_ age ^^
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1
INTRODUCTORY GRAMMAR
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AN
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
FOR THE rSE OF
JUNIOR CLASSES.
BY
H. W. DAYIES, JJ.D.,
JIEAD MASTF.I: OF NOHMAL SCHOOL, PROVIXCE OF ONTAKIO.
Authorized hy the Council of Puhlic' Instruction jur Ontnrii
TORONTO iS: WINNIPEG: \V. J. GAGE & CO.,
188».
PREFACE.
This GrHtnmar is designed, as its title indicates, for the use ol Junior Classes in the Schools throughout thr Province. The same deflnitions have been given in it as in fhe larger a od more advanced Graiuinar, authorized by the Council of Public In- struction ; and, where the mo<le of expression has been alter«4, the change has been made with a view to rendering the subji^;^ more ejiaily understood by the class of pupils for whom it ut specially intended. It may, therefore, be considered as an i-n- troductory Grammar to the Analytical and Practical Grammar, and not by any means as intended to supersede it.
Keejiing in view the fact that it is intended rather for lv«' ginners in the study of Gran) mar, than for those moi-e advancc-<l, the Kditor has embraced in the Questions every point referre'l to both in the body of the work and also in the append<'d remark.*. Uii<ler the guidance of a judicious teacher thosf. Questions may be made useful to the pupil, by enabling him to tcKt hini.self, by way of (piestion and answer, on the lesson wliich may have been assigned to him for preparation. The teaclier, however, should carefully avoid, as a general rule, asking the questions in the identical form in wliich they are found in the Grammar. They are given with a view to aid the pupil rather tl>an the teacher.
It cannot be expected that in such a Grammar all the ex- ani]>lfs of difTcrence in Gender, Number, &c.. should be given. Much is necessarily left to be supplemented by the Teacher.
Tlie subject of Analysis has, it i« hoped, not received too prominent consideration, for it ])prforms a verj' important part in "Enabling puj^ils to read correctly an<l intelligently.
PREFACE.
The Rules of Syntax are the same as those given in the large Grammar, with the following exceptions:— One Rule (Rule 7, A & P. G. ) affecting the Possessive, is embraced in the remarks on Rule 6, and portions of the remarks on Rule 11 of the hirge Grammar, are incliuled in the Rule relating to the Verb. In giving the number of the Ride, in the schemes for parsing, it is not intended that merely the number of the Ride shall be given, but the Rule itself ; thus the difference in the numbering of the Rides will, practically, have no ill effect.
Neither Prosody, nor Punctuation, nor Composition, has been referred to in this treatise, otherwise the work would have lost its character of an Elementary Grammar. The last two subjects may safely be left in the h;inds of the Teacher, who can direct the pupds most advantageously in both of them when the classes are writing to Dictation.
No exenases in False Syntax have been inserted — the reason is explained in the Preface to the large Grammar. No lists of Adverbs, Prepositions, &c , have been given, because it has been deemed better to allow the pupils to find these out for them- selves, by carefully observing what duty they do in their re- spective sentences. In this way the pupil wiU not have his memory burdened with a useless list of meaningless words.
Prefixed to the Grammar proper will be found a very elemen- tary treatise, which, it is hoped, will render the study more congenial to the younger pupils, and enable them to take up the Introductory with more profit and pleasure; while it may, at the same time, serve as a sample of the simple language in w children may Vje taught Grammar. The order in which various classes of words arc treated, differs from tliat given. It seems to be the more natural plan to consider the various kinds of words in the order of their importance. It is tlierefore suggested, that a similar method be adopted in con- sidering the Parts of Speech in the Introductory Grammar.
liDICATION Ofkic*.
CONTENTS.
Pcuje
Grammar, First Steps in ii-xxii
Dediiitiou and Divisiuu of 23
Part I — OKTUOGRAPUY.
Ortho^jraphy, Definition of ... . 23
Letters, division of '2i
Forms of 24
SyUables 2j
Spt'lliriij .... 26
Part II.— ETYMOLuGY.
Kttmolooy, Detinitiuii of 27
Wow/js, Formation of 27
Kind of 28
i-AUTii of ^jFEEcu, Dutiuitions . . 2S
Iniluctious 2»
The Nou.v 29
Divisions 30
Detinitious 30
Analysis 31
Inflections of 32
Gender 33
Number 35
Case 39
Tlie Nominative . . . .4U-41
„ PossL'ssive 42
,, Objective 43
Declension 43
Parsing 44
Table 44-45
Analysis 45
/he a WECn VK Hi
Kinds of 47
An 'and 'The' Hi
Inflection of hO
.Manner of Inflecting. . Oo
Irregular Comparison .... .^-
Kule and Parsing 53
Table 53-54
Analysis 54
I'liE Pkonol'n 55
Personal Pronoun 50
inflei'tion of .. .. 57
Adjective Pronoun 59
Detinition of 59
Division of 00
Distributive .... 00
Iiemonstrative . . 00
Iiidi'finite 01
Kt-lativr Pronoun 02
Irill.ction of 03
.Xpljlioationof 03-04
Colli pound 04
Int.-riogative I'roroun . . . . 05
Kill"' iind Pursing 05
lable 67
Analysis 68
I hi; Vkrb «9
Transitive . . 7ti
Inliaucilivi; 7U
The Verb — {tMiUiii,iied.) Page
Regular 72
Irregular 72
Defective 72
Impersonal 73
Au-xiliaiy 73
Infleriions 74
Voice • 74
Mood 75
Indicative 70
Potential 76
Subjunctive 77
Imperative 77
Analysis 78
Intinitive 80
The Participle 80
Present and I'ast 81
Perfect and Future 81
Analysis 82
Tense 83
Present and Past 83-84
PHiture 84
Tenses in ditterent Moods 86
Analysis 86
Person and Number 87
Con.jugation 88
' Ma\ ,' ' Can,' &c , inflec-
te<i 88
To he and To love' infl. 90
Ditfeient forms 95
Rules and Parsing 97
Irregular Verbs 98
Table 101
Analysis 102
The Adverb 103
Divi.sion of 103
Intleetion of 104
Rule and Paising 105
Table 106
Analysis 106
The Preposition 107
Rule and I'ar.'^ing 108
The CosjtiNcrio.v 109
Definitions 109
Rules and Parsing 110
The INTKIUECTIO.V Ill
Analysis ....111-113
Part III.— SYNTAX.
Syntax, Definition of 114
RULES.
Til E Noun.— The Nominative .. 114
,, Possessivu .... 115
„ Objective ... 110
THK AlWECTlVK 117
The Pro.voun 118
ThrVkrb 119
The AiJVKHb 121
The Pkkwwition 122
The Cosji-NCTION T23
The I.ntkhjectiun 1-4
FTEST STEPS IN GRAMMAPt
1. The whole of our language is made up of words; tliese words are, in tlieir turn, made up of letters, and each of tliese lev/ters has its own sound.
2. Tlie twenty-six letters of our Alphabet are of two kinds, Vvwels and Consonauts.
"3. The vowels are a, c, i, o, u, and w and y, except at the ht ginning of a word or syllable.
4. The conBonants, nineteen in number, are the remaining Jesters, — viz., b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. A\, the beginning of a word or syllable w and y are consonants.
•iuestions — Of what is our laugiiage made up? Of wliat are words com- poeed? What is said about the .sound of each letter? Wliat are the two divisions of lett«l's? Name Uie vowels. Name the con.souants.
Exercise.— 1. Tell how many rowels and how many conso- Dirnts thei'e are iti the following words : —
Toronto, Kingston, Ottawa, violence, intemperance, senate, consonant, vowel, condition, toothache, interjection.
2. Tell in which of the following words »' and y are consonants, and in which tliey are vowels : —Fellow, carry, winter, young, sowing, yew, mow, mowing, cow, sky, jouth, glory, dye, yel- low, wind.
5. In learning granmiar we must i-emember that we are learn- ing all about words.
6. Words are tlie material out of which we form sentences, just as the mason or the bricklayer builds a house out of stones or bricks, by joining them together.
7. Now in making our sentences we find that there are diffei- ent kinds of words, and that each kind has its own work to do. TUese words we join together to form sentences.
8. Let us, therefore, before going any farther, look at two kinds of words, which are most frequently met with.
9. If we wish to saj^ sompthing about some person or thing, we are obliged to name that person or thing. For example, we say Charlen or hortu^, therefore the word Charles or the word horgi- is a name This gi%'es us the first kind of word.
ftuestions. — When we are learning gnunniar, what are we leainint; abmit? Out of what materia- >■•■'! .^vntiinees made? To what may these words be com- pared ? Are all words of t'ls same kind ? Do they all perform the same duty '{ What is the use of the first ^-..".d of word ?
i-Jsercise, — Name six things in the school-room. ,, on a breakfast table.
,, ,, r.sed in a garden.
,, ., u\M grow
Name six kinds of fruit. Give six names ot persons.
10. Besides naming C/iarles or liorne., we desire to say some- tliing about them. For example, if we say Chorle'i sIikjh, or The horse riiun, we have tolfl something al)Out them, and thus have made use of a telling word.
11. Tlie imiting or joining of these two kinds of words gives ■IS the simplest form of a sentence, whieh thus consists of a naming word and a telling word.
12. We thus see th.it every sentence— i. c, statement of a fact consists of two parts, viz., the noun, or naming part, and the
verb, i>r telling part.
13. Now, if we had nft otlier kinds of words, there woiUd he very little variety in our sentences, and our expressions would ^le very clumsy.
14. Our language, however, h:is a variety of w-ords, each one which has its own peculiar duty.
15. We will now take our first sentence and .sec how it can, i.y the aid of other words, be m.ide to express a good deal more than the two original words indicate.
1 2
(1.) Charles sings.
Here we have f.im knicts ot words. 1 -2 ■:, :; i
(2. ) Charles sings a favorite song. llere we have three kinds of words.
Iv
1 2 3 8 1 4
(3.) Charles sings a favorite song SMeetly. Here we have /our kinds of worcls.
1 2 3 :< 14 4 5 7
(4.) Charles sings a favorite song veiy sweetly for nis 16 1^
mother and sister. Here we have Sfven kinds of words.
1 .2S 3 1 4 4 57
(5.) Charles sings a favorite song very sweetly for bis 1 (3 1 7 2 " 7 C. 2 8
mother and sister. They thank him, and say, Oh!
4 4 2
how sweetly snug. Here we have r'i<j/tt. kinds of words.
16. Thns we find that we can use eight different kinds <>f words in making up sentences. The eiglitJi does not occur so frequently as the others.
Questions. — What is the fhity of the next in<)«t important kind of word? Wh It does the union of these two kinds of words j^ive ns? Of what does the siiiiiilrst kind of a sentence consist? Wliat do we call the two parts of a sentence ■' What would be the result if we had no other than the"* "two kinds of words? How many different kinds of words arc there?
Exercise — Form three sentences tolling what a home can do.
Form three sentences telling what a monkey can do.
Form three seiit<;nces telling what a moiifse. can do.
Form three sentences with dog, cat, man, bird, for the noun part
Form three sentences ^^^th jinnp.t, Mngs, rynfi, leaps, for the ^erb part.
17. Let tis now look at these different k.nds of words, and see what n;une is appropriate to each one, and why it has that particular name.
THE NOUN. A Nomi is a name.
18. As a nonn is a name, or a name is a noun, therefore the word Charles is a iionn, V)t!cau8e it is a namp; the word horKi- is
a noun, because it is a name; the word jun is a noun, because it is a name.
19. Heuce every name is a noiin.
Questions. — What is a Noun? Wniat is a name? Wliy is the word "Charles' a noun? the word 'horse?' the word 'fun?'
Exercise. —1. Select the nouus from among the following wonls : —
Jolin, for, widely, hand, house, hoc, and, or, but, axe, sell, peach, cherry, Torontfi, large, when, cat, river, bird, if, since, goodness, bravery, bad, large, down. John has an old h;it and a new cap The cow has a white calf. The trees are full of leaves. The lamp gives more light than the candle. Peters boat is in the water.
U. Put a noun in each of the following blank spaces : —
She has . I new knows liis lessons. I saw .
My is better than your . This is a red . The
is a very long river. is the capital of Ontario.
can jump farther than .
THE VERB. A Verb is a telliiig v/ord.
20. Let us look at this verse, and then we shall see what is meant by the definition: —
In the barn a little luousie
Ituii to and fro; For she /ie«7t/ the kitty (coming,
Lyiig time ago.
21. Here we find two word.s which tell us something about tlie 'mousie.' These two words are ran and lieard ; now, be- cause they tell us something, they are called verbs.
Queitions — What is a Verb ? What is a telling word ? How many verbi iw. thi-r^ in the little vei-se? Whicli are they? Why are tliey verbs?
Exercise. —1. Select the verbs in the following sentences.
'1. Why are they verbs?
James runs. The bird flies. Men die. The man teaches. The cliild cries. The bottle contaijis ink. John caught a fish. Me has seen the elephant. The cow eats fresh grass. The dog lost lii.i ni:iKter. George plays. Does George pl;iy ? Tin- lior.'ie
grtllopB through thu woods. I'lie boys learn their lessons. The 81 lu shines bright.
3. Put a verb in en eh of the Wank spaces.
Benjamin to town. Jivmes a letter. Emily^ -her
book. The lettei" by John. Thomas down on the bed.
The gii-ls their lessons. The boat up the river. The
(leer down the hill. Susan a good girl. I a book.
The tree by the wind. Julia diligently. Fannie
home. The bird its nest, flowers by the gaixiener.
THE ADJECTIVE.
An Adjective is a noim-niarkiiig word.
22. Let us write a sentence containing a word of this kind, and then apply the definition: — Charles killed the large black dog.
23. Here we are toM that 'Charles killed a dog,' and that it vas a particular dog. This dog is distinginshed from other dogs by being black and large.
24. These two words mark the dog, and are, therefore, called a/ijectives or noun -marking w oids.
25. Besides these two ^\ords, there is another little word V 111 ch points out the pnrfirulnr black dog. This is the little ^ ord t/ie, which resembles, in use, the ^^ on a finger-post, aiid has the force of an adjective. .
26. The word an or a has also the force of an adjective.
27. In the language of grammar, an adjective is said to qualify.
28. We may. therefore, use this definition :
An Adjective is a qualifying word.
Questions.— What is an Adjective? What is a i oun-murkiug word called? Gi\ f ,111 cxaniple of an adjective and a noun. Wliy is that word an adjective? In tlie cxainple pven wliich arc the aiVJei'tives? Could yon put other adjec- tiv'S in their place? What i.s the use of 'the' in a sentence? Wliat arc ad.ii'ctives said to do in graniinav? Give another delinitinn.
Exercise. — 1. Select the adjectives in the following sentences :
John is a good boy. Have you studied that long lesson?
IJure are five little boys and six girls. Every man has some
vtl
fault. Love all men. That beiiutiftd river has lovely green banks. Little kittens love new sweet niilk. I will give you this large ripe yellow poach.
2. Join an appropriate adjective to each of the following nouns :—
-Man, table, hat, hand, knife, pen, boy, girl, cow, horse, I diets, box, shoes, sun, moon, stars, leaf, picture, stx'eam.
:i. Join a noun to each of the following adjectives :-- tiood, bad, fat, fair, this, that, happy, every, rich, high, low, poor, lazy, tall, short, strong, weak, red.
THE ADVERB. The Adverb is a verb-marking word.
29 Fjike the iuljective, this is also a marking word.
30 It is most frequently used to mark a verb.
31. It is found also witli iuljectives and other ;ulverbs. It is, therefore, an adjective-marking, ami an adverb-marking word ;is wtdl.
32. It telLs us when, where, how, or why, a thing is done.
33. To shew that it is a verb-marking word let us look at this ^'^ntence: }ila.ry aing^ fWPft/y. - Here we are not oidy tfdd that
Mary sings,' but we are also tol<l how slie sings; the word sivitf.Uii,' therefore, marks the word ^ siiKja,' which is a verb.
34. That it marks an a<ljective may bu seen in this .sentence;
— Father gave me a /vry lieautiful book. Here we see not only that the book is ' heautifuf,' but the word 'rer?/' marks tlie dcLTi/e of beauty: thu.s we see that an atlverl) is also an adjec- tive-marking word.
36. .Another example will shew that it nUn marl« anothpr .Iverb. In thi- example (Sec 33) we were told that 'Mary aings ttu'pi'fly,' but tin,' degree of sweetness may be marked by jome such :idv;*rb f<3 'vrr;/' or 'rather;' so that we lind an .dverb ni.irks also .luotlier adverb.
36. In the lani."i * '-rimm.ir, an a<^lverlj is siid to modify,
- /. />., to change
37. We may, tn' r. !.u . r,.-*.' thi.s Dclinitii'U of tlif word •
An Adverb is a modiTyiiig word.
^uedtions. — What is im Adverb ? What kind of word floes it most frequently un»rk? With what other kinds of words is it found? What does an adverb tell us respecting anything? In the sentence "The horse ran away,' which w trd is the adverb? How do you know it is an adverb? Which is the ad vei'b in this sentence, 'Harry is verj' fond of candy?' How do you know? Pick out the adverbs in this sentence, 'Fido barked so loud that he woke the baby.' Why are they adverbs? What does 'to modify' mean? Give another definition for an adverb.
Exercise. —I. Select the adverbs in the following sentences : —
2. Tell why they are adverbs.
Charlie learns qnickly. The dog bit the boy badly. Boys sometimes play very roughly. Some days in winter are exceed- ingly cold. See how nicely my top spins. Walter skates well. La crosse is easily played. Fanny writes very quickly and regularly. Mary sits gracefully.
3. Insert an adverb in each blank .space.
I am tired. The horse trotted . Tray is a old
dog. He behaved— — . James writes . The wind was
-- —high, and the sea rough. Go and sit . Eead your
IftBSon — . He s])oke in a loud tone. He spoke in
9^ — low tone.
THE PEEPOSITION. The Preposition is a joining word. 68. We will take a short sentence; and look into the words oi v»hich it is made up. — 'Charles hit James with a stone.'
39. In this sentence we have three names, or nouns, one tell- ing word, or verb, one noun-marking word, or adjective, and one which joins the verb /iH to the noim stojie.
40. We notice that its use is to join these two words, and that it is placed before the word filone.
41. Hence we see that a Preposition joins words, ftuentions.— What is a Preposition? Give an example. Wliat is its use?
W>ierp is it placed ?
Exercise. — 1. Select the prepositions in the following sen- tences : —
The horse ran down the street. I laid it on ±lio table. The book lies under the chair. The meadow is IxHiind the b.am. He shot an arrow tlinnii.;)! the apple. Monkeys can climb up trees. Charlie has a knife with six blades. He Malktd Trom bin homo to school in ten minuti.s.
2. Place prepositions in the blank spaces : —
T set it the table. I cut my finder a knife. George
jumped the fence, and Frank crawled— — a hole. He put
the money his purse, but lost it his pocket. He
struck the boj' the head a strap. He has just returned
England the steamer.
THE CONJUNCTION. The Conjunction is a sentence-joining word.
42. This word is also a joining word, but it does not join simple words, but .statements of fa(t.«.~ i. <?., sentences
43. One or two examples will illu.str:ite the meanino; of t^e definition.— John struck Harry and made him cry. The dog will bite you, if you teaze him. '
44. In the first example there are two statements mar1<i; therefore, there are two sentences. The first sentence is— '.Tobn struck Harry ;' the second one is -'.Tohn made him cry." Tlcy are joined by the word and; this word is, therefore, a conjur>c- tion.
45. Tn the second ex.ample also there are two sontencee. — 'The dog will bite you' — and— Tf you teaze him' — and these sentences are joine<l by the word if, which thus becomes a con- junction
46 We thus see-that the use of this kind of word is to join sentences.
Queationfi. — What is a Coiijunrtion? IIow does it rlitfer from tho proposi- tion? Givo an flxainple fontainiii;,' a rorijunction. Namp tlie conjnnftiou? How do you know it is a '•on.junrtion? What docs your pxampli' teach you il)oiit conjuii'-tionsy
Exercise -Select the conjunctions in the following sen- tences : —
I rn^'t, but Peter walked. Come and see me to-morrow. He fell on the ice and cut his face. He can neither re.id nor write, though he is ten years old. He was so cold that h .^ teeth cliattered. Though he was poor he was much respectec^ Henry and John survived tiieir father. The boat unset and they were all drowned. If you stiuly hard, you will surely Biwcft'd. I am sun? hv will get .a prize, if he work diligently.
THE PKONOUN. The Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
47. We could tell a story or keep up a conversation by means of tbe six kinds of words of which we have been reading, but the frequent repetition of the name, or noun, woidd be tiry- some, and would, at the same tiuie, make our sentences appeal' stirt' and awkward.
48. In order, then, to avoid this, we have a kind of word which we very often use for, or instead of a noun ; and hence its name Pronoun, i e., For-name.
49. The good of having such a useful little word may be shewn by an example or two.
50. If we were to Say — 'Stella fell and broke Stella's doll;' or, 'John cut John's linger with John's knife,' — eitlier sentence woidd be very clumsy.
51. Now, if in the first sentence we write her instead of Stella's, and in the second his instead of Johns, see how much more smoothly the sentences will read : Stella fell and broke her doll. John cut his finger with hh knife.
52. Now, because these words have been used for the nouns, they are called Pronouns.
Questions. —What is a Prfiiiuini ? Is this kind of word alisolutfly nefessary ? Why not? What woukl lie the result if we liad no pmnoun.s? Whence does it get its name? Give an cxaniiHc shewing tlie nse of this kind of word?
Exercise. — 1. Select the pronouns in the follow^ing sentences.
2. Instead of the 2>ron()uns, write the litmus for which they stand.
James brought his book and lent it to Mary, and she read it. She was much pleased with it, and thanked her brothe-r i<n having lent it to her. (ieorge studies well; he learns fast, au'i lie will excel. Thomas it; a good boy; he obeys his fatlitr .tnrl mother clieerfully, when they wish him to do anything,' for them.
:i. Write the proper pronouns instead of the nouus.
George found the squirrel lying under a tree with the squirrel's leg broken. George took tlie S(ji>irrel home, and the sipiirrel .s fig soon got well Tl>e squirrel hived George, auci followe/i Keorge wh"rever George went.
THE INTERJEOTIOU.
The Interjection is a sound or a word used only as a sound.
53. This kiiid of word is not so freijuently nift with as the fitiiers.
54. It is entirely dilierent from any of the others, and expresses some feeling or emotion of tlu^ mind.
55. If we feel pain we exclaim, ' Oh !' if we feel griff, we say, 'Ah I' ' Alas I' if we are ylad to see a person, we say, ' Welcome !' or -Hail!'
56. Now all these are Interjections.
Questions. —What is an Interjection ? Uoes it occur a.s frequently as V?ie other kimls of wunU? What Uoo.s it ox]ir«'s.s? What feeling gives rise to t^'e Interjection Oh? to Ah? to Alas? to Welcome? to Hail?
Exercise. 1. Select the interjections in the following sen- tences:—
Holloo I John, what are yon doini^ with mylionk? Hush' do n<»t distnrl> the l>al)y- Welcome! my friend. Bravo I Inc not afraid. Ship, Alioy ! wliere are you from? Hurrah! tl-e vi<-t4iry is won.
2. Pnt interjections in the blank spaces.
He is gone and -how wretched I am. my friend*,
how miserable must tliat man be! deliverer of tliy coun- try! my friends! we are going to have a holiday
to-morrow.
57. Tlic different kinds of Monls are called in Crammar, Parts of Speech.
Questioni. — What are these dift'erent kind.s of words called ni Graniniar? Name till- jv.irts nfSiieech. Give tlie ilcfinition of each
Exercise. — 1. In the following sentences select the different I)art8 of speech.
2. Tell why the words belong to those particular Farts of Speech.
.An old man went one day to market. A tnou.se was cauj/ht in a trap, and then thrown to the cat. A good sliepherd takes care of his sh^ep. A NewfoinidhuKl dog i.s generally very hirge, and fond of the water. 'J'hc Atlantic Ocean separates America from Europe.
HOW WORDS ARE USED.
68. As the same man may cairy on two or three cliftereirt tradfS, so words may have two or three different uses, — L e, may belong to two or three diiierent classes.
59. This may be better explained by means of an example. The word round, for instance, may be—
(1. ) A noun ; as, A round of beef.
(2.) An adjective; as, A round table
(3.) A verb ; as. He tried to rouml the point.
(4.) A preposition ; as, He ran round the yard.
(5.) An adverb; as, The earth turns round.
60. We thus see that we cannot tell to wliat class the woci belongs, until we know its use.
61. We have no difficulty, however, in findini; the class, the moment we know the use of the word. In order to help us in classifying words, we may ask the following questions: —
1. Is tliis word used as a Name? If it is, it is a Noun.
2. Is this word u«ed as a Telling wokd? If it is, it is a Vkrb.
3. Is this word used as a Noun-makkinu wohd? If it is, it is an Ai>JKCTiVE.
4. Is this word uned as a Modifying word? If it is, it is an Adverb.
5. Is this word Ms«/ as a Word-connecting WORD? If it is, it is a Prepo.sition.
6. Is this word usfd as a Sentence-connecting word? If it is, it is a Conjunction.
7. Is this word used instead of a noun? If it is, it is a Pronoun.
8. Is this word used as Expressive of some feeling ? If it is, it is an Intek-iection.
Questions.— Can the same word belong to different classes? How would you illustrate your answer? What must we know about a word before we ean determine its rl.i.ss? How may a Noun be determined? A Verb? An Adjective? An Adverl)? A Prejiobition? A Con,i unction? A Pronoun? An Interjection? •
Exercise — In the following sentences assign the words to their proper classes: —
The race liorsc. Eclipse, won the race. Love is the fulfilling ot the Law, therefore we shouW love our enemies. He remainftd but au hour. Xone but the industrious are sure of success. Have yoii seen the scjiiare block of marble on tlie ]>ublic square? Point out on the map a cape, or point. Tliat boy tliat said tliat, knew that he was telling an untruth Tlic dog began to bark at the squirrel, as he gnawed the bark out of which we intended to make a liark canoe. Have you ever looked out of a bay window, over a baj', and heard a dog bay at the moon? The boys are playing on the green, near the house with the gieea verandah. We must [ilough deep in ti.e deep oiay.
CHANGES IN WORDS.
62. Words do not always remain the same, but they under)^ certain changes. These changes are termed in Grammar La- flections.
63 This change generally takes place at thi' end of tlie word. Sometimes it is made in tlie middle.
64. The kinds of words that can be changed arc nouriB, verf.? adjectives, adverlw, and pionouns; tlie ♦ther.s, nf course, eanuf/** be chan<'eil.
CHANGES IN THE NOUN. Gender.
65 The first change to be noticed is that calhil Gender.
66. By means of this intiei.tion we can tell to what seic the person or thing belongs, of which the noun is the name.
67. For instance, the names of males are Masculine ; as, Man. The names of females are Feminine; as, Woman. The names <)f tliose things whicli are neither male nor female, are Neuter, i n., neither raascidine nor feminine; as, Tree.
ftuMtions.— Give the grammatical name for the changes that certain wor1« iiiiilerjjii Wliiif tlu.-N the change geiiuraliv tak-- place? What kinds of wnrds fan be inllerteil '' What <>nc> aiv uiiinfl. <'te<l? Wlial is the lirst ihai^o callt-d? What IS (ii-ndfi? (»f what, u.se is tlii.s inncctinn? Ol' wliat gender arc tho iiuiues of mules? Of I'eniale.s? Of tliose f huiuK Ihat mic ncithur uiaJe uoi U:mull! I
lilimiber.
