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AN
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
FOB THE CSK OF
JUNIOR CLASSES.
BT
' H. W. DAVIES, B.D.,
SECOND MA8TEB OF NOUJtAL BCtOOL, PROTINCE OF ONTABIO.
AutJiorized by the Council of Public Instrtiction /w Ontario.
W. J. GAGE & COMPANY.
Entered according to the Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Y^ar one thousand eight hundred and eiahtv-six, by W. J. Gaob & Company, in the oifice of the Minister of A^ncuiture.
This Grammar is designed, as its title indirates, for the use n'. Junior Classes in the Schools throughout the Province. Tli. same definitions havj been given in it as in the larger nnd rr. r advanced Grammar, authorized by the Council of Public In- struction ; and, vifhere the mode of expression has been alter«4, the change has been made with a view to rendering the subjrvfc more easily understood by the class of pupils for whom it ia specially intended. It may, therefore, be considered as an J>a» troductory Grammar to the Analytical and Practical Grammar, and not by any means as intended to supersede it.
Keeping in view the fact that it is mtended rather for W ginners in the study of Grammar, than for those more advance*!, the Editor has embraced in the Questions every point referred to both in the body of the work and also in the appended remarks. Under the guidance of a judicious teacher thesa Questions may be made useful to the pupil, by enabling him to test himself, by way of question and answer, on the lesson which may tave been assigned to him for preparation. The teacher, however, should carefully avoid, as a general rule, asking the questions in the identical form in which they are found in the Grammar. They are given with a view to aid the pupil rather than the teacher.
It cannot be expected that in such a Grammar all the ex- amples of diflference in Gender, Numl^er, &c. , should be gives. Much is necessarily left to be supplemented by the Teacher.
The subject of Analysis has, it is hoped, not received too prominent consideration, for it performs a very miportant part in enabling pupils to read correctly and intelligently.
VllKrACE.
The Rules of Syntax are the same as those given in the Iarg« Grammar, with the following exceptions: — One Rule (Rule 7, A & P. G.) affecting the Possessive, is embraced in the remarks on Rule 6, and portions of the remarks on Rule 11 of the large Grammar, are included in the Rule relating to the Verb. In giving the number of the Rule, in the schemes for parsing, it is not intended that merely tlie number of the Rule shall be given, but the Rule itself ; thus the difference in the "Uumberiug of the Rules will, practically, have no ill eflfect.
Neither Prosody, nor Punctuation, nor Composition, has been referred to in this treatise, otherwise the work would have lost its character of an Elementary Grammar. The last two subjecti may safely be left in the hands of the Teacher, who can direct the pupils most advantageously in both of them when the classes are writing to Dictation.
No exercises in False Syntax have been inserted — the reason is explained in the Preface to the large Grammar. No lists of Adverbs, Prepositions, &c , have been given, because it has been deemed better to allow the pupils to find these out for them- selves, by carefully observing what duty they do in their re- spective sentences. In this way the pupil will not have hia memory burdened with a useless list of meaningless words.
Prefixed to the Grammar proper will be foimd a very elemen- tary treatise, which, it is hoped, will render the study more congenial to the yoimger pupils, and enable them to take up the Introductory with more profit and pleasure; while it may, at the 8»me time, serve as a sample of the simple language in w children may be taught Grammar. The order in which various olasses of words are treated, differs from that given. It seems to be the more natural plan to consider the various Kinds of words in the order of their importance. It is therefore suggested, that a similar method be adopted m con- sidering the Parts of Speech in the Introductory Grammar.
Edhcation Oitice, D€cembvr, 186S.
CONTENTS.
Pagf
CtRiUfMAR, First Steps in ii-xxii
Definition and Division of 23
Part I.— ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography, Delinitiou of 23
Letters, Division of 24
Forms of 24
Syllables 25
Spelling .... 26
Part II.— ETYMOLOGY.
Ettmolooy, Definition of 27
V^oRos, Formation of 27
Kind of 23
Yakts of Speech, Definitions . . 28
Inflections 29
rneNouN 29
Divisions 30
Definitions 30
Analysis 31
Inflections of 32
Gender 33
Number 35
Case 39
The Nominative . . . .40-41
„ Possessive 42
„ Objective 43
Declension 43
Parsing 44
Table 44-45
Analysis 45
JSb Adjective 46
Kinds of 47
' An ' and ' The ' 48
Inflection of .^ 49
Manner of Inflecting 60
Irregular Comparison 52
Rule and Parsing 53
Table 53-54
Analysis 54
The PaoNO0N 55
Personal Pronoun 56
Inflection of . .• 57
Adjective Pronoun 59
Definition of 69
Division of 60
Distributive ' . . . . 60
Demonstrative . . 60
Indefinite 61
Relative Pronoun 62
Inflection of 63
Application of 63-64
Compound 64
Interrogative I'ronoun 65
Rule and Parsing 65
Table 67
Analysis 68
The Verb 69
Transitive 70
Intransitive 70
The Verb— (conMnwl) Pagt
Regular 72
Irregular 72
Defective 72
Impersonal 73
Auxiliary 73
Inflections 74
Voice 74
Mood f.. 75
Indicative 76
Potential 76
Subjunctive 77
Imperative 77
Analysis 78
Infinitive 80
The Participle .... 80
Present and Past 81
Perfect and Future 81
Analysis 82
Tense 83
Present and Past 83-84
Future 84
Tenses in different Moods 85
Analysis 86
Person and Number 87
Conjugation 88
'Mav,' ' Can,' &c , inflec- ted 88
-To be 'and 'To love' infl. 90
Diflierent forms 95
Rules and Parsing 97
Irregular Verbs 98
Table 101
Analysis 102
The Adverb 103
Division of 103
Inflection of 104
Rule and Parsing 105
Table 106
Analysis 106
The Preposition 107
Rule and I'arsing 108
The CovjascTioN 109
Definitions 109
1 Rules and Parsing 110
The Intekjection Ill
Analysis 111-113
Part III.— SYNTAX.
Syntax, Definition of 114
! RULES.
The Noun.- The Nominative . . 114
I „ Possessive 115
„ Objective 116
1 The Adjective 117
The Pronoun 118
. The Verb 119
The Adverb 121
The Preposition 122
The CoNJi'NCTiON 128
The Interjection 124
FIEST STEPS IN GRAMMAR.
1. The whole of our language is made up of words ; theaa words are, in their turn, made up of letters, and each of these letters has its own sound.
Z. The twenty-six letters of our Alphabet are of two kinds, V'^wels and Consonants.
1. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, except at th« bt giuning of a word or syllable.
4. The consonants, nineteen in number, are the remaining ler-ters, — viz., b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. A\, tlie beginning of a word or syllable w and y are consonants.
►tuestions— Of what is our language ma<fe up? Of what are words cora- po«,ed? What is said about the sound of each letter? What' are the two divisions of letters? Name the vowels. Name the consonants.
Exercise. — 1. Tell how many rowels and how many conso- nants there are in the following words : —
Toronto, Kingston, Ottawa, violence, intemperance, senate^ cousonant, vowel, condition, toothache, interjection.
2. Tell in which of the following words w and y are consonants, and in which they are vowels :— Fellow, 'carry, winter, young, sowing, yew, mow, mowing, cow, sky, youth, glory, dye, yel- low, wind.
5. In learning grammar we must remember that we are learn- ing all about words.
6. Words are the material out of which we form sentences, just as the mason or the bricklayer builds a house out of stonciS or bricks, by joining them together.
7. Now in making our sentences we find that there are differ- ent kinds of words, and that each kind has its own work to do. These words we join together to iorm sentences.
8. Let ns, therefore, before going any farther, look at two kinds of words, which are most frequently met with.
9. If we wish to say something about some person or thing, we are obliged to name tiiat person or hing. For example, we say Charlesi or horse, therefor^i the word CItarlcs or the word liorss is a name Tliis gives us the fiisfe kind of word.
ftueations.— Wheii we arj learning grammar, what are we learning about? Out of what materia- ■••■•'■ ii iitmices made? To what may these words In; com- pared? Are all words of t':" same kind ? Do they all pcrfonu tUtJsaiiie duty? What is the use of the first '."-.d of word ?
Exercise. — Name six things in the school-room.
„ ,, on a breakfast table.
,, ,, ...^led in a garden.
,, ,, mat grow
Name six kinds <>t fr-.i..- Give six nanus ot persons.
10. Besides naming <Jhfir'ei< or lior.ie, we desire to say some- thing about them. For example, if we say Charles sbujs, or The horse runs, we have told something about them, and thus have made use of a telling word.
11. The uniting or joining of these two kinds of words gives us the simplest form of a sentence, wliich thus consists of a naming word^md a telling word.
12. We thus see th.it every sentence— i. e.. statement of a fact —consists of two parts, viz., the noun, or naming part, «iiid the verb, or teUing part.
13. Now, if we had no other kinds of words, there would !>*» very little variety in our sentences, and our expressions would be very clumsy.
14. Our 1 mguage, however, h 'S a variety of words, each one of which h.is its own pticuliar duty.
15. We will now take our first sentence and see how it can. by the aid of other words, be made to express a good deal more than the two original words indicate.
1 2
(1.) Charles sings.
Here we have two kinds of words. 12 3 3 1
(2.) Charles sings a favorite song. Here we have three kinds of words.
-k.
Iv
1 2 3 3 1 4
(8.) Charles sings a favorite song sweetly. Here we have /our kinds of words.
1 2 3 3 14 4 6 7
(4.) Charles sings a favorite song very sweetly for iuR 1 « . 1
mother and sister.
Here we iiave stftii kinds of words.
1 .-3 3 1 4 4 5 7
(5.) Charles sings a favorite song very sweetly for his 161 7 2 7628
mother and sister. They thank him, and say, Oh I
4 4 2
how sweetly sung. Here we liave eight kinds of words.
16. Thus we find that we can use eight different kinds of words in making up sentences. The eighth does not occur so frequently as the others.
Questions. — Whit is the duty of tlie next most important kind of word? ■What does the union of these two kinds 'f words give us? Of what does the Biinplest kind of a sentence consist? What do we call the two parts of a, sentence? What would be the rcsu.t if we had no otlier than the'" two kinds of words? How many different kinds of woivls are there?
Exercise — Form three sentences telling what a horse can do.
Form three sentences telling v.iiat a moriktij can do.
Form three sentences telling what a mouse can do.
Form three sentences with dog, cat, man, bird, for the noun part.
Farm three sentences with jumps, sings, runs, leaps, for the t^erb part-
17. Let us now look at tliese different kinds of words, and see what name is appropriate to each one, and why it has that particular name.
THE NOTJN. A Noun is a name.
18. As a noun is a name, or a name is a noun, therefore the word Clmrles is a noun, because it is a namie : the word horse ia
n noun, because it is a name ; the word fun is a notui, beeauM it is a name.
19. Hence every name is a noun.
Questions. — What is a Noun ? What is a name ? Why is the word ' Charles' a noun? the word 'horse?' the word 'fun?'
Exercise. — 1. Select the nouns from among the following words: —
John, for, wisely, hand, house, hoe, and, or, but, axe, sell, peach, cherry, Toronto, large, when, cat, river, bird, if, since, goodness, bravery, bad, large, down. John has an old hat and a new cap. The'cow has a white calf. The trees are full of leaves. The lamp gives more light than the candle. Peter's boat is in the water.
2. Put a noun in each of the following blank spaces : —
She has a new . knows his lessons. I saw .
My is better than your . This is a red . The
is a very long river. -is the capital of Ontario.
can jump farther than .
THE VERB. A Verb is a telling word.
20. Let us look at this verse, and then we shall see what il meant by the definition: —
In tlie hain a little mousie
lUiii to and fro; Fur »lie Mard the kitty coming,
Long time ago.
21. Here we find two words which tell us something about the 'mousie.' These two words are ran and heard; now, be- cause they tell us something, they are called verbs.
ftuettioni —What is a Verb ? What is a telling word ? How many verbs tre the^rt in the little veiue? Which are they? Why are they verbs?
Exercise. — 1. Select the verbs in the following sentences.
2. Why are they verbs?
James runs. The bird flies. Men die. The man teaches. The child cries. Tlie l)ottle contains ink. John caught a fish. He has seen the elephant. The cow eats fresh grass. The dog lost his master. George plays. Does George play? The horse
gftllops through the woods. The boys learn their lessons. Th» aim shines bright.
3. Put a verb in each of the blank spaces.
Benjamin— —to town. James a letter. Emily her
book. The letter by John. Thomas down on the bed.
The girls — ■ — their lessons. The boat up the river. The
deer down the hill. Susan a good girl. I a book.
The • tree by the wind. Julia diligently. Fannie •
home. The bird its nest. Flowers by the gardener.
THE ADJECTIVE. An Adjective is a noun-markiiig word.
22. Let us write a sentence containing a word of this kind, and then apply the definition: — Charles killed the large black dog.
23. Here we are told that 'Charles killed a dog,' and that it •was a particular dug. This dog is distinguished from other di>gs by being black and large
24. These t\\ o words mark the dog, and are, therefore, called B/ Ijectives or noun-marking m ords.
26. Besides tliese two words, there is another little' word V Kich points out the particular llack dog. This is the little T( ord l/ie, whicli reseml'les, . in use, the J^' on a finger-post, ai«d lias the force of an adjective.
26. The word an or a has also the force of an adjective.
27. In the language of grammar, an adjective is said to qualify.
28. We may, therefore, use tliis definition :
An Adjective is a qualifjong word.
Questions. — What is an Adjective ?. What is a i oun-maiking word called ? GiA e an example of an adjective ami a noun. Why i.s that word an adjective ? In the example given whicli are the adjectives? Could you put other adjec- tives in their place? Wliat is the nse of 'the' in a sentence? What are adjectives said to do in grammar? Give another definition.
Exercise.— 1. Select the adjectives in the following sentences :
John is a good boy. Have you studied that long lesson?
Here are five little boys and six girls. Every man has some
vU
fault. Love all men. That beautiful river has lovely green banks. Little kittens love new sweet milk. I will give you this large ripe yellow peach.
2. Join an appropriate adjective to each of the following nouns : —
Man, table, hat, hand, knife, pen, boy, girl, cow, horse, biJlets, box, shoes, sun, moon, stars, leaf, picture, stream.
3. Join a noun to each of the following adjectives : —
Good, bad, fat, fair, this, that, happy, every, rich, high, low, poor, lazy, tall, short, strong, weak, red.
THE ADVEEB. The Adverb is a verb-marking word.
29. Like the adjective, this is also a majking word.
30. It is most frequently used to mark a verb.
31. It is found also^witli adjectives and other adverbs. It is, therefore, an adjective -marking, and an adverb-marking word as well.
32. It telld us when, where, how, or why, a thing is done.
33. To shew th.it it is a verb-mark'Jie word let us look at this sentence : Alary sings xweetli/. — Hero we are not only told that 'Mary sings,' but -we are also told how she sings; the word 'siccetli/,' therefore, marks the word ^ sivg-i,'' which is a verb.
34. That it mirks an adjective may be aoen in this sentence: — Father gave me a verij be.iutiful l>ook. -Here we see not only that the book is 'beautiful,' but the word '?-erv' marks the degree of be vuty : thus we see that an atlverb is al&o an adjec- tive-marldng word.
35 Another ex;imple will shew that i<-- •'^lao marlis another adverb. In the example (Sec. 33) we were told that ' Mary sings sweetly,^ but the degree of sweetness m.iv l>e marked by i»ome such adverb as ^vt-rij' or 'rather;' so that we find an adverb marks also another adverb.
36. In the hmguage of Gr.imm..r, an adverb is s .id to modify, — i. e., to change.
87. We may, therefore, use this Definition of the word?
An Adverb is a modifying word-
>lae«tions. — What is an Adverb? What kind of word does it most frequentl) tiiv»rk? With wliat other kiiKls of words is it lound!' What does an adverb C*U us respecting any thing? In tlie sentence 'Tlie horse ran away,' which ■» rrd is the adverb? How do you k)iow it is an adverb? Whicli is the ad- Vfc.-b in tliis sentence, 'Harry is very fond of candy?' How do you know? Pick out the adverbs in ili:s senuiice, l-iiln barked so loud tliat lie v,x>k« the baby.' Wliy are tiny ailverbsr Wliat does 'to modify' mean? Give auotlier detiuitioii for an udxerb.
Exercise. —1. Select tlie adverbs in the following sentences : —
2. Tell why they iire adverhs.
Charlie le irus quickly. Ihe dog lit the boy badlj'. Boja uotnetiiues play very nm^hly. Koine dnysin winter are exceed- ingly cold. See how isioely my toj) spins. Walter skates welL Lu crosse is e.tsily playeil. Fanny writes very quicidy and regiilarl}'. Mary sits j.racefiilly.
3. Insert an adverb in each blank space.
I am tired. The horse trotted . Tray is a— — old
dog. He behaved . James writes . The wind was
--—high, and the sea r()ii|:h. Go and sit-^ — . Read your
luason . He spoke in a '■nud tone. He spoke in
»- — low tone.
THE PEEPOSITION.
The Preposition is a joining word.
38. We will take a s'.iort seiit.-nce, ajxl look into the words ol l^hich it is made up. — 'Charles h:t James with a stor.e.'
39. In this sentence we ha\ e tloce names, or nouns, one tell- ing word, or verb, one noun marking word, or a43ective, and one which joins the verb /. /( to the i oini vfotie.
40. We notice that its use is to join th^se two words, and that it is placed before the word xiune.
41. Hence we see that a Prijidsitioii joir^ words. Quettions.— What is a rrejiosltion ? Give iiii exaiuii e. What is its u.se?
Where is it ]ilace>i?
Exercise. — 1. Select the prepositions in the following sen- tences : —
The horse ran down the street. I laid it on the table. The L<.ok lies under the chair. Th^ meadow is behind the barn. He shot an arrow through the apple Monkeys can climb up trees. Charlie has a knife with six blades. He walked xrom hid home to school in ten minutes.
2. Place prepositions in the blank spaces : —
I set it the table. 1 cut my linger a knife. Geor^
jumped the fence, and Frank crawled a hole. He put
the money his purse, but lost it his pocket. He
•truck the boy the head a strap. He has just returned
England the steamer.
THE CONJUNCTION. The Conjunction is a sentence-joining word,
42. This word is also a joining word, but ft does not join simple words, but statements of facts,— i. «., sentences.
43. One or two examples will illustrate the meaning of t^rt definition.— John struck Harry and made him cry. The dog will bite you, if yon teaze him.
44. In the first example there are two statements mad<'; therefore, there are two sentences. The first sentence is — 'John struck Harry ;' the second one is— 'Jolm made him cry.' Th^y are joined by the word aiul ; this word is, therefore, a conjur-c- tion.
45. In the second example also there are two sentences. — 'The dog will bite you'— and — 'If you teaze him" — and these sentences are joined by the word if, whicli thus becomes a con- JTinction.
46 We thus see that the use of this kind of word is to join eentences.
Questions.— What is a Conjunction? How does it difTer from the preposi- tion? Give an example containing a coii.)uiic,tiiin. Name the conjunotion? How do you IvHow it is a coixjuiiction ? What does your example teiich you about conjunctions?
Exercise — Select the conjunctions in the following sen- tences:—
I rof^e, but Peter walked Come and see me to-morrow. He fell on the ice and cut his face. He can neither read nor write, though he is ten years old. He was so cold that h s teeth chattered. Though he was poor he was much respected. Henry and John survived their fathtr. The boat upset and they were cJl drowned. If you study hard, you will surely succeed. I am sure he will get a prize, if he work diligently.
THE PRONOTJIT. The Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
47. We could tell a stury or keep up a conversation by mean* ef the six kinds of wor.ls of which we have been reading, but the frequent repetition of the name, or noun, would be tire- some, and would, at the same time, make our sentences appear stiff and awkward.
48. In order, then, to avoid this, we have a kind of word ■which we very often use for, or instead of a noun ; and hence its name Pronoun, i. e. , For-name
49. The good of ))aving such u useful little word may be shewn by an example or two.
50. If we were to say— 'Stella fell and broke Stella's doll;' or, 'John cut John's linger with John's knife,'— either sentence would be very clumsy.
51. Now, if in the first sentence we write her instead of Stella's, and in the second /tin instead of John's, see how much more smoothly the sentences will read : Stella fell and broke her doll. John cut /ti-s finger with his knife.
52. Now, because these words have been used for the nouns, they are called Pronouns.
Uuestions. — \^ hat is a Pronoun ? Is this kind of worrt absolntely necessary ? Why not? What would lie tin- lesiiit if we liad no iivoiioinis? Wlience does it get its name? Give an exanijile shewing the use of this kind of word?
Exercise. — 1 Select the ])ronouns in the following sentences.
2. Instead of the pronouns, write the nouns for which they stand.
James brought his book and lent it to Mary, and she read it. She was much pleased with it, ;ind thanked her brother for having lent it to her. fieorge studies well ; he learns fast, and he will excel. Thomns is a good boy; he obeys his father and mother cheerfully, when they wish him to do anything for them.
3. Write the proper pronouns instead of the nouns.
George found the scpiirrei lying under a tree with the squirrel's leg broken. George took the squirrel home, and the^ squirrel's Vg soon got well The s<iuirrfel loved George, and foUowe.^ bieorge wherever George went.
THE INTERJECTION.
The Interjection is a sound or a word used only as a sound.
53. This kind of word is not so frequently met with as th.9 others.
54. It is entirely different from any of the others, and expresses some feeling or emotion of the mind.
55. If we feel pain we exclaim, 'Oh!' if we feel grief, we say, 'Ah!' 'Alas!' if we are glad to see a person, we say, 'Welcome!' or 'Hail I'
66. Now all these are Interjections.
Questions. — What is an Interjection? Does it occur as frequently as th» other kinds of woixU? What (lue.s it express? Wliat feeling gives rise to the Inteijection Oh? to Ah? to Alas? to Welcome? to Hail?
Exercise. — 1. Select the interjections in the following sen- tences:—
HoUoo ! .John, what are you doing with my book ? Hush ! do not distiu-1) the baby. Welcome I my friend. Bravo! he not afniid. Ship, Ahoy ! where are you from ? Hurrah ! t}*e victory is won.
2. Put interjections in the blank spaces.
He is gone and how wretched I am. my friend i,
how miserable must that man be! deliverer of thy coun- try ! my friends ! we are going to have a holiday
to-morrow.
57. The different kinds of words are called in Grammar, Parts of Speech.
Questions. — What are these different kinds of words called m Grammarf Name the parts of Speech. Give the definition of each.
Exercise. — 1. In the following sentences select the different parts of speech.
2. Tell why the words belong to those particular Parts of Speech.
An old man went one day to market. A mouse was caught in a trap, and then thrown to the cat. A good shepherd takes care of his sheep. A Newfoundland dog is generally very large, and fond of the water. The Atlantic Ocean separates Americ* from Europe.
xil
HOW WORDS ARE USED.
68. As the same man may carry on two or three differait trades, so words may have two or three different uses, — i. e., may belong to two or three different classes.
59. This may be better explained by means of an exainpl€>. The word round, for instance, may be—
(1.) A noun; as, A rownd of beef.
(2.) An adjective; as, A round table.
(3. ) A verb ; as. He tried to round the point.
(4.) A preposition; as, He ran round the yard.
(5.) An advei'b; as, The earth turns round.
60. We thus see that we cannot tell to what class the word belongs, until we know its use.
61. We have no difficulty, however, in finding the class, the moment we know the use of the word. In order to help us in classifying words, we may ask the following questions: —
1. Is this word u.'<ed as a Name ? If it is, it is a Noun.
2. Is this word used as a Telling wokd? If it is, it is a Verb.
,3. Is this word used as a Noujj-marking wobd? If it is, it is an Adjective.
4. Is this word tised as a Modifying M'Ord? If it is, it is an Adverb.
5. Is this word used as a WoRD-co>fN£CTiNG word? If it is, it is a Preposition.
6. Is this word used as a Sentenck-connectixg word? If it is, it is a Conjunction.
7. Is this word used instead of a noun? If it is, it is a Pronoun.
8. Is this word iised as Expressive of some feeling? If it is, it is an Interjection.
Questions. — Can the same word belong to different classes? How would yoH illustrate your answer? What mu.st we know about a word before wo can' determine its class ? How may a Noun be determined? A Verb? An Adjective? An Adverb? A Preposition? A Conjunction? A Pronoun? An Interjection?
Exercise.— In the following sentences assign the words to their proper classes: —
The race horse, Eclipse, won the race. Love is the fulfilline of the Law. therefore we should love ')nr enemies. He remained but an hour. None bnt the industrious are sure of success. H»ve yon seen the square hlock of niarhle on the public square? Pont out ou the map a cape, or jtoiut. That boy that said that, knev that he was telling an untruth The dog began to bark at th'j squirrel, as he gnawed the bark out of which we intended to make a bark canoe. Hmvc you ever looked out of a bay window, over a baj', and heard a dog bay at the moon ? The boys are playing on the green, near the house with the green v^erandah. We must plough deep in ti-e deep day.
CHANGES IN WOEDS.
62. Words do not always remain the same, but they underj^o certain changes. These changes are termed in Grammar Ivj- flections.
63 This change generally takes place at the end of the wonl Sometimes it is made in the mi>idje.
64. The kinds of words that can be changed are nonns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns; the others, of course, canno* be changed.
CHANGES IN THE NOUN. Gender.
65. The first change to be noticed is that called Gender.
66. By means of this inflection we can tell to what sex the person or thing belongs, of which the noun is the name.
67. For instance, the names of males are Masctdine ; as, Man. The names of females are Feminine; as. Woman. The names <)f those things which are neither male nor female, are Neuter, i. e., neither masculine nor feminine; as, Tree.
Quettions. — Give the graininatical name for the changi s that reitainwor Is undergo Where dots tlie change generally take place ? Wh^t kinds of words can bo inflected* What ones are uninfltcted? What is the first change called? What is Gender? Of what use is this inflection? Of what gender aru the names of males? Of females? Of those things that are neither male Aor female f
Number.
