operations to imitate warm climates, 2201 ; general
management, green-house, dry-stove, bark-stove,
watering, insects, 2202. to 2205.

Operations of protection from atmospherical in-
juries, protecting by fronds and frond-like

: branches, by straw-ropes, nets, canvass or bunting
screens, mats, straw, and litter, oiled paper-frames,
protecting ropes, transparent covers, transparent
screens, &c. 2206. to 2218.

Operations relative to vermin diseases, and other
casualties of plants, 2219 ; kinds of vennin, hu-
man enemies, brute vermin, quadrupeds, feather-

, ed enemies, insects, coleoptera, hemiptera, le-
pidoptera, neuroptera, hymenoptera, diptera,
aptera, worms, slugs, 2220. to 2275.

Operations relative to subduing vermin, 2276 ; in-
sect vermin, preventive operations, palliative
(^)erations, destructive operations, 2277. to 2285.

Operations relative to diseases and other casualties,
2286. to 2288.

Operations of gathering, packing, preserving, and
keeping, 2289; gathering fruits and seeds, pre-
serving heads or leaves, roots, fruits, ripe fruit,
pears, and apples, sweating fruit, preserving seeds,
roots, cuttings, grafts, roots, &c. 2290. to 2321.

Operations relating to the final products derived of
gardens and garden-scenery, vegetable products,
fruits, seeds, roots, stems and stalks, leaves,
tiowers, barks, wootls, entire plants, 2323. to 2333.

Operations of superintendence and management,
2334; head gardener's duties, keeping accounts,
time-book, cash-book, forest-book, produce-book,
weather-book, register of temperature of hot-
houses, of the open air, record of the growth of
plants, reading-library, 2335. to 2354.
Operations for the beauty and order of garden-
scenery, 2355 ; order, propriety, decorum, neatness,
importance of the profession of a gardener, &c.
2356. to 2373.

Opercularia, tetran. monog. and nyctagineae, a
G. tr. N. S. W. which thrives in loam and peat,
and cuttings root freely in sand under a hand-
glass.

Ophioglos.sum, adder's tongue, cr}'ptog. stachyop-
terides and Alices, a S. and H. peren. Brit. W.
Ind. ferns of common culture.

Ophiopogon, snake's beard, hexandria monogyn.
and smilaceae, a F. peren. Japan, which grows
in sandy loam and peat, and is increased by di-
viding at the root.

Ophioxylon, polyg. moncec. and apocyneae, a S. tr.
E. Ind. which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Ophrys, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a G. peren.
and H. peren. Eur. and Barbary, which succeed
best in a mixture of loam, peat, and chalk broken
small; the best time to transplant them, as well
as most other orchideous plants, is when they are
growing : they are increased by seeds, which
should be sown as soon as they are ripe.

Oramore Castle, a seat in Galway, 7672.

Orange, — see Citrus.

Orangery, ornamental, its construction, 2171 ; for
producing fruit, 5928.

Orchard, formation and planting of one subsidiary
to the kitchen-garden, 2527; site, manure,
screens, selections of kinds, age of plants from
the nursery, temporary and final distances, cul-
ture of the soil, of standard fruit-trees, only
situation and soil, sorts, age of the plants, de-
sign for one to surround a kitchen-garden, 2568.
to 2544.

Orchard, general culture and management of,
2613 ; manuring, cropping, watering, staking and
protecting, mulching and clothing the stems,
pruning aged trees, season of pruning, insects
and diseases, gathering and storing orchard
fruits, pears, packing orchard and other fruits for
carriage, general culture and management, 2614.
to 2643.

Orchardists, 7395.

Orchards, commercial, their formation, 7455. and
7463 ; management, 7463.

Orchis, gynan. monan. and orchideae, G. and H,
peren. Eur. and Amer. which may be treated like
ophrys, only they do not require chalk mixed with
the loam and peat.

Order, its importance in gardening, 2356.

Orford Hall, a seat in Lancashire, 7588.

Origanum, marjoram, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae,
G. and F, tr. and H. peren. Eur. which grow in
loam and peat, and cuttings root readily under a
hand-glass.

Origanum onites, marjorana, &c., the garden mar-
jorams, 4162.

Orkney and Shetland Islands, as to gardening,
7G45.

Ormiston, a seat in East Lothian, 7619.

Ormosia, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.
W. Ind. which thrives well in loam and peat, and
is increased by cuttings in sand under a hand-
glass ; or seeds from the West Indies will vege-
tate freely.

Ornithidium, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a S.
peren. W. Ind. a parasite which may be treated
as aerides.

Ornithogalum, star of Bethlehem, hexan. monog.
and i.sphodeleae, G. T. and H. peren. Eur. C. B. S.
bulbs of easy culture.

Ornithopus, bird's foot, diadel. decan. and legumi-
noseae, a H. peren. and an. Eur. of common cul-
ture.

Ornitrophe, octan. monog. and sapindeae, S. tr. E.
and W. Ind. which prefer a light loam, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Ornus, flowering-ash, dian. monog. and oleineae,
H. tr. Italy, which grow in common soil, and are
increased by seeds or budding, or grafting on the
common ash, fraxinus excelsior.

Orobanche, didyn. angios. and orobancheae, H.
peren. Brit, parasites which root in the soil, and
afterwards attach themselves to, and root into

GENERAL INDEX.

1211

; other plants. The common broom-rape, an.

i major, may be sown or planted at the root of the
common broom, spartium, and the others at the
roots of such plants as they are seen to affect in
their wild state.

Orobus, bitter vetch, diadel. decan. and legumi-
noseae, H. peren. Eur. of easy culture.

Orobus tuberosus, the tuberous-rooted bitter vetch,
4302.

Orontium,' hexan> monog. and aroideae, H. peren.
Amer. and Japan, which grow in light sandy soil,
and are increased by division at the root.

On>ine, — see Telephium.

Ortegia, trian. monog. and caryophylleae, H. peren.
Eur. which thrive in light rich soil, and cuttings
root freely under a hand-glass.

Orthopogoii, trian. dig. and gramineae, a S. tr. W.
Ind. of common culture.

Oryza, rice, hexan. dig. and gramineae, a S. an.
Ethiopia, of easy culture as a marsh plant.

Osbaston, a seat in Derbyshire, 7574.

Osbeck, P. A. Toreen, and Captain Eckeberg, their
voyage to China, page 1130. A. D. 1771.

Osbeckia, octan. monog. and melastoraeie, a S. bien.
Ceylon, of common culture.

Osier, — see Salix.

Osmites, syngen. ix)lyg. frustran. and corymbifereac,
a G. tr. C. B. S. which grows well in Ught rich
soil, and cuttings root freely under a hand-
glass.

Osraunda, crjrptog. schismatopterides and Alices,
H.peren. Amer. Brit and C. B. S. ferns of common

' culture, 1678.

Ossenf elder, H. A., his works on gardening, page
1124. A. D. 1771.

Ossington Hall, Nottinghamshire, 7576.

Osten, Van, his works on gardening, page 1129. A.D.
1703.

Osteospermum, syngen. polyg. necess. and corym-
biferesB, G. tr. C. B. S. which may be treated as
osmides.

Osterton House, Nottinghamshire, 7576.

Ostrya, hop-hombeam, monoec. polyan. and amcn-
tacese, H. tr. Italy and N. Amer. which grow in
any soil, and are increased by seeds or lay-
ers.

Oswego tea, — see Monarda,

Osyris, poet's cassia, dioec. trian. and santalaceae, a
G. tr. S. Eur. which thrives in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings will root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Otaheite chestnut, inocarpus edulis,

Otaheite myrtle, securinega nitida.

Othonna, ragwort, syngen. polyg. necess. and corym-
bifereas, G. and F. tr. and peren. C. B. S. which
grow in any light, rich soil, and cuttings root
freely under a hand-glass.

Otto, Frederick, C. M. H. S., inspector of the botanic
garden, Berlin, 219.

Owston, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.

Ox-eye, — see Buphthalmum.

Ox -eye daisy, chrysanthemum leucanthemum.

Ox-lip, — see Primula.

Ox -tongue, — see Picris.

Oxalis, wood-sorrel, decandr. pentagyn. and gerani-
aceze, G. and H. peren. C. B. S. bulbs of easy
culture.

Oxalis acetosella, the common wood-sorrel, 4075. '

Oxford botanic garden, 7557.

Oxfordshire, gardens and residences of, 7558.

Oxyanthus, pentan. monog. and rubiacese, a S. tr.
Sierra Leone, '.which thrives well in sandy loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Oxybaphus, umbrella-wort, triand. monogyn. and
nyctagines, S. peren. and an. S. Amer. which
grow in loam and peat, and are increased by young
cuttings under a bell-glass in sand.

Oxycoccus, cranberry, octan. monog. and ericcje, a
S. tr. and H. tr. Eur. and Amer. which require a
peat soil, and moist situation.

Oxycoccus macrocarjius and palustris, 4708.

Oxylobium, decan. monog. and leguminoseas, G. tr.
Austral, which grow in sandy loam and peat,
and young cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Oxystelma, pentandria digynia and asclepiadeze, a
S. i)eren. E. Ind. which thrives v/ell in loam and
peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under a

" hand-glass.

Oxytropis, diadel. decan. and legnminoseae, H.
pertii. and an. Eur. which prefer a light sandy
jioil, and are readily increased by seeds.

Pachysandra, monoec. tetran. and euphotbiacee, a
H. peren. N. Amer. which succeeds weU in any
common light soil, and increases freely by suckers
from the roots.

Packbush, S. T., his works on gardening, page 1123,
A. D. 1695.

Packenham Hall, a seat in Westmeath, 7662.

Paddock, puddock, or purrock, a country term,
originally applied to a small space enclosed by
pales from a park, for hounds to run matches in,
now generally applied to the small grass enclosures
commonly attached to a park, or kept in the hands
of the resident on the demesne.

Pjederia, pentan. monog. and rubiaceaj, a D. S. tr.
China, a climber which thrives in loam and peat,
and cuttings root readily.

Paeonia, paeony, polyan. dig. and ranunculaceae, the
Chinese tree-pjeony, a F. tr. China, with numer-
ous .varieties, thrives in any rich, light soil ; and
ripened cuttings slipped off, and planted in the
ground in a shady place, without cover, will root
freely. The H. peren. Eur. requires a deep, rich,
loamy soil, — see 1639.

Pa?ony, — see Paeonia.

Pain's Hill, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Paisley manufacturers, their gardens and florists*
meetings, &c., 7628.

Palavia, monad, polyan. and malvaces, a H. an.
Peru, of common culture.

Palisade (palissade, Fr.), any fence of pales, a paling ;
the term is generally used when an ornamental
paling is intended.

Palissv, Bernard de, a French author on gardening,
page 1115. A. D. 1563.

Pallasia, syngen. poly, frustran. and corymbifereae,
a G. tr. Peru, which thrives in any rich, light
soil, and cuttings root freely under a hand-glass.

Palma Christi, — see Ricinus.

Panax, polyg. dioec. and araliae S. tr. Amer. and
China, which thrive well in light loam, and cut-
tings root readily in sand under a hand-glass ; the
H. peren. grow in similar soil, and are increased
by seeds, or dividing at the root.

Pancratium, hexan. monog. and amaryllideae, S.
and G. peren. and H. peren. Eur. Amer. and India,
which grow in light loam and vegetable mould,
with little water when not in a growing state.
They are increased by seeds and suckers.

Pandanus, screw-pine, dioec. monan. and pandana-
ceas, S. tr. Ind. and N. S. W. which thrive in
loamy soil; but rarely produce growths which
admit of removal for propagation.

Panic-grass, — see Panicum.

Panicum, panic-grass, trian. dig. and graminese, S.
tr. and bien. and H. peren. and an. Ind. Amer.
and Eur. grasses of common culture.

Pannage, a law term signifying the feed which
swine or cattle may derive from the mast, acorns,
or hei^bage of woods.

Panning, forming a pan or saucer-like hollow round
newly planted trees, to receive and retain water,
2098.

Panshanger, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.

Panton House, Lincolnshire, 7577.

Papaver, poppy, polyan. monog. and papaveracese,
H. peren. Eur. of easy culture.

Papaw-tree, — see Carica.

Paper mulberry, morus papyrifera.

Papilio, the butterfly, a lepidopterous insect, 225L '

Papilio machaon, 61M.

Parasitic hardy shrubs, 6588.

Parasitic exotics, their culture and management,^
6736.

Parasitic plants, such as root into other living plants,^
and derive their nourishment from them ; some
root into the stem or branches, as viscus, the
mistletoe ; others attach themselves to the root,
as hypocistus ; some of the epidendra^ and aerida&
will grow either on living or dead trees.

Pardanthus, trian. monog. and irideae, a G. peren.
China, a bulb which mav be treated as ixia.

Parham, a seat in Sussex, 7.531.

Pariana, monoec. polyan. and gramineae, a S. tr.
Cayenne, which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand under a bell-glass.

Parietaria, pellitory, poly, monoec. and urticeae, a S.
peren. and an. and H. peren. Eur. and India, of
easy culture in light soil.

Paris, octan. tetrag. and smilaceae, a H. peren. Brit

1212

GENERAL INDEX.

' which prefers a shady situation in a light sandy
loam, and is increased by seed.

Park, in gardening, a portion of forest-like scenery
attached to a country-house, and devoted to the
growth of timber, the harbor of game, deer, or
the pasturage of cattle, &c.

Park, par, J. Parkinson Paradisi in Sole, Paradisus
terrestris.

Park Place, Berkshire, 7561.

Parkinson, John, his works on gardening, page 1099.
A. D. 1629.

Parkinsonia, decan. monog. and leguminoseas, a S.
tr. W. Ind. which thrives in loam and peat, and
cuttings root in sand under a bell-glass.

Parkyns, G. J., his works on gardening, page 1113.
A. D. 1805.

Parnassia, grass of Parnassus, pentan. tetrag. and
capparidese, H. percn. Brit, and Amer. marsh
plants which thrive best in moist peat soil.

Paronychia, pentan. monog. and amaranthaccae, G.
peren. Eur. which tiirive well in loam and peat,
and cuttings root freely under a hand-glass ; the
H. peren. and an. prefer the same soil, and are
increased liy cuttings or seeds.

Parsley, 4082, — see Apium.

Parsley piert, alchemilla aphanes.

Parsnep, — see Pastinaca.

Parterre {Fr.), an even or level piece of ground j
a flower garden, — see Flower-garden.

Parterre edgings, 1500.

Parthenium, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbife-
rese, a H. peren. and an. W. Ind. and Amer. of
common culture.

Pascalia, syngen. polyg. frustran. and corymbiferese.
Chili, which grows bast in loam and peat, and
cuttings root under a hand-glass.

Paspalum, trian. dig. and gramineae, S. and H. W.
Ind. and S. Amer. grasses of easy culture.

Pasque flower, — see Pulsatilla.

Passerina, sparrow-wort, octan. monog. and thy.
meleae, G. tr. C. B. S. which thrive best in sandy
peat, and cuttings root freely under a bell-glass
in sand.

Passiflora, passion-flower, monadelph. pentand. and
passiflorete, S. and G. tr. climbers, free growers,
and easily managed; they thrive best in loam
and peat, and young cuttings root readily in heat
under a bell-glass.

Passiflora quadrangularis, and other fruit-bearing
species, 6003.

Passion-flower, — see Passiflora.

Pastinaca, parsnep, pentan. dig. and umbellifereee,
H. bien. and a peren. of common culture.

Pastinaca sativa, the garden parsnep, 3723.

Pat^e d'oye, or cross pati^e d'oye, [heraldry,) a cross
with the crosslets spreading like duck feet, as in
the Maltese cross, — a form of planting avenues,
&c., 6813.

Patersonia, monadel. trian. and irideae, G. peren.
N. S. W. which grow in loam and peat, and are
increased by dividing at the root.

Paulet, , his works on gardening, page 11£0.

A. D. 1793.

PauUinia, octan. trig, and sapindese, S. tr. W. Ind.
which succeed in light loam, and cuttings root
best in sand in bottom-heat under a hand-glass.

Paultons, seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Pavetta, tetrandria monogynia and rubiaceae, a
S. tr. E. Ind. which thrives best in loam and
peat, and cuttings root readily in sand under a
hand-glass.

Pavilion, a regal residence in Brighton, 7533.

Pavonia, monadel. polyan. and malvacese, S. and
G. tr. and S. aji. E. and W. Ind. which grow in
loam and peat^ and root readily in sand under a
hand-glass : most of the species produce abund-
ance of seeds.

Pawlosky, an imperial seat near Petersburgh, 258.

Pea, — see Pisum.

Peach-house, its construction, 2664; general cul-
ture and management of, 3063,

Peach -gatherer, 1354.

Peach-tree, — see Amygdalus.

Pear-gatherer, 1355.

Pear-tree, — see Pyrus.

Pearlwort, — see Sagina.

Peat-earth shrubs, their culture, final situation, 6569.

Pectis, syngen. polygam. super, and corymbiferese,
S. an. W. Ind. of common culture.

Pedalium, didynam. angios. and pedalineae, S. an.

E. Ind. of common culture.
Pedicularis, lousewort, didyn. angios. and scro-
phularinese, F. and H. pcrcn. and an. Eur. and

Amer. which succeed best in peat soil and a
moist situation, and are increased by seeds.

Peel Hall, Cheshire, 1590.

Peganum, dodec. monog. and rutaceae, H. peren.
Eur. which tlirive in rich, light soil, and cuttings
root freely under hand-glasses.

Pekra, a seat near Moskwa, 262.

Pelargonium, stork's hill, monadelph. heptan. and
geraniacese, G. tr. peren. and an C. B. S. and
some S. tr. and peren. all of easy culture in any
rich, light soil, the succulent sorts well drained
and not overwatered, 6601.

Pelee, M. de St. Maurice, a French author on
gardening, page 1116. A. D. 17—.

Peliosanthes,- hexan. monog. and , S. peren.

E. Ind. which grow best in rich loam, and are
increased by dividing at the root.

Pelleport-Saune, M , his work on gardening,

page 1122. A. D. 1813.

Pellitory, — see Peltaria.

Peltaria, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, a H. peren.
Austral, of common culture.

Pembrokeshire, gardens and residences of, 7609.

Penaea, tetran. monog. and penaeacea, G. tr. C. B. S.
which thrive in loam and peat, with the pots well
drained, and young cuttings root without diffi-
culty under bell-glasses in sand.

Pendarves, a seat in Cornwall, 7601.

Penguern, a seat in Flintshire, 7606.

Penicillaria, poly, moncec. and gramineae, a S. and
H. an. E. and W. Ind. of common culture.

Pennisetum, trian. dig. and gramineae, H. an. Eur.
and Ind. grasses of the easiest culture.

Pennycuick House, Midlotliian, 7618.

Pennyroyal, mentha puleg'ium.

Pennywort, — see Hydrocotyle.

Penpont, a seat in Breconshire, 7613.

Penrhyn Castle, Caernarvonshire, 7604.

Penrice Castle, Glamorganshire, 7608.

Penshurst, a seat in Kent, 7538.

Pentapetes, monadel. dodec. and malvaceae, a S.
tr. and a bien. Ind. and N. Spain, which grow
freely in light, rich soil, and cuttings root in
sand under a bell-glass.

Penthorum, decan. pentag. and semperviveae, a
H. peren. Virginia, which grows freely in light,
sandy soil, and is readily increased by dividing at
the root, or by young cuttings under a hand-
glass.

Pentre, a seat in Pembrokeshire, 7609.

Pentstemon, didyn. angios. and bignoniaceae, a F.
tr. and H. peren. N. Amer. which grow in light,
rich soil, and succeed well in pots. Cuttings
rooffreely under hand-glasses.

Pentzia, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corymbifereae,
a G. tr. C. B. S. which thrives well in any rich,
light soil, and cuttings root freely under a hand,
glass.

Peplis, water-purslane, hexan. monog. and sali-
careaj, a H. an. Brit, a marsh plant of easy
culture.

Pepper, — see Piper.

Pepper Harrow, a seat in Surrey, 7528.

Pepper-vine, cissus stans.

Pepperwort, — see Lepidium.

Perdicium, syngen. poly, super, and corymbiferese,
a H. peren. Siberia, which grows in rich, light
soil, and is increased by dividing at the root.

Perfect, Thomas, his works on gardening, page
1105. A. D. 1759.

Perforated piers, piers for fruit-tree walls, the pro-
jecting parts of which are perforated to admit of
training the shoots through the pier, instead of
stopping them there, or bending them over it. It
is an ingenious mode, but the rounded pier
(1572. fig. 246. a), where practicable, is to be
preferred, as more readily admitting the taking
down and replacing of the branches at the prun-
ing season.

Pergularia, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeae, S. tr. E.
Ind. fragrant climbers which succeed well in
loam and peat, and cuttings root readily in sand
under a hand-glass.

Perilla, didyn. gymnos. and labiatea?, a H. an.
India, of common culture.

Periploea, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeae, a G. and
H. tr. Syria and the Canaries, which grow freely
in common soil, and are increased by layers or
cuttings.

Periwinkle, — see Vinca.

Perotis, trian. dig. and gramineae, a S. an. E. Ind.
of common culture.

Fers.jChristian Henry Pcrsoon's Synopsis Plantr.rum,

GENERAL INDEX.

1213

Persian gardening, 4 J'J.

Persicaria, polygonum persicaria.

Persoonia, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G. tr.
N. S. W. which thrive in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Perth nursery, 7635.

Perthshire, gardens and residences of, 7635.

Peschelhis, , his works on gardening, page 1123.

A. D. 1597.

Petalostemum, diadel. pentan. and leguminoseae,
H. peren. N. Amer. which thrive in light, rich
soil, and are increased by seeds or dividing at the
root.

PeterbofT, an imperial residence near Petersburgb,

. 254.

Peterkin, Joshua, his works on planting, page 1131.
A. D. 1790.

Peters, Richard, his work on gardening, page 1131.
A. D. 1810.

Petersham Ix>dge, Surrey, 7527.

Petiveria, heptan. monog. and chenopodeae, S. tr.
W. Ind. which grow well in light, rich soil, and
cuttings root freely under a hand-glass.

Pctraea, didyn. angios. and verbenacese, a S. tr.
Vera Cruz, a climber, which thrives well in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass in heat.

Petre, Robert, Lord, an accomplished nobleman
and great encourager of gardening in the time of
Miller, — see Ingatestone.

Petrocallis, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, a H. peren.
Pyrenees, a rockwork plant, which grows well
in peat, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass.

Petrophila, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G. tr.
X. W. S. which may be treated as proteae.

Petrowka, a seat near Moskwa, 2fll.

Petworth House, Sussex, 7532.

Peucedanura, sulphur-wort, pentan. dig. and um-
bellifereae, a G. bien. and H. peren. Eur. of com-
mon culture.

Phaca, bastard vetch, diadelph. decan. and legu-
minoseae, H. peren. Eur. which succeed in com-
mon garden soil, and are increased by seeds.
Some of the dwarfer kinds are well adapted for
rockwork or growing in pots.

Phalaena quercus, the egger-moth, 7075.

Phalangium, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, H.
peren. S. Eur. which thrive in rich, light soil,
and are readily increased by dividing the root.

Phalaris, canary-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae, a
H. peren. and an. Eur. Egypt, and C. B. S. grasses
of easy culture.

Phallus esculentus, the morel, 4343.

Pharnaceum, pentan. trig, and car\ophvlleae, a S.
and G. tr. and H. an. Eur. and'C. B. S. which
thrive in sandy loam and peat, and cuttings root
in the same soil under a hand-glass.

Pharus, monoec. hexan. and gramineae, a S. peren.
Jam. a grass of easy culture. ^

Phaseolus, kidneybean, diadel. decan. and legumi-
noseae, S. peren. and an. and H. an. Asia, Amer.
and Africa, which thrive in light, rich soil, and
may be propagated from cuttings or seeds.

