L"*"! t/k. 'CI '>- LIBRARY OF 1885- 1056 Entomology fok Beginners FOR THE USE OF YOUNG FOLKS, FRUIT-GROWERS, FARMERS, AND GARDENERS BY A. S. PACKARD, M.D., Ph.D., Author of '''Zoology for High Schools and Colleges," ''First Lessons in Zoology" "Guide to the Study of Insects," etc. FLOREAT ENTOMOLOGIA! —Darwin, Life and Letters, i. 497 TRIED EDITION, REVISED NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1899 Copyright, 1888, BY Henry Holt & Co. TO THE OP JOHN L. LE CONTE, M.D., The Leading Entomologist of America, THIS LITTLE BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED IN RECOGNITION OF HIS ADMIRABLE QUALITIES AS A MAN AND NATURALIST, OP THE IMPULSE HE GAVE TO THE STUDY OP ENTOMOLOGY IN THE NEW WORLD, AND OF THE AID HE RENDERED TO BEGINNERS IN THAT SCIENCE. PREFACE. Ix preparing this little book the aim has been to make it generally useful to different classes of readers. Beginners in the study will find in it copious directions for collecting and preserving insects, how to form cabinets, how to mount insects for the microscope, and how to prepare them for study, as well as guides to the literature containing the de- scription of species. While amateurs and dilettanti ento- mologists may find useful hints, the needs of those who wish to make a serious study of these animals have not been overlooked, and it is hoped that the book will be of some service in leading such students to pay more attention to the modes of life, transformations, and structure of insects than has yet been done in this country. The book is also designed as a hand-book for the farmer, the fruit-grower, and the gardener. Besides treating of the vlements of the science and the means of ascertaining to what order and family their insect pests belong, the reader is referred to descriptive works and reports for fuller informa- tion, while Chapter V. gives the fundamental principles of Economic Entomology, with brief accounts of the more in- jurious insects and the natural and artificial means of check- ing their attacks. On account of the prominence given to this topic it is hoped that the book will, with its copious glossary, be serviceable to agricultural editors and useful as a text-book in agricultural schools and colleges. As a first book in entomology it is also designed to be an introduction to the author's "Guide to the Study of In- sects/' Vi PREFACE. The classification presented is in accordance with recent studies and the conviction that certain of the lower so-called "orders" of insects, such as the " Orthoptera/' " Pseudo- neuroptera," are heterogeneous, unnatural groups, which for the sake of clearness and truth to nature should be broken up into distinct orders. The class of insects, there- fore, is divided into sixteen orders instead of eight, as may be seen in tabular form on p. 56, and the usual succession of orders has been reversed, the book beginning with the lowest, the wingless insects, and ending with the highest, the Hymenoptera. This order agrees with the probable mode of evolution of the class, and with the geological suc- cession of insects, so far as we know it; insects like cock- roaches, grasshoppers, etc., being the first to appear, those with a metamorphosis, as neuroptera, beetles, flies, moths, ants, and bees, succeeding them. In 1863 the author proposed a new classification of insects, placing the Hymenoptera at the head of the insect-series, the Coleoptera having, because, perhaps, from being the favorites of collectors, been assigned this position. Since that time it has been gratifying to see that, at the present time, not only in the United States, but in England and on the Continent, the Hymenoptera by general consent crown the summit of the tree of insect life. The present scheme of classification was in part worked out by the author (contrary to his early convictions or preju- dices) and published in 1883, when ten orders instead of eight were adopted; while it was remarked that the three groups (i.e., white ants, etc., the may-flies, and the dragon - flies) composing the " Pseudoneuroptera" might hereafter be regarded as entitled to the rank of orders. It should also be borne in mind that some of the leading entomologists, as Westwood and others, had for many years regarded the ear-wigs, the caddis-flies, the Thripidge, and the fleas as representing distinct orders. While we were considering it a debatable question whether these important types had not been unwarrantably 'Mumped" with the older Linnjean PREFACE. Vli orders, Kraepeliu's careful analysis of the affinities of the fleas appeared in 1884, and the year after Dr. F. Braner's ''Systematisch-Zoologische Studien," in which he carefully and yet boldly discusses the classification of insects, and takes more analytical views than any of his predecessors. Referring the Thysanura to a separate sub-class, Brauer then, as we had previously done, divides the winged insects into a number of super-orders, whose limits, however, diflier much from those assigned to the super-orders proposed by us; yet we both agree as to the necessity of such groups. Brauer then proceeds to divide the winged insects into sixteen orders, beginning, as we had done, with the ear- wigs, Dermaptera, and ending with the Hymenoptera. He regards the may-flies, the dragon-flies, the stone-flies (Per- lidae), the white ants and their allies, the Thripidae, the forceps-tails, the caddis-flies, and the fleas as types of dis- tinct orders. AVlien so able and sound a systematist arrives at such conclusions, we feel emboldened to adopt them, particularly as they coincide with our own maturer views. We have ventured to give the ordinal name Plectoptera to the may-flies, and Mecoptera to the Panorpat^e of Brauer, but the credit of referring these types to distinct orders belongs mainly to that eminent systematist. Although these changes in classification are based on our increased knowledge of insects, it is also very convenient to adopt a larger number of orders. There are probably about a million species of Insects now existing, and it is unnatural to crowd them into the old Linnaean orders. While the Mollusks (about 40,000 living species) are divided into twelve orders, and the 5000 species of Crustacea into six; and while the 10,000 species of living fishes are variously divided into from six to fourteen orders, the class of reptiles into eleven orders, the 7000 to 8000 species of existing birds into from seven to eighteen orders, and the 3500 described living species of mammals into fourteen orders, it seems not un- reasonable to suppose that the number of insect orders is at least proportionately as great. viii PREFACE. So progressive a science as Zoology, and especially its sub- division entomology, is in a transitory state, especially sys- tematic entomology. We cannot, like the Chinese, actually Avorship Linnaeus, our zoological Confucius; we cannot pay too great deference to any system. Our ideas of classifica- tion must change with our increasing knowledge. With the evolution theory as a useful instrument of research, our systems of classification representing what we suppose to be the phylogeny of the class, we have a philosophical basis, a working theory, which Avill throw light on dark places, and solve many a knotty point. It is for this reason that we need to study the embryology and life-history of insects, supplementing these with anatomical investigations, besides carrying on the work of collecting, describing, and thus en- larging our knowledge of the distribution of insects in space and time. The author gratefully acknowledges kind aid received from several eminent naturalists in revising the portions dealing with subjects of which they have a special knowl- edge. Dr. P. E. Uhler has read the original MS. and proof of the pages treating of the Hemiptera; Mr. Samuel Hen- shaw the same of the Coleoptera; and Dr. S. W. AVilliston the pages devoted to the Diptera; while Professor Farlow of Harvard University has kindly read the proof of the section on Diseases of Insects due to Animal and Vegetable Germs; Mr. N. N. Mason of Providence, E. I., has also read the proof of Chapter VIIL, and made some valuable suggestions. Besides a number of cuts purchased of Prof. C. V. Eiley, which are acknowledged in the text. Figs. 87, 88, and 89 are taken from Darwin's Descent of Man (D. Appleton & Co., New York); for electrotypes of several figures, from his work on butterflies, I am indebted to S. H. Scudder, Esq. ; Fig. 238 was loaned by Prof. J. A. Lintner; Fig. 18G by the U. S. Agricultural Department; and of Fig. 83 the author was allowed the use by the Secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution. A number of electrotypes from Judeich PREFACE. ix and Nitsche's work on forest insects was also purchased of the Vienna publisher. The figures are, unless stated to be of natural size, en- larged; in some of them a line by the side indicates the length of the specimen from which the figure was drawn. Providence, R. I., June 25, 1888. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE THE STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 1_31 External anatomy, 3 Abdomen, 3 Thorax, 4 Head, 6 Internal anatomy, 7 (Esophagus, , 7 Crop, 9 Proveutricuhis, 9 Stomach and gastric coeca, 9 Urinary tubes, 11 Intestine, 11 Digestion, 11 Nervous system, 13 How insects walk and fly, 17 How insects trreaihe, 19 The senses of insects, 31 The eyes and sense of sight, 33 The olfactory organs and sense of smell, 86 The gustatory organs and sense of taste, 37 The ears and sense of hearing 38 Sounds produced by insects, 30 Tactile organs, 31 CHAPTER II. GROWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 33-53 Egg -producing organs, 32 The ovaries, 34 The ovipositor, 34 xu TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAOE The testes, 34 The egg 34 Growth of the insect within the egg, 35 The egg-cutter, 38 Metanuyrphosis of insects — th^ larva, 38 Number of larval moults, , ... 39 The ptipa, 40 The imago, 41 Parthenogenesis, 41 Broods or generations of insects, 42 Contagious diseases of insects due to animal and vegetable germ^, . 43 The destruction of insect pests by means of insect fungi, .... 45 Unusual increase in the nximber of insects, 48 Influence of changes of temperature on insect-life, 49 Periodicity in insect-life, 52 Number of species of insects, 52 CHAPTER III. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 54-177 Synopsis of the orders of insects, 54 Tabular view of the orders of insects, 56 Order I. Thysanura, 56 Order II. Dermaptera, 58 Order III. Orthoptera, 59 Order IV. Platyptera, 63 Order V. Odonata, 68 Order VI. Plectoptera, 71 Order VII. Thysanoptera, 73 Order VIII. Hemiptera, 74 Order IX. Neuroptera, 84 Order X. Mecnptera, 88 Order XI. Trichoptera, 90 Order XII. Coleoptera, 91 Order XIII. Siphonaptera, 115 Order XIV. Diptera 117 Order XV. Lepidoptera 137 Order XVI. Hymenoptera, 161 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiii CHAPTER IV. INSECT-ARCHITECTURE. 178-188 Leaf-rollers, 179 Gall-makers, 181 Leaf-miners 182 Case-worms, 183 Nests of ants, 183 Nests of wasps, 184 Nests of bees, 186 CHAPTER V. INSECTS INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO AGRICULTURE. 189-323 Ecoiwmie Entomology, 189 Insects injurwus to field and garden crops, 191 Injuring wheat, 191 Injuring corn, 198 Injuring the cotton plant, 200 Injuring the potato, 202 Injuring the cabbage, radish, etc., 205 Injuring the hop-vine 208 Injuring the grapevine, 209 Injuring fruit-trees, 211 Insects beneficial to agriculture, = . . 217 Insectivorous insects, 220 Preventive and direct remedies against tJie attacks of insects, . . . 221 Insecticides, 222 Miscellaneous remedies, 223 CHAPTER VI. DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING, PRESERVING, AND BEARING INSECTS. 224^288 Where to look for insects, 224 Collecting apparatus 226 Killing insects for the cabinet, 228 Pinning insects, 230 Preservative fluids, 231 Preparing insects for the cabinet, 234 Insect cabinet, 238 Transportation of insects, 240 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Preservation of larvm, 240 Bearing aquatic larvm, 243 Rearing insects in general, 243 Sugaring for motlis, 246 Traps for moths 246 Rearing caterpillars, 247 Hibernatiny larvce, 253 Management ofpupm, 253 Pairing or mating Lepidoptera in captivity, 253 Treatment of the eggs, 254 Collecting and rearing Micro-lepidoptera, 254 Preserving micro-larwe in alcohol, 266 Preserving larvm dry, 267 Bleaching the wings for the study of th^e venation, 268 Mounting the wings of Micro-lepidoptera, 369 Mounting the icings of Macro-lepidoptera, 269 To remove grease, 270 Collecting and Preserving Coleoptera, 371 Rearing tiger- and ground-beetles, 376 Rearing of burying -beetles, 378 Rearing wood-boring larvm, Longicorns, etc., 378 Rearing of bark- and bast-boring beetles, 379 Rearing larvm of dung-beetles, 379 Cleansing greasy beetles, 880 To wash old, soiled specimens, 380 Collecting and Preserving Hemiptera, 380 Examining live Aphides 381 Preservation of Orthoptera, 383 Preservation op Dragon-flies, May-flies, Caddis-flies, ETC., 283 Collecting and Rearing Diptera, 384 Collection and Preservation of Hymenoptera, .... 387 CHAPTER VII. MODE OF DISSECTING INSECTS. 289-393 The external anatomy, 889 The internal anatomy, 889 Dissection of Aphides, 393 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER VIII. PAQE CUTTING AND MOUNTING MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS OF INSECTS AND MOUNTING THEM WHOLE, ETC. 294-325 Fixation of the histological elements, 295 Dehydration 295 Embedding, staining, and cutting, 296 Mounting sections 300 To render small insects or larvcB transparent, 301 Mounting transparent aquatic insects, 301 Transmission, preservation, and mounting Aphides and similair insects 303 Thomas W. Starr's method of preparing and mounting with pressure insects entire as transparent objects, 305 Method of preparing minute entomosiraca, mites, spiders, and insects, 307 Carbolic acid in balsam mounting, 307 Killing and preserving insects 307 Bleaching fluid for insects, 308 To clear objects foi' balsam mounting, 308 Mounting insects in balsam without pressure, 308 Pi'eparing and mounting dissections of th^ appendages, etc., . . . 309 Mounting minute insects and acari in balsam, 309 Sections of the brain, 310 Preparing the sympathetic nervous system of the cockroach, . . . 311 Making sectio?is tJirough and bleaching the eyes of insects, .... 311 Expanding arid mounting the tongue of the louse and blow-fly, . . 314 Microscopic sections of the proboscis of flies, bugs, and bees, . . .315 Sections of the ovipositoi' w sting, 315 Mounting th£ gizzards of insects 316 Preparation of ths intestine of insects, 316 Preparation of insect spiracles, 317 Mounting of trachece, 317 Mounting legs, etc. , of insects, 318 Mounting the skin of caterpillars 318 Dissection and preparation of th£ spermatic filaments, 318 Making sections of eggs, 319 Preparing embryos of insects, 321 Surface study of eggs, and hardening for cutting, etc., 323 Mounting dry the eggs of insects, 323 Preparing fire- flies, etc., 323 Mounting dry the appendages of insects for pinning in the cabinet, . 323 Moutiting the " sate " of the Tenthredinidie 324 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAOE THE ENTOMOLOGIST'S LIBRARY. 336-335 Bibliographical works on Entomology, 326 Entomological Periodicals, 337 General Entomology, 338 External Anatomy and Morphology, 329 Internal Anatomy and Histology, 339 (a) The nervous system, 330 (b) Organs of special sense and their physiology, . . . 330 (c) Organs of circulation and respiration, 331 {d) Organs of digestion, 331 {e) Organs of locomotion and their physiology, .... 332 (/) Organs of reproduction, ovipositor, etc., 332 Embryology of Insects 333 Phytogeny or Origin of Insects, 333 Insects and the Fertilization of Plants, 333 Geographical Distribution, 333 Fossil Insects, 334 Economic Entomology, 334 Glossary 337 Index, 355 ENTOMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. THE STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. "When we consider that the class of insects alone comprises about four fifths of the animal kingdom, and that there are upwards of 200,000 species in collections, it would seem a hopeless task to define what an insect is. One may study a definition of the class of insects, and read pages and even volumes about the structure of insects in general, but such knowledge would be second-hand, and it is far better for the beginner to simply catch a grasshopper, and carefully examine it for himself. By so doing he will learn more in a few hours than the mere student of books will accomplish in weeks. Still, one who knows nothing about insects needs some guide to give the names to the parts readily seen, and to point out those organs and their details which might be overlooked. We will suppose that the beginner has a common red- legged locust or grasshopper in his hand; and in order to readily examine it he should be provided with a Coddington or any other lens, and a stand to hold it when both hands are needed to dissect the specimen, a pair of slender iron forceps, and a needle mounted in a pine handle with which to separate the legs and mouth-parts. Directions for col- lecting and dissecting insects will be found in the sixth chapter.. Meanwhile we may say that any boy or girl can catch a grasshopper, and after it is caught it may be killed 2 ENTOMOLOGY. without its suffering any pain, by throwing it into a bottle containing cotton saturated Avith ether. It may when dead be taken out of the collecting-bottle and dried. It is most convenient to pin it. This may be done by thrusting a slender insect-pin through the collar. For class use it is better to preserve a lot of grasshoppers in alcohol; before using them they can be soaked in water to take out the alcoholic odor, and can then be easily handled without being pinned, and the wings unfolded or the mouth-parts and legs moved without their breaking off. External Anatomy. — On making a superficial examination of the locust {Ckiloptemis femnr-ruhrum), or the Rocky Mountain locust (C. spretus), its body will be seen to con- sist of an external crust, or thick, hard integument, pro- tecting the soft parts or viscera within. This integument is at intervals segmented or jointed, the segments more or, less like rings, which, in turn, are subdivided into pieces. These segments are most simple and easily comprehended in the abdomen or hind-body, which is composed of ten of them. The body consists of seventeen of these segments, variously modified and more or less imperfect and difficult to make out, especially at each extremity of the body — i.e., in the head and at the end of the abdomen. These seventeen segments, moreover, are grouped into three re- gions, four composing the head, three the thorax, and ten the hind-body, or abdomen. On examining the abdomen, it will be found that the rings are quite perfect, and that each segment may be divided into an upper (tergal), a lateral (pleural), and an under (sternal) portion, or arc (Fig. 1, A). These parts are respectively called fergite, pleurite, and sternite; while the upper region of the body is called the tergum, the lateral the pleurum, and the ventral or under portion the sternum. As these parts are less complicated in the abdomen, we will first study this region of the body, and then examine the more complex thorax and head. The abdomen is a little over half as long as the body, the tergum extending far THE STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. down on the side and merging into the pleurnm witliont any suture or seam. The pleurum is indicated by the row of spiracles, which will be noticed farther on. The sternum CVnJtfcnav^ TaY8U8< loXyuSj vLobYawi / fCeitusQ Fig. 1.— External anatomy of Calopienus spretus, the head and thorax disjointed.— Kingsley del. 4 ENTOMOLOGY. forms the ventral side of the abdomen, and meets the pleu- rum on the side of the body. In the female (Fig. 1, B) the abdomen tapers some- what toward the end of the body, to which are appended the two pairs of stout, hooked spines, forming the oviposi- tor (Fig. 1, B, r, r'). The anus is situated above the upper and larger pair, and the external opening of the oviduct is situated between the smaller and lower pair of spines; it is bounded on the ventral side by a movable, triangular acute flap, the egg-guide (Fig. 1, B, e g, and Fig. 4). The thorax, as seen in Fig. 1, consists of three seg- ments, called the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax, or fore, middle, and hind thoracic rings. They each bear a pair of legs, and the two hinder each a pair of wings. The upper portion (tergum) of the middle and hind segments, owing to the presence of wings and the necessity of freedom of movement to the muscles of flight, is divided or differ- entiated into two pieces, the scutum and t^cutellum* (Fig. 1), the former the larger, extending across the back; the scutellum being a smaller, central, shield -like piece. The protergum, or what is usually in the books called the prothorax, represents either the scutum or both scutum and scutellum, the two not being differentiated. The fore wings are long and narrow, and thicker than the hinder, which are broad, thin, and membranous, and most active in flight, being folded up like a fan when at rest and tucked away out of sight under the fore wings, which act as wing-covers. Turning now to the side of the body under the insertion of the wings (Fig. 2), we see that the side of each of the middle and hind thoracic rings is composed of two pieces, the anterior, epistermim, resting on the sternum, with the epimerum behind it; these pieces are vertically high and * There are in many insects, as in many Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Neuroptera, four tergal pieces — i.e., praescutum, scutum, scutel- lum, and postscutellum, the first and fourth pieces being usually very small and often obsolete. THE STBUCTUBE OF INSECTS. S-s o. I to M ENTOMOLOGY. narrow, and to them the leg is inserted by three pieces, called respectively coxa, trochantine, and troclianter (see Fig. 2), the latter forming a true joint of the leg. The legs consist of five well-marked joints, the femur (thigh), tibia (shank), and tarsus (foot), the latter consist- ing in the locust of three joints, the third bearing two large claws with a pad between them. The hind legs, especially the femur and tibia, are very large, adapted for hopping. The sternum is broad and large in the middle and hind thorax, but small and obscurely limited in the prothorax, with a large conical projection between the legs. The head in the adult locust is mainly composed of a sin- gle piece called the epicranium (Figs. 3 and 3, E), which carries the compound eyes, ocelli, or simple eyes (Fig. 3, o), and antennse. While there are in real- ity four primary segments in the head of all winged insects, corresponding to the four pairs of appendages in the head, the posterior three segments, after early em- bryonic life in the locust, become obsolete, and are mainly re]3resented by their ap- pendages and by small portions to which the appendages are attached. The epicranium „ „ „ „ ^ . „ represents the antennal segment, and Fig. 3.— Front view of ^ to ' the head of c. spre- mostlv Corresponds to the tergum of the IMS. E, epicrani- m p i um; c, ciypeus;i, segment. The antennae, or fcclcrs, are lu- labrum; oo, ocelli; , i • ^ , j? ,1 i i . e, eye; a, antenna; serted in iront 01 the eyes, and between wd, mandible; JHX, ,i ■ l^ l • n • ^ portion of maxilla them IS the anterior ocellus, or simple eye, Ta^nimT p, "maxa^ while the two posterior ocelli are situated 'ubiay'^'patpus!— abovc the insertion of the antennae. In Kingsieydei. front of the epicraniuiii is the cli/peus (Fig. 3), a piece nearly twice as broad as long. To the clypeus is attached a loose flap, which covers the jaws when they are at rest. This is the upper lip or lahvum (Fig. 3). There are three pairs of mouth-appendages: first, the true jaws or mandibles (Fig. 1), which are single- jointed, and are broad, short, solid, with a toothed cutting and grinding THE STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 7 edge, adapted for biting. The mandibles are situated on each side of the mouth-opening. Behind tlie mandibles are the maxillae (Fig. 1), which are divided into three lobes, the inner armed with teeth or spines, the middle lobe un- armed and spatula-shaped, while the outer forms a five- jointed feeler called the maxillary palpus. The maxillae are accessory jaws, and probably serve to hold and arrange the food to be ground by the true jaws. The floor of tlie mouth is formed by the labium (Figs. 1 and 2), which in reality is composed of the two second maxillae, soldered together in the middle, the two halves being drawn separately in Fig. 1. Within the mouth, and situated upon the labium, is the tongue (lingua), which is a large, membranous, partly hol- low expansion of the base of the labrum; it is somewhat pyriform, slightly keeled above, and covered with fine, stiff hairs, which, when magnified, are seen to be long, rough, chitinous spines, with one or two slight points or tubercles on the side. These stiff hairs probably serve to retain the food in the mouth, and are, apparently, of the same struc- ture as the teeth in the crop. The base of the tongue is narrow, and extends back to near the pharynx (or entrance to the gullet), there being on the floor of the mouth, behind the tongue, two oblique slight ridges, covered with stiff, golden hairs, like those on the tongue. The student may separate the body, after being hardened in alcohol, into the parts represented by Fig. 1, as indicated by the table on the following page, and neatly gum them in thei]- proper order iipon a card with liquid glue or mucilage. Internal Anatomy. — The internal anatomy may be studied by removing the dorsal wall of the body, and also by harden- ing the insect several days in alcohol and cutting it in two longitudinally by a sharp scalpel. The (BsopTiagus (Fig. 4, ce) is short and curved, contin- uous with the roof of the mouth. There are several longi- tudinal irregular folds on the inner surface. It terminates in the centre of the head, directly under the brain or supra- cesophageal ganglion, the end being indicated by several ENTOMOLOGY. 1st segment: Prothorax. TABULAR VIEW OF THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF AN INSECT'S BODY. Head (composed of 4 segments). r Occiput. T, . o ,, 1 • • i * Epicranium, bearing the antennae Partsoftheskm.ormtegument' I fypg^jg ^ [and eyes. ^"^^^ I Labrum, upper lip. I^Epipharynx. -r. . J. ., 1 . . i . ( Gena, cheeks. Partsoftheskm,ormtegument,\ j Mentum, chin. sides and below | Gula | s^bmentum. r Antennae, feelers. .J J Mandibles, jaws. Appendages ^-^^^ Maxills, with their palpi. [2d Maxills, or labium, with its [palpi. Thorax (composed of 3 segments). Pronotum. Propleurum, with a spiracle. Prosternum. Fore legs. ' a [" Prsescutum. " Scutum. Scutellum. Postscutellum. [ Patagia. '^ i Episternum. Mesopleurum \ Epimerum. ( Spiracle. Fore wings. Middle legs. r Prsescutum. Mesono.™ |-;X-,. [ Postscutellum. Hind wings. Hind legs. Abdomen (composed of 10 and in some insects 11 segments). ( Tergite. Segment^ or uromeres -| Pleurite. ( Stern ite or Urosternite. Ovipositor. Anal stylets, cerci or cercopoda (1 pair) — 8 pairs of spiracles. 2d segment: Meso thorax. 3d segment: Metathorax. THE STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 9 small conical valves closing the passage, thus preventing the regurgitation of the food. The two salivary glands con- sist each of a bunch of follicles, emptying by a common duct into the floor of the mouth. The oesophagus is succeeded by the crop {ingluvies). It dilates rapidly in the head, and again enlarges before pass- ing out of the head, and at the point of first expansion or enlargement there begins a circular or oblique series of folds, armed with a single or two alternating rows of simple spine- like teeth. Just after the crop leaves the head, the folds become longitudinal, the teeth arranged in rows, each row formed of groups of from three to six teeth, which point backward so as to push the food into the stomach. It is in the crop that the "molasses" thrown out by the locust originates. The proventriculus is very small in the locust, easily over- looked in dissection, while in the green grasshoppers it is large and armed with sharp teeth. A transverse section of the crop of the cricket shows that there are six large irreg- ular teeth armed with spines and hairs (Fig. 5). It forms a neck or constriction between the crop and true stomach. It may be studied by laying the alimentary canal open with a pair of fine scissors, and is then seen to be armed with six flat folds, suddenly terminating posteriorly, where the true stomach (chyle-stomach, ventriculus) begins. The chyle-stomach is about one half as thick as the crop, when the latter is distended with food, and is of nearly the same diameter throughout, being much paler than the reddish crop, and of a flesh-color. From the anterior end arise six large pouches called gas- tric ccBca, which are dilatations of the true chyle-stomach, and probably serve to present a larger surface from which the chyle may escape into the body-cavity and mix with the blood, there being in insects no lacteal vessels or lymphatic system. The stomach ends at the posterior edge of the fourth ab- dominal segment in a slight constriction, at which point 10 ENTOMOLOGY. ^i'^" g § S -'$"01 air t. §■= tX)0 teS c S — o 3 jT-a 5^ S 035 o be •« J5 JD -S H "oj ® SI P 5 9 a '^ ® . «'sig o'^ •w o Ota > *? t- ® c ^_r a aj ex >• c M 3 r. ■CO c"" 9 ••■«' " S '3 03 cS '5 c £^ gS > t»>o 9 . 1) J (0 3 oj CO t- t- > -T ■o C ' ; t^"*" 6 cgp, £ j: -c sx P S; & m r" a) ej ^ S a C ° -^ O " J, u O o M ^ Oj 0; M - - ^ ^ S o '- CS Q-ft ,5 '^^ «5 !■ SlB3 t- „ 10; 0-- lit TEE STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 11 (pyloric end) the urinary tubes {vasa urinaria, Fig. 4, ?«•) arise. These are arranged in ten groups of about fifteen tubes, so that there are about one hundred and fifty long, fine tubes in all. The intestine (ileum) lies in the fifth and sixth abdominal segments. Behind the intestine is the colon, which is smaller than the intestine proper, and makes a partial twist. The colon suddenly expands into the rectum, with six large rectal glands on the outside, held in place by six muscular bands attached anteriorly to the hinder end of the Colon. The rectum turns up toward its end, and the vent is situated just below the supra-anal plate. Having described the diges- tive canal of the locust, with which that of the beetle (Fig. 6) and the fly (Fig, 7) may be compared, we may state in a summary way the functions of the different divisions of the tract. The food after be- ing cut up by the jaws is acted upon while in the crop by the salivary fluid; which is alka- linp nnrl 7-in«s!P«<3P« tliP ^wc\Y\ ^'IG- ^—rransverse section of the pro- line, anu possesses llie pi op- ventriculus of Gryllus cinereus of f^viv n« in vprfplivqfpa ni Europe ; muc, muscular walls ; r, eity, as in \eii;eDiai;es, or homy ridge between the large teeth! rapidly transforming the -After Minot. starchy elements of the food into soluble and assimilable glucose. The digestive action carried on in the crop {inqlu- vies) then, in a vegetable-feeding insect like the locust, results in the conversion of the starchy matters into glucose or sugar. This process goes on very slowly. When diges- tion in the crop has ended, the food submitted to an ener- getic pressure by the walls of the crop, which make peri- staltic contractions, filters gradually through the short, small proventriculus, directed by the furrows and chitinous 12 ENTOMOLOGY. projections lining it. The apparatus of teeth does not triturate the food, which has been sufficiently comminuted by the jaws. This is proved by the fact, says Plateau, that the parcels of food are of the same form and size as those in the crop, before passing through the proventriculus. The six large lateral pouches (caeca) emptying into the commencement of the stomach (ventriculus) are true glands. Fig. 6.— Digestive canal of a Carabid beetle. 6, cesopbagiis; c, crop; d, proven- triculus; /, chyle-stomach; g, posterior flivision of the stomach; i, the two pairs of urinary tubes; h, intestine; k, rectum; /, anal glands.— After Dufour, from Judeich and Nitsche. which secrete an alkaline fluid, probably aiding in digestion. In the stomach (ventriculus) the portion of the food which has resisted the action of the crop is submitted to the action of a neutral or alkaline liquid, never acid, secreted by special local glands or by the lining epithelium. In the ileum and colon active absorption of the liquid portion of the food takes place, and the intestine proper (ileum and colon) is thus the seat of the secondary digestive phenomena. The reaction of the secretion is neutral or alkaline. The rectum is the stercoral reservoir. It may be empty or full of liquids, but never contains any gas. The liquid products secreted by the urinary tubes are here accumulated, and in certain circumstances here deposit the calculi or crystals of oxalic, uric, or phosphatic acid. Insects, says Plateau, have no special vessel to carry off the chyle, such as the lacteals or lymphatics of vertebrates; the products of digestion — viz., salts in solution, peptones, sugar in solution, and emulsion- ized greasy matters — pass through the fine coatings of the THE STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 13 digestive canal by osmosis, and mingle outside of this caual with the currents of blood which pass along the ventral and lateral parts of the body. Into the pyloric end of the stomach empty the urinary tubes, their secretions passing into the intestine. These organs are exclusively depuratory and urinary, relieving the body of the waste products. The liquid which they se- crete contains urea (?), uric acid, and urates in abundance, hippuric acid (?), chloride of sodium, phosphates, carbonate of lime, oxalate of lime in quantity, leucine, and coloring matters. The nervous system of the locust, as of other insects, con- sists of a series of nerve-centres, or ganglia, which are cou- FiG. 7.— Digestive canal of Sarcop/ioga c«)-)ifn/ . a, salivary gland; 6, oesoph- agus; /, g, stomach; h, intestine; t, urinary luoe.s; fc, rectum. — From Judeich and Nitsche. nected by two cords (commissures), the two cords in certain parts of the body in some insects united into one. There are in the locust ten ganglia, two in the head, three in the thorax, and five in the abdomen. The first ganglion is rather larger than the others, and is called the "brain." The brain rests upon the oesophagus, whence its name, supra-oesophageal ganglion. From the brain arise the large, short, optic nerves (Fig. 8, op), which go to the compound eyes, and from the front arise the three slender filaments which are sent to the three ocelli (Fig. 8, oc). From im- mediately in front, low down, arise the antennal nerves (Fig. 4, at). The infra- oesophageal ganglion (Fig. 8, if), as its name implies, lies under the oesophagus at the base of the head. 14 ENTOMOLOGY. under a bridge of cliitine (the teutoriiim) and directly be- hind the tongue. It is connected with the supra-CBSophageal ».£ "o »2 a-a M -Si;-« "> G °s ™><-, ?5 "^ *^ dj o a •-— - , r- o « - ■ -i^ g C~ cS > a) (U M S ^ 3-2? o« 2 3 ii- §|g-l a,*" .-(c c3 w oi — fi ^ rT'S ® E- o 03 ^ S .2 fx*^ » .k S*^'^ *^ ^£1 all THE STRUCTURE OE INSECTS. 15 ganglion by two commissnres passing up each side of the oesophagus. From the under side of the infra-oesophageal AGi'i ^^^g ^^a'W Fig. 9.—^, nervous system of ant, Formica nifa; B, Melolontha; C, flesh-fly Sarcophaga carnaria; Stg, frontal ganglion of the sympathetic nerve- oSq' bram; wSg.infra-oesophageal ganglion; Bff, thoracic ganglia; 4 (?, abdominal ganglia : the dotted lines passing through homologous ganglia.— From Ju- deich and Nitsche. 10.— Supra-oesophageal ganglion and visceral (or sympathetic) nervous stem of the silk-wornj moth { Bombyx mori). gs, supra-oesophageal ganglion Fig. svster /.I u_„:„,i, r ' a~......^,. »u, owjj.ti-uisourjjunj^cai ganglion ( brain ); a, antennary nerve; o, optic nerve; ?-, azvgos trunk of the visceral nervous system; »•', its roots arising from the supra-oesophageal ganglion- s. paired nerve with its ganglionic enlargements, s' s".— After Brandt froni Gegenbaur. ' '^•""' 16 ENTOMOLOGY. ganglion arise three pairs of nerves, which are distributed to the mandil)les, maxilla?, and labium. The mandibular nerves project forward and arise from the anterior part of the ganglion, near the origin of the supra-oesophageal commis- FiG. 11.— A Carabus beetle in the act of walking or running. Three legs (Lj, ifj, L3) are directed forward, while the others (i?,, Lj, R3), which are directed backward toward the tail, have ended their activity, a b, c d, and e / are curves described by the end of the tibiee and passing back to the end of the body; b h. d i, and f g are curves described by the same legs during their pas- sive change of position.— After Graber. sures, while the maxillary and labial nerves are directed downward into those organs. The sympathetic ganglia are three in number; one situ- uated just behind the supra-oesophageal ganglion (Fig. 8, HOW INSECTS WALK AND FLY. 17 as), resting on the oesophagus, and two others situated each side of the crop, low down. Each of the two posterior ganglia is supplied by a nerve from the anterior ganglion. Two nerves pass under the crop connecting the posterior ganglia, and from each posterior ganglion a nerve is sent backward to the end of the proventriculus. A pair of nerves pass under the u?sophagus from each side of the anterior sympathetic ganglion, and another pair pass down- ward to a round white body, whose nature is unknown (Fig. 8, u). How Insects Walk and Fly. — In walking, the locust, beetle, or, in fact, any insect, raises and puts down its six legs alternately, as may be seen by observing the movements of a beetle (Fig. 11). As Carlet states, an insect's legs move according to the following formula: With the claws on their fore legs they pull themselves for- ward; the middle legs seem to support and steady the body, also pushing it somewhat; while the hind legs in many beetles push the body forward.* While the structure of the limb of a vertebrate and insect is not homologous, yet the mechanism ^^^ or functions of the parts are in the main the same as indicated in Figs. 12 to 15. The footprints of insects are 12— Section of the fore leg of a Stag beetle, showing the muscles. S. extensor, B. flexor, of the leg; s, extensor, b, flexor, of the femur; o, femur; n, tibia; /, tarsus; fc, claw; l09i, s, extensor, 6, flexor, of the femoro-tibial joint, both en- larged.—After Graber. * See Miall and Deany's " The Cockroach. 18 ENTOMOLOGY. sometimes left in fine wet sand on the banks of streams or by the seaside. In Fig. 16 the black dots are made by the fore, the clear Fig. 13.— Diagram of the knee-joint of a vertebrate (A) and an insect's limb iB). a, upper, 6, lower, shank, united at A by a capsular joint, at S by a folding joint; d, extensor or lifting muscle; d', flexor or lowering muscle of the lower joint. The dotted line indicates in A the contour of the leg.— After Graber. circle by the middle, and the black dashes by the hind legs (Graber). The wings are developed as folds of the integument, and Fig. 14. — Cross-section through the thorax of a butterly. a b, muscles for raising, c d, for drawing downward and inward, the legs; d, entothorax arising from the sternum, k, st\ ng, wing-vein; g, fulcrum, or turning- point; c h, muscles for lowering, b f, for raising, the wing; i k and m n. muscles for lowering, lop, for raising, the dorsal plates. Fig. 15.- Diagram of muscles of an insect's leg. Besides the mus- cles at the insertion of the limb for raising and lowei-ing it, in the trochanter (tr) is a muscle for rotating the leg ; /, for stretching the tibia (//6); n, flex- or of tibia; o, flexor of the tar- sus; VI. reti'actor of the tarsus and claws {cl). — After Graber. HOW INSECTS BREATHE. 19 IV,o,l ?7 > 90/ 7- d II strengthened by hollow rods called "veins;" their branches being the "venules." There are in the wings of most insects six main veins — i.e., the costal, the subcostal, median, submedian, internal, and anal. They are hollow and usually contain an air-tube, and a nerve often accompanies the trachea in the principal veins. The arterial blood from the heart (as seen in the cockroach by Mose- ley) flows directly into the costal, subcostal, median, and submedian veins; here it is in part aerated, and returns to the heart from the liinder edge of the wings through the hinder smaller branches and the main trunks of the internal and anal veins. So that the wings of insects act as lungs as well as organs of flight. For the latter purpose, the prin- cipal veins are situated near the front edge of the wing, called the costa, and thus the wing is strengthened where the most strain comes during the beating of the air in flight. The wing of an insect in making tlie strokes during flight describes a figure 8 in the air. A fly's wing makes 330 revolutions in a second, executing therefore 660 simple oscillations. How Insects Breathe. — Insects breathe by means of a complicated system of air-tubes ramifying throughout the body, the air entering through a row of s])iracles, or breath- ing-holes {stigmata), in the sides of the body. There are in locusts two pairs of thoracic and eight pairs of abdominal spii-acles. The first thoracic pair (Fig. 3) is situated on the membrane connecting the prothorax and mesothorax, and is covered by the hinder edge of the pronotum (usually called prothorax). The second spiracle is situated on the posterior edge of the mesothorax. There are eight abdominal spiracles, the first one situated just in front of the auditory sac or tympanum, and the remaining seven are small open- ings along the side of the abdomen (Fig. 2). From these Fig. 16. — Foot- tracks of Necro- phorus vespillo. Natural size. — After Graber. 20 ENTOMOLOGY. spiracles air-tubes pass into the interior, sending branches into every part and appendage of the body, inchiding the antennae, mouth-parts, and wings. There is thus an intricate system of air-tubes, the finer branches of which end in cells, through whose walls the air passes out and mixes with the blood. Moreover, certain tracheas expand into large air- sacs, of which there are in the locust nearly fifty in the head; while there are a few, but large, sacs in the thorax and hind body which, when filled with air, serve to lighten the body by increasing its bulk. A B G Fio. 17. — A^ thoracic stigma of the house-fly: S6, valve wliich closes the open- ing. B, C, diagrammatic figures of the internal apparatus which closes the trachea, in the stag-beetle: B, the trachea open; in C\ closed: at, the stigma, with its grated lips: Ct, cuticula of the body-walls; Vk, closing-pouch; Vbii, closing-bow; Vba. closing-band; M, occlusor muscle.— From Judeich and Nitsche, after Landois. Fig. 17 represents at B and C'the elastic ''bow," "band," and muscle, said by Landois to act in closing the trachea, so that pressure may be exerted upon the air within by the muscles of the abdomen. It should be borne in mind that insects breathe by the abdomen and not the thorax. By holding the red-legged locust in the hand one may observe the mode of breathing. During this act the por- tion of the side of the body between the stigmata and the pleurum contracts and expands; the contraction of this region causes the spiracles to open. The general movement is caused by the sternal, moving much more decidedly than the tergal, portion of the abdomen. When the pleural portion of the abdomen is forced out, the soft pleural mem- branous region under the fore and hind wings contracts, as THE SENSES OF INSECTS. 21 do the tympanum and tlio niombraiious portions at the base of the hind legs. When the terguni or dorsal portion of the abdomen falls and the pleurnm contracts, the spir- acles open; their opening is nearly but not always exactly co-ordinated with the contractions of the pleurum, but as a rule it is. There were sixty-five contractions in a minute in a locust which had been held between the fingers about ten minutes. It was noticed that when the abdomen expanded, the air-sacs in the first abdominal ring contracted. The air passes into the spiracles during the expansion of the abdomen. In most insects, sjiys Plateau, only the expira- tory movement is active; inspiration is passive, and effected by the elasticity of the body-walls.* It is evident that the enormous powers of flight possessed by the locust, especially its faculty of sailing for many hours in the air, are due to the presence of these air-sacs, whicJi float it up in the atmospheric sea, increasing the bulk of the body, without rendering it heavier. Other insects with a powerful flight, as the bees and flies, have well-developed air-sacs, but they are less numerous. It will be seen that, once having taken flight, the locust can buoy itself up in the air, constantly filling and refilling its internal buoys or balloons with little muscular exertion, and thus be borne along by favorable winds to its destination. It is evident that the process of respiration can be best carried on in clear, sunny weather, and that when the sun sets, or the weather is cloudy and damp, its powers of flight are less- ened, owing to the diminished power of respiration. The Senses of Insects. — It is difficult to explain many of the actions of insects, from the fact that it is hard for us to appreciate their instincts and general intelligence. That they have sufficient intellectual powers to enable them to maintain their existence may be regarded as an axiom. But insects differ much in intelligence, and also in the degree of perfection of the organs of sense. The intelligence of in- * See Miall and Denny's "The Cockroach," p. 163. 22 ENTOMOLOGY. sects depends, of course, largely on the development of the organs of special sense, especially those of sight and smell. There are in nearly all insects two kinds of eyes, the simple and the compound. Of the simple eyes there are usually three, arranged, as in locusts, bees, etc., in a triangle on the top of the head. There is a single pair of compound eyes. The simple eye, or ocellus, consists of a single smooth, shin- ing, convex area, called the cornea or facet, while in the compound eyes there are many facets, which can be seen k f Fig. 18.— Lonfritudinal section of the faceted eye of a moth. /, the rod-like ending of the optic nerve-fibres; h. crystalline iens: sn, optic nerve; tt\ trachea lost in fine fibrillse ; t, ch, retina.— After Leydig-, from Graber. with a hand-lens. The compound eyes, which are usually round and very prominent, differ much in size and the number of facets, the latter varying from fifty, as in the ant, to several, even twenty, thousand, as in certain beetles. The structure even of the simple eye is too complicated for description here, but the essential parts ares the cornea, TEE SENSES OF INSECTS. 23 the crystalline coue, the retina, and the optic nerve. How an insect sees is not well understood; but the corneal lens acts like an ordinary glass lens to condense the light, or form an image of a moving body, either of which, as the case may be, falls upon the cone behind the lens. Behind each cone is a nerve-rod {rhahdom) which, thougli externally simple for most of its length, is found on cross-section to consist of from four to eight sections, called rliah- domeres. These separate in front to re- ceive the apex of the cone which is wedged in between them: these nerve-rods are en- veloped by retinal cells. The retina, a mass of black pigment-cells enveloping the ends of the cones and their stalks or rods, and farther comprising, as Hickson thinks, all that part of the eye lying be- tween the crystalline cones and true optic nerve, is of use, especially in the compound eye, in elaborating and combining the image formed by the corneal lens. Now the compound eye is simply, so to speak, a compound simple eye : not, as used to be thought, a collection of simple eyes johied together. The compound eye grows out of, or is " differentiated " from, a simple eye; it is, as Patten says, "a modified ocellus;" and this observer concludes that the majority of compound eyes are adapted " for the per- ception of inverted images formed by the corneal facets upon the crystalline cones." Of course, as with us, the effect upon the insect's mind is that of seeing a single object. Experiments by Plateau on the simple eyes of centipedes show quite decidedly that these creatures can do little more than distinguish light from darkness; they do not make out the form of objects, though some can perceive the more D Fig. # 19. — Diflferent forms of compound eyes. A, a bug (Pyrrhocoris): B, worker bee; C, drone; D,male Bibio. — From Judeich and Nitsche. 24 ENTOMOLOar. obvious movemeuts of bodies. On spiders, which do not possess compound eyes, Plateau has experimented, and he quite fully proves that in general they are near-sighted, only perceiving at a distance the displacement of large bodies; while the hunting spiders (Attidae and Lycosidse) are probably the only kinds which see the movements of small bodies, and that only at a distance of between 2 and 20 centimeters (. 80 to 8 inches) ; while the distance at which their prey is seen well enough to be captured is from 1 to 2 centimeters (.40 to .80 inch); and he adds, even at this distance spiders cannot see distinctly, because they often miss grasping their booty. It is so with all larvae, grubs, and caterpillars, as well as such perfect insects as do not have compound eyes; they can only tell daylight from darkness, and indistinctly see moving objects near at hand. Even insects with compound eyes have a less perfect vision than formerly supposed. Both Exner* and Plateau have discarded the mosaic theory of vision, and the latter claims that insects, such as flies and bees, see the outline of objects indistinctly, and only when in motion. Plateau ex- perimented in the following way: In a darkened room, with two differently shaped but nearly equal light-openings, one square and open, the other subdivided into a number of small holes, and therefore of more difficult egress, he ob- served tlie choices of opening made by insects flying from the other end of the room. Careful practical provisions were made to eliminate error; the light-intensity of the two openings was as far as possible equalized or else noted, and no trees or other external objects were in view. The room was not darkened beyond the limit at which ordinary type ceases to be readable, otherwise the insects refused to fly (it is well known that during the passage of a thick cloud in- sects usually cease to fly). These observations were made on * Exner finds that tlje focus of a corneal lens in the compound eye of Hydrophilus is about 3 mm. away, and some distance behind the eye. (Miall and Denny's " The Cockroach," p. 105, note.) THE SENSES OF INSECTS. 95 insects both witli and without ocelli, in addition to the com- pound eyes, and with the same results. From repeated experiments on flies, bees, etc., butterflies and moths, dragon-flies and beetles. Plateau concludes that insects with compound eyes do not notice differences in form of openings in a half-darkened room, but fly witli equal readiness to the apparently easy and apparently difii- cult way of escape; that they are attracted to the more intensely lightened oijening, or to one with apparently greater surface; hence he concludes that they cannot dis- tinguish the form of objects, at least only to a very slight extent, though they readily perceive objects in motion. It is well known that honey-bees on leaving their hives fly about as if making out the form of objects near their home, and, after thus taking in the landmarks, can after a few flights make a bee-line from a distance to their hives. While this would seem opposed to the result of Plateau's experiments, it may be said that a very near-sighted man can find his way home; objects even perceived very indis- tinctly serving to guide him. Insects also without doubt distinguish the difference in color of objects; it is well known that butterflies will descend from a position high in the air, mistaking white bits of paper for white flowers; while, as we have observed, white butterflies (Pieris) prefer white flowers, and yellow butterflies (Colias) appear to alight on yellow flowers in preference to white ones. Until further experiments are made, it seems probable, then, that all insects do not have acute sight, that they see objects best when moving, and on the whole — except dragon- flies and other predaceous, swiftly flying insects, such as certain flies, wasps and bees, which have very large rounded eyes — insects are guided mainly rather by the sense of smell than that of sight. Some insects can only detect light from darkness; while, to go to the other extreme, a few may see ''with clearness and precision, by means of inverted images, either a land- scape or small neighboring objects." We may add witli 26 ENTOMOLOGY. Pcitteu: " The difference in vision is due more to the powers of association tlian to variation in the structiire of the eye" (''Eyes of Molhisks and Arthropoda,'' Kaples, p. 699). It is now generally agreed tliat the olfactory organs are situated in the antennae. This has been experimentally proved. When the antennse of insects which show a decided dislike to strong or disagreeable smells, such as the odor of carbolic acid, oil of turpentine, or vinegar, are removed, the actions of the insects operated upon show that they are not affected by such smells; insects fond of decaying flesh do not run or fly toward it when deprived of their antennaj, nor are they, after losing their feelers, able to go to their mates. As Forel says, in many insects which are guided by sight, such as dragon-flies and cicadas, the antennae are minute, rudimentary, and do not have the sense of smell, though the cicada may be guided by the sense of hearing. The organs of smell, according to Hauser, consist, in in- sects,— i.e., all Orthoptera, Pseud oneuroptera (i.e., white ants, Perlae, Psoci, dragon- and may-flies), Diptera, and Hymenoptera, also in most Lepidoptera, Neuroptera, and Coleoptera, — 1. Of a thick nerve arising from the brain which is sent into the antennae. 3. Of a sensitive apparatus at the end, consisting of staff-like cells, which are modified hypodermis cells, with which the fibres of the nerves connect. 3. Of a supporting and accessory apparatus, consisting of pits, or peg- or tooth-like projections filled with a serous fluid, and which may be regarded as invaginations and out- growths of the epidermis. These appear as microscopic pits and teeth, usually situated at or near the end of the antennae. The number of these olfactory pits and j)rojec- tions is sometimes enormous. In the European cockchafer {Melolontha viilgaris) 39,000 occur in the leaves of the male antennae, and about 35,000 in those of the female (Fig. 20). In Vespa crabro each Joint of tlie antenna (flagellum) pos- sesses between 1300 and 1400 pits, nearly 60 teeth, and THE SENSES OF INSECTS. 27 about 70 tactile hairs; on the terminal joint there are more than 200 teeth, so that each antenna has between 13,000 and 14,000 olfactory pits and about 700 teeth. Y\ < — ^ ^i Fig. 80.— Organs ofsmeltinMelolontha. n, olfactory or antennal nerve; sc, gan- glion-cells from which a thread-lilfe fibre is sent to each pit (p), ending in a hair or style (st)\ m, olfactory membrane.— After Kraepelin. Similar pits occur in the long, jointed anal stylets of the cockroach, and in those of certain flies (Chrysopila). Plateau, as well as Will and Forel, deny that the palpi have the sense of taste, but maintain that they are simply organs of touch; Forel appears to have experimentally proved this by cutting off the palpi of wasps and ants, and feed- ing them with meal with which quinine and morphine had been mixed, which they still rejected, though they would eat pure, unadulterated meal, of Perla we have found a sense-pit (Fig. 21, c). Little is positively known of the organs of taste, but the researches of F. Will show that wasps and bees are provided either with microscopic pits or goblet-like projections on the base of the ligula (which forms the end of the under lip), as well as on the under side of the maxillas. The gustatory Fig. 21. — A, b, sense-organs on the ab- dominal appendages of a fly (Chry- sopila); c, a similar pit in last joint of palpus of Perla. Yet in the end of the palpi 28 ENTOMOLOQT. nerve ends on the surface, and is thus accessible to direct chemical stimulation, while the parts can be washed with the saliva. The supply of hooks and bristles on the skin partly retains the saliva for cleansing purposes, and partly defends the delicate ending of the nerves. All these pits and goblets are situated where they come in direct contact with the food. Forel, basing his opinions on the observa- tions of different anatomists as well as his own, thinks tliat the organs of taste occur in the proboscis of flies; in the maxillae, and in the end of the tongue, of ants; and in the palate or epipharynx of bees and beetles. While most insects appear to be deaf, certain organs which are generally considered to be ears are well developed in the locust, and we think that the sense of hearing must be present, not only from the fact that a loud alarum with kettles and pans affects them, but because the movements of persons walking through the grass invariably disturb them. Besides this, they produce a fiddling or stridulating sound by rubbing their hind legs against their folded wing- covers, and this noise is a sexual sound, evidently heard and appreciated by individuals of the other sex. Any insect which produces a sound must be supposed to have ears to hear the sound produced by others of its species. The ears (or auditory sacs) of the locust* are situated, one on each side, on the basal joint of the abdomen, just be- hind the first abdominal spiracle (Fig. 22). The apparatus consists of a tense membrane, the tympanum, surrounded by a horny ring (Fig. 22). "^On the internal surface of this membrane are two horny processes (o, n), to which is attached * Forel, however (" Recueil Zoologique Suisse," 1887), denies that these tympanic organs are necessarily ears, and thinks tliat all insects are deaf, with no special organs of hearing, but that sounds are heard by their tactile organs, just as deaf-mutes perceive at a distance the rumbling of a carriage. But he appears to overlook the fact that many Crustacea, and all shrimps and crabs, as well as many mol- lusks, have organs of hearing. The German anatomist Will believes that insects hear only the stridulation of their own species. Lubbock thinks that bees and ants are not deaf, but hear sounds so shrill as to be beyond our hearing. THE SENSES OF INSECTS. 29 an extremely delicate vesicle {bi) filled with a transparent fluid, and representing a membranons labyrinth. This vesicle is in connection with an auditory nerve {n) which Fig. 33.— Ear of a locust (Calopteuus italicus). seen from the inner side. T, tympanum; TR, its border; o, u. two horn-like processes; bi, pear-shaped vesicle: n, auditory nerve; ga, terminal ganglion; st, stigma; m, opening, and ni' closing, muscle of the same: M, tensor muscle of the tympanum-mem- brane.— After Graber. CM- bid. 23.— I, fore tibia of a European grasshopper (Meconema>, containing tin. ear: Ty, tympanum or outer membrane: 7V1, Tr2, trachea. U, diagram- matic cross-section through the tibia and ear of the same: Ty. tympanum; Ct. cuticula; CM, bypodermis: A. the auditory organ connecting with the tympanum: B. supi-a-tj-mpanal auditory organ ; GZ, the ganglion-cell belong- ing to them; Hst, the auditory rod connecting with the ganglion-cells.— After rtraber, from Judeich and Nitsche. 30 ENTOMOLOGY. arises from the third thoracic ganglion, forms a ganglion {go) upon the tympanum, and terminates in the immediate neighborhood of the labyrinth by a collection of cuneiform, staff-like bodies, with very finely-pointed extremities (primi- tiye nerve-fibres ?), which are surrounded by loosely aggre- FiG. 24.