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SCIENCE AND
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SCIENCE AND
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
C. R. Smith, Secretary

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE SERVICES ADMINISTRATION

Robert M. White, Administrator

April 1968

L.C. card 68-60090

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.

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FOREWORD

This publication is the first
consolidated overview of the
Environmental Science Services
Administration, ESSA, since its
establishment on July 13, 1965.
It represents a unified study re-
placing annual publications pre-
viously issued separately by the
Weather Bureau, the Coast and
Geodetic Survey, and the Cen-
tral Radio Propagation Labora-
tory of the National Bureau of
Standards.

ROBERT M. WHITE

Administrator

EDITORS' PREFACE

This publication discusses science and engineering in
ESSA during FY 66 and FY 67. These activities have been re-
viewed deliberately within the two-dimensional framework of
ESSA missions and objectives, rather than in the traditional
terms of organizational structure. This framework is represented
by a Program Analysis Matrix (see below), which contains a set
of elements encompassing all ESSA science and engineering
operations. The purpose is to present ESSA from a multidis-
ciplinary point of view, which emphasizes the application of the
methods, procedures, and techniques of various interrelated
scientific disciplines to the solution of major problem areas in
environmental science and technology.

It is important to note that this study deals exclusively
with those activities pursued during the first 2 years of ESSA's
existence. Major organizational changes occurred during this
period, and they have continued to occur. References made to
organizational relationships on the component level are given as
they existed during the reporting period and are depicted in the
accompanying organizational chart. Hence, the discussion is
oriented to function, not organization.

The study is divided into seven chapters, each of which
deals with various aspects of the science and engineering pro-
grams of ESSA: Organization, products, accomplishments of a
singular nature, description of the environment, environmental
prediction and warning, and supporting activities. A compila-
tion of papers and publications is also included.

The preparation of a publication of this scope is always a
collective endeavor, involving the participation of many indi-
viduals. However, we are especially indebted to Robert R. Walter.
ESSA Management Intern, who provided outstanding editorial
assistance and technical support.

The assistance of Jack Gertzog in assembling and col-
lating the initial inputs for this survey is greatly appreciated.

We would also like to thank the following for their efforts
in bringing this publication to completion: Albert Carlin. John
Smiles, Louis E. Leipold, Frank Farquhar, Sarah Kroll, Max M.
Chesy, Edward W. Koehler, Exum Roberts, William E. Jones.
James V. Schick, Francis X. Oxley, Joan M. Genchi, Won Joo
Leonard, Richard Estes, Jack Rausch, William Welch, Charles
Cotten, Lila Paavola, and Helen Hoener.

WILLIAM O. DAVIS
Editor-in-Chief

JL^

JACK N. SHUMAN
Senior Editor

Environmental Areas
and Interfaces

Environmental
Description and Understanding

Environmental
Prediction and Warning

Environmental
Engineering Activities

The Earth and
Its Fields

Geomagnetism
Teleseismology
Geodesy

Earthquake Mechanisms

Geomagnetic Engineering
Geodetic Engineering
Engineering Seismology

Earth and
Ocean

Marine Geology and Geophysics
Hydrography and Bathymetry
Land and Sea Interaction

Tsunami Warning Research

Ocean Engineering

Earth and
Atmosphere

Aeronautical Charting
Hydrology

River and Flood

Tropospheric Telecommunications
Tropospheric Remote Sensing
Radio Meteorology

Hydrologic Engineering
Tropospheric Telecommunications
Engineering

Physical Oceanography

Sea-Air Interaction
Ocean and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics

Atmosphere Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry

Climatology

Systems Development
Satellite Meteorology
Numerical Prediction
Extended Range Forecasting
Hurricane Research
Severe Storms Research

Climatological Engineering
Clear Air Turbulence
Environmental Pollution
Turbulence and Diffusion
Weather Modification

Atmosphere and
Ionosphere

Meteorological Statistics
Aeronomy

Ionosphere
and Earth

Aeronomy

Ionospheric Telecommunications
Prediction

Ionospheric Telecommunications
Engineering

Ionosphere
and Space

Aeronomy

Space Disturbance
Forecasting

Supporting Facilities, Services, and Development Activities:

Development and Test Facilities
Stations and Platforms
Environmental Sensors

Communications Networks and Systems
Computation and Data Processing Facilities
Archiving

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2012 with funding from

LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation

http://www.archive.org/details/essascienceenginOOunit

CONTENTS

Foreword

Editor's Preface

■ • Mission, Major Objectives, Organization, and Resources 1

ESS A's Mission I

Major Objectives 2

World Weather Programs 2

The Nationwide Natural Disaster Warning (NADWARN) System 2

Weather Modification 2

Environmental Pollution 3

Marine Environmental Activities 3

Electromagnetic Spectrum Utilization 3

Products and Services 3

Organization 3

Weather Bureau 3

Coast and Geodetic Survey 5

Environmental Data Service 5

National Environmental Satellite Center 5

Institutes for Environmental Research 5

Facilities and Resources 5

ll> ESSA's Products and Services 7

Describing and Understanding Man's Physical Environment 7

The Solid Earth and Its Fields 7

The Ocean and Its Solid Boundaries 8

Aeronautical Charting 9

The Ocean and Atmosphere 9

The Upper Atmosphere and Space 10

Environmental Prediction and Warning 10

Earthquakes and Tsunamis 10

Ocean and Atmosphere Prediction and Warning 11

River and Flood Prediction and Warning 13

Telecommunications Prediction 13

Space Disturbance Prediction and Warning 13

Environmental Engineering Services and Activities 13

Engineering Seismology 13

Ocean Engineering 13

Environmental Pollution 13

Telecommunications Engineering 13

Modification and Control of the Environment 14

Supporting Services and Facilities 14

Platforms and Stations 14

Sensors 14

vii

Vlll

CONTENTS — Continued

Page

Communications 14

Data Processing 14

Archiving 14

III. Selected Highlights 15

Organization and Management 15

Service Programs 15

Research and Development 19

Professional Achievements 20

IV. Describing and Understanding Man's Environment 21

The Solid Earth and Its Fields 21

Geomagnetism 21

Cross-Disciplinary Studies 24

Seismology 24

Geodesy 27

Photogrammetry 31

The Ocean and Its Solid Boundaries 32

Descriptive Oceanography 33

The Boundary Between Air and Earth 36

Aeronautical Charting 36

The Behavior of the Oceans and Atmosphere 36

Ocean and Atmosphere Structure and Dynamics 36

The Upper Atmosphere and Space 45

Aeronomy 45

V. Environmental Prediction and Warning 51

Earthquake and Tsunami Prediction 51

Earthquake and Tsunami Research 51

Predicting the Ocean and Atmosphere 55

Weather and the State of the Sea 55

Predicting the Interaction Between the Atmosphere and the Solid Earth 70

River and Flood Prediction and Warning 70

Predicting the Telecommunications Environment 72

Research in Telecommunications Prediction 72

Predicting the Space Environment 76

Space Disturbance Forecasting 76

VI. Engineering Activities and Services 81

Geomagnetism 81

Engineering Seismology 81

Research and Development Organization and Facilities 81

Instruments and Systems 81

Aftershock Studies and Field Investigations of Destructive Earthquakes... 82

Soil Mechanics 83

Seismicity 83

Design Techniques 84

Economic Cost and Benefit Analysis 84

Engineering Applications 84

Geodetic Engineering Services 84

Ocean Engineering 84

Climatological and Hydrological Engineering Services 85

Atmospheric Engineering Research 85

Clear Air Turbulence 85

Atmospheric Pollution 85

Modification of the Environment 89

IX

CONTENTS— Continued page

Rain and Snow Modification 89

Hail Modification 89

Modification of Hurricanes and Tropical Cumulus 89

Lightning Modification 90

Telecommunications Engineering 90

Ionospheric Telecommunications Engineering 90

Tropospheric Telecommunications Engineering 91

VII.

Supporting Facilities, Services, and Development Activities 93

Development and Test Facilities 93

Coast and Geodetic Survey 93

Weather Bureau 93

Other Elements of ESSA 94

Stations and Platf< >rms 94

Land-Based Stations and Platforms 94

Ocean-Based Facilities 96

Atmospheric Stations and Platforms 99

Space Platforms 100

Environmental Sensors 101

Tropospheric Remote Sensing 101

Satellite Sensors 101

Communications Networks and Systems 102

Fixed Communications Networks 102

Satellite Communications Facilities 102

Computation and Data Facilities 102

Coast and Geodetic Survey 102

Weather Bureau 103

National Environmental Satellite Center 103

Environmental Data Service 103

Institutes for Environmental Research 103

Archiving 104

Publications and Papers, 1965-1967 105

Atmospheric Sciences 105

Aeronomy and Space Disturbances 117

Oceanography and Hydrography 125

Geodesy and Photogrammetry 128

Cartography 129

Seismology 130

Geomagnetism 132

Information Sciences 133

Miscellaneous 133

Abbreviations 133

Index 135

MISSION, MAJOR OBJECTIVES,

ORGANIZATION,

AND RESOURCES

The Environmental Science Services Administration
(ESSA), formed from previously existing components
within the Department of Commerce, was established on
July 13, 1965, with the implementation of the President's
Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1965. The formation of
ESSA brought together the functions of the Weather
Bureau (WB) and the Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS)
which became two of the major elements of the new
agency. At the same time, the Institutes for Environ-
mental Research (IER), the Environmental Data Service
(EDS), and the National Environmental Satellite Center
(NESC) were also created. Finally, the Central Radio
Propagation Laboratory was transferred to ESSA from
the National Bureau of Standards and became the Insti-
tute for Telecommunication Sciences and Aeronomy
(ITSA), joining ESSA's Institutes for Atmospheric
Sciences, Earth Sciences, and Oceanography. The
combination of these functions in a single agency pro-
vided for the first time the specialized knowledge, equip-
ment, and responsibility needed to conduct a systematic
study of man's physical environment and to develop the
capability for an integrated environmental service
program.

ESSA'S MISSION

In announcing the establishment of ESSA, President
Johnson described it as: "A single national focus to
describe, understand, and predict the state of the oceans,
the state of the upper and lower atmosphere, and the size
and shape of the earth."

A more detailed description of the Mission and func-
tions of ESSA was given by the Secretary of Commerce
in Departmental Order 2A:

"To ensure the safety and welfare of the public, to
further the Nation's agriculture, industry, transportation,
and communications, and to assist those Federal depart-
ments and agencies that are concerned with the national
defense, the exploration of outer space, the management
of the Nation's mineral and water resources, the protec-
tion of the public health against environmental pollution,
and the preservation of the Nation's wilderness and

recreation areas, the Administration shall perform the
following functions:

a. Observe and collect comprehensive data about the
state of the oceans and inland waters, of the upper and
lower atmosphere, of the space environment, and of the
earth;

b. Communicate, correlate, process, and analyze all
such environmental data;

c. Provide and disseminate information about the state
of the oceans and inland waters, of the upper and lower
atmosphere, of the space environment, and of the earth,
and prediction of their future states;

d. Prepare and disseminate warnings of all severe
hazards of nature to all who may be affected;

e. Provide nautical, aeronautical and telecommunica-
tions charts and related publications and s"ervices;

f. Operate and maintain a system for the storage,
retrieval, and dissemination of data relating to the state
of the oceans and inland waters, of the upper and lower
atmosphere, of the space environment, and of the earth;

g. Explore the feasibility of modification and control
of environmental phenomena;

h. Coordinate Federal meteorological services and
supporting research;

i. Acquire, analyze and disseminate data and perform
basic and applied research on the propagation of electro-
magnetic waves, on the nature of electromagnetic noise
and interference, and on methods for the more efficient
use of the electromagnetic spectrum for telecommunica-
tions purposes; and prepare and issue predictions of
electromagnetic wave propagation conditions, and warn-
ings of disturbances in those conditions, acquire, analyze
and disseminate data and perform basic and applied
research on the propagation of sound waves to great
distances through the atmosphere and other media, and
on geophysical interactions between sound waves and
other geophysical phenomena; and

j. Perform research and development relating to the
oceans and inland waters, the lower and upper atmos-
phere, the space environment, the earth, and the use of

the electromagnetic spectrum for telecommunications
purposes, as may be necessary or desirable to develop
an understanding of the processes and phenomena in-
volved; and research and development relating to the
observation, communication, processing, correlation,
analysis, dissemination, storage, retrieval, and use of
environmental data as may be necessary or desirable
to permit the Administration to discharge its respon-
sibilities."

Although the preceding statements are quite broad in
scope, ESSA's responsibilities do not extend to include
all areas of the environment. For example, ESSA's
mission does not include the study of the biological
aspects of the environment or the location and identifica-
tion of natural resources. Moreover, even in the broad
context of the physical environment, where ESSA does
have assigned functions, other Federal agencies have
important responsibilities related to their own specific
missions.

MAJOR OBJECTIVES

To undertake missions of such broad scope with limited
resources, it becomes necessary from time to time to
differentiate and emphasize specific objectives within
ESSA's broad policy areas. This specific allocation of
effort and resources maintains a balanced program and
assures a maximum level of progress.

First and foremost must be the continuing objective
of performing and improving the essential services to
the public which are the traditional responsibility of
ESSA's major line components; and, the selection of
specific major objective areas must be viewed as being
in support of this continuing objective.

At the present time, major emphasis is being placed on
the following areas: World weather programs; the nation-
wide Natural Disaster Warning System (NADWARN);
weather modification; environmental pollution; forecast-
ing the marine environment; and the optimum utilization
of the radio frequency spectrum.
World Weather Programs

In 1966, President Johnson called upon the United
States to exercise a role of leadership in furthering the
world weather program. This program includes the con-
duct of a comprehensive program of research and develop-
ment on the general circulation of the atmosphere and
the development of a World Weather Watch system.

This system is defined as follows by the World Mete-
orological Organization (WMO):

"The World Weather Watch is a system for the observation,
collection, processing, and dissemination of global weather data
using the most recent developments in modern space communica-
tion, data processing, and meteorological and instrumentation tech-
nology. Its purpose is to remedy age-old deficiencies in our weather
operations which now prevent meteorological science from giving
us weather predictions of longer range, greater accuracy, and
greater usefulness. It is an international undertaking aimed at the
improvement of weather service for all nations of the world."

The President directed that the Department of Com-
merce, specifically ESSA, provide a focal point to co-
ordinate United States efforts in this program, initiate
service improvements in the existing weather system for

which the United States assumes responsibilities, and
continue the development of new technology as it relates
to responsibilities under existing authority.

ESSA considers that the world weather program goals
can be achieved if the following objectives are met:

□ Establishment of a global weather observation and
forecasting system (World Weather Watch), which
would treat the world atmosphere as a single physical
system;

□ Creation of an international program of research in
which specialized worldwide observational programs
would proceed simultaneously with theoretical studies
directed toward understanding the general circulation
of the global atmosphere;

□ Development of mathematical techniques for forecast-
ing the weather up to 2 weeks in advance.

The Nationwide Natural Disaster Warning (NAD-
WARN) System

The NADWARN System was described in detail in
the NADWARN Report published in October 1965.
Resulting from an interagency study of natural disasters,
the report recommended the creation of an integrated
national disaster warning system which would identify
and predict environmental hazards, rapidly disseminat-
ing appropriate warnings to those potentially affected.
It further recommended a system of detection, communi-
cation, community education, and preparedness, and
indicated critical areas for research and development.
The initial phases of this system will involve the estab-
lishment of additional statewide teletypewriter networks;
of extended river forecast capabilities;, of research to
improve the forecasting of near-space environmental
disturbances, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and severe
local storms; the extension of radar coverage and the
expansion of the tsunami warning system.