68. The next ohauge that we shall uotice is that oalieo Number.
69, It' Ve are speaking, for instance, of one person or thing, we use what is called the singulai- number; as, Boy.
70 As soon as we nieation the names of more than one, we use the pliual number; as, Ijoys.
71. The plural generally ends in 's;' as, Books. Sometimes it fclids in 'es ; ' * as, Churches, foxes, ladies, knives, heroes, kc. ; sometimes in 'en;' as, Children, Sometimes we lind a diil'erent word ; as, Geese, teeth, mice, &.c.
Questions. — What is tho next tliange tliat t)ie noun iiii(ler},'oes? What is Number? What is meant by the singular number? Wliat by the ))luial number? Give examples. In what letter does the plural generally end? Are there any other terminations? Can any one Rule be given for forming; tlit plural? Prove tliis by examples.
Exercise. — What is the nundjer of the following nouns, and why?-
Man, child, liero, horse, nooks, apples, men, loaf, muffs, goosci gi'ovy, brushfs, watclips, pictn!-»;, table, pt'ii, bottles, knife, fife?, gulf, lamp, yard, fox, geese, mice, tooth, church.
Case.
72. This 16 the last change that the nouti undergoes.
73. This inflection tells us the condition in which a noun ia with respect to some other word in the same sentence.
74. The noun has three cases : the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.
75. The Nominative case is tliat .xbout whicli an assertion is made; as, Jo/in sings Mere an assertion lu nuide about Jn/m. therefore tlie noun Johfi is in the nomjjaative.
76. The Possessive case is used to denote the relation of pro- perty. For instance, if wc wish to say that a book belongs to John, we s;iy that it is Jolm^s book. The uoun 'John's' is said to be in the Possessive.
' There is no one Rule for the formation of the iilural, for, tiiougli the sinjiu- lar number of words may end in the sanir; letter or letters, it does not follow th:it the plurals are spelleil in the same way; for exiunple, Monnrohe, oxen, days, safes, slrif, s, gulfs, fifes, muffs, folios. &c
77 In the singular mimbev this case is known by an apos- trophe and 's'* added to the nominative; as, John's. In the jihirid tlie apostrophe is placed after the 's;' as, Ladies'.
78. The Objective case follows a certain kind of Verb, (Sec. 116,) and :ilso a Preposition; as, He struck John witli ii .-^tick Ik-Fe both nouns, 'Joliu' and 'stick,' are in the Objective.
auestions. — What i.s the last change? What does this change tell us? ilow many cases have nouns? What is the Nominative case? What does ' 'le I'o.sttessive denote ? flow is this c-isc known in the singular? Uow in :i>: iilur.il? How is the Olijectivt; (-ase known? What is iiiejint by a ' sign?"
Exercise. - 1. Tell the cas« of the nouns in the following ex- inplcs
2. Write the Possessive, Singular and Plural.
Tiio dog ])it the sheep John struck Harry. Mary's d<>ll is \. ry pretty. Tlie lion's main' is very lony. Rob ate two [tplfs and four peaches He hit the horse with a stick. TAjo I'.n laid six eggs. Tlie frost killed the Howers.
CHANGE IN THE ADJECTIVE. Comparison.
7D. The only change that the Atljective undergoes is that of Degree.
80. The M ord degi'ee means a step.
81. By means of this change we pass from one fonn of an djective to another.
82. We may illustrate this inlleetimi by means of an example : <»iie day of a week may be coUl : in this fi)rui the adjective is said to be in the Positive degree : the next day may be coltinr, this gives us t!ie Comparative drmce ; the third day may be the riildint, and tlii« gives ws the Superlative, or highest degree.
83 In many adjectives this change is effected by adding cr Hid (■.■</ to the Positive . whil'- in others it is made by preliicing worr ami ///o.f^ or Irst and lt'ii-'</.
• Thi-i JR callfil its «ign, a word whi<h will Ih" often ni.t with in hTamniar. Its nse is just thi' same an an nniliiclla-uicmcler'.s or a bool-makor's si){n. As their sij^us tell u.s what w<; may liiid in tlieir shoi>.i, so the «igna iu ^raiuiuar point out ]iart.icular changes, or inlleitions
Questions. — How many changes does the Adjective undergo? What is Uiis change called? What is the effect of this change? If we use the ad.jec- tivt! in its simple foim, what name is given to the D'gi-ee? What, if we ascend a st«p higher? What, when we have reached the highest step ? How nre very many adjective.=i compared ? Is there any other way of comparing adjectives?
Exercise. — 1. Compare the following adjectives by adding er and est : —
High, low, rich, poor, quick, slow, dull, cold, free, brave, smooth, thin, thick, >))ack, white, hot, steep, warm, rough, tough, bold, wise, j'oung.
2. Compare the following adjectives by means of more and most, less and least: —
Anxiotis, fashionable, handsome, pleasing, benevolent, cour- ageous, sensible, temperate, intelligent beautiful, amiable, boun- tiful, grateful.
CHANGES IN THE VERB. Tense.
84. This kind of word has several (five) changes, or inflections.
85. The inflection, of which we shall first speak, is known by the name of time, or tense.
86. It corresponds to our words to-day, yesterday, and to' worroro.
87. The first tense is called the present, which tells us what is taking place now; as, I sing.
88. The next i.s cdled the past, and it tells us what took plac; yfesterday, or even before that ; as, 1 mt/kfd a mile yesterday.
89. Tlie third tense is called tlie future Tliis tense tells us of something that is going to take place; as, I vnll see you to- morrow.
90. Very many verbs form their past tense by adding 'd' or ' ed' to the present. If the verb ends in 'e,' the letter 'd' alone is .added ; a-s. Prove, proved.
91. The future is formed by placing 'shall' or 'will' before the verb.
The inflection of Tense.
Present. Past.
Singnmj: Plural. Singular. Plural.
1. I move. 1. We move. 1. T moved. 1. We moved.
2 Thoumovest. 2. You move. 2. Thoumovedst.2. You moved.
3. He moves. 3. Tlicy move. 3. He moved. 3. They moved.
Future. Sivf pilar. Plural.
1. I shall or will move. 1. We shall or will move.
2. Thou slialt or wilt move. 2. You shall or will move.
3. He shall or will move. 3. They shall or will move.
Questions. — How manj' inflections has the Verb? Whicli of these are we going to consiJ(T (irst? Wh.it floes 'tense' mean? Wliiit (lets 'time' mean? To what words does this inflection correspond? What is the first tense railed? WKnt does it tell us? Give an example of this tense. What is the n.inic of the second tenso? What does it tell us? Give an e.xaiiii)le. What is the third tense called' Wliat does it tell us? Give an exainj>le. How is the pa.st tens3 formed in many verbs? How, if the verb ends in 'e?" How is the future formed? Go thnmgh the three ten.ses of the verb ' to move '
Exercise. — I In the following sentences select the tenses.
2. Tell why the verbs belong to that tense.
James runs. John will study his lesson. The cat killed a mouse. John caught a tish. I see "a bird. The bottle holds ink. I cut my finger yesterday and it bled. The cow eats fresh grass. William rides every (laj' on horseback. He rode to town yestejday. I shall call.
3. Write the past and the future tense of the following verbs: —
Skate, learn, play, hate, laugh, contain, gallop, burn, remain, sharpen, look, push, wait, tumble, love, shove, loosen, tighten, smile, remove, walk.
4. Go through the tenses of the verbs in Example 3, accord- ing to the table.
Person and Number.
92. Resides tins inlh-otioii of time, there are two others which depend upon the nominative in the sentence.
fW. [f the nominative be the name of a person peawrng, it ..a saiu to be in the first person, and the verb must agrp*^ with it, —that is, it must be of the same person : as, 1 udL.
y4. If tlie nominative lie the name of a [)erson spoken to, it is said to be in the second person^ and there must be the same af;reement between the verb and the nominative; as. Thou talkest.
95. A change takes place in the spelling of the verb, for though we cannot say 'Thoii talk,' we can say 'Then talkest.'
96. If the nominative be the name of a person or thing spoken of, it is said to be of the third person, and the verb must agree with it. Here, too, there will be a change in the spelling of the verb ; as. He talks.
97. The nominatives, given in the examples are all of the singu- lar ijiimber, and tlie verbs agree with them. We shall find tliat there is the same agreement between the verb and the nomina- tive tliroughout the plural number also? as, We talk, you talk, they fn/k.
98.* It will be noticed that there is no change in tlie spelling of the verb, when the nominatives are i>f the plural number.
99. We also see that the person and the-number of the nomina- tive determine the person and the nimiber of tlie verb.
100. Hence the tw n n\tlections which depend upon the nomina- tive are person and number.
Questions. — How iii.iny iiiflecfion.s of the veili ilepenil upoii the Nuinina- fivi'r When i.s the nominative of the tirst person:' Wliat do you iiitan by th'.' verb agi-eeing with it? When is the nominiitive o( the second jierson? What will be tlie pei-son of the verb? Why must a iliange be made in the .duelling of tlie verb? What is meant by the nominative being of the third ^rsnn? What will Ix; the person of the verb? Is this agreement eonRned to till' singular numlvr? I.s then: any change in the spelling of the jilural number of the verb? What, is U. that determines the person ami the number of a verb? What infleetwns depend npon the nominative?
Exercise. —In the following sentences determine the jierson and tiie number of the verbs: —
Philiji studies. The music charms. George went to town. Hain falls fiom the clouds. The vessel sails over the sea. I saw him do it. You are mistaken He cut his fiuger. All the windows in the house are open. The leaves of the book are torn. The frost injured the grain. Thou readest. We visited the cave. Thej' ran a race. You promised to come. The wolf kille<l the dog.
Voice.
101. Besides the three inflections wiiich have just been de
fined, there is another very iiiiportanS one, *y which we ir.ust now direcfe our att'/ntioii.
102. T]iis inflection may he l)est Understood by iisiu<' £>ome such example as this, —I strike, and I am struck.
103. Here we have two forms of the same verVi, the first one. '1 strike,' represents the nominative as doing something.
104. In the father example tlie nominative is represented as having sometliing done to it, or as suifeiing the action.
105. This <lifference in form is called in grammar voice.
106 Voice is, therefore, the difference hetween doing and BuflFering an action, i. c , between doing and being done to.
107. 'Die former is called tlie Active, and the latter .he Pas- sive voice.
108. Before m'C can give the three tenses of the Passive Voice, we must learn the three corrtsponcbim tenses of the verb 'to be.'
109. These tenses are as follows: —
Prksknt. ■ Pa.st.
Sin</ti/(ir. Plural. Sinifiilnr. Plural.
1. I am. I. We are. 1. I was. 1. We were.
2. Thou art. , 9.. Ymi are. 2. I'hou wast. 2. You were.
3. He is. 3. Tliey are. 3. He \\ :is. 3. They were.
Fl'Tl'KE.
Shii/iiinr. Plural •
1. 1 sliall or will be. 1. We shall or will be
2. Thou shalt or will be. 2. You siiall or will be.
3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be.
110. These we place l)efore part of the verb which, in tins 1 erbs of m hich we are now speaking, is exactly the same as the Past tense ; as, 1 am loved, 1 was loved, I will be loved.
111. Now you can go through the three persons and both numbers of the three ten.ses of any verb in the Passive Voice ; as, 1 am loved, thou art loved, he is loved, &c.
Question!.— In Wie cxiuiiplcs givtii of tlie iiorrt inflection, wlmt <li>('s tlif first ono r(;i'r>'.sent? Whut does the Kcctonfl repre.seiU? What nniiio in giv.-ii to thin inflpi'tion? Wtiat \s Voice? How niruiy Voices are there? What verb Jielp"" ng in the Pa.ssive Voice? Oo throuftb the thrne ten«e8 of tluH verb. How do we form the Passive Voice by imsins ofttiein?
Exercise. — 1. In the following sentences select the verbs that are in the Active Voice, ami those that are in the Paooive.
2. Tell why they belong to that voice.
3. Pick out the tenses.
4. Go through the three tenses of the verbs in both voices. Robert walks. The h(»r8e gall<jp8. The tree was struck by
lighCjiing. An old luua went to market. John struck William. Wiiiiiioi will strike .John. Anne cut an apple. The monkey pulled Harry'n bair. They d*i»';cd and sang. Nuts arc eaten by sqaLrrels. The book was read by the boy. The boy read the book. 'J'he house was contiumed by lire. The dog bit tbe cat. The horni; cuts hay.
Kotc. -It wilt be quite «noii({li to know tbu uuuie of the tilth in- flection. It is (.alleil mood.
Kinds of Verbs.
112. H we examine diff< n nl sentences carefully, we shall find that verbs are of different kinds.
113. I-iet us, for example, look at these two seoteuces. He gtrw:k John, who ran.
114. In the tJr.st of these the statement, or what we are tell- ing about the subject ' be,' would not be complete without the word ' John.' Tlie verb is, therefore, iaconiplete-
115. In the second sentence, however, the statement is com- plete without the addition <ri another word. The verb, there fore, is complete.
116. Ill gramiiMir we call the first kind transitive, t. «., pass- iBg over, because the seiihc passes over to another word. The word which completes the nba is in thr- objeutive <^as*e (Sec 78)
117. The other kind ol verlj is called intransitive t. f., not
passing over.
QuooUooa. -Are verbs aJwwys of the same kind V Give au uxaui- ple to prove your answer corroct. In tbe exanii^Uis yivon above, what name Is given to t)io fti»t verb? W'jy is tliis uauio yiveu? What name is given to the second '/ Why ? Wlmt is the (jram- maticul name for the first kin<J V fur the sououd ? What case fol- lows transitive verbs 7
Exercise.— I. In tJio following examples select the UausiUve and the intransitive verbs.
2. State why they anj so.
Stir the fire ithI rlomi the ahutfcer^ fast. He row :nd "f^wTy withilrew. No fcrtw hears fnrit in antunm, an less it bloHf^ma in the spring: A shot from tiie cannon kille<l the cayt' n. .r«ne can sins, dTaw, inJ paint. He came yesterrlay and will 20 awav t(^>-mor^')n- %IiIo was so strong that he could, lift an ox. He lave .1 ^h;nini and got baok sixpence FT.' re:uii. The ^onw ran very awu'tiy.
TEE ADVERB.
xiB L.JKC tne .uljective. the ^'-dverb h;:a out one Tndp'-non. Ill chat the "^ame. namely. Degree
! r^ It is formetl in just the same way as m the arlief^ve, by : 'er' and 'est;' by piacmg 'more and moHt ' or If-m' and 'least' twfore the wonL
Q.nesHiins. — CThw manv infl '•finns 6as the A'lvprb? What is it tlin *ini» «i What name is invisn ta this inflt?<"tion ' ffow is it formi-d''
Exercise. — ♦romparf the following adverJ's, the first fonr by
. er' and 'est, the rest '>y prefixinir 'mure' and 'most. - I., often, fast. 3el<li>m, <{niikiy, slowly, ^cLully, beautifully. »weei;iy, honestly, bravely, sensibly, temperately, freely.
THE PEONOUN. 120 Thin woffl has four inflections. Person, Gender, Number, and Case.
121. [f the Ppjuonn is nse«I for the name of the persou speak- ing, it is said to be of the first person; as. I.
122. If it is ased for the n;mie of the person spoken to, -t, is ■«:i.i! fxi He ir the second person; as, Thou.
123 U ;•; is ii.sed r'nr the n;iine of the person or thing spoken 'Ji, it is said to be of the third person -, as. He. she, it.
12i As they are used in»te:ul of nouns, they will be of the «:irae gendi^ and number as the noun, but not necessarily of the "Mme case.
125. They form their plural diffisrently from nouns, and I ffHrence in 2ender ia repr^n^nted by j, difiereut word.
126. The three cawB are .dl liitfereut. except in two of the pp')nonns.
Exercise. — 1. In the following sentences select the verbs that are in the Active Voice, and those that are in the Passive.
2. Tell why they belong to that voice.
3. Pick out the tenses.
4. Go through the three tenses of the verbs in both voices. Kobert walks. The horse gallops. The tree was struck by
hghtuing. An old man went to market. John struck William. William will strike John. Anne cut an apple. The monkey pulled Harry's hair. They danced and sa)ig. Nuts are eaten by squirrels. The book was read by the boy. The boy read the book. The house was consumed by lire. The dog bit the cat. The horse cats hay.
Note. — It will be quite enough to know the name of the liftli in- flection. It is calleil mood.
Kinds of Verbs.
112. If we examine difftieut sentences carefully, we shall find that verbs are of different kinds.
113. Let us, for example, look at these two sentences, He struck John, who rait.
114. In the tirst of these the statement, or what we are tell- ing about the subject ' he,' would not be complete without the word ' John.' The verb is, therefore, incomplete- US. In the second sentence, however, the statement is com-
plete without the addition of another word. The verb, there- fore, is complete.
116. In grammar we call the first kind transitive, i. «., pass- ing over, because the sense passes over to another word. The word which completes the idea is in the objective case (Sec. 78.)
117. The other kind of verb is called intransitive i. e., not
passing over.
Questions. -Are verbs alwarj'S of the same kind ? Give an exam- ple to piove your answer correct. In the examvles given above, what name is given to tlio first verb? \V>jy is this name given? What name is given to the second ? Why ? Wliat is the gram- maticul nume for the first kind V fur the second ? What ease fol- lows transitive verbs ?
Exercise.— 1. In the following examijles select the transitive and the intransitive verbs.
2. State why they are so.
Stir the fire mid close the shutters fast. He rose ,ind slowly withdrew. No tree hears fniit in autumn, unless it blossoms in the spring. A shot from t^ie cannon killed the cajt n. Jane can sins, draw, and paint. He came yesterday and M'ill 20 away to-mor'-ow. ^lilo was so strong that he could lift an ox. He gave a shilling_and got back sixpence Tie reads. The horse ran very swiftly.
THE ADVEAB.
jife j..iKe the adjective, the Adverb baa but one mflection, and that the same, namelj% Degree
119 It is formed in just the same way as m the adjective, by adding ' er ' and ' est ; ' by placing ' more ' and ' most ' or ' Im« ' and ' least ' before the word.
ftuesHons.— How many infl ftiims has the Adverb? What is it tlic same Hsy What name is given to this inflert.ion? How is it formed?
Exercise. — Compare tlie following adverbs, the first four by adding 'er' and 'est,' the rest by prefixing 'more' and 'most.'
Soon, often, fast, seldom, qnicklj', slowly, gladly, beautifully, 'sweetlj', lione.stl J', bravely, sensibly, temperately, freely.
THE PRONOUN.
120 This word has four inflections, Person, Gender, Number, atul Case.
121. If the Pronoun is used for the name of the person speak- ing, it is said to be of the fir.'<t person ; as, 1.
122. If it is used for the name of the person spoken to, it is said to be of the second person; as, Thou.
123. If it is used for the nanip of the person or thing spoken of, it is said to be of the third person; as. He, she, it.
124 As they are used instead of noxins, they will be of the o.ame gender ,and number as the noun, l)ut not necessarily of the same case.
125. They form their plural differently from nouns, and difference in gender is represented V)y a different word.
126. The three cases are all different, except in two of the pronouns.
127. These two are the second (pluralj and the third (neuter), V hich have the nominative and the objective alike.
128. The following table will shew the inflections :
|
Sin.. :i-iE. |
||||
|
Novi. Pons |
Ohj. |
|||
|
1. M. or F. |
I |
mine, |
my |
me |
|
2. M. or F. |
Th |
on tliine |
thy |
thee |
|
iM. 3. \f. |
He |
his |
Lim |
|
|
!She hers, |
her |
her |
||
|
{n. |
It |
its Plural. |
it |
|
|
Noiu. |
PoS'i. |
Ohj. |
||
|
1. We |
ours, our |
us |
||
|
2. You |
j'ours, your |
you |
||
|
3. j They |
theirs, their |
them |
129. — 1. We thus see that 'I' and 'Thou' stand for the names oi persons of tlie male or the female sex, and the gender is, therefore, masculine ur feminine. 2. 'He' stands for the name of a person of the male sex, and the gender is masciiline. 3. ' She ' stands for the name of one of the female sex, and the gender is feminine. 4. ' It ' stands for the name of an individual tning belonging to neither sex, and tlie gender is neuter.
130. We also notice that while the first and the second have a plural of their own, the third has the same plural for the three genders.
Questions. —How many inflections has thePioiioun? Name tlieni. When is a Pronoun said to be of the first person ? Of the second ? Of tlie third? In which inflections will they correspond to their nouns? I»o they form their plural in the same way as nouns? How is difference in gender represented? Which two have the Koniinatiw and the Objective alike ? Go through each pronimn separately, singular and plural
Exercise. — Tell the Person, the Gender, the NuuiVjer, and the Case of the following Pronouns: —
1, he, him, her, us, yow, hers, they, it, its, mine, me, their, his, them, tliou, our, we, she, theirs, yours, my, ours, thy.
ENGLISH GB \MMAR.
1. English GrammaI" s the art of speaking and \vritin<f the Eiiii;lish lang-acs-^ with correctness.
1. Language is composed of words, and these words are com- posed of letters. Wc join the ' letters ' together to form ' words,' and tlie ' words ' to form ' sentences.,'
2 A sentence is, tlierefore, a combination of words containing a statement.
2. Grammar comprises four parts : —
I Orthography, which treats of letters and syllables
n. Etymology, which treats of wonls.
in. Syntax, whicli treats of the construction of sentences.
IV. Prosody, wliicli treats of Accent, Metre, and Versittcation.
QUESTIONS. What is English riramniar? Of what is language composed? Of wliat are words composed ? What is a sentence Y Into what four parts is (.irainmar divided? Uf what does (.)rthography treat? Of what does Etymology treat? How does Syntax differ from Etymology? Oi wh ;t does Prosody treat?
PART FIRST.
ORTHOGRAPHY. 3. Orthography treats of the sounds of letters, and of the mode of coinhinino; thom into s\ llahles
and words, Witll ;l nIcW to ll|.-il- licinv rnr,,>rihl
spelled.
1. Meaning of Letter -.\ ittti-r is ;i inurk nr clr.nMcti r, UR((i to rei)rest'nt an ilemcntary sound of tlie human voice.
2 Nnmbcr of Letters, —There arp Twenty-six lettirrs in tlie Emjlish alphabet
24 ORTHOGRAPHY.
3. Division of Letters. — Letters are either Vowels or Con- ficoiants.
4. Vowels. — A Vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered, aloue. The pure vowels are Jive in numher: a, e, i, o, u. W and y are vowels, except at the beginning of a syllable.
5. Consonants. — A Consonant is a letter which cannot be per- fectly suuuded except iu connection with a vowel; hence itft name. The consonants are, b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, m, a, p, q, r„ >v, t, V, X, z; and w and y at the beginning of a syllable.
6. Diphthongs. — A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. Diphthongs are of two kiiwls, proper and improper.
(1.) A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded; as, Ou, in out; oi, in oil; ow, in cow.
(2. ) An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the Vowels is sounded; as, On, in court; oa, iu boat.
7. Triphthongs. — A Triphthong is the union of three vow-els in one sound; as, Eau in beauty.
FOEMS OF THE LETTERS.
4. Dift'eivnt iVtrins of letters are used both in printing and in writing.
5. In printing, Roman chaiactei's are most fre- quently emj>loyed ; sometimes Italics are used, and sometimes old English.
6. In writing y the form called ' script ' is used.
Examples. Alfred was king of England.— Roman.
Alfrfd wd.s kill;/ nj' Bin/lniuL— It \hi('.t>.
%\fVn\ lVa$ llilUJ of (^lUjlUIUl — old English. ^Rjlticd iiLCLii kinp^ affpllQ^LcLtLcL. — Script.
7. Besides these forms, which are named from the type used, we have two other forms, which de- pend upon the use made of the letters. These two tbiTns ai'e capital and small letters; a.s, A a, B b,
C C, OvC.
LETTERS. 25
8. Small letters form the body of the word. Capitals are used for the sake of making the word [u'umiuent and distinct.
RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS.
Rule I. — All titles of books, and the beads of their divisions, should be printed in Capitals. In u'riliiu/ the title of a book, or the subject of an extract from a particular author, use capital letters for the important words ; as, The Third Book of the ( Janiulian National iSeries. An amusing story of King Alfred.
Rule n. — The first word after a i»eriod, also the first word of an answer to a direct question, should begin with a capital; as, Who did it? He.
Rule in. — All the names and attributes of the Deity shou d begin with a capital ; as, God's Omniscience means His pow ^r of knowing everything.
Rule rV.— Titles of office and honor, and all proper namfxs, common nouns spoken to or of as persons, should begin wiUi capital letters; as, The (lovernor General of Canada. The Canadian people are tridy loyal. O Death, where is thy stin^'? Necessity is the mother of invention.
Rule V — Tlie pronoun I, the interjection O, and the iirst let*«j in every line of poetry, slioidd be written with a capital; as, Yesterday I visited Hamilton. 0 majestic night !
But yonder iomrs the jioweifiil king of day, Hejoii-iiig in the East.
Rule VI. — A quotation, in which the exact words are given, should begin with a capital letter; as, Shakespeare say.s, All the world is a stage.
Rule VII. — Any word that we desire to make particularly i-nipliatic, or which denotes the jtrincipal subje(;t of discour.se, uuiy be written with a capital letter ; as, The Iteformation. The Gunpowder Plot.
SYLLABLES.
9. A Syllable is an articulate sound uttered by one effort of the voice ; as, Farm^ far-mev^ ea-gle.
10. It consists of one or more letters; as, A-e~ ri-al.
11. There are as many syllables in a woid as there are distinct sounds ; thus, in the word gram- t/ui-ri-<i7i, there are four .syllables.
26 ORTHOGRAPHY.
12. Words are divided, acfordino" to the number of syllables which they contain, into —
1 Monosyllables, or words of one syllable; as, Fox. 2. Dissyllables, or words of two syllaWes ; as, Farmer. 3.. Trisyllables, or words of tliree syllal)les ; as, Bnt-ter-tly. 4. Polysyllables, or words of m;iuy syllables ; as, Pro-cras-ti na-tioii.
SYLLABICATION.
13. SyxlabicatiON is the division of words into syllables.
The following may be taken as a General Eiile : — Place together, in distinct syllables, those letters which make np the separate parts or divisions of ;; word, as heard in its cor- rect pronuueiMtion ; or, divide the word accortliiig to its consti- tuent parts, — i e., ita 2J'''Ji-r, root, antl affix.
SPELLING.
14. Spelling is the art of expi-essinii- a word by its proper letters, correctly arranged.
1. Special Rules for Spelling. —T!ie ])upil is referred, for guid ance iu the special rules for syjlabieatiou and spelling, to "The Companion to the Readers."
2. Point to be remembered. — The pupil must renjendjer that, though a word may be divided at the end of a lino, a syllable should never be broken. Tliis division of the word must be marked l»y a hyphen, placed immediately after the division ; as, Trans-form.
QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY.
What is Orthogr.ipliy ? "WHiat is a Letter V How many letters are there in theKnglish Alphabet? How are they divided? What is a Vowel. &c ? What different cliaracter.s jire used in printing and writing ? How do (Capital letters dififer in use from small ones? What is the first I'ule for the use of Cai>itals, A;c.? Wb.'t is a Syllable ? Of how many letters does a syllable consist? How many syllables are there in a word ? What ia a Monosyllable? (Jive an exam])le, &c. What is ^syllabication ? Give the General Rule for dividing words into syllables?
27 PART SECOND.
ETYMOLOaV.