— Musical apparatus of cricket, n. a. tracheal tube ; 6, rasp or ridge bearing vibratory flanges; d, resonant surface, with ridges. gated ganglionic globules" (Siebold's " Anatomy of the In- vertebrates"). In the green grasshoppers, katydids, and their allies, the ears are situated on the fore legs (tibiae), where these organs can be found after a careful search (Fig. 23). Having ears to hear, locusts, grasshoppers, katydids, and crickets are also very musical. One may sometimes see the red-legged locust standing on the ground and rubbing one leg against the folded wing, and a shrill chirruping noise may be heard. The noise is made by a row of dull spines on the inside of the femur, forming a rude file which rasps the wing. Certain grasshoppers, as the katy- did and the crickets (Figs. 24, 25), have on the under side of the uppermost of the fore AvingS a sort of file which Fio. 25.— Enlarged view of the vibratory 1 , „ flanges seen at h', Fig. 24. — This and rubs over a resonant surface. Fig. 19 after n. b. Pierce. like a drum's head. The file may be likened to the bow, and THE SENSES OF INSECTS. 31 the drum-like space to the body of the violin. Thus, most grasshoppers are fiddlers, and during the summer, both by day and uight, the air resounds with the music of these primitive violinists. This noise may add to our pleasure, or become tedious and disagreeable. This makes little differ- ence, for insect-music is all-important. It is the cricket's love-call; and were crickets, etc., deaf and dumb, we are safe in saying the breed would soon run out, because they would not otherwise readily mate. Insects also have the sense of touch highly developed; its seat is in the numerous hairs and bristles which clothe the antennae and palpi, as well as the legs and the body itself.* The hairs of insects form an interesting subject for micro scopic study, since they vary so much in shape. The simplest are seen in the smaller caterpillars, and the larger naked kinds, in which the hairs are minute and very slender; while in the hairy species, as the arctians, they are densely barbed; in certain caterpillars, as those of the maia, io, and the native silk-worm moths, the hairs are spine-like, with sharp spinules, and are poisonous, having at their base a minute poison-gland. Hairy or spiny catei-pillars are not eaten by birds, or so easily molested by ichneumon-flies. The hairs sometimes become flat and broad as in the scales of moths and butterflies, as well as certain flies and beetles. * To examine the heads of insects in order to watch the movements of the appendages and moiUh-parts, we may sometimes follow with advantage Mr. E. T. Draper's recommendation of using a cone of pasted paper to be made rather larger than the specimen, with the apex cut off. A vigorous insect will soon project its head through the aperture. When in this position it should be blocked behind with cotton wool slightly wetted. The cone can then be gummed to a .slip, apex upward. Insects held in this way will allow one to observe the movements of the antennte, palpi, jaws, etc., and the effects produced by excitation with saccharine or nitrogenous fluids, administered with a sable pencil. {Science- Oossijy, 1884, 36.) CHAPTER 11. GROWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. Insects are of distinct sexes, and besides males and fe- males the social species, such as ants, wasps, and bees, are largely represented by workers, which are undeveloped females, not being normally capable of laying eggs. Insects differ sexually in that the female often appears to have one abdominal segment less (one disappearing during the semi-pupa state, when the ovipositor is formed). They are also larger (except in the stag-beetles, some dragon-flies, and certain bees), fuller, and duller-colored than the males; while the latter often differ in sculpture and ornamenta- tion and are more active than the females. Certain female moths are wingless,* the organs of locomotion as well as of smell (antennse) and sight being better developed in the male than in the female. The females of some water-beetles (Dytiscus) have deeply-grooved elytra, or, as in Acilius sulrafns, they are thickly set with hairs. Egg-producing Organs. — AYith some notable exceptions (i.e., cases of parthenogenesis), all insects develop from eggs, which are formed in delicate tubes situated in the abdomen, as in Fig, 4, ov. In the locust the ovaries consist of two sets of about twenty long tubes, within which the eggs may * The only partial exception to the rule that tlie females are wing- less while tlie males are winged is the male of two chalcids (West wood's Class. Insects, ii. 160). This fact was quoted by Darwin (Descent of IVIan. i. 264). Darwin seems not to have been aware that Newport tigured these in.sects (Trans. Linn. Soe., xxi., Tab. VIII. p. 4) as Anthophorabia fasctata Newport and A. retusa Newport. The males also are without compound eyes, only a simple eye being present in place of each compound one (Fig. 36). GROWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS OF INSECTS. 33 be found in various stages of development. The eggs pass in two main tubes which unite to form the single oviduct {pv.t) which lies on the floor of the abdomen. Above A B Fig. 26.—Anthophorabia retusa. A, male; B, female.— After Newport. the opening of the oviduct is the sebific gland and its duct. This gland secretes a copious supply of a sticky fluid, which is, as in many other insects, poured out as the eggs pass out Fig. 27.— Egg-tube of a saw-fly (Athalia). a, b, c, egg-tubes; e, oviduct;/, sper- matheca or reservoir for the seminal fluid: in silk-woi-ms. The practical difficulty in experiments in this direction appears to be that, though the air is more or less filled with floating disease-germs, insects like other animals, and man 48 ENTOMOLOGY. himself when healthy and living under favorable conditions, resist their attacks. Even if one or a few individuals were inoculated, the disease might not spread. When, however, insects are superabundant and crowded, and the conditions favorable to any disease arise, the timely inoculation of ever a few individuals might i-esult in the destruction of im- mense numbers of insect-pests. Future experiments in this direction may give a new phase to economic entomol- ogy- Unusual Increase in the Number of Insects. — It is fre- quently noticed that certain insects abound in profusion which are ordinarily rare or not common. This is due, as we shall see farther on, either to favorable weather or to the absence of their parasites. Thus canker-worms, the Hessian fly, the chinch-bug, the cotton-worm, as well as the Rocky Mountain and other locusts, may in certain years become vastly more numerous, and consequently more destructive, than in others. If all the eggs laid by insects came to maturity, the earth would be overwhelmed with them, and every green thing would be devoured. In what a ratio insects might increase, were it not for these natural checks, may be seen by the following statements. Tomicus typograplius in 1874, in the Bohemian forests, had three broods. Judeich assumes that in the middle of April the female laid in its maternal gallery 90 eggs; and he therefore reckons that early in June at least 30 in- dividuals became capable of reproduction. Each of these 30 females again lays in the maternal gallery 90 eggs, pro- ducing also in all 2700 individuals; and by the beginning of August of the third brood again, only a third part of them being females, these would gnaw 900 maternal gal- leries and lay in them 8100 eggs. Having reached this number again, the next spring a third would be ready for oviposition, so that there would be of the first brood in April already 27,000 descendants of the single female which flew about the preceding April, and which would be noA« capable of laying 2,430,000 eggs. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON INSECTS. 49 " In Kruman, in the Bohemian forests, have been counted, during a period of great increase of fir bark- beetles in these forests from 1871 to 1875, in a portion of bark a square meter in extent, from 1400 to 4800 larvae" (Judeich and Nitsche). Influence of Changes of Temperature on Insect-life. — Perhaps changes of temperature and unfavorable seasons have, next to the increasing competition or struggle for existence among insects, and the attacks of parasites, the greatest effect in maintaining the balance of nature, and. preventing the undue increase of destructive insects. Dr. Shimer gives an account of an epidemic among the chinch- bugs in Illinois, which " was at its maximum during the moist warm weather that followed the cold rains of June and the first part of July, 1865." Mr. C. Thomas claims that the high temperature of 1854, 1871, and 1874, to- gether with the diminished rainfall, furnishes the key to the cause of the vast increase of chinch-bugs during those years. * Wet weather is favorable and dry weather is un- favorable to the increase of the cotton-worm. In times of drought the eggs dry and. fail to hatch, the worms are en- feebled, " web uji" prematurely, and die in attempting to transform into the chrysalis state, and when they succeed the chrysalides decay. "' Nourishment and fecundity being correlated, it is more than probable that the moths, poorly nourished, will lay fewer eggs under such circumstances. All the effects described are intensified and become most marked during extreme drought, so that frequently at the end of a dry spell, such as is not infrequent in July and early August, not a worm can be found. A rainy season, following such a spell, will produce a most noticeable change."! The Hessian fly flourishes best in seasons when the chinch-bug flourishes least. The hot, dry summer of 1881 * Amer. Entomologist, iii. 341. f Riley, in Fourth Report U. S. Entomological Commission, 84. 50 ENTOMOLOGY. caused the pupa-cases or flaxseed to dry up, and even destro3'ed the parasites.* The canker-worm, tent caterpillar, and most larvae abound less after wet and cool springs. The spring of 1885 was unusually cold, rainy, and backward, and we noticed that as the result the lack of caterpillars and other forest-insects, as compared with the season of 1884, was very marked; late in the summer and earl}- in autumn there was a re- markable scarcity of caterpillars on oaks, maples, poplars, etc., while they were very abundant during the previous autumn. An English entomologist, 0. G. Barrett, in an excellent article on the influence of adverse or favorable climatic changes on insect-life, states that in the south of England, after an unusually cold wiuter, with no thaws, moths be- came unusually abundant for several following seasons. As he remarks: '•' I think there can be no doubt that in the case of those insects whose mode of life includes the. capacity for hibernation, their constitution is greatly strengthened, and their chance of arriving at maturity in- creased, if the cold of winter is sufficiently severe to induce complete torpidity, undisturbed by warm and spring-like weather at unseasonable times, and this may account for the vast increase in numbers in species which hibernate in the egg state; it also probably has a strengthening effect on those which pass the winter as small social larvae under a silken tent on the ground, or which, like Xoctufe, hiber- nate in the larval state on the ground or among dead leaves, and are tempted out to feed by every warm and genial evening. " On the other hand, there can be no doubt that mild winters act directly to cause the destruction of both hiber- nating larvae and pupae, in two ways. One is by encourag- ing the growth of mould, which we know attacks them as soon as, from excess of rain or humidity, they become *C. V. Riley, Amer. Xat., Xov. 1881, 916. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON INSECTS. 51 sickly; the other by permitting the continued activity of predaceous creatures. " These are very numerous. Moles continue at work in mild winters, instead of burying themselves deep in the ground ; and mice are constantly active. These small mammalia destroy great numbers of Lepidopterous pupae, and they abound in this district, as also do birds during the winter in an extraordinary degree. As soon as severe cold sets in to the north and east, the birds come down in swarms to the open fields and sheltered hillsides of this district, and it is hardly necessary to point them out as most industrious and persevering destroyers of larvae. Predaceous beetles and earwigs are generally on the alert all through very mild winters; and although they probably do not eat much at that time, and, indeed, are not very plentiful in Pembrokeshire, they must destroy many larvae and pup£e, having little else to subsist upon. But I believe that the mischief done by all these added together does not equal that done by the 0 nisei." * In his work on bark-beetles Eichhoff tells us that the chief factors in the growth of these insects are good weather and sufiBcient food. An uninterrupted drj^, and hence hot, summer checks the growth of the larvae, and retards their speedy development, and more often prevents a repetition of the broods than an uninterrujjted wet and cold spring and summer. Hence on account of the great heat and drought many trees survive which otherwise would be in- jured by the later broods of bark-beetles. The most favor- able conditions for the increase of bark-beetles are doubtless a warm early spring, a warm summer with frequent rains, and a long mild autumn. It is well understood in central Europe that great num- bers of may-beetles die during a cold wet May. After an exceptionally warm and dry summer and autumn we may 'Psyche, iv. 83; abstract from Ent. Month. Mag., June, 1882, 1. 62 ENTOMOLOGY. expect invasions of the northern army-worm {Leucania 2C7ii2JU7lct(l). Periodicity in Insect-life. — As there may be a succession of seasons favorable to the development of insect-life, so there may be a corresponding increase in the numbers of insects, until they abound to excess. In this way periodical invasions of locusts happen the world over. A number of successive favorable seasons may result in a greater number of eggs of Leucania hatching, and the caterpillars nearly all arriving at maturity, none dying from bad weather, they abound in extraordinary numbers, and in great armies march through grass-lands and wheat-fields in what seem to us countless numbers. We thus realize how many vicis- situdes await the caterpillars in ordinary seasons, and how few pairs survive. Another striking case is that of the spruce-bud Tortrix {T.fumiferana), which for a number of years destroyed the spruce and firs on the coast of Maine, this species being rare and seldom captured either in the larva or imago stage in other years. Number of Species of Insects. — The insects number about four-fifths of the animal kingdom, since it is estimated that there are not less than from 200,000 to 250,000 species in public and private collections. The Coleoptera are the most numerous, there being 100,000 species known, 90,000 species at least existing in museums; of Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera as well as Diptera there are not less than 25,000 species of each order; of Hemiptera about 27,000 species exist in museums, and Uhler supposes that the entire number is nearly 50,000; the species of the smaller orders would easily carry the total number of known species up to 200,000. As recently remarked by Dr. Sharp, probably only from a fourth to a tenth of the existing species of insects are known; and as McLachlan has stated, it is not im- probable that the number of species of insects now living on the earth's surface will be found to be about 1,000,000. The number of described species of American insects NUMBER OF SPECIES OF INSECTS. 53 north of Mexico has been stated by Mr. J, A. Lintner (1886) to be as follows: Species. Hymenoptera 4450 Lepidoptera: Butterflies (Edwards's List, 1884, 614; Scudder's estimate, 1887) 500 Larger Moths (Grote's Check List, 1882), 3184 — additions since making about. . . 3271 Tineidae (Chambers's List, 1878, not iu- chided in Grote's List) 779—4550 Diptera (OstenSiicken's estimate in 1878) 2500 Coleoptera (Henshaw's List of 1885, 9238; up to '88, 275) 9513 Hemiptera: Homoptera (Uhler's estimate) 1200 Heteroptera (Uhler's Check List, 1886). . . . 1448—2648 Orthoptera (Scudder's estimate) 450 All other orders, not estimated; perhaps 1000 Total 25, 111 (Edipoda xanthoptera. CHAPTER III. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. Having examined the locust with the aid of the fore- going descrijation, the student should make his studies comj)arative by carefully examining a cricket and a green grasshopper. Then he might turn to the following de- scriptions of examples or types of the order of white ants, dragon-flies, hugs, beetles, flies, moths, bees, etc., and as the result of his work he will be able to grasp the fact that the species of insects, as a ride, have bodies composed of seventeen seg^nents, which are arranged in three regions, viz., a head, thorax, and hind tody or aJjdomen ; that the thorax hears two 2jairs of ivings, and three ^jairs of jointed or segmented .legs J that ihey hreafJie iy internal air-tuhes opening externally hy spiracles^, ^nd thaf in growing they either develop directly, or undergo « cotuplete metamorphosis. The class of insects is divided or classified into orders, families, genera, and species, and the study of the classi- fication of insects is called Systematic Entomology. The class, as regards existing forms, is divided into sixteen orders, as follows, beginning with the lowest or wingless order, Thysanura, and ending with the highest or most complicated group, the Hymenoptera. CLASS INSECTA. Jointed animals with a distinct head, thorax, and abdomen; three pairs of legs, and usually two pairs of wings; bi-eathing by trachete; usiially witli a metamoi'phosis, viz., a larval, pupal, and adult stage. Sekies I. Ametabola, or with au incomplete metamorphosis. Order 1. Thysanura. — Wiugle.ss, minute, with a spring, or ab- domen ending in a pair of caudal st3iets; usually no compound eyes; no metamorphosis. (Examples: Podura, Campodea, Scolopen- drella, Lepisma.) Order 2. Dermaptera. — Body flat; the abdomen ending in a for- ceps; fore wings small, elytra-like; hind wings ample, folded under the tii'st pair. (Foi'ticula.) CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. 55 Order ;3. Orthoptera — Wiugs net-veiued; fore wiugs narrow, straight, not often used in tlight; hind wiugs large, and folded when at rest under the first pair; metamorphosis incomplete; pupa active. (Caloptenus, Locusta, Phaueroptera, Acheta ) Order 4. Platyptera. — Body usually flattened; pronotum usually large and square; often wingless. (Mallophaga or ])ird-lice, Perla, Psocus, white ants.) Order 5. Odonata. — Prothorax small; remainder of the thora.x spherical; both pairs of wiugs of nearly the same size, net-veined. Larva ami pupa aipiatic; labium of the larva forming a large mask. (Agrion, Libellula.) Order 6. Plectoptera. — Mouth-parts nearly obsolete; wiugs net- veined, hinder pair small, sometimes wanting; abdomen ending in three filaments. Larv« aquatic, with large jaws, and with gills on the sides of the hiud body. (Ephemera.) Order 7. Thysanoptera. — Mouth-parts forming a short conical sucker; palpi present; wiugs narrow, not veined, fringed; feet bulbous at the end, without claws. (Thrips.) Order 8. Hemiptera. — Mouth-parts forming a sucking' beak; pro- thorax usually large; fore wings often thickened at base; pupa active. (Coreus, Cimex, Arma, Pentatoma, Cicada, Coccus, Aphis.) Series II. Metabola, or with a complete metamorpho.sis. Order 9. Neuroptera. — Wiugs uet- veined; mouth-parts free, adapted for biting; ligula large, rounded; pronotum large and square. Larvpe often aquatic. (Corydalus, Chrysopa, Myrmeleou ) Order 10. Mecaptera. — Wings somewhat net-veiued, or absent; head lengthened into a beak-like projection. Larvae like caterpillars. (Panorpa, Boreus.) Order 11. Trichoptera. — Wings and body like those of Tineid moths; mandibles obsolete in the imago. Larvfe usually aquatic, living in cases. (Phrygauea.) Order 12. Coleoptera. — Fore wings thick, ensheathing the hinder pair, which are alone used in tlight; mouth-parts free, adapted for biting; metamorphosis complete. (Doryphora, Prionus, Lucanus, Harpalus, Cicindela.) Order 13. Siphonaptera. — Wingless; mouth-parts adapted for suck- ing. Larv* maggot-like, but with a well-developed head and mouth-parts. (Pulex.) Order 14. Diptera. — Only two wiugs; mouth-parts adapted for lapping and sucking; a complete metamorphosis. (Musca, CEstrus, Syrphus, Cecidomyia, Tipula, Culex.) Order 15. Lepidoptera. — Body and wiugs covered with scales; maxillae lengthened into a very long tongue; larvee (caterpillars) with abdominal legs. (Tinea, Geometra, Noctua, Bombyx, Sphinx, Papilio.) Order 16. Hjrmenoptera. — Wings clear, with few veins; mouth- parts with a variety of functions, i.e., bitiug, lapping liquids, etc. In the higher families the thorax consists of four segments, the first abdominal segment of the larva being transferred to the thorax in the pupa and imago. Metamorphosis complete. (TenthredOj Cynips, Ichneumon, Sphex, Vespa, Apis.) 56 ENTOMOLOGY. Tabular View of the Orders of InsectA. b1 ^ •^ I' Si g fti 'S ^ I; Metabola. Ametabola. Thysanura (Campodea). Oeder I. Thysanura* {Spring-tails mid Bristle-tails). The Thysanura are very primitive forms, are all wing- less, with usually simple eyes, and undergo no metamor- phosis. They usually live in damp places under stones, * Selected Works. Gervais, P., in Walckenaer, " Hist. Nat. des Insectes Apteres," iii. 377 (1844). Haliday, A. H. lapyx, a new genus of insects, etc. (Trans. Linn. Soc, London, xxiv., 1864). Lubbock, J. Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura (Roy. Soc, Loudon, 1873). Meinert, F. CampodeiB, a family of Thysanura (Naturhist. Tids- skrift, Copenliageu, 1865) (Swedish and Latin). Nicolet, H. Recherches sin- les Podurelles (Neuchatel, 1843). Packard, A. S. Bristle-tails and Spring- tails {Amer. Nat., v., 1871), and " Our Common Insects " (1873). Synopsis of the Thysanura of Essex County, Mass. (5th Rep. Peab. Acad. Sc. Salem, 1872). Tullberg, J. P. Swedish Podurid* (Stockholm, 1872). Collembola boreali (Roy. Swedish Acad., Stockholm, 1876). ORDER THT8ANURA. 57 etc., though the bristle-tails prefer warm and dry situations, and either, as in the Cinura, run swiftly, or, as in the Poduridae, vigorously leap by means of a long appendage at the end of the body, which on being released throws the insect high in the air. The higher members of the order, as Campodea and Scolopendrella, are connecting links between the true insects and the centipedes [Myrio- poda). In many Podurids the tracheae are wanting. Sub-order 1. CoUembola. — The spring-tails are degraded forms, with the mouth-parts quite rudimentary, and re- tracted within the head, only the ends projecting. What correspond to the anal stylets of Campodea and Lepisma are in the Podurids united at the base and bent under the hind body to form the spring, which is held in place by a hook or tenamihim ; on the under side of the hind body is a sort of sucker {collophore), and as no other insects pos- sess this singular apparatus, the group is named from it CoUembola, which means to throw out a sucker, so as to adhere to surfaces. Their bodies are covered with scales. These spring-tails occur everywhere under leaves, the bark of trees, etc., and rarely live except in moist or shaded places, where their eggs are deposited. The snow-flea {Aclioi'utes nivicola) is sometimes seen in great numbers leaping on snow. They should be preserved in vials of alcohol, and can be collected by placing an ether vial over them and allowing the creatures to spring into it, or the finger wet with the saliva can be lightly laid on them, when they can be transferred to a vial of alcohol. They can also be mounted in balsam on glass slides. ^Mts^aspring-tau. Family Poduridae. — Body long aud slender, head small, Tomocerus plumbeus (Linn.); or body short, Smynthurus elegans Fitch. Sub-order 2. Symphyla.* — A remarkably composite type, having the head of a Campodea, while the abdomen has a pair of legs to each joint, like the centipedes. Family Scolopendrellidae, wiih the characters of the suborder. Scolopendrella immaculata Newport. * The Symphyta should be regarded as forming a distinct order. 58 ENTOMOLOGY. Sub-order 3. Cinura. — Here belong the bristle-tails, the hind body being long, and with small, rudimentary processes corresponding to the abdominal feet of Scolojjendrella. Family Campodidae. — Willi long, slender bodies and long, delicate caudal stylets. Campodea Htaphylin us Westw. Family lapygidae. — Like Campodea, but the body ending in a pair of forceps. lapyx subUrraneits Pack. Family Lepismatidae. — Body flattened, covered with scales, willi five caudal stylets, three of which are very long. Sometimes injurious to papers and books. Lepisma saccharina Linn., L. doviestica Pack, has injured books in the library of Wellesley College. L. 4-fieriaia Pack. (Fig. 42). In Machilis the eyes are large and compound. Fig. 42.— Lepisma 4-seriata. MacMlis variabilis Say. Order II. Dermaptera* {Earwigs). This small group comprises the earwigs, which are noc- turnal insects very rare in this country, except in the Southern States, but common in Europe. Usually placed among the Orthoptera, the ear- wigs have certain important characters which forbid our placing them in that order. The fore wings are very small and short, like the elyira of the rove-beetles, while the large, broad, transparent, hinder wings are folded under the anterior pair, the process of folding being aided by the large forceps at the end of the body; the latter is long and narrow and fig. ^.—Worfi- much flattened. pervms"'^'^'^^' Family Forficulidae. — Body long, Forficula; body short, Labia. * Selected Works. Dufour, L. Recherches anatomiques sur les Labidoures or Perce- oreilles (Ann. des Sc. Nat., xiii.). 1828. Meinert, F. Anatomia Forficularum. Copenhagen, 1863. Packard, A. S. (External Anatomy, in third report U. S. Ent. Commis- sion, 1883, p. 304, Pis. XXIII, XXIV). Scudder, S. H. Notes on Foi-ficulari^e, with list of described species (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xviii., 1876). ORDER ORTHOPTERA. 59 Order III. Orthoptera* {Locusts, GrassJioppers, Crickets, etc.). ;6y no means do all the members of this group, as the name of the order would imply, have straight fore wings, but in the locusts and grasshoppers they are generally narrow, straight, and thicker than the hinder pair, serving as wing-covers to protect the hinder, thinner ones. The antennas may be very long, while the pronotum is almost invariably broad and large, flattened or compressed and moving freely on the rest of the thorax, which is cov- ered by the wings when folded. The hind wings are much larger than the front ones, and have numerous longitudinal and cross veins, while the ovipositor, when present, varies much in shape and size; and the number of tarsal joints varies from two to five. Fig. 44 illustrates the incomplete metamorphosis of the common red-legged locust; it represents the freshly-hatched larva, which moults once before its wings begin to bud out, as at 35; this stage (dh) may be called the first pupal * Selected "Works. Glover, T. Illustrations of North American Entomology. Orthoptera. (4to, 13 pis. Washington, 1872.) Riley, Packard, and Thomas. First, Second, and Third Reports U. S. Entomological Commission, 1877-83. Saussure, H. de. Studies of the Orthoptera of Mexico and Central America (Paris, 1870-74). (In French.) Scudder, S. H. Materials for a Monograph of the N. A. Orthoptera (Jour. Bost. Soc, vii., 1862). Catalogue of North American Orthoptera (Smithsonian Misc. CoU., viii. Washington, 1868). Revision of the Mole Crickets (Mem. Peabody Acad., No. 1. Salem, 1869). Serville, A. Natural History of the Orthoptera (suites a Buffon). (1 vol.,8vo. Paris, 1839.) (In French.) StoU, C. Representations of the Phasmidse, Mantidae, Acrididae, Gryllidae (etc.), of the four parts of the world (2 vols., 4to, 70 pis. Amsterdam, 1815). (In French.) Thomas, C. Sjmopsis of Acrididae of North America (Final Report U. S. Geol. Surv., yc\ v. 4to. Washington, 1875). Walker, F. Complete catalogue of Dermaptera Saltatoria (4 vols and suppl. 8vo. London, 1869-71). Fig. 44. — Incomplete metamorphosis of the common red-legged locust, Calop- tenus femur-i'ubrum. I, la, 2, 26, 2c, the two larval stages: 3-5, the three pupal stages; 6, 6a, the adult.— Emerton del. (To face page 61.) HABITS OF LOCUSTS. 61 stage, and as the locust moults twice afterwards before the final imago stage is reached, it may be said to have three pupal stages. AVhen we compare the freshly-hatched larva with the adult, we see that the only important difference is the presence of wings. There is no great change, such as marks the life-history of a butterfly. Perhaps it is by reason of their incomplete metamorphosis, the general uniformity of their habits, and their living on vegetable food, that Orthoptera are not numerous in species compared with the beetles and higher orders. The locusts lay their eggs in packets in the ground (Fig. 45). With its ovipositor, which is made up of Fig. 45.— Rocky Mouutaiu locust laying its eggs (c) one by one, forming an oval mass. All natural size. — After Riley. three pairs of short spines, the two outer pairs very large and stout, the locust thrusts its hind body deep into the earth and deposits a packet of eggs. Many dangers attend the life of these insects. To over- come or to avoid them, many of them, as certain katydids, the leaf-insects, and the stick-insects, mimic leaves and sticks, so that insectivorous birds are deceived by them. Locusts are also attacked by parasites: little red mites stick to their bodies; hair-worms, and especially the mag- 62 ENTOMOLOGY. got of the flesh-fly, infest them, and thus thousands of them are swept away. All this is of use, however, for were it not for the kindly aid thus rendered, the earth would be each year overrun with locusts. The males of many Orthoptera, as the crickets, green grasshoppers, katydids, etc., and locusts, produce loud, shrill sounds, by which they attract the females; but in the European Ephippigera, one of the Locustidse, the female is provided with well-developed vocal organs. They stridu- late in three ways — i.e., first, by rubbing the base of one wing-cover on the other (crickets and green grasshoppers); second, by rubbing the inner surface of the hind legs against the outer surface of the front wings (some locusts); third, by rubbing together the upper surface of the front edge of the hind wings and the under surface of the wing- covers during flight (some locusts). Family Blattariae. — Body flattened, oval, with a broad pronotum; fore wings broad oval; antennae long and filiform. Blatta orientalis Linn,, and Periplaiieta americana (Linn.). While troublesome from eating clothing, etc., and mischievous in bakeries and storehouses, they are serviceable in clearing houses and ships of bed- bugs. The eggs are laid in a bean- shaped capsule (ootheca), which is divided into two compartments, each containing about thirty eggs. Our native species, Platamodes 'pensyl- vanica (De Geer), lives under stones. All are nocturnal in their habits. The metamorpliosis of B. orientalis is said to require four years. Family Mantidae. — Fore legs adapted for seizing their prey, which Fig. 46.— Croton bug, Ectobia ger- manica. Natural size. Fig. i7.— Mantis Carolina, soothsayer. Natural size. consists of other insects. Eggs laid in large bunches on various plants ORDER PLATTPTERA. 63 Family Phasmidae — The walking-sticks or spectres, represented by our Binpheromera femoratum Say, whicli resemble twigs, are very slender, with more or less cylindrical bodies and long legs; their wings are either want- ing or rudimentary, or if developed, strik- ingly leaf-like, as in the leaf-insect (Fig. 48, PhyUium siccifoUum Linn.). Family Acrydiidse. — Locusts have short antennae, and the body is laterally com- pressed; the ears are at the base of the hind body, while the ovipositor is short. CEdi- poda Carolina (Linn.), Caloptenvs spretus, and (J. femur-rubrum. Family Locustidae. — Body compressed; but the antennae very long and slender, while the ovipositor is very large and sabre- shaped. Some forms, as Ceuthophilus, are yig. 48.— Leaf-insect, Phyl- wingless. The large green gras.shoppers Hum. Half natural' size, represent this group, of which 'the katydid and its allies {Phanerop- tera curmcauda De Geer) are familiar examples. Certain forms close- ly resemble leaves. Family Gryllidae.— In the crickets the body is somewhat flattened vertically, or it may be more or less cylindrical, and the abdomen ends in a pair of long stylets. The mole-cricket, Gryllotnlvn borealis Burm., burrows in moist earth. The tree- cricket {(Ecanthns niveus Serville) makes a loud shrilling noise by rubbing the upper on the under wings, and injures ra.spberry -bushes and other shrubs by laying its eggs in the twigs. Order IV. Platyptera* {White Ants, etc.). This group comprises the bird-lice, Psocidfe, stone-flies (Perlidse), and the white ants. In all except the Psocidge * SEiiECTED Works. Platyptera in general. Hagen, H. A. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America (Smith. Inst. 1861). Packard, A. S. (External anatomy, in third report U. S. £nt. Com- mission, 1883, pp. 293, 332, with plates.) a. Mallophaga. Denny, H. Monographia Anoplurorum Britannise (London, 1863). Grosse, F. Beitriige zur Kenntuiss der Mallophagen (Zeits. f. Wissen Zool., xlii., 1885, 530. Abstract by G. McCloskey in Amer. Nat.. 1886, 340). Melnikow, N. Beitrage zur Embryonalentwicklung der Insekten (Archiv f. Naturg., xxxv., 1869). 64 ENTOMOLOGY. the body is flattened, and the head extended liorizontally. The pronotum is large, broad, and more or less square; the Nitsch, C. L. Die Familien und Gattungen der Thierinsekten (Germar's Mag. d. Eut., iii., 1812). Insecta epizoa (Leipzig, 1874. Edited by Giebel). Packard, A. S. On the systematic position of the Mallophaga (Proc. Amer. Phil Soc, xxiv., 1887, p. 264). Piaget. Les Pediculines (Leyden, 1880). h. Perlidae {Plecoptera). Gerstaecker, A. TJeber das Vorkommen von Tracheenkiemen bei aii.sgebildeten lusekten (Zeits. f. Wisseu. Zool., xxiv., 1874). Hagen, H. A. Synopsis of N. A. Ncuroptera. Newport, G. On the auatomj^ and affinities of Pteronarcys regalis (Trans. Linn. Soc, London, xx., 1851). Packard, A. S. (External anatomv of Pteronarcys, in third report U. S. Eut. Commission, 1883, p'. 822, Pis. XI, XLIV, LVII). Pictet, P. Histoire naturelle, etc., des insectes Neuropteres : Part I., Perlides; Part IL, Ephemerines. (Geneve, 1841-45. With col- ored plates.) c. Psocidae {Cwrodentia in part). Burgess, E. The anatomy of the head, and the structure of the maxilla, in the Psocidae (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xix., 1878, 291). Hagen, H. A. Sj'nopsis of N. A. Neuroptera. Beitrage zur Monographic der Psociden (Stettin Eut. Zeit., 1882). Nitzsch, C. L Ueber die Eingeweide der Bucherlaus, Psocus jnilsa- ton'i/s (Germar's Mag. d. Ent., iv., 276). Packard, A. S. (External anatomy of Psocus, in third report U. S. Ent. Commission, 1883, p. 325, Pis. XXXIX, XLIII). d. Embidse. Hagen, H. A. Monograph of the Embidina (Canadian Ent , xvii., 188.-)). Westwood, J. 0. Characters of Embia, a genus of insects allied to the white ants (Trans. Linn. Soc, xvii., 369). See also the writings of McLachlan, Wood-3Iason, etc. e. Termitidae {Corrodentia in part). Hagen. H. A. Monographic der Terraiten (Linuaea Entomolog., x., xii., and xiv.). Mnller, F. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Termiteu (Jena. Nat. Zoitsch., vii., 187^3). Packard, A. S. (External anatomy, in third report U. S. Ent. Com- mi.ssiou, 1883, p. 326, Pis. XXXIX-XLIII) Smeathman, H. Some account of the Termites, which are found in Africa and other hot climates (Phil. Trans., ixxi., 1781. Loudon). ORDER PLATTPTE'RA. 65 meso- and metanotum are remarkable on account of the imperfectly formed scuta and scutella, the latter being in- definite in outline, though large. The chest-pieces (or sterna) are large and broad; and there are often eleven seg- ments in the abdomen. The order receives its name from the fact that the wings are usually laid flat upon the back when the insect is at rest. The bird-lice (Mallophaga), though usually associated with the true lice (which are wingless parasitic Hemiptera), in reality seem to be degraded, Avingless Platyptera, and in Fig. 49.- -Terntes flnvipt-s. while ant. a, lai'\a; b. wiiiffed male; c, worker; d, soldier; e, large female; /, iiympli or pupa.— From Riley. the shape of the body and mouth-parts are more nearly allied to the family PsocidcB, which includes the death- tick, than any other group of insects; hence we regard these parasites as forming a sub-order of the present group. All the insects of this order have some remarkable peculiar- ities. The stone-flies or Perlidfe, which as larvae live in the water and breathe by external tufts of gills growing on the under side of the thorax, in some cases, as in the species of Pteronarcys, retain them in the winged state. 5 66 ENTOMOLOGY. The white ants top the Platypterous series; they live, like ants, in stumps and fallen trees, and do much harm, especially in the tropics, by undermining the sills of houses, and destroying furniture, books, etc. Their colonies are very large and populous. In our Termes flavipes there are, besides males and females, workers and soldiers; the workers being white, small, ant-like, and wingless, Vith small round heads, while the soldiers have large square heads, with long jaws; the pupae are active. In Brazil a species of white ant is differ- entiated into six different sets of individuals: viz., winged and wingless females; winged and wingless males; workers and soldiers, A wingless male and female may, on the death of a normal winged male and female, replace them in the colony. A male or king was found by Miiller living with thirty-one complemental females. Sub-order 1. Mallophaga. — The bird-lice live usually as parasites under the feathers of birds, eating the feathers; but the species of two genera (Tricho- dectes and Gyropus) live on mam- mals, eating the young hairs, and sometimes clots of blood. They differ from lice in having jaws adapted for biting. They can be mounted in balsam as transparent objects for the microscope. Family Philopteridae.— With fila- mentous 3- or 5- jointed antennoe, but no palps. Trichodectes canis De Geer, para- FiG. 50.— Goniocotes of domestic sitic on dogs; Go)iiocotes burnettii F&ck. fo^^'- on the domestic fowl. Family Liotheidae.— With club-shaped 4-jointed antennae and palps. Oyropus poixelli Shrank, on the porpoise; G. ovalis, on the Guinea pig; in the U. S., Menopon pallidum Nitsch, on fowls. Sub-order 2. Corrodentia.— Tliis group includes the nor- mal, winged forms. ORDER PLATYPTERA. 67 Family Perlidae. — Body long and flat; prothorax square; antenna' long and thread-like; abdomen ending in two long stylets; wings Fig. 51.— a Perlid (Nemonra). a, pupa (nymph) and imago. with transverse veins, and folded flat on the back. The larvae and pupae active, living under stones in streams, the imagines frequent- ing damp, shady places by water- courses. Perla abnoi'mis Newman; Pteronarcys regalis Newman. Family Psocidse. — Small insects, with short cylindrical bodies, a small prothorax, and a swollen clj^peus, resembling Aphides; wings small, deflexed, with few veins; / ' living on lichens, etc., and on the under side of leaves. Psocus novm-scotice Walker, Caecilius (Fig. 52). The book-louse, Atropos pulsatorius (Linn.), is wingless; it is sometimes called the "death- FiG. 52.—Coecilius. Fig. 53.— Atropos pulsatorius. watch" or "death-tick," from being erroneously supposed to make a ticking noise like the Anobium beetle. It is common in books, and is injurious to cabinet specimens of small moths and other deli- cate insects. Family Embidse.— Body long, flat, and narrow; wings with few veins. Embm savigni Westw., Egypt, none in the U. S. Family Termitidae.— The white" ants in some features closely re- semble the cockroaches, but they are smaller, with narrower bodies 68 ENTOMOLOGY. and wings, the latter being thin and finely net-veined alike in both pairs; antennae short, 18-20- jointed. Termed flampes Kollar (Fig. 49), Massachusetts southward. Okder V. Odonata* {Dragon-flies). In the dragon-flies the head is large, the eyes in the typ- ical forms enormous, while the antennae are minnte, like short bristles, the sense of sight predominating over that of smell, and the jaws are large and strong, these insects being carnivorous, greedily snapping up flying insects, such as mosquitoes, small flies, etc., Avhich they probably perceive Fig. 54.— a dragon-flj-, Diplax berenice. Male; natural size. at a much greater distance than can most other insects. The thorax is large, round, and differs from that of other insects in the great development of the side pieces (espe- * Selected Works. Cabot, L. The immature state of the Odonata (Mem. Mus. Comp. ZnoL, i., 1872). Gerstaecker, A. Zur Morphologic der Orthoptera amphibiotica (Berlin, 1873). Hagen, H. A. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America. Synopsis of the Odonata of America (Proe. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xviii., 1875). Monograph of the earlier stages of the Odonata (Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc, xii., 249. 1885). Packard, A. S. Embryological studies on Diplax [^schna ?], Peri- themis, etc. (Mem. Peab. Acad. Sc. 1871). Viallanes, H. Le ganglion optique de la Libellule (^schna). (Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool., 1884.) Also the writings of Charpentier, De Selys-Longchamps, Hagen, McLachlan, Pictet, Rambur, Scudder, and Walker. DRAQ0N-FLIE8. 69 cially the epistenui) and the very small prothorax. The abdomen is very long and slender, cylindrical, ending in a pair of claspers in the male. The wings are large, densely net-veined, the hinder pair being often a little larger than the front pair. Dragon-flies either, as in Libellula and allies, lay their eggs in Jelly-like masses on the surface of ponds, or, as in Agrion, they crawl deep in the water along the stems of submerged plants, and with their sword-like ovipositor cut gashes into the stalk in which they insert their eggs. The larva of the dragon-fly conceals its powerful jaws, for it is very de- structive to the smaller creatures about it, by its enormous labium or under lip. This forms a broad smooth mask covering the lower part of the face; it is armed at the broad spoon- shaped extremity with two sharp mov- able hooks, adapted for seizing and retaining its prey. It breathes by ad- mitting water through the vent into the intestine, which near the end is lined with folds of membrane rich in tracheae, by which the air is extracted from the water and mixes Avith the blood; the folds are also so arranged that the water thus introduced can be forced out as if from a syringe, by which the insect is suddenly propelled over the bottom. The entrance to Ihe intestine is protected by from three Fig. 56.-Agrion. Nat. size, to five conical horny valves, which open and shut at will. The larva of Agrion and its allies have three external broad, leaf-like, tracheary gills situated at the end (in the larva of Euphtea the gills are attached to the sides) of the body. Male dragon-flies are sometimes Fig. 55.—^ s c h n a larva (nymph). Natural size. 70 ENTOMOLOGY. seusiLly larger, and never smaller, than the females, and do not generally pair witli the females, until a week or fort- night after emerging from the pupa, and until they have assumed their proper masculine colors (Darwin's Descent of Man, i. 337). The larvae are interesting creatures to keep alive in aquaria, where their transformations can be watched, especially if collected in the spring. Little is known re- garding their habits, and any one who can spend the neces- sary time and patience in rearing them, so as to trace up the different stages from the larva to the dragon-fly, and describe and accurately figure them, will do good service to science. When about to cast its skin, a rent opens along the back of the thorax, and the insect having fastened its claws into some object at the bottom of the pool, it gradu- ally works its ways out of the larva skin. When about to change to the adult fly, the pupa climbs up some plant to near the surface of the water, its back then yawns apart, and from the rent the dragon-fly slowly emerges. For an hour or more it remains torpid and listless, with its flabby, soft wings remaining motionless. The fluids leave the surface, the wings expand, the skin hardens and dries, the colors appear, and the dragon-fly rises into the air. The colors of dragon-flies are very striking, consisting of rich green, blue, yellow, vermilion and metallic tints, and the sexes differ in color. Certain dragon-flies appear to be attracted by par- ticular colors, as the blue males of an Agrion were seen to settle in numbers on the blue float of a fishing-line. The males, in several genera, when they first emerge froni the pupa are colored exactly like the females; but in a short time they assume a conspicuous milky-blue tint, OAving to the exudation of a kind of oil, soluble in ether and alcohol. Certain species of Neurothemis are dimorphic, some females having their wings netted as usual, while others have them richly netted as in the males of the same species. In several species of Agrion a certain number of individuals are of an Orange color. (Darwin's Descent of Man, i-. 352.) MAT-FLIES. 71 Family Libellulidse. — CaUypteryx apicalis Burm., Agrion civile Hagen, ^ISschna heros Fabr., Lihellula trimaculata De Geer. Order VI. Piectoptera* {Maij-flies). Like the dragon-flies, the Ephemerae or May-flies are in their own way very peculiar insects, and cannot be placed in any of the older established orders. We have therefore proposed the name Piectoptera for the group, <* in allusion to the fine, gauzy network of their wings. The adult May-flies are characterized by the very rudimentary condition of the mouth-parts. In examining the under side of the head there is a hollow, with only slight rudiments of the mandibles, maxillse, and labium. As these insects live but a few hours, only long enough to provide for the continuance of the species, they need to take no food, hence the mouth-parts are Fig. 57— Mayfly, natural siz'?. a, larva, twice enlarged. nearly aborted, and the antenuge are small and bristle-like. * Selected Works. Eaton, A. E. A revisional monograph of recent Ephemeridae or May- flies. Parts I. -IV. (Trans. Linn. Soc, London, 1883-85). Hagen, H. A. Synopsis of the Nenroptera of Nortli America (1861). Lubbock, J. Development of Chloeon dimidiatum (Trans. Linn. Soc, London, xxiv.-v., 1865-66). Packard, A. S. (External anatomy, in third report U. S. Entomolog. Commission, 1883, pp. 333-335, Pis. XLV-XLVI). Swammerdam, J. Epliemerte Vita (Amsterdam, 1675). Vayssiere, A Recherches sur I'organization des larves des Ephe- meriues (Ann. Sc. Nat., xiii., 1883). 72 ENTOMOLOGY. The thorax is also peculiar iu being globular, the pro- thorax is small and collar-like, while the mesothorax is very large, and the metathorax very small. The wings are finely net-veined, and the hinder pair are very small, sometimes wanting. The abdomen is very long and slender, ending in three long, jointed stylets, while in addition there are in the males beneath the stylets two pairs of jointed claspers, a feature peculiar to tliese insects. Moreover, as in the Dermaptera, the genital openings of both sexes are double; in all other insects there is but a single opening. But if the May-fly takes no food, it is quite otherwise with the larva and pupa. Fig. 57, a, represents the larva or nymph of Palingenia; its body is long and slender, with long slender antennse, while the jaws are very large, the creature being voracious and feeding on other insects. Along the sides of the hind body are either leaf-like or bushy tracheary gills, and the body ends in long hairy bristles. The larvae are said to live two or three years, residing in burrows in the mud, under stones, or among grass and weeds, where they may be taken with the water-net in great abundance, and are beautiful objects for the aquarium. Some of the group, if not all, differ from other insects in moulting so many times; thus Chloeon casts its skin twenty-one times before it assumes the imago state. In another respect the May-flies are peculiar: after transform- ing from the nymph, the winged insect, called the snb- imago, takes a short flight, and then casts another skin before assuming the final, imago, state. May-flies often appear in immense numbers, and falling into the water become stranded in windrows along the borders of lakes. The perfect -insects should be preserved in alcohol for study, and described when alive if possible, as the body shrivels up and the colors fade when pinned. Family Ephemeridse. Characters of the order. Potamanthus mar- ginutus Zett. (Fig. 57), Palingenia bilineata Say (Fig. 57, a, nymph). OBDEB fBTSANOPfEBA. 73 Order VII. Thysanoptera.* Eepresented by the little group of which Thrips is the type, and placed by some among the Hemiptera, to which they seem closely allied, it may be said that though the head ends in a short beak, yet these insects differ from the bugs in having maxillae bearing 2-3-jointed palpi, while the labial palpi are present, and, though very short, are composed of from two to three joints. The order derives its name from the long delicate fringe on its long, narrow, and often veinless wings. In some species the wings are wanting, at least in the males. The abdomen, in certain species, ends in the males by a slender joint, and in the females by a 4-valved borer. The eggs are somewhat like those of Hemiptera, being cylindric, round at one end and crowned with a knob at the other. The larva and pupa are both active, and in the rather sluggish pupa the antennae are turned back on the head, while the limbs and wings are enclosed in a thin filmy membrane; the feet end in bulbous enlargements, hence the name "bladder-footed" (Physapoda) applied to the group by Burmeister. The wheat Thrips, Limothrijjs cerealium Haliday, is in- jurious to wheat; Thrips striatus Osborn (Fig. 58) destroys onion-plants. These insects injure plants by puncturing and killing the leaves; all the species are minute, and little is known of them in the United States. Family Thripidse. — Characters of the order as given above. * Selected Works. Haliday, A. H. An epitome of the British genera in the order Thy- sanoptera (Entomological Mag., iii. 439. 1836). Packard, A. S. (Standard Natural History, second edit., 1888; also contains a list of de.scribed N. A. species by Th. Pergande.) Reuter, 0. M. Thysanoptera Fennica. (1880.) Uljanin, W. H. Embryology of Physapoda (Moscow. In Russian). 74 ENTOMOLOGY. Order VIII. Hemiptera* {Bikjs, PJant-Uce, etc.). While the preceding groups ure of limited extent as regards number of species, the one now before us is very rich in this respect. We are now to take into account insects which gain their livelihood by piercing and sucking the sap of plants or the blood of other insects; and the change in the jaws by which a sucking beak is formed is very curious. One can obtain an excellent idea of what a bug is by dissecting a common squash-bug (Fig. 59). With a lens fixed on a stand, and a FxG. 59.— Squash- needle mounted in a handle, the student can, bug. Nat. size. ^^^^^, ^ ^^^^ ^^.^^^^^ dissect the head from the body, examine the beak, the wings; separate the thorax * Selected Works. Amyot, C, and Serville, A. Hemipteres (Paris, 1843). Buckton, G. B. Mouograpli of the British Aphides (Ray Soeietv. i., ii. London, 1876-79). Comstock, J. H. Report of U. S. Entomologist (Dept. Agr.) for 1879-1881 (Washington, 1880-82). Douglas and Scott. British Hemiptera. I. Heteroptera. (Ray So- ciety. Loudon, 1865.) Fieber, F. X. European Hemiptera (Vienna, 1861.) (In German.) Geise, 0. Mimdtheile der Rhynchoten (Archiv f. Naturg., xlix., 315. 1883). Glover, T. Manuscript Notes: Hemiptera (Washington, 1876). Oestlund, 0. W. Synopsis of the Aphididoe of Minnesota (St. Paul, 1887). Riley and Monell. Notes on Aphidai of the U. S. (Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv.., v. Washington, 1879.) Thomas, C. Monograph of the Plant-lice (8th Report State Ento- mologist of 111., 1879). Uhler, P. R. Monographs of Cydnidoe and Sald« [etc.]. (Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., iii., 1877). • Check-list of the Hemiptera-Heteroptera of North America (Brook- lyn, 1886). Walker, F. Catalogue of Hemiptera-Heteroptera in British Museum (8 vols and suppl. 1867-74). Witlaczil, E. Die Anatomie der Psylliden (Zeits. f. Wissensch. Zool., Bd. xlii. Wien, 1885). Zur 3[orphologie und Anatomie der Cocciden (Zeits. f. Wis- sensch. Zool. Wien, 1885). Also the writings of Ashmead, Comstock, Forbes, Landois, L« Baron, Monell, Osborn, Riley, Say, Thomas, etc. Fia. 60.— External anatomy of squash-bug, Anasa tristis. a, upper, b, under and c, side, view of head; ant, antenna; oc. ocellus; d, pro-, e, meso-,/, meta- notum; sc'. meso scutum; scl. meso-scutellum; 3, pro-, /i, meso-, t, meta- pleurum; st, pro-, st\ meso-, st", meta-scutum; epis, epis', epis", episternura of pro-, meso-, and meta-thorax; em. em', em", epimerum of pro-, meso-, and meta-thorax; j, fc, I, under side of the pro-, meso-, and meta-thorax,- ex", coxa; ir", trochanter; /, fe«iur; t, tibia; ts. tarsus; m, dorsal, n, ventral, o. Bide, view of abdomen; sp', sep", six pairs of spiracles. (To face p. 74.) 76 JSNTOMOLOGT. into its separate segments, dissect the hind hody or abdomen from the thorax, and study tliese parts with the aid of Fig. 60, always remembering to compare each part with its corre- sponding part in the grasshopper. It will be seen that the bug has, besides a pair of compound eyes, two simple eyes behind; and that it takes its food by suction, plung- ing its long slender beak into the stems of plants or into the flesh of its victim. This beak is the distinctive mark of the bugs, which thus differ from other in- sects in their manner of taking their food. It is formed of the long, slender, needle-like mandibles and maxillae, which are united so as to form a hollow sucking-tube. The tube thus formed is ensheathed by the under lip {lahium), which is Fig. 61. — Head of bed-bug, i"in i jj»j; showing the structure of tlie lOUg, holloW, and COmpOSCd of lour Sm/ which %o*nTai^s"the joiuts. Above, the suckiug-tube is Sni'&v.^osrbSl"e protected by the labrum (Figs. 61 shown by the dotted lines in and 62, Ibv). Another distinguish- the head; Ibr, labrum; ant, ^ ' ^ ' ci _ antenna. ing mark is that bugs have no palpi, either maxiliary or labial. There are c-:timated to be nearly 10,000 species of bugs in North America, all having a beak; and through their different kinds of food and habits there is a chance for the individuals of each species to get a living. The bugs also differ from other insects, and somewhat anticipate the beetles, in the large broad prothorax, and in the fore wings, which are thickened at the base so as to protect the thin under pair. Since the basal half of the fore wings is thus thickened, the bugs are called Hemiptera, from henri, half, and pteron, wing. Like the grasshopper, the bugs have an incomplete meta- ORDER HEMIPTERA. 11 morphosis. Fig. 63 represents the transformations of the chinch-bug, the young having no wings. After reaching f Fig. 62.— Longitudinal section of bug's head. Ihr, labrum; Ih, labium; md, mandible; mx, maxilla; sq, salivary gland (the arrows pointing outward show the course of the salivary duct into the mouth; the inward-pointing arrows indicate the throat and the direction taken by the food in passing to the stomach); I, t, x, muscles which elevate the roof of the mouth.— After Graber. the stage e, the wings appear as in the stages/ and g. This bug does immense harm to farmers by sucking the sap of wheat and corn. Certain species of Hemiptera are apterous; the sexes Fig. 63.— The Chinch-bug and its early stages, a, b. eggs; c, e, larval stages; /, g, pupae; /, beak; d, tarsus of larva; j", tarsus of perfect bug; h, leg of ditto. differ in the form of the body and fore wings, in the second joints of their antennae, and in their tarsi; while the females are generally larger and more robust than the males, but they do not commonly differ much in color. (Darwin's Descent of Man, i. 339.) 78 ENTOMOLOGY. Although the Hemiptera are not so numerous in species as the Coleoptera, Diptera, or Hymenoptera, the}'^ possibly outnumber the Lepidoptera. Uhler states that about 27,000 species occur in museums, and that thexe are prob- ably not less than 50,000 species now existing. The known forms are distributed in very nearly the following propor- tions: South America, 10,000; Nortli America, 5000; Cen- tral America and the West Indies, 2000; Europe, 3000; Asia and its islands, 3000; Africa and its islands, 3000; and Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines, about 1000 species. Suh-order 1. Pediculina. — The parasitic Hemiptera or lice are wingless and have a beak-like sucker, which is soft and retractile, with two j)rotrusible chitinous bristles. The feet are adapted for clinging to hairs, as they are hooked, while the body is soft, and the thoracic segments are not divided into separate pieces, as in other Hemiptera and nearly all other insects. The eggs, called "nits'" (Fig. 30, r), are oval and attached to hairs. All the species live on mammals, none on birds. Though evidently allied to the wingless Cimex, and form- ing a group standing near it, we have, as a matter of con- venience, to place them at the bottom of the entire order in a sub-order by themselves, interpolating the Homoptera between them and the Heteropterous Hemiptera, to which they more nearly belong. Parasitism has so degraded them that the marks of relationship to their true ancestors have been effaced. The lice may be said to be a downward-bent twig of the Heteropterous branch, while the Homoptera form the highest branch of the ordinal tree. Family Pediculidae. — Pediculus capitis De Geer, the head-louse of man; P. vestimenU ^nrm. (larger and paler); PhtJiirius pubis (Linn.), the crab-louse. Suh-order 2, Homoptera. — In Hemiptera of this group the wings are somewhat opaque throughout, or transparent, and lie roof-like over the body. The head is large, and the beak appears to arise between the fore legs. Many of the TSE BARK-LICE. 79 Species are hoppers, the hind legs being enlarged, while many (except the plant and bark lice) have an ovipositor, for inserting eggs in the twigs of plants. Many species secrete, in nnmerous glands in the skin, a white waxy powder which covers the body. We have always regarded, and still regard, the typical Horaoptera, snch as Cicada, as a more highly specialized insect than any of the Heteropterous Hemiptera; but in treating of them in the pages of a book, and in deference to the views of Hemipterists, we interpolate the snb-order between the Pediculina and Heteroptera. Family Coccidae. — The bark-lice or scale insects are so called from the habits and shape of the females, which are wingless, with bodies resembling scales. They insert their long slender beak into the bark of trees or stems and leaves of plants, drawing in the sap, and when Fig. 64.— Cochineal insect, male: female, natural size and eulargecl. Fig. 65.— Orange-scale insect, a, male; b, female; d, its scale; c, another species. very numerous do much harm to the plant or tree. On the other hand, the males have two wings and a pair of balancers, but no beak, and take no food. The females lay their eggs beneath the end of their bodies. While the eggs are generally fertilized, in species of Lecanium and Aspidiotus, they develop without fertilization by the males. Unlike the females, the males undergo a metamorphosis, the larvfe spinning a cocoon; the pupa? remaining therein without moving or taking food. While most of the species are injurious to vegetation, the cochineal Coccus (Fig. 64) produces a carmine dye, and the manna and lac insects by their punctures cause a flow of vegetable juices, which, when dry, are a valuable article of merchandise. With us the most injurious species is the Apple bark-louse, Mytilas- pis pomorinn Bouche, whose scales sometimes so abound on the bark as to kill young trees; oranges are injured by M. glorerii (Pack., Fig. 65), and the purple orange-scale, J/. citriro'la (Pack.). Plants in hot-houses are often injured by the " mealy bug," Cocctis (Ddcti/hplufi adonidmn Tiinn.), which also occurs in gardens, as does fA't-dnium hesperidum, which especially affects the orange. Pulvinaria in- numeraMUs (Rathvon) injures the linden and soft maple. 