Mn ay ep a oe Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation htto://www.archive.org/details/englishcyclopaed01 kniguoft THE ENGLISH CYCLOPADIA. au? EN ke hs 48 Cs MOS) sD R534 THE ENGLISH CYCLOPADIA. A New Dictionary of Anibersal HKnotolenge. CONDUCTED BY CHARLES KNIGHT. NATURAL HISTORY.—VOLUME I. LONDON: BRADBURY AND EVANS, 11, BOUVERIE STREET. 1854. = ei Ee wth = ie ti WO x iti _ a ae i i= ra a ti° > _ eae vic ¥ wr fot peat ‘ig = F ot. - = i od ‘ al or 4 a ar - ve -~ 19 f yo Ane: PREFACE. Upon completing the first two volumes of “Tne Eneiish CycLopaipia ”—namely, one of Grocrapuy, and one of Naturat Historyr—the Conductor is called upon to say a few words upon the general nature of the work, and its progress to the present time. “The English Cyclopedia,” as announced from the first, is based upon “The Penny Cyclopedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.” The copyright of that great work being the property of the Conductor, he alone had the power of remodelling it throughout, so as to adapt the original materials to the existing state of knowledge. To accomplish this in the most effectual manner, it was determined to publish. “The English Cyclopedia” in Four Drvistons, each having its own alphabetical arrangement ; these Divisions being—I. Gzoarapny; II. Naturau History; III. Scrmnces anp Arts; IV- History, Brocrarny, Morau Sciences, Lireratore, During the progress of the publication, the Conductor has become more and more satisfied that the plan of issuing “The English Cyclopedia” in Four Divisions is a judicious arrange- ment. It has the obvious advantage of completing, in a comparatively short time, large departments of knowledge with the most recent information. Finishing the great branches of Geography and Natural History in two years and a half, the beginning and the end of each Series will not present different aspects—the one somewhat antiquated, the other perfectly fresh. The editorial labour, too, being more condensed, the relations and pro- portions of each article and subject can be better preserved. The Conductor has no reason to regret that it was resolved to produce a new Cyclopedia in a new form. The old materials were of the highest value ; but the edifice required to be rebuilt. The amount of literary labour which this remodelling has involved will at once be seen by any one who will compare the articles of the present work with those of the original. That labour has not been confined to revision and correction. Many new articles have been introduced, and many of the old ones supplied by others wholly re-written. The changes which have taken place since the “Penny Cyclopedia” was commenced, twenty years ago, have rendered every branch of information in some degree a new study. That no diligence has been spared to collect every fact not previously recorded ; to systematise articles that from viii PREFACE. the long course of publication of the original work were disconnected ; to make the refer- ences complete ; and truly to present, as far as a “ Dictionary of Universal Knowledge” can present, the advanced opinions of our own times ;—to this labour, amongst all engaged in the work, the Conductor can bear the most ample testimony. In this Division of the Cyclopadia, his own duties have consisted only in a general superintendence. He is deeply indebted to the exertions of Dr. Epwin Lanxester, by whose care the Cyclopwdia of Natural History has been brought into a more systematic shape ; while every exertion has been made to bring up the articles to the science of the present day, much that was obsolete has been removed. The scientific connexions of Dr. Lanxester have enabled him, in editing this department, to have access to the opinions of the best living —— and to secure the ablest assistance wherever required. Of the typographical execution of this work, in the essential point of accuracy, the Conductor can confidently speak. Of its other merit, that of mechanical execution, he believes that no work of such remarkable cheapness was ever produced with the beauty that was once considered exclusively to belong to the dearest class of books. December, 1853. ——— THE ENGLISH CYCLOPADIA. NATURAL HISTORY. AARD-VARK. AARD-VARK. AARD-VARK (Orycteropus, Geoffroy), in Zoology, a genus of animals belonging to the class Mammalia, and order ‘ata. The Orycteropus is now separated from the Myrmecophaga, or Ant-Eaters of Linnzus, with which it had been formerly associated. In its anatomical structure it bears a much closer relation to- the armadillos than to any other quadrupeds, not even excepting the ant-eaters, with which it was formerly associated. Like these animals, the Orycteropus is provided with large and powerful claws, for digging Salen insects, and for forming subterraneous burrows; and, them, has neither incisors nor canine teeth. Its molar teeth, however, are altogether iar, both in form and structure, and have no resemblance to the teeth of any other known animal, Of these there are five large ones on each side (both in the upper and under jaws), which are always ent ; and a variable number of from one to three smaller ones, placed in front of the others, and appa- rently representing the false molars of ordinary quadrupeds. The first of the large molars is smaller than any of the other four, and of a cylindrical form, somewhat compressed or flattened on the sides; the second is rounder; the third and fourth are each composed of two i linders, as it were, soldered together; and the last is a simple J ae , like the first and second. Immediately in front of these are the small or false molars, which, falling annually, vary in number ing to the individual. Properly speaking, the teeth of these animals are destitute of real roots, and are therefore, like the tusks of the elephant, and the incisors of the rodentia, capable of being indefinitely increased, by the it of new matter on the under extremity, to counterbalance the continual wear of the upper In the form of the extremities the Orycteropus resembles the armadillos still more nearly than in the nature of its dental system. legs are remarkably short and stout; the feet plantigrade (that F is to say, the animal walks upon the whole sole of the foot, as man and. the , instead of bri the point of the toe only in contact with the as may be o ed in the dog, horse, &.); and the toes, of which there are four on the fore feet and five on the hind, are armed with extremely large tally, and scooped or hollowed out on the under surface, so as to form ilitated by the of extremities, arising from the ual of the toes; the two interior being considerably longer the others, and the whole diminishing gradually from the index (or toe corresponding with the fore-finger) outwards. In other parts of its anatomy the Orycteropus resembles both the armadillos and the _ ant-eaters, and particularly in the form and structure of the stomach and alimentary canal. The reader who is desirous of further informa- tion upon these subjects may consult Cuvier's ‘ Legons d’ Anatomie and his great work, ‘Sur les Ossemens Fossiles,’ from are at It is an animal though, from its nocturnal habits and extreme timidity, it is not so frequently seen as many others which are in reality scarcer. Its colonial name of aard-vark, or earth-pig, by which it is known among the Dutch inhabitants of the Cape of Good Hope, is derived as well from its habit of burrowing as from the general pearance which it bears, at NAT. HIST. DIV. VOL. I. + 2 : first sight, to a small, short-legged pig. This animal, when full grown, measures about three feet five inches from the snout to the origin of the tail; the head is eleven inches long; the ears six inches; and the tailone foot nineinches. The head is long and attenuated ; the upper jaw projects beyond the lower, and ends, as in the common hog, in a truncated us. snout, haying the nostrils pierced in the end of it ; the mouth is small for the size of the animal, and the tongue flat and slender, not cylindrical as in the true ant-eaters, nor capable of being protruded to such an extent as in these animals: it is, however, Aard-Vark (Orycteropus Capensis), covered in like manner with a glutinous saliva, which firmly retains the ants, upon which the animal lives, and prevents those which once come in contact with it from escaping afterwards. The ears are large, erect, and pointed; and the eyes, which are of moderate size, are situated between them and the snout, about two-thirds of the distance - from the extremity of the latter. The body of the aard-vark is thick and corpulent; the limbs short and remarkably strong; the hide thick, tough, and nearly naked, having only a few stiff hairs, of a pele reddish-brown colour, thinly scattered over it, excepting on the ips and thighs, where they are more numerous than elsewhere. The tail is about the length of the body and head together, and, like the body, is nearly naked ; it is extremely thick and cylindrical at the base, but decreases gradually towards the extremity, and ends in a sharp int. pethus formed, the aard-vark is in all respects admirably fitted for the station which nature has assigned to it in the grand economy of the animal kingdom. It feeds entirely upon ants, and in this respect fulfils the same pu in Southern Africa which is executed by the Pangolins in Asia, the Myrmecophaga in America, and the Echidna in Australia, These insects raise mounds of an apyon figure, to the height of three or four feet above the surface of the ground; and so numerous B 8 AARD-WOLF. AARD-WOLF. are those gigantic ant-hills in some parts of Southern Africa, that they | is called the cannon-bone in the horse, and other digitigrade animals, are frequently seen extending over the plains as far as the eye can reach, and so close together that the traveller's w nm can with difficulty pass between them. They abound more especially in the Zeurevelden, or sour districts, so called from producing a kind of sour grass; are seldom found on the karroos or downs, and never in very dry or woody districta, By constant exposure to the rays of a powerful tropical sun they become so hard and indurated on the outer surface that they easily support the weight of three or four men, and even a loaded waggon will sometimes pass over without crushing them. Internally these mounds are of a y structure, something resembling a honeycomb, and are #0 com- pletely saturated with animal oil that they inflame without difficulty, and are an excellent substitute for wood or coal. Wherever ant-hills abound the aard-vark is sure to be found at no t distance. He constructs a deep burrow in the immediate vicinity of his food, and changes his residence only after he has exhausted his resources. The facility with which he burrows beneath the surface of the earth is said to be almost inconceivable. We have already seen how admirably hia feet and claws are adapted to this purpose; and travellers inform us that it is quite impracticable to dig him out, as he can in a few minutes bury himself at a depth far beyond the reach of his pursuers; and, further, that his strength is so great as to require the united efforts of two or three men to drag him from his hole. When fairly caught, however, he is by no means retentive of life, but is easily dispatched by a slight blow over the snout. The aard- vark is an extremely timid, harmless animal, seldom removes to any great distance from his burrow, being slow of foot and a bad runner, and is never by any chance found abroad during the day-time. On the approach of night he sallies forth in search of food, and, repairing to the nearest inhabited ant-hill, scratches a hole in the side of it just sufficient to admit his long snout. Here, after having previously ascertained that there is no danger of interruption, he Ties down, and, inserting his long slender tongue into the breach, entraps the ants, which fly to defend their dwellings upon the first alarm, and, mounting upon the tongue of the aard-vark, get entangled in the glutinous saliva, and are swallowed by whole scores at a time. If uninterrupted, he continues this process till he has satisfied his appetite; but on the slightest alarm he makes a precipitate retreat, and seeks security at the bottom of his subterranean dwelling. Hence it is that these animals are seldom seen even in those parts of the country in which they are most numerous. Like other nocturnal animals, which pass the greater part of their lives in sleeping and eating, they become exceedingly fat, and their flesh is considered to be a wholesome and palatable food. The hind-quarters, particularly when cut into hams and dried, are held in t esteem. : AARD-WOLF (Proteles, Is. Geof.), in Zoology, a gents of digitigrade carnivorous mammals, founded by M. Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire, for the purpose of giving a place to a new and singular quadruped brought some years ago from Caffraria by the traveller Delalande. This genus is interesting to the zoologist, as forming the intermediate link which connects the civets with the dogs and hymwnas—three genera which have hitherto stood, as it were, insulated from surrounding groups, and widely separated from one another. The dogs and hyzenas, indeed, had been united a short time previous, by the discovery of an intermediate ies in the same locality which has since produced the Proteles ; but it is this latter species alone, which, uniting the cha- racters of all these three genera, enables us to trace their natural affinities, and to assign to them their proper position in the scale of existence, To the external appearance and osteological structure of an hyena this truly singular animal unites the head and feet of a fox, and the intestines of a civet. Its teeth are remarkable: the permanent canines are tolerably large, but the molars are small, and separated by intervals. It has five toes on the fore feet, and four only on the hind; the innermost toe of the fore foot is placed, as in the dogs, at some distance above the others, and therefore never touches the ground when the animal stands or walks. The legs also are completely digiti- grade; that is to say, the heel is elevated, and does not come into contact with the surface, as in man and other similarly formed animals, which walk w the whole sole of the foot, and are thence said to be plantigrade, It is of great importance to remark the difference between these two modifications of the locomotive organs, because they have a very decided and extraordinary influence upon the habits and economy of animal life, Digitigrade animals, which tread only upon the toes, and carry the heel considerably elevated above the ground, have much longer lege than plantigrade animals, and are, therefore, especial] fitted for leaping and running with great ease and rapidity. Accord- ingly, it will be observed that the horse, the stag, the antelope, the dog, and other animals remarkable for rapidity of course, e strongly of this formation ; and even their degree of swiftness is accu- rately ed by the parative elevation of the heel. Inattentive observers someti isapprehend the nature of this peculiar con- formation of the extremities of digitigrade animals, and are apt to confound the hough with the ankle, and to mistake for the knee what ia really the heel of the animal. Thus we have heard it said that, in the hind legs of the horse, the knee was bent in a contrary direction to thatofman. This is by no means true: a little attention to the succession of the different joints and articulations, will show that what in reality corresponds to the instep in man; and that what is generally mistaken for the knee really represents the heel. In the particular case of the Proteles the natural effect of the digiti- grade formation is, in some degree, lessened by the tere herrea of the fore legs, which, contrary to the general rule o ble in most other animals, are considerably longer the hind. In this respect, also, the Proteles resembles the hymwnas; and in both genera this singular disproportion between the anterior and rior extremities abridges the velocity properly due to their digitigrade conformation. This genus contains but a single species. Aard-Wolf (T'roteles Lalandii). The Aard-Wolf, or Earth-Wolf (Proteles Lalandii, Is. Geof.; Viverra’ cristata, Sparr.), is so called by the European colonists in the neighbour- hood of Algoa Bay, in South Africa, the locality in which M. De de procured his specimens of this animal. The size of the aard-wolf is about that of a full-grown fox, which it further resembles in its pointed muzzle; but it stands higher upon its legs, its ears are considerabl larger and more naked, and its tail shorter and not so bushy. sight it might be easily mistaken for a young striped hyzna, so closely does it resemble that animal in the colours and peculiar markings of its fur, and in the mane of long stiff hair which runs along the neck and back ; indeed, it is only to be distinguished by its more pointed head, and by the additional fifth toe of the fore feet. The fur is of a woolly texture on the sides and belly, but a mane of coarse stiff hair, six or seven inches in length, passes along the = of the neck and back, from the occiput to the origin of the tail, and is capable of being erected or bristled up, like that of the hyena, when the animal is irritated or provoked. The general colour of the fur is pale cinereous (ash-coloured), with a slight shade of yellowish brown ; the muzzle is black and almost naked, or covered only with a few long stiff mous- taches. Around the eyes, and on each side of the neck, are dark brown marks ; eight or ten bands of the same colour pass over the body in a transverse direction, exactly as in the common striped hyena; and the arms and thighs are likewise marked with similar transverse stripes. The legs and feet are of an uniform dark brown in front, and gray behind. The long hairs of the mane are gray, with two b rings of black, the second of which occupies the point; those of the tail are similarly marked, and equally long and stiff; whence it appears as if the mane and tail were clouded with an alternate mixture of black and gray. The ears are gray on the interior surface, and dark brown on the outer, In its habits and manners the aard-wolf resembles the fox: like that animal, it is nocturnal, and constructs a subterraneous burrow, at the bottom of which it lies concealed during the daytime, and only ventures abroad on the approach of night, to search for food and satisfy the other calls of nature. It is fond of the society of its own species ; at least, many individuals have been found resi together in the same burrow; and, as they are of a timid and w character, th have generally three or four different entrances to their holes ; so that, if attacked on one side, they may secure a retreat in an Ne direc- tion. Notwithstanding the disproportionate length of their fore legs, they are said to run very fast; and so strong is their propensity to burrow, that one of M. Delalande’s specimens, percei' itself about to be run down and captured, immediately ceased its flight, and began to scratch up the ground, as if with the intention of making a new earth. M. Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire has bestowed upon this species the name of Proteles Lalandii, but 8 and Levaillant mentioned the aard-wolf long before the date of M. Delalande's journey; and the former has not only described it with tolerable accuracy, but has oes ea as its true generic characters, (Sparrman’s ‘Travels,’ vol, ii, p. 177. In the “Second Voyage’ of Levaillant, vol. ii, p. 360, mention is likewise made of this animal under the appellation of ‘ i ee Terre,’ which is a simple translation of its colonial name, aard-wo Sparrman mentions having found ants in the stomach of the Proteles, - two cavities from each other is 5 ABDOMEN. ABDOMINALES. 6 nA these insects, it may be observed, are also a favourite food of e bear. ABDOMEN, the Belly, from abdo, to hide, because it conceals or hides its contents, The last syllable is only a termination. The Lower Belly, Imus Venter, Alvus, Gaster, &c. &e., are synonymous, The human body is divided by anatomists into three portions—the head, the trunk, and the extremities. The head and trunk enclose cavities which contain the organs or the instruments by which the most important functions of the living body are performed. The trunk forms two cavities, the superior of which is termed the Thorax or Chest, and the lower constitutes the Abdomen. In the artificial skeleton nothing is shown, because nothing remains except the mere framework of the body, or the bones; but in the natural state, when the soft parts remain as well as the bones, there is a complete partition between the cavity of the chest.and that of the abdomen (fig. L., 1,2). This partition is effected by means of an organ which is termed the Diaphragm (jig. L, 1, 2), a name derived from a Greek word signifying to divide. The diaphragm is composed partly of membrane, but chiefly of muscle (Fig. I.) It is placed transversely across the. trunk at about its middle portion, dividing it into two nearly equal halves (Fig. L.) But the dia- is a moveable body ; it is, in fact, one of the main organs of respiration : its chief function consists in alternately increasing and diminishing the capacity of the thorax and abdomen, for the purpose of respiration. But since the very partition which separates these y changing its rela- tive position—now encroaching the one, and now upon other—it is obvious that their natural capacity must be constantly varying. The cavity of the abdomen is " above by the diap! (Fig. I., 1,2), below by the of the Pelvis or basin (Fig. L, 3, 3), which may be considered as belonging to the bones of the lower ex- tremities, before and at the sides sci: ag muscles, i ly the muscles of the loins, and: partly by the bone of the spine. The Spine is composed of a number of separate bones, each of which is termed a Vertebra. The vertebra are firmly united together, and by their union form what is commonly called the back-bone, termed by anatomists the Spinal Column, or the Vertebral Column. The cavity of the abdomen is lined throughout by a thin, but dense, firm, and strong membrane, termed the Peritoneum, from a Greek word signifying to extend around. We have thus spoken of the abdomen as a cavity, but without explanation this mode of expression may occasion misconception. During the state of life there is cocavity. The abdomen is always nompletely full. Ithas been stated that the diaphragm alternately enlarges and diminishes the space tothe abdomen; but the and lumbar muscles, which form so large a part of the boundaries of the abdomen in front, at the sides and behind, in like manner, alternately contract and relax. The consequence is, that a firm and uniform pressure is at all times maintained upon the whole contents of the abdo- men, so that there is always the most exact _ tion of the con- taining to the contained parts, pro, 11.—Diaphragm, removed from its and of the viscera one to the E aibaittinn wate the Chest other, not the slightest space or and Abdomen. cavity ever intervening, either between the walls of the abdomen and its viscera, or between one viseus and another, By the cavity of the abdomen, therefore, is not tmeant what the expression might at first view seem to denote, namely, # void or empty space; but the term is merely employed to mark the extent boundary within which the abdominal viscera are Fro. I. The abdomen, for practical purposes, is artificially mapped out into the following regions. _ Two imaginary lines are drawn across the abdomen, one of which is supposed to extend from about the seventh rib on one side to the same point on the opposite side (Fig. IIL, 1,1). The second line is supposed to extend from the fore part of the large bone of the pelvis to the same projecting point on the other side (2, 2). These lines mark out three large and distinct spaces (3, 4, 5). The space above the upper line is termed the Epigastric Region (3). The space below the lower line is termed the Hypogastric Region (5). The space included between the two lines is termed the Umbilical Region (4). Two lines are next supposed to extend vertically, one on each side, from between the seventh rib to the prominence formed by the large bone of the pelvis (Fig. IIL, 6,6). By these vertical lines the three first regions are still further a subdivided in the follow- ) ing manner :—The right and left parts of the Epigastric Region form two distinctregions (7,7); these are termed theright and left H hondriac Regions (7, 7); while the central part retains the name of the Epigastric Region (3). Inlike man- ner the right and left parts of the Umbilical Region formtwo distinct regions (8, 8), which are termed the Lumbar Re- gions (8, 8), while the central part retains the name of the Umbilical Region (4). | Moreover, the right and left parts of the Hypogastric Region are at the same time each divided into two, which are termed the Iliac Re- gions (9, 9), while the central part is termed the Region of the Pubis (5). The term Abdomen, as applied by entomolo- ists to has a somewhat different signification from the same term when applied to other animals, being used for the whole portion of the body of an insect behind the corselet (thorax), and including the back as well as the belly. It consists, in most cases, of a number of rings without any jointed members for locomotion, and uniformly encloses a portion of the intestines, though sometimes but a very small one. These rings, or very short hollow cylinders, are severally united with each other by a joint, by a membrane, or sometimes by an intimate junction, the exact line of which is not very apparent. The rings in some cases, as in the grub of the chameleon-fly, slide into one another like the tubes of an opera-glass. Each ring is technically termed a segment (segmentwm), virtually composed of two principal pieces, which, when distinct, are termed arches; the upper the arch of the back, the under the arch of the belly. In some cases these two portions are not distinct, but, when they are so, the two borders usually come into contact. When they do not, but remain free, one usually, more or less overlaps the other, as in bees. In caterpillars, grubs, and wingless insects, such as the flea, where the joining of the corselet with the abdomen is not apparent, the abdomen may always be known by the legs never being jointed with it; and in caterpillars it usually consists of all the body behind the six fore legs, which are always on the corselet. ABDOMINALES, in Zoology, the name of a group of fishes, to which different naturalists have attached a more or less extensive signification, Fie III. Salmon, given as a specimen of the family of Abdominales, according to the particular principles of their several systems. The classification of fishes given by Linnzus is founded upon the presence and position of the ventral fins (those of the belly) in relation to the 7 ABELE TREE. ABIES. pectoral (those of the breast); and these he regards as analogous to the fore and hind members of quadrupeds, and to the wings and feet of birds. Linnwus includes, in his order Abdominalea, all those species which have the ventral fins placed behind the pectoral, or upon the abdomen, the cartilaginous fishes alone excepted ; which, after the example of Ray, Willoughby, and Artedi, he very properly considers as forming an order apart. This arrangement is not now generally adopted, but the term Abdominales denotes a family, or subdivision, of malacopterygious (or soft-finned) fishes, only ; and, in this restricted sensé, includes the greater number of the fresh-water species, as well as those which, like the salmon, periodically migrate from the ocean to deposit their spawn in fresh-water lakes and rivers. M. Cuvier subdivides this family into five subordinate groups, all of which he has defined by appropriate and unequivocal characters. He denomi- nates these sub-families, Cyprinotdes, Siluroitdes, Salmonoides, Clupeoides, and Lucioides respectively, from the carps, silures, salmons, herrings, and pikes, the typical genera from which their characters are severally en. aaa TREE, in Botany, the English name of the Populus alba. PoPULvs. ABELMOSCHUS, in Botany, a genus of thé Mallow tribe, usually referred to Hibiscus. [Hrsiscvs.] ABERDEVINE (Carduelis spinus, Cuvier; Fringilla ligurina, Ranzani), sometimes called the Siskin, a well-known song-bird, which has some resemblance to the green variety of the canary- bird, but there is considerable difference in individual birds with respect to the brightness of colouring. The colours of the male in full plumage are as follows: top of the head, black ; ear coverts, Aberdevine, or Siskin (Carduelis spinus), dusky; a line above the eyes ; sides of neck, throat, and chest, lemon yellow ; back and shoulders, dark olive green, with obscure dusky dashes; * quills, brown, with an oblique yellow bar and another above, produced by the yellow edging of the greater coverts ; flanks, dusky, with a few brown dashes; rump, yellow, slightly washed with green; two. middle tail feathers, dark brown, the rest.yellow, tipped with brown ; bill and legs, brown colour, Length, 49 inches. Tail, short and forked. The plumage of the female is.leas bright and decidedly marked. Sepp has delineated the nest of the aberdevine in the cleft of an oak, built with dry bent mixed with leaves, and profusely lined with feathers ; the base neatly rounded, and the feathers projecting above the rim, and concealing the eggs, which are blueish-white, speckled with purplish red, like those of the goldfinch, Temminck, again, says it builds in the highest branches of the pine. It breeds in the north of Europe, and only visits Britain, Germany, and France in the autumn and winter. ie is represented in some books as very irregular in ite migration, particularly to this country; but we suspect that this opinion has arisen from irregular obser- vation, for, sinée our attention has been directed to the subject, we have remarked its arrival about Lee, in Kent, to be almost as regular as the departure of the swallows, which takes place about the same timé. During its winter stay with us, the aberdevine feeds chiefly on the seeds of the birch and alder. As a cage-bird it is frequently paired with the canary, to produce what are termed mule-birds ; but it is, besides, a lively and persevering songater. ABIES, in Botany (the Fir), a genus of trees of the Coniferous tribe, well-known for the valuable timber which is produced by many of the species. It was formerly considered a part of the genus Pinus ; but modern botanists have made it a distinct genus, The English appel- lation is the Saxon furh-cudu, fir-wood. Generic Character. Flowers monccious. . Males, Catkins pct va solitary, terminal, or axillary. Stamens obtuse, and often ous at the apex, terminated by a jagged membrane, Females. Catkins somewhat cylindrical; their scales two-flowered, imbricated, and having frequently at their base externally a bractea, which is either very short or lengthened beyond the scales themselves, and terminated by a taper point. Cones more or less cylindrical; the scales imbricated and woody, but not thickened at the extremity; seeds ending in a membra- nous wing, Embryo about the length of the seed, with several closely-packed cotyledons. Trees of various sizes, usually with a ight, conical, undivided trunk, from which proceed spreading, horizontal, or drooping branches, arranged in a pyramidal manner. aie either solitary, or collected in little fascicles, deciduous or evergreen. From Pinus (the Pine-Tree) Abies (the Fir-Tree) is obvionsly distinguished by its more pyramidal form, and by its leaves arising singly from around the stem, not by twos or Cal or a greater number, from out of a membranous shrivelling sheath, as well as by the characters in the fructification above described. Its species form four very natural tribes, of the first of which, the Silver Fir may be taken as the representative ; of the second, the Norway Spruce ; of the third, the Larch ; and of the fourth, the Cedar of Le As most of these are interesting, either for the excellence of their wood or as objects of ornament, we shall briefly notice those ‘that are at present best known. Those who wish for further information should consult Mr. Lambert's ‘Monograph of the Genus Pinus,’ L. C. Richard’s ‘Mémoire sur les Coniféres,’ Michaux’s ‘ Histoire des Arbres Forestiers de l'Amérique Septentrionale,’ Loudon’s ‘ Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum.’ Seer. I.—Smiver Firs. Leaves growing singly round the branches, and all turned towards one side, Abies Picea, the Silver Fir (Abies pectinata, De Candolle; Pinus Picea, Linneus). Leaves arranged like the teeth of a comb, some- what emarginate, of a whitish colour underneath. Cones erect, with very blunt closely-pressed scales, which are much shorter than the taper-pointed inflexed bracts. It is a native of the mountains of Ys. Siee RS a a : a ANY ‘ Silver Fir (Abies Picea). the middle and south of Europe, fn stony, dry, exposed situations. Its favourite district seems to be on the Pollino and in the forest of Rubia, in the kingdom of Naples, where it is found in all its grandeur, often growing from 130 to 150 feet in height, and richly meriting the name pulcherrima (most beautiful), applied to it by Virgil. This tree is readily known by its leaves having their points all turned towards the sky, and being mealy pins aba as well as by its long, erect, stalkless cones, of a greenish-purple colour, epaing om reflexed taper points of the bracts that subtend the scales, It is the Sapin g ABIES. ABIES. 10 ‘of the French. Planks of indifferent quality, on account of their softness, are sawn from its trunk, which also yields Burgundy pitch and Strasburg turpentine. For its successful cultivation in this country it requires strong land, such as will suit the oak, and a sheltered situation ; it will then become a very large tree. From a communication to Mr. Lambert, it appears that trees have been felled which, at 100 years of age, contained six loads, or 240 cubic feet, of ‘timber. It is said by some to grow slowly for the first fifteen years, but with great rapidity. A plant in-Woburn Park is recorded to have grown for 110 years at the rate of one foot in height -and nearly three and a half cubic feet per annum. Its trunk some- times arrives at 150 feet in height, and six feet in diameter. Antiquarians, not considering that this plant is the real Abies pulcherrima of Virgil, and of the Roman authors, have lost themselves in vain ai ts to reconcile the declaration of Czesar (‘De Bel. Gal.,’ vy. 12), that he found in Britain all the trees of Gaul, except the beech and abies, with the well-known fact that fir-wood is abundant in our ancient mosses, and has been met with even beneath the foundations of Roman roads. What Cesar meant was, no doubt, that he did not meet with the silver fir in Britain. Of the pine he says nothing, and therefore it is to be presumed that he found it. Abies Sibirica, the Siberian Silver Fir (Pinus Sibirica and Pinus Pichta of the gardens). Scarcely anything certain has been pub- lished of this tree, which, according to Linnzeus, Mr. Lambert, and others, is the same as the Abies picea. Gmelin describes it as a native of all parts of Siberia as far as 58° N. lat. in mountainous regions, eeoly in the upper country lying between the Irtish and the Ob, w re it forms dense woods. Abies grandis, Great Californian Fir (Pinus grandis, Douglas and Lambert). Leaves long, narrow, very blunt, whitish beneath, all turned one way. Cones oblong, erect, rather curved, with very broad, uneven, downy scales, which are longer than the bractee. Found, by Mr. Douglas, in low moist valleys in northern California, where it attains the height of 200 feet. The wood is soft, white, and of inferior quality. Cones from three to four inches long; bracts very short, jagged, two-lobed, with a short intermediate point. Abies balsamea, the Balm of Gilead Fir (Abies balsamiféera, Michaux ; Pinus balsamea, Lambert). Leaves flat, silvery-white beneath, either emarginate or entire at the point, all curved towards the upper side. Cones cylindrical, oblong, erect, purple, with rounded, even, undi- vided scales. Found, along with Abjes nigra and Abies alba, in the coldest parts of North America, but always in detached indivi- duals, never in large masses. It extends also along the ridge of the Alleghanies as far as the crests of the mountains of North Carolina. It forms a small slender tree, rarely more than 40 feet high, with a diameter of from 12 to 15 inches. The cones are four to five inches ] and about an inch in diameter. Its wood is light, of a pale ’ colour, and but. slightly resinous; it is of little value, and is chiefly split up into staves for fish-barrels. The English name has given in consequence of a resemblance between the clear trans- parent greenish-yellow turpentine, which is obtained from numerous cysts in its bark, and the Balm of Gilead of the shops. The turpentine is commonly known under the name of Canadian Balsam. In England this is a small tree of very ornamental appearance when young, on the skirts of plantations, but it rarely acquires any considerable size. Abies nobilis, Large-Bracted Fir (Pinus nobilis, Douglas and Lam- bert). Leaves v numerous, falcate, all turned one way, of ar the same colour on both sides. Cones oblong, erect, with ed broad scales concealed by the long wedge-shaped two-lobed jagged scales, which are bent back, and terminate abruptly in a rigid elongated point. It is a majestic tree, forming vast-forests upon the mountains of northern California, where it was found by Mr. Douglas. The timber is said to be of excellent quality. The cones are about six inches long. Abies Frazeri, the Double Balsam Fir (Pinus Frazeri, Pursh and Lambert). Leaves linear, emarginate, silvery-white beneath. Cones oblong, squarrose. Bracts somewhat leafy, inversely cordate, mucronate, reflexed. A native of the mountains of Carolina and Pennsylvania. Abies Webbiana, Webb's Fir (Pinus Webbiana, Wallich and Lam- bert; Pinus spectabilis, Lambert). Leaves linear, solitary, flat, all- spreading, and turned one way, silvery-white beneath, witha d notch at the extremity. Cones oblong, erect, obtuse, with very broad, rounded, even scales. According to the account of Captain Webb, who first discovered it, this remarkable species attains the height of 80 or 90 feet, with a diameter neay the ground of 8 or 4 feet. Its wood seems to be valuable. From what has been reported of its general appearance, it is probably ‘one of the most interesting species that has yet been discovered. I iting the colder regions of northern India, and found among plants which are more Siberian in their character than Indian, there can be no reasonable doubt of its being well able to withstand the rigour of the winters of this country. Abies Canadensis, the Hemlock Spruce Fir (Michaux ; Pinus Cana- densis, Lambert), Leaves flat, arranged ly in two rows; when young downy, as well as the young slender branches. Cones 4 een ovate, sharp-pointed, with rather acute, even, entire scales : very small.