15. Ety:\iology treats of the classification, the inflection, nml the derivation of words.
1. Classification. By tliis we mean that words are arranged into classes, according to the work which they do in sentences.
2. Inflection. -Tins implies peculiar changes that take place in certain (-lasses of words, thus giving them another meaning.
3. Derivation. — By means of this we are enalded to trace a word to its original source, just as we may trace a rircr huck to its fountain-head. In this way wo can determine whether thw word is of Saxon, Latin, Greek, or otlier origin.
WORDS.
16. A Word is an articulate ^oiuid used as the sign of an idea.
1.7. A word may consist of vowel soinuls o\\\y\ as, i. Oh, Eye, v.^c.
18. Words admit of a threefold division:
1. As to Formation' II. do. Kind. 111. do. Inflection.
I. FORMATION OF WORDS.
19. With respect to formation, woixls are —
I. 1'kimitive or Dkriv.^vtxve.
II. SlMI'l.K or CO.MI'Ol NU.
DEFINTTIONS. 20.-1. A Primitive word is one that is not dorivod from nny other word in tlie language ; but is itself :i runt from which others spring ; as, Boy, just, father.
2. A Derivative w<>rd is one th:it is derived from sonii' otluT word ; as, lioyish, justice, fatherly.
3. A Simple word is one that is not comhined with :iny other word ; as, Man, house, city.
4 A Compoiind word is one that is made up of two or more simple words ; as, Mauhotxl, hurseiuan.
f? ETYMOLOCxY.
n. KIND OF WORDS.
21. With respect to kind, words are eitiier,—
1. Nouns ; 5. Adverbs ;
2. Adjectives 6. Prepositions ;
3. Pronouns; 7. Conjunctions;
4. Verbs ; 8. iNTERJEfTioNS.
22. These are enlled Parts of Sjteech. . Origin of diiferent Parts of Speech.- When we wish to makr?
kno-mi our thoughts we employ words, each one of which hns its own meaning and use. As our ideas are of different kinds, so also must be our words. Tlie class to which tliese separate words belong, depends upon their meaning and use. For ex- am]>le, if we wish simply to give the name of anything, we use a noun ; if we wish to say something about that noun, we use a verb <^c.
rn. INFLECTION.
23. Some of tliese Parts of SpeecJi undergo certain chaiiifcs oi form or terminotiov^ and these ciianges are called infpctiovs; as, ^laii, mans, men.
24. Other words underijo no such change; as, Yes, )io, tiien ; therefore, with respect *o inflection, woi'ds are either, —
I. Inflected or
II. I NINFLECTED.
Inilected — Noun, Adjective. Pronoun. Verl>, and jtidverb. Uninflected. — Preposition, (I'on junction, and Interjection.
DEFINITIONS.
A Noun, or .Substantive, is a nam'', as of a person, place, or thing ; as, Cicero, Rome, boy, house, &c.
An Adjective is a word which is used to rjiialify nonns ; «s, Oood, .gi-eat, &c.
A Pronoun is a word which propr>rly supplies the place of nouns ; as, I, thou, &c.
A Verb is a word which expresses existence, condition, cw action ; as, He w ; He w* sleeping ; He rend^.
An Adverb is a word which is used to modify -prbs, ad- jectives, and other adver})S ; as. To run moiflly ; ho swift; ho mri/tly
IPTFLECTION, 29
A PRKPfJsrrioy ia a wor.l which shews the relation between its object and some other word in the same proposition • as, To be in Italy.
A CON'JCNCTIOX is a word which shews the particular mannea in which one part of a sentence is joined to another as, I'tic father atid the son ressmhle each other. Eithei- the ittnei ot the son must go.
An Interjection is simply used as an expression n ct.^lm^, or as n mere mark of address ; as. O/'i .' Alas t Hail ?
INTLECTIOMS
25. The ijiflections ot Nouns are Gender^ ivumde?. "tnd Ca-'ie.
The inflection of Adjectives is Degree.
The inflections of Pronouns are the A'dOie s.s those of Nouns, together with Person.
The inflections of Verbs are Voice, Mood, Tense, Nimiher, and Person.
The inflcctioa of Adverbs is the same %s that of Ad.ipxtives.
QUESTIONS ON ETYIVIOLOGT.
Of what does Etymology treat? Wh;t is meant by .Jibssifica tion? Wh it by Iiilkction ? What by Derivation? Vvr,at ia :-. Word? How may words be divided? What is a t*nmitiva word? What a Derivative? What is a Simjile word? Wha* aOoujpound? How many kinds of Words are there? Name them Whit are these called? What is the origin at these ditfere'it Parts of Speech ? What is meant by a word oeing i.z ■ fleeted? What are th« inflected Parts of Speech? 'Name thi iminflecte<l Parts. Give the definition of a Noun ; or an Al jective ; of a Pronoun ; of a Verb, &.c. What are tlit Inflec- tions of Nounc ; ot Adjectives, ic?
THE NOUN.
2(). A Noun is a name, as of a person, a'ice, o. thing; as, Cicero, Toronto, hoy, house.
1. How Known — Everything that exists or may be iupposcfi to exist li:i3 ;'. name, nid that luune i"? c.illed in grammai a Nour.
2 Point to be remembered. — The pupil must remember ttiat it is simply the name that is affected by giammar ; tne person, or place, or thijig, remains unchanged. We may iilustrpt" this*
so ETYMOLOGY.
by an example: 'Man' is a human being, ami as such we can- not say that he belongs to any 'part of speech,' but the name is a nonn.
27. Nouns may be divirled into three classes; PnoPEE, Co:\fMON, and Abstract.
1. Proper Nouns. — If the nouns are the names of bidlcidual members of a class, they :ire proper nouns. Thus the name of every individual person or place is a proper noun; as, Victoria, Toronto.
2. Common Nouns.— But if the nouns fire the names of tilings of the same sort or clans, they are common nouns; thus, the noun ' Lion,' being the name of a class, or species, is a comm Dn noun.
3. Abstract Nouns. — Besides tlie two classes mentioned above, there is a class of nouus which are the names of qualities or states, and which we can only think of as existing. Tnus, we know that 'snow' is '•white,' and 'grass' is 'green,' but we can only think of the qitallh/ or property of 'whiteness' or 'green- ness ;' these afe of the class crdled abstract. This class of nouns generally ends in ness, th, tion, ance, ence, hood, ty.
DEFINITIONS.
28. A Proper Nouv is a proper name, as of ? person, or place; a-^, Jolin, London.
29. A Common Noun is a name connnon to all the members of a class of objects ; as, Man, Iiorse-
30. An Abstu.act Noun is a name of some property, or qualiti/, wiiich can only be conceived of as having an existence ; as. Virtue, jnstice.
QUESTIONS ON THE NOUN. What is a Noun? How is a Xoun known? What point must be carefully remembered? Give an illustration. Into what three classes are noims divided? Ho^\' may a Proper Noun be known? How do you know a Common Noun? What is meant by an Abstract Noun? Give a definition of each.
EXERCISE ON THE NOUN.
1. Write out twelve names of tilings in the school-room.
2. Write out twelve names of things in the play-ground.
3. Write out twelve names of tilings in tho fields.
THE Nou^^ SI
4. Select the nouns in the following sentences : —
The sun shines. The dog barks. The fire bums. The fox crept along the wall. The boat sails on the water. The flow^yrs bloora. Birds build nests. The door is open. Water is good for drinking. rolumbus discovered America. John studies grammar. History is a useful study. The rose is a beautitai flower. Cain slew Abel. The boy told an untruth. MuiJ- I'ooms grow. The church bell tolls.
5. Write out twelve nouns that are names of things. G. Write out twelve nouns that are. names of persons.
7. Write out twelve nouns that are names of 2>/ace«.
8. Write out twelve abstract nouns.
9. Arrange the different nouns in the sentences given above, according to the class to which they belong.
ANALYSIS.
31. — 1. A Sentence is a combination of wont's expressing a complete thought. (Sec. 1, 2.)
2. This complete thought is expressed respecting some thing, — i. e., a Noun or its equivalent.
3. The expression of this thought is made ly means of that part of speech called the Verb, witi- out which no statement vnu be made.
4. The two parts into which each sentence may be conveniently divided, are the NouN Part and the Verb Part.
n. The division of a sentence into its two essentidi parts is termed Analysis.
Examples. The clock has just struck two. She dwelt on a wild moor.
|
NocN Part 1 The clock 1 ; She |
Verb Part. |
|
has just struck two. dwelt on a wild moor. 1 |
32 ETYMOI-OftY.
Analyze, according to plan, the following sentences : — The e^ye is the organ of sight. Blood flows from the heart. Temperance promotes health. Iron is the most useful metal. A bad workman quarrels with his tools Words of many syllables are called polysyllables. The long expected friends have arrived. The sea is England's glory. True friends adhere to as in adversity. Manj^ of the descriptions given by travellers are exaggerated. To love our enemies is a command given by our Saviour The wind moans through the trees. Subjects must obey their rulers.
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS. What is a sentence? What two parts of speech enter into the structure of every sentence? How are they introduced? Into what two parts is every sentence divided? What is this division styled?
INPLECTIONS OF THE NOUN.
o2. The Inflections of this Part of Speech are, —
Gender,
NCMBEK,
Case. Besides these Inflections, Person is also ascribed to nouns.
PEESON. 33. Person, in Grammar, is the distinction be- tween the speaicer, the person or thing spoken to, aiid the person or thing spoken of.
1. A r.oun is in the first person, when it denotes the speaker ; as, I, Paul, ha\e written it.
2. A noan is in the second person, when it de- notes the person or thing spoken to; as, Thou, God, seest me. — Hail, Liberty!
3. A noun is in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, Truth is mighty.
QUESTIONS ON PEESON. What is meant by Person ? When is a noun said to be in the Ci-st Persou? in the second? in the third?
EXERCISE ON PEESON.
1. Tell the person of the following uouna.
2. Give your reason.
THF, S:c>TT«r f©
Mary, voii are a pood girl. 1, Jobn Thompon, hereby certify. .Tebn Tliomson hereby certifies. Consistency, thou nrt a jewel Boys, you may go home. The boys went home. Darius made a decree. I, Darius, make a decree. Thou art fallen, O Lucifer.
34. The first change or inflection tha;t marks tl» noun is
GENDER^
35. Gekder is the distinction of Sex.
36. Tin's inflection enal^les us to tell whether the individual person or thing, of which the noun is ths name, belongs to the male or the female sex, or to neither.
How ascertained. — As this is a graarnmnfic^l distinction in t)>« YMmes of things, we can determine the gender as soon as ve know to which natural division that individual person or thiii^ belongs.
37. This difference in sex, tlierefore, gives us THREE GENDERS, Called respectively —
Masculine,
Femim.xe,
Neuter.
1. Maacnline Gender. — If we are speaking of a person or thixig belonging to the male Bex, the name of that person or thing w*ll be masculine ; as, Man, horse.
2. Feminine Gender. — If the person or thing belongs to the female aex, the noun, i. e., the name, is of the feminine gender; as, Woman, mare.
3. Neuter Gender. — If, however, it belongs to neither sex, it is of the neuter gender ; as, Tree, taMc.
4. CJomraon Gender. — Sometimes the nouns are the naoies of persons Ijelonging to either sex; the gender, therefore, is common; as, r.iront
8.S. The M \sct:line and the Feminii<:e are dis- tinfT^'slied from each other bv —
I. Different Inflections. II. Different Woiil>s.
■U
ETY^IOLOGT.
I. DIFFERENT INFLECTIONS. 39. The inflections most frequeiitly met with are
ESS and IXE.
1. Masculine. Abbot Actor Author Barcn Count Puke Emperor Governor Heir Jew
Examples of FeminiM. Abbess Actress Authoi'ess Baroness Countess Duchess Empress Governess Heiress Jev/ess
THE TeRJIINATIOX
Masculine.
Lion
Marquis
Xesrro
Poet
Prince
Shepherd
Sorcerer
Tiger
Viscount
'Ess.'
Feminine.
lioness
Marchioness
Negress
Poetess
Princess
Shepherdess
Sorceress
Tigress
Viscountess
2. Examples of the Teemixation 'Ine.' Masculine. Feminine.
Hero Heroine
Landgrave Landgravine
Margrave Margra\-ine
n. DIFFEEENT WORDS.
|
Masculine. |
Feminine. |
Masculine. |
Feminine |
|
Boy |
Girl |
Husband |
Wife |
|
Brother |
Sister |
King |
Queen |
|
Bridegroom |
Bride |
Lord (a title) |
Lady |
|
(yick |
Heu |
Man |
Woman |
|
)))'ake |
Duck |
Nephew |
Niece |
|
Earl |
Countess |
Papa |
Mamma |
|
Father |
Z^Iother |
Son |
Daughter |
|
Gander |
Goose |
Sir |
Madam |
|
Gentleman |
Lady |
Uncle |
Aunt |
|
Horse |
Mare |
Widower |
\\ idow |
40. The distinction is also mai'ked by placing Masculine and Feminine Avords before the noun of common gender ; as —
Masculine. Man-servant He-goat Cock-sparrow
41. Some nouns of" foreign original distinctions of gender ; administratrix ; beau, belle ; &c.
Feminine. Maid-servant She-goat Hen-sparrow, &c.
origin retain their as, Administi'ator,
THE NOUN. 35
42. Sometimes an object that is usually considered as inanimate, is represented as a living person ; it is then said to be personified ; as, Come, gentle Spring.
QUESTIONS ON GENDER. What is the first n^fleotion of nouns? What is Gender? Of what use is this inflection? How many genders are there? What is meant by a noun being of the 5lasculine Gender? of the Feminine Gender ? of the Ne\iter Gender? of the Common Gender? How is the Masculine to be distinguished from the Feminine? What two inflections are most frequently met with? Illustrate the formation of the Feminine by means of a Prefix? Wliat is the rule respecting nouns of foreign origin ? What is meant by personification?
EXERCISE ON GENDER.
1 Write down the Feminine of—
Father, prince, king, master, actor, emperor, bridegroom, stag, buck, hart, nephew, friar, heir, hero, Jew, host, hunter, sultan, executor, horse, lord, husband, brother, son, bull, he-goat, &c.
2. Write down the Masculine of —
Lady, woman, girl, niece, nun, aunt, belle, duchess, abbess, empress, heroine, wife, sister, mother, hind, roe, mare, hen- sparrow, shephenless, daughter, ewe, goose, queen, songstress, widow, kc.
3. Give the gender of the following nouns, with reason: — Man, horse, troo, field, father, house, mother, queen, count,
lady, king, prince, castle, tower, river, stone, hen, goosf, seam- stress, mountain, cloud, air, sky, hand, foot, head, body, Hmb, lion, tiger, mayor, countess, friond, neighbor, parent, teacher, assistant, guide, sim, moon, earth, ship, cat, mouse, fly, bird, elephant, hare.
It ia suggested that the answer be given in the following form ; —
The noun ' MA.N ' id of the masculine gender, because it is the name of an individual of the male sex.
43. The next chann;e wjiich the noun undergoes is
NUMBER.
44. Numbp;k is a variation in the form, to expre.ss
one or more than one.
If wc are speaking of only one object, we use what is called the Bingular number; but if we arc speaking of several tilings, t>i«u we use another form, called the plural; therefore, —
'-^
36 ETYMUiOGY,
45o i!Touns have two immbei's, the Singular and the Plural. The singular denotes but one object ; as, Book^ tree; the phiral, more than one ; as, Books, trees.
46. Nouns form then- plurals in four different waySo
1. General Eule. — The plural is commonly formed by adding ' s ' to the singular ; as, Book, books.
TLie '"' nas two sounds, the sharp, and the flat, or 'z' sound, accordirif; to the letter v.hich precedes; as, Books (sharp),
IL — 1. Words ending in ' s,' ' sh,' ' ch ' (soft), 'x,' r.""(d 'z,' form their pliu'al by adding ' es ;' as, GlasSj glasses ; brush, brushes ; church, churches ; ibx, foses ; topaz, topazes ; but monarch, monarchs.
2. Most nouns ending in 'o' preceded by a aonsontmt, form their plural in 'es;' as. Cargo, cargoesc
Exceptions. — Canto, memento, octavo, two, aero, (/rotto, junto, portico, quarto, solo, iip'O, halo; also- noiina ending in 'eo,' 'io,' 'yo.'
3. Nouns in 'y' after a consonant form tlieir plural in 'es,* changing 'y' into 'i;' as, JLaJij, ladies,
4. Nouns in 'y' after a vowel follow tlie general rule J as, Jj ay, days. But nonas ending in 'quy' form their plural in 'ies;' as Colloquy, colloquies.
5. Nou)is in 'f ' or 'fe' forni their plural in 'es,' changing 'f into *v;' as, Wife, wives; life, lives.
Exceptions. — Gtilf, safe, fife, strife, and nouns ending in S,' 'f preceded by two vowels, and in 'rf,' fonn their plural in '8.' To this, however, there is an exception in the case of a few words, sucli :is staff, leaf, loaf sheaf, thief, &c. The com- pounds of the lirst of these words form their plural regularly;
Tms >:ouN. 37
III. The thii''l w;iv of forming the ]">liiral is Ijy a.'liling 'en' to the pingular; as, 0./;, Oxen; child, children.
IV. The fourth Avay is by changing the vowel of the singular ; as,
|
Singular. |
Plural. |
Singular. |
Plural |
|
Man |
Men |
Tooth |
Teeth |
|
Woman |
Women |
Goose |
Geese |
|
Foot |
Feet |
Mouse |
Mice |
|
Ix),ise |
Lice |
Com (formerly) |
Kiiie |
|
(now) |
Cows |
Note. — It must be borne in miii.l that Abstract nonns have no nbir.il, as lon_t; as wc consider them simply as names of notions; but as soon as we consider them iis names of things, they hare ii ))lurai For example, the noun 'Beauty,' as the name of a quality, has no i.)]nral ; but we use the plural form beauties, as m.'aniu;^ 'bi-.iutifui things ' The same may be said respecting the names of individual persons, and the names of materials. When either of these lias tlie force of a class name, then it tates a pUir.il; ,.s, The Georges of Enjjland. — Some golds; t. e., Kiuds of gold.
EXERCISE ON NUMBER
1. Give the plural of the following nouns, f)T;d the rules for form;ng each; thus. Book., plural hoolci. Sule. — 7'he plural is conimtm!y formed, Ac. Fox, plural Joxcr. Hule. — Xouns in 'B,' 'sh,' 'cli' (soft), 'X,' 'z,' form the plurall'v adding 'es.* Or more briefly, Nouns in 'x' form the plmal by adding 'ea.'
Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, box, coach, sky, army, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, church, taoli-, gla!=s, study, street, potito, sheaf, house, glory, monarch, flower, city, diffi- culty, wolf, day, bay, chimney, jijurney, needle, enemy, ant, sea, key, tyro, grotto, nuncio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, staff, cliff, reef, safe, wharf.
2 Of what number is each of the following noims, and why?
Book, trees, plant, globes, toys, home, fancy, glass, state, foxes, houses, prints, be.irs, lilies, ruses, glove, silk^ skies, hill, river, Ktars, berries, peach, glass, pitcher, alleys, mountain,
NOUNS lEREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 17, There aiv cerr.iin ])ccn]iarities in the forma- tion of the j)lural of different nouns wortliy of being iiotcd.
S8
ETYMOLOGY.
48. Some nouns have a double ])lural, each havinn 9 different signification ; as, —
Singular. Plural.
Brother (one of the sanre family) Biothera
,, ,, ,, society) Brethren
Die :'a stamp for coiniug) Dies
„ (a small culie for gaming) Dice
Genius (a man of learning) Geniusea
,, (a kind of spirit) Genii
Index (a table of refi^renoe) Indexes
„ (a sign in algebra) Indices
Penny (a coin) Pennies
„ (a sum or value) Pence
49. Some nouns are used in the singular only; as, Gold, meekness, pieti/, ^-g.
50. Some nouns are used in the plural only; as. Annals, ashes, billiards^ hitters, clothes, ^x.; also, tilings consisting of two parts ; as, Bellows, drawers,
51. Some nouns have the same form in both I) umbel's; as, Deer, sheep, swine, ^-c; certain build- i/ig materials ; as. Bride, stone, plank, in mass.
Some of these have a regular plural, with a distributive 1 leaning.
PLURALS OF FOKEIGN NOUNS.
52. Words adopted withont change from foreign languages generally retain their original j)lural.
1. The termination 'us' is generally changed into 'i;' as. Radius, radii.
2. The terminations 'tun' (Latin) .ind 'on' (Greek) are changed into 'a;' as, Datum, data; autonmton, automata.
3. The termination 'a' is changed into 'sb;' as, Formula, foi-mulse.
4. The termination 'is* (Latin and Greek) is changed into 'fes' and sometimes into 'ides;' as, Crisis, crises; chrysalis, cbrysalides. The termination 'es' is retained; as, Species, sj.ecies.
5. The terminations 'x.' ex.' or 'ix,' are changed into 'ices;' {W, Apex, apices,
THE XOUN. 39
6. The following are from the French, the Hebrew, and the Italian : —
French— Beau, beaux. Hebrew — Cherub, cherubim. Italian — BanHit, banditti.
Note. — The gener;d tendency of the language is to adopt many of these words and give them English plurals; as, Memoran- dums, seraphs.
QUESTIONS ON NUMBEIL What is Number? When is the singular used? When the plural? What does the singular denote, &c. ? How many ways are there for forming the plural? What is the first general Rule? What two sounds has's?' Give examples. What is the first Rule for the formation of tiie plural in 'es,' &c.? What is the third way in which the plural is formed? Give examples. Give ex.-imples of Xouns which form their plural by a change of the vowel in the singular. When hnve Abstract Xouns a plural? Wlieu have Proper Nouns and names of materials a plnral ' What is the first peculiarity noted in connection with the irregular formation of the plural? Give examples of Nonas used in th<? singular only, &c. How do Foreign Nouns form their plural, &c. ?
EXERCISE ON NUIUBER.
1. Give the plural of the following noims: —
Man, foot, penny, mouse, o\, cliild, woman, brother, goose, tooth, erratum, radius, genius, lamina, phenomenon, axis, che^l^b, seraph, die, index, beau, bandit, penny, memorandum.
2. Of what Number are the following nouns. —
Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, teeth, woman, child, apparatus, genii, geniuses, Matthew, children, brothers, formulas, cherubim, pence, seraph.
3. Tell why each word is of that particular Number.
53. The last inflection that the noun undergoes
CASE.
54. Case is the relation which nouns and pro- nouns bear to the other words with which they are connected in sense.
1. Its prox)er meaning — Case properly signifies a falling The old grammarian.^ used to indicate tlie dependence of the noun upon some other word by the successive positions of a
40 ETYMOLOGY.
iu e falling gradually from the perpendicular. Hence the en 'imerdtion of the cases of nouns and pronouns is called da iiension
^ Relation. — Tl)is word, derived from two Latin words, means liter. lly ' the carri/inj back of our thoughts from one thing to another.'
01. Xouns in English have three cases: — The Nominative, „ Possessive, „ Objective.
DEFmiTIONS. 56. I. — The unchanuetl noun or pronoun stand- ]*ni>' ;is the subject or chief word in the noun part of the sentence is said to be in the ISomixative, i. e., the Naming Case; as, Man is mortal.
II. When the name of the oicner is placed just hofure the name of the thiui^ owned, so as to express property, or possessicii. it is said to be in the Pos- tES8iVE Case; as, Mans life is but a shadow.
III. When the word stands after a transitive verb or a preposition, it is said to be in the Ob- jective Case ; as, The son of that man killed
another man.
ESESCISE ON CASE.
1. Select Xominative Cases :
Friendship is rare. Sincerity is openness of heart. The sun went down. Truth is the measure of knowledge. Prayer is the poui's sincere desire.
Tell why they are in the Nominative Case.
3. Select Possessive Cases :
Nelson's monument. Prayer is the contrite sinner's voice. A soldier's sepulchre. The "liero's harp, the lover's lute. A distant torrent's fall. John's house.
Tell why, &c.
8. Select Objective Cases:
Strong reasons make strong actions. Knowledge expands the mind. God created the heavens and the eartli. The suuuut^
THE yOUX. 41;
vnnd shook the branches. 1 saw the queen. The lightning struck the ship. She wrote a beautiful letter. Tell why, &c.
Note. — It is suggested that the answers should be given in Iha following manner: — 'Friendship' is in the nominative case, be- cause it nnmes the tiling ;vy)0ut which the assertion is made, * Nelson's ' is in the pc^ssessive case, btciiuse it points out the owner or possessor. 'Actions" is in the objective case, because it receives the action expressed by the verb.
EULES FOR THE NOMINATIVE. I. The subject of a finite verb is put in the Xominative ; as, The king reigns.
1. Subject. — Under the head of analysis we found that eve^y *entt'iice consists of tv\o parts : one part being the thing spok-n of; the otlier, what we say about it. To the former of these \re give the name of Subjoct; and to the hitter, as containing t^e assertion, the nam'^ of Predicate.
2. Certain verbs, besides having a nominative before thei'i, have one after them; hence we have as a second Rule,
II. A Predicate Noun, denoting the same pers<a or thing as its subject, agrees with it in case ; as, { ;un a messenger.
III. An ajjpositive agrees with its subject ,n case ; as. The two brothers, John and Heni'y, go to sdiool.
Apposition.- — When we use different v.ords for the same thing, \ie speak of the one as standing in apposition with the other, and we give the naiiie of appositive to that word which explains the otlier.
QUESTIONS ON CASE.
What i.i Case? What d< its the w(. id properly signify ? AVhat is meant by 1 >eil. n.jion ? What (hx'S relation menu? How many cases liave Xouns ? Give the definition of each. What is the Rule for tht- Nominative? Wlint is meant by t.he Su'.- ject? What is un-ant l)y a Predicate Nominative? What e tiie Rule for Appositives? How d<> you explain the woid i[H>08itive?
EXEECT8E ON THE NOMTNATIVE. 1. Scloft the Nominatives in the following examples: — 2 (^^InH.sify thpin .aci'drdin'/ In t.lii> Riil<-s
42 ET T:\ror.OGY.
'file (log piiiiglit a rat. John broke tlie cup. The bird sings sweetly. A noun i.s a name. The battle was fought. He is called James. He was elected president. Milton, the poet, was blind. William, the Conqueror, was a Norman.
THE POSSESSIVE CASE.
57. The Possessive, in both numbers, is formed by adding an apostrophe and 's' to the nominative; as, John, Johns ; men, mens.
58. When the phiral ends in 's,' the posses.sive is formed by adding an apo.<trophe oidy; as, Ladies, ladies'.
59. 1 he relation of the |)Ossessive is also ex- pressed by the preposition 'of;' as, The sun's light ; or, The light of the sun.
60. When the nominative singular ends in ss, es, us, ce, X, or in letters of a similar foi'ce, the 's' is ^ometimes omitted in order to avoid harshness, or too close a succession of hissing sounds, especially before a word beginning with 's;' as, For good- ness' sake ; for conscience' sake.
RULE FOR THE POSSESSIVE. Any noun, not an appi-sitive, qualifying the meaning of another noun, is put in the Possessive;
as, I lost my brother s book,
QUESTIONS ON CASE— (continued. )
How is the Possessive singular formed? How is the Posses- sive plural formed ? How is the relation of the Possessive snmt^ times expressed? When is the apostrophe alone appended tu the word for the Possessive singular? Repeat the Rule for the
Possessive.
EXERCISE ON THE POSSESSIVE.