Phaseolus vulgaris, the common kidneybean, 5629 ;
to force kidneybeans, 3367 ; soil, sorts, sowing,
culture, time of beginning to force, tempera-
ture, successional supplies, forcing in a hot-house,
insects, forcing in a i)each or cherry house, in a
common hot-bed, crop raised under glass to fruit
in the open garden, crop raised on slight heat,

■ 3368. to 3^0.

Pheasantry, 7247.

Phellandrium, water- hemlock, pentan. digyn. and
umbellifereae, a H. bien. Brit, an aquatic which
may be sown in pots and placed in the aquarium,
or the seeds scattered in any iwnd.

Philadclphus, syringa, icos. monog. and myrteaceae,
H. tr. Eur. and Carolina, shrubs of easy culture.

Phillips, Henry, his works on gardening, page 1114.
A. D. 1820.

Phillips, Leonard, jun., nurserj-man, his works on
gardening, page 1114. A. D. 1814.

Philoxerus, pentan. monog. and amaranthaccje, a
S. tr. and peren. Amer. which thrive well in rich
soil, and are readily increased by cuttings.

Philydrum, dian. monog. and junceae, a S. tr. China,
of common culture.

Phillyrea, olea alaternus.

Phleum, catstail-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae,
H. peren. and an. Kur. of common culture.

Phlomis, didyn. gj-mnos. and labiateae, H. tr. and
peren. Eur. which i-refer a light, dry soil, and

are increased by cuttings under a hand-glass or
seeds.

Phlox, lychnidca, pent, monog. and polemoniaceae,
H. peren. Amer. mostly border-flowers, which
prefer a rich loam, and are increased by cuttings
or dividing at the roots.

PhcEnix, date-palm, dioec. trian. and palmeae, a S.
tr. and G. tr. Levant, C. B. S. and E. Ind. which
require a light soil, and are increased by seeds.

Phoenix Park, Dublin, 7653.

Phormium, flax -lily, hexan. monog. and asphode-
leae, a G. peren. N. Zeal, which thrives in any
light, rich soil, and is increased by offsets from the
roots.

Phryma, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, a H. peren.
N. Amer. which thrives well in rich, light soil,
and cuttings root freely in sand under hand-
glasses.

Phrynium, monan. monog. and canneae, S. peren.
E. Ind. which thrive in rich, light soil, and are
increased by dividing at the root.

Phylica, pentandria monogynia and rhamneae, G.
tr. C. B. S. which grow l)est in sandy peat, and
young cuttings root readily imder a bell-glass in
sand.

Phyllanthus, monoec. monad, and euphorbiaceae, S,
tr. and an. chiefly W. Ind. which succeed well in
loam and peat, and cuttings root freely in soil
under a hand-glass.

Phyllis, pentan. dig. and rubiaccae, a G. tr. Canar.
which grows in loam and peat, and cuttings root
in sand under a hand-glass.

Phylloma, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, a S. tr.
Bourb. which thrives well in sandy loam, requires
very little water, and is increased by suckers.

Phys. des Arb., Duhamel sur le Physique des Ar-
bres.

Physalis, winter cherry, pentan. monog. and sola-
neae, S. and G. tr. and H. peren. and an. chiefly
N. Amer. which thrive well in rich, light soil, and
are increased by young cuttings under a hand-
glass or by seeds.

Physic-gardeners, herbalists, or simplicists, 7464.

Physic-nut, — see Jatropha.

Physic or herb gardens, their formation, 7360.

Phyteuma, rampion, pentan. monog. and campa-
nulaceae, a G. peren. and H. peren. and a bien.
chiefly Europe, which thrive in rich, light soil,
do well in pots, and are increased by dividing at
the root : the garden rampion is a campanula.

Phytolacca, dodec. decag. and chenopodeae, S. tr.
As. Afr. and Amer. which thrive well in loam
and peat, and are increased by cuttings or seeds.

Piaranthus, pentan. monog. and asclepiadese, a
D. S. tr. C. B. S. a succulent which grows in
loamy soil with old lime rubbish, and sand well
drained, and readily increased by cuttings.

Picciuoli, Giuseppe, his work on gardenmg, page
1128. A. D. 1783.

Pick and pick-axe, 1296.

Picking, 1863.

Picramnia, dioec. pentan. and urticeae, a S. tr.
Jam. which thrives in loamy soil, and large cut-
lings root freely in sand under a hand-glass.

Picridium, syngen. polyg. sequaL and cichoraceae,
a H. peren. and an. France and Barb, of common
culture.

Picris, syngen. polyg. aequal. and cichoraceae, H.
peren. 'and an. chiefly Europ. of common cul-
ture.

Pirris hieracioides, hawkweed-like, ox-tongue,
4291.

Picton, a seat in Pembrokeshire, 7609.
Pierard, Charles Francis, his work on gardening,
pagell22. A.D. 1820.

Piercefield, a seat in Monmouthshire, 7567.
Pierre, Louis de, his works on gardening, page 1108.
A. D. 1772.

Pigeon-house, — see Columbarium.

Pigeon-houses of Persia, 466.

Pigott, Richard, his work on gardening, page 1114.

A. D. 1820.
Pilewell House, Hampshire, 7594.

Pilewort, ficaria verna.
PiiJwort, pilularia globulifera.
Pilularia, pillwort, cryptog. hydropter. and marsi-
leaceae, a H. peren. Brit an aquatic of common
culture.
Pimelea, dian. monog. and thymeleae, G. tr. Aus-
tral, which thrive best in sandy peat, and young
cuttings root in sand under a bell-glass.
Pirapemell, — see Anagallis.
PimpineUa, burnet-saxifrage, pentan. dig. and urn-

1214

GENERAL INDEX.

i belliferese, H. peren. and an an. cTiiefly Europ.
which grow in rich, light soil, and are increased
by seeds.

Pimpinella anisum, the aiiise, 4219.

Pinckneya, pentan. monog. and rublacesB, a F. tr.
Georgia, which grows in sandy loam and peat,
and cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Pindemonte, Ippolito, his works on gardening,
page 1129. A. D. 1817.

Pine-apple, 514. — see Bromelia.

Pine-tree, — see Pinus.

Pinery, its construction, 2645 ; general culture and
management, 2697.

Pinguicula, butterwort, dian. monogyn. and lenti-
bularia?, a G. an. Carolin. and H. peren. Europ.
Wiiich grow naturally in swamps, and succeed in
pots of any species of sphagnum, with a little peat
at the bottom, like drosera ; they are increased
by offsets from the heart of the plant, and from
seed.

Pinguicula vulgaris, the common butterwort, 4320.

Pink, — see Dianthus.

Pinkie House, East Lothian, 7619.

Pinus, the pine-fir and larch, moncec. monad, and
conifereae, a S. tr. Amboyna, G. tr. E. Ind. and
H. tr. Eur. and Amer. ; the S. species succeed in
light, loamy soil, and ripened cuttings taken off at
a joint will root, though not readily, in sand
under a hand-glass; the G. species require the
same soil, and roots more freely ; the H. species
grow in light soil, and are commonly increased
by seeds.

Pinus abies, the spruce-fir, and other firs in com-
mon cultivation, 7058. to 7067.

Pinus cedrus, and P. larix, the cedar-larch, and
common larch, 7051. and 7053.

Pinus sylvestris, the Scotch or wild pine, and the
other pines in common cultivation, 7040.

Piper, pepper, dian, trig, and urticeas, S. tr. chiefly
climbers, peren. and an. W. Ind. mostly succu-
lents whicn grow in sandy loam and peat, and are
readily increased by cuttings and suckers.

Pipewort, eriocaulon septangulare.

Piqueria, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corymbifereae,
a G. peren. Mex. which grows freely in any light,
rich soil, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass.

Piscidia, Jamaica dogwood, diadel. decan. and legu-
minoseae, a S. tr. W. Ind. a strong fast-growing
plant in sandy loam, and cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass.

Piscinary, 1767.

Pise, or en pise, (en pire or en pit, in the worst man-
ner, that is, as a last resource,) a mode of building
mud walls, 1564,

Pisonia, heptan. monog. and nyctagineae, S. tr.
W. Ind. and a G. tr. Austral, which grow in
loam and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a
hand-glass.

Pistachia-tree, — see Pistacia.

Pistacia, dioec. pentag. and terebintacese, G. tr.
Barb, and H. tr. S. Eur. the G. species grow in
loam and peat, and ripened cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass ; the H. tr. are rather tender,
but grow in common soil, and are increased by
layers or cuttings under a hand-glass in sandy
soil.

Pisum, pea, diadelph. decan. and leguminoseae, a
H. peren. Eng. and H. an. S. Eur. of common
culture.

Pisum maritimura, the sea-pea, 4309.

Pisum sativum, the garden-pea, 3597 j to force the
pea, 3393.

Pit, a structure with a glass cover or roof, used as a
habitation for plants. Earth-pit, bark-pit, flued
pit, M'Phail's pit, Alderstone pit, pit with rising
frame. West's pit, &c. 1540. to 1544.

Pit, in the conservatory, the bed of earth in which
the trees are planted, occupying the principal part
of the area of the house.

Pit of a stove or hot-house, an excavation in the
moist or bark-stove for containing fermentable
materials in order to supply bottom heat.

Pitcairnia, hexan. monog. and bromeleae, S. tr. W.
Ind. and S. Amer. which flower freely in light,
rich soil, and are increased by suckers from the
root.

Pitcher-plant, nepenthes distillatoria, 593.

Pitmaston, a seat near Worcester, 3329.

Pittosporum, pentan. monog. and pittosporese, a S.
tr. Guinea, and G. tr. Austral. C. B. S. and E,
Ind. which grow in loam and peat, and cuttings
root freely in sand under a hand-glass. ^,^

Plane-tree, — see Platanus.

Plank-plant, bossiaea scolopendrium.

Planner {Scotch), a maker of plans, — see HorticuU
tural Architect

Plans for improving country-residences, 7364 ; how
to form, 7364; important uses of, 7369; how to
carry into execution, 7370.

Plans of gardens and garden objects, how to form,
1895 ; to transfer them to ground, 1913 ; to exe-
cute them, 1940.

Plant, grass., Histoire des Plantes Grasses. Par
A. P. DecandoUe.

Plant packing-case, different sorts of, 1404.

Plantago, plantain, tetran. monog. and plantagineae,
a G. tr. and bien. C. B. S. and H. peren. and an.
chiefly Eur. all of very easy culture in common
soil.

Plantago xioronopus, star of the earth, 4315.

Plantain, — see Plantago.

Plantain-tree, — see Musa.

Plantations, neglected, to improve, neglected hedge-
rows, hedge-row timber, neglected ornamental
plantations, 6914. to 6924.

Plantations, ornamental, their formation, 6852;
form, extent, disposition, general form, situa-
tion, arrangement of species, siztf of plants, 6853.
to 6876.

Plantations of trees, their uses, as to shelter and
climate, improving soils, shade, separation, seclu-
sion, distinction, appropriation, concealment, to
heighten agreeable objects, direct the eye to ob-
jects, render indifferent objects agreeable, en-
hance the value of landed property, afford profit,
6762. to 6775.

Plantations, their different kinds, group, clump,

. woods, copsewoods, 6810. to 6814.

Plantations, their disposition in the ancient style,
7205 ; in the modern style, 7214.

Plantations, useful, their formation, 6815. ; prepar-
ing the soil, form, enclosing, fences, species of
tree, mixture, whether to be sown or planted,
disposition of the plants, number of plants and
distance, size of the plants, seasons for planting,
operations of, 6816. to 6851.

Plantations, useful and ornamental, their culture
and management, 6877 ; culture of the soil, fill-
ing up blanks, pruning, for utility, for ornament,
seasons for, implements for, resinous trees, non-
resinous trees, heading-down trees, pruning for
bends, coppices, osier holts, strips and screens,
trees for shade, trees in parks, in pleasure-grounds
and lawns, thinning, 68/8. to 6913.

Plantations, valuation of, 6966.

Planting, — see Arboriculture.

Planting, different modes of performing the oper-
ation, 2077. to 2109.

Planting in arboriculture, operation of, by pitting,
by the diamond dibber, by the planter's mattock,
by the planter, by slitting, 6841. to 6851,

Plants, — see Vegetables.

Plants, as indicative of soils, list of, 1036.

Plants used as preserves and pickles, 4258.

Plants used in tarts, confectionary, and domestic
medicine, 4195.

Plas Newydd, a seat in Anglesea, 7603.

Plat {plat, Fr. flat), a piece of ground of determinate
form, small compared with a field, but larger than
a border, bed, or stripe, — see Plot.

Plat-band {plat bande, Fr.), a border round a
flat.

Platanus, plane-tree, moncec. polyan, and amenta-
ceae, H. tr. Levant, and N. Amer. handsome tim-
ber trees which grow in common soil, and are
propagated by layers and cuttings.

Piatt, Sir Hugh, his works on gardening, page 1099.
A.D. 1594.

Plattes, Gabriel, his works on gardening, page 1100.
A.D. 1633.

Platylobium, flat pea, diadel. decan. and legumino-
seas, G. tr. Austral, which grow in sandy loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass,

Plax, Anthony William, his works on gardening,
page 1123. A.D. 1764.

Pleacher (from plecto, to plait or weave), an arbor-
maker, — see Topiarius. --

Pleasure-ground, garden-scenery devoted to show
and recreation, generally placed near the house,
and consisting of lawn, shrubbery, flower-gardens,
walks, water, seats, &c.

Plectranthus, didyn. gymnos. and labiateee, a S. tr.
and an, and G. tr. and a bien, Africa and E. Ind.
of easy culture in light soil

GENERAL INDEX.

1215

Plectronia, pentan. monog. and rhamneae, a G.4r.
C. B. S. which thrives in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings root under a hand-glass in sand.

Pleea, ennean. trig, and junceae, a G. peren. Carol
of common culture.

Plenck, J. J., his work on gardening, page 1125.
A.D. 1784.

Plenck ic, Icones Plantarum, &c., or figures of
plants, &c. by Dr. J. J. Plenck.

Pleurothallis, gynan. monan. and orchidea, a S.
peren. W. Ind. a parasite which requires to be
treated as aerides, &c.

Plocama, pentan. monog. and rubiaceze, a G. tr.
Canar. which grows in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Plot (from comploter, to contrive or design), a
plot laid out in figures or contrivances, as a par-
terre.

Ploughed gardens and their management, 7-463. to

7*^ „ . .

Ploughman's spikenard, — see Baccharis.

Pluk. aim., Leon. Plukennet Almagestum Bota-
nicum.

Pluk. phyt, L. Plukennet Phytographia.

Plukenetia, monoec. monad, and euphorbiacese, a S.
tr. W. Ind. a climber which grows best in loamy
soil, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Plum-tree, — see Prunus.

Plumbago, leadwort, pentan. monog. and plumba-
gineae, S. tr. E. and \V. Ind. a G. tr. C. B. S. and
a H. peren. S. Eur. The S. and G. species flower
freely in loam and peat, and cuttings root in sand
under a hand-glass : the H. species is of easy
culture.

Plumeria, pentan. dig. and apocynese, S. tr. E. and

. W. Ind. which flower freely in light, loamy soil,
and require but little water, especially whpn not
in a growing state. Large cuttings laid to dry for
a considerable time, and stuck in the tan, will
root freely.

Plumpton, scenery of, in Yorkshire, 7582.

Pluviometer, or rain-gauge, 1286.

Poa, meadow-grass, trian. dig. and gramineae, S.

, peren. and an. E. Ind. and H. peren. and an.
Eur. and N. Araer. all of the easiest culture.

Podalyria, decan. monog. and leguminoseze, G. tr.

^ C. B. S. pretty plants which grow in loam and
peat, and are increased by ripened cuttings in
sand, under a hand-glass, or by seeds.

Podocarpus, moncec. monadel. and conifereae, G. tr.
China and C. B. S. which grow in loam and peat,
and ripened cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass in sand.

Podolepis, syngen. polyg. super, and coiymbifereffi,
G. peren. Austral, which thrive well in loam and
peat, and are increased by dividing at the root.

Podolobium, decan. monog. and leguminoseee, a G.
tr. N. S. W. a handsome plant which grows in
loam and peat, and young cuttings may be rooted
in sand under a bell-glass.

Podophyllum, duck's foot, polyan. monog. and pa-
paveraceae, a H. peren. N. Amer. which thrives
in rich, light soil, and is increased by dividing at
the root.

Poederle, I'aine, his works on gardening,

page 1129. A.D. 1772.

Poet's cassia, osyris alba.

Pogonia, gynan" monan. and orchideae, a G. peren.
and H. i>eren. N. Amer. which grows best in
peat, and is increased by offsets from the bulbs.

Poincinia, Barbadoes flower-fence, decan. monog.
and leguminoseje, S. tr. E. Ind. which require a
strong heat to make them flower well ; they grow
in loam and peat, and are increased by cuttings
in sand, under a hand-glass, or by seeds.

Poinsoi, , his work on gardening, page 1121.

A.D. 180*.

Poison-nut, strychnos nux vomica.

Poison-oak, rhus toxicodendron.

Poisonous plants, of common occurrence, in Britain,
4251.

Polemonium, Greek valerian, pentau. monog. and
polemoniaceae, H. peren. N. Amer. and Brit of
the easiest culture.

Polesdon, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Polianthes, tuberose, hexan. monog. and hemerocal-
lideae, a G. peren. R Ind., 6332.

Politie, the Scotch term for pleasure-ground.

Polish and Russian works on gardening, 7697.

Polish millet, digitaria sanguinalis, i5o5.

Pollichia, monan. monog. and cbenopodes, a G.
bien. C. B. S. of easy culture.

Polvcarpon, all-seed, tetran. trig, and caryophylleaj,
a'H. an. Engl, of common treatment

Polycnemum, trian. monog. and chenopodeje, a H.
an. S. Eur. of common culture.

Polygala, milkwort, diadelph. octan. and pedicula-
res, G. tr. C. B. S. and H. tr. peren. and an. Eur.
and N. Amer. ; the G. sp. grow in peat soil, and
young cuttings root freely in sand, under a bell-
glass ; the hardy sorts prefer a similar soil, and
are increased by dividing at the root, or by seeds.

Polygonatum, Solomon's seal, hexan. monog. and
smilaceae, H. peren. Brit, and Amer. of easy cul-
ture.

Polygonatum vulgare, 4308.

Polygonum persicaria, octan. trig, and polygone2e,a
S. peren. and G. bien. E. Ind. and H. tr. peren.
and an. Eur. and N. Amer. of easy culture.

Polymnia, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbifereae,
a S. bien. Air. and H. peren. Amer. of common
culture.

Polypodium, polypody, cryptog. filices and filiceae,
S. peren. W. Ind. and H. peren. Brit of easycul-
taie.

Polypody,— see Polypodixun.

Polypogon, trian. dig. and gramineae, a H. peren.
Brit, a grass of the usual culture.

Pom. Brit, Pomona Britannica, by Henry Phillips,

Pomaderris, pentan. monog. and rhamneae, G. tr.
N. Holl. which thrive in loam and peat, and
cuttings root freely in sand under a band-
glass.

Pomegranate, — see Punica.

Pon-qua-qua, his villa, near Canton, 480.

Ponds, their formation, 1719, larger excavations,
1915.

Pondweed, — see Potamogeton.

Pongamia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.
E. Ind. which thrives in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Poniemenia, a seat at Grodno, 28.3.

Ponsonby Hall, Cumberland, 7593.

Pontederia, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, a &
peren. E. Ind. and H. peren. N. Amer. aquatics of
common culture.

PorUfi/, Mr. William, his works on gardening,
page 1112. A. D. 1800.

Pontliieva, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a S. peren.
W. Ind. which grows in sandy loam and peat well
drained, and little water given when it is not in a
growing state.

Pontilly Castle, Cornwall, 7601.

Ponty Pool, a seat in Monmouthshire, 7567.

Poplar, — see Populus.

Poppy> — see Papaver.

Populus, poplar, dioec. octan. and amentaceae, H.
tr. N. Amer. and Eur. of easy culture in moist
deep soil, and increased readily, some by cut-
tings, others by layers, and all by cuttings of the
root

Populus alba, and other species grown as timber-
trees, 7134. to 7142.

Porcelia, polyan. polyg. and annoneaceae, H. tr. N.
Amer. which grow in loam and peat, and are in-
creased by layers.

Porches, 1809.

Port Elliot, a seat in Comwall, 7601.

Portable threshing machine, in use in gardening,
1705.

Porticoes, 1809.

Portlandia, pentan. monog. and rubiaceae, S. tr.
W. Ind. beautiful plants which thrive in sandy
loam and peat, and cuttings, with their leaves
not shortened, root readily under a hand-glass.

Portswood House, Hampshire, 759t.

Portulaca, purslane, dodec. monog. and portulaceae,
a S. bien. and an. E. and W. Ind. and H. an. S.
Amer. and Eur. of common culture.

Portulaca oleracea, the garden purslane, 4068.

Portulacaria, purslane-tree, pentan. pentag. and
portulaceae, a G. tr. Afr. a succulent which thrives
in sandy loam and brick rubbish, and is easily in-
creased by cuttings.

Poscharskey, Ch. F., his works on gardening, page
1127. A.D. 1808.

Pot-herbs and gamishings, 4081 : to force pot-herbs.
3399.

Potamogeton, pond-weed, tetrandr. tetragyn. and
alismaceae, H. peren. Brit aquatics of easy cul-
ture.

Potatoe, — see Solanum,

PotentUla, cinquefoil (five leaves\ icos. polyg. and
rosaceae, H. tr. peren. and a biea chiefly Eur. of
easy culture.

1216

GENERAL INDEX.

Potentilla anserina, the wild tansy or eooae-grass,
4307.

Poterium, bumet, monoec. polyan. and rosaceae, G.
tr. S. Eur. and H. peren. Eur. of common cul-
ture.

Poterium sanguisorba, the common bumet, 4072.

Pothos, tetran. monog. and aroideae, S. peren. W.
Ind. and a H. peren. N. Amer. all of which thrive
well in loamy soil, and are increased by dividing
the roots, or by seed.

Potsdam, gardens of, 208.

Powdersham Castle, Devonshire, 7600.

Powel, Anthony, Esq. his work on gardening, page
1107. A.D.1769.

Powerscourt, a seat in Wicklow, 7654.

Powys Castle, a seat in Montgomeryshire, 7567.

Poynton, a seat in Cheshire, 7390.

Poxzi, George, his works on the vine, page 1128.
A.D. 1810.

Prasium, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, F. tr. S. Eur.
which thrives in light rich soil, and young cut-
tings root under a hand-glass.

Praslin, formerly Vaux le Vicompte and V. le Vil-
lars, now Vause Praslin, a seat near Paris, the finst
attempt of Le Notre's to lay out grounds.

Preaudeatt~Chemilly, E., his works on gardening,
page 1120. A.D. 1794.

Prenanthes, syngen. polyg. sequal. and cichoraceae,
a F. tr. Barb, and H. peren. and a bien. N. Amer.
and Eur. of common culture.

Preserving vegetables, 2289.

Preserving vegetables, operation for, 2289.

Preston Hall, in East Lothian, 7619.

Prestwood, a seat in Staffordshire, 7570.

Prestwould Hall, Leicestershire, 7573.

Price, Uvedale, Esq., his writings on gardening,
page 1110. A. D. 1794.

Prick, or pricker, a small dibber, — see Dibber.

Pricking, or pricking out, transplanting very young
plants or seedlings, with a prick or small dibber.

Primrose, primula vulgaris, — see Primula.