—The most northerly situation in which this tree is found is about Hudson's Bay, in lat. 51°, Near Quebec it forms | extensive forests; in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Vermont, and the upper part of New Hampshire, it is extremely common; but in the middle and southern states of North America it is confined to the All ies and their dependent ridges, where it inhabits the sides of torrents and the bleakest situations. It is a noble species, rising to the height of 70 or 80 feet, and measuring from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. It appears to be of slow growth, not arriving at its full dimensions in less than 200 years. When from 25 to 30 feet high its form is exceed- ingly elegant, but when old its huge limbs are apt to be rent and broken by winds and snow; and their-naked stumps, sticking out beyond the young and verdant foliage, give the trees an air of decre- pitude and decay. The wood is of little value, being neither sound nor durable, The bark is valuable for tanning ; mixed with oak-bark, it is said to be much better than oak-bark alone. Abies Brunoniana, the Deciduous Silver Fir (Pinus Brunoniana, Wallich; P. dwmosa, Lambert). Leaves flat, all turned one way, serrulate towards the points, covered beneath with a milk-white bloom. © Cones terminal, erect, ovate, blunt, very small, with lax, ovate, very blunt scales—Found in the northern parts of ae a7 rovinces of Nepaul, Bootan, and Gossain i fs a tree 70 or 80 feet high, with a clear trunk of from 15 to 20 feet, and a spreading very branchy head. The wood is of bad quality, being liable to Abies religiosa, the Sacred Mexican Fir (Pinus religiosa, Humboldt and Kunth). Young branches quite smooth. Leaves arranged in two rows, sharp- Cone of A. Bruno- pointed, covered beneath with a camo bloom. niana. Found by Humboldt, on the lower hills of Mexico, at an elevation of 4000 feet: Deppe and Schiede found it upon the cold moun- tains of Orizaba, at the highest limit of arborescent vegetation. It is described as a lofty tree, resembling Abies picea and Abies balsamea, from which it is distinguished by its sharp-pointed leaves. The flowers are unknown. The branches are used for adorning the churches in Mexico. According to Mr. Lambert, the cones are like those of the cedar of Lebanon, but smaller, and almost black. Abies hirtella, the Hairy Fir (Pinus hirtella, Humboldt and Kunth). Young branches covered with hairs. Leaves arranged in two rows, flat, acute, covered with glaucous bloom beneath. Known only from the incomplete account of Humboldt, who found it on the mountains of Mexico, growing at an elevation of between 8000 and 9000 feet. He describes it as a small tree, three or four times as high as a man, Abies Smithiana, the Indian Silver Fir (Pinus Smithiana, Wallich). Leaves slender, four-cornered, whitish beneath, a little turned towards one side, dark nm, from one inch to one and a long. Cones from four to six inches in’ length, erect, ovate-oblong, with obovate, rounded, even scales, A native of the slopes of the Himalaya Mountains. It is a tree of enormoussize, with nearly opposite branches, covered with short down, and so arranged as to form generally two rows. Secor. IL—Sprrvuce Firs, Leaves growing singly round the branches, and all spreading equally. Abies excelsa, the Norway Spruce Fir (De Candolle; Pinus abies, Lin- nus). Leaves scattered, some- what four-cornered, mucronate. Cones cylindrical, pendulous, with blunt, wavy, slightly-toothed scales. It is a native of the mountainous parts of the north of Europe, where it sometimes constitutes, as in Nor- way, the principal timber. It is found all over Siberia as high as 70° N. lat., in which region it is a certain sign of the presence of springs of fresh water, for it is only seen in moist and springy places. When growing singly in rich soil, separated from other trees, this forms one of the most beautiful objects that can be imagined, with its long drooping branches touching the very ground, and its regularly pyramidal figure : but in other situations, in plantations where the trees are crowded and deprived of their lower branches by want of light and air, it becomes, after nine or ten years, an inelegant plant of little value except to be cut for poles. When in perfection (and occasionally it arrives at its greatest perfection in this country), it acquires a stature of 150 feet. Its wood is of a white colour, of a fine even Cone of the Indian Silver Fir. u ABIES. ABIES. 12 grain, and very durable: in the market it is known under the name of White Deal or Christiania Deal. In Norway it arrives at maturity in 70 or 80 yeara. Trees of such an age are what are usually cut down for exportation, and each yields on an average three pieces of Norway Spruce Fir (Abies excelsa). timber, eleven or twelve feet long. The Spruce is readily known by ita leaves of one uniform dull green colour, spread equally round the branches, and by its long pendant cones. Abies orientalis, the Oriental Fir (Pinus orientalis, Linneus and Lambert). Leaves very short, uniformly imbricated, quadrangular, with a callous point. Cones ovate, cylindrical, pendulous, their scales somewhat rhomboid. To botanists this is known chiefly by a figure published by Mr. Lambert after a drawing by Aubriet, the draughtsman who accompanied Tournefort in his journey to the Levant. It was found by that traveller in the mountains south-east of Trebisond, above the convent of St. John. It has been subsequently met with by Russian botanists in the woods of Mingrelia, and was seen near Teflis by Sir Gore Ouseley; but little has been added to our knowl of the species. The young branches are said to be hairy. The leaves are very short and dense. The cones are small and a of an ovate, tapering figure. Abies alba, the White Spruce Fir (Michaux; Pinus alba, Lam- bert). Leaves rather glaucous, spreading equally round the branches, four-cornered, somewhat pungent, Cones narrow, oval, taj towards the point, with even undivided scales. Found along wi Abies nigra in the colder regions of North America. According to Michaux it does not advance so far to the northward as that species, from which it is known not only by its smaller size, the trunks ie exceeding 40 or 50 feet in height, but also by the bluish cast whi characterises the foliage, and which gives it a much lighter appearance than the sombre Abies nigra. Dr. Richardson, however, states that it was the most northerly tree observed in Franklin's first Polar Journey. The timber is of inferior quality. From the fibres of the root, macerated in water, the Canadian Indians prepare the thread with which they sew together the birch-bark that forms their canoes, Its resin is also used to render the seams water-tight. The bark is said to be occasionally used for tanning. Abies nigra, the Black Spruce Fir (Michaux; Pinus nigra and rubra, Lambert). Leaves spreading equally round the stem, short, four-cornered. Cones ovate-oblong, obtuse, with r d rounded scales, It is a native of the most inclement regions of North America, especially in swampy situations and in the valleys between ridges of low hills, where the soil is deep, black, and humid. In such situations are found the finest forests of this species, and there, although the trees are so crowded together as often not to be more than four or larity with which it diminishes from the base upwards. The head is of a regularly pyramidal figure, the branches spreading almost horizon- tally, and not inclining towards the earth, as in the Norway Spruce. The timber is of great value, on account of its strength, lightness, and elasticity. It is employed for the yards of ships; and in America, in Seale whale tani aes Soe: Seeks. baneae tices’ hoe beneath, obtuse, cernuous, ovate-oblong, rather uneven ilaginous scales, much shorter than the bracts, which are three- toothed, the la teeth being membranous, with the intermediate ones much longer and more rigid. According to Mr. Douglas, the discoverer of this gigantic species, it is found in immense forests in North-West America from 43° to 52° N. lat. The trunks in i rugged bark from six to nine inches thick, abounding in a clear yellow resin, and ing excellent fuel. The branches have their bark filled with receptacles of resin, as in the Balm of Gilead. Cone of Douglas Fir. The timber is heavy, firm, of as deep a colour as yew, with v fon Soca eon hen So Serene eee Tile grows is emiand. i oaks aideniie number of — of this important species are now scattered among the parks and woods of this secre some hundreds having been raised and distributed by the H Society; it appears to suit this clima sg any Smecctadgeenn Pt ap te fg valuable than even the larch itself, evergreen, ly as hardy, Abies Menziesii, the Menzies Fir (Pinus Menziesii, Douglas and Secr. IIL—Larcues, Leaves growing in clusters ; deciduous. By some botanists this section is considered easentially different from Abies ; but the want of any clear distinctive characters, either in the mode of growth or the of fructification, induces us to concur with Linnaeus, Jussieu, and Richard, in ing the Larch as belonging to the same genus as the Spruce. The leaves of the former are clustered or fasciculated, merely in consequence of the universal non-development of lateral bran 3 80 that the leaves themselves make their ce without a perceptible central axis, This is proved not only in the Cedar of Lebanon, but even in the Larch itself, by numerous cases where the branches being leas abortive beaprrt terh wy, ariel Bee Abies Larix, Richard ; the Common Larch Fir (Pinus Larix, Lin- neus; Larix De Candolle), Leaves clustered, deciduous, Cones ovate-oblong, blunt. It is a native of the mountains of the middle of Europe, of Russia, and of Siberia. In the latter country it is the commonest of all trees, delighting in dry elevated situations, where it forms vast forests, at intermixed with pines, Its trunk grows very erect, with drooping branches, gradually diminishing from the base to the and it a regularly pyramidal form, In the spring, when its young leaves have just burst into life, it has a peculiar bright yellowish-green tint, which is eae by no other tree of our forests, The Larch has been now for many 13. ABIES. ABIES. 14 years extensively cultivated upon barren exposed land, both in England and Scotland, and it has been found one of the most profitable of all trees to the planter, provided the land be well drained ; bu ¢ it will notjsucceed in swampy situations. It grows with great rap idity, is subject to very few accidents, transplants with but little risk, and egencd timber of great excellence and value, not only for domestic for naval purposes. In mountainous districts in Scotland the The Larch (Abies Lariz). Duke of Athol has planted it in immense q tities ; and it appears, from a report of that nobleman to the Horticultural Society, that in situations 1500 to 1600 feet above the level of the sea, he has felled trees, eighty years old, which have each yielded six loads of the finest timber. From the boiled inner bark, mixed with flour and afterwards buried for a few hours in the snow, the y Siberian hunters eo a sort of leaven, with which they supply the place of common ven when the latter is destroyefl, as it frequently is, by the intense cold to which hunters are exposed in the pursuit of game. The bark of the Larch is nearly as valuable to the tanner as oak-bark; it also produces the substance called Venice t tine, which flows in abundance when the lower part of the trunk of old trees is wounded. A sort of manna; called Briancon Manna, is exuded from its leaves in the form of a white flocculent substance, which finally becomes concreted into small lumps. It is believed that this species was the wirvs of the ancient Greeks. The origin of the more modern word larizx is uncertain. Abies microcarpa, the Red Larch Fir (Pinus microcarpa, Lam- bert). Leaves clustered, deciduous. Cones oblong, small; their scales erect, close-pressed, the upper ones much smaller than the lower. This is a graceful tree, with much of the habit of the common Larch, from which its very small cones, of a bright purple in the summer, readily distinguish it. It is a native of North America. This tree is by no means so well adapted to the planter’s purposes as the common Larch, growing very much smaller, The wood is so heavy that it will scarcely swim in water. Abies pendula, the Black Larch Fir (Pinus pendula, Lambert). Leaves clustered, deciduous. Cones oblong, with numerous spreading scales, which gradually diminish from the base to the apex of the cones. Branches weak and drooping. It is a native of North America, where it is found growing in a rich clay soil, mixed with sand, in cold mountainous districts. When cultivated in this country it is an elegant tree, having a good deal of resemblance to the common Larch, but being of a brighter green colour, and much more graceful. The leading shoot will often begin to droop at the height of 15 or 20 feet from the ground, and, after ually acquiring a horizontal direction, will bend towards the earth so as to form a natural arch of great beauty. The wood is less valuable than that of the common Sgcr. [V.