1. Give the Possessive, singular and plural, of the following nouns: —
Child, prince, woman, king, servant, tutor, footman, righteous- ness, fntlier, duke, dog, bride, author, po(tes.s, mason, bouse, w.-iiter, ;;rtist, tliicf.
THE NOL'N. A!^
2. Supply Possessive cases in the follomng:
The 's orowu. The 's sword. The 's mane.
's horse. The 's coat. The 's heat. The 's
cold.
3. In place of tht; proposition 'of and its case, insert the Possessive :
The shade of the liolly. The work of the men. The dresses of the ladies. Tlie flag of the mau-of-war. The son of a prince. A servant of the king. For the sake of goodness.
THE OBJECTIVE CASE, iii. The Ob.iectivk Case, is the same in form a.> the Nominative.
A w 'rd is said to bo in the Objective cose when it expresses either (1) the object of an action, 'denoted by ,i transitive verb, in the active voice;) or ('J) the object of a relation, (denoted by a preposition. )
RULE FOR THE OBJECTIVE. The Objective case follows an active transitive vei'b or a preposition ; as, He struck the table \\\i h his hand.
QUESTIONS ON. CASE -(continued. ) How does tli<; Oliji'ctive Case o^ a noun diiier i;i foi in from t»)« Nominative ? Wlieti i.s a word «.dd t<i be in the Objective Cas<;? What ia the Hnle for tii..- Objective?
EXERCISE ON THE OBJECTIVE. 1. Select the Objectives in the following examples : — 2 State wliy the words arc in the Objective.
John struck James. Knowledge expands the mind He was a man of honor. Truth is the measure of knowledge. ( "hil iren should obey their parents. <5ood boys learn their lessons. He w;is struck by lightning.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS. fi2. Nouns are thus decHned —
Sing. Pluk. Sixc. Flcr. Sing.
Xom- Lady ladies Man men John
Posa- Lady's ladies' M;ui's men's John's
Ohj. Lady latliea Man men John
Note. —If tV.i' Pro]>or Nouu is the name of tui individu^J person it lia-s no plural.
44 ETY^IOI.OGY.
Decline the foUowiug counsi in the same way: — OhiM, hoy, girl, house, queen, mother, woman, ■waiter, Jaiaes, author, poet, servant, smith, prince, broker, son, daughter.
PASSING. 63. Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or of some related word or words, accord- ing to the definitions and rules of Grammar.
Illustration. — The meaning of this definition will be better understood if we take an example by waj' of illustration. We meet, for instance, with. the word 'fox,' and wish to parae it; i. t., we wish to assign it to its proper class of words, and to tell how it is aft'ected by other words in the sentence, or how it affects them. We find that it is the name of a thing, (i. e. , an animal,) therefore it is a noun. As its Bex is not known posi- tively, the noun belongs to either gender ; it is therefore parsed as o£ the common gender. As it is but onfe of a class, it is a common noun, of the singular number. As t;ir as form is our gixide, it stands in either the nominative or the objective case. Hence, in order tkat our parsing may be exact and complete, we have the iolL>v,iiig
OEDEH OF PAUSING THE NOUN. Prop, j . Mas. ^ ^ g.^^^ ^ y Norn. ^ ■ ^^^
Com. >- 5 x-^™' > "5 > "a Poss. > according to
At..r.)^ Co':, il P'- il Obi. \ '''■-"'
The grammatical connection must first be given both in this and every part of speech, except the Interjection.
ExA>r?LE. —James lost his lirother's knife.
Relation.
James lost
brofhfir'^ knife lost knife.
Etymology and Syntax. JaivfH. Xuiin, proper, masculine, sing>d;>.r,
nominative to verb lost Bule. brother s Noun, common, masculine, singular,
possessive, depending cm knife. Rule. htifi:. Noun, common, neuter, singular, ob- jective after the vorb loHt. Rule.
TABLE OF NOUNS.
Kind.
Prop'-'?' Conujioa. Abatra«A.
THE NOUN. Ah
Inflections
Geuder. Xnmber. Case.
Obj.
Mas. Fem. Sen. Sing. Plur. Nom. Poss,
ANALYSIS. <i4. — 1. The ));irt of a sentence which names the »hing about which the assertion is made (i. e., the NOUN part) is called the SUBJECT.
2. The subject of a sentence is, thei-efore, a noun, or some word or Avords used as a noun.
3. Sometimes the subject is a simple nominati'«-'e without any accompanying words.
4. This nominative is sometimes called tlve ' simple subject,' and sometinv i the ' grammatical subject.'
5. If any words are joined to the nominative in foi ming the subject, the subject is termed ' com])lex,' or ' logical.'
(i. Tiie words thus joined to the subject are called ' atti'ihute.s' because they qualify or attri- bute some quality to the thing named. (Sec. 6.5, 2.)
7. The different attributes may be a noun in apposition, a nou;. in the ])Ossessive case, (either form, Sec. 57, 59,) or a preposition followed by its case.
Examples.
( ' Shakeitpearfi was a poet
(2 ) Shakespeare, the poet, flourished in the reign of Eliza- beth.
(.'^. ) The viaMf-r's patience was exh.uistcd ; or, Tlu; pati«iipe of the maxtfr w;i8 exhausted.
(4.) Nonf liut tlif hrare <leserve the fair.
46
ETYMOLOGY.
In the first example we have a simple subject ; in the otber three the subject is complex. In (2) the attributive is a noun ir apposition ; in (3) •we have both forms of the possessive ; and iii (4) a preposition followed by its case.
|
Subject. |
||
|
VERB I-AET. |
||
|
Attribute. |
Nominative. |
|
|
file poet |
Shakespeare |
flourished in the reign of Elizabeth. |
|
Tte master'.^ |
patience |
was exhausted. |
|
Oi the master, the |
patience |
ditto. 1 |
Analyze, according to plan, the following sentences: — The sovereign's death was lamented. The boy with the h^ng black iiair was found in the wood. The general's skill saved the town. Paul, the Apostle, was once a persecutor. A man of wealth is not necessarily a gentleman. The merchant's hon.se is magnificent.
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
What name is given to the Xouu Part of a sentence? What is the .subject of a sentence? When a Kominative is taken by il'seK. what is it called? What other name has it? What is mean', by a Complex ."subject? What is the logical subject of a sentence? What is meant by Attributes? Why are they so callec'!? What different attributes may a noun have?
THE ADJECTIVE.
65^ An Adjective is a word used 1o qualify nouns : as, A good boy.
1. Origin of Name.— It gets its name from beuig added to nouns to describe the things which they name.
2. HiuBtration. - From the duty that an adjective does, it may be called a noun-marking word. Thus: 'The black man sold the sjjotted dog to the old gentleman." In this sentence the words black, spotted, old, and the, (jualify, or mark the nouns Tr-ar log, and geuticman. Black mmU.s the fi'-'Un i-'ifin. nnd.
THE Ai>J !:.<. TIVE. 47
helps us to know that man among other men ; spotted marks the noim dog, and helps us to distinguish the dog of which vre are talking, from other dogs ; and old marks the noun gentle- man, and helps us to mark out that gentleman from gentlemen w ho are young or middle-aged. The word the marks out the particular black man about whom we are speaking from among all other black men; ainl so of the lest.
66. There are tUv^e kinds of Adjectives — I. Those which mark a tldng from o class,
II. Those which mark the jietuliar quality of a thiug. in. Those which tell us the number or quantity.
67. LTnder the first class we place such adjectives as 'an,' 'a/ 'the,' 'this,' &c.
(IS. Under the second class we find such adjectives ua 'i2;ood,' 'bad,' 'wise,' 'white,' &c.
(>!;». Those adjectives which denote number are
divided into —
I. Cardinal. ) „ .„„,., } Numerals, n. Ordinal. )
70. Cardinal Numerals tell us how many things there are in a scries; as. One, two, tliree, &c.
71. Ordinal Numerals denote the place held ty an object in a series ; as, First, second, third, &c.
72. Under the last named class of adjectives are found such 'indefinites' as all, any, svtne. few, t^'r.; and • distributives ' as each, every, either, neither.
1. Indefinites. — These numeral adjectives are so called be- cause they imply number, but do not specify an exact number.
2 Difitributives. -Numeral adjectives of this kind denote the whole of a 11 umber of objects taken separately.
73. When other parts of speech are used to qualify or limit a noun, they pertorm the part of an adjective, and shoulil bo parsed as such ; as, A ycld ring ; a sUce.r cup.
48 ETOIOLOGY.
AN and 'JHE. 74. Two of the first class of adjectives an and the, are so frequently used, that, under the name Article, they have often been regarded as a separate Part of Speech,
1. Origin of Name.— The word is derived fmm the Latin, and n)eans a little joint. Neither of the articles has any meaning, unless it is joined to a noun.
2. (1.) 'An' or 'a ' — This article points out the class to which a thing belongs ; as, A n apple. This means one of the class of fruit called apples.
(2.) 'An' is used before a vowel or silent h; as, An age, an hour.
(3.) 'A' is used before a consonant; as, A book.; al?'" before a vowel, or diplithong which combines with its sound the power of initial y, or w ; as, A unit, a use, a eulog)', a ewe, many a one.
3. (1.) 'The.' — This adjective points out a particular indi« vidnal, or group of individuals, of a certain class; as, The apple. This means some particular apple already referred to. Sometime.s it gives to a noim or another adjective the force of a class ; as, I'fte apple is a delicious fruit. Tlie wine and the good.
(2.) How applied. — 'The' applies to either number, but 'a' to. the singular only, except when it eives a collective meaning to an adjective and a plural noun, ' ' "w days ; a great many.
QUESTIONS ON TflL i^.^1 j^YE. What is an Adjective? Whence '..>e8 it derive its nann ' Illustrate, by an example, what is Tieaut by ' qutilifying.' How many classes of adjectives are there? How do . 'use of the first class mark out a thing? What is the nature of those of the second class? Of what kind are those of the third class? Name a few adjectives belonging to tlie first class. Name a few that belong to the second class. What name is given to those which denote number? How are these divided? What do Cardinal Numerals tell us? What do Ordinal Numerals denote? Name a few of the 'indefinite numerals.' Why are they called 'in- definite?' Why are they called 'distributives?' Name the 'distributives.' How would you parse the wor<l 'gold' in the
THE ADJECTIVE. 49
compound word 'a gold-ring'? Why do you thus parse it? By what name are the adjectives 'an' and 'the' sometimes known? What does 'article' mean? Of what use is the adjective 'an?' When is the form 'an' used? When the form 'a'? What force h;i3 the adjective 'the'? What two ideas may he expressed by the words 'the cow'? How do these adjectives difl'er in their ipplication to nouns, with respect to number?
EXERCISE ON THE ADJECTIVE.
1. In the following exercises assign each Adjective to its proper class : —
A terrible war had been waged for many years. The British coil-fields, it is said, will be exhausted in three generations. The heavy brigade was drawn up in two lines. Each soldier knew his duty, and every man was prepared to do it. There is much wisdom in the words of the old man, but little grace in hi9 speech The bloom of mat fair face is wasted ; the hair is grey with care. The disorderly soldiei-s were expelled. The general, envious of distiuctiv/n, dash"^l into the enemy's ranks.
2. Complete the following sentcnc- •■ by supplying appropriate adjectives: -
The captain lost his jons, the in battle, the at
sea. There are pears. Too— -money i-uins men.
Let the boy rejwat nouns. A really man is rare.
Cromwell's- heart broke under the heavy stroke of
affliction, (iod rewards the , and punishes the Ci-sar
fought battles. Where did your father buy that
book? Both these boys deserve punishment John
has bought two books. Grammar teaches the us« ol
language.
THE INFLECTION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 75. Tlie Atljertive in English admits of but one inflection, viz., Decree.
1. Degree. — This word means a step, and the object of this inflection is to shew increase or diminution in the quality which the adjective expresses.
2. Illustration. — If I were to place three pie"c3 of paper hy the side of one another, and say of one of the pieces that it was 'white,' I would be using one 'degree of comYJarison,' that which simply expreaeea the posseasion of the quality If the second piece possessed the same quality cf 'whiteness' in a higher degree, I would say that it was 'whiter* than the first piece, and thus use the 'second degree.' But if the third piece wa»
50 ETY^.roLoaT.
whiter than either of the other two, it would possess the quality iu the highest degree. A fourth piece mij,'ht possess the same quality, but to an extent or degree even less than the first ; it might, therefore, be sa-id to be of a ' whitish ' color. This gives us a degree under the positive, which we may call the Bubposi- tive. We may then arrange the degrees like steps, thus: —
Sup. — Whitest. Comp — Whiter. | Pes. — White. I Subpos ^^.^hit^sk I
76. .Adjectives which express qualities that admit of degrees, have three degrees of coviparison ; the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superla- tive.
77. The Positive expresses a quaHty simply, vi'ithout reference to other degrees of the same quality; as, Gold is heavy.
78. The Comparative expresses a q^uality in a higher degr'^e than the Positive; as, Gold is heavier than silver.
79. Tlie Superlative expresses a quality in the highest degree ; as, The wisest, greatest, meanest of mankind.
80. To these we may add the Subpositive, ■which expresses a quality in a slight degree.
MANNER OF INFLECTING.
81. Adjectives of one .syllable form the compara- tr^'e by adding e?' to the positive, and the superlative by ackling est; as. Sweet, sn-eeter, sweetest.
1. When used. — (1.) The Comparative degree is used when two objects, or sets of objects, are compared together, -as to how much of a common quality they have ; as, Johns horse is swifter than Henr>'s. The quility 'swiftueas' is here ascribed to both horses, but to John's in a greater degree than to Henry's. This ti<-,Tee is generally follow'jfl by ' than.'
thp: ADJEOTn'T:. 51
(2.) The Superlative is used wben one object, or set of objects, is compared v.itb two or more, indicating tbat one object pos- sesses thp quality in a higher degree than all the others, there- fore ill the highest degree ; as, James is the u-iacsf of the three boys. Here the quality of ' \\'i8dom ' is ascriljed to the three boys, but iij the highest degree to only one uf thuim.
2. Adjectives in 'y' after a consonant ch;iuge 'y' into 'i' before 'er' and 'est;' as, Dry, drier, diitut ; happy, happier, happiest; but 'y' after a vowel is not changed; as, Gay, gayer, gayest.
82. Adjectives of more than one syliabie, are commonly compared bv prefixing 7»07'e and most to the positive ; as, Numerous, more numerous, most numerous.
1. Comparison Ascending — Bj' means of these pretixes we express an increase in quality, and the comparisou may be callfsd comparison ascending
2. Comparison Descending. -On the other hand, a diminution of degree is expressed by prefixing 'less' and 'least" io the pooitivc; as, Sweet, less .-•uitl, least sweet. Tliis may be :ermod comparison descending.
QUESTIONS ON THE INTLECTION OF THE ADJECTIVE,
Ho'.v many luHections has the Adjective/ What is that in- fleotioa called? What does Degree moan? Illustrate, by an example, the dififereut degrees of comparison. How do /on ex- plain the subjio-sitive degree? What class of adjectives admits of com)iarisou? What are the three degrees of comparison? What does the positive express? the comparative? the superla tive? How do adjectives of one syllable form their compara- tive ? their superlative ? When is tlie comparative degiee used ? Illustrate your answer. When is the superlative used? illus- trate your answer. What is the rule for adjectives ending in ■y? How are adjectives of more than one syllable compared? \Vliat does comparison ascending express? What is meant by comparison descen<ling?
EXERCISE ON THE ADJECTIVE.
1. f'ompare the following Adjectives: —
Modern, brnvc. tranquil, merry, lively, solemn, \n\ro, amiable, charming, green, serious, warm, ricli, poor, beautiful, cold, white, cross, deaf, glatl, fuiuiy, gieat, hard, kind, long, wild, itimble.
52
ETYMOLOGY,
2. Make sentences containing the following Adjectives: — More, fewest, happiest, shorter, sweeter, darkest, broader,
hottest, redder, most, ample, abler, wiser, clearer, fitter, tem
perate, most valuable, less able, le;ist amiable.
lEREGULAE OOMPARISON.
83. Besides the ways given above for the forma- tion of the Comparative and the Superlative, there is an irregular mode of comparison.
LIST or ADJECTIVES IBIiEaULAELY COMPARED.
Positwe. Comparative. Supfirlaiive
Good better best.
Bad, .evil, ill worse worst.
Little less (lesser) least.
Much, many more most.
Far farther farthest.
Fore former foremost or first.
Late later (latter) latest or last.
Near ne;irer nearest or next.
Old older or elder oldest or eldest.
Aft after aftermost.
(Forth) iurrher furthest.
Application. — The Adjective 'macb' is applied to things measured; 'many,' to things that are numbered; 'more,' and 'most,' to both. 'Farther' and 'farthest' relate to distance; 'further' and 'furthest' to quantity; 'older' and 'oldest' refer t<» ago, and are applied to both persons and things, while 'elder' and 'eldest,' denoting priority of birth, are refen-ed to persons
ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED
84. Certain Adjectives do not admit of rompari' sou. Tlicse are, —
1. Numerals; as, One, two. third, fourth, &c.
2. Tliose formed from Proper nouns; as. English, American, Roman.
3 Those "that denote j5gure, shape, material, or position; as, Circular, square, wooden, perf)endicular, &c.
4. Distributives; as, Each, every.
5 Those which alreafly possess an absolute or superlative sig- nifioation : as. True, j)orfect, universal, chief, complete, ^,c.
THE AjL>.JECTIVE. 5S
RULE FOR THE ADJECTIVE. An Adjective limits or qualifies a noun or its equivalent ; as, A truthful person is alway rev spected,
ORDER OF PARSING THE ADJECTIVE
iPoss. 1 Limiting, — )
Comp. > Degree. Quulifving, — - Inflec*'»oii. Slip. \ kc, \
EiAJrPLE. — I love the beautiful flowers of spring. Relation. Etymology and Syntax.
The flowtTS. The, Adjective, limiting — flowers. Rule —
No comparison. .Seai*<i/«i flowers. Beautiful, Adjective, qualifying — flowers. Rxile — Beautiful, more beautiful, most bt-autiful.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS.
What is meant by an Adjective beiiijc compared irregulariy\ Compare good, bad, &c. Eowis the adjective 'mucli ' applied? the adjective 'many? &c. To what do 'older' and 'oldest refer? How do they difl"er from 'elder' and 'eldest'? Wliat kind of adjectives are not compared ? Give examples. Wh;it is the Rule for the adjective? What is the order of parsing an adjective ?
EXERCISE ON THE ADJECTIVE
Parse, according to plan, the Adjectives in the following sevi- tences : —
It was the most wearisome journey I ever made. I never au^ a brighter sky. We .stood at ti)i.' foot of a perpendicular ro<^t It was a cruel and most unjust sentence. Here comes my wort.^y uncle. A hardier nature I have never known. Redder yet these hills sitall >{low. Upon my head they )>laced a fruitless crown. He is taller than his elder brother, and older than hui
TABLE OF AB.TECTIVES. Kind.
Those marking Tliose marking Those telling
a class. the quality. the number or
quantity.
I I [
Cardinal. Ordinal.
54 ETYMOLOC+T,
Inflection. Degree.
Positive. Compiiratne. Superlative.
ANALYSIS. 85. — 1. It ha.s been shewn (Sec. 64, 7.) how the simple subject may be changed into the complex, we now add another mode of enlarging the subject, — viz., the use of an Adjective.
2. A certain part of the Verb called the P.arti- ClPLE (ending in incj or ed) having the force of an adjective, also becomes a complement of the sub- ject.
3. A combination of words having the force of an atljective, — i, e., an adjectival or a pnr^ticipial phrase, may be used to complete the sid)ject.
4. Sometimes the order of a sentence is inverted, — i. e., the verb part comes first. This, however, pre- sents no difficulty as regards analysis.
Explanation of Enlargement. — Tlie attributes of the subject are called enlargements, because they enlarge our notion or idea of the subject. For exanjple, when I say, A man, my notion is very vague, and has very little in it ; but when I say, .An old man, iny notion of the man is enlarged by the addition of the notion of his age involved in the adjective ' old ' ; when I say, A little old man. my notion of the man is further enlarged by the notion of his size. In this way many new ideas respecting liim might be introduced, and each now idea would give a new enlargement.
ExAAfPLES.
1. A truthful person is always rf spectcd.
2. (a.) His listening brethren stood around, {b.) The ranrjuisfied army withdrew.
THE ADJEGTIV^E.
55
3. (a.) Tte boy, ignorant of gkating, was drovrned,
(6.) The general, having drawn up his forces, was ready for battle.
4. Sweet are the uses of adversity.
|
Subject. 1 |
! Verb Part. |
||
|
i Attribute. |
Nominative, person |
||
|
A, truthful |
is alwaj-s respected. |
||
|
The, ignorant t»f skating, |
bo3' |
was drowned. |
|
|
The, of adversity |
uses |
are sweet. |
Note. — The article is frequently included in the simple subject.
EXERCISE. Analyze, according to plan, the foUowing sentences: —
The humV>I<> boon was soon obtained. The haughty elements alone dispute our sovereignty. The most audacious to climb were instantly precipitatetl. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. Oreat is the power of eloquence. From rank to rank your voUey'd thunder flew. A terrible war had been waged for many years. The golden light into the painter's room strcame<l richlj'. The abandoned limbs, stained with the ooziug blood, were laced with veins swollen to purjile fulness
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
WJiat modes of enlarging the subject have been naticed already? Mention anotiier. Give an example. Why may the participle alsn be usud as a complement? What is an Adjectival phrase? What is meant by a sentence V>eing in- verted? Give an example.
THE PRONOUN.
86. A Pronoun i.s a word wliioh ])ro)ierly sup- plies the place of a noun ; as, John is a good bo} ; hr is rliligoiit in hia <:tndies.
56 ETYMOLOGY.
Illustration. — In the example given above the s:ime idea could have been expressed by a repetition of the noun 'John.' tut then the sentence would have been very clumsy and in- elegant: thus, 'John is a good boy; John is diligent in John's studies.' Instead of this awkward repetition of the noun, the part of speech which we are uow considering gives us a very useful substitute, and to this substitute we give the name Pronoun, because it can be used for, or instead of a noun.
ra FLECTIONS.
87. These inflections are —
Persok, Number,
Gender, Case.
CLASSIFICATION.
88. As there are different kinds of nouns and adjectives, so there are also different kinds of pro- nouns.
89. Pronouns may be thus classed: —
1. Personal Pronouns. II. Ad-jective do.
III. Relative do.
IV. Interrogative do
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
90. Personal Prong UiNs are so called, because ;.hev designate the person of the noun which they L^epresent.
91. There are three Persons, (Sec. 33,) and each if these has a Pronoun that can be uf^ed in its place.
1. The first person relates to the person speakitig. and has for its pronoun ' I,' plural, ' We.'
2. The second person relates to the person spoken to, and has for its pronoun ^Thou,' plural, ' You.'
3. The third person relates to the person or thing spoken of.
THE PP.ONOUN. 57
92. This last pronoun presents more varieties than either of the others ; thus, instead of a noun of the masculine gender we use the pronoun 'He:' instead of a noun of the feminine iiendei- we use the pro- noun 'She;' and instead of a nouii of the neuter gender we use the pronoun 'It.' If the noun is of the plural number, the form of the pronoun is the same, without regard to the gender, — viz., ' Tiiey.'
93. The Personal Pronouns are /, you or thou, he, she, it ; with their plurals, We^ you or ye, they.
94. They are very irregular in their declension, 83 shewn in the following table: —
INrLBGTION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
SiKGULAB.
|
Norn |
Foss. |
Ohj. |
|||
|
1 2 3 |
M. or F. Jf. or F. 1 Masc. 1 Fem. { Ntut. |
I Thou He She It |
Plu |
mine or my thme or thy his hers or her its RAL. |
me thee him her it |
|
Nora. |
Foss. |
Obj. |
|||
|
1. We |
ours or our |
us |
|||
|
2. Ye or you 3. They |
yours or your theirs or their |
you them |
1. Two forma of Possessive. — It will be noticed that some pro- nouns have two forms of tiie possf-.ssive case, a long and a short form. The short form is used when the noun is expressed, and its position is before the noun ; as, This is my book. The long form is used when the noun is omitted ; as, This is mine. If, however, the noun is expressed, the pronoun m ill follow it ; as, This book is mine. ' His ' may stand either before or after its noun; as. This is }ii« house, or. This hmise is Aw.
2. ' We,' — The plural of the first personal pronoun is also used to signify tlie speaker alone, when he is in a position of respon- BiViilit.y. Thus wc find roonarchs, authors, and uditors, using it iusteail of the singular form ' 1.'
58 ETYMOT.OGY.
3. 'You. '—This pronoun was. formerly used exclusively in the plural number, but it is now the singular pronoun, as well as the plural ; it still, however, takes a plural verb ' Thou ' is now used only in the solemn style, such as addresses to the Deity, ko., and sometimes in poetry.
4. The possessive forms, 'hers," 'its,' 'ours,' 'yours,' 'theirs,' should never be written with an apostrophe, thus, her'd, &c.
5. Reflexive Pronouns. — We frequently find the words self (sing.) and selves (plural) attached to the personal pronouns, which are then called Reflexive Pronouns.
6. ' Own. ' — The shorter possessives are rendered emphatic and reflexive by the addition of 'own'; as. It is ha- oion.
7. 'One.' — This pronoun, by means of which reference is made to no particular person, is called the indefinite personal pronoun, and is thus inflected :
Kom. Po8s. Obj.
One o)ie's one.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN.
What is a Pronoun ? Illustrate its use bj' an examijle. What are its inflections ? How are pronouns classed ? Why are Per- sonal Pronouns so called ? What pronoun is used instead of a noun in the first person singul.ir ? What pronoun is used, &o.? What dififerent tonus are there of the third personal pronoun ? Name the personal pronouns, singular. Give their plurals ? Whpu is the short form of the Possessive used ? AVh«i the long? What is peculiar about the position of 'his'? What use is sometimes made of the plural form 'we'? What was the original use of 'you? How are certain long forms of the possessive wrongly written ? How are the Reflexive Pronouns formed? What force has the word 'own'? How is 'one' in- flected?
EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUN, &c. 1. GO'Over the following list of Pronouns, and tell their Per- son, Gender, Numhrr, and Case : —
1, thou, we, us, you, he, she, mine, your. they. them, thine, him, ye, ours, me, his, hers, her, theirs, myself, thyself, it, its, ourselves, themselves.
2. Ill the following sentences select the Nouns, the Adjectives, and the Pronouns:
Her father gave her a book. Ye shall not touch it. My brother gave me the book. He liked the pe.irs, because they
THE PRON'OUN. 59
were sweet. The men siid they wouhl do it with the greatest lileasure. You and I went with them to meet lier after she had seen him. A diligent schular will succeed in his studies. Put it on, will yo\i ?
3. Parse the Xouns and the Adjectives according to form.
4. State the Person of each uf the Pronouns, and give the reason.
5. Make short sentences containing the following Pronouns: — We, they, ours, your, him, my, they, me, them, myself, it,
her, us, themselves, they, I, hers, their.
6. Substitute nouni for pronouns in the following fable : —
A wolf, roving about in search of food, passed by a door where a child was crying, and its nurse chiding it. As he stood listening, he heard her tell it to leave off crying or shf^ would throw it to him. So, thinking she would be as good as h(;r word, he hung about the house, in expectation of a capital sup- per. But as evening came on, and it became quiet, he again heard her say that it was now good, and that if he came for >t they would beat him to death. He, hearing this, trotted hoJD« as fast as he could.