Meanwhile, within the limitations of budgetary re-
sources, the major line components of ESSA have worked
to put into effect other recommended parts of the NAD-
WARN System. These actions involve the connection of
135 Weather Bureau stations to the nationwide Natural
Warning System Network of the Office of Civil Defense;
the publication of new brochures concerning safety pre-
cautions to be taken when tornadoes and hurricanes
occur; and standardization of terminology , so that the
news media and the public will gain greater appreciation
of the serious nature of warning bulletins. In addition,
ESSA has updated and republished a model hurricane
plan for use by communities and has strengthened com-
munication facilities used to deliver seismic sea wave
(tsunami) warnings. Finally, the Fire Weather Service
has been expanded, and a National Earthquake Informa-
tion Center organized.

Weather Modification

During this reporting period, two significant reports led
to an even broader interest in the possibility of modifying
or controlling the weather; the National Academy of
Sciences— National Research Council (NAS/NRC)

Publication No. 1350, "Weather and Climate Modification
Problems and Prospects" and the National Science
Foundation Report of the Special Commission on
Weather Modification (NSF 66-3) "Weather and Climate
Modification."

Largely in response to these reports an ad hoc ESSA
group prepared "An Outline of a Proposed 5-Year Plan
in Weather Modification" which defined the purpose and
scope of this major objective area. In this case, the
service functions to be performed are all in the future;
the objectives at this time are entirely in the research
area. Areas to be investigated include: Hurricane and
severe storm modification, rainfall augmentation, re-
distribution of heavy snow fall, and lightning and hail
limitation.
Environmental Pollution

Problems of environmental pollution were highlighted
by three reports which appeared during this reporting
period: The Report of the President's Science Advisory
Committee (PSAC), "Restoring the Quality of Our
Environment;" the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS) Report "Air Conserva-
tion;" and a study by the National Academy of Sciences-
National Research Council (NAS/NRC) "Waste Manage-
ment and Control." These reports reviewed the problems
created by pollution and indicated the necessity for action.

On the basis of the PSAC Report, the President re-
quested that appropriate departments and agencies
consider its recommendations and report on possible
approaches to the problems cited in the report. In re-
sponse to this request, ESSA prepared a 5-year plan de-
fining its objectives in dealing with the problems of
environmental pollution. ESSA's role is primarily one of
specialized support to other agencies with air and water
pollution abatement and control missions.

Marine Environmental Activities

A systematic study of activity began near the close of
FY 66 following the release of the PSAC report, "Effec-
tive Use of the Sea," and expanded with the enactment
of the Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act on June 17, 1966, and the subsequent establishment
of the Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Council. ESSA's marine-related programs are directed
toward observing and interpreting the effects of the
world's oceans on the total environment in order to
predict, modify, and effectively utilize the environment.
This entails:

a The development of systems to obtain accurate obser-
vations of oceanic features and their distribution in
time and space, processes within the sea, and inter-
actions between the ocean, atmosphere, and solid
earth;
d The design of systems to rapidly accumulate, process,
and disseminate environmental data;

□ The development of analytical techniques and methods
to evaluate, interpret, and predict environmental
conditions;

□ The determination of the most effective means for

presenting environmental information in its most
usable form; and
a The issuance of timely warnings of environmental
hazards.

Electromagnetic Spectrum Utilization

The requirements of the United States for telecommuni-
cations in both civilian and military applications are
increasing rapidly. The portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum utilized for these purposes is already crowded,
and the Nation as a result is experiencing a shortage of
assignable frequencies — a "silent crisis," as is so strongly
emphasized in a report prepared in October 1966 by
the Telecommunications Panel of the Department of
Commerce Technical Advisory Board.

ESSA is the central Federal agency responsible for
alleviating this problem. Within the scope of this responsi-
bility, ESSA's Institute for Telecommunication Sciences
and Aeronomy is conducting research to improve the
technical basis for the more efficient utilization of the
telecommunications environment. Other objectives are
in the process of being defined and this list of major ob-
jectives may be expected to grow and change in future
years.

PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

ESSA's services, and the science and engineering
programs which support these services, fall in four
broad categories:

d Describing and understanding man's environment;
D Environmental prediction and warning;
□ , Environmental engineering services and activities;
a Supporting services and facilities.

These functions are officially designated as Department
of Commerce Program Category IV — The Physical En-
vironment, which is composed of eight Program Sub-
categories containing a total of 20 Program Elements.
This structure is related, to an extent, to the pre-ESSA
organizational structure to provide for all the functions
described in the previous section. The first six Sub-
categories represent ESSA's primary service missions,
while the last two — Satellite Services and Research —
have largely support roles. The final Subcategory H —
Research includes most fundamental research. Applied
or mission-oriented research and development, however,
is included as an integral part of all the Program
Subcategories.

ORGANIZATION

In order to maximize its services, ESSA is organized
into five major line components which are assigned
specific responsibilities for each of ESSA's eight Program
Subcategories. These components are the Weather
Bureau, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Environ-
mental Data Service, the National Environmental
Satellite Center, and the Institutes for Environmental
Research.

Weather Bureau

The Weather Bureau is responsible for Subcategory

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A-Weather Forecasts and Warning Services, and
Subcategory D — River and Flood Prediction and Warning
Services. Within this framework, the Bureau, through a
national network of some 300 offices, reports the weather
of the United States and its possessions, records the
climate of the United States, and issues warnings against
tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and other weather hazards.
In addition to these basic services, the Weather Bureau
develops and furnishes specialized weather services
which support the needs of agricultural, aeronautical,
maritime, space, and military operations. These services,
themselves, are supported by a national network of sur-
face and upper air observation stations, satellite systems,
communications systems, and computers.

Coast and Geodetic Survey

The Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) is respon-
sible for Subcategory B-Description, Mapping, and
Charting of the Earth, and Subcategory C-Oceanographic
and Hydrographic Services. The Survey prepares aero-
nautical and nautical charts in order to promote safety
and efficiency in air and marine navigation and conducts
surveys to develop and maintain the precise geodetic
control network that is essential to mapping and engi-
neering projects. The Survey is active in photogrammetry
and also operates a number of programs in geophysics,
including satellite geodesy, gravity measurement, and
determinations of the earth's size and shape. In a related
activity, the Survey — through a system of geophysical
observatories, mobile field parties, and a worldwide
network of seismograph stations — monitors and reports
earthquake activity, seismic sea waves in the Pacific,
and variations in the earth's magnetic field. Finally, the
Survey's oceanic operations include hydrographic sur-
veys, marine gravity and magnetic surveys, and measure-
ments of tides and currents. These activities are carried
out by a 15-ship survey fleet also used by other ESSA
components.

Environmental Data Service

EDS, responsible for Subcategory G-Environmental
Data Services, maintains specialized data centers for
the storage, retrieval, and dissemination of environmental
data gathered on a global scale including geodetic, geo-
magnetic, seismological, and climatological information.
Because of its broad range of data collections, EDS
provides a single source of readily available environmental
data to both specialized and general user groups. EDS
is also active in the development of advanced automated
storage and retrieval methods to improve its effectiveness.

National Environmental Satellite Center

NESC is responsible for Subcategory F-Satellite
Services. It plans and operates environmental satellite
systems, gathers and analyzes satellite data, and develops
new methods of using satellites to obtain environmental
data. At present, the Center operates the TIROS Opera-
tional Satellite (TOS) weather system, which employs
ESSA (Environmental Survey Satellite) vehicles to
monitor global cloud cover. As the ESSA series is im-

proved and modified, sensors will be added to measure
additional atmospheric characteristics, and to provide
data in solar, ionospheric, oceanographic, and other
geophysical phenomena.

Institutes for Environmental Research

The Institutes for Environmental Research are re-
sponsible for Subcategory H-Research and Subcategory
E-Telecommunications and Space Services. The Insti-
tutes include the Institute for Earth Sciences (IES),
the Institute for Oceanography (10), the Institute for
Atmospheric Sciences (IAS), and the Institute for
Telecommunication Sciences and Aeronomy (ITSA).
The Institutes, under a single Director, conduct and spon-
sor fundamental investigations needed to support ESSA's
service programs, and, in general, develop new knowledge
which man requires to cope with his physical environ-
ment. These activities are carried out within the Institutes
themselves, and as contract and sponsored research.
In addition to its major line components, ESSA main-
tains a headquarters staff to provide centralized coordi-
nation of plans, programs, and technical-administrative
activities. During this reporting period, the various
components were directly responsible to the Adminis-
trator, who was assisted by a number of Staff Offices,
both General and Special. The General Staff Offices
consisted of the Office of the Assistant Administrator for
Administration and Technical Services (AD), the Office
of Science and Engineering (SE), and the Office of
Planning and Program Evaluation (PL). These Offices
advised the Administrator in matters relevant to the
management of ESSA's components and performed
many functions external to this management but related
to ESSA activities. The Special Staff Offices included the
Offices of: International Affairs (IA), Public Information
(PI), User Affairs (UA), Aviation Affairs (AA), and World
Weather Systems (WW). On September 7, 1967, in a
realignment of interrelated functions, this organizational
structure was modified, and the existing Offices of Plan-
ning and Program Evaluation, Science and Engineering,
and User Affairs, were consolidated into one office under
the direction of an Assistant Administrator for Plans and
Programs. The overall organization of ESSA is shown in
Chart 1.

FACILITIES AND RESOURCES

ESSA is a widespread organization with a staff of about
11,000 stationed throughout the world. In terms of per-
sonnel, ESSA now represents approximately 40 percent
of total Department of Commerce strength.

ESSA operates a wide variety of facilities including
weather observing and reporting stations, forecast cen-
ters, ocean vessel stations, the ESSA weather satellite
system, and an extensive network of communications
for meteorology — including an upper air network, a radar
reporting network, a facsimile network, and a variety of
surface networks, both in the United States and abroad,
to transmit both general and special purpose weather
information. In addition, ESSA mans and operates a
fleet of oceanographic and hydrographic survey vessels,

a small fleet of research aircraft, and a number of high-
speed computer facilities. Either directly, or on a co-
operative basis, ESSA collects magnetic and seismographic
data on a global basis and operates the Worldwide Seis-
mograph Network. For research on the upper atmosphere
and telecommunications, ESSA owns and operates a
variety of facilities, including the huge ionospheric
research radar antenna at Jicamarca, Peru. These
facilities, together with a number of others, will be
described in greater detail in the subsequent chapters
of this report.

In addition to its own facilities and personnel, ESSA
makes extensive and increasing use of the talents and
resources of outside organizations, through contracts
and grants with universities, research institutions, and
private industry.

In terms of financial resources, ESSA is roughly a
$200 million per year organization, with funds distributed
among the various Program Subcategories as shown in
Table 1. As an organization primarily devoted to perform-
ing services for others, ESSA receives a substantial
portion of its total funding from other agencies.

Table 1.

Distribution of Funds within ESSA accordin
to Program Subcategory for FY '67

Weather Forecasts and
Warning Services

Description, Mapping and
Charting of the Earth

Oceanographic and Hydro-
graphic Services

Flood and River Prediction
and Warning Services

5

Telecommunications & Space
Services _J

Satellite Services

Environmental Data Services

?

Research

Total funding including
reimbursable funds.

Appropriated funds.

0

20 40 60

Millions of Dollars

80

ESSA'S
PRODUCTS
AND SERVICES

In directing its efforts, ESS A is guided by its assigned
missions and an awareness of certain critical areas which
require attention at a national level. ESSA is a service-
oriented organization and its science and engineering
programs reflect this. In some cases, certain services
such as public weather forecasts are furnished directly
to the user. In other instances, the service output is in-
formation for use by other organizations in carrying out
their specific missions. An illustration in point would be
the use of telecommunication results by the Department
of Defense to improve military field communications.

ESSA pursues its major objectives in the following
major areas:

d Description and understanding— these programs gen-
erally produce long-term or permanent products:
reports, books, maps, and charts, etc.

□ Prediction and warning— the products here are more
ephemeral: forecasts and warnings through radio,
TV, newspapers, etc.

□ Engineering activities and services — the product here
is action: a telecommunications system is designed,
the weather is modified, etc.

DESCRIBING AND UNDERSTANDING MAN'S
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

ESSA's programs are closely related to one another
in many ways. Consequently, describing and understand-
ing the environment has for its primary purpose not only
the provision of descriptive information per se, but also
the provision of information useful for prediction and
warning and engineering services as well. This portion
of ESSA's program is thus defined to include those serv-
ice missions and science and engineering programs whose
immediate objective is description and understanding,
regardless of how the product is eventually used. Pro-
grams in ESSA directed toward describing and under-
standing the environment embrace a variety of disciplines
and regions, ranging from the solid earth and its fields,
through the ocean and its solid boundaries, the boundary
between land and air, the ocean and atmosphere, to the

upper atmosphere and space. The scope and purpose of
each area will be discussed in terms of regions of the
environment, starting at the center of the earth, and mov-
ing outward to the near-space environment.

METEOROLOGY

CLIMATOLOGY

HYDROLOGY

GEODESY

GEOMAGNETISM

SEISMOLOGY

H233

CD

023 frrera

OCEANOGRAPHY

Relationship between environmental fields
and services and ESSA components re-
sponsible for them.

The Solid Earth and Its Fields

The description of the solid earth and its fields em-
braces elements of the disciplines of geomagnetism,
seismology, and geodesy. ESSA's descriptive programs
in geomagnetism are conducted by the Coast and Geo-
detic Survey (C&GS). They include and support:
□ The operation of geomagnetic observatories, perform-
ance of magnetic surveys, including repeat surveys;
and the collection of geomagnetic information origi-
nating outside ESSA,

280-876 O-68— 2

□ The compilation and production of charts indicating
the distribution of strength and direction of the
magnetic field,

D The processing, analysis, and dissemination of
geomagnetic data,

□ The furnishing of geomagnetic data and information
required for air, marine, and space navigation,

□ The provision of geomagnetic data and information
required for land surveying, radio propagation condi-
tion forecasting,

□ Support for forecasting of space radiation hazards,
d The determination of the solar-terrestrial relationship

in various phenomena, and

□ The study of the core, mantle, and crust of the earth.

ESSA's research program in geomagnetism is de-
signed to achieve the capability for both prediction of
the geomagnetic field with its variations in space and time
and the achievement of a better understanding of the
origin of these effects and their relationship to other
phenomena of the physical environment. To attain these
goals, ESSA performs research to improve instruments
and systems, develops better methods and procedures
for improved data collection and analysis, and investi-
gates and studies interrelationships between the magnetic
field and other parameters. The data for these studies
are obtained from a worldwide network of magnetic
observation stations as well as from local stations on
land and sea, aircraft, and satellites.

ESSA's service program in the descriptive aspects
of seismology is primarily concerned with teleseis-
mology, or the acquisition of data from earthquakes
at a distance by means of their resultant seismic waves
transmitted through the earth. This program includes
the operation of a worldwide standard seismograph net-
work, the maintenance of a seismological data center,
and the analysis and dissemination of data for engineer-
ing and scientific purposes.

ESSA's research program in seismology includes the
development of new instruments and systems, the de-
velopment of techniques to obtain more accurate infor-
mation on earthquake hypocenters by improved knowl-
edge of propagation mechanisms and the travel times of
seismic waves, the study of the structure of the earth's
core and mantle by seismic means, and the development
of improved computational methods for data analysis.