—Crpars. Leaves growing in clusters ; evergreen.. Abies Cedrus, the Cedar of Lebanon Fir (Pinus Cedrus, Linneus and Lambert), Leaves clustered, evergreen. Cones oblong, very obtuse, erect, with broad closely-packed scales, which are a little thickened at the margin. Mount Lebanon and the range of Taurus are the native spots of this most stately and magnificent tree, which compensates for its want of height by its huge wide-spreading arms, each of which is almost a tree in itself. According to Labillardiére, a French traveller in Syria, the largest of those now remaining on’ Lebanon is at least nine feet in diameter. The trees are held in great veneration, and a holiday is set apart for the Feast of Cedars: Its growth is far from being so slow assome imagine; on the con- trary, the observations of those who have cultivated it with care prove that it will vie in rapidity of growth with almost any forest tree, Cedar-wood has the reputation of being indestructible; instances have been named of its having been taken from buildings uninjured after a lapse of two thousand years. But it appears highly probable, from some interesting observations made at Tangier by Mr. Drummond The Cedar of Lebanon (Abies Cedrus). Hay, that the indestructible cedar-wood was the beautiful, hard, deep- brown timber of Thuja articulata, the Sandarac Tree. The wood of Abies cedrus produces deal of very indifferent quality. Abies Deodara, the Sacred Indian Fir (Pinus Deodara, Lambert). Leaves evergreen, in clusters, acute, triangular, stiff. Cones growing in pairs, stalked, oval, obtuse, erect; the scales closely packed, very broad, and nearly even at the margin. It is a native of the mountains of Hindustan, near the town of Rohileund, on the mountains of Nepaul and Tibet, at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet, and also in the woods of Almora. It is a large tree, with a trunk about four feet in diameter, resembling the Cedar of Lebanon, from which it differs in having its cones upon stalks, and its leaves longer and more distinctly three-sided, and also in the quality of its timber. The Hindoos are said to call it the Devadara, or God Tree, and hold it in a sort of veneration. Its wood is extremely durable, and so resinous that laths made of it are used for candles. Spars of it have been taken out of Indian temples, known to have been erected from 200 to 400 years, uninjured except in those parts which originally were sap-wood. This tree has been extensively cultivated in England, and seems to be realising the favourable anticipations which were formed on its first introduction. : To the species now enumerated, the following almost unknown kinds have to be added :— f Abies Kempferi (Pinus Kempferi, Lambert). A native of Japan, found wild upon the mountains of Fako. Abies Thunbergii (Pinus Thunbergii, Lambert). A scarce plant in Japan. : a Momié (Siebold). Found in Japan, as well as the two following. Its wood is in + estimation for its whiteness and fine grain. Abies Torano (Siebold). : r Abies Araragi (Siebold). Wood brown; used for various domestic purposes. Cultivation. The genus of resinous plants called Abies, which we have thus described, comprehend many forest trees of great importance ; and it will be, therefore, proper to add a few remarks on their cultivation. Some of them, such as the Larch, the Norway Spruce, the Silver Fir, and the Balm of Gilead, are raised in the nurseries annually in the aT ABIETINE. ABOU-HANNES. 16 open ground, in large quantities, for the supply of our plantations ; I others, such as the Cedar of Lebanon and the er Fir, are | promareh in much less abundance, and are treated with more care, | neing usually kept in pota until they are finally committed to the earth in the situation they may be subsequently destined to occupy. All the species are propagated by seeds; they may also be propa- gated both by inarching and by cuttings; but it is found that plants so obtained are either very shortlived or stunted, unhealthy, and incapable of becoming vigorous trees, In some of the species, such as the Balm of Gilead a the Silver Fir, the scales of the cones readily separate from their axis, so as to render the extraction of the seeds a simple and easy operation ; but in others, such as the Larch and the Spruce Fir, the scales will neither separate nor open : in such cases it is necessary to dry the cones as much as possible, then to split them by means of an instrument passed up their axis, and afterwards to thresh the portions so separated till the seeds can be sifted out. Like other resinous seeds, these are perishable unless sown within afew months after the cones have been gathered; they will, however, keep much longer in the cone than ifseparated ; wherefore, they should always be imported in that state. It is usual in the nurseries to sow them in the spring in beds of light soil, in which no recent manure has been er. ; they are buried at various depths, according to the force of the vital energy of the species. This has been found by experience, as it is said, to be one inch deep for the Silver Fir; an inch for the Spruce, Balm of Gilead, and Cedar of Lebanon; a quarter of an inch for the Larch; and less for the American Spruce; it is, however, probable that these depths are of very little importance, In order to protect the surface of the beds from being dried while the young 8 are sprouting, it is generally overspread with a thin layer of long straw, which is removed as soon as the crop begins generally to appear. During the first season the seedlings remain undisturbed ; the only attention they receive being to keep them from weeds. In the following spring the young plants are taken up carefully, and their roots, being a little shortened, are imbedded in rows about six inches apart, where they remain for one or two years. After this they are transplanted into quarters, in rows a foot or nine inches apart, the plants being about six inches from each other. Having remained in this situation for a year, they are fit to be transferred to the plantation, or they may stand two years in the nursery quarters, and then be taken up. and replaced in a situation of the same kind, if cireumstances should render such a proceeding desirable. On no account, however, should they be allowed to remain in the quarters more than two years at a time without being taken out of the ground, because they are apt to form long and strong shoots, which are destroyed in the process of trans- plantation, so that the life of many must be either materially injured or wholly sacrificed. None of the firs should be transplanted at a height exceeding three feet, for the reason last mentioned; and the Larch is the only kind that will remove advantageously even .at this size. The Spruce and | its allied species may be removed more successfully when from a foot and a half to two feet high. To this there is no other exception than that of plants that have been constantly reared in pots, as the Cedar of Lebanon; these may be safely removed at any size, if the trans- plantation is carefully attended to, because their roots are uninjured in the operation. It should however be remembered, ‘in finally planting out large firs which have been always kept in pots, that it is absolutely necessary that their roots should be spread out among the earth as much as may be practicable without straining or breaking | them ; because, while in pots, they necessarily acquire a spiral direction, which they will not afterwards lose unless it is destroyed at the period of final transplantation; and, if they do not lose it, they are apt to be blown over by high winds, on account of their roots not having pene- trated into the earth far enough in a horizontal direction to form the requisite stay to support the trunk and head. Where great importance is attached to the raising the seeds of rare species of fir, it has been found a very beneficial practice to place them between two turfs placed root to root, the one upon the other, and to watch them till the seeds begin to sprout; they are then to be sown in the usual way, when every seed will usually succeed. No trees are more impatient of pruning than these. They exude, when wounded, so large a quantity of their resinous sap as to become weakened even by a few incisions; and, if they have suffered many, they are long before they recover from the effects. So great is their symmetry, and so uniformly will their branches form under favourable circumstances, that it will rarely happen that a necessity for the use of the pruning-knife can arise. The great rule to be observed in their management is to allow them ample room for the extension of their branches; if this is attended to, their beauty is not only ensured, but the rate at which they: will form their timber will be a fall recompense for the space they may occupy. ABIETINE [Contreras]. ABOMA, a large species of serpent, which inhabits the fens and motasaes of South America, the Boa cenchria of Linneus, [Boa,] ABORTION, a term used in botany and horticulture. In Botany, abortion is employed to express the a ee of an organ in relation to an ideal type. Thus the flowers of Scrophulariacee and Lamiacee have their sepals and petals arranged with the number five. According | ita bill, in search of worms, &e, It wi to a very ral law the stamense qual in number the and sepals, but in this case they do not. In the majority of instances the stamens are but four ; hence it is said that one stamen is aborted or there is an abortion of one stamen. The want of harmony between the parts of the flower generally is thus spoken of. In other instances, where the ovules are numerous and the seeds only one, two, or three, the remaining ovules are aborted. In Horticulture, the premature development of the fruit, or any defect in it, is called abortion. ABOU-HANNES (Numenius Ibis, Cuvier; Tantalus Aithiopicus, Latham), an African bird, which has occasioned much discussion among the learned as to its identity with the ancient Ibis. The attention of Bruce was attracted, during his stay in i Egypt, a some birds called by the natives Vien Bienes, whose forms remind him of the ibis, as represented on tian monuments, and repeated observation confirmed him in the opinion of their identity with the ibis of the ancients, This identity was subsequently corroborated by the distinguished naturalists, Geoffroy and Savigny, who accompanied the French expedition into Egypt, and procured anumber of ens, M. Savigny published his observations in a small work (‘ L' Histoire Nat. et Mythol. de I'Ibis’), now very scarce, and Baron Cuvier also gave a memoir on the Egyptian ibis in the ‘ Annales du Muséum’ for 1804, in which he has clearly proved, from the comparison of a mummy ibis with a stuffed imen, that the true ibis is not the Tantalus Ibis of Linneus, that being a much r bird, but is really a species of curlew. This bird appears to be a native of regions very remote from Egypt. Herodotus attributes the veneration of the Egyptians for the ibis, to supposed services rendered them by the bird in freeing their country from winged serpents, That the ibis, however, could not feed True White Ibis (Numenius Ibis). upon serpents appears nearly certain from anatomical inspection. The bill, for example, being long, slender, considerably curved, blunt on the edges, and expanded and roundish at the point, could neither | divide nor pierce serpents ; and indicates rather an aptitude to dabble in marshy and moist grounds. On the other hand, Baron Cuvier found, in the mummy of the ibis, remains of the skin and scales of serpents, and hence it has been inferred that the birds might have been serpent-eaters. This inference, however, is at variance with the observations made in Egypt by M. Savigny on a great number of individuals, in the crops of which he uniformly found land and fresh-water shells (Cyclostomata, Ampullaria, Planorba, d&c.), and these shells were always entire when their inhabitants had not been previously di R It does not appear that the ibis breeds in Egypt; but, on the testimony of the inhabitants, it arrives as soon as the waters of the Nile begin to rise, augmenting in numbers as the waters increase, and diminishing as they subside, and disappearing when the inundation terminates. These birds, on their arrival, repair to the low lands, which are first covered with water; but when the waters become deeper and spread wider, the birds betake themselves to the higher lands. They afterwards approach the river, where ry4 establish themselves by the sides of the canals and on the small dykes, with which the part of the cultivated grounds are surrounded. The bird in question sometimes lives solitary, sometimes in small troops of from eight to ten. Its flight is lofty and powerful, and it utters at intervals hoarse cries. When it alights on a fresh piece of land, it remains for hours together occupied in tapping the mud with s leisurely step by step, and has not’ been observed to run, like our curlew (Numenius arquata, Latham), to which it otherwise bears some resemblance. The Egyptians call the bird Abou-Menzel, which literally means a ABOU SCHOM. -ABSORPTION. 