80 ENTOMOLOGY. Family Aleyrodidae. — Wings rounded, rather broad and white; larvae scale-like and fixed to leaves; beak 2-jointed. Aleyrodes corni Hald. Family Aphidse. — The Aphides or plant-lice abound to an enormous extent; nearly every plant has one or more species peculiar to it, and the individuals are often to be numbered by millions; while a thousand species are already known. The males and females are usually winged; in rare cases are the males wingless, but the females are not seldom without wings, while the asexual individuals are wingless. They are all small insects, both sexes with a 3 jointed beak; the wings have few veins; the body is flask-shaped, and in the species of Aphis and Lachnus near the end of the abdomen are two tubes for the exit of a sweet fluid called " honey-dew," which is lapped up by the ants seen frequenting a colony of these insects. Aphides are usually green, with a soft powdery bloom on the skin. The Aphides or plant-lice abound by reason of their wonderful fertility, the young being brought forth alive. There are as many as Fig. 66.— Apple Aphis. Natural size and enlarged. nine or ten generations; a single Aphis becoming the parent in one summer of millions of children and grandchildren. Though they are devoured in enormous numbers by other insects and by birds, still hosts are left to prey on our fruit-trees, succulent vegetables, and household plants. Thus, these weak, defenceless creatures owe their success in life to their unusual powers of reproduction, the young budding forth within the parent, as the polyp sends forth bud after bud which eventually become jelly-fish. The last brood of Aphides lay eggs in the autumn and then die. Sexual forms (at time of birth already mature, wingless, and with- out a proboscis) sometimes occur in the spring, as in the European Pemphigus terebinthi (Derb^s). Chermes and Phylloxera give birth in place of viviparous generations to a special egg-laying female, which also produces eggs, from which arise individuals which repro- duce parthenogenetically. In Phyllo.rera quercus, besides the two generations, there is another generation which appears in autumn, and consists of very .small males and females (without a suctorial proboscis or alimentary canal). These animals arise from two kinds of eggs which are laid in the roots. The female after pairing lays only a single egg. It is the same with the Phylloxera of the vine (Claus). Of the latter there are two forms, one living in galls on the leaves, and the other forming small swellings on the roots. The root-form is either wingless or winged, the latter very rare. The leaf-form is said to be always wingless. LEAF-HOPPERS. 81 Family Psyllidae. — These leaf-hoppers commonly live in all stages on tlie under surface of leaves, some of them forming galls. They Fig. &7.—Fsylla tripuncfata.— After Riley, are generally conical, with a broad head, with long, lO-jointed an- tennae and short legs, the hinder ones adapted for springing ; the ^^^, l) Fig. 68.— Seventeen-year Cicada. A, larva ; a, pupa; b, its cast skin split alonj; the back; e, eggs; d, gashes made for them in a twig. All except A natural size.— After Riley. 6 82 ENTOMOLOGY. I wings are thickened, folded roof-like over the body, while the young are often covered with a white cottony mass. Psylla pi/ri Schmidt injures the pear-tree; and P. tripunctata Fitch is common on pine- trees. ^Family Membracidae.— Head broad, prothorax very large and of varied form, being arched, compressed, hump-backed, conical, etc., in different species,, aiid often with spines and projections. <xxiTA\., Fulgora candelarui (Linn.), the lantern-fly of China, are both among the largest of insects.^^ative forms of much smaller size {ii^Oiiocerus coquehertii Kirby anO'VelpIiax arvensis Fitch . rt Family Cercopidae. — A large group of insects of medium or small size, living in grass and on leaves; with a large broad thorax. "Frog's spittle" m^^cxpptyehis lineatus (Linn.). o Fig. &i.—Ptyehi.s lineatus. Spittle insect, a, larva, enlarged; b, its natural size; above it the mass of froth or "spittle." Family Jassidse. — Slenderer insects than the Cercopida', and with longer hind Iggs, but like them living in grass and treeay^Erythroneurd vitis (RarTisfi'I)iedrocephala moUipes (Say). Sub-order 3. Heteroptera.7— The wings are in the true btigs laid flat on the back, those of the fore pair thick- ened on the basal half or two-thirds (hemelytra) ; the pro- thorax is large and broad. Many species give out an offen- sive smellj due to a secretion emitted from a gland situated WATER-BUGS, ETC. 83 in the meso- or metathorax, and, if in the latter place, opening between the hind legs. Many are wingless, and in some species the females are wingless. The definition of the families, and their arrangement, are taken from P. R. Uhler's account of the Hemiptera in ''The Standard Natural History." Family Corisidae. — Aquatic insects, with broad heads, flattened bodies, and swimming feet, the beak passing through a little hole above the actual end of the clypeus. Gorisa interrupta Say. Family Notonectidae. — Boat-shaped, aquatic forms, diflEering from all other Hemiptera by swimming on their backs. Notonecta undulaia Say. Family Nepidae. — Flat-bodied aquatic insects, the body often ending in two respiratory tubes. Voracious and, as in Belostoma grisea (Say), destructive to fishes and tadpoles from its large size and powerful beak. Family Naucoridae. ^Flat-bodied, oval, without caudal tubes. Pelocoris femordta (Pal. Beauv.). Family Galgulidae. ^Insects living by the edge of ponds and streams, with the hind legs adapted for running. Gal- gulus oculatus Fabr. Family Saldidae. — Small, leaping, dull-colored insects, with the head free. Salda signoretii Guerin. Family Hydrobatidae. — The water-boatmen have long limbs, wherry- like l)0(lies, and row themselves on the surface of the water. G err is (Hygrotrechus) remigis Say; Halobates Wuellerstorfii White lives on the ocean far from land. Family Veliidae. — Body short and deep, with short legs. velia obesa Uhler. Family Hydrometridae. — Dull brown insects of linear shape, with long legs fitted- for walking on the sur- face of pools and brooks. Ilydrometra Uneata Say Family Emesidae. — Body extremely slender, with thread-like middle and hind legs, but with spinous, raptorial i?'^>^^^Sfe'.>*seSt f 1NS\ fore legs. Emesa longijjes De Geer. Family Reduviidae. — Body thick, with short coxa;, the fore legs set far back. Conoi'hifius sanguisiigus hec, a large red-spotted bug, which inflicts a severe puncture. Milyas cinctns Fabr. a ^ ft Family Nabidae. — Body obloug, with '^ a thick head ending in a long slender Fig. 71 beak. Nabis fusca Stein ; Coriscus ferus Linn. Family Aradidae. — Body very flat, dead-leaf-brown color. crenatus Sa)^ Family Phymatidae.— Body thicker; forelegs raptorial. Phymata erosa Il^'rr-Scli. Family Tingitidae.— Small, very flat bugs living on leaves. Cm'y- Rhago- Milyas cinctus. b, beak. — After Riley. Aradus 84 ENTOMOLOGY. thtica ciliata (Say), common on oak-leaves. Tingis clavata Stal. f-,, , . Family Cimicidae. — Body broad and flat, species ^^/'^[^^j^^v sometimes wingless. Cimex lectularia Linn., bed- /dlI-\ bug. Family Capsidae. — Body oval; antennae thread- like, long, and 4-jointed; the end of the thick part of the hemelytra triangular, and incised out- side. Pcecildcapsus linentus (Fabr.). Fig. 72.— Bed-bug. Family Pyrrhocoridae.— Body stouter and larger than in theCapsidee. Dysdercus sutui'ellus Herr-Sch., cotton-stainer. Family Lygaeidae. — Body ovate or oblong ; head with a pair of dis- tinct ocelli between the eyes ; mostly red and black or black and yellow insects. Lyg. Fla., Mex. Family Arthropteridae.— Body wide and flat, black, highly polished. Coptosoma globus {Y-Ahv.). Eur. [»*»!»-«.; Ordee IX. Neuroptera* {Ant-lions, Aphis-lions, Lace- winged Flies, etc.). These are net-veined insects, with a metamorphosis, but * Selected Works. Brauer, F. Beitrilge zur Kenntniss der Verwandlung der Neurop- tcren (Verb. Zool. bot. Ges. , Wien, iv., v.). Heber die Verwandlung des Bittacus italicus und Jm genii (Yerh. Zool. bot. Ges., Wien, 1871). Hagen, H. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America (1861. Smithsonian Institution). Haldeman, S. S , and J. Leidy. History and transformations of Cory- dalis cornutus (Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sc, iv.. 1848). Packard, A. S. (External anatomy, in third report U. S. Eut. Comm. 188;i 835, Pis. Ll-LVIIl. LXIV) Also the writings of Erichson, Fitch, McLachlan, Pictet, Ram- bur, Riley, Schneider, and Westwood. ORDER NEUROPTERA. 85 they also differ in important respects from net- veined insects without a complete metamorphosis. The head is horizon- tal and somewhat flattened; the body is flattened or cylin- drical. The mouth-parts are free, adapted for biting, and the mandibles well developed. The ligula differs from that of the other net- veined insects in being entire, form- FiGS. 74, 75.— Larva and pupa (6) of Corydalis cornutus. Natural size. ing a large, broad, flat, rounded lobe. The prothorax is large, broad, and square, and the mesothorax and meta- thorax are nearly of the same size, while the wings corre- spond in being all of the same size; they are not so decidedly net-veined as in the Orthoptera, Platyptera, Odonata, and Plectoptera, the costal space being wide, while the trans- 86 ENTOMOLOGY. verse veinlets are few ana far ajiart compared with those of the dragon- and may-flies, or the Orthoptera. Only Kaphidia has an ovipositor, and there are no caudal stylets. Fig. 76.— Imago of Conjdalis cornutus; male. Natural size. The Neuroptera have a complete metamorphosis, the pupa being quite unlike the larva, and quiescent, being often pro- tected by a cocoon. The shajje of the larva is peculiar, the body being broad, somewhat flattened, with large jaws, and of rather a primitive form, compared with those of the following orders. APHIS- AND ANT-LIONS. 87 Famil.v Sialidae. — Body somewhat liatteucd, of moderate length; the anteume loug aud slender, sometimes serrated or pectinated; the wings are large, net-veined, the hinder pair with the anal space folded, while the tarsi are 5- jointed. To this family belongs the great Corydnlis cornutus Linn., whose wings expand six inches. The jaws of the male are enormously enlarged, being nearl}'^ an inch long, and can scarcely be used for taking food. Its larva lives under stones in brooks, and is used for bait under the name of " hellgrammite. " In Ghauliodes'pecUmcornis Linn., a much smaller insect, the antennae are pectinated. Species of Raphidia, which have a very long narrow prothorax, inhabit the Pacitic coast. Family Hemerobidae. — ^The body is slender, cylindrical, with large net- veined wings, the hinder ones with no anal space. The larvae are peculiar in having large sickle-shaped mandibles which have a groove beneath, in which the maxillai slide back and forth; with these they can pierce the bodies of small insects aud suck their Fig. 77.— Lace-wing fly, side and top view ; eggs aad larva. Enlarged twice. blood, without moving the mandibles on which the victim is im- paled. The larvtB of Chrysopa (Fig. 77) and Hemerobia are called Aphis-lions, and destroy great numbers of those pests. The ant-lion is the larva of Myrmeleoa. It makes a pit in fine sand, lying at the Fig. 78.— Myrmeleon, and a, its larva, the ant-lion. bottom with its jaws wide open, ready to seize any luckless insect which may fall in. Mantispa (Figs. 79, 80) is noteworthy from the strange habits of its larva, which passes through two stages, the 88 ENTOMOLOGY. first of the normal form of the order, when it lives iu the cocoonsof spiders; before the first moult it loses the use of its feet, and begins Fig. 79. Fig. 80. Fig. 80a. Fig. 79. — Mantispa interrupta Say; and side view of the same without wings. Natural size. — Emerton del. Fig. 80.— Freshly-hatched larva of Mantispa styriaca, enlarged. Fig. 80a.— Larva of the same, but older, before the first moult. Enlarged.— After Brauer. to change its form, until when fully grown it is cylindrical, with small feet and a small round head, much as in caterpillars. Oeder X. Mecopteea.* {Scorpion-flies). We have given this name to the Panorpidse, which have features separating them from the true Neuroptera. The front of the head is greatly elongated into a sort of beak, the clypeus being very long, and the minute mandibles are situated at the end of the snout. The prothorax is very small; and in the shape of the thorax as a whole, and in * Selected Works. Brauer, F. See Neuroptera. Hagen, H. A. Synop.sis of N. A. Neuroptera. Packard, A. S. (External anatomy, in third report U. S. Entom. Com- mission, 1883, 342, PI. LIX, LX). Westwood, J. 0. Monograph of the genus Panorpa (Trans. Ent. Soc. London, iv., 1846). ORDER MECAPTERA. 89 the form of the side and breast pieces (pleurites and ster- nites), we have a striking approximation to tlie moths. The abdomen is long and slender, composed of ten segments, and in the male ending in a large forceps. The larva is caterpillar-like, the head small, the feet short and small, and there are eight pairs of abdominal feet, while the body is adorned with button-like, bristle-bearing warts or spines. The metamorphoses are complete, the pup^ being somewhat like those of the lowest moths, the limbs being free. Family Panorpidae. — With the characters of the order. lu Pauorpa the body of the male ends iu a forceps. It has been known to attack fishes, piercing their eyes with its beak. Its larva bores an inch deep into moss-covered soil. The short, 4- jointed thoracic feet resemble those of caterpillars; but the most striking point of resem- blance to the latter is seen in the eight pairs of abdominal feet. Not only the form of the body and legs, but also the arrangement and shape of the button-like, bristle-bearing warts on the body recall the general appearance of arctian caterpillars. Bittacus has a very long slender body, with long legs, and the male abdomen bears no forceps. The larva is somewhat like that of Panorpa, but is adorned with Fig. 81.— Panorpa or Scorpion-fly, and larva, long scattered dorsal spines, and a lateral row of slender filaments; each of the nine abdominal segments bears a pair of soft, 2- jointed feet. While the Lepidoptera are supposed to have originated from the same ancestors as the Trichoptera, it is a significant fact that the eruciform larvae of the M{>coplera actually have 2- jointed legs to each abdominal segment. This suggests that the Lepidoptera may have originated from the same stem-form as the Mccoptera; though it should be remarked that the moths themselves more closely resemble the caddis-flies. A very rare and singular form is Merope tuber Newman, the male abdomen bearing a large forceps. The female Boreus is wingless; iu the male the wings are rudimentary. B. nivoriundus Fitch has only been collected in the winter-time on snow. The species are brassy brown, brassy black, or deep bronze green. 90 ENTOMOLOGY. Order XL Trichoptera* {Caddis-flies). The caddis-flies bear a still closer resemblance to the smalL er moths than Panorpa, though the larvffi are less like cat- erpillars tlian those of the Mecaptera. The caddis-flies have a small, rounded head which in its general structure, though presenting some notable differences, closely resem- bles that of the smaller moths, even to the obsolete mandi- bles, these insects taking no solid food in the imago state. Ilagen states that in Plectrotarsus gravenhorstii the pro- boscis is greatly developed, and in certain other genera is longer than the head and fitted to probe flowers, (In the (Est7'opsidm the maxillge and labium become aborted dur- FiG. 83.— Caddis-fly (enlarged and natural size) and case-worm, a, case. ing the pupa state. ) The thorax is throughout much like that of the smaller moths, the prothorax being small and collar-like; the metanotum formed on the lepidopterous * Selected Works. Hagen, H. A. Synopsis of N. A. Neuroptera. McLachlan, R. A monographic revision and synopsis of the Trichoptera of the European fauna (London, 1874-1880). Muller, F. Ueber die von den Trichopterenlarven der Provinz Santa Catliarina verfertigten Gcbiiuse (Zeits. f. Wisson. Zool., xxxv., 1880). Packard, A. S. (External anatomy, in third report U. S. Ent. Comm., 1883. 344, Pis. LIX, LXI). CADDIS-FLIES. 91 type, as is tlie rest of the thorax, especially the coxge and side-pieces (pleurites) ; while the long, slender abdomen re- calls the shape of that of moths. Moreover, the body and wings, usually hairy, are sometimes covered with scales; and the venation is somewhat as in moths. The transformations are much as in those of the lower moths, though in the pupa the limbs are free, not soldered to the body as in moths. The larvae, which breathe by means of thread-like tracheal gills, construct cases of bits of sticks, or grains of sand, which they drag over the bot- tom of quiet pools ; they live both on decaying leaves and small insects, water-fleas, etc. When about to pupate they close the mouth of the case with a grating, or, as in Helico- psyche, with a dense silken lid having a single slit, and in some instances spin a slight, thin, silken cocoon, within which the pupa state is passed. The female lays her eggs in clumps covered with jelly on stones and leaves at the water's edge. Super-family Phryganidae. — This great group is divided by McLach- lan into seven families, chiefly according to the structure of the max- illary palpi, as follows: Hydroptilidte, RhyacopMlidij' , Hydropsy chidce, Leptoceridm, Sericostomaiidif, Limnophilidm, and Phryganid(E. " In the Bhyacophilid/f and HydropsycMdm the larvae inhabit fixed cases; in the others the cases are free, and carried about by the inmates. In the Bhyacophilidm the pupa is enveloped in a special cocoon." (McLach- lan.) Order XII. Coleoptera* {Beetles). Although so numerous in species, upwards of 100,000 * Selected Works. Dejean et Aube. Species generales de Coleopteres (6 vols., 8vo. Paris, 1825-38). Gemminger and Harold. Catalogue of all described Coleoptera with synonyma (12 vols. Munich, 1868-76). (Lat.) Henshaw, S. List of the Coleoptera of North America. 1885. Supple- ment, pp. 8. 1887. The entomological writings of John L. LeConte (Cambridge, 1878). The entomological writings of George H. Horn (Cambridge, 1879). Horn, G. H. Revision of North American Tenebrionidse (Trans. Am. Phil. Soc, 1870). Synopsis of Parnidae (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, ii., 1870). {Continued on next page.) 92 ENTOMOLOGY. existing in museums, tlie beetles are so different from all other insects tliat. with the exception, perhaps, of the two families iSfi/hpidcB and PlatypsyUidw, no one would con- found them with the members of any other order. Beetles differ from other insects in the nature of the fore wings, which are usually thick and solid, generally without dis- tinct veins, and serve as sheatlis {elytra) to protect that part of the body situated behind the prothorax, which is large, broad, and moves freely on the rest of the thorax: while the mouth-parts are free and ada])ted for biting. In order to learn the names of the different parts, the beginner should have specimens of a ground-beetle and of a may-beetle, and compare them with Figs. 83 and 84. This will save pages of dry description. How the antennje vary in form in different beetles may be seen by reference to Fig. 85, while Fig. 86 represents the different forms of eyes. The Jaws vary much in shape, while perhaps the extreme of variation in the maxilla? is seen in many sj)ecies of Nemog- natha, in which the outer lobe is generally prolonged into Horn, G. H. Descriptive catalogue of species of Nebria and Pelophila (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, ii., 1870). Synopsis of Malachidae of U. S. (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, iv., 1872). Brenthida? of U. S. (Trans Am. Ent. Soc, iv., 1872). Revision of species of Lebia (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, iv., 1872). A monograph of the species of Chiysobothris inhabiting the United States (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, xiii", 1886). A monograph of the Aphodiini inhabiting the United States (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, xiv., 1887). Lacordaire, J. T., et Chapuis. Genera des Coleopteres (i.-vii. Paris, 1854). leConte, J. L., and G. H. Horn. The Rhychophora of America north of Mexico (Proc Am. Phil. Soc, 1876l. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America (Smithsonian Inst., 1883). Schaupp, F. G. Synopsis of the Cicindelidae of the U. S. (Bull. Ent. Soc, Brooklyn, ^^. , 1884. Five plates ; every species with a colored figure, on four plates.) Stal, C. Monograph of American Chrysomelidse (Upsala, 1862-5). Also articles by Austin, Blancbard, Casey, Fitch, Fuchs, HaiTis, Hub- bard, Matthews, Melsheimer, Randall, Say, Schwarz, J. B. Smith, Ulke, Ziegler, Zimmerraann, and others in Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. Phil.; Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc; Entomologica Americana; Can. Entomologist, etc. 93 No. 1 Fio. 83.— Under surface of Hctrpalus caliginosits. No. 1: .4, antenna: B. man- dible: C, labruin; D. ligula; E, paraglossff: F. labial palpus: (?, maxilla inner lobe; H, outer lobe: /. maxillaiy palpus: A', mentum: L, gense; M. gula with the gular sutures: ^V, buccal fissure; V. ventral segments: 1, prester- num ; 2. prostei-nal episternnm ; 3. prosternal epinierum : 4, cosal cavitj-, closed behind: 5, inflfxed side of pronotum: 6, inesosternuMi; 7. mesosternal epis- ternum: 8. mesosternal epinierum; 9. metasternum: 10, antecoxal piece; 11. metasternal episteruum; Vi. metasteriial epimeruni: Vi, iiitlexed side of elytrum; 1-1, ambulatorial setge: 1.5, trochanters; 16, posterior coxae; IT, femora: 18, tibiae; 19. tarsi. No. 2: under side of i>rothorax of Hydroscapha, with open coxal cavities, and Ti\ trochantin. No. 3: under side of Calosoma. No. 4: under side of Rhyssodes. No. 5: under side of Eusatttis erosus. show- ing the true epipleura.\Ep. No. 6: under side of Cnemidotus. showing the large coxal plates. PL No. 7: under side of prothoraxof Rhynchophorus, show- ipg tbe closure of the co-xal cavities by the epimera., -After LieConte and Horii. c^^ I ^ . • D V t 3 r " I \\ ' ■ W ' H Fig. 84.— External anatomy of May-beetle, Lnchnosternn fusca. a, upper side of head; epic, epicranium; cl. clypeus: b, under side; m, int-utnm; sm, sub- mentum; ?a6. labium; md, mandible: f, v)i"onotum ; rf, mesonotiim; e, meta- notum; /, pro-, g. meso-, /;, meta-pleurum; i, pro-, j. meso-, A:, meta-pleurum; I, dorsal, wi, ventral, 7i, side, view of abdomen: 1-7, seven basal abdominal segments; psc", post-scutellum ; otlier letters as in Fig. 60. {To face page 95.) ORDER COLEOPTERA. 95 a slender, flexible, hairy process, sometimes nearly as long as the body, and resembling the tongue of a bee, as when op- posed they form a rude kind of tube. The legs vary great- ly in shape, and the tarsi vary from five, the normal num- FiG. 85.— Different forms of antenna? of beetles. 1, serrate ; 2, pectinate ; .3, capitate (and also geniculate) ; 4-7. clavate; 8, 9, lamellate ; 10, serrate (Dor- catoma); 11, irregular (Gyrinus,'; 12, two jointed antenna of Adranes cajcus. — After LeConte. ber, to four and three joints, and sometimes to two or one, and may even occasionally be wanting. The larva of a beetle, especi:illy those like the young may- beetle, is called a grub. The metamorphosis is in beetles abed e f Fig. 86.— Head and ej'es of beetles, a, Calosoma ,• ft, Chrysobothris; c, Prio- nus; d, Polygraphus; e.Geotrupes; /, Gyrinus, in which the eyes are divided. —From Judeicli and Nitsche. perfect. Those larvge which walk freely about after their food usually have the body somewhat flattened, and the legs long; while those which bore into fruits or into wood have cylindrical, white bodies, and the legs are usually short, or, as in the larvfe of weevils, etc., they are legless. The pupge of beetles are usually whitish, and have free limbs. They are either enclosed in cocoons of silk (Curcu- liouidfe and Chrysomelidsp) or form a rude one of earth ; or, 96 ENTOMOLOGY. if wood-borers, live in rude cocoons of fine chips and dust, united by silken threads or a glutinous matter. Some Coc- cinellae and Anthrenus transform within the old larval skin. In most Coleopterous pupge, the antennse lie on eacl) Fig. 87.— Onthophagus rangifer. A, male; B, female.— From Danvin. side of tlie clypeus, and the mandibles, maxillae, and palpi appear as elongated tubercles. The wings are small and laid upon the posterior thighs, thus exposing the meso- and Fig. SS.^Chalcosotna atlas. Upper figure male, reduced; lower figure female natural size.— From Darwiu. metathorax to view. The tarsal joints lie parallel on eacli side of the middle line of the body, and in those pupa^ which transform in the soil the abdomen ends in a pair of horny hooks, which aid the pupa in reaching the surface. ORDER COLEOPTERA. 97 Many male beetles (especially Lamellicorns and Stapliy linids, Canthon, etc.. Fig. 87) are ornamented with horns, which exist only as rudiments or are wholly wanting in the other sex ; in the male Lucanus (Fig. 110) the mandibles are of great size (com- pare also Figs. 88 and 89). Darwin remarks that beetles belonging to many and widely distinct families possess stridnlating organs. Cer- tain musical weevils can be heard at a distance of several feet or even yards; the apparatus varying much in position on the body, but usu- ally consisting of a rasp or set of ribs, and a scraper; in many Lon- gicorns the rasp is on the meso- thorax, which is rubbed against the prothorax ; but the apparatus does not differ much according to sex. (Darwin.) Protected from harm by their hard shell-like skin and their thick wing - covers, and living, as grubs, as pupge, and as beetles, quite dif- ferent lives, it would be hard to ex- terminate them. Myriad as are their forms, every species has slight- ly different habits and surround- ings from its allies, and thus fills a niche in the insect-world which it alone can occupy. And it is this wonderful power of adaptation to changes in circumstances, as well as their solid skins and complete metamorphosis, which has enabled the great beetle order of over 100,000 kinds to become so abundant and prominent Fig, '. — Ch iasogn a thus gran- recluced. Upper figure male, lowei- figure female. — After Darwin. Hi, 98 ENTOMOLOGY. a group. They are preyed upon at different times of life by different enemies. AVorms, parasitic mites, and birds and beasts constantly make war upon them, but these enemies only confine their numbers within healthy limits; so that, after all the inroads made upon them, there is still food enough and room enough for each species to exist in its own beetle- fashion in its own little beetle-world. The Coleoptera have been divided by LeConte into two great groups or sub-orders, viz. : the Ehynchophora or weevils, in which the head is beaked and the palpi are short and rigid, while the labrum is usually absent,* besides otlier less apparent characters; and the genuine Coleoptera. The genuine Coleoptera, again, are divided by the number of joints in their tarsi as follows: 1. Hind tarsi with the same number of joints at least as the others (except in a few Clavicorns) . .Isomera. 2. Front and middle tarsi 5-, hind tarsi 4-jointed. Heteromera. The Isomera are divided by LeConte and Horn into five series, perhaps super-families: A. Fourth and fifth tarsal joints not connate: First three ventral segments connate: first divided by the hind coxal cavities so that the sides are sepa- rated from the very small medial part. Adephaga. First ventral segment visible for its entire breadth (ex- cept in Rhyssodidffi) : Antennae clavate or capitate, very rarely serrate. Clavicornia. Antennae serrate, very rarely clavate or caj)itate. 8ERRIC0RNIA. Antennae with a lamellate club, the opposing surfaces with a very delicate sensitive structure ; legs fos- sorial Lamellicornia. B. Fourth and fifth tarsal joints auchylosed; the for- mer very small; antennte filiform, rarely serrate, or feebly thickened externally Phytophaga. * In the Authribidai aud Rhinomaceridae the labrum is present and the palpi are not rigid. ORDER COLEOPTERA. 99 Sub-order 1. Rhynchophora. Beginning with the lowest family and ending with the highest, we take np first the weevils or Rhynchophora, the definitions being taken from LeConte and Horn's ''Classi- fication of the Coleoptera of North America. " Family Anthribidae. — Beak broad, tiat; antennae straight, 11- jointed; labrum distinct; last spiracle uncovered. Anthribus cornutus Say. Family Scolytidae. — Body thick, cylindrical; beak short, often not apparent ; pygidium surrounded at the edge by the elytra; tibiic usually serrate. The family of bark-borers or timber-beetles is an extensive one. They burrow sometimes by thousands under the bark of trees, especially spruce and pine, causing the death and rapid decay of the tree by arresting the flow of sap. Their galleries, bur- rows, or "mines" usually branch out at right angles from a single gallery ; the female in this single gal- lery lays her eggs in notches at quite regular intervals along each side; the larvse, on hatching, mine in a direction at right angles to the original gallery. In some cases the mine resembles a bird's track, the galleries radiating from a single point. The larva; are cylindrical and footless. Dendroctonus terebrans Oliv., Tomicus pini Say, Dryocmtes affnber. The most injurious species to the spruce are Xyleboi'us '^^^- ^^-—Dryoccetesaffaher. a flatus (Zimm. ), X xylociraph its ( Say), ^^''""^ ' ^' P"P^- and Xyloterus bimttatus (Kirby). Family Calandridse. — Beak never narrowed behind the eyes ; Fig. 9\.—Calandra oryzce. c, rice weevil: a, larva; b, pupa, e, grain weevil. 100 ENTOMOLOGY. antennae geniculate ; labrum wanting ; last spiracie not visible. Rhynco-phorus 'palmnrum Linn. Here belong the rice, CWuiudru oryzu (Linn.), and grain weevils, C. granarius (Linn.); the latter so gi'eut a pest in granaries, the larva devouring the inside of the hull. Fig. 98.— Northern Brenthian. a, larva; b. pupa; r, beetle, female; d, head Di male; e, foui-th antennal joint; g-l, parts of larval head; /, leg.— After Riley. Family Brenthidae. — Head diilering as to sex; narrowed behind ; antennse not geniculate; prothorax very long. The female of the northern Brenthian, Eupsalis minuta (Drury), bores a hole in the bark of the oak, pushing an egg into the hole; the males are very pugnacious (Fig. 93). Fig. 93.— Hazel-nut weevil. Fig. 94.— White-pine weevil, o, larva; 6, pupa. Family Curculionidae. — Mandibles with no apical scar; beak vari- able in form and length; antenna usually geniculate These weevils form a family exceedingly numerous in species, which bore in the bark of trees, in nuts, seeds, etc. Balaninus nasicus Say (Fig. 93); Plssodes strobi Peck (Fig. 94) ; ConotracJielus neiniphar Herbst, the plum weevil. Family Otiorhynchidae. — Mandibles with a deciduous piece leaving ORDEIi COLKOPTERA. 101 beuk vari!vl)le, never lou 11-joiuted and slender ; auteuuae geniculate, Otiorlii/nchiis sidcatus Fabr. ; E71. tint us imperialis Forster, the diamond beetle. Family Byrsopidae. — Tarsi setose; proster- nuni excavated. Thecesteriius humeralis Say; Byrtiopages carittatus Mots. Famil}' Attelabidae. — Beak short and stout, thickened at the end; mandibles stout, pincer- shaped. Attelabus rhois Boh. rolls up an alder- leaf to form a cell for its eggs and larva. Family Rhynchitidae. — Beak slender; man- dibles flat ; toothed on the inner and outer sides. Rhynchites bicolor Fabr., a red weevil living on cultivated and wild roses. Family Rhinomaceridse. — Labrum distinct; long as the prothorax. R/unomacer elongatus Leo. Sub-order 2. Coleoptera genuina. Section Heteromera. Family Stylopidae. — By some autliors referred to a distinct " order" (Strepsiptera). In the males, which fly about, the mouth-parts are, except the mandibles and one pair of palpi, atrophied ; the Fig. 96.—St!/lop.-< Fig. 97.— Female. Fiy 9(5. Fig, 97. :hi III rent, male, dorsal and side view. (', ill the abdomen of a bee (Andrena); 6, the same removed. pro- and mcsothorax are very short, and the elytra reduced to slender, club shaped appendages, while the hind wings are well devel()i)ed, the metathorax being lemarkably large and long, the abdomen being small. The females are wingless, worm-like, with a flattened Iri- 102 ENTOMOLOGY. augulai Lead, and live within the abdomen of bees and wasps, though certain foreign genera are parasites in ants and Homoptera. The female is viviparous, giving birth to hundreds of very minute young, which are of very prinaitive form, with bulbous feet, the slender, hair}' body ending in two long styles, and the intestine end- ing as a closed sack. Stylops childreni Gray; Xenos peckii Kirby lives in a common wasp (Polistes metricus Say). Famil}' Ehipiphoridae. — Tarsi with claws (those of Stylopids being clawless), elytra rarel}" covering the abdomen, as wide as the pro- thorax in front, usually narrowed behind, sometimes (Myodites) very small; rarel}' (Rhipidivis) wanting in the female, in which case the wings are also wanting, and the body is larviform. Rhipidius pectinicoTiiis is parasitic in Europe in Ectobid germanica. This form is a connecting link between Stylopida? and other beetles. Metoscus pa/radoxus Liuu. is a parasite in the nests of wasps (Vespa). Fig. 98.— a, freshly-hatched larva of Meloe. first or Campodea-form stage ; 6, second or carabidoid stage; c, coarctate, footless larva, third stage; cl, pupa; e, imago, male. Family Meloidae. — Prothorax narrower at base than the elytra, which are variable in form, in ]\Ieloe very short and pointed; claws cleft or toothed; front of head vertical. Larva primitive, Campodea- form, certain species parasitic on bees; they mostly undergo a hyper- metamorphosis, there being three larval stages (Fig. 98, a, b, c). The blister-beetle or Spanish lly, Cantharis vencatoria Linn., is rep- resented in the United States hy the species of Macrobasis and Epicauta (Fig. 99, E. cinerea Forst.), which, with Horia, pass through a hypermetamorphosis in general like that of Melo6, the oil beetle {Meloe angusticollis Say). Family Pyrochroidae — Antennse often ramose; hind coxa' large and prominent; claws simple; head horizontal; elytra wider than abdo- men, rounded at tip. Pyrochroa JUdjellata Fabr. ; Dendraides canadensis Latr. ORDER COLEOPTERA. 103 Family Anthicidae. — Hind coxte not promiueut ; anteunae rarely flabellate. Notoxm amliora Heutz. Fig. W.—Epicauta cinerea. a, end of second larval stage; c, d, coarctate larva of £■. vittata; e, /, pupa of E. cinerea.— Alter Riley. Family Mordellidae. — Antenuoe tiliform ; hind coxae lamiuiform; prothorax much narrowed in front; elytra narrowed behind. Mor- della 8-punctata Fabr. Family Cephaloidae.^Head prolonged behind and gradually nar- rowed. Cephaloon lepturides Newman. Family (Edemeridae. — Middle coxae very prominent. Nacerdes ■melanuni (Linn.). Family Pythidae. — Antennae free; thorax not margined; di.sk not impressed at base. Pytho niger Kirby. Family Melandryidae — Auttnuae free; thorax margined at sides; disk with basal impressions. Melandrya striata Say. Family Monommidae. — Antennae received in grooves. Hyp/rhagus opaculus (Lee). Family Lagriidae. — Penidtimate joint of tarsi spongy beneath. Arthromacra a'liea Say. Family Othniidae. — Ventral segments five, free ; anterior coxae small. Othnius lunbrosus hec. Family Cistelidae. — Tarsal claws pectinate. Cistela sericea Say. Family .Egialitidae. — Ventral segments six, the last two closely united, the hrst two connate. JEgialites debilis Mann. Family Tenebrionidae. — Tarsal claws simple; 5 ventral segments, in part connate; antennae usually thickened towards the end; anterior and middle tarsi 5- jointed; hind tarsi 4- jointed, the first joint almost always longer than the second; wings often wanting. This very extensive family is difficult to diagnose. The larvte are slender, flattened, horny, resembling wire-worms, and the last segment of the body often bears two spines. The larva of Teiiebrio moliiov Linn., the meal-worm, occurs in corn and rye meal, and both beetles and larvae feed on ship-biscuit. Other genera are Helops, Boletophagus, Blaps, Eleodes, Upis, etc. Section Isomera. Phytophaga. This group is difficult to define, but all agree in feeding on vegetable matter. Family Bruchidae. -These beetles are " Chrysomelidae with the submentum distinctly pedunculate;" front of head prolonged into a 104 ENTOMOLOGY. broad square beak; auteunoe inserted in front of the eyes, variable in length, serrate or pectinate; tibial spurs distinct or obsolete. The larviB live in the seeds of leguminous plants. Bruchiis pid (Linn.) infests peas, and B. obsoletus Say is the bean weevil. Familj' Chrysomelidse. — The leaf beetles have the antennae of mod- erate length or short, not inserted upon frontal prominences; front small, oblique, sometimes (Hispini, Cassidini) iutlexed ; pronotum most frequently margined; tibial spurs usually wanting. This family includes the Colorado potato beetle and other species, which are injurious to garden vegetables. The potato beetle {DorypJwra 10- ^ Fig. 100.— Turnip flea-beetle, a, larva; 6, pupa. Fig. 101.— Squash beetle, a, larva; 6, pupa. Uneata Say) finishes its transformations within a month after hatching from the yellow eggs which are laid on the under side of the potato leaves. In the Central States there are three broods, each of which pupate usually iiuder ground, the first two broods remaining in the soil for ten or twelve days, while the third brood remain under ground through the winter, the beetles appearing late the next spring. The flea-beetles (Haltica) are little dark jumping beetles which eat tender and young beets, cucumbers, turnips, etc. (Fig. 100). The i^'.i^ lip "«q a " 6 o Fig. 102.— Apple-tree borer, a, larva; b, pupa; c, beetle.— After Riley. squash beetle (Diabrotka vittata Fabr.) appears on squash and cucum- ber vines as soon as they are up, eating the young leaves. The elm- leaf beetle (Oaleruca xantliomelann Schr.) has of late years caused the leaves of that tree to wither and die, destroying the tree in towns OBDER COLEOPTEitA. 105 and cities. There are in all from 8000 to 10,000 species of this family. Family Cerambycidae. — The lougicorus are recognized by their usually long anteuna\ by their large, broad heads, usually ver- tical, and distinct tibial spurs. While the Chrysomelidse devour the leaves, the trunks of trees are tunnelled and tinally destroyed by the larvfe of this family, called borers. The beetles themselves are remarkable for their large size, rich colors, and elegant forms. Over 7500 species are known, the most beautiful being from the tropics. Fio. 103.— Larva of Monohammus confu- Fig. 104.— The beetle in its sor. a, top; 6, side view, natural size; cell in a piece of planed d, upper, c, under, side of the head, en- plank, larged ; e, side, /, under side, of pupa. Beginning with Saperda, we recall the apple-tree borer, S. Candida Fabr., which destroys living, especially young, apple-trees, the female laying her eggs by making gashes in the bark near the roots, the larva boring upwards into the wood, as it increases in size with age. Onckleres cingulaius (Say) places its eggs in small branches of hickory, etc., then gnawing through the bark below, so that the branch afterwards becomes broken off by the wind. 106 ENTOMOLOGY. Fig. 105. — Common hickory borer, a, larva; b. pupa. Fig. 106.— Male. Pine-trees are infested by the borer or larva of Monohammus con- fiisor Kirby, which tunnels the tree, and injures the lumber made from it; the ginib makes a creaking noise which may be heard some distance from the tree in which it is at work. One of these beetles is known to have issued from the pine wood of a bureau wherein it must have lived fully fifteen years. The female lays her eggs in curvilinear gashes in the bark in August, and the larva is two years in attaining its full size. Living, healthy sugar-maples are gradually killed by the attacks of a beautiful yellow-banded brown beetle {PUigionoUis speciosus Say) which deposits its eggs in gashes in the bark, the eggs being laid late in July and in Augu.st. The hickory borer (Fig. 105) and a very closely allied species which destroys the locust-tree in the Northern States, are among the most injurious beetles of this family. The sub-family Prioninte con- tains almost the largest beetles known ; among them is Ortho- 8oma brunneum (De Geer). The species of Mallodon occur in the Southern and Western States, and M.melanopus^iilA. bores in the roots of the young live-oak, dwarfing the tree. Family Spondylidae. — Tarsi not widened, and with no brush of hairs beneath. Pa- randra brunnea Fabr. Lamellicornia. The beetles of this well-circum- scribed group all agree in having the antennas ending in a club com- posed of three, sometimes as many as seven, leaves or lamellae, while the body is usually short and thick. Family Scarabseidse. — Antenna! lamella? capable of being closely shut into a com- pact club. This group embraces the largest Coleoptera and the most bulky of all in- sects, viz. , the gigantic Goliath and Her- cules beetles. Their larvae are soft-skinned, thick-bodied, with rather long legs, and 4- jointed antenna>; they live on roots, etc. , and often transform in underground cells ; the beetles devour leaves and the pollen of flowers. There are nearly 7000 species. The Cetonioe comprise very large and beau- tiful beetles; then comes our Southern Dynastes tityxs Linn., an allied species in South America being D. kercules Linn. These are suc- FiG. lOr. — The lesser Pri- oinis Natural size.— After Riley. ORDER COLKOPTERA. 107 ceeded by the grape beetle, Pelidmta punctata Liun., and the Gold- smith beetle, Cotalpa lanigera Linn. The May-beetle, or dor-bug, is a Fig. 108.— Metamorphosis of the May beetle 2, grub or larva, 1 pupa • 3 4 beetle. Natural size.— After Riley. f > . . very common species; its larva devours the roots of grass, sometimes injuring lawns, also the roots of seedling trees in plantations. Allied Fig. 109.— Goldsmith beetle and larva. Natural size. to it is the rose-chafer, Macrodactylus subspinosus Fabr., while at the head of the family is the dung-beetle {Phvneus carnifexljinxi.), and the sacred Scarabseus of Egyptian inscriptions. Family Lucanidae.— Club usually not flattened, leaves not capable of being closed. Lucanus damaThxmh., stag-beetle; Passalus carnutus Fabr. occurs in all its stages in decayed hard-wood stumps in spring. 108 ENTOMOLOOT. Fig. WQ.—Lucanus dama. Fig. 111.— Larvaand cocoon. Natural size. Serricornia. In this group the antenna are usually serrate. Family Sphindidae. — Tarsi heteromerous, living in dry fungi. SpMndtis americanus Lee. Family Cioidae. — Tarsi 4-1ointed; antennae clavate or flabellate. Cis fuseipes Mellie. Family Lymexylidse. Front coxae conical, prominent; tarsi slender. Lymexylon sericcuin Harris. Family Cupesidae. Head narrowed behind; eyes smooth. Cupes capita *a Fabr. Family Ptinidse. — Head not narrowed behind; eyes granulated; mesothoracic epimera not reaching the coxae; antennae with usually 9-11 joints, variable in form. Beetles mostly of small size, often living in partly decayed vegetable matter. Ptintis fur Linn, some- times attacks museum collections. Anobium is the death-tick, and its ally, Sitodrepa, panicea Fabr. , has proved at times to be a museum pest. Family Cleridse. — Antennae inserted at the sides of the front, usual ly 11- jointed, rarely clubbed; tarsi 5- jointed,with membranous lobes beneath the four basal joints. The beetles of beautiful colors, occurring on plants or trunks of trees; the larvae live under bark and are carnivorous, and those of Trichodes (Fig. 112) infest nests of bees in Eu rope. A few (Corynetes, Necro- bia) live on dead animal matter. TricJiodes nniUdlii Kirby. Family Malachidae. — Ventral segments 5 or 6; antennae insert- ed generally before the eyes. Body with lateral, distensible vesicles. Malachius ceneus (Linn.). Fig. 112. — Trichodes aplarius. ORDER COLEOPTERA. 109 Family Lampyridae.— Ventral segments 7 to 8; antennae serrate, rarely pectinate or flabellate, inserted on the front ; skin rather thin ; 4A ikl Fig. WZ.—Photimis pyralis, fire-fly. Natural size. «, larva; 6, pupa; /, head; e, under side of a larval segment.— After Riley. found on plants. While the Phengodini are pho.sphorescent, the tribe Lampyrini embraces the tire-flies, which have phos phorescent organs at the end of the abdomen. In the species of PJwturis both sexes are winged, but in Laiivpyris ^^ the females, called glow-worms, are larva-like and wing- less. The larvfe are often carnivorous, living on snails, worms, etc. The females of Phengodes and Zarhipis are not easily distinguishable from the larvte, and are phos- phorescent (Fig. 114). Family Buprestidae.— Skin very thick and solid; antennae serrate; tarsi with membranous lobes as in the Cleridoe. Larvje with a large, broad prothoracic segment, body be- hind slender, cylindrical ; living under bark. This groiip is numerous in species, about 2700 being known. They usually have metallic reflections and often rich colors; but are very injurious to fruit and shade trees (pines, oaks, etc.). Chrysobothris femordta Oliv. is a common and de- structive species; in Dicerca the tips of the elytra separate. Chdlcophora virginienm Drury bores into the trunks of pines. Melanophila drummondi (Kirby). Family Throscidae. — Resembling the next family, but with the prothorax fixed so as to be enabled to leap. Thros- cus constrictor Say. m \\3 [}J J4, Fig. 114.- Female (or larva?] of Phen- godes. Fig. 11.5. — Chrysobothris femo- rata and larva. Fig. 116.— Drummond's Melanophila. Family Elateridae. — Prothorax loosely articulated, the prosternum prolonged behind, forming a sharp spine which moves in a cavity in the mesosternum, so as to suddenly throw the beetle in the air 110 ENTOMOLOGY. Fig. 117.— Fire-fly. Natural size. if placed on its back. The group of snapping-beetles is very ex- tensive, over 3000 species being recorded; tlie larvae are called wire-worms from their hard, slen- der cylindrical bodies, and are known to live two years before transforming; they are mostly her- bivorous, a few larvae, however, devouring the eggs of locusts. Here belongs the tire-fly of the West Indies, Pyrophorus noctilucus Linn. (Fig. 117). Family Ehipiceridae. — Antennae serrate in the female, frequently flabellate in the males; ony- chium large and hairy. Saiidalus petrophya Knoch. Family Dascyllidae. — Head not constricted be- hind ; eyes granulated ; mesothoracic epimera reaching the coxae. Larvae more or less aquatic. Prionocyphon discoideus Say. Clavicornia. In this group the antennae are dn1> shaped , while the tarsi vary in having from 1 to 5 joints. Family Heteroceridae. — Antennae short, irregular; legs fossorial. Heterocerus pallidus Say. Family Parnidae.— Aquatic beetles, with a retrac- tile head ; last joint of tarsi long, claws large. Larvae aquatic, hemispherical ; that of Psephenus lecontei Lee. lives under stones in rapid streams; the pupa is formed under the larval skin which protects the insect beneath like the scale of a Coccus. Family Georyssidae. — Small, rounded, convex beetles, which cover themselves with mud; coxae contiguous; prosternum semi -membranous. Oeovys- svs pusillus Lee. Family Byrrhidae.— Pill beetles; head usually re- tracted under the prothorax; body oval or rounded and very convex; legs retractile. Byrrhus ameri- canus Lee. Family Derodontidae. — Anterior coxae conical, transverse. dontus maeulaim (Mels.). Family Trogositidae. — Antennae straight; tarsi slender first joint short; living under bark or in fungi, while certain species are injurious to grain. Trogosita virescens Fabr. Family Nitidulidae. — Antennae straight; tarsi more or less dilated, first joint not short. Larvae living usually in decaying matter. Nitidula hipnstulata Linn., Ipsfasciuhm Linn. Family Histeridae. — Body oblong and flat, or round, oval, globose, or cylindrical ; antennae geniculate; tibiae usually all dilated. The species are scavengers, living under bark of trees, in excrements, and in carcasses. Hister intemiptus Beauv. Fig. lis.— Larva of Psephenus le- contei. Dero- FiG. n9.~Ips fasci- atus. a, larva. ORDER COLEOPTERA. Ill Familj' Dermestidae. — Small oval or elongate beetles; body usual- ly scaly or pube.scent. IJen/iistex lardarius Liuu. in the larva state is destructive to museum collections, especially insects, as is that of Attagenus pellio, yihich. also eats holes in carpets; while the worst Fig. 120.— Larva of Mis- ter merdarius. Fig. 1^1.— Museum pest, a, pupa; 6, larva. museum pest is Anthrenm varius Fabr. (Fig. 121). A. scfrophtda- ruv Liuu. is the carpet beetle, introduced from Europe. Family Mycetophagidae. — Body tiattened; head free. Living on fungi and uuder bark. Mpcetophagmpunctatus Say. Fig. 122. — Dei-mestes lanlariiis and larva. Fig. 13.3.—" Lady-bird" and pupa. Natural size. Famil}^ Cryptophagidae. — Prothorax nearly or quite as wide as the elytra; hind male tarsi sometimes 4- jointed. Anther opliag us ochraceus ■Melsh. Family Cucujidse. — Body very tiat and long; abdomen with five free segments. Living under bark, ants' nests, etc. Syltanus surina- mensis Linn, breeds in bran, rice, and wheat. Family Rhyssodidae. — Kesembling Carabidte; head with a distinct neck; living under bark. B/ii/swdes exaratusl]]. Family Colydiidae. — Small insects, usually of an elongate or cylin- drical form; with regular antennoe; tarsi 4-iointed, simple; legs not fossorial. Living under the bark of trees, in fungi, or in the earth. Colydium lineola Say. 112 ENTOMOLOGY. Fig. 12-1, —Larva of "Lady-bird." Family Erotylid?e. — Tarsi more or less dilated and spongy beneath. Erotyliis; Daene i-maculata (Say). Family Endomychidse. — Tarsi 4-jointed, or, from the atrophy of the third joint, apparently 3- jointed; claws simple. Endomychxis biguitatus Say. Family Coccinellidae. — Hemispherical beetles with the head deeply immersed in the prothorax; tarsi with the second joint dilated; claws appen- diculate or toothed, sometimes simple; larva- of great benefit to agriculture from devouring Aphides. When about to pupate, the larva at- taches itself by the end of the body to a leaf, and either throws off the larva skin, which remains around its tail, or the cast skin is retained, loose- ly folded about the pupa as a rude sort of co- coon. Coccinella Twvem-notata Herbst (Fig. 123); Psyllobora 20-mnculata Say (Fig 134). Family Corylophidae. — Wings fringed with long hairs; a loose antennal club. Corylophus truncatus Lee. Family Phalacridae. — Body oval, convex; scutellum larger than usual. Phalacrus oralis Lee. Famil}' Scaphidiidae. — Body oval, convex; elytra broadly truncate behind; tarsi long and slender. Scaphidium quadriguttatum Say. Family Sphaeriidse. — Wings fringed with long hairs; abdomen with 3 ventral segments. Sphfmus politus Horn. Family Hydroscaphidse. — Antennae short, not verticillate; abdomen prolonged. Hi/droxcapIiK nntans Lee. Family Trichopterygidae. — Antennae slender, verticillate, abdomen not prolonged; the smallest beetles known. TricJiopt&i'yx aspera Haldeman. Family Staphylinidae. — Elj^tra very short; abdomen entirely cor- neous, with 7 or 8 visil)le .segments. The rove-beetles, recognized by their narrow, long bodies and upturned abdomens, are often minute, living under stones, in ma- nure-heaps, fungi, moss, and in ant-hills. Staphylitms milpinus Nordm. Family Pselaphidae. — Very small; head and prothorax narrower than the elytra and abdomen, the latter obtuse at tip. Pselaplius erichsonii Lee. Family Scydmaenidae. — Differing from Pselaphids by the long elytra. Scydvwnus marm Lee. Family Silphidae. — The burying beetles have the antenna; clubbed, sometimes near- ly filiform; larviB broad, sides of body serrated. Necrop]i(,rus nmericanus Oliv., Silpha lapponka Herbst, S. surinamenm Fabr. Adelopshirtus Tellk. is a blind cave- beetle. Family Leptinidae.— Ej^es absent or imperfect. Lspiinus testae eus Mull, is parasitic on mice, etc. ; Leptinillus validua Horn on the beaver. Fig 1:25.— Plai3psyllus of the beaver. — After Le Conte. ORDER COLEOPTERA. 113 Family Platypsyllidae. — Body flat, like a cockroach; eyes and mandibles wanting, Platypsyllus castoris Ritsema is, both in its larval and adult stages, a parasite of the beaver. Family Hydrophilidae.— Body oblong, oval, convex, or hemispheri- FiG. 126.— Hydrophilus; its egg-case and larva. Natural size, cal; palpi often very long; mostly aquatic; larvte carnivorous. Hi/- dropMlus triangularis Say; Sphceridium scarabamdes (Linn.). Adephaga. This group has been ah-eady briefly defined on p. 98. The water and ground beetles are usually carnivorous both in the larval and adult stages, though many are phytophagous. Family Gyrinidae. — Body oval; an- tonnfe irregular, very short; eyes di- vided so that they appear as four. The i I jt ^^I whirligig beetles are seen in groups \ \ j^ iW^- gyrating and circling on the surface of ponds and streams, and when caught give out a disagreeable milky . fluid. Oyrinus horealis Aube. Family Dytiscidae.— Like Carabids, ex- vic,s.Vi",n^.-Gyrhmshorealis cept in those characters which adapt and larva of another species. 114 ENTOMOLOGY. tliem for an aquatic life; body oval, broad, and flattened; legs flattened, oar-like, and fringed. The larvte are called water-tigers from their fierce habits and long, slender ja"ws; Avhen about to pu- pate they leave the v^-ater, and form a round cell in the bank. Dytiscus fascweniris Say; Aciiius mediatus Say. Family Haliplidse. — Antennae 10-jointed; small yellowish water- beetles, spotted with black. Halipliis fiisciatus Aube. Fig. 129.— Dytiscus marginal is, from Europe. A, male, with smooth elytra and fore tarsi expanded into suckers; B, female. Family Amphizoidse. — Aquatic beetles of singular structure, with the legs adapted for walking. AinpJdzoa insolens Lee. Family Carabidae. — The ground-beetles have the an tennse ari.sing at the side of the head between the base of the mandibles and the eyes. The species are very numer- ous; their larvae are carnivo- rous, and live under stones, etc., in the same situations as the parents. In Harpalus the body is broad, while in Casnonia the head and i)ro- thorax are ver}' slender. Brachinus, the " boral)ar dier" beetle, is remarkable for discharging from its anal glands, with an explosion, a pungent fluid. Camhuti scrra- FiG. \^0.-Hnrpaluscaliqinosus. natural . Systematische Studien aui Grundlage der Dipteren-larven, etc. (Akad. d. Wi.ssens. Wien, Bd. xlvii., 1883). (Figs, and descriptions of dipterous larv?e, and list of all works and articles referring to the metamorphoses of Diptera.) Dimmock, G. The anatomy of the mouth-parts and -of the sucking ap- paratus of some Diptera (Boston, 1881). Loew, H., and Osten Sacken, C. R von. Monograph of the Diptera of North America, 1862-78 (Smithsonian Inst ). Also other essays and papers. Hammond, Arthur. On the thorax of the Blow-tly {Musca vomitoi'ui). (Linn. Soc. Journ. — Zoology, vol. xv.,1879.) Hansen, H. J. Fabrica oris Dipterorum (Copenhagen, 1883). Kraepelin, K. Zur Anatomie und Physiologie des Riissels von Musca (Zeits f. Wissen Zool., xxxix., 683, 1883) McCloskie, G. Kraepelin's Proboscis of Musca (Am. Nat., xviii., p. 1334, 1884). Lowne, B. F. The anatomy and physiology of the Blow-fly, Musca vomitoria (London, 1870). Macquart, J. Dipteres exotiques nouveaux ou pen counus (3 vols, en 5 parties, et 5 supplements. Paris, 1838-55). Meigen, F. W. Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europai- schen zweifliigeligen Insekten (7 vols. Aachen and Hamm, 1818-35). Meinert, F. Trophi Dipterorum (Copenhagen, 1881). (In Danish, with abstract in Latin.) Sur les larves eucephales des Dipteres (Copenhagen, 1886). (In Danish, with French resume.) iContmued on next page.) 118 ENTOMOLOGY. its having but a single pur of wings; the hinder pair being rudimentary, and. forming the balancers or halteres. In many flies the antennae are short and 3-jointed, the last joint being furnished with a bristle, which in the house-fly and its allies is feathery; or, as in the mosquito and its allies, the antennae are long and many-jointed. Examining the house-fly as a type of Diptera in general, B A we notice that the 3-jointed an- tennae, when not extended, lie in a cavity in the face. The mandibles and maxillse, so well developed in the mosquito and other piercing or biting flies, are aborted, though the maxil- lary palpi are present (Fig. 136, may; Fig. 137, ^j). On the Fig. 136.— 4, front, and -B, side, view ,■■ -, i j.i i t„ „ of head of house-fly. oc, simple, other hand, the under lip, or and e, compound, eye; ant, au- pqllpfl T,rn"hn«pk pnrl<5 in twn tenna; mxp, maxillary palpi; Z, SO-CaiRCl piODOSClS, enus lU T>WO tongue; z«6,iabeiium. Magnified. ^^^^ (labclla), adapted for lap- ping liquid food. The structure of the proboscis is very curious. When the fly settles upon a lump of sugar or other sweet object, or even upon the back of our hand Menzbier, M. A. Ueber das Kopfskelct und die Mundwerkzeuge der Zweitiiigler (Bull. Soc. imp. Natiir. Moscou, 1880). Osten Sacken, C. R. von. Catalogue of the described Diptera of North America (second edition. Wasbiugtou, Smithsonian Inst., 1878). Also numerous papers and monographs published by Smithsonian Inst., Am. Ent. Soc., etc. Scheiner, J. R. Fauna Austriaca. Fliegen. (i, ii. Wien, 1862-64.) Walker, F. List of the Diptera in the collection of the British Mu- seum (7 parts, 12mo. 1848-55). Wiedemann, C R. W. Au.ssereuropaische zweiflligelige Insekten (3 vols. Hamm, 1828-30). Williston, S. W. Synopsis of the North American S3rrphid8e (Bull. 31, U. S. Nat. Mus.- Washington, 1886). Dipterological notes and descriptions (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, xiii.,1886). On the N. Am. Asilidfe (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc, xi., xii., 1884-5). Also articles by Bergenstamm and Loew, Bigot, Brauer, Burgess, Fitch, Gerstacker, Leach, McCloskie, lliley, Say, Shimer, Walsh, We-stwood, and Williston. ORDER DIPTERA. 119 when covered with perspiration, it unbends its proboscis, extends it, and the broad knob-like end divides into two Fig. 137.— Head and proboscis of the blow-fly. e, eye: c. epicranium; 6p, basi- proboscis; p, maxillary palpus; pr, chitinous ridges uniting with the rudimen- tary maxilla; Ip, lower labial plate; mp, medi-, dp, disti-proboscis.— After Kraepelin. flat, muscular leaves (Fig. 138, B, I), which thus form a broad sucker-like surface, with which the fly laps up Fig. 138.— Proboscis of the house-fly. ^, right-side view; 5,v!ewof the same from above; C, semi tubes of its false tracheae; J57, atooth; /i', arrangement of teeth between roots of false tracheae; D, two of the false tracheas with wrinkled ■membrane between. In A and B: I. labellum; o, operculum; p, palps; /, ful- crum; HI, mentum. Magnified. — After McCloskie. liquid sweets, or any matter which seems good to the fly's mind. The two flaps at the end of the proboscis are supported upon a framework of strong but delicate rods which act as a set of springs to open and shut the broad flaps. The in- side of this broad, fleshy expansion is rough, like a rasp, and, as Kewport states, "is easily employed by the insect 120 ENTOMOLOar. in scraping or tearing delicate surfaces. It is by means of this curious structure that the busy house-fly occasions much mischief to the covers of our books, by scraping off the albuminous polish, and leaving tracings of its depreda- FiG. 139.— Side view of a labellum. ca, chitinous arch supporting the false tracheae (p<).— After Kraepelin. tions in the soiled and spotted appearance which it occasions on them. The thorax is somewhat rounded, and though composed of three rings, yet these are so consolidated that it is at first hard to identify them. The prothorax is rudimentary, the Fig. 140.— Thorax of the house-fly. pm, pronotum; prsc, praescutum; sc' meso- sculum; sci', niesoscutellum ; psct\ postscutellum ; al, insertion of tegula, ex- tendiug to the insertion of the wings, which have been removed; msphr, meso- phragma; h, balancer (halter); pt, patagia; mtn, raetanotum; ejots, epis', epis", episternum of pro-, meso- and meta-thorax; epni', epm", meso- and meta-epinieruni; st', st", meso- and meta-sternum; ex', ex", ex'", coxae; tr', tr", tr'", trochanters of the three pairs of legs; sp', sp", sp'", sp"", sp'"", first to fifth spiracles; tg', tg", tergites of first and second abdominal seg- ments; m', u", urites. thorax being almost wholly formed of the middle ring (mesothorax). The latter consists of three large upper OBDER DIPTERA. 