7. Substitute pronouns for nouns in the following: —
Long, long <ago, a boy set out to see the world. The boy wanted very much to see the world. So the boy left home and walked till tlic boy met a woman. The woman asked the boy where the boy was going. The boy answered that the boy was going to see the world. The world is large, said tlie woman, but the woman will go with the boy to sec the world. Well, the woman and the boy set out, and the Avoman and the boy's way le<l through a dark forest. In the forest there was a gloomy den where a cruel wolf liverl. The wolf came rushing out when the wolf iietrd the footsteps of the wumaTi and the boy, tore the woman and the bo}- to pieces, and the cubs of t)ie wolf devoured the woman and the V)oy. So the woman and the boy did not see the world after all.
II ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 95. The .second division of ]n-onuuns partakes of the nature of the .Vdjectivt^, and hence its name. We have, in consequence, this
DEFINITION
9t}. Adjective Pkoxouns are words use<l, sometimes hke adjectives, to quaHfy a noun, and sometimes like jirononns, to stanrl instead of nouns.
60 i:T\rsiOL0Gr.
97. They are divided into thi'ee classes: —
DiSTRiBCTm:,
Demonstrative,
Ikdefinite.
1 DISTEIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.
98. The Distributive Pronouns represent ob- jects as taken separately. They are, eavh, every, either, iieitlier.
1. Person and Number. — The distributives are always of the third person singular, even when they relate t-o the persons speaking, to those spoken of, or to those spoken to ; as, E:ich of UJi — each of 7joa - each of tliem — has his faults. Here it will be observed that, though the other pronouns are of the plural num- ber and different j>er3ons, still 'each' takes a verb in the sin- gular, and has for its substitute the third personal pronoun.
2. Reciprocal Pronoans -(1.) There are two pr -nouns, 'cafh other ' and 'one another.' which expi-ess an inirrchaiiije of action, ai'd are, therefore, called Kkcii'KOCal PkoxouNc;; as, See how these Chi'istiaus love one another.'
3. Their Force as Adjectives. — By supplying some such word as 'person,' the adjectival fofce of the distril^utives may be seen.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN— (continued, ;
Wh/t is the second division of Pronouns? Give the defini- tion. How are they divided? What is meant by Distributive Pronouns? Name them. What i.s pi'culiar ;diout their person and number? Illustrate by an example. Name the Eeciprocal Pronouns.
2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
99. The second division of Adjective Prononns has, from the duty which they perform, acquired the name of Demonstrative. Hence we liave the following
DEFINITION.
100. Demonstrative Pronouns are so called, because the}' specify the objects to which they refer.
THE PRONOUN. ♦>!
101, Tlie pronouns which thns point out the ^ objects and stand for their names, are, t/tis, that, with their plurals, these, those,
1. Their Use. — If we are speaking of some object near iis, and wish to avoid the repetition of the noun, we use the pro- iKiiui ' this ' ; if the object is remote from us, we use 'that.' So, also, if the reference is to something already mentioned, 'this' indicates the last mentioned; 'that,' the first mentioned; as. Virtue and vice are before you: this leads to misery, that, to j)e:ice.
2. As Adjectives. — These words are frequently funn<l in con- nection with noiUis, they then have the force of adjectives, and are to be parsed as such.
3. ' That ' not always Bemonsti-ative. — This word is not always a demonstrative pronoun ; it is sometimes a relative prononu, (Sees. Ill, 115,) and then its place can be supjilied by 'who,' or 'which;' and sometimes it is a conjxuiction, and tiien inti'O- duces a new sentence. A careful attention to these directi<:>n& will iilways enable a pupil to assign this word to its proper ch'.ss. Thus, in the sentence, 'Wlioevcr s:iid Hint, was mistd^en,' the word 'that' is a demonsti'ative pronoun, because it represents. or stands in place of some thing. In the sentence, 'My brother gave me that book,' it is a demonstiative adjective, because it points out a particidar book. In the sentence, 'The ship that sailed yesterday was lost,' it is a relative pronoun, beeuise we can use 'which' instead of it. In the sentence, 'He said that he would do it,' the word is a conjunction, because it introduces a new sentence.
QUESTIONS ON THE PEONOUN— (continued.)
What is the second divi.sion of Adjective Pronniins? IJefine this class of pronouns. What is the sincuhir form of them? I What the i)biral? When is tlie pronoun 'this' correctly used? When 'tjiat'? Whut is tlieir force when joined to a noun? How do you know ^^hen 'that' is a demonstrative pronoun? a rr-l itivoV an adjective' a conjunction?
3. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 102. The third and last division of adjective pro- nouns is tliat of Indefinite Pronouns.
6f ETYMOLOGY.
103. As they do not stand for any particular person or thing, tliey have acquired their jiecuhar name. Hence the following
.DEFINITION.
104. The Indefinite Pronouns are those which designate objects, hut not jjarticularly .
105. The pronouns which thus stand instead of no particular person or thing are, none, any, all, such, some, both, other, another.
' Other' ami 'another.' — These two indetiuite prououns cau be inflected as nuiuis.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN— (continued ) What is the tliiixl division of Adjwctive Pronouns? Why are they so called? Give the definition. Name the Inde- finite Pronouns. Whi<li two are iiilleoteii the same as nouns.
EXEECISE ON THE PRONOUN, &c.
1. In the following exercise point out the Pronouns, the Adjectives, and the Nouns: —
My hooks, their father, that horse, these quills, his broMier, her hat A good boj' learns his lessons. These apjJes are good give some to j'our brothers. I a\ ill give one to each. The works of Gotl are great and numberless The person that told j'ou that was mistaken. He pjoniiscd that he would come Gold and silver are dug out of the earth. This book will do as well as that. Every bo^' should keep his own books.
2. Analyze the sentences given above, according to plans 1 and 2.
III. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 10(5. The third division of the l*ronoun is the Relative, and is used to introduce clauses describing the thing spoken of; as, The niaster ivho taught us is dead.
107. Besides being a substitute for its antece- dent, it also connects its clause with the clause going before it.
108. Hence it may moie properly be called a Conjunctive Pronoun.
THE PRONOUN. 63
109. F'Jom tliis double duty performed by the Relative we have the following
DEFINITION.
110. A Relative Pronoun, or, more properly, a Conjunctive Pronoun, is one which, in addi- tion to being a substitute for the name of a person or thing, connects its clause with the antecedent, which it is introduced to describe or modify.
1. Why so called. — It is oalled the relative, because it relates, — i. e., cxtrrhfi hack our thoughts to some word or fact which goes befoiG and is called the antecedent.
2. What the Antecedent may be. — The antecedent may be a noun — a jjronoun — an inlinitive mood — a clause of a sentence — or any fact or thing iipplied in it; as, A king ir/io is just, mak«!S his people happy. — He who reads all, will :iot be able to think, without which it is impertinent to read ; nor to act, witlioit ivhich it is impertinent to think. The man was said to be inv>o- ctnl, ichich he was not.
111. The Relative Pronouns are, —
M. and F. M., F., or N. N.
WHO. WHICH, THAT. WHAT.
112. They are thus declined, —
SiNGULVR ANI» PlURAL.
Nominative, Wlio Which That What.
Posnessirv, Whose Whose None.
Objective, Whom Which That What.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN- (continued.)
What is the third division of Prf(noun.s? For what are they usi.^d ? Wliat otiier duty do thf^y perform l>esidcs being .substi- tutes? What other name woidd be more appi-opriate? (rive the definition. Why is the i)ronoun called Relative ? What is the Antecedent? What may the antecedent be? Name th« Relative Pronouns. Inflect them.
APPLICATION OF THE RELATIVES.
113. Who is applied to persons ^oidv as. The bf»v ir/'io reads.
KTTTVIOLOGY.
114. Which is applied to inferior animals, and tilings without life ; as, The dog lohlch barks ; the book ichick was lost.
1. 'Which' is applied also to nouns expressing collections of persons, when the reference is to the collection, and not to the persons composing it ; as, The cominittee which met this morning decided it.
2. Other uses. — It is also nsed ^1) as an adjective, and (2) as a substitute for a sentence or a part of a sentence: as, (1) For lohich reason he will do it. (2) We are bound to obey all the Divine commands, which we can not do without Divine aid.
115. That is applied to both persons and things ; as, Th' boy that reads ; The dog that barks ; The book that was lost.
How known. — As said in Sec. 101. 3, tli^s word belongs to dif- ferent parts of speech. When it is a relative pronoun its place Wttn be supplied by ' who ' or ' which. '
116. What is applied to things only, and is used HI both nuniljers ; as, Take what yon want.
1. When used. — This relative is never used when the ante- cedent is expressed. It may, therefore, be treated as an inde- tuvite.
2. Other uses. — 'What' is sometimes used as an adjective; as, I\, is not material Viy ichut names we call them. Sometimes it is used as an adverb, having the force of 'partly.'
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
117. The Relative Pronouns, who, avhich, and "WHAT, with the addition ' ever^ are termed COM-
rorXD RKT-ATIVE PRONOUNS.
Used as Adjectives. — Whatfver, whatsoever, irhichever, and wkichnoefer, are often used before nouns as indefinite adjectives ; as, Whatevei- course you take, act uprightly.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN— (continued. )
How is 'who' applied? How is 'which' applied? Is this
its only application ? Is it ever used as an adjective? Give an
example. How * ' that ' applied ? When may it be known to
be a relative ? How is ' what ' applied ? When is this relative
THE PKONOUN. ^5
>ised . WTiat name may, therefore, be given to it? To v.'b.-vt otner parts of speech does " what ' belong ? Name the compouiid relatives. Why are they so called? When are they to i>e treated as adjectives?
IV. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
118. The fourth class of Pronouns is the iNTEti-
ROGATIVE PkoXOUNS.
119. In form they are the same as tlie Rehitive Pronoun, with the exception of ' tha-t,' which is never 'nterrogative,
120. As their name im])hes, they are used to "ntro- duce questions ; hence we have the following
DEFINITION.
121. Who, which, and what, when used wn't h verbs in asking questions, are c died iNTERROGATn k Pronouns; as, Who is there? Which w^ill yr n :ake? What did he say?
1. How inflected and applied.— 'Who' is inflected like t\ - i\ lative, and applies to persons only ; ' which ' and ' what ' app r to persons or -Jiings. The last two are also used as inteiTOg* - tive adjectivcV. a& Which eye is hurt? What boj' is that?
2. Indetuii,' Relativea. — When the xjronouns 'who,' 'which and 'what," are used responsively, they are regarded as inde finite ; as, I know vlio \\ rote that letter. We c;mnot tell iohi<i is he. I know not u-hul I .shall do.
RULE FOR THE PRONOUN. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent — i. e., the noun for wliicli it .stands — in person, gender, and number; as. All that a man hath /ie will give ■"ir /i/N life. A tree is known by itf< fruit.
Case of the Pronoun. — As the jjronoun is a substitute for the ii'iiin, the same rule applies to both.
ORDER OF PARSING THE PRONOUN.
,;': I . 1st ) . Mas. ) . Sin. ) ^ yom. ) ^^^^
fj y- .-ird i'^ Neut. (O PUu \ ^ OhJ. { '^If^^ fTo aiiree with its antecedent, according to Rule. )
66 ETYMOLOGY.
He is the freeman wliom truth makes free. Relation. | Etymology and Sjmtax.
//<- is i He, .3 Pers. Mas. Siug. IS' cm. to is. Rule.
makes whom i Whom, PJel. Sing. Mas. agreeing ^vith its ante- I cedent 'he.' Obj. after verb ??!oies. Rules.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN— (continned.)
What is the fourth class of Pronouns? What is their form? What exception is there? What is their duty? Give the detiuitiim. How are these pronouns inflected? Ho%v do they differ in their application? Give an example of 'which' used as an Interi-ogative Adjective. Give an example of 'what' similarly used? What is the Knle for the Pronoun? What is the Rule for its case? What is the order of parsing the Ptonoiiu ?
EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUN.
1. In the following sentences assign each Pronoun to its, jMoper class: —
I hope you will give me the l^ook that I lent you. The princ>e left his own carriage, and entered that of the general. One tannot always be sure of on«'s friends. It is an ill wind that 1 lows nobodj' good. What did the prisoner say? Tell me what the prisoner said? The king, who is the head of the state, may vdthhold his consent from a measure which has passed both Houses of Parliament. Who put that glove in ray hat? Every book on that shelf is mine ; I will give you a list of them. Give to hiu) that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away.
2. Parse the Prouoiuis according to the plan given.
3. Form sentences containing the 'Personal Pronouns' in the different cases.
4. Form sentences containing the 'Relative Pronouns' in the different cases.
5. Do the same with the ' Interrogative Pronouns.
THE PKONOUN.
67
M
03
o iz; o Pi
Ph
o
<1
EH
Pi
• a
CLi
68 ETYMOLOGy.
ANALYSIS. 122. — 1. The simple subject is sometimes enlarged by a clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun.
2. The Relative is, however, then used in what may be termed a restrictive sense.
3. Such a clause is termed a Relative Clause.
1. Restrictive use of the Relative. ^Tbis use of the Relative will be best undei'stood by means of au illustration. If 1 say, 'He answered the question m/iich was asked him,"- 1 restrict, — t. e., limit the answer to a parti ular and individual question ; but ii I say, 'He answered the question, ivliich was quite satisfactory,' I introduce an entirely new statement, — viz. , that the answer was satisfactory. In this last example tlie relative pronoun may be regarded as having more of a connective force.
2. Relative Clause. — The pupil will notice that a clause cvMitains a predicate witkin itself, and thus differs from a p*>rase.
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the following sentences, read the Subject; state whether it is 'Simple' or 'Complex,' and why it is so: —
Sounds of music were heard. No opportunity of doing good should be omitted. The long-expected friends have at last arrived. The moon moves roiind the earth in twenty-nine days. Kepeated want of success is apt to discourage a student. The veteran warrior, rushing iutr the midst of the battle, lost his life.
2. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate 'Simple Subjects' : —
ilows from tlie heart. is transparent. fought
bravely. loads to other sins. is the mother of in- vention. will always be despised.
3. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate 'Complex Subjects': —
have instinct. is called a limited monarchy. — —
are termed molluscous. are termed carnivorous.
fcims a diplithong lies between the tropics. cannot
vie with the V>eauties of nature.
4. Explain the nature of these 'Complex Subjects.'
5. Analyze all the sentences according to second plan.
THE VERB. 69
THE VERB.
123. A Verb is a word which expresses ecviti- tence, condition, or action; as, He is; he deeps; he runs.
Illustration. — This part of sijeech is the most important of the nlinle eight. Its very name implies this; it is, iu fcict, the word in a sentence, and without it no statement can be made, riiat its duty is to make an assertion, may be thus ilhistrated. !u the sentence, '.James met John after he had left the house,' we have two verbs, e:ich telling us .'something. The first one 'met' tells, or nfBrms something about James, the second o>-te 'left' tells something aoont John.
124. That respectinf;^ which the statement «s made is called the Subject; a^, James struck ti^e table.
12.^. Vcrlis adni'tcf a two-fold division, — I. In respect of meaning. IT. Do. form.
12(). Verbs, in respect of meaning, are of two kinds, —
I. Ti-ansitive. II. Intransitive.
127. In respect oi' form., they are divided into —
I. Regiilar. ,
II. IiTcgiilar. m. Defective.
I. KIND.
128. The Transitive verb makes an assertion respecting; its subject, but that statement is not in itself complete.
120. Tl;e Intransitive verb, however, does make ^i complete statein rt. Hence we have tlic follow- in <«•
70 ety:\iology.
definitions.
i. a teansitive verb.
130. A Transitive Verb is one which expresses
an action that passes from the agent, or rloer, to
some person or thing which stands as the object of
the verb; as, James struck William.
lol. The Object may, theri-fore, be defined as that upon which the action of the verb terminates, n. AN INTRANSITIVE VERB.
132. An iNTiiANSiTiVE V^erb is one which makes an assertion, and does not require an object to com- plete its sense; as, The boy ran across the field.
1. Of both kinds,— The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense. Thus, in the sentence, ' James struck the boy,' the verb is ti-ansitive. In thn sentence, 'The workmen struck,' tiie verb is intransitive.
2. Intiansitive Verbs made Transitive — (I) Sometimes "erug tr.at are naturally transitive take after them an object which has tlie same or a similar .signification. Thus, if I say, 'John rii.ns,' I use the intransitive forms of- the verb ; but if I consider th"^ statement as incomplete, fmd wisli to complete the idea, the only cbject that I can employ is the kindred noun 'race"; thus I can, with propriety, say, 'John nms a race,' and then the verb be- comes, in its nature, transitive.
(2) Many intransitive verbs acquire the force of transitive verbs by the addition of a preposition ; as, (Intransitive,) I laugh ; I wonder.— (Transitive,) I laugh at; I wonder at.
3. Verbs that are frequently confounded. — There is a certain class of verbs having both an inti'ansitive and a transitive foi-m, which are very frequently confounded. The simple application of the test, whether or not they take an object after them, wr>uld, at once, prevent their misapplication, '^'lese verbs are —
|
NTRANSITIVE. |
TRAN.SITIVE. |
|
Rise |
Raise |
|
Lie |
Lay |
|
Sit |
Set* |
|
Fall |
Fell |
This verb is sometimes intransitive, as, The sun .'^A?,
THE VERB. 71
Examples. — The sun I'kes. The wind raises the dust. He lies in V)ed until eight o'clock. Tlie lien lai/s cgg.s. Take a chair and sit down. He sef a high price upon it. Ha fell down stairs. The woodman felled the tree.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB. What is a Verb ? What does its name imply? AVhat is its duty? Dlustrate tliis by an example. Wliat do you mean by the 'suVjjeet'? What is the twofold divi.sion of verbs? How many kinds of verbs are there in respect of meaning? — in respect of form? Name them. In what way does the Transitive verb make a statement? Hlustrate your answer. What kind of .statement is made by an Intransitive verb? Illustrate Give the definition of a Transitive verb ; of an Intransitive verb, i^hat is meant by the 'object'? Shew, by an exaniijle, that f.ie «ame verb may be lioth transitive and intransitive. How m;-}' ^n intransitive verb be changed into a transitive? Mention another way. Give an example of each. Give the list of verbs that are frequently misapijlied
EXERCISE ON THE VERB.
1. In the following sentences assign the verbs to their proper class, as regards kind.
2. State why they belong to that particular class.
3. Select the 'subject' and tlie 'object' in each sentence, ap4 give your reason.
Tom cut his finger, and ttie wound bled freely. Tlie garden./r till from a tree and lay on the ground for an hour. The coaclj- nian struck the horse and it kicked him. The skj' became clea-', 'tul tiie moon w;is briglit. The suu I'ises in the morning ard M'ts in the evening, 'i'he moon and stars shine by night. The boy has gone to catch fisli in the river. So spake the apostate. Flowers bloom and die. I told him to lay it on the table; in- .stead of doing so lie went and lay down liimself. I <an-ived in safety. As the fanner was jn-eparing to fell the tree, it fell upon his head and killed hini. The law has power to preve^it, to restrain, to repair evil.
[This Exercise may also l)e used for parsing. T,(t tlie pupil jiarse the Adjectives, Pronouns, and Nouns. J
n. FORM.
1H8. As stated in Sec. 127, tlie veil), in respe*t of tVinii, i.s (livifled into three elasses, — viz., Kegulaf, Irregular, and Defective.
i'6A. The first two forms depend upon the mannor
''2 ETY3IOI OGY.
u which the verbs form their past tense and the^ ?ast participle.
135. Hence, for these forms, we haAe the following
DEFINITIONS. I. A REGULAE, VERB.
136. A Regular \"erb is one that forms its pas tense in the indicative active, and itspa.s< participley hy adding- d or ed, to the present; as, Piesent, love; past, loved; past participle, loved.
II. AN lEEEGULAS VERB. ^
137. An Irregular Verb is one that does not ^orm its past tense in the indicative active, and its ptist participle, hy adding d or ed, to the present? «b, Present, lorite ; past, ivrotc ; past participle, written.
Point of Difference. — The great point of difference between >Lese two forms is this: the Regnhir Verb is changed firon; rithont. by tlie addition of a syllable ; the Irregular is changed IVom within by some modiiication of the vowel in the root.
m. A DEFECTIVE VERB.
138. A Defective Verb is one in wliich some of the parts are wanting. The following list com- prises the most important. They are irregular an' chiefly auxiliary : —
Present. Past. Prcitcnt. Past.
Can could Shall should
May might Will would
Must
Ought
[For explanation of auxiliary, see Sec. 143. ]
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— ^continued. ) [Jpou what is the second division of ^'erbs based? How inanv Classes are there V Name them. What is meant by a Regidor '•rb? Give an e.Kample What is an Irregular Verb? What is the great point of difference between thesf- two forms? How i8 the change 'from without' efteoted? How the cliange 'from within'? What is meant by a Defective Verb ? Are defectivn verbs 'regidar' or 'irregular'? What is their chief duty?
THE VERB. t?i
IMPERSONAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS.
139. To the class of Defective Verbs also belong Impersonal and certain Auxiliary Verbs.
I. BIPBRSONAL VERBS.
140. This class of verbs represents an action withont naming the subject ; as, It rains.
141. Tliev are always in the third person singu- lar, 'cM'\ are preceded by the pronoini It.
II. AUXILLA.RY VERBS.
142. We shall presently see that the verb also I ndergoes ceitain inflection.s, or changes, and that a certain class of verbs helps them to form these in- flections. This gives rise to that class called au.T~ iliart/, which may bo thus defined: —
14;). Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are those by the help of which other verbs are inflected.
1 4. The verbs that form tin's class are —
Do, Havk Be, vShali., Will, Ma if, Can, Must, Lkt.
145. With ^he exception of '/>^' they are used j)nly '.n the present and the past tense ; thus, —
Present, Do, liave, shall, will, iiiuy, can. Past, Difl, liad, should, would, might, could.
1. 'Must' and 'Let.'— These two auxiliaries are uninHected.
2. Principal Verbs, — Five of these are also used as principal verbs, — vi/., iri,//, haiv, do, he, and let.
QUESTIONS ON .TIIE VERB -(continued.)
What two kinds of vei-bs are included ainono the Defective Verbs? How does the first class repre.^ent an action? Of what number are [inpersonal Verbs? Whit. IVmoun is always used as their subject? < live an illustration. What is the origin of Auxiliary V'erbs? Deline tliern Name the auxiliaries. In what tenses are they used ? (iive the past tense of each. Which two am not inflected? Which are used also as principal verbs?
74 ETYMOLOGY.
INFLECTIONS Of THE VEEB. 14(i. The verb has more inflections tlian any other part of speech, being changed in form to express
Voice, Tense,
Mood, Person,
NUMBEK.
147. The greater number of these changes are effected by means of the auxiliary verbs. (Sec. 144.)
I. VOICE.
148. Voice is a particular form of tlie verb, which shews the I'elation of the subject., or thing spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb.
niiistration. — As already stated, no assertion can be made without t1ie verb, and then the assertion must be made respect- iiig some person or thing, to which we have given the name of subject. Now, if 1 wish to inake the assertion respecting John, tliat ' he. strikes James,' John becomes what may be termed the agent, or actor, and James the object. Now, because John is represented as striking the blow, when I make the assertion respecting him, I employ that particular form of the verb calkd wnice. On the other hand, if I wish to i-epresent Jumes as rfcceiving the blow, 1 can no longer employ the same form as before, but am obliged to use an entirely different form. I, therefore, express myself thus: 'Ja?Hc.v is struck by John.' It will thus be seen that the same idea has been expressed by two \lifferent voices, and that this peculiar change takes place only fu tiansitive verbs.
149. Transitive Verbs, therefore, have t\\(> voices, called
I. The Active Voice. II. The Passive Voice.
150. The Active Voicr represents the subject if the verb as acting ; as, James strikef< the table.
151. The Passive Voice represents the object ?is being acted upon by the agent; as, The table is Htriirl' bv James.
THE VERB. 75
Note. — In the Active voice the siil>ject and the agent are the same ; iii the Passive voice, the snbject and the original object are the same. The Active voice expresses that the subject dees the action to another ; tlwj Passive shews that the subject suffers the action _/Vo7rt another.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB -(continued.)
How many Lnflectiuiis dues the Verl) undergo? Name theae inflections. How are these changes chiefly produced? What do you understand by V"oice? illustrate your answer. What ^lass of verbs admits of voice ? How many voices are there ? How does the Active Voice represent the subject? How does the Passive Voice represent the subject?
EXERCISE ON VOICE.
1. In the examples select the vei'bs in the Active Voice.
2. Do. do. Passive Voice ; giving the reas«m in both in.stances.
Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins. Wbst cannot be prevented must be endured. When spring returnu, the trees resume their verdure. He lived, lie breathed. Th»,y rushed in, but were soon driven back. He was struck by light- ning. The lightning struck the barn. The sun shone with intolenible splendor. The naughty boys were punished. The master punished the boys.
[This Exercise may also be useil f<>r parsing.]
n. MOOD.
152. This inflection shews the manner in which an 'Htti'il)utc ' is as.serted of tlie 'subject.'
IlluBtration — The meaning of this inflection may be better explained by means of an example. If I say respecting a horse that 'lie runs,' I merely state that an action (viz., running) ks going on; b\it if I sfiy that 'he can run,' I am now no longer making a positive assertion about him, but am only saving that he pos.se.sse3 the power of running. I have used the same word, but the manner of its use has been different ; and it is this dif- ference in maimer that gives rise to mood. We shall, therefore, have as many moods as there are manners, or ways of making the assertion.
153. The verb admits of si.x difforent moods, each of wliifh hears a (h'stinctive name, showing the mannt'i" in which the assertion is made.
76 ETYMOLOGY.
I. THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
154. The first of these is the Indicative Mooo ^vhich inserts something as a fact^ or inquires a'J^c a fact j as, lie in writing. Is he writing?
Illustration. — If 1 wish to make a simple statement about any person or thing, or if I wish to ask a question, I eiuphjy the in- dicative mood. For example, if I wish to say something about John's stat« of health, I can indicate — I. e., declare — it iu this w-iy: 'Jolxn is well," or ' Joh.i is sick." If, on the other hand, I w int to inquire about his health, I use the same mood, but fc'uange the position of the verb ; thus, Is John well "' If an a/ixiliary is used, the nominative stands between it and tlie V irb; as, Has he come?
n. THE POTENTIAL MOOD
155. The Potential Mood expresses not what l)ie subject does or is, ^x-., but what it may, can, 'Piist, 4'"c. 'tlo' or 'be'; as, We )nai/ walk. I must
1. Illustration. — It will be noticed that an assertion is madt rjspecting the subject by means of this mood as well as by the it licative, but in a different maimer. If I were to say, ' Boys U re to play,' I Avould be using simply the indicative mood ; but i' [ say, 'Boys can play,' I affirm or state tlieir ability to do so. '1 tiis mood also implies liberty, which is expressed by the auxi- liary ' may;' as, You mci/ go — Necessity and duty are also ex- pressed by this mood, with a change of auxiliary; as, I must do it. You should oT)ey your parents. We thus see that this mood expresses abUity, liberty, necessity, or duty, on the part ol the subject.
2. How known.— This mood may be known by its signs, which aje 'may," 'can,' 'must,' 'could,' 'woiild,' and 'should.'
3. Interrogative. — This mood can also be made interrogative b^ changing the position of the subject; as. May I go? (Sec. l'>4.)