18 ‘Father Sickle-Bill,’ the bill being curved like a sickle. The Ethiopian name, Abou-Hannes, means ‘Father-John,’ because, as M. Dumont supposes, the birds arrive about St. John’s day. The following is the earliest account that we have of the ibis, from | an eye-witness (Herodotus, ii. 76) :—‘ The ibis is all over very black : it has the legs of a crane, and a beak considerably curved : its size is about that of a crex. Such is the appearance of the black ibis, which fights against the serpents. But the other ibis, which is more of a domestic bird (for there are two kinds), has the head and all the neck bare of feathers: it is of a white colour, except the. head, neck, and the extremities of the wings and tail, all which parts are very black. As to its legs and beak, it resembles the other kind of ibis.” The black ibis, ing to Herodotus, devoured the winged serpents which attem to make their entry into Egypt from Arabia. It is needless to add that these winged serpents are a fable. Strabo, who himself was some time in Egypt, gives the following account :— -* The ibis is the tamest bird of all : in form and size it is like the stork. But there are two varieties of colour, one of which is that of the stork, and the other is all black. Every street in Alexandria is filled, to the benefit of the citizens, and partly not. The 1 so far as it devours all kinds of vermin, with the of the shambles, and the refuse of the eating-houses, &c.” with them, bird is ere makes no distinction between the two, except in colour, and he describes both species as living on all kinds of garbage. He has confounded the real ibis and the stork. body is orange, spotted with black. The eggs are deposited on currant or leaves in July or August, and the i are hatched in ber. To get rid of the attacks of these creatures, they may be ed off, or dusted with the powder of white hellebore, or the leaves of the plants attacked may be burned. (Z ite, Gismondine), a mineral belonging to the poet aluminous hydrated silicates, with alkaline and lime bases, ‘t contains, besides silica and water, about 26 per cent, of alumina, ott erty tal se sf raam mgs ABROCO MA.) ABROMA (from a and Bpdya, ‘not fit for food,’ in opposition to Theobroma, ‘food for gods’), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Byttneriacee, The species consist of small trees, with hairy lobed leaves and extra-axillary or terminal few-flowered a handsome tree, with drooping purple flowers, seated on peduncles opposite the leaves. It is a native of the East Indies. The fibrous tissue of the bark of this plant is manufactured cordage. ABRUS (from aSpés, soft), a genus of plants belonging to the ere arey division of the order i oblong, compressed, ed, ; i precatorius, which is a delicate twining shrub, with abruptly pinnate i irs of leaflets. It is a native of the East ropical parts of Africa and America, where perhaps it has been introduced. The seeds of the commoner variety are red, with a black spot, whilst other varieties produce various coloured seeds. These seeds are in much request as ornaments amongst the inhabitants of the countries where they grow. They are strung as beads, with shells, and other hard seeds. en ton brought to Europe from Guinea and the East and West Indies, ey are used frequently as beads for rosaries ; hence the name precatorius given to this species. The leaves and roots of this plant secrete the sweet ‘substance which characterises the liquorice plant (Glycyrhiza glabra). In the West Indies it is called Wild Liquorice, and used for the same as the common liquorice, The seeds have been accused of narcotic eet but this is an error. When swallowed indigestible. are v 3 ABSORBENT SYSTEM. The delicate vessels which in the bodies of vertebrate animals are engaged in carrying the food and other matters into the circulation, have this name. It consists of two principal divisions, which may be ed as two different sets, given off from a common stem. One of these takes its origin in the -walls of the alimentary canal, more especially the small intestines, and is called the ‘lacteal’ system, from the white colour of the liquid it takes up; whilst the other commences in the substance of the body, more especially the skin and neighbouring , and is called the ’ system, from the colourless fluid, cilled lymph, which it + The Lacteals are the small system of vessela by which the chyle, or NAT. HIST. DIV. VOL. I. - nutritive part of the food, is conveyed from the intestines to the left subclavian vein, in which it is mixed with the blood. They have their origin in the villi of the small intestines, which are short hair-like processes, each consisting of a fine net-work of lacteal vessels sur- rounded by capillary arteries and veins. On the outside the villi are covered with cells, which absorb the chyle before it is conveyed to the loops of the lacteals in the interior of the villus, From the villi the chyle is carried, between the layers of the mesentery, through numberless converging branches, to the thoracic duct, the main trunk of the absorbent system, which, at the part where the chief lacteal branches join it, is dilated into what is called the Receptaculum Chyli. The villi have no visible apertures for the entrance of the chyle, but the walls of the lacteal vessels themselves are extremely thin and permeable, and their canals are furnished with numerous and delicate valves, like those of the veins [CrrcuLaTion or THE BLoop], to prevent the fluid which they contain from descending again to their absorbing extremities. In their passage through the mesentery the lacteals traverse numerous mesenteric absorbent glands, where they communicate with veins, and the fluid contained in them is exposed to the influence of the blood, from which it acquires colouring matter and fibrine. The Lymphatics consist of minute branched tubes of extremely delicate membrane, whose extremities are arranged in a more or less dense net-work in every part of the body. From this net-work they gradually converge into a succession of branches of increasing size; and terminate in two main trunks, called the right and left great Lymphatic Veins, through which the lymph is poured with the chyle from the thoracic duct into the right Mind left subclavian veins. The lymphatics also communicate with the veins at some other parts of their course, chiefly near their minute extremities, and more rarely by larger branches. They have in their interior numerous delicate valves formed of crescentic folds of the lining membrane, like those of the veins and of the lacteals [CrrcuLatTion oF THE Buoop], and, like them, pre- venting the retrograde course of the contained fluid. The valves of the lymphatics, however, are much more closely set than those of the veins, so that, when full of fluid, the spaces between them being most distended, they give those vessels a knotted or bearded appearance, by which they are easily distinguished from veins of the same size. In the course of the larger lymphatics there are numerous glands of the same nature as those found in the course of the lacteals, They are called Lymphatic Glands. To each of these there pass two or more lymphatic vessels, which on entering them become extremely tortuous, and after varied convolutions and anastomoses, terminate in nearly the same number of branches, which again pass from the gland, and pursue their course towards the main trunk. These glands attain their fullest development in man and the mammalia. They are far less numerous in birds, and are entirely wanting in the fish and amphibia. The function performed by these glands is somewhat obscure, but it has been recently suggested by Professor Bennett, of Edinburgh, that their function is to prepare or produce the colourless corpuscles of the blood. [Broop} He arrives at this conclusion from having observed that in cases where these glands or the spleen are inflamed, or in a condition of increased action, that the colourless corpuscles of the blood can be seen under the microscope to be in larger quantity than isnormal. (Bennett, On Leucocythemia.) ABSORPTION, one of the first and most essential of the functions of animal and vegetable tissues. Both animals and plants grow and perform other vital functions through the agency of materials derived from without. The passage of all substances from the exterior to the interior of their bodies is effected by the function of absorption. This function is performed in all cases by the aid of animal or vegetable membrane. This membrane is always in the form of the walls of cells or the walls of vessels formed out of cells. Whether the function of absorption be performed in animals or plants, there are certain general conditions of the membrane or cells through which it’ takes place, that are ne in all cases. In the first place, as liquids are found to through the walls of cells and membranes, it is necessary that they should be permeable. This is found to be the case in all organised bodies, and in proportion to the permea- bility of the tissue is the activity with which absorption is performed. In certain roe of plants, as well as animals, the cells become almost impermeable, and these are the parts which cease to grow of to perform active functions. Such are the duramen or heart-wood of trees, and the nails, hairs, horns, and teeth of animal bodies. During the performance of the various functions in which absorption is required, both liquids and gases pass through the cell-membrane or cell-wall. Liquids containing salts in solution pass into the plant and animal in the supply of food for nutrition. Gases, including the vapour of water, are also absorbed by the cells of plants as a nutritive process, and by those of animals during the performance of the respiratory function. This transmission of fluids through organic membranes is sometimes referred to as a peculiar vital property of animal and vegetable tissues; but it seems to depend considerably on the physical properties of the fluids and tissues. Organic membranes, when separated from the living structure, have the power of absorbing fluids, and if two fluids of different densities are separated by a mem- brane, the flow through the membrane will be greater from the thinner fluid to the thicker than the contrary. This action, which has been c a9 ABSORPTION, ACACIA, 20 called Endosmosis [Exposmosis), seems to be a modification of that very general law of attraction by which solids are attracted towards aaa other, as well as liquids and gases, and which lies at the foundation of those phenomena attributed to capillary attraction. Although it would appear as the result of this law that there must be two currents, the one passing out and the other in, this does not always take place, as the perpetual removal, for the purposes of the system either of the plant or of the animal, of the matter absorbed, prevents the action of the outgoing current, which has been called siz, The cells and surfaces which carry on absorption in the Vegetable Kingdom vary according to the circumstances of the plant, In the simpler planta, such as the lower forms of Alga, which consist of one or only a few cells, the whole of the cella are equally employed in absorbing. But as we ascend to plants where the vegetative and reproductive organs are distinct, there we find absorption performed more abundantly by the former, In the higher forms of phanerogamic lants the active duties of absorption are performed by the roots; the 325 tissue at the ends of the fibrils of these organs being remarkably adapted for the performance of this function. The same power is also possessed by the recently formed tissues in the stems of these plants, and thus the food—the sap—is carried from the soil to the, branches of the plant, which are covered with leaves. The éells of the leaves are adapted to the exhalation of the fluid which has been absorbed below, and thus a perpetual demand for new supplies is created, Not that the leaves are always exhaling ; in moist states of the atmosphere and at night they probably also absorb, This function is alzo undoubtedly performed by the stems of the leafless Zuphor- biacee and by the Cactacew, which possess very small roots, and will ‘even grow without them. Absorption in the Animal Kingdom, although performed upon the same general principles, and being adapted to attain the same general ends, presents more various modifications of form and greater com- plication than in the vegetable kingdom. In the first place, the nature of the fluids taken up differs, more especially in the class of cases where that function is adapted to nutrition, Plants derive their food from the mineral kingdom. Animals obtain their food from plants. Plants live on carbonic acid, ammonia, water, and various galts, Animals live on substances elaborated out of these compounds in the cells of plants. In the next place, animals receive their food into an interior sac or bag called a stomach, whilst plants plunge their absorbent cells into the soil from which they derive their nutriment, In the higher forms of animals, a system of vessels called absorbents [AnsorBenT System] is made subservient to the ends of the function of absorption—an arrangement which is found nowhere to exist in the vegetable kingdom. In the lower animals, as in the sponges and some of the infusoria, the function of absorption is performed by contiguous cells almost as simply as in plants. In certain parts also of the higher animals, we have absorption carried on in the same way as in the cells of cartilage, and in the contiguous cells of the mucous and cutaneous membranes. In none of the invertebrate animals have we any special absorbent system at all. In the animal kingdom the circulating system has the power of absorption in even a ter degree than the absorbents themselves. From the structure of the walls of the veins, arteries, and capillaries, and the knowledge of the fact that there is constantly passing through them a dense liquid—the blood—we should expect that these organs would offer the necessary conditions for absorp- tion. This has been proved by direct experiment, M.M. Tiedemann and Gmelin found that when such substances as gamboge, madder, camphor, musk, and assafeetida, which are easily detected by their colour and odour, were introduced with the food into the stomach, they were seldom found in the chyle in the time that they had found their way into the blood, and some of them even into the urine. It was also found that if poisonous substances were introduced into the - intestines, and secured in one place by two ligatures, and every other cut away but the artery and vein, they exerted the same nfluence on the system, and in the same time as usual; whilst if the intestine was treated in the same manner, and all cut awa but the lacteals, the evidences of absorption were deferred for a muc! longer period than usual. From these experiments and others it would appear that the lacteals are adapted for receiving only a certain class “ compounds, more especially of an oleaginous and albuminous ind. . That part of the absorbent system called Lymphatics were at one time supposed to be engaged in conveying to the blood the used-up matters from all parts of the body preparatory to their final expulsion from the system. The nature, however, of the clear fluid lymph