121 pieces, the prcBscufnm, scutum, and the triangular or shield-shaped scutellnm (Fig. 140, set'). To the sides of this segment are attached the wings. The third ring (metathorax) is but partly formed, and cannot be seen from above. It supports the balancers (Fig. 140, //). There are also broad covering scales under the base of the true wings, called the tegula. The fly's wing is broad, thin, aiid trans- parent, and strengthened especially along the front edge by slender, hollow rods called veins. There are six principal veins, some of which are branched, and they are in most cases connected by a few cross- veins. The wings move with great swiftness. The house-fly, when held captive, moves its wings 330 times a second, and the tip of the wing de- scribes a figure 8 in the air. The hum of the fly is its voice. There are three differ- ent tones in the fly's hum. While flying the tone is rela- h Fig. 141.— Hind body or abdomen of house-fly. a, dorsal, b, ventral, c, side, view; sp'-sp", the four pairs of abdominal spiracles. Magnified. tively low; when the wings are held so as to prevent their vibrating, the tone is higher, and a higher one still when the fly is held so as to prevent all motion of the external parts. The latter tone is the true voice of the fly, and is produced by the spiracles or breathing-holes of the thorax. Thus, the humming sound is not produced by the motions of the wings alone. The hind body (Fig. 141) is broad and somewhat conical in shape, and there are seen to be only four segments when seen from above or below; but in the living fly three more may be detected, which can be thrust 122 ENTOMOLOGY. out of tlie 1)ody like the joints of a telescope, and form a sort of egg-layer (ovipositor). Flies have no sting, though certain kinds can bite and stab with their mouth-parts. The legs are long and slender, and, like the body, they are covered with fine but stiff bristles. There are five toe- joints, the last one witli two claws. Beneath the claws is a cushion divided into two lobes or divisions, and armed with hairs, which are tubular, and secrete a sticky fluid, which aids the fly in walking upside-down on glass windows or the ceiling of a room. House-flies are attracted to horse-manure, in which the young live in great numbers. On placing a fly in a glass Fig 142.— The early stages of the common house-fly. A. dorsal, and B, side, view of the larva; a, air-tubes; sp, spiracle. C, the spiracle, enlarged. F, liead of the same larva, enlarged ; 6/, labrum (?); nid, mandibles; ?)ia;, maxillae; at, antennae. E, a terminal spiracle, much enlarged. D, puparium; sp, spir- acle. All the figures much enlarged. bottle, she laid, between 6 p.m., August 12th, and 8 o'clock the next morning, 120 eggs, depositing them in stacks or piles. The egg is long and slender, cylindrical, and .04 to .05 of an inch long and about one fourth as thick. In twenty- four hours after it is deposited the larva or maggot hatches, and is as represented in Fig. 142, A. It is a footless, smooth, round, white worm, with the merest rudiments of ORDER DIPTERA. 123 mouth-parts, as seeu at F. In a day it groAVS too l)ig for its skiu, which bursts and peels off; this is again repeated a day later. The maggot thus sheds its skin twice, and consequently there are three larval stages; the third stage lasts three or four days. When about to transform into a pupa or chrysalis, the body contracts into a barrel-shaped form, as seen in Fig. 142, D ; its skin turns brown and hard, forming a case (called piijjarium) within which the larva changes to a chrysalis. Remaining in this stage for about a week (five to seven days), the fly is formed, and, pushing off one end of its pupa-case, walks nervously about, until its soft, baggy wings expand and become dry, when it takes to flight. It thus lives a fortnight before acquiring wings, and, as a fly, may live a few weeks, perhaps until frost; but in a few cases may pass the winter within the house, or in protected places outside, and appear out of doors in the spring. There are probably 10,000 species of the order of Diptera in the United States alone, but to a large proportion of them the preceding description will in general apply. Hence, by studying thoroughly one fly, we can obtain a good idea of the general structure of all. In certain flies (Blepharocerid^) there are two kinds of females — one kind with mouth-parts adapted for piercing the skin of animals and sucking their blood, and the other with mouth-parts like those of the male, the maxillae being absent. In the females of other flies which suck blood, the males feed on honey. In the flies, whose mouth-parts vary astonishingly in structure, so that some are piercers and biters, and . others suckers and lappers, there is also a great variety of larval forms, different modes of metamorphosis, and consequently gieat powers of adaptation to different stations in life. A few species live in the sea, many in fresh water, and many, as the Tachina, are parasites in the bodies of caterpillars and other insects. There is everywhere a wonderful har- 124 ENTOMOLOGY. niony between the different kinds and their surroundings, and thus the order is rich in species and individuals. Darwin says that the sexes of Diptera differ little in color; the greatest difference being in some species of Bibio, in which the males are blackish or quite black, and the females obscure brownish orange. In Elaphomyia of New Guinea the males are horned. Dr. Williston writes us, however, that there are, upon the whole, more sexual differences, aside from those in the genitalia, among the Diptera than in any other order. In the majority of species one finds but little difficulty in distinguishing the sexes by secondary characters. In a large proportion, also, there are minor colorational differ- ences. Secondary sexual characters occur with extreme rarity in the female, and in the male are chiefly confined to the head and legs. Sub-order 1. Pupipara.^ — These are mostly wingless, de- graded forms, which are born as pupae from the body of the parent, the egg and larval state having been passed within the oviduct. The wingless species are remarkably spider- like, the names bat-ticks and bird-ticks implying a resem- blance to the ticks. Family Braulina. — Wingless, eyeless, minute insects with a large head. The Bee-louse, Braula c<£ca Nitzsch. Fig. 143. — Bee-louse; a, its puparium. Family Nycteribidae. — The bat-ticks are spider like, eyeless, or with four ocelli; with a small head. They live on the fruit-bats. Nycteribia westiwodii Gueriu (Fig. 144). None exceed two linos in length. ORDER DIPTERA. 125 Family Hippoboscidae. — The sheep-tick and horse-tick are known by the flattened head and body, and by the stout proboscis. The Fig. 144.— Bat-tick. Fig. 145.— Sheep-tick and puparium. sheep-tick, Melophagus omnus Linn., is often very troublesome to sheep. The horse-tick {Hippobosca equina Linn.) is winged, with large claws. Sub-order 2. Cyclorhapha. — This name has been given to this subdivision of flies from the fact that the perfect flies escape from the pupa-case through a circular orifice. The word " maggot" is especially applicable to the larvae of this group, since they are worm-like, whitish, without a definite head, and are footless. When about to pupate their bodies shrink into a barrel-shaped form, and the skin, instead of being cast off, forms a dense case for the protec- tion of the soft-bodied, white pupa within. The types of the sub-order are such insects as the house- and flesh-flies, as well as the Syrphus flies. The body is short and thick, the abdomen conical and composed of from five to eight segments. The arrangement of the families here adopted is that of Osten Sacken's " Catalogue of North American Dijitera"' (second edition, 1878), while the characters of the families are taken from Loew's '^ Monographs of the Diptera of North America," Part I., though the order of succession has been reversed, the enumeration beginning with the lowest and ending with the highest family. Certain of the smaller, unimportant families are mentioned only by name. 126 ENTOMOLOGY. Family Phoridse. — Antennse 1- jointed, with a long bristle; femora flattened. Phm-a incrassnta JVleigen, of Europe, lives in hives on decaying bee-larvae, and different species feed on both living and dead insects, and sometimes decaying vegetable matter. Fig. 146.— P/io)o incrassata. a, larva; b, pupa-case. Family Asteidae. — Front bristlj^ above. Asteia tenuis Walker. Family Phytomyzidae. — Front bristl3\ Phytomym clemaiidis Loew. Family Agromyzidse. — Front with strong bristles; middle tibiae with a terminal spur. Agrornyza coronata Loew. Family Oscinidse. — Front without bristles, the crown having only a few .short ones; border of the mouth without vibrissfe, which, how- ever, are represented sometimes b}' a small hair on each side. Middle tibiae with small spurs; all the tibiae without an erect bristle on the outer side before the tip. Costa of the wings without bristles. The auxiliary vein is completely wanting; the anterior of the two small basal cells is united with the discal cell, the posterior one is totally wanting. The species of C^hlorops are injurious to cereals, the niaggots living in the stalk. Meromyza americana Fitch. Family Drosophilidae. — Front with bristles above; face with distinct sub-anteunal furrows; at the border of the mouth there is a feeble, frequently rather indistinct small vibrissa. Middle tibiae with ver}' feeble spurs; on the outer side of the tibiae there is either a very small or no erect bristle before the tip. Wings without bristles on Fig. 147.— Apple-worm and its fly. the costa; the first longitudinal vein is exceedingly abbreviated; of the auxiliary vein there is only a rudiment; the discal cell is usually, but not in all genera, united with the foremost of the two small basal cells. Claws and pulvilli very small. The larva of an unde- termined .species of Drosophila (Fig. 147) injures stored apples, while Drosophila (tmpelopliila Loew infests pickled fruit. Family Geomyzidae. — Vibrissae distinct. Diastata pulchrn Loew. ORDER DIPTERA. 127 Famil}^ Ephydrinidae. — Face convex, with no distinct furrows for the reception of the anteunye, and without vibrissa, though fre- quently beset with hairs or bristles; clypeus very much developed; opening of the mouth large; proboscis thickened, with a swollen Fig. 148. — A, larva of Ephi/dm calif ornicn : a, dorsal, b, under, c, side, view of the pupa, d, Epliydra hulophila ; e, its pupa-case. chin. Venation of the wings incomplete; the auxiliary vein dis- tinct only at its base; the foremost of the two small ba.sal cells reunited with the discal cell. Middle tibiae with spurs. The sin- q: Fig. Ii9.— Piophila casei, parent of the cheese maggot. gular larvfE are provided with a long caudal respiratory tube. E. hulophila Pack, lives in the brine of the Equality Salt Works, 128 ENTOMOLOGY. Illinois; E. californica Pack, in Clear Lake, Cal.; while E. gracilis is abundant in Great Salt Lake, Utah. The larvoe and pupa-cases of E. californica, which inhabits Mono Lake, are eaten in large quanti- ties by the Indians. Famil}^ Diopsidse. — Eyes situated on long lateral projections. Sl^lifyracepliala brevicornis Say. Family FiopMlidse. — Front with some small bristles above only; clypeus rudimentary, legs rather stout. Piop7iila casei hinu . Family Sepsidae. — Head rounded; front bristly; border of the mouth more or less hairy, the foremost hair often imitating a vibrissa; clypeus rudimentary; proboscis short; palpi exceedingly small or wanting Abdomen tapering towards the base. Middle tibiae with distinct spurs; claws and pulvilli small; venation of the wings complete; the auxiliary vein distinctly separated from the first longitudinal vein; the two posterior basal cells rather large. Sepsis similis Macquart. Family O^omyziAsR—Opomyza signicosta Walk. Family Heteroneuridae. — Front with long bristles; clypeus not developed; palpi broad and proportionately large; legs slender. Heteroneura albimana Mcigeu. Family Phycodromidae. — Thorax and a'bdomen fiat. Cailopa frigida Fallen. Europe and North America. Family Sapromyzidae. — Venation complete; auxiliary vein of the usual structure, frequently very near the first longitudinal vein; costa of the wings without bristles or a marginal spine; longitudinal veins without peculiar hairs; posterior basal cells small. Front with a single row of bristles on each side; no vibrissae on the border of the mouth; clypeus rather rudimentary. Only the middle tibiaj Fig. 150.— Louchasa. a, larva; h, pupa-case. have terminal spurs; all the tibiae with a small erect bristle on the outer side before the end. Ovipositor of the female not horny. Sapromyza vulgaris Fitch. Family Lonchaeidae. — Like the Sapromj'zidae, but the female has a horny, 3- jointed ovipositor. The species bore in the bark of wil- lows, etc. Ijoncluva polita Say. Family Trypetidae. — Venation complete; the end of the auxiliary vein runs steeply to the border of the wing and becomes obsolete; first longitudinal vein always with bristles, the third frequently, the fifth sometimes; two posterior basal cells rather large, the hindmost ORDER DIPTERA. 129 often prolonged to a point. Front on each side with two rows of bristles, one of which is situated more above and in front, the other below and exteriorly. Border of the mouth with no vibrissas. Clypeus none or rudimentary. Proboscis never thickened. Only the middle tibi* with spurs; all the tibiae without an erect bristle on the outer side before the tip. Ovipositor horny, consisting of three elongated retractile segments like the drawers of a telescope, the last of which ends in a simple point. Trypeta jloi'escenticB Linn. Europe and North America. Family Ortalidse. — Venation of the wings complete; auxiliary vein separated from the lirst longitudinal vein, and running to the border of the wing in the usual way, under an acute angle, and remaining perfectly distinct in its whole length; third longitudinal vein gen- erally with coarse hairs; two posterior basal cells large, and the out- ward one frequently prolonged in an acute angle. Front with bristles on the upper part only; no vibrisste at the border of the mouth; clypeus commonly very much developed, and proboscis often very much thickened. Middle tibiiB alone with spurs; no tibiae with an erect bristle on the exterior side before the tip. Ovipositor of the female rather flattened and horny, consisting of three elongated segments, forming three drawers like those of a telescope, and ending in a simple point. Pyrgota undata Wied., Tvitoxaflexa Wied. Fig. 151.— Tritoxa flexa, onion fly, and maggot. Family Micropezidae.— Body long and slender; legs short; front with bristles near the crown. Calobata antennipennis Say. Family Psilidae.— Body slender; face receding, mouth small. Pdla bicolor Meig. Europe and North America. Family Sciomyzidae.— Front with two bristles, one behind the other, on the side before the vertical bristles; middle tibiae with a greater number of bristles at the tip. Sciomyza albocostata Fallen. Europe and North America. _ Family Helomyzidae.— Front bristly on the upper half only; all the tibiae spurred. Helomyzd apmilis Loew. Family Cordyluridae.— Venation of the wings complete; both pos- terior basal cells of considerable size; auxiliary vein well separated from the first longitudinal vein, which is bare. Entire side of the 130 ENTOMOLOGY. front bristly; anterior border of the mouth with strong, iisnally numerous vibrissse. Tibiae with spurs. ScatopJiaga stercoi-aria Linti. Family Anthomyidae. — Tliorax with a complete transverse suture. Fourth longitudinal vein straight or nearly so, hence the first pos- FiG. 153.— Onion fly. a, larva, natural size; h, the same, enlarged. terior cell is fully open. Teguloe rather well developed. Phorbia ceparum Meig. (Fig. 152). Homalomyin scalaris (Fabr., Fig. 153) is the privy-fiy; the maggots of this and //. cunicularis are sometimes discharged from the human intestines and urethra. Family Muscidae. — Bristle of the antennae entirely plumose (Musca) or pectinated (Sto- moxys). Body never slender; thorax short; wings with the first posterior cell only .slightly opened, or else closed at the border of the wing; tegulas large; legs stout. All the fore- going families, with the three following, are by many au- thors placed in one great family Muscidd'; but, to accord with our present imperfect knowledge, Loew and others have provisionally divided them into a great number of small families. Mnsca domentica Linn., the house-fly; Lucilia mn^ellarin Fabr. sometimes lays its eggs in wounds in the skin of man, producing hard red fiuctuating tumors; its maggot is called the "screw-Avorm;" in one case 300 of these maggots were found in or dropped from one man's nose or nasal cavities, where it had destroyed the soft parts, causing death. L. cresar Linn., the blue-bottle fly; Calliphonvi, ery- ihrocephaln Meig., the meat-fly; Stovioxys calcUrans Linn, has a long, slender, hard proboscis; it breeds in or about stables, and bites horses and human beings. Fig. 153.— Homatomj/io scalaris if), o, larva, natural size; b, enlarged.— After Curtis. ORDER DIPTERA. 131 Family Sarcophagidae. Bristle of the antennae plumose or hairy, with the apex bare. First posterior cell only slightly opened or else closed; tegu- lae large; legs stout. Sar- coplmga carnaria Linn., the flesh-fly of Europe, is black, with the thorax streaked with gray, and the abdomen 1 checkered with whitish; it is viviparous, the eggs being „ ,t. „ t a hatched before they are laid. Fig. \M.—Sarcophaga satn-acenice . c, fly; a, q ■ t?M . • larva; b, pupa-case ; d. g, head ; e. end of '^- sarracenice Itiie} . body; /. spiracle of larva; i, antenna; h. Family Tachinidae. — Bristle foot of fly.-After Riley. ^yf the anteuntc bare, or with a very short pubescence; thorax short; tirst posterior cell closed or only slightly opened; legs short. LarviB parasitic in caterpillars Fig. 155.— Tachina fly, and lai-va. and other insects, living on the fat and juices of their host; many injurious caterpillars being destroyed by these useful flies. Family Dezidae. — The species differ from those of the Tachinidae in having the bristle of the antennie either pubescent or plumose; and from the Muscidae in having the abdomen bristly above. Dexia analis Say. Family (Estridae. — Antennae inserted in rounded pits; the middle part of the face exceedingly narrow; the opening of the mouth very small; the mouth-parts rudimentary. Larvae usually very thick, with a spiny skin. The ox bot-fly (.Hypoderma bovis De Geer) appears from June to September, the worms occurring during May and in the summer in tumors on the backs of cattle, until in July they fall to the ground; they remain in the pupa-case 26-30 days. The mag- gots of the horse bot-fly (GasirophUus equi Fabr.) hang by their mouth-hooks to the walls of the horse's stomach. Family Platypezidae. — Antennae with an apical bristle; hypopygium symmetrically turned under the abdomen; middle tibiae with spurs; empodium wanting. Platypeza anthrux Loew. Family Pipunculidae. — Small flies with the head almost entirely oc- cupied by the eyes; face very narrow. Pipunculufi cingulatus Loew. Famil}' Conopidae.— Wasp-like, with a long abdomen; eyes broadly separated; proboscis much prolonged; third joint of the autennte 132 ENTOMOLOGY with an apical style or a thick dorsal bristle; parasitic in the ab- domen of wasps and bees. Conops tibialis Say. Family Syrphidae. — A spurious longitudinal vein between the third Fig. 156.— Bot-fly of the ox. Fig. 156. a, larva. a Fig. 157. Fig. 157.— Horse bot-worm, enlarged. and fourth longitudinal veins; first posterior cell closed; no depres- sion in the face for the antennae. Often wasp- or bee-like in shape Fig. 159. Fig. 160. Fig. 158.— Rat-tailed pupa-case of Eristalis. Fig. 1.59.— 2lfej-odo?i posticata. a, its pupa-case. FiG. 160.— %rp/ms (Mesograpta) j>oii~ .—Eudalimia subsignaria. FiQ. 188. — Spring canker-worm, a, male moth; b, wingless female, natural size; 6, egg; a, larva; c, side, cl. top, of a segment. — Aftei- Riley. The pupi3e are rather smooth and slender, either pale brown and lf)4 ENTOMOLOGY. '**»^:'' ) ? i "«»*^r spotted, or mahogany brown. The more destructive forms are the spring oaulver-worm, Anisopteryx mrnata, in which the females are wingless, and lay their eggs in patches on the bark, the worms appearing when the trees leaf out. In cities the caterpillars of EudaUmia subnignaria Hlibner defoliates elms and other shade-trees. Family Noctuidae. — The owlet moths number upwards of 1500 species in this country, many of which are destructive to crops. The noctuids in general differ from other moths in their thick bodies, the thorax often being crested, by their stout palpi, and the usually simple antennae, though these are in some cases pectinated. The fore wings are rather narrow, with usually a dot and reniform spot in the middle of the wing, while the hind wings are large. They mostly fly by night. The caterpillars are usually smooth, without hairs or spines, the body tapering towards each end, and more or less striped; the number of feet is usually sixteen, except the lower genera with broad wings, such as Cato- cala, which are semiloopers, having but fourteen feet. The pupa? are usually subterranean. The lower forms, called Deltoids, have very long palps, and the larvae are slender, glassj^ green, and fall wriggling to the ground when disturbed. Such is Hypenn humuli Harris. The species of Catocala have very broad fore wings and often bright red hind wings, the caterpillars living on trees. The great Erebus odora Drury, which expands live inches, and the great Thymniu agrippina (Cramer) of Brazil are the giants of the family. Among the most de- structive pests are the cotton-worm (Aletia (irgillacea Hlibner), the boll-worm {Helioilm armigera Linn.), and the northern army-worm Fig. 189.— Hop-snout moth, Hy- pena humuli. Natural size. Fig. 190.— Army-worm and moth, a, male moth; b, abdomen of female— nat. size; c, eye; d, base of male antenna; e, base of female antenna, enlarged. (Leucania unipvncta Hixw . , Fig. 190). Universal pests are the cut- worms, which like most of the othei larva; of the group feed by night, hiding by day. Their eggs are laid on the leaves of grass, and the ORDER LEPIDOPTERA 155 caterpillars gnaw off the stems of succulent plants. The larvpe cf the species of Apatela are hairy, and so closely resemble certain Notodontian caterpillars as to be easily mistaken for them. Fau.ily Eombycidse. — The species of this family differ in the usually thick, hairy body, small head, pectinated antennae, and long, large clypeus; in the weak palpi and often small, weak tongue; while the caterpillars are usually hairy, and more or less tufted, or spiny. They spin a cocoon, more or less dense, and the chrysalids are un- usually short and thick. The group is divided into a number of sub-families, regarded by some authors as families. The Lnchneides (Lasiocampinie) embrace the genera Clisiocampa, Gastro pacha, etc. The larva of Clisiocampa americana Harris is called the American tent-caterpillar; its webs are seen in apple and cherry trees. The Ceratocainpino' are represented by Anisota senatoria (Abbot- Smith), whose spiny black-aud-red-striped larvaa strip oaks; also by two very large moths, Citheronia regalis (Fabr.) and Eacles imperialis (Drury); the Hemileucini by Hemileuca maia and HypercMria io Fabr.; while the giants of the family belong to the Atiaci, which embrace the American silk-worm, the caterpillar of Teleapolyp7iemus{CTaimer); Ac» Fig. 191.— The Chinese silk-worm, b, cocoon; a, moth. Natural size. tiasluna (Linn.), Platysamia cecropia Linn., and Callosamia promstJiea (Drury). The Bombycimc are represented by the Chinese silk-worm, Bombyx morilAnn , and this group is succeeded by Platypterices, of which Platypteryx arcuata Walk, is a type. This group is succeeded by theNotodontians (Ptilodontes), of which Schizura unicornis (Abbot lo6 ENTOMOLOGT. and Smith) and Notodonta stragula Grote, as well as Nerice bidentata Walk. (Fig. 193), and Edema albifrom Abbot-Smith, are examples. N^.." YiQ. 1%^.— Nerice bidentata. Nat. size. YioA^'i.— Edema albifrons. Nat. size. These are succeeded by the Cochlidui', of which Limacodes scapha Harris is the most familiar form. This group is followed by the Fig. \M.—Limacodes scapha, moth and larva. Natural size. Fig. 195. — Basket- worm, Platce- ceticus glover ii Pack. Nat. size. Psychirm, represented by the basket-worms, Thyridopteryx ephemerce- formis Steph., Psyche confederata Grote, and Platoeceticus glover ii. Fig. 196. — Hyphantria cunea. o, dail? larva, seen from side; b, light larva from above; c, dark larva from above; d, pupa from below; e, pupa from side;/, moth. The DasycMrm (Liparinse) are represented by Orgyia leucostigma (Abbot Smith) or tussock-caterpillar, so destructive to shade-trees. The Arctiima are a large group, the species of Arctia being nu- ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. 157 merous, the more common ami destructive species being Spilosoma virginica (Fabr.) and the fall web-worm, Hyphantria cunea (Drury, Fig. 196). The last sub-family is the Liiliosm, in which the body is Fig. 197. — Lithosia bicolor. Nat. size. — Utetlieisa hella. Nat. size. slight, not very hairy, and the antennae not pectinated. Litliosia bi- color Grote (Fig. 197) and Utetheisa bella (Linn., Fig. 198) are typical forms. Family Zygaenidae.— The beautiful moths of this group are recog- nized by the pectinated antennae, their usually rather narrow wings, rounded at the apex, the Arctian-like venation, and by their hairy caterpillars, which transform in cocoons of silk or mostly hair. It is divided into the Zygrminii', represented b}' Zygsena in Europe, and in this country by the species of Procris, Harrisina, etc., as well as LycoTTurrpha pholus Drury; and the Olaucopiiuc, exemplified by Ctenucha mrginica Char p. Family Agaristidae. — Formerly associated with the preceding family, the species of this group differ in having simple antennae, a sub-costal cell, and the cater- pillars are naked, more or less himiped on the eighth abdominal segment, and do not spin a silk cocoon. The types are Eudryas grata Fabr., E. unio Hiibn., and Alypia 8-rnaculata (Fabr.). Family Castniadae. — The species are tropical, mostly very large moths with simple an- tennae thickened towards the end, and the head narrow be- tween the eyes (the scales are in C'astnia larger than in any other Lepidoptera) ; the larvae are Fig- 199. -^/.vpm of Rrape. o, larva; ', naked, boring in the stems of side of asegment,enlarged.-AfterRilej. orchids, etc. As in the two foregoing families the moths are daj' flies. Castnin Ikus (Fabr.), South America: Synemon sophia (White), Australia. A species of the Australian genus Hecatesia, the males of which have a vitreous spot on the fore wings, makes a whizzing noise like the hu^riming of a top. Family Hepialidae. — The.se are brown moths with silver markings, whose antennae are short, and either simple or sub-serrate ; the tongue is wanting, the clypeus short, and the larvae are borers. Hepialus mustelinus Pack, occurs in the Northeastern States. Family Cossidee, — Large moths with the antennae well pectinated; 158 ENTOMOLOGY. a sub-costal cell, and a strong vein dividing the discal cell longi- tudinally into two cells; larvae boring in solid wood, Prionoxystus robinve Peck, is the oak and locust tree-borer. Family Thyrididae. — Small, richly colored moths with simple an- tennae, the wings small, the hinder ones more or less angular; the discal cell of the fore wings open. Thyris maculata Harris, T. luguhris Boisd. Family Sesiidae. — Small moths with brilliant colors, long, narrow, more or less transparent fore and hind wings, and thickened an- tennae; larvae boring in the stems of shrubs and trunks of trees. Sesia pyri (Rams); Melittia ceto Westw., the squash-vine borer. Family Sphingidae. — The hawk-moths are large insects with thick bodies, spindle-shaped antennae, thick palpi; usually a very long tongue; the fore wings are rather narrow, the apex sharp, and they have a small, short discal cell. C^aterpillars with a smooth or granu- lated skin, and a hump or horn on the eighth aV)dominal segment; usually pupating in the earth, the pupa often with the tongne-case large and free. In Ilemaris the bodj^ is bright-colored, and the wings transparent in the middle (/£ thySe Fabr.). The larva of Thyreus abbotii has a disk-like hump instead of a horn. In Smerinthus the tongue is short and weak; S. exc<(csit((l by the bee and irregularl}^ slipper-shaped. Natural size.-After Enieiton. Drone-eggs are supposed by Dzier- zun itnd Siebold not to be fertilized, wnuu the queen-bp". is the oul) ■ v^^ ^ ^ ORDER HYMENOPTERA. 177 animal which can produce either sex at will. Certain worker-eggs have been known to transform into queen-bees. On the other hand, worker-bees may in rare cases lay drone-eggs. The Ggg, from which the queen develops is like that of a worker, the difference arising in larval life, owing to a change of treatment of the larva by the nurses, its food, derived from pollen by digestion,* being different from that provided for the worker. The first or old queen, when the population of the hive becomes excessive, leaves the hive to establish a new colony. This is called ' ' swarming." The queen is very fertile, having the power of laying between 2000 and 3000 eggs a day, or "two eggs per minute for weeks in succession." Cheshire states that the larva feeds four days, moulting probably six times; and finally, when it stops eating, lines its cell with a silken cocoon, though before this can be spun a cover or "sealing" is put over the cell by the workers, there being minute openings in the cover for the passage of air into the cell. A strong colony or "slock" may contain as many as 12,000 larvae, all of which are fed by the nurses or workers with pollen and honey. In about a fortnight from the time of seal- ing, the bee bites through the sealing, and twenty-four hours after drying and preening itself, enters upon the duties of the hive. * Cheshire says: "The secretion, commonly, though, as I bold, erroneously, called 'royal jelly,' is added unstintingly to the end." The first brood food " is a highly nitrogenous tissue-former, derived from pollen by digestion, and having apparently a singular power in developing the generative faculty; for I find drone larvae receive much more of it than those of workers, to whom any accidental ex- cess possibly gives the power of ovipositing, as we find it in the abnormal fertile worker." He thinks also that the queen, if not always, at least during the time of egg-laying, is fed by the workers from the secretion of the chyle-gland (No. 1), with probable additions from some of the other three, there being four kinds of glands, in all, in the head and thorax. (Cheshire's Bees and Bee-keeping, p. 82.) Wasp hanging by one foot, and eating a fly.— After Emerton. 12 CHAPTEE IV. INSECT-ARCHITECTURE. Many young naturalists are deterred from studying in. sects by the lack of books enabling them to readily identify the species they collect; but if handicapped in this direc- tion, they can nevertheless observe the curious habits of insects, and form most interesting collections of their co- coons, nests, and various contrivances for concealment from their enemies. Man's earliest, most primitive attempts at architecture were undoubtedly in the direction of obtaining shelter from too great heat or cold, from rain and snow, and from hos- tile beasts and more hostile men. For the same reason insects make shelters of various sorts, both for their eggs, their young, and themselves. More unconscious (and often, perhaps, semi-conscious) ingenuity is exj)ended by insects, especially the social kinds, than by any of the higher animals, not even excej)ting the birds. We know that fishes in rare instances build rude nests, and show some slight degree of care for their progeny; squirrels and mice faintly imitate birds in nest-building: but where even among birds do we find nests so complex and cunningly contrived as those of ants, paper- wasps, and social bees ? Do we really know that birds and beasts, the domesticated species ex- cepted, are, as regards architectural skill and general reasoning power, any higher in the intellectual scale than the social insects, with their different kinds of individuals assigned to this or that duty, their laborers and soldiers, and, in the case of ants, their system of slave-labor, their herds of milch-cows (the Aphides), and genius for house- keeping, nursing, and civic police duties? But not content INSEGT-ARCEITECTURE. 179 with generalities, let us look at a few instructive examples of insect-architecture, beginning witli tlie simi^ler and end- ing with the more complex. Perhaps the first impulse of an insect in endeavoring to escape from some enemy is to burrow in the soil, or, if aquatic in its liabits, to bury itself in the mud at the bot- tom of the pool or stream it inhabits. Such habits once Fig. 22r.— Oak-leaf rolled sidewise. Fig. 228.— Oak-leaf rolled at the end. acquired and transmitted would lead a wood-eating or leaf- gnawing insect to save its life by burrowing into and mining leaves or bark, or even rolling over the edge of a leaf and hiding under it; and such insects after a number of gen- erations, meeting with success in the struggle for exist- ence, without much doubt founded the insect-guilds, if we may so style them, of masons, carpenters, and builders. When we consider how many kinds of leaf-rollers there are among different orders of insects, we may perhaps regard this as the readiest and most simple method of forming a shelter. Among the caterpillars of the smaller moths there are multitudes whieli roll up portions of the leaf, whole leaves, or even bind several leaves together with silken cords. How this is done may be seen bv 180 ENTOMOLOGY. Figs. 227-230;, taken from tlie work of Keaumur ; but any one can find similar examples, as we have done, on our own oaks and willows. By watching the little worm with a lens, one can realize how deftly the unconscious me- chanic begins to turn over the point of a leaf, holding it in place by first attach- ing a single silken strand to a fixed ,|, point so as to give the first turn, and then gradually and with a good deal of pains hauling the rolled portion over, and attaching new strands until finally a well-shaped roll is made in which the insect can safely reside dur- ing its caterpillar existence. In a single season an industrious collector could make a most interesting collection of tents and rolls formed by caterpillars — and what a zest would it give to his Fig. 229.— Sorrel-leaf cut Walks ! by a caterpillar. Another order of rolls are those made by the leaf-rolling weevils, whose very long snouts have short jaws at the end, to aid in the work; though, judg- ing by the readiness with which they use their feet, there seems to be some intelligence lodged in those appendages. The singular thimble-like rolls of Attelabus rlwis may be found in June and July on the alder. AVhen about to lay her eggs, the female begins to eat a slit near the base of the leaf, on each side of the midrib and at right angles to it, so that the leaf may be folded together. Before beginning to roll up the leaf she gnaws the stem nearly off, so that, after the roll is made and has dried for perhaps a day, it is easily detached by the wind and falls to the ground. Then folding the leaf, she tightly rolls it up, neatly tucking in the ends, until a compact, cylindrical, solid mass of vegetation is formed. Before the leaf is en- tirely rolled, she deposits a single Qgg, rarely two, in the INSECT-ARCHITECTURE. 181 middle, next to the midrib, where it lies loosely in a little cavity. While all this is going on her consort stands near by, and she occasionally runs to him to receive his caresses, again resuming her work. These rolls remain on the A bushes sometimes for sev- eral days, but probably drop by the time the larva escapes from the egg; and it seems probable that the grub uses the roll for a shelter until it matures and is ready to enter on its transformations to a beetle. Another species found on the oak does not devote the whole leaf to a single roll, for three B Fia. 230. • -A, willow-leaves rolled by a caterpillar; B, willow-leaves rolled- seen in section. or four small rolls may be found on one leaf. The gall-makers are not the species of Cynips alone, but also certain gnats and Aphides, including the Phylloxera, which inhabit shelters, due to the morbid growth and mul- tiplication, of cells on the leaves and twigs, or roots, as the 182 ENTOMOLOGY. case may be, stung by tlie })arunt, whose instincts are exer- cised in selecting the pro2)er plant, and portion of plant, to sting. Although the gall-flies are not the direct architects of the galls, no collection of insect- products would be com- plete without a series of galls, of which there are so many kinds. Intermediate between leaf and wood miners, and case- worms, are certain Pyralid moths which not only crumple and roll up the leaves of plants, but piece out their mines by tubular additions to the openings, which form cases in which the caterpillar securely hides. As examples are Aci'obasis jnglandis and Phycita nebula. Another Pyralid {Phi/cis ruhrifasciella) mines the buds and recently ex- panded young leaves of the pig-hickory, and also bores into the base of the leaf-stalks. It also builds out the mouth of its mine, adding a tube formed of grains of its excrement, in which it lives and finally transforms. Besides mining leaves, which is one of the humblest kinds of architectural effort, certain Tineid moths construct flat, oval, or cylindrical silk-lined sacks or cases in which they live, and which, like Diogenes and his tub, they carry about with them. The clothes-moth in its larval stage con- structs the too-familiar cases of felting, formed of closely-woven bits of woollen and lined with silk. A whole group of sack- bearers (Psychids), small and large, build FiQ. 231. — Case of the basket-worm. —After Harris. Fig. 232. — Larva and case of Chlamys. spindle-shaped sacks covered with bits of leaves and twigs, which are so arranged as to resemble basket-work. One of INSECT-ARCHITECTURE. 183 these in Europe {Psyche helix) constructs a snail-like case. Beetle-grubs rarely construct such cases, but the little Chlamys is a genuine sack-bearer, as is another leaf-eater. Corset noptera dominicana. All the Caddis-flies are sack -bearers in their larval state, and the larvae are from this habit called case-worms. The worm apparently builds them by adding grain after grain of coarse sand to the mouth of the tube, lining the interior with silk; if there is moss at hand, bits are fastened to the exterior, or large pieces of leaves. Fig. 233, a, represents Fig. 233.— Different forms of cases of caddis-flies. the case of the European Phryganea grandis; but we have a similar one, formed by cutting a leaf into a broad ribbon- like strip and then rolling it into a tube. Some are like horns, while the case of Helicopsyche (Fig. 233, d) has often been mistaken by shell-collectors for a fresh-water snail (Valvata). As architects ants are preeminent, and they evince their skill in construction not by mounds alone, but also by digging deep wells and tunnelling broad rivers, as well as in laying out roads above and below ground. While our native species are not known to form elaborate nests, a greenish ant in India {GiJcophylla smaragdina) is 184 ENTOMOLOGY. said to form a nest, sometimes a foot in diameter, by draw- ing living leaves together without detaching them from the branch, and uniting them with a fine white web. We wonder at the instinct of the tailor-bird, but there are thousands of species of insects which show as much intel- ligence in sewing together their shelters. Another Indian ant makes a small nest, about half an inch or more in diameter, of some paper-like material, which it fixes on a leaf. In Brazil certain ants construct large nests, called " negro-heads," which resemble wasp-nests, being attached like them to the branches of trees, though on removing the outer wraps they are found to differ in having no regu- lar cells, but consist of intricate curved galleries leading into the interior chambers and passages. But it is in the nests of wasps and bees that we have constructions which attest the highest degree of architec- tural skill known in the animal creation, those of man alone excepted. It is to be observed, however, that here, as elsewhere, Nature does not make a leap. She does not present us at the outset with fully developed paper-wasps^ nests and colonies, or the highly complicated nest and colony of the honey-bee. These were, without much doubt, gradual developments, the results of many failures and successes of which we have no record. There is a long series of wasps, for example, whose nests show different degrees of complexity, which gradually lead up to the nest of the paper-wasp with its numerous cells arranged in several stories, and all walled in by papery layers. We have first simple holes excavated in the sand by the S^jhex iclmeumonea (Fig. 223). We have noticed a com- pany of nearly a dozen of these large reddish wasps, whose bodies are covered by a rich golden pubescence. Each one for itself — for in these solitary wasps there is no combined action — began to dig its hole in a gravelly walk, removing the little stones and coarse grains of sand with its jaws; as the hole deepened it loosened the earth with its jaws, and threw it out of the hole both with its jaws and fore INSBCT-ARCHITEOTURE. 186 feet, and when the sand accumulated so as to be in its way it would retreat backwards and push the dirt still farther back from the mouth of its cell with its hind legs. In this way, working literally with tooth and nail, it dug a shaft five or six inches deep, and then flew away after grass- hoppers to store it, finally filling the mouth so that no dis- tinct traces of its work would remain. A decided step upward is the home of the mud-dauber. This wasp moistens the dirt with its saliva, forming pellets of mud, which it plasters on walls or rafters, storing the cell with spiders, etc. In our common yellow-legged mud- dauber {Pelopcens Jiavipes) the cells are built of long pellets of mud placed in two rows, and diverging from the mid- ^ ' & » Fig 234— An African die. mud-dauber. The wood-wasjjs excavate their burrows in the hollow stems of pithy plants, such as the elder, syringa, raspberry, or blackberry, the idea seeming to be to save as much labor as possible; some species going so far, or rather doing so little, as to refit old nail-holes for their nesting purposes. Coming to the true solitary wasps, we find species of very different uest-building habits. While one kind of Odynerus builds separate cells of mud, placing them in oak-galls or in deserted nests of the tent-caterpillar, another builds several cells together under a common covering of sandy mud fastened to a stack of grass. More of an archi- tectural effort is seen in the flask-shaped cells of mud which Eumenes fraterna builds, attaching several of them in a row to a branch, filling the interiors with little caterpillars. Of a more advanced order is the nest of Icaria, which shows that each cell is built independently in regular hex- agons; sometimes the cells are arranged in two or three rows; while in the nest of our PoUstes annularis, often to be found attached to bushes, the cells are crowded together in one plane or story. But in a delicate nest of a South 186 ENTOMOLOGY. American wasp (Mischocyttarus), which is suspended by a long pedicel, the cells, few as they are, are arranged in two stories. The transition from this form to the nests of Vespa and allied forms, which are covered in with walls of paper with a single entrance, is not great. The paper- "wasps begin to build in early summer, and we could then begin to form a series of nests in different stages of con- struction which would be very instructive. From among the bees there can be selected a series, showing that at the outset bees began, so to speak, in an uncertain and tentative way to build their homes. With- out much doubt the solitary bees preceded in geological history the social species, though at present the geological record is a blank, for species of Andrena, Xylocopa, Bombus, and Apis occur in amber and other Miocene deposits, and we know as yet nothing of the geological succession of bees, none being found in the Eocene Tertiary. As with the wasps, we may begin our review of the evi- dences of the nesting skill of bees by first considering those that simply tunnel the soil, as Andrena, which makes its nests in pastures, consisting of a straight tubular well or shaft, from which diverge short passages leading into the brood-chambers (Fig. 226). Certain other bees excavate tunnels or refit the hollows of elder and other pithy shrubs. The species of Osmia, little green and blue bees, build oval cells of mud, placing them in different situations, either under stones or in part- ly decaying trees. Osmia simillima, one of our commonest species, is shrewd enough to avail itself of the empty galls of a Cynips common on the oak, placing them in a row on the vaulted arch of this large oak-apple. A step higher brings us to the leaf-cutter bees (Me- gachile), which cut out circular pieces of rose-leaves, a single bee sometimes building thirty cells, using during the process as many as a thousand j^ieces. With the pieces thus obtained she lines tubular hollows in trees, etc., and INSEGT-ARCHITEGTURE. 187 stores in each cell a mass of pollen^ oa Avliicli an Qgg is placed, for the food of the young grub. Carpenter-bees are well named, as with their strong jaws Fig. 235.— Leaf-cutter bee and nest. they bore perfectly regular holes in pine boards, as straight as if made with an auger. The tunnel is sometimes made from 12 to 18 inches in length, and about half an inch in diameter, so as to readily admit the bee. The industri- ous little carpenter, working as rapidly as she can, excavates her holes (in pine wood) at the rate of about a quarter of an inch a day. Mr, Angus says: '^ If I mistake not, it takes her about two days to make her own length at the first start; but this being across the grain of the wood may not be so easily done as the remainder, which runs parallel with it. She always follows the grain of the wood, with the ex- ception of the entrance, which is about her own length." 188 ENTOMOLOGY, Passing over the humble-bees, which are not skilful architects, we come to the workers in wax, such as the stingless bees of the tropics (Trigona and Melipona), and the hive-bee, our only domestic insect. The cells of Meli- pona are hexagonal, but the honey-cells are irregular and larger in size. The cells of an Australian Trigona are arranged in combs similar to those of the common wasp. Hence these bees are a connecting link between the solitary bees and the honey-bee, whose elaborate style of architec ture has been so often recounted.* * See, for an account of the cells of the honey-bee, the latest and best work on the honey-bee, "Cheshire's Bees and Beekeeping" (3 vols., with numerous excellent illustrations; London, L. Upcott Gill, 1886-7); for essays on the cells of bees, and the mathematical principles and theory of construction, the writings of Maraldi, Reaumur, Huber, J. Wvman (Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, vii., 1866), S. Haughtoii, G. R. Waterhouse, F. Smith, Tegetmeier, Darwin, and the author's " Guide to the Study of Insects." Argynnis aphrodite; under side shown on right. CHAPTEE V. INSECTS INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO AGRICUL- TURE. Economic Entomology relates to those insects which prey on our crops; it comprises a study of their liabits, classification, and the remedies against their attacks; it also includes a study of insect-parasites of the domestic animals, of man himself, as well as household pests. In short, this branch of applied science treats of the habits and best means of destroying any insect which is in any way in- jurious to human interests. To succeed well in this applied science one must be a close, patient observer and of a prac- tical turn of mind. The number of injurious insects in the United States is large and increasing. Owing to the destructiveness of in- troduced species,* the large areas devoted to special crops, and other causes, crops in this country seem far more liable to insect-depredations than in the Old World, and the evil is perhaps especially felt in the more recently settled por- tions of the country. Prof. J. A. Lintner, the State Entomologist of New York, in his first report remarks: " There is probably not a single * The most obnoxious insects brought accidentally from Europe are the following: the wheat-midge and Hessian fly; currant-worm (Nematiis ventricosus), oyster-shell bark-louse, apple Aphis, hop-louse, grain Aphis, and several other species of plant-lice; the coddling- moth, cabbage-buttertly {Pieris rape), cabbage raoth {Ephextin inUr- puntella), cnvxAMi-hoxer {jUgeria tipuUfm'mis), asparagus-beetle, clover- root borer, onion-fly [Phorbia cejxirum), and several other root-flies; also some of our cut-worms appear to have been introduced from Europe. On the other hand, we have unwittingly sent to Europe the grape Phylloxera. 190 ENTOMOLOGY. crop cultivated which the infesting insects do not diminish by at least one-tenth — an amount of injury which would hardly be noticed. They often injure crops to the extent of one-fourth or one -half, and occasionally entirely destroy them, as during the ravages of the wheat-midge in this State in 1854-1857. One of our ex-Governors, in his agri- cultural addresses, has frequently urged that insect-depre- dations upon crops of one-fourth or one-half their value should be regarded as a direct tax of twenty-five per cent or fifty per cent levied upon their full value, and collected, perhaps, year after year, without a show of resistance; but which each farmer could, and therefore should, resist, and thereby relieve himself from at least a portion of the bur- den." The following estimates of the losses incurred by the people of the United States will cause one to realize how large a sum, much of which by proper care and foresight could be saved, is annually wasted. The agricultural prod- ucts of the United States are said to amount annually to 13,500,000,000; of this amount we probably annually lose by the attacks of insects not far from one-twentieth, or $100,000,000. The losses from the ravages of the locust in the border or Western States in 1874 were estimated at $45,000,000; those occasioned by the chinch-bug in Illinois in 1864 amounted to over $73,000,000, and in Missouri in 1874 to $19,000,000. The average annual loss to the cotton- raising States from the cotton-worm from 1860 to 1874 was estimated as about $15,000,000. While it is estimated that each species of plant on the average supports three or four species of insects, very many plants, especially those in general cultivation, afford subsistence to many more; for many species which now attack garden vegetables or fruits, before the settlement of this country lived on plants of different species, but now concentrate their attention on one. Thus the Colorado potato-beetle in its native state lived on a species of Solanum ; and most if not all the other species now injurious to the INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AQBICULTUBE. 191 potato, before its introduction lived on other plants. The insects of the apple and other fruit trees before those trees were introduced into America lived on certain forest-trees, such as the oak, elm, ash, mountain-ash, wild cherry, pop- lar, willow, etc. Our forest-trees are also peculiarly liable to depredations from insects, certain species of which attack the roots, others the bark, others the wood, many the leaves, and a few the fruit or nuts. Thus the oak harbors between five or six hundred species, the hickory affords maintenance to one hundred and forty recorded species, the birch to over one hundred species, the maple to eighty-five, the poplar to seventy-two, while the pine yields food to over a hun- dred different kinds. We will now very briefly notice the most common and formidable pests of some of our cultivated plants, referring the reader for further information to the list of works and reports on economic entomology at the end of this book. Insects Injurious to Field and Garden Crops. Injuring Wheat. The Joint-worm {Isosoma hordei Harris). — A minute, footless, yellowish- white maggot often forms blister-like swellings between the second and third joints of the stalk, immediately above the lower joint in the sheathing base of the leaf ; remaining through the winter in the stubble, straw, or harvested grain, and changing into a small, slender, black, four- winged insect, which deposits its eggs in the stalks of young wheat late in May and in June. This is one of the Chalcididge, and, unlike the majority of the family, lives on plants. When wheat or barley is from eight to ten inches high its growth becomes suddenly checked; the lower leaves turn yellow, and the stalks be- come bent. If the butts of the straw are now examined, they will be found to be irregularly swollen and discolored between the second and third joints, and, instead of being 192 ENTOMOLOGY. hollow, are rendered solid, hard, and brittle, so that the straw above the diseased part is impoverished and seldom produces any grain. Remedy. — Burn the stubble in the autumn or early spring for several years in succession. Fig. 236,— The joint-worm fly. a, c, e, female; b, d,f, male.— After Riley. The Hessian Fly {Cecidomyia destructor Say). — Two or three small, reddish-white maggots embedded in the crown of the roots or just above the lower joint cause the stalks and leaves of wheat to wither and die; the maggots harden, turn brown, then resemble flaxseed, and finally change into little black midges with smoky wings, which lay from twenty to thirty eggs in a crease in the leaf of the young plant. There are two broods of the fly, the first laying their eggs on the leaves of the young wheat from early in A])ril till the end of May, the time varying with the latitude and weather; the second brood a2:)pearing during August and the early jjart of September, and laying about thirty eggs on the leaves of the young winter wheat. Tlio eggs hatch in about four days after they are laid. Several of the maggots or larva make their way down to the INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 193 sheathing base of tlie leaf, and remain between the base of the leaves and the stem near the roots, causing the stalk to swell and the plant to turn yellow and die. By the end of November, or from thirty to forty days after the wheat is sown, they assume the "flaxseed" state, and may, on re- moving the lower leaves, be found as little brown, oval, cylindrical, smooth bodies, a little smaller than grains of rice. They remain in the wheat until during warm weather; in April the larva rapidly transforms into the pupa within its flaxseed skin, the fly emerging from the flaxseed case about the end of April. The eggs laid by this first or spring brood of flies soon hatch; the second brood of maggots live but a few weeks, the flaxseed state is soon undergone, and the autumn or second brood of flies appears in August. (In some cases there may be two autumn broods, the earlier August brood giving rise to a third set of flies in Sep- tember. ) There are several destructive ichneumon parasites of the Hessian fly, whose combined attacks are supposed at times to destroy about nine-tenths of all the flies hatched. Of these, the most important is the Chalcid four-winged fly, Semiotellus (Merisus) destructor (Fig. 237, i, much en- larged), which infests the flaxseed; and the egg-parasite, Phitygaster herrickii Pack. Remedies. — By sowing a part of the wheat early, and, if affected by the fly, ploughing and sowing the rest after September 20, the wheat-crop may in most cases be saved. It should be remembered that the first brood should be thus circumvented or destroyed in order that a second, or spring, brood may not appear. If the wheat be only partially affected, it may be saved by fertilizers and careful cultivation ; or a badly damaged held of winter wheat may thus be recuperated in the spring. Pasturing with sheep, and consequent close cropping of the win- ter wheat in November and early December, may cause many of the eggs, larvae, and flaxseeds to be destroyed; also, rolling the groimd may have nearly the same effect. Sow hardy varieties. The Underbill Mediterranean wheat, and especially the Lancaster variety, which tillers vigorou.sly, should be sown in preference to the slighter, less vigorous kinds in a region much infested by the fly. The early (August) sown wheat might be Diehl; the late sown, Lancaster or Clawson. Of special remedies, the use of lime, soot, or salt may be recom- mended, also raking off the stubble; but too close cutting of the 194 Fig. 237.— The Hessian fly and its transformations. A healthy stalk of wheat on the left, the one on the right dwarfed and the lower leaves beginning to wither and turn yellow; the stem swollen at three places, near the ground where the flaxseed (h) are situated, between the stem and sheathing-base of the leaf, a, egg of the Hessian fly (greatly enlarged, as are all the figures except e and /(): b, the larva, enlarged, the line by the side, in tliis and other figures, showing the natural length; c. the flaxseed, puparium, or pupa-case; d, the pupa or chrysalis; e, the Hessian fly, natural size, laj'ing its eggs in the creases of the leaf; /, female Hessian liy, much enlarged; g, male Hessian fly, much enlarged; h. flaxseed between the leaves and stalk; i, Chalcid parasite of the Hessian fly, male, enlarged.— Fig. b drawn by Mr. Riley; Fig. d by Jlr. Burgess; Figs, o, c, and i, by the author; h, g, f, drawn on wood by L. Trouvelot. {To/ace page 195.) INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 195 ■wheat and burning the stub- ble are of doubtful use, as this destroys the useful para- sites as well as the flies. The Wheat-midge {Di- plosis tritici Kirby). — This species injures the head. Several minute orange-red maggots, an eighth of an incli long, crowding around the ker- nels of wheat, cause them to shrivel and dry when ripe. The maggots de- scend into the ground and spin minute cocoons, from which in the following June emerge bright orange - colored midges. This insect is far less common and destructive than the Hessian fly. Remedy. — Plough deep after harvest, and burn the "screenings" after threshing. Chinch - bug {Blissus leucopterns Say). — This bug, while young, sucks the roots of wheat and corn, afterwards infesting in great numbers the stalks and leaves, punc- turing them with its beak. It appears early in June, and there is a summer and an autumn brood, the adults hiber- nating in the stubble. Fig. 238.— Wheat-midpe. a, male; 6, fe- male; c, wing, enlarged; d, antennal joints of male; e. of female; /, ovipositor, with its two sliding tubes and terminal appen- dages for guidltig the eggs, (j; h, larvae on a kernel; i, the larva, enlarged; i', the same, natural size: j, the same crawling, with its antennae extended; k, anterior, I, posterior, end. — After Fitch. 196 ENTOMOLOGY. Remedies. — Burn the stubble, old straw, and corn-stalks among weeds in fence-corners in the early spring. Sow small grain early in the spring; fall ploughing and the use of the roller upon laud that is loose and friable are recommended. Where irrigation is practised, fields may be flooded for several days in suc- cession, and thus the insects driven off or drowned. A kerosene emulsion, sprayed with the force-pump and cyclone nozzle, will de- stroy immense numbers; and deep furrows, with a log drawn through them to grind the soil into dust, will also prove useful in arrest- ing their progress. Grain Aphis {Aphis avenm Fabr.). — Multitudes of dark plant-lice, clustering on the heads of wheat in August; in FiG.239.