Geodesy is the science that seeks to determine the
exact position of points on the earth's surface, the figure
and area of regions, the size and shape of the earth, and
the variations of terrestrial gravity. ESSA's activities in
geodesy are concerned with establishing and maintaining
horizontal and vertical control points determined by
means of surface, aerial, and satellite triangulation and
photogrammetry. These programs involve astronomical
observations, the measurement of gravity at various
points on the earth's surface, and studies of earth move-
ment. Additionally, ESSA is responsible for the publica-
tion and distribution of geodetic control data to engineers,
surveyors, and the general public. This program provides

accurate knowledge of locations and boundaries neces-
sary for the conservation and development of natural
resources; the needs of broad scientific and engineering
projects, such as the microwave network for communi-
cation, interstate highway programs, petroleum explora-
tion, transcontinental pipelines and transmission lines;
and control requirements for urban development, and
the national mapping program. This entire program is
conditioned by the need to tie the map control grid of all
nations together into a single world datum.

ESSA's research and development program in geodesy
is concerned with the development of new techniques
and instruments in the field of satellite and aerial triangu-
lation, photogrammetry, long-range distance measure-
ments, and gravity measurements including those made
at sea.

The Ocean and Its Solid Boundaries

ESSA's programs related to the description and under-
standing of the ocean in relation to its solid boundaries
fall within the fields of hydrography and marine geology
and geophysics. Included also are studies of coastal tides
and currents and interaction of the sea and land along
coastlines and estuaries.

To date, tides, tidal currents, and the hydrography of
coastal waters and estuaries remain perhaps the princi-
pal service mission of ESSA in the field of descriptive
oceanography, although a growing effort in bathymetry
(bottom topography) of the Continental Shelf and deep
ocean areas is gradually modifying this emphasis.

ESSA's tide program consists of the operation of ap-
proximately 150 permanent or temporary tide gages by
C&GS to monitor tides along the coasts of the United
States and its possessions, and the production and
analysis of the data collected. These data are used to
provide the standards necessary to reduce soundings
collected at various stages of tides to a common refer-
ence on nautical charts. These also form a basis for
determining the tidal characteristics from which tide
predictions are made. Also included is the maintenance
of an internationally recognized catalog of tidal data.
These data are in constant use in a wide assortment of
scientific and technological problems. These include
waste disposal, channel dredging and maintenance, land
uplift and subsidence, worldwide sea-level change, water-
supply problems, coastal engineering projects, geodetic
level maps, and the determination of coastal boundaries.

In the field of tidal currents, ESSA service programs
include the systematic collection of current observations
and the reduction, analysis, interpretation, and the
publication of these data. This activity results in a file
of current data which is used in theoretical studies of
estuarine dynamics in model experiments, in studies
on the maintenance of coastal fisheries, and waste dis-
posal analyses and investigations of sedimentation me-
chanics and channel maintenance. Based on current
records, the characteristics of tidal currents are de-
scribed, predicted, and published annually by C&GS.

These values are not only necessary for safe navigation
of coastal waterways but are also part of the design
criteria for coastal engineering projects.

Research in the area of tides and currents is concerned
with improving knowledge of tidal propagation in both
estuaries and the deep ocean in order to reduce uncer-
tainties in tide predictions, estuarine dynamics, and
nearshore ocean circulation.

ESSA's hydrographic programs are concerned with
the various operations involved in the production of
nautical charts and related publications required for
the safety of marine navigation. They encompass such
activities as hydrographic surveys (including the opera-
tions of ships), photogrammetric surveys and mapping,
and the establishment of control points for these opera-
tions. They further involve investigations of hazards to
navigation and location of aids for the navigator, including
coast pilot information. The objectives of the hydrography
program are to complete and maintain on an up-to-date
basis the charting of the coastal waters including harbors
and estuaries of the United States and its possessions.
ESSA is also responsible for charting for recreational
boating purposes lakes and reservoirs which are not in
the areas of responsibility of other Federal agencies.

The large variety of published charts include harbor
charts, small-craft charts, coast charts, general charts,
sailing charts, and Loran charts. Approximately 5 million
charts of all types were produced during the reporting
period, of which about 50 percent were for civilian use
and about 50 percent for military and naval use. In addi-
tion, the information given for charts is used to prepare
the Coast Pilot which describes in narrative form certain
types of data difficult to display on charts including in-
formation on the coasts, harbors, and waterways of the
Nation.

Another important facet of ESSA's service program
in hydrography is the operation by C&GS of a fleet of
15 oceangoing vessels for the collection of information
on the Continental Shelf and the deep ocean basins.
The goals of this program are related to determining the
bottom topography or bathymetry of these ocean regions,
the plotting of ocean currents for navigational purposes,
the measurement of geophysical parameters such as
marine gravity and geomagnetism at sea, and finally
the provision of information of interest and value to the
fishing industry.

ESSA's research programs relating to describing and
understanding the ocean and its solid boundaries cover
a broad range of activities, beginning with the interface
of the ocean and the solid earth at the bottom of the sea
(the benthic boundary). Studies span marine geology and
geomagnetism, bathymetry, and the interaction of the sea
with the land on shores, beaches, and in estuaries.

Aeronautical Charting

In addition to its responsibilities for the production
and distribution of nautical charts for coastal waters,
ESSA has similar responsibilities in the field of aero-

nautical charting and a general responsibility for the de-
velopment of improved cartographic methods. ESSA's
program in aeronautical charting involves all operations
required for the production and maintenance of aero-
nautical charts and related publications needed for air
navigation in the United States and its possessions. It
includes field surveys and investigations and the compi-
lation, reproduction, and distribution of the final product.
This program provides information needed for the
safety of air navigation whether it is undertaken by visual
aids or is performed by the use of instruments. It is in-
tended to keep pace with the rapid advances made in
aircraft design, capabilities, and resulting changes
in methods of traffic control. Efforts are directed toward
satisfying the needs of all sizes and types of aircraft.
Additional key objectives are the meeting of the require-
ments of the Federal Aviation Administration in ad-
ministering the Federal Airways System and the pro-
vision of charts needed by military aviation for operations
over the United States and its possessions. Research
in this area concentrates on the development of new and
improved cartographic techniques. The program includes
the development of new production techniques and
concepts as well as development of new types of graphic
display of information and studies for the improvement
of present operating methods and systems used to pro-
vide nautical and aeronautical charts.

The Ocean and Atmosphere

Description and understanding of the earth's mantle
of oceans and atmosphere is a key ESSA program since
these elements of the environment are constantly under-
going change and continuously affect man's life. Dis-
ciplines involved in this area are physical oceanography,
sea-air interaction studies, climatology, and atmospheric
physics and chemistry. An important element of these
disciplines is the search for improved mathematical
modeling techniques of the fluid media and their inter-
actions. Service programs in this area produce ocean
survey reports, climatological surveys, and atmospheric
data for a variety of purposes.

Ocean surveys consist of systematic observations of
ocean phenomena, taken in conjunction with data re-
quired for hydrography and bathymetry. They include
the reduction, analysis, and interpretation of these ob-
servations. The program includes the description of
various properties within the water column such as
temperature, salinity, chemical and nutrient content,
and dissolved gases.

ESSA plays a major role in providing climatological
services. These services involve the collection, analysis,
and dissemination of climatological data including tem-
perature, amount of rain and snowfall, barometric pres-
sure, the relative humidity, wind velocity including
winds aloft, solar radiation, and degree days. Data are
collected by ESSA's Environmental Data Service (EDS)
from approximately 1,000 land stations in the U.S.;
19 Automatic Meteorological Observing Stations (AMOS);

10

12 fixed ocean stations; and approximately 2,000 merchant
vessels. In addition, daily measurements of temperature
extremes and precipitation are made by volunteer
observers at about 12,000 substations.

The data produced by these networks are analyzed
and machine-processed at the National Weather Record
Center and disseminated through regional and state
climatologists and, through a variety of publications
including: Climatic Data, Weekly Weather and Crop
Bulletin, Hourly Precipitation Data, Monthly Climatic
Data for the World, Storm Data, Mariner's Weather Log,
etc.

This information has a number of economically sig-
nificant uses. Users of special importance include:
Agriculture for selection of crops, planting, and harvest
time; the aviation industry for their choice of airport
locations, direction of runways, and air route selection;
marine interests for probabilities of hurricanes and other
storms; and water management agencies for flood control
data and irrigation design. Other applications include
air pollution potential forecasts, preparation of data for
weather prediction by computer means, guidance for
military planners, and in the case of world climatological
data, advice to travelers, airline operators, and U.S.
companies wishing to market products abroad. These
service programs are supported by a research and de-
velopment effort covering the fields of statistical cli-
matology, synoptic climatology, climatic change, bio-
climatology (with emphasis on drought), severe storm
climatology, three-dimensional global climatology, im-
proved methods of data retrieval, and faster, higher
density means of data processing and archiving.

The results of scientific research may themselves be
significant products, being used later in other disciplines
for the development of new or improved service capabili-
ties. For example, the results of research in the physics
and chemistry of the ocean and atmosphere are essential
to the design and development of future prediction and
warning systems and the perfection of means to modify
the weather. Thus, ESSA has a substantial research
mission in oceanography and the atmospheric sciences.

The Upper Atmosphere and Space

In the near future, the upper atmosphere will be the
environment for supersonic transport aircraft. Even today,
the upper atmosphere and the space in the near vicinity
of the earth are the environment for manned space ve-
hicles and instrumented, unmanned vehicles. In addition,
the upper atmosphere contains varying numbers of
charged particles which have an important effect on tele-
communications. Thus, there exists a critical, continuing
necessity for description of this portion of the environ-
ment. The development of information necessary for the
execution of this program is a principal service product
of ESSA's program in this area, and this program is con-
ducted by the Institute for Telecommunication Sciences
and Aeronomy (ITSA).

ESSA's research effort in aeronomy — the science
dealing with description of the upper atmosphere and
near-space — includes the study of the upper and lower
ionosphere by both direct (satellite) and indirect (radar)
means, simulation of the upper atmosphere in the labora-
tory to study atmospheric composition and processes,
and the study of those variations in the earth's magnetic
field produced by ionospheric fluctuations and solar
disturbances.

ENVIRONMENTAL PREDICTION AND WARNING

Perhaps the most dramatic of ESSA's current missions
is the prediction of the behavior of the environment and
the issuance of warnings of environmental hazards. A
large percentage of ESSA's resources is devoted to pro-
viding services and solving problems related to predic-
tion and warning, including indirectly a number of re-
search areas previously described. ESSA's goals range
from finding a means to predict destructive earthquakes
and tsunamis (seismic sea waves) through weather fore-
casting to warnings of potentially harmful disturbances
in the near-space environment.

Earthquakes and Tsunamis

Although certain regions of the United States are better
known than others for damaging earthquakes — i.e., Cali-
fornia and Alaska — there are few States in the union
which have not had at least one earthquake severe enough
to cause some damage. The same is true for almost every
region of the earth. The Prince William Sound, Alaska,
earthquake in March 1964 demonstrated a need for
improved understanding of earthquake mechanisms, both
to permit the prediction of these events and to provide
better guidance for the design of earthquake-resistant
structures. Studies by the Institute for Earth Sciences
(IES) and C&GS seek to determine the physical mechan-
isms by which earthquakes take place. These studies
include fault instrumentation, after-shock studies, tilt
meter observations, geological and geophysical field
surveys, geodetic surveys, strain measurements, and
geomagnetic measurements.

A particularly important service function of ESSA is
the operation by C&GS of the National Tsunami Warn-
ing Center for the Pacific Ocean area. This service was
inaugurated after the destructive tsunami of April 1,
1946, which took 173 lives and cost $25,000,000 in prop-
erty damage in Hawaii alone. The Center at Honolulu
evaluates the tsunami potential of earthquakes reported
in the area and issues alerts and warnings where indi-
cated to the various countries bordering on the Pacific
that participate in the service.

The problem of prediction is particularly difficult
because not all underwater earthquakes produce tsu-
namis, and the runup is critically affected by bottom
topography and wave amplitude. Consequently tsunami
research is primarily directed toward improved predic-
tion methods consisting of mathematical prediction
models continually modified by tide gage data inputs.

11

Ocean and Atmosphere Prediction and Warning

Both in terms of resources and assigned personnel,
the Weather Bureau is the largest single activity of
ESSA. Its personnel are found at approximately 400
facilities within the United States, at 14 overseas sta-
tions, and on 21 ships at sea. Altogether, the Bureau
has some 5,000 full-time employees working in meteoro-
logical and hydrological operations. In 1 year, approxi-
mately 3.5 million observations are taken and 1.9 million
forecasts and warnings issued.

The ESSA service program best known to most people
is the public weather service of the Weather Bureau.
This service through its local offices provides weather
information, forecasts, and warnings, which are dis-
tributed in cooperation with news media. These products
also serve as a starting point for most interpretive and
specialized forecast services including the many detailed
services provided by industrial and consulting meteorolo-
gists. For long-range weather planning needs, certain
climatological information is available at each local

Weather Bureau office. Figure 1 shows the location of
the approximately 235 Weather Bureau offices in the
United States and Puerto Rico.

The Agricultural Weather Service was established to
supply meteorological services including forecasts,
warnings, and advice of particular use to the agricultural
community. This Service currently serves all or part of
20 States and plans call for similar services to be extended
to all sections of the country if funds permit. Services
include:

D Detailed weather forecasts beneficial to farming opera-
tions. In certain locations, special emphasis is placed
on the prediction of frost;

D Extension and advisory services to acquaint farmers
with the potential benefits and profits to be derived
from weather information; and

D A communication system designed to make information
services readily available through radio and TV to
both agricultural interests and the general community.

Figure 1. Weather Bureau stations, conterminous United States and Puerto Rieo.

12

In order to furnish weather information necessary for
safe and efficient flight operation at airport terminals
and along flight routes, the Weather Bureau maintains
an extensive Aviation Weather Service. This Service
provides forecasts and briefings for international and
domestic flight operations in that region extending from
the surface to operational levels of civil jet aircraft. The
Aviation Safety and Quality Control Service evaluates,
forecasts, and plots weather briefing effectiveness; and
also provides technical support for aircraft accident
investigations, safety enforcement proceedings, and
civil litigation.

Service to international aviation is provided for a large
portion of the Northern Hemisphere in accordance with
the procedures of the International Civil Aviation Orga-
nization (ICAO). This service is rendered primarily by
five Main Meteorological Offices (MMO) and the Analysis
and Forecast Division of the National Meteorological
Center. In addition, a network of 29 meteorological of-
fices serves international aviation by providing briefings
and flight documentation services.

The Fire Weather Service provides specialized fore-
cast, advisory, and warning services to Federal, State,
and private fire-control and forest-management groups
through one or more fire-weather meteorologists who are
stationed at 40 Weather Bureau offices and by the use
of mobile units when forest fires reach a predetermined
size. These forecasts are made twice daily in most areas
during the forest fire season and are also issued more
frequently if required during a fire.

The Marine Weather Service of the Weather Bureau
supplies weather and sea state forecasts, warnings, and
data essential to the conduct of effective and safe marine
operation.

The National Hurricane Warning Service, which
operates through several Centers, is responsible for warn-
ing the public of hurricanes and other tropical storms.
The Centers furnish basic hurricane advisories and bulle-
tins coordinated for prognosticated hurricane positions,
tropical weather outlook, and post-storm reports. The
Centers conduct research and development for improved
means of detecting and predicting hurricanes as well as
on the tropical weather processes that lead to their
formation. Similarly, the Severe Local Storms Forecast
Center furnishes warnings of tornadoes and severe local
storms. Other more highly specialized program areas
of the Weather Bureau include: Support of the Nation's
space programs, both missile and space flight; studies of
polar regions; and special studies with regard to the pro-
posed Interocean Canal Project.