Primula, primrose, pentan. monog. and primulacese,
H. peren. Eur. beautiful little plants : the hardier

I sorts grow in loamy soils in shaded situations,

■ and the alpines thrive best in peat and loam in

' pots ; all require to be frequently parted and re-
planted.

Primula auricula, the auricula, 6339.

Primula elatior, the oxlip, 6403.

Primula veris, the cowslip, 6401.

Primula vulgaris, the primrose, 6399.

Primula vulgaris, var. polyanthus, the polyanthus,
6389.

Prince's feather, amaranthus hypochondriacus.

Prinos, winter berry, hexan. monog. and rhamnese,
F. and H. tr. N, Amer. which grow well in light
soil, but prefer peat, and are increased by layers
or seeds.

Priory, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Priory, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Priva, didyn. angios. and verbenaceae, S. peren.
Mex. and E. Ind. which grow in loam and
Iieat, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass.

Privet, — see Ligustrum.

Professional police of gardening, 7700.

Promenades, public, equestrian, pedestrian, and
mountain, 7313. to 7322.

Pronville, Augustus de, his work on gardening,
page 1122. A. D. 1818.

Propagation, different operations for, 1985.

Propriety, as a requisite beauty in gardening,
2357.

Props for plants, different kinds of, used in garden-
ing, 1517.

Prosopis, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.
E. Ind. a prickly plant of which the pods are
eaten as a spice in India ; it grows in loam and
peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Prospect towers, their use in gardening, 1806.
Prostanthera, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, a G. tr.
N. S, W. a beautiful plant which thrives in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in the same soil under
a hand-glass.
Protea, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G. tr. C.B.S.
magnificent plants which grow best in light turfy
loam, with one third fine sand; the pots well
drained, and furnished with a stratum of sherds
or gravel; care must be taken not to let the
plants droop for want of water, as they will sel-
dom recover. Ripened cuttings taken off at a
joint, and pared quite smooth, and thinly planted

in pots of sand, will root under a hand-glas6, but
not plunged ; damp must be avoided by wiping the
glasses frequently.

Protecting vegetables, 2206.

Prunella, self-heal, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae,
H. peren. and an. N. Amer. and Eur. which
thrive in light rich soil, and are increased by
dividing at the root.

Pruning, origin of, 32.

Pruning, science of, 2110.

Prunus, the plum and cherry, icos. di-pentag. and
rosaceae, S. G. and F. tr. W. and E. Ind. and H.
tr. Eur. and N. Amer. The G. and F. sp. grow in
loam and peat, and cuttings root in sand under
a hand-glass : the H. sorts grow in any loamy soil,
and are increased by all the modes of propagating
trees.

Prunus avium, the gean, 4577.

Prunus cerasus, the cherry, 4574; cherry-house,
2674 ; and to force the cherry, 3117.

Prunus domestica, the common plum, 4550; to
force the plum, 4570.

Prunus spinosa, the sloe, 4765; P. padus, thebird-
cherrj-, 4766.

Psiadia, syngen. polyg. necess. and corymbifereae, a
S. tr. Maurit. which grows freely in rich light
soil, and cuttings will root readily under a hand-
glass.

Psidium, guava, icos. monog. and myrteaceae, S. tr.
W. Ind. grown there for their fruit : here they
thrive in loam and peat, and ripen fruit readily j
they are increased by cuttings in sand under a
hand-glass, or by layers.

Psidium, pyriferum, pomiferum, &c. 5982.

Psilotum, cryptog. stachyopt. and lycopodineae, a S.
peren. W. Ind. a fern which grows in loam and
peat, and cuttings will root under a hand-glass in
sand.

Psoralea diadelph. decan. and leguminoseae, a S.
bien. and G. tr. and peren. chiefly C. B. S. which
grow freely in loam and peat, and are increased
by cuttings in sand under a bell-glass, or by seeds,
which they ripen abundantly.

Psoralea esculenta, the bread-root, 4333. 6031.

Psychotria, pentan. monog. and rubiacea;, S. tr. W.
Ind. which grow in loam and peat, and cuttings
root in sand under a hand-glass.

Pteris, brake, cryptog. Alices and filiceae, a S.
tr. and peren. W. Ind. G. peren Mad. N. S. W.
and H. peren. Brit, and N. Amer. all of easy cul-
ture.

Pterocarjius, diadelph. decan. and leguminoseae, S.
tr. E. and W. Ind. which thrive in light loamy
soil, and cuttings not deprived of their leaves, root
in sand under a hand-glass.

Pteronia, syngen. polyg. aequal. and cynarocephaleae,
G. tr. C. B. S. which thrive in loam and peat, and
cuttings root freely under a hand-glass.

Pterospermum, monad, dodec. and malvaceae, G. tr.
E. Ind. which thrive well in light loam, and cut-
tings, not deprived of their leaves, root I'reely in
sand under a hand-glass.

Pterostylis, gynan. monan. and orchideae, a G.
peren. N. S. W. which thrives in sandy loam and
peat, without much water after it has done flower-
ing.

Pterygodium, gynan. monan. and orchidea;, a G.
peren. C. B. S. which may be treated as ptero-
stylis.

Puanke-qua, villa of, near Canton, 676.

Public gardens, to lay out, 7312.

Public laws relative to gardening, 7700.

Public parks, their formation, 7313 ; management,
7492.

Public squares, .their formation, 7319; manage-
ment, 7491.

Puccoon, sanguinaria canadensis.

Puddling or mudding the roots of plants, 6849.

Puddling to hold water, 1719.

Pulhawa, a seat near Lublin, in Poland, 283.

Pullein, Samuel, M. A., his work on gardening, page
1105. A. D. 1760.

Pulmonaria, lungwort, pentan. monog. and bora,
gineae, H. peren. Eur. and N. Amer. of easy cul-
ture in light soil.

Pulsatilla, pasque flower, polyan. polyg. and ranun-
culacetE, H. peren. Eur. which grow best in light
sandy soil, and may be increased by division at
the root.

Pultenaea, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, S. tr.
Austral, which grow in sandy loam and peat,
and cuttings root readily under a bell-glass in

GENERAL INDEX.

1217

rtdteney, Richard, F. R. S., author of various bota-
nical works, and of Sketches of the Progress of
Botany in England, 2 vols. 8vo. 1790. He died in
1801.

Pumpkin, cucurbita pepo, 4208.

Pumps used in gardening, 1716.

Punica, pomegranate, icos. monog. and myrteaceae,
a G. peren. W. Ind. H. tr. S. Europ. of easy cul-
ture in light soil, and increased by cuttings.

Punica granatum, the common pomegranate, 5952.

Punnet, a small flat basket of from four to twelve
inches in diameter, and one to three inches deep,
formed of split wood or shavings of timber, — see
Basket.

Pupalia, pentan. monog. and amaranthaceae, a S. tr.
and peren. E. Ind. which grows readily in light
rich soil, and cuttings root freely under a hand-
glass in heat.

Pursh, Fl. Amer., Flora Americse Septentrionalis ;
or, a Systematic Description and Arrangement of
the Plants of Xorth America, by Frederick Pursh.

Purslane, — see Portulaca.

Purslane-tree, portulacaria afra.

Puttenham Priory, Surrey, 7527. to 1217.

Pycnanthemum, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, H.

• peren. S. Amer. which thrive in light rich soil,
and are increased by dividing at the root.

Pye, H., Esq., his ideas on laying out public squares,
7o21.

Pi/e, Mrs. Hampden, her works on gardening, page
1108. A. D. 1/75.

Pyrethrum, feverfew, syngen. polyg. super, and
corymbiferese, G. tr. Teneriffe and Canaries, and
H. peren. Europe, of easy culture.

Pyrola, winter green, decan. monog. and ericeae, H.
peren. Brit, rather difficult to cultivate j they do
best in sand or gravel, in a shady situation, and
are increased by seeds or young cuttings under a
hand-glass.

Pyrus, the apple, pear, service, &c. icos. dl-pentag.
and rosaceae, H. peren. chiefly Eur. of easy culture,
and increased by seeds, layers, cuttings, &c.

Pyrus aria, the whitebeam-tree, 4768.

Pyrus aucuparia, the mountain ash, 4767.

Pyrus communis, the pear, 4433.

Pyrus domestica, the true service, 4473.

Pyrus malus, the apple-tree, 4339.

Pyrus torminalis, the wild service, 4768.

Pyxidanthera, pentan. monog. and ericeas, a H.
peren. Carolin. which thrives in peat soil, and may
be increased by cuttings under a hand-glass.

Pyt House, WUtshire, 7596.

Quaking grass, — see Briza.

Quassia, decan. monog. and simarubeae, S. tr. W.
Ind. which flower ireely in loam and peat, and
ripened cuttings, taken off at a joint, not defoli-
ated, root readily in sand under a hnnd-glass.

Queenby Hall, Leicestershire, 7573.

Queensborough, a seat in Gal way, 7672.

Querber, J , his works on gardening, page 1120.

A. D. 1800.

Quercitron, the dyer's oak, 7072.

Quercus, oak, moncec. polyan. and amentaceae, H.
tr. N. Amer. and Eur. which grow in loamy soil,
and are increased by seeds, and some sorts by
layers and grafting.

Quercus cerris, the luccombe oak a variety of the
Turkey oak, 7071.

Quercus robur and pedunculata, the common oak,
7070.

Queria, trian. monog. and caryophylleae, a H. an.
Spain, of common culture.

Quiliwort, isoetes lacustris.

Quince-tree, — see Cydonia.

Quincunx, a mode of planting or disposing of objects,
2076.

Quintinie, Jean de la, his writings on gardening,
page 1116. A. D. 1696.

Quisqualis, decan. monog. and combretacese, S. tr.
E. Ind. climbers, which grow in loam and peat,
and ropt freely in sand under a hand-glass.

Raby Castle, Durham, 7585.

Radiola, all-seed, tetran. tetrag. and sempervivese,

. a H. an. Brit, of easy culture.

^ Radish, — see Raphanus.
Radnorshire, gardens of, 7610.
Rafflesia arnoldii, and R. horsfield^i, 6737.
Rafnia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a G. bien,

C. B. S. of common culture.
Ragged Robin, lychnis floscuculi.
Ragwort, — see Othonna.
Rails, or railings, used in gardening, 1803. and

6092.
Rain-gauge, or pluviometer, 1286.
Rainham, a seat in Norfolk, 7554.
Raith.a seat in Fifeshire, described, 7635.
Rajania, dicec. hexan. and dioscoreae, a S. peren.
W. Ind. which thrives well in rich loam, and is
increased bv dividing at the roots.
Rake {rateau, Fr.), different kinds of, 1314.
Raking, 1874.

Ramonda, pentan. monog. and solanaceas, a H.
peren. Pyrenees, which thrives in dry rockwork
or in pots, in loam and peat, and is increased by
dividing at the root, or by seeds.
Ramoon-tree, — see Trophis.
Rampion, — see Campanula and Phyteuma.
Ramsay, James, a Scotch landscape-gardener,

363.
Ramson, allium ursinum.
Rana arborea, or tree-frog, 6086.
Randia, pentan. monog. and rubiaceae, S. tr. Afr.
andW. Ind. which grow best in sandy loam and
peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass, in moist heat.
Ranft, I. F., his works on gardening, page 1125.

A. D. 1788.
Ransleben, his essay on gardening, page 1127. A. D.

1817.
Ranunculus, crowfoot, polyan. polyg. and ranuncu-
laceae, H. peren. bien, and an. of easy culture in
common garden-soil, some requiring a moist
situation, and others, as R. aquatilis, to be planted
in shallow water.
Ranunculus asiaticus, the garden ranunculus, 6256.
Rape, brassica napus.
Raphanus, radish, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereae, a

H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. of easy culture.
Raphanus sativus, the garden radish, 3754 ; to

force the radish, 3403
Rapin, Ren^, a French writer on gardening, page

1116. A. D. 1665.
Rapistrum, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, H. an.

Egypt and Eur. of common culture.
Rarities, as garden decorations, 1841,
Raspberry, rubus idaeus, 4696. — see Rubus.
Rastillion, a seat in the county of Cork, 7666.
Rathfarnham Castle, a seat in the county of Dub-
lin, 7653.
Ranch, B. A., his works on gardening, page 1120.

A. D. 1801.
Rauwolfia, pentan. monog. and apocj-neae, St. tr. S.
Amer. and Jamaica, which grow in loam and
peat, and cuttings may be rooted in sand under
a hand-glass.
Ravensworth Castle, Durham, 7584.
Re, Filippo, his works on gardening, page 1128. A. D

1809.
Rea, John, gent., his works on gardening, page 1101.

A. D. 1665.
Read's garden sjTringe, 1419.

Reaumuria, polyan. pentag. and ficoidea?, a F. tr.
Syria, a handsome flowering plant in sandy loam
and peat, and young cuttings root imder a hand .
glass.
Red Castle, a seat in Ross-shire, 7647.
Red cedar, juniperus virginiana.
Red Rise, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.
Red spider, — see Acarus.
Redgrave Hall, Suftblk, 7552.
Redoute, J. P. and C. A. Thorv, their works on

gardening, page 1122. A. D. 1819.
Reeds, — see Arundo.

Reeds, coverings of, used in gardening, 1520.
Regent's Park, London, 7313.

Regina Claudia {Reine Claude, Fr.), Queen Claudine,
a plum, the green gage of this country,— see
Plums, 4553.
Reid, John, his works on gardening, page 1101.

A. D. 1683.
Relhania, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,
a G. tr. C. B. S. which grows in rich, light soil,
and cuttings root under a hand-glass.
Religion, its influence on gardening, 512.
Rem. on Hot, Remarks on Hot- houses, page 1112

A. D. 1803.
Rendcome, a seat in Gloucestershire, 7565.

1218

GENERAL INDEX.

Eendella, Prospera, his work on gardening, page
1128. A. D. lf)29. ^

Rendlesham Hall, Suffolk, 7552.

Renfrewshire, gardening of, 7628.

Repton, Humphrey, Esq. his writings on gardening,
page 1111. A. D. 1795.

Reseda, dodec. trig, and resedacese, G. tr. Spain,
C. B. S. and H. peren. bien. and Eur. all of easy
culture.

Reseda odorata, the mignonette, 6484: tree-mig-
nonette, 6487.

Residences, the formation and laying out of, 7270 ;
mansion and demesne, villa, villa farm, ferme
orniJe, temporary residences, cottage ornee,
citizen's villa, suburban house, house with car-
riage-entrance, house with covered entrance,
house and conservatory, house and flower-
garden -entrance, house and French parterre,
common front or street garden, farmer's garden,
laborer's cottage and garden, 7271. to 7311.

Resinous timber-trees, the most useful sorts de-
scribed, 7039.

Resson, Jean Baptiste Deschines de, a French
author on gardening, page 1117. A. D. 1716

Rest-harrow, — see Ononis.

Restio, rope-grass, dicec. trian. and restiaceae, a G.
peren. C. B. S. which thrives in peat soil, and is
increased by dividing at the root.

Retarding vegetation, operations for, 2177.

Retreat, Devonshire, 7600.

Retzia, pentan. monog. and convolvulaceae, a
G. tr. C. B. S. which thrives in any rich soil,
and cuttings root freely in sand under a hand-
glass.

Rhagadiolus, syngen. polyg. sequal. and cichoraceae,
H. an. Eur. of common culture.

Rhagodia, polyg. monoec. and chenopodeae, a G. tr.
N. S. W. which thrives in loam and peat, and
cuttings root freely under a hand-glass.

Rhamnus, buckthorn, pentan. monog. and rham-
neae, G. tr. China, C. B. S. and H. tr. Eur. and N.
Amor. ; the G. sorts thrive in loam and peat, and
cuttings root freely in sand under a hand-glass ;
the H. species grow in the common soil, and are
increased by layers or seeds ; some of these are
evergreens, others decumbent.

Rhapis, polyg. monoec. and palmeae, a S. tr. and G.
bien. China and Carolina, which thrive in sandy
loam, and are increased by suckers.

Rheed. mal., Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. Ador-
natus per Henr. van Rheede van Drakenstein.

Rheum, rhubarb, ennean. trig, and polygoneae, H.
peren. Eur. and Asia, of easy culture.

Rheum rhaponticum, common culinary or tart-
rhubarb, 4196 ; to force rhubarb, 4203.

Rhexia, octan. monog. and melastomeae, a S. tr. S.
Amer. and F. and H. peren. N. Amer. beautiful
plants which grow best in peat soil, and are
readily increased.

Rhinanthus, yellow rattle, didyn. angios. and scro-
phularineae, a H. an. which prefers a peat soil,
and a moist situatioon.

Rhipsalis, icosan. monog. and cactese, D. S. tr. W.
Ind. and S. Amer. succulents of easy culture.

Rhodiola, rose-root, dicec. octan. and semperviveae,
a H. peren.. Brit, of easy culture in dry soil.

Rhododendron, decan. monog. and rhodoraceae,
G. F. and H. tr. chiefly N. Amer. which prefer
peat soil, and are increased by layers or seeds,
6562.

Rhodora, decan. monog. and rhodoraceae, a H. tr.
N. Amer. which may be treated like rhodo-
dendron.

Rhopala, tetrandr. monogyn. and proteaceae, S. tr.
which grow in 5andy loam, with a little peat, and
cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Rhubarb, — see Rheum.

Rhus, sumach, pentan. trig, and terebintaceffi, S.
and G. tr. chiefly C. B. S. and H. tr. N. Amer.
The G. sorts thrive well in loam and peat, and
cuttings root freely under a hand-glass in sand ;
the H. kinds grow in common soil, and are in-
creased by cuttings of the roots, or layers.

Rhynchospora, trian. monog. and cyperacese, H.
peren. Brit, grasses of easy culture.

Rib-grass, plantago lanceolata.

Ribes, the currant and gooseberry, pentan. monog.
and cacte?e, H. tr. Eur. and N. Amer. of easy
culture.

Ribes grossularia, the gooseberry, 4634. '

Bibes nigrum, the black currant, 4578.

Ribes rubrum, the red currant, 4680.

Ribes spicatum, the acid or tree currant, 4769.

Ribstone Hall, Yorkshire, 7582.

Rice, — see Oryza.

Richard, , his works on gardening, page 1121.

A. D. 1802.
Richardia, hexan. monog. and rubiaceae, a S. tr.

Vera Cruz, which grows in loam and peat, and

cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.
Richmond Hill, Surrey, 7527.
Richmond Park, Surrey, 7529.
Ricinus, palma Christi, monoec. monad, and euphor-

biaceae, S. bien. and an. and G. tr. E. Ind. and

Africa, of easy culture : tlie tr. species root from

cuttings taken oft' at a joint, and planted under a

hand-glass.
Ricotia, tetrad, silic. and crucifereae, a H. an. Egypt,

of common culture.
Ridging, 1871. — see Operations.
Riding, a carriage-road or indicated path fit for

horses and carriages, made for the display of the

scenery of a residence, 7265.
RiedeL J. C, his works on gardening, page 1123.

A. D. 1751.
RieMlson, Pt, his works on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1810.
Rills, how to form or improve in garden-scenery.

Ring-fence, — see Kitchen-garden.

Ringing for maturation of fruits, 2168.

Ringing to induce a state of fruitfulness, different

modes of performing the operation, 2167.
Risso, A. and A. Poiteau, their works on gardening,

page 1122. A. D. 1818.
Ritter, Charles, his works on gardening, page 1126.

A. D. 1804.
Rivenhall Place, a seat in Essex, 7194.
Rivers, to improve in garden-scenery, 7223; to

imitate their effects on plants in an aquarium,

618a

Riviere, de la, and Du Moulin, their work on garden-
ing, page 1117. A. D. 1739.

Riviuia, tetran. monog. and chenopodeje, S. tr. W.
Ind. which grow freely in light, rich soil, and are
readily increased by cuttings or seeds.

Roads, to form, 1965.

Roard, J. L., his tract on gardening, page 1121.
A. D. 1805.

Robin, C , his works on gardening, page 1121.

A. D. 1801.

Robinia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, S. tr. E.
and W. Ind. and H. tr. Siberia ; the S. species
grow in sandy loam, and are increased by seeds
from India, or young cuttings planted in sand
under a bell-glass ; the H. sorts grow freely in
common soil, and are increased by layers, or graft-
ing on R. psendacacia, or from seeds.

Robinia pseudacacia, the common acacia, or Ame-
rican locust-tree, 7105.

Robinson, , his works on gardening, page 1112.

A. D. 1798.

Rocambole, allium scorodoprasum.

Roche Great Court, Wiltshire, 7596.

Rocholl, A , his works on gardening, page 1126.

A. D. 1803.

Rock-rose, — see Cistus.

Rocket, — see Hesperis.

Rocks, as decorations of gardening, 1837 ; natural
rocks, how to operate on, in garden-scenery,
7228.

Rockwork, how to form and plant, 6525.

Rocque, Bartholomew, his work on gardening, page
1104. A. D. 1753.

Rode, , his works on gardening, page 1125.

A. D. 1788.

Rodenhurst, T , his work on gardening, page

1109. A. D. 1784.

Roehampton Grove, Surrey, 7527.

Roella, pentan. monog. and campanulacea, a G.
tr. peren. and an. C. B. S, which grow in loam
and peat, and are increased by seeds or young
cuttings under a hand-glass.

Rolandra, syngen. polyg. segr. and cynarocephalese,
a S. tr. W. Ind. which thrives in light, rich soil,
and is readily increased by cuttings.

Roller, 1455.

Rolling, 1880.

Romer, J. Jacques, his works on gardening, page
1125. A. D. 1791.

Rondeletia, pentan. monog. and rubiaceae, G. tr.
W. Ind. which grow in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Rookery, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Rook's Nest, a villa in Surrey, 7527.

Root-cellar, 1704.

GENERAL INDEX.

1219

Roots first used by man as food, 28.
Roots of wild plants, edible, 4300.
Rope-grass, — see Restio.

Rosa, rose, icos. polyg. and rosacea, G. Fr. and H.
tr. China and Europe ; the tender species grow
in light rich soil, and cuttings root readily under
a hand-glass ; the H. sorts grow best in good rich
soil, and are increased by layers or by budding or
grafting.
Rose, — see Rosa.

Rose, table of the species whence have been ori-
ginated most of the ornamental sorts, 6S46 ; pro-
pagation, final situation, general culture, forcing,
insects, 6547. to 6561.
Rose-acacia, robinia hispida.
Rose-campion, — see Agrostemma.
Rose of Jericho, anastatica hierochuntica.
Rose-root, — see Rhodiola.
Rosemary, — see Rosmarinus.
Hose, John, his works on gardening, page 1101.

A. D. 1666.

Rosenburg, O F , his works on gardening,

page 1127. A. D. 1808.

Rosmarinus, rosemary, dian. monog. and labiatea,

a G. tr. Chili and H. tr. Eur. of easy culture in

dry light soil, and increased by cuttings.

Rosmarinus officinalis, the common rosemary, 4179.

Rossig, K. Glo., his works on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1807.
Rossignol, lAbb^ de, his works on gardening, page

1120. A.D. 1797.
Rnsslyn House, Middlesex, 7520.
Ross-shire, gardens of, 7647.
Rotation of crops, rationale of, 1107 ; new opinions

on, 1110 ; in kitchen-gardens, 2556. and 2557.
Rotboellia, hard-grass, trian. digyn. and gramineze,

H. an. Eur. of the easiest culture.
Rotheras, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.
Rothia, syngen. polyg. zequal. and cichoraceie, a H.

bien. and an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Rotterdam, gardens of, 128.
Rotting-ground in nurseries, 6979.
Rottlera, dioec. icos. and , a G. tr. E. Ind.

which grow in loam and peat, and cuttings root

in sand under a hand-glass.
Rough chervil, — see Anthriscus.
Roulet, Jean Antoine, his work on gardening, page

1127. A D. 1817.
Roux, Aueustin, his works on gardening, page 1117.

A.D. 1750.
Roxb. cor.. Plants of the coast of Coromandel. By

WilL Roxburgh.
Roxburgh House, a seat in Ross-shire, 7647.
Roxburghia, octand. monogyn. and salicareje, a S.
k peren. E. Ind. a climber which grows in loam and

peat, and may be increased, but not readily, by

dividing at the root
Roxburghshire, gardens of, 7621.
Royal gardener, 7387.