-chinch.bug. certain years blacken the fields of grain, and by sucking the kernels cause them to shrink in size and to diminish in weight. The Northern Army- worm {Leucmiia unipunda Ha- worth). — This caterpillar periodically ravages wheat and other grain fields in the Middle and Northern States, march- ing through them in great armies. The moth appears late in the summer or early in autumn, when it hibernates, after laying its eggs near the base of leayes of grasses; or farther south it Fig. 240. — Northern army-worm, a, moth, with details. — After Riley. hibernates in the chrysalis state, laying its eggs in April and May, but later northward. The eggs hatch, the young appearing eight or ten days after, and the worms are most INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 197 destructive in a wet summer succeeding u dry one, at tlie time when the wheat is in the milk. The caterpilhir state lasts a month; the chrysalis state two weeks, unless it hiber- nates. The caterpillar is an inch and a half long; the head is covered by a network of confluent spots, and along the middle of the face run two lines diverging at each end. A light-colored waved line just above the legs is succeeded by a dark one, then a light one edged with two thread-lines; while the upper part of the body is dark, with an inter- rupted white thread running along the middle of the back. The moth is rusty, grayish-brown, sprinkled with black specks; and the species is called unipuncta from the single white discal dot of the fore wings. Remedies. — The best preventive remedy is to burn meadows and grass-lands, where the eggs are laid, in autumn. When the armies are in motion and threaten a field of wheat, the latter should be protected by a deep trench with steep or undermining sides, in which fires are kindled or kerosene is poured. The use of the ditches may be supplemented by dusting the grass or wheat for a few feet on each side of the ditch with Paris green. The Wheat-head Army-worm {Leucania alhiUnea). — This caterpillar injures the heads of wheat, rye, and barley, begin- ning at the base, sometimes at the centre of the ear, some- times hollowing out the soft grains, leaving nothing but the shell and the chaff. The caterpillar is like the foregoing species, but is striped with sulphur-yellow and light and dark brown lines. The insect is common from Maine to Kansas. The Wheat Thrips {Tlirips tritici of Dr. Fitch).— This is an exceedingly minute, active, long, narrow, leap- ing insect of a bright yellow or shining black color, occur- ring in numbers on the heads and stalks in June and July, puncturing and thus exhausting the juices of the kernels, and rendering them dAvarfish and shrivelled. Another kind common on wheat in New York, in June, is the three- banded Thrips (Coleothrvps trifasciata Fitch). Other wheat-insects are certain species of Oscinis,ChloropSj 198 FjNTOMOLOQT. and Meromyza, which injure tlie stalks and leaves. The roots are eaten by tli-^ white grub, wire-worms, etc., while stored grain is destroyed by the caterpillar of the Angoumois moth {Gelechia cerealella), by the grain weevil {SitopMlus granarius), and by the grain Sylvanus {S. surinamensis). Injuring Corn. Cut-worms {Agrotis suffusa D. & S. and other species). — Not corn alone, but other cereals, the grasses, and most garden vegetables are indiscriminately attacked by different species of caterpillars of Agrotis and allied genera, which are called cut-worms from their habit of gnawing or cutting off the leaves or heads of young succulent plants as they are coming up out of the ground. They are thick, with a dis- tinct horny scale (prothoracic plate or shield) on the segment next to the head, and are usually marked with shining and warty, or smooth, spots of the same general color as the rest of the body, and are usually longitudinally striped. They are to be seen early in spring hiding under sticks, boards, and stones, having hibernated in this state. They Fig. 241.— Cut-worm and its moth.— After Riley. feed by night, hiding in the daytime, and the chrysalids are situated under ground. They transform into moths, sometimes called dart-moths, which may be known by their crested thorax and ciliated or (rarely) pectinated antennae, while the fore wings are rather narrow, usually with a dark dot near the m.iddle of the wing, and just beyond a reniform or kidney-shaped mark; there is usually a basal, median black streak. The moths appear in midsummer, and lay their eggs near the roots of grasses; these hatch in the INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AQBIGULTURE. 199 autumn, the worms living on tlie roots and sprouts of herbaceous plants, and on the approach of winter descend- ing below the reach of frost. Remedies. — Before planting, the seed-corn should be soaked in copperas-water; while late in autumn corn-land should be ploughed deep so as to turn up the half-grown worms, and expose them to winter colds and insectivorous birds. When the worms have begun their attacks, search should be made for them by digging up the soil around the plant. They may also be trapped in holes made by a stake in corn-hills, or near cabbage-plants, etc. According to Riley they may be destroyed b}^ the wholesale by dropping between the rows of the crop to be protected, at nightfall, balls or masses of fresh-cut grass, clover, or turnip-leaves which have been sprinkled with the Paris-green or London-purple solution. Wire- worms. — Eating the roots of corn, wheat, grass, etc., hard, cylindrical, reddish worms, tapering alike towards each end of the body, and changing into snapping beetles. (See family Elateridce, p. 109.) Remedies. — They may be caught by placing slices of potato, turnip, or apple in the beds, and examining the under sides every ^ Fig. 242.— Wire- worm. Fig. 243. — Corn maggot, a, larva; b, pupa-case.— After Riley. The Corn-maggot {Anthomyia zem Eiley). — Gnawing seed- corn after it is planted, a maggot which sometimes abounds so as to nearly ruin entire corn-fields. 200 ENTOMOLOGY. The Corn- weevil {SphenopJiorus zem Walsh). — Puncturing large holes in young corn near the base of the stalk, before it has spindled, and sometimes destroying whole fields of young corn, a rather large black weevil, nearly half an inch long. The Spindle- worm {Achatodes zece Harris). — Boring in the stalk before the corn spindles, causing the leaves to wither, a caterpillar an inch long, smooth and naked, with the head and last segment black. When the leaves begin to wither, cut open the stalk and remove the worm. The Stalk-borer {Goriyna nitela Guenee). — Boring in the stalks of corn, potato, tomato, etc. , a caterpillar of a pale livid hue, with light stripes along the body; also sometimes boring into the cob of growing Indian corn. This worm also l)ores in dahlia and aster stalks, and may be cut out with a penknife, and the split in the stalk will heal by being closed with a piece of thread. Besides these pests, corn is often attacked by the chinch- bug, and sometimes by the boll-worm, as well as the cater- pillars of the lo and Arge moths. Injuring the Cotton-plant. The Cotton Army-worm {Aletia argillacea Hiibner). — This caterpillar often feeds in vast numbers on the leaves of the cotton-plant. It has a looping gait; is slightly hairy, green, dotted with black along a subdorsal yellowish line, with black dots beneath; and changes to a pale-reddish-brown moth. The insect, as shown by Riley, "never hibernates in either of the first three states of egg, larva, or chrysalis, and it sur- vives the winter in the moth or imago state only in the southern portion of the cotton belt."' The moth, he adds, liiber- Fm. 244.- Cotton-worm : moth. egg and INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AOBICULTUBK 201 nates priucipally under the shelter of niuk wire-grass iu the more heavily timbered portions of the South, and begins laying its eggs (400 to 500 in number) on the ratoon cotton when this is only an inch or tAvo high. The localities Avhere it hibernates^, and where consequently the earliest worms appear, seem to be more common in the western part of the cotton belt (Texas) than in the Atlantic cotton States. It is inferred that from this region the moths emi- grate east and north, laying their eggs later than the original Texan brood, as in Alabama, Georgia, and northward. The recently hatched worms of different sizes were found late in March on ratoon cotton in southern Georgia and Florida, and in late seasons from the middle of April to the middle of May, though they do not attract the attention of planters until the middle or last of June. In midsummer the period from hatching to the time when the moth lays her eggs is less than three weeks, while in spring and late autumn twice that time may be required. There are thus in the northern cotton States at least three "crops" or broods of cater- pillars in a season, while in Texas there are at least seven annual generations. The first generation is only local, but in Texas, says Riley, "The third generation of worms may become, under favoring conditions, not only widespread but disastrous, and the moths produced from them so numerous that they acquire the migrating habit. This generation appears in south Texas during the latter part of June, and in south Alabama and Georgia somewhat later," and this is the first brood which attracts general attention. When the worms are very abundant and the cotton well "ragged," the moths, driven by need of food for their progeny, and with favoring winds, migrate to distant points, and thus spread late in summer northward, and they have been seen as far north as Boston, Buffalo, and Racine, Wis. At the same time these northern specimens are so fresh that they are supposed to have been bred on some iinknown northern food-plant. This point is not yet settled. The earliest worms are confined to the low lands and to 202 ENTOMOLOGY. luxuriant plants; severe rains destroy them, as do late cold rains, while frequent summer rains favor their development, and hot, dry weather is destructive to them. The natural enemies of the cotton- worm are numerous; birds, toads, lizards, and certain kinds of ants prey on them, besides gi-ound-beetles, bugs, and a number of species of ichneumons, including an egg-parasite (Trichogramma). Remedies. — While many moths can be destroyed by lights, the universal remedies by which great numbers of the worms are destroyed are Paris green, petroleum emulsions, and Persian insect-powder; and among devices for applying the liquid insecticides the centrifugal or cyclone spraying-nozzle is the most efficacious. The dry preparation is one pound of the green to from 20 to 35 pounds of cheap tlour, or, instead of flour, land plaster (gypsum) or cotton-seed meal. The best preparation of Paris green consists of 1 pound to 40 gallons of water. Loudon purple may be applied dry, using 3 pounds to 18 of flour, etc. ; or wet, one half a pound to 50 or 55 gallons of water. A fine spray of kerosene oil applied to the leaves will kill all the worms in a remarkably short time; but as petroleum in any form injures the plant, the oil must be so diluted as to injure only the worm and not affect the plant. Prof. Barnard suggested the use of milk as a diluent, and finally an emulsion was perfected by Mr. Hubbard for orange insects, which is now in general use. Cotton-seed emulsions are less efficacious than those made with petroleum. Another important insecticide for field use against the cotton-worm is pyrethrum or Persian insect-powder, applied by a bellows, or in water solution, the powder being simplj^ stirred up in water (200 grains to 2 gallons of water), applied by means of a fountain-pump or an atomizer. The inventions for applying insecticides, both dry and wet, are very fully described and illustrated in Riley's report on the cotton- worm, forming the fourth report of the U. S. Ento- mological Commission. Injuring the Potato. The Colorado Potato-beetle (Leptinotarsa lO-lineata Say). — Devouring the leaves, a large, thick-bodied, reddish- orange grub, with black spots on the sides, changing usually under ground into a large hemispherical yellow beetle, about half an inch long, with ten wide black stripes on the back; three broods of the grub appearing in one season. Originally an inhabitant of Colorado, this destructive beetle is a constant plague all over the Northern and Middle INSECTS mJUBIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 203 States, as well as Canada, New Rnmswick, and Nova Scotia. Remedies. — The universal remedy is Paris green, one part mixed ■with about twenty parts of cheap flour, and dusted with a dredging- box over the vines early in the morning while the dew is on the ground. As the dry powder blows about, and is a poison, Paris green being a Fig. 245.— Colorado potato-beetle, a, eggs; 6, 6, b, larva; c, pupa; d, beetle. preparation of arsenic, it is better to apply, with a spraying-machine or watering-pot, a liquid preparation, i.e., a mixture of Paris green and water. On small farms and in gardens near the dwelling-house Paris green should be used with caution, as it has been known to poison cows and horses. Blistering-beetles {Macrohasis cinerea Fabr., Epicmita jjensylvanica De Geer, etc). — These insects do more or less damage to potato-leaves in certain years. The black blister- ing-beetle {E. pe}isylvanica) is commonest northward; it is totally black, and is a little smaller than the gray species {M. cinerea), which is ash-colored on the head, the pro- thorax, and under side of the body. The striped blistering- beetle {E. vittata) is longer and slenderer than the others named, and is clay-yellow, with six black longitudinal stripes. The remedies recommended for the Colorado beetle will destroy these and all other insects feeding on potato-leaYes. 204 ENTOMOLOGY. The Flea-beetle {Halt lea cuctimeris Harris). — Eating holes in the leaves of this and other garden vege- tables, especially tlie cabbage, sometimes riddling them when yonng and causing them to turn rust- color, minute blackish beetles, which on being dis- ^F'i^a~ turbed leap off like fleas. Watering the leaves beetle. yf[t]] a solution of lime, or sprinkling them with wood-ashes, drives them away. The Striped Garden-bug {Lygus lineolaris Beauvois). — Puncturing and poisoning the leaves of the potato and all sorts of garden vegetables, causing them to wither and turn black, a medium-sized bug with a yellowish head and a 5-lined thorax. Remedies. — Sprinkle the leaves with alkaline solutions, such as strong soapsuds, or decoctions of tobacco and of walnut leaves, or dust the leaves with air-slaked lime or sulphur. Fig. 247.— European cabbage-butterfly. A, male; B, female; a, larva; b, pupa. After Riley. Besides the foregoing insects, potato-plants are often attacked by the great Sphinx or horned caterpillar, the grubs of the golden-helmet beetle {Cassida aurichalcea). INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 205 while the stalks are sometimes tunnelled by the grub of a weevil {Baridms trinotatus Say), as well as the caterpillar of Gortyna nitela. Injuring the Cabbage, Radish, etc. The European Cabbage-butterfly {Pieris rapce Schrank). — Feeding not only on the outer leaves, but boring into the heads in all directions, a green, velvety caterpillar with a yellowish stripe along the back and side, and turning into a wliite butterfly with four (male) or six (female) conspicu- ous black spots. There are two broods of worms, the insect wintering as a chrysalis. It is held in check by a Chalcid parasite {Ffeiwnalus puparum Linn.). Remedies. — Destroy the butterflies by capturing them with a hand- net; trap the chrysalids by placing boards slightly raised from the ground, under which the caterpillars may pupate; also sift over the cabbage-heads a powder composed of one part of pyrethrum diluted with twenty parts of flour, or sprinkle a saturated infusion of pyrethrum on the plants. Excellent remedies are applications of hot water, or a solution of one pound of whale-oil soap dissolved in about six gallons of water, or strong tar -water. The Cabbage Plusia {Plusia hrassicce Eiley). — In August and September, gnawing large, irregular holes in the leaves; a rather large, pale-green caterpillar, marked with still paler, more opaque lines, and with three pairs of abdominal feet, being a semilooper, and changing to a grayish- brown moth, whose wings are adorned with a distinct silver mark of interrogation. "^^^^ ^,^_ ^^__c^^y,^^e-hn^_ a, 6. nymphs; c, d, moth lays her eggs singly <", eggs.-After Riiey. or in small clusters on either side of the leaf, the .voung worms feeding first on the outside leaves, afterwards boring a short distance into the heads. There are four broods a 206 ENTOMOLOGY. year, and both "chrysalids and moths hibernate. Apply remedies like those suggested for the cabbage-butterfly. The Harlequin Cabbage-bug {Murgantia histrmiica Hahn). — Destroying, in the Southern States, by its punc- tures, cabbages, turnips, radishes, mustard, etc. ; a black and orange-colored bug. The very young, as well as the old, combine to destroy the plant, which wilts as if poisoned. Besides those already mentioned, cabbages are more or less injured by the web-moth {Plidella xylostella Linn.), the zebra caterpillar {Mamestra picta Harris), the cab- bage Aphis, the cabbage-weevil {Otiorhynchus picipes Fabr.), etc. All can best be destroyed by the use of py- rethrum. The Radish-fly {Antliomyia radicum B o u c h e). — T h e chief pest of radishes is a small white maggot which at- tacks young plants raised in old soil. It changes to a pupa within a barrel-shaped pupa- case, from which emerges Fig. 249.— Radish-fl5'. a, larva; b, c, n rj ■ ^^ i -, , pupa-case, natural size and enlarged, a small fly Similar to, but -After Curtis. ^^^^^^ j^^jf ^^ | ^j^^ house-fly. as large as. The best preventives are early sowing in a light new soil, and the annual ro- tation of crops; also the appli- cation of hot water, salt, and lime. The Pea-weevil (Bnichns pisi Linn. ). — The only serious pest of peas is the weevil, which spends its whole life in the pea, except when the plant is in floAver. Remedies. — As a preventive against wormy seed-peas, they should be kept sealed up in tin cans over one year before planting; or soak the peas in boiling water for a few minutes before planting. Worm- FiG. 250.— Pea-weevil, natural size and enlarged; 6, pea containing a weevil. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 207 eaten peas may be detected by placing the whole lot in water, when the infested ones will float on the surface. The weevils in peas may be killed by submitting the infested peas to the fumes of bisul- phide of carbon in a closed vessel. The Bean-weevil {BruclmsfahcB Riley). -^This is a smaller weevil than that of the pea, and injures beans in the same manner, except that the beans are tenanted by several weevils; it is, however, a more formidable pest than that of the pea. The Squash-borer {Melittia cucurbitcB Harris). — Squash- vines are often killed by a borer in the stalk, a short, thick caterpillar, whitish, with a*dark head and horny patch just behind it. It changes to a beautiful, narrow-winged orange-colored moth spot- ted with black. The borer lives in the vine until the end of September, and pu- pates either in the vine or in the ground ; hence if all the vines are collected and burned in the autumn, there will be less borers the following season. Vines planted late are less injured than early ones. The Striped Squash-beetle {Diairotica vittata Fabr.). — Fig. S51. -Squash-borer (a) Natural size. and moth Fig. 252.— Squash-beetle, o, grub; 6, pupa. As soon as squash-, cucumber-, and melon-vines are up, the young leaves are eaten by .a small yellow-striped beetle, whose larva is a long slender grub, which bores in the roots in June and July. The eggs are deposited on the root, at or just below the surface of the soil ; the larva becomes fully 208 ENTOMOLOGY. grown in about a month after the egg is laid; it remains in the pupa state about two weeks, and the beetle probably lives several days before ovipositing, so that one generation is in existence about two months, and there are two or three generations in a summer. The beetle must hibernate, as it appears very early in the spring. Remedies.— Sifting the leaves with powdered o\'ster-shell ]ime or gypsum, hellebore or pyrethnim, is worth trying as a remedy, wliile covering the young vines with cotton or a high frame covered with fine muslin is the usual preventive. The Squash-bug {Anasa tristis De Geer). — Numbers of this great black bug are to be seen clustering about squash-vines, sucking the sap with their stout beaks. It is a large blackish- brown bug, dirty yellowish beneath. To- wards the last of June the female lays her eggs on the leaves, and the young may soon be seen sucking the sap in the leaves. Suc- FiG. 253.-Squash- cessivc broods appear during the summer. It bug. Natural '^ >■ *= size. can be controlled by hand-picking. Another species sometimes injurious to squash-vines is the squash "lady-bird" {Epilachna borealis Thunberg), whose larva is a yellowish grub with long branched spines, arranged in rows of six on each segment, except the first thoracic, which has only four. The beetle is like a large Ooccinella, and is yellowish, with seven large black spots on each wing-cover. The pickle-worm {Phacellura niti- dalis Cramer) bores cylindrical holes in cucumbers and melons as well as squashes. It is a pale greeuish-yellow caterpillar, with a pale reddish head. It spins a slight white cocoon, from which the moth issues eight or ten days afterwards. Injuring the Hop- vine. The Hop Aphis. — This plant-louse is a great pest of the hop, as it clusters in immense numbers on the branches and leaves, and is very difficult to extirpate. Prof, Riley INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 209 has discovered that, like the European individuals, it lays its eggs at the approach of cold weather on plum-trees near by. The Hop-worm {Hypena hurnuli Harris). — In June, and Fig. 254. — Hop-worm, pupa, and moth; all natural size. again in July and August, hop-leaves are devoured by active, slender, grass-green caterpillars, with but four pairs of abdominal legs. Remedies. — Hand-picking and vigorously shaking the vines twice a day, as well as spraying the vines with whale-oil soap, are advisable. Injuring the Grape-vine. The Phylloxera {Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon).- -By Fig. 255.— The Phylloxera, wingless leaf-form, a, under, 6, upper, side of newly- hatched larva; c, egrg; d, section of the leaf-gall containing the insects; e, swelling of tendril; /, side, g, upper, h, under, view of the mother gall-louse; I, antenna; j, two- jointed tarsus.— Afier Riley. far the most destructive insect of the vine is this Aphid. It exists in two forms, one raising irregular galls on the 210 ENTOMOLOGY. leaves and the other forming small swellings on the root- lets. The root-form is both wingless and winged, the latter Fig. 256.— The Phylloxera, root-form: o, healthy root: b, one in which the lice are working, their punctures causing the swelling;s; c, a root deserted by them, the rootlets beginning to decay; d. d. d, d, lice of natural size on the larger roots: e, pupa of the female, 3.— After Riley. very rare; the leaf- form is said to be always Avingless. The chief injury is done to the roots, which die under the at- tacks of this minute, insidious foe. All direct applications of chemicals, and the removal and burning of the bark of the vines, usually result in failure to kill the few winter eggs to be found; Eiley maintaining that the normal mode of hibernation of the species is as a INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 211 young larva upon tlie roots. It lias been discovered that the insect can continue propagating under ground for at least four years without the laying of fertilized eggs. REMEDrES. — In France and Southern Europe preventive remedies, such as the submergence of the vineyards, and especially the importa- tion and use of American stocks, have been the chief means of success in dealing with this pest. The season, however, says Riley, in which insecticides (especially sulpho-carbonates) applied to the roots will do most good is in the interval between the hatching of the fertilized winter-egg and the appearance of the winged females, i.e., during May and June. Other insects occasionally injuring the vine are the larva of the grape plume-moth (Pterophorus), which, as the leaves and flower-buds expand, eats them, in certain years mate- rially lessening the crop. Various other caterpillars, as the "vine-dresser" {Everyx myron), which cuts oft' the leaves and sometimes the half-grown clusters of grapes (as does also the tree-cricket), also certain leaf -beetles, do more or less harm, Avhile the fruit is at times infested by a leaf-roller {Lohesia hotrana), and the seeds are sometimes tenanted by the little white maggot of a chalcid {Isosoma vitis), which causes the fruit to shrivel, without maturing. Injuring Fruit-trees. Of insects injuring fruits, Mr. J. A. Lintner estimates that there are in the United States at least 1000 species; of these 210 are known to live at the expense of the apple-tree. We can only call attention to some of the most pernicious pests, referring the reader for further information to Mr. W. Saunder's excellent book, "Insects Injurious to Fruits." The Apple-tree Borer {Saperda Candida Fabr.). — This beetle (Fig. 102) flies about the orchard in May and June in Missouri and Illinois, but in July in New England, and the female lays its eggs in gashes in the bark. The larva or grub upon hatching bores upwards into the wood, where it lives within a few days of three years. Enlarging its burrow, it transforms in a cell lined with chips, situated Fig. 257.— The Vine-dresser, with the chrysalis in its cocoon; and the moth. After Riley. (To face page 213.) mSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE. 213 eight to ten inches from its birtli-place. It is notorious that this borer will kill both old and young living trees. Remedies. — In late summer aud autumn the bark should be care- fully examined for the gashes made by the beetle in laying its eggs, and the small grubs cut out of the bark or sap-wood. Young trees should also be scraped and soaped, and the trunk at base be sur- rounded by tarred paper to prevent the female beetle laying her The Coddling-moth {Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.). — Be- sides the canker-worm and tent-caterpillar, which are locally- destructive, the universal pest of the apple-orchard through- out the United States, from Maine to California, is this in- sect. In the Northern States the moth flies in May, laying its eggs in the calyx after the blossoms fall, and in a few Fig. 258.— Coddling-moth. a, worm-eaten apple; 6, point at which the egg Is laid, and at which the young worm entered; d, pupa; e, full-grown worm; h, its head; /, g, moth; i, cocoon.— After Riley. days the larva hatches, burrowing into the core, when in three weeks it becomes of ftiU size, being a pale whitish caterpillar nearly an inch in length. As the result of its work, the apple prematurely falls to the ground, when the worm deserts it. It then usually creeps up the trunk of 214 ENTOMOLOGY. the tree, spins a tlii k cocoon in crevices in the hark, and in a few days a second brood of the moths appears; but most of the caterpillars hibernate in their cocoons. Remedies. — The obvious preventive remedy is to gather the wind- falls each day as soon as they fall and feed them to the hogs, while fowl should be allowed to run in the orchard. The best direct remedy is to bind bands of hay or straw around the tree from July to the last of September, replacing them every few days by fresh ones, the old ones being burnt, so as to kill the caterpillars or chrysa- lids liiding beneath the bands. Prof. Forbes, as the result of numerous experiments, finds that by once or twice spraying with Paris green, in early spring, before the young apples had drooped upon their stems, there was a saving of about 75 per cent of the apples exposed to injury by the coddling- moth. It .should be added that spraying with this poison after the apples have begun to liaug downward, is unquestionably dangerous. Another general pest, often destroying young orchards or separate trees, is the apple bark -louse, while stored apples are destroyed by the maggots of flies (p. 126). The Plum-weevil {Co7iotrnchelus nenuphar Herbst). — This weevil has well-nigh exterminated the plum in the Eastern States, and its attacks far outweigh in im- portance those of all other plum insects. It resembles a dried bud; when the fruit is set it stings the green plums, making with its beak a curved incision in Avhich a single Qgg is deposited. The pupa; c."b"Sged; d'rna^tiirai Presence of the grub causes size, puncturing a plum. the f ruit to prematurely drop with the larva Avithin. The latter, maturing, leaves the plum, burrows into the ground, and during the last of summer becomes a beetle. Remedies. — As a remedy the trees should be frequently shaken or jarred, and the weevils, falling into a sheet placed beneath the tree, should be collected and burnt. Forbes finds that about half the damage done by weevils may be prevented by spraying the trees with Paris green early in the season, while the fruit is small. INSKCTH INJURIOUS TO AQJilCULTURE. 215 The Peach-tree Borer {Sannina exiliosa S:iy). — This borer outranks all other insects as a destroyer of peach- trees. It lays its eggs in the bark near the ground, and the worm on hatching attacks the living trees, boring into the bark and sap-wood of the roots, or trunk, causing the Fig. 260.— Peach-tree borer, a, male; 6, female. gum to exude, so that its presence may be easily noticed. When the caterpillar is one year old it makes a cocoon under the bark of the trunk or at the larger roots of the tree. To prevent its attacks heap the earth high around the trunk, or wrap tarred paper around the lower part of Fig. 861.— 1, eggs'of the currant saw fly deposited along the midribs; 2 and 3, the holes bored by the young worms. the trunk; wlien the worm is fairly at work, cut it out, ap- plying wax or clay to the wound. Fia. 262.— Currant-worm, a, enlarged. Fig. 863,— Saw-fly or adult currant-worm, a, male; b, female. (To face page 217.) INSECTS BENEFICIAL TO AGRICULTURE. 217 The Currant-worm {Nematus ventricosKS King). — This saw-fly larva or false caterpillar is far more destructive than all other insects combined to currant and gooseberry shrubs, since the voracious larva? appear in successive broods. The female, without having paired with the male, deposits her whitish cylindrical eggs along the under side of the mid- ribs. In four days the worms hatch, and eight days after become fully fed, burrow into the ground, remaining in the pupa state about a fortnight. Remedies. — Powdered hellebore or pyrellirum mixed with four or five times its bulk of cheap flour will, if coustautly applied, save the crop. Insects Beneficial to Agriculture. In a great variety of ways certain insects are helpful to man, and are especially efficacious either in ensuring liis crops or in destroying those insects which would otherwise devour them. Fertilizers of Fruit-trees. — A very important part in the production of abundant crops of fruit is played by bees and other honey- or nectar-gatherers, and pollen-feeding insects. It is now generally acknowledged that bees, especially the honey-bee, act as " marriage-priests" in the fertilization of flowers, conveying pollen from flower to flower, and thus ensuring the *' setting" of the fruit. Orchards in which bee-hives are placed bear heavier crops than those not thus favored. Bees are in Europe profitably introduced into peach-houses in order to effect the pollination of the flowers. Many wasps, as well as butterflies and moths, species of pollen-eating beetles, Thrips, and other insects, by uncon- sciously bearing pollen from distant flowers, prevent too close in-and-in breeding. Indeed, as Goethe said, flowers and insects were made for each other. * Many plants would * " For it is not too much to say that if, on the one hand, flowers are in many cases necessary to the existence of insects; insects, on the other hand, are still more indispensable to the very existence of 218 ENTOMOLOOY. not bear seeds did not insects fertilize them. Insects are in the first place attracted to flowers by their sweet scent and bright colors, and it is claimed that the lines and circles on the corolla of certain flowers guide them to the nectary; though we do not see why the scent is not in the main sufficient for this purpose. According to Sir John Lubbock, " The visits of insects are of great importance to plants in transferring the pollen from the stamens to the pistil. In many plants the stamens and pistil are situated in separate flowers: and even in those cases where they are contained in the same flower, self-fertilization is often ren- dered difficult or impossible; sometimes by the relative position of the stamens and pistil, sometimes by their not coming to maturity at the same time. Under these cir- cumstances the transference of the pollen from the stamens to the pistil is effected in various ways. In some species the pollen is carried by the action of the wind; in some few cases, by birds; but in the majority, this important object is secured by the visits of insects, and the whole organiza- tion of such flowers is adapted to this purpose." (1. c. 2.) Hermann Miiller believed that the peculiarities which dis- tinguish bees and most Lepidoptera, i.e., their mouth-parts and, in the case of bees, their legs, have been gradually pro- duced in past ages by their visits to flowers. Insects also are useful as pruners, checking the too-rapid growth of leaves and shoots, the result being the formation of a greater amount of seeds or fruit. Unfortunately this process in most cases exceeds healthy limits, and the plant, being almost wholly defoliated, is weakened or killed. Parasitic Insects {Ichneumons and TachincB). — While insectivorous birds accomplish much towards reducing the flowers:— that, if insects have been in many cases modified and adapted with a view to obtain honey and pollen from flowers, flowers in their turn owe their scent and color, their honey, and even their distinctive forms, to the action of insects. There has thus been an interaction of insects upon flowers, and of flowers upon insects, resulting in the gradual modification of both." (Lubbock's " British Wild Flowers considered in relation to Insects.") INSECTS BENEFICIAL TO AGRICULTURE. 219 numbers of injurious insects, they often as likely as not eat the beneficial as well as the destructive kinds. Without doubt the leading factor in preventing the undue increase of noxious insects are the parasitic kinds belonging to the hymenop- terous families Ichneumonida?, Braconidse, Chalcididje and Prototrupida?, and the dipterous family Tachinida?. An ichneumon-fly lays its eggs either on the outside of the caterpillar or bores under its skin, inserting an egg within the body. Mr. Poulton has carefully watched a Paniscus ovipositing on a caterpillar. It laid fourteen eggs, firmly attaching them to its skin, most of them in the sutures between the segments, and on the sides of the body. An excess of eggs are laid, since some do not develop; for if all gave out larvae, none could arrive at maturity within the body of the future host. The ichneu- mon lays a smaller number of eggs on small caterpillars than on large ones, and yet in all cases lays more than can develop. The larva of the ichneumon upon hatching works its way into the interior of its host. Here it does not injure the muscles, nerves, or the vital parts of the caterpillar, but apparently simply lies motionless in the body-cavity, absorb- ing the blood of its host. Many ichneumons are polyphagous, i.e., live on insects of widely different species belonging to different orders; others confine their attacks to a siugle species. Certain chalcids are secondary parasites, living in the larvae of those parasitic in caterpillars, etc. Most ichneumons have but a single generation; a few are double-brooded. In Germany Ratzeburg observed a brood of Microgaster globatvs early in May, and another early in August. Though there may be two broods of the hosts, there is as a rule but a single brood of ichneumons. Ratzeburg indeed found that certain ich- neumons parasitic on saw-fly larvae imitated the habit of the latter of living more than a year, i.e., they did not develop until the greater number of saw-flies had issued from the belated cocoons. On the other hand, Pteromalus p7ij)a7'um 220 ENTOMOLOGY. undergoes in Europe an extraordinarily rapid growth; it stings early in June the chrysalids of Vanessa jjolychloros, and by the middle of July the adults appear. Teleas ovu- lor 11711 requires only from four to six weeks to develop; it, however, flies somewhat later, so as to find the young silk caterpillars on which to lay its eggs. Ichneumons rarely develop within adult insects, but cer- tain Braconids infest Coccinellae. The small Chalcids (Pteromali) mostly inhabit the tender pupee of bark-boring beetles and leaf-rollers. Among the smaller ichneumons several females usually inhabit a single host, while from 600 to 700 individuals of Pteronialus ptipariim may inhabit a single chrysalid. Most ichneumons develop within their hosts, but many species of Chalcids live on the outside and suck the blood of their victims. Certain ichneumon larvae living within their host undergo the most remarkable change as respects their mouth-parts. In the larva of Microgaster glohatus (according to Judeich and Nitsche) there are in the early stages only the wart-like rudimentary sucking mouth-parts, but after the last moult they acquire ordinary biting mandi- bles, with which they can gnaw through the skin of their host. The young of the Tachina-flies are true footless maggots, and take their liquid food by suction through the mouth, the mouth-parts being very rudimentary. Tacliina (Seno- metopia) militaris has been observed by Eiley to lay from one to six eggs on the skin of the army-worm, "fastening them by an insoluble cement on the upper surface of the two or three first rings of the body. " The young maggots on hatching penetrate within the body of the caterpillar, and, lying among the internal organs, absorb the blood of their unwilling host, causing it to finally weaken and die. Usually but a single maggot lives in its host. Many grass- hoppers as well as caterpillars are destroyed by them. Insectivorous Insects. — There are very many carnivorous kinds which devour insects entire. Such are the ground- REMEDIES AGAINST THE ATTACKS OF INSECTS. 221 beetles, water-beetles, the larvae of Teuebrionids and of lady-beetles (Coccinella), and those of the lace-wiiiged flies (Chrysopa) which prey on Aphides, though the maggots of the Syrphus flies are more abundant and efficacious as Aphis- destroyers. Preventive and Direct Remedies Against the Attacks OF Insects. In applying any remedies against noxious insects, it is of prime importance to become thoroughly acquainted with the habits and transformations of tlie pests with which we have to contend. It should be borne in mind that insects during their transformations lead different lives, and that practi- cally a caterpillar is a different animal from the chrysalis or the butterfly, with entirely different habits and surround- ings; and so on throughout the other orders of insects. Under the head of general or preventive remedies may be enumerated : High culture, with the use of plenty of manures and fertilizers. Rotation of crops, and early or late sowing. Eaising crops to last for two years, such as peas and beans, to guard against weevils. The breeding of insect-parasites. Burning grass and stubble for certain insects injuring field-crops. Eemoval of dead trees or stumps near orchards or in forests. Among di]-ect remedies, besides hand-picking, is the use of the following insecticides: Paris green and London purple. Kerosene emulsions. Pyrethrum or Persian insect-powder. Bisulphide of carbon for the grape-root Phylloxera. Carbolic-acid soap; whale-oil soap. Ammonia or chloroform for insect-bites. 222 ENTOMOLOGY. Sulphur tor mites; borax for cockroaches. Ointments and carbolic soap for lice. Salt, hot water, ashes, dust, soot. Various devices and machines for applying powders or liquid preparations. Paris Green and London Purple. — These arsenical preparations may be used dry when mixeti with cheap flour in the proportion of 1 to 2o parts, or wet mixed in the proportion of i to 1 pound of the pow- der with 40 gallons of water. The London purple is the weaker of the two powders; but is often preferred to Paris green from its cheapness, and because it is more easily diffused, and can be seen more distinctly on the leaves, though its effects may not be observed until two or three days after being applied. Petroleum Emulsions. — Dilute 1 quart of kerosene oil and 12 fluid ounces of condensed milk with 36 ounces of water. This is emuLsi- onized by violent churning, and before being used may be diluted from 12 to 20 times with water. Equal parts of kerosene and con- densed milk may also be thoroughly mixed or churned together, and then diluted ad libitum with water. Pyrethrum or Persian Insect-powder. — Thispowder is deadly to most insects, but harmless to plants and human beings, cattle, or horses. It may be applied (1) as a dry powder; (2) as a fume, being thrown on the stove or on a red-hot shovel or piece of sheet-iron; (3) as an alcoholic extract, diluted; (4) by simply stirring the powder in water; and (5) as a tea or decoction. As a powder it may be mixed with from 10 to 20 times its bulk of wood-ashes or flour, but before use should remain for twenty-four hours with the diluent in an air-tight vessel. (Riley.) One experimenter dilutes the dry powder with only four or Ave times its bulk of flour in applying to cabbages to kill cabbage-worms Spraying-machines. — Numerous inventions for applying these preparations on an extensive scale are described in the reports and bulletins of the Entomologist of the Department of Agriculture at Washington; among the most elflcacious being spray nozzles* of different kinds, being modifications of the old-fashioned sprinklers *The eddy or cyclone nozzle consists of a small circular chamber with two flat sides, one of them screwed on so as to be readily re- moved. Its principal feature consists in the inlet through which the liquid is forced, being bored tangentially through its wall, so as to cause a rapid whirling or centrifugal motion of the liquid, which issues in a funnel-shaped spray through a central outlet in the adjust- able cap. The breadth or height, fineness or coarseness of the spray depends on certain details in the proportions of the parts, and especially of the central outlet. The nozzle was invented by Riley and Barnard. In applying the fluid to trees, an ordinary barrel is used as a reservoir, in which is inserted a force-pump wilh automatic stirrer. A long rubber hose extends from the pump, and is attached to the spraying apparatus. (Riley.) REMEDIES AGAINST THE ATTACKS OF INSECTS. 223 and sifters; machines for blowing dry poisons, squirters of fluid poisons and emulsions, the best of which are fountain-pumps. For spraying orchards, groves, and forest-trees, force- or fountain-pumps with a long hose, the end of which passes through a bamboo pole ending in a cyclone or eddy-chamber nozzle, are very efficient. Bemedies against Bots. — Those of cattle may be pressed with the thumb out of the tumors on the back after slightly enlarging the abscess with a knife or scalpel; otherwise, if the hot is burst within the tumor, inflammation will result. Sheep-bots may be removed from the nostrils before they have penetrated far by inserting a feather anointed with oil of turpentine, and gently moving it about. Dilute carbolic acid injected with a syringe is also beneficial. As a preventive, anointing the nose with coal-tar has been recommended, and salt-troughs are smeared with this substance to accomplish this anointing more easily. As a preventive against horse-bots, frequent currying and clipping the hair removes the eggs. This need be done only during the time when the flies are about. (Rilej'.) Miscellaneous Remedies — The clothes-moth is exterminated from furniture by soaking chairs, sofas, etc., in tanks of kerosene and then recovering them; carpet moths and beetles are very difficult to over- come; but they may be kept under to a great extent by ironing the edges, applying Persian insect-powder in closely shut rooms, or saturating the edges next to the wall with benzine, care being taken not to set the room on fire. A room or bedstead may, by the use of kerosene or of corrosive sublimate, be disinfected of bed-bugs. Mites are generally destroyed by sulphur; the itch-mite by sulpiiur- ointment; lice on animals by carbolic soap, or kerosene-oil emulsions, or any oil or grease; lice on chickens may be diminished by white- washing the coop, fumigating it with sulphur or washing with kerosene; cockroaches succumb to equal parts of powdered borax and sugar placed in their way. The bites of mosquitoes, stings of bugs, bees, etc., may be treated locally with ammonia or chloroform, bee-stings with wet mud applied to the wound; while the bites of centipedes and the stings of scorpions may be treated with diffusible stimulants, such as ammonia taken in repeated doses internally, be- sides brandy or whiskey, to support the system until the patient recovers from the shock. Chrysophanus thoe, right side as seen beneath. CHAPTER VI. DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING, PRESERVING, AND REARING INSECTS. Where to Look for Insects. — In collecting, whenever the two sexes are found united they should be pinned upon the same pin, the male being placed above. When we take one sex alone, we may feel sure that the other is somewhere in the vicinity; perhaps while one is flying about so as to be easily captured, the other is hidden under some leaf, or resting on the trunk of some tree near by, which must be examined and every bush in the vicinity vigorously beaten by the net. Many species rare in most places have a mefrojjolis where they occur in great abundance. During seasons when his favorites are especially abundant the collector should lay up a store against years of scarcity. At no time of the year need the entomologist rest from his labors. In the winter, under the bark of trees and in moss he can find many species, or detect their eggs on trees, etc., which he can mark for observation in the spring when they hatch out. He need not relax his endeavors day or night. Mothing is night employment. Skunks and toads entomologize at night. Early in the morning, at sunrise, when the dew is still on the leaves, insects are sluggish and easily taken with the hand; species fly then that hide themselves by day, while at night many caterpillars leave their retreats to come out and feed, when the lantern can be used with success in searching for them. Wollaston (Entomologist's Annual, 18G5) states that sandy districts, especially towards the coast, are at all times preferable to clayey ones, but the intermediate soils, such as the loamy soil of swamps and marshes, are more produc- tive. Near the sea, insects occur most abundantly beneath COLLECTING AND REARING INSECTS. 225 pebbles and other objects in grassy spots, or else at the roots of plants. In many places, especially in alpine tracts, as we have found on the summit of Mt. Washington and in Labrador, one has to lie down and look carefully among the short herbage and in the moss for Coleoptera. The most advantageous places for collecting are gardens and farms, the borders of woods, and the banks of streams and ponds. The deep, dense forests, and open, treeless tracts are less prolific in insect life. In winter and early spring the moss on the trunks of trees, when carefully shaken over a newspaper or white cloth, reveals many beetles and Hymenoptera. In the late summer and autumn, toadstools and various fungi and rotten fruits at- tract many insects; and in early spring, when the sap is running, we have taken rare insects from the stumps of freshly cut hard- wood trees. Wollaston says: "Dead ani- mals, partially dried bones, as well as the skins of moles and other vermin wliich are ordinarily hung up in fields, are magnificent traps for Coleoptera; and if any of these be placed around orchards and inclosures near at home, and be examined every morning, various species of Nitiduke, SiJphidcB, and other insects of similar habits, are certain to be enticed and captured. " Planks and chippings of wood may be likewise employed as successful agents in alluring a vast number of species which might otherwise escape our notice; and if these be laid down in grassy places, and carefully inverted every now and then with as little violence as possible, many insects will be found adhering beneath them, especially after dewy nights and in showery weather. Nor must we omit to urge the importance of examining the under sides of stones in the vicinity of ants' nests, in which position, during the spring and summer months, many of the rarest of our native Coleoptera may be occasionally procured." Excrementi- tious matter always contains many interesting forms in various stages of growth. The trunks of fallen and decaying trees offer a rich 226 ENTOMOLOGY. harvest for many wood-boring larvae, especially the Longi- corn beetles; and weevils can be found in the spring, in all stages. Numerous carnivorous coleoi^terous and dipterous larvae dwell within them, and other larvae which eat the dust made by the borers. The inside of pithy plants like the elder, raspberry, blackberry, and syringa, is inhabited by many of the wild bees, Osmia, Ceratina, and the wood- wasps, Crabro, Stigmus, etc., the liabits of which, with those of their Chalcid and Ichneumon parasites, offer end- less amusement and material for study. Ponds and streams shelter a vast throng of insects, and should be diligently dredged with the water-net, and stones and pebbles should be overturned for aquatic beetles, He- miptera, and Dipterous larvse. The various sorts of galls should be collected in spring and autumn and placed in vials or boxes, where their in- habitants may be reared, and the rafters of out-houses, stone-walls, etc., should be carefully searched for the nests of mud-wasps. Collecting Apparatus. — First in im- portance is the net (Fig. 264). This is made by attaching a ring of brass wire to a handle made to slide on a pole six feet long. The net may be a foot in diameter, and the bag itself Fig. 264. -Collecting-net. made of musHu or mosquito-netting (the finer, lighter, and more durable the better), and should be about twenty inches deep. It should be sewed to a nar- row border of cloth placed around the wire. A light net like this can be rapidly turned upon the insect with one hand. The insect is captured by a dexterous twist which also throws the bottom over the mouth of the net. The insect should be temporarily held between the thumb and forefinger of the hand at liberty, and then pinned through the thorax while in the net. The net we use has a folding frame of stout brass wire, one side soldered to a COLLECTING AND HEARING INSECTS. 227 stout brass tube, the other held iu place by a screw in the end of the tube; it is simple and useful in travelling. The pin can be drawn through the meshes upon opening the net. The beating-net should be made much stouter, with a shallower cloth bag and attached to a shorter stick.* It is used for beating trees, bushes, and herbage for beetles and Hemiptera and various larvae. Its thorough use we would recommend in the low vegeta- tion on mountains and in meadows. The water-net may be either round or of the shajie indicated in Fig. 265. The ring should be made of brass, and the shallow net of grass-cloth or fig. 265.— water-net. coarse millinet. It is used for collecting aquatic insects. Mr. Schmelter recommends for collecting small water- beetles, etc., a net made of ordinary muslin, with a bottom of the finest brass wire-cloth, the meshes of which do not exceed ^ mm. ; the Avater will readily pass through this net, while the smallest insects will be retained. Herr Isen- schmidt suggests in '' Entomologische Nachrichten" a net constructed entirely of woven wire, but this would be clumsy to carry about, and Schmelter 's net is preferable. Various sorts of forceps are indispensable for handling insects. Small, delicate, narrow-bladed forceps, with fine sharp points, such as are used by jewellers, and made either of steel or brass, are excellent for handling minute speci- mens. For larger ones, long, curved forcej)s are very con- venient. For pinning insects into boxes the forceps * Schmelter uses one made of a strong wire ring of from one to one and a half feet in diameter, with a bag of muslin attached of at least the same depth, tirmly fixed to the entl of a stick about two to three feet long. In another form which is much used "the ring consists of different parts, two or three, which are connected by means of joints, and the ring can be folded when not iu use. By means of a screw the ends of this ring are firmly fixed into a tul)e, which again fits tightly on the end of an ordinary walking cane. In any fishing-tackle store, rings of this or of a similar construction are for sale." (Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, i. 26.) Dr. Bailey describes and figures a net with a folding frame in Can. Ent. , x. 63. 228 ENTOMOLOGY. should be stout, the blades blunt and curved at the end so that the insects can be pinned without slanting the forceps much. The ends need to be broad and finely in- dented by lines so as to hold the pin firmly. With a little practice the forceps soon take the place of the fingers. Some persons use the ordinary form of pliers with curved handles, but they should be long and slender. A spring set in to separate the handles when not grasped by the hand is a great convenience. Various pill-boxes, vials, and bottles must always be taken, some containing alcohol or whiskey. Many col- lectors use a wide-mouthed bottle, containing a sponge saturated with ether, chloroform, or benzine, or bruised laurel-leaves, the latter being pounded with a hammer and then cut with scissors into small pieces, which give out ex- halations of prussic acid strong enough to kill most small insects. Besides these the collector needs a small box lined with corn-pith or cork, and small enough to slip into the coat- pocket; or a larger box carried by a strap. Most moths and small flies can be pinned alive without being pinched (which injures their shape and rubs off the scales and hairs), and then killed by pouring a little benzine into the bottom of the box. Killing Insects for the Cabinet. — Care in killing affects very sensibly the looks of the cabinet. If hastily killed and distorted by being pinched, with the scales rubbed off and otherwise mangled, the value of such a specimen is dimin- ished either for study or the neat appearance of the col- lection. Besides the vapor of ether, chloroform, and benzine, the fumes of sulphur readily kill insects. Large specimens may be killed by inserting a pin dipped in a strong solu- tion of oxalic acid. An excellent collecting-bottle is made by putting into a wide-mouthed bottle two or three small pieces of cyanide of potassium, which may be covered with cotton, about half-filling the bottle. The cotton may be PRESERVING INSECTS. 22^ covered with pajier lightly attached to the glass and pierced with pin-holes; this keeps the insects from being lost in the bottle. This is excellent for small flies and moths, as the mouth of the bottle can be jjlaced over the insect while at rest; the insect flies up into the bottle and is immediately suffocated. A bottle well prepared will, according to Laboulbene, last several months, even a year, and is vastly superior to the old means of using ether or chloroform. He states: *'The inconvenience of taking small insects from a net is well known, as the most valuable ones usually escape; but by placing the end of the net, filled with in- sects, in a wide-mouthed bottle, and putting in the cork for a few minutes, they will be suffocated." For Dip- tera, Loew recommends moistening the bottom of the collecting box with creosote. Mr. J. A. Jackson recom- mends the use of a glass fruit-jar, one in which the cover screws down upon a rubber cushion or packing. Put a bunch of cotton in the bottom, retaining it in its place by pressing down upon it a circular piece of jDasteboard, made to fit tightly in the jar, except that two or three notches should be left in the edge for the chloroform to run through to the cotton. The bottle is now ready for use; an insect dropped into it will die almost instantly. (Can. Ent. xix. 119.) A morphine bottle prepared in the same way will do for micros. Ether may be used in the same way, as we are accustomed to do, but chloroform is generally preferred. Prof. E. \y. Claypole (Canadian Entomologist, xix. 136) kills Lepidoptera, etc., with benzine or gasoline, the latter only costing fourteen cents a gallon. With most moths it causes instant death, and can be poured on the bodies of large silk-worm moths, such as Cecropia, without injuring the scales or hairs. He carries it in an ounce phial having a cork through which passes a finely-pointed glass tube, the outer end of which is capped with a small India-rubber capsule; the whole may be bought at a drug-store for a few cents, under the name of a dropping-tube. Thus the tube is always full of liquid ready to be squirted out on an in- 230 ENTOMOLOGY. sect in the net, or even at rest in the open air, and the specimen is at once ready to be pinned and spread. A cliioroform bottle with a brush securely inserted in the cork is often convenient for small moths. Pinning Insects. — The pin should be inserted through the thorax of most insects. The Coleoptera, however, should be pinned through the right wing-cover (Fig. 266); many Hemiptera are best pinned through the scutellum. The specimens should all be pinned at an equal height, so that about one-fourth of the pin should project above the in- sect. The best pins are those made in Germany, and are adver- tised for sale in American entomological journals. For very minute insects very small pins are made. They may be used to impale minute insects upon, and then stuck through a bit of cork, or pith, through which a large, long pin may be thrust. Then the specimen is kept out of the reach of devouring insects. Still smaller pins are made by cutting off bits of very fine silvered wire of the right length, which may be thrust by the for- pfnninga beetle! ccps iuto a piccc of pith, after the insects have been impaled upon them. Small insects, especially beetles, may be mounted on cards or pieces of mica through which the pin may be thrust. The French use small oblong bits of mica, with the posterior half covered with green paper on which the number may be placed. The insects may be gummed on the clear part, the two sexes together. The under side can be seen through the thin mica. Others prefer triangular pieces of card, across the end of which the insect may be gummed, so that nearly the whole under side is visible. Mr. Wollaston advocates gumming small Coleoptera upon cards. Instead of cutting the pieces of card first, he gums them promiscuously upon a sheet of card-board. " Having PRESERVINO INSECTS. 