68. The next change that we shall tiotice is that oaQed Number.
69. If we are speaking, for instance, of one person or thing, we use what is called the singular number; as, Boy.
70 As soon as we mention the names of more than one, we use the plural number; as, Boys
71. The plural generally ends in * s ; ' as, Books. Sometimes it ends in 'es;' * as, Churches, foxes, ladies, knives, heroes, &c.; sometimes in 'en ; ' as, Children. Sometimes we find a different word ; as. Geese, teeth, mice, &c.
ftuestioDs.— What is the next change that tlie noun undergoes? What is Number? What is meant by the singular number? What by the plural number? Give examples. In what letter does the plural generally end? Are there any other terminations? Can any one Rule be given for forming the plural? Prove this by examples.
Exercise. — What is the number of the following nouns, and why?-
Man, child, hero, horse, books, apples, men, loaf, muflFs, goose, groTG, brusht-'S, vvatclies, picture, table, pen, bottles, knife, fife?» gulf, lamp, yard, fox, geese, mice, tooth, church.
Case.
72. This ia the last change that the noun undergoes.
73. This inflection tells us the condition in which a noim ia with respect to some other word in the S3,me sentence.
74. The noun has three cases: the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.
75. The Nominative c:is<' is tliat about which an assertion is made; as, John sings. Here m\ assertion is made about John, therefore the noim John is in the nominative.
76. The Possessive case is used to aenote the relation of pro- perty. For instance, if we wish to say that a book belongs to Joiin, we say that it is John's book. The uoun 'John's ' is said to be in the Possessive.
* Tliere is no one Rule for the formation of the plural, for-, though the singu- lar number of words may end in tlie s.ime letter or letters, it does not follow that the plurals are spelled in the same way; for example, Koaaroha, oxen, days, uIm, •trifea, gulfa, fifes, muffs, folios, &&
77. In the singular number this case is known by an apos- trophe and 's'* added to the nominative; as, John's. In thti phiral tlie apostrophe is placed after the ' s ; ' as, Ladies'.
78. The Objective case follows a certain kind of Verb, (Sec. 116,) and also a Prepoaition; as. He struck John with & stick. Here both nouns, 'John' and 'stick,' are in the Objective.
Questions.— What is the last change? What docs this chaiiire tell usT How many cases have nouns? What is the Nouiinative ca.se? What does the Possessive denote ? How is this case known in the .sinjjui.ar? How in the plural ? How is the Objective case known ? What is niejint by a ' sign V
Exerdse.— 1. Tell the case of the nouns in the following ex- amples.
2. Write the Possessive, Singular and Plural.
The dog bit the sheep. John struck Harry. Mary's doll is very pretty The lion's mane is very long. Bob ate t«"o apples and four peaches. He hit the horse with a stick. T.kia hen laid six eggs. The frost killed the flowers.
CHANGE IN THE ADJECTIVE. Comparison.
79. The only change that the Adjective undergoes is that vi
80. The word degL'co ut 'ans a step.
81. By means of this cl^tnge we pass from one form of aSi adjective to another.
82. We may illustrate this inflection by means of an example : ^ One day of a week may be cold: in this form the adjective is said to be in the Positive degree ; the next day may be colder, this gives us the Comparative decree ; the third day may Ihj the coldest, and this gives v.s the Superlative, or highest degree.
83. In many a<ljoctives thi.s change is effected by adding er and est to the Positive - uhil" in others it is made by prefixing more and most, or less and least
* This is called its sign, a word which will be often nat with in fcraminar. Its use i.H just th.' same as an uinbrelia-Miender's or a boot-maker's sign. As their signs tell us what we may tind in their shops, so the Mgns in granimai point out i>artiuular changes, or inflections.
QuMtioM.— How many changes does the Ad.jertive undergo? Wliat it this change called ? What is the effect of this change? If we use the adjec- tive in its simple form, what name is given to the Degree? What, if we ascend a step higher? Wliat, when we have readied the highest step ? Hoiv are very many adjectives compared? Is there any otlier way of eoniparina adjectives?
Exercise.— 1. Compare the following adjectives by adding er and est: —
Higi), low, rich, poor, quick, slow, dull, cold, free, brave, smooth, thin, thick, black, white, hot, steep, warna, rough, tough, bold, wise, young.
2. Compare the following adjectives by means of more and most, less and least : -
Anxious, fishionalde, handsome, pleasing, benevolent, cour- ageous, sensible, temperate, intelligent beautiful, amiable, boun- tiful, grateful.
CHANGES IN THE VERB. Tense.
84. This kind of word lias several (five) changes, or inflections.
85. The inflection, oi which we shall first speak, is known by the name of time, or tense.
8C. It corresponds to our words to-day, yesterday, and /O' morrow.
87. The first tense is callwl the present, which tells us what is taking phice now; as, I sing.
88. The next is called the past, and it tells us what took plac«.' yesterday, or even before that ; as, I walked a mile yesterday.
89. The third tense is called the future. This tense tells us of something that is going to take place; as, I will see you to- morrow.
90. Very many verbs form their past tense by adding 'd' or •ed" to the present. If the verb ends in 'e,' the letter 'd' alone is added ; as, Prove, proved.
91. The future is formed by placing 'shall' or 'will' before the verb.
The inflection of Tense. Present. Past.
Singular. riural. Singular. Plural.
1. I move. 1. We move. 1. I moved. 1. We moved.
2. Thoumovest. 2. You move. 2. Thoumovedst.2. You moved.
3. He moves. 3. They move. 3. He moved. 3. They moved.
Future. Singular. Plural.
1. I shall or will move. 1. We shall or will move.
2. Thou shalt or wilt move. 2. You shall or will move.
3. He shall or will move. 3. They shall or will move.
Questions. — How niiiiy inflections lia.s the Verb? Which of these are W6 going to consider first? Wliatcloes 'tense' mean? Whatdc^s 'time' nuan? To what words does this inflection correspond? Wliat is the lir-st tense called? Whnt does it tell us? Give an example of this tense. What is the name of the second tense? What does it tell us? Give an example. .What is the third tense called? What dues it tell us? Give an exanip'e. How is the past tens3 fc'-nud in ni:iny verbs? How, if the verb ends in ' e T Ho',-, is the future tormed ? Go through the three tenses of the verb ' to move. '
Exercise. — 1. Tn the following sentences select the tenses.
2. Tell wlij- tlie verliS belont; to thist tense.
James runs. John will study his ksson. The cat killed a mouse John caught a fisli. I see a liird. 1 he hottlc holds ink. I cut my linger yesterday and it lile<l The cow eats fresh grass. William rides every day on horseback. He rode to town yesterd.iy. I shall call.
3. Write the past and the future tense of the following verbs: —
Skate, learn, play, hate, laugh, cont in, gallop, bum, remain, sharpen, look, push, w.iit, tumble, love, shove, loosen, tighten, smile, remove. Walk.
4. Go through the tenses of the verbs iu Example 3, accord- ing to the table.
Person and Number.
92. Besides this inflection of time, there are two others which depend upon the nominative iu the sentence.
98. If the nominative be the name of a person peaning, it ^« said to be iu the first ]>erson. and the verb must agree with it, —that is, it must be of the same peraon; as, 1 talk.
xviii
94. If the nominative be the name of a person spoken to, it ia Baid to be in the second person, and tliere must be the same agreement between the verb and the nominative; as, Thou talh'st.
95. A change takes place in the spelling of the verb, for though we cannot say 'Thou talk,' we can say 'Thou talkcsL'
96. If the nominative be the name of a person or thing spoken Of, it is said to be of the third person, and the verb must agree with it. Here, too, there will be a change in the spelling of the verb ; as. He talks.
97. The nominatives given in the examples are all of the singu- lar number, and the verbs agree with them. We shall find that there is the same agreement between the verb and the nomina- tive throughout the plural number also? as. We talk, you talk, they talk.
98. It will be noticed that there is no change in the spelling of the verb, when the nominatives are of the plural number.
99. We also see that the person and the number of the nomina* tive determine the person and the number of the verb.
100. Hence the two inflections which depend upon the nomina- tive are person and number.
Questions. — How mnny inflections of the veib depend upon the Nomina- tive? When is the nominative of the first person? What do you mean by tho verb agreeing with it? Wlien is tlie nominative of the second person? What will be tlie j)erson of the verb? Wliy must a change be made in the spelling of the verb? What is meant by the nominative being of the third ^rson? What will be the person of the verb? Is this agreement confined to the singular nnmbert Is there any change in the spelling of the plural number of the verb? What is Jt that determines the person and the number of a verb? What inflections depend upon tlie nominative?
Exercise. — In the following sentences determine the person and the number of the verbs: —
Philip studies. The music charms. George went to town. Rain falls from the clouds. The vessel sails over the sea. I saw him do it. You are mistaken He cut his finger. All the windows in the house are open. The leaves of the book are torn. The frost injured the grain. Thou readest. We visited the cave. They ran a race. You promised to come. The wolf killed the dog.
Voice.
101. Besides the three inflections whicli hAve just been de-
XIZ
fined, there is another very important one, t' which we ir.urt now direct onr attention.
102. This inflection may be best understood by using Rome such example as this, — I strike, and I am struck.
103. Here we have two forms of the same verb, the first one. * I strike,' represents the nouiiiiative as doing something.
104. In tlie otlier example the nominative is represented as having something done to it, or as suffering the action.
105. This difference in form is cilled in grammar voice.
106 Voice is, therefore, the difference between doing and «i\ffering an action, i. e. , between doing and being done to.
107. The former is called the Active, and the latter the Pas- sive voice.
108. Before we can give tlie three tenses of the Passive Voice, we must learn the three corresponding tenses of the verb •to be.'
109. These tenses are as follows: —
Present. Past.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
1. I am. 1. We are. 1. I was. 1. We were.
2. Thou art. 9.. You are. 2. Thou wast. 2. You were.
3. He is. 3. They are. 3. He was. 3. They were.
Future. Sin(]ular. Plural.
1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be.
2. Thou shalt or will; be. 2. You shall or will be.
3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be.
110. These we place before part of the verb which, in the ^ erbs of which we are now spe iking, is exactly the same as the Fast tense ; as, 1 am loved, t was loved, I will be loved.
111. Now you can go through the three persons and both numbers of the three tenses of any verb in the Passive Voice ; as, I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved, &c.
Questions.— In tiie examples given of the ne:H; inflection, what does the first one rci)resent? What does the second reprc-ent? What name is given to this inflection? Wliat is Voice? How miny Voices are there? Wliat verb helps us in the Passive Voice ? Oo through the three tenses of thin v«rb. How do we form the Paasive Voice by means of tliem ?
Exercise. — 1- In the folio'^iug sen teiicos select tho vcroa tbat are in the Active Voice, and those that are in the Passive.
2. Tell why they belong to that voice.
3. Pick out the tenses.
4. Go tlirougli the three tenses of the verbs in both voices. Ilobert walks. The horse gallops. The tree was struck by
liglitning. An old man went to market. John struck William, William will strike Johu. Anne cut an apple. The monkey pniUd Harry's hair. They danced and sang. Nuts are eaten by squirrels. The book was read by the boy. The boy read the book. The house was consumed by fire. The dog bit the cat. The horse eats hay.
Note. — It will be quite enotigh to know the name of the fifth in- flection. It is called mood.
Kinds of Verbs.
112. If we examine diffei-ent sentences carefully, we shall find that verbs are of different kinds.
113. Let us, for example, look at these two sentences, He ttrxick John, who ran.
114. In the first of these the statement, or what wo are tell- ing about the subject ' he,' would not be complete without the word ' John.' The verb is, therefore, incomplete.
115. In the second sentence, however, the statenient is com- plete without the addition of another word. The verb, there- fore, is complete.
116. In grammar we call the first kind transitive, t. e., pass- ing over, because the seuse passes over to another word. The word which completes the idea is in the objective case (Sec. 78.)
117. The other kind of verb is called intransitive i. e., not
passing over.
Quoations. — Are verba always of the same kind 1 Give an exam- ple to iiiove your answer correct. la the examples given above, what name is given to tlie fust verb ? Why is this name given? What name is given to the second ? Why ? What is the gram- matical name for the first kind ? fur the second ? What case fol- lows transitive verbs ?
Exercise.— I. In the following examples select the transitiv* and the intransitive verbs.
2. State why they are so.
Stir the fire and close the shutters fast. He rose and slowly withdrew. No tree bears fruit in autumn, unless it blossoina in the spring. A shot from ttie cmnon killed the captain. Jane can sing, draw, ;md paint. He ennie yesterday and will go away to-mor»-ow. Milo was so strong that he could lift an ox. He gave a shilling and got back sixpence. He reads. The horse ran very swiftly.
THE ADVESB.
xih lAKe the adjective, the AdverD has but one inflection, and that the same, namely, Degree.
119. It is formed in just the same way as m the adjective, by adding 'er' and 'est;' by placmg 'more' and 'most;' or 'less' and 'least' before the word. ^
ftuesfions.— Uow many infl etiotis has the Adverb? What is it the 8ain» B.Sf Whiit name is given to this inflection ? How is it formed?
Exercise — Comjiare the following adverbs, the first four by adding 'er' and 'est,' the rest by prefixing 'more' and 'most.'
Soon, often, fast, seldom, quickly, slowly, gladlj', beautifully, sweetly, honestly, l)ravely, seiisiblj', temperately, freely.
THE PRONOUN.
120. This word has {ovu inflections, Person, Gender, Number, and Case.
121. If the Pronoun is used for t!ie name of the person speak- ing, it is said to be of the first pereon; as, I.
122. If it is used for the name of the person spoken to, it is said to be of the second person ; as, Thou.
123 If it is used for the name of the person or thing spoken of, it is said to be of the third person; as, He, she, it.
124 As they are used instead of nouns, they Avill be of the ftame gender and number as the noun, but not necessarily of the 8::mH case.
125. They form their plural differently from nouns, and difference in gender is represented by a different word.
126. The three cases are all different, except in two of the pronouns.
xxu
127. These two are the second (plural) and the third (neuter), ■which have the nominative and the objective alike.
128. The following table wiU F^ew the inflections :
MNu-.^^s-rf.
|
Xom. |
Poss |
Obj. |
||||
|
1. |
M. or F. |
I |
mine, |
my |
me |
|
|
2. |
M. or F. |
Thou |
thine, |
tliy |
thee |
|
|
IM. |
He |
his |
him |
|||
|
3. |
K- |
Sh |
e |
hers. |
ber |
her |
|
u. |
It |
Plural |
its |
it |
||
|
Nom. |
Poss. |
Obj. |
||||
|
1. We |
ours, our |
us |
||||
|
, 2. You 1 |
yours, your |
you |
||||
|
3. They |
theirs, their |
them |
129. — 1. We thus see that 'I' and ' Thou ' stand for the names oJ persons of tlie male or the female sex, and tlie gender is, tlierefore, masculine or feminine. 2. ' He ' stands for the name of a person of the male sex, and the gender is masculine. 3. 'She' stands for the name of one of the female sex, and tlie gender is feminine. 4. ' It ' stands for the name of an individual tning belonging to neither sex, and the ge..der is neuter.
130. We also notice that while the first and the second have a plural of their own, the third has the same plural for the three genders.
Questions. — How many inflections has the Pronoun ? Name them. When is a Pronoun said to be of the fiist person? Of tlie second* Of the third? In which inflections will tht-y correniiond to their uuuns? Do they form their plural in the same way as nouns? How is ditferencc in gender iei>rcsented * Which two have tlie Nominative and the Objective alike ? Go through each pronoun separately, singular and plural
Exercise. — Tell the Person, the Gender, the Number, and the Case of the following Pronouns : —
I, he, him, her, us, yoii, hers, they, it, its, mine, me, their, hia, them, thou, our, we, she, theirs, yours, my, ours, thy.
EISGLISH GB VMMAR.
1. English Gijammap s tn^art of speaking and writing tlie English lang-"q,i?^ with correctness.
1. Language is composed of ■vrords, and these words are com- pc)se<l of letters. We join the ' letters ' together to form ' words,' and the 'words' to form 'sentences.'
2 A sentence is, therefore, a combination of words contaiBing a statement.
2. Gmam.mau com])nses four parts: —
I. Orffiography, which treats of letters and syllables, n. Etymology, which treats of words.
III. Syntax, which treats of the construction of sentences.
IV. Prosody, which treats of Accent, Metre, and Versitication,
QUESTIONS. What is Englisli Grammar ? Of what is language composed ? Of what are words composed "■ What is a sentence '. Into what four parts is Grammar divided? Of what does Orthography treat? Of what does Etymohtgy treat? How does fciyntax differ from Etymology? Of wh.t does Prosody treat?
PART FIRST.
OrvTIIOGRAPHY. 3. Orthography treats of the sounds of letters, and of the mode of combining them into svllables and words, with a view to their being correctly spelled. . '
1. Meaning of Letter. —A letter is a mark or character, used to represent an elementary sound of tlie human voice.
2 Niunber of Letters.— There are Twenty-six letters in the English alphabet-
2 1 ORTHOGRAPHY.
3. Division of Letters. — Letters are either Vowela or Con- BCiiants.
4. Vowels. — A Vowel is a letter which forms a perfect souii() when uttered alone. The pure vowels are Five in num))er; a, e, i, o, u. If and y are vowels, except at the begimiing of a syllable.
5. Consonants. — A Consonant is a letter which cannot be per- fectly sounded except in connection with a vowel ; hence itn iiaffie. The consonants are, b, c, d, /, g, h, j, k, I, in, n, p, q, r, 8, t, V, X, z; and w and y at the beginning of a syllable.
6. Diphthongs. — A Diphthong is the union of two vowels m one Bound. Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and improper.
(1.) A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded; as. On, in out; ol, in oil; ov), in cow.
(2.) An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels is sounded; as, Oa, iu court; oa, in boat.
7. Triphthongs. — A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound ; as, Eau in beauty.
FOEMS OF THE LETTERS.
4. Different forms of letters are used both in printing and in writing.
5. In printing, Roman characters are most fre- qaently employed; sometimes Italics are used, and sometimes old English.
6. Ill writing J the form called 'script' is used.
Examples. Alfred was king of England. — Roman.
Alfrt'd ira.^ k'naj oj' Eiirjland.—lTAUCS.
glUrCd lia.Si Uing of (^mjUUUl — old English.
yil filed mas. kLno^ af ^nq^Lcuid. — Script.
7. Besides these forms, which are named from the tupti used, we \vcx\e two other forms, which de- ])end upon the use made of the letters. These two forms are capital and small letters ; as, A a, B b, v./ c, &c.
LETTERS. 25
8. Small letters form the body of the word. Capitals are iised for the sake of making the word prominent and distinct.
EULES FOE THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTEES.
EiUe I. — All titles of books, and tlie beails of their divisions, sliould 1)6 printed in C';'.pitals. In wrUiiKj the titit- of a hook, or tlie subject of an extract from a particular niithor. use capital letters for the important words; as, 'i he Third B«x>k of the Tauadian National Series. An amusing story of King Alfred.
Eule n.— The first word after a period, also the first word of an answer t> a direct question, should begin with a capital ; as, Who did it ? He.
Eule m — All the names and Httributes of the Deity shou d begin with a cipitil; as, God's Omniscience mciins His pow*r of knowing everything.
Eule IV. — Titles of i ffice and honor, and all proper namn«, connnoii nouns spoken to or of js ])ersons, sl.onld begin wil h c pit.d letters; ;.s, The Governor General of Canada. Tl ( (_'aii idi 111 people are truly loyal. O Death, where is thy stin^ ! Necessity is the mother of invention.
Eule V — The pronoun T, the interjection 0, and the first letf«r in every line of poetry, should be written with a capital; as, \ esterday 1 visited Hamilton. O majestic night !
I5ut yoiiiler roines tlie powerful kinj; of <l«y, llejoii-iiig in the E:i.st
Eule VI. — A quotation, in which the exact words are given, should begin with a capital letter ; as, Shakespeare says, All the world is a stage.
Bole Vn. — Any word that we desire to make particularly emphatic, or which denotes the principal subject of discourse, m ly be written with a capital letter ; as, The Reformation. The Gunpowder Plot.
SYLLABLES.
9. A Syllable is an artionlate sound uttered by op.e ettbi't of the voice ; as, Farvi, far-rner, ea-gle.
10. It consists of one or more letters; as, A-e~ ri-al.
11. There are as many syllables in a word as there pre distinct sounds ; thus, in the word gram- vui-ri-ajiy there are four syllables.
26 OtlTnOGRAPHY.
12. Words are divided, according to the number of syllables which they contain, into —
1. Monosyllables, or words of one syllable ; as, Fox.
2. Dissyllables, or words of two syllables ; as, Far-mer.
3. Trisyllables, or words of three syllables ; as, But-ter-fly.
4. Polysyllables, or words of many syllables ; as, Pro-cras-ti fta-tion.
SYLLABICATION.
13. Syllabication is the division of words into syllables.
The following may be taken as a General Rule: — Place together, in distinct syllables, those letters which make up the separate parts or divisions of a word, as heard in its cor- rect pronunciation ; or, divide the word according to its consti- tuent parts, — i. e., its prefix, root, ai\d. affix.
sPELLma
14. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letteis, correctly airanged.
1. Special Rules for Spelling.— Tlie pupil is referred, for guid- ance in the special rules for syllabication and spelling, to "The Companion tti the Readers. "
2. Point to be remembered. —The pupil must ren^ember that, though a word may be divided at the end of a line, a syllable shou d never be broken. This division of the word must be marked by a hyphen, placed immediately after the division ; as. Trans-form.
QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY.
What is Orthography ? WTiat is a Letter ? How many letters are there in the English Alpliabet? How are they divided? What is a Vowel, &c ? What different character-* are used in printing and writing? How do Capitil letters tliffer in use from small ones? What is the first Rule for the use of Capitals, &c.? Wh t is a Syllable? Of how many letters does a syllable consist? How many syllables are there in a word ? What is a Monosyllable ? Give an example, &c. What is Syllabication ? Give the General Rule for dividing words into syllables ?
27 PART SECOND.
ETYMOLOGY.
15. Etymology treats of the classification, the inflection, and the derivation of words.
1. Classification. — By this we mean that words are arranged into classes, according to the work which tliey do in sentences.
2. Inflection. — This implies peculiar changes that take place in certain classes of words, thus giving them another meaning.
3. Derivati(m. — By means of this we are enal^led to trace a word to its original source, just as we may tr.iee a river l)ack to it8 fountain-head. In this way we can determine whether tba word is of Saxon, Latin, Greek, or other origin.
WORDS.
16. A Word is an articulate sound used as the sign of an idea.
17. A word may consist of vowel sounds only; as, 1, Oh, Eye, &c.
18. Woi'ds admit of a threefold division:
I. As to FOK.MATION.
II. do. Kind. III. do. Inflection.
I. FORMATION OF WORDS.
19. With respect to ioiin ition, words are-^
I. Primitive or Uekiv.vtive. II. Simple or Compol'sd.
DEFINITIONS.
20. — 1. A Primitive word is one that is not derived from any other word in tlie hinguage ; but is itself a root from which others B])ring ; as, Boy, just, father.
2. A Derivative word is one that is derived from some othe» word; as. Boyish, justice, fathei'ly.
3. A Simple word is one that ia not combined with any other word ; as, Man, house, city.
4 A Compound word is one that is made up of two or mors simple words ; as, MiUihuod, horseman.
88 ETY5IOLOGY.
n. KDJD OF WOEDS.
21. With respect to kind, words are either,—
1. Nouns ; 5. Adverbs ;
2. Adjectives G. Prepositions ;
3. Pronouns; 7. Conjunctions;
4. Verbs ; 8. JjiTEEJEcriONS.
22. These are called Parts^f Speech.
Origin of different Parts of Speech.- When we \rish to make known our thoughts we employ words, e:ich one of which has its own meaning and use. As our ideas are of different kinds, so also must be our words. The class to which these separate words belong, deptiids upon their meaning and use. For ex ample, if we wish simply to give the name of anything, we use a noun ; if we wish to say something about that noun, we use a verb, &c.
m. INFLECTION.
23. Some of these Parts of Speech undergo certain changes of furm or termination, and these changes are called injiections ; as, Man, man's, men.
24. Other words undergo no such change; as, Yes, no, then ; therefore, with respect '•o inflection, words are either, —
I. Inflected or
II. L NINFLECTEP.
Inflected. — Noun, Adjective. Pronoun, Verb, andxidrerb. Uninflected. — Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection.
DEFINITIONS.
A Noun, or Substantive, is a vame, ns of a person, place, or thing; as, Cicero, Rnui". btty, lionse, itc.
An AnJECTiVK is a word which is used to qualify nouns ; as. Good, gi'eat, <fec.
A Pronoun is a word which properly supplies the place of nouns ; i'.s, I, thou, &e
A Verb is a word which expresses existence, condition, or action; as, Hew; "Ra is Hhephig ; He reads.
An Adverb is a word which is used to modify verbs, ad- jectives, and other adverbs ; as. To run swiftly ; no swift ; so twiftly.
DTFLECTIOir. 29
A Preposition is a word which shews the relation between its object and some other word in the same proposition ;. as. Tc be in rtaly.
A CoNjuNCTioy is a word which shews the particular manner ill wliich one p'rt of a sentence is joined to another as. Ihr fatlier mid the sou resenilile each other. Hither the atder -j* t!ie sou must go
An IsTEK.ifXTios is simply used as an expression j). cealui*^ or i.s a mere mark of address ; as, O'l! Alas I Hail!
DTFLECTIONS.
2o. Tile iiiHoctions of" KouNS are Gendevy yv,/iU)fir\ and Case.
The iiifltM-rion of Adjectives is Degree.
Tlie iiiflecrioiis of Pkoxouns are the i'-ijcu^ »« those of Nc»TjNS, to«iet.ier with Person.
The iiirteetioiis of Veubs are l^oice, Moo-x l^iac, Nuinher, ;iik1 Person.
The iiif] 'cr on of Adveuus is the sanur s tnat of Adjkctivks.
QUESTIONS ON ETYMOLOGY.