Royal gardens, and their management, 7451.
Royal gardens of Britain ; at Carlton House,

Hampton Court, Kensington, and Pimlico, 7523 ;

at Kew and Richmond, 7529 ; at Windsor and

Frograore, 7562 ; at Brighton, 7533.
Royena, decan. dig. and ebenaceie, G. tr. C. B. S.

which thrive in loam and peat, and ripened

cuttings root readily in sand under a hand-
glass
Royer, Johann, his work on gardening, page 1123.

A.D 161-.
Rubia, madder, tetran. monog. and rubiacese, G. tr.

and H. per. Eur. of easy culture in light rich soil.
Rubus, bramble, icos. polyg. and rosaces, a S. tr.

and G. tr. E. Ind. and H tr. Eur. and N. Amer. ;

the tender kinds thrive in rich light soil, and cut-
tings root under a hand-glass ; the H. sp. are

chiefly prickly trailers, which grow in any soil,

and are increased by suckers or seeds, and some

sorts by cuttings.
Rubus idseus, the raspberry, 4696 ; R. fruticosus,

the common bramble ; R. chamasmcrus, the cloud-
berry ; R. arcticus, the crimson bramble ; and R.

csBsius, the dewberry, 4770. to 4773.
Rtidbeck, Olaus, his work on gardening, page 1129.

AD. 1664.
Rudbeck, Olaus, filius, his works on gardening, page

1130. A.D. 1G86.
Rudbeckia, syngen. polyg. frustran. and corymbife-

rcEE, F. and H. peren. and an. N. Amer. of easy

culture.
Rudolp/ii, J. C , his works on gardening, page

1126. A.D. 1802.
Rue, — see Rata.

4

Ruellia, didyn. angios. and icanthaceae, S. tr. and
G. peren. Ind. and Amer. pretty plants of easy
culture in light rich soil.

Ruins as objects in garden-scenery, 1839. and 7237.

Ruizia, monad, polyan. and malvacese, a S. tr.
Bourb. which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-filass.

Rum. Amb., Ge. Everh. Rumphii Herbarium Am-
boinense.

Rumex, dock, hexan. trig, and polygoneae, S. and
G. tr. and peren. Afr. and H. peren. and an. Eur.
of easy culture.

Rumex patientia, patience-dock, or spinage-dock,
3807.

Rumex scutatus and acetosa, the garden-sorrels,
3799.

Runners, to propagate by, 1991.

Ruppia, tetran. tetrag. and naiades, a H. peren.
Brit, a submarine aquatic, which should be grown
in sand, kept moist, and occasionally strewed with
.«alt.

Rupture-wort, — see Hemiaria.

Rusborough, a seat in Wicklow, 7654.

Ruscus, butcher's broom, dicec. monad, and smi-
laceje, a G. and H. tr. Eur. under-shrubs, ever-
greens, which will grow in shady situations, and
are increased by dividing at the root.

Rush, — see Juncus.

Rush-broom, viminaria denudata.

Rush-nut, cvperus esculentus, — see Cyperus.

Rushbrook Hall, Suffolk, 7552.

Rushton Hall, Northamptonshire, 7580.

Russel Square, London, 7320.

Russelia, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a S.
tr. S. Amer. a pretty plant which thrives in light
rich soil, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass in heat.

Ruta, rue, decan. monog. and rutaceae, G. and H.
tr. and peren. Eur. and Afr. under-shrubs, ever-
greens which prefer light soil, and are readily in-
creased by cuttings or seeds.

Rutlandshire, gardens and residences of, 7579.

Rutter, James, and Daniel Carter, their works on
gardening, page 1107. A.D. 1767.

Rye, — see Secale.

Rye-grass, lolium perenne.

S.

Sabal, hexan. trig, and palmeae, a S. peren. Florida,
which grows in light sandy loam, and may be oc-
casionally increased by suckers.

Sabb. hort., Sabbati (liberatus) Hortus romanus.

Sabbatia, pentan. monog. and gentianese, H. bien.
N. Amer. of easy culture.

Saccharum, sugar-cane, trian. digj'. and graminese,
a S [leren. Ind. which grows in rich loam, and is
increased by suckers or cuttings of the stem.

Sacconi, Agostino, his work on gardening, paee
112S. A.D. 1697.

Sacred bean, — see Nelumbium.

Sage, — see Salvia.

Sagina, i)earlwort, tetran. tetrag. and caryophylleae,
H. an. Brit, of easy culture.

Sagittaria, arrow-head, moncec. polyan. and alisma-
cese, S. and G. peren. China and Amer. and H.
peren. Brit, and Amer. aquatics of easy culture.

Sagituria sagittifolia, common arrow-head, 4300.

Sago-palm, sagus rumphii.

Sagus, sago-palm, moncec. hexan. and palmeae, a S.
tr. which requires a sandy loam and a strong
moist heat.

3t. Andrew's cross, ascyrum crux Andreae.

St. Anne's Hill, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Saint Etienne, Claude de, a French author on gar-
dening, page 1116. A.D. 1660.

St. John's wort, — see Hypericum.

St. Laurence's Cottage, Hampshire, 7594.

St. IMary's Isle, a seat in Kircudbrightshire, 7625.

St Peter's wort, s>mphoria glomerata.

Saint Peravi, Guermeau de, his works on garden-
ing, page 1118. A.D. 1765.

Saint Simon, Marquis de, his works on gardenins'.
page 1118. A.D 1768. ° **

Saintfoin, — see Hedysarum.

Salad, to grow in cellars, 3992. ■

Salad-plants, — see Acetarious Plants.

Salads from wild plants, 4311.

Salicomia, glasswort, monan. monog. an^ chenopo-
deae, a G. tr. Arabia, and a H. tr. peren. and an.
Brit, succulent salt-marsh plants, which grow in
rich light soil not overwatered.
I 2

1220

GENERAL INDEX.

Salicornia herbacea, samphire, 4282.
Salisburia, inonoec. jiolyan. and podocarpeae, a H.
tr. Japan, which grows in sheltered situations, in
common garden soil, and is increased by layers.
Salisbury Craig, a hill at Edinburgh, how to im-
prove, 7317.
Salisbury, Richard Anthony, Esq. F. R. S., &c, his

writings on gardening, page 1110. A.D. 1791.
Salisbury, William, his writin^^s on gardening, page

1112. A.D. 1797.
Salix, willow, dioec. monan. and amentacea;, a S.
tr. E. Ind. and H. tr. Eur. and N. Amer. which
grow mostly in moist soil, and are readily in-
creased by cuttings.

Salix alba, the Huntington and other tree willows
grown for timber, 7144.

Salix viminalis, the common osier, and other basket
and hoop willows, 7149.

Sallows, — see Salix.

Salsify, — see Tragopogon.

Salsola, saltwort, pentan. dig. and chenopodese, a
G. tr. S. Eur. and a H. peren. and an. Eur. and
Afr. which may be treated like salicornia.

Salt, as a manure, 1189.

Salt-tree, robinia halodendron.

Salt- wort, — see Salsola.

Salter, J— — , his work on gardening, page 1114.
A.D. 1816.

Salton Hall, a seat in East Lothian, 7619.

Sa»iram, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.

Salvia, sage, dian. monog. and labiatea% S. and G.
tr. and peren. and H. tr. peren. and an. all of easy
culture in light sandy soil.

Salvia officinalis, the common sage, 4140.

Salvia sclareae, clary, 4145.

Salxmann, F. Z., gardener to the King of Prussia,
203; his works on gardening, page 1124. A. D.
1781.

Sam., Samouelle's Entomologist's Useful Com-
panion.

Samboursky, , his poem on gardens, page 1131.

A.D. 1788.

Sambucus, elder, pentan. trig, and caprifoleas, H. tr.
and a peren. Eur. and Amer. of easy culture, and
increased by cuttings or seeds.

Sambucus nigra, the common elder, as a fruit-tree,
4G27 ; as a forest tree, 7119.

Sampliire, — see Crithmum and Inula.

Satnroff, Cp. L., his works on gardening, page 1125.
A.D. 1788.

Samyda, decan. monog. and samydeae, S. tr. W.
Ind. which grow, though shyly, in loam and
peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-

' glass.

Sandal-wood, santalum album.

Sandbeck (sand-brook), a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.

Sandbox-tree, — see Hura.

Sandon, a seat in Staffbrdshire, 7570,

Sandwell Park, Staffordshire, 7570.

Sandwort, — see Arenaria.

Sang, Edward, his edition of Nicol's Planter's
Kalendar, page 1112. A.D. 1798.

Sanguinaria, puccbon, polyan. monog. and papa-
veraceae, a H. peren. which grows best in light
sandy soil, and increases by seeds, or offsets from
the root.

Sanguisorba, great burnet, tetran. monog. and ro-
saceaB, H, peren. Brit, and Amer. of common
culture.

Sanicle, — see Sanicula.

Sanicula, sanicle, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae, H.
peren. Brit, and Amer. of easy culture.

Sans Souci, a royal palace at Potsdam, 208.

Sanseviera, hexan. monog. and hemerocallideae, S.
peren. and a H. peren. E. Ind. and China, succu-
lents increased by suckers.

Santalum, sandal-wood, tetran. monog. and santa-
laceje, a S. tr. E. Ind. which grows in light
loam, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Santolina, lavender -cotton, syngen. polyg. zequal.
and corymbifereae, H. tr. and per. Eur. which

' grow in common garden soil, and are readily in-
creased by cuttings.

Sanvitalia, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbiferea?,
a H. an. Mexico, of easy culture.

Sapindus, soapberry, octan. trig, and sapindiaceas, a
S. tr. and G. tr. Amer. which thrive well in loam
and peat, and large cuttings root in sand under a
hand-glass.

8apium, monoec. monad, and euphorbiacese, a S. tr.
W. Ind, which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass,

Saponaria, so.ipwort, decan. dig. and caryophylleje,
H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy culture.

Sarcophyllum, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a G.
tr. C. B. S. a succulent which grows in loam and
peat, not overwatered, and cuttings root readily
in sand under a bell-glass.

Sarcostemma, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeaa, a S. tr.
E. Ind. a climber which grows in loam and peat,
and cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Sarracenia, side-saddle flower, polyan. monog. and

, F. peren. N. Amer. which grow in pots,

with turfy peat at the bottom, and the upper part
filled with sphagnum, in which the plants must be
set, and then placed in pans of water in a shady
situation.

Sartorelli, G. B., his works on gardening, page 1129.
A.D. 181,6.

Sassafras-tree, laurus sassafras.

Saturcja, savory, didyn. gymnos. and labiateje, a S.
tr. G. tr, and II. peren. and an. Eur. and N. Amer,
of easy culture.

Satureja" montana and hortensis, winter and summer
garden savory, 4170.

Satyrium, gynan. monan. and orchidea;, G. peren.
S. Eur. which grow in sandy loam and peat, with
little water, when not in a growing state, and are
increased by seeds.

Saururus, lizard's tail, heptan. tetrag, and naiades,
a H. peren. an aquatic increased by parting at the
root.

Saussai, le Sicur de, a French writer on gardening,
page 1117. A.D. 1722.

Saussure, Nicolas de, his works on gardening, iMige

1124. A.D. 1775.
Savanna-flower, echites suberecta.

Savi, Gaetano, his work on gardening, page 1128.

A.D. 1811.
Savin, juniperus sabina.
Savory, — see Satureja,
Saw, 1331.

Saw-wort, — see Serratula,
Sawing, 1883.
Saxifraga, saxifrage, decan. dig. and saxifrageae, F.

and H. peren. and an. Eur. and N. Amer. chiefly

alpines, and well adapted for rockwork ; but

some, as S. nivalis, hirculus, &c. are marsh plants;

all are of easy culture.
Saxifraga crassifolia, as a tea-plant, 4319.
Saxifrage, — see Saxifraga.
Scabiosa, scabious, tetran. monog. and dipsaceas, G

tr. C. B. S. and H. peren. and an. Eur. all of easy

culture in common light soil.
Scabious, — see Scabiosa.
Scffivola, pentan. monog. and goodenovise, a S, tr.

and G. tr. and peren. W. Ind. and Austral, which

grow freely in loam and peat, and cuttings root

readily under a hand-glass.
Scammony, — see Convolvulus scammonia.
Scandix, cicely, pentan. dig. and umbellifereas, H.

an. Eur. and Persia, of easy culture
Scandix cerefolium, chervil, 4107.
Scandix odorata, sweet cicely, 4314.
Scares, for birds and vermin, used in gardening,

1483.
Schabol, Jean-Roger, his works on gardening, page

1118. A. D. 1767.
SchsefFeria, dicec. tetran. and , a S. tr.

W. Tnd. which grows in loam and peat, and may

be increased by layers or cuttings in sand under a

bell-glass.
Scheuchzeria, hexan. trig, and juncagines, a H.

peren. Engl, a marsh plant increased by seeds.
Schiller, I. K., his works on gardening, page 1125.

A. D. 1795.
Schinus, dicec. decan. and terebintaceas, G. tr. and

H. tr. S. Amer. which grow in lo;im and peat,

and ripened cuttings, with their leaves not short.

ened, will root freely in sand under a hand-
glass.
Schisandra, monccc. pentan. and meni.spormeae, a

G. tr. N. Amer. a climber wh.ich grows in sandy

peat and loam, and ripened cuttings root in sand

under a bell-glass.
Schk. Hand., Botanisches Handbuch. Von Christ.

Schkuhr.
Schkuhria, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,

a H. an. Mex. of common culture.
Schmahling, L. C, his works on gardening, page

1125. A. D. 1786.

Schmersall, I. F., his works on gardening, page 1123.

A. D. 170-.
Schmidt, Christian Francis, his work on gardenmge

page 1130. A. D. 178-.

GENERAL INDEX.

1221

Schmidt, I. C. E., his works on gardening, page 1124.

A. D. 1776.
Schemer, J. C, his works on gardening, page 112o.

A. D. 1761.
Schoenbrunn (fine brook, or well), gardens of, at

Vienna, 205. and 218.
Schcenus, bog-rush, trian. monog. and cyperaceae,

H. peren. Brit, of the easiest culture in marshy

ground.
Schotia, decandria moncgynia and leguminosese,

S. tr. C. B. S. which grow in loam and peat,

and cuttings in pots of sand, plunged in mould

(not in tan) under a hand-glass, will soon strike

root
Sohrankia, polvg. monoec. and leguminosese, a S.

peren. and g! peren. N. and S. Amer. which grow

in loam and peat, and cuttings will root in sand

under a bell-glass.
Schreiber, I. C, his work on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1820.
Schrotter, J. Sm., his works on gardening, page 1126.

A. D. 1802.
Schweitzingen, Duke of Baden's gardens at, 214.
Schwenkia, dian. monog. and scrofularinese, a S.

bien. Guinea, of easy culture.
Schwobber, gardens of, in Hanover, 204.
Scilla, squill, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, a G.

peren. and H. peren. Eur. and C. B. S. bulbs of

easy culture.
Scilla esculenta, the quamash, 4334.
Scions for graftmg {scion, Vr.), 2043.
Scirpus, club- rush, triand. monogynia and cypera-

ceffi, a S. peren. E. Ind. and H. peren. Brit marsh

grasses of easy culture.
Scirpus tuberosus, the water-chestnut, 6032.
Sclerantluis, knawel, decan. dig. and portulaceae, a

H. peren. and an. Brit, which grow best in light,

sandy soil, and are easily propagated.
Sclerocarpus, syngen. polygam. trust and corymbi-

fereae, a G. an. Guinea, of common culture.
Sclerothamnus, decan. monog. and Icguminoseae, a
. G. tr. of N. Holl. which grows in sandy loam and

peat, and young cuttings root in sand under a

bell-glass.
Scleroxylon, pentandria monogynia and sapoteae, a

G. tr. C. B. S. which grows in loam and peal,

and ripened cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.
Scolopendrium, hart's tongue, cryptog. filices and

filicwje, H. i^eren. Brit, of easy culture in peat

earth in the shade, or in pots.
Scolymus, golden thistle, sygen. polyg. aequal. and

cichoraceae, a F. bien. and H. peren. and an. Eur.

As. and Afr. of easy culture.
Scone Palace, Perthshire, 7636.
Scoparia, tetran. monog. and scrophularineae, a S.

an. Jamaica, of common culture.
Scopolia, pentan. monog. and thymelea?, a S. tr. E.

Ind. which grows in loam and peat, and cuttings

root in sand under a hand-glass.
Scorpion-grass, — see Myosotis.
Scorpion-senna, coronilla emerus.
Scorpiurus, caterpillar, diadelph. decan. and legu-

minoseae, H. an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Scorzonera, viper's grass, syngen. polyg. tequal. and

cichoraceae, H. peren. and bien. Eur. of common

culture.
Scorzonera hispanica, the garden viper's grass, 3746.
Scotland, gardens and residences of, 7615.
Scottia, diadel. decand. and leguminoseae, a G. tr.

N. Holl. which thrives in loam and peat, and

young cuttings, taken off at a joint, root in sand

under a bell-glass.
Screen-plantations, 6794. and 6819.
Screens for sheltering wall-trees, 1495.
Screens for sifting earth, 1392.
Screw-pine — see Pandanus.
Screw-tree, — see Helirteres.
Scrophularia, fig-wort, didyn. angios. and scrophu-

larinese, G. bien. and an. and F. and H. peren.

Eur. and Amer. of easy culture.
Sculptures, 1843.
Sculptures, vegetable, 1S44.
Scunk-wecd, pothos foetida.
Scurvy-grass, — see Cociilearia.
ScuteUaria, skull-cap, didyn. gj-mnos. and labiateae,

a S. peren. and G. tr. W. Ind. and Crete, and H.

peren. Eur. of common culture.
Scythe, different sorts used in gardening, 1435. and

1473.
Sea-buckthorn, — see Hippophae.
Sea-heath, — see Frankenia.
Sea-Jiollv, eryngium raaritimum.

4 I

Sea- kale, crambe maritima, — see Crambe.

Sea-lavender, — see Statice.

Sea-parsnep, — see Echinophora.

Sea-rocket, cakile maritima.

Sea-side grape, — see Coccoloba.

Sea-side laurel, phyllanthus latifolius.

Sea-side oat, —see Uniola.

Seats, as garden decorations, 1816. to 1820.

Sebaea, tetran. monog. and gentianeae, a H. an.
C. B. S. of common culture.

Secale, rye, trian. dig. and gramineae, a H. bien. and
an. of easy culture.

Secamone, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeae, a S. and
G. tr. Egypt and Ind. which grow in loam and
peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under a
hand-glass.

Securidaca, diadelphia octandria and legMminoseae,
a S. tr. W. Ind. a climber which grows in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a bell-
glass.

Securinega, Otaheite myrtle,, dioec. pentan. and eu-
phorbiaceae, a S. tr. which flowers freely in loam
and peat, and cuttings root readily in sand under
a hand-glass.

Sedi, le Sieur de, a nurseryman at Lyons, 194.

Sedmere, a seat in Yorkshire, 7582.

Sedum, stone-crop, decan. pentag. and semperviveae,
G. and F. tr. Madeira, and H. peren. bien. and
an. Eur. and N. Amer. mostly succulents, which
answer well in pots or in rockwork, and are
readily increased by cuttings or dividing the plant,

Sedum telephium, the true orpine, 4312.

Seed-gardens, their formation, 7361 ; management,
7454.

Seed-market, in Mark Lane, London, 7515.

Seed-merchants or seedsmen, 7391.

Seed-room, 1705.

Seeds, physiology of, 716 ; duration of the vegetative
principle in common garden-seeds, management of
the seed department in the nursery business, 7484.

Segelsteiner, George, his works on gardening, page
1123. A. D. 1702.

Seidel, C. F., his works on gardening, page 1125.
A. t> 1786.

Selago, didynam. gj'mnos. and verbenaceae, G. tr.
C. B. S. which grow in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root freely in the same soil under a hand-
glass.

Self-heal, — see Prunella.

Seligmann, J. M., his works on gardening, page
1123. A. D. 1750.

Selinum, milk-parsley, pentan. dig. and umbelli-
fereae, H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy culture,
and increased by dividing at the root or seeds.

Selkirkshire, as to gardening, 7622.

Selwood Park, Berkshire, 7561.

Sempervivum, houseleek, dodec. dodecag. and sem-
perviveae, G. tr. H. peren. and an. Asia, C. B. S.
and Eur. succulents, which answer well treated
■ as sedum.

Senacia, pentandria monogynia and rhamnese, a S.
tr. Bomb, which requires the same treatment as
celastrus.

Senecio, groundsel, syngen. polyg. super, and corym-
bifereae, a S. peren. G. tr. and bien. C. B. S and
H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. which grow in light
soil, and are easily increased by the ordinary
means.

Sensitive pknt, mimosa sensitiva.

Septas, heptandria heptagynia and semperviveae,
G. peren. C. ^B. S. succulents which grow in
loam and peat, require little water when not in a
growing state, and are increased by dividing at
the roots.

Septfoil, — see Tormentilla.

Sepulchral structures, as garden buildings, 1792.

Serapias, gynandria monandria and orchideae, G.
peren. S. Eur. which thrive in loam and peat,
and are increased by dividing at the root or by
seeds.

Seriana, octan. trig, and sapindeae, S. tr. & Amer.
which thrive in sandy loam, and cuttings root in
sand mider a hand-glass.

Seriola, sj-ngen. polyg. aequal. and cichoraceae, H.
peren. S. Eur. of Ciisy culture.

Strissa, pentan. monogynia and rubiacea;, a G. tr.
Japan, which grows in loam and peai, and cut-
tings root freely under a hand-glass in sand.

Serpicula, moncec. tetrandria and onagrareiffi; a G.
peren. C. B. S. a creeper which grows in loam and
peat, and cuttings root freely under a hand-glats
in sand.

Serratula, saw-wort, syngen. polygam. sequalis and

3

1222

GENERAL INDEX.

cynarocephaleJB, H. peren. Eur. of common cul-
ture.
Serruria, tetran. monog. and proteacejE, G. tr. and
a H. tr. C. B. S. free flowerers which require the
same treatment as protea.
Sersalisia, pentan. monog. and sapoteae, a G. tr.
N. Holl. which grows in sandy loam and peat,
and cuttings root readily in sand under a hand-
glass.
Service-tree, — see Pyrus.

Sesamum, oily grain, didyn. angios. and bignonia-
ceae, S. an. of easy culture.

Sesbana, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a S. tr.
bien. and an. E. Ind. of common culture. The
S. species is a beautiful plant.

Seseli, meadow-saxifrage, pentan. dig. and umbelli-
fereae, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. and N. Amer.
of easy culture.

Sesleria, trian. monog. and gramineae, H. peren.
Eur. of easy culture.

Sesuvium, icos. di-pentag. and ficoideae, S. peren.
and an. W. Ind. and S. Amer. succulents which
grow in loam and peat, and are easily propa-
gated.

Shade, in arboriculture, 6765.

Shallot, allium ascalonicum, — see Allium,

Shanbally, a seat in Tipperary, 7667.

Shane's Castle, a seat in Antrim, 7684.

Shardeloes, a seat in Buckinghamshire, 7547.

Sharrock, Robert, LL.D., his works on gardening,
page 1100. A. D. 1660.

Shaw, James, his work on gardening, page 1111.
A. D. 1794.