The Basic Weather Service Program supports the
public weather service, and all the Weather Bureau's
specialized weather services and warnings by providing
the necessary meteorological information and products.
This program is concerned with data acquisition, com-
munication, analysis, and dissemination which are com-
mon to the other programs. The basic meteorological

organization to carry out this program is composed of
three echelons:

D The National Meteorological Center (NMC), the Na-
tional Severe Storms Forecast Center (NSSFC), the
National Hurricane Center (NHC), and the Tropical
Analysis Center (TAC) constitute the top echelon.

□ The area forecast centers (22 in the conterminous
United States plus one each in Anchorage, Honolulu,
and San Juan) are the key elements of the field fore-
casting operation. These centers are responsible
for warnings and forecasts for States, or large portions
of States. Area or statewide forecasts cover about 48
hours and are issued four times daily. They are also
issued to the public in critical weather situations.
This echelon provides the main field forecast support
for the marine and aviation programs and guidance
for the agricultural and fire-weather programs.

D The zone and local forecast offices represent the
third echelon of the system. Zone and local fore-
casts are adaptations of the State forecasts. They
are issued to meet local requirements but do not ex-
tend beyond the period covered by the official State
forecasts. This echelon has important warning distri-
bution responsibilities and is usually the location
of the fire-weather and agricultural forecast offices.

NMC provides basic weather analyses and forecast
guidance for use by field offices. It also provides an in-
creasing number of meteorological byproducts such as
wind forecasts for aviation and precipitation forecasts
for hydrology and public services.

The centralized preparation of data analyses and fore-
casts is designed to eliminate most requirements for
hand charting and independent meteorological analysis
at field forecast offices. The computer facility plays a sig-
nificant role at NMC where the principal objective is
the promotion of increased use of numerical methods
in preparing both short-range and extended-range fore-
casts.

In the course of one day, NMC receives: 12,000 synoptic
and 25,000 hourly surface aviation reports, 1,400 synoptic
ship reports, 1,500 upper atmospheric and winds aloft
reports, 500 aircraft pilot reports, and 160 global satel-
lite cloud photographs. These data receive wide distri-
bution. Each day, NMC makes nearly 600 facsimile and
200 teletypewriter transmissions to field offices.

The National Environmental Satellite Center (NESC),
another major component of ESSA, is a major contributor
to the fund of data and analysis upon which forecasts are
based. The successful launches of the environmental sur-
vey satellites ESSA I and II in February 1966 and subse-
quent launches of ESSA III, IV, and V established the
world's first operational weather satellite system. These
satellites provide regular and reliable daily weather
observation of the entire globe for central analysis, and
local area photographs for more than 200 ground stations
scattered around the world. This is the first time that
such information has been obtainable on a global, syn-
optic basis (i.e., from a broad area nearly simultaneously)

13

and permits early identification of locations of weather
over the oceans which may affect the shoreline, as well
as providing data for global weather studies. The Center
conducts research on improved utilization of satellite
data, new types of environmental satellite systems, and
development of improved instrumentation.

River and Flood Prediction and Warning

An important service mission of ESSA is the forecast-
ing of river levels and the issue of necessary flood warn-
ings; this is carried out through the Office of Hydrology
of the Weather Bureau. Continuous forecasts of high,
low, and intermediate flows are increasingly important
for water supply, flood control, pollution abatement,
navigation, and efficient reservoir operations, as well
as many other purposes. The Office of Hydrology con-
ducts research in river forecasting, evaporation, rate of
heating, snow melting processes, precipitation frequency,
and the use of satellite data for these hydrologic purposes.

Telecommunications Prediction

The effective use of radio frequencies for telecom-
munications, particularly over great distances, depends
heavily on ionospheric and atmospheric conditions. A
vital service mission, conducted through ESSA's Insti-
tute for Telecommunication Sciences and Aeronomy
(ITSA) is the regular distribution of forecasts of usable
frequencies in various portions of the world as a function
of both the time of day and the day of the year. This
service is essential for both commercial long-distance
communication and military communications. ITSA con-
ducts research on the effects of ionospheric and atmos-
pheric variables at various frequencies, and in improved
means for their prediction.

Space Disturbance Prediction and Warning

ITSA's Space Disturbance Forecast Center main-
tains a 24-hour surveillance of activities on the surface
of the sun. These activities are in the form of fluctuations
in the magnetic field, ionizing radiation, and high-energy
particles. They produce reactions which may be highly
destructive to communications and can be extremely
dangerous to astronauts in the near-space environment.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING SERVICES AND
ACTIVITIES

The operating policies of ESSA emphasize the descrip-
tion, understanding, and prediction of the physical en-
vironment, but there is also considerable activity related
to the application of the knowledge gained to the solution
of specific problems. Among the major activities in these
areas are engineering seismology, ocean engineering,
environmental pollution abatement, telecommunication
engineering, and weather modification.

Engineering Seismology

ESSA uses seismologic data to guide engineers in the
design and location of structures in earthquake-prone
regions and for the detection of underground nuclear
blasts.

The C&GS service programs in engineering seismology
produce information on earthquake mechanisms for the
guidance of structural designers in various regions.
Criteria for structural design are developed jointly with
the National Bureau of Standards. C&GS then performs
cost benefit analyses to determine the economic factors
relating to the use of these criteria. Research in support
of this program includes regional studies, strong-motion
studies, and rock and soil mechanics.

While there is no program in ESSA designed spe-
cifically to detect underground nuclear blasts, this ob-
jective is achieved through the operation of seismological
networks primarily designed for other purposes. Sim-
ilarly, research in support of this objective also supports
teleseismology.

Ocean Engineering

Many ESSA programs, such as bottom sampling,
bathymetric mapping, and physical oceanography, con-
tribute important ocean engineering data. The develop-
ment of ships and buoys constitutes a relevant applica-
tion of ocean engineering techniques. However, there
are several ESSA activities which fall directly in the
engineering field. Included are the dissemination of
information on the bearing strength of bottom sediment,
and the publication of studies of wave climatology for
the guidance of ship designers and operators. Research
in ocean engineering covers improved techniques for
data acquisition, equipment development, and clima-
toligical studies.

Environmental Pollution

Although plans call for expansion of this program in
both scope and size, ESSA already performs essential
services related to the problem of environmental pol-
lution and its abatement. These include air pollution
potential advisories, now prepared for a number of urban
areas on a routine basis; river flow forecasts by the
Weather Bureau; estuarine flushing predictions by
C&GS; and a number of special services, such as the
prediction of trajectories for radioactive fallout. Re-
search in environmental pollution covers estuarine studies,
atmospheric radioactivity, trajectories, pollution chemis-
try, and certain aspects of air turbulence.

Telecommunications Engineering

The earth's surface and atmosphere have many effects
on electromagnetic waves. The goal of ITSA is to predict
these effects quantitatively, spatially, and temporally,
in order that the Nation may realize the maximum pos-
sible return from its expenditure on electromagnetic
telecommunications systems; and in order that the electro-
magnetic spectrum, an essential natural resource, be
used with maximum effectiveness. ITSA's task as the
central Federal agency for propagation research and
services, is to obtain and disseminate information on
the distortions and attenuations experienced by these
waves as they travel from transmitter to receiver to pro-
vide design criteria for telecommunications systems.

To meet this mission, ITSA must work at all relevant

14

communications frequencies (from about 103 to about 1015
Hz, or wave lengths from about 10-millionths of an inch
to about 200 miles); at all relevant ranges; at all heights
(including below the surface of the earth or oceans and up
to satellite altitudes); and in all locations and climates
(from pole to pole and in space); and in support of all
significant uses of telecommunications (such as defense,
aviation, navigation, public safety, communications,
entertainment, and space research). Ionospheric and
tropospheric telecommunications are the two major cate-
gories of research performed in support of this service
mission. Because of the nature of ionospheric propagation,
the first category deals essentially with the frequency
range from 1 X 103 to about 107 Hz. The balance of the
spectrum lies in the second category.

Research in ionospheric propagation includes all radio
propagation factors affecting the design and use of radio
systems for long-distance radio communications, naviga-
tion, timing, detection, and positioning. Studies of ion-
ospheric ground wave and line-of-sight radio paths are
made to define their limitations in capacity as a trans-
mission medium. Standards and methods of measure-
ments for radio systems are developed in order to fulfill
the needs of Federal agencies and industry. Research
in support of tropospheric communications engineering
covers spectrum utilization, studies of the electromagnetic
interference environment, millimeter wave propagation,
and infrared and optical propagation.

Modification and Control of the Environment

Studies of means to modify and control the environ-
ment are still in an early stage, and as a result, there does
not yet exist a service program in this area, other than
the development of information and knowledge through
research. Although eventually other elements of the
environment will be investigated, efforts so far have been
limited to two fields, one a very limited study of modi-
fication of the ionosphere to affect telecommunications,
and the other, ESSA major objective areas related to
weather modification.

SUPPORTING SERVICES AND FACILITIES

The essential unity of the environmental sciences is
most evident in the common use of instruments, equip-
ment, and facilities. While each area has needs peculiar
to itself, there is considerable opportunity for common
and even simultaneous use of platforms, sensors, com-
munications, data processing, and archiving facilities.

The development and operation of these facilities and
equipment are in some cases a service function of ESSA
performed both in support of its own operations and in
various fields, and in support of other agencies as well.
The following are some of the programs in this category.

Platforms and Stations

Platforms of a wide variety are developed and operated
by ESSA for both operational and research data ac-

quisition. These include a large number of general and
special purpose laboratories and test sites, an under-
water stable platform for measuring geophysical param-
eters at sea, buoys, a fleet of oceangoing vessels, a small
fleet of instrumented research aircraft, balloons, and
environmental rockets and satellites. Research and de-
velopment is performed to adapt sensors to platforms,
improve data acquisition to solve engineering problems,
and to improve or innovate the facilities themselves.

Sensors

Sensors and other instruments are developed and im-
proved in connection with almost every area of environ-
mental science and service. However, two programs of
ESSA have the broad objectives of contributing to a
number of different fields: The development of space-
qualified sensors for satellite application at NESC, and
an investigation of the use of electromagnetic radiation
as a remote sensing device for environmental science
at ITSA.

Communications

The Weather Bureau has an extensive network of com-
munications for the transmission of raw data, forecasts,
and warnings. To an increasing extent, this network is
being used for transmission of other types of environ-
mental information, particularly warnings in connection
with the NADWARN program. Because future plans
call for the real-time communication of a much larger
volume of data in a number of environmental areas,
studies are being made of future requirements and the
means to meet them.

Data Processing

ESSA already has an enormous amount of data to
process each day and this amount will grow. Virtually
all programs routinely use computer processing either
by means of specifically allocated facilities or through
the sharing of time on other computers. ESSA's Com-
puter Division monitors computer acquisition and usage
to obtain maximum utilization of facilities compatible
with efficient operation. Studies of future needs and the
means to meet them are underway.

Archiving

EDS, in addition to performing climatological serv-
ices and research, has a major responsibility for the
archiving of environmental data in a number of different
fields. The Service maintains specialized data centers
for geodetic, geomagnetic, seismological, climatological,
and other geophysical information. It provides a single
source of environmental data to specialized and general
user groups. Research and development is performed in
advanced data storage and retrieval methods in support
of these services.

Ionospheric and space disturbance data are archived
at ITSA under the direction of EDS. In addition, ESSA
contributes to the support of the National Oceanographic
Data Center.

HIGHLIGHTS

During its first 2 years of operation, ESSA established
a management system which integrated the functions
and missions of separate agencies in the Department of
Commerce involved in the environmental sciences. This
unified organizational structure has enabled ESSA to
begin an integrated, balanced, and coordinated program
of research and development and services. It is expected
that this approach will yield improved description, pre-
diction, and gradually increasing, though limited, control
of the physical environment.

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

The administrative organization and integration of
ESSA's components are significant achievements of this
period. The successful completion of the necessary
organizational changes required the sorting out and har-
monizing of three sets of policies, procedures, and man-
agerial structures.

The establishment of the Institutes for Environmental
Research was a milestone in the evolution of the concept
of the essential unity of environmental science. By the
end of FY 66, the Weather Bureau's Office of Meteorologi-
cal Research had emerged as the Institute for Atmos-
pheric Sciences; the Research Division of the Coast and
Geodetic Survey had evolved into the Institute for Earth
Sciences and the Institute for Oceanography; and finally
the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory and the Geo-
acoustics Group of the National Bureau of Standards had
become the Institute for Telecommunication Sciences
and Aeronomy. The headquarters of the Institutes, lo-
cated at Boulder, Colo., is responsible for planning and
supervision of basic and applied research needed to
support ESSA's missions both in the present and the
future.

ESSA also established, during this reporting period, an
Office of Science and Engineering to monitor the interface
between the basic research programs of the Institutes
and development activities of the service bureaus. This
group also coordinated ESSA-wide efforts designed to

attain selected major program objectives, and it repre-
sented ESSA on various boards and committees within
as well as outside the Federal Government.

SERVICE PROGRAMS

During its brief existence, ESSA has made significant
progress in its service programs. For example, an Inter-
agency Disaster Warning Survey Group was established
following the Palm Sunday tornado disaster in the Mid-
west on April 11, 1965. Under ESSA leadership, this
group completed its study during this reporting period,
and prepared a plan for a nationwide Natural Disaster
Warning System (NADWARN) which would use exist-
ing technology and facilities to provide more rapid means
for warning the public of impending natural disasters.
The NADWARN System, which will eventually furnish
warnings of space disturbances, weather hazards, floods,
seismic sea waves (tsunamis), earthquakes, and upper
atmospheric hazards, was established in FY 67.

The tsunami warning system, one of the key elements
of the NADWARN System, was established during this
reporting period at Honolulu, Hawaii. A network of
seismograph and tide stations feeds information on a real-
time basis to the National Tsunami Warning Center. This
information is analyzed by computers located in the
Center which then predict arrival times for the various
areas bordering the Pacific. The tsunami warning sys-
tem currently transmits information to a number of
countries and is being improved as rapidly as possible.
For example, research performed by an ESSA scientist
working at the Joint Tsunami Research Effort at the
University of Hawaii has led to a new computer program
which predicts the convergence and divergence of
energy from a tsunami at any point in the Pacific Ocean
from an origin at any point in the Pacific.

In an analogous effort. ESSA established a National
Earthquake Information Center on August 15. 1966.
located at the Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) head-
quarters in Rockville, Md. This Center functions as a

15

16

Tsunami
Warning
System

17

Artist's conception of the manifestations of a solar flare. Emissions from the sun disrupt the
magnetosphere and ionosphere, interfering with long-distance communications and delicate
satellite electronic operations. Solar flares, which may be hazardous to man beyond the
protective covering of the atmosphere, are investigated and forecasted by the Space Dis-
turbances Laboratory.

focal point for the dissemination of seismic information
for both the general public as well as specialized audi-
ences, through various media, such as its monthly
Earthquake Information Bulletin, which was begun in
March 1967.

The first new service to result from the Center is an
Earthquake Early Reporting System which provides ac-
curate and rapid hypocenter locations for magnitude
values over six on the Richter Scale. The range of the
network is presently limited to that portion of the Western
Hemisphere centering around the United States but
will be expanded to include reports from selected foreign
observatories.