231 gummed thickly a space on yonr card -board equal to, at least, the entire specimen when expanded, place the beetle upon it, drag out the limbs with a pin, and, leaving it to dry, go on with the next one that presents itself. As the card has to be cut afterwards around your insect (so as to suit it), there is no advantage in gumming it precisely straight tipon your frame, — though it is true that a certain amount of care in this respect lessens your after-labor of cutting ofE very materially. When your frame has been filled, and you are desirous of separating the species, cut out the insects with finely-pointed scissors." For mending broken insects, i. e. , gumming on legs and antennae which have fallen off, inspissated ox-gall, softened with a little water, is the best gum. For gumming insects upon cards, Mr. Wollaston recom- mends a gum '' composed of three parts of tragacanth to one of Arabic, both in powder; to be mixed in water con- taining a grain of corrosive sublimate, without which it will not keep, until of a consistency just thick enough to run. As the gum is of an extremely absorbent nature, nearly a fortnight is required before it can be properly made. The best plan is to keep adding a little water, and stirring it every few days, until it is of the proper con- sistency. It is advisable to dissolve the grain of corrosive sublimate in the water which is poured ^r^/ upon the gum. Preservative Fluids. — The best for common use is alco- hol, at first diluted with as much water; or weak whiskey, as alcohol of full strength is too strong for caterpillars, etc., since it shrivels them up. The spirits should after- wards be changed for alcohol of full strength for permanent preservation. Glycerine is excellent for preserving the colors of caterpillars, though the internal parts decay some- what, and the specimen is apt to fall to pieces on being roughly handled. Laboulbene recommends, for the preservation of insects in a fresh state, plunging them in a preservative fluid con- sisting of alcohol with an excess of arsenic acid in frag- 232 ENTOMOLOGY, ments, or the common white arsenic of commerce. A pint and a half of alcohol will take about fourteen grains (troy) of arsenic. The living insect, put into this jDreparation, absorbs about j^Vo of i^^ own weight. When soaked in this liquor and dried, it will be safe from the ravages of moths, Anthrenus or Dermestes. This liquid will not change the colors of blue, green, or red beetles if dried after soaking from twelve to twenty- four hours. Hemiptera and Orthoptera can be treated in the same way. A stay of a month in this arseniated alcohol mineralizes the insect, so that it appears very hard, and, after drying, becomes glazed with a white deposit which can, however, be washed off with alcohol. In this state the speci- mens become too hard for dissection and study, but will do for cabinet specimens designed for permanent exhibition. Another preparation recommended by Laboulbene is alcohol containing a variable quantity of corrosive subli- mate, but the latter has to be weighed, as the alcohol evap- orates easily, the liquor becoming stronger as it gets older. The strongest solution is one part of corrosive sublimate to one hundred of alcohol; the weakest and best is one-tenth of a part of corrosive sublimate to one hundred parts of alco- hol. Insects need not remain in this solution more than two hours before drying. Both of these preparations are very poisonous and should be handled with care. The last- named solution preserves specimens from mould, which will attack pinned insects during damp summers. A very strong brine will preserve insects until a better liquor can be procured. Professor A. E. Verrill recom- mends two simple and cheap solutions for preserving, among other specimens, the larvae of insects " with their natural color and form remarkably perfect." The first consists of two and a half pounds of common salt and four ounces of nitre dissolved in a gallon of water and filtered. ►Specimens should be jDrepared for permanent preservation ill this solution by being previously immersed in a solution PEESERVtNQ INSWTS. ^3S consisting of a quart of the first solution and two ounces of arseniate of potash and a gallon of water. M. H. Trois * gives the following formula for preserving caterpillars. Common salt, • gr* 235 Alum, gr. 55 Corrosive sublimate, .... centigr. 18 Boiling water, litres 5 When the liquid is cold add 50 grains of carbolic acid. Let the liquid stand five or six days, and then filter. It is claimed that by means of this fluid the colors of cater- pillars can be preserved perfectly, even when exposed to a strong light. The nests, cocoons, and chrysalides of insects may be preserved from injury from other insects by being soaked in the arseniated alcohol, or dipped into benzine, or a solu- tion of carbolic acid or creosote. Dr. J. L. LeConte has published in the " American Naturalist," iii. p. 307, some new directions for the pres- ervation of insects which will apply to beetles as well as other insects. " Surgical art has given to us an instrument by which a poisonous liquid can be rapidly and most effectively applied to the entire surface of large numbers of specimens as they stand in the cabinet boxes, without the trouble of moving them. I refer to the 'atomizer.^ "■ Opinions may vary as to the nature of the liquid poi- son to be used, but after several trials I have found the following formula to be quite satisfactory; it produces no efflerescence, even on the most highly polished species, while the odor is quite strong, and persistent enough to destroy any larvae or eggs that may be already in the box : — saturated alcoholic solution of arsenious acid, eight fluid ounces; strychnine, twelve grains; crystallized carbolic acid, one drachm; mineral naphtha (or heavy benzine) and * A litre is 33 81 fluid ounces, or a little less than an English quart; a gramme is 15.432 grains. 234 ENTOMOLOGY. strong alcohol, enough to make one quart. I have not stated the quantity of naphtha, since there are some vari- eties of light petroleum in commerce which dissolve in alco- hol only to a slight extent. These should not be used. The heavier oils which mix indefinitely with alcohol are the proper ones, and for the two pints of mixture ten to twelve fluid ounces of the naphtha will be sufficient. Care should be taken to test the naphtha on a piece of paper. If it leaves a greasy stain which does not disappear after a few hours, it is not suitable for this purpose. "The best form of atomizer is the long, plated, reversi- ble tube; it should be worked with a gum-elastic pipe hav- ing two bulbs, to secure uniformity in the current. The atomizing glass tubes and the bottle, which usually accom- pany the apparatus, are unnecessary; a common narrow- necked two-ounce bottle will serve perfectly to hold the fluid." Preparing Insects for the Cabinet. — Dried insects may be moistened by laying them for twelve or twenty-four hours in a box containing a layer of wet sand, covered with one thickness of soft jjaper. Their wings can then be easily spread. Setting-boards for spreading the wings of insects may be made by sawing deep grooves in a thick board, and placing a strip of pith or cork at the bottom. The groove may be deep enough to allow a quarter of the length of the pin to project above the insect. The setting-board usually consists of thin parallel strips of board, leaving a groove between them wide enough to receive the body of the in- sect, at the bottom of which a strip of cork or pith should be glued. The ends of the strips should be nailed on to a stouter strip of wood, raising the surface of the setting- board an inch and a half, so that the pins can stick through without touching. Several setting-boards can be made to form shelves in a frame covered with wire gauze, so that the specimens may be preserved from dust and destructive insects, while the air may at the same time have constant access to them. The surface of the board should incline PRESERVING INSECTS. 235 Fig. 287.— Setting-board. a little towards the groove for the reception of the insect, as the wings often gather a little moisture, relax and fall down after the insect is dried, "For the proper setting of insects with broad and flattened wings, such as butterflies and moths, a spreading board or stretcher is necessary. One that is simple and answers every purpose is shown at Fig. 267. It may be made of two pieces of thin white-wood or pine board, fastened to- gether by braces, especially at the ends, and left wide enough apart to admit the bodies of the insects to be spread: strips of cork or pith, in which to fasten the pins, may then be tacked or glued below so as to cover the intervening space. The braces must be deep enough to prevent the pins from touching anything on which the stretcher may be laid; and, by attaching a ring or loop to one of them, the stretcher may be hung against a wall, out of the way. For ordinary-sized specimens I use boards 2 feet long, 3 inches wide, and ^ inch thick, with three braces (one in the middle and one at each end) 1| inches deep at the ends, but narrowing from each end to 1\ inches at the middle. This slight rising from the middle is to counter- act the tendency of the wings, however well dried, to drop a little after the insect is placed in the cabinet. The wings are held in position by means of strips of paper (Fig. 267) until dry." (Eiley.) Others use strips of stiff, smooth cloth. Moths of medium size should remain two or three days on the setting-board, while the larger thick-bodied sphinges and Bombycidae require a week to dry. The wings can be arranged by means of a needle stuck into a handle of wood. They should be set horizontally, and the front margin of the fore wings drawn a little forward of a 236 ENTOMOLOGY. line perpendicular to the body, so as to free the inner margin of the hind wings from the body, that their form may be distinctly seen. When thus arranged, they can be confined by fine threads drawn over the wings, by pieces of card pinned to the board as indicated in Fig. 268, or, as we prefer, by square Fig. 268.-Mode of setting with card-braces pieces of glaSS laid upon the wings of a butterfly or moth. them. After the insects have been thoroughly dried they should not be placed in the cabinet until after having been in quarantine to see that no eggs of Dermestes or Anthrenus, etc., have been deposited on them. For preserving dried insects in the cabinet Laboulbene recommends placing a rare insect (if a beetle or any other hard insect) in water for an hour until the tissues are soft- ened. If soiled, an insect can be cleansed under water with a fine hair-pencil, then submit it to a bath of arseniated alcohol with corrosive sublimate. If the insect becomes prune-colored, it should be washed in pure alcohol several Fig. 269.— Pfm«s/Mr. a larva. times. This method will do for the rarest insects; the more common ones can be softened on wet sand, and then the immersion in the arseniated alcohol suffices. After an PRESERVING INSECTS. 237 immersion of from a quarter of an hour to an hour^ accord- ing to the size of the insect^ the pin is not affected by the corrosive sublimate, but it is better to unpin the insect previous to immersion, and then pin it when almost dry. For cleaning insects ether or benzine is excellent, applied with a hair-pencil; though care should be taken in using these substances, which are very inflammable. After the specimens are placed in the cabinet, they should be further protected from destructive insects by placing in the drawers or boxes pieces of camphor wrapped in paper perforated by pin-holes, or bottles containing sponges saturated with benzine or oil of sassafras. The collection should be carefully examined every month; the presence of insects can be detected by the dust beneath them. Where a collection is much infested with destruc- tive insects,* benzine should be poured into the bottom of the box or drawer, when the fumes and contact of the ben- zine with their bodies will kill them. The specimens them- selves should not be soaked in the benzine if possible, as it renders them brittle, f * The common museum pests are A7ithre?ius varius, A. musceorum, Attagenus pellio, Trogoderma kirsale, and Dermestes lardarius, be- sides Tinea pelltonella, Megatoma, and Atropos pulsatm'ius ; in Cali- fornia Perlmegatomn 'oariegntum has proved destructive to collections. Ptinusfur (Fig. 269) is also liable to occur. f We find by placing a small piece of cyanide of potassium in an open short vial for a fortnight in an insect drawer that it may be thoroughly disinfected; for permanent use naphthaline cones are effective. Naphthaline cones, while not killing the larva?, repel adult anthreui, etc., and should be kept constantly in boxes or drawers. Mr. Schwarz advocates the use of " white carbon," which is naphthaline sold in the form of small, square rods, costing only 8 cents a pound wholesale, and which is much purer than the napli- thaline cones now in the market. When broken up into small pieces, and wrapped in thin paper, it can be conveniently used in in- sect boxes or drawers. Mr. Akhurst u.ses a preparation consisting of 3 parts of creosote or crude carbolic acid and 1 part oil of pennyroyal, applied to the seams, grooves, and edges of boxes or drawers to keep out museum pests. Mr. J. B. Smith urges the use of bisulphide of carbon, which both serves to check the development of the eggs and to destroy the recently-hatched larvae of museum pests. He finds that the only chances of ssifety from infection ' ■ consist in constant 238 ENTOMOLOGY. Insect-cabinet. — For permanent exhibition^ a cabinet of shallow drawers, protected by doors, is most useful. A drawer may be eighteen by twenty inches square, and two inches deep in the clear, and provided with a tight glass cover. For a permanent cabinet, says Mr. S. H. Scudder, nothing can excel the drawers made after the Deyrolle model, now in use by the Boston Society of Natural History. " I have tried them for six years, and find them entirely pest-proof. They are made with a cover of glass set in a frame which is grooved along the lower edge and thus fits tightly into a narrow strip of zinc set edgewise into a cor- responding groove in the drawer; the grooves beyond the point of intersection of two sides are filled with a bit of wood firmly glued in place; it is hardly necessary to say that the sides of the drawer and the frame of the cover should be made of hard wood; soft wood would not retain the zinc Fig. 270. —Model of the Deyrolle insect-drawer, side view of front end, with the cover raised. I>, bottom of drawer; C, cover of same, raised a little; /, front piece, with moulding: (m) and handle (h) glued to bottom piece; sa, sash; si, slit in cover, into which the zinc strip (z) fits; sV , slit in bottom, into which it is fastened; g, bevelled groove, to allow the finger to raise the cover; Hv, hind view of one end of the bottom to show the insertion of the bottom (6); Re, reverse of one corner of cover to show the grooves filled beyond their junction. All the figures half size. strip; the zinc should be perfectly straight, and the ends well matched; if this be done, nothing can enter the box examination, tight boxes, and a free use of chloroform or bisulphide of carbon" (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, i. 115). PRESERVING INSEGTS. 239 when it is closed. A similar box with a woodeu rabbet is used at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge; but it cannot possibly be so tight, and requires hooks on the sides to keep the cover down; it has the advantages of greater cheapness, as it can be made of soft wood, but is at the same time clumsier. My own drawers are made of cherry sides, and have also a false front attached to them, furnished with mouldings and handles so as to present a not inelegant appearance; and, exclusive of the cork with which they are lined, cost $2.65 each; they measure inside 18f inches long, 14 inches wide, and If inches deep, not includ- ing the cork lining.'' In the drawers in use by the TJ. S. Entomologist at the Department of Agriculture there are on the sides within, deep grooves kept constantly filled with naphthaline. For constant use, boxes made of thin, well-seasoned wood,* with tight-fitting covers, are indispensable. For Coleop- tera. Dr. LeConte recommends that they be twelve by nine inches (inside measui-ement). For the larger Lepidoptera a little larger box is preferable. Others prefer boxes made in the form of books, which may be put away like books on the shelves of the cabinet, though the cover of the box is apt to be in the way. The boxes and drawers should be lined with cork cut into thin slips for soles; such slips come from the cork- cutter about twelve by four inches square and an eighth of an inch thick. Other substitutes are the pith of various plants, especially of corn; "pita" and palm wood; and '*' inodorous felt" is used, being cut to fit the bottom of the box. LeConte recommends that, ''for the purpose of distinguish- ing specimens from different regions, little disks of variously- colored paper be used; they are easily made by a small * Bass-wood, or that of the poplar, tulip-tree, or even mahogany, is better than pine, as the resin in the latter sends off exhalations which eventually combine with the fat of the specimens enclosed in the bo:s and render them greasy {Psyche, i. 64). 240 ENTOMOLOGY. punch, and should be kept in wooden pill-boxes ready for use; at the same time a key to the colors, showing the regions embraced by each, should be made on the fly-leaf of the catalogue of the collection." He also strongly rec- ommends that the '^'specimens should all be pinned at the same height, since the ease of recognizing species allied in characters is greatly increased by having them on the same level." He also states that "it is better, even when numbers with reference to a catalogue are employed, that the name of each species should be written on a label attached to the first specimen. Thus the eye is familiarized with the association of the species and its name, memory is aided, and greater power given of identifying species when the cabinet is not at hand." For indicating the sexes the astro- nomical sign 3 (Mars) is used for the male, and S (Venus) for the female, and ? for the worker. For exhibiting alcoholic specimens of insects in different stages, and preventing their remaining at the bottom of bottles on the shelves. Prof. Moebius places the specimens in a glass tube filled with alcohol and having a stopper of cotton-wool. He then puts the insects according to their age, eggs or larvae lowest, in a stoppered upright bottle filled with alcohol, in the middle of which is a cylindrical glass which presses the glass tube against the side of the upright vessel (Zool. Anzeiger, vi., 1883, 52-3). Transportation of Insects. — While travelling, all hard- bodied insects, comprising many Hymenoptera, the Coleop- tera, Hemiptera, and many Neuroptera, should be thrown, with their larvas, etc., into bottles and vials filled with strong alcohol, with rubber stoppers. When the bottle is filled new liquor should be poured in, and the old may be saved for collecting purposes; in this way the specimens will not soften and can be preserved indefinitely, and the colors do not, in most cases, change. LeConte states that "if the bottles are in danger of being broken, the speci- mens, after remaining for a day or two in alcohol, may be PRESERVING INSECTS. 241 taken out, partially dried by exposure to the air, but not so as to be brittle, and these packed in layers in small boxes between soft paper; the boxes should then be carefully closed with gum-paper or paste, so as to exclude all enemies. " Lepidoptera and dragon-flies and other soft-bodied in- sects may be well preserved by placing them in square pieces of paper folded into a triangular form with the edges overlapping. Put up thus, multitudes can be packed away in tin boxes, and will bear ti'ansportation to any distance. In tropical climates, chests lined with tin should be made to contain the insect-boxes, which can thus be preserved against the ravages of white ants, etc. In sending live larvae by mail, they should be inclosed in little tin boxes; and in sending dry specimens, the box should be light and strong, and directions given at the post-office to stamp the box lightly. In sending boxes by express, they should be carefully packed in a larger box having an interspace of two inches, which can be filled in tightly with hay or crumpled bits of paper. Beetles can be wrapped in pieces of soft paper. Labels for alcoholic specimens should consist of parchment, with the locality, date of capture, and name of collector written in ink. A temporary label of firm paper, with the locality, etc., written with a pencil, will last for several years. Preservation of Larvae. — Alcoholic specimens of insects, in all stages of growth, are very useful. Few collections contain alcoholic specimens of the adult insect. This is a mistake. Many of the most important characters are effaced during the drying process, and for purposes of general study alcoholic specimens, even of bees, Lepidop- tera, Diptera, and dragon-flies, are very necessary. LarvEe, generally, may be well preserved in vials or bottles of alcohol with rubber corks.* They should first be put * Although rubber stoppers are more expensive than the best cork stoppers, they are more durable, aiui prevent evaporation vastly better; in corking, run an insect- pin down by the cork, allowing it to remain in for a while, thus allowing the air to escape and preventing the 242 ENTOMOLOGY. into whiskey, and then into alcohol. If placed in the latter first, they shrivel and become distorted. Mr. E. Burgess preserves caterpillars with the colors unchanged, by im- mersing them in boiling water thirty or forty seconds, and then placing them in equal parts of alcohol and water. It is well to collect larvae and pupa? indiscriminately, even if we do not know their adult forms; we can approximate to them, and in some cases tell very exactly what they must be. Reasing Aquatic Larv^. Many insects pass their early stages in brooks or ponds. They can be dredged with the water-net, and reared in pans or jars of water in which a few water-cresses, mosses, or other aquatic plants may be kept to oxydize the water and keep it pure. In this way the larvae or nymphs of Pei'lidae, may-flies, dragon-flies, caddis-flies, aquatic beetles, Diptera, and moths may be reared with more or less success. By collecting such larvae in March, April, and May, a good many species may be brought to maturity within a few weeks' time. Any glass jar, or eveji a deep earthen pan, may suffice for an aquarium, in place of more elaborate glass and iron struc- tures. Mr. Lugger has invented an aquarium which he finds very convenient for rearing aquatic insects; it consists of a tin box one foot square in front and about three inches thick, with a glass front. Over this glass front slips a round-oval picture-frame. If the inside is painted and filled with water, the whole looks like a suspended picture of rather unusual thickness. Several such aquaria can be grouped together like so many pictures. If connected by siphons carefully graded, a constant flow of water can be obtained, which produces the necessary current and sup- strong compression of the alcohol, which tends to force the cork out. See Dr. Hagen on the use of rubber stoppers, Can. Ent., xviii. p. 1. 16 PRESERVING AND REARING INSECTS. 243 plies the needed amount of oxygen. In such aquaria aquatic larvae and insects can be studied with great con- venience. The addition of some water-plants adds gi'eatly to the beauty of these aquarial pictures. (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, i. 37.) Rearing Insects in General. More attention has been paid by entomologists to rearing caterpillars than the young of any other orders of insects, and the following remarks apply more particularly to them, but very much the same methods may be pursued in rear- ing the larvae of Neuroptera, beetles, flies, and Hymen- optera. Subterranean larvae have to be kept in moist earth, aquatic larvae must be reared in aquaria, and carnivorous larvae must be supplied with flesh. The larvae of butter- flies are usually rare; those of moths occur more frequently, while their imagos may be scarce. In some years many larvas, which are usually rare, occur in abundance, and should then be reared in numbers. In hunting for cater- pillars, bushes should be shaken and beaten over newspapers or sheets, or an umbrella; herbage should be swept, and trees examined carefully for leaf-rollers and miners. The best specimens of moths and butterflies are obtained by rearing them from the egg,* or from the larva or pupa. In * Lepidoptera lay on the average from 100 to 700 eggs: those of butterflies should be looked for on th'e herbs, bushes, or trees about which they fly; those of sphinges on the flowers apt to be visited by them. The eggs will be found after patient search by turning up the leaves of willows, azaleas, and other plants. As a rule a butterfly or moth follows a path or fence side when laying; so upon finding the first egg or larva we more minutely examine each shrub, for they are very apt to lay an egg on each prominent one as they go along. " And it is not difficult to follow the path of the parent for quite a distance; and so the finding of one egg means almost surely the finding of more." G. D. Hiilst (Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, ii. 13.) The same is the case with the search for rare caterpillars; our best breeders of rarities search patiently by turning up one leaf after another for them. For want of time, and especially when the branches are high, we use a stick and umbrella, and beat tlic branches or leaves 244 ENTOMOLOGY. confinement the food should be kept fresh, and the box well yentilated. Tumblers covered with gauze, pasteboard boxes pierced with holes and fitted with glass in the covers, or large glass jars, are very convenient to use as cages. The bottom of such vessels may be covered with moist sand, in which the food-plant of the larva may be stuck and kept fresh for several days. Larger and more airy boxes, a foot square, with the sides of gauze, and fitted with a door through which a bottle of water may be introduced, serve well. The following extract from Kiley's " Fifth Annual Report on the Injurious Insects of Missouri " illustrates his style of vivarium: " For larger insects I use a breeding-cage or vivarium of my own devising, and which answers the purpose admirably. It is represented in Fig. 271, and comprises three distinct parts: 1st, the bottom board («), consisting of a square piece of inch-thick walnut with a rectangular zinc pan {ff), four inches deep, fastened to it, above, and with two cross- pieces {gg) below, to prevent cracking or warping, facilitate lifting, and allow the air to pass underneath the cage. 2d, a box {b), with three glass sides and a glass door in front, to fit over the zinc pan. 3d, a cap {c), which fits closely on to the box, and has a top of fine wire gauze. To the centre of the zinc pan is soldered a zinc tube {d) just large enough to contain an ordinary quinine bottle. The zinc pan is filled with clean sifted earth or sand (e), and the quinine bottle is for the reception of the food-plant. The cage admits of abundant light and air, and also of the easy removal of the excrement and frass which fall to the ground; while the insects in transforming enter the ground or attach themselves to the sides or the cap, according to their habits. The most convenient dimensions I find to be twelve inches square and eighteen inches high: the cap and the door fit cloir.ely by means of rabbets, and the former has into the outspread umbrella; this method is successful for fir, spruce, and pine trees, as well as forest trees in general. BEARING INSECTS IN GENERAL. 245 a depth of about four inches to admit of tlie largest cocoon being spun in it without touching the box on which it rests. Fig. 271. —Breeding-cage. The zinc pan might be made six or eight inches deep, and the lower half filled with sand, so as to keep the whole moist for a greater length of time. " K dozen such cages will furnish room for the annual breeding of a great number of species, as several having different habits and appearance, and which there is no danger of confounding, may be simultaneously fed in the same cage. I number each of the three parts of each cage, to prevent misplacement and to facilitate reference; and aside from the notes made in the note-book, it will aid the 246 ENTOMOLOGY. memory and exjiedite matters to keep a short open record of the species contained in each cage, by means of slips of paper pasted on to tlie glass door. As fast as the different specimens complete their transformations and are taken from the cage the notes may be altered or erased, or the slips wetted and removed entirely. To prevent possible confonnding of the different species which enter the ground, it is well, from time to time, to sift the earth, separate the pupae and place them in Avhat I call imago cages, used for this purpose alone and not for feeding. Here they may be arranged, with reference to their exact where- abouts. '*' The object is to keep the food-plant fresh, the air cool, the larva out of the sun, and in fact everything in such a state of equilibrium that the larva will not feel the change of circumstances when kept in confinement. Sugaring for Moths. — We may set bait or ''sugar" for moths, smearing the mixture of sugar and vinegar on the bark of a tree, and visiting the spot by night with the lan- tern and net. A mixture of cheap brown sugar mixed with a little hot water and beer, or one of some beer and molasses in equal parts, flavored with a little rum or brandy, may be applied with a paint-brush before dusk to stumps, trunks of trees, or fences; some prefer to lay it on in long and narrow streaks rather than in broad patches. With a dark-lantern hanging from a strap around the waist, the collector may visit the trees several times during an even- ing, especially a warm, damp, foggy, still night. Mr. 0. S. AVestcott advises the night collector to have two wide-mouthed bottles, each witli a chloroform sponge tacked on the bottom of the cork; also two cyanide of potassium bottles, to which the temporarily anaesthetized moths may be transferred (Can. Ent., viii. 12). Traps for Moths, etc. — Taking advantage of moths flying to lights,* many can be collected about gas or electric lights. * It ivS a curious fact that in general the males alone are attracted to light; the same is probably true of beetles, at least the June beetle. REARING CATERPILLARS. 247 Indeed, the electric lights now make the hest collecting places, uiid they attract moths and beetles to such an ex- tent that almost nothing can be taken at sugar or gas- lamps where these lights are situated. A light trap may- be made by a lantern combined with a reflector, suspended out of doors ; under the lantern a fl^nnel several inches larger than the lantern may reach down into a box or bottle containing the fumes of chloroform or ether, or benzine, or, if the lantern is used for beetles, into a bottle filled with dilute alcohol. It should be borne in mind, as Mr. Thaxter observes, that Noctuids always fly against the wind, and unless the light is so placed that they can fly thus to get to it, one's success will be slight. We will now describe the methods of rearing and pre- serving insects of different orders. Reabing Caterpillars. The best specimens of moths and butterflies are obtained by rearing them from the egg, or from the larva or pupa. Besides merely breeding caterpillars in order to procure good specimens for the cabinet, the modern student of entomology who desires to trace the genealogy of Lepidop- tera should study the freshly-hatched larva, and compare it and the other early stages with the full-grown larva, so as to obtain a complete life-history, with colored illustrations, of each stage. Hence a good deal of care must be exercised in breeding and describing caterpillars. In confinement the food should be kept fresh, and the breeding cage or box well ventilated. Tumblers covered with gauze, pasteboard boxes pierced with holes and fitted with glass in the covers, or large glass jars — but better still, tin boxes of different sizes, in which the food remains fresh for several days — are very convenient to use as cages. The bottom of such ves- sels may be covered with moist sand, in which the food- 248 ENTOMOLOGY. plant of the larva may be stuck and kept fresh for several days. In rearing from the Qg^, says Scudder, the greatest difficulty is during early life ; young caterpillars must have the freshest and tenderest food and not too much confine- ment. With all precautions many will be lost, for they are so small that it is difficult to keep track of them, and some are very prone to wander when their food does not suit them. They are best reared in some open vessel covered with gauze, with the growing plant, placed in the light, but not in the sun. Most caterpillars change to pupse in the autumn; and those which transform in the earth should be covered with earth, kept damp by wet moss, and placed in the cellar until the following summer. The collector in seek- ing for larvjB should carry a good number of pill-boxes, and especially a close tin box, in which the leaves may be kept fresh for a long time. The different forms and markings of caterpillars should be noted, and they should be drawn carefully together with a leaf of the food-plant, and the drawings and pupa skins, and perfect insect, be numbered to corresj)ond. Descriptions of caterpillars cannot be too carefully made, or too long. The relative size of the head, its ornamentation, the stripes and spots of the body, and the position and number of tubercles, and the hairs, or fascicles of hairs, or spines and spinules, which arise from them, should be noted, besides the general form of the body. The lines along the body are called dorsal if in the middle of the back; subdorsal if upon one side; lateral and ventral when on the sides and under surface; or stig- matal if including the stigmata or breathing-pores, which are generally parti-colored. Indeed, the whole biography of an insect should be ascertained by the observer; the points to be noted are: 1. Date when and how the eggs are laid; and number, size, and marking of the eggs. 2. Date of hatching, the appearance, food-plant of larva, and number of days between each moulting; the changes REABINa INSECTS. 249 the larva undergoes, Avhich are often remarkable, especially at the first moulting, with drawings illustrative of these; tlie habits of the larva, whether solitary or gregarious, wliether a day or night feeder; the ichneumon parasites, and their mode of attack. Specimens of larvae in the dif- ferent moultings should be preserved in alcohol. The ajj- pearance of the larvae when full-fed, the date, number of days before pupating, tlie formation and description of the cocoon, the duration of larvae in the cocoon before pupation, their appearance just before changing, their appearance while changing, and alcoholic specimens of larvse in the act, should all be studied and noted. 3. Date of pupation; description of the pupa or chrysalis; duration of the pupa state, habits, etc. ; together with al- coholic specimens or pinned dry ones. Lepidopterous pup^e should be looked for late in the summer, or in the fall and spring, about the roots of trees, and kept moist in mould until the imago appears. (Many Coleopterous pup» may also occur in mould and, if aquatic, under submerged sticks and stones, and those of borers under the bark of decaying trees. ) 4. Date when the insect escapes from the pupa, and method of escape; duration of life of the imago; and the number of broods in a season. Drawing Caterpillars. — After some practice any one can make a recognizable drawing of even an insect, especially of a caterpillar, and after a little experience even a sketch in water-colors. Drawing in natural history is all-important to the beginner; it trains the eye to observe closely, and good sketches of the early stages of insects are especially needed in this country. Various cameras have been contrived to enable the artist to get a correct outline of objects, while for flat, microscopic objects the use of the camera lucida is invaluable; after a few trials it can be used both for draw- ing outlines and filling in details. In this way the larvae of the Micro-lepidoptera mounted on glass slides may be drawn. 250 ENTOMOLOGY. Managing Caterpillars in Confinement. — Tliey may be en- closed iu gauze bugs tied over the smaller branches of the food-tree, yet they have to be watched; they need attention after lieavy showers or storms; and some will eat their way through just before pupation. For caterpillars in confine- ment air and light are necessary, though many do well bred in small tin boxes without ventilation. The boxes should be cleaned every day; removing the castings and bits of leaves, as well as sick or dead larvas. If any contagious disease appears, all the sick caterpillars should be burnt and the box cleansed with dilute carbolic-acid water. The food should be renewed every day, and if possible put into a bottle of water closed with cotton to prevent caterpillars from falling in. Too much food in a small jar or box fouls the air and hastens its own decay. After beginning to feed larvae with one kind of food-plant, it is dangerous to change it for another; hence they should be fed on the kind of plants on which they are first found. Dr. Knaggs has, in the "Entomologist's Monthly Maga- zine," given some directions for managing caterpillars. Very young caterpillars, which will not eat the food provided, and become restless, should be reared in air-tight jam-pots, the tops of which are covered with green glass to darken the in- terior of the vessel. When small larvae hide themselves by mining, entering buds, and spinning together leaves, they should have as small a quantity of food as possible. In cliang- ing larvae from one plant to a fresh one, a sliglit jar or puff of breath will dislodge them, and they can be transferred to the jam-pot; or the glass cylinder, covered at one end with muslin, can be turned muslin end downwards for them to crawl upon. The duplicate breeding-cage, pot or tube, should be '^sweetened" by a free current of fresh dry air and then stocked with fresh food. Dr. Knaggs advises that " hiding-places" or bits of chips, etc., be provided for such Noctuid larvae as naturally lie concealed, such as Orthosia, Xanthia, Noctua, etc., ''while REAMING INSECTS. 251 for Agrotis aud a few others a considerable depth of jfine earth or sand is necessary/'* '^ Larvae, which in nature hibernate, must either be stimulated by warmth and fresh food to feed up unnatu- rally fast, or else through the winter must be exposed to out-door temperature.'' Hibernating, hairy larvfe must be kept dry during winter. For such larvse as begin to eat before the trees are leaved out, the leaves of evergreens must be provided, pine leaves, chickweed, grasses and mosses. On the other hand, Mr. W. H. Edwards has fed belated larvae of Papilio cresphontes on dried leaves of prickly ash, softened in water. He also fed another belated lot with leaves of the hop-tree which had been gathered for two years. These he soaked overnight, laid between blot- ting-paper, and the larvae ate them readily. Larvae from other countries may be fed in the same manner, the food- plants being sent by mail. Mr. Greene describes what he calls his ^'larvarium, viz., a very large box, say three feet square and about the same in depth, filled partly with mould covered with moss." The edges of the toj) of this box must be smoothly shaved to suit the lid, which is like the frame of a slate, the slate being knocked out. This is then covered with gauze. In a box of this size small branches may be held in l)ottles of water, and two or three dozen larvae safely housed. If placed in a cool room, with plenty of air, they will grow almost as large as if in free- dom. Mr. Gibson strongly recommends that during the winter all cages containing larvae be placed in front of a window facing the east or northeast, so that the inmates may be kept as cool as possible. When the moth is fairly out of the pupa, as remarked by Mr. Sanborn, their wings often fail to properly expand on * Many larvae require earth during all their entire existence as such, and very many more require it for pupation. The Noctuids, especiallj', burrow in the earth during the day, and the Catocaloe, as well as many others, must have clean litter in which to hide, for they feed only at night, and lie concealed under bark, in crevices, and among grass- roots and leaves during the day. 252 ENTOMOLOGY, iioconnt of tlie want of moisture, " the insect being unable to expand its wings in a heated, dry room. He has avoided this difficulty by placing the insect just emerged, or about to come forth, beneath a bell-glass, within which he had placed moistened pieces of bibulous paper." By taking advantage of the habit of many tree-feeding caterpillars of changing to pupae (pupating) in the soil close to the trunk of the tree, many rare moths can with little trouble be raised from the chrysalides thus found. As the Kev. Joseph Greene ("The Insect-hunter's Companion," London, 1870) advises, the dirt around the trunk should be dug up with a trowel, and carefully examined for chry- salides. He adds that "pupae may be found almost any- where and everywhere, under moss on large stones and boulders, in the decayed stumps of old trees, behind tlie loose bark on palings, between dead leaves, under moss on banks, etc., etc." Hibernating Larvae. — These are very apt to die when artificially hibernated. If kept too dry they die from lack of moisture; if kept too moist they are apt to be attacked by fungi. The effort should be to keep them at a tempera- ture as steady as possible and below the freezing point. If placed in a cellar with the window open, or among leaves out of doors in a box protected from rain and snow, in con- ditions as nearly as possible to nature, they may be in many cases successfully carried over througli the winter. Management of Pupae. — Mr. S. Lowell Elliott, who has been remarkably successful in rearing butterflies and moths, breeding them by the hundreds and even thousands, has a pupa-box of the following description: It is about 20x16 inches, and 8 inches deep, with a bottom of coarse wire cloth placed about 3 inches from the bottom, so that the box can be set over a fiat earthen pan of water; it is divided by thin wooden partitions into four compartments, the bottom of each of which is covered with a thick layer of baked Sphagnum moss which has been pulled into fine bits. The pup» are laid on this floor of moss, and covered over REARING INSECTS. 253 with a thick layer of moss prepared in the same manner as that beneath. The box is covered by a glass plate kept in place by projections from the sides. During the winter the pan of water may be dispensed with, and the box put into a cellar-room with the window partly open, so that the fresh moist air may penetrate, or in a cool attic; or, better, placed in such a situation outside of the house that the box will not receive injury, while the pupae will be kept cool and not too damp. We have found that such a box, with water in course of evaporation under it, is by far the best place to keejj pupte both in summer and winter. When the moths emerge, they are transferred by Mr. Elliott to another box (or rather a series of them, for keep- ing numerous specimens at the same time), with a glass top, and a stick introduced on which the moth may hang suspended by its feet until the wings are fully expanded and the body sufficiently dried; they are then transferred to the poisoning-box, and the insect is finally set, before a wing has fluttered. Pairing or Mating Lepidoptera in Captivity, — ''It is common enough,^' says Mr. W. H. Edwards, ''for certain Sphinges and Bombycidae to mate in boxes and immediate- ly after leaving the pupas. This may happen when the eggs are mature at the birth of the insect. With many species of butterflies the eggs do not mature for several days after leaving the chrysalis, as is the case with the large Argynnids; but with others, as Phyciodes tUaros, nycteiK, and myrina, they are mature from the start. I have not experimented in this direction, but from what Miss E. L. Morton, of N'ewburgh, N. Y., tells me, it may be possible to induce butterflies of some species to mate and so to obtain eggs, for the eggs are laid very shortly after copulation, as I have several times observed. Miss Morton had by mistake placed a male Satyrus alojw under a bag of netting on grass. Three days later she introduced a female, which up to that time was supposed to be the second female. Almost immediately the pair mated, and 254 EFTOMOLOGT. a few hours later eggs were laid. In attempting to get eggs in this manner, it would be best that a male caught in the field should be introduced to a female just from the chrysalis, for in the field it is these last which are sought by the males. Almost always, when a pair of butterflies in copulation are taken, the male will be found worn or broken, while the female is uninjured in wing and there- fore must have lately left the chrysalis" (Can. Entomologist, xviii. 17). Mr. S. Lowell Elliott very successfully mates Bombyces, etc., by placing the sexes in a gauze mating-bag suspended in a room through which passes a current of air from out of-doors. Mr. Edwards also covers a branch of the food-plant with a bag of fine netting, placing the female within, so that she can move freely about; she should have plenty of light, though not exposed to the direct rays of the sun. If the plant is a small one it may be covered with a headless keg, covered at one end with gauze. Treatment of the Eggs. — They should be kept in a not too dry or overheated atmosphere, and should be so placed that at its birth, without effort, the larva at once finds fresh food.* Collecting and Rearing Micro-lepidoptera. — For col- lecting and preserving these minute and delicate moths, which are called by collectors Micro-lepidoptera, especial instructions are necessary. AVhen the moth is taken in the net, it can be blown by the breath into the bottom. " Then by elevating the hand through the ring, or on a level with it, a common cupping-glass of about two inches in diameter, or a wine-glass carried in the pocket, is placed on top of the left hand over the constricted portion, the grasp relaxed, and the insect permitted to escape through the opening into its interior. The glass is then closed below by the left hand on the outside of the net, and may * Hulst and Tbalenhorst in Bulletin Brooklyn Ent. Soc, ii. 63; other hints are taken, sometimes verbatim, from this article. BEARING INSECTS. 255 be transferred to the top of the collecthig-box, when it can be quieted by cliloroform." (Clemens.) Or the motlismay be collected in pill-boxes, and then carried home and ojaened into a larger box filled with fumes of ether or benzine or cyanide of potassium. In pinching any moths on the thorax, as is sometimes done, the form of that region is in- variably distorted, and many of the scales removed. In searching for Micros we must look carefully on the lee side of trees, fences, hedges, and undulations in the ground, for they avoid the wind. Indeed, we can take advantage of this habit of many Micros, and by blowing vigorously on the trunks of trees start the moth off into the net so placed as to intercept it. This method is most productive, C. G. Barrett states, in the "Entomologist's Monthly Magazine," while a steady wind is blowing. The larva^ vary excessively in the number of legs, sixteen being the usual number, but in several genera (Gracilaria, Lithocolletis, etc.) we only find fourteen ; in Nepticula, though the legs are but poorly developed, they number eighteen ; on the other hand, the larva? of a few of the smaller genera (Antispila, Tinagma, etc.) are absolutely footless. In seeking for the larvae, we must rememljer that most of them are leaf-miners, and their burrows are detected by the waved, brown, withered lines on the surface of leaves, and their frass, or excrement, thrown out at one end. Some are ;found between united leaves, of which the upper is crumpled. Others construct portable cases which they draw about the trunks of trees, fences, etc. Others burrow in the stems of grass, or in fungi, toadstools!, and in the pith of currant or raspberry bushes. Most are solitary, a few gregarious. A bush stripped of its leaves and covered with webs, if not done by Clisiocampa (the American tent-cater- l^illar), will witness the work of a Tortrix or Tineid. Buds of unfolded herbs suffer from their attacks, such as the heads of composite flowers which are drawn together and consumed by the larvse. 256 ENTOMOLOGY. After some practice in rearing larva? it will be found easier and more profitable to search for the leaf-miners, and rear the perfect, fresh, and uninjured moths from them. In this way many species never found in the perfect state can be secured. * In raising Micro larvae it is essential that the leaf in which they mine be preserved fresh for a long time. Thus a glass jar, tumbler, or jam-pot, the top of which has been ground to receive an air-tight glass cover, and the bottom covered with moist white sand, will keep a leaf fresh for a week, and thus a larva in the summer will have to be fed but two or three times before it changes ; and the moth can be seen through the glass without taking off the cover ; or a glass cylinder can be placed over a plant inserted in wet sand, having the top covered with gauze. Dr. H. G. Knaggs, in treating of the management of caterpillars in breeding-boxes, enumerates the diseases, besides muscar- dine and cholerine (and we might add pebrine), to which they are subject. Among direct injuries are wounds and bruises, which may be productive of deformities in the future imago ; the stings of ichneumon flies, whose eggs laid either upon or in the body may be crushed with finely pointed scissors or pliers ; frost-bites ; and suffocation, chiefly from drowning. If the caterpillar has not been more than ten or twelve hours in the water, it may be re- covered by being dried on a piece of blotting-paper and ex- posed to the sun. Larvae may also starve to death, even when food is abundant, from loss of appetite, or improper ventilation, light, etc. ; or they may eat too much, become drojisical and die. Caterpillars undoubtedly suffer from a * " In general, it may be said, the mines of the leaf -miners are characteristic of the genus to which the larva may belong. A single mine once identitied enables the collector to pronotmce on the genus of all the species he may lind thereafter. This, added to the ease with which the larv« are collected, and the little subsequent care required to bring them to maturity, except to keep the leaves in a fresh and healthy .state, makes the study of this group, in every respect, pleasant and satisfactory to the entomologist." (Clemens.) REARING INSECTS. 257 contagious disease analogous to low fever. Many die while moulting, especially the larvge of butterflies, sphinges, and bombycids ; others are carried off by diarrhoea, which is generally caused by improper feeding on too juicy or relax- ing food, when oak leaves or dry stunted foliage should be given them. To relieve constipation they should be fed with lettuce and other natural purgatives ; and lastly, they may be attacked by fungi, especially, besides those previ- ously mentioned, a species of Oidium. Such patients should be put in direct sunlight or dry currents of air. (Entomol- ogist's Monthly Magazine, June, 18G8.) The pupae easily dry up ; they should be kept moist, in tubes of glass closed at either end, through which the moth can be seen when disclosed. In setting Micro-lepidoptera: " If the insect is very small I hold it by its legs between the thumb and finger of the left hand, whilst I pierce it with the pin held between the thumb and finger of the right hand ; if the insect is not very small I use a rough surface, as a piece of blotting-paper or piece of cloth, for it to lie upon and prevent its slipping about, and then cautiously insert the point of the pin in the middle of the thorax, as nearly as possible in a vertical di- rection. As soon as the pin is fairly through the insect, re- move it to a soft piece of cork, and, by pressing it in, push the insect as far up the pin as is required. "For setting the insects I find nothing answers as well as a piece of soft cork, papered with smooth paper, and with grooves cut to admit the bodies. The wings are placed in the required position by the setting-needle, and are then retained in their places by a wedge-shaped, thin paper brace, placed over them till a square brace of smooth card-board is placed over the ends of the wings." (Stain- ton.) A small square of glass can also be laid on the wings to keep them expanded, and thus serve the same purpose as the paper braces. Linnaeus first set the example of having the specific names of the Tortricids end in a7ia, and of the Tineids in ella; and 258 ENTOMOLOGY. at the present day the rule is generally followed by entomol- ogists, who have also given the same terminations to the names of the smaller species of Pyralides, such as Pempelia, Crambus, and allied genera. We may also add Lord Walsingham's directions for col- lecting Micro-lepidoptera, published in the " American Naturalist"' (vol. vi., No. 5): " I go out with a coat provided with large pockets inside and out, containing an assortment of pill-boxes (generally of three sizes, glass-bottomed pill-boxes preferred), a bag slung over my shoulder, and a net. Unless searching for particular day -flying species, I pre- fer the last three hours before dark. As the sun goes down, many species move which do not stir at other times. I watch the tops of the grass, the stems of the flowers, the twigs of the trees ; I disturb leaves and low-growing plants with a short switch, and secure each lit- tle moth that moves, taking each out of the net in a separate pill-box, selected according to the size of the insect, as he runs up the net to escape. Transferring the full boxes to the bag, I continue the pro- cess until moths cease flying or night sets in. Many species can be taken with a lamp after dark. " Returning to camp, I put a few drops of liquid ammonia on a small piece of sponge and place it in a tin canister with such of the boxes as do not contain the smallest species, and put these and the remainder away until morning in a cool place. In the morning I prepare for work by getting out a pair of scissors, a pair of forceps, my drying-box containing setting-boards, a sheet of white paper, and some pins. "First, I cut two or three narrow pieces of paper from three to six lines wide, or rather wider, according to the size of the largest and smallest specimens I have to set. I then double each of these strips and cut it up into braces by a number of oblique cuts. Now I turn out the contents of the canister and damp the sponge with a few drops of fresh ammonia, refilling with boxes containing live insects. Those which have been taken out will be found to be all dead and in a beautifully relaxed condition for setting. Had the smallest specimens been placed in the canister overnight, there woiild have been some fear of their drying up, owing to the small amount of moisture in their bodies. "If the weather is very hot there is some danger of killed insects becoming stiff while others are being set, in which case it is better to pin at once into a damp cork box all that have been taken out of 17 REARING INSECTS. 259 the canister; but under ordinary circumstances I prefer to pin them one b}^ one as I set them. " Taking the lid off a box, and taking the box between the finger and thumb of the right hand, I roll out the insect on the top of the left thumb, supporting it with the top of the foretiuger and so ma- nipulating it as to bring the head pointing towards my right hand and the thorax uppermost. Now I take a pin in the right hand, and rest- ing the tirst joint of the middle linger of the right against the pro- jecting point of the middle finger of the left hand to avoid unsteadi- ness, I pin the insect obliquely through the thickest part of the thorax so that the head of the pin leans very slightly forward over the head of the insect. After passing the pin far enough through to bring about one-fourth of an inch out below,* I pin the insect into the middle of the groove of a setting-board so that the edge of the groove will just support the under sides of the wings close up to the body when they are raised upon it. The board should be chosen of such a size as will permit of the extension of the wings nearly to its outer edge. The po.sition of the pin should still be slanting a little forward. The wings should now be raised into the position in which they are intended to rest, wath especial care in doing so not to remove any scales from the surface or cilia of the wings. Each wing should be fastened with a brace long enough to extend across both, the braces being pinned at the thick end, so that the head of the pin slopes away from the point of the brace ; this causes the braces to press more firmly down on the wing when fixed. The insect should be braced thus : the two braces next the body should have the points upwards, the two outer ones pointing downwaids and slightly inwards towards the bod^^ and covering the main portion of the wings beyond the middle. Antennae should be carefully laid back above the wings, and braces should lie flat, exercising an even pressure at all points of their surface. The fore wings should slope slightly forwards so that a line drawn from the point of one to the point of the other will just miss the head and palpi. The hind wings should be close up, leaving no intervening space, but just showing the upper angle of the wing evenly on each side. I can give no more precise directions as to how this desirable result may most simply and speedily be attained ; no two people set alike. Speed is an object ; for I have often had to set twelve dozen insects before breakfast. A simple process is essential, for a man who is alwa3's pinning and mov- * The English mode of pinning low down on a short pin presents so many disadvantages that we would caution collectors to pin high up on a long German pin so that three-fourths of its length should project below the body. — A. S. P. 260 ENTOMOLOGY. iug pins, and rearrauging wiugs and legs, is sure to remove a certain number of scales and spoil the appearance of the insect, besides ut- terly destroying its value. 1 raise each of the fore wings with a pin, and fix the pin against the inner margin so as to keep them in position while I apply the braces. Half the battle is really in the pinning. When an insect is pinned through the exact centre of the thorax, with the pin properly sloped forward, the body appears to fall natu- rally into its position on the setting-board, and the muscles of the wings, being left free, are easily directed and secured: but if the pin is not put exactly in the middle, it interferes with the play of the wings. Legs must be placed close against the body or they will pro- ject and interfere with the set of the wings. Practice, care, and a steady hand will succeed. When all the insects that have been killed are set, the contents of the canister will be found again ready, twenty minutes being amply sufficient to expose to the fumes of ammonia. Very bright green or pale pink insects should be killed by some other process, say chloroform, as ammonia will affect their colors. "Insects should be left on the setting boards a full week to dry ; then the braces may be carefully removed and they may be trans- ferred to the store-box. " Having given some account of the process each insect goes through, I will say a word as to the apparatus required. " First as to nets. The simplest net is a strong, circular iron wire hoop with a bag of book-muslin attached, fastened into a light deal or other handle. " I use a small pocket net about nine inches in diameter, made to fold up, with a jointed wire frame and a screw to fit into a brass socket in a short cane-handle. To counteract the strain of the net upon so slight a frame the three wire joints are made flat, the two side joints flattened across the strain, the upper one the reverse way ; but to prevent this upper joint from coming into play when the net is fixed, the upper part of the screw which holds the frame to the handle is welded square and fits a corresponding square socket in the other end of the wire frame, holding all tight when screwed down. A small green silk or other net can be slipped on or off this frame as required. " An umbrella net with stout steel rim and canvas edging is useful for sweeping tall grass and herbage, or to beat branches into, by which means many small and beautiful species of retired habits may be obtained. " I use pill- boxes with glass bottoms, which can be obtained of var- ious sizes. Tliey are convenient in admitting of the examination of each specimen, so rare species can be especially searched for, and damaged ones permitted to escape ; but they are expensive, and for ordinary hearino insects. 