Shaw, William, his work on gardening, page 1113.
A. D. 1807.

Shaw Park, a seat in Clackmannanshire, 7633.

Shears, garden, different sorts of, 1333.

Sheep's beard, — see Arnopogon.

Sheep's scabious — see Jasione.

Sheffield Place, Sussex, 7531.

Shelter, in arboriculture, 6762.

Shenstone, William, his writings on gardening, page
1106. A. D. 1764.

Shepherd's club, verbascum thapsus.

Shepherd's purse, thlaspi bursa pastoris.

Sherardia, field-madder, tetran. monog. and rubia-
ceae, H. an. Brit, weeds.

Sherborne Castle, Dorsetshire, 7598.

Sherborne House, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Sherbourne Castle, Oxfordshire, 7558.

Sherwood Lodge, Surrey, 7527.

Shewhing, or shoughing, a Scotch term for the
operation of earthing in, or laying in plants by
the heels, for temporary purposes.

Shield- fern, — see Aspidium.

Shifting, the transplanting of plants in pots, dif-
ferent methods of performing, 2104.

Shincliffe Hall, Durham, 7584.

Shipley, a seat in Derbyshire, 7574.

Shobden Court, Herefordshire, 7568.

Shore-weed, littorella lacustris.

Short-grove, Essex, 7542.

Shovel, 1301.

Shovelling, 1866.

Shrub Hill, Surrey, 7527.

Shrubbery, forming the, 6130 ; situation, soil, walks,
fence, reserve-ground, 6131. to 6137.

Shrubbery, planting of, 6138 ; in the mingled man-
ner, select manner, systematic manner, general
practice, fruit-treei in shrubberies, decorations,
6139. to 6160.

Shrubbery, its culture and management, 6187 ;
times of planting and sowing, pruning, training,
thinning, and dressing, grass plots, protecting,
water, insects, 6188. to 6201.

Shrubbery, considered in respect to landscape-gar-
dening, 6802.

Shrubby trefoil, ptelea trifoliata.

Shrubs, ornamental, select, deciduous, evergreen,
climbing, selection for particular purposes, for
concealing vertical and horizontal defects, of rapid
and bulky growth, which thrive under the shade
and drip of trees, for margins of water, rocks,
edgings and hedges, highly odoriferous, orna-
mental by their fruit as well as flowers, for bota-
nical or economical purposes, for shrubberies of
limited extent, 6542. to 6587.

Shugborough House, Staffordshire, 7570.

Sibbaldia, pentan. pentag. and rosaceae, H. peren.
Eur. Alpines which grow in loam and peat, and
may be increased by cuttings, under a hand-
glass.

Sibthorpia, dldyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a H.

peren. Eng. which grows well in peat and loam,
m rockwork or in pots, and is increased by divid-
ing at the root.
Sickler, Francis Karl Ludwig, his works on garden-
ing, page 1126. A. D. 1802.
Sickler, T. Volkman, his works on gardening, pase

1125. A. D. 1794. ^ "

Sicyos, single-seeded cucumber, monoec. monad,
and cucurbitaceae, a H. an. Amer. of common
culture.
Sida, monad, polyan. and malvaceae, S. and G. tr.
bien. and an. E. and W. Ind. C. B. S. and S. Amer.
which flower freely in rich light soil, and are
readily increased by seeds, or cuttings will root

in sand under a hand-glass.
Side-saddle flower, — see Sarracenia.
Sideritis, ironwort, didyn. gymnos. and labiateae, G.

and F. tr. peren and an. S. Eur. and E. Ind. which

grow freely in rich light soil, and are readily in-

creased by cuttings.
Siderodendrum, iron-tree, tetran. monog. and rubia-

ceae^ a S. tr. W. Ind. which grows in loam and

peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-

glass.
Sideroxylon, iron-wood, pentan. monog. and sa.

poteae, a G. tr. C. B. S. which thrives in loam and

peat, and cuttings, a little ripened, root in sand

under a hand-glass.
Siegel, , his works on gardening, page 1126.

A. D. 1802.
Siegesbeckia, syngen. polyg. superf. and corymbi-

fereae, H. an. India and Peru, of common culture.
Slemssen, A. C, his work on gardening, page 1125.

A. D. 1797.
Sieve, the garden, 1394.
Silene, catchfly, decan. trig, and caryophylleae, G.

bien. and H. peren. bien. and an. a numerous

genus, which ti)rive in light soil, suit well for

rockwork or pots, and are readily increased by

division, seeds, or cuttings.
Silene inflata, the bladder-catch fly, 3952.
Silk cotton tree, — see Bombax.
Silphium, syngen. polygam. necess. and corymbife-

reae, H. peren. N. Amer. robust, unsightly plants,

easily increased.
Silva, Sigismondo, his work on gardening, page

1128. A. D. 1803.
Silver-tree, leucadendron argenteum,
Simplicists, — see Physic Gardeners.
Snapis, mustard, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereae, a

G. tr. and a H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. and E.

Ind. of easy culture.
Sinapis alba and nigra, white and black mustard,

4020.
Sinapis arvensis, field-mustard, 4287.
Sinapis Pekinensis, 4335.
Sinclair, Sir John, his writings on gardening, page

1114. A. D. 1813.
Single-seeded cucumber, sicyos angulata.
Sion, — see Scion.

Sion Hill, a seat in Middlesex, 7521.
Sion House, Middlesex, 7522.
Sison, honewort, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae, H,

peren. and an. Brit, and Siber. of easy culture.
Sisymbrium, tetrad, siliq. and crucifereas, a G. tr.

Canaries, and H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. which

grow in any soil, but most of them prefer a moist

situation : S. tenuifolium, however, grows on old

walls.
Sisymbrium officinale, common water-cress, 4052.
Site {situs, Lat), the situation or ground on which

a building, garden, or other object stands.
Sium, water-parsnep, pentan. dig. and umbellifereje,

H. peren. Eur. and China, chiefly aquatics.
Sium sisarum, the skirret, 3740.
Skelton Castle, Yorkshire, 7582.
Skibo, a seat in Sutherlandshire, 7646.
Skirret, — see Sisiim.
Skull-cap, — see Scutellaria.
Slaine Castle, a seat in Eastmeath, 7661.
Slaines Castle, a seat in Aberdeenshire, 7639.
Sligo, county of, as to gardening, 7675.
Slip, a stripe of ground.
Slipper-wort, — see Calceolaria.
SliiJS, to propagate by, 1989.

Slo. hist. 7 A voyage "to the islands of Madeira, Bar-
Slo. jam.3 badoes, Nevis, St. Christopher's, and

Jamaica; with the natural history of the last of

those islands. By Hans Sloane.
Sloane Square, London, 7321.
Sloanea, polyan. monog. and tiliaceae, a S. tr. S.

Amer. which thrives in loam and peat, and cut-
tings may be rooted in sand under a hand-glass, j

GENERAL INDEX.

1223

Slopes, a shrubbery at Windsor, 6159.

Slug, — see Limax.

Sluices, their form and situation, 195L

Small salads, 407S ; to force, 3402.

Smilacina, hexan. monog. and smilaceae, H.
j>ereu North Amorca, which succeed best in
light sandy soil, and are increased by dividing the
root.

Smilax, dioec. hexan. and smilaceae, G. and F. tr.
and peren. which grow freely in loam and peat on
rich light soil, and are increased by dividing
at the root, and the woody kinds also by cut-
tings.

Smith, Sir James Edward, M.D. F.R.S., his writings
on gardening, page 1110. A.D. 1792.

Smitbia, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a S. an.
E. Ind. of easy culture.

Smut, — see Ustilago.

Smyrnium, alexanders, pentan dig. and umbellife-
Tese, H. peren. and a bien. Eur. and N. Amer. of
easy culture.

Smyrnium olusatrum, the garden alexanders or
alisanders, S9i8.

Snail, — see Helix.

Snakes beard, ophiopogon japonicus.

Snake's tongue, lygodiura scandens.

Snakewood, cecropia peltata.

Snap-dragon, antirrhinum raajus.

Snap-tree, justicia hyssopifolia.

Sneeze-wort, achillea ptarmica.

Snow, iu formation, 1254 ; heat from, &c. 1207.

Snow, T., his works on gardening, page 1102. A. D.
1715.

Snow-berry, chiococca racemosa.

Snow-drop, galanthus nivalis.

Snow-flake, — see Leucojura.

Soap-berry, — see Sapindus.

Soap-wort, — see Saponaria.

Society of Gardeners, their work on gardening, page
1103. A.D. 1730.

Society of Practical Gardeners, their work on gar-
dening, page 1112. A.D. 18U2.

Sod, a turf, or thin layer of earth, covered with
grasses, taken from a lawn or pasture with a
spade.

Soderini, G. and Bernardo Davazati, their work on
garden mg, page 11-8. A.D. 1622.

Sodcnii, S., his works on gardening, page 1128. A.D.
1811.

Soft-grass, — see Holcus.

Soft-wooded timber-trees, 7125.

Soil, 927; mixed soils, 928; aquatic soils, 929;
earthy soils, 930 ; vegetable soils, 938.

Soils, as indicated by spontaneous vegetables grow-
ing on them, 1036; list of planU indicating the
more common soils, 1037.

Soils, improvement of, 1068 ; by pulveri.«ation, aer-
ation, alteration, removal of superabundant in-
gredients, incineration, changing the condition of
lands as to water, draining, embanking, subterra-
neous irrigation, suriace irrigation, changing the
condition of lands in respect to atmospherical in-
fluence, solar influence, sh-^lter, rotation of crops,
Sir H. Davy's opinion on rotations, Grisen-
thwaite's opinion, 1069 to 1110.

Soils, table of, their nomenclature and classification,
1034 ; discovering their qualities, 1035 ; uses of
soil to vegetables, 1051.

Sdandra, pentan. monog. and solaneaceas, S. tr. Ja-
maica, free-growing plants, which, when it is in-
tended they should flower, must be put in a state
of rest by withholding water till their leaves drop.
Cuttings root easily.

Solanum, nightshade, pentan. monog. and solaneae,
S. and G. tr. peren. and an. and H. peren. and an.
all of easy culture in light rich soil.

Solanum lycopersicum, the love-apple, 4259.

Solanum melongena, the egg-plant, 4266.

Solanum tuberosum, the potatoe, 3644; to force
the potatoe, 3381.

Soldanella, pentan. monog. and primulacea, H.
peren. Germ, alpines, pretty little plants, which
grow well in rockwork or in pots, in two thirds
peat and one third sandy loam ; they are increased
by parting the root.

Soldier-wood, inga purpurea.

Bolidago, golden ro<l, syngenesia polygamia super-
flua and con mbifereae, H. peren. N. Amer. and
Eur. large cumbersome plants of the easiest cul-
ture.

Solomon's seal, — see Polygonatum.

Somer/eldt, Christian, his work on gardening, page
1130. A.D. 178-.

4 I

Somersetshire, gardens and residences of, 7599.

Samolus, brook-weed, pentan. monog. and primula-
ceae, a G. peren. N. S. W. and H. peren. BriL
The first grows in loam and peat, and cuttings
root under a hand-glass ; the other prefers a moist
situation, and is increased by dividing at the
root.

Sonchus, sow-thistle, syngen. polyg. aequal. and ci-
choraceae, G. tr. and H. peren. Madeira, N. Amer.
and Eur. of easy culture.

Sonchus oleraceus, the common sow-thistle, 4299.

Sonnini, C. S., his works on gardening, page 112L
A.D. 1804.

Sophiowski, a fine seat in Podolia, now much ne-
glected, 264.

Sophora, decan. monog. and leguminosese, a S. tr.
India, H. tr. Japan, and H. peren. Eur. ; the
tender species thrive well in light loam, and cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass ; the hardy
herbs require a rich loam, and are increased by
seeds or dividing at the root.

Sorghum, polyg. monoec. and graminese, a S. bien.
and H. peren. and an. As. and Eur. of easy cul-
ture.

Sorocephalus, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G.
tr. C. B. S. which require to be treated as
protea.

Sorrel, — see Rumcx.

Sour gourd, adansonia digitata.

South American fruits deserving cultivation, 60S0.

South Lodge, Middlesex, 7520.

South Sea tea, ilex vomitoria.

Southam House, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Southern-wood, artemisia abrotaniun.

Southgate Grove, Middlesex, 7520.

Sow-thistle, — .sec Sonchus.

Sowerbasa, hexan. monog. and asphodeleae, a G.
peren. N. S. W. which thrives in peat soil witli
plenty of water, and is increased by dividing at
the root.

Sowerby, James, F.L.S., his works on gardening,
page 1110. A.D. 1789.

Sowing, different modes of performing the oper-
ation, 2071.

Spade, Roman Qj^o), Italian {xappa), French {beche),
and Chinese, 31.

Spade, spit or spitter {spada, Lat. and Sax. spade,
Dan.), an implement for penetrating and breaking
up the soil, different kinds of, 1300.

Spananthe, penun. dig. and umbellifercs, a S. bien.
Caraccas, of easy culture.

Spanish elm, cordia geraschanthus.

Spanish nut, moraa sisyrinchium.

Sparaxis, triandr. monogj'n. and irideae, G. peren.
C. B. S. bulbs which require the same treatment
as ixia.

Spardoni. Paulo, his work on gardening, page 1128.
A.D. 1810.

Sparganium, bur-reed, monoec. trian. and aroideJB,
H. peren. Brit, marsh plants, of easy culture.

Sparrmannia, polyan. monog. and tiliaceie, a G. tr.
C. B. S. which grows in loam and peat, and cut-
tings root readily' under a hand-glass.

Sparrow-wort, — see Passerina.

Spartium, broom, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae,
G. and H. tr. Europe and Africa, which thrive in
loam and peat, and are readily increased by
seeds, or by young cuttings in sand under a bell-
glass.

Spatalla, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, G. tr.
C. B. S. which require the same treatment as
protea.

Spathelia, pentan. trig, and terebintaceae, a S. tr.
Jamaica, which thrives in light loam, and cut-
tings root readily under a hand-glass.

Speechly, William, his works on gardening, page
1108. A.D. 1779.

S[>eedwell, — see Veronica.

Spergula, spurrey, decan. pentag. and caryophylleae,
H. peren. and an. of easy culture in soft moist
soil.

Spermacoce, button-weed, tetran. monog. and ru-
biaceae, a S. tr. peren. and bien. As. and Afr.
which grow freely in loam and peat, and are in-
creased by cuttings under a hand-glass, or by
seeds.

Sph£eranthus, sjmgen. polyg. segreg. and cynaroce-
phaleae, a S. peren. E. Ind. and G. an. C. B. S. of
easy culture.

Sphzeirolobium, decan. monog. and leguminoseae, G.
tr. N. HolL pretty plants, which grow in sandy
loam and peat, and young cuttings root readily
in sand under a bell-glass.

4

J 224

GENERAL INDEX.

Sphenogyne, syngen. polyg. frustran. and corymbU
fercae, G. tr. and a H. an. C. B. S. which thrives
well in light rich soil, and cuttings, in the shade,
under a hand-glass, root freely.

Sphinx elpenor, the elephant hatvk-moth, 6193.

Spiderwort, — see Tradescantia.

Spielmannia, didyn. angios. and verbenaceze, a G.
tr. C. B. S. which may be treated as sphenogyne.

Spigelia, worm-grass, pentan. monog. and gentianese,
a S. an. W. Ind. and H. peren. Amer. which are
best grown in loam and peat, and are readily in-
creased by cuttings.

Spignell, — see Athamanta.

Spike-rush, — see Eleocharis.

Spikenard, Valeriana jatamansi. V. celtica and
officinalis may be used as substitutes by those
who prefer this sort of perfume.

Spilanthes, syngen. polyg. sequal. and corymbifereae,
a S. peren. bien. and an. E. Ind. and S. Amer.
which grow in rich light soil, and are readily in-
creased either by seeds or cuttings.

Spinaceous plants, 37iiG.

Spinacia olcracea, the common spinage, 3767.

Spinage, spinacia oleracea, 3766.

I^indle-tree, — see Euonymus.

Spiraea, icos. di-pentag. and rosaceae, H. tr. and
peren. Eur. and N. Amer. all of easy culture.

Spiraea filipendula, dropwort, 4304.

Spitz, A. C, his work on gardening, page 1126.
A.D. 1798.

Spleenwort, — see Asplenium.

SpofForth, a residence near Wetherby, Yorkshire,
7582.

Spondias, hog-plum, decan. pentag. and terebin-
taceffi, S. tr. W. Ind. which grow freely in loam

■ and peat, and large cuttings root in sand under
a hand-glass.

Sponge-tree, mimosa farnesiana.

Sporobolus, trian. dig. and graminese, a H. an. India,
of the easiest culture.

Spratsborough Hall, Yorkshire, 7582.

Sprenqel, Kurt, his Gazette of Gardening, page
1126. A. D. 1804.

Sprengelia, pentan. monog. and epacride£e, a G. tr.
N. S. W. which thrives in sandy peat, with the
pots well drained, and kept rather in a shady
aspect ; young cuttings root in sand under a bell-
glass.

•Spring Garden, a seat in Galway, 7672.

Spring-grass, — see Anthoxanthum.

Spring Grove, Middlesex, 7520.

Spurge, — see Euphorbia.

Spurrey, — see Spergula.

Squares, public, laid out as gardens, 7319 ; Russel
Square, Sloane Square, Edward's Square. &c. 7320.
to 7322.

Squash, cucurbita melopepo.

Squill, — see Scilla.

Staavia, pentan. monog. and rhamnea?, G. tr. C. B. S.
which thrive in sandy peat, and young cuttings
root in sand under a bell-glass.

Stable-dung, 1971.

Stachys, hedge-nettle, didyn. gymnos. and labiatese,
a G. tr. and peren. S. Amer. and C. B. S. and H.
peren. and an. Eur. of the easiest culture.

Stachytarpheta, bastard vervain, dian. monog. and
verbenacese, S. tr. bien. and a G. bien. W. Ind.
and S. Amer. pretty plants, which thrive in rich
light soil, and cuttings root readily under a hand-
glass in heat.

Stackpool Court, a seat in Pembrokeshire, 7609.

Stcehelina, syngen. polyg. aequal. and cynaroce-
phaleje, G. tr. and a H. tr. S. Eur. which grow in
rich light soil, and cuttings root freely under a
hand-glass.

Staff-tree, — see Celastrus.

Staffordshire, gardens and resi'dences of, 7570.

Stamford Court, Worcestershire, 7566.

Standish, Arthur, a writer on gardening, page 1099.
A. D. 1613.

Stanmore House, Middlesex, 7521. "

Stanstead House, Sussex, 7531.

Stanton Harold, Leicestershire, 7573.

Stapelia, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeas, D. S. tr.
C. B. S. succulents which grow in sandy loam and
old lime, with brick rubbish, with little water.
In light rich soil they grow more luxuriantly, but
are very apt to damp off if they happen to get too
much water ; they are readily increased by cut-
tings, and some by suckers.

Staphylea, bladder-nut, pentan. trig.^and rhamnese,
H. tr. which grow in any soil, and are readily
increased by seeds or layers.

Star-apple, — sec ChrysophyUum.

Star of Bethlehem, — see Ornithogalum.

Star of the earth, plantago coronopus.

Star-thistle, centaurea calcitrapa.

Star-wort, — see Aster.

Starkea, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,
a S. peren. Jamaica, which thrives in rich light
soil, and cuttings root readily under a hand-glass,

Statice, sea-lavender, pentan. pentag. and plum-
bagineffi, G. tr. and peren. C. B. S. and S. Eur. F.
and H. peren. Afr. and Eur. The tender kinds
grow in sandy loam and peat, the others in light
soil, and all are .increased by dividing the root,
or by seeds.

Statistics of British gardening, 7375 ; different con-
ditions of men engaged in the practice and pursuit
of gardening, 7377 ; operatOBS or serving gardeners,
7378 ; tradesmen-gardeners, 7388 ; garden-coun-
sellors or artists, 7400 j patrons of gardening, 7378.
to 7411.

Statistics of British gardening, different kinds of
gardens, 7412; private British gardens, 7413;
commercial gardens, 7453 ; public gardens, 7490 ;
leading gardens of the different counties parti-
cularised, 7510.

Staunton, Nottinghamshire, 7580.

Stauracanthus, diadel. decan. and leguminosea!, a

F. tr. Portugal, which grows in loam and peat,
and is increased by seeds or young cuttings in
sand under a bell-glass.

Steele, Richard, his work on gardening, page 1110.
A. D. 1793. s. i- 6

Stelis, gynan. monan. and orchideae, S. peren. W.
Ind. a parasite which may be treated as atrides,
and increased by dividing at the root.

Stellaria, stitchwort, decan. trig, and caryophyl-
les, H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy culture in
sandy soil.

Stellera, octan. dig. and thymelea?, a H. tr. S. Eur.
which grows in light soil, and may l)e increased
by cuttings under a hand-glass or by layers.

Stemodia, didyn. angios. and scrophularineae, a
S. peren. S. Amer. which thrives in light, rich
soil, and cuttings root freely under a hand-glass
in heat.

Stenanthera, pentan. monog. and epacrideae, a G.
tr. N. S. W. a beautiful plant which grows in loam
and peat well drained, and young cuttings root in
sand under a bell-glass.

Stenochilus, didyn. angios. and myoporineae, a G.
tr. N. Holl. which grows in loam and peat, and
cuttings root freely in sand under a bell-glass.

Stephanus, Morinus, a French author on garden-
ing, page 1116. A. D. 1658.

Stephenson, David, M. A., his work on gardening,
page 1104. A. D. 1746.

Sterculia, monoec. monad, and sterculiaceEe, S. tr.
and a G. tr. E. and W. Ind. which thrive in loam
and peat, and ripened cuttings, not deprived of
their leaves, root readily in sand under a hand-
glass in moist heat.

Sternbeig, Baron Von, his works on gardening, page
1127. A. D. 181-.

Stevia, syngen. polygam. aoqual. and corj'mbifere*,
a F. peren. H. peren. and an. Mexico, which
answer best in loam and peat, in pots, and cut-
tings root readily under a hand-glass.

Stewart Hall, a seat in Tyrone, 7679.

Stilago, dioec. trian. and terebintaceffi, S. tr. E. Ind.
which grow in loamy soil, and cuttings may be
rooted in sand under a hand-glass.

Stillingflect, Benjamin, his writings on gardening,
page 1105. A.D. 1759.

Stillingia, monoec. monad, and euphorbiacea;, a G.
tr. G. peren. and H. tr. China and N. Amer. which
grow in loam and peat and cuttings root under a
hand-glass ; the tender kinds in sand.

Stinking horehound, — see Ballota.

Stipa, feather-grass, trian, dig, and graminea?, a
H, an. S. Amer. and H. peren. Eur. of easy cid-
ture.

Stirlingshire, gardens of, 7631.

Stirring the soil, use of, 2591 ; — and see Soils, their
improvement.

Stisser, J. A., his works on gardening, page 1123
A. D. 1697.

Stitchwort, — see Stellaria.

Stizolobium, cow-itch, diadelph. decand. and legu-
minosea?, S. tr. W. and E. Ind. which thrive well
in light, rich soil, and young cuttings root in
sand under a bell-glass.

Stobasa, svngen. polyg. aequal. andcynarocephaleae, a

G. tr. C'.B.S. which may be treated as stizolobium

GENERAL INDEX.

1223

Stock, — see Mathiola.

Stocks for gratlting, science of, 2020. to 2024.

Stoebe, syngeu. }H)lygani. segreg. and corymbifereae,
G. tr. C. B. S. which may J)e treated as stizolo-
bium.

Stoke, a seat in Herefordshire, 7568.

Stoke-hole, the excavation in one side of which
hot-house furnaces are often built, and the hole
contains fuel for its supply.