Of whit do?s Ktyimdogy treat? What is meant by Jljtssifica tion? \Vh it by Intlection? What by Derivation? ' .-v oat is r. Worrl ? How may words lie divided? What is a rrimitivj word? W^liat u Derivative? Whiit is a Simple word ;' Wua* a ComiKuuid ? How mmy kinds of Words aj-e there .'' Nanio them Wh t are these called? WTiat is the origin jf these different Parts of Speech ? Whnt is meant by a word being l.i fleeted? What are the inflected V-\rts of Speech? i.Sameths uninflecte<l Parts. Give the detinition of a Noun ; ol an A"* ■ jectivf ; of a Pnmoiiii ; of a Verb. &c. What are oat Iniiric tious of Nouns ; of Adjectives, &,c.?
THE NOUN. 2(>. \ Nouv is a nanie, ns of a pe«'son, p.'.ace, :» thinii; ns, (yiccro, Toronto, hoy, house.
1. Ho7/^ Known — Rverytliiug thnt exists or may be iuppoflc«> to exist b IS :> name, -nd that name is called in grammar a Noo.'"
2. Point to 1)6 remembered. — The pupil must remember tna; it is aimpiy the name that is ;.ffected by gi*aramar : tae persou, or place, or tJiing, ruinaiij-s nnclianijcd. We may iLlastr^t/* tuif
30 ETYMOLOGT.
by an example: 'Man' is a human being, and as snch -vre caiv not say that he belongs to any ' part of speech,' but the name is a noun.
27. Nouns may be divided into three classes: Proper, Common, and Abstract.
1. Proper Nouns.— If the nouns are the names of mdividrml members of a clr.ss, they are proper nouns. Thus the name of every individual person or place is a proper noun; as, Victoria, Toronto.
2 Comanon Nouns. But if the nouns ,-re the names of things of the same mrt or dnss, they are common nouns; thus, the noun ' Lion,' being the name of a class, or species, is a common noun.
3. AbstractNouns.— Besides the two classes mentioned above, there is a class of nouns wliioh are the names of quaUtieB or Btates, and which we can only think of as existing. Inus, we know that 'snow' is 'white,' and 'grass' is 'green,' but we can ouly think of the i/unlitif or fM'opertif of 'M'biteness' or 'green- ness ;' these ;ire of the class c died abstract. This class of nouns generally ends in ness, th, tion, ance, ence, hood, ty.
DEFINITIONS.
28. A Proper Noux i.s a ])!0])er nanie, as of a person, or place ; as, John, London.
29. A Common Noun is a name common to all the members of a class of objects ; as, Man, horse.
30. An Ahstract Noun is a name of some ■propertt/^ or qnal'di^^ wliich can only be conceived of as iiaviiig an existence; as. Virtue, justice.
QUESTIONS ON THE NOUN. Wliat is a Noun ? How is a Noun known ? What point must be carefully remembered? Give an illustration. Into what three classes are nouns divkletl? How may a Proper Noun be' known ? How do yoii know a Common Noun ? What is meant by an Abstract Noun? Give a definition of each.
EXEECISE ON THE NOUN. 1 Write out twelve names of things in the schoolroom.
2. Write out twelve names of things in the play-ground.
3. Write out twelve names of things in the fields.
THE NOUN. SI
4. Select the noiins in the following sentences : —
The sun shines. The dog barks. The fire bums. The fox crept along the wall. The boat sails on the water. The flowers bloom. Birds build nests. The door is open. Water is god for drinking. Columbus discovered America. John studies giMuimar. History is a useful study. The rose is a beautifdl flower. Cain slew Abel. The boy told an untruth. Mutii- rooms grow. The church bell tolls.
5. Write out twelve nouns that are names of things.
6. Write out twelve nouns that are names of person*.
7. Write out twelve nouns that are names of places.
8. Write out twelve abstract nouns.
9. Arrange the different nouns in the sentences given abov<», according to the class to which they belong.
ANALYSIS. 31. — 1. A Sentence is a combination of wonts expressing a complete thought. (Sec. 1, 2.)
2. This complete thouglit is expressed respecting some tliin(^, — t. e., a NoUN or its equivalent.
3. The ex])ressiou of this thought is made l-y nieiuis of th;ir p:u't of speech called t lie Veub, with- out which no statement can be made.
4. The two parts into which each sentence mar be conveniently divided, are the ^OUN Part and the Verb Part.
5. The division of a sentence into its two essentidi parts is termed Analysis.
Examples. The clock has just struck two. She dwelt on a wild moor.
|
Noun Part |
Verb Part. |
|
The clock She |
has just struck two. dwelt on a wild moor. ' 1 |
^5» ETYMOr.oaY.
•analyze, according to plan, the following sentences : — The eye is the organ of sight. Blood flows from the heart Temperaiict^ promotes health. Iron is the most nsefnl metal. A l>;ul workman quarrels with his tools Words of many syllables aro called polysylla))le3. The long expected friends iiave arrived. The sea is iCngl.in<rs glory. True friends adiiere to liS ill atlversity. Many <>f the descriptions given by travellers are exaggerated. To love our enemies is a command given by our S.iviour The wind moans through the trees. Subjects must obey their rulers.
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
What is a sentence? Whut two parts of speech enter into the structure of every sentence? How are they introduced? Into what two parts is every sentence divided? What is this diviaiou styled?
INPLECTIONS OF THE NOUN. .'52. Thk IxFLBCTioNS of this Part of Speech
are, —
Gender,
NU.MBEK,
Case. Besides these Iiifiections, Person is also ascribed to nouns.
PERSON. 33. Person, in Grnmrnar, is the distinction be- tween the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, aiid the ])erson or thincf spoken of.
1. A noun is in tlie first person, when it denotes the speaker; as, I, Paul, have uritren it.
2. A noun is in the seromf person, when it de- notes the perst)n or thin^- spoken to; as, Thou, God, seest me. — rllail, lAlx'rtii!
3. A noun is in the third person wlien it denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, Truth is mighty.
QUESTIONS ON PERSON. What is meant by PersoM ? When is a noun said to be in the fii-st Person? in the secoiul V in the third?
EXEECISE ON PEBSON.
1. Tell the person of the following noona.
2. Give j'our reason.
THE >Torw. SS
Mary, you are a good girl. T, John Tliomson, hereby certify. John Thomson hereby certifies. Consistency, thou art a jew- el. Boys, you may go home. The boys went home. Darius m-.de a decree. I, Darius, make a decree. Thou art fallen, 0 Lucifer.
34. The first chano;e or inflection that marks the noun is
GENDER.
35. Gender is the distinction of Sex.
36. This inflection enables us to tell whether the individual person or thin<r, of which the noun is ths name, belongs to the male or the female sex, or to neither.
How ascertained. — As this is a qrammaticnl distinction in tlie fHtmen of tilings, we can determine the gender as soon as v»e know to which natural division that individual person or thing belongs.
37. This difference in sex, therefore, gives us THREE GENDERS, Called respectively —
Masculine,
Feminine,
Neuter.
1. Masculine Gender. — If we are speaking of a person or thing belonging to the male sex, the name of that person or thing w'll be masculine ; as, Man, horse.
2. Feminine Gender. — If the person or thing belongs to the female sex, the noun, i. e., tlie name, is of the feminine gender; as, Woman, mare.
3. Neuter Gender. — If, hoAvever, it belongs to neither sex, it is of the neuter gender; as. Tree, table.
4. Common Gender. — Sometimes the noims are the names of persous belonging to either sex; the gender, therefore, is common; as, Parent.
38. The M.vscuiJNE and the Feminine are dis- tin^Mshed from each other by —
1. Different Inflections. II. Different Words.
34
ETYMOLOGY.
I. DIFFEEENT INFLECTIONS. 39. The inflections most frequently met with are ESS and INE.
1. Examples of the Termination
Masculine.
Abbot
Actor
Author
Eatoii
Governor Heir
Feminine.
Abbess
Actress
Authoress
Baroness
Countess
Dachess
Empress
Governess
Heiress
Jewess
Masculine.
Lion
Marquis
Negro
Poet
Prince
Shepherd
Sorcerer
Tiger
Viscount
'Ess.'
Feminine.
Lioness
Marchioness
Negress
Poetess
Princess
Shepherdess
Sorceress
Tigress
Viscountess
2. Examples of the Termination *Ine.' Masculine. Feminine.
Hero Heroine
Landgrave Ijandgravine
Margrave Margravine
n. DIFFERENT WORDS.
|
Masculine. |
Feminine. |
Masculine. |
Feminine. |
|
E<iy |
Girl |
Husband |
Wife |
|
Brother |
Sister |
King |
Queen |
|
Bridegroom |
Bride |
Lord (a title) |
Lady |
|
(;ock |
Hen |
Man |
\\^oman |
|
l).ake |
Duck |
Nephew- |
Niece |
|
Earl |
Countess |
Papa |
Mamma |
|
Father |
Mother |
Son |
Daughter |
|
Gander |
Goose |
Sir |
Madam |
|
Gentleman |
Lady |
Uncle |
Aunt |
|
Horse |
Mare |
Widower |
\\ idow |
40. The distinction is also marked by placing Masculine and Feminine words before the noun of common gender ; as —
Masculine. Feminine.
Man-servant Maid-servant
He-goat ■ She-goat
Cock-sparrow Hen-sparrow, &c.
41. Some nouns of foreign origin retain their original distinctions of gender; as, Administrator, adnjinistratrix ; beau, belle ; &c.
THE NOUN. 35
42. Sometimes an object that is usually considered as inanimate, is represented as a living person ; it is then said to be personified ; as, Come, gentle Spring.
QUESTIONS ON GENDER.
What is the first inflection of nouns? Wliat is Gender? Of whit use is this inflection? How many gfeTiders are there? \Vh;it is meant by a noun being of the Miisculine Gender? of i/'ie Feminine Gender ? of the Neuter Gender? of the Commoii 'lender? How is the Mascidine to be distinguished from the l''eiiiiiiine? What two inflections are most frequently met with? l]iustr<ite the formation of tlie Feminine by means of a Prefix? Wliat is the rule I'especting nouns of foreign origin? What is meant by personification?
EXERCISE ON GENDER.
1. Write down the Feminine of —
Father, prince, king, master, actor, emperor, bridegroom, stag, buck, hart, nephew, friar, heir, hero, Jew, host, hunter, sultan, executor, horse, lord, husband, bi'other, sou, bull, he-goat, &c.
2. Write down the Masculine of—
Lady, woman, girl, niece, nun, aunt, belle, duchess, abbess, empress, heroine, wife, sister, mother, hind, roe, mare, hen- sparrow, shepherdess, daughter, ewe, goose, queen, songstress, widow, &c.
3. Give the gender of the following nouns, with re^ison: — Man, horse, tree, field, father, house, mother, queen, count,
lady, king, prince, castle, tower, river, stone, hen, goose, seam- stress, mountain, cloud, air, sky, hand, foot, head, body, limb, lion, tiger, mayor, countess, friend, neighbor, parent, teacher, assistant, guide, sun, moon, earth, ship, cat, mouse, tiy, bird, elephant, hare.
It is suggested that the answer be given in the following form : —
The noun 'man' is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of an individual of the male sex.
43. The next change which the noun undergoes is
NUMBER.
44. Number is a variation in the form, to express
one or more than one.
If we are speaking of only one object we use what is called the singular number; but if Ave are speaking of several things, tben we use anotlier form, called the plural; therefore, —
36 ETYaiOLOGY.
45. Nouns have two n vim hers, the Singular and the Plural. The singniar denotes but one object; as, Book, tree; the j)Uirai, more than one; as, Books, trees-,
46. Nouns form tlioir plurals in four different wavs-
i General Rule. — The plural is commonly
formed by adding 's' to the singular; as. Book,
books,
Tiie ':;' has two sounds, the sharp, ami the flat, or 'z' sound, accordi/i"; to the letter which precedes; as, Book's (sharp), moutlic (Hat).
II._1. Words ending in 's,' 'sh,' 'ch' (soft), *x,' and 'z,' form their plural by adding 'es ;' as, Glass, glasses ; brush, brushes ; church, churches ; fox, foxes ; topaz, topazes ; but monarch, monarchs.
2. Most nouns ending in 'o' preceded by a consontuit, form their plural in 'es;' as, Cargo, cargoes.
Exceptions. — Canto, memerdo, octavo, two, zero, grotto, junto, portico, quarto, solo, tyro, halo; also nouns ending in 'eo,' 'io,' *yo.'
3. Nouns in *y' after a consonant form their plural in 'es,' changing 'y' into 'i;' as. Lady, ladies.
4. Nouns in 'y' after a vowel follow the general rulcj as, Day, days. But nouns ending in 'quy' form their plural in 'ies;' as Colloquy, colloquies.
5. Nouns in 'f ' or 'fe' form their plural in 'es,' changing 'f into 'v;' as. Wife, loives ; life, lives.
Exceptions. — Gulf, safe, fife, strife, and nouns ending in 'flF,' 'f preceded by two vowels, and in 'rf,' form their plural in '8.' To this, however, there is an exception in the case of a few words, such as staff, leaf, loaf, sheaf, thief, &c. The com- pounds of the first of these words form their plural regularly ; tui. FUiffsffiffi.
THE NOUN.
37
in. The third wav of forming the plural is by- adding 'en' to the singular; as, Ox, Oxen; child, children.
IV. The fourth way is by changing the vowel of the singular; as,
|
Singular. |
Plural. |
Singular. |
Plural |
|
Man |
Men |
Tooth |
Teeth |
|
Woman |
Women |
Goose |
Geese |
|
Foot |
Feet |
Mouse |
Mice |
|
Louse |
Lice |
Cow* (formerly) |
Kine |
|
(now) |
Cows |
Note. — It must be home in mind that Abstract nouns have no plural, as long as we consider them simply as names of notions; but as soon as we consider them as names of things, they have a plural. For example, tlie noun 'Beauty,' r.s the name of a quality, has no plural ; but we use the plural form beauties, as meaning 'beautiful things.' The same may be said respecting the names of individual persons, and the names of materials. When either of these has tlie force of a class name, then it takes a plural; ciS, The Georges of England. — Some golds; i. e., Kii/ds of gold.
EXERCISE ON NXrUBER.
1. Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rules for forming each; thus Book, plural books. Etile. — The plural is commonly formed, &c. Fox. plural ./(>x<^v<. Rule. — Jvouns in 's,' 'sh,' 'ch' (soft), 'X,' 'z,' form the plural by adding 'es.' Or more briefly, Noan3 in ' x ' form the plural by adding ' es. '
Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, box, coach, sky, army, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, church, taole, glass, study, street, potito, sheaf, house, glory, monarch, flower, city, diffi- culty, wolf, day, bay, chimney, journey, needle, enemy, ant, sea, key, tyro, grotto, nuncio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, staff, cliff, reef, safe, wharf.
2 Of what number is each of the following nouns, and why?
Book, trees, plant, globes, toys, home, fancy, glass, state, foxes, houses, prints, be.irs, lilies, roses, glove, silk, skies, hill, river, stars, berries, peach, glass, pitcher, alleys, mountain, cameos.
NOUNS IRRE{JULAR IN THE PLURAL. 47. There are certain peculiarities in the forma- tion of the plural of different nouns worthy of being noted.
38 ETYMOLOGY.
48. Some nouns have a double plural, each having .9 different signification ; as, —
Singular. Plural.
Brother (one of the same family) Brothers
,, ,, ,, society) Brethren
Die 'a stamp for coining) Dies
„ (a small culie for gaming) Dice
Genius (a m^in of learning) Geniuses
,, (a kind of spirit) G<^nii
Index (a t '.1)le of reft reiice) Indexes
„ (a sign in algebra) Indices
Penny (a coin> Pennies
„ (a sum or value) Pence
49. Some nouns are used in the singular only; a!'. Gold, meekness, piety, Sfi\
50. Some nouns are used in the plural only; as, J nnah, ashes, billiards, hitters, clothes, Sfc; also, tl lings consisting of two parts ; as, Bellows, drawers,
51. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers; as, Deer, sheep, swine, cfc; certain build- iMg materials; as, Brick, stone, plank, in mass.
Some of these have a regular plural, vith a distributive r eaniug.
PLURALS OF FOREIGN NOUNS.
52. Words a(loj)ted without change from foreign languages generally retain their original plural.
1. The termination *us' is generally changed into *i;' as, Radius, radii.
2. The terminations 'iim' (L:itin) and 'on' (Greek) are changed into 'a;' as, Datum, data ; automaton, automata.
3. The termination 'a' is changed into 'sb;' as. Formula, foimulas.
4. The termination 'is' (Latin and Greek) is changed into *fefl' and sometimes into 'ides;' as, Crisis, crises; chrysalis, cLrysalides. The termination ' es ' is retained ; as, Species, species.
5. The terminations 'x,' 'ex,' or 'ix,' are changed into 'ices;' Rf, Apex, apices.
THE NOUN. 39
6. The following are from the French, the. Bebsew, and the Italian : —
French — Beau, beaux. Hebrew — Cherub, cherubim. Italian — Bandit, banditti.
Note. — The general tendency of the language is to adopt many of these words and give them English plurals; as, Memoran- dums, seraphs.
QUESTIONS ON NUMBEE.
What is Number? When is the singular used? When the plural? What does tlie singular denote, &c. ? How many ways are there for forming the plural? What is the first general Rule? What two sounds has's?' Give examples. What is the first Rule for the formation of the plural ui 'es,' &c ? What is the third way in which the plural is formed? Give examph's. Give examples of Nouns which form their plural by a change of the vowel in the singular. When have Abstract Nouns a plural? When have Proper Nouns and names of materials a plural? What is the first peculiarity noted in connection with the irregular formation of tlie plural? Give examples of Nouus used in the singular only, &c. How do Foreign Nomis fonn their plural, &c. ?
EXEKCISE ON NUMBER.
1. Give the plural of the following nouns:—
Man, foot, penny, mousi^, ox, child, woman, brother, goose, tootii, erratum, radius, genius, lamina, pheuouienon, axis, chtru-b, seraph, die, index, beau, bandit, penny, memorandum.
2. Of what Number are the following nounf,. —
Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, teeth, woman, child, apparatus, genii, geniuses, Matthew, children, brothers, fox-mulse, cherubim, pence, seraph.
3. Tell why each word is of that particular Number.
53. Tlie last inflection that the noun undergoes is
CASE.
54. Case i.s the relation which nouns and pro- nouns bear to the other words with which they are connected in sense.
1. Its proper meaning. — Case properly signifies a falling. The old grammarians used to indicate the ^dependence of the noun upon some other word by the successive positions of a
40 ETYMOLOGT.
lixe falling gradually from the perpendicular. Hence the enumeratiou of the cases of nouns and pronouns is called declension
2. Relation. — This word, derived from two Latin words, means literally ' the carrying back of our thoughts from one thing to another.'
5^. Nouns in English have three cases : —
The Nominative, „ posskssive, „ Objective.
DEFINITIONS. 56. I. — The unchiuiixed noun or pronoun stand- ing as the subject or chief word in tlie Jioun part of the sentence is said to be in the jSominative, i, e., tlie Naming Case ; as, Man is mortal.
II. When the name of the oicner is placed just before the name of the thing owned, so as to express properti/j or possession, it is said to be in the Pos- sessive Case; as, Mans life is but a shadow.
III. When the word stands after a transitive Terb or a preposition, it is said to be in the Ob- jective Case ; as. The son of that man killed another man.
ESEECIS3 ON CASE.
1. Select Nominative Cases :
Friendship is rare. Sincerity is ojienness of heart. The sun went down. Truth is the measure of knowledge. Prayer is the eouls sincere desire.
Tell why they are in the Nominative Case.
2. Select Possessive Cases :
Nelson's monument. Prayer is the contrite sinner's voice. A soldier's sepulchre. The hero's harp, the lover's lute. A distant torrent's fall. John's house.
Tell why, Ac.
3. Select Objective Cases :
Strong reasons make strong actions. Knowledge expands the Blind. God created the heavens and the earth. The summer
THE NOUN. 41
wind shook the branches. I saw the queen. The lightning •truck the ship. She wrote a beautiful letter.
Tell why, &c.
Note. — It is suggested that the answers should be given in the following manner : — ' F'riendship' is in the nonoirative case, bo- cause it nnmes the tiling about which the assertion is made, 'Nelson's' is in the possessive case, because it points out the owner or possessor 'Actions' is in the objective case, because it receives the action expressed by the verb.
RULES FOE THE NOMINATIVE. I. The subject of a finite verb is put in the Nominative; as, The kinii rei<:[;ns.
1. S^bject. — Under the head of anilysis we found that eve y sentence consists of two parts : one part being the thing spokxa of; the other, what we say about it. To the former of these we give the name of Subject ; and to the latter, as containing th« assertion, the name of Predicate.
2. Certain verbs, besides having a nominative before thei% have one after them ; hence we have as a second Rule,
II. A Predicate Noun, denotinii the same persi-n or thing as its subject, agrees with it in case ; as, I am a messenger.
III. An appositive agrees with its subject ,n case; as, The two brotners, Jolm and Henry, go (o school.
Apposition. — When we use different words for the same thing, we speak of the one as standing in apx)osition with the other and we give the name of appositive to tliat word which explain^ the other.
QUESTIONS ON CASE.
What is Case ? What does the v ord properly signify? What is meant by Declension? Wh;;t does relation mean? How many cases have Nouns? Give the definition of each. What is the Rule for the Nominative? Wh; t is meant by the Su'v ject? What is meant by a Predicate Nominative? What e the Rule for Appositives ? How do you explain the wa d appositive ?
EXERCISE ON THE NOMINATIVE. 1. Select the Nominatives in the following examples: — 2 Cla.saily them accord in;: to tin- Rnli-s
4t ETYMOLOGY.
The dog canght a rat. John broke the cup. The bird singu »«veetly. A noun is a name. The battle was fought. He is called James. He was elected president. Milton, the poet, l»as blind. William, the Conqueror, was a Norman.
THE POSSESSIVE CASE.
57. The Pos.sessive, in both numbers, is formed by adding an apostrophe and 's' to the nominative; as, John, Johns ; men, mens.
58. When the plural ends in ' s,' the possessive is formed by adding an apostrophe only; as, LadieSy ladies'.
59. The relation of the possessive is also ex- pressed by the preposition 'of;' as, The sun's li^ht ; or, The light of the sun. i
60. When the nominative singular ends in ss, es, us, ce, X, or in letters of a similar force, the 's' is sometimes omitted in order to avoid hai'shness, or too close a succession of hissing sounds, especially before a word beginning with 's;' as, For good- ness' sake; for conscience' sake.
RULE FOR THE POSSESSIVE. Any nonn, not an app'sitive, qualifying the meaning of another noun, is put in the Possessive; as, I lost my brother s book.
QUESTIONS. ON CASE- (continued.)
How is the Possessive singular formed ? How is the Posses- sive plural formed ? How is the relation of the Possessive some- times expressed? When is the apostrophe alone appended to th.' word for the Possessive singidar? Repeat the Ride for the I'o.ssessive.
EXERCISE ON THE POSSESSIVE.
1. Give the Possessive, singular and plural, of the following noiiiis: —
Cl)ild, prince, woman, king, servant, tutor, footman, righteous- rioss. father, duke, dog, bride, author, poetess, mason, house, w. iter. i.rti.«t. fliicf.
THE NOUN. 45
2. Supply Possessive cases in the following :
The 's crown. The 's sword. The 'a mane.
• ' 8 horse. The 's coat. The 's heat. The 'a
cold.
3. In place of the proposition 'of and its case, insert the Possessive :
The shade of the holly. The work of the men. The dresses of the ladies. The tiag of the m u-of-war. The son of a prince^ A servant of the king. For the sake of goodness.
THE OBJECTIVE CASK
61. The Objective Case is the same in form as the Nominative.
A word is said to be in tlie Objective case when it expressos either (1) the object of an action, (denoted by a transitive verb, in the active voice ;) or (2) the object of a relation, (denoted by a preposition. )
RULE FOR THE OBJECTIVE. The Objeetive case follows an active transitive vei I) or a preposition ; as, He struck the table vvil ti his hand.
QUESTIONS ON CASE— (continued. ) How does the 01)jective C:ise of a noun differ i i form from tn<5 Nominative ? When is a word said to be in the Objective Ca8«f What is the Rule for the Objective?
EXERCISE ON THE OBJECTIVE.
1. Select the Objectives in the following examples :-^
2 State why the words are in the Objective.
John struck James. Knowledge expands the mind. He waa a man of honor. Truth is the measure of knowledge. Children should obey their parents. Good boys learn their lessons. He was struck by lightning.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
62. Nouns are thus decHned —
Sing. Plur. Sing.
Nom. Lady ladies Man
Pons Lady's ladies' Man's
Obj. Lady ladies Man
Note. —If the Proper Noun is the name of an indiyiduitl person it has no plural.
|
Pltjr. |
SiNO. |
|
men |
John |
|
men's |
John's |
|
men |
John |
44
ETYMOI.OGT.
Decline the following nouns in the same way; — Child, boy, girl, house, queen, mother, wbman, waiter, Jat^eB, anther, poet, servant, smith, prince, broker, son,'daughtei.
PASSING. 63. Parsing is the resolving or e:<])]ainiiig of a sentence, or of some related wovd or words, accord- ing to the definitions and rules of Giainmar.
Illustration. — The meaning of this tletiuition will be better understood if we take an example by way of illustration. We meet, for instance, with the word ' fox,' ;,nd wish to parse it ; ». t., we wish to assign it to itiB proper claea of words, and to tell how it is affected by other words in the sentence, or how it affects them. We find that it is the name of a thing, (i. e., an animal.) therefore it is a noun. As its sex is not known posi- tively, tiisj noun belongs to either gender ; it is therefore parsed as oi ibe common gender As it is but one of a cla^e, it h a common noun, of the singular number. As f.r as form is our jpiido, it stands in eitiier the nominative or the objeotive case. H ~iCL', in order tiiat our parsing may be exact and complete, we bavu the fullovving
ORDER OF PAUSING THE NOUN. Mas. J u c'i 1 <-■ Norn,
hem. (I *^"8- J p Neil- (1 p, a Pop-
corn. )'^ *^""'- )^ Obj.