which is contained in them does not support this opinion, and as this lymph has a composition very like to the blood without its red corpuscles, it is inferred that the office of the lymphatics is to assist in the preparation of materials for the blood. These materials being scattered all over those parts of the system on which the lymphatics are distributed, it is to the blood-vessels that the office must be aasigned of taking up effete matter, and carrying it into the blood. That the general cutaneous and mucous surfaces of the body will both exhale and absorb, are well-known facta, The skin, through its perspiriferous glands, which perform their function through the agency of cella, exhales moisture, whilst it is also a powerful absorbentsurface, It is proved by direct experiment, that the human hand is capable of imbibing, in a quarter of an hour, an ounce and a half of warm water, which, for the whole body, is at the rate of six or seven pounds per hour, An interesting narrative is on record of a ship's crew who were exposed at sea for several days in an open boat; they had consumed all their water; they had no fluid of any kind which they could drink; they soon to auffer from thirst; the feeling at length became intolerable, and the drinking of sea-water was found only to increase its intensity, When nearly exhausted, they were exposed, during several hours, to a heavy shower of rain, As soon as their clothes became thoroughly wet their thirst began to abate, and before the rain had ceased their thirst was gone. They did not fail to profit by this experience. From this time each man, as soon as he began to feel thirsty, dipped his shirt in the sea-water and wore it next his skin, which had invariably the effect of removing his thirst, the absorbents taking up the cles of water, but rejecting the saline matter dissolved in it. The mucous surface of the lungs is con- stantly engaged in throwing off the vapour of water and carbonic acid, and absorbing oxygen It is also through the surface that poisons are introduced into the blood, which result in the apron of disease, as small-pox, measles, scarlet fever, and others, different relations of absorbing surfaces to poisonous substances is an interesting subject. Thus, poisons which may be introduced with im: into the stomach will destroy life when applied to the minutest wound in the skin, as in the case of the pen of venomous serpents, and — the Woorara poison, This has proved not to depend on any decomposition taking place upon the surface of particular as the Woorara has been introduced into the stomach and bladder, and when rejected has been found to retain its primitive destructive wer. : pe ABUTILON (aBuriAov, the Greek for mulberry-tree, which the species of this genus resemble), a genus of handsome plants, belonging to the natural order Malvacee. The species of this genus, amounting to about 80, have been removed from Sida, They have a naked five- cleft calyx, with a multifid style, capsular one-celled carpels, 5-30 in a whorl. Several of the species are cultivated in this country. A. striatum blossoms freely nearly all the year round, when turned out under a wall in Hampshire. A. vitifoliwm, A. venosum, eA nerve, and A, peoniflorum, are also tolerably pon | species. lant known as Bencao de Deos, in the province of Rio Janeiro, in razil, is the A. esculentum. It has large purple eon i lary flowers, which are dressed and eaten with their viands by the inhabitants of Rio. In cultivation the species require a light rich loam and peat-soil, and should be propagated by striking cuttings in sand in a close frame or under a glass in summer. ACA‘CIA, the name of a plant belonging to the order i mentioned by Dioscorides, as a useful astringent thorn, yielding a white transparent gum. The account given by this Greek author, meagre as it is, accords so well with the gum-arabic trees of modern Egypt, that we can scarcely doubt their identity. Accordingly it is to these, and to others closely related to them, that the classical name is still applied. Amongst modern botanists the Acacia is a very extensive genus of trees or shrubby plants, inhabiting the tropical parts of both the Old and New World, and, in a very few instances only, extending into temperate latitudes; although over the whole of Australia, and its dependent islands, the species are spread in much abundance, There are nearly 300 species, : Generic Character.—Flowers polygamous, Calyx, with either four or five teeth. Petals, either four or five; sometimes distinct from each other, sometimes adhering in a monopetalous corolla. ‘Stamens varying in number from 10 to 200. Pod not separating into many joints; juiceless, two valved. The species are extremely variable in the structure of their leaves and flowers. Some of them have true leaves that are twice or thrice pinnate, with a multitude of minute, shining, or at least even, leaflets; others have in a perfect state no leaves properly so called, but in their stead the leaf-stalks and assume the appearance, and no doubt also the functions, of trne leaves: species of the latter description are known by their spurious leaves being expanded vertically, instead of horizontally as in leaves of the ordinary construction. By these very remarkable points of difference in structure the species may be conveniently separated into two great subdivisions, ! I. Leaves pinnated in various degrees. About 200 ies known, Acacia Catechu (Wildenow), the Catechu Acacia (Mimosa catechn, Linneus). Spines growing in the place of the stipules; when straight, but afterwards becoming hooked, Leaves in ten divisions leaflets in from 40 to 50 couples, linear, downy; with one depressed gland at the base of the leaf-stalk, and from two to three between the upper divisions. Flowers arranged in cylindrical spikes, which grow two or three together. It is a tree with a pansy, and stout stem ; and is found in mountainous places in the Indies, espe- cially in Bengal and Coromandel. It is most common in Canara and 1ar, Its unripe pods and wood yield, by decoction, one of the sorts of catechu, or terra-japonica. [Carronv.] Gum-Arabic Tree, Acacia Arabica ( ape > - in pairs. Branches and leaf-stalks downy. Leaves in from four to six divisions; leaflets in from ten to twenty couples; oblong-linear, 2° , ACACTA, ACACIA, FALSE. 23 with a gland between the lowest, and often between the outermost divisions. Heads of flowers growing in threes upon stalks. Pod necklace-shaped. It is an inhabitant of the East Indies, Arabia, and Acacia Catechu, Abyssinia, where it forms a tree 18 or 14 feet high, of inelegant oewnapand y by its long curved pods, which are vided into a number of round compressed joints, by means of con- ASAD SAAN S ‘ ~ . as A. Nilotica, or vera, found in t: A. ergii, a native of Dongola; A. tortilis, a common p! in the west of Nubia, Kordofan, Arabia, especially upon Mount Sinai; and A. Seyal, an inhabitant of U Egypt, Nubia, and western Arabia. It is stipposed that Gum-Arabic is collected indifferently from all these, and that the gums of Jidda and Bassorah, Gum-Thur, and East India Gum, are samples. Gum-Senegal is the produce of a distinct a! called A, Senegal, found in Arabia and the interior of Acacia discolor (De Candolle), the Purple-Stemmed Acacia (Mimosa discolor, ‘ Bot. Repository’), has no spines; the leaves have five pairs of co It is a middle-sized tree, found in the southern parts of Australia and in Van Diemen’s Land, whete it, in common with many others of the same genus, is called Wattle. It appears better adapted than most other Australian species to support our winters. London it sticceeds perfectly well, all winter long, in the duced abundantly by some of the Bey nearly related to this, such open air, if wrapped round with mats, and it is to be presumed that there is no obstacle to its being almost naturalised in Devonshire and Cornwall and the west of Ireland. It is readily known by its bluish stems and leaves, which are slightly stained with dull purple, and form a strong contrast with its long erect bunches of yellow’ blossoms. Acacia pubescens (‘ Hortus Kewensis’), Downy Acacia, No spines. Leaves with from three to ten pairs of pinne, It is a native of the east coast of Australia. In this country it is one of the most beautiful of green-house plants, If allowed to grow freely in the border of a good conservatory, it attains the height of 10 or 12 feet; and in January and February produces a vast abundance of yellow blossoms, which weigh down the slender graceful branches, and perfume the air with a weak but pleasant odour. Acacia Julibrissin (Willdenow), Silk-Tassel Acacia (Mimosa Julibris-. sin, Scopoli). No spines. Leaves with from eight to twelve pairs of pinne. It is a native of Persia and of the Levant. Its specific name is Latinised from two Persian words—gul, a rose; and ebruschim, | silk. In the countries where it grows wild it becomes a small tree, remarkable for its light airy foliage, and for the great beauty of the clusters of lilac flowers, the long and slender stamens of which stream in the wind and glitter in the sun, like a number of silken tassels artificially fastened to the boughs. This species is now commonly cultivated in the warmer parts of Europe. Acacia acanthocarpa (Willdenow), Prickly-Fruited Acacia, Spines,_ from the place of the stipule, growing in pairs, and hooked. Leaves in from six to eight principal divisions. It is a native of Mexico, where it forms a small tree, with flesh-coloured flowers. The Black Wood of Van Diemen’s Land is the timber of Acacia melanoxylon ; and the astringent Jurema Bark of Brazil is the produce of Acacia jurema, Il. Leaves pinnated in the young plant ; in the old, consisting of nothing but the vertically distended leaf-stalks, called Phyllodia, About 100 species. é Acacia decipiens (‘ Hortus Kewensis’), Paradoxical Acacia, Stipules spiny, deciduous. Phyllodia either triangular or trapezoidal ; their midrib nearest the lowest side, and lengthened into a spine; a single glandular tooth on the upper edge. Flowers in nearly solitary com- pound heads. This species is remarkable for the blunders to which it has given rise. When botany was only a science of names, its flowerless branches were taken for the leaves of a kind of fern; and, at a later period, when botanical geography was as yet unheard of, it, was believed to be a native of the north-west coast of North America. It is an inhabitant of the south-west coast of Australia, where it forma - a bush of singular aspect. In this country it is cultivated in the. green-house, and it flowers in March, April, and May, Acacia Sophore (‘ Hortus Kewensis’), Fragrant Acacia, Phyllodia narrow. Heads of flowers in dense slender racemes, Pods long, ° curved, taper-pointed, a little con- r tracted between the seeds. It is a native of the south side of Australia and of Van Diemen’s Land. In this country it is a very ornamental greenhouse plant, which, if planted in the open border, will grow as high as eight feet, Few plants are more worthy of a permanent station in a good conservatory. Acacia longifolia (Willdenow), Long-Leaved Acacia. Phyllodia of a narrow lanceolate form, tapering to each end, Spikes of flowers axillary, growing in pair's, on short stalks, It is found very commonly on the eastern coast of Australia, especially in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson, whence it was introduced into Great Britain, among the first of the natural productions of that remarkable country. Cultivation.