Stoke House, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Stoke Park, Buckinghamshire, 7547.

Stoke Park, Wiltshire, 7597.

Stokeld, Yorkshire, 7582.

Stokesia, syngen. polyg. a?qual. and cynarocephaleas,
a G. peren. Carolin. a pretty plant which grows
in rich, light soil, and roots freely under a hand-
glass.

Stokestown, a seat in the county of Roscommon,
7671.

Stole (from stolo, Lat. a shoot or twig), trees which,
when cut over by the surface, shoot up again.

Stone-crop, — see Sedum

Stone-fruits, catalogue of, 4480.

Stoneham Park, Hampshire, 7594.

Stones, how to operate with in
72-30.

Storax, — see Styrax.

Stork's bill, — see Pelargonium.

Stornberg, iiis plan of a Chinese garden, 478.

Stourhead, a seat in Wiltshire, 7597.

Stout Hal^ Glamorganshire, 7608.

Stout's Hill, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Stove, dry, — see Dry-stove.

Stove, moist, or bark-stove, — see Bark-stove.

Stove-plants, — see Bark-stove and Dry-stove.

Stowe, a seat in Buckinghamshire, 7548.

Stowels, a seat in Gloucestershire, 7565.

Stradballey Hall, in Queen's County, 7659.

Stradmore Vale, a seat in Cardiganshire, 7607.

Stramonium, datura stramonium.

Strapwort, corrigiola littoralis.

Stratiotes, water-soldier, dioec. dodec. and ' alis-
macese, a. H. peren. Eng. an aquatic which
only requires to be thrown into a pond or aqua-
rium.

Stratton Park, Hampshire, 7594.

Straw coverings used in gardening, 1508.

Strawberry, — see Fragaria. - • . 4//-^

Strawberrv-blite, — see Blitum.

Strawberry Hill, Middlesex, 7520.

Strawberry-tree, — see Arbutus.

Streams of water, how to improve in garden-scenerv,
7223.

Streatham, Surrey, 7527.

Street-gnrdens, 7292 ; their management, 7426.

Strelitzia, i)entand. monogyn. and musaceae, S. tr.
C. B. S. which grow in sandy loam, and are in-
creased slowly by suckers. By rubbing the pollen
on the stigmas, when the plants are in bloom,
perfect seetls are readily obtained. {Sweet.)

Streptopus, hexan. monog. and smilacea2, H. peren.
Hung, and N. Amer. which succeed best in light
sandy soil, and are increased by dividing at the
root.

Structures, in gardening, 1523 ; portable or moveable
structures, canvass screen, canvass curtain, oiled
paper frame netting screen, common glass case,
glass tent, common hot-bed frame, separating
frame, moveable bottomed frame. Mallet's frame,
&c. 1524. to 1538.

Structures, partly moveable, 1539; earth-pit, bark-
pit, flued pit, M'Phail's pit, Alderstone pit ; pit
with rising frame. West's pit, &c., 1540 to 1544.

Structures, fixed, 1555 ; garden walls, brick, stone, or
mud walls, solid brick wall, flued wall, cellular wall,
mud or earth wall, boarded wall, wavy wall, an-
gular wall, zigzag wall, square pier wall, nursery-
man's wall, piered wall, sheltering piers, arrhc-d
or roofed walls, espalier rails, wooden espaliers,
firamed wooden espalier rail, cast-iron esjialier rail,
horizontal espaUer rail, oblique espaUer rail,
1556. to 1582.

Structures, permanent, 1583 ; hot-house, acumi-
nated semi-globe, acuminated semi-dome, semi-
ellipse, iiarallelogram with curved roof and ends,
with ridge and furrow roof, polyprosopic hot-
house, mushroom-houses, flued mushroom-houses,
German mushroom-house, cold-houses, 1584. to
1627.

Structures, their further improvement, 1850.

Strumaria, hexan. monog. and amaryllides, G. pe-
ren. C. B. S. bulbs which thrive in sandy loam and
decayed leaves, require little water when not in

a growing state, and are increased by of&ets or
seeds.

Struthiola, tetrandria monogynia and thyme-
lea?, G. tr. C. B. S. which grow in sandy peat,
and young cuttings root freely in sand under a
bell-glass.

Strychnos, pcntan. monog. and apocynes, S. tr. E.
Ind. which grow in sand and peat, and euttings
root in sand under a bell-glass.

Stuartia, monad, polyan. and tiliaceae, H. tr. N
Amer. handsome plants which thrive in peat soil
or very sandy loam; they flower after attain-
ing a good size, and are increased by layers in
peaL

Stub House, Durham, 7584.

Studley Royal, Yorkshire, 7582.

Stutthorpe, Yorkshire, 7582.

Slylidium, gjnan. dian. and stylideae, a G. tr and
peren. AustraL which grow in sandy loam and
peat, and are increased by seeds or parting at the
root: the shrubby species by cuttings under a
hand-glass.

Styphelia, pentand. monogyn. and epacrideae,G. tr.
N. S. \V. beautiful plants which grow in sandy
loam and peat, and young cuttings root in sand
under a bell-glass.

StvTax, storax, decan. monogyn. and ebenace^e, H.
tr. Italy and N. Amer. which thrive and flower
freely in light sandy loam, and are increased by
layers or seeds.

Subularia, awlwort, tetrad, silic. and crucifereaj, a
H. an. Brit, an aquatic of easy culture.

Suburban villa, 7285 ; suburban house, 7286 j their
management, 7430.

Succisae repullulant (from succido, Lat. to cut down,
and repuUulo, Lat. to bud or sprout), trees which
stole, or which being cut over spring again.

Succory, — see Cichorium.

Succowja, tetrad, silic. and cruclTeres, a H. an. Mi-
norca, of common culture.

Suckers to propagate by, 1992.

Sudbome Hall, Suffolk, 7552.

Suffocation, a disease of plants, 893.

Suffolk, gardens and residences of, 7552.

Sufton Court, Herefordshire, 7568.

Sugar-cane, — see Saccharum.

Suir Castle, a seat in Tipperary, 7667.

Sulphur-wort, — see Peucedanum.

Sultan's garden at Constantinople, 308.

Sumach, — see Rhus.

Summer Hill, a seat in Kent, 7538.

Sun-dew, — sec Drosera.

Sun-dials, as garden-decorations, 183*.

Sun-fern, polyjxxlium phegopteris.

Sun-flower, — see Helianthus.

Sun-rose, — see Helianthemum.

Supple-jack, paullinia polyphylla.

Surrey, gardens and residences of, 7524.

Surveyor of trees and timber, 7401.

Sussex, gardens and residences of, 7530.

Sutherlandia, diadel. decan. and leguminosa, C.B.S.
which thrives in loam and peat, and is readily in-
creased by seeds.

Sutherlandshire, gardens of, 7646.

Swallow-wort, — see Asclepias.

Sweet, Robert, F. L. S., his writings on gardening,
page 1114. A. D. 1818.

Sweet flag, acorns calamus.

Sweet gale, myrica gale.

Sweet gum tree, liquidambar styraciflua.

Sweet herbs, 4131.

Sweet pea, lathyrus odoratus.

Sweeping, 1877.

Swertia, lelwort, pentan. dig. and gentianese, a H.
peren. Eng. a marsh plant which prefers a peat
soil.

Swietenia, mahogany-tree, decan. monog. and me-
liaceae, S. tr. W. and E. Ind. which grow in loam
and peat, and ripe cuttings, with their leaves not
shortened, root freely in sand under a hand-glass
in moist heat.

Swiiidcn,_y., his work on gardening, page 1108.
A.D. 1//8.

Swines succory, — see Hyoseris.

Swings as garden decorations, 1821.

Switzer, Stephen, his works on gardenlne. vse
1102. A. D. 1715. ^' ^' ^

Symphoria, St. Peter's wort, pentan. monog. and ca-
prifolia, a H. tr. N. Amer. a dwarf shrub which
grows in the shade of other trees in any soil, and is
increased by cuttings in the open ground.

Symphytum, comfrey, pentan. monog. and boragi-
neae, H. peren. Eur. of easy culture.

1S26

GENERAL INDEX.

Synedrella, gyngenesia polvgamla superflua and
corymbifereap, a S. an. W. Ind. of common cul-
ture, rn9.

Syrian rue, peganum harmala.

Syring^a, lilac, dian. monog. and oleineae, H. tr.
Persia and China, of easy culture.

Syringa, common, — see Philadelphus.

Syringe, garden, diflferent sorts of, 1418.

Tabem. ic, Tcones plantarum (eadem acin Taber-
nEemontani Krauterbuch).

TabemEemontana, pentan. dig. and apocyne^, S. tr.
W. and E. Ind. which thrive well in loam and
peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Tacca, hexan. monog. and aroidese, S. peren. E.
Ind. which grow in loam and peat with little
water, and are increased by suckers.

Tacamahac, populus balsamifera.

Tagetes, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbiferese, a
G. peren. and H. an. S. Amer. of common cul-
ture.

Taille d'^te, summer pruning, 2138.

Taking vegetables or crops, — see Gathering.

Taliaris, a seat in Caermarthenshire, 7614.

Talinum, dodec. monogyn. and portulaceae, S. tr.
and bien. W. Ind. and S. Amer. of a succulent
nature, which grow in light sandy loam, and cut-
tings root freely.

Tallies, or numbering instruments, different kinds
of, 1377.

Tallow-tree, stillingia sebifera.

Tamarind, — see Tamarindus.

Tamarindus, tamarind- tree, monadelph. trian. and
leguminoseEB, a S. tr. W. Ind. which grows in
loam and peat, and cuttings root under a bell-
glass in sand.

Tamarisk, — see Tamarix.

Tamarix, tamarisk, pentan. trig, and portulaceje, a
S. tr. E. Ind. and H. tr. Eur. of easy culture, and
increased by cuttings.

Tamus, black briony, dioec. hexan. and smilaceae,
a G. tr. C. B. S. and H. peren. Eur. The G.
species T. elephantipes, or elephant's foot, is a
curious plant which thrives in light, rich soil,
not overwatered when the plant is in a dormant

' state. Sweet recommends " young cuttings to be
taken off at a joint, and planted in pots of sand in
bottom heat under a hand-glass." {Bot. Cult. 262.)
The H. sorts are of easy culture.

Tamus communis, ihe common black briony, 4285.

Tan, — see Bark for the use of tanners.

Tan-y-Bwlch Hall, a seat in Merionethshire, 7612.

Tanacetum, tansy, syngen. polyg. super, and corym-
bifereae, G. tr. C. B. S. and H. peren. and an. Eur.
of easy culture in common soil.

Tanacetum vulgare, the common tansy, 4187.

Tansy, — see Tanacetum.

Tarchonanthus, African fleabane, syngen. polygam.
sequal. and corymbifereas, a G. tr. C. B. S. of easy
culture.

Tare, — see Ervum.

Tetin, A., his works on gardening, page 1120. A. D.
18—.

Tatton Park, Cheshire, 7591.

Taurida, gardens of, 259.

Tavistock, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.

Taxus, yew-tree, dicec. monad, and conifereae, a G.
tr. China, and H. tr. Brit, the exotic species grow
in loam and peat, and roots, not without difficulty,
by cuttings, in sand, under a bell-glass ; the com-
mon yew is increased only by seeds, 7122.

Taylor, Adam, his works on gardening, page 1107.
A. D. 1769.

Taymouth, a seat in Perthshire, 7636.

Tea-tree, camellia bohea and C. viridis.

Teak- wood, — see Tectona.

Teasel, — see Dipsacus.

Tectona, teak-wood, pentan. monogyn. and verbe-
naceae, a S. tr. E. Ind. which grows in loam and
peat ; ripened cuttings root freely in sand under
a hand-glass.

Teedia, didyn. angios. and scrophularinea;, G. bien.
C. B. S. of easy culture.

Teesdalia, tetrad, silic. and crucifereffi, a H. an.
Brit, of common culture.

Telephium, orpine, pentan. trigyn. and porlulaceaB,
a H. peren. S. Eur. well adapted for rockwork,
and easily increased.

Telopca, waratah, tetran. monog. and proteacea;.

a G. tr. N. S. W. one of the most beautiful of
green-house plants, which grows in equal parts
of loam, peat, and sand, well drained, not over-
watered, and placed in an airy situation ; ripened
cuttings, taken off at a joint, just before growth
commences, root in sand under a hand-glass, but
not plunged in heat.

Temple, Sir William, his works on gardening, page
1101. A. D. 1685.

Temple Grove, formerly Sheen Grove, near East
Sheen, Surrey, the seat of Sir William Temple's
horticultural operations referred to by Evelyn
and himself. The house is now a boarding-
school, 1666.

Templemore, a seat in Tipperary, 76G7.

Temples, 1808.

Templetonia, diadel. decan. and leguminosea, a G.
tr. N. Holl. which grows in sandy loam and peat,
and young cuttings root freely under a bell-glass
in sand.

Temporary country-residence, 7281.

Tenthredinideae, a natural order of insects, compre-
hending chiefly the Linnaean genus tenthredo, or
saw-fly.

Tephrosia, diadel, decan. and leguminoseae, S. and
G. tr. peren. and bien. C. B. S. Ind. and Amer.
which thrive in loam and i)eat, and are increased
by cuttings in sand under a bell-glas*.

Terebinthinate trees, such as have a resinous, or
turpentine odor.

Terebration, a mode of grafting, 2038.

Teredo pinorum, the noctua pinastri, L. a moth
whose caterpillar feeds on the leading shoot of the
common pine, and often leaves that tree without
a leader, 7044. and 900.

Terminalia, polyg. moncec. and combretacea2, S.
tr. E. Ind. which grow in sandy loam, and ri-
pened cuttings, not defoliated, root in sand under
a bell-glass.

Terraces, 7255.

Tessier, A. H., his works on gardening, page 1120.
A. D. 1791.

Tetragdnia, icos. di-pentag. and ficoideae, G. tr.
peren. bien. and an. C. B. S. and Austral, some-
what succulent, which prefer sandy soil, and
root readily by cuttings.

Tetragonia expansa. New Zealand spinage, 3794.

Tetragonotheca, syngen polyg. super, and corym-
bifereae, a H. peren. Virgin, which grows in light,
rich soil, and is increased by dividing at the root,
or by seed.

Tetratheca, octan. monogyn. and tremandreas, a G.
tr. N. S. W. a pretty plant, which thrives in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a bell-
glass.

Tetseady Park, Cornwall, 7601.

Teucrium germander, didyn. gymnos. and labiafeae,
G. F. and H. tr. and H. peren. and an. Eur. and
Amer. of easy culture in almost any soil.

Thalia, monan. monog. and canneae, a G. peren.
S. Carolin. an aquatic, rather hardy, and in-
creased by dividing at the root.

Thalictrum, meadow-rue, polyan. polyg. and ra-
nunculaceae, H. peren. Eur. and N. Amer. some
of which are adapted for rockwork, or growing
in pots, and all are of easy culture.

Thame Park, Oxfordshire, 7558.

Thapsia, deadly carrot, pentan. dig. and umbel-
lifereae, H. peren. Eur. of easy culture.

Thelygonum, moncec. polyan. and urticeae, a H.
an. S. Eur. of easy culture.

Thelymitra, gynand. monandr. and orchideas, a G.
peren. N. S. W. which grows in sandy loam and
I)eat, and requires little water when not in a
growing state.

Theobalds, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.

Theobroma, chocolate-nut, polyad. decan. and mal-
vaceae, S. tr. S. Amer. which grows in light, rich
soil, and cuttings root in sand under a- hand-
glass.

Thermometer, different sorts of, for gardens, 1488,
1489, and 1490.

Thermopsis, decan. monog. and leguminosejp, a H.
peren. Siberia, a pretty plant, rather ditlicult of
culture ; it grows best in light loam, and is in-
creased by seed.

Thesium, bastard toad-flax, pentan. monog. and
santalaceae, a G. tr. and H. peren. Eur. Amer.
and C. B. S. of which the H. species grow best in
chalky soil, and are increased by seeds, and the
G. tr. is of common culture in light loam.

Theuss, Theodore, his works on gardening, page
1126. A. D. 1805.

GENERAL INDEX.

1227

Thier-garten (wild beast garden), a public parl^at
Berlin, £08.

Thierrat, , his works on gardening, page 1118.

A. D. 1760.

Thistle,— see Carduus.

Thla?pi, shepherd's purse, tetrad, silic. and cruci-
fereas, H. peren. bien. and an. of easy culture.

Tfiompson, John, his work on gardening, page
1105. A. D. 1757.

Thoresby Park, Nottinghamshire, 7576.

Thorn-apple, — see Datura.

Thombiirv Castle, in Gloucestershire, 399.

Thorndon Hall, Esse.x, 7542.

Thorngrove, a seat in Worcestershire, 7566.

Thory, Claude Antoine, his works on gardening,
page 1152. A. D. 1819.

Thouin, Andr^ le Chevalier de, his works on gar-
dening, page 1147. A. D. 1737.

Thouin, Mons. Gabriel, his works on gardening,
page 1122. A. D. 1819.

TTiouin, Mons. Jean, his works on gardening, page
1122. A. I). 181&

Thrickelbv Hall, Yorkshire, 7582.

Thrirt, — see Statice.

Thrinax, hoxan. monog. and palmeae, a S. tr. E.
Ind. which thrives in sandy loam, and is in-
creased by (imported;* seeds.

Thriiicia, syngen. polyg. ^ual. and cichoraceae, a
H. peren." and an. Eur. and Africa, of common
culture.

Thrips, a genus of hemipterous insects, 2244.

Throatwort, — see Trachelium.

Thuja, arbor vitae, monoec. monad, and conifereas,
a G. and F. tr H. tr. As. Af and Araer. The
tender kinrs grow in loam and peat, and are in-
crease<l by cuttings under a bell-glass in sand ;
the hardy species grow in any soil, and are in-
creased by seeds.

Thumb-pot, a garden-pot of the least size.

Tkunberg, Sir Charles Peter, M. D. his works on
gardening?, page 1130. A. D. 1799.

Thunbergia, didyn. angios. and acanthace^, a S. tr.
E. Ind. a pretty climbing plant, in flower the
greater part of the year, which grows in loam and
peat, and young cuttings root readily under a
hand-glass.

Thurso Castle, a seat in Caithness, 7644.

Thymbra, didyn. gymnos. and labiateje, S. and G.
tr. S. Eur. which grow in light soil, and cuttings
root freely under a hand-glass.

Thyme, — s'ee Thymus.

Thymus, thyme, didyn. gymnosperm. and labiatese,
G. F. and H. tr. Eur. very low shrubs, all of easy
culture in dry soil, and increased by cuttings or
seeds.

Th>-mus vulgaris, the common thyme, 4132.

Thysanotus, hexan. monog. and asphodeleze, a G.
peren. N. S. W. which grows in loam and peat,
and is increased by dividing at the roots.

Tiarella, decan. dig. and saxifrageae, a F. peren.
and H. jieren. N. Amer. which grow in light soil,
rockwork or small pots, and are increased by
dividing at the root.

Tickseed, — see Corispermum.

Tiger-flower, — see Tigridia.

Tigridia, tiger-flower, monad, trian. and irideae, a
H. peren. Mex. a splendid plant which thrives in
common soil, but the bulbs must be taken up as
soon as they have done flowering, kept dry and
free from frost during winter, and planted again
in the following spring.

Tiken Hill, a seat in Worcestershire, 7566.

Tilburster Hill, a seat in Surrey, 7527.

Tile-root, — see Geissorhiza.

Tilia, lime-tree, polyan. monog. and tiliaceae, H. tr.
Eur. and X. Amer. which grow in any soil, and
are increased by layers.

Tilia europasa, and other species of lime-tree, 7128.

Tillandsia, hexan. monog and bromelijp, S. peren.
S. Amer. and W. Ind. of which some species are
parasitical, and may be treated as atrides, the
others may be treated like the pine-apple or pit-
caimia.

Tillibodie, a seat in Clackmannanshire, 76S3.

Timber, different kinds and qualities of, 6779.

Timber-measurer, 1364 ; Monteith's 6970.

Tipperary, gardens of, 7667.

Tipula, the crane-fly, a genus of dipterous insects,
2265 ; T. oleracea, 6193.

Toad-flax, see Linaria.

Tobacco, — see Nicotiana.

Tod, George, his work on gardening, page 1114.
A. D. 1812.

Toddington House, Gloucestershire, 7565.

Tofieldia, hexan. trig, and melanthaceze, H. peren.
Brit and N. Amer. which do best in a peat soil
in a moist situation, and are increased by dividing
the root.

Tollagh Palace, in the county of Dublin, 7653.

Tolpis, syngen. polyg. aequaL and cichoraces, a H.
an. France, of easy culture.

Tonquin hean, dipterix odorata.

Toolhouse, 1706.

Tools of gardening, 1295.

Toothach-tree, — see Zanthoxylum.

Toothpick, visnaga daucoides.

Tooth wort, lathraea squamaria.

Topography of British gardening, 7510.

Tordylium^ hartwort, pentan. dig. and umbellife-
reaj, H. an. Eur. and Persia, of common culture.

Tcrmentilla, septfoil, icos. polyg. and rosacea, H.
peren. Brit, of common culture, in light or peat soil.

Tottenham Park, Wiltshire, 7596.

Touch me not, impatiens nolitangere.

Toulon, botanic garden of, 183.

Tourettia, didyn. angios. and bignoniaces, a S. an.
Peru, of common culture.

Tourn. it., Relation d'un Voyage du Levant. Par.
M. Pitton Tournefort.

Toumefortia, pentan. monog. and boraginex. Si.
and G. tr. and a H. peren. which grow in rich,
light soil, and cuttings root freely in sand under
a hand-glass.

Toustain de Limesey, Charles Frangois, his work on
plantations, page 1118. A. D. 1769.

Tower-mustard, — see Turritis.

Towers, 1806.

Townley Hall, Lancashire, 7588.

Toxxetti, Octavius Targioni, M. D., his work on
gardening, page 1128. A. D. 1777.

Tozzettia, trian. dig. and gramineae, a H. an. of
common culture.

Trachelium, throatwort, pentan. monog. and cam-
jianulaceze, a G. tr. and H. bien. France and Brit.
of common culture.

Tradescant, John, his writings on gardening, page
1109. A. D. 1656.

Tradescantiai, spider-wort, hexan. monog. and com-
melineas, a S. tr. and H. peren. and an. E. and W.
Ind. and N. and S. Amer. all of easy culture iu
light, rich soil.

Tradesman-gardener, 7388.

Tradesmen's villas, 7285 ; their management, 7424.

Tragia, moncec. tetran. and euphorbiacese, a S. tr.
peren. and an. and a H. an. W. and E. Ind. which
grow in light soil, and cuttings root freely.

Tragopogon, goat's beard, syngen. polyg. squaL
and cichoraceae, H. bien. Eur. of easy culture.

Tragopogon porrifolius, the salsify, SloO.

Training trees and plants, different methods of,

• 2140.

Transplanter, for herbaceous plants, 1309.

Transplanting, different mctiiods of performing-
2079.

Trapa, water-caltrops, tetran. monog. and hydro-
charideae, a G. peren. and H. an. aquatics of easy
culture, 6037.

Trapa natans and bicomis, 6037.

Traps for vermin, different sorts of, used in garden
ing, 1435. and 1473.

Trasternaugh, a seat in Westmeath, 76S2.

Travelling gardener, 7385.

Treacle-mustard, clypeola ionthlaspi.

Tredegar Park, Monmouthshire, 7567.

Tree-celandine, bocconia frutescens.

Tree-mallow, lavatera arborea.

Tree-survevor, 7401.

Tree-transplanter, 1468.

Trees, their uses individually, 6744 ; in ciril arcbi.
tecture, military- architecture, naval architecture,
construction of machines, implements, utensils,
fuel, tanning, dyeing, various uses, food, medi-
cine, poison, 674o. to 6760.