QUESTIONS ON THE VEEB -(continued.) What do you mean by Mmjil ? Illu.st'-nteyour answer. How many moods are there? Upon what does their numoer depend ? Name the fir.st mood. Defim- it. Oive .nn cxamjile to illustrate
THR vei;b. 77
your answfr. Shew that this mood may be iised to ask a ({ues- tion. What is the position of the Nominative? What is the position when an Auxiliary is used? How does the Potentinl Mood differ from the Tiidioative? Illustrate this by an example. Give an exam[ile shewing that this mood ini])lifcs liberty, ne- cessity, duty. By what signs is this mood known? Can this mood be used to ask a question?
EXERCISE ON MOOD.
In tl)e following sentences cla.ssify the Moods, giving youi reason : —
The doom he dreads yet dwells upon. His stature was lofty. I can not leave him. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot. This wind might awaken the dead. Plato, thou rcasonest well. He struck the lyre. Our fathers bled. The w ind blows coh\ The cam*^! cm endni-e great lie ;t. Children should obey their parents. He ran as fast as he could. It must be done.
m. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
156. Tlie third mood is the Subjunctive, which expresses tlie fact as conditional, desirable, or contin- gent ; as, If it rain, I shall not go.
1. Illustration. — We havp already seen that a fact may be spokeii of as actual or possible; but wlun there is anything like doubt or uncertainty connected with the assertion we employ this mood. For instance, in the example given in the definition, I do not make a positive assertion, that 'I shall not go' — there is attached to it a condition, - ' ff it rain,'— and this condition is expresscfl by means of the subjunctive mood. The name by \\'hich this mood is generally known implies the existence of another verb to which the verb in this particular mood may be subjoined.
2. Its Sign This mood is preceded by certain conjunctions, such as 'if,' 'unless.' 'though,' and a few others. These form, .s it were, a link between the two sentences.
IV. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.
157. The Impp^.rative Mood expres.ses a com- mand or an enfrcatij ; as, Read thoii. Rles^s mf,
• \oii nic also, O mv father.
♦
1. lUiistration. — A glance at the name of this mood shews \,n 1 liat it is chiefly n.sed in giving an order or a command The
78 ETYMOLOGY.
verb by no means loses its distinctive character in this mood ; tSft cnly difference is in the manner in which the assertion is made. No one of the other tliree moods that have been defined could be used for the same purpose as this mood. If, fop in- stance, I were to ask a pupil to correct a mistake which he may have made in any piece of written work, I would use the Indicative Mood either assertively or interrogatively. If, on the other hand, from my superior position, I were to order him to do so, I would no longer use the Indicative, but the Imperative Mood; thus, 'Make the necessary correction.' We must not suppose that this word implies only command. It is also used to express entreaty and exhortation. Of the first of tbese no better illustration can be given than the second example under the definition The Scriptviral injunction, 'Children, obey j-our parents,' may be viewed as either exhortatory or imperative.
2. The Subject. — As a general rule the subject of this mood is not expressed. The second personal pronoiin is really the nominative.
QUESTIONS ON THE VEKB— (continued.)
Which is the third Mood? How does it express a fact? When is this mood used? What does its name imply? By what sign is it distinguished from the :>ther moods? What does the Im- perative Mood express? What is its chief use? Shew by an example that an assertion is made by this mood. Shew by ex- amples that this mood expresses entreaty.
EXERCISE ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND THE IMPERATIVE.
In the following examples select the verbs that belong to the Subjunctive and the Imperative Mood: —
If T were chained I might revile. If the King were not a traitor, the convention must be rebels. Study to store your mind Avith useful knowledge. Though riches increase, set not your heart upon them. If he come before my return, ask him to f^tay. I would do the same thing if I were he. Arise and gird thyself, O thou that sleepest. Banish envy and strife lest they utterly destroy your peace.
ANALYSIS. "•-'S. — 1. As the verb is the word that make.s the affirmation, that part of the sentence which contains the verb is called the Predicate.
THE VERB. 79
2. The Predicate must always be either a verb, oi something equivalent to a verb.
Illustration. — lu order that we may have :i sentence, there must be a statement made about something, aiul this is clone by means of the verb. Let us take, for instance, this sentence, •Robert runs.' Here we are talking about Robert; the name • Robert,' therefore, is the Subject; what we say about Robert is that he runs; 'runs,' tlierefore, is the Predicate. Take another example, 'He is of unsound mind.' Here the word 'He' is the .Subject, and the assertion, ' is of unsoimd mind,' is the Predicate. The word 'is' is a verb, but the whole expression is ctjual to a verb.
3. The Predicate a.sserts of its subject, (1) What it is; {'2) What it docs; (3) What is done to it; as,
(1) The hoy u fond of study.
(2) 'I'he horse runs swiftly.
(3) The house was hurtled.
4. It is either a Grammatical or a Logical Predj- cate.
0. Tlie (tHammatic.vl Prkdicatk is simply the verb; as, .John reads very nicely.
G. The Logical Predicate is the Grammatical
Predicate with all its complements; as, John reads
ceri/ nicehi.
Complements.- -All the words a-hled to the vei-b, to fill up the assertion, are called the complementB
\y\\G Grammatical Subject and Predicate are printed in italics.]
|
Subject. |
Predicatk. |
|
The dork Man Diligent boys
|
has j ust struck two. wars not witli the dead. learn quickly. |
80 ETYMOLOGY,
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
What name is gi\ en to the Verb part of a sentence ? Why is tliis name given? Illustrate what is meant by ."fubject and Predicate. What duty is perfoi-med by the Predicate? Give an example of each. What two kinds of Predicate are there? Define the Grammatical Predicate, and give an example. What is meant by the liOgical Predicate? Give an example.
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the following sentences select the Grammatical and the Logical Predicates.
2. State why they are so.
3. Analyze the sentences according to the scheme.
''^He eye is the organ of sight. Silver is one of the precious metals. Habit becomes second nature. The barometer shews the weight of the atmosj>here. Time Hies. Labor sweetens rest. The wind moans through the trees. The torrid zone lies between the tropics.
V. THE INriNITIVE MOOD. 1;")9. The Infi?s1T1vr ^Jood gives the simple meaning of the vei"b^ niiiiout any reference to Per- son or Number ; as, To read.
1. Illustration. — In the example given in the definition, the afBrmation contained in the word ' to read ' is not made respect- ing any particidar person or persons; therefore, this part of tlie verb being used indefinitely, mid with reference simply to the act, has neither person nor niunber.
2. Its Sign. — The sign 'to" usually precedes a yerb in the Infinitive Mood. This prefix is, however, omitted after such auxiliaries as ' may,' ' can,' ' let,' &c., and the verbs ' bid, ' dare,' (to venture,) 'need,' 'make,' 'see,' 'hear,' 'perceive,' &c.
VI. THE PARTICIPLE.
160. A Paktictple is a word wliich, as a verb, expresses an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies a noun ; as. He came seeing. Having finished our task, we may play.
111. There are fc>»ir Participles in each Voice of the Transitive Veitj.
THE VET13. 81
1G2. Thev may be thus arranged, —
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
1. Present, Striking, Being scnick.
2. Fast, Struck, Struck.
3. Perfect, Having struck, Having been struck.
4. Futiire, About to strike. About to be struck.
I. PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
163. This Participle in the Active Voice ends always in 'ing,' and denotes an action or state as contiiniing and progressive ; as, James is hu'Udiny a house.
164. In the Passive Voice it has always a passive signification.
II. PAST PARTICIPLE.
165. This Pai'ticiple is turmed in some verbs by the addition of 'd' or 'ed' to the present; in otherr, bv adding 'en;' in others, by some internal change Its form is the same in both voices.
III. PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
16t/. The Perff:ct Particivlk is always com- j^cund, (i. e., is not expressed by a simple word,) and represents an action or state as completed at the time I'eferreil to.
IV. FUTURE PARTICIPLE.
1*57. This Participle, also, is a componnd ono. and represents tlie action as 'about' to take place; as, He is about to leace Canada.
• QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— (continued. ) Define tlie [nfiuitive Moo<l. Wlienco lias it its peculiar name? Wliat is its Sign? Is tliis sign always expressed? After what verbs is it omitted? What is a Participle? How many parti- ciples arc there in each voice? How do you know the Present Participle active? What does it denote? W^hat is tiie force of this particiyjle in the Past^ive Voice? How is the Past Parti- ciple generally formed ? How do the Peifeet and Future Parti- ciples differ in form from the others? How is ;in action repre- 8ente<l by the Perfect Participle? How by the Future?
Si ETYMOLOGY.
EXERCISE ON THE VERB.
In the following sentences classify the veibs acoorcling to iviua, Voice, and Mood: —
Be swift to hear and slow to speak. Seeing the danger, he avoided it. Diogenes, the Greek pliilosopher, lived in a tub. Industry is needful in every condition of life : the piice of all improvement is labor. The house was burned. Boast not of to-morrow. It is pleasant to see the sim. We should always obey the dictates of conscience. The train might liave run off the track. He came last night. Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. I heard him relate his story. I saw him do it. Forbid them to enter the house. He may go if he feel inclined. Bring me that book. They accused the boy of theft. The boy was accused of theft. Having mended my pen, I will write.
[This exercise may be used for Parsing. ]
ANALYSIS. 108.-1. It lias been sheAvn (Sec. 85, 2. and 3.) that the Participle, and tlie Participial phrase may he enlargements, or complements of the subject.
2. This arises from the adjectival force of the Farticiple.
3. The Participle of the Active Voice of a tran- sitive verb, besides qualifying the simple subject, t^iay have an objective case after it ; as, The boy, seeing the stotin coming on, ran home. •
|
Subject. |
Predicate. |
||
|
Attribute. The, seeing the 1 storm coming on |
Nominative. |
ran home. |
• |
|
boy 1 |
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. .Analyze, according to plan given above, the following sen- tences : —
The atllicted nation mourns The moping owl docs U ti\u
THE VKRB. 83
moon ooliiplain. A person deserving respect will generally se- cnro it. Boys who do their duty will be loved. A virtuous man loves virtuous men. (Jod's wisdom is seen in His works. He tliat Iiearkeus to counsel is Avise. A desire to learn is praise- worthy. The love of learning is commendable. He, shouting, made the onset. Short pleasure produces long pain. John's pen is spoiled.
[Note. — In analyzing orally it would be well for the teacher to make the pupil specify the particular kind of attribute that the subject has ; for instance, in the example given, the subject 'boy' has for its attributes the adjective 'the,' and the parti- cipial phrase 'seeing the storm comi;ig on.' If a nundier of Attributes precede tlie simple subject, the pupil must begin with «lie one that stands nearest to it.]
III. TENSE. 1 ()'.). Tense i.s that modification of the verb which expresse.s time.
170. There are three divisions of time, Presenty Past, and Future.
171. In each of these divisions there are two tenses : the one re])resenting the action or state qs perfect, — i. e., (•oni]>leted at the time referred to,-^ tlie other representing it as not completed at that time.
172. Thns we have siv tenses, — \iz., the Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past-perfect, the Future, and tlie Future-perfect.
I. PRESENT. 17H. The Pi'iESENT tense expresses what is going on at \\\Q present time; as, I see the bright snn.
174. The Pur.sENT-rEUFECT tense represents an action or event as completed at the present time, or in a periofl of which the present forms a ])art ; as, I have sold my horse. I have xvalked six miles to-day.
It8 Sign. — The sign of this tense is the auxiliary 'have' pre- ceding the 'past participle active.'
84 E'nrMOLOfiT.
n. PAST.
175. The Past tense expresses what took place in past time ; as, I saxo him yesterday.
How Formed. — This tense is formed by changing the vowel of the root verb; as, Write, icrote, or by addinj^ 'ed' or 'd'; a.s. Mended, love-d. In conversation the 'e' is often dropped, and the 'd' becomes changed into 't' after sharp mutes; as, Kissed, (kist;) dropped, {dropt;) &c.
176. The Past-perfect, or Plttperfect tense, re])resents an action or event as completed, at or before a certain time past ; as. The ship had sailed when the mail arrived, — that is, the ship sailed be- fore the mail arrived.
Its Sign. — The sign of the past-perfect is the auxiliary 'had,' preceding the 'past participle active.'
m. FUTUEE.
177. The Future tense expresses what will take place in future time^-^i. e., in time to come; as, 1 xcill see you to-morrow.
Its Signs. — The signs of the future are the auxiliaries 'shall' and 'will' preceding the 'Infinitive Mood,' with its sign omitted.
178. The Future-perfect tense intimates that an action or event will be completed at or before a certain time yet future ; as, I shall have aot my lesson bv ten o'clock.
Its Signs. — The signs of this tense are 'shall have" and 'will have," preceding the 'past participle active.'
TENSES IN PASSIVE.
179. The Passive Voice has the same number of Lenses as the Active Voice.
180. They are all formed from the corresponding tenses of the auxtliary verb ' to be,' together with fhe 'past participle passive' of the verb.
THE VERB. 85
TENSES IN DIFFERENT MOODS.
181. The Indicative IMood has the six tenses, and is, therefore, the most coinplete mood.
182. The Potential Mood has four tenses, the Present and the Present-perfect, the Past and the Past-perfect.
183. The Subjunctive Mood, in its proper form, has only the Present tense. Tlie verb ^to be' has the Present and the Past.
184. The Imperative jSIood has two tenses, the Present aiifl the Future.
18o. The Infinitive Mood has two tenses, the Present and tlie Perfect ; as, To wi'ite — To have written.
18(>. The Participle has four tenses, the Pr*?- sent, tlie Past, the Perfect, and the Future; ts, Striking — struck — having struck — about to strike.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB- (continued. )
Wli.it is the third inflection of a V^erb? Wliat does Ttn^e me>in? How many divisions of time are there? Name theui. How many tenses are there in each of these divisions? How is the action or the state represented hy these divisions? Name tlie six tenses. Define the Present tense. Define the Present- perfect How is this tense known ? Wliat does the Past tense express? How is this tense formed ? Define tlie Past-perfeet. What is the sign of this tense ? What doea the Future tense express? What are its sijtns ? Define the Future perfect tense? How is this tense known? How manj^ tenses has the Passive Voice ? How are tliey formed ? Name the tenses of each of the Moods.
EXERCISE ON TENSE.
I. In tlie following examples select the dillerent Tenses.
2 ."-^tiite why you thus classify them.
The dog runs. He has caught a mouse. 1 have told you be- fore, n.nd I ttOl you now. Have you done any good today? The pigeon Hies swiftly. Bad company has ruined him. The horse -broke his bridle. He had broken three befon'. After the sun lia(^ risen the ice melte^l. You will S"e him tc morre"' I had poen iiini when I met vou. TV will >nve started beior*
*6 ETYRlOLOGY.
twn o'clock. I Lave just recited my lesson. How beautifully fcne snow falls! I had written a letter when he arrived.
ANALYSIS.
187. — 1. As tlie Grammatical Subject of a sen- tence may be enlarired, or completed, as has been shewn (Sec. (54, 7.; 85, 1.; and 122, 1.), so may the Grammatical Predicate be completed.
2. If that Predicate is an Active Transitive Verb, its completion is a noun or its equivalent in the objective ca^jc ; as, William the Conqueror governed Kncikuid.
'6. If, hoAvever, the Predicate is an Intransitive ^'^erb, or a verb in the PassiAC A^oice, the comple- Djent is in the Nominative ; as, Edwai'd became A'm^, }Ie was elected chairman.
4. The object maybe whatever the subject may be; at. Boys \o\e play, (noun.) John hit hhn, (pronoun.)
5. This object may, like the subject, liave attri- butes ; as, All good boys love their paients.
G. Both the Subject and the Predicate of a sen- t»<nce may be ' compound.'
7. A Compound Subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to which belongs one predi- cate ; as, You and / are friends.
8. A Compound Predicate consists of two or
more simple predicates affirmed of one subject ; as,
Ti'nth is great and will prevail.
[The word tliat joins the Simple Subjects and Predicates, is called a conjunction.]
|
LOOICAI, |
Subject. Its Complements. the Conqueror |
Logical Predicate. |
|
Gram. Subject |
Gram. Predicate. Completion. 1 |
|
|
William Bdward |
governed England, became ' king (noin.) |
[Note. — The pnjnl will notice the change made in naming the two parts of the sentence, and their divisions. 1
THE VF.nB. 81
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the following sentences insert appropriate objects : —
The moth burned -. Ellen can sing . Jan^es
vr^Il read . George shot — . The cows «at
. James must study . Henry hurt
. The squirrel eats . Boys love . The rich
should never despise . Cain killed . Mary
praises — . The elephant has a . The dog tore
. The spider caught — .
2. In the following, state whether the Complements are Objective or Nominative Complements, and analyze according to scheme: —
Columbus discovered America. Righteousness exalteth « nation. Williiim the Contpieror v\a.s the first of the ^sormtfH line of kiugs. Learn to labor and to wait. He preferred walk- ing to riding. Avarice is a mean and cowardly vice. Great men often do wrong. He was appointed physician to the Quepn. The last month of the year is called December. The hope »«f better things cheers u.s. He seems very happy. The love <jf money is the root of all evil. James proved himself a very good boy.
3. Tell whether the Subject in each of the followuig sentenc«-a is Simple or Compound: —
Virtue is often neglected. Virtue and vice are often treated alike. Socrates the philosopher was condemned to death. What harm has that great and good m.an done? Life is short. What goodly virtues bloom on the poisonous tranches of am- bition? Bonap:irte's energy and ambition were remarkable. The longest life of man is short. Furious Frank and fiery Hun shout in their sulphurous canopy.
4. Tell whether the Predicate in each of the following sen- tences is Simple or ('ompound: —
John desir<>s to learn. He left his home and went to a foreign land. Honesty is praised and (is) neglected. High on a throne of royal state Satan exalted sat. (xoorge learns rapidly. They were ctimmanded to return to their own country. Talent is strength and Kiibtilty of mind. His perseveivmce is commend- able, and should 1)0 rewarded. The lionses were plundered and burned.
PERSON AND NUMBER.
188. — 1, Every tense of the Verb has three Per- sons ;uvl two Numbers.
^8 F>TYM(1L()(1Y.
2. These inflections are due to the Subject. Illustration. — The change effected in the verb by the differ- ence in Person and Number of the Nominative, may be thus ilhistrated. In the present tense of the verb 'love' with the first persoual pronoun we use the form ' love,' but this form can- not be used with the second or the third personal pronoun sin- gular. With the former we have to adopt the form 'lovest,' and with tlie latter the form 'loves'; thus, 'I love, thou lovest. he loves,' and the verbs are said to be in the first, second, or thii-d person singidar.^ In the plural the form is the same for *U persons.
EXERCISE ON PEESON AND NUMBER.
1. Tell the Person and Number of each verb in the following v^ntences.
2. Give the reason
He loves truth. She hates deception. I saw your brother h 6t evening. He will return to-morrow. John recited his les- f+ u yesterday. The Iroys liave gone home. George had gone h ime before I returned. You shall see him to-morrow. James H udies diligently. We shall have run. They will have read. i C crime shall cease. I read the book which you lent me.
CONJUGATION.
189. The Conjugation of a verb is the reoular t-onibinati()n"and arrangement of its several voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numhers.
190. The principal parts of the verb are the Pre- sent Indicative, the Past Indicative, and the Past Piirticiple. In parsing, the mentioning of these parts is called conjugating the verb. Thus :
Prc.'fent. Past. Past Participle.
Regular, or Weak. Love loved loved.
Irregidar, or Strong, Write wrote written.
INFLECTION OF THE AUXILIARIES MAY, CAN, &c.
191. Of the Auxiliary Verbs, the verb 'to be' is both a principal verb and also an Anxiliary. By p"efixing it to the * past ))articiple passive ' of a verb, v> form the Passive Voice.
THE VERB,
89
192. Certain other verbs are only auxiliary, and are defective iu their Moods and Tenses.
193. As all of these (except Mo') help to form some of the Moods and Tenses of the verb ' to be,' their inflection is now given.
Singular. I may. Tlioii mayst. He may.
Plural. We may. Yoii may. They may.
Singular. I jni<5ht. Thou mightst. He might.
Plural. We might. You might. They might
Sintfiilar.
1. I do.
2. Thou flost. .3. He tloes.
Plural.
1. We do.
2. You do. .3. They do.
Singnlnr.
1. [ did.
2. Thf)u didst.
3. He did.
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present Teuse. Sinfjular.
1. I can.
2. Thou canst. '.i. He can.
Plural.
1. We can. I.
2. You can. 2.
3. They can. 3.
Past Tense. Singular. 1 I covdd.
2. Thou couldst.
3. He could.
Plural. 1 We could.
2. You could.
3. They could.
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense
Singular. I must. Thou must. He must.
Plural. We must. You must. They must.
55
Singular. I liave. Thou hast. H<' has or hath.
Plural. We have. You have. They have.
Singular. 1. I shall or will.
2 Thou shalt or wilb
3 He shall or will.
Plural.
1. We shall or will.
2. You shall or will.
3. They shall or will.
Past Tense. Slngiilii r Singular.
I liad. 1 I shoidd r>/- would.
Thou hadst. 2. Thou shouldst orwouldst. He had. 3. He should or would
90
ETYMOLOGY.
Plural.
1. We did.
2. Yon did.
3. They did.
Plural. We had. You had.
3. They had.
Plural.
1. We should or would.
2. You shoiild or would.
3. They should or would
DO and HAVE as Principal Verbs.
[These two auxiliaries, like the verb 'to be,' are also principal verbs, and form their tenses in the same way as other principal verbs ; thus:]
Singular. Singular.
Present, 1. I do. 1. I have.
2. Thou doest. 2. Thou hast.
3. He does. 3. He has.
&c., (fee.
Present-Perfect, I. 2. 3.
I have done. Thou hast done. He has done.
&c., &c.
Past,
Paet-Perfect,
Future,
1. I did.
2. Thou didst.
3. He did.
&c..
&c.
1. I had done.
2. Thou hadst cTone.
3. He had done
&€., &c.
1. I shall do.
2. Thou wilt do.
3. He wUl do.
&c., &c.
1. I have had.
2. Thou hast hao.
3. He has had.
1. I had.
2. Thou hadst.
3. He held.
1. I had had.
2. Thou hadst had.
3. He had had.
1. I shall have.
2. Thou wilt have.
3. He will have.
Future-Perfect, 1. I shall have done. 1. 1 shall have had.
2. Thouwilt havcdone. 2. Thou wilt have had.
3. He will have done. 3. He will have had.
&c., &c.
INFLECTION OF THE VEEBS 'TO BE' AND 'TO LOVE.'
INDICATIVE MOOD Intransitive. Active Voice. Passive Voice.
Singular. I am. Thou art. He is.
Present Tense.
Singular. I love.
Thou lovest. He loves or loveth.
Singular.
1. I am loved.
2. Thou art loved.
3. He is loved.
THE VERB.
91
Intransitive. Plural.
1. We are.
2. Yon are.
3. They are.
Active Voice. Plural.
1. We love.
2. You love.
3. Tliey love.
Passive Voice. Plural.
1. We are loved.
2. You are loved.
3. They are loved.
Pre:ent-Perfect Tense.
feigu, have.
Shuiular. Singular. Singular.
1. I have been. 1. 1 have loved. 1. I have Leen loved.
2. Thou hast heeu. 2. Thon liast loved. 2. Thou hast been loved.
3. He has been. 3. He has loved. 3. He has been loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural
J. We have been. I. We have loved. 1. We have been loved. 2. You have been. 2. You have loved. 2. You have been loved. d. They have been. 3. They have loved. 3. They have been loved
Singular.
1. I was.
2. Thou wast.
3. He was.
Ptanil. i. We were.
2. You were.
3. They were.
Past Tense.
Singular.
1. I loved.
2. Thou lovedst.
3. He loved.
Plural.
1. We loved.
2. You loved.
3. They loved.
Singular.
1. I Mas loved.
2. Thou wast loved.
3. He was loved.
Plural.
1 . We were loved.
2. You were loved.
3. They were loved.
Past-Perfect Tense. Sign, had.
Singular. Singular. Singular.
1. 1 had been. 1. I had loved. 1. I had been loved.
2. Thoulia(lstbeen.2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Thonhadstbeenlove^l.
3. He had l)een. 3. He had loved. 3. He had been loved.
Plural. Plural. Pttrral.
1. Wo liad been. 1. We ha<l loved. 1. We had been loved.
2. You had been. 2. You had loved. 2. You had been lovf-d
3. They had been. 3. They had loved. 3. 'I'hey had been loved.
92 ETYilOLOGY.
Intransitive. Active Voice. Passive Voice.
Futui-e Tense.
Signs, sJiall, toill. — Inflect ■with each. Singular. Singular. Singular.
1. I shall be. 1. I shall love. 1. 1 shallbe loved.
2 Thou wilt be. 2. Thou wilt love. 2 Thou wilt be loved.
3. H^ will be. 3. He will love. 3. He will be loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. We shall be. 1. We shall love. 1. We sliall be loved.
2. You will be. 2. You will love. 2. You will be loved.
3. They will be. 3. They will love. 3. They will be loved.
Future-Perfect Tense.
Signs, Khali liace, vill have. — Inflect with each.
Singular. Singular. Singular.
1. I shall have been. 1. I shall have loved. 1. I shall have been
(loved.
2. Thou wilt have 2. Thou wilt have 2. Thou wilt have
[been. [loved. [been loved
3. He will have been. 3. He will have 3. He will have been
[loved. [loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural
1. We shall have 1. We shall have 1. We shall have been
[been. [loved. loved.
2. You will have 2. You will have 2. You will have beey
[been. [loved. [loved.
3. They will have 3. They will have 3. They will have
[been. [loved. [been loved.
POTENTIAL M(30D. Pi'esent Tense. Signs, may, can, mu-tt. — Inflect with each. Singular. Singular. Singular.
1. I may be. 1 I may love. 1. I may be loved.
2. Thou mayst be. 2. Thou mayst love. 2. Thou mayst be
[loved.
3. He may be. 3. He may love. 3. He mav be loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural.
J. We may be. 1. We may love. 1. We may bo loved.
2. You may be. 2. You may love. 2. You may be loved.
3, They may be. 3. They nuiy love. 3. They may beloved
THK VERB.
Inti-ansitive. Active Voice. Fa-jive Vol
Present-Perfect Tense. Signs, may have, can have, or must have. — Inflect with each. Singular. Sinffular Sinr/ixlar.
1. I may have been. 1. I may have loved. 1. I may h;ive been
(loved.
2. Thou niuyst have 2. Thou mayst have 2. Thou mayst have
[been. [loved. [been loved.
3. He may have been. 3. He may have loved 3. He may have been
[loved. Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. Wemayhavebeeji 1 Wt- may have 1. AVe may have been
[loved. [loved
2. You may have 2. Yon may have 2. You may have
[been. [loved. [been loved.
3. They may have 3. The\- may havf 3. They may have
[been. [loved. [been loveo.
Past Tense.
Signs, miyht, could, wuukl, shoidil. — Inflect with each. Singular. Singula : Singular.
1. I mii.^ht be. 1 [ mij.dit lo\.:-. I. I might be loved
2. Thou mightst be. 2. Tlioumightstlnve. 2. Thou mightst be
[loveo..
3. He might be 3. He niiglit love. 3. He might l)e loved
Plurnl. Plural. Plural
1. We might be. I. We might love. 1. We might be 1 q
2. You might be. 2. You might love. 2. You might be [' %
3. They jnight be. 3. They might love. 3. The> might be ) r^
Past-Perfect Tense.
Signs, vtight have, could hart, would have, xltould have. —
Inflect wiMi each.
Singular. Singular. • Singular.
1. 1 might have I. I might nave 1. I might have beep
[been. [loved. [loved.