A highly significant aspect of the general area of
warning is the detection and prediction of solar flares.
In September 1965, a new Space Disturbances Monitor-
ing Facility became operational near Anchorage, Alaska.
At this facility, various geophysical effects related to
changes in the earth's radiation environment are mon-
itored by ground-based sensors. A new Space Disturbance
Forecast Center was established at the Institute for

Telecommunication Sciences and Aeronomy (ITSA) in
Boulder, Colo. Daily forecasts of solar flare occurrence
probabilities, solar proton event probabilities, and the
prediction of the general level of several important solar-
geophysical indices are disseminated to a growing num-
ber of recipients. Special solar activity forecasts are also
prepared in connection with a number of NASA space
programs.

In addition to its programs in natural hazard warning.
ITSA plays a major role in the application of telecom-
munications engineering to other national problems. For
example, ITSA's Tropospheric Telecommunications
Laboratory designed in less than a year a nationwide
communications network for the FBI's National Crime
Information Center in Washington, D.C. This system,
using mostly common carrier microwave links, provides
for the rapid transmission of information between the
Center and State and metropolitan law enforcement
agencies. ITSA is even at present working with the FBI
to explore the application of new technology to the needs
of the 1970's.

18

The TIROS Wheel Satellite, the basic spacecraft for the TOS System,
photographs 4 million square miles with each rotation about its axis
and covers the entire earth once each 24 hours.

One of the most important events within the past 2
fiscal years was the launching by NASA for ESSA of the
world's first operational weather satellite system in
February 1966 and the subsequent initiation of routine
satellite collection of meteorological data. The TOS
System (TIROS Operational Satellite System), of which
ESSA I and II were the first vehicles to be launched,
obtains cloud photographs on a global basis, which are
then transmitted to ground stations. The TOS System
has been expanded with the launching of ESSA III on
October 2, 1966, which replaced ESSA I; ESSA IV on
January 24, 1967, which supplements ESSA II; and, ESSA
V on April 20, 1967, which supplements ESSA III.

The system operates in the following manner: ESSA I,
III, and V, using Advanced Vidicon Camera Systems
(AVCS) store pictures for readout to two Command and
Data Acquisition Stations and relay to the National
Environmental Satellite Center (NESC). The pictures and
data are processed at the Center and furnished to the
National Meteorological Center (NMC) for incorporation
into operational analyses for worldwide dissemination.

ESSA II, however, takes and transmits local area pictures
to suitably equipped ground stations within 1,800 nautical
miles of the satellites. (ESSA IV is not at maximum
operating capacity.) This latter system, called APT
(Automatic Picture Transmission), has had considerable
international impact since a nation, corporation, or even
an individual can, for only a few thousand dollars,
purchase the necessary equipment to obtain twice daily
pictures of local cloud cover. ESSA II presently transmits
to some 200 APT ground stations.

An important innovation in the Weather Bureau's
service program was the introduction of probability fore-
casting for the general public. This type of forecasting
provides quantitative information regarding the degree
of uncertainty in weather events. These forecasts are
based to a large extent upon a statistical analysis of em-
pirical evidence. In other words, a forecast of a 60-percent
probability of precipitation means that in 60 percent of
the cases when a similar atmospheric weather pattern
existed in the past, precipitation resulted. This system
is beginning to enjoy wide public acceptance since it

19

permits better planning, especially by weather-sensitive
businesses which can apply these percentages to their
production schedule formulas and derive profit versus
loss ratios.

Finally, ESSA's Air Pollution Potential (APP) advisory
program became operational on July 1, 1966. Tabular
and graphical output were used at first to support the
Weather Bureau's forecast center at Cincinnati. During
the year, the final preparation of guidance forecast charts
for national distribution was taken over by NMC.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Two major new research facilities were added to
ESSA's complement with the commissioning of the
Oceanographic Survey Ships, Oceanographer and
Discoverer. These vessels, designed for deep ocean
survey, have fully equipped environmental science
laboratories; closed circuit television; equipment for
automatically logging data from oceanographic, mete-
orological, and ionospheric sensors; and on-board
computers for preliminary data analysis. Both vessels
were constructed as part of a coordinated 10-year ocean-
ographic survey program developed by the Interagency
Committee on Oceanography of the Federal Council for
Science and Technology.

ESSA also made significant progress in seismology
during this period. Construction was initiated of a major
research facility at Stone Canyon, near Hollister, Calif.,
for the interdisciplinary study of earthquake mechanisms
along the San Andreas Fault. Measurements will be made
in the vicinity of the fault to determine significant cor-
relations that might offer an approach to practical earth-
quake prediction.

In another contribution to seismology, ESSA's Al-
buquerque Seismological Center developed and fabri-
cated seismograph systems to record the relative ampli-
tudes of seismic waves in various types of geologic
formations. The information obtained is used to estimate
the effect of earthquakes on foundation materials. This
type of information is extremely important to architects
and structural engineers in earthquake-prone areas. In
fact, the results of a recent study of California school
structures indicated that less than 1 percent of the
structures built according to design criteria based on
these data were damaged by earthquakes, compared to
67 percent damage of structures not built according to
these criteria, under the same earthquake conditions.

ESSA also tested a new technique of using a laser beam
with a Geodimeter to extend the distance at which wide
triangulation can be made of the surface of the earth.
This device has resulted in considerable savings by en-
abling the C&GS to reduce the number of observations
needed to establish accurate geodetic control, particularly
in the vicinity of densely populated areas having poor
visibility because of atmospheric pollution.

In an effort to collect oceanographic data on a con-
tinuous basis, ESSA developed a system called ODESSA
using buoy-supported instruments to measure tempera-

ture, salinity, current speed and direction, and depth of
observations. This system can make measurements of
.these parameters at eight different depths simultane-
ously, either recording data automatically on magnetic
tape for later retrieval, or telemetering it directly to shore
stations on demand. Prototypes of the ODESSA system
are now being field tested with their operational deploy-
ment over the Continental Shelf scheduled for early
FY 68.

Major progress was also made in weather satellite
instrumentation. NESC in cooperation with NASA spon-
sored the development of a new spin-scan camera which
was flown successfully on NASA's ATS-1 synchronous
satellite. This camera took photographs at 20-minute
intervals of cloud pattern evolution in the Pacific Ocean
area. There were equally significant advances in the
interpretation and use of satellite photographic data. A
method was developed to estimate the winds in hurri-
canes and tropical storms which has proved accurate,
in most cases, to within 25 miles per hour.

Any improvement in weather forecasting requires not
only global data, but also accurate mathematical models
of the atmosphere for the conversion of the data to fore-
casts and warnings. A major problem in this type of model-
ing is the complexity of the interactions involved and the
difficulty of obtaining solutions that do not diverge with
time due to nonlinearities in the original or "primitive"
equations. Previously, it has been necessary to modify
these equations, using simplifying assumptions which
made stable solutions possible, but also reduced their
value. However, during the reporting period, NMC was
able to obtain stable numerical solutions to these equa-
tions, which will permit more accurate machine fore-
casts for up to 6 days in advance. Ultimately, with these
equations, it should be possible to obtain accurate com-

Measuring 8-mile line at Beltsville. Md.
with laser Geodimeter.

20

puter prediction of the weather for up to 2 weeks in
advance if adequate data are available.

Along similar lines, the Institute for Oceanography
developed and successfully tested a mathematical model
of the interaction between the air and sea which pro-
duces "storm surge" (unusually high, storm-driven tides).
This model is important for timely and accurate warn-
ings of unusually high or low tides, and can be of great
value to coastal communities by saving both lives and
property. It is already in use by the Weather Bureau at
Atlantic City and will be extended to other coastal areas
in the near future.

The first statistically significant evidence that tropical
cumulus clouds can be modified by seeding was obtained
during FY 66 in the Caribbean by the Atmospheric
Physics and Chemistry Laboratory. These results are
critical for both future efforts to moderate the force of
hurricanes and in attempts to affect rainfall along the
coasts of the United States. The general validity of the
provisional physical model used to predict cloud growth
and behavior has been established.

Tropical cloudiness and rainfall have been shown to
be closely related to surface pressure variations having
important diurnal and semi-diurnal components asso-
ciated with the solar and lunar tides. Further evidence
has been found that the quasi-biennial oscillation is, at
least in part, a tidal phenomenon and that there is an
atmospheric response to the tidal perturbations in terms
of a latitudinal adjustment of pressure.

In addition to the evaluation of successful 1965-66
experiments, development of pyrotechnic seeding agents
for release from aircraft was undertaken, and, jointly
with the National Hurricane Research Laboratory, the
design of a field research program for a study of the nat-
ural ice crystal development in maritime cumulus clouds
was begun.

The work in these areas forms the basis for the design
of cumulus seeding experiments in Florida during the
spring of 1968. These .experiments will be designed to
study the development of cumulus clouds after release

of heat of fusion caused by seeding as well as the develop-
ment of the release precipitation.

Special attention will be given to the developments
which cause a cloud to grow in depth and width. Cloud
and precipitation prediction will be attempted from the
numerical model using data from radiosondes and air-
craft flight collection.

Additionally, major improvements were made in numer-
ical methods of mapping the ionosphere for the purpose
of predicting maximum useable frequencies for telecom-
munications. The reliability and accuracy of this method
developed by ITSA's Ionospheric Telecommunications
Laboratory is now at a sufficiently high level that it has
been adopted for standard international use. In a unique
facility, which simulates the pressure and radiation
environment of the ionosphere, atomic and molecular
collision processes may now be studied by ITSA's Aeron-
omy Laboratory under controlled conditions and for
greatly reduced costs compared to in situ experiments.

Finally, a joint National Academy of Sciences— National
Academy of Engineering Advisory Committee to ESSA
was established in FY 67. The Committee will review
ESSA programs for content, relevance, and technical
quality from the standpoint of ESSA's overall service
mission.

PROFESSIONAL ACHIEVEMENTS

With the close of FY 67, there were approximately
3,300 professional personnel in ESSA, of whom 800 were
working in research and development and engineering
activities. During the reporting period, this group pro-
duced approximately 1,100 technical publications, chaired
about 140 meetings, symposia, or sessions of recognized
scientific engineering societies, and served as official U.S.
representatives or consultants to international scientific
coordinating organizations in over 150 cases. In addition,
ESSA's staff produced well over 1 million environmental
forecasts and distributed millions of copies of maps,
charts, tables, and publications describing the
environment.

DESCRIBING AND
UNDERSTANDING
MAN'S ENVIRONMENT

This chapter treats those portions of ESSA's total
research, development, and engineering program which
are primarily directed toward describing and understand-
ing the environment and understanding the mechanisms
of its behavior. The products in this area are hard copy
and more or less of a permanent nature. Description may
be graphic, as in the case of maps and charts, or it may
be alpha-numeric, as in reports and tables. Description
products may be used directly (for example, navigation
charts) or as a tool for further analysis, e.g., the use of
data describing the upper atmosphere (applied in re-
search to improve telecommunications). The application
of understanding is usually indirect — for example, when
weather forecasting is improved through broader under-
standing of atmospheric processes.

ESSA's activities in environmental description and
understanding are fundamental to its entire service effort.
Programs in this area range from the solid earth and its
fields, outward to the near-space environment.

THE SOLID EARTH AND ITS FIELDS

Research in this area supports ESSA's service pro-
grams and is related to the major objective areas con-
cerned with the Natural Disaster Warning System and
Marine Environmental Activities. ESSA's activities in
this area are conducted principally by the Coast and
Geodetic Survey (C&GS) and the Institute for Earth
Sciences (IES) augmented by the Institute for Oceanog-
raphy (10) in the fields of marine geodesy and geo-
magnetism.

The disciplines involved are the descriptive aspects
of geomagnetism, seismology, and geodesy.

Geomagnetism

The magnetic field which extends from the core of
the earth into outer space must be continuously moni-
tored and recharted. The sources of the earth's prin-
cipal magnetic field lie deep within its core. These
sources change slowly in magnitude and position, re-
quiring some hundreds of years for a cycle to manifest
itself. The resulting changes in the magnetic field.

however, are great enough to require new charts every
5 to 10 years for precise navigation purposes. Most of
the more rapid perturbations of the field, such as those
characterized as magnetic storms, are due to electric
currents in the ionosphere and higher above the earth's
surface. These currents, affected by atmospheric tides,
solar wind, and other disturbances originating on the
sun, can cause changes that affect telecommunications
and navigation adversely.

Geomagnetic Research Facilities

The 15 magnetic observatories of C&GS, distributed
from Alaska to the South Pole, together with more than
100 cooperating foreign observatories around the world,
constitute an important source of data for geomagnetic
research. The Fredericksburg Geomagnetic Center at
Corbin, Va., is maintained by C&GS as a facility for
the development of instruments and systems, the stand-
ardization and calibration of all geomagnetic instru-
ments, and the study of special problems related to the
interpretation of data. Analysis and research is per-
formed at the Fredericksburg Center and at the Geo-
magnetism Laboratory of IES at Boulder, Colo. Research
on marine geomagnetism is carried out at the Marine
Geology and Geophysics Laboratory of 10 at Miami.
Fla., using data collected by the C&GS oceanographic
fleet.

Instrument and Systems Development

The basic instrument used in geomagnetic work is
the magnetometer, which on land measures three com-
ponents of the geomagnetic field: horizontal direction
and intensity, declination, and vertical intensity. Early
magnetometers, the principle of which is still in use
today in some instruments, employed optically viewed
magnets suspended either freely or on a torsion mount-
ing. Such instruments, although they are still the stand-
ard technique for obtaining absolute readings of all
components for calibration purposes, require a human
observer and are therefore impractical for making con-
tinuous observations. During the past decade, the

21

22

development of nuclear spin-resonance magnetometers
and their adaptation for measuring vector components
of the magnetic field, as well as the scalar intensity,
have made possible instruments which are faster and
more accurate and capable of being used for continuous
recording.

Field Instrumentation. To determine a real distribu-
tion of the magnetic field, observations must be made at
many geographical locations. At selected points, the
observations are repeated after the lapse of a few years,
to determine secular change. Thus, there is considerable
interest in developing portable field instrumentation
which can be set up rapidly and which will produce
results of superior accuracy under field conditions.

Development of field instrumentation has been pursued
through the successful development and fabrication of
portable, continuous-recording magnetic instrumentation
for use in Antarctica and on repeat magnetic survey
work. Continuous-recording magnetic instruments nor-
mally are highly sensitive to minute drifts in level and to
temperature changes. Through the employment of de-
sign innovations and high-quality workmanship, both
these problems were successfully reduced to tolerable

Coil system and detector of a continuously recording
vector magnetometer.

proportions by the Fredericksburg Geomagnetic Center.
Initial success was achieved in the development of a
system which was installed in January 1966, at the new
U.S. Antarctic Plateau Station, where long-term stability
of a rigid platform is extremely difficult to achieve and
where a temperature range exists from a few degrees
below 0° F to as low as —130° F. A second generation
system of improved portability was later developed and
put in use by the Repeat Magnetic Survey Party in
summer 1966.

Automatic Magnetic Observatories. A major highlight
of ESSA's geomagnetism program during the reporting
period was the dedication of the Newport Geophysical
Observatory near Newport, Wash. A key feature of the
observatory is a new three-component rubidium vapor
spin-resonance magnetometer system which detects
and records variations in the earth's magnetic field con-
tinuously on magnetic tape, in both digital and analog
form. This instrument operates without the intervention
of an observer, except for calibration and maintenance,
but most importantly, it provides a source of continuous
three-component data in order that rapid variations may
be observed and analyzed with the Observatory's high-
speed computers. The instrument operates over a fre-
quency spectrum ranging from near zero (very long
period fluctuations measured in months or years) to an
upper limit of a few cycles per second. Its sensitivity
is high, down to a few hundreths of a gamma (100,000
gammas =1 gauss). Values of declination, horizontal
intensity, and vertical intensity are recorded digitally
six times each minute on computer-compatible incre-
mental magnetic tape. The same magnetic elements are
also recorded continuously on FM analog tape, resolving
variations up to three or four cycles per second. Visual
monitoring is provided by pen and ink recorders. The
system is equipped with dynamic Helmholtz coil com-
pensation so that even during a magnetic storm the
vector components of the field are accurately separated.