Trees, classification of, according to their uses,
6769; for timber, bark, charcoal, ashes, pales
and fencing, hoops, &c. shelter, shade, improv-
ing bad soil, separation and defence, seclusion.
6780 to 6794.

Trees, their uses in ornamental scenery, 6795;
magnitude, form, mode of growth, duration, and
expression, 6796. to fiH)l.

Trees, their wounds, bruises, casualties, and de-
fects, 6925.

Trees, insects and vermin by which they are in-
fested, 6934.

Trees, their products, 6935; prunings, thinnings.

1228

GENERAL INDEX.

seeds, osier-grounds, coppice-woods. 6936. to
6940.

Trees, season for cutting, 6941 ; mode of cutting,
barking, pollards, period of felling, operation of
felling, season of felling, 6942. to 6957.

Trees, uses of their roots, 6961 ; method of char-
ring, 6962.

Trees, valuation of, 6963 ; as plantations, as timber,
measurement of, 6967. to 6972.

Trees, nursery for, — see Nursery.

Trees, their nursery culture, 6982 ; coniferous, nut-
bearing, berried stoves, berries and capsule bear-
ing trees, with small seeds, with leguminous
seeds, small soft-seeds, general culture of, 6983. to
7026.

Trefoil, — see Trifolium.

Trelawney House, Cornwall, 7601.

Tremadoc House, a seat in Merionethshire, 7612.

Trenching, 1870.

Trent Place, Middlesex, 7521.

Trentham, a seat in Staffordshire, 7.770.

Trevirana, didynam. angios. and scrophularineae, a
S. peren. Jamaica, which flowers freely in sandy
loam and peat, the pots being kept dry as soon as
the flowenng season is over till the roots begin to
vegetate.

Trew ehret, Plant£e selectae, quarum Imagines,
pinxit Ge. Dion. Ehret. Collegit et illustravit
Christ. Jac. Trew.

Trewia, dioec. polyan. and , a S. tr. E.

Ind. which grows in loam and peat, and cuttings
root in sand under a hand-glass.

Trianon grand, a royal garden near Paris, 172.

Trianon petit, a royal garden near Paris, 169.

lYianthema, decan. dig. and portulaceae, S. an. E.
and W. Ind. of common culture.

Tribulus, caltrops, decan. monog. and rutaceae, a S.
peren. and an. and H. an. Eur. and Amer. which
grow in light soil, and cuttings root freely in
sand under a hand-glass.

Trichilia, decan. monog. and meliaceae, S. tr. W.
Ind. which thrive in loam and peat, and cuttings

' root in sand under a hand-glass in heat.

Trichodesma, pentan. monog. and boraginese, a S.
an. and H. an. E. Ind. and C. B. S. of common
culture.

Trichodium, trian. dig. and gramineje, H. peren.
N. Amer. and Brit, of easy culture.

Trichomanes, cryptog. filices and filices, a H. pe-
ren. Brit, of easy culture in loam and peat in the
shade.

Trichonema, trian. monog. and irideae, G. peren.
and a H. peren. bulbs which may be treated as
ixia.

Trichophorum, trian. monog. and cyperaceae, H.
peren. Brit, and N. Amer. grasses of easy culture
in moist soil.

Trichosanthes, snake-gourd, monoec. monad, and
cucurbitaceae, a S. peren. and F. an. ; the S. spe-

, cies thrive best in rich sandy loam, and cuttings
root freely under a hand-glass in a moist heat ;
the others may be treated as cucumis.

Trichostema, didyn. gymnos. and labiateje, a H.
bien. and an. N. Amer. of common culture.

Trientalis, winter green, heptan. monog. and primu-
llacecB, a H. peren. Brit, and N. Amer. which

f grow best in light soil, and are increased by divid-
ing at the root or by seeds.

Triewald, Martin, his writings on gardening, page
1103. A. D. 1729., and page 1130. A. D. 1740.

Trifolium, trefoil, diadelph. decan. and legumi-
noseae, H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. Afr. and N.
Amer. of easy culture, and increased by dividing
the roots or by seeds.

Triglochin, arrowgrass, hexan.trig. and juncagmese,
a G. peren. and H. pcrcn. C. B. S. and Brit, marsh
plants of easy treatment.

Trigonella, fenugreek, diadel. and leguminosea;, S.
an. and H. peren. bien. and an. E. Ind. and Eur.
of easy culture.

TrilUum, hexandria trigynia and smilacese, a G.
peren. and H. peren. N. Amer. which do best in
a bed of peat in a moist shady situation, and are
increased, though slowly, by dividing at the root.

Tring Park, Hertfordshire, 7544.

Triodia, trian. dig. and gramine£e, a H. peren. Bnt.
of easy culture.

Triosteum, feverwort, pentan. monog. and capri-
folia, H. peren. N. Amer. which grow freely in

' rich, light soil, and are increased by cutti.igs under
a hand-glass, or by dividing the root.

Tripsacum, moncec. trian. and gramineae, a H.
peren. N. Amer. of easy culture.

Trisetum, trian. dig and gramineae, a H. peren.
and an. Eur. of common culture.

Tristania, polyad. icos. and myrteaceffi, G. tr.
N. S. W. which grow in sandy loam and peat, and
cuttings, not too much ripened, root readily in
sand under hand or bell glasses.

Triticum, wheat-grass, trian. dig. and graminea?,
H. peren. and an. Eur. and Asia, of common
culture.

Tritoma, hexan. monog. and hem erocall idea;, a F.
peren. C. B. S. which thrive best in peat soil, and
are increased by dividing at the root.

Tritonia, trian. monog. and irides, Br. G. peren.
C. B. S. bulbs which may be treated as ixia.

Triumfetta, dodec. monog. and tiliacese, S. tr. and
an. E. and W. Ind. which grow in loam and
peat, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Trollius, globe-flower, polyan. polyg. and ranuncu-
laceae, Eur. and N. Amer. of easy treatment.

TropEBOlum, Indian cress, octan. monog. and gera-
niacesB, G. tr. bien. and an. Peru, which grow in
light, rich soil, and are of easy increase by cuttings
or seeds.

Tropaeolum majus, common Indian cress, 4116.

Trophis, ramooii-tree, dioec. tetran. and ,

S. tr. E. and W. Ind. which grow freely in loam
and peat, and cuttings root under a hand-glass in
sand.

Trowel, Samuel, his work on gardening, page 1104
A. D. 1739.

Trowel, the garden, 1308.

Troximon syngen. polyg. aqual. and cichoraceaj,
H. peren. N. Amer. which grow freely in rich,
light soil, and are increased by seeds.

Troy House, Monmouthshire, 7567.

Troxelius, Charles Blechort, his work on gardening,
page 1130. A. D. 1780.

Trumpet-flower, — see Bignonia.

Trumpton Hall, Cornwall, 7601.

Truncheon {tronqon, Fr. from truncus, Lat.), a
pole or rod cut to the length of a staff or longer,
sometimes adopted in making willow planta-
tions.

TscJioudi, I. B. L. Baron de, his work on gardening,
page 1118. A. D. 1768.

Tuber cibarium, the trufHe, 4346.

Tuberose, polyanthes tuberosa — see Polyanthes.

Tuilleries (tile-grounds, or tile-kilns), gardens of
the, at Paris, 161.

Tulbagia, hexan. monog. and hemerocallidese, H.
peren. C. B. S. which grow in sandy loam, and are
increased by offsets from the bulbs.

Tulip, — see Tulips.

Tulip-tree, — see Liriodendron.

Tulipa, tulip, hexan. monog. and liliace£e, H. peren.
bulbs, Eur. which grow best in sandy soil, and are
increased by offsets.

Tulipa gesneriana, the common tulip, 6242.

Tupelo, — see Nyssa.

Tupistra, hexan. monog. and aroide£B, a peren.
Amboyna, which may be grown in loam and
peat.

Turf, the superioritv of British, 5399.

Turf-raser, &c., 1317. to 1319.

Turfing, the transplanting or laying down turf,
2101.

Turmeric, — see Curcuma.

Turnip, — see Brassica.

Turnera, pentan. trig, and portulacea?, S. tr. an. and
H. an. which grow in rich, light soil, and are
increased by cuttings under a hand-glass or by
seeds.

Turnsole, — see Heliotropium.

Turritis, tower-mustard, tetrad, siliq. and crucife-
re£e, H. peren. and an. Eur. of easy culture.

Tussilago, colt's foot, syngen. polyg. super, and
corymbiferea2, a S. bien. and H. peren. W. Ind.
and Eur. of easy culture. T. fragrans is a desi-
rable plant for a green-house during winter, on
account of the odor its flowers diffuse at that
season.

Tway-bla e, listcra ovnta.

TweedaU. county of, ,s to gardening, 7623.

Twickenham, village of, in MidiUesex, 7520.

Twickenham Park, Middlesex, 7520.

Tvvinstead Hall, Essex, 7541.

Tyford House, Middlesex, 7520.

Tynningham, a seat in Haddingtonshire, 7619.

Typha, cat's tail, moncec. trian. and aroidea, H.
peren. Brit, marsh plants of easy treatment.

Tzaritzina, or Zaritzina, an imperial residence near
Moscow, 262.

GENERAL INDEX.

1229

U.

Udum salictum {tidas, a, um, wet or moist, and
salictum, i, a willow-ground), a proper situation
for growing willows.

Ulex, furze, diadel. decan. and legummoseae, H. tr.
Brit which grow best in dry soil, and are increased
by seeds. „

Ulmus. elm-tree, pentan. dig. and amentaceae, H.
♦r. Brit, and N. Amcr. and a G. tr. China, all ot
which thrive in loamy soil, and the G. species is
increased by cuttings under a hand-glass.

Ulmus caraijestris, and other species grown as timber-
trees, 7081.

Ulva lactuca, 4358.

Umbrella-wort, — see Oxybaphus.

Underlev Park, near Kirby Lonsdale, 6182.

Ungekaiter, J. A., his works on gardening, page 1123.
A. D. 1741. „

Uniola, sea-side oat, trian. dig.'and gramineae, H.
peren. N. Amer. of easy culture.

Unona, polyan. polyg. and anonaceae, a S. tr. Java,
which grows bes. m light loam, and ripened cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.

Up Park, Sussex, 7531.

Upsal, botanic garden of, 248. t:, , ^

Urania, hexan. monog. and musaceae, a S. tr. E. Ind.

s which thrives in loamy soil with plenty of water
and a strong heat, and is increased by imported

Urena, monad, polyan. and malvaceae, S. tr and

a G. tr. E. Ind. and Surinam, which grow in

f loam and peat, and are increased by seeds or cut-

Uropetalon, hexan. monog. and asphodelcae, G. and
F. peren. C. B. S. bulbs which may be treated as
ixia, &c. .

Urtica, nettle, moncec. tetran. and urticese, S. tr.
and peren. W. Ind. and F. and H. peren. and an.
Eur. all of which grow well in rich, light soil,
and are readily increased by the usual means.

Urtica dioica, the common stinging nettle as a pot-
herb, and to force, 4i;9o.

Ustilago, a small fungus, which is thought to oc-
casion the blight and smut, 878.

Utensils, 1390 ; mould-screen, mould-sieve, mould-
scuttle, mould-basket, flower-pot, store-iH)t, pot

. for bulbous roots, classic pot, stone-ware pot,
glazed pot, flowerpot-gauge, square pot, saucer,
carnation-saucer, propagation-pot, blanching-pot,
plant-box, plant-basket, planter's basket, watering-

, pot, watering-tube, garden-syringe, hand-forcing-
pump, portable canvass or gauze case, oiled paper
shade, straw-net, garden-net, horizontal shelter,
plant-umbrella, earthenware shelter, leaden hand-
glass, copper hand-glass, cast-iron hand-glass,
wrought-iron hand-glass, green bell-glass, crystal
bell or receiver, utensils for entrapping vermin,
1391. to 1438.

Utility, as expressive of design in landscape-garden-
ing,' 7169.

Utricularia, hooded milfoil, dian. monog. and len-
tibularia, H. peren. Brit, marsh plants; which
prefer peat soil, or they will grow in pots of
sphagnum with a little peat earth at bottom, set
in pans of water.

Uvaria, polyan. polvg. and annonaces, S. E. and
\V. Ind. which thrive best in sandy loam, and
ripened cuttings root in sand under a_ hand-glass
in heat.

Uvularia, hexan. monog. and melanthaceffi, H.
I)eren. N. Amer. which grow in light sandy soil,
and are increased by dividing at the root.

Vaccinium, whortleberry, decan. raonog. and eri-
ceJE, G. and H. tr. Brit, and N. Amer. which
thmre best in peat soil, or sand and peat, and are
increased by layers, young cuttings under a bell-
glass, or by seeds. ^ . .

Vaccinium hispidulum, and other fruit-beanng
species, 4774.

■t'alantia, polyg. monoec. and rubiaeeas, a H. peren.
and an. Brit, of easy culture.
alemont, I'Abbe de, a French writer on garden-
ing, page 1116. A. D. 1705.

Valentines, a seat in Essex, 7542.

Valerian, — see Valeriana.

Valeriana, valerian, trian. monoj?. and dipsacea?,
H. peren, and an. Eur. of easy culture; the
smaller sorts grow best in light soil, and answer
well for pots or rockw ork.

Valeriana locusta, Or lamb-lettuce, — see Fedia.

Valley field, a seat in Fifeihire, 7635.

Van Dieman's Land, gardening of, 504.

Van Kampen, et fils. their works on gardening,
page 1129. A. D. 1760.

Van Sterbeck, Francis, his works on gardening, page
1129. A. D. 16S2.

Vandcr Groen, J., his work on gardening, page 112&.
A. D. 1699.

Vanes as decorations, 1835.

Vanguiera, pent, monog. and riibiaceje, a S. tr. Ind.
which grows in sandy loam and peat, and cuttings
root freely in sand in heat under a hand-glass.

Vanilla, gynan. monan. and orchideae, S. tr. trailers
and parasites, which root at every joint into the
bark of the trees, on which they grow. They
may be treated as aerides, and are readily in-
creased by cuttings. ,. ^ . .

Various British authors, who have touched inci-
dentally on gardening, page 1105. A. D. 1760.

Vegetable kingdom, origin and progress of the
study of, 547 j among the ancients, in modem
times, in the present day, 548. to 554.

Vegetable glossology, or the names of the parts of
plants, 555.

Vegeuble phvtography, or the nomenclature and
description of plants, 557 ; vulgar mode of naming
plants, scientitic rules for names, names of classes
and orders, names of genera, of species, of va-
rieties and subvarieties, description of plants,
herbariums, methods of study, &c. 558. to 582.

Vegetable taxonomy, or the classification of plants,
583 ; methods in use, table of the Linnajan me-
thod, of the method of Jussieu, deUil of the
Linnaean svstem, and arrangement of the genera
under the 'different classes and orders, arrange-
ment of the genera under the classes and orders
of Jussieu, 584. to 589.

Vegetable organology, or the external structure
of plants, 590. Per'fect plants : their conservative
organs root, trunk, branches, leaf, frond; con-
servative appendages — germs, glands, tendrils,
stipulas, ramenta, armature, pubescence, ano-
malies ; reproductive organs — flower, flower-
stalk, receptacle, inflorescence, fruit; reproduc-
tive appendages ; appendages proper to the flower
of the fruit. Imperfect plants : fiUces, equisita-
ceas, and lycopodineas — conservative organs, re-
productive organs ; musci — conservative organs,
reproductive organs ; hepaticae — conservative
organs, reproductive organs ; algje and lichens —
conservative organs, reproductive organs, utility
of the algas ; fimgi — conservative organs, repro-
ductive organs, uses of the fungi, 591. to 604.

Vegetable anatomy, or the internal structure of
'plants, 605. Decomposite organs — seed, nucleus,
pericarp, flower-stalk, leaf-stalk, gems, buds, bulbs,
propago, gongylus, caudex, appendages ; compo-
site organs — epidermis, pulp, pith, cortical layers,
ligneous layers, concentric layers, divergent
layers ; elementary or vascular organs — utricles,
tubes, large tubes, small tubes, apertures, pores,
gaps, appendages, 606. to 634.

Vegetable chemistry, or primary principles of plants,
635. Mechanical processes ; chemical processes;
compound products — gum, sugar, starch, gluten,
albumen, fibrina, extract of catechu, of senna,
of quinquina, of saflron, coloring matter, tan-
nin, bitter principle, narcotic principle, oxalic
acid, citric acid, malic acid, gallic acid, tartaric
acid, benzoic acid, prussic acid, fixed oils, vola-
tile oils, wax, butter of cacao, of coco, of nut-
meg, tallow of croton, wax of myrtle, resins,
rosin, mastich, bloom, gum-resins, balsams, cam-
phor, caoutchouc, cork, woody fibre, charcoal,
sap, proper juice, ashes, alkalies, earths, silica,
magnesia, metalUc oxides ; simple products, 636.
to 714.
Vegetable physiology, or the functions of plants,
715. Germination of the seed, physical pheno-
mena, chem cal phenomena ; food of the veget-
ating plant — water, gasses, carbonic aCid gas,
oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, extracts, salts,
earths, manures ; process of nutrition — introsus-
ception, ascent of the sap, causes of the sap's
ascent elaboration of the sap, of carbonic acid,
of oxygen, decomposition of w ater, descent of the
proper juice, causes of descent : process of veget-
able developement j elementary organs — compo.

1230

GENERAL INDEX.

site organs, annuals and annual shoots, perennials
and their annual layers, circulation of vegetable
juices ; decomposite organs, the root, the stem,
the branches, the bud, the leaf, the flower, and
fruit : anomalies of vegetable developement — the
root, the stem, the branch, the bud, the leaves,
the flower, the fruit, the habit, physical virtues,
duration : sexuality of vegetables, discoveries of
the moderns, impregnation of the seed, access
of the pollen, theory of the animalculist, hybrids ;
changes consequent upon impregnation, external
changes, internal changes ; propagation of the
species ; equivocal generation, seeds, gems, run-
ners, slips, layers, suckers, grafting ; causes
limiting the propagation of the species : evi-
dence and character of vegetable vitality — ex-
citability, heat, frondescence, efflorescence, ma-
turation of the fruit ; calendarium florae ; irritabi-
lity, stimuli, instinct, definition of the plant, 716.
to 858.

Vegetable pathology, or the diseases and casualties
of the lives of plants, 859 ; wounds and bruises,
incisions, boring, girdling, fracture, pruning,
grafting, felling, buds destroyed, leaves destroyed,
decortication ; diseases — blight, srnut, mildew,
honey-dew, dropsy, flux of juices, gangrene, etio-
lation, suffocation, contortion, consumption ; na-
tural decay, of the temporary organs, flower,
fruit, of the permanent organs, 860. to 907.

Vegetable geography, or the territorial distribution
of plants, 908. Geographical distribution ; phy-
sical distribution — temperature, elevation, mois-
ture, soil, mixed soils, aquatic soils, earthy soils,
vegetable soils, light; civil causes affecting dis-
tribution J characteristic, or picturesque distri-
bution, systematic distribution, arithmetical
distribution, economical distribution, distribution
of the British flora, application of the native flora
of Britain, artificial flora, native countries of the
exotics of British gardens, periods of their intro-
duction, obvious character of the plants cultivated
in British gardens, their botanical and horticul-
tural distribution, according to the Linnzean
system, according to that of Jussieu, British flora
procurable at the nurseries, hardy plants, green-
house and dry-stove plants, hot-house plants,
annuals, native and exotic, artificial application
of the British flora, fruit-trees and plants, herba-
ceous plants used for culinary purposes, florists'
flowers, hardy barren trees and shrubs, herba-
ceous plants used in agriculture for food, and in
the arts, miscellaneous application of hardy her-
baceous plants, application of various ornamental
exotics which require the protection of glass,
native habitations of plants, 909. to 1032.

Vegetable culture as derived from the study of
plants,1004 : to increase the number and retain the
native qualities of plants; to increase the number
and improve the qualities of plants ; increasing
the magnitude ; to increase the number, improve
the quality, and increase the magnitude ; to form
new varieties ; to preserve plants for future use,
1004. to 1016.

Vegetable sculptures, their formation, 1844.

Vegetables, to form new varieties of, 1013.

Vegetables, to preserve for future use, 2289.

Vegetables composing the Hortus Britaiuiicus, ar-
ranged according to the Linneean system, 588 ;
the Jussieuan system, 589; to the departments of
horticulture, 986.

Vegetables which first attracted man's attention as
food, 26.

Vegetation to accelerate or force, operations for,
2181.

Vegetation to retard, operations for, 2177.

Velezia, pentan. dig. and caryophylleae, a H. an.
Spain, of common culture.

Veltheimia, hexan. monog. and hemerocallidejB, G.
peren. C. B. S. bulbs, which grow in light loam,
and are readily increased by offsets ; or the leaves
pulled off close to the bulb, and planted, will de-
posit bulbs at their base, as will many other scaly
and coated bulbs.

Venerie, a royal residence at Turin, 77.

Vent, mal, Jardin de la Malmaison. Par E. P. Ven-
tenat.

Venus's comb, scandix pecten.

Venus's flytrap, dionaea muscipula.

Veratrum, polygam. monoec. and melanthace£E, H.
peren. Eur. 'and N. Amer. which grow best in
rich sandy soil, and are increased by dividing at
the root, or by seeds, which should be sown as
soon as ripe.

Verbascura, mullein, pentan. monog. and solaneae,
G. peren. and bien. and H. peren. bien. and an.
all of easy culture on light soil.

Verbena, vervain, didyn. angios. and verbenaceae,
H. peren. bien. and an. Eur. and N. Amer. which
thrive in any common soil, and are increased by
dividing at the root.

Verbesina, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereas,
S. an. and a tr. E. In'd. and W. Ind. and G. peren.
and H. peren. Amer. which grow in common soil,
and are readily increased by cuttings, seeds, or
dividing at the root.

Vermin, traps and snares used for, in gardening,
1435. and 1473.

Vernonia, syngen. polyg. aequal. and corymbifere^,
a S. bien. E. Ind. and H. peren. N. Amer. which
grow well in rich loam, and make a fine show in
autumn.

Veronica, speedwell, dian. monog. and scrophulari-
nese, G. tr. and peren. N. Hoi. and H. peren. and
an. Eur. all of easy culture in any soil : the G.
species are propagated by cuttings under a hand-
glass, and all the rest by seeds, or dividing the root.

Veronica beccabunga, brooklime, 600.

Veronica spicata, British tea, 4317.

Vervain, — see Verbena.

Vesicaria, tetrad, silic, and crucifereze, H. peren.
and a bien. S. Eur. of common culture.

Vespa vulgaris, the common wasp, 4837.

Vestia, pentan. monog. and solaneee, a G. tr.
Chili, which thrives in loam and peat, and cuttings
root freely under a hand-glass.

Vetch, — see Vicia.

Viart, , his works on gardening, page 1122.

A.D. 1819.

Vibert, J. P., his work on gardening, page 1122.
A.D. 1820.

Viburnum, pentan. trig, and caprifolia, a G. tr.
Canaries, and H. tr. Eur. and N. Amer. which
thrives well in common soil, and are increased by
layers or cuttings under a hand-glass in a shady
situation ; both the G. and H. kinds are early
flowerers, which render them very desirable.

Vicia, vetch, diadel. decan. and leguminoseae, a S.
an. E. Ind. G. peren C. B. S. and H. peren. Eur.
of easy culture in light soil.

Vicia faba, the common bean, 3612.

Vigne dela Reine, a seat near Turin, 77.

VUain, Madame, her villa near Ghent, 125.

Villa-farm, 7279 ; management of, 7430. and 7435.;

Villa-residence, 7278 ; management of, 7435.