261 purposes card-board boxes answer siifficieutl}' well. It is a good plan at the beginning of a season tostreugtlicn all jour boxes by a crossed strap of tape or calico firmly glued at the top and bottom. For a killing-box any tin box or canister, with a closely-fitting lid, capable of containing one hundred pill-boxes will be found to answer. " Setting-boards can be bought read3^-made of the smallest sizes. They are made by gluing a slrip of thick cork on a thin slip of deal ; the cork must be thick enough to enable a groove to be cut into it, deep enough to hold the bodies of the insects to be set, and to leave sufficient depth for the pin to hold firmly without reaching the deal. The cork on each side of the groove should be smoothed off with a gentle curve, so that the wings dry in a good position. The deal backing projects beyond the cork so as to slide into a groove if re- quired, and it is convenient to have a deal cupboard of drying-boxes with handle at top and perforated zinc door, having grooves on each side into which the setting-boards can be slid. Each board should be papered with thin white pape'r. "At the beginning of a season setting-boards may be washed or brushed over with advantage with a weak solution of oxide of zinc ; it fills up old pinholes and makes them look clean. " Always set your insects as soon as you kill them; they are then much more easy to set, and retain their position better when dry. "When pill-boxes are filled, keep them cool to prevent the insects from fluttering ; if glass boxes, keep them also in the dark. " Many species when first taken will flutter in the boxes and injure themselves ; for these it is well when collecting to carry a small phial of chloroform and a zinc collecting-box, cork-lined, into which you can at once pin your captures ; the cork should be damped to keep them fresh. Touching a pill-box with a finger moistened with chloro- form will kill the insect inside. Too much chloroform is apt to stiflieu the nerves of the wings and interfere with setting. "By breeding Micro-lepidoptera, many species not otherwise easily obtainable may be added to a collection, and the habits of others in the larva state may be studied with much interest. For this purpose a few wide-mouthed glass bottles should be obtained with corks to fit, so that the small larvte can be placed in them with fresh food and the food kept fresh by exclusion of air. If mould should appear, the cork can be replaced by muslin or a net tied over. I would hardly ad- vise a travelling collector to attempt this method, although I have adopted it with some success; but in a stationary camp it is most inter- esting and comparatively easy. " CJork-lined store-boxes are of course required into which to re- move the insects when sufficiently dried on the setting-boards. These, as well as the pins and setting-boards with drying case to hold them. 262 ENTOMOLOGT. and llic net frames of the folding and umbrella patterns, will be best obtained from some dealer in such things. " To pack Micro-lepkhptera for travelling, pin them firmly close to- gether into a cork-lined box, so that each specimen just gently holds down the body of the one above it. This cannot be done with very minute species. Put your box into another larger box, and let the outer one be sutiiciently large to leave a good clear six inches all around the inner one. Pack this intervening space with hay, not crammed too tight ; it will act as a spring and reduce the effect of shaking; the whole parcel should be made thoroughly secure against damp." In collecting Tortricids, Prof. C. H. Fernald, the best au- thority on this famil}^ does not use the cyanide bottle, as a roll over the bottom destroys the thoracic tufts, etc., but he puts the moths alive into pill-boxes. They can then be taken home and killed in the cyanide bottle or with chloro- form. In pinning, the moth should not be touched with the thumb and finger, but should be handled Avith a pair of fine forceps, laid upon a piece of pith held between the thumb and finger, and the pin passed through the thorax so as not to injure the thoracic tuft. He prefers for the larger species japanned pins, and for the smaller ones silver wire, inserted in one end of a neatly-cut piece of fungus, through the other end of which a large pin may be thrust. (Can. Ent. x. 82.) The following excellent directions for rearing the larvae of Tortricidae, by Charles G. Barrett, are copied from the "Entomologist's Monthly Magazine," Jan., 1883: " There is no great difficulty in rearing the leaf-rolling species of the genera Tortrix. Lozotfenia, and part of Poecilochroma (of Wilkinson's ' Tortrices' and Stainton's ' Manual'), nor those which draw together leaves either flatly or by folding or spinning several together, such as Peronea and its allies, Phloeodes, Poedisca, Coccyx, etc., because they mostly feed on the comparatively dry and firm leaves of trees or bushes, and are in consequence but little subject to the annoyance of mouldy food. All that is necessary is to put the rolled, twisted, or joined leaves containing the larvae into large tins or gallipots, closely tied down and covered with glass, and to open them daily for ventilation, supplying fresh food when necessary. Particular care, however, must REARING LARV^ OF TORTRICIDS. 263 be taken never to introduce any food in a damp state, from either dew or rain, or mould will be the immediate result. These species will spin up among their food-plant, and emerge in many cases in a fort- night, in all cases within the same season. The few species in these groups, such as Tortrix icterana and viburnana and (Eiiectra pilleri- ana, which generally feed on succulent low-growing plants, should have plenty of air, not being covered with glass unless the food begins to wither, such plants becoming very quickly rotten if covered closely down. This is also the case with the curious balls of j'oung bramble leaves twisted up by the larva of Notocelia advmnniana. " In the cases of the very numerous species which feed in the shoots of shrubs and low plants, eating out the young leaves, such as the larger species of Antithesia, Hypermecia, Brachytsenia, Pardia, Spilonota, Hedya, Steganoptycha, parts of Paramesia, Semasia, and Poecilochroma, much judgment must be used. Where the shoots are of hard-leaved bushes and plants, and the larva does not pack its domicile with frass, tins or gallipots may be used and covered with glass, or wholly or partially uncovered, as seems necessary from the state of the weather or the condition of the food; but shoots of soft- leaved low-growing plants, and those which, as in the case of Stega- noptycha ncevana, are apt to be full of frass, should be put into ordi- nary rough flower-pots and tied tightly down with calico, old lining, or any close-textured material that comes to hand. These pots allow a good deal of evaporation, and if dry moss is introduced it will also absorb some of the superfluous moisture, so that glass may be laid either completely or partially over these also, to keep the food from withering, but it must be frequently removed and the food stirred up and examined and prevented from becoming mouldy or rotten. The same should be done with larvae of Sericoris, some of which feed in flower-spikes as well as young shoots, and are therefore still more liable to injury from mould or decay. But of all the low-plant feed- ers the most difficult by far to rear are the Sciaphiloe. It is hardly possible to keep the solid composite flowers in which S. perterana and 8. icteriana feed from becoming mouldy, and the larvse do not will- ingly move to fresh flowers. Perhaps the best plan is to tie up the infested flowers with others in close bunches, so that air can get round them, and then tie them down in flower- pots. The shoots and curved leaves in which virgaureana and other species feed can only be treated as before described. But the difficulty of keeping the food in good condition is as nothing compared to the difficulty of keeping the larvae in any sort of confinement. They seem beyond measure impatient of imprisonment, and as soon as they discover the least closeness in the air, or change of condition in the food, begin to wander round the vessel, and try by every possible means to escape. If it is not very 264 ENTOMOLOGY. tightly tied down they force their way under the string, perfectly in different to a squeezing that, while in operation, completely flattens them; and if the string is too tight, they will force their way between the covering and the pot, or into the smallest fold, and there die, after reducing themselves to the thickness of brown paper. To frustrate their efforts the covering must be of strong calico or cloth, and must be tied down with thin siring, which must be wound five or six times round the pot and strained tight at each round, and the covering ma- terial then pulled tight. No larva can then force its way under the string, and they cannot easily get between the calico and the pot; but, to completely prevent this, the best plan appears to be to rub a little lard or other form of grease 7-ound the edge of the pot. This they detest, and will not willingly touch, and it does seem to circumvent them. If by these devices the larvae can be compelled to remain in the pot, they will spin up among the food plant or in the moss; but so much sulkiness remains in their disposition that the moths, on emerging, will often remain among the rubbi.sh at the bottom until spoiled. The best plan is to examine the food and pick out the pupae, which do well if placed on soft material in a chip or card box. If however, when full-fed, the larv* are allowed to force their way with difficulty out of the pot, they appear quite satisfied, and will spin up in the first available place; so that I have obtained numerous pupae by simply laying a squeezed-up piece of gauze or leno, or even some dry moss, loosely on the top of the pot. " There are a very few leaf-feeders, such as Stigmonota weirana and 8. nitidana, which hibernate in a cocoon between the leaves on which they have fed. These give little trouble, and only require to be kept cool. " The species of the genus Retinia, which feed in fir-shoots, are tol- erably easy to rear if the shoots are not allowed to get tco dry, as they do not readily become mouldy, and the larvae will move freely to fresh shoots. A common flower-pot covered with glass is the best for them. " Some of the species of Ancbylopera, which feed on the leaves of shrubs and make themselves domiciles in which to pass the winter, are rather difficult to rear, and must have winter exposure, but those which feed in early spring on clover, etc., are easily managed. "Except the Sciaphilae, no Tortrix larvae are so hard to rear as the various groups of seed-feeders. There certainly are exceptions, such as Antithesia gentianana and marginana, Asthenia strobilella, and Eupo&cilia roseana, which obligingly remain in their respective seed- heads all the winter, requiring only to be kept cool and not too dry, and not even needing to be wintered out of doors. The feeders on Papilionaceous seeds, such as Stigmonota orobana and dorsana, after ttEAniNG LARV^ OF TORTRICIDS. 265 leaving the seed-pods, will spin their tough cocoons on rotten vood or calico, and may also be wintered indoors. But it is quite otherwise with the genera Catoptria, Endopsia, Carpocapsa, and parts of Gra- pholitha, Semasia, Eup(ecilia, etc. Most of these feed up with very great rapidity, becoming full-fed almost before the parent moths have ceased to fly — say, within a month or six weeks of the time of the egg being laid — and remain for nine or ten months in cocoon in the larva state, in most cases leaving their food and spinning up among debris, or under stones, or other suitable places. Having to arrange for so long a repose, it is natural that they should wish to choose a suitable and comfortable spot, but some seem unnecessarily fastidious. All that I have recorded of the restless, obstinate, and suicidal tendencies of Sciaphila larvae applies equally to these. They must be tied down in flower-pots tightly, and the covering material strained, as already suggested — not omitting to grease the edge — and when they find that they cannot really escape they may generally be tempted to spin up by the introduction of pieces of rotten wood, cork, hollow sticks, folded paper or rag, or the stems of their food-plants. Sometimes nothing will give satisfaction; and the larva?, after sulking for weeks, will actually dry up and die without any material alteration in their appearance. I have known dozens of larvae of Catoptria cemulana to die in this way after leaving their food — the seeds of the golden-rod. On the approach of winter, the pots containing larvae of any of these groups must— the hole in the bottom being first stopped, so as to exclude insect foes, but allow drainage— be placed in the open air, exposed to the influences of any weather that may come. It is well to look at them occasionally, lest the covering ge*s rotten and broken, or the pot is rolled over by some active cat; but, making allowance for accidents, larvae kept in this manner out of doors until the end of April, or even into May, will generally produce a fair proportion of moths. "The internal, stem, and root-feeding species require very various treatment. The succulent stems in which the Halonotm principally feed require to be kept alive in moist earth until the larvae are full- fed; and care must afterwards be taken that the stems do not ferment from lying too close together, or dry up before the moths emerge. The species, such as GrapholitJia pupillana and the Dicroramphae, which feed in the stems of harder plants, also thrive better if the roots are kept in moist earth; and this precaution must, of course, be taken with the root-feeding Euchromise, Orthotaeniae, and Xantho- setiae. Most of these species are best collected in the spring, as the larvae are slow feeders, and not easily discoverable until tolerably well grown. Most of them turn to pupa in the stems, though O. pupillana 266 ENTOMOLOGY. follows the custom of its allies in wandering away and spinning up elsewhere. " The larvae of Antithesiafuliyanu, A. nigrimstana, and several of the Eupoecilise and Argyrolepife, which feed in the soft stems of low- growing plants, must be collected in the autumn before the dead stems are broken and scattered by the winter storms. The stems must be kept fresh in moist earth until they naturally die down, by which time the larvae have generally spun up, and the stems may then be kept in pots, jars, or even bottles, care being taken that they do not get either mouldy or too dry, and will do as well in a cool room as out of doors." Preserving Micro-larvae in Alcohol. — Dr. H. Dewitz mounts the larvae and pupae of Micro-lepidoptera, and also the early stages of other siiKill insects, in the following way: The insects are put into a bottle with 95 per cent alcohol. Many larvae turn black in alcohol, but boiling them in alcohol in a test-tube will bleach them. They may then be tiually placed in glass tubes as small and thin as possible, varying from 0.003 to 0.006 metre in diameter, according to the size of the insects. About 0.07 metre's length of a tube is melted over a spirit-lamp, and the tube filled three-quarters full with 95 per cent alcohol, the insects placed within, and the contents of the tube heated at the end still open, and then closed by being pulled out with another piece of glass tubing. After the glass has been held a few minutes in the hand until it is slightly cooled off, the end closed last is once more held over the lamp, so that the points may be melted together, and this end of the glass may be finished. During the whole time from the closure of the tube until the complete cooling of the (Ste> (Tgaa (!»!!> me address to prevent the shrivelling of wings in such delicately-formed insects, and to provide against the bursting action of the boiling juices. "A more complete liistory of the proc-ess than the foregoing was given by Mr. Douglas in 18T8. " M. Lichtenstein has many limes been good enough to forward in letters to me preparations of Aphides which have been secured be- tween two films of mica. The insect*, he explains, are immersed in a solution of resin in turpentine, ' a natural amber,' and, when all are in due position, the mica films are placed over apertures in card, and then gummed papers, similarly perforated, are pressed upon them. This arrangement secures all in their places. ■'Methods and operations in science, like events in history, repeat themselves. YMxy years ago films of mica were used to cover objects for the microscope, and before the manufacture of the thin glass now so commonly used it admirably answered its purpose. Under deep magnifying powers, such as ^ in., it will be found even now of great service. The mineral may be split by the lanc-et into films much thinner than glass can be blown in a flat state. Small un- scratched pieces may be selected which are perfectly transparent, and their cost is quite trifling. " On account of the high refracting power of Canada balsam, the colors of recently-immersed Aphides show themselves very brightly; and it sometimes happens that tints, quite lost through irradiation or glance on the surfaces, become distinct by treatment with this resin. " The bright colors and markings of some species are due to the hue of the internal juices of the insects. These cannot be preserved by balsam, but it is otherwise with the pigments which stain the some- what homy coverings of the thorax and abdomen. These colors art persistent." ("Monog. British Aphides," iv. 1883) pp. lSS-9o.> Thomas W. Starr's Method of Preparing and Moimtiiig. with Pressure. Insects Entire as Transparent Objects.* — After prvxuring the insect. * This, with the three following notes, wa« kindly communicated by N. X. Mason, Esq. 306 ENTOMOLOGY. place it under a tumbler with a few drops of ether. When dead wet it with alcohol and place it in 'liquor potassae,' U. S. P., and let it soak until the skin is soft, and until on slight pressure the contents of the intestine can be pressed out through the natural or, if neces- sary, an artificial opening. This is best done under water in a white plate. When this is elf ected the object is to be cleaned. Have a camel 's- hair brush in each hand; with one hold the object, and with the other brush every part of the insect on both sides, float it on to a glass slide, and dispose each part in a natural position, either creep- ing or flying. Cover this with another glass slip of the same size and press gently together, using only sufficient force to make it as thin as possible without crushing or destroying it. Confine the glasses with the insect between them with a fine brass wire, and place them in clean water to remain 24 or 36 hours; this will give the insect a position which is not easily changed, and it is therefore proper that the position be such as you desire when the insect is finished. Remove the wire and open the glasses carefully under water and float the insect off, give it another brushing, and let it remain a few hours to remove the potassa. Transfer to a small but suitable vessel containing the strongest alcohol that can be obtained, pursuing the same course as with the water, placing the specimen between glass slips tied together, and let it remain about 24 hours. Transfer to a vessel containing spirits of turpentine; it is to remain in this, kept between the glasses, until all the water is removed. While in the spirits of turpentine, the iu.sect is to be released several times, and the moisture removed from the glasses, and the insect again confined. When no moisture is seen to surround the insect, heat the glass slips containing the insect over a spirit-lamp until the contained turpentine nearly boils, when, if any moisture is present, it will show its presence when the glasses are cold. If free from moisture it is ready for mounting. Float it onto a suitable slide from the turpentine, drop a sufficient quantity of bal- sam upon it, examine and see that no foreign substances are present, heat the cover slightly, and apply in the usual way. After a day or two heat the slide moderately and press out the surplus balsam, and place a small weight upon the cover while drying. After the lapse of a suitable time, remove the surplus balsam and clean the slide. In all the operations the utmost cleanliness is essential. The liquids used should be frequently filtered and kept from dust, and a large share of patience will be found necessary. After sufficient time has been given to allow the balsam to harden so that the cleaning will not displace the cover, remove the surplus MOUNTING INSECTS. 307 from around the cover glass witli a warm kuife, and then moisten a soft tooth-brush with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and aqua ammonia, and a slight rubbing will clean the slide with very little danger. After removing the superfluous balsam and cleaning the slide, finish by spinning a ring around the cover with the cement made from the following formula: Gum dammar 75 grains. Gum mastic 45 " Canada balsam, evaporated to dryness 45 " Chloroform 180 " Spirits turpentine 100 " Mix and dissolve. Method of Preparing Minute Entomostraca, Mites, Spiders, Insects, etc. — "The specimens should be killed by adding a few drops of osmic acid to the water; when they fall to the bottom they are to be taken up and placed in alcohol of 30 per cent, from which they are to be transferred to alcohol of 50 per cent, then to cochineal solution in 70 per cent alcohol, then washed repeatedly in 70 per cent alcohol, then placed in 90 per cent alcohol, and finally in absolute alcohol. Then a small quantity of oil of cloves is poured into the alcohol, and at the line of juncture of the two liquids the specimens become permeated with the oil. They are then to be transferred to clear oil of cloves, and finally when perfectly clear mounted in Canada balsam, or embedded in parathne and cut into sections. By this method specimens can be obtained with absolutely no shrinking of the protoplasm." (M. M. Hartog, Journ. Royal Microscopical Society, London.) Carbolic Acid in Balsam Mounting. — Put the living insect into carbolic acid;* this in a few minutesf clears the object, rendering it transparent and apparently wholly destitute of viscera, but exhibiting clearly the sexual organs. Drain off the superfluous acid and mount without pressure in moderately thick balsam. The acid does not harden the object, but it remains perfectly flexible for a long time. (C. M. Vorce, Science Gossip, June, 1880, p. 139; also Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc, 1881, 139.) Killing and Preserving Insects. — Mr. G. W. Vickers approves of Mr. Vorce's method stated above, and describes his own mode of procedure. " Place a drop of the [carbolic] acid (pure crystallized * Liquefied crystals. — N. N. M. \ Some insects should remain for a day or more. — N. N. M. 308 ENTOMOLOar. with just sufficient water added to keep it fluid) on a slide, and drop into it the living insect; it will be seen to struggle for a second or two, then the limbs, wings, and tongue become extended; it then becomes beautifully clear and transparent. The acid should now be drained away, a drop of balsam put on, the cover applied. ..." (North. Microscopist, ii., 1883, 227.) Bleaching Fluid for Insects.— W. Sargent recommends the follow- ing: Hydrochloric acid, 10 drops; chlorate of potash, ^ dr.; water, 1 oz. Soak the insect in it for a day or two, then wash well. (Journ. R. Micr. Soc, 1883, 151.) To Clear Objects for Balsam Mounting.— Dr. J. J. Mason uses a mix- ture of carbolic acid, one part, and oil of turpentine, four parts, mixed. When the object is perfectly clear, drain off the superfluous mi.xture and mount in balsam. Mounting Insects in Balsam without Pressure. — Mr. H. Chadwick gives the following directions : Preparation. — I. Soak the specimens in liquor potasste until they are transparent. Wash well in distilled water, using a pipette and camel-hair pencil. Transfer to 50 per cent spirit, then to a small quantity of pure spirit in a watch-glass or soakiug-bottle, and allow them to macerate. By this method the formation of air-bubbles in the interior of the specimens may generally be avoided. II. Wash well in distilled water. Soak in pure spirit or alcohol for some days. Transfer to carbolic acid until sufficiently trans- parent. Then transfer to oil of cloves, but many persons do not consider this necessary. This method should be used in all cases where the integument is too opaque to allow light to pass through it before treatment, and it is especially useful in the study of the muscles. Mounting. — Take a clean 3x1 slip, having a sunken cell in its centre. Just inside the edge of the cell, equidistant from each other, cement three white glass beads with hardened balsam. Put a small (juantity of soft balsam in the centre of the cell, and gently warm it over a spirit-lamp. Take the object, a wasp's or blow-fly's head, for example, and place it upon the previously warmed balsam, arranging it in the required position. Now take a clean cover-glass, the diameter of which should be a little less than that of the cell, and holding it between the points of a pair of forceps, place a large drop of balsam in its centre, and allow it to fall upon the object. The edge of the cover should rest upon the three beads. If the quantitj^ of balsam under the cover-glass is not sufficient to fill up the whole of the space between it and the slide, a little more must be allowed to run in, and if the object has become displaced, it maybe rearranged by means of a fine blunt needle, introduced beneath the cover-glass. MOUNTING INSECTS. 309 A clip should be used during the last operations, but only to prevent displacement of the cover. The slide must now be put aside in a warm place, until the balsam is hard enough to allow the super- fluous portion to be removed safely. Sufficient balsam should be left to form a sloping edge around the cover-glass, and it should be hardened for a few days after cleaning. Be sure that the balsam is quite hard before applying brown cement. The ease with which an object can be rearranged, or a chance air-bubble removed, without disturbing the cover-glass, constitutes the chief advantage of using beads. A supply of different sizes should be kept, and the size used must be regulated by the thickness of the object. Pure balsam in collapsible t.-bes is to be strongly recommended, on account of the nicety with which the quantity of balsam required for mounting a slide can be regulated. The neck of the tube should be wiped with a clean cloth moistened with benzole before the screw-cap is re- placed, in order to prevent the possibility of a little balsam harden- ing in the screw, and so prevent the easy removal of the cap when next required. (Scientific and Literary Gossip.) Preparing and Mounting Dissections of the Appendages, etc. — A. C. Cole's method in dealing with the parts of spiders will also apply to insects. The spinnerets, legs, and falces having been respectively removed are placed separately in liq. pot. for 24-36 hours ; then soaked in water to remove the potass ; then placed in acetic acid (in which such parts of insects, etc., may alwaj^s be preserved until re- quired for mounting); then again soaked in water ; then placed in strong alcohol for a short time ; then cleared by means of oil of cloves, and, lastly, transferred to turpentine, and mounted without pressure in cells. (Studies in Microscopical Science, iii. sect, iv.) Mounting Minute Insects and Acari in Balsam. — Mr. A. D. Michael describes his process as follows : He first kills the creatures in hot water or spirit. Hard insects and Acari are best killed in hot water, which causes them to expand their legs, but water rather injures minute flies, and spirit is better for them. Next wa.sh the objects thoroughly in spirit and clean with a badger's hair, clean me- chanically and by washing in spirit. Place the object on a glass slip and arrange it with the hair, leave it in spirit for such a time as experience suggests, tilt the slip so as to drain off the spirit, but not to dry the object, which should never be allowed to dry from the first process to the final mounting. Having drained oS. the spirit, drop on the object a little oil of cloves, which is better than turpen- tine ; slightly warm the slide and put on a thin cover-glass, which must be supported so as not to touch the object ; leave it until thoroughly soaked. If necessary, remove to a clean slip for the final mount. It may be necessary to arrange the object more than 310 ENTOMOLOGY. once. Drain off the oil of cloves and put on a small quantity of Canada balsam, or preferably balsam and benzole. Arrange the creature on the centre of the slide. Let the balsam harden a little, then the object will not float off, as happens sometimes when a quantity of balsam is used at once. Lower the cover straight down on the object ; do not try to drive out a wave of balsam as is recom- mended in the text-books. It is better not to put enough balsam at tirst to fill the .space under the cover, as the balsam supports the cover if it does not reach the edge; but if the balsam reaches the edge of the cover it is apt to draw down the cover and crush delicate objects. A few pieces of thin glass to support the cover are a great protection to the object, or better still, a few tiny glass beads. Finish the slide with a ring. Bell's cement or something of the kind, but that must not be done unless the cover be supported in some way. (Journ. Qnek. Micr. Club, i. (1883), pp. 241-2.) Sections of the Brain. — In studying the brain of insects it is better to begin with that of some of the lower forms, such as the cockroach or locust, as they are on a simpler plan than that of ants, wasps, and bees. In the sections of the brain, made by Mr. N. N. Mason in 1879, it was thought better to cut the entire head so that the muscles and integument should support the soft parts within, including the brain. The head therefore was cut with the microtome into sections from j^^ to yjyVir inch in thickness, after having previously been hardened in absolute alcohol for two days or more, and then kept in melted paraffine for one or two or more days. It was then embedded in a preparation of parafiine, sweet oil and wax, or, in some cases, in soap. After the sections were cut they were stained with picro- carmine, or with osmic acid and picrocarmine. Finally, the slices were mounted in glycerine jelly for study under the microscope. The sections were in most cases frontal ones, namely^ cut transversely from the front of the head or brain backwards, while a few were longitudinal (vertical or sagittal) ones, viz., cut parallel to the median line of the body. M. H. Viallanes, in his work on the brain of the locust ((Edipoda and Caloptenus), publi-shed in 1887, describes his method as follows; He separates the head from the living animal, then with the scissors removes the labrum and mouth-parts and all of the integument be- hind the compound eyes. He then removes the muscles of the man- dibles, the tracheae and fatty masses, in order to expose the posterior aspect of the brain. He then plunges the head thus prepared in a vessel containing the following solution: Distilled water, 100; osmic acid, 0.02; acetic acid, 0.50. At the end of a few minutes the brain is of a consistence sutticieut to allow the dis.section to be finished without fear of CUTTING AND MOUNTING SECTIONS. 311 changing its shape. He then allows the reagent to act upon the brain, carefully isolated, until it assumes a deep gray tint. It is then soaked several hours in distilled water, but may be fixed by treating it successively with alcohol diluted one third, alcohol at 70°, and alcohol at 90°. Pieces were thus obtained very evenly impreg- nated throughout their entire mass with osmium. In most cases he colored the nuclei bj' placing the piece .some hours in carmine and alum decidedly acidulated with acetic acid. On being taken out of this stain and washed, the brain is dehydra- ted, embedded in paratfine, and cut into sections ^^^ mm. in thick- ness, and mounted serially. Besides frontal, lateral, and sagittal, oblique sections were made. Signor G. Cuccato, in preparing the brain of Orthoptera, snips off the head of the insect with a pair of scissors, and pins it on cork. Thus fixed, the head is immersed in 0.75 per cent NaCl solution. Then, with the aid of scissors and forceps, the chitinous sheath and the eyes are removed from the supra-cesophageal ganglion, and the specimen removed to a watch-glass full of salt solution, wherein the tracheae and muscles are removed. After a short time the object is placed for forty-eight hours in Flemming's mixture, and then, having been well washed, the rest of the muscles and the fat are removed from the ganglion. It is next put in 36 per cent spirit, and gradu- ally hardened. After dehj'dration it is embedded in paratfine. The sections were fixed down by Mayer's method, and stained with a saturated water}' solution of acid fuchsin. The fixative used was Rabl's solution (chromo-formic acid and platinum chloride). (Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc, Dec. 18S7, p. 1045.) Preparing the Sympathetic Nervous System of the Cockroach. — Dr. M. Kostler pursued the following mode in examining that of Peri- planeta orientalis: — The fresh parts of the insect to be examined were held over osmic acid for two or three minutes, washed, and trans- ferred to weak alcohol. The}' were then stained with picro-carmine for twenty-four hours beneath the bell-jar of an air-pump, and were found to be perfectly hardened. When all traces of alcohol had been removed by washing they were placed in filtered white of egg. At the end of about two hours the albumen was coagulated, first by weak and then by absolute alcohol, warmed to 40° C, so as to bring about as even a coagulation as possible. The object can then be treated in the usual way with oil of cloves, embedded in parafline, and cut with a microtome. (Zeits. fiir Wissen. Zoologie, xxxix. 1883, 573; also Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc, 1885, 538.) Making Sections through and Bleaching the Eyes of Insects. — Dr. S. J. Hickson's method is as follows; "For making sections through the eye of Musca vomUoria I have found it best to dissect away the 312 ENTOMOLOGY. posterior wall of the cranium of the fresh insect and then to expose it to the fumes of 1 percent osmicacid solution for forty minutes, then to wash in 60 per cent spirit for a few minutes, and finally to harden in absolute alcohol. Crania thus prepared may be cut into tine sections by the automatic microtome, and stained in hoematoxylin or borax-carmine. With most insects, however, I have found it im- possible to use this microtome, owing to the hardness of the cliitin of the cranium and of the mouth-appendages. In such cases I have used a Jung's microtome, with the razor set so as to give a long sweep at each stroke, and the sections carefully removed from the razor, and mounted one by one. "I have tried various methods for depigmenting the eyes, such as bleaching-powder, nitric acid, chlorine, etc., but the best is that of exposing the sections when cut to the action of nitrous fumes. This is done in the following manner: The sections are fixed in position on the slide by Mayer's albumin and glycerine solution, and when the paraftine has been removed by turpentine and the turpentine driven off by absolute alcohol, the slide is inverted over a capsule containing 90 per cent spirit, to which a few drops of strong nitric acid have been added.* Copious nitrous fumes are given off and the pigment dissolves. The action can be stopped at any moment bj'' washing with neutral spirit, and when the washing is complete the sections can be stained in hoematoxylin or any other solution. " For teasing the best solution is chloral hydrate. I leave the eye or optic tract in 5 per cent solution of chloral hydrate for twenty- four hours, and then tease with needles and mount in glycerine. In some cases I have made very satisfactory preparations by fixing the teased tissues to the slide with albumen and glycerine solution and then wasliing with spirit and staining in ,the ordinary way, or stain- ing after depigmenting with nitrous fumes. "I have tried various kinds of ha;matoxylin stains, but the solu- tion which gives the best results, and is in every way the most satisfac- tory, is one which I have made by following Mitchell's instruc- tions, with a few additional precautions. I will describe here the mode in which I now make haimatoxylin stain: Take 56 grams of the logwood extract and thoroughly pound it in a mortar. Then place it on a filter, and pour about a litre and a half of ordinary tap- water through it. The filtrate may be thrown away and the residue * Prof. Grenacher, according to Carri^re, besides one with nitric acid, employed the following mixture : Glycerine, 1 part ; alcohol (80 per cent), 3 parts ; and hydrochloric acid, 2-3 per cent. The preparation remains in this mixture until the pigment changes color and becomes diffuse. (Amer. Naturalist, 1886, 89.) CUTTING SECTIONS OF THE EYE. 313 allowed to dry. In the mean time prepare a solution of alum as fol- lows : Take 25 grams of alum, and after it has been thoroughly pounded in a mortar pour it into 250 cc. of distilled water. To this solution add strong potash until a precipitate is formed, which will not dissolve upon stirring and standing. " Pour the alum solution thus made on to the hsematoxyliu residue, and allow it to macerate for three or four days in a warm room. Then filter the htematoxylin solution into a bottle provided with a closely-fitting stopper, and add to it 10 cc. of pure glycerine and 100 cc. of 90 per cent spirit. (The residue need not be thrown away, for it can be macerated again with alum solution for a week or more, and a good strong stain obtained as before.) When the solution is thus made it should be well shaken and allowed to stand for some weeks before being used. This solution of hema- toxylin improves considerably with age. The oldest I have was made about twelve months ago, and is by far the best. " The hsematoxyliu stain produced by this recipe possesses several advantages over others. In most cases it differentiates the tissues admirably; nuclei stain deeply, cell protoplasm faintly; it seems to last a long time without showing signs of fading, and, as it pene- trates well, it is very useful for staining in bulk." Dr. J. S. Kingsley's* method of preparing and cutting the eggs and embryo eyes of the shrimp, which will also apply to the embryonic eyes of insects, is as follows: The eyes were hardened by means of Perenyi's fluid, followed by alcohol of increasing strength, a process which works well with almost all Arthropod tissues. In most instances, they were stained entire with Grenadier's alum-carmine, though in some instances Kleinenberg's htemato.xylin or Grenacher's borax-carmine were em- ployed In the later stages, where the deposition of pigment in the eye interfered with a clear vision of all the structures concerned, the following course was adopted : The eyes were sectioned as usual, the sections being fastened to the slide with Mayer's albumen fix- ative. After wetting the paralfine and allowing the sections to drop into the adhesive mixture, the embedding material was dissolved in turpentine, and this in turn was washed away with alcohol (95 per cent). The sections were then covered with a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and 95 per cent alcohol, which was allowed to remain until the pigment was removed, — a process requiring from ten to fifteen minutes. The slide was next washed with strong alcohol, and the sections stained deeply with Kleinenberg's hsematoxyliu, and * Journal of Morphology, Boston, 1887, 49. 314 ENTOMOLOGY. the excess then removed with acid alcohol in the usual manner. The sections were then mounted in balsam. In order to demonstrate the presence of the corneal hypodermis in the facetted Arthropod eye, and the connection of the so called " rhabdom" with the crystalline cone-cells, Mr. Patten says it is neces- sary to resort to maceration. In most cases it is hardly possible to determine the important points by means of sections alone. The ommateum of fresh eyes, treated for twenty -four hours or more with weak sulphuric or chromic acid, or in Ml'iller's fluid, may be easily removed, leaving the corneal facets with the underlying hypo- dermis uninjured. Surface views of the cornea prepared in this way show the number and arrangement of the corneal cells on each facet. In macerating the cells of the ommateum it is not possible to give any definite directions, for the results vary greatly with different eyes, and it is also necessary to modify the treatment according to the special point to be determined. It is as essential to isolate the individual cells as it is to study cross and longitudinal sections of the pigmented eyes. In determining the number and arrangement of the cells and the dis- tribution of the pigment, the latter method is indispensable; it should not be replaced by the study of depigmented sections, which .should be resorted to in special cases only. In fixing the tis.sues of the eye, it is not sufficient to place the de- tached head in the hardening fluid; antennae and mouth-parts should be cut off as close to the eye as possible, in order to allow free and immediate access of the fluids to the eye. When it is possible to do so with safety, the head should be cut open, and all unnecessary tissue and hard parts removed. With abundant material, one often finds individuals in which it is possible to separate, uninjured, the hardened tissues of the eye from the cuticula. This is, of course, a great ad- vantage in cutting sections. The presence of a hard cuticula is often a serious difficulty in sectioning the eyes of Arthropods. This dif- ficulty can be diminished somewhat by the use of the hardest par- affine, and by placing the broad surface of the cuticula at right angles to the edge of the knife when sectioning. Ribbon-sections cannot be made with very hard paraffine, but it is often necessary to sacrifice this advantage in order to obtain very good sections. (Roy. Mic. Journ., Aug. 1887.) Expanding and Mounting the Tongue of the House- and Blow-fly. — C. M. Vorce remarks that if the head of a living fly be cut off, the tongue will usually retract; pressure on the head will expand the tongue, but unless it be secured by some means before the pressure on the head is relea.sed, it is apt to wholly or partly retract again. " If only the tip is wanted, it is easily secured by placing the severed head on a clean slip and pressing with a needle till the tongue is fully MOUNTING PARTS OF INSECTS. 315 expanded, when a drop of turpentine is applied, a cover laid on the tongue, and a clip applied before the pressure is removed from the tongue. To secure the whole tongue, split one end of a small stick for an inch or so, and holding the split open by a knife- blade, place the severed head in the cleft with the top downward, and, withdraw- ing the knife-blade, allow the stick to close upon the head, when it will fully distend the tongue. Now dip the head and tongue in tur- pentine, and leave it immersed for a few days, when it will be found well cleaned, still perfectly distended, and can be released from the stick or cut from the head without danger of its collapsing. Mounted in a cell in balsam, it is a truly beautiful object." (Amer. Month. Micr. Journ., 1884, 12.) A. L. Woodward immerses the living fly in alcohol, "and with perfectly satisfactory results. At the moment of death the tongue is forcibly protruded to its entire length. Even the short proboscis of the house-fly is satisfactorily displayed." (Amer. Month. Micr. Journ., 1883, 339.) Mr. H. Sharp mounts the lobes of the proboscis of the blow-fly, without pressure, in a solution of biniodide of mercury in one of iodide of potassium (both saturated solutions), which brings out the details of the structure of the pseudotracheae. " I have several pro- bosces of blow-flies mounted in balsam, with and without pressure, but there is nothing to be seen of the membrane in any of them; I can just see it in a glycerine mount, now that I know what to look for; ^ but the glycerine does not make it visible like the mercury solution." \- (Journ. Roy. Micr. Journ., 1884, 1003; 1885, 733.) X Microscopic Sections of the Proboscis of Flies, Bugs, and Bees. — The 111 excellent work done by Dimmock on the mouth-parts of the mosquito u- ^ and other flies, by Kraepelin on those of the fly, flea, and Hemiptera, O was chiefly by means of microscopic sections. In order to ascertain ^ f whether the pseudotrachese of the fly's labella are hollow or not, '^ Dimmock fed the fly with a mixture of sugar and gum arable, colored with carmine, then plunging it suddenly into strong alcohol to fix the I colored solution in its mouth-parts. Mr. Cheshire, before cutting sections of the bees and other honey-feeding insects, recommends that the insect to be operated upon should be kept fasting for some time, and then fed on honey mixed with gelatine impregnated with some highly colored dye; the insect should be immediately decapi- tated, and the head rapidly cooled and then embedded in gelatine, and the section cut by means of the microtome. The mouth-passage is then easily seen from the presence of the dye. Sections of the Ovipositor or Sting. — According to Mr. J. W. Hyatt, the insect or organ is placed in alcohol until it is thoroughly perme- ated, and then removed to a clear alcoholic solution of shellac, in u. o 316 ENTOMOLOGY. wliich it may remain for a day or two. Fit a cylinder of soft wood into the well of the section-cutter; split this cylinder through the middle, and cut a groove in one or both of the half-cylinders sulti- ciently large to admit the object without pressure; put the two pieces together with plenty of thick shellac, and tie them with a thread. When the shellac is quite hard, which will be the case in a day or two, place the cylinder in the section-cutter, and, after soaking the wood with warm water, sections the 5^5 of an inch in thickness, or less, may readily be made. Should the shellac prove so opaque as to interfere with a proper examination, a drop of borax solution will immediately remove this difficulty. (Amer. Month. Micr. Journ., i. (1880) p. 8.) Mounting Gizzards of Insects. — Dr. T. J. Sturt kills the specimen with a drop of benzine, cuts off the extreme end of the hind body, removes the head, cuts off the whole intestine, and puts it in a 1 oz. vial with five or ten drops of liquid potash. After it has stood about half an hour, partly fill with water and shake it well to detach the muscular coat and tracheae; then slit it up, wash, and adjust on a slide. Drain away any moisture, apply a drop of carbolic acid, and put on the thin glass. After a few minutes this will absorb all moisture and render it quite transparent. If it does not, put a drop of acid at the edge and tilt the slide to drive off the first acid; then put a little balsam on the edge, tilt the slide, warming it to render the balsam more limpid, and it will gradually take the place of the acid, the lines of demarcation between the two being distinctly visible. (English Mechanic, 1882, 282.) Preparation of the Intestine of Insects. — According to Dr. J. Frenzel, chromic acid is not suitable for tlie examination of the intestine of Arthropoda. A mixture of nitric acid and an alcoholic sublimate solution gave satisfactory results. The strength of the alcohol and the amount of sublimate in solution do not appear to matter. The author used 80 per cent, alcohol with sublimate half saturated. No particular caution is necessary as to the amount of acid; a drop too much or too little doing no damage. To the above solution a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid is added to every one or two cubic centi- metres. The presence of this acid induces a quicker penetration of t-he preservative fluid into the tissues, and hinders the formation of insoluble mercurial compounds. The more acid the solution and the smaller the piece of tissue the shorter the time it is left in the fluid. For pieces about the size of a pea, five to ten minutes are quite sufficient. After hardening in sublimate, alcohol is advantageous. The tissue is washed and left in 90 per cent alcohol. (Archiv filr Micr. Anat., 1885, 229.) PREPARATION OF INSECT SPIRACLES. 317 Preparation of Insect Spiracles.* — Mr. F. Dienelt remarks that in most beetles the spiracles are found on the upper part of the abdomen. The insect should be turned on its back and cut across the thorax close to the abdomen; then turn again, and insert a sharp knife into the opening made, and cut round the whole abdomen. As soon as there is room, insert a small stick of soft wood sharpened to a flat point, by means of which the object can be held securely while cut- ting. All the cutting should be done on the lower side, so that a margin is left on the upper part, which can be trimmed easily after the object has become softened in liquor potassge. Steeping the in- sect in this fluid for a couple of hours will destroy all the viscera. Now hold the part down with a softened stick, which for this purpose is far superior to mounting needles, and with a camel-hair pencil remove the viscera and transfer the object to rain water, removing this two or three times to insure cleansing and to remove the last trace of potash. Keep on brushing until it is certain that the object is clean, and then trim the edges to suit before a final washing. If it be desired to mount the tracheae in situ, greater care is necessary in treating, but they show very well through the skin. Or, after most of tbe viscera have been removed, the tracheae can be torn by a sawing motion with the back of the knife from the spiracles and mounted separate. In mounting larvae entire, they should be left in liquor potassae for a longer time — even a whole day — without injury. In cleaning it is necessary to keep them in the position in which they are to be mounted. Larvae of the Lepidoptera show best when mounted on the side. In preparing these, hold the larva under water with the pointed stick, and clear out the viscera with a brush through the anal opening by a rolling motion. After a start has been made the process takes but a short time. Larvae will stand considerable pressure in cleaning, but gentle manipulation of course answers best, especially in those cov- ered with hair. It is best to commence with the largest beetles or larvae one can find. Larvae too large to be mounted entire ought to be opened along the back to give the liquor free access. Twenty-seven grains of potassa f usa to one ounce of water acts but slowl on the chitinous parts of insects, but very promptly on the viscera. It is best kept in a paper-covered bottle, to exclude the light. (Journ. Roy. Mic. Soc, August, 1887.) Mounting of Tracheae. — Mr. F. T. Hazlewood dissects out the soft parts and spreads them on a glass slide, letting them dry perfectly. He then with a pencil-brush gives them a good coating of collodion, after which he melts a little hard pure balsam in a test-tube and puts it on the object with a cover-glass applied at once. The intestines, * The Microscope, vii. (1887) pp. 102-3. 818 ENTOMOLOGY. ganglia, and the brain are in this way finely shown, the brain reveal- ing the very abundant ramifications of the tracheae, especially the im- mense parallel branches situated between the rods of the eyes. {Psyche, iv. 253.) Mounting Legs, etc., of Insects. — Mr. R. A. R. Bennett, in regard to this topic, which will also apply to large antennae, palpi, etc., remarks: The chief difficulty is the appearance of air-bubbles in the object after it has been mounted. To avoid this, there is a little dodge not mentioned in most books. When the leg is taken out of the turpentine, instead of placing it at once on the slide, boil it for a few moments in some balsam, kept for the purpose in another tube. While it is being boiled the air will escape, and the balsam will take its place. There will therefore be not nearly so much chance of air- bubbles arising when the object is mounted. Of course this would be rather rough treatment for some objects; but with the legs of insects (especially such as Dytiscus margindlis) it generally answers admirably, and .saves a vast deal of trouble. (English Mechanic, 1883, 253.) Mounting the Skin of Caterpillars. —E. E. Jackson soaks the speci- men in acetic acid for ten days, then opens the body carefully with scissors from anus to mouth, and washes it in water. He then soaks it in weak, afterwards in strong, alcohol, following with oil of cloves, turpentine, and balsam. (The Microscope, 1884, 133.) Dissection and Preparation of the Spermatic Filaments. — F. R. Cheshire proceeds in the following manner: " Secure a drone (not newly hatched) as he is perambulating the combs, open the body, re- move the vesicula, break one end, and, with the forceps, apply for a moment the ruptured part to the surface of some glass covers upon which a small quantity of water has been placed (one vesicula will give a supply for a dozen slides); leave to dry, keeping from dust; warm in the flame of a spirit-lamp to set the albumen, pour on each three or four drops of watery solution of Spiller's purple, and after live minutes wash, dry, and mount in Canada balsam. For critical examination with high powers, spermatozoa should be mounted in glycerine. If staining be desired, a minute quantity of the purple added to the glycerine will accomplish it, as in a few weeks the sper matozoa will have absorbed every trace of the dye. ("Bees and Bee keeping," 201.) Prof. V. la Valette St. George recommends, for the examination of the spermatic elements of the small cockroach {Blatta germanica, or Croton bug) a fluid which unites the properties of not being harmful to cells anil that of staining certain cell-parts deeply. This is iodized serum, rubbed in with dahlia and fiKored. The amniotic fluid can thus le replaced by another indirierent fluid. Dilution of pure nuclear staining; media with iodized serum, did not t?ive favorable CUTTING AND MOUNTING EGGS. 319 results. For fixing the tissues the author used the mixtures recom- mended by Gilson and Carnoy, and with the same result, and also Flemming's fluid. (Archiv fur Mikr. Anat. , 1886, 1; also Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc, 1886, 590, 1073.) Making Sections of Eggs. — The eggs should, according tio Bobret- sky's method, be placed, when alive, for a short time in nearly boiling water, and then hardened in bichromate of potash. They may be stained in picrocarmine or in hsematoxylin, and embedded for cut- ting in parafline or coagulated albumen. Patten placed the eggs of Trichoptera in cold water, raising the temperature very gradually to about 80° C, or when they became hard and white; then removed to 20 per cent alcohol, which was increased by 10 per cent once or twice a da^'' until reaching full strength (96 per cent). They were stained with Kleinenberg's haematoxylin and a 70 per cent solution of cochi- neal, and embedded in paraflBne after being claritied in benzole for thirty minutes. Witlaczil examined the embryos of the viviparous Aphides in a weak salt solution (1.^ per cent), in which they live for about an hour. The early stages in the development of the eggs may be best seen after treatment with hydrochloric acid (3 per cent), or acetic acid, as these reagents partially dissolve the yolk elements, rendering the preparation more transparent; but the later stages are rendered more opaque by this treatment. Eggs gradually hardened in alcohol and then cut and stained on the. slide with picrocarmine or haematoxylin often give good sections. Kowalev.sky's .sections, made before the days of microtomes, were cut by hand, the eggs having been, after being hardened, embedded in paraffine and cut with a razor. Dr. F. Stuhlman* in the examination of the eggs of insects, spiders, Myriopods, and Peripatus, examined fresh objects in 0.75 per cent salt solution, to which is sometimes added weak acetic and methyl-green acetic acid. The foregoing was only suitable for young eggs, as older ones are too opaque. As a fixative, a cold con- centrated sublimate solution proved the best. Water, 83 per cent alcohol, and hot sublimate solution were not so useful. The cold sublimate fixed in 5 to 10 minutes. The preparations were then thor- oughly washed ; a few drops of tincture of iodine hastened the pro- cess.. Then 60 per cent spirit, and finally absolute alcohol. The chorion is perforated with a fine needle, but the upper pole is to be avoided. Ovaries are placed for several hours in chloroform, then from one to three days (according to .size) in paraffine at about * Ber. Naturf. Gesell. Freiburg, i. B. I. (1886); Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc, April, 1887. 320 ENTOMOLOGY. 55° C. The embedding mass is rapidly cooled. The sections are stuck on with a thin layer of Mayer's fluid. The author states that fresh albumen mass stains less easily than the older. The stains used were Grenacher's borax-carmine, Weigert and Ranvier's picro- carmine, and Flemming's haematoxylin. The author recommends double staining with picrocarmine and haematox5rlin ; weak staining first with picrocarmine and afterwards with the logwood. The dye is then extracted with acidulated alcohol until a red hue appears; the sections are then transferred to ammoniacal alcohol until the blue color reappears. In order to obtain various shades of color the author advises to stain about f of the sections {sic) with picrocarmine, and then to draw out the slides from the fluid so that the upper part is more deeply stained than the lower. The slide is then turned round and the process reversed with ha>matox}iin. Afterwards absolute alcohol, bergamot oil, xylol balsam, Flemming's chrom- osmium-acetic acid, and safranin staining give good results. Fix- ation with 3 per cent nitric acid produced vacuoles in the yolk, and was, therefore, of but little use. Dr. H. Plenking,* in his investigations into the development of the Phalangida, adopted various methods of preparing the ova ; the animals were sometimes killed with boiling water, and left in it for some time for the albumen to coagulate ; they were then hardened in successive strengths of alcohol up to 80 per cent. The ova were never placed direct in alcohol, in consequence of the shrinking caused by such a process. Other specimens were killed with ether, the back laid open, and the animals placed in Flemming's chrom- osmic-acetic acid or in Kleinenberg's picrosulphuric acid for some hours before removal to alcohol. Eggs that had been deposited were treated with hot water, and with Flemming's fluid, as well as with hot and cold chromic acid, picrosulphuric acid, etc. The best staining reagents were found to be Grenacher's borax-carmine, Hamann's neutral acetic acid carmine, and eosin-hfematoxylin. Before embedding, the eggs on being taken from absolute alcohol were placed in a mixture of bergamot oil and absolute alcohol, then in pure bergamot oil, and then in a warmed solution of parattine in bergamot oil, and finally in quite pure parafiine. By the aid of Speugel's microtome sections from ^^ to y^^ mm. thick were pre- pared. Dr. F. Blochmann fixes the ovaries of ants and wasps with picric acid or sublimate, staining them on the slide with picrocarmine or borax-carmine. For examining the elements of the yolk, double- *Zeitschrift fur. wiss. Zool., xlv. (1887) pp. 88-90; Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc, August, 1887. CUTTING AND MOUNTING EGGS. 321 staining with borax- or picro-carmine and bleu de Lyon are advised. (Zeits. f. wiss. Zool., xliii., 1886, 537; Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc, Oct. 1887, 841.) Herr J. Nusbaum thinks that one method of preservation can never aiford satisfactory material for study, as each method gives different results. He treated fresh eggs with Kleinenberg's or Perenyi's fluid, or treated them a few seconds with hot water and then with bichroriate of potash. The eggs in either case were hardened in 70 per cent and then absolute alcohol ; then colored in toto by hoematoxylin, borax-carmine, or red magdala ; the latter gave a perfect staining reagent, coloring the eggs and embryos in a few hours, and very intensely, though sometimes very uniformly.