A system based on the same general principle, but
designed for remote unmanned operation, is now un-
der test and evaluation at the Castle Rock Magnetic
Observatory near San Jose, Calif. This device called
ASMOR (Automatic Standard Magnetic Observatory —
Remote) is a prototype, which, if it meets the require-
ments for long-term stability and reliability, may lead
to the increasing use of unmanned stations in remote
locations.

Scanner-Digitizer. It is significant that ESSA's first
year of existence saw the conception and in-house
development of the first wholly satisfactory semiauto-
matic system for scanning and digitizing magnetograms.
Even though automatic magnetometers are beginning to
come into use, the standard instrument used in most
of the world's magnetic observatories to record varia-
tions in the earth's magnetic field is still the magneto-
graph. This device is an optical magnetometer which
must be operated in total darkness. A beam of light is
reflected from the mirror attached to the magnets in

23

60th h.T.

NORMAL MAGNETOGRAM

NORMAL MAGNETOGRAM

such a way as to cast a spot of light on a sheet of photo-
graphic paper which is slowly moved past it. Data are
reduced manually by measuring the deflections on the
magnetogram thus produced and applying the calibra-
tion, resulting in a time-consuming operation. The new

280-876 0-68— 3

Sample magnetograms obtained at San Juan, Puerto
Rieo. The interval between the samples is 1 year.

system eliminates the operation by scanning the mag-
netogram photoelectrically. applying the calibration
and digitizing the result automatically.

Two in-house developed second generation units of
the scanner-digitizer were put into routine operation

24

during FY 67. Concurrently with the delivery of the
second machine, a commercial contract was terminated
for the manual scaling and digitizing of magnetograms
from some 60 magnetic observatories around the world.
At the close of FY 65, the first magnetic field com-
ponent data were obtained near the surface in deep ocean
areas with the successful test of an underwater stable
platform developed by the C&GS Engineering Division
under the direction of the staff of the Geomagnetism
Laboratory of IES. Thirty-day continuous recording of
magnetic field data was made 100 miles west of Los
Angeles, Calif., in water 5,400 feet deep. Analysis of
these data initiated in FY 66 will aid in understanding
the global magnetic current system and induction effects
in the ocean.

Geomagnetic Studies

Modeling the Earth's Magnetic Field. Using secular
change data obtained from the worldwide network of
geomagnetic observatories, ESSA scientists have been
seeking a mathematical model of the earth's magnetic
field which will describe its observed structure and varia-
tions with time and permit more accurate forecasts of
secular change. When this research effort was first ini-
tiated several years ago, a model was envisioned involving
63 current loops in nine different clusters arranged in
the core of the earth as sources of the earth's field. This
model proved too complicated to manage with the com-
puters then available and a simpler model involving only
20 or fewer dipoles was developed.

The RMS-residual between the field of these dipoles
and the observed field is only 28 gammas — a remarkable
fit that is difficult to understand since the model sources
are so deep within the solid core. During the coming
year, this work will be continued, until a final convergent
solution is obtained and a rate of change of dipole charac-
teristics is found that will explain the observed secular
change.

Marine Geomagnetism. In view of increasing require-
ments for geomagnetic data from marine sources, an
evaluation study of previously acquired marine geo-
magnetic data was undertaken during the latter half of
FY 67 and future years' plans for the acquisition, proc-
essing, and mapping of geomagnetic data from marine
areas were also begun. Requirements for geomagnetic
data from marine areas, particularly from the Continental
Shelf, are increasing. Because of the potential influence
of the commercial development of the Continental Shelf
on the national economy, that area received priority in
the initial planning for the future acquisition of data.

Short-Term Magnetic Field Variations. A current flow
in the ionosphere in the immediate vicinity of the mag-
netic equator is related to a greatly enhanced daily varia-
tion in the magnetic field. This flow is known as the
equatorial electrojet, and recent research has been
directed toward explaining this effect.

CROSS-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES

Little is known of earthquake processes and the rela-
tion of magnetic field variations to them, but there has
been some indication that a significant relationship may
indeed exist. If so, magnetic measurements may prove
to have an important bearing on earthquake prediction.

A new program was initiated by IES during the report-
ing period to study the magnetic effects of major stress
changes. It includes earthquake mechanism studies;
an in-depth literature study on stress patterns in the
earth; the magnetic nature of rocks; development of an
instrument system to sense and record stress-related
magnetic effects; development of analysis capability
and analysis techniques; and field test of instrumentation
and concepts.

On a grant from the Institute, Stanford University
has recently found two or three examples of magnetic
events preceding by about a day the occurrence of creep
in the San Andreas fault. The events sometimes last
nearly an hour and are largest at the station nearest the
creep point or earthquake epicenter. Interpretation of
these magnetic events may offer one of the better means
of predicting impending earthquakes, and present find-
ings will be followed up by increasing the number of
sensors during the coming months.

Seismology

Seismology is the study of earthquakes — their causes
and mechanisms, their detection and location — and the
means for protection of life and property from their
effects. The Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake
in March 1964 highlighted the need for improved under-
standing of earthquake mechanisms, both to permit
prediction of these events and to provide better guid-
ance for the design of earthquake-resistant structures.
While this field of study is important, it represents only
a portion of ESSA's interest in seismology. For example,
knowledge of the means by which the earth transmits
shocks and sound waves through its core and mantle
is of comparable importance for a number of applica-
tions, such as the location and identification of under-
ground nuclear explosions.

Seismological Research Facilities

As in the case of geomagnetism, considerable research
in seismology, particularly in the area of description, is
performed by using data obtained from globally scattered
observatories rather than from a centralized research
facility. The World-Wide Network of Standard Seismo-
graph Stations consisted of 114 stations developed by
C&GS under the sponsorship of the Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA). These stations were operated
on a cooperative basis by other nations, with the United
States providing instruments and maintenance in ex-
change for data. In addition, C&GS operates a World
Data Center for Seismology to compile archives of film
copies of the seismograms gathered from these stations.

25

This Center has the capacity to copy 275,000 records
per year for the master file and to provide, at cost, up to
1,000 copies per day to seismologists throughout the
world. In addition to the standard network, C&GS
operated 11 stations of its own net and received 230,000
readings per year from over 500 cooperating stations
around the globe. The hypocenters of seismic activity
located were published twice weekly and distributed
to over 5,000 users.

The Survey maintains a fully equipped Seismological
Center at Albuquerque, N. Mex., for the development
of new and improved seismological instrumentation for
both field and observatory application, and for the calibra-
tion of seismological instrumentation. A low-frequency
dynamic calibration unit has been installed at the Albu-
querque Seismological Center. The unit consists of
precision vertical and horizontal systems which test
all types of seismometers and vibration meters within
the frequency range of .001 to 100 cycles per second to
determine their actual dynamic response and to discover
resonant peaks or spurious signals which might cause a
distortion of the output signal at various frequencies.

The National Earthquake Information Center. On
August 15, 1966, Dr. Robert M. White, Administrator of
ESS A, announced the opening of the National Earthquake
Information Center (NEIC) at Rockville, Md., under
C&GS. This Center is intended to provide a focal point
for the dissemination of seismic information for the scien-
tific and technical community and to the general public.

The first new service to result from the Center is an
earthquake early reporting system for the provision of
accurate and rapid hypocenter locations and magnitude
values. These results are now obtained within a few
hours. Presently, the range of the network is essentially
the hemisphere centering around the United States. It
is planned to expand this network to include reports from
selected foreign observatories.

When a large earthquake occurs, the participating
observatories respond to their alarms and forward their
observations of arrivals and amplitudes to the National
Meteorological Center at Suitland, Md. This information is
relayed to an on-duty NEIC seismologist who determines
graphically the epicenter and magnitude. For earthquakes
in the United States, reports are also received from the
network of Weather Bureau stations. These facts are
released to disaster relief groups and public information
users via Weather Bureau dissemination circuits.

The Center also serves as a focal point for other
C&GS seismological services. These include studies
using the historical files of earthquakes. For example,
the preparation of punched card files containing all
epicenters previously published by C&GS and a number
of other standard sources is well advanced. These cards
will contain the latitude, longitude, origin time, data
depth, authority, magnitude, intensity, and additional
references so that hypocenters with any combination
of these parameters can be found.

Publication of a monthly earthquake information bul-
letin was begun in March 1967 to provide current in-
formation about earthquakes of the world and seismo-
logical activities of interest to seismologists and to
individuals who are not necessarily specialists in this
science.

Instrument and Systems Development

Seismograph Development. The basic instrument of
seismology is the seismograph, consisting of a seismom-
eter and its associated auxiliary equipment to amplify
and record motions of the earth as a function of time.
The seismometer, in its simplest form, is composed of an
inertial mass and a mounting which provides restoring
force and damping. Motion of the seismometer mass
may be sensed mechanically, electromagnetically, or
electronically depending upon the degree of sophistication
required.

Development and test of several different seismographs
was completed during the reporting period to meet
service and research needs. The instruments are basically
similar in concept but vary in sensitivity, ruggedness,
portability, and output design for the applications. For
example, the Mobile Seismograph Observatory permits
the functions of an observatory to be performed at remote
locations, after rapid installation. A recording duration
of 30 days permits the operation of a number of these
observatories in a regional network by a minimum num-
ber of personnel.

At the National Earthquake Information
Center, a geophysieist examines a seismo-
gram. Simultaneous reeordings from three
stations in the Washington, D.C., area are
used in determining epieenter distanee
and direetion as well as earthquake
magnitude.

26

Seismological Research

There has been increased interest in seismological
research in recent years. The primary factors for this
new impetus would include: (1) the International Geo-
physical Year (IGY) and the International Upper Mantle
Project; (2) the Geneva disarmament conferences; (3) the
March 1964 Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake;
and (4) advances in aerospace technology. As a result,
geophysicists have been brought together on projects
ranging from the use of seismic means for the detection
of underground nuclear detonations, to the development
of new knowledge of the core and mantle of the earth
in support of the Nation's space program. A case in
point was a study sponsored by the Executive Office of
the President following the Prince William Sound earth-
quake that focused on using predictions of seismic
phenomena to minimize and alleviate earthquake hazards.
This earthquake, one of the largest experienced on the
North American Continent in recent times, had a mag-
nitude of 8.4, and caused 125 deaths and damage es-
timated at well over $300 million.

The portion of the research program relating to de-
scription and understanding is primarily teleseismology,
or the study of earthquakes at a distance and, indi-
rectly, the study of the structure of the earth's core
and mantle by means of the seismic waves propagated
by a disturbance.

The waves from a severe earthquake are
recorded on a seismogram (top), which is
then correlated with the computed wave
pathways through an idealized model of
the Earth.

Travel Time. One of the major challenges in tele-
seismology is the determination of propagation velocities
and the travel times of seismic waves for the accurate
locations of distant earthquake hypocenters. Prior to
1945, the only source of data for propagation studies
was signals from earthquakes whose exact time of oc-
currence was seldom known. Since 1945, when the first
nuclear explosion was detonated, it has been apparent
that controlled energy sources represent a great potential
in seismic experiments. Knowing the time of occurrence
and location of an event permits more exact studies of
earth models, station residuals (deviations from theo-
retical arrival times), hypocenter locations, and energy
propagation.

Using arrival times from U.S., French, and Russian
nuclear explosions, the universal longitudinal wave
arrival times have been revised, with results published
by C&GS during the reporting period. Previously, the
international norm was based on the classic study by
Sir Harold Jeffreys and Professor Keith Bullen, who
used existing seismic data from earthquakes. Figure 2
gives the relationship between the old and the new values.
Source and station corrections have been computed
and it may be seen that real surface focus travel times
are early by about 2 seconds and at 60° latitude, ar-
rivals are earlier by another second. This early arrival
at 60° implies a change in the earth model at about
1,600 km. depth, or about mid-mantle. The efforts of
IES and C&GS to refine fully all aspects of the travel
time values have continued in association with uni-
versity and other research groups under a committee
sponsored by ESSA.

A concurrent study of measured amplitudes was
carried out which revealed marked and persistent
deviations from the conventional curves showing at-
tenuation of signal amplitude with distance. In general,
the United States, west of a line from Glacier National
Park to El Paso, produces lower seismic amplitudes —
for teleseismic events of a given magnitude — than
would be expected normally. Two other areas of com-
paratively low signal strength are tentatively located in
the Wichita-Ouachita Mountain belt and the eastern
portion of the Appalachian Mountains. Higher than usual
signal amplitudes were found in the Dakotas, southwest
Texas, and the northern Lake Michigan region.

One of the most significant sources for study of seismic
waves was the LONGSHOT explosion, detonated under
Amchitka Island in the Aleutian Islands. This explosion
was well recorded throughout the world and occurred in
a highly seismic area where there is a wealth of natural
earthquake activity, the records of which may be com-
pared directly with those from this explosion. ESSA
participated in the planning as well as the recording and
analysis of data for this shot, and the study produced
important new information. In general, the results showed
that arrival times were substantially earlier than pre-
dicted by the Jeffreys-Bullen curves, even after the
2.5-second correction estimated from previous data.

27

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AVERAGE SURFACE FOCUS
TRAVEL TIME CURVE

MEANS AT 2 DEGREE INTERVALS
• With Source and Station Corrections
o Without Corrections

_j i i i i i

30

40

50 60 70

DISTANCE (DEGREES)

80

i i i I

90

Figure 2. A comparison between the "clas-
sic" Jeffreys-Bullen travel-times and more
accurate values recently determined by
the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Statistical variance residuals ranged from as high as 6.5
seconds to about 2 seconds. As a result of this study, a
new traveltime curve has been developed by the ESSA-
sponsored traveltime committee.

Hypocenter Location. The location of a hypocenter is
determined by comparing arrival times of seismic waves
from a number of stations. Because the vast majority
of earthquakes are minor in nature and only detectable
by instruments, the task of comparing data from hundreds
of stations and identifying related patterns is formidable,
and requires the use of computer processing. A new
C&GS computer program for the IBM 7030 permits
much more rapid and detailed analysis than in the past,
and as a result, the number of hypocenters located per
year has risen from 1,500 to over 6,000. This means that
a more complete seismicity pattern is being developed
which will lead to statistical analyses of energy release
with time in various areas. This new program should
make a significant contribution to the definition of
causative factors and earthquake mechanisms and to
the prediction of earthquakes.

A long-term project to revise the tables of P-wave
(longitudinal or compression-rarefractional waves through
the earth) travel times conducted by an ad hoc committee
of seismologists both in the United States and abroad
was completed during the reporting period. Most of the
preliminary data compilation and analysis was per-
formed by an IES scientist, who also provided more
accurate estimates of earthquake focal depths. On the
basis of a large amount of arrival time data supplied by
C&GS, hypocenters of earthquakes were recomputed.
Residuals from 278 large earthquakes, carefully selected
for uniform distribution, and 13 large explosions were
combined to obtain final corrections in the trial travel
times. The new tables of travel times will be published
in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America.

They will be used to compute the hypocenters of earth-
quakes and explosions; the residuals from these com-
putations are used to interpret the local and regional
characteristics of the crust and mantle. The velocity
distribution table and the new estimate of the depth to
the core will be used by geophysicists to obtain improved
estimates of the density, distribution, rigidity, and in-
compressibility at various depths within the earth.