Villaneuve, a seat near Warsaw, 282.

Villarsia, pentan. monog. and gentianeae, a G. peren.
and H. peren. aquatics which flower freely.

Viminaria, rush-broom, decan. monog. and legu-
minosea;, a G. tr. which grows in sandy loam and
peat, and is readily increased by seeds or cuttings
under a bell-glass in sand.

Vinca, periwinkle, pentan. monog. and apocyneae, a
S. tr. and an. E. Ind. and H. peren. and an. shrub,
Eur. The S. species grows in light, rich earth,
and flowers the greater part of the year, and cuu
tings root in sand under a hand-glass. The H.
sorts are trailers, and are increased by cuttings,
layers, or dividing at the root.

Vine, — see Vitis.

Vine, a seat in Hampshire, 7594.

Vinery, its construction, 2656.

Vineyard-nursery, at Hammersmith, 7518.

Viola, violet, pentan. monog. and violacese, a G. tr.
and H. peren. and an. N. Amer. and Eur. which
grow in ^ght soil, are well adapted for rockwork
or pots, and are readily increased by seeds or
parting the root.

Violet, — see Viola.

Viper's bugloss, — see Echium.

Viper's grass, — see Scorzonera.

Virgilia, decan. monog. and leguminoseK, G. tr.
Afr. and a H. tr. N. Amer. which thrive in loam
and peat, and young cuttings root in sand under a
bell-glass.
Virginian poke, Phytolacca decandra.

Virgin's bower, —see Clematis.

Viscum, mistletoe, dioec. tetran. and caprifolia, a

H. tr. Eng. parasite, 6588.
Visnaga, toothpick, pentan. dig. and umbellifereae,

a H. an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Visnea, dodec. trig, and ebenacese, a G. tr. Canaries,
which grows in loam and peat, and ripened cut-
tings root in sand under a hand-glass.
Vispre, Francis Xavier, his dissertation on the
growth of wine in England, page 1109. A. D.
1786.

GENERAL INDEX.

1231

Vitex, chaste tree, didyn. angios. and verbenacese,
S. and G. tr. E. Ind. which grow in loam and

- peat, and cuttings root freely in sand under" a
hand-glass.

Vitis, vine, pentan. monog. and vites, a S. tr.
Ind. and H. tr. N. Anier. of easy culture, and
readily increased by cuttings or layers.

Vitis vinifera, the common grape-vine, 4790 ; cul-
ture in the open air in various ways, 4816 ; in the
vinery and other hot-houses, 2940.

Vittaria, cryptog. filiccs and filiceae, a S. peren.
Amer. of easy culture in loam and peat, and in-
creased bv dividing the root or by seeds.

Voerhelm, 6eorge, his work on gardening, page 1129.
A.D. 1752.

Volkamcr, Johann Christoph., his works on gar-
dening, page 1123. A. D. 1700.

Volkameria, didyn. angios. and verbenaceae, S. tr.
W. Ind. which thrive well in loam and peat, and
cuttings root freely under a hand-glass.

Von Brocke, H. C, his works on gardening, page
1124. A.D. 1768.

Von Buresdorf, F. A. L., his^orks on gardening,
page 1124. A.D. 1783.

Von Dercxen, J., his work on gardening, page 1125.
A.D. 1796.

Von Dieskau, C. J. F., his works on gardening, page

1124. A.D. 1776.

Von Haeen, F. W., his works on gardening, page

1126. A.D. 1805.
Von Hass, J. A., his works on gardening, page 1125.

A.D. 1793.
Von Sierstorpff, K. H., his work on gardening, page

1125. A.D. 1790.

Von Sponeck, his works on gardening, page 1127.

A.D. 1810.
Von Voth?nan, J. G., his works on gardening, page

1125 A.D. 1784.
Von fVeiss, K., his work on gardening, page 1126.

A.D. 1800.
Von JViike, G. W. C, his works on gardening, page

1124. A.D. 1783.
Vredmannus, J. F., his works on gardening, page

1123. A.D. 1647.

W,

W., Willdenow's Species Plantarum.

W. en., Willdenow Enuraeratio Plantarum Hort,
Bot Berolinensis.

Wachendorfia, trian. monog. and hemodoracese, G.
peren. C. B. S. bulbs which grow in sandy loam
and peat, with little or no water when not in a
growing state, and are increased by offsets.

Wade, Walter, M.D., his tracts on gardening, page
1114. A.D. 1811.

Waketield Lodge, Northamptonshire, 7580.

Waldschmidt, VV. H., his works on gardening, page
1123. A.D. 1712.

Waldsteinia, icos. di-pentag. and rosacese, a H.
peren. Hungary ; very suitable for rockwork or
pots ; it grows in loam and peat, and is increased
by parting at the roots.

Wales, gardens and residences of, 7602.

"Walford Lodge, Devonshire, 7600.

"Walks, their formation, 1956; in horticultnre,
2490; in floriculture, 6105; in landscape-gar-
dening, 7243.

Wall-cress, — see Arabis.

Wall-flower, — see Cheiranthus.

Wall-tree nails and other fastenings, 7514.

Wall-trees, their planting and management, 2499.

Waller, K. A., his works on gardening, page 1127.
A.D. 1806.

Wallerius, J. G., his works on gardening, page 1130.
A.D. 1752.

Walls in gardening, structures for defence, enclo-
sure, shelter, and the culture of the more delicate
fruit-trees, different kinds of, 1556.

Waljjole, Horace, Earl o'f Orford, his writings on
gardening, page 1108 A.D. 1780.

Wa(jKth, , his works on gardening, page 1127.

ATD. 1812.

Walsingham House, Norfolk, 7554.

Walther, J. J., his works on gardening, page 1124.
A. D. 1779.

Waltheria, monad, pentan. and tiliaceae, S. tr. and
a bien. E. Ind. and S. Amer. which grow in light,
rich soil, and cuttings root in sand under a hand-
glass.

Walton, a seat in Radnorshire, 7610.

Wampee-tree, cookea punctata.

Wansteftd House, Essex, 7542

Waratah, camellia, — see Camellia.

Waratah, telopea speciosissima.

Wardour Castle, Wiltshire, 7597.

Warsaw, gardens of, 282.

Wart-cress, — see Coronopus.

Wart-wort, euphorbia helioscopia.

Warton, a seat in Westmoreland, 7592.

Warwick Castle, Warwickshire, 7572.

Warwickshire, gardens and residences of, 7571.

Watelet, C. H., his works on gardening, page 1119.

A. D. 1774.
Water, 1213; its constituent parts, how obtained in

hot-houses, 1601. and 1688; different modes of

procuring and preserving in the open garden, 1713.

and 1822 ; forming excavations for, 1/19 ; operat-
ing on .n landscape, 7216.
Water-caltrops, — see Trapa.
Water-chickweed, montia fontana.^
Water-cress, — see Nasturtium.
Water-dropwort, — see CEnanthe.
Water-hemlock, phellandrium aquaticum.
Water-horehound, — see Lycopus.
Water- leaf, — see Hydrophyllura.
Water-lily, — see Nymjjhasa, and Nuphar. '

Water-milfoil, — see Myriophyllum.
Water-parsnep, — see Slum.
Water-plantain, — see Alisma.
Water- soldier, stratiotes aloiocs.
Water-starwort, callitriche aquatica.
Watcr-violet, hottonia palustris.
W'ater-wort, elatine hydropiper.
Waterbourne Harrington, a seat in Dorsetshire,

7598.
Waterfalls, their kinds and construction, 1826. and

722.5.
Waterford, county of, as to gardening, 7665.
Watering-engines, different kinds of, 1448.
Watering.pot, different kinds of, 1414.
Wattled hurdle {Sar.), a hurdle spliced or wrought

of small shoots, used to shade beds or rows of

young plants, or new-sown seeds, in gardening.
Watton Woodhall, Hertfordshire, 7544.
Watsonia, trian. monog. and irideaj, G pereu.

C. B. S. which may be treated as ixia in the green-
house, or like the common ranunculus in the

open air.
Wax-tree, ligustrum lucidum.
Wayfaring-tree, viburnum lantana.
Weald Hall, Essex, 7542
Weber, F. B., his works on gardening, page 1126L

A. D. 1803,
Webera, pentan. monog. and rubiaceas, S. tr. E.

Ind. which thrive in loam and peat, and cuttings

root in sand under a hand-glass.
Weeding, 1893; weeding pincers, 1352; weeding

gloves, 2371.
Weeks, Etlward, his work on gardening, naffelll4.

A. D. 1814.
Weiss, F. W., his works on gardening, page 1124,

A. D. 1755.
Weissenbiuch, J. W. J., his works on gardening, pace

1127. A. D. 1805. * *^"^ ^

Weisxmantel, J. N., his works on gardening, i)age

1124. A. D. 1799. '^

Welbeck Abbey, Nottinghamshire, 7576.
Wellficld House, a seal in Radnorshire, 7610.
Wells for water, 1713.
Wembly Manor House, Middlesex, 7520.
Wemyss Castle, a seat in Fifeshire, 7635.
Wemyss House, or Gosford House, a seat in East

Lothian, 7619.
Wenckeler, Jean George, his works on gardening.

page 1118. A. D. 1767.
Wendf, G. T. K., his works on gardening, page 112&

A. D. 1804.
Wendlandnia, hexan. polyg. and menispermeffi, a

H. tr. N. Amer. which grows in peat soil, and is

increased by layers.
Wentworth Castle, Yorkshire, 7582.
Wentworth House, Yorkshire, 7582.
West Beechworth, Surrey, 7527.
West Grinstead Park, Sussex, 7531.
West Indian .fruits deserving cultivation, 6019.
Westmeath, county of, as to gardening, 7662.
Westmoreland, gardens and residences of, 7592,
Weston, Sir Richard, his work on gardeninc. naee

1100. A. D. 1645. i" V &^

Weston, Richard, Esq., his works on gardening

page 1108. A. D. 1770. ^'

Westringia, didyn. gymnos. and labiatese, G. tr.

Austral, which thrive in sandy loam and peat,

and young cuttings root freely under a bell-glass

in sand.

1232

GENERAL INDEX.

Westwood House, Worcestershire, 7566.
JVetzhausen, Von Truchsess, his work on cherries,

page lli:7. A. D. 1820.
Wexford, county of, as to gardening, 765.
Wheat, — see Triticum.
Wlieatley or Whateley, Thomas, Esq., his writings

on gardening, page 1108. A. D. 1770.
Wlieatley Hall, Yorkshire, 7582.
Wheelbarrow, different sorts of, 1441.
Wheeler, James, his writings on gardening, page

1106. A. D. 1763.

Whim, a seat near Edinburgh, 362.

Whitby Court, Worcestershire, 7566

Whitby Hall, Warwickshire, 7571.

Whitcombe Park, Gloucestershire, 7565. -

White cedar, cupressus thyoides.

White Knights, a seat near Reading, 7561.

Whitethorn, Crataegus, oxyacantha.

Whitfield Hall, Northumberland, 7586.

WlMtley, a seat in Essex, 7542.

Whitlow-grass, — see Draba.

Whitmill, Benedict, his works on gardening, page

1103. A. D. 1726.
Whitton Place, Middlesex, 7520.
Whortleberry, — see Vacciniura.
Wiborgia, diadelphia decandria and leguminosCcK,

a G. tr. C. B. S. which grows well in loam and

peat, and young cuttings root under a bell-glass

in sand.
Wicklow, county of, as to gardening, 7654.
Widow-wail, cneorum tricoccum,
Wigtonshire, gardens of, 76:26.
Wild basil, — see Clinopodium.
Wild bugloss, — see Lrycopsis.
Wild cumin, lagoecia cuminoides.
Wild licorice, abrus precatorius.
Wild plants, fit for culinary purposes, 4283.
Wilderness, a seat in Kent, 4888.
Wilderness, — see Laliyrinth.
Wildman, , his writings on gardening, page

1107. A. D. 1768.

Willdenovia, dioec. trian. and rcstiacese, a G. peren.

C. B. S. which grows in sandy loam and peat, and

is increased by dividing at the root.
WUldenow, C. L., his works on gardening, page 1127.

A. D. 1810.
Willersby Castle, Derbyshire, 7574.
Williamstrip, a seat in Gloucestershire, 7565.
Willow, — see Salix.
Wilna, botanic garden of, 284.
Wilson, William, his writings on gardening, page

1108. A. D. 1777.

Wilton House, Wiltshire, 7597.

Wiltshire, gardens and reside*hces of, 7596.

Wimbledon House, Surrey, 7528.

Wind, its influence on plants, and artificial pro-
duction of in hot-houses, 6181.

Windsor Castle, Berkshire, 7562. '

Windt, L. G., his work on gardening, page 1127.
A. U. 180G.

Wingerworth, a seat in Derb3rshire, 7574.

Winter aconite, eranthis hyemalis.

W^inter berry, — see Prinos.

Winter cherry, — see Physalis.

Winter cress, — see Barbarea.

Winter green, — see Trientalis.

Winterdyne, a seat in Worcestershire, 7566.

Winthorpe Hall, Nottinghamshire, 7576.

Winyard, a seat in Durham, 7584.

Witch hazel, haraamelis virginica.

Witheringia, tetrandria monogynia and solana-
ce*, a S. peren. S. Amer. which grows in loam
and peat, and cuttings root in sand under a bell-
glass.

Witsenia, trian. monog. and irideas, a G. peren.
C. B. S. a bulb which requires the same treatment
as ixia.

Woburn Abbey, in Bedfordshire, 7549.

Woburn Farm, Surrey, 7527.

Woburn perennial kale, 3529.

Wolfsbane, — see Aconitum.

Woo-ywen, gardens of, in China, 475.

Wooburn Farm, Buckinghamshire, 7547.

Wood, — see Isatis.

Wood, how to operate with in landscape-gardening,
7203.

Woodbine, lonicera periclymenura.

Wooden walls, 1565.

Woodhouselee, a seat in Midlothian, 7618.

Woodlands, a seat in Kent, 7537.

Woodlands, a seat in Durham, 7584.

Woodley Lodge, Berkshire, 7561.

Woodsage, teucrium scorodonia.

Woodsia, cryptogam, filices and filiceaa, H. peren.

Brit, and Amer. of easy culture in pots of ioam

and peat.
Woodruff, — see Asperula.
Woodsorrel, — see Oxalis.
Woodwardia, cryptog. filices and filicete, H. peren.

and a G. peren. N. Amer. and Madeira, of easy

culture.
Wooton Court, Kent, 7537.
Wooton House, Surrey, 7528.
WooUaton Hall, Nottinghamshire, 7576.
Woolverton Hall, Suffolk, 7552.
Worcestershire, gardens and residences of, 7566.
Workington Hall, Cumberland, 7593.
Worlldge, Jolin, gent., his work on gardening, page

1101. A. D. 1668.
Worm, tiie common, lumbricus terrestris. Worms

may either be destroyed by picking them up by

hand very early in the morning, or late in the

evening during moist weather, or by watering

with lime or salt water.
Worm-grass, — see Spigelia.
Wormleybury, a seat in Hertfordshire, 7544.
Wormsley, a seat in Oxfordshire, 7558.
Wormwood, — see A?J,emisia.
Wrightia, pentan. monog. and apocynese, S. tr. E.

Ind. which thrive in loam and peat, and cuttings

root readily in sand under a hand-glass.
Wrotham Place, Middlesex, 7521.
Wroxton, a seat in Oxfordshire, 75.58.
Wulfcnia, dian. monog. and scrophularinese, a H.

an. Carinthia, of common culture.
Wynnestay, a seat in Denbighshire, 7605.
Wycombe Abbey, Buckinghamshire, 7547.
Wycombe Park, Buckinghamshire, 7547.
Wyke House, Middlesex, 7520.

X.

Xanthium, moncec. pentan. and corymbifereiE, H.

an. Eur. and China, of common eulture.
Xanthochymus, polyad. polyan. and guttiferea?, a S.

tr. E. Ind. a fine-looking plant, which thrives in

light loam, and cuttings root in sand under a

hand-glass in heat.
Xanthorrha;a, hexan. monog. and asphodeleas, G.

peren. N. S. W. which thrive well in loam and

peat, and are increased by offsets.
Xeranthemum, syngen. polyg. super, and corym-

bifereffi, H. an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Ximenesia, syngen. poly, super, and corymbifereae,

a G. bien. Mexico, of easy culture, and increased

by cuttings.
Xiphidium, triand. monogyn. and hemodoraceae,

S. tr. peren. W. Ind. which thrive in sandy loam

and peat, and are increased by divitiing the

roots.
Xylomelum, tetran. monog. and proteaceae, a G. tr.

N. S. W. which may be treated as banksia.
Xylophylla, pentan. trig, and euphorbiaceae, H. tr.

Eur. which grow in common soil, and are in-
creased by layers, or ripened cuttings under a

hand-glass.
Xylopia, polyan. polyg. and anoniaceae, S. tr. W.

Ind. which grow in sandy loam, and cuttings root

in sand under a hand-glass.
Xyiis, triand. monogyn. and restiaceae, a G. peren.

and H. peren. N. S. W. and Carol, pretty plants,

which thrive in peat soil, and are readily increased

by dividing at the root.
Xysmalobiuin, pentan. dig. and asclepiadeae, a G.

tr. C. B. S. which grows in loam and peat, and

cuttings root in sand under a hand-glass.
Xystus, or terrace, 41.

Yam, dioscorea sativa.

Yarrow, achillea millefolium.

Yellow bird's nest, monotropa hypopithys. ^

Yellow rattle, rhinanthus crista-galli. ^

Yellow root, zanthorhiza apiifolia.

Yellow wort, chlora pcrfoliata.

Yeo Vale, a seat in Devonshire, 7600.

Yester House, a seat in East Lothian, 7619.

Yew-tree, — see Taxus.

Yorkshire, gardens and residences of, 7581.

Yucca, Adam's needle, hexan. monog. and liliaceae,
S. G. and H. tr. As. and S. Amer. which grow in
rich loam, and are increased by suckers from the
roots.

GENERAL INDEX.

1233

Zacintha, syngen. polyg. aequaL and cichoraceae, a

H. an. S. Eur. of common culture.
Zaluzania, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbifereae,
a. F. peren. Mex. which grows in rich, light soil,
and cuttings root readily under a hand-glass.
Zamia, dioec. polyan. and cycadeae, S. and G. tr.
C. B. S. W. Ind. and Austral, which grow in light
sandy soil, and some species may be increased by
suckers.
Zamoyst, a seat in Poland, 283.

Zannichellia, pond-weed, monoec. monandria and
naideae, a H. an. an aquatic.

Zantiiorhiza, yellow root, pentan. polyg. and ranun-
culaceae, a H. tr. whicn grows in common soil,
and is increased by suckers.

Zanthoxylum, toothach-tree, dioecia pentand. and
terebiiitaceae, a S and G. tr. and a H. tr. The
tender species grow in sandy loam, and cuttings
will root in sand under a hand-glass ; the hardy
sorts in any soil, and cuttings of the roots will
shoot into plants in bottom heat.

Zapania,didyn. angios. and verbenaceae, a S. and G.
peren. \V. Ind, and Amer. which grow in light,
rich soil, and cuttings root freely under a hand-
glass.

Zaritzina, or Tzaritzina, a palace and gardens near
Moscow, 262.

Zarskoje-selo, or Tzarskoje-selo, an imperial resid-
ence near Petersburg, ii57.

Zea, Indian com, monoec. *rian. and gramineae, a
H. an. Amer. of easy culture, 4335,

Zedoary, curcuma zerumbet.

Zeyher and G. Romer, their works on gardening,
page im. A. D. 1815.

Zieria, tetran. monog. and rutaccae, a G. tr. N.S.W.
a pretty plant, which grows in sandy loam and
peat, and young cuttings root in sand under a bell-
glass.

Zingiber, ginger, monan. monog. and scitamineae,
S. peren. which grow in light, rich soil, and are
increased by dividing at the root.

Zinnia, syngen. polyg. super, and corymbiferea?,
H. an. S. and N. Amer. of common culture.

Zizania, monoec. hexan. and gramineae, a H. an.
N. Amer. an aquatic which only requires to be
sown in shallow water or on the margin of a
pond.

Ziziphora, dian. monog. and labiateae, H. tr. peren.
and an. Eur. which grow freely in rich, light soil,
and are increased by seeds or cuttings.

Zizyphus, pentan. monogynia and rhamneae, S. G.
and H. tr. As. Af. and Eur. of which the tender
kinds grow well in loam and peat, and cuttings
root in sand under a hand-glass ; the H. species
are increased by seeds or ripened cuttings under
a hand-glass.

Zizyphus lotus, the true lotus, and Z. jujulia, the
jujube-tree, 6016.

Zoegea, syngen. polyg. frustr. and cynarocephaleae,
a H. an. Eevant, of the usual culture.

Zorn. ic., Icones plantarum medicinalium. Von Joh.
Zom.

Zornia, diadeL decan. and leguminoseae, a S. tr. and
an. E. Ind. which grow freely in rich, light soil,
and cuttings root easily under a hand-glass.

Zoph^ K., his work on gardening, page 1126. A. D.
1798.

Zygophyllum, bean-caper, decan. monog. and ruta-
ceae, G. tr. and a H. peren. C. B. S. which thrive
in loam and peat, and cuttings root readily under
a hand-glass.

THE ENP

4 K

\ s^y/ pieces with the greatest perfection. Sir Henry and
'^v^ Lady Bunbury, with Mr. Bunbury and Mr, Edward
^^ ^''Bunbury, welcomed the visitors on the lawn, to which
V an approach was made from the marquee by an arch of
^ evergreens ; and after the Horticultural Show had been
^^ inspected the company spread themselves over the velvet
turf, or wandered through the inviting shades of the
_j shrubberies, and admired the noble specimens of the
^ arboretum, amongst which towers a standard Magnolia
*%. acuminata, a magnificent tree, 50 feet in height, the
Q^ Douglas fir, sixty feet highj one of the largest
N^ in England, the Cephalonian firj thirty feet, which was
first introduced^ we believe, by her ladyship's brother ;
"^ a beautiful araucaria imbricata ; cry ptomeria japonica, 8
-' . feet high; abies Frazerii, 20 feet; abies Khutneri, 16 feet;
ii a ver^ fine pinus cimbrij; several very fine liriodendron
N^ lulipiferum, or tulip trees, just coming into flower; a
'^^ flrle weeping ash, over whose drooping branches the
Duiidee rambler rose was spread in profuse flower — an
Excellent idea ; and last, though far from least, we must
notice a gigantic silver fir, 1,06 feet high, 12 feet in cir-
cumference at 2 feet fi-om the ground, and straight as an
arrow — its equal is, perhaps, not to be found in the
country.

London :

Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,

New-Street-Square.

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saioHASH 'd AHfflH

'HE LAST DATE

Pomology Ubrar^

SB Loodoo^ John Clmudiua, 1783-1843, JLdL50095

^,53 1& •noyolop*«di» of gardening; coaprltlal ih»

T /I th«oafy Mid prmotlo« of hortloulture, floriculture,

1 QOQ ftrbciloulture, *nd lands oap«-gardeaiD^, Inoludlni
^°^° all th« Ut«Bt UnprorwDcntt ; a gan«ral M.itory of
|ard«iiin| In all countries; and a •tatlstloal Tl*r
of Its prasant itata, with suggaBttaaf for lit
futura prograss, in the British Islat, By J,C,
Louden, Illustratad with aany hundrad aa^T^vlngf oo
wood by Brans ton. 5th ed. London, Printed for
Lon^mn, Raas, Onns, Brown, and Graan, 1828
xll,1233 p, iUua., plans.

? /t^^ •Of tha litaratura of gardening "i p.l097-1131t

^/^^ .^ r. A 4 r, ^ w^. Title.

sac >/!• Gardening. .^

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