The grammatical connection must first be given both in this and every p.irt of speech, except the Interjection.
Example.— James lost his brother's knife.
Pn.p Com. Alstr.
Case
liccording to
i; r LE.
Belation.
Jamea lost
brother' 8 knife U)»t kn\fe.
Etymology and Syntax.
James. Noun, proper, masculine, singular,
nominative to verb lost. Rule. brother's Noun, common, masculine, singular,
possessive, depending o-;i knij'e. Rule. knife. Noun, common, neuter, singular, ob- jective after the verb lost. Rule.
TABLE OF NOUNS. Kind.
Proper.
Commoia.
Abstract.
THE NOUN. 45
Inflections
Gender. Number. Case.
Mas. Fem. Neu. Sing. Pliir. Nom. Poss. Obj.
ANALYSIS. 64. — 1. The pitrt of a sentence \vTiich names the thing about which the assertion is made (i. e., the NOUN part) *is called the SUBJECT.
2. The subject of a sentence is, thci-efore, a noan» or some word or words used as a noun.
8. Sometimes the subject is a simple nominative without any accompanyinif words.
4. This nominative is sometimes called the 'simple subject/ and sometime i the 'grammatical subject.'
0. If any words are joined to the nominative in foi-miug the subject, the subject is termed 'complex,' or 'logical.'
(). The words thus joined to the subject are called 'attributes,' because they qualifv or attri- bute some quality to the thing named. (Sec. (^5, 2.)
7. The different attributes may be a noun in a[)j)ositio:i, n noun in the possessive case, (either ioi m. Sec. 57, 59,) or a preposition followed by its ca-^e.
Examples. ( ] Shakespeare was a poet.
(2 ) Shakespeare, tlie poet, floiirished in the reign of Eliza- beth.
(3.) Tne vinntrTx pnticnce was exhausted ; or. Tile patit-iire of the mnxter was exhausted. (4.) Noiu' hut l.'.r Uiiire deserve the fair
46 ETYMOLOGY.
In the first example we have a simple subject ; in the othei three the subject is complex. In (2) the attributive is a noun ir apposition ; in (3) we have both forms of the possessive ; and ill /4) a preposition followed by its case.
|
Subject. |
|
|
VERB PART. |
|
|
Attribute. Nominative. |
|
|
The poet fShakespeare |
flourished in the reign of Elizabeth. |
|
1 I'he master's i patience |
was exhausted. |
|
Oi the master, the - patience |
ditto. |
Aaaiyze, according to plan, the following sentences : — Tnc sovereign's death was lamented The boy with the long Mack hair was found in tlie wood. The general's skill saved the town. Paul, the Apostle, was once a persecutor. A man of wealth is not necessarily a gentleman. The merchant'a house is lixagnificent.
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
What name is given to the Noun Part of a sentence? What is ■';he jubject of a sentence? When a Nominntive is taken by itseii. what is it called? What other name has it? What is mean', by a Complex Subject? Wliat is the locrical subject of a sentence? What is meant by Attributes? Why are they so called? What different attributes may a noun have?
THE ADJECTIVE.
65. An Adjective is a word used to qualify nouns ; ac, A good boy.
1, Jrigin of Name. — It gets its name from being added to nouns to describe the things which they name.
2. illustration. — From the duty that an adjective does, rt may b" called a noim-marking word. Thus: 'The black man sold the yootted dog to the old gentleman." In this sentence the voidr black, spotted, old, an., the, qualify, or mark the nouns mail, log, anil gentlenian. Black marks the noun man, and
THE ADJECTIVE. 47
helps us to know that man among other men ; spotted marks the noun dog, and helps us to distmgnish the dog of whicli we nre talking, from other dogs ; and old marks the noun gentle- man, and helps us to mark out that gentleman from gentlemen who ;ire young or middle-aged. The word the marks out the particular black man about whom we are speaking from among all other black men ; and so of the rest.
Q{]. Tliere are three kinds of Adjectives — I. Tiiose M'hich mark a thing from a class. n. Those which mark the pecidiar quality of a thing. in. Those which tell us the number or quantity.
67. Under the first class we place such adjectives as ' an/ ' a,' ' the,' ' this,' cS:c.
(18. Under the second class we find such adjectives as ' good,' ' bad,' ' wise,' ' white,' &c.
(39. Those adjectives which denote number are
divided into —
I, Cardinal. / ,., _,„,., / Numerals. n. Ordinal. )
70. Cardinal Numerals tell us how many things there are in a series ; as. One, two, three, &c.
71. Ordinal Numerals denote the place held ly an object in a series; as. First, second, third, &c.
72. Under the last named cla.ss of adjectives are found such 'indefinites' as all, ani/, some, f no, ^-c; 1 id 'distributives' as each, every, eitlier, neither.
1. Indefinites. — These numeral adjectives are so called be- (■ use they imply number, but do not specify an exact number.
2 Distributives. — Numeral adjectives of this kind denote the whole of a number of objects taken separately.
73. When other parts of speech are used to qualify or limit a noun, they perform the part of an adjective, and should be parsed as such ; as, A geld ring ; a silver cup.
48 ETYMOLOGY.
AN and THE. 74. Two of the first class of adjectives an and the, are so frequently used, that, under the name Article, they have often been regarded as a separate Part of Speech.
1. Origin of Name. — The word is derived from the Latin, and means a little joint. Neither of the articles has any meaning, unless it is joined to a noun.
2. (1.) 'An' or 'a ' — This article points o»it the class to which a thing belongs ; as, A n apple. This means one of the class of fruit called apples.
(2.) 'An' is used Ijefore :r vowel or silent h; as, An age, an hour.
(3.) 'A' is used before a consonant; as, A book; alp ' before a vowel, or diphthong which cr<u»bineswith its sound the power of initial y, or w; as, A unit, u use, a eulogy, a ewe, many a one.
3. (1.) 'The.' — This adjective points out a particular indi- vidual, or group of individuals, of a ceitaia class; as. The apple. This means s(.ine particular apple already referred to. Sometimes it gives t<> a noim or auotiier adjective the force of a cLiSS ; as, T/ie apple is a delicious fruit. The vnne and the good.
(2.) How applied. — 'The' applies to either number, but 'a' to the singular only, except when it "ives a cullective meaning t<i an adjective and a plural noun < "w days; a great
many.
QUESTIONS ON TlA- 4^).^^ /iVE.
What is an Adjective? Whenof 'tes it derive its nami t Illustrate, by an example, what is tieuiit by 'qualifying.' How many classes of a^ljectives are there? How do . 'x.se of the hrst class mark out a thing? What is the nature of those of the second class? Of what kind are those of the third class? Name a few adjectives belonging to the first class. Name a few that belong t ) the second class. What name is given to tliose which denote number? How are these divide<l? What do Cardinal Numerals tell us? What do Ordinal Numerals denote? Name a few of the 'indefinite numerals.' Wb.y are they called 'in- derinite?' Why are they called 'distributives?' Name the 'distributives.' How woidd you parse the word 'gold' in the
THE ADJECTIVE. 49
compound word 'a gold-ring' ? Why do you thus parse it? By ' Zn "'i""® '^^'^ *'^® adjectives 'an' and 'the' sometimes known? VV hat does 'article' mean? Of what use is the adjective 'an?' When IS the form -an' used? When the form 'a'? What force has t!ie adjective 'the ' ? What U\o ideas may be expressed by the words ' he cow'? How do these adjectives difler in their appliCAtiou to nouns, with respect to number?
EXERCISE ON THE ADJECTIVE.
1. In the following exercises assign each Adjective to its proper class : —
A terrible war had been waged for many years. The British cod-tields, it is siid, will be exhansted in, three generations. Tlic heavy brigade was drawn np in two lines. Each soldier knew his duty, and every man was prepared to do it. There ia much wisdom in the word.s of the old man, but little grace in his speech The bloom of ttiat fair face is wasted ; the hair is grey with care. The disorderly soldiers were expelled. The geuer.d, envious of distinction, dash-^- into the enemy's ranks.
2. Complete the following sentenr-- by supplying appropriate adjectives: —
The ciptain lost his ■ jons. the ^in battle, the at
se I. There are pears. Too - - moiu y ruins men.
Let the -—boy repeat nouns. A really ^^ man is rare.
Cromwell's heart broke under the heavy stroke of
affliction. Grod rewards the , and punishes'the . C{"8ar
fought battle-s. Where did your fattier buy that
book? B(^th these boys <kserve punishment John
Las lx>nght two books. Grammar teaches the use ot
language.
THE INFLECTION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 75. The Adjective in En<rlish admits of but one inflection, \'v/..y De.tjree.
1. Degree.— This word means a step, and the object of this iuilectioii is to siiew increase or diminution in the quality which tlie adjective expresses.
2. Illustration. — If I were to place three pie"es of paper by the side of one another, and say of one of the pieces that it was 'wliite,' [ would be using one 'degree of comparison,' that which simply expresses the passession of the quality If the second piece possessed the same quality of 'whiteness' in a higher degree, I would siy that it was 'whiter' than the first piece, »ud thus use the 'second degree.' But if the third piece wa«
50 ETYMOLOGY.
whiter than either of the other two, it would possess the quality in the highest degree. A fourth piece might possess the same quality, but to an extent or degree even less than the first; it might, therefore, be said to be of a 'whitish' color. This gives us a degree under the positive, which we may call the subpoei- tive. We may then arrange the degrees like steps, thus: —
Sup.— Whitest. Comp. — Whiter. | PoB. —White. J SubpoB.- Whitish. |
76. Adjectives which express qualities that admit of degrees, have three degrees of -comparison; the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superla- tive.
77.* The Positive expresses a quality simply, without reference to other degrees of the same quality; as. Gold is heavy.
78. The Comparative expresses a quality in a higher degree than the Positive ; as. Gold is heavier than silver.
79. The Superlative expresses a quality iu the highest degree; as, The wisest, greatest, mealiest of mankind.
80. To these we may add the Subpositive, which expresses a quality in a slight degree.
MANNER OF INFLECTING.
81. Adjectives of one syllable form the compara- tive by adding er to the positive, and the superlative by adding est ; as. Sweet, sweeter, sweetest.
1. When used.- (1.) The Comparative degree is used when two objects, or sets of objects, are compared together, — as to how much of a common quality they have ; as, John's horse is swifter than Henry's. The quality ' swiftness ' is here ascribed to both horses, but to John's in a greater degree than to Henry's. This degree is generally followed by ' than.'
THE ADJECTIVE. 51
(2.) The Superlative is used when one object, or set of objects, Ls compared with two or more, indicating that one object pos- sesses the quality in a higher degree than all the others, tnere- fore in the highest degree ; as, James is the wisest of th'» otiree boys. Here the quality of 'wisdom' is ascribed to the *;hree boys, but in the highest degree to only one of them.
2. Adjectives in 'y' after a consonant change 'y' into 'i' before 'er' and 'est;' as. Dry, drier, driest; happy, hajypier, happiest; but 'y' after a vowel is not changed; as, Gay, gayer, gayest.
82. Adjectives of more than one syllable, are commonly com])ared by prefixing more and most to the positive; as, Numerous, more numerous, mat numerous.
1. Comparison Ascending. — By means of these prefixes we express an increase in quality, and the comparison may be called comparison ascending.
2. Comparison Descending. — On the other hand, a diminution of degree is expressed by prefixing 'less' and 'least' 'm tlie positive ; as, Sweet, less sweet, least sweet. This may be jermod comparison descending.
QUESTIONS ON THE INFLECTION OF THE ADJECTIVE
How many Inflectioas has the Adjective? What is tnat in- flection called? What does Degree mean? Illustrate, Dv an example, the different degrees of comparison. How do you ex- plain the subpositive degree? What class of adjectives admits of comparison? What are the three degrees of comparison? What does the positive express ? the comparative ? the superla- tive? How do adjectives of one syllable form their compara- tive ? their superlative ? When is the comparative degree used ? Illustrate your answer When is the superl.itive used? Illus- trate your answer. What is the rule for adjectives ending in 'y'? How are adjectives of more than one syllable compared? What does comparison ascending express ? What is meant by comparison descending?
EXERCISE ON THE ADJECTIVE.
1. Compare the following Adjectives : —
Modern, brave, tranquil, merry, lively, solemn, pure, amiable, charming, green, serious, warm, rich, poor, beautiful, cold, white, cross, deaf, glad, funny, great, hard, kind, long, wild, nimble.
52
ETYMOLOGY.
2. Make sentences containing the followin'> Adjectives: — More, fewest, happiest, shorter, sweeter, darkest', broader, hottest, redder, most, ample, abler, wiser, clearer, fitter, tem- perate, most valuable, less able, least amiable.
IKRE3ULAE COMPARISON.
83. Besides the ways given above for tlie forma- tion of the Comparative and the Superlative, there is an irreguhir mode of comjmrison.
LIST OF ADJEOirVES IRREGULARLY COMPARED.
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
Good better best.
Bad, evil, ill worse worst.
Little less (lesser) least.
Much, many more most.
Far farther farthest.
Fore former foremost or first.
Late later (latter) latest or last.
Near nearer nearest or next.
Old older or elder oldest or eldest.
Aft after aftermost.
(Forth) iurther furthest.
Application.— The Adjective 'much' is applied to things measured; 'many,' to things that are numbered; 'more,' and 'most,' to both. 'Farther' and 'farthest' relate to distance; •further' and 'furthest' to quantity; 'older' and 'oldest' rofei to age, and are applied to both persons and things, while • elder' and 'eldest,' denoting priority of birth, are referred to persons.
ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED
84. Certain Adjectives do not admit of compari- son. These are, —
1. Numerals; as, One, two, tliird. fourth, &c.
2. Those formed from Proper nouns; as, English, American, Roman.
3 Those that denote figure, shape, material, or x>o3ition ; as, Circular, square, wooden, perpendicular, &c.
4. Distributives; as. Each, every.
5. Those which already possess an absolute or superlative sig- nifiaation ; as, True, perfect, universal, chief, complete, &c.
THE ADJECTIVE. j53
RULE FOR THE ADJECTIVE. An Adjective limits or qualifies a noun or it<» equivalent; as, A truthful ])erson is always re- spected-.
OODER OF PARSING THE ADJECTIITB,
( Poss. 1 Limiting,— )
Adjective, ] Comp. [ Degree. Qualifying, — > Inflec*iJn, ( Sup. \ &c , )
Ex.AMPLK. — I love the beautiful flowers of spring. Relation. i Et3nnoiogy and Syntax.
7Vie flowers. i The, Adjective, limiting— flowers. Rule —
I No com])arison.
Beautiful Qowera. Beauiifvl, A<ljective, qualifying — flowers. 1 Rule — Beautiful, more beautiful, most
bfautifid.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS.
What is meant by an Adjective being compared irregularly*. Comp:ire good, bad, &c. Row is the adjective 'much ' applied? the adjective 'many"? kc. To what do 'older' and 'oldest refer? How do they differ from 'elder' and 'eldest'? W[\s.t kind of adjectives are not comjt 'red ? Give examples. What is the Rule for the adjective? What is the order of parsing an adjective?
EXERCISE ON THE ADJECTIVE.
Parse, according to plan, the Adjectives in the following seu- tences: —
It was the most wearisome journey T ever made. I never saw a brighter sky. We stood ;'t the foot of a })erpendicular ro'lr It was a cruel and most unjust sentence. Here conies my wortaj uncle. A hardier n;!ture I have never known. Redder yet these hills shall glow. Upon my head they placed a fruitless crown. He is taller than his elder brother, and. older than hu
•ister.
TABLE OF ADJECTIVES. Kind. J
r 1 ~~\ „
Those marking Those marking Those telling
a class. the quality. the number or
quantity.
I ,
Cardinal OrdinaL
n
54 ETYMOLOGY.
Inflection. Degree.
Positive. Comparative. Superlative
ANALYSIS. 85. — 1. It has been shewn (Sec. 64, 7.) how the simple subject may be changed into the complex, we now add another mode of enlarging the subject, — viz., the use of an Adjective.
2. A certain part of the Verb called the Parti- ciple (ending in ing or ed) having the force of an adjective, also becomes a complement of the sub- ject.
3. A combination of words having the force of an adjective, — i. e., an adjectival or a participial phrase, may be used to complete the subject.
4. Sometimes the order of a sentence is inverted, — i. e., the verb part comes first. This, however, pre- sents no difficulty as regards analysis.
Explanation of Enlargement. — The attributes of the subject are called enlargements, because they enlarge our notion or idea of the subject. For example, when I say, A man, my notion is very vague, and has very little in it ; but when 1 say, An old man, my notion of the man is enlarged by the addition of the notion of his age involved in the adjective ' old' ; when I say, A little old man, my notion of the man is further enlarged by the notion of his size. In this way many new ideas respecting him might be introduced, and each new idea would give a new enlargement.
Examples.
1. A truthful person is always respected.
2. (a.) His listening brethren stood around. (6.) The vanquished army withdrew.
THE ADJECTIVE.
55
3. (a.) The boy, ignorant of skating, was drowned.
(6.) The general, having drawn up his forces, was ready for ttle.
4. Svxet are the uses of adversity.
|
Subject. |
Verb Part, |
|
|
Attribute. Nominative. |
||
|
A, truthful The, ignorant of skating. The, of adversity |
person boy uses |
is always respected. was drowned, are sweet. |
Note. — The article is frequently included in the simple subject.
EXERCISE. Analyze, according to plan, the following sentences : —
The humble boon was soon obt;uned. The liuughty elements alone dispute our sovereignty. The most audacious to climb were instantly preclpit.iteil. Full many a flower is bom to blush uQseen. Grre.it is the power of i loquenee. From rank to r.ink your voUey'd thunder llew. A terril»le war had been w i ged for many years. The golden light into the painter's room streamed richly. The abandoned limbs, .stained with the oozing blood, were laced with veins swollen to purple fulness.
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
What modes of enlarging the subject have been noticed already? Mention another. Give an example. Why may the participle also be used as a complement? Wliat is an Adjectival phrase? What is meant by a sentence being in- verted? Give an example.
THE PEONOUN.
86. A Pronoun is a word which properly sup- plies the place of a noun ; as, Jolm is a good boy; he is diligent in his studies.
56 ETYMOLOGY.
Illustration. — In the example given above the same idea could have l)een expressed by a repetition of the noun 'John,' 1 ut then the sentence would have been very clumsy and in- elegant: thus, 'John is a good boy; John is diligent in John's studies.' Instead of tliis awkward repetition of the noun, the part of speecli wJiicli we are now considering gives us a very useful substitute, and to this substitute we give the name Pronoun, because it can be \ised for, or instead of a noun.
INFLECTIONS.
87. Tliese inflet-tions are —
Person, Number,
Gender, Case.
CLASSIFICATION.
88. As there are (iitfereiit kinds of nouns and adjectives, so tliere ure also different kinds of pro- nouns.
89. Pronouns may be thus classed: —
I. Peksonal Pronouns. II. Aujecti\t; do.
III. Relative do.
IV. Interrogative do. ^
I. PEESONAL PRONOUNS.
90. Personal Puonouns are so called, because ihey designate the person of the noun which they i."epresent.
91. There are three Persons, (Sec. 33,) and each jf these has a Pronoun that can be used in its place.
1. The first ]:)erson relates to the person speaking^ and has for its prononn ' 1,' plural, ' We.'
2. The second person relates to the person spoken to, and has for its pronoun ' Thou," plural, 'You.'
3. The third person relates to the person or thing spoken of.
THE PRONOUN. 57
92. Tills last pronoun presents more varieties than either of the others; thus, instead of a noun of the mascuUne <>eniler we use the pronoun 'He;' instead of a noun of the fenn'nine gender we use tlie pro- noun 'She;' and instead of a noun of the neuter gender we use tlie j)ronoun 'It.' If the noun is of the plural numbei-, the form of the pronoun is the same, without regard to the gender, — viz., 'They.'
93. The Personal Pronouns are /, you or tliou^ he, she, it; with their pUjrals, We, you or ye, they.
94. They are very irregidar in their declension, 8^ shewn in the following tahle: —
INFLECTION OF THE FEESONAL PKONOUNS.
|
t^lNGLLAK. |
||||
|
Xom |
fOSH. |
Obj. |
||
|
1 2. 3. |
M. or F. M. or F. I Masc. {Fern. [Neut. |
\ Thou He She It |
mine or ray I thine or tliy his hers or lier its Plural. |
me thee him her it |
|
Nom. |
Poss. |
• Obj. |
||
|
1. We |
onrs or our |
us |
||
|
2. Ye or you 3. They |
yours or your theirs or their |
you them |
1. Two forms of Poesessive —It will he noticed that some pro- nouns have two forms of tlie possessive cnse, a long and a short form. The short form is used wtieii the nonn xs expressed, and its position is before the noun ; as. This is »«// hook. The long form is used whe.-i the noun is omitted ; as, This is mine. If, however, the noun is expressed, the ])ronouii will follow it; as. This iKXik is mine. 'His' may stnnd either before or after its noun; as. This is his liouse, or. This h^nise is /m.
2. ' We ' — The plural of the first personal pronoun is also used to signify the speaker alone, when he is in a jiosition of respon- sibilrty. Thus we find monarchs, authors, and editors, using it instead of the singular form ' I.'
58 ETYMOLOGY.
3. 'You.' — This pronoun was formerly used exclusively in the plural number, but it is now the singular pronoun, as well as the plural ; it still, however, t;ikes a plural verb ' Thou ' is now used only in the solemn style, such aa addresses to the Deity, &e., and sometimes in poetry.
4. The possessive forms, 'hers,' 'its,' 'ours,' 'yours,' 'theirs,' should never be written with an apostrophe, thus, ker's, &c.
5. Reflexive Pronouns. — We frequently find the words self (sing.) and selves (plural) attached to the personal pronouns, which are then called Reflexive Pronouns.
6. ' Own ' — The shorter possessives are rendered emphatic and reiexive by the addition of ' own ' ; as. It is her own.
7. 'One.' — This pronoun, by means of which reference is made to no particular person, is called the indefinite personal pronoun, and is thus inflected:
JVom. Post. Ohj.
One one's one.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN.
What is a Pronoun ? Illustrate its use by an example. What are its inflections ? How are pronouns classed? Why are Per- sonal Pronouns so called? What pronoun is used instead of a noun in the first person singular? What pronoun is used, &c.? What different torms are there of the third personal pronoun ? Name the personal pronouns, singular. Give their plurals ? When is the short form of the Possessive used ? When the long? What is peculiar about the position of ' his '? What use is sometimes made of the plural form 'mc'? What was the original use of 'you'? How are certain long forms of the possessive wrongly written ? How are the Reflexive Pronouns formed? What force has the word 'own'? How is 'one' in- flected?
EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUN, &c. 1. GrO over the following list of Pronouns, and tell their Per- son, Gender, Number, and Case : —
1, thou, we, lis, you, he, she, mine, your, they, them, thine, him, ye, ours, me, his, hers, her, theirs, myself, thyself, it, its, ourselves, themselves.
2. In the following sentences select the Nouns, the Adjectives, and the Pronouns: —
Her father gave her a book. Ye shall not touch it. My brother gave me the book. He liked the pears, because they
THE PRONOUN. 59
were sweet The men s dd they would do it with the greatest pleasure. You and I went with them to meet lier after she had seen him. A diligent scholar will succeed iu his studies. Put it on, will you ?
3. Parse the Nouns and the Adjectives according to form.
4. State the Person of each of the Pronouns, and give the reason.
5. Make short sentences containing the following Pronouns: — We, they, ours, your, him, my. they, me, them, myaeif, it^
)jer, us, themselves, they, 1, hers, their.
6. Substitute nouns for pronourui in the following fable : —
A wolf, roving about in search of f(K)d, passed by a door where a child was crying, and its nurse chiding it. As he stood listening, he heard her tell it to leave otf crying or she would throw it to him. So, thinking she would be as gcxxl as ht-r word, he hung about the house, in expectation of a capital sup- per. But as evening came on, and it became quiet, he ag:iia heard her say that it was now good, and th.4t if he cinie for ?t they would beat him to death. He, hearing this, trotted home as fast as he could.
7. Substitute pronouns for nouns in the following: —
Long, long ago, a boy set out to see the world. The boy wanted very much to see the world. So the boy Jeft home and walked till tlie boy met a woman.. The woman asked the boy where the boy was going. The boy answered that the boy was going to see the world. The world is laige, said the woman, but the woman will go with the boy to see the world. Well, the woman and the boy set out, and the woman and the boy's way led through a dark forest In the forest there was a gloomy den where a cruel wolf lived. The wolf came rushing out when the wolf heai-d the footsteps of the woman and the boy, tore the woman and the boy to pieces, and the cubs of the wolf devoured the woman and the boy. So the woman and the boy did not see the world after all.
n. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
95. The second division of pronouns partakes of the nature of the Adjectise, and iience its name. We have, in consequence, this
DEFINITION.
96. Adjectivk Phonouns me Avords used, sometimes like adjectives, to qujdity a noun, aud sometimes like ])ro!ioun.s, to stand instead of nouns.
60 ETYMOLOGY.
97. They are divided into three classes:—
Distributive,
Demonstrative,
Indefinite.
1. DISTEIBUTIVE PEONOUNS.
98. The Distributive Pionouiis represent ob> jects as taken separately. They are, each, eve/ij, either, neither.
1. Person and Niun'oer. — The distributives are always of the third person siuguiar, even when they rehite to the persons- epeaidng, to those sjwken of, or to those spoken to ; as, Each of ?w — eaeh of i/oa - each of them — lias his faults. Here it will he observed that, though the other pronouns are of the plural num- ber and different persons, still 'each' takes a verb in tlie sin- gular, and li is for its substitute the third personal pronoun.
2 Reciprocal Pronouns — (1.) There are two pr nouns, 'eaih other ' ;;nd ' one another,' which express an interchariiip. ufadion, ai'd are, therefore, calhid Kecipkocal Pronouns; as. See how these Christians love one another!