Structural Studies. Crustal structure studies associated
with the Prince William Sound aftershock sequence have
allowed the development of local travel time curves for
use in that highly seismic area. Precise determination
of hypocenter depths allows more accurate computation
of surface epicenter locations than previously obtained
by teleseismic means. A new device computes hypocenter
locations from local station data and displays the results
graphically.

A catalog of fault plane solutions is being developed
for various areas from seismic data to provide informa-
tion on the tectonic forces which predominate in a given
region. This information relates directly to the problem
of earthquake prediction and provides primary data for
studies of the tsunami-generating mechanism.

Continuous efforts are being made to translate the
results of research studies into improved services. A
recent study of the capabilities of seismograph stations
provides immediate information regarding the stations
most likely to record an earthquake as soon as its gen-
eral epicenter on the earth's surface is known. Read-
ings from these stations can be obtained and the final
epicenter determined more rapidly than was previously
possible.

Geodesy

President Johnson, in announcing the formation of
ESSA in July 1965, pointed out that one of its key mis-
sions is "to determine the size and shape of the earth."
At first glance, this mission might appear to be one of
purely scientific value to satisfy man's curiosity about
his environment. In reality, however, such a determina-
tion is essential for many practical purposes, for in no
other way can the distance and direction between widely
separated points on earth be found, nor can satellite
orbits be predicted without this information.

For small regions it is possible to measure distance
and direction by means of a plane survey, which ignores
curvature of the earth and variations in gravity between
the points. For large distances, however, the determina-
tions must be made by a geodetic survey, which takes
into account not only the curvature of the earth but also
variations in the magnitude and direction of the effec-
tive gravitational force due both to the earth's rotation
and local anomalies. The need for such surveys results
from the fact that gravity variations cause a deflection
of the vertical direction, as determined by a plumb bob.
from that which would be determined by purely geo-
metrical means. Thus, astronomical observations related
to this apparent vertical direction would lead to in-

28

correct values for latitude and longitude and variable
apparent locations for the center of the earth and its
axis of rotation.

To solve these problems the geodesist first must
determine the geoid, a theoretical surface that is every-
where perpendicular to the effective gravity force and
over which the gravitational potential is constant. For
convenience, the geoid is taken as the particular surface
which coincides with the mean sea level of the oceans.
This surface is significant because all measurements
of the vertical by plumb bobs or bubble gages are with
respect to it.

The geoid, like the surface of the earth itself, is ir-
regular, and hence is not useful as a basis for mapping.
A common reference or datum to which surveyors at
points distant from one another can relate the local
configuration of the geoid is thus required. This datum
takes the form of a regular mathematical surface, an
ellipsoid, which makes the best fit to the geoid at widely
scattered locations, and can be used as the basis of the
coordinate system for latitude and longitude. In using
it the geodetic surveyor must determine both the dif-
ference in elevation between the ellipsoid and the
geoid, known as the undulation of the geoid, and the
angle between the two surfaces, known as the deflection
of the vertical.

In the past, where requirements for accurate knowledge
of relative positions were national or regional, ellipsoids
providing a best fit were chosen for local convenience.
However, since World War II, when it was discovered
that European and American charts were badly out of
alinement with one another, there has been a growing
realization of the need for a single World Datum or
ellipsoid, to which all nations would agree to refer
survey measurements. Because one regional ellipsoid
in general provides a poor fit in any other region, the
attempt to arrive at a World Datum remains a major
challenge to geodesy.

Prior to the advent of the satellite this task was almost
insurmountable, since the relative positions of continents
could not be accurately known. Triangulation by means
of artificial satellites thus offers a unique means of
determining geometrical positions and shape, while
avoiding cumulative errors.

Research Facilities

As in the case of geomagnetism and seismology, the
earth itself constitutes the laboratory for geodesy. Fa-
cilities are maintained in instrument development,
testing, and calibration, and for data reduction and
analysis. The C&GS maintains a number of particularly
accurate control points in various parts of the United

Because the earth is not a perfect sphere, accurate geodetic measurements cannot be taken by referring
only to its surface. Theoretical surfaces (the geoid and the ellipsoid) compensating for local departure
from the theoretical geometric and gravitic values must be developed and continually updated.

GEOID UNDULATION

PERPENDICULAR TO ELLIPSOID

GEOID-ELLIPSOID RELATIONSHIPS

Illustrating effects of irregular mass
distribution in the earth's crust

$

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MOUNTAIN

PERPENDICULAR TO GEOID
(PLUMBLINE)

DEFLECTION OF
THE VERTICAL

GEOID UNDULATION

29

States where location, elevation, and strength and
direction of the gravitational field are known with great
precision. These points are used for the testing and
evaluation of new instruments, as well as for the cali-
bration of field equipment. In addition, underwater
gravity ranges are maintained on both coasts. A photo-
grammetric test and calibration range is maintained
near McClure, Ohio, where both cameras and systems
may be evaluated. Finally, the Office of Geodesy and
Photogrammetry of C&GS maintains a laboratory at
Rockville, Md., for the development of new instru-
ments, and the Satellite Triangulation Division has
established a special development, testing, and train-
ing facility at Beltsville, Md.

Instrument and Systems Development

Precise Measurement of Distance — The Geodimeter.
Two types of basic measurements are made in geodetic
surveys — one is length and the other is direction. To
achieve a desired accuracy in location of one part per
million, extreme precision is required. Lengths are
measured by a device known as the Geodimeter, an
electro-optical instrument which essentially times the
passage of light along the fine between two points and
back again. The Geodimeter depends for its operation
on a precise knowledge of the speed of light, and although
the speed is known quite accurately under given con-
ditions, it varies with a number of atmospheric factors
as the index of refraction varies.

To give an idea of the problems in achieving accuracy:
A change in the velocity of light of one part in a million
is produced by a variation of the integrated mean tempera-
ture by 1° C; of the mean pressure by 2.5 mm Hg; of the
mean humidity by 20 mm Hg of vapor pressure. The
dependence of light velocity on color is of the order of
0.6 parts per million per 100 A. Taking into account all
factors, the uncertainty in the velocity of light under
optimum conditions is considered to be about one part
in a million, so that this uncertainty remains a controlling
factor in attempts to obtain overall systems accuracies
of this order of magnitude.

During the reporting period, C&GS constructed a
laser-Geodimeter which overcomes some limitations of
the mercury vapor Geodimeter by improving the range
of visibility, particularly in the vicinity of large urban
centers. The laser possesses greater intensity and is
monochromatic, which means that the velocity of light
will not have variations as a result of color. During tests,
this device gave at least a 50-percent increase in range
over the mercury vapor Geodimeter. Distances up to
42 km. were accurately measured under normal atmos-
pheric conditions at night. It is also estimated that ranges
of at least 21 km. can be measured during daylight hours.
During FY 67, conversion was initiated of 10 mercury
vapor Geodimeters to laser light source, with delivery
of the first two modified Geodimeters scheduled for early
FY 68.

At ESSA's Institute for Telecommunica-
tions Sciences and Aeronomy, a physicist
studies the effect of atmospheric disper-
sion on a beam of light.

Another aspect of the problem of the uncertainty of
the velocity of light is the problem of variations in the
index of refraction with time as a result of changes in
the atmosphere. This problem is particularly acute in
mountainous areas and other regions characterized by
turbulent atmospheric conditions. The Institute for
Telecommunication Sciences and Aeronomy (ITSA) has
built and tested a device which employs two different
wavelengths of light to give solutions which are almost
independent of variations in the index of refraction.

Gravity Meters and Test Facilities. Absolute gravity
meters in the United States are usually of the pendulum
type, by which the acceleration of gravity is calculated
from the period of a pendulum of precisely known length.
Normally, these meters are located at base stations and
serve as controls for the relative gravity meters, or
gravimeters, used in the field. The latter, usually of the
spring balance type, are extremely accurate, and when
properly calibrated, are capable of measuring the ac-
celeration of gravity to within .01 milligal (1 gal = .001
standard earth gravity).

Ground-based measurements are capable of achieving
this instrumental accuracy under proper conditions,
but the problem is much more severe when gravity must
be measured on a moving platform — for example, in
the case of marine geodetic observations. Until re-
cently, marine geodesists had to be satisfied with ac-
curacies of the order of 5 to 10 milligals, but an improved
system developed with ESSA guidance was recently
field-tested aboard a naval vessel. Confirming previous
C&GS accuracy determinations, the Navy's test yielded

30

a mean square error of less than plus or minus 1 milli-
gal in calm seas. The major error source was attributed
to navigation rather than instrumental error per se.

Geodetic Research

Marine Gravity and Geodesy. To obtain datum control
for the East Coast Upper Mantle Project, an offshore
gravity range was established in the vicinity of Cape
Charles- Wallops Island, Va. Gravity values were ob-
tained with a bottom gravity meter and positions were
established using an electronic positioning system. It
is estimated that gravity values at the surface can be
interpolated to better than 1 milligal mean square error
in the vicinity of Cape Charles. This range is suitable
for the evaluation of shipborne continuous reading
gravity systems. Gravity stations, in addition to those
established at a 3-mile spacing in the vicinity of Cape
Charles, were established at wider spacings from Cape
Hatteras to Cape May. These stations will serve as
calibration points, or as control for gravity values ob-
tained aboard surface ships during the Upper Mantle
Project. This project involves soundings, depth meas-
urements, corings, ocean bottom scanning, and heat
flow measurements. It was carried out in FY 66 and 67
off the west coast of the United States between the
latitudes of 35°-39° north and ranged from the shore
to about 500 miles offshore. The Atlantic portion of the
Upper Mantle Project will consist of a belt of observa-
tions 180 nautical miles wide along a great circle from
Norfolk, Va., to Cape Blanc, Mauretania, Africa.

To encourage the economic development of the con-
tinental shelf, a program was undertaken to acquire
geophysical data and establish geodetic control in this
region. The first areas of development, between Cape
Cod and the northern coast of Maine; and between
Jacksonville, Fla., and Cape Kennedy, Fla., were sur-
veyed during the reporting period. The survey utilized
bottom gravity stations at 10-mile spacings which served
as a base for a rough reconnaissance map and provided
the datum control for a more detailed survey to be
accomplished by continuous reading shipborne gravity
meters. To establish geodetic control in these ocean
areas, a subsurface geodetic marker was implanted in
the vicinity of Grand Manan Island. The feasibility of
additional markers will be considered and existing naviga-
tion systems will be evaluated for geodetic purposes.

Marine geodesy will be of continuing and growing im-
portance as the need for more and more accurate world-
wide networks grows. The vast majority of the surface
of the earth is covered by the seas, where geodetic
observations must be made from water-based platforms.
The underwater stable platform developed in connection
with ESSA's geomagnetism program is expected to
play an important role in forthcoming marine geodetic
surveys, and other developments may be expected in
the future.

Satellite Triangulation. The importance of satellite
triangulation was stressed earlier as a new and unique

means of establishing geometric relationships between
points on the surface of the earth without reference to
the gravitational field. Satellite triangulation has been
under development for a number of years and has been
successfully tested on a continental basis using the
satellites ECHO I and II, and PAGEOS. However, there
are a number of problems yet to be solved for both
current and future programs.

Satellite triangulation, as planned by ESSA, is based
on the use of high-orbit satellites, and hence leads to
geometric measurements largely independent of gravita-
tional variations and anomalies. In addition to the value
of this type of measurement to the establishment of a
world net, a reference is provided for subsequent experi-
ments with low-altitude satellites which will measure
perturbations and thus provide a means for defining the
gravitational field of the earth. The ultimate selection
of an optimum ellipsoid for the World Datum will require
such gravity measurements, in addition to satellite
triangulation data. A number of surface observations of
the magnitude and direction of the gravitational force
also must be made to define the geoid on a global basis.
With geometric position known independently, errors
will no longer be cumulative, and the World Datum may
be defined with the required accuracy of one part in a
million.

In order to use the triangulation technique to de-
termine distance and direction, it is not sufficient to
measure angles only. At least one side of each triangle
must be known with great accuracy, either by measure-
ment or by calculation from previous triangulations.
To avoid cumulative error, direct measurement of dis-
tance must be made at several different places in a
network.

In the case of satellite triangulation, scale may be
determined from existing geodetic survey data, although
it is preferable to introduce scale by the establishment
of long geodimeter base lines using modern equipment.
The plan is to incorporate for the world net at least
three and preferably four accurately scaled legs dis-
tributed more or less uniformly around the earth.

The technique consists of photographing a satellite
with high precision cameras simultaneously from two
or more ground stations separated by a few hundred
miles, or, up to two or three thousand miles. With the
satellite and star images on the same plate, it is possible
to infer the direction of the satellite from the ground
stations by determining its apparent astronomical right
ascension and declination. After a series of observa-
tions from a set of stations, the lines of direction to the
satellite form planes, the intersection of which repre-
sents a straight line between the ground stations. Be-
cause the directions of the planes are known, the direction
of their intersections is also known relative to the spin
axis of the earth. The network of triangles thus de-
veloped will ultimately span the continent and encircle
the globe.

A considerable effort is underway in the establishment
of sophisticated computer programs. A new single-
camera simulation model has been completed which,

31

The BC-4 satellite tracking
camera, showing the high-pre-
cision gearing system required
for disk shutter operation.

besides its use in satellite triangulation, has proven to
be most effective for the analysis of high precision
photogrammetric sensors.

A large number of error propagation studies for the
contemplated worldwide geometric satellite triangula-
tion program have been completed, which have led to
better means of selection of the sites to be incorporated
into the program.

Initially employing satellites ECHO I and II, the
program to develop a worldwide geodetic network is now
underway. A scheme involving 21 stations has been
completed, spreading from northwest Canada and the
United States, to Antigua, Norway, and Scotland. Plans
have been developed to provide densifications of satellite
triangulation by stations spaced on the order of 1,000 km.
apart, within the world net, over the various continental
datums.

A cooperative program of the Department of Defense
with NASA and the Department of Commerce led to the
successful launch of a sun-reflecting 30-meter diameter
balloon satellite known as PAGEOS.

During the past year, considerable progress was made
toward the goal of a worldwide geometric satellite
triangulation network, using the PAGEOS satellite. A
skeleton framework of events (events refer to the simul-
taneous observations from the earth by one or more
camera systems) on the network of stations in Iran,
Sicily, Germany, Norway, the Azores, Thule, Maryland,
California, Washington, and Maui was adjusted and it
produced the required high degree of consistency. The
adjusted network now consists of 87 acceptable satellite
events at 11 stations.

Accurate measurements made directly
on glass diapositive plates permit the
use of aerial photographs to map
coastal areas.

Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is the science of making reliable
measurements of the earth's surface by the use of
photography. ESSA makes use of the rapid synoptic
data gathering capability of aircraft for its photogram-
metry program. The results of photogrammetric analysis
are used for densification of geodetic networks, coastal
mapping, investigation of surface currents relating to
the interaction between the atmosphere and the oceans,
and the support of Continental Shelf studies.
Photogrammetric Instruments and Systems

C&GS has pioneered the application of color aerial
photography to photogrammetry, assisting and encourag-
ing the manufacturers of film, cameras, glass diapositive
plates, and stereoscopic plotting instruments to provide
the means for attaining metric fidelity and photographic
resolving power in color equal to or better than that of
black and white films in general use for aerotriangulation.