—The species of this genus are increased artificially in two different ways. Most of them may be multiplied by cuttings struck in silver sand, placed under a bell-glass, and kept in a warm place, to which no direct solar ight has access. Such of them, however, as do not increase with sufficient certainty by this method, A, Julibrissin for instance, have the power of producing shoots from pieces of their root placed in earth in a hot-bed ; and by these the nurserymen generally propagate them, ‘Their seeds also are very often received, and from these they can, of course, be multiplied in all cases. : ACACIA, FALSE, or Locust Tree. [Ropryta.] Fragrant Acacia, +] ACADIOLITE. ACADIOLITE, one of a group of minerals of doubtful identity, ae nearly 50 per cent. of silica, with alumina, lime, soda, water. ACALEPH (from dxadf¢en, a nettle), Sea-Netiles, a class of marine invertebrate animals, belonging to the sub- m Radiata, It is now made to include a large number of animals, of which the genus Medusa of Linneus may be taken as a The genus Medusa was placed by Linnwus in the second section of his Vermes, viz. Mollusca. The Mollusca were divided into six sections in the ‘Systema Nature ;* and in the last of these, consisting of those molluscous forms which had a central mouth below, Medusa stood as the first genus, followed by Asterias and Echinus, The third section of Vermes (Testacea), with Chiton at its head, immediately followed. In this arrangement Medusa came between Nereis and Asterias ; but in the body of the work it stands between Sepia and Asterias, The following is the Linnwan definition of the genus Medusa ;— Body gelatinous, orbiculate, depressed. Mouth beneath, central. The genus contained 12 species, and these consisted not only of true Meduse, but of such genera as Porpita and Velella, The Acalephe of Cuvier (his third class of Zoophytes) comprehend, to use his own terms, Zoophytes which swim in the sea, and in whose organization may be perceived vessels, which in truth are most frequently nothing but productions of the intestines, hollowed in the parenchyma of the body. Cuvier’s first order of Acalephe, or Sea-Nettles, consists of the Simple Acalephe, which he characterises as floating and swimming in the sea by means of the contractions and dilatations of their body, their substance being gelatinous, without apparent fibres. The sort of vessels which are seen in some are hollowed in the gelatinous sub- stance ; they often visibly come from the stomach, and do not give place to a true circulation. The genera contained in this order are the great genus Medusa, Linn., with its subgenera Porpita and Velella, The great genus Medusa is characterised as having a disk more or less convex above, similar to that of a mushroom, and called the umbrella, Its contractions and dilatations concur to the motivity of the animal. The edges of this umbrella, as well as the mouth, or the suckers, more or less prolonged into eer which take its place, in the middle of the lower surface, are ished with tentacles of very different form and size, These different degrees of complication have given rise to very numerous divisions, i The Arachnodermat a fon the hopes: ‘class of M. de ae ctinozoaria. He observes that this class co mds to genus Medusa of Linnzus. serv nae sexed The following is M. de Blainville’s definition of this genus :— Body free, oy, oval or circular, subgelatinous, covered with an extremely fine skin, which is but little or not at all distinct, sustained or not by a solid subcartilaginous part, and provided with very diversiform radiated appendages. sl canal limited to the stomach, and provided with a single orifice. Ovaries multiplied, radiated, and opening in the interior of the stomach. M. de Blainville goes on to state that their form, which is regular, is nearly ets circular (the Velella alone being oval), sometimes discoid or spheroidal, but most frequently hemispherical, which causes them to resemble our umbrellas, and has given rise to the distinction of their body by that name. This body is sometimes furnished in addition, in its circumference, with more or less long cirrhi, to which the name of tentacles, or better, of tentaculiform cirrhi, ae epemanves. The lower surface of the umbrella, he observes, is sometimes entirely naked, but in other cases is provided with numerous and di tentaculiform suckers, as in the Porpite and Velella, or else with ve: diversiform appendages, capillaceous at least at their extremity, whi zoologists have termed arms, whence the denomination of Brachideous which they have given to some species. These appendages or arms are sometimes free from their base, but in other cases are united, which unity produces a sort of peduncle, which has originated the d tion of Pedunculated for those ies that are so pro- vided. In the middle of the lower surface of the umbrella of Meduser is sometimes 4 ies of peduncle formed by a proboscidi- form prolongation of the buccal orifice, and they are then called Proboscideous ; but in the greater number of cases, the middle of the lower part of the umbrella is oceupied by a more or less con- siderable mass, attaching itself to the body by four roots, in the form of a cross, 80 as to divide the buccal orifice into four semi- lunar parts. This peduncle, terminated by more or less numerous capillaceous divisions, has caused the name of Pedunculated, or Polystomatous, to be applied to those Medusa which are provided with it. The first subdivisions of the Arachnodermata established by M. de Blainville depends on the existence or absence of a solid piece for the support of the umbrella or body of the animal, and consists of the Cirrhigrada, which are provided with that support, and of the Pulmograda, which are without any such support, These orders, observes M. de Blainville, are further distinguished by the very ‘out of the sea, and laid them upon a dry organiza’ only lately been cleared up. in spirit is shown in the museum of the Royal College ofthe Preparation 0 ie ons (No, 64 to 73 A, both inclusive) are following remarks the structure of : : ‘ i ; F te 5 no fibre believe, been traced, ae one solid «matter whole animal must be very small. who have board or Spallacenal ie eens cae Aes baler rer came to the jusion sea-water organic texture constitutes the part of the volume in the Meduse, some of which when newly taken out of the ounces, though their dried remains gave a weight of i i ‘edusa, ce of the disk, may be surface of the ented 5 tle es eae or umbrella, have been cut from these ani reciprocal contraction and dilatation were, continued ? 2 some time. Those Pulmograda which have cilia around their margins have also circular vessels running along their bases, and most of the pro. and extensile tentacles and filaments have sacs and canals wi tained fluids at their roots. If these cilia may. be and they doubtless may be, as one of the causes, and a prin one, of loco- motion, the pensile tentacles of the Meduse may be viewed as ancillary at least to that faculty, though gt ayes 28 eeeelly oe 0 simple, hors ibatecion * the appendages of the digestive cavities, or w furnished a vesicle at their base, Suckers are found at the extremities and along the sides of these tentacles in several of the genera, 80 as to enable them more securely to catch the floating destined prey, or to assist in anchoring the Medusa when it would rest, as we have reason to believe it occasionally does, ee Nervous System and Senses—We are not aware of any Grant indeed (‘ Zool. Trans.’ vol. i.) notices a structure in : s factory demonstration of a nervous system in the Acalep which in his opisfion can only belong to that 3. but whose labours in investigating the ion of this class were small, failed to discover nerves in which he examined. That they enjoy sight has been a question. berg has endeavoured to show that Medusa aurita in the form of small red constituting © part of a nervous circle, situated, for the greater part of its extent, directly along the bases of the row of tentacles the um and so forming a sort of outer wall of the circular vessel or appendage of the intestinal cavity which runs round the margin of pipes He also describes another nervous circle, formed of four ganglion-like masses. These he states to be the mouth, and to be each connected with a tentacles. But the general opinion seems to be that touch is the only with which the majority of Acalephans are furnished. of them, as we have ourselves observed, e no sign when wounded extensively in the umbrella or disk. ; Muscular System.—In most of the species of Pulmegrade Meduse distinct muscular fibres exist, which present the peculiar markings. ACALEPH 2. ACALEPH. 26 observed on the fibres of voluntary muscles. Where these cannot be seen, tissue consisting of a granular substance exists which possesses the peculiar power of contraction. Professor E. Forbes says, that he has “paralysed one side of a Rhizostoma Aldroandi, whose disk measured more than a foot across, by removing with a scalpel the bands of that half, whilst the other side contracted and expanded as nsual though with more rapidity, as if the animal were alarmed or suffering.” The tentacles of most species are capable of wonderful extension and retraction, moyements which must be effected by means of muscular tissue. Food and Digestion—The food, small fishes and marine animals, hee he aang dead, is probably conveyed to the mouth not only by the and cirrhi with which the greater part of the Meduse are i by contractions in the umbrella or disk itself. Fishes of some size have been found dead and entangled in the tentacles of Meduse, killed most probably by that benumbing or stinging quality Fades on obtained for them the name of Sea-Nettles. Professor E. and a very terrific one too.” By the investigations of M. Milne-Edwards principally, we now know that all the Pulmograda have gastric cavities, but all have not mouths i ion of the word. In Rhizostoma, for instance, The history of the development of the ova is not less interesting. When first produced they are retained in the interior of the creature until they are covered with cilia, when they pass out, and are found in the water resembling fig. 1. In the course of a little time it attaches itself to some fixed object, and then puts out four arms. In the first stage we have an infusorial animalcule; in the next, fig. 2, we have a rotifer or hydroid polype. Not only have we the resemblance to, but some of these forms have been shewn by Steenstrup (‘Alternation of Generations’) to have been mistaken for permanent states of other animals. The first four arms are succeeded by four more, fig. 3: at this stage germs or buds frequently grow from its side, fig. 4: the polypiform body then lengthens, and at last becomes wrinkled, fig. 5 : depressions appear, and the elongated body is cut up into a series of OO VRE horizontal slices, from the edges of which tentacles grow, fig.6: each layer escapes, and presents itself in the form of a young Medusa, jig. 7. Such is the history given by Steenstrup, in one of the common forms of Pulmograde Medusz, and such with modifications appear to be the changes which each ovum of the Medusa passes through before it becomes a fully developed animal. Power of Stinging —The name Acalephe, Sea-Nettles, suggests this property. It is not, however, improbable that this function is possessed only by a few ies. Some possess this property in a remarkable degree, as the Cyanea capillata, which is a terror to bathers in our seas, At most two or three others possess it in relation to the human skin. It is probable they exert greater power over their prey or their enemies amongst the lower classes. The stinging power is supposed to reside in small capsular hairs, which are found in the tissues of the Acalephw as well as in Actinie and other polypes. the only communication ivenars the stomach und ee outer surface is on through numerous branching canals in ph oa sect sn In most cases a of vessels is observed ing directly from the stomach, partly nutritive and respiratory, but there does not appear to be any distinct blood-vessels. From the recent researches of , Leuckhart, and E. Forbes, it does not appear that any special -fluid exists amongst the species they have examined. Reproductive System and Development.—The majority of the Acalephe have very distinct reproductive glands. In the Pulmograda they are placed on the surface of the sub-umbrella, or on the inner and uppef part of the cavity of the peduncle. In most cases these animals to be bisexual, though the two sexes are often united in the i their o' i germination. This fact was first made ate Bers aise" Meroe E. Forbes, in his great work on = British Naked-Eyed Medusa, says, “I have observed oe modes propagation by germination among the Medusw. 1. Germination eer ee evades cs observed by Sars. 2. Germination from the peduncular stomach. 3. Germination from the walls of a tubular 4, Germination from the bases or tubercles of the four inal tentacles in Sarsia prolifera.” In order to est the nature amorphous, there one more advanced, but all ears and eyes; on the right shoulder a youthful Chuny, with head, trunk, toes, no legs, and a shapeless body ; on the left, an infant better grown, and struggling _ but it really expresses what we have been describing as actually occur- ‘ring among our Naked-Eyed Medusa !” Phosp —On whatever property this phenomenon depends, there is no doubt that it is possessed in a high dashes by almost every species of Meduse. The circumstances, however, on which it depends seem to be little known. Onsome occasions the Acalephe with other marine creatures will give out abundance of light, whilst at other times not a glimmer can be observed. The Acalephe have been divided into four families: the Pulmograda, the Ciliograda, the Cirrhigrada, and the Physograda. The following is the arrangement of the Pulmograda given by M. de Blairiville, who, by intercalating the genera of Péron and Lesueur, and of Eschscholtz, the existence of which he is far from guaranteeing, gives us the follow~ ing synoptic table :— 4 PurtmocrapA, or MEDUSARIA, Secr. I.—Simple. Genera: Eudora, Ephyra, Phorcynia, Eulymene, Charybdea, Scr. Il.—Tentaculated. Genera: Berenise, Equorea, Mesonema, Polixena, Aigina, Cunina, Foveolia, Ewrybia, Pegasia, Obelia. Sxcr, IL.—Sub-Proboscidean. Genera: Oceania, Aglawra, Melicerte, Cytacis, Thawmantias, Tima, Campanella. Sxor. 1V.—Proboscidean. Genera: Orithyia, Geryonia, Saphenia, Dianea, Li he, Fe id, Lymnorea, Sthenonia. Sror. V.—Brachideous and Peduneulated. Genera: Ocyrie, Cassiopea, Aurelia, Melitea, Evagora, Cephea, Rhizostoma, Chrysaora, Pelagia. We now proceed to lay before the reader examples of these several sections, 2 ACALEPH.E. ACALEPILE, 23° Section L this was not perhaps some remains of the stomachal cavity. Eudora, _ Cuvier united this with the Geryonie, Eschscholtz places it Generic Character.—Body very much depressed, discoid, simple, to te Oe Berenicida, ad snibes Bargale with t, without tentacular cirrhi, without either peduncles or ap Charybdeea, and offering within only ramified canals opening (s'abouchant) by four : ‘ = F ? Targe trunks, in the form of a cross, into a pam fotratay cavity without Generic Character —Body hemispherical, sub-conical, or even semi- ternal aperture. “ bg ee Eudora undulosa (Péron and Lesucur), nar “ beens by «great stomachal excavation with an aperture Example, Charybdea periphylla (Pér. and Lea.). Seerion IL «