3. Their Force as Adieclives. — By supplying some such word as 'person,' the adjectival force of the distributives may be seen.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN— (continued. ;
Wh t is the second division of Pronouns? Give the defini- tion. How are they divided? What is meant by liistributive Pronouns? Name them. What is peculiar about their person and nund)er? Illustrate bj' an example. Name the Keciprocal Pronouns.
2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
99. The second divisioii of Adjective Pronouns lias, from the duty wlncli tliey perform, accpiired the name of Demoxstr.vtive. Hence we have the following
DEFINITION.
100. Demonsth.ativk Pronouns are so called, because they specify the objects to which they refer.
I
THE PRONOmr. 61
101. The pronouns which thus point out the objects and stand for their names, are, this, that, with their plurals, these, those.
1. Their Use. — If we are speaking of some object near us, and wish to avoid the repetition of the noun, we use the pro- noun ' this ' ; if the object is remote from us, we use ' that.' So, also, if the reference is to something already mentioned, 'this' indicates the last mentioned; 'that,' the first mentioned; as, Virtue and vice are before you: this leads to misery, tftot, to peace.
2. As Adjectives —These words ai-e frequently found in con- nection with nouns, they then have the force of adjectives, and are to be parsed as such.
3. ' That ' not always Demonstrative. — This word is not al way i a demonstrative pronoun; it is sometimes a relative pronouu, (Sees. Ill, 115,) and then its place can be supplied by 'who,' or 'which;' and sometimes it is a conjunction, and then intro- duces a new sentence. A careful attention to these direction* will always enable a pupil to assign this word to its proper class. Thus, in the sentence, 'Whoever siid t/iat, was mistaken,' the word ' that ' is a demonstrative pronoun, because it represents, or stands in place of some thing. lu the sentence, 'My brother gave me that book,' it is a demonstrative adjective, because it points out a particular book. In the sentence, 'The ship that sailed yestenlny was lost,' it is a relative pronoun, because we can use 'wliich' instead of it. In the sentence, 'He said that he would do it,' the word is a conjunction, because it introduces a new sentence.
QUESTIONS ON THE PEONOUN— (continued.)
What in the second division of Adjective Pronoiuis? Define this class of pronouns. What is tlie sincjnlnr form of them? What the plural? When is the pronoun 'this' correctly used? When 'that'? What is their force when joined to a noun? How do you know when 'that' is a demonstrative pronoun? a relative? an adjective? a conjunction?
3. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 102. The third and last <Hvision of adjective oro nouns is that of Indefinite Pronouns.
62 ETYMOLOGY.
103. As they do not stand for any particular person or thing, they have acquired their peculiar name. Hence the following
DEFINITION.
104. The Indefinite Pronouns are those which designate objectSj but not particularly.
105. The pronouns which thus stand instead of no particular ])erson or thing are, iione, any^ ally such, some, l/otli, other, another.
'Other' and 'another.' — These two indefinite pronouns can be inflected as nouns.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN— (continned ) "What is the tliird division of Adjective Pronouns? Why are they so called? Give the deiinition. Name the Inde- finite Pronouns. Which two are inflected the same as nouns.
EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUN, &c.
1. In the following exercise point o;it the Pronouns, tha Adjectives, and the Nouns: —
My books, their father, that Iiorse, these quills, his brother, her liiit A good hoy learns his lessons. These apples are good' give some to your brothers. 1 will /jive one to e;ich. The Avorks of God are great and numberless The person that told you that was mistaken. He promised that he would come Gold and silver are dug out of the earth. ITiis book will do as well as that. Every boy should keep his own books.
2. Analyze the sentences given above, r.ccording to plans I and 2.
in. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
106. The third division of the Pronoun is the Relative, and is used to introduce clauses describing the thing spoken of; as, The master who taught us is dead.
107. Besides being a substitute for its antece- dent, it also connects its clause with the clause going before it.
108. Hence it may more properly be called a Conjunctive Pronoun.
THE PRONOUN. 63
109. Fjom this double duty performed by the Relative we have the following
DEFINITION.
110. A Relative Pronoun, or, more properly, a Conjunctive Pronoun, is one which, in addi- tion to being a substitute for the name of a person or thing, connects its clause with the antecedent, which it is introduced to describe or modify.
1. Why so called. — It is called the relative, because it relate*, — i. e., carries hack our thoughts to some word or fact whiet goes before and is called the antecedent.
2. What the Antecedent may be. — The ant<^eedent may bo a noun — a pronoun — an infinitive mood — a clause of a sentence — or any fact or thing imjjlied in it; as, A king who is just, mak-<8 his people happy. — He wlio reads all, will not lie able to thui-t. without which it is impertinent to read ; nor to act, withotfc which it is impertinent to think. The man was said to be inv>»- <xnl, which he was not.
111. The Relative Pronouns ai'e, — M.andF. M,F.,orM. IT.
WHO. WHICH, THAT. WHAT.
112. They are thus declined, —
SiNGULAR ANO PlUEAL.
Nominatipe, AVlut Which Tliat What.
Possessive, Whose Whose None.
Objective, Whom Wliich That What.
QUESTIONS ON THE PaONOTIN— {continued.)
What is the third division of Pronouns? For what are they used ? What other duty do they perform besides being substi- tutes? What other name woidd be more appropriate? Give the definition. Why is the pronoun called Relative ? What is the Antecedent? Whnt m ly the antecedent be? Name the Relative Pronouns. Inflect them.
APPLICATION OF THE EELATIVES.
113. Who is applied to persons oulv, as, The boy wfio reads.
KTYMOLOGY.
114. Which is applied to inferior animals, and i'aincTS without life ; as, Tlie dog tvhich barks ; the sDook which was lost.
1. 'Which' is applied also to nouns expressing collections o{ persona, when the reference is to the collection, and not to the persons composing it ; as, 'I'he committee which met this morning decided it.
2. Other uses. — It is also used (1) as an adjective, and (2) as a substitute for a sentence or a part of a sentence: as, (1) For which reason he will do it. (2) We are hound to obey all the Divine commands, which we can not do without Divine aid.
1 15. That is applied to both persons and tilings ; ;{-;, TIk hoy that reads; The dog that barks; The b )ok that was lost.
How knowa. — .\s said in Sec. 101. 3, this word belongs to dif- f. rciit parts of si>eech. When it is a relative pronoun its place «i«n be supplied by ' who ' or ' which '
IK). Wh.vt is ap])lied to things only, and is used )n botli numbers; as. Take ichat you want.
1. When used. — This rel tive is never used when the ante- «^'dent is expressed. It may, therefore, be treated as an inde- luute.
2. Other uses, — 'What' is sometimes used as an adjective; as. It is not m iterial by ivhnt names we call them. Sometimes it is used as an adverb, having the force of 'partlj'.'
COMPOUND EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 117. The Relative Pronouns, who, w^hich, and WHAT, with the addition ^ erer,' are teimed Com- pound UELATIVE PRONOUNS.
Used as Adjectives. — Whatever, whatsoever, whichever, and whicluioever, are often Jised before nouns as indefinite adjectives; as. Whatever course you take, act uprightly.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN - (continued. )
How is 'who' applied? How is 'which' applied? Is this
its only application ? Is it ever used as an adjective? Give an
example. How is 'that' applied? When may it be known to
La a relative ? How is ' what ' applied ? When is this relative
THE PRONOUN. Afi
■^sed . Wliat name may, therefore, be given to it? To what otner parts of speech does ' what ' belong ? Name the compound _-elative3. Why are they so called? When are they to ^e treated as adjectives?
IV. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
118. Tlie fourtli class of Pronouns is the Inter- rogative Pronouns.
119. In form they are the same as the Relative Pronoun, Avith the exception of ' that/ which is never 'nterrogative.
120. As their name implies, they are used to intro- duce questions ; hence we have the following
DEFINITION.
121. Who, which, and what, when used with verl)s in asking questions, are c died Interrogati'V f} fiiONOUNS; as, Who is there? Which will y( n :ake? 117to« did he say?
1. How inflected and applied. — 'Who' is inflected like tl ». relative, and applies to j/ersoiis onl^'^ ; 'which' and 'what' appl y to persons o) Jiings. The last two are also used as inteiTOg* f tive adje'^tiVvNj . as Which eye is hurt ? What boy is that ?
2. Inde£nit,= Relatives. — When the pronouns 'who,' 'which^' and 'what,' are used resjMjnsively, they are regarded as ind« finite ; as, I know tcho wrote that letter. We cannot tell wfiM is he. I know not what I shall do.
RULE FOR THE PRONOUN. A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent — i, e.y the noun for which it stands — in person, gender, and number; as. All thtit a man hath //g will give Tor his life. A tree is known by its fruit.
Case of the Pronoun. — As the pronoun is a substitute for the noun, the same rule applies to both.
ORDER OF PARSING THE PRONOUN.
[".' I . 1st 1 . Mas. )
Sin. ) J Nom.
^'^'^^ 2nd J fZ § ^'''- {%pZ: ^--'•^-
, > in znci > tu rem. > oj > s i-oss. > • „ ^^
/.. )'' 3rd (^ mnt. (O Pl„.(^06,-. \ ^^^
Bel
(To agree with its antecedent, according to Rule. )
66 ETYMOLOGY.
Example.
He is the freeman whom truth makes free. Relation. He is makes whom
Etymology and Syntax. ITe, 3 Pers. Mr.s. Sing, ^"om. to is. Rule. Whom, Kel. Sing. Mas. agreeing with its ante- cedent 'he.' Ol>j. after verb maiea. Rules.
QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN— (continued.)
What is the fourth class of Pronouns? What is their form? What excejjtion is there? What is their duty? Give the definition. How are these pronouns inflected? How do they differ in their application? Give an example of 'which' used as an Interrogative Adjective. Give an example of 'what' similarly used? What is the Ihile for the Pronoun? What is the Kule for its case? What is the order of parsing the Pionoun ?
EXERCISE ON THE PRONOUN.
1. In the following sentences assign each Pronoun to its jttoper class: —
I hope you will give me the book that I lent you. The prince left his own carriage, and entered that of the general. One lannot always be sure of one's friends. It is an ill wind that l>)ows nobody good. What did the prisoner say? Tell me what the prisoner said? The king, who is the head of the state, may rfithhohl his consent from a measure wJiich has passed both Houses of Parliameut. Who put that glove in my hat? Every book on that shelf is mine ; I will give you a list of them. Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away.
2. Parse the Pronouns according to the plan given.
3. Form sentences containing the 'Personal Pronouns' in the different ctises.
4. Form sentences containing the 'Relative Pronouns' in the different cases.
6. Do the same with the ' Interrogative Pronouns.
THE PRONOUN.
67
.1
P^
o o
o »
m
H
•43
•^
68 ETYMOLOGY.
ANALYSIS.
122. — 1. The simple subject is sometimes enlarged by a clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun.
2. The Relative is, however, then used in what may be termed a restrictive sense.
3. Such a clause is termed a Relative CLAUSE.
1. Restrictive use of the Eelative — This use of the Eehitive will be best understood by uieuus uf au illustration. If 1 say, 'He answered t'le ([uestion which was asked him,' I restrict, — t. e., limit the answer to a parti ular and individual question ; but il I say, 'He answered the question, which was quite satisfactory,' I introduce an en irely new statement, — viz., that the answer was satisfactory. In this last example tlie relative pronoun may be regaided as having more of a connective force.
2. Eelative Clause. — The pupil will notice that a clause contains a predicate within itself, and thus differs from a ptxase.
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the following sentences, read the >ubject; state whether it is 'Simple' or 'Complex,' and why it is so: —
Sounds of music were heard. No opportunity of doing good should be omitted. The long-expected friends have at last arrived. The moon moves round the earth in twentj- -nine days. Repeated want of success is apt to discourage a student. The veteran warrior, rushing into the midst of the battle, lost his life.
2. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate 'Simple Subjects': —
flows from the henrt. is transparent. fought
bravely. leads to other sins. is the mother of in- vention. will always be desjnsed.
3. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate 'Complex Subjects': —
have instinct. is called a limited monarchy.
are termed molluscous. are termed carnivorous. ■
forms a diphthong lies between the tropics. cannot
vie with the beauties of nature.
4. Explain the nature of these 'Complex Subjects.'
5. Analyze all the sentences according to second plan.
THE VERB. 69
THE VERB.
123. A Verb is a word Avliich expresses €a;k- tence, condition, or action; as, He is; he sleeps; he runs.
Illustration.— This part of speech is the most important of the whole eight. Its very name implies this; it is, in fact, the word i 1 a sentence, and without it no statement can be made. That its duty is to make an assertion, may be thns illustrated. In the sentence, 'James vut John sifter he had left the house,' we have two verbs, e..ch telling us something. The first one 'met' tells, or nffirmr something about James, the second owe 'left' tells something aoo'it John.
124. TliMt res])octino: MJiich tlie statement i^s made is called the SUBJECT; as, James struck the table. •
125. Verbs adr.'i cf a two-fold division, —
I. in respect of meaning. n. Do. form.
^ 126. Verbs, in n^spect of meaning, are of two kinds, —
I Transitive. U. Intransitive.
127. In respect oi" form, they are divided into —
I. Regular.
n. Irregular.
m. Defective.
I. KIND.
128. The Transitive verb makes an assertion respectinpr its subject, but that statement is not in itself complete.
129. The Intransitive verb, however, does make a complete statemrt. Hence we liav^e the follow- ing
70 ETYMOLOGY.
DEFINITIONS.
I. A TEANSITIVE VEEB.
130. A Tra>'S(TIVe Verb is one which expresses
an action that passes from the a<fent, or doer, to
some person or thing whicli stands as the object of
the verb; as, James struck William.
lol.The Object may, therefore, be defined as that upon which the action of tlie verb terminates. n. AN INTRANSITIVE VERB.
132. An Intransitive Verb is one which makes an assertion, and does not I'eqnire an object to com- plete its sense; as, The boy ran across the field.
1. Of both kinds — The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense. Thus, in the TRtntence, 'James struck the boy," the verb is transitive. In ti>e Bfcntence, 'The workmen struck,^ the verb is intransitive.
2 Intransitive Verbs made Transitive — (1) Sometimes "eri>3 ti.at are naturally transitive tike after them an object which has f.ie same or a simibir signification. Thus, if I say, 'John runs,' r use the intransitive forms of the verb; but if I consider thf» etatement as incomplete, and wish to complete the idea, the only cbject that I can employ is the kirtlnd noun 'race'; thus I can, ■with propriety, say, 'John runs a race,' and then the verb be- comes, in its natin-e, transitive.
(2) Many intransitive verbs acquire the force of transitive verl)s by the addit'oii of a preposition ; as, (Intransitive,) I laugh ; I wonder.— (Transitive,) I langli at; I wonder at.
3. Verbs that are frequently confounded —There is a certain class of verbs having both an intransitive and a transitive form, which are very frequently confounded. The simple application of the test, whether or not tliey tike an object after them, Wijuld, at once, prevent their mis.-ipplication. "^'lese verbs are —
|
INTRANSTTIVE. |
TRANSITIVE. |
|
Rise |
Raise |
|
Lie |
Lay |
|
Sit |
Sef |
|
Fall |
Fell |
• This verb is sometimes intransitive, as. The sun sett.
THE VERB. 71
Examples. — The sun rises. The wind raises the dust. He lies in bed until eight o'clock. The hen lays eggs. Take a chair and sit down He set, a high price upon it. He/ell down stairs. The woodman filled the tree.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB.
What is a Verb ? What does its name imply? What is its duty? Illustrate this by an example. What do you mean by the 'subject'? What is the twofold division of verbs? How many kinds of ver1)S are there in respect of meaning? — in respect of form? Name them. In what way does the Transitive verb make a statement? Illustrate your answer. What kind of statement is made by an Intransitive verb? Illustrate Give the definition of a Transitive verb ; of an Intransitive verb. What is meant by the 'object'? Shew, by an example, that the «anie verb may be both transitive and intransitive. How m,-«/ an intransitive verb be cliange^l into a transitive? Mentiin another way. Give an example of each. Give the list of verbs that are frequently misapplied.
EXERCISE ON THE VERB.
1. In the following sentences assign the verbs to their prop if class, as regards kind.
2. State why they belong to that particular class.
3. Select the 'subject' and the 'object' in each sentence, ard give your reason. ♦
Tom cut his linger, and the wound bled freely. The garderu/r fell from a tree and lay on the grumd for an hour. The coaclj- man struck the horse and it kicked him. The sky became clear, and the moon was bright. The sun rises in the morning and sets in the evening. The moon and stars shine by night. The boy has gone to catch fish in the river. So spake the apostate. Flowers bloom and die. I told him to lay it on the table ; in- stead of doing so he went and lay down himself. I arrived in safety. As the farmer was preparing to fell the tree, it fell upon his head and killed him. The law has power to prevent, to restrain, to repair evil.
[This Exercise may also be used for parsing. Let the pupil parse the Adjectives, Pronouns, and Nouns.]
n. FORM.
133. As stated in Sec. 127, the verb, in respert of form, is divided into three classes, — viz., Regular, Irregular, and Defective.
134. The fii'st two forms depend upon the maniit)r
7S. ETYMOIOGY.
io which the verbs form their past tense and theb rmst participle.
135. Hence, for these forms, we have the following
DEFINITIONS.
I. A REGULAR VERB.
13B. A Regular Verb is one that forms its past
tense in the indicative active, and \is past jxirticiple,
by adding d or ed, to the j)rescnt ; as. Present, love;
past, loved; past participle, loved.
n. AN IRREL.ULAR VERB.
137. An Jruegular Verb is one that does not A"o:m its past tense in the indicative active, and its p^ist participle, by addino d or ed, to the ])resent,: n^, Present, ivrite ; past, wrote; j)ast particij)le, %t)ntten.
Point of DiflFerence. — The great point of difference between ♦ Lese two forms is this: the Regular Verl) is changed froc rithont, by the addition of a syl!aV)]e ; the Irregular is changed IVom -within by some modification of the vowel in the root.
in. A DEFECTIVE VERB.
138. A Defective Verb is one iii which some cf Mie parts are wantini:. The follouino; list con^- }n'ises the most important. I hey are irregular an'/ chiefly auxiliary : —
Present. Past. Prcsmt. Past.
Can could Shall should
May might Will would
Must
Ought
[For explanation of auxiliary, see Sec. 143. ]
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— (continued )
Upon what is the second division of Verbs based? How jnanY classes are there". Name them. What is meant by a Kegular Vwrb? Give an example What is an Irregular Verb? What is the great point of diflerence between these two forms? Hoay is the change 'from without' effected? How the change 'from v/ithin'? What is meant by a Difective Verb? Are defective r^srbs 'regular' or 'irregular'? What is their chief duty?
THE VERB. ftf'
mPEESONAL AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 139. To the class of Defective Verbs also belong Impersonal and certain Auxiliary Verbs.
I. IMPERSONAL VERBS. )A0. This class of \eri)s represents an action without naming the subject; as, It rains.
141. They are always in the riiinl person singu- lar, i-ud are precede^l by the pronoun Jt.
n AUXILIARY VERBS.
142. We shill pivseutly see that the verb also I ndergoes certain inflections, or chanoes, and that a, certain class of vei"bs helps tl-icMn to form these i in- flections. This gives rise to that class called auj- iliarr/j which may be thus defined: —
143. Auxiliary (or heli)ing) verbs are those hy (hi help of wiiich other verbs are inflected.
1 4. Tlie verbs that form this class are —
Do, Have Be, Shall, Will, j\Ia/, Can, Must, Lkt.
145. With +he exception of 'he' they are used only In the present and the past tense ; thus, —
Pre&eni, T)o, have, shall, will, may, can. Past, Did, had, should, would, might, could.
1. 'Must' and 'Let.'— These two auxiliaries arc uninflected.
2. Principal Verbs. — Five of these are also used as principal verbs, — viz., will, have, do, be, and let.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— (continue^.)
What two kinds of verbs are included among the Defective Verbs? How does the first class rqiresent an action? Of what number are Impersonal Verbs? Wh:it Pronoun is always usod as their subject? Give an illustration. What is the origin of Auxiliary Verbs? Define them Name the auxiliaries. In what tenses are they used ? Give the past tense of each. Which two are not inflected? Which are used also as principal verbs?
74 ETYMOLOGY.
INFIECTIONS OJf THE VEEB. 146. The verb has more inflections than any other part of speech, being clianged in form to
express
Voice, Tensb,
Mood, Person,
Number.
147. The greater number of these changes are effected by means of the auxiliary verbs. (Sec. 144.)
I. VOICE.
148. Voice is a particular form of the verb, which shews the relation of the subject, or thing spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb.
niustration.— As already stated, no assertion can be made without the verb, and then the assertion mnst be made respect- ing some person or thing, to which we have given the name of mbject. Now, if I wish to make the assertion respecting John, that ' he strikes James,' John becomes what may be termed the Agent, or actor, and James the object. Now, because John is represented as striking the blow, when I make the assertion respecting him, I employ that particular form of the verb called V»>ice. On the other hand, if I wish to represent James as rbceiving the blow, I can no longer employ the same form as before, but am obliged to use an entirely different form. I, therefore, express myself thus: 'Jame-i is stnick by John.' It will thus be seen that the same idea has lieen expressed by two iiflFerent voices, and that this peculiar change takes place only pi transitive verl)s.
149. Tr.vnsitive Verbs, therefore, have two voices, called
I. The Active Voice. 11. The Passive Voice.
150. The Active Voice represents the subject rf the verb as acting ; as, James strikes the table.
151. The Passive Voice represents the object l^s beinij acted upon by the agent; as, The table is struck by James.
THE VERB. 75
Ifote. In the Active voice the subject and the agent are the
name ; in the Passive voice, the subject and the original object are the same, '''he Active voice expresses that the subject dees the action to another ; the Passive shews that the subject mff'ra the action from another.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— (continued.)
How many intiections does the Verb undergo? Name these infiections. How are these changts chietiy producetl? What do you understand by Voice? illustrate your answer. What ^lass of verbs admits of voice ? How many voices are there ? How does the Active Voice represent the subject? How does the Passive Voice represent the subject?
EXERCISE ON VOICE.
1. In the examples select the verbs in the Active Voice.
2. Do. do. Passive Voice; giving the reaso a in both instances.
Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins. Whf.t cannot be prevented must be endure<l. When spring retum«, the trees resume their verdure. He lived, he breathed. Th^'y rushed in, but were soon driven back. He was struck by light- ning. The lightning struck the barn. The sun shone with intolerable splendor. The naughty boys were punished. Th« master punished the boys.
[This Exercise may also be used for parsing. ]
n. MOOD.
152. This inflection shews the manner in which an ' attribute ' is asserted of the '■ subject.'
Illustration — The meaning of this inflection may be better explained by means of an example If I say respecting a horse that 'he runs,' I merely state that an action (viz., running) is going on; but if I say that 'he can run,' I am now no longer making a positive assertion about him, but am only saying that he possesses the power of running. I have used the same word, but the manner of its use has been different ; and it is this dif- ference in manner that gives rise to mood We shall, therefore, have as many moods as there are manners, or ways of making the assertion.
153. The verb admits of six different moods, each of which bears a distinctive name, shewing the manner in which the assertion is made.
76 ETYMOLOGY.
I. THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
154. The first of these is the Indicative Mo(»n %vhich inserts something as a /ac<, or inquires ait.-^v a fact J as, He ia wiitiiiir. Js he writing?
Illustration. — If 1 wish to make a simple statement about any person or thing, or if I wish to ask a question, I employ the in- dicative mood. For exaniple, if I wish to say something about John's state of health, I can indicate — i. e., declare— it in this ■way: 'John is well,' or ' Joh.i is sick.' If, on the other hand, I M' mt to inquire about his health, I use the same mood, but « aange the position of the verb ; thus. Is John well ? If an a ixiiiary is used, the nominative stands between it and the V »rb ; as, Has he come?
n THE POTENTIAL MOOD.
155. The Potential Mood exjnesses not what tl»e subject does or iii,.^-c., but what it may, can, p test, <^-c. ' do ' or ' be ' ; as, We may walk. 1 must
1 Illustration — It will be noticed that an assertion is made ). (peeling the subject by means of this mood as well as by the ii lioative, but in a different manner. If I were to say, ' Boys ii p-e to play,' I would be using simply the indicative mood; but i' [ say, ' Boys cu/i play.' I aliirni or state their ability to do so. 'J Ilia mood also implies liberty, which is expressed by the auxi- liary 'may;' as, You y/iai/ go — Necessity and duty are also ex- pressed by this mood, with a change of auxi iary; as, 1 tiiusf- do it. You should obey your parents. We thus see that this mood expresses ability, liberty, necessity, or duty, on the part of the subject.
2. How known.— This mood may be known by its signs, which a;e 'may,' 'can,' 'must,' 'could,' 'would,' and 'should.'
8 Interrogative. — This mood can also be made interrogative b> ch..iigiug the position of the sutject ; as, May Igo? (riec. I >1)
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— (continued.)
What do you mean by Mood ? Illust'-ateyour ansiver. How many moods are there? Upon what does their numoer nepend? N ame the first mood. Define it.' Give an example to illustrate
THE VERB. 77
your answer. Shew that this mood may be used to ask a ques- tion. What is the position of the Nominative? What is ths position when an Auxiliary is used? How does the Potential Mood differ from the Indicative? Illustrate this by an example. Give an example shewing that this mood implies liberty, ne- cessity, duty. By wh; t si^ns is this mood known? Can this mood be used to ask a question ?
EXEECISE ON MOCD,
In the following sentences classify the Moods, giving youi • reason: —
The doom he dreads yet dwells upon. His stature was lofty. I cm not leave him. Not a soldier disch:<rped his farewell shot, '^his wind might awaken the dead. Plato, tliou reas nest well. He struck the lyre. Our f thers bled. The wind blows coh\ The camel cm endure great he t. Children should obey their parents. He ran as fast : s he could. It must be done.
in. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOCD.
l/ifi. The tliird mood is the Subjunctive, which expresses the fnct as coi'ditioual, desirable, or contiri' gfnt; as, If it rain, I shall not go.