Photogrammetric Camera Systems. Two significant ad-
vances in the state-of-the-art in photogrammetric camera
systems were accomplished by ESSA during the report-
ing period. The first came from an evaluation and analysis
of the characteristics of aerial film distortion. As a result
of this evaluation, a mathematical model was developed
which made it possible to compensate for the distortion by
using fiducial marks in the aerial camera. The second ad-
vance came with the development of an ultra-precise
method of camera calibration using thousands of photo-
graphic images of stars to determine all elements of
interior camera orientation and all metric lens defects
with a statistical probable error of only one micron.

32

A new polyparametric photogrammetric camera orien-
tation and calibration computer program has been tested
successfully and will soon be operational. It can determine
as many as three sets of external orientation parameters
(camera angles) from stars which were photographed
during the pre-event, event, and post-event exposure
sequences and to select and homogenize those sets of
parameters which meet the criteria of statistically signifi-
cant consistency. By this means, any abrupt movements
of the camera or plate during the exposure sequence can
be detected and analyzed for the purpose of either re-
moving the inconsistencies where possible, or rejecting
the events for proven cause.

The Geodetic Laboratory of IES has applied computer
programs in another aspect of the problem of obtaining
greater accuracy, in studying the propagation of system-
atic residual errors in the process of reconstructing the
actual earth geometry from strip photographs. These
attempts constitute the first systematic investigations
into other than random error propagation and are of
special significance when considering complex geodetic-
photogrammetric measuring systems for resources
studies.

Photogrammetric Research

ESSA's research effort in photogrammetry is directed
toward the development of a method which would enable
C&GS to supplement or replace costly and relatively slow
conventional triangulation techniques with aerial three-
dimensional photogrammetric triangulation techniques
for grid densification, i.e., for establishing the necessary
detailed grid in between the major control points estab-
lished by conventional triangulation.

Various aspects of this work are closely connected with
feasibility studies conducted in connection with NASA's
APOLLO Application Program for utilizing space tech-
nology in an earth-oriented resources program and with
respect to the contemplated Lunar Exploration Program.
It appears at this time that a geodetic-topographic
mission on the moon would, to a large extent, depend on
the development of extremely precise photogrammetric
triangulation methods.

A method had been developed by C&GS for the deri-
vation of ocean current velocity data by photogrammetric
measurements in which time-lapse photography was used
and was controlled for individual photographs and flights.
In an experiment during FY 67, the horizontal position
of the C&GS Survey Ship Peirce was obtained from
transmitters located on the coast. The ship remained
at the center of a group of floating targets for each flight
of photographs and its image served as the horizontal
control. Azimuths were taken of a few of the masted
floating targets at the time of each flight of photography.
Thus, the photographs were controlled in position and
in azimuth. Scale was controlled by maintaining a pre-
scribed flight altitude by use of the airplane's altimeter
with base barometric correction from the survey ship.
The photography was taken in color at 1 : 20,000 and at
1 : 30,000 scales at one-half hour intervals for a 2-hour

period. The photographs were overlapped approximately
80 percent in order to furnish redundancy of data. Float-
ing targets were of three types — masted, rectangular,
wooden panels; aluminum powder; and Rhodamine dye.
These were dispensed by the survey ship just before
the photography was started and along a 3-mile long
line normal to the Gulf Stream.

Results of this experiment were very encouraging with
an indicated accuracy of better than 0.05 knot. From this
experiment have come new ideas for applications to other
areas where synoptic current surveys are required. Also,
during the reporting period, crustal movements studies
at Anchorage, Alaska, were made using analytical photo-
grammetric techniques.

Analytic aerotriangulation. Analytic aerotriangulation
is a method for accurately determining the ground posi-
tions of objects on a strip or block of overlapping aerial
or satellite photographs by means of digital computations
based on photograph coordinate measurements. It is
a major branch of the science of photogrammetry, which
has developed rapidly as a result of the availability of
large electronic computers.

The accuracy of analytic aerotriangulation is directly
dependent on the precision of the aerial photograph,
which is treated as though it were a true central per-
spective projection. The task of a research and develop-
ment project for photogrammetric systems development
is to make mathematical compensation for all physical
departures of the aerial photograph from a true central
perspective. Some of the principal phases of this project
deal with the physical deficiencies of cameras, such as
lens distortion, optical resolving power, focal plane de-
formation, photographic resolution or sharpness, and
film distortion.

C&GS has had an operational system of analytic aero-
triangulation for strips of aerial photographs since 1962.
Although this system has provided substantial improve-
ment over the previous analog methods of measurement,
recent work on the mathematical treatment of the basic
formulation has resulted in further refinement of image
coordinate data, strip adjustment, three-photo aerotri-
angulation, and analytic block aerotriangulation.

The Survey has recently completed an operational
system for the analytic aerotriangulation of large (200-
photograph) blocks of aerial photographs. In this system,
the simultaneous orientation of all photographs is per-
formed up to as many as 200 prelocated geodetic control
points, and the three-dimensional location of any number
of new terrain points is accomplished by computer. The
method of least squares is used for the minimization of
observational errors. This technique is currently being
applied to such precise photogrammetric operations as
determining the relative movement of the earth's crust
at Salt Lake City, Utah, and Anchorage, Alaska.

THE OCEAN AND ITS SOLID BOUNDARIES

The interaction of the land-sea boundary involves
studies of sediment transport and characteristics, the

33

development of prediction systems, and continental shelf
applications. This field of investigation thus necessarily
involves an interdisciplinary effort among ESSA's
components.

Descriptive Oceanography

ESSA's programs in this area are the responsibility of
the Coast and Geodetic Survey and the Institute for
Oceanography of the Institutes for Environmental Re-
search. The disciplines included in this area are hydrog-
raphy and bathymetry, marine geology, and studies of the
interactions between land and sea on shores and beaches
and in estuaries.

In the field of oceanography, terminology is a particular
problem because the same words are given different
meanings by different groups. In keeping with the grow-
ing practice within the Federal Government, oceanog-
raphy is defined broadly as comprising all ocean science
and engineering, including the study of the oceans'
boundaries of air and earth. Hydrography is the descrip-
tion of the physical features of the ocean with special
reference to nautical charts and the safety of navigation,
while bathymetry is the science of defining the topographic
contours of the ocean bottom; these two fields thus
differ largely in purpose, rather than in methodology or
scope. Bathymetric maps show contours of bottom
topography, but do not in general show nontopographic
navigational information which characterizes nautical
charts.

Research and Development Facilities

Shore Facilities. ESSA maintains several major shore
facilities for research in descriptive oceanography: 10
with its Marine Geology and Geophysics Laboratory and
Physical Oceanography Laboratory at Miami, Fla.; its
Land and Sea Interaction Laboratory (LASIL) located at
Norfolk, Va. (at the site of the Atlantic Marine Center of
C&GS which also participates in the program); and the
Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory at the Pacific Marine
Center at Seattle, Wash. At these laboratories, equipment
and instrumentation are available for physical and chemi-
cal analysis, in addition to extensive special purpose data
reduction and analysis equipment, including computers
and plotters for processing hydrographic data.

Ship-Based Facilities. In the field of oceanography,
shore facilities are only one element of the total facility
complex required to perform research. In addition to a
number of ships and small craft for in-shore surveys,
ESSA maintains a fleet of special purpose oceanographic
survey vessels which serve as floating research labora-
tories as well as platforms for gathering data. The largest
and newest of the fleet, the Oceanographer and Discoverer
launched during the reporting period, are equipped with
complete laboratory instrumentation for oceanography,
meteorology, and other fields of environmental science.
In addition, these vessels have on-board computers which
provide both a data reduction capability and information
for ship operation and navigation. Other ships now under
construction will be similarly equipped.

Instrument and Systems Development

A variety of both general and special purpose instru-
ments and systems are needed to perform oceanographic
research; and accuracy, efficiency, and economy must be
continually improved. Although individual laboratories
contract for the development of special purpose instru-
ments from time to time, most development of oceano-
graphic equipment is performed by the Engineering
Division of C&GS.

Oceanographic Data Acquisition Systems. In addition
to developing new systems, such as the ones installed
on the Oceanographer and Discoverer, ESSA has estab-
lished a continuing program to refit older hydrographic
and oceanographic ships with improved data logging
and processing systems. These systems accept data
from various sensors and convert them to machine form
for processing either aboard ship or at processing centers
ashore. All major vessels of C&GS are now equipped with
some form of data logger. An improved system, which
uses an on-board computer logging and plotting system
to analyze data, has been designed. This system was
installed and used successfully on board the ship Whiting
during FY 67 for field operations on Long Island Sound.
All components necessary to record depth values and
position data (correlated by time) are collected, proc-
essed, and displayed in real-time. The Oceanographer
also used a centralized computer system for navigation
and the collection of oceanographic data on its global
trip. Planning and design of a computer complex for the
Researcher is now underway.

Buoy Systems: ODESSA - TICUS. The ODESSA System
uses buoy-supported instruments to measure various
parameters such as temperature, salinity, current speed
and direction, and depth of observation. Designed for
coastal studies (although having a deep-ocean capa-
bility) the system is capable of making vertical profile
measurements of these parameters at eight different
depths simultaneously. Recordings can be made in the
buoy on magnetic tape or telemetered on demand to
shore- or ship-based facilities and there recorded on
magnetic tape. With this two-mode capability, the system
can also be used for internal buoy recording with occa-
sional performance monitoring by interrogation. All
operations of the ODESSA System are automatic in
programming and recording. Two successful 30-day
evaluation tests of the ODESSA System were made by
the Engineering Division during FY 67.

The TICUS (Tidal Current System) developed simul-
taneously with the ODESSA System is now operational
and is being used on current surveys by the ship Marnier.
TICUS has common features with ODESSA data-log-
ging equipment, but is simpler, since it is designed only
to measure currents for circulatory surveys.

Current Meters. The development of a prototype model
of a high-velocity current meter is approximately 75 per-
cent completed. This meter is intended for those stations
where velocities exceed four knots and measurements
from conventional meters are difficult to obtain.

34

Adoption of an internally recording current meter for
use on vessels not specifically assigned to current
measurements was initiated during the reporting period.
These meters operate with only limited attention from
ship personnel, hence their use does not interfere with
hydrographic or other oceanographic operations.

Electronic Data Processing. A recently installed com-
puter-plotter system at the Pacific Marine Center of
C&GS has the capability of producing a hydrographic
smooth sheet (basic bathymetric representation from
which charts are later made) directly from raw data inputs
from any survey conducted with electronic "range-
range" control of position. (Range-range systems involve
measurement of distance from two or more shore points.)
The tapes furnished to the system are coded with all
pertinent data relating to position and depth as a func-
tion of time, and corrections for instrumental error, tide,
and other variables similarly correlated with time. This
information, together with correction for the velocity
of sound in sea water, is fed into the computer-plotter
system. All corrections to soundings and positions are
automatically applied and the location of each depth is
computed in terms of geographic position and then in
terms of the X, Y coordinates of the plotter.

Automated Cartography. Similarly, C&GS has made
significant progress in the field of automated cartography,
one innovation being the production of sections of chart
manuscripts using automatic scribing plotters. The
topography and hydrography for nautical charting can
now be applied to new constructions by automated
techniques.

The speed and accuracy of automated techniques will
substantially reduce the man-hour requirements for
compilation and drafting. Computer programming will
permit accomplishment of the following objectives:

a. Construction of all basic map projections, and sys-
tems and navigational lattices.

b. Plotting and scribing most geographic symbols.

c. Computation and scribing bathymetric contours.

d. Production of form lines for color separation plates.

Data from former surveys not yet plotted can be en-
coded on tape after the fact and processed to smooth
sheets directly if range-range control was used during
the survey. If not, surveys may be handled by converting
observations into range-range coordinates and processed
in the same manner.

Automated chart production from a group of surveys
is now possible. Computerized methods analyze data and
select soundings for plotting based upon previously
determined criteria. Depth curves, significant control
points, and the projection grid may also be printed out
directly by the plotter.

Research Studies — Marine Geology and Geophysics

A vast undersea valley beneath the Andaman Sea was
discovered by ESSA scientists using seismic reflection
profiling techniques. This valley, 600 miles long and 25
miles wide, is surrounded by submarine mountain peaks.
It is presumably a rift valley in many ways similar to the

mid-Atlantic ridge system and therefore may be significant
in the ultimate solution of the origin of ocean basins.

A previously known, but undescribed, unnamed sub-
marine feature off Miami, Fla., was surveyed and its
bathymetry and geology were described. The name
"Miami Terrace" was adopted.

The discovery of a new fracture zone in the Pacific
Ocean was reported recently by scientists of the 10
Marine Geology and Geophysics Laboratory (MGGL).
Magnetic profiling was used in a novel manner to reveal
the presence of fracture zones undetectable by the
usual means. By matching the anomaly patterns on either
side of the fracture, it was possible to determine the extent
of lateral displacements, which in some cases were as
great as 800 km.

Salt domes observed by MGGL scientists in the De Soto
Canyon area indicate an extension of major salt trends
farther east in the Gulf of Mexico. This is of great interest
to the U.S. oil industry, whose major oil reserves in the
Gulf area are largely associated with salt structures.

Findings based on reconnaissance work had indicated
that a portion of the sea floor off Montague Island, Alaska,
underwent violent local upthrusting during the 1964
earthquake. This was confirmed subsequently in FY 67
by MGGL through a series of bathymetric investigations.

The Upper Mantle Project similarly indicated the pres-
ence of north-south trending magnetic anomaly bands,
first described in 1961. Seismic profiler records confirmed
the existence of a basement ridge, presumably granite,
at the edge of the Continental Shelf.

A program to measure heat flow through the sea floor
has been underway at the Pacific Oceanographic Labora-
tory during the past 2 years. An instrument system has
been developed, and some significant results were ob-
tained in the Upper Mantle Project area off the Cali-
fornia coast. In the future, heat flow measurements will
be included in geophysical investigations between the
Hawaiian and Aleutian Islands. These studies are
important, not only to expand knowledge of the earth's
crust and mantle but also because heating at the ocean's
bottom, if substantial, could produce turbulence and
other motions similar to those found at the bottom of the
atmosphere, which could be significant in terms of future
undersea operations, especially where acoustics are
concerned.

Analysis of data from a heat flow investigation off the
California coast was undertaken to determine the spatial
variability and the extent of regions of high and low heat
flow, and to relate these findings to a structural model
of the area.

As part of the U.S. effort in the International Upper
Mantle Project to complete surveys in the offshore ex-
tension of the transcontinental geophysical survey, the
ESSA ship Pioneer conducted hydrographic, gravita-
tional, magnetic, and seismic reflection profile studies,
as well as extensive heat flow and sediment surveys of
the ocean bottom off the west coast of the United States.

Past cruises have yielded sediment samples from

35

various areas. A program has been established to deter-
mine particle size distribution in these sediments. The
results of these studies will be combined with others to
prepare a report on the characteristics of the bottom in
this area of the Continental Shelf.

In continuation of a cooperative research program
directed toward the study of the processes associated
with underwater volcanos, ESSA scientists are support-
ing the U.S. Geological Survey in a program of bottom
photography, dredging, and limited bathymetric studies
of the submarine flanks of active volcanos off the Island
of Hawaii. This study has produced some significant
correlations between the vents in lava beds and the depths
of extrusion.

Land and Sea Interaction Studies

In addition to its studies of the benthic boundary,
ESSA is also concerned with the boundary between ocean
and land at the surface of the ocean — with the interaction
that takes place on shores and beaches, and estuaries
where rivers enter the sea.

The Mechanics of Shores and Beaches. In cooperation
with the University of Southern California, a study of
sediment characteristics of the Choptank River in Mary-
land was completed. This work, which characterized