2. Thou mightst 2. Thou m'ghtst 2. Thou mightst have
I have been. [have loved. [bcrn loved.
^ it have 3. He might have 3. He might have
[been. (loved. fbeen loveJ.
Plural. Plural. . Plural.
1. We might have 1. We might have 1. We might have
fbeen. [loved. [been loveil.
2. You might have 2. You might have 2. You might h.ive
tbeen. [loved. [Ixen loved.
ave 3. They might have 3. They might have fbeen. flovi-d. (bei u luvt.'d.
94
ETYMOLOGY,
iptraiisitxve.
Shif/ular. 1. If I "be. '2. If thou be.
0. If he- be.
Plural.
1. If we be. li. If you be. 3. If they be.
Singular.
1. If I were.
2. If thou wert.
3.
If he were.
Plural. If Me were. If you were. If they were.
Singular. Be, or be thou.
Active Voi-e
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Passive Voice.
Singular. i. If T love.
2. If thou love.
3. If he love.
Plural. If we love. If yon love. If they love.
Past Tense.
Singular.
1. If I be loved.
2. If tliou be loved.
3. If he be loved.
Plural.
1 . If we be loved.
2. If you be loved.
3. If they be loved.
Be he, o?- let him be. 3. Let him love.
Plural Plural.
2. Be, or be ye. 2. Love, or love you
,i Be they, or let o. Let them love, [them be.
Future Tense.
Singiitur. 2. Thou Shalt love.
Singular.
1. If I were loved.
2. if thou wert or
[were loved.
3. If be were loved.
Plural.
1. If we were loved.
2. If you were lov^ed.
3. If they were loved.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. Present Tense. Singular. Singular
2. Love, «/• love thou. 2. Be thou loved.
3. Let bim bo loved.
Singukir. 2 Thou shait bo.
Plural.
2. Be ye, or you loved.
3. Let them be loved.
Singvlxir. 2. Thou sh alt be loved.
Plural.
Plural _ Plural.
2. ^e, oryoushallbe. 2. Ye, or you shall 2. Ye, or you shall be
[love. [loved.
INFINITIVE MOOD. PreB^nt. Tc be. T.. love. To be loved.
Perfect. To have been. To liave loved. To have been loved.
THE VERB. 95
Intransitive. Active Voice. Passive Voice.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, Being. Lo\'ing. Being loved.
Past, Been. Loved. Loved
Perfect, Having been. Having loved. Having been loved.
Ftitiire, About U> be. About to love. About to be loved.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— (continued. ) How many Person.? lia.s every tense? How many Numbers? Whence does the verl) get the.se ijiHectious? Illustrate your answer by an example. Wiiat is meant by the Conjugation of a verb? What are the principal parts of a verb ? (iive an example of a verb belonging t<i the Regular, or Weak Conjugation; to the Irregular, or strong. Of what u.se is the verb 'to be, " as an auxiliary? How are the other auxiliaries used?
EXERCISE ON THE VERB.
1. In the following exercise, tell the Mood and the Tense of each of the verbs.
2. Select those that belong to the Active, and those that be- long to the Passive Voice.
Am. Is. Art. I was We were. They are. You have V)een. I have been, she had been. He was. We will be. They must be. They should have been. If I be. Thou wert. Though he were. If I liad been. Though I were. If we oyuld have been. They might Ite. He does work. Be. To be. Be ye. To have Vieen. Being Been. Having been. Be thou. He had hud. I lost the knife which James gave me. This is the tree ^vhicll bears the best fruit. James was bitten by a dog. She has studied the lesson which was so hard. She wept and was comforted. Mary is loved and respected. He saw and coufjuerod. Eveline w;is disappointed. Climb not, lest you fall. (,'a?8ar was killed by conspirators. Squirrels eat nuts. Nuts are eaten by sipiirrels. The mowers have cut the grass. The rat was caught in .i trap. The work was admired by many persons. Many persons admired the work.
DIFFERENT FORMS. .194. We obtain the Progressive form of a vero by iulding its present participle aetive to the verb ^ to he^ through all its moods and tenses; as, T am rnnniiiiT.
195. 'i he Emphatic form is obtained by adding the .simple verb to the au.xiliaries Slo' and 'did: as, T do run. I did run.
96 ETYMOLOOY.
196. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word '■nof after the simple form ; as, Tlou lovest not ; and in the compou7id t'onn by placingr it between the auxiliary and the verb; as, I do ??oi love. When two auxiliaries are riser' it is placed between them ; :is, I would 7iot have loved,
197. The verb is made to ask a quetion by plac- ing the nominative, or subject, after the simple fo r\i ; :is, Lovest thou? and between the auxiliary and the verb in the co7npo uf id formt>^\ as, do i Love? AVlicn there are two auxiliaries, the iiouiinative is placed between tlifem ; as. Shall I have loved ?
198. Interrogative sentences are made negative y placing the negativ either belore or after th ^
•niinative ; as, Do not 1 love? or, Do 1 not love ?
PASSIVE VOICE.
199. The Passive Voice is inficfled by adding ' lie past participle passive to the veib ' ti> he,'' as an i^uxiliary, through all its moods and tenses. (Sec. i91.)
The same thiug expressed by bot'i Voices.— The Passive Voir ■. in the finite tnuods properly iiffirrns of the subject the sufferin;. or the receivini( of the act performed b}- the actor; and in a. I tenses, except the presenr, expresses passivelv precisely the ^ame thint; as is expressed by the corrcspondint; tense in the active voice; thus, ' C;esar conquf.red Gaul,' and 'Gaul iooh <.o>i- qtured by Ctesar,' express the same thing.
QUESTIONS ON TllK \rfiftii-(continne<l.)
How is the Progressive form obtainetir How th»^ Emphafcio * flow ,ri une wucu inadb .^..igacive; V\ hue iS ^ae position oi .j. word ■ H..^' Vvliei' iiieve in. twc auxiii.rie.s? ."jv . tl.r .er' uiade ntc^rropati.T? Wh.nt i.'- tbe position of thf> Xominatiyf' w I icn there are two auxiliaries '. How are Interrogative Senteiicf s made Negative ? n0\v iritucl'.issive Voice iniiecteil' W'.i„t Jo . the '^ -piv- V:;ice]-ini..ly nfti I. '.f th' .-.hj. o'^? I''»rtiat< Iv exaiiT^U! ^'luf • 11 its tenses, exceijt the present, exoress precisely the s.xmc 1 -vng- iib the crirresponri ing tenses Li ciio uoliv e v^i ^.
THF. VERB. 9i
EXERCISE ON FORMS AND VOICE :inge the following verbs from the Simple into the Pro- gressive Form: —
He writes. They read. Thou teachest We have learned He had written. They go I ran We taught. He stands He stood.
2. Chanire the foil -wins from tho Pi-or^rci^ir- info the Simple Form : —
We are writini;. They were sinjjing. Wc might h<' \< -ilkinir. They are comiug. Thou art teaching. He has been mo'. m;;
3. When it can be done, change the verbs above given into Emphatic Form.
4. Change the examples (No. 2) into the Negative form • thus. We are not writing— into the interrogative form ; us, Are we writing'''— into Ihe negative interrogative form, as. Are wu not writing ? or. Are not we writms -'
5. In the sentences given al'ove, change the verbs into the Piissive Voice, when the changt can be made Thus, the 'Ctter \i written.
RULES FOR THE VERB
I. A verb agrees witli its subjecl nominaave m person and number ; as, I read. Thou rf-w'tHt. He reads, &c.
II. A Transitive Vorb. in the Acyve Voice, i ibllowed by an objective case; as, We lovo /nm He loves us.
III. The Prerlicate Snbstuiitive, altoi- a verb, is ])iit in the same case as the subject before it; as, It is he. She walks a queen. I took it to be him, tScc
lY. The Infinitive Mood niav de])end on a verb, an adjective, or a noun ; as. Cease to do evil. He is anxious to Ifam. He has a desire to learn.
ORDER OF PARSING THE VERB.
Voice \ m
Tran. j _• Reg. \ -^ ^1' "il ' .2 Concord
, .5 I 5 Priu. Parts. Tense - % according
fntran. ) ^ Irreg ( O Person i .^ to Rule.
Number ' ^
98
ETY.MOLOGT.
Example. — They have loved. Eelation. i Etymology and Syntax.
Hnvb I Have. — An .auxiliary of time. i'pit'seiit-j)erfect.) They liare i Have loved. — Ti-ans. Reg., Love, loved, loved. loved. Ind. Pres. -Perf. 3. Phi. agreeing with subject they.
1 EiUe.
EXERCISE ON THE VERB, &c.
1. Parse the Verbs in the following exercise.
2. Parse all the other words.
A good man loves God. John can write a letter. William has written two letters. You should honor your parents. 1 have seen George. You have deceived me. Fishes swim. Y'ou will be sick if you eat that fruit. Men should obej^ their rulers. Avoid vicious company. Idle b >ys will be despised. Ask no questions. Will your father c(mie? Have you studied your lesson? Can you parse a verb?
IRRE(;ULAR \rERBS.
200. The Ikkegulah Verbs, or those of the
'Strong Conjugation' may be conveniently divided
into three classes :
I. Those with one form in the Principal Parts, n. Do. two distinct foxms do. do. TTT. Do. thi-p • distinct forms do. do.
201. Of this kin<l of verb there are about one hunch'ed and seventy.
202. A sel^iction is given below.
CLASS I.
Present. Pfi.<<t. P"M Participk.
Burst bui-st burst.
Cut cut cut.
Hit hit hit.
Let let let.
Put put put.
P>id rid rid.
Set set set.
Spread sprt^ad spread.
Thrust thrust thrust
CLASS n.
Awake awaked or awoke awaked.
Beat beat be i ten.
Bend bent bent.
Bind bound bound.
BlecHi bled bled.
Bless blessed or h\ent Vileased.
THE vki;r.
99
Present.
Bring
Burn
Buy
(Jatch
•Joine
Creep
Crow
Dig
Feed
Feel
Find
Flee
(;et
(xrind
Hang
Hold
Keep
Lay
Lead
Leave
Lose
Make
Meet
Pay
K(;ad
K.in
Say
S<;t;k
.Sell
Send
Shoe
Shoot
Sit
Spend
Spill
Stand
Sting
Strike
Swing
Teacli
Tell
Think
Weep
Will
Whid
Wring
|
Past. |
Past Parfkijne. |
|
brought |
brought. |
|
burned or burnt |
burnt. |
|
bought |
bought. |
|
cayght |
caught. |
|
came |
come. |
|
crept |
crept. |
|
crew |
crowed. |
|
dug |
dug. |
|
fed |
fed. |
|
felt |
felt. |
|
found |
found. |
|
fled |
Hed. |
|
got |
gi )t. |
|
ground |
ground. |
|
hung or liauged |
hung or hanged. |
|
held |
held. |
|
ke]>t |
kept. |
|
laid |
laid. |
|
led |
led. |
|
left |
left. |
|
lost |
lost. |
|
made |
mule. |
|
met |
met. |
|
paid |
paid. |
|
read* |
read. |
|
ran |
run. |
|
said |
said. |
|
sought |
sought. |
|
sold |
sold. |
|
sent |
Sent. |
|
shod |
shod. |
|
shot |
shot. |
|
sat |
sat. |
|
S[)eiit |
spent. |
|
spilt |
spilt. |
|
stood |
stood. |
|
stuil;^ |
stung. |
|
struck |
struck or stricKea |
|
swung |
swung. |
|
taui^ht |
tnut^ht. |
|
tohi • |
tohi. |
|
thought |
thought. |
|
wej>t |
wept. |
|
won |
won. |
|
\\oniid |
wound. |
|
wrung |
wrung. |
These are jironounced as if spelt 'red.'
'.X
ETYMOLOGY.
oi. ry bring forth.
Present. Arise Bear, to Bear, to Begin Bite Break Choose
Dare, to vent ate. Do Draw Drink Drive Eat Fall Fly Freeze Give OroAv Hid- Knc vV Lie Mow Ride Kiafir See"" Sew S..ake Shew Sing Sink Slay Smite Speak Spring Steal Strive Swim TaKe 'IVar 'i lironr Tread Wax Wear Wiite How
CLASS m.
Past.
arose
bore or bare
bore or bare
began
bit
broke
chose
durst
did
drew
drank
drove
ate
fell
flew
troze
gave
grew
hid
knew
lav
ni wed
rode
rang
saw
>!»-wed
ehook
shewed
sang
sank
slew
smote-
spoke
sprang
stole
strove
swam
took
tore
threw 1
trod
waxed
wore
wrote
Past Fartioptf
arisen.
borne.
born.
begun.
bitten or bit.
broken.
chosen.
dared.
done.
drav.-n.
drunk.
driven.
eaten.
fallen.
flown.
frozen.
given.
grown.
hiddi.-n.
known
la n.
mown.
ridder?.
rung
seen.
sewn.
shaken.
shewn.
sung.
sunk.
slain.
smitten.
spoken.
sjirung.
stolen.
strixen.
swum.
taken.
torn.
thrown.
trodden.
waxen.
Worn.
written.
nflected. —Verbs of this conjugation are inflected in a riiauntT siuiil.ir to that adopted with those belonging to the Regular, or Weak conjugation.
THE \ EKB.
-z—
••= —-3
102 ETYMOLOGY.
ANALYSIS 203. — 1. As long as the sentence contains but one predicate, it is called a 8IMPLE SENTENCE ; as, Diligent boys learn quickly.
2. When it contains more than one principal predicate, i. e., when it expi'esses two or more inde- pendent thoughts, it is called a Compound Sen- tence; as. Time is short, but eternity is long.
3. The sentences are joined l)y a conjunction, (Sec. 218.) This connective is sometimes omitted.
4. The sentences may be analyzed separatel}', each of them being called a Principal, oi- an Independent Sentence.
Examples. — Diligent 1io\'s learn quickly. (Simple.)
Time is short, but eternity is long (Compound.)
Sentence.
Kind.
Logical Subject.
Nominative.
Diligent boys
learn quickly.
Time is short, EU'rnity i.s long.
Dilijient
Priu. Prill.
boy.s
Logical Predicate
learn quickly.
Time Eternity
is short, is long.
[The Connective may, for the jirese t, he omitted from the
scheme of analysis.]
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
What is a Simple Sentence? When it contains more than one predicate, wliat is it called? Detine a Compound Sentence. How nre the sentences joined? Is tliis connective always in- serted? How are (jompouud Sentences analyzed?
EXERCISE ON ANAJ.YSIS.
1. Compose six Simple Sentences.
2. Compose three Compound Sentences with Simple Subject.
3. Compose three Compound Sentences with Compound Sub- ject.
THE ADVERB. 108
4. Compose four seuteuces with Compound Subject and Com- pound Predicate.
5. Select the Simple and the Compound Sentences in the following exaanples.
6. Analyze according to plan.
The curfew tolls — the knell of ijarting day. The boding owl screams from the ruined tower. She w.s not only beautiful, but modest. A part of the exports consists of raw silk. Every sight and every sound ama/es liim. The sentinel stars set their watch in tlie sky. Tlie man walked and the boy ran. The grain must be .sown, else no crop need be looked for. The man is industri(nis, therefore he will succeed. Night came slowly on. How did you succeed at your examination? He was ]ioor, but industrious. The boat was upset and they were drowned.
THE ADVEKB.
204. An Ai)Vei;b is a word used to modify ^^crbfi^ adjectires, or other adri'rhs ; as, Ann speaks diti- tinctly ; she is ri'mai-lnhly diligent, and reads very correctly.
Illufitration. — When wx- say that the adverb modifies, we nic m that it effects some change in the word to wliiuh it is afi- nexed. Let us illustr.ite by i familiar example, and then its grammatical application will be plainer. A cup of cotfee or te.ij for instance, has a pccidiar bitter t;i.st(^ ; if we add a little sugar the flavor becomes modified, or changed; if we .add a little more sugar it liecomes more mndilieil. Xow, let us apply this to the example given in the diMinition. If we were sim])ly to say, 'Ann .speaks," it would lie only wtatiiig the fact that slu' has tlic powiT of speaking, Viut we wonl<l kni»w nothing aboutliermanner of .'^jicik- ing. Vv .idding the wonl 'distinctly' we modify, or change the statement, 8(j tliat the meaning is no longer tlie same as if we said, 'Ann speaks.' In a simil.ir way the words 'remnrkably' and 'very' effect a change in the words 'diligent' and 'cor rectly.'
DIVISION OF ADVERBS.
20'). Atlveros are divided, accordintr to their use, into tliose of
Time, Place, Manner, Cauae.
Ij4 ETYMOLOGY.
206. Adverbs of Time answer the question 'when?' as, When will you do it? Immediately.
207. Adverbs of Place answer the question 'where?' as, Where shall I leave it? Anywhere.
208. Adverbs of Manner express hoio an action is done, or a quality possessed, and answer the question 'how?' as, How does she sing? Very
sweetly.
209. Adverbs of Cause express why a thir.g is done.
210. Besides those single words which we call adverbs, we meet with uniona of loords which are called Abverbial Phrases, which modify adjectives and verbs; as, At once, in vain, &c.
211. They can be classified in the same way as adverbs.
INFLECTION OF THE ADVERB.
212. The only inflection that the ad^ei'b under- goes, and that in comparatively few cases, is Com- parison ; as, I run fast; he runs faster; she runs fastest.
213. Sometimes the inflection is the same as in the adjective, viz., in 'er' and 'est'; as, Often, oftener, oftenest.
214. Sometimes it is the same as the comparison of the corresponding adjectives; as, Badly, worse, worst- Little, less, least, &c.
215. Sometimes it is made by prefixing the ad- verbs * moTP^ ' most^ and ' less^ ' least ' ; as. Sweetly, mx>re sweetly, most sweetly; wisely, less wisely, least wisely.
QUESTIONS ON THE ADVERB
What is nn Adverb? What 'l(j»»s tlie word 'modify' mean? Illustratu your answer. How are ;j.dverbs divided ? How many
THE ADVEKB. 105
claBses of adverbs are there? How do you know an atlverh of time? of place? of munner? of cause? What are Advfrbi;tl I 'brases ? What inflection has the adverb ? How is this iutiec- t ion formed f
EXERCISE ON THE ADVERB.
1. Select the Adverbs and the Adverbial Phrases in the fol- lowing sentences.
2. Tell why they are adverbs.
3. Tell to which of the four classes they belong, and why.
I shall go away to-morrow. He went down in a diving-bell. F;iiry rings are very beautiful. Kow the south wind blows softly. He labored in vain. How many sticks will it take to reach the inDon ? One, if it be long enough. John returned .dmoPt directly. 1 will return by and bj'. They danced quite merrily through the room. He was grave and gay by turns. They ride extremely well. We can jump mucli farther than you. He went away immediately after y<.iu. I do not like him at aU. The ostrich is a remarkably swift runner. My dog is rather lame. Tlie little boy skates well. He ran up and down. The boys behaved awkw^ardly at tlie party. The train ran quickly down the incline.
4. Place appropriate Adverl>s or Adverbial Phrases in I'n blank spaces.
The steeple is three hundred feet high. He walked .
I am obliged to you. He is not ready. It wa.s - -
ten o'clock when he came . He stood on the bank and thesi
jumped , but was taken . He persevered for many
days, and gave in despair. He was not
prudent. I waited for an hour and ne came. Your
fafclier goes often t^) town, liis fatlier goes , but mine goes
. Your exercise was badly written, John's was , and
Henry's of all.
RULE FOR THE AD^/ERB. Adverb.s niudify verbs, adjerlives. or adverbs; as, He speaks distinctly; John is remarkably diliuent, and reails va-y correctly.
ORDER OF PARSING THE ADVERB.
( Time, | i' Verb, ) T fl cf
A^-,,^, . t I T>i Modifymg Adjective. ,
Advuub of > Place, ,, •' ° . ,\ , when
the I Adverb, Manner, kc. | | Rulk.
admissihle.
106
ET y:\iology.
Examples. -He re;ids very correctly. He came at last. Eelation. I Etymology and SjTitax.
Reads correctly} Correctly. — ilamier, modifyiiif; ihkU. Rule.
I . Correctly, more correctly, most correctly. Vtrij correctly. Very. — Manner, modifying corncfly. Riile. Came at last. At Irmt. — Adverl)i;d phrase of time, modifying cfurie. Rule.
Piirse, according to tliis plim, the adverbs in the exercise given above.
TABLE OF ADVERBS. Kind.
Time. Plack. Manner. Cause.
Ill re]>ly to tlie questions, When? Where? How? Why?
Inflection.
I
I
Degree.
Regular. Inegnlar.
ANALYSIS.
21 fi. — 1. Tlie Gnmimatical Predicate of a sen- tence, besides beiii<.; conii)leted by means of an ob- jective or a nominative case, (Sec. 187, 2. H.,) may have a further complement in the shape of aji ad- verb or its equivalent.
2. Tlie Predicate is then snid to be extended, and the name Extension is iriven to that part of the Log'cal Predicate.
EXAMPI.E-S.
Diligent boys learn their lesson.'^ i/uickly.
The I irds sing sweetly in summer.
Tlie uniid heiny favorable., the fleet set saiL
THE riiEPOSITlON.
107
|
: Locif-Al. |
Subject. Its Comide- ments. diligent |
I-OGiCAL Predicate. |
|
|
Gramniatiial Subject |
Graiiiiaatical Predicate. Lain |
Completion. |
Extension. - quickly. |
|
Boys |
their le-^sons |
||
|
Birds |
the |
sing |
swietly, in [summer. |
|
Fleet |
the |
sail |
the wind being (favorable |
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the followiiiL; sentences select the 'objective' and the 'aclvorliial ' complements.
2. Analyze accordint^ t<> plan.
He walked very (piitkly. Scipio routed the forces of Hanni f)al. George learns his lessens rapidly. Age increases the desire of living. Ponipey was defeated V>y Cajsar. Labor con- rpiers all things. Tlie sun i-ose brightly over the eastern hills. He killed a man maliciously with a sword. Spring returning, the swallows re-aY)]Jfar. The bird Hew up into the tree. They came to see me to-day. Tlip first two verses were beautifully sung. The church si)ue stood gleaming white.
THE PREPOSITION. 217. A Pkkposition is u word which shews thf reUitioii betwet-ii an oljjcct and some other word in the same sentence ; as, He came from Hamilton to Toronto hr/ rail.
I. ninstration —The jiiipil may, perhaps, see more clearly wliat is meant by nlatiou, by carefully studying the following diagram .- —
B* _ " F I /
ۥ
D*
A*
P»
'W
1 08 KI VMOT^OGY.
A is in, or within, or in-tule the square. B is above, or cer the square. C is vAt/iout, or outside, or a?/-aj/ //-oju the square, i? is hedaK the square. £" is under, or henrath, or fc'^fov the square. F F h across, or at/nrart tlio square. The teacher may illustrate it more thoi'oughly by using a pencil and a book, by means of which he can shew the diflferent relations, or positions that the pencil may bear to the book ; as, On, ov:o.y from, dc.
2. The relation is sometimes between nouns; as, Hatred oj vice — sometimes between an adjective and a noun ; as, Fond o) fishing — sometimes between a verb and a noun, or an adver'i and a noun ; as, He killed him vith a sword. He lived consis' tently with his principles.
QUESTIONS ON THE PREPOSITION. What is a Preposition? How would you illustrate the mean- ing of ' relation ' ? Between what different classes of words do prepositions shew the relation ?
EXERCISE ON THE PREPOSITION.
Select the I'repo.sitions and tell betuoeu wliat words they fhew the relation : —
He went from Toronto to Hamilton. John rode on the horse. Walk in the path of virtue. George is obedient to his parents. The book lies on the table. He was my companion in adversity. I'ridges are made across rivers. The dog held the meat in his '>iouth. He went through the gate. The bird flew into the X'icket. He is respected at home.
RULE FOR THE PREPOSITION. A Preposition is foUowsd bv the Objective Case.
ORDER OF PARSING THE PREPOSITION.
[As the Pre[n.sition e.xpre.sses ;i.' double relation, it carries the mind back to some idea already mentioned, and forward to some other idea, which completes the thought; this double re- lation must be giren in order that the parsing may be complete.] ExAMPLF, - He threw it with all Ins force against the wall. Relation. I Etymology and Syntax.
Threw vM. force, i With. — pinqi. followed bj- ' force' in obj.
! Rule. Threw againut wall, >l(/rf/w^- prep, followed by 'wall' in obj. Rule.
Parse, according to this plr.n, all the Prepositions in *he Exer- aise given above.
THE roX.TUXCTION. < lOV
THE CONJUNCTION.
ZJS, A Cox.Ti'NCTiOX is a wonl which shews the parftcular manner in which one part of a sentence is joined to another; as. You and James may go, hut John must stay at home.
niiistration. — In the example given, there are in the whole sentence no less than three statements; the first is, 'You may go;' the scconil, 'Janios may go." Now, since their e< instruction is similar, being lioth of them principal sentences, they are joined by the conjunction 'and'; thus, ' You raaj' go onrf James maj' go.' Now, joined to these two sentences there is another, also principal in its nature — 'but John must stay at home' Tiiis is joined to the other two \)y the conjuuctifm 'but." This- kind of union gives us one kind of ('onjunction. Let us take another sentence — 'You will succeed, ?/"you work hard.' Here there are two statements, one of which — 'You will succeed' — is principal, and the other — 'if j'ou work hard' — Buboi'dinate. The latter is joined to the former by the conjunction 'if.' The union between subordinate and principal sentences gives rise to the second class of conjunctions.
219. Hence we h;ive two kinds of Conjunctions, Co-OHDiN.\TE and Suboudinate.
DEFINITIONS.
I. Co-OFJi)i.\ATE Conjunctions are tho.se which connect similar constructions; as, God sustains the world, and He governs it.
n. SuBoiiDlNATE ( ■ONJUNCTTONS are those which cpnnect suhordinate, or dejiendent, with principal constructions; as, lioys learn quickly, when they are attentive.
[They frequently join one subordinate clause to another that Is also subordinate. ]
QUESTIONS ON THE CON.'^JNCTION.
What is a Conjunction ? How m;iny kinds of conjunctions Are there ? What is a ( 'o-ordinate conjunction ? What is a .Sub- ordinate conjuur-tion''
110 ETY-\TOT,OOT.
EXERCISE ON THE CONJUNCTION.
1. In the following sentences select the Conjunctions, ancl tell whether they are Co-ordinate or Subordinate.
Virtue is praised and neglected. The moon and stars were shining. You will be despised, and he will be honored. If you would succeed you must labor. He was poor, though h*> might have been rich. Wisdom is better than riches. Climb not lest you fall. Because he is good he is happy. I come, and vou go.
2. Insert < 'onjunctions in the blank spaces
He camiot come to-day, he is sick. I will treat him well,
he has injured me. Religion purities refines the feel- ings. He was dismissed he would not attend to business.
No tree bears fruit in autumn, • it blossoms in the spring.
' You must be mad or foolish. My poverty not my
will consents. The sun cannot shine, it is cloudy.
the servants the master is to Ijlame. John and James
were there. They had no sooner risen they began to study.
They will succeed they are industrious.
RULES FOR THE CONJUNCTION. T. Co-ordinate conjunctions unite similar con- strxctions ; as, He anil / intend to go ; he gave it to him and me.
IT. Subordiuate conjunctions connect dependent with piincipal constructions ; as, // I have erred, pardon me.
ORDER OF PARKING THE CONJUNCTION
[For convenience in parsing. Conjunction.'? may be considered adjoining 'words in <T.ustniction.']