1. Illustration. — We hav ■ already seen that a fact may be spoken of as actual or possible; but when there is anything like doubt or uncertainty connected with the assertion we employ this mood. For instance, in the example given in the definition, I do not make a positive assertion, that 'I shall not go' — there is attached to it a condition, — ' If it rnin.' — and this condition is expres.=;ed by means of the subjunctive mood. The name by which this mood is generally known implies the existence of another verb to which the verb iu this particular mood may be subjoined.
2. Its Sign — This mood is preceded by certain conjunctions, such as 'if,' 'unless.' 'though ' and a few others. These form, as it were, a link between the two sentences.
rv. THE IMPEEATIVE MC33. 157. The Imperative Mood expresses a con," mand or an evtreatij ; as. Read thou. Bless mt*, even me also, O my father.
1. Illustration. — A glance at the name of this mood shews ns that it is chiefly used in giving an order or a command. Tb#
78 ETYMOLOGY.
verb by no means loses its distinctive character in this mood j the cnlv difference is in the manner in which the assertion is made. No one of the other three moods that have been defined could be used for the same purpose as this mood. If, for in- stance, I were to ask a pupil to correct a mistake which he may have made in any piece of written work I would use the Indicative Mood either assertively or interrogatively. If, on the other hand, from my superior position, I were to order him to do so, I would no longer use the Indicative, but the Imperative Mood; thus, 'Make the necessary correction.' We must not suppose that this word implies only command. It is also used to express entreaty and exhortation. Of the first of these no better illustration can be given than the second example under the definition The Scriptural injunction, 'Children, obey your parents,' may be viewed as either exhortatory or imperative.
2. The Subject — As a general rule the subject of this mood is not expressed. The second personal pronoun is really the nominative.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— (continued.)
Which is the third Mood? How does it express a fact? When is this mooil used? What does its name imply? By what sign is it distinguished from the ither moods? What does the Im- perative Mood express? V.' hat is its chief use? Shew by an example that an assertion is made by this mood. Shew by ex- amples that this mood expresses entreaty.
EXEECISE ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND THE IMPEEATIVE.
In the following examples select the verbs that belong to the Subjunctive and the Imperative Mood: —
If T were chained I might revile. If the KiHg were not a traitor, the convention must be rebels. Study to store your mind with useful knowledge. Though riches increase, set not your heart upon them. If he come before my return, ask him to stay. I would do the same thing if I were he. Arise and gird thyself, O thou that sleepest. Banish envy and strife lest they utterly destroy your peace.
ANALYSIS. 158. — 1. As the verb is the word that makes the affirmation, tliat part of the sentence which contains the verb is called the Predicate.
THE VERB. 79
2. The Predicate must always be either a verb, oi something equivalent to a verb.
Illustration. — In order that we may have a sentence, there must be a statement made about something, and thfs is done by means of the verb. Let us take, for instance, this sentence, ■ Robert runs. ' Here we are talking about Robert ; the name •Robert,' therefore, is the Subject; wliat we say about Robert is that he runs; 'runs,' therefore, is the Predicate. Take another example, 'He is of unsound mind.' Here the word 'He' is the Subject, and tlie assertion, 'i.'3 of unsound mind,' is the Predicate. The word 'is' is a verb, but the whole expression is equal to a verb.
3. The Predi(;ate asserts of its subject, (1) What it is; (2) What it dois; (3) What is done to it; as,
(1) The boy is fond of study.
(2) Tlie horse runs swiftly.
(3) The house was burned.
4. It is either a Grammatical or a Logical Predi- cate.
5. The Grammatic.vl Puedicate is simply the verb; as, John reads very nicely.
6. The Logical Puedicate is the Grammatical
Predicate with all its complements; as, John reads
very nieeli/.
Complementa. — All the words added to the verb, to fill up the assertion, ;ire c;dled the complements
[The Grammatical Subject and Predicate are printed in italics. ]
Subject.
Predicate.
The clock
Man
Diligent boys
has just struck two.
viars not with the dead.
learn quickly.
80 ETYMOLOGY.
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
Wb?.t nameisgi\en to the Verb part of a sentence? Why is tliis name given? Illustrate what is meant by subject and Predicate. AVhat duty is pertormed by the Predicate? Give au example of each What two kinds of Predicate are there? Detine the Grammatical Predicate, and give an exjimple. What is meant by the Logical Predicate? Gi\e an example.
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the following sentences select the Grammatical and the Logical Preilicates.
2. State why they are 8<).
3. Analyze the sentences according to the scheme.
''^'>e eye is the organ of sight. Silver is one of the precious metals. Habit becimies second nature. The barometer shews the weight of tlie atniospjitre. Time flies. Lal;or sweetens rest. The wind moans through the trees. The torrid zone lies between the trop;cs.
V. THE INFINITIVE MOOD.
159. The Infinitive Mood gives the simple nieaniiio; of the veil>, witliout an\- reference to Per- son or Number; as, 'Jo wad.
1. Illustration. — In the example given in the definition, the affirmation contained in the word 'to read' is not matle respect- ing any particular person or persons ; therefore, this part of the verb being used indefinitely, and with reference simply to the act, has neither person nor number.
2 Its Sign. — The sign 'to' usually precedes a verb in the Infinitive Mood. This prefix is, however, omitted after such auxiliaries as 'may,' 'can,' 'let,'&c., and the verbs * bid, ' dare,' (to venture,) 'need,' 'make,' 'see,' 'hear,' 'perceive,' &c.
VI. THE PARTICIPLE.
160. A Participle is a word which, as a verb, expiesses nu action or state, and, as an adjective, quaHfies a noun ; a.s, fie came seeing. Having Jinished our task, we may play.
1(1. There aie foar Participles in each Voice of the Transitive Veiv.
THE VERB. 81
162. They may be thus arranged, —
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
1. Present, Striking, Being struck.
2. Fast, Struck, Struck.
3. Perfect, Having struck, Having been struck.
4. Future, About to strike. About to be struck.
I. PfiE33NT PASTICIFLE. Ifi^. This Participle in the Active Voice ends always in ' ing,' anil denotes an action or state as continuing and progressive; as, James is building a house.
164. In the Passive Voice it has always a passive signification.
n. PAST PARTICIPLE.
165. This Participle is formed in some verhs by the addition of 'd' or 'ed' to the present; in otherr, bv adding 'en;' in others, by some internal change. Its form is the same in both voices.
in. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 16t/. The Peufkct PAiiTicin.K is always con<- jK und, {i. e., is not cx])re.^si'd Uy :i i<hnj>le word,) and \vj)resents an action or state as conipleted at the time referred to.
IV. FUTURE PARTICIPLE. 167. This P;ti-ricij)ie, also, is a compound one, and represents tlie :ivt!on a.s 'about' to take place; as, Me is about to Icacc Canada.
QUESTIONS ON THE VERB— (continued ) Define the Infinitive Mood. Wlien(;e lias it its j)eculiar name? Wiiat is its Sign? Is tliis sign always expressed? After what verbs is it omitted? Whnt is a Participle? How many parti- ciples are there in each voice? How d<t yf)u know the Present Participle active ? Wliat does it denote ? What is the force of this participle in the P;issive Voice? How is the Past Parti- ciple generally formed ? How do the Perfect and Future Parti- ciples differ in form from the other.s? How is ;'n action repre- sented by the Perfect Participle? How by the Future?
8»
ETYMOLOGY.
EXERCISE ON THE VEBB.
In the following sentences classify the verbs according to Kina, \ oice, and Mood: —
Be swift to hear and slow to speak. Seeing the danger, he avoided it. Diogenes, the Greek ])hiIosopher, lived in a tub. Industry is needful in every condition of life : the price of all improvement is labor. The house was burned. Boast not of to-morrow. It is pleasant to see the sun. We should always obey the dictates of conscience. The train might have run off the track. He came last night. Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. I heard him relate his story. I saw him do it. Forbid them tt) enter the house. He may go if he feel inclined. Bring me that book. They accused the hoy of theft. The boy was accused of theft. Having mended my pen, I will write.
[This exercise may be used for Parsing.]
ANALYSIS. 168. — 1. It has been shewn (Sec. 85, 2. and 3.) that the Particij)le, and the Participial phrase may he enlargements, or complements of the subject.
2. This arises from the adjectival force of the I'articiple.
3. The Participle of the Active Voice of a tran- fitive verb, besides quah'fying the simple subject, f^iay have an objective case after it ; as. The boy, seeing the storm coming on, ran home.
|
Subject. |
Predicatb. |
|
|
Attribute. |
Nominative. |
ran home. |
|
The, seeing the storm coming on |
boy |
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. Analyze, according to plan given above, the following sen' tences: —
The afflicted nation mourns. The moping owl does to th^
THE VERB. 83
moon complain. A person deserving respect will generally se- cure it. Boys who do their duty will be loved. A virtuous man loves virtuous men. God's wisdom is seen in His works. He that heirkens to counsel is wise. A desire to learn is praise- worthy. The love of learning is commend;. ble. He. shouting, made the onset. Short pleasure produces long pain. John's pen is spoiled.
[Note —In analyzing orally it would be well for the teacher to m ike the pupil specify the particular kind of attribute that the subject has; for instance, in the example given, the subject 'boy' h;i8 for its attributes tlie adjective 'the,' and the parti- cipial phrase 'seeing the storm coming on.' If a number of attributes precede the simple subject, the pupil must begin with «he one that stands nearest to it.]
m. TENSE. 1G9. Tevse is that modification of the verb which expresses tune.
170. There are three divisions of time, Presentj Past, and Future.
171. In each of these divisions there are two tenses: the one representing the action or state qs perfect, — i. e., completed at the time referred to, >— the other representing it as not completed at that time.
172. Thus we have six tenses, — viz., the Present, the Present-perfect, the J\ist, the Past-perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect.
I. PEESENT.
173. The Present tense expresses what is going on at the present time; as, I see the bright sun.
174. The Present-perfect tense represents an action or event as completed at the present time, or in a periotl of which the present forms a part ; as, I have sold my horse. I have walked six miles to-day.
Its Sign. — The sign of this tense is the auxiliary 'have' pre* ceding the 'past participle active.'
84 ' ETYMOLOGY.
n. PAST.
175. The Past tense expresses what took place in past time ; as, I smo him yesterday.
How Formed. — This tense is formed by changing the vowel of the root verb; as, Wrie, wrote, or by adding 'ed' or 'd'; as, Mend-ed, lovt-d. In conversation the 'e' is often dropped, and the 'd' becomes eh nged into 't' after sharp mutes; as, Kissed, {hint;) dropped, {dropt ;) &c.
176. The Past-perfect, or Pluperfect tense, represents an action or event as completed, at or before a certain time past; as. The ship had sailed when the mail arrived, — that is, the ship sailed be- fore the mad arrived.
ItB Sign. — The sign of the past-perfect is the auxiliary 'had,' preceding the 'past participle active.'
m. FUTUEE.
177. The Future tense expresses what will take place in future tune, — i. e., in time to come; as, 1 will see you to-morrow.
Its Signs. — The signs cf the future are the auxiliaries 'shall' and 'will' preceding the 'Infinitive Mood,' with its sign omitted.
178. The Future-pep^fect tense intimates that an action or event will be completed at or before a certain time yet future ; as, I shall have got my lesson by ten o'clock.
Its Signs. — The signs of this tense are 'shall have' and 'will have,' preceding the 'past participle active.'
TENSES IN PASSIVE.
179. The Passive Voice has the same number of tenses as the Active Voice.
180. They are all formed from the correspondiug tenses of the auxiliary verb * to be,' together with the ^ past participle passive ' of the verb.
THE VERB. 8fif
TENSES IN DEFFEEENT MOODS.
181. The Indicative Mood has the six tenses, and is, therefore, the most complete mood.
182. The Potential Mood has four tenses, the Present and the Present-perfect, the Past and the Past-perfect.
183. The Subjunctive Mood, in its proper form, has only the Present tense. The verb Ho be' has the Present and the Past.
184. The Imperative Mood has two tenses, the Present and tlie Future.
185. The Infinitive Mood has two tenses, the Present and the Perfect; as, To write — To have written.
18(>. The Participle has four tenses, the Pre- sent, the Past, the Perfect, and the Future; cs. Striking — struck — having struck — about to sti'ike,
QUESTIONS ON THE VEEB— (continued )
What is the third infection of a Verb? What does Tep«e mean? How many divisions of time are there? Name them. How many tenses are tliere iu each of these divisions? How is the action or the stite represented hy these divisions? Name the six tenses. Deriue the Present tense. Define the Present- perfect How is tliis tense known ? What does the Past tense express? How is this tense formed? Define the Past-perfect. What is the sign of this tense ? What does the Fnture tense express? What are its signs? Define the Future perfect tense? How is this tense known ? How miiny tenses has the Passive Voice? How are they formed? Name the tenses of each of the Moods.
EXERCISE ON TENSE.
1. In the following examples select the different Tenses.
2 State why you thus classify them.
The dog runs. He has caught a mouse. I have told yon he- fore, and I tell you now. Have you done any good to-day? The pigeon flies swiftly. Bad company lias ruined him. The horse broke his bridle. He had broken three before. After tiiC sun had risen the ice melted. You vilJ s*^ him tomorrow I had seen him when I met you. He will have started beior*
96
ETYMOLOGY.
t*n o'clock. I have just recited my lesson. How beautifully the snow falls! I had written a letter when he arrived.
ANALYSIS.
187. — 1. As the Grammatical Subject of a sen- tence may be enlarged, or completed, as has been shewn (Sec. 64, 7.; 85, 1.; and 122, 1.), so may the Grammatical Predicate be completed.
2. If that Predicate is an Active Transitive Verb, its completion is a noun or its equivalent in the objective case; as, William the Conqueror governed Knglxxnd.
8. If, however, the Predicate is an Intransitive Verb, or a verb in the Passive Voice, the comple- D:ent is in the Nominative; as, Edward became ^in^. } ie was elected chairman.
4. The object maybe whatever the subject may be; V\ Boys \o\Qplay, (noun.) John hit Mm, (])ronoun.)
5. This object may, like the subject, have attri- butes; as, AH good boys love their paivnts.
6. Both the Subject and the Predicate of a sen- t»!nce may be 'compound.'
7. A Compound Subject consists of two or Piore simj)le subjects, to which belongs one predi" cate ; as. You and / are friends.
8. A Compound Predicate consists of two or
more simple predicates affirmed of one subject; as,
Truth is great and lodl prevail.
[The word thnt joiua the Simple Subj^ts and Predicates, is called a conjunction.]
|
Lo6ic*i< |
SuBjrcT. |
LooiCAi Predicate. |
|
|
Oram. Subject |
Its Complements. the Conqtieror |
Gram. Predicate. |
Completion. [ 1 |
|
William Edward |
governed England. l)ecame king (nom.) |
[Note. — The pupil will notice the change made in naming the two paiiw of the sentence, and their divisions.}
THE VERB. 81
EXEECISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the following sentences insert appropriate objects : —
The moth burned . Ellen can sing . Jairea
«ir*ll re.id . George shot . The cows «at
. James must study . Henry hurt
. The squirrel eats . Boys love . The r.ch
should never despise •. Cain killed . Mary
praises . The elephant has a . The dog lore
. The spider caught .
2. In the following, state whether the Complements are Objective or Nominative Complements, and analyze according to scheme: —
Columbus discovered America. Eighteoiisness exalteth « nation. William the Conqueror was the first of the Norm^>n line of kings. Learn to labor and to wait. He preferred wall- ing to riding. Avarice is a mean and cowardly vice. Greofc men often do wrong He was appointed physician to the Queori. The last month of the year is called December. The hope «<£ better thi gs cheers us. He seems very happy. The love <ii money is the root of all evil. James proved himself a very goc i boy.
3. Tell whether the Subject in each of the following sentences is Simple or Compound : —
Virtue is often neglected. Virtue and vice are often treated •''ke. S (Crates the philosopher was condemned to death. '!iat harm has that great and good man done? Life is short. 1 it goodly virtues bloom on the poisonous branches of ara- cion? Bonaparte's energy and ambition were remarkable. le longest life of man is short. Furious Frank and tiary Hun loiit in their sulphurous canopy.
4. Tell whether the Predicate in each of the foUomng sen- -uces is Simple or Compound:^
John desires to learn. He left his home and went to a foreign 1 ml. Honesty is prai.<ed and (is) neglected. High on a throne )f royal state Satan exalted sat. George learns rapidly They Wire commanded to return to their own country'. Talent is strength and subtilty of mind. His persever.uicc is commend- able, and should be rewarded. The houses were plundered and burned.
PERSON AND NUMBER. 188. — 1. Every tense of the Verb has three Per- Boiis and two Numbers.
^8 ETYMOLOGY.
2. These inflections are due to the Subject. Illustration. — The change effected in the verb by the differ- ence in I'erson and Number of the Nominative, may be thus illustrated. In the present tense of the verb 'love' with the first personal pronoun we use the form 'love,' but this form can- not be used with the second or the third personal pronoun sin- gular. With the former w^e have to adopt the form 'lovest,' and with the latter the form 'loves'; thus, 'I love, thou lovest, he loves,' and the verbs are said to be in the first, second, or third person singular. In the plural the form is the same for »11 persons.
EXEB,OISE ON PERSON AND NUMBER.
1. Tell the Person and 2 umber of each verb in the following I'-ntences.
2. Give the reason
He loves truth. She hates deception. 1 saw your brother f< 6t evening. He will return tomorrow. John n cited his les- f» n yesterday. The Iwys have gone home. George had gone h mie before I returned. You shall see him to-morrow. James f udies diligently. We sliall ha\e run. They will have read. i U crime shall cease. I read the book which you lent me.
CONJU^iATION.
189. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular t omf)inati<»n and arrangement of its several voices^ moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.
190. The ])rinfij)al parts of the verb are the Pre- sent Inilicatice, the Fast Indicative, and the Past Participle. In ])ar.^iiig, the mentioning of the.se parts is called conjuijatiiig the verb. Thus:
Present. Past. Pad Participle.
Regular, or Wea'i, Ixive loved loved.
Irregular, or Strong, Write wrote written.
INFLECTiaN OF THE AUXILIARIES MAY, CAN, &c.
191. Of the Au.uhary Verbs, the verb Ho be' is both a principal verb and also an Auxiliary. By p"efixing it to the ' past ])articiple passive ' of a verb, y e form the Passive Voice.
THE VERB.
^
192. Certain otl)er veibs are only auxiliaiy, and are defective in their Moods and Tenses.
193. As all of Ihese (except 'd«>') help to form some of the Mdods and Tenses of the verb 'to be,' their inflection is now iriven.
Singvlar. i. 1 may-
2. Thou mayst.
3. He may.
Plural.
1. We may.
2. You may. 8 Tliey may.
SiiKjular. I might. Thou inightst. He might.
3.
Plural.
1. We might.
2. You might.
3. They might.
Singular.
1. I do.
2. Thou (lost.
3. He does.
Plural.
1. Wc do.
2. You do.
3. They do.
Singular.
1. I did.
2. Thou didst.
3. He did.
INDICATIVE MOOD Present Tense. Sitigvlar.
1. I can.
2. Thou canst.
3. He can
Plvrnl. \y.-o:!n. Yoc can. They can.
Past Tense. Singu/ar. T could. Thou rouldst. He could.
Plural. We could. Ydii could. TliL-v could.
Singular. I must. Thou mustk He must. .
Plural. We must. You must. They must.
I
INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense.
Singular. Singular.
I have. 1. I shall or will.
Thou hast. 2 Thou shalt or wilt
He has or hath. 3. He shall or wilL
Plural
1. We have.
2. You have.
3. They have.
Plural. 1. W^e shall or will. 2 Vou shall or will. 3. They shall or will.
P^t Tense. Singular. Singular.
1. I had. 1. I should or would.
2. Thou hadst. 2. Tliou shouldstorwouldsfc
3. He had. 3. He should or woiild.
|
9( |
} |
ETYMOLOGY. |
|||
|
Plural. |
Plural. |
Plural. |
|||
|
1. 2. 3. |
We did. You did. They did. |
1. 2. 3. |
We had. You had. They had. |
1. 2. 3. |
We should or would. You shoidd or would. They shoidd or would. |
DO and HAVE as Principal Verbs.
[These two auxiliiries, like the verb 'to be,' are also principal verbs, and form their tenses in tlie same way as other principal verbs ; thus:]
Singular. Singular.
Present, 1. I do. 1. I have.
2. Thou doest. 2. Thou hast.
3. He does. 3. He has.
&c., &c.
|
Present-Perfect, |
. 1- 2. 3. |
I have done. Thou liast done. He has done. &c., &c. |
1. 2 3. |
I have had. Thou hast had. He has had. |
|
Past, |
1. 2. 3. |
I did. Thou didst. He did. &C., &.C. |
1. 2. 3. |
T had. Thou liadst. He had. |
|
Past-Perfect, |
1. 2. 3. |
1 had (lone. Thou li idst (lone. He had done. &c., &c. |
1. 2. 3. |
I had had. Thou hadst had. He had had. |
|
ruture. |
1. 2. 3. |
I shall do. Thou wilt do. He will do. (fee, See. |
1. 2 3. |
I shall have. Thou \vilt have. He will have. |
Future-Perfect, 1. T shall have clone. 1. 1 shall have had.
2. Thon wilt have done. 2. Thou wilt have had.
3. He will have done. 3. He will have had.
&c., &c.
INFLECTION OF THE VERBS 'TO BE' AND 'TO LOVE.' INDICATIVE MOOD.
Intransitive.
Singular. I am. Thou art. He is.
Active Voice
Passive Voice.
Present Tense.
Singular. Singular.
I love. 1. I am loved.
Thou lovest. 2. Thou art loved.
He loves or loveth. 3. He is loved.
Intransitive.
Plural.
1. We are.
2. You are.
3. They are.
THE VERB.
Active Voice.
Plural. We love. You love. They love.
91
Passive Voice.
Plural.
1. We are loved.
2. You are loved.
3. They are loved.
Singular.
1. I have been. 1.
2. Thou hast been. 2.
3. He has been. 3.
Present-Perfect Tense.
Sign, have.
Sinijular. Singular.
I have loved. 1. I h ive been loved. Thoii hast loved. 2. Thou hast been loved. He has loved. 3. He has been loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. We have been. 1. We have loved. 1. We have been loved.
2. You have been. 2. You h ve loved. 2. You have been loved. y. They have been. 3. They have loved. 3. They have been loved.
Singular. 1. I was. ?. Thou wast. 3. He was.
Plural.
1. We were.
2. You were.
3. They were.
Past Tense.
Singular
1. I loved.
2. Thou lovedst.
3. He loved.
Plural.
1. We loved.
2. You loved.
3. They loved.
Singular. 1 I was loved.
2. Thou wast loved.
3. He was loved.
Plural.
1 . We were loved.
2. Yon were loved.
3. They were loved-
Fast-Perfect Tense. Sign, had.
Singular. Singular. Singular.
1. I had been. 1. I had loved. 1. I had been loved.
2. Thouhadstbeen.2. Thou li.ulst loved. 2. ThouhndstbeenloveL
3. He had been. 3. He had loved. 3. He had been loved.
Plural. Plural. PUirnl.
1. We had been. 1. We had loved. 1. We had been loved.
2. You had been. 2. You had loved. 2. You had been loved,
3. They had been. 3. They had loved. 3. They had been loved.
92 ETYMOLOGY.
Intransitive. Active Voice. Paseiye Voice.
Future Tense. Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. Singular. Sinrfular. Sitiffvlnr.
1. I shall l.e. 1. I shall lo^. I. 1 shall be loved.
2 Thou wilt be. 2 Thou wilt love. 2 Thou wilt be loved.
3. H? will be. .3. He will love. 3. He will be loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. We shall be. 1. We sh dl love. I. We slinll be loved.
2. You will be. 2. You will love. 2. Yon will be loved.
3. They will be. 3. They m ill lo\ e. 3. They will be loved.
Future-Perfact Tense. Signs, xhall haoe, will /taw.- -Inflect with each.
Sinfiular. Singular. Singular.
1. I shall have been. I. I sliall h.ive loved. 1. I shall have been
[loved.
2. Thou wilt have 2. Thou wilt have 2. Thou wilthnve
[been. [loved. [been loved
3. He will have been. 3. He will have 3. He will have been
[lovetl. [loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural
1. We shall have 1. We shall have 1. We shidl have been
[been. [loved. loved.
2. You will have 2. You will have 2. You will have been
[been. [loved. [loved.
3. They will have 3. They will have 3. They will have
[been. [loved. [been loved.
POTENTIAL MOOD, Present Tense. Signs, may, can, inw^f. — Inflect with each. Singvl^ir. Singular. Singtilar.
1. I may be. 1.1 may love. 1. I may be loved.
2. Thoii niayst be. 2. Thou mayst love. 2. Thou mayst be
[loved.
3. He may be. 3. He may love. 3. He may be loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. We may be. 1. We may love. 1. We may be loved.
2. Yon may be. 2. You may love. 2. You may be loved.
3. They may be. 3. They may love. 3. They may be loved
THE VERB.
Intransitive. Active Voice. Faaeive Voi
Present-Perfect Tense. Signs, maji have, can have, or vni-st have. — Inflect with each. Singular. Singular Sineiular.
1. I may have been. 1. I may have loved. 1. I may have l)een
[loved.
2. Thou mayst have 2. Thou mayst have 2. Thou mayst have
[been [h)ved. [been hivetl.
*J. Hemayh;iveDeeu. 3. He may have loved. 3. He may have been
[loved. Plural. Plural. Plural.
1. We may have been. 1. We may have 1. We may have l)een
[loved. [loved.
2. You may have 2. You may have 2. You may have
[been. [loved. [been lovecl.
3. They may have 3. They may have 3. They may have
[been. [loved. [been lovetf.
Past Tense.
Signs, mvjlU, could, would, nhouM. — Inflect with each.
Singular. Singula : Singular.
1. I might be. I. I might h>\.i. I. 1 might be loved
2. Thou uiightst be. 2. Thou uiightst love. 2. Thou might.st be
[ loved .