* Preparing Embryos of Insects. — In a paper on the embryonic development of the Bombycidce, Dr. S. Selvatico describes the methods he has made use of both for the preparation of entire em- bryos and for sections. The species employed were Bomhyx mori, Attacus mylitta, and Saturnia 'pyri. The eggs are tirst coagulated by plunging them in water at 75° C. With a pair of fine-pointed forceps a small piece is removed from the shell, in the case of Bombyx, without disturbing the underlying parts. With a little care this is easily done, because on the eggs be- coming cold, their contents are somewhat contracted and do not touch the shell. In the case of Attacus and Satiu'uia the eggs have a harder shell but are larger, and a razor was employed by the author. They are then hardened by leaving them for twelve hours in a .002 per cent solution of chromic acid, and for twelve hours more in a .005 solution. Then with a little care the shell can be easily removed by employing the forceps or cutting it round with a razor. The entire contents having been removed, the egg is freed from chromic acid by leaving it in 30 per cent alcohol for a day, the alcohol being renewed until it is no longer colored yellow. For staining, the egg is placed in picrocarmine for twenty-four hours and washed in 30 per cent alcohol to remove the picric acid. When it has been well washed it may be kept in 30 per cent alcohol until sections are required. Previous to cutting sections the ^^g should be placed in absolute alcohol for half an hour, and then for a few moments in essence of bergamot. Dry and embed in a mixture of 4 parts of spermaceti and 1 of cacao butter, to which is added, according to the tempera- ture, some drops of castor-oil. The knife should be moistened with * Arch. Zool. Exper., 1887, 134; Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc, 1887, 841. 31 322 ENTOMOLOGY. olive-oil, and each section washed with a mixture of 4 parts of oil of turpentine and 1 of creosote to dissolve the embedding substance sui'- roundiug the section. Mount in Canada balsam. To preserve the embryo entire, the shell is to be removed as above described, after coagulation. The egg is then placed in a drop of water on the stage, and with a low power the embryo is extracted from the vitellus. It is cleaned as much as possible, so that no por- tion of the vitellus adheres to it, and mounted in glycerinated gela- tine, previously colored with methyl-green. By this method the embryo takes from the gelatine an excess of color, and is thus stained after the preparation is made. If it is colored tirst and then placed in colorless gelatine it will always lose color (sometimes com- pletely) if the gelatine is only a little greater in volume than the em- bryo. (Journ. de Microgr., vi. (1882) pp. 220-1.) Surface Study of Eggs, and Hardening for Cutting, etc. — Mr. W. A. Locy* adopts, for studying the eggs of spiders while alive, the long-used method of immersion in oil, which should be perfectly clear and odorless. The external features can be studied to better advantage by mounting the eggs in alcohol after they have been freed from the chorion and stained. Another valuable method for surface study consists in clearing the already stained egg in clove- oil. The thickness of the blastoderm is most easily determined in this way. The best method of hardening preparatory to sectioning is that of heating the water to about 80" C, and then, after cooling slowly, treating with the usual grades of alcohol. Good results are obtained with Perenyi's fluid, which renders the yolk less brittle. Osmic acid does not penetrate the chorion, and chromic acid or acid alcohol are not easily soaked out on account of the thickness of the chorion. Borax-carmine is, on the whole, the best staining fluid. It is diflicult to make the dye penetrate the chorion, and, after hatching, the cuticula forms a similar obstacle. This difliculty may be over- come by prolonged immersion in the staining fluid. In some cases seventy-two hours were required to obtain a sufiicient depth of color. In order to avoid maceration, which would result from so long-con- tinued immersion in a weak alcoholic dye, the staining process may be interrupted at the end of every twenty-four hours by transferring to 70 per cent alcohol for an hour or more. After most methods of hardening the yolk becomes very brittle, and the sections crumble. This difficulty may be overcome by col- lodionizing the cut surface before making each section, in the man- ner described by Dr. Mark.f * Amer. Natural., xix. (1885), pp. 103-3^. f Ibid., p. 638. MOUNTING APPENDAGES OF INSECTS. 323 Mounting Dry the Eggs of Insects. — According to Dimmock, eggs and other objects may be mounted in such a way as to be easily ex- amined with the microscope. The eggs are mounted in rings of cork between two thin cover-glasses such as are used for microscope- slides. Thus mounted, and sealed with black lac or other means, the specimens can be pinned in the collection with safety and neat- ness. Specimens can be mounted in Canada balsam in these cork rings in the way described by Cameron,* who, however, used paper in place of cork; the latter, however, is lighter than paper, is more convenient for pinning, and can be easily cut into rings of different sizes with a cork-borer such as is used in chemical laboratories. If circular cover-glasses are used, the cells can be neatly sealed on a turn-table for preparing microscope-slides. {Psyche, iv. 133.) Preparing Fire flies, etc. — To investigate the seat of oxidation which produces the light in Lucwla italica. Dr. C. Emery killed the living animal in a solution of osmic acid, which stains the luminous plates of the still living and light-developing animals brown. The parts which are to be further examined are macerated for a long- time in water, the development of fungi in which is prevented by the addition of crystals of thymol. The osmic acid is especiallj^ re- duced at the bifurcations of the blind-ending tracheal capillaries within the luminous plates, and in the tracheal branches before the bifurcation. Another method of preservation consists in injecting corrosive sublimate solution into the animal, and subsequent treat- ment with alcohol. (Zeits. f lir wissen. Zoologie, xl. (1884) 338 ; ab- stract in Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc, 1885, 733.) Mounting the Appendages of Insects for Pinning in the Cabinet. — A writer in the Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society (vi. 24) says: " The habit of many has been after examining the parts of an insect and making dissections to throw away the insect after making notes. Others mount them in balsam on glass slides: this latter had been my practice, but slides accumulate and are incon- venient to keep. A substitute a knowledge of which I owe to Dr. Horn answers admirably for all purposes and is perfectly simple. A hole, round or square, is punched or cut out of a piece of Bristol board of any desired size; a cover-glass (I use the square) is fastened on one side over the aperture by a thin circle of shellac: this forms a shallow cell in which the part to be examined is placed; a drop of Canada balsamf is put on it, and the whole is covered by another cover- * Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, 1881-83, v. 4-7. f The balsam will be clouded by the moisture contained in the appendages unless it has been macerated in alcohol and oil of turpentine, or has undergone a long maceration in oil of turpentine. 324 ENTOMOLOGY. glass. Your preparation is thus effectually preserved, and you can put a pin through the end of the card and put it in your cabinet next the insect the object is intended to illustrate. You can put half a dozen cards on a single pin, and the space thus occupied is very small, while the preparation is as convenient for examination as though mounted on a glass slide." Mounting the "Saw" of the Tenthredinidae. — Mr. P. Cameron describes his method of mountmg and preserving the "saw" of the Tenthredinidae for microscopical examination, a method which can be applied to microscopical mountmg generally. With fresh specimens the saws can be extracted by pressing the abdomen, when they will be protruded and readily extracted. With old specimens it can be done equally well by placing the insect in a relaxing-dish, or, more promptly, by steeping it in water for a day, when it can be taken out in the same way as with fresh insects, the only difficulty being experienced with insects full of eggs. For their better examination the four pieces composing the ovipositor proper should be separated; after which they must be steeped in turpentine for a day or two so as to get rid of air. This is best done by enclosing them in a small folded piece of paper; and, if they be properly labelled, many different preparations can be placed in the turpentine-bottle together. Next take a sheet of tine Bristol board, and cut it up into pieces, say 12 lines by 9 lines, and punch at one end a round or square hole, four or five lines across. On the lower side of this fasten, by means of Canada balsam dissolved in benzine, a cover-glass. When this has dried till up half the cell thus formed with the same composition, spreading it as evenly as possible, and in it arrange your preparation. Put it aside for some hours in a place where no dust will fall on it, then fill the cell with enough balsam to run over the edge of the cell, place a cover-glass over it, and press it down. All that now requires to be done is to allow the prepara- tion to dry, taking special care to keep it flat, to label it, and stick a pin through the card, by means of which it is fixed in the cabinet alongside the insect from which the part was taken. To examine it under the microscope, all that is necessary to do is to place an ordinary glass slide across the stage, and put the card on it, in doing which it is not necessary to take the pin out of it if a short pin be used. The great advantage of this plan for entomological purposes is that it does not necessitate the formation of two distinct collections, which must be the case if dissections are mounted on glass slides, which can- not of course be placed alongside the insect. Besides that, it is cheaper, more expeditious, and safer; for the cards are so light that no injury comes to them from falling, or getting loose in the box. If desired. MOUNTING THE ''SAW" OF THE TENTHREDINID^. S2t) a colored riug can be put rouud the top object-glass by the turn-table in the ordinary way, but, except for ornament, is not necessary. The author usually prepares two or three dozen of the cards with one cover-glass on at a time, so as to have them ready for use. The object of letting the di^.sections harden in the cell, half tilled with balsam, is that Inree or four separate parts may be arranged in the most suitable way in the same cell without fear of their being disar- ranged or injured when the top cover-glass is put on, while both might happen if the whole operation was performed at once. For the examination of the saws, a quarter-inch objective is the best; the teeth, in some cases, are so fine that they are apt to be over- looked if lower powers are used. (Trans. Entomol. Soc. Loud., 1881, pp. 576-7.) THE ENTOMOLOGIST'S LIBRARY. When" we reflect that perhaps upwards of 175,000 to 200,000 species of insects have been described, and the habits and histories of some of them noted in articles and memoirs scattered through numerous journals, proceedings, and transactions of learned societies, we can get some idea of the vast extent of entomological literature. We can only draw attention to the most indispensable articles, memoirs, and complete works, without which no one can do good general work in entomology. Those who desire to confine their attention to special orders should look to the lists of publications already given under such groups. The titles of works indispensable to the student are printed in heavy-faced type. Bibliographical Works on Entomology. Agassiz, L. Bibliograpbia Zoologise et Geologioe. Edited by H. E. Strickland, i.-iv. Ray Society, Loudon, 1848-54. Nomenclator Zoologicus. Soloduri. 1842-47. Index Universalis. "Soloduri. 4°, 1846; 8°, 1848. _ Carus, J. v., and W. Engelmann. Bibliotbeca bistorico-naturalis. 1846-60. i., ii. Leipzig, 1861. Carus, J. v., and P. Mayer. Zoologiscber Jabresbericht fiir 1879- 1888. Dimmock, G. Tbe entomological writings of Samuel Hubbard Scudder. Cambridge, 1879. Engelman, W. Bibliotbeca bistorico-naturalis. 1760-1846. i. Leip- zig, 1846. Hagen, H. A. Bibliotlieca entomologica. [Up to 1863.] i., ii. Leipzig, 1863-63. Henshaw, S.* Tbe entomological writings of Alpbeus Spring Packard. U. S. Department of Ag. Div. Ent. Bull. 16, 1887. Marschall, A. D. Nomenclator Zoologicus. Wien, 1873. (A contin- uation of Agassiz' Nomenclator.) Packard, A. S. Record of American Entomology for 1868-73. Salem, Mass. * For Bibliograpbies of Drs. LeConteand Horn see iinder Coleoptera. THE ENTOMOLOGISTS LIBRARY. 327 Scadder, S. H. Noraeuclator Zoologicus. Part I. Supplemental List (to Agassiz); Part II. Universal Index. Washington, 1882. Catalogue of scientific serials of all countries. 1633-1876. Cambridge, 1879. Taschenberg, 0. Bibliotheca Zoologica. 1861-80. Leipzig, 1886-89. i.-xii. Axchiv fiir Naturgeschichte. Contains annual reports on the progress of Entomologj from 1836 to 1888. Royal Society, London. Catalogue of Scientific Papers. 8 vols. 4°. Loudon, 1868-88. Zoological Record for 1864-88. London, 1865-88. Entomological Periodicals. American Entomologist, i., 1868; ii., 1870; iii., 1880. St. Louis and New York. American Naturalist. Salem, Boston, and Philadelphia, 1867-88. Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. 1824-76. Since 1876 continued as Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Annales de la Societe entomologique Beige. Brussels, 1857-88. Annales de la Societe entomologique do France. Paris, 1882-88. Berliner Entomolog. Zeitschrift. 1857-88. Berlin. Deutsche Entomolog. Zeitschrift. 1881-88. Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Zoologie. Leipzig. 1848-88. Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society, i.-vi. 1878-84. Bulletino della Society entomologica Italiana. i.-xx. 1869-88. Florence. Canadian Entomologist, i.-xx. 1868-88. London, Canada. Entomologica Americana, i.-iii. 1885-88. Brooklyn, N. Y. Entomologische Nachrichten. i.-xiv. 1875-88. Berlin. The Entomologist, i.-xxii. 1840-80. London. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, i.-xxiv. 1864-88. London. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences. Philadelphia. 1817-88. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences. Philadelphia 1841-88. Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History, i.-vii. 1834-63 Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, i.-iv. 1806-88 Linnaea entomologica. Entomologische Verein. Berlin, 1846-88. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. 1834-88. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, i.-vi 1861-67. Transactions of the American Entomological Society. Philadelphia i.-xiv. 1867-88. Psyche, i.-v. 1874-88. Cambridge. Mass. Transactions of the American Phitosophical Society. New Series 1818-88. Also Proceedings, i.-xxiv. 1840-88. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. 1834-88, Wiener Entomologische Monatsschrift. i.-viii. 1857-64. Zeitschrift d. Entomologische Verein. BerVn, 1857-88. Zeitung d. Entomologische V rein. Stettin, 1840-88. 328 ENTOMOLOGY. General Entomology. The works of Hertst, Lieuwcnhoek, Malphighi, Meckel, Merian, Ramdohr, Swammerdam, Series, aud Suckow. BufFon. Suites a Biiffou et Nouvelles suites a Buffou. Formautavec les GCuvres de eet auteur un Cours complet d'Histoire Naturelle. Paris, Dufart, 1798-1807. Paris, Roret, 1834-1864. 8vo. (In- sectes, Crustaces, Aracbuides, etc , par Amyot, Audinet-Serville, Boisduval, Gervais, Guenee, Lacordaire, Latreille, Lepeletier de St. Fargeau, Macquart, Milne-Edwards, Rambur, et Walkenaer. ) Burmeister, H. Manual of Entomology. Translated by V/. E. Shuckard. Loudon, 8vo. 1836. Burmeister, Hermann. Zoologischer Hand Atlas. Berlin, 1836-43. FoL, 41 plates. Glaus, C. Elementary Text-book of Zoology. Translated and edited by Sedgwick and Heathcote. Vol. i. Loudon, 1884. Cuvier, G. Le Regne animal distribue d'apres son Organisation. Nouvelle edition, accompagnee de planches gravees, representant les types de tous les Genres, etc., publiee par uu reunion de Dis- ciples de G. Cuvier. Paris, 1849. 8vo. (Insectes, Arachnides, Crustaces par Audouin, Blanchard, Doyere, Milne Edwards et Duges.) 4 vols, te.xte et 4 vols, atlas. Drury, Drew. Illustrations of Natural History, etc. London, 1770- 82. 4to, 3 vols. (ed. Westwood, 1837.) Fabricius, Job. Cbrist. Systeraa Entomologiae. 1775. Genera lusectorum. 1777. Species Insectorum. i.-ii. 1781. Mantissa lusectorum. i.-ii. 1787. Entomologia Systematica, i.-iv. 1792-94. Geer, Carl de. Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire des Insectes. 1752-78. i.-vii. 4to. Gerstaecker, A. Arthropoden, in Peters and Cams' Handbuch der Zoologie. Leipzig, 1863. Godman, F. Ducane, and Salvin, 0. Biologia Centrali-Americana. Loudon, 1877-88. Graber, V. Die Insekten. Parts I., II. Munich, 1877. Griffith, E. The Animal Kingdom, described and arranged in con- formity with its organization. London, 1824-33. 8vo. Class Insecta. 2 vols. 1832. Guerin-Menerille, F. E. Iconographle du R^gne Animal de G. Cuvier, ou representation d'apres nature de I'une des espSces les plus remarquable et souvent non encore figurees de chaque genre d'animaux. Vols. 6 et 7: Annelides, Crustaces, Arachnides, et Insectes. Paris, 1829-44. Kirby, W., and W. Spence. An Introduction to Entomology; or. Elements of the Natural History of Insects. 4 vols. 8vo. 1828. Seventh edition (comprising vols. 3 and 4 of the early editions). London, 1856. Post 8vo. Kirby, W. Fauna boreali-Americana, etc. Norwich, 1837. 4to. Latreille, Pierre Andre. Precis des caracteres generique des Insectes. 1796. 8vo. — — Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum. 4 vols. 8vo. 1806-09. THE ENTOMOLOGIST'' S LIBRAUT. 329 latreille, Pierre Andre. Consideration generales sur TOrdre naturel des Auimaux coraposant les Classes des Crustaces, des Arachnides et des Insectes. Insects in Cuvier's Regne animal. 8vo. 1810. Families naturelles du Regne animal. 8vo. 1825. Cours d'Entomok^ie. 8vo. 1831. Linnaeus, Carolus. Systema Naturae. 1735. 12th edition. 1766-68. MacLeay, W. S. Horaj Eutomologicse. i., ii. London, 1819, Yiall, L. C, and A. Denny. Tlie Structure and Life-history of the Cockroach. Loudon, 1886. Newport, G. Article Insecta. (Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiol- ogy. London, 1839.) Packard, A. S. Guide to Study of Insects. 9th edition. New York, 1888. Palisot de Beauvais, A. J. Insectes recueillis en Afrique et en Ame- rique, dans les royaumes d'Oware et de Benin, a Saint-Dominique et dans les Etats-Unis, pendant les anuees 1786-97. Fol, with 90 plates. Paris, 1805-21. Beaumur, Bene Ant. de. Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire des Insectes. Paris, 1734-42. i.-vii. 4to. Boesel, Aug. Joh. Der monatlich herausgegeben Insekten-Belustigung. Niirnberg, 1746-61. i.-iv. 4ti>. Illustrated. Savigny, G. C. de. Description de I'Egypte, Histoire naturelle. Crustaces, Arachnides, Myriapodes et Insectes. 53 pi. in gr. fol. Paris, 1809-38. Explication sommaire des planches, par J. V. Audouin. Paris, 1826. Fol. Saussure, H. de. Spicilegia Eutomologica Genavensia. I. Genre Hemimerus. Geneve, 1879. Say, T. American Entomology, i.-iii. Philadelphia, 1824-25-28. Complete Writings on the Entomology of North America, edited by J. L. LeConte, M.I). 2 vols. 8vo. Colored plates. New York, 1859. Westwood, J. 0. An Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1839-40. External Anatomy and Morphology. Audouin, J. V. Becherches anatomiques sur le Thorax des Animaux articules et celui des Insectes hexapodes en particulier. (Annales d. Sc. Nat. i., 1824, p. 97 and 416.) Huxley, T. H. The anatomy of the invertebrated animals. 1877. Leuckart, B. Ueber die Morphologic und die Verwandtschaftsver- hiiltnisse der wirbellosen Thiere. Braunschweig, 1848. 8vo. Savigny, J. C. Memoires sur les Animaux sans Vertebres. I. Partie. Description et Classification des Animaux invertebres et articules. 1. Fascicule. Theorie des Organes de la Bouche des Crustaces et des Insectes. Paris, 1816. Internal Anatomy and Histology. Dufour, L. Reclierches anatomiques et physiologiques sur les Hemip teres (1833); les Orthopteres, les Hymenopteres, et les Neuropteres (1841); et les Dipteres (1851). (Mem. de I'lnstitut, iv. vii. xi. Also numerous memoirs in Ann. des Sci. Nat.) 330 ENTOMOLOGY. Leydig, F. Traite d'Histolngie. Paris, 1866. Lyonet, P. Traite anatomique de la Chenille, etc. La Haye, 1762. Anatomic de differcute.s cspeccs d'iusectes. (Mem. du Museum, xviii.-xx. Paris, 1829-32.) Minot, C. S. Histology of the locust. Second Rep. U. S. Ent. Com- mission. 1880. Siebold, C. Th. von. Anatomy of the luvcrtebrata. Boston, 1854. Strauss Durckheim, H. Considerations generales sur I'Anatomie com- paree des Animaux articules, auxquelles on a joint I'Anatomie descrip- tive du Melolontha vulgaris. Paris, 1828. 4to, 10 pi. Viallanes, M. H. Recherches sur rhistologie des insectes. Paris, 1882. a. The Nervous System. Blanchard, E. Recherches anatomiques et zoologiques sur le SystSme nerveux des Animaux sans vertebres. Du systeme nerveux des Insectes. (Aunal. d. scieuc. natur., 3. ser. v., 1846, p. 273-379.) Du Systeme nerveux chez les Invertebres dans ses rapports avec la Classification de ces Animaux. Paris, 1849. 8vo. Flogel, J. H. L. Bau des Gehirns der verschiedenen Insektenordnungen. (Zeits. f. Wisseu. Zool., xxx. Supp. 1878.) Leydig, F. Vom Bau des thierischen Korpers. 1864. Tafeln zur vergl. Anatomie. 1864. ■ Untersuchungen zur Anat. uud Histologic der Thiere. 1883. Also numerous works and articles in Miiller's Archiv., Zeits. fiir wissen. Zoologie, Nova Acta, etc. Lienard, V. Recherches sur le Systeme Nerveux des Arthropodes. Bruxelles, 1880. Michels, H. Nervensystem von Oryctes nasicornis im Larven-, Puppen- uad Kaferzustande. (Zeits. f. Wi.ssen. Zool., xxxiv., 1881.) Newport, G. On the nervous system of the Sphinx ligustri Linn., and on the changes which it undergoes during a part of the meta- morphoses of the insect. (Philosoph. Transact., 1832, p. 383-398, and 1834, p 389-423.) On the structure, relations, and development of the nervous and circulatory systems, and on the existence of a complete circu- lation of the blood in vessels, in MjTiapoda and Macrourous Arachnida. (Philosoph. Transact., 1843, p. 243-302.) Newton, E. T. On the brain of the cockroach. (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1879.) Viallanes, H. Le cerveau de la guepe. (Vespa. Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool., 1887.) Le cerveau du criquet. (CEdipoda and Caloptenus. Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool., 1887.) b. Organs of Special Sense and their Physiology. Carriere, J. Die Sehorgan der Thiere. Mlinchen u. Leipzig, 1885. Exner, S. Ueber das Sehen von Bewegungen und die Theorie des zusammeugesetzten Auges. Wien, 1875. Die Frage von der Fuuctionsweise des Facettenauges. (Biol. Centralb., i., 1881-2.) THK ENTOMOLOOIsrs LIDIiART. 331 Graber, V. Die tympanalen Sinnesapparate der Orthopteren. Deuks. Akad. Wicii, x.wvi., ly?."). Grenacher, H. TJntersuchungen ueber das Sehorgan der Arthropoden. Gottiugon, 1879. Hause, G. Physiologische und histiologische Untersuchungen ueber das Geruchsorgan der Insekten. (Zeits. f. wisseu. Zoologie, xxxiv., 361, 1880. Abstract in Amer. Nat., xxi., 379, 1887.) Kraepelin, K. Ueber die Geruchsorgane der Gliederthiere. Hamburc;, 1883. (Abstract iu Ainer. Nat , xx., 889, 973, 1880; xxi., 182, 1887^) Krancher, 0. Der Ban der Stigmen bei deu lusekteu. (Zeits. f. \vis.sen. Zoologie, xxxv., 505, r88l.) Landois, H. Die Ton- und Stimmapparate der Insecteu. Leipzig, 1867. Leydig, F. Ueber Geruchs- uud Gehororgane der Krebse und In- secten. (Reicliert u. du Bois-Keymond's Arch., 1860.) Patten, W. Eyes of Molluscs and Arthropods. Naples. (Abstract iu Jouru. Morpb. p. 67, vol. i.. No. 1.) Bo.ston, 1887. Plateau, F. Eecherckes experimentales sur la vision chez les Insectes. (Bull, de I'Acad. Roy. Sc. de Belgique, 1885.) Will, F. Das Geschmacksorgan der Insekten. (Zeits. f. wLsseu. Zoologie, 1885.) Also the writings of Bonsdorf, Burmeister, Erichson, Forel, Gazag- naire, Graber, Hicks, Huber, Kiinckel, Lehrman, Leydig, Lubbock, New- port, Perris, Pierret, Plateau, Siebold, Voges, and Wolff. c. Organs of Circulation and Respiration. Chun, C. Rectal Drusen bei den Insekten. (Abb. d. Seukenberg. Naturf. Ges., x., 1876.) Graber, V. Ueber den propulsatorischen Apparat der Insekten. (Arch. f. 3Iikr. Anat., ix., 1873. Heart and Pericardium.) Langendorff. Studien ueber die Innervation der Atbembevi^egungen. — Das Atbmungscentrum der Insekten. (Arcb. f. Anat. u. Pbys., 1883.) Lubbock, J. Distribution of tracheae in insects. (Trans. Linn. Soc , xxiii., 1860.) MacLeod, J. La structure des tracbees, et la circulation peritracbe- enne. Bru.xelles, 1880. Packard, A S. On tbe nature and crigin of the so-called " spiral thread " of tracheoe. (Amer. Nat., x.\., 438, 1886.) Palmen, J. A. Zur Morphologic des Tracheensystem. Leipzig, 1877. Plateau, F. Recherches experimentales sur les mouvements respiratoires des Insectes. (Mem. de I'Acad. Roy. de Belgique, xlv., 1884.) Rathke, M. H. TJntersuchungen liber den Athmungsprozess der In- sekten. (Scbrift. d. Pbys. Oek. Ges. Konigsberg, i., 1861.) Verloren, M. C. Memoire sur la circulation dans les insectes. (Acad. Roy. de Belgique, xix., 1847.) d. Organs of Digestion. De Bellesme, Jousset. Recherches experimentales sur la Digestion des Insectes. Paris, 1875. 332 ENTOMOLOGY. Plateau, F. Recherches sur les phenomenes de la digestion chez les in- r;ectea. Bruxelles, 1874. e. Organs of Locomotion and their Physiology. Carlet, G. Sur la locomotion des insectes et des Arachnides. Compt. Reudu.s., Ixxxix., 1879. Dahl, F. Beitriige zur Keuntniss des Baues und der Funktionen der Insektenbeine. Berlin, 1884. Dewitz, H. Ueber die Fortbewegung der Thiere an senkrechten ijlatten Fliichen vermittels eines Secretes. (Zool. Auzeiger, 1884, 400; 1885, 157.) Lendenfeld, R. von. Der Flug der Libellen. (Akad. d. Wissensch., Ixxxiii., 1881.) Marey, E. J. Animal Mechanism. New York, 1879. (Flight of Insects.) Plateau, F. Articles on the relative and absolute muscular force, in Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique, 1865-84. /. Organs of Reproduction, Ovipositor, etc. Brandt, A. Ueber das Ei u. seine Bildungsstatte. Leipzig, 1878. lewitz, H. Bau u. Eutwicklung d. Stachels, etc. (Zeit. f. Wissen. Zool., XXV., 1875; xxviii., 1877.) Kraepelin, K. Untersuchungen ueber d. Bau, Mechanismus u. d. Entwicklung des Stachels d. bienartigen Thiere. Zeits. f. Wissen. Zool., xxiii.ri873.) Lacaze-Duthiers, H. Recherches sur I'armure genitale femelle des In- sectes. Plates. 8vo. Paris, 1853. Packard, A. S. On the structure of the ovipositor and homologous parts in the male insect. (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xi., 1868.) Palmen, J. A Ueber paarige Ausflihruugsgange der Geschlechts- organe bei Insekten. Helsingfors, 1884. Embryology of Insects. Ayers, H. On the development of CEcanthus niveas and its parasite Teleas. (Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1884.) Balfour, F. M. A treatise on comparative embryology, i., ii. London, 1880-81. Brandt, A. Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Libelluliden und Hemipteren, etc. St. Petersburg, 1868. Hatschek, B. Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Lepidopterea Jena, 1877. Kowalevsky, A Embryologische Studien an Wtirmen und Arthro- poden. St. Petersburg, 1871. Patten, W. The development of Phryganids. (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxiv., 1884.) Weismann, A. Ueber die Entstehung des voUendeten Insekts in Larve und Puppe. Ein Beitrag zur Metamorphose der Insekten, Frankfurt a. Main, 1863. 4to. THE ENTOMOLOGIST'S LIBRARY. 333 Weismann, A. Die Entwickelung der Dipteren im Ei, nach Beobach- tungen an Chironomus, Musca vomitoria und Fulex canis. (Zeit- scbrift fur wisseus. Zoologio, xiii., p. 107-204.) Die uachembryonale Entwickelung der Musciden nacli Beo- bachtuugen an Musca vomitoria und Sarcopbaga carnaria. (Tbe same, xiv., p. 187-336.) Zaddach, G. Untersucbung liber die Entwickelung und den Bau der Gliedertbiere. Heft 1. Die Entwickelung des Pbryganidcn-Eies. Berlin, 1854. Also memoirs by Bobretzky, Brandt, Bruce, Butschli, Claus, Dewitz, Ganin, Grimm, Hertwig, Korotneff, Leuckart, Ludwig, Metschnikoff, Melnikow, Nusbaum, Packard. Patten, TichomirofF, Wagner, Zacharias, Graber, Heider, Van Eees, Wheeler, Witlaczil, Viallanes, Voeltzkow. Phylogeny or Origin of Insects. Brauer, F. Betracbtuugen ueber die Verwandlung der Inseckten im Sinne der Descendenz-theorie. (Verb. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien., 1869.) Lubbock, J. On tbe origin and metamorpboses of Insects. London, 1874. (Also Journ. Linn. Soc. London, xi., 422, 1873.) Mayer, P. Ueber Ontogenie und Pbylogenie der Insekten. (Jena. Zeits. f. Nat., x., 1876.) Packard, A. S. Hints on tbe ancestry of insects. (Cbapter xiii. of " Our Common Insects.") Boston, 1873. Review of Mayer's article. (Amer. Nat., x., 688, 1876.) Genealogy of tbe Hexapoda. (3d Rep. U. S. Entomological Commission, 295-304, 1883.) Insects and the Fertilization of Plants. Darwin, C. On the various contrivances by wbicb British and foreign Orchids are fertilized by Insects. 1862. Animals and plants under domestication, i., ii. 1868. Different forms of flowers. 1880. Lubbock, J. British wild flo\Ters in relation to insects. London, 1875. Miiller, H. Alpenblumen, ihre Befruchtung durch Insekten und ibre Anpassuugen an dieselben. Leipzig, 1881. Fertilization of Flowers. English Translation. London. Geographical Distribution. LeConte, J. L. The Coleoptera of Kansas and eastern New Mexico. (With colored map in illustration of the entomological provinces of North America. Smithsonian Contributions, 1859.) Packard, A. S. On tbe Geographical Distribution of the Moths of Colorado. (Rt. U. S. Geological Survey for 1873.) 1874. The geographical distribution of tbe Phalsenidae of the U. S. (pp. 567-594 of Monogr. of Geometrid Moths, 1876.) Some characteristics of tbe central zoo-geographical province of the U. S. (Amer. Nat., 1878.) Also see zoo-geographical map of N. A. in 3d Rep. U. S. Entomological Commission, 1883. 334 ENTOMOLOGY. Scudder, S. H. Distribution of insects in New Hampshire. 1874. (Also see Butterflies of New England. 1888.) Speyer, Ad. and Aug. Die geographische Verbreitung der Schmetter- liuge Deutscblauds uud der Schvveiz. Leipzig, 18r)8. Wallace, A. R. The Geographical Distribution of Animals, i., ii. London, 1876. Island Life. London, 1880. Fossil Insects. Brauer, F. Ansicbten ueber die palseozoiscben Insekten und deren Deutuug. Vienna, 1886. Brongniart, C. Les Insectes fossiles des Terrains primaires. Rouen, 1885. 5 plates. The fossil insects of the primary group of rocks. Translated by M. Stirrup. Salford, 1885. (No plates.) Dohrn, A. Eugereon. Mayer's Paloeontograph. xiii., 1866; xvi., 1869. Scudder, S. H. Systematische Uebersicht der fossilen Myriopoden, Araclmoideu und Insekten. (Zittel's Handbuch der Palfeonto- logie.) Mtinchen u. Leipzig, 1885. Systematic Review of our Present Knowledge of Fossil Insects, etc. Washington, 1886. Also papers by Scudder in Bull. Hayden's U. S. Geol. Survey, 1868-83, Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1866-85; A. Dohrn, Germar, Hagen, Heer, von Heyden, Oustalet, etc. Economic Entomology. Boisduval, J. A. Essai sur I'Entomologie horticole. Paris, 1867. Comstock, J. H. Report of the Entomologist, U. S. Dept. Ag., foi 1879 and 1880. Washington. Report upon Cotton Insects. Washington, 1879. Curtis, John. Farm Insects; being the Natural History and Economy of the Insects injurious to the Field Crops of Great Britain and Ireland. 1860. Glover, T. Reportof the U. S. Entomologist, 1863-77. Wa.shington. Manuscript notes from my journal. Diptera. 1874. " " " " Hemiptera. 1876. " " " " Entomological Index. 1877. " " " " Cotton. 1878. Fitch, A. Reports 1-14 on the noxious, beneficial, and other in- sects of New York. 1856-70. Forbes, S. A. Reports and bulletins as Director of Illinois Lab. Nat. Hist., and afterwards as State Entomologist of Illinois. 1876-88. Harris, T. W. Treatise on the insects of Massachusetts injurious to Vegetation. Boston, 1882. Hubbard, H. G. Insects affecting the Orange. U. S. Dept. Ag. 1885. Judeich u. Nitzsche. Lehrbuch der mitteleuropiiischen Forstinsek- teukunde. Wien, 1885. Le Baron, W. Reports 1-4 on the noxious insects of Illinois. 1871-4. THE ENTOMOLOGIST'S LIBRARY. 335 Lintner, J, A. First anuual report ou the iujurious aud otl'er in- sects of New York, 1882; second report, 1885. Also numerous other pamphlets, bulletins, and newspaper articles. Packard, A. S. Reports 1-3 as entomologist to Board of Ag., Mass. 1871-3. Report on the Rocky Mountain locust, etc. (9th ann. rep. U. S. Geol. Survey for 1875.) 1877. Reports 1-3 U. S. Ent. Commission. Joint author. 1877-83. Bulletin 4 (on Hessian tly) aud 7 (on Forest- and Shade-tree insects) of U. S. Ent. Comm. 1880-81. ■■ Report (5 of U. S. Ent. Comm.) on forest- and shade-tree in- sects. Washington, 1888. Ratzeburg, J. S. C. Die Forstinsekten. i.-iii. Berlin, 1837-45. Die Waldverderber uud ihre Feiude, 1841. 6th edit., 1869. Berlin. 8\ Die Waldverderbniss oder dauernder Schade, welcher durch In- sektenfrass, etc., an lebenden Waldbaumen entsteht. i.-ii. 1866-68. Berlin. Mau}^ colored plates. 4". Riley, C. V. Reports 1-9 on tbe noxious, beneficial, and other insects of Missouri, 1869-77. Reports 1-3 U. S. Eut. Commission. Joint author. 1877-83. Fourth Report of U. S. Ent. Commission on the Cotton-worm. 1884. Report of the TJ. S. Entomologist for 1879-88. Also numerous other works and articles. Saunders, W. Insects injurious to Fruits. Philadelphia, 1883. Thomas, C. Reports 1-3 U. S. Ent. C^omm. Joint author. 1877-83. Bulletin 5 U. S. Ent. Commission on the Chinch-bug. 1879. Reports 1-5 on the noxious and beneficial insects of Illinois. 1877-81. With worksor papers by Ashmead, Barnard, Bethune, Cook, Fletcher, Forbes, French, Garman, Hagen, Harrington, Hind, Howard, Kellicott, Osborn, Peck, Rathvon, Reed, Saunders, Treat, Trimble, Walsh, Weed, aud others. GLOSSARY. A.B-DO MEN (Lat. abdo, to hide, to conceal). The third or hindermost division of the body; the hind body. Ab-er'rant. Departing from the regular or normal type. A-BORTED. Obsolete or atro- phied. Ac-A-LYPTRA-TA. Those flies (Muscidse) in which the tegulse are absent or rudimentary. A-CUMI-NATE. Ending in a pro- longed point. Aga-mo-gene-sis (Gr. a, with- out; game, marriage; genes-is, birth). Reproduction without fertilization by the male. Al'u-la. The membranous flap on the base of the wing itself of flies. Am-e-tab'o-lic (Gr. a, without; metabole, change). Referring to insects and other animals which do not luidergo a meta- morphosis. Anal angle. The hinder and inner corner of a wing. A-NAL'o-GY(Gr. analogia, propor- tion). The relation between organs which differ in struc- ture, but have a similar func- tion; as the wings of insects and birds. A-NAS-TO-Mo'siNG. Inosculating or running into each other like veins. An-dro-coni-a (Gr. aner, gen. andi'os, man : konis, dust). Small scales of various shapes peculiar to many male butter- flies. An'nu-late. When a leg or antenna is surrounded by nar- row rings of a different color. An-te cu'bi-tal. Pertaining to the space between the base of the wing and the nodus, in dragon-flies. An-te-hu'me-ral. Relating to the space immediately before the origin of the wings. An-tig'e-ny. Opposition or an- tagonism of the sexes, embrac- ing all forms of secondary sexual diversity. Ap'i cal. Relating to the apex or top; in an insect's wing, relating to the point farthest from the insertion. Apical sector. One of the longitudinal veins of the apex of the wings, in dragon-Hies. Ap o-deme. An inwardly directed process to which a muscle is attached. Ap'o-dous. Footless. 338 GLOSSARY. Ap-pen-dic'u-late. Where the joints of the antennae have articulated appendages. Ap'te-rous (Gr. a, without; pte- ro/i, wing). Destitute of wings. A-RACH'Ni-DA(Gr. arachne, a spi- der). The class of Arthropods, embracing the spiders, scor- pions, and mites. A-REo-LA or A-REo-LET. One of the little spaces into which the wing is divided by the veins or venules. A-re'o-late. Furnished with small areas; like a network. A-RisTA. In Diptera a slender bristle situated upon the upper border of the third joint, mi- croscopically jointed near its base. (AVilliston.) A-RiSTATE. Furnished with a hair, or arista. A-ROLi-A. A plantula or climb- ing cushion; one of the lobes of the pulvillus. Ar'thro-mere. (Gr. artJiron, a joint; meros, a part or segment). A segment or ring of the body of an Arthropod; somite. Ar-throp'o -DA (Gr. arihron, joint; pans, podos, foot). That branch or sub-kingdom em- bracing the Crustacea, Podo- stomata(Merostomataand Trilo- bita), Arachnida, Myriopoda, and Insecta. A-SEx'u-AL. Applied to animals, especially insects, in which the ovaries or reproductive organs are imperfectly developed; and which produce eggs or young by budding. At'ro-phied. Wasted away, wanting, obsolete, aborted. Au-RELi-A. Old term for the pupa of an insect. BiE-NOP'o-DA. The thoracic legs of insects. B.a!;'No-soME. The thorax of in- sects. Bi'fid. Divided into two parts; forked. Blas'to-derm (blastos, a bud or sprout; derma, skin). The outer layer of the germ-cells of the embryo. Bra-chtc'e RA (Gr. bracJius, short; keras, horn). Applica- ble to those Diptera ortliorhn- 'plia, having short, 3-jointed antennae. Bran'chi-a. a gill or respira- tory organ of aquatic animals. Bran'chi-al. Relating to the gills or branchiae. Buc'CAL. Relating to the mouth- cavity; or rarely to the cheeks. Bul'late. Blistered. Bur'sa. a wing-pouch in the hind wings of males of cer- tain caddis-tlies, and in connec- tion with a stalked pencil of hairs. Cal'ca-ra-ted. Armed with spurs. Cal-los'i TY. A thickened spot; a small knob. Ca-lyptra-ta (Gr. kaluptra, a covering). Those flies (Mus- cidoe) which have tegulae or membranous scales above the halteres. Can-a-lic'u-late. Channelled; excavated longitudinally. GLOSSABT. 339 Can'cel-late. Crossed by lines going at right angles to each other; latticed. Can'thus. The chitinous pro- jection dividing the double eyes of certain beetles (Ateu- chus, Geotrupes, Gyrinus). Cap'i-tate. Ending in a knob. CA-pfr c-LUM. The knob of club-shaped antennae. CAR'Do(Lat. cardo, a hinge). The basal joint of the maxilla, sup- porting the stipes. Ca-ri'na. An elevated keel- like sharp ridge. Car'pus. The pterostigma of dragon-flies. Car'un-cle (Lat. cnruncula, dim. of mro, flesh). A naked, soft, fleshy excrescence or protuber- ance. Cal-ca'ri-um (Lat. ealcar, a spur). One of the spines on an insect's foot. Cellule. A little area on the wing surroimded by veins. Ce-phal'ic. Relating to the cephalum or head. Ce-phal o-mere. a cephalic segment of an Arthropod. Ce-ph ALo-soME. The head of in- sects, Arachnidaand Myriopoda. Cer-cop'o-da (Gr. cercos, tail; pons, podos, foot). The last pair of jointed abdominal ap- pendages of insects; the "cerci. " Cheek. The space, in Diptera, between the lower border of the eye and the oral margin, merging into the face in front, and limited by the occipital margin behind. (Williston.) Chela. The terminal portion of a limb with a movable lateral part, like the claw of a crab; as in the chelate maxilla of the scorpion. Chi'tin (Gr. chiton, a tunic). The substance which forms less than one half by weight of the integument of insects, and differing from horn in be- ing insoluble in boiling liquor potassae. Chit'i-nous. Composed of chi- tin; chitinous color is amber- yellow. Cho'ri-on. The shell of the egg. Chrys'a-lis. The pupa of Le- pidoptera. Chyi.e (Gr. chulos, juice). The milky fluid resulting from the action of the digestive fluids on the food or chyme. Chyme (Gr. chumos, juice). The acid, partly fluid or partly digested food, produced by the action of the gastric juice on the food. CiLi-ATE. Fringed. CiLi-UM (pi. cilia). Microscopic filaments attached to cells, usually within the body, and moving usually rhythmically. Ci-NERE-ous. Ash color; color of wood-ashes. Cing'u-la. a colored band. Cla'vate. Club-shaped. Clav'o-la. The terminal divi- sion of the antenna; the same as jlagellum. Co-arctate. Contracted; ap- plicable to the pupa-case cr pupariuni of Diptera. 340 GLOSSARY. Cce'cal. Ending blindly or in a cui-de-sac. Cce'cum. a blind sac; usually applied to one or more append- ages of the digestive canal. Col'lo-phore. The sucker-like organ extended from the under side of the abdomen of Podu- rans. CoM-Mis'suRE. The nerves con- necting two ganglia. Com-press'ed. Flattened later- ally. Oon-col'o-rous. Of the same color as another part. Con'dyle. In insects, a process at the base of the mandible, by which the latter is articu- lated to the lower end of the epicranium. Con'flu-ent. Flowing or grow- ing together. Con-nate'. United; not sepa- rated by an articulated suture; also applies to the union of the elytra where the hind wings are absent. Cor'bel. a more or less oval space at the distal end of the tibia in beetles, and sur- rounded by a fringe of short minute bristles. CoR-Btc'u-LA. The pollen-bas- ket; formed by the hollow outer surface of the hind tibia of bees, with hairs on the side and some bent over to keep the load of pollen in place. Cordate. Heart-shaped. Co-ri-a'ce-ous. Leathery. Gor'nk-ous. Horny, chitiuoua. Cor'ni-cle. The pair of tubes oiv vt .! end of the abdomen or Aphides. (Siphunculus.) CoRTi-CAL. Relating to the cor- tfex or inner skin; external, as opposed to medullary. Costal (Lat. costa, a rib). Re- lating to the ribs. Cre-mas'ter. The stout spine at the end of the pupae of Lepidoptera. Cre'nate. Scalloped, with rounded teeth. Crib Ri-FORM (Lat. cribi-um, a sieve ; foi'ina, form). With perforations like those of a sieve. Crop. A partial dilatation of the gullet or oesophagus, the ingluvies ; in many insects the fore stomach or proventicu- lus. Crura (Lat. crus, a leg). A prop. Cte-nid'i-um (Gr. ktenion, a comb). Comb-like structures situated on various parts of in- sects, especially fleas, Nycteri- bia, etc. Cu'bi-tus. The vein just be- hind the radius, or median, in dragon -flies, etc. Cul-tel'lus. One of the blade- like mandibles of flies. Cul'tri-form. Shaped like a pruning knife. Cu-NEi-FORM. Wedge-shaped. Cu'pRE-ous. Coppery in color. Cu-PULi-FORM. Like a cupule ; Lat. cupula, a little tub. Cu Ti-CLE. The outermost layer of the integument. GLOSSARY. 341 De-cid'u ous. Relating to parts which fall off or are shed dur- ing life, as the gills of the frog, etc. Dentate. Furnishedwith teeth. Den Ti-CLE. A small tooth. De-pressed. Inclined down- ward, or flattened from above downward. Der-ma-top te-ra (Gr. derma, skin; pteron, wing). The ear- wigs. Deu-tom'a-l^. The third pair of head appendages of Myrio- poda. Di-chop'tic. Separation of the eyes by the front in all females and some males of certain Diptera (Helophilus, etc.). Dif-fer-en-ti-a'tion. The spe- cialization or setting apart of special organs for special work, as the specialization of the hand of man as compared with the fore foot of other mam- mals ; also applied to the special development during embryonic life of parts adapted for peculiar or special func- tions. Dig'it. a finger or toe. Di-GONEU-TiSM. The power of producing two broods in a sea- son. Di-lat'ed. Widened, expanded. Di-mid'i-ate. Half round. Di-(e'cious. (Gr. dis, two ; oikos, house). With distinct sexes. DiPTE-RA (Gr. dis, two; pteron, wing). Two-winged flies ; an order of insects. Dis-coi'dal. Relating to the disk or middle; discal. Distal. Applied to the farther end of a joint. Di-VAR i-cat-ed. Spreading apart. Di-ver-tic'u-ltjm. An offshoot from a vessel or from the ali- mentary canal. Do-LAB Ri-FORM. Hatchct-shap- ed. Dor'sum. In Diptera, the whole upper surface of tlie thorax, limited laterally by the dorso- pleural sutures, posteriorly by the scutelluni, and anteriorly by Che neck. Duct. A tube or passage usu- ally 'eading irom glands. Ec-dy'sis (Gr. ekdusis, casting off). The process of casting the skin; moulting. E-dent'u-lous. Destituteof teeth. Egg-burster. A projecting ridge or point on the head or other parts of certain embryos used in breaking open the egg- shell, in hatching. E-la'ter. The spring or forked "tail " of Podurans. El'y-tra (Gr. elutron, a sheath). The fore-wings of beetles, serving to cover or sheathe the hind wings. E-mar'gi-nate. With an ob- tuse incision. Em-bo'li-um. The lobes on each side of the prothorax in He- miptera (Fieber). Em'bry-o. The germ or young animal before leaving the egg or body of the parent. 342 GLOSSARY. Em po'di-um. The spurious claw (pseudonychia) situated be- tween the two normal claws; e.g., Lucanus. En' te-ron (Gr. enteron). A gen- eral term applied to tlie diges- tive canal as a whole. En-tire'. With a simple, not in- dented, edge. Ep'i-lobe. In Carabidse, a lateral appendage of the lobes of the mentum. Epi-phar'ynx, The soft fold or projection within the mouth situated under the labrum. E-piph'y-sis. In Lepidoptera, a stout spur on the fore tibia. Any projecting process. E-Pi-PLEURA. The portion of the elytron of a beetle bordering the inner edge of the inflexed portion of the elytron. (Le Conte.) E-pis'to-ma. That part of the face of flies situated between the front and the labrum; the clypeus. E-RU'CA. Caterpillar. EX-CISED. Cut off. Ex-curv'ed. Curved outwards. Ex'PLA-NATE. Spread or flatten- ed out. Ex-sert'ed. Protruded, thrust out; opposed to enclosed. Ex-Tj'vi-UM. The cast skin of in- sects; exuviate, to cast the skin ; to moult. Fa'cies. The face, in Diptera. Pal'cate. Sickle-shaped. Far'i-nose. Mealy. Fas'cta. a stripe broader than a line. Fau'na. An assemblage of ani- mals peopling any given region or country. Fa-vose'. Pitted, scrobiculate. Fe-nes'trat-ed. Marked with transparent spots surrounded by a darker color, like window- panes. Fer-ru"gi-nou8. Rust-colored. FiL-i-FORM. Thread-like. Fim'bri-ate. Fringed. Fis-sip'a-rous (Lat. fissus, cleft; pario, to bring forth). Ap- plied to a form of asexual gen- eration where the parent splits into two parts, each part be- coming a new individual. Fla-gel'lum. The terminal di- vision of the antenna, in wasps, bees, etc. Fla-^^s'cent. Somewhat yel- low. Flex'u-ous. Almost zigzag. Fo-li-a'ceous. Leaf-like. Fo-ra'men. An opening; a per- foration. Forci-pat-ed. Forceps-like. FoRNi-CATE. Concave within and convex without. Fo'vE-A. A rounded cavity, Fo-ve'o-late. Covered super- ficially with cavities like a honeycomb. Free. Unrestrained in articulat- ed movement; not soldered at the points of contact. Fren'u-lum. Diminutive of frenum, a bridle, or band. The sameasfrenura; or, in Cicadae, the triangular lateral piece on the mesonotum which connects with the trochlea. \ GLOSSARY. 343 Fre'nttm. a lunate or triangu- lar portion at the inner and hinder base of the wing, in Trichoptera and Odonata. Front. The fore face bounded by the vertex, eyes, and often beneath by the epistoma or clypeus. Fui/cRUM. The chitinized walls of the pharynx. Fu-I;Ig'i-nous. Of the color of dark smoke. FuL-vo-^NE-ous. Brazen, with a tinge of brownish-yellow. FuL'votJS. Tawny, color of the common deer. FuNi-CLE. A small cord; a slender stalk. Thatpartof certainauten- nse between the scape and club. Fur'cat-ed. Forked. Fus'co-TES-TACEous. ' Dull red- dish brown. Fus'cous. Dark brown, ap- proaching black. Fu'si-FORM. Shaped like a spindle ; e.g., the antennae of the sphinges. Ga'le-a. The middle division of the maxilla, situated between the lacinia and palpiger. Gang'li-on (Gr. gagglion, a swell- ing or lump). A centre of the nervous system, consisting of nerve-cells and fibres. Gem'i-nate. Arranged in pairs; twin. Gkm-mip'a-rous {Qv.gemma,\)\iA; pa/rio, to bring forth). Ap- plied to a form of asexual gen- eration where new individuals arise as buds from the body of the parent Ge'na. Cheek. Ge-nic'u-late (Lat. geniculatus). Bent abruptly like a knee or elbow; elbowed. Gib'bous. Inflated, swollen. Glabrous. Smooth; opposed to hairy; downy, villous. Gland. A cellular sac which secretes, i.e. separates, certain constituen ts of the blood. The liver is a gland secreting bile; the kidneys excrete urine. Glaucous. Bluish green or gray. Glo-bose'. Globular, .spherical. Gnath'ite. a jaw or jaw like appendage. The gnathites aro the mouth-parts. Gon-a-poph'y-sis. (Gr. ^ro/ie, fe- male; apophysis, process). Two pairs of elongated processes in the cockroach, arising froi:i the 8th and 9th abdominal rings. (Huxley.) They appear to be the equivalents of the rhabdites composing the ovipositor of other insects. Go-Nop'o-DA (Gr. gone, genera- tion; pous, podos, foot). The modified first pair of abdomi- nal appendages of the male lob- ster, shrimps, and crabs. Hab'i-tat. The place or region an insect inhabits. Hal'ter-es (Gr. Jialteres, pois- ers). Balancers: the rudiment- ary hind wings of Diptera. Ha'mate. Furnished with hooks. Ham'ule. a little hook. Hast' ate. Halberd-shaped. Haus'tel-late. Furnished with a proboscis so as to take food by suction. 344 GLOSSARY. Hem-el'y-tra. Applied to the partly thickened fore wings of Hemiptera. He-mip'te-ra (Gr. hejni, half; pteron, wing). An order of insects with the fore wings partly opaque, which are called hemelytra. Her-maph'ro-dite (Gr. Hermes, Mercury; Aphrodite, Venus). Any animal having the organs of both sexes, usually the ovary and testes, combined in the same individual. Het-e-ro'ce-ra (Gr. heteros, different; keras, horn). The moths, in which the antennae are of different shapes, as dis- tinguished from those of but- terflies. Het-e-rog'a-my. Parthenogene- sis ; applied to those cases in v/hich two sexual generations or a se.xual and parthenoge- netic generation alternate. Het-e-rog'y-na. (Gr. Jieteros, dif- ferent; gune, woman). The ants; referring to the different kinds of individuals of ants, i.e., the females and work- ers, as distinguished from the males. Hex-ap'o Dous. Provided with six feet. Hi-BER-NAC'u-LXJM. A tent made out of a leaf in which the larva hides or hiber- nates. Hir-sute', Clothed with stiff hairs. HoL-op TIC. Contiguity of the eyes in the male fly, between the vertex and the antennae (Williston.) Ho-MOLo-GY (Gr. Jiomologia, agreement). Implies identity in structure between organs which may have different uses; as the fin of a whale, and the foot of a dog, or a bird's wing. Homology implies blood -rela- tionship, i.e., a community of origin between parts which may have distinct uses. HuME-RAL. Relating to the hu- merus. Hu'me-rus. The anterior supe- rior angle of the thorax in Dip- tera. Hy'a-line. Transparent. Hy'da-tid. The bladder-worm, or the cystic stage of a tape- worm. Hy-men-opte RA (Gr. humen, hymen, or membrane; pteron,, wing). An order of insects with two pairs of membranous wings. Hypo-derm. The cellular layer which secretes the chitinous cuticula. Hypo-glottis. A piece situat- ed between the mentum and labium in Clavicorn and Serri- corn beetles. Hy-pom'e-ra (Gr. hupo, under; meron, part). The inflexed sides of the elytra of beetles. (Casey.) Hy-po-phak'ynx. The lingua; Huxley restricts it to the base of the lingua. Hy-po-pyg'i-um. The male sex- ual organs and terminal seg- GLOSSARY. 345 ments of the abdomen in Dip- tera. Hy-pos'to-ma. The clypeus in Diptera. I-MAGO. The final, or fourth, winged and adult state of in- sects. In-ci'sdres. The sutures sepa- rating the segments. In-crass' AT-ED. Rounded and somewhat swollen. In' Fu-M AT-ED. Clouded. In-fus'cat-ed. Darkened, with a blackish tinge. In-glu'vi-es. The crop. In-sti'tia. a stria of equal breadth throughout. 1n-ter-rupt'ed. Suddenly stopped. In'vo-lut-ed. Rolled inwards spirally. Ir'ro-rat-ed. Freckled; sprin- kled with atoms. La-cin'i-a (Lat. lacinia, a lappet). The first or innermost division of the maxilla. La-cin'i-ate. Cut into sharp lobes; jagged; toothed, as on the inner edge of the lacinia. La-mel'li-form. Leaf-like. Lam'i-na. a plat or sheet-like piece. Lar'va (Lat. larva, a mask). The second stage of the insect; a caterpillar, grub, or maggot. Lar'vi-form. Larva-shaped. Lat-e-ri'ti-otjs. Brick color, inclining towards yellow. Leg, false. One of the abdom- inal legs of a caterpillar. Lev'i-gate. With a smooth, somewhat shining surface. LiG-Niv'o-Rous. Eating wood. Lig'u-late. Strap-shaped. Lim'bate. When a disk is sur rounded by a margin of a dif- ferent color. LiNE-AR. Like a line, or thread- like. Line- AT-ED. Provided with line-like marks. LoRA. The submentum; small corneous cords upon which the base of the proboscis is seated. (Say.) Lu'men. The cavity of an organ. LuNULE. A crescent-shaped fig- ure or spot. MAC-RO-CHiE'T^. Bristles, or large stiff setae, on the thorax and legs, never on the head, of certain Diptera (Volucella, etc.). (Williston.) Ma-lip E-DES. The fourth and fifth pairs of head -appendages of chilopod Myriopods. Mal-loph'a GA {Gr. mallos, wool; phagein, to eat). The bird-lice, a sub-order of Platyptera. Man'di-ble (Lat. mando, to chew). The first pair of mouth- appendages. Man-dib'u-late. Provided with mandibles. Mar'gin-at-ed. Surrounded by an elevated or attenuated mar- gin. Max-il'la (Lat. maxilla, a jaw, the dimin. of mala). The sec- ond and third pairs of mouth- appendages; the second pair being united and usually called the labium. Me-cap'te-ra (Gr. 7necas, long; 346 GLOSSARY. pteron, wing). The order of iusects represented by Panor- pa. Mel'an-ism (Gr. melas, black). Where an insect is abnormally or unusually dark. Mem-bka-naceous. Thin; skin- ny; semi-tran.sparent like parchment. Men'tum (Lat., the chin). The basal piece or sclerite of the labium or second maxillae of insects. Submentum is the posterior division of the men- turn. 3Ies-en'te-ron. The mid-gut or stomach. JVIet a-meke. The .same as so- mites or arthromeres. Mo-nil'i-form. Like a string of beads. Mo-NCECious (Gr. monos, single; oikos, house). With both kinds of sexual glands, etc., existing in the same individ- ual. Mu'cRO-NATE. Ending suddenly in a sharp point. MuTic. Unarmed. Myr-i-op'o-da (Gr. murios, thou- sand; pous, podos, foot). The class of Tracheates compris- ing the Millipedes and Centi- pedes. Mys'tax. In certain Diptera, a patch of bristles or hairs, im- mediately above the mouth, on the lower part of the hypostoma, below the vibrissae. (Say.) Ne-phrid'i-a (Gr. nephros, kid- ney). The segmental organs of worms, etc. Neu-ra'tion. Sometimes used for the venation or system of veins of the wing. Neu-rop'te-ra (Gr. neuron, nerve; pteron, wing). The or- der of net-veined insects with a complete metamorphosis. NiD-A-MENTAi.. Referring to a nest, or egg-sac. Node. A knot; a knob; nodi- form, node-shaped. Nodus. A stout, oblique, short vein in the Odonata, at the place where the anterior mar- gin of the wings is somewhat drawn in. Nymph. Usually used as an equivalent of pupa; but in insects with an incomplete metamorphosis applied to the whole period from hatching to the complete wnnged stage; as in may-flies, Orthoptera, etc. Ob-cordate. Inversely heart- shaped. Ob-o'vate. Inversely ovate; the smaller end turned towards the base. Ob'so-lete. Indistinct; almost lost to view; disused; rvidi- mentary. Ob-tected. Covered ; con- cealed. O'cHRE-ous. Of a more or less deep ochre color. O do'na. Applied to the pecu- liar mouth-parts of Odonata (dragon-flies) by Fabricius, on account of the long teeth on the labium, etc. 0-do-na TA (Gr. odous, odontos, GLOSSARY. 347 teeth). (Derivation obscure.) The dragon -flies. CE-soph'a-gus (Gr. oisos, a reed; phagein, to eat). The gullet. Ol-i-va'ceous. Olive-colored; rich dark green. On-tog'e-ny (Gr. on, ontos, be- ing; gene, birth). The devel- opment of the individual, as distinguished from that of the species. O-NYCHi-A (Gr. onwR, nail, claw). A small, more or less retrac- tile bristle in the feet of beetles; the empodium of flies; pseudonychium. 0-PEii'cu-LUM. In flies (Musca) equivalent to the labrum- epipharynx, the latter being composed of the labrum above and epipharynx below. (Dim- mock.) O'ral. Related to the mouth. Orbit. The ring surrounding the eye. Or-thopte-ra. (Gr. ortJws, straight; pteron, wing). The order of insects with straight narrow fore wings, as the grasshoppers. Os-MA-TERi-A (Gr. osmetos, that can be smelt). The V-shaped retractile scent -organs of the larval Papilio. OsTi-A. The slit-like openings of the heart. O-va'ri-ole. An ovarian tube. (Huxley.) O-vip'a-rous (Lat. ovum, an egg; pario, I bring forth). Applied to animals bringing forth eggs instead of living, active young. O-vi-po-si'tion. The act of egg- laying. 0-vi-Pos'i-TOR (Lat. ovum, an egg; pono, I place). An organ in insects homologous with the sting, by which eggs are de- posited in solid substances. Ovi-SAC. A sac or bag-like mem- brane attached to the parent, and containing eggs. 0-vo-vi-vip'a-rous (Lat. ovum, an egg; vivus, alive; pario, I bring forth). Applied to such animals as retain their eggs in the body until they are hatched. P^-do-gen'e-sis. Parthenoge- nous development in larval in- sects. Pal-pa' Ri-UM. In Carabidae, etc., the palpal support; the membrane to which the labial palpi are attached, and which admits of an amount of exten- sion of these organs not per- missible when they are fixed. (Horn.) Pa-pil'la. a minute soft pro- jection. Par-a-gloss'^. Appendages on each side of the ligula. Par-a-pleu'r^. The sternal side pieces in beetles. Pa-rap'si-des (Gr. para, near ; pteron, wing). Lateral pieces of the meso- and metathorax on each side of the scutellum. Par-o-nych'i-a (Gr. para, near; onux, claw, nail). One or more bristle-like appendages of the onychium or pseudonychium. Parthe-no-gen'e-sis (Gr. par 348 GLOSSARY. thenos, virgin; genesis, genera- tion). Reproduction by direct growth of germs from the egg, without fertilization by male germs or spermatozoa, as in the aphis, gall-insects, tluke-worm, etc. Pa-ta'gi-um (Gr. patageion, a stripe or border to a dress). The shoulder tippets; loose pieces of the mesothorax, on each side of the mesoscutum. Pe-dun'cu-late. Situated on a peduncle, or stalk. Pel'li-cle. a thin skin, i.e., the subimaginal skin shed by the May-fly. Per-is-to'mi-um. The border of the mouth, or oral margin, in Diptera. Per'i-treme. The piece en- closing the spiracle. Per-i-vis'ce-ral. (Gr. peri, around; Lat. viscera, the inter- nal organs, especially of the abdominal cavity). The body- cavity, containing the alimen- tary canal with its outgrowths. Pet'i-o-lat ED. Stalked. Pet'i-ole. a stalk. Pha-rtn'ge-al. Relating to the pharynx. Pha.r'ynx (Gr. plmrugx). The back part of the mouth and upper part of the throat. Phy-log'e-ny (Gr. phulon, stem; gene, birth). The development by evolution of the members of a genus, family, order, class, or the animal kingdom as a whole. Phy-sap'o-da (Gr. phusa, bel- lows; pous, foot). A synonym of the Thysanoptera. Phy-toph'a-gous. Eating plants. PiCE-ous. Pitchy; the color of pitch; shining reddish black. Pile. Hair; often hair arranged somewhat in rows. Pi-LIFE-Rous. Pilose, or bear ing hairs. Pi-lose'. Clothed with pile, or dense short down. Plan'ta. Strictly the sole or under side of the foot; accord- ing to Cheshire, the tirst tarsal joint of bees. Plan'tu-la. One of the soles or climbing cushions of the foot; also one lobe of the divided pulvillus. Pla-typ'te-ra (Gr. plains, flat; pteron, wine). The order of in- sects represented by the bird- lice, white ants, Psocidaj and Perlidse. Pleu'rum. The side of the tho- rax; pleurites, the pieces into which the pleurum is divided. Plexus (Lat. a knot). Applied to a knot-like mass of nerves or blood-vessels. PoDi-CAL Plates. The two pieces on each side of the vent; thought by Huxley to be rudi- ments of an eleventh abdomi- nal ring; united they form the tergite of a rudimentary elev- enth abdominal ring; PoLLi-NosE. Dusted over with a fine powder. PoL-Y-ANDRY. Where a female insect mates with more than one male. GLOSSARY. 349 Po-lyg'a-my. Where a male in- sect mates with more than one female. PoL-Y-GO-NEUTisM. The power of producing several broods a season. Pke-o iiAii. In front of the mouth. Pki'ma-ries. The fore wings of Lepidoptera. Proboscis. The mouth- parts adapted for sucking. Process. A projection; used chietly in osteology. Proc-to-d^'um. The primitive hind gut, or rectum. pRo-Du'cED. Drawn out; pro- longed. Pro'leg, or Prop-leg. One of the abdominal legs of a cater- pillar. Pro-py-gid'i-um. The dorsal segment or tergite in front of thepygidium,sometimesleftex- posed by the elytra, in beetles. Pro'te-an-dry. The appear- ance of males earlier in the season than females. Pro-tom'a-l^. The second pair of mouth-appendages of Myri- opoda; the so-called mandibles. Pro'to-plas.m (Gr. protos, first; plasma, from plasso, I mould). The albuminous, elementary matter forming cells and the body-substance of Pfotozoa. Prox'i-mal (Lat. proximus, next). The fixed end of a limb, bone, or appendage; that nearest the body; opposed to distal, the farther end. Pru I NOSE. Hoary; frosted. PsEU-Do-NYCii i-a. The spu- rious or third claw; empo- dium. PsEU-Do-TRA'cnE-.