Co-ordinate 1 -- ( the words,
> .2 joining < the clauses. Rule
Subordinate ) ^ ( the sentences
of which the verbs are — & — .
Example.— He started for India, hut stopped at the Cape.
Started hut stoppefl But, co-ordinate, joining the sentences of which tlie verbs are started and utoppid. Rule. Parse, according to this plan, tlie Conjunctions in the exer- cise given above.
THE INTERJECTION, 111
THE INTERJECTION.
220. An Interjection is a word that expresses feolini;, or is a mere mark of address ; as. Oh ! what a fall was there !
2 L. Interjections may express —
1. Astonislmieiit ; as, Lo 1
2. Joy ; as. Hurrah !
3. Sorrow ; hs. .Alas I
4. Di.sgii.st ; as. V'w !
5. (Jailing ; as, ilalloo !
6. Praise; a.s. Well done!
222. The Interjection, having no grammatical relation, is parsed by simply stating the ' part of speech.'
223. Consequently there is no necessity for any Rule.
QUESTIONS ON THE INTERJECTION.
What is an Interjection? What ilitferent fi'elin<^s may bv expressed by thi'-' part of speech ? Wliat rehition is e.vpressed by th*; Intel jeetion ^
EXERCI3E ON THE INTERJECTION. Seh-i-t the Interjections in the follo\vin<; sentences : — He I'.ied, ahis ! in early youth. Weh:ome, my tVieml, to this peaceful home ! Bravo ! be not afraid. Hnrrah ! the victory is won. I'sbaw ! I do not care. Ho ! I am ofl' for the West. He is gone, aiid, oh ! how wretched I am.
ANALYSIS-
224. — 1. Besides the simple sentence which am- tains one statement, and the compound sentence which expresses two or n)ore independent thoughts, there is another, called the complex sentence.
2. A Complex Sentence is made up of one principal sentence, and one or more subordinate sentences ; as, Some dream tliat they can .•silence, wlien they will, the storm of passion.
3. The Principal sentence contains the main subject and predicate ; as, Some dream, &C.
112 ETYMOLOGY.
4. The Subordinate sentence does not make complete sen^ie by itself, but must be taken in connection with the principal sentence; as, Somp dream that they can silence the storm of passion.
5. Subordinate sentences are of three kinds, —
I. THE NOUN SENTENCE. II. THE ADJECTIVE .SENTENCE. III. THE ADVERBIAL SENTENCE.
DEFINITIONS.
225. The Noun Sentence is one that occupies the place and follows the construction of a noun.
226. The Adjective Sentence is one that occupies the place ai»d follows the construction of an adjective.
227. The Adverbial Sentence is one that takes the place and folluws the construction of an adverb.
Examples. — Some dream tliat they can silence, when they will, the storm of passion.
A man who keeps his word is respected.
|
1 |
Kind. |
LoGiCAi. Subject. •' na-nls. |
Logical Predicate. |
|
|
Sentknce. i |
Gram. Comple- Exten- Pixdicate tiou. sion. |
|||
|
a |
1 |
|||
|
Some dream. |
Frin. to b |
Some 1 |
dream Sent, b |
|
|
h |
||||
|
that they can silence the stuini of ])assion. |
Nonn to u in Obj. |
They |
can silence slorm of .- dit passion |
|
|
c when Ihey will |
Adv. to . |
They |
will |
when |
|
a |
1 |
|||
|
A ni.in is re- spected. |
Prin. to b |
>l.in a Sent 6 |
is respect- Ted I |
|
|
1. |
||||
|
who keeps hu word |
Adj. to a |
who 1 1 |
keeps his word |
THE rXTEfMECTTON. IJ^
[The teacher may rule another column for the particle con- necting the subordinate sentence to the principal. ^In this (tb-i third) column the pupil will place any connective that is not adverbial as w ell as conjunctive in its nature. If its adverbiJ force be prominent, it must be placed in the extension column ]
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
How may the Orauimatical Predicate be t>therwise completed? How i.s this Predicate then spoken of? What name is given to this part of the Predicate? What other kind of sentence is ■'•here besides the .Simple and th-e Compound? Define it. How do you know a Principal Sentence? How do you know a Subordi- nate? Name the different kinds of Subordinate Seutencet What is a Noun Sentence? an Adjective Sentence' an A(^- verbial Sentence?
EXEKCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the follnv> iiig exercise select the Principal and th • Subordinate Sentences.
2. State why they are so
3. Toll why tlie Subordinate Sentences ;ire of the class yen name.
4. Analyze according to plan.
It was so cold that I could not stand. I weep the nior^, be . cause I weep in vain. Little did I dre'.im that I should live to jiee such a disaster fallen upon her in a nation of {gallant men. I thought that tt-n thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with in- sult. Kain fertilizes those fields which spreail their bounty to God's creatures. Many learned men write so badly tliat they cannot be understood. Lazy people always do as little as they c.in. A short-hand writer must write as quickly as an orator speaks. It may easily be shewji that the earth is round. Socrates proved that virtue is its own rf ward. Give truth the same aims which you give falsehood, .-md the fi^rmer will soon ]>revail. He may go home now if he can get permission. They fight for freedom who were never free. His dominions were less extensive, but more united, than the Emperors. 1 mu afraid that he will never (.onie again.
114
PART III.
SYNTAX. Syntax treats of the relations which words bear to one another in a sentence, and of the coiistrnc- tk>n of sentences.
KULES. THE NOMINATIVE. Rule I. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the Nominative; as, John reads. / run. They speak.
1. The Subject. — This is either a noun or a substitute for a iwtun; as, John is a good boy; he is very industrious.
2. A Finite Verb. — B3' this is meant any part ot a verb, ex- cept the infinitive mood and the participles.
3. Use of Pronoun Improper. — It is improper to use both a ufun and its pronoun in the same sentence ; s nominative to the s^oQe verb; thus, The KiiKj he is just, shoukl lie — The King is
jUit.
4. Verb Understood. — The nominative, especially in the answer to a question, and after thxui or (if, has the vcrli understood; as, ir/to said so?- He [said so]; James is taller than / [am] ; but not so tall as you [are].
Rule II. — A Predicate Noun, denoting the
same person or thing as its subject, agrees with it
ii7 case ; as, I am a menseiujer.
1. When Found — The 'predicate nominative" is found after intransitive verbs, and verbs in the passive voice; as, Who art tl III ' Hi- was made king.
'I. With Infinitive - Tbe inflnitivft may have a prclicate n. minativp. ; a>. If wishes to be an officer. s
S Aereement. — When wc say that one word a^rrees with H.>ot!,,r, wo moan tb:.! C- ..,„• .•.Mn..>,...u.l6 to the other U teener, Btimber. rh<»«». »r |ierM>ii
SYNTAX. 115
Rule III. — An Apjiositive agrees with its subject in case; as, The cities Toronto ami l-ondon aie in Ontario.
Explanation of Term. — A noun or pronoun, annexed to another noun or pronoun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis, is called an Appositive.
Rule IV. — A Noun whose case depends on no other word is put in the Nominative Absohite; as, The rain having ceased, the day was delightful.
1. Most Frequent Use. -The noun is generally found with a participle, as in the example given in the Kule, but sometimes heiny and hariiuj been are omitted ; as. Her wheel [jjeing}^ at rest. This said, that is. This harimj hi-en said.
Now, man to man and fifpfl to steel,
A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt f eel. — <S'crt«.
2. Exclamations. — Exclamations may be considered as 'nomi- natives a.l).solute;" as, () the tlmex! - 0 the manners!
A lior.se! my /cini/dmn for a horse! — Shak.
Rule V. — A Noun, which is the name of the j)erson or thing addressed, is put in the Nominative of address ; as, PlatOy thou reasonest well.
THE POSSESSIVE. Rule VI. — Any noun, not an A])j)ositive, quali- fying the meaning of another noun, is put in the Possessive; as, I lost my brothers book.
1, The Governing Word sometimes Omitted. — The noun go- verning the poss.jssiv*' is (iften understood ; as. This book is Joint s [book]. St. Paulx. Tliis takes place when the sense is clear without it. It ia always omitted after the possessive case (long form) of the personal pronouns ; as. This book is mine, tlibic, our.i, &,c.
2. Use of Sigpi. — (1) When several nouns come together in tlie possessive case, implying common possession, the sign of tlie possessive is annexed to the last, and understood to tlie rest ; cas, 'Jane and Lucys books,' — that is, Books the common projjerty of Jane and Lucy.
(2; In ueparaU; possession, both have the apostrophe.
116 SYNTAX.
3. Position cf 's. — (1) When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign of the possessive maj' be annexed to either; as, 1 called at Smith's the bookseller, or, at Smith the booksel- ler's. But if, to such a phrase, the substantive which it limits is added, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the last ; as, 1 called at >mith the bookseller's shop.
(2) In compound terms the last only has the mark ; as, The Queen of England's crown.
THE OBJECTIVE. Rule VII. — The Objective case follows an act- ive transitive verb or a preposition ; as, He strnck the table with his hand.
1. Meaning of ' follows, ' — This word refers rather to the order of the sense and construction, than to the placing of the words. Sometimes the position of the objective is before the verb or prepositic)n ; as, Him, the Almighty hurled headlong. The green hills among.
2. How Known. — As nouns shew no difference in inflection for the nominative and the oiijective, this case is marked by position and meaning.
3. Intransitive 'VerbB. — This kuid of verb is nut followed by an objective case, except
(1) When the noun agrees in meaning with the. verb; as, He lived a wretched life, and died a miserable death.
(2) When used in a causative sense ; as, Walk the horse to the pond.
4. Omitted Objective. — Sometimes the objective of thf relative pronoun is omitted ; as, The person (whom) I wanted to see, has left.
5. Objective of Time, &c. — (1) Nouns denoting time, value, WEICHT. or ME.A.SUKE, are commonly put in tlie objective case, without a governing word, — after intransitive verbs, and adjec- tives ; as, He was absent six months last year. Cowards die many times before their deatli. A child two years old. It cost a shilling. It is not worth a rent. It weighs a pound. The wall is six feet high, and two feet thick.
(2) This may be called the objective of time, value, weight, &c., as the case may Vie.
6. After Adjectives. — The objective is found after the adjec- tives near, next, nigh, liiie, worth.
SYNTAX. 117
THE ADJECTIVE.
Rule VIII. — An Adjertive limits or qualifies a noun, or its equivalent ; as, A truthful person is a hva ys res pectecl .
1. Adjectives Used as Nouns. — (1) ' Qtuilitying ' adjectives pre- ceded by the •limiting' adjective 'the' liave the force of ab- stract noiiiis, if the idea exjjressed is singular; a.s, Longiiuis on tht nuljllnii'. The perception of the ridiculoua does not neces- sarily imply bitterness. — Hare
(2) If the idea convej-ed is plural, the adjective then has the force of a common, or concrete noun ; as,
The rich and the pnor meet together.
In the last example the word 'persons' may be supplied, but in thi- othf-r examples we can supply no word.
2. Adjective in Predicate. —Sometimes an adjective is found forming part of the jiredicate ; as, The rose smells mvtiet. It would be incorrect to saj' the ro.'^e smells sweetlj', — i. e., in a sweet manner, because that would represent the rose as perfonu- ing the operation of smelling in a particular manner. Again, 'She looks cold,' and 'She looks coldly on him,' cimvey very different ideas ; so also do ' He feels warm,' and ' He feels warmly the insult ottered him.'
3. Incorrect Use of Adjectives. -This predicate use of the adjective, however, does not ju.stify the use of an 'adjective' as the modifier of anotlier 'adjective.'
4 Double Comparatives and Superlatives — These are some- times met With in old writers; for instance, 'This was the laont unklnJtxt cut of all." — Shak. Their use is to be avoided.
5. 'This' and 'That '—As these adjectives are singular in their application, they must never precede phiral nouns ; there- fore, such expressions as 'these kind' or 'those sort,' are incor- rect—they should be ' this kind' or 'that sort.'
6. Other Parts of Speech as Adjectives. --Participles and even nouns .ire u.^ied with tlii' ''•ore of nouns ; as. He wears the waving orest He wears a tjold ring.
7. When participles are used as adjectives, they retain the fom but not the government of the participle ; as, The man that 18 most sjiaring o/his words is often the most desi-'rving of atten- tion
1 18 SYNTAX.
THE PRONOUN. TJuLE IX. — A Pronoun must agree with the noun for which it stands (its 'antecedent') in person, gender, and ninnber; as, A tree is known by its fruit.
1. The Pronoun foi- Collective Nouns. — A pronoun referring to a collective noun in tlie singular, should be in the neuter singular; Imt when the noun expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should be phii'al ; as, The nrniy proceeded on i7v march. A civilized people has no right to violate its solemn obligations. The couH were divided in tlwir opinion.
2. Gender of Pronoun in Cei-tain Cases. — (1) When singular nouns of different genders are taken separately, they are repre- sented by a repetition of the pronouns of the corresponding genders; thus, If any ?««» or v:oriian sliall violate liia or her pledge, he or -she shall pay a fine.
(2) Pronouns referring to singular nouns or other words, of the common gender, taken in a general sense, are ccnnmonly masculine ; as, A parent should love his child. Every person has his faults. No one should commend him-^el/. The want of a singular pronoun of the third ])erson and common gender, is felt in such constructions as those.
3. Pronouns to be Used in Pereoniiication. — Pronomis repre- senting nouns personified, take the gender of the noun as the name of a person; as, 'Nit/ht, salde goddess, from hei- ebon throne.' The lion said to the atm, irho had been hunting with hvin. But pronouns representing nouns taken metaphorically, agree with them in their literal sense ; as, Pitt was the pillnr which in itx strength upheld the state.
4. 'You' and 'We.' — (1) The former pronoun, the nomina- tive form of which is also 'ye,' is used with reference to either a singular or plural noun, and is always followed l)y a plural verb; the use of a singular verb is incorrect. ("2) In the same way ' We ' is used by monarehs, reviewers, and authors, instead of *I,' and is always followed by a plural verb.
6 The Distributive Pronouns. — These prrinouns take after them a verli in the singular, ar.d a pronoun in the third person singular; as, Eacli of us Ita-s his own work to do.
6. 'This' and 'That.'- In using these two }>ronouns, we must remember tliat 'this" refers to something near the speaker or to the subject last mentioned; 'that' refers to something more remote, or to the subject first mentioned ; as, Virtue and vice are contrary to each other; that ennobles the mind, thin debases it
SYNTAX. 119
7. Pronoun in an Answer. — In answering a question the pn]>il shnulil hear in inii'il ti;at tlie projioiin or noun contawied in the answer must be in the same case as the word asking the ques- tion; as, Who did it? — /. IV/ioiu did you see? — Jowe-t.
8. Omission of Relative. - The relaMve in the objective o se is often omitted ; as, Here is the book (which) I promised you. The relative in the nominative case is hardU' ever omitted except in poetry ; as,
In this, 'tis Ciod (irho) directs ; in that, 'tis man. — Pope.
9. Omission of Antecedent — The antecedent is sometimes omitted both in prose an<l in poetry, but especially in the latter;
AS,
Who lives to nature rarely can be poor, Who lives to fancy never cin be rich
THE VERB. Rui.E X. — 1. A Verb agrees witli its subject iioniintitivc in person and number; as, I read, thou reai/est, iie reads.
2. Two or more Substantives, sinirular. taken to- jrpflier, have a verb in the ]>hnal ; as, .lames and ,](t\in are here.
'^. Collective Nonns take a phu'al when the idea of nluralitv is piominent ; as, The College ot Cardinals elect the l'o[)e.
4. When a verb has two oi- moie singular nomina- tives connected by or or vor, it agrees with them in the singular number ; as, Neither James nor John attends.
1. Nouns Connected by 'and' with Singular Verb. — (1) When substantives connected by 'and' denote otie person or thing, tiie verb is .singidar ; as, Why /'.'* ilii.'<t and anhea ])roud?
(2) Singular iio'uus. preceded by 'each.' 'every,' 'no,' though connected by 'and,' have the verb in tlie singular; as, Kach book and each paper >rriA arranged
2 Adjuncts of the Nominative. -The adjuncts of the nomina- tive do not control its agreement; as, The mitt, with all its appurtenances, tvaii dfiMroyM. The nuvihi'r of paupers in-
«r<'ase.H
3. Separated Subjects of Different Peisons, &c. — When two or more substautives, taken separately, are of different persons or numbers, the verb agrees with the one next it, and the plural subject is usually placed next the verb ; as, James or 1 arn in the wrong. Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved.
4. Sequence of Tense. — (I) Wheu one verb depends upon another, the proper succession of tenses mtist be attended to ; as, He tells me that he vill. He promiseil that he would do so. (2 1 Propositions regarded as universally true ai'e generally put m the. present tense, whatever tense precedes them ; as, Plato believed that the soul h immortal.
The force of this remark may be better illustrated in this way: —
He may speak if he can, if he will, if he be inclined. „ might „ ,, could, ,, would, ,, were ,,
He can write if he may, if he choose.
„ could ,, ,, might, ,, chose.
He will go if he may, if he can, if he think tit.
„ would ,, ,, might, ,, could, ,. thought,,
&c., &c.
6. The Infinitive Mood. — (I) This mood has no nominative, but has its subject in the objective; as, 1 saw him jump. Here /tivi is the subject of the infinitive mood, the object of the veil) .iaw being 'him jump.' (2) This mood is found after Vv>rbs, adjectives, and nouns ; as, I to/i/ him to do so. Anxiotis t > learn. A desire to improve.
6. Sign Omitted. — 'To,' the sign of tlie infinitive, is not used attcr the verbs bid,' 'dare,' (iutrans.) 'need.' (used as an auxiliary,) "make, see.' -hear,' '.feel.' 'let.' in the active Viiice, and after 'let" in the passive; as, I saw him do it. You need not go.
7. Participles. — (I) The Pirticiples often require other words to complete the sense, and are tliereforo followed (as verbs) by the 'objective case;' and they may stand either before or after tlieir nouns; as, Leanhuj my head ujjon my hand, I began to fii^ure to myself the miseries of coiitinenient. — Sterne.
(2) They sometimes refer to some indefinite word which is omitted; as, Ornnliiif/ this to bo true, what is the inference ? Here we may supply the pronoun ire, which stands in the nominative absolute.
(3) The past tense and the past participle of a verVj must not be interchangf"!! ; as. I doue— (or ' 1 have done,' or, I have drank —for ' 1 ]i,i\\: driuik "
SYNTAX. 121
RuLK XT. — A transitive verb, in tlie active voice, is followed by the Objective case; as, We love him. He loves us.
Double Objective — (1) Certain verbs, as 'ask,' 'allow, 'lend," 'give,' 'tell,' 'send," 'pay,' 'cost,' &c, are followcdby tAvo objec- tives , tlie one standing for the person receiving, the other for the thing given. The former is calkd the indirect object; the other the direct.
(•2) Other verbs, such as 'name,' 'appoint,' 'call,' 'choose,' &c., have also a double object, the nearer object being the dii'ect; the remoter o1>ject the indirect.
Rule XII. — The predicate substantive after a verb, is put in the .same case as the subject before it ; as, It is he. She walks a queen. I took it 1 1> be him.
Caution. — Mistakes frequently occur in translations from n.»t attending to this Rule. Thus the translation, ' Whom do mer say that / am?" is incorrect; it should be, ' Who,' &c. Th'p caution is especially necessary in orfiinary conversation ; thus we frequentlj' hear such expressions as, ' Who do you think I saw to-day?' — this siiould be ' Whovi,' &c.
THE ADVERB.
Rule XIII. — Adverbs modify verb.s, adjectives,
and other ail\erbs; us, John speaks dixihictlif, he 's
remarkohhi dili^eiit, and reads ve.vii correctly.
1. Adjectives Used Adverbially — Though we tiiid that 'ad- jectives' are used in the Predicate of a sentence with the fo'oe «if 'adverbs,' it does not follow that tliey may be used as niodi- Hers of a<ljectives ; thus it is incorrect to say, It is an excesxire hot day, &c.
2. Adverbs TIsed aa Adjectives. — Adverbs are often, thontrh im'lej.'autly, made ridjcctivcs, and used to qualify nouns ; as, Tht- Ih'-ii inini.stry, — Tlit- nlmr,' i-cinarks, &f. .Such expressions are to be avoided. This point, therefore, must be remembered, ' Adjeetives must not f)C used as adverbs, nor adverbs as adjec- tives.'
3. Negatives. --Two negatives are equivalent to an afRrnia- tive, and should not be used unless affirmation is intended ; as, I can not drink no more, should Ije, I can drink vo more ; or, I can;/>(/ drink auy more.
4. 'Hence.' 'thence,' 'whence.'— As these adverbs imply motion from, tlie use of the preposition 'from" with tlitni i.s in-
122 fay\T\x.
THE PREPOSITION. Rule XIV. — Prepositions are followed by thr- Objective case ; as, He was killed m battle.
1. Position of Preposition. — (1) As its name implies, the 'Pre- position' is placed before the word, though sometimes it is found after it; as. He spoke oijainst the measure.
Thy deep ravines and dells amotu/. — Scott. (2) With Relatives.— Prepositirins never stand before the relative ' that ;' and when the relative is omitted they arc placed after the verb; as, That is the person I spoke of. Such an arrangement of words is suitable for simple convei"sational style. but strict attention to grammatical structure wiuild prefer tlii.* arrangement: 'This is the person of whom I spoke.'
2. Choice of Prepositions. —(1) Certain words and phrases should Vje followed by appropriate prepositions. The pupil can become acquainted with these only by extensive practice.
A few examples will explain this remark. Abound JH, vjith. Differ j'.vV/;, (quarrel.)
AbsentyVo7«. Differ y?-0/«, (disauree.)
Accuse of. Different /j;o»i.
Address to. Exclude /rom.
AdvaTitage on-r, of. Expel /ro)H.
Affection /"or. Yne from.
Agree wUIl a person ; to a pro- Fruitful in.
position from another; upon (Jratefi^l /o a jierson.
a thing among themselves. Grateful for favors. Approve of. Hinder /'/-owi.
Arrive at. Improve upon.
Ask of a person: for a thing: Interfere irith.
after what we wish to hear of. J,ong/o?-. Associate ?wJ<A. Made o/", (material.)
Assent to. Made/or, (purpose.)
Attain to. ^eed of.
Banish _/"ro»?, to. Occasion /or.
Betray to a person ; into a thing. (Opposite to Boast of. Persevere in.
Blush at. Prefix to.
Call on a person ; at a place. Quarrel unlh. Capacity /or. Reflect »/>o» or on
Carefid of in. Restore to.
Change (exchange) for; (alter) .Smile ot.
to, into. Swerve /ro7rt.
Compare vnJfi, in respect of Think of.
quality ; to, by way of illiis- True to or of
tration. Unite with.
Depend upon. Wait on, at, or for.
Deprive of. Worthy of
SYNTAX. 123
(2) The prepositions 'among' and 'between' are frequently misapplied. 'Between' is used when there is reference to 1 o objects or classes of objects ; ' among,' when there are more than two; as, He (livi<led it between James and John. He divided it amonif James, John, and Henry.
THE CONJUNCTION. Rule XV. — Co-ordinate Conjunctions unite ■iimilar constructioiis ; us, lie and / intend to go. He gave it him and me.
Rule XVI. — Subordinate Conjunctions connect dependent with principal constructions ; as, // I luwe erred, pardon nie.
1. 'Than,' ' A8.'--Tlie c;ise of the nonn or pronoun after the '■oiijiinction — (1) 'than," wliich follows comparatives, and tlie words 'else,' 'other,' 'otherwise,' and 'rather'; also — ('2) after 'as' depends upon its relation to its own clause, as,
(a) I visit the doctor oftener than he (visits.)
Do. do. him (I visit him.)
(h) He loves her as much as / (love her.)
Do. do me (lie loves nie. )
2. Correlative Conjunctions. — Certain wonls in the antec«- di nt nienibur of a seiitenco, retpiire corresponding connectivp.8 m the a»ibsequent one ; thus, —
(1) In clauses or words simply connected — lioth requires and ; as, Buth he anil 1 came.
Eifht-r or; as, EUlier he or I will come.
Xctther nor: as, Neither \\e nor \ ca.vcM.
Whither or; as, Whether ha or \ caww.
Thoiiijh yet; as, Though He slay me, yet will 1 trust
in Him. Not only — - — hut also; as, Not only hn hut ulxu his brother
goes.
Cl^ In clauses connected so as to imply comparison - Thi ajinpiirative degne requires ///an; as, He \a taller than I am. Other requires than ; as, It is no other than he.
Ml^e than; as. What fixe do you expect th^ni this?
As (W (expressing equality); as, He is (w tall <w I
Am.
124 SYNTAX.
As requires so (expressing equality; as, As thy day is, ?#
shall thy strength lie. So as (with :< net'ative expressing iiii'ijuaUly); as,
He IS not «o*learnicl ajs bis Virritlier. So t/tat (expresiinig consequence) ; He is so veak
Uint he cannot walk.
Such as (expressing shailarity); as, He or suclt as hf
^iich fhnf (expressing consequence); as, The uhaii!;e
is suck thai any one may perceive it.
THE INTERJECTION. Rule XVII. — Interjections ha%tf no granniiaticdl connection with other words in a sentence ; as,
' A las I po(jr ' Yorick. ' — Shah.
Stern then and "steel-girt was thy brow, . Dun-EdinI 0! how altei-ed now. — Scott.
1 Alter interjections, pronouns of the first person are com- monly in the objective case ; those of the second in the iiornina- tive ; as, Ah me. ! — O thou !
2. In neitJier of them, however, does the c;ise depend on .the
interjection. The object is commonly thought to depend upon
some word iinderstood ; thus. Ah \_pit]l\ me! — Ah [what iclll
■^yiaeJ The nominative form is comniouly the 'inde-
7y-> 'i^^u' fe.V iiUiAicSS.
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BOOKS FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS, BY DR. McLELLAN.
Examination Papers in Arithmetic.
By J. A. McLkllav, M. A., LL. D., Inspector of High Schools, Ont., and Thomas Kirklani), M. A., Science Master, Normal School, Toronto.
" In our opinion the hest Collection of Problems on the American Con- tinent."—Natki.vaIi Tk.^ciikrs' Mo.ntult, N. Y.
Seventh Complete Edition, - - Price. $1.00.
; Examination Papers in Arithmetic. ---Part I.
j By J. A. McLellan, M. A., LL. D., and Tnos. Kirkland, M. A.
Price, - - . - - 50 Cents.
I Thi3 Edition has been issued at the request of a large number of Public ! School teachers who wish to have a Cheap Edition for the use of their I pupils preparing for admission to High School.
Hints and Answers to Examination Papers in Arithmetic. *
By J. A. McLella.v, M. A., LL. D., and Tnos. Kirklakd, M. A. Fourth Edition, ----- $i.co.
McLellan's Mental Arithmetic. ---Part I..
Containing the Fundauienta' Rules, Fractions and Analysis.
By J. A. McLella.s, M. A., LL. t., Inspector High Schools, Ontario.
Third Edition, ■ - - - - SO Cents.
Authorized for use in the Schools of Nova Scotia.
McLellan's Mental Arithmetic.---Part II.
Si>ecially adapted for Model and High School Students. Third Edition, - - - Price, 45 Cents.
The Teacher's Hand Book of Algebra.
By J. A. McLellan, M. A., LL. D. Second Complete Edition, ... $1.25.
Teacher's Hand Book of Algebra. ---Part I.
Prepared for the use of Intermediate Students. Price, . - . . . 75 Cents.
Key to Teacher's Hand Book of Algebra.
Second Edition, - - - Price, $1.50.
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