3. He might be 3. He might love. 3. He might be loved
Plural Plural. Plural
1. We might bs. 1. We might love. I. We might be | 3^
2. You miaht be. 2. You might love. 2. You might be / 5
3. They might be. 3. They might love. 3. They might be ) *-
Fast-Perfect Tense. Sigrp, might hare, c<>uhl J nr<-. vovhl hare, should hare. — Inflect \vi .ii eacii. Singular. Sin(r-tfir. Singular.
1. I might have 1. I miglit nave 1. I might have beep
[Ijeen. [loved. [loved.
2 Thou mightat 2. Thou m ghtst 2. Thou mightsfc have
[ii;ive been. fh^-ve loved. [been loved.
3. He might have 3. He might iiave 3. He might have
[been. |love<l. [been loved.
Plvrol. Plural. Plural.
1. We might have 1. We might have 1. We might have
[been. [loved. [been loved.
2. You might have 2. Yon might have 2. You might have
[been. [loved. [been loved.
3. They might have 3. They might have 3. They might have
[been. [loved. [been loved.
94
ETYMOLOGY.
IstnusitiTe.
Singular. 1. If I be. i. If thou be. i. If he be.
Plural.
1. If we be.
2. If you be.
3. If they be.
Singtilar.
1. If I were.
2. If thou wert.
3> If he went.
Plural.
1. If we were;
2. If you were. .1 If they were.
Active Voice.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Passive Voiee^
Singular.
1. If I love.
2. If thou love.
3. If he love.
Plural.
1. If we love.
2. If you love.
3. If they love.
Pa£t Tensfr
Singular.
1. If I be loved.
2. If thou be loved.
3. If he be loved.
Plural.
1. If we be loved.
2. If yoT* be loved.
3. If they be loved.
Singular.
1. If I were loved.
2. If thou wert or
[were loved.
3. If he were loved.
Plural.
1. If we were loved.
2. If you were loved.
3. If they were loved.
mPEBATIVE MOOD. Present Tense.
Singular. Singular. Singular.
1. Be, or be thou. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Be thou loved.
3. Be he, orlethimbe. 3. Let him love. 3. Let hiin be loved.
Plural. Plural. Plural
2. Be, or be ye. 2. Love, or love you. 2. Be ye, or you loved.
3. Be they, or let 3. Let them love.
[them be.
Future Tensa
3. Let them be loved.
Singular. Thou ehiiit be.
Singular. Thou slialt love.
Plural.
Singular. 2. Thou shalt be loved.
Plural. 2. Ye, or you shall be [loved.
Plural, i. ife, or you sliall be. 2. Ye, or you shall
[love.
INTINITIVE MOOD. Presenlv To be. To love. To be loved.
Pwrfeot, To have been. To have loved. To have been loved.
THE VERB.
95
Intransitive.
Present, Being.
Past, Been.
Perfect, Having been,
ruture, About to lie.
Active Voice. PARTICIPLES.
Loving. Loved.
Having loved. Alxjut to love.
Passiye Voice.
Being loved.
Loved
Having been loved.
About to be loved.
QUESTIONS ON THE VEEB— (continued.) How many Persons lias every tense? How many Numbers? "WLence does the verb get these indections? Illustrate your answer by an example. What is meant by tl>e Conjugation of a verb? Wliat are the prineip:il parts of a verb? Give an example of a verb belonging to the Regular, or -Weak Conjugation; to the Irregular, or .^trong. Of what use is the verb 'to be,' as an Auxiliary? How are the other auxiiiariea used?
EXERCISE ON THE VEEB
1. In the foil*' wing exercise, tell the Mood and the Tense dt each of the verbs.
2. Select tliose that belong to the Active, and those that be- long to the Passive Voice.
Am. Is. Art. I was We were. They are. You have been. I have been. She had been. He was. We will be. They must be. They should have been. If I be. Thou wert. Though he were. If I h;;d been. Though I were. If we could have been. They might l>e. He does work. Be. To be. Be ye. To have been. Being Been. Having been. Be thou. He had had. I lost the knife which James gave me. This is the tree which bears the best fruit. J;uue« was bitten by a dog. •She has studied the lesson which was so hard. She wept and v\as comforted. .Mary i.< loved and respected. He saw and coiifiuered. Evelii)e w;is disappointed. Climb not, lest you fall. Cajsar was kille<i by conspir.itors. Squirrels eat nuts. Nuts are eaten by squirrels. The mowers have cut the grass. The rat was caught in a trap The wctrk was admired by many persons. Many persons admired the work.
DIFFERENT FORMS.
194. We obtain the Progressive fonnof a vero by adding its present participle active to the verb ^to be^ throuoh all its moods and tenses; as, I am running.
195. The Emphatic form is obtained by adding the simple verb to the auxiliaries 'do' and *,did; as, I <Zo ruiu I did run.
96 ETYMOLOGY.
196. The verb is made to deny, by placing thf M'ord 'r?o<' after the simple form ; ap, Thou lovesl not ; and in the compound \ovm by placing it bctweei ihe auxiliary and the verb; as, I do not love. Wher 1 wo auxiliaries are used it is placed between them ; .s, I would not have loved.
197. The verb is made to ask a quetion by plac- ing the nominative, or subject, after the simple fo m ; ;irt, Ix)vest thou? and between the auxiliary and the verb in the compound iovm%\ as, do I Love? When there are two auxiliaries, the nominative is placed beiween tlifem ; as, Shall I have loved ?
108. TnteiTogative sentences are made negative ' y placing the negative either before or after tha " liuinative ; as. Do not I love? or. Do I not love ?
PASSIVE VOICE.
199. The Passive Voice is inflected by adding » he past participle passive to the verb ' to be^ as an iiuxiliary, through all its moods and tenses. (Sec. KOI.)
The same thing expressed b7 both Voices.— The Passive Voice, in the finite moods properly affirms of the subject the suffering, or the receiving of the act performed by the actor ; and in all tenses, except the present, expresses passively precisely the same thing as is expressed by the corresponding tense in the active voice ; thus, ' Caesar conquered Gaul,' and * Gaul was con- quered by Caesar,' express the same thing.
QUESTIONS ON TUB VEBS-(continned.)
How is the Progressive form obtained? How the Emphatto 1 flow id the iv.cij madfc jl-v egative :' VV hai; iS -ne ^jositiou of LiiJ word yH.y vlieu ilieie in, two auxiliiries? Sov >fj tl.f verb made nterro^ativ?? Wb.-^t i". the position of the Nominative when there are two auxiliaries ? How are Interrogative Sentences made Negative ? now is tiie I'assive V oice inhected ? W bat does the "-.isiv - Voice pi o-ierly ^ffi iv of tbo Tibjec^ ? Vhv^i\ at<,, by example that. .• Jl its tenses, except the present, exDress precisely the Mune ciung an the coi-responduig tenses in ehe active voi c
THE VERB. 9T
EXEECISE ON FOEMS AND VOICE.
.-. '"range the following verbs from the Simple into the Pro- gressive Form: —
He writes. Tliey read. Thou teachest. We have learned. He had written. They go. I rau. We taught. He stands. He stood.
2. Chan^ce the foil <wln2; from the Procrressivp Into the Simple Form :—
We are writing. They were singing. We might he walking. They are coming. Thou art teaching. He has been moving.
3. When it can be done, change the verbs above given into Emptiatic Form.
4. Change the examples (No. 2) into the Negative form • thns. We are not writing— into the interrogative form ; as, Are we writing ''—into the negative interrogative form, as, Are we not writing ? or. Are not we writmg ?
5. In the sentences given at>ove, change the verbs into the Passive Voice, when the change can be made ; Thus, the letter ii written.
EITLES FOR THE VERB
I. A verb agrees with its subject nominative in person and number ; as, I read. Thou readcst. He reads, &c.
n. A Transitive Verb^ in the Active Voice, ip followed by an objective case ; as, We love him. He loves us.
III. The Predicate Substantive, after a verb, is put in the same case as the subject before it ; as, It is he. She walks a queen. I took it to be him, &c.
IV. The Infinitive Mood may depend on a verb, an adjective, or a noun ; as, Cease to do evil. He is anxious to learn. He has a desire to learn.
Tran, Intran.
|
ORDER OF PARSING THE VERB. |
||
|
Voice |
ai |
|
|
Ti |
Reg. ( .^ Mood |
§ Concord |
|
.a |
] S Priu. Parts. Tense Irreg. ( O Person |
■§ according |
|
w |
rS toRuLS. |
|
|
Number , |
A |
98
ETYMOLOGY.
Example.— They have loved. Eelation. I Etymology and Syntax.
Have Have. — An auxiliary of time, (present-perfect.)
They have Have lored. — Trans. Keg., Love, loved, loved. loved. Ind. Pres.-Perf. 3. Plu. agreeing with subject they.
Rule.
EXEL-OISE ON THE VERB, &c.
1. Parse the Verbs in the following exercise.
2. Pai'se all the other words.
A good man loves God. John can write a letter. William has written two letters. You should honor your parents. I have seen George. You have deceived nie. Fishes swim. You will be sick if you eat that fruit. Men should obey their rulers. Avoid vicious company. Idle b ys will be despised. Ask no questions. Will your father come? Have you studied your lesson? Can you parse a verb?
IRREGULAR VERBS.
200. The Irheoulau Veubs, or those of the
* Strong Conjugation' may be conveniently divided
into three cla.^ses :
I. Those with one form in the Principal Parts, n. Do. two distinct forms do. do. m. Do. thre ' distinct forms do. do.
201. Of this kind of verb there are about one hundred and seventy.
202. A selection is given below.
CLASS L
|
Present Burst |
Past. burst |
Past Participle. burst. |
|
|
Cut |
cut |
cut. |
|
|
Hit |
hit |
hit. |
|
|
Let |
let |
let. |
|
|
Put Bid |
put rid |
put. rid. |
|
|
Set |
set |
set. |
|
|
Spread Thrust |
spread thrust |
spread, thrust. |
|
|
CLASS n. |
|||
|
Awake |
awaked |
or awoke |
awaked. |
|
Beat |
beat |
beaten. |
|
|
Bend |
bent |
bent. |
|
|
Bind |
bound |
bound. |
|
|
Bleed |
bled |
bled. |
|
|
Bless |
blessed |
or blest |
blessed. |
|
THE VERB. |
f |
|
|
Present. |
Past. |
Past Participle. |
|
Bring |
brougnxi |
brought. |
|
Burn |
bunied or burnt |
burnt. |
|
Buy |
bought |
bought. |
|
Catch |
caught |
caught. |
|
Come |
canae |
come. |
|
Creep |
crept |
crept. |
|
Crow |
crew |
crowed. |
|
Dig |
dug |
f^iig- |
|
Feed |
fed |
fed. |
|
Feel |
felt |
felt. |
|
Find |
found |
found. |
|
Flee |
fled |
fled. |
|
(iet |
got |
got. |
|
Grind |
ground |
ground. |
|
Hang Hold |
hung or hanged |
huag or hanged. |
|
held |
held. |
|
|
Keep |
kept |
kept. |
|
Lay |
laid |
laid. |
|
Lead |
led |
led. |
|
Leave |
left |
left. |
|
Lose |
lost |
lost |
|
Make |
made |
m ide. |
|
Meet |
met |
met. |
|
Pay |
paid |
paid. |
|
Head |
read* |
read. |
|
Run |
ran |
run. |
|
Say |
said |
said. |
|
Seek |
sought |
sought |
|
Sell |
sold |
sold. |
|
Send |
sent |
sent. |
|
Shoe |
shod |
shod. |
|
Shoot |
shot |
shot |
|
Sit |
sat |
sat. |
|
Spend |
spent |
spent |
|
Spill |
spilt |
spilt. |
|
Stand |
stood |
stood. |
|
Sting |
stung |
stung. |
|
Strike |
struck |
struck or stricii.e«. |
|
Swing |
swung |
swung. |
|
Teach |
tiiught |
taught. |
|
TeU |
told |
told |
|
Think |
thought |
thought |
|
W.eep |
wept |
wept |
|
Win |
won |
won. |
|
Wijid |
wound |
wound. |
|
Wring |
wrung |
wrung. |
99
* These are pronounced as if spelt ' red.'
'00
ETYMOLOGY.
CLASS in.
Present. Past.
Arise arose
Bear, to ao ry bore or bare
Bear, to bring jorth. bore w bare
Past fartieifie
arisen.
borne.
born.
begun.
bitten or bit
broken.
chosen.
dared.
done.
drawn.
drunk.
driven.
eaten.
fallen.
flown.
frozen.
given.
grown.
liidden.
known
la n.
mown.
riddes,
rung
seen.
sewn.
Bhakeo.
shewn.
sung.
sunk.
slain.
smitten.
spoken.
sprung.
stolen.
striven. "*
swum.
taken.
torn.
thrown.
trodden.
waxen.
worn.
written. -Verbs of this conjugation are inflected in a manner similar to that adopted with those belonging to the Regular, or Weak conjugation.
|
Begin |
began |
|
Bite |
bit |
|
Break |
broke |
|
Choose |
chose |
|
D;ire, to venture. |
durst |
|
Do |
did |
|
Draw |
drew |
|
Drink |
drank |
|
Drive |
drove |
|
Eat |
ate |
|
Fall |
fell |
|
Fly |
flew |
|
Freeze |
froze |
|
Give |
gave |
|
Grow |
grew |
|
Hid^ |
hid |
|
Kncy |
knew |
|
Lie |
lav |
|
Mow |
m wed |
|
Eide |
rode |
|
Ring |
rang |
|
See |
satv |
|
Sew |
p'^wed |
|
Siake |
shook |
|
Shew |
shewed |
|
Siug |
sang |
|
Sink |
sank |
|
Slay |
slew |
|
Smite |
smote |
|
Speak |
spoke |
|
Spring |
sprang |
|
Steal |
stole |
|
Strive |
strove |
|
Swim |
swam |
|
Take |
took |
|
Tear |
tore |
|
Throw |
threw |
|
Tread |
trod |
|
Wax |
waxed |
|
Wear |
wore |
|
Write |
wrote |
|
How inflected. - |
—Verbs of |
*flE VERB.
\
oei o
o Pi
n
I-
102
ETYMOLOGY.
ANALYSIS. 203. — 1. As long as the sentence contains but one predicate, it is called a Simple Sentence ; as, Diligent boys learn quickly.
2. When it contains more than one principal predicate, t. e., when it expresses two or more inde- pendent thoughts^ it is called a Cchpound Sen* TENCE ; as, Time is short, but eternity is long.
3. The sentences are joined by a conjunction, (Sec. 218.) This connective is sometimes omitted.
4. The sentences may be analyzed separater-^- each of tliem being called a Principal, or an Independent Sentence.
Examples. — Diligent boys learn quickly. (Simple.)
Time is sbort, biit eternity is long. (Compound.)
|
Sentence. |
Kind. |
Logical Subject. |
Logical PRE:>"'iTK |
|
|
Attribute. |
Nominative. |
|||
|
Diligent boys learn quickly. Time is short, Eternity i.s long. |
Prin. Prin. Prin. |
Diligent |
boys |
learn quicsiy. |
|
Time Eternity |
is short, ia long. |
[The Connective may, for the present, be omittea rrom the scheme of analysis.]
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
What is a Simple Sentence? When it cont.uns more than one predicate, what is it called? Define a Ccnpound Sentence. How are the sentences joined? Is this connective always in- serted? How are Compound Sentences analyzed?
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. Compose six Simple Sentences.
2. Compose three Compound S-s'atences with Simple Subject. 8. Compose three Compound Sentences with Compound Sub- ject.
THE ADVERB. 103
4. Compose four sentences with Compound Subject and Com- pound Preilicate.
5. Sieleot the Simple and the Compound Sentences in the following examples.
6. Analyze according to plan.
The curfew tolls — the knell of parting day. The boding owl screams from the ruined tower. She w;is not only beautiful, but modest. A part of the exports consists of raw silk. Every sight and every sound amazes him. The sentinel stars set their watch in the sky. The man walked and the boy ran. The grain must be sown, else no crop need be looked for. The man is mdustrious, therefore he will succeed. Night came slowly on. How did you succeed at your examination? He was poor, but industrious. The boat was upset and they were drowned.
THE ADVERB.
204. An Adverb is a word used to modify vcrkf, adjectives, or other adcerbs ; as, Ami speaks dib- tinctly ; she is feinarkahly diligent, and reads veiy correctly.
Illustration. — When we say that the adverb modifies, mc mean that it effects some change in the word to which it is an- nexed. Let us illustrate liy i fuuiiliur example, and then it3 grammatlc d application will be plainer. A cup of coffee or tea, for inst.mce, has a peculiar bitter taste; if we add a little sugar the flavor becomes moliiied. or changed; if we add a little more sugar it becomes more uioditied. Now, let us apply this to the example given in the definition. If we were simply to s.-iy, 'Ann spe:iks,' it would be only stating the fact that ."^lie has the power of speaking, but we woul<l know nothing about her manner of speak- ing. Pv adding the wor.l 'distinctly' we moiify, or change the statement, so that the meaning is no longer tlie same as if we said, ' Ann speaks.' In a siniil r wny the words 'reniiirkably' and 'very' effect a change in the words 'diligent' and 'cor- rectly.'
_ DIVISION OF ADVERBS.
205. Adverbs are divided, accoi-ding to their use, into those of
Time, Place, Manner, Cause.
104 ETYMOLOGY.
206. Adverbs of Time answer the question *when'?' as, When will you do it? Immediately.
207. Adverbs of Place answer the question * where?' as, Where shall I leave it I Anyiohere.
208. Adverbs of Manner express hoiv an action is done, or a quality possessed, and answer the question 'liowT as. How does she sing? Very sweetly.
209. Adverbs of Cause express why a thing is done.
210. Besides those single words whicli we call adverbs, we meet with unions of words which are called Abverbial Phrases, which modify adjectives and verbs; as. At once, in vain, &c.
211. They can be classified in the same way as adverbs.
INFLECTION OF THE ADVERB.
212. The only inflection that the adverb under- goes, and that in comparatively few ca'^es, is COM- PAR7SON; as, I run Jast; he runs faster; she runs fastest.
213. Sometimes the inflection is the same as in Mie adjective, viz., in 'er' and 'est'; as, Often, ojtener, oftenest,
214. Sometimes it is tiie same as the comparison of the corresponding adjectixes ; as, Badly, worse, worst. Little, less, least, &c.
215. Sometimes it is made by prefixing the ad- verbs 'mo?r,' ^ most,' antl ' fes,' ^ least' ; as, Sweetly, more sweetly, most sweetly; wisely, less wisely, least wisely.
QUESTIONS ON THE ADVERB.
What is an Adverb ? What 'lofis the word 'modify' mean? Illustrate your answer. How are adverbs divided ? How many
THE ADVERB. 105
clanaes of adverbs are there ? How do you know an adverb of time? of place? of manner? of cause? What are Adverbial Phrases ? What inflection has the adverb ? How is this inflec- tion formed ?
EXERCISE ON THE ADVERB.
1. Select the Adverbs and the Adverbial Phrases in the fol- lowing sentences.
2. Tell why they are adverbs.
3. Tell to which of the four classes they belong, and why.
I shall go away to-moi-row. He went down in a diving-bell. Fairy rings are very beautiful. ^ ow the south wind blows softly. He labored in vain. How many sticks will it take to reach the moon ? One, if it be long enough. John returned almost directly. I will return by and by. They danced quite merrily through the room. He was grave and gay by turns. They ride extremely well. We can jump much farther than you. He went away immediately after you. I do not like him at all. The ostrich is a remarkably swift runner. My dog is rather lame. The little boy skates well. He ran up and down. The boys behaved awkwardly at the party. The train ran quickly down the incline.
4. Place appropriate Adverbs or Adverbial Phrases in the blank spaces.
The steeple is three hundred feet high. He walked .
T am obliged to you. He is not ready. It was — — -
ten o'clock when he came . He stood on the bank and then
jumped , but was taken . He persevered for many
days, and gave in despair. He was not
prudent. I waited for an hour and — — ne came. Your
father goes often to town, his father goes , but mine goes
. Your exercise was badly written, John's was , and
Henry's of all.
RULE FOR THE ADVERB. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs ; as, He s}^ea]is distinctly; John' is remarkably diligent, and I'eads very correctly.
lof I
ORDER OF PARSING THE ADVERB. Time, ) ( Verb,
I \ -Kg j-t 1 A ]• i.- I Inflection
Adverb of Place, Modifying Adjective, ^j^^^ I the 1 Adverb, ( , ■ ■u^
M„««^_ *... r>.,. „ admissible,
anner, &c. I I Kule. I
106 ETYMOLOGY.
Examples. — He reads very correctly. He came at last, Belatian. Etymology and Syntax.
"Re&da correctly. Correcf?^. — Manner, modiiying reads. Bnle.
Correctly, more correctly, most correctly. Very correctly. I Very. — Manner, modifying correctly. Rule. Came at last. At last. -r-Adverhial phrase of time, modifying came. Rule.
Parse, according to this plan, the adverbs in the exercise given above.
TABLE OF ADVERBS. Eind.
Time. Place. Manker. Cause.
In reply to the questions, Wlien? . Where? How? Why?
Inflection.
I
I
Degree.
Kegiilar. Irregular.
ANALYSIS. 216. — 1. The Grammatical Predicate of a sen- tence, besides being completed bv means of an ob- jective or a nominative case, (Sec. 187, 2. 3.,) may have a further complement in the shape of an ad- verb or its equivalent.
2. The Predicate is then said to be extended, ana the name Extension is given to that part ox tne Logical Predicate.
Examples. Diligent boys learn their lessons quickly. The birds sing sweetly in summer. The vnnd being favorable, the fleet set saiL
THE PREPOSITION.
107
|
1 '" I LoaiCAi. Subject. i |
) Logical Predicatb. |
||
|
Grammatical Ita Compte- Subject Ments. |
Grammatwal „ . ^. _ Predicate. Completion. Extension. |
||
|
Boys 1 diligent i leani |
their lessons |
quickly. |
|
|
1 Birds i the |
sing set |
sweetly, in [summer. |
|
|
Fieet the |
--ij tlie wind being "^ 1 {favorable. |
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the following sentences select the 'objective' and the 'adverbial ' complements.
2. Analyze according to plan.
He walked very quickly. Scipio routed the forces of Hanni- bal. George learns his lessens rapidly. Age increases the desire of living. Pompey was defeated by Caesar. Labor con- quers all things. The sun rose brightly over the eastern hUls. He killed a man maliciously with a sword. Spring returning, the swallows re-appear. The bird flew up into the tree. They came to see me to-day. The first two verses were beautifully aung. The church spire stood gleaming white.
THE PEEPOSITION. 217. A Preposition is a word which shews the relation between an object and some other word in the same sentence ; as, He came from Hamilton to Toronto b^ rail.
1. Illustration. —The pupil may, perhaps, see more clearly what is meant by relation, by carefully studying the following diagram : —
B* ♦F
c*
108 ETITMOLOGY.
A is in, or ipilhin, or inside the sqrare. B is above, or over the square. C is without, or outside, or ajray /?'0«i the square. 2) is beaiUn the square. /? is under, or beneath, or 6«^ow' tlie square. F F ia across, or athwart the square. The teacher may illustrate* it more tlioroughly by using a pencil and a book, by means of which he can shew the different relations, or positions that the pencil may bear to the bof.k ; as, On, aivay from, tie.
2. The relr.tion is sometimes between nouns; as, Hatred oj vice — sometimes between an adjective and a noun ; as, Fond q) fishing — sometimes between a verb and a noun, or an adverse and a noun ; as, He killed him with a sword. He lived consis' tently vnth his principles.
QUESTIONS ON THE PREPOSITION. What is a Preposition? How would you illustrate the mean- ing of 'relation'? Between what difl'erent classes of words do jrt'epositious sliew the relation ?
EXEECISE ON THE PREPOSITION.
Select the Prepositions and tell between what words they shew the relatioii : —
He went from Toronto to Hamilton. John rode on the horse. Walk in the path of virtue. Gegrge is obedient to his parents. The book lies on the table. He was luy companion in adversity. I bridges are made across rivers. The dog held the meat in his mouth. He went through the gate. The bird flew into the x.ucket. He is respected at honwi?*^
RULE FOR THE PREPOSITION. A Preposition is I'ollowed by the Objective Case.
ORDER OF PARSING THE PREPOSITION.
[As the Preposition expresses a 'double relation,' it carries the mitid back to some idea already mentioned, and forward to some other idea, which completes the thought ; this double re- lation must be giren in order that the parsing may be complete.] EXAMPI,E —He threw it with all liis force against the wall. Relation. ] Etymology and Sjmtax.
TTirew with force, With. — prep, followed by 'force' in obj.
Rule. Threw against wall, lAf/aint. — prep, followed by 'wall' in obj. I RUm.
Parse, aocording to this plu), all the PrepositionB in the Exer^ aise given above.
THE CONJUNCTION. lOV
THE CONJUNCTION.
zl8. A Conjunction is a word which shews the particular manner in wliich one y)art of a sentence is joined to anotlier; as, You and James may go, but Jolin must stay at home.
Ulnsti^tion. — In the example given, there are in the whole sentence no less than three statements; the first is, 'You may go ;' the second, 'James may go.' Now, since their construction is similar, being both of them principal sentences, they are joined by the conjunction 'and' ; thus, 'You may go and James may go.' Now, joined to these two sentences there is another, also principal in its na'ure — 'but John must stay at home.' This is joined to the other two by the conjunction 'but.' This kind of union gives us one kind of Conjunction. Let us take another sentence — 'You will succeed, if yon work hard.' Here there are two statements, one of which — 'You will succeed' — is principal, and the other — 'if you work hard '—subordinate. The latter is joined to the former by the conjunction 'if.' The union between sulx)rdinate and principal sentences gives rise to the second class of conjunctions.
219. Hence we have two kinds of Conjunctions, Co-ordinate and Subordinate.
DEFINITIOKS. ~
I. Co-ordinate Conjunctions are those which connect similar constructions; as, God sustains the world, and He governs it.
n. Subordinate Conjunctions are those which connect subordinate, or dependent, with principal constructions; as, Boys learn quickly, when they are attentive.
[They frequently join one subordinate clause to another that (e also subordinate. ]
QUESTIONS ON THE CON.^TTNCTION.
What is a Conjunction ? How many kinds of conjunctions Are there ? What is a Co-ordinate conjunction ? What is a Sub- ordinate conjunction?
110 ETYMOLOGY.
EXERCISE ON THE CONJTJNCTIOIT.
1. In the following sentences select the Conjunctions, and tell whether they are Co-ordinate or Subordinate.
Virtue is praised and neglected. The moon and stars wars shining. You will be despised, and he will be honored. If you would succeed you must labor. He was ~)oor, though he might have been rich. Wisdom is better than riches. Climb not lest you falL Because he is good he is happy. I come, an4 you go.
2. Insert Conjunctions in the blank spaces.
He cannot come to-day, he is sick. I will treat him well,
" he has injured me. Religion purities refines the feel- ings. He was dismissed — =— he would not attend to business.
No tree I 'c-.irs fruit iu autumn, it blossoms in the spring.
You must be mad or foolish. My poverty not my
•will consents. The sun cannot shine, it is cloudy.
the servants the master is to blame. John and Jam^
were there. They had no sooner risen — - they began to study. They will succeed they are industrious.
RULES FOR THE CONJUNCTION.
I. Co-ordinate conjunctions unite similar con- strxctions ; as, He and / intend to go ; he gave it to hhn and me.
II. Subordinate conjunctions connect dependent with principal constructions; as, // I have erred, pardon me.
ORDER OP PARKING THE CONJUNCTION. [For convenience in parsing. Conjunctions may be considered a-> joining 'words in construction.']
Co-ordinate ) -t- ( the words,
> .S joining < the clauses, RuLB
Subordinate ) ^ ( the sentences
of which the verbs are — & — .
Example. — He started for India, hut stopped at the Cape.
Started hut stopped But, co-ordinate, joining the sentences of which the verbs are started and stopped. Rule. Parse, according to this plan, the Conjunctions in the exer- cise given above.
THE INTERJECTION. Ill
THE INTEEJEOTION.
220. An Interjection is a word that expresses feeling, or is a mere mark of address ; as. Oh 1 what a fall was there !
"I'll. Interjections may express—
1. Astonishment ; as, Lo 1
2. Joy ; as, Hurrah 1 8. Sorrow; as, Alas! 4. Disgust ; as. Fie!
6. Calling ; as, Halloo ! 6. Praise ; as, Well done I
222. The Interjection, having no grammatical relation, is parsed by simply stating the ' part of speech.'
223. Consequently there is no necessity for any Rule.
QUESTIONS ON THE DITEEJEOTION. What is an Interjection? What different feelings may b» expressed by thi? part of speech ? What relation is expressed by the Interjection 't
EXERCISE ON THE INTERJECTION. Select the Interjections in the following sentences : — He died, alas ! in early youth. Welcome, my friend, to this peaceful home ! Bravo ! be not afraid. Hurrah ! the victory is won. Pshaw ! . I do not care. Ho ! I am off for the West. He is gone, and, oh ! how wretched I am.
ANALYSIS. 224. — 1. Besides the simple sentence which con- tains one statement, and the compound sentence which expresses two or more independent thoughts, there is another, called the complex sentence.
2. A Complex Sentence is made up of one principal sentence, and one or more subordinate sentences ; as, Some dream that they can silence, when they will, the storm of passion.
3. The Principal sentence contains the main subject and predicate ; as. Some dream, &c.
112
ETYMOLOGY.
4. Tlie Subordinate sentence does not make complete sense by itself, but must be taken in connection with the principal sentence ; as, Some dream tliat they can silence ike storm of passion.
5. Subordinate sentences are of three kinds, —
I. THE NOUN SENTENCE.
II. THE ad.)E(;tive sentence.
III. THE ADVERBIAL SENTENCE.
DEFINITIONS.
225. The Noun feKXTicNCK is one thai occupies the place and follows tiie constrnction of a noun.
226. The Adjective Sentence is one that occupies the place and follows the construction of an adjective.
227. The Adverbial Sentence is one that takes
the place and follows the construction of an adverb.
Examples. — Some dream that they can fcilence, when they will, the storm of passion.
A man who keeps his word is respected.
|
Logical Subject |
I Logical PnEDicATB. |
|||||
|
Sentence. 1 |
Kind, i 1 ,. i Sub'e"ct CoM'i'le- |
Gram. Predicate |
Com pie- Extin- liou. siou. |
|||
|
1 Some dream. |
Prin. Some to 6 |
dream |
Sent b |
|||
|
6 that they can silence tlie storm of passion. |
Noun to a They ill Obj. \ |
can silence |
the storm of passion |
Sent. |
||
|
c when they will |
Adv. to ' |
They |
will |
when |
||
|
a A mnv. is re- spected. |
Prin. to b |
Man |
a Sent b |
is respect- _ [ed |
.. |
|
|
who keeps his word |
\ \ Adj. who i to a i |
keeps his word. |
THE INTERJECTION. 113
[The teacher may ruie another column for the particle cor^- aecting the subordinate sentence to the principal. In this (tV-^ third) column the pupil will place any connective that is not adverbial as well as conjunctive in its nature. If its adverbial force be prominent, it must be placed in the extension column ]
QUESTIONS ON ANALYSIS.
How may the Grammatical Predicate be otherwise completed? How is this Predicate then spoken of? What name is given to this part of the Predicate? What other kind of sentence is '■here besides the Simple and the Compound? Define it. How do you know a Principal Sentence? How do you know a Subordi- nate? Name the different kinds of Subordinate Sentence*. What is a Noun Sentence? an Adjective Sentence? an Ad- verbial Sentence?
EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS.
1. In the fo^lfivMi'i exercise select the Principal and th> Subordinate Sentences.
2. State why they are so.
3. Tell why the Subordinate Sentences are of the class yo i name.
4. Analyze according to plan.
It was so cold that I could not stand. I weep the more, be . •;ause I weep in vain. Little did 1 dre;'m that I should live fc* *ee such a disister fallen upon her in a, nation of gidlnnt men. 1 thought that ten thousand swords must have leaped from theiv scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with in- sult. Rain fertilizes those fields which sjircad their bounty to God's creatures. .Mniy learned men write so badly that they cmnot be understoxl. Lazy people always do as little as they cin. A short-liaiul writer must write as quickly as an orator speaks. It may easily be shewn that the earth is round. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. Give truth the same aims whicii you give falsehood, and the former will soon prevail. He may go home now if he can get permission. They fight for freedom who were never free. His dominions were less extensive, but more united, than the Emperor's. 1 am afraid that he will never come again.
114
PART III.
SYNTAX.
Syntax treats of the relations which words bear to one another in a sentence, and of the construc- t?on of sentences.
RULES. THE NOMINATIVE. Rule I. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the Nominative ; as, Jolin reads. / run. They s}»eak.
1. The Subject. — This is either a noun or a substitute for a D-iiun; as, John ia a good boy; he is very industrioxis.
2. A Finite Verb. — By tliis is meant any part of a verb, ex- cf pt the intinitive mood and the participles.
3. Use of Pronoun Improper. — It is improper to use both a IV un and its pronoun in the same sentence as uominhtive to the sj (ne verb; thus. The King he is just, should be — The King is just.
4. Verb Understood. — The nominative, especially in the answer to a question, and after than or <uh, has the verb understood ; as,
H^//o sa d so?- He [said so]; James is taller than / [am]; but not so tall as you [are].
Rule II. — :A Predicate Noun, denoting the
same person or thing as its subject, agrees with it
ii? case; as, I am a messenger.
1. When Found. — The 'predicate nominative' is found after intransitive verbs, and verbs in the passive voice ; as, Who art thou ? He was made king.
«. With Infinitive. — ThP JnflnitJvp. Tiay have a predicate ne>minative ; as, He wishes to be an offl/xr.
5. Arreement. — When we .»ay that one word aKnes with auother, we mean that tlie one corresponds to th.-. other 1« K«nd«r, number, ca«e, »r person.
STNTAX. 115
Rule III. — An Appositive agrees with its subject in case; as, The cities Toronto and Iiondon are in Oiitario.
Explanation of Term. — A noun or pronoun, annexed to another noun or pronoun, for the sake of explanation or einphusis, is called an AppositiVe.
Rule IV. — A Noun whose case depends on no other word is put in the Nominative Absolute; as, The rain liaving ceased, the day was dehghtful.
1. Most Frequent Use. — The noun is generally found with a participle, as in the example giv^eu in the Rule, but sometimes beimj and having bteii are omitted ; as. Her wheel [being] at rest. This said, that is, This liaoing been said. *
Now, man to man and steel to steel,
A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel. — Scott.
2. Exclamations. — Exclamations may be considered as 'nomi- natives absolute;' as, O the times! O the manners J
A horse! my kingdom for a horse ! — Shak.
Rule V. — A Noun, which is the name of the person or thing aildressed, is put in the Nominative of address ; as, Plato, thou reasonest well.
THE POSSESSIVE. Rule VI. — Any noun, not an Appositive, quali- fying the meaning of another noun, is put in the Possessive; as, I lost my brother s book.
I The Govemiag Word sometimes Omitted.— The noun go- verning the possessive is often understood ; as, This book is John's [book]. St. PauVs. This takes place when the sense is clear without it. It is always omitted after the possessive case (long form) of the personal pronouns; as, This book is mine, thine, ours, &c.
2. Use of Sign. — (1) When several nouns come together in the possessive case, implying common possession, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest; as, 'Jane and Lucy's books,' — that is, Books the common property of Jane and Lucy.
(2) In separate possession, both have the apostrophe.
116 SYNTAX.
3. Position of 's. — (1) When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign of the possessive may be annexed to either ; as, I called at Smith's the bookseller, or, at Smith the booksel- ler's. But if, to such a phrase, the substantive which it limits is added, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the last; as, 1 called at ."niith the bookseller's shop.
(2) In compound terms the last only has the mark ; as, The Queen of England' s crown.
THE OBJECTIVE, Rule VII. — The Objective case follows an act- ive transitive verb or a preposition ; as, He struck the table with his hand.
1. Meaning of ' follows. ' — This word refers rather to the order of the sense and construction, than to the placing of the words. Sometimes the position of the objective is before the verb or preposition ; as, IJim, the Almighty hurled headlong. The green hills ainoiKj.
2. How Known. — As nouns shew no difference in inflection for the n miuative and the objective, this case is marked by position and meaning.
3. Intransitive Verbs. — This kind of verb is not followed by an objective case, except
(1) When the noun agrees in meaning with the verb; as, He lived a wretched lift, and died a miserable death.
(2) When used in a causative sense; as. Walk the home to the pond.
4. Omitted Objective. — Sometimes the objective of the relative
{jronoun is omitted ; as. The person (whom) I wanted to see, has eft.
5. Objective of Time, &c. — (1) Nouns denoting time, value, ■WEIGHT, or MEASURE, are commonly put in the objective case, without a governing word,— after intransitive verbs, and adjec- tives ; as. He was alisent six months last year. Cowards die many times before their death. A child two years old. It cost- a shilling. It is not worth a cent. It weighs a pound. Thf wall is six feet high, and two feet thick.
(2) This may be called the objective of time, value, weight, &c., as the case may be.
6. After Adjectives. — Tlie objective is found after the adjec- tives near, next, nigh, li.ie, worth.
SYNTAX. 117
THE ADJECTIVE.
Rule VIII. — An Adjective limits or qualifies a noun, Of its equivalent ; as, A truthful person is always respected.
X Adjectivea Used as Nouns.— (1) 'Qualifying' adjectives pre- ceded by the 'limiting' adjective 'the' have the force of ab- stract nouns, if the idea expressed is singular; as, Longinus on. t/ie sublime. The perception of the ridiculotis does not neces- sarily imply bitterness. — Hare.
(2) If the idea conveyed is plural, the adjective then has the force of a common, or concrete noun ; as,
The 7uch and the poor meet together.
In the last exnmple the word 'persons' may be supplied, but in the other examples we can supply no word.
2. Adjective in Predicate. —Sometimes an adjective is found forming part of the predicate; as. The rose smells siveet. It would be incorrect to say the rose smells sweetly, — i. e., in a sweet manner, because that would represent the rose as perform- ing the operation of smelling in a particular manner. Again, 'She looks cold,' and 'She looks coldly on him,' convey very different ideas ; so also do ' He feels warm,' and ' He feels warmly the insult offered him.'
3. Incorrett Use of Adjectives. --This predicate use of the adjective, however, does nut justify the use of an 'adjective' as the moilitier of another 'adjective.'
4. Double Compai-atives and Superlatives. — These are some- times met with in old writers; for instance, 'This was the most iinkindest cut of all.'— ,S7tai-. Their use is to be avoided.
5. 'This' and 'That.' — As these adjectives are singular in their application, they must never precede plural nouns ; there- fore, such expressions as ' these kind' or 'those sort,' are incor- rect—they should be 'this kind" or 'that sort.'
6. Other Parts of Speech as Adjectives. — Participles and even nouns are used with the ^orc ■ of nouns ; as. He wears the leaving crest. He wears a gold ring.
7. When participles are used as adjectives, they retain the form but not the government of the participle ; as. The man that is most sparing o/his words is often tlie most deserving of atten- tion.
118 SYNTAX.
THE PRONOUN. Rule IX. — A Pronoun mvist agree with the noun for which it stands (its 'antecedent') in person, gender, and number; as, A tree is known by its fruit.
1. The Pronoun for Collective Nouns. — A pronoiin referring to a collective noun in the singular, should be in the neixter singular; but when the noun expresses many as individuals, tlie prououu should be plund ; as, The nrmy proceedid on its marc4i. A civilized people has no right to violate ita solemn obligations. Tlie court were divided in t/ieir opinion.
2. Gender of Pronoun in Certain Cases. — (1) When singular nouns of different genders are taken separately, they are repre- sented by a repetition of the pronouns of the corresponding genders ; thus, If any man or woman shall violate liis or her pledge, he or site shall pay a fine.
(2) Pronouns referring to singular nouns or other words, of the common gender, taken in a general sense, are commonly masculine; as, A parent should love Ins child. Every person has Ms faults. No one should commend himself. The want of 8 singular pronoun of the third person and common gender, is felt in such constructions as these.
3. Pronouns to be Used in Personification. — Pronouns repre- senting nouns personified, take the gender of the noun as the name of a person; as, '■ Xit/ht, sable goddess, from her ebon throne.' The lion said to the ass, who had been hunting with him. But pronouns representing nouns taken metaphorically, agree with them in their literal sense ; as, Pitt was the pillar which in its strength uplield the state.
4. 'You' and 'We.' — (I) The former pronoun, the rtomina- tii^e form of which is also 'ye,' is used with reftrence to either a singular or plural noun, .and is always followed by a plural verb; the use of a singralar verb is incorrect. (2) In the same way 'We' is used by monarchs, reviewers, and authors, instead of J I,' and is always followed by a plural verb.
5. The Distributive Pronouns. — These pronoiuis take after tliem a verb in the singular, and a pronoun in the third person sing^ar; as, Each of us lias his own work to do.
6. 'This' and 'That.'— In using the.se two prfmouns, we must remember that 'this' refers to something near the speaker or to the subject last mentioned; 'that' refej-s to something more remote, or to the subject first mentioned ; as. Virtue and vice are contrary to each other ; that ennobles the mind, this debases it
SYNTAX. 119
7. Pronoun in an Answer. — In answering a question the pupil should bear in mind that the pronoun or noun contained in the answer must be in the same case as tlie word asking the ques- tion; as, IV/io did it? — /. Whom did you see? — James.
8. Omission of Relative. — The relative in the objective cise is often omitted ; as, Here is the book {viliich) I iiroinised you. The relative in the nominative case is hardly ever omitted except in poetry ; as.
In this, 'tis God {who) directs ; in that, 'tis man. — Pope.
9. Omission of Antecedent. — The antecedent is sometimes omitted both in prose and in poetry, but especially in the latter ;
AS,
Who lives to nature rarely can be poor, Who lives to fancy never can be rich
THE VEEB.
Rule X. — 1. A Verb agrees with its subject nominative in persoii and number ; as, I read, thou readest, he reads.
2. Two or more Substantives, singular, taken to^ gether, have a verb in the plural ; as, James and John are here.
3. Collective Nouns take a plural when the idea of plurality is prominent ; as, The College of Cardinals elect the Pope.
4. When a verb has two or more singular nomina- tives connected by or or nor, it agree's with them in the singular number ; as, Neither James nor John attends.
1. Nouns Connected by 'and' with Singular Verb. — (1) When
substantives connected by 'and' denote one person or thing, the verb is singuhir ; as, VVhy is dmt and ashes proud ?
(2) Singular nouns, preceded by 'each,' 'every,' 'no,' though connected by 'and,' have the verb in the singular; as. Each book and each paper vus arranged
2. Adjuncts of the Nominative.— The adjuncts of the nomina- tive do not control its agreement ; as, The mill, with all its appurtenances, toot destroyed. The number of paupers in-
1120 SYNTAX.
3. Separated Subjects of Different Persons, &c. — When two or Piore substantives, t;ikeii sej)arately, are of different persons or numbers, the verb agrees with the one next it, and the plural subject is usually phiced next the verb ; as, James or I arn. in the wrong. Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved.
4. Sequence of Tense. — (I) When one verb depends upon another, the proper snccession of tenses must be attended to; as, i-le telU me that he xvill. He promified that he would do so. (2 Propositions regarded as universally true are generally put in the present tense, whatever tense precedes them; as, Plato believed that the soul is immortal.
The force of this remark may be better illustrated in this way: —
He may speak if he can, if he will, if he be inclined. „ might „ ,, could, ,, would, ,, were ,,
He can write if he may, if he choose.
„ could ,, ,, might, ,, chose.
He will go if he may, if he can, if he think fit.
„ would ,, ,, might, ,, could, ,, thought,,
&c., &c.
5. The Infinitive Mood. — (1) This mood has no nominative, but has its subject in the objective; as, I saw /lini jump. Here /liin is the subject of the infinitive mood, tlie object of the verb saw being 'him jump.' (2) This mood is found after verbs, adjectives, and nouns; as, I told him to do so. Anxious t > learn. A desire to improve.
6. Sign Omitted. — 'To,' the sign of the infinitive, is not used after tlie verbs 'bid,' 'dare,' (intrans.) 'need,' (used as an auxiliary ) 'make,' 'see," 'hear,' 'feel,' 'let,' in the active v ice, and after 'let' in the passive; as, I saw him do it. You need not go.
7. Participles. — (1) The Participles often require other words to complete the sense, and are therefore followed (as verbs) by the 'objective case;' and they may stand either before or after tlieir nouns; as. Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to myself the miseries of confinement. — Sterne.
(2) They sometimes refer to some indefinite word which is omitted; as, Granting this to be true, what is the inference? Ifere we may supply the pronoun we, which stands in the nominative absolute.
(3) The past tense and the past participle of a verb must rot be interchanged ; as, Idone—lov 'I have done,' or, I have drcmk —for ' I have drunk. '
SYNTAX. 121
T?UT>E XT. — A transitive verb, in the active voico, is followed by the Objective case; as, We love him. He lo\es IIS.
Double Objective — {\) Certiin verbs, as 'ask,' 'allow,' 'lend,' 'give,' 'tell,' send,' 'pay,' 'cost' &c , are followed by twoobjec- tives; t^ie one standing for tlie parson receiving, tlie other for the thing given. Th« former is called the indirect object; the other the direct.
(2) Other verbs, snch as 'name,' 'appoint,' 'call,' 'choose.' &c., have also a double ol)ject. the nearer object being the direct; the remoter object the indirect.
Rule XII. — The ])ref]icate substantive after a verb, is put in the same case as the subject before it; as, It is he. Slie walks a queen. 1 took it lo be hlrn.
Caution, — Mistakes frequently occur in tr.nislations from not attending to thi.s Rule Tims the transl.ition, ' Wliom do men 8iythat/am?' is incorrect; it slioidd be, ' Who,' &c. Th's c mtiou is especiilly necessary in ordinary conversation; thus we frequently hear such expressions ; s, ' Who do you think I saw to-day?' — this slioidd be ' Wliom,' &c.
THE ADVERB.
TJuLE XIII. — Aflverbs modify verbs, adjectives,
and other adverbs; as, .lohn speaks distinctly, he :s
remarkably diliijent, antl reads very correctly.
1. Adjectives Used Adverbially — Thongli we find that 'ad- jectives' are used in tlie Predicate of a sentenee with the force of 'adverbs,' it does not follow tiiat they may be used as modi- fiers of adjectives ; thus it is incorrect to say, It is an excessive hot day, &c.
2. Adverbs Used as Adjectives.— Adverbs are often, though inelegantly, made adjectives, and used to qualify nouns; as, The thi'n ministry, — The above remarks, &c. Such expressions are to bo avoided. This point, therefore, must be remembered, 'Adjectives must not be used as adverbs, nor adverbs as adjec- tives.'
3. Negatives. — Two negatives are equivalent to an affirma- tive, and should not be used unless affirmation is intended; as, I can not drink no more, should be, 1 can drink no more ; or, I CAixnot. drink any more.
4. 'Hence,' 'thence.' 'whence.' — As these adverbs imply motion from, the use of the preposition ' from ' with them is in- elegant.
122 SYNTAX.
THE PEEPOSITION. Rule XIV. — Prepositions are followed by tho Objective case; as, He was killed ?» battle.
1. Position of Preposition. — (1) As its name implies, the 'Pre- position' is pLiced before tlie word, though sometimes it is found after it ; as, He spoke aijniHut the measure.
Thy deep ravines and dells among. — Scott. (2) With Relatives. — Prepositions never stand before the relative 'that;' and when the relative is omitted they are placed after the verb ; as. That is the person I spoke of. Such an arraufxenient of words is suitable for sim])le conversational style, but strict attention to grammatical structure would prefer this arrangement: 'This is the person ofiohom I spoke.'
2. Choice of Prepositions. — (1) Certiin words and phrases should be followed by appropriate prepositions. The pnpil can become acquainted with these only by extensive practice.
A few examples will explain this remark. Abound in, with. Differ icith, (quarrel.)
Absent/rom. Differ /rom, (disagree.)
Accuse of. Different /row.
Address to. Exclude /rom.
Advantage ojjcr, «/■. Expel /ro??i.
Affection /or. Free from.
Agree ivith a person ; to a pro- Fruitful in.
position from another; ttpon Grateful to a person.
a thing among themselves. Gratefid for favors. Approve of. Hincler from.
Arrive at. Improve upon.
Ask o/ a person ; for a thing ; Interfere with.
after what we wish to hear of. Long/or. Associate with. Made of, (material.)
Assent to. Made /or, (purpose.)
Attain to. ¥eed of.
Banish /ro7re, to. Occasion /or.
Betray to a person ; into a thing. Opposite to. Boast of. Persevere in.
Blush at. Prefix to.
Call on a person ; at a place. Qu'.rrel uith. Capacity /or. Reflect upon or on.
Careful of in. Restore to.
Cliange (exchange) for; (alter) Smile at.
to, into. Swerve from.
Compare vnth, in respect of Think o/".
quality ; to, by way of illus- True to or of.
tration. Unite with.
Depend upon. Wait on, at, or for.
Deprive of. Worthy of.
SYNTAX. 123
(2) The prepositions 'among' and 'between' are frequently misapplied. 'Between' is used when there is reference to 1 o objects or classes of objects ; ' among,' when there are more than two; as, He divided it between James and John. He divided it among James, John, and Henry.
THE CONJUNCTION. Rule XV. — Co-ordinate Conjunctions unite similar constructions ; as, He and / intend to go. He gave it him and me.
Rule XVI. — Subordinate Conjunctions connect dependent with principal constructions ; as, 7/" I have erred, pardon me.
1. 'Than,' 'As.' — The case of the noun or pronoun after th« conjunction — (1) 'than,' which follows comparatives, and the words 'else,' 'other,' 'otherwise,' and 'rather'; also — (2) after '•b' depends upon its relation to its own clause; as,
(a) I visit the doctor oftener than lit (visits.)
Do. do. him (I visit him.)
(h) He loves her as much as / (love her.)
Do. do riu (he loves me. )
2. Correlative Ccmjunctions.^ Certain words in the antece- dent member of a sentence, require corresponding conuectivea in the subsequent one ; thus, —
(1 ) In clauses or words simply connected — Both requires and; as. Both he and I came.
Either or ; as. Either he or I will come.
Neither nor; as. Neither he nor I came.
Whether or; as, Whetherheor\ c&vae.
Though yet ; as. Though He slay me, yet will I trust
in Him. Not only hut also; as, N^ot only he but also his brother
goes.
(2) In clauses connected so as to imply comparison —
The comparative degree requires than ; as. He is taller than I am. Other requires than ; as. It is no other than he.
Elst than; as. What else do you expect than this?
Aa ■ ' ■ — as (expressing equality); as, He is as tall as I
124 SYNTAX.
As requires so (expressing equality'; as. As thy day is, m
ahall thy strength be. So as (with a negative expressing inequality); as.
He is not .to learned as his brother. So that (expressing consequence) ; He is so weak
that he cannot walk.
Such as (expressing similarify) ; as, He or such us he.
^uch that (expressing roimtjucvc); as, The change
is such that any one may perceive it.
THE INTERJECTION^ Rule XVIT. — Intcrjei lions lia\tf ""6 grammatical connection with other words in a sentence ; as,
' A las I poor ' Yorick. — Shak.
Stem then and steel-gut was thy brow, Dun-Edin! O! how altered now. — Scott.
1. Alter interjections, prononns of the first person are com- njonly in the objective case ; those of the second in the nomina- tive; as, Ah me! — 0 thou!
2. In neither of them, however, does the case depend on tha interjection. Tlie object is commonly thought to depend iipon s«)me word understood; tliii.*. Ah [;i!/?,] we! — Ah \what xnll
^' mc! 'I he nominative loim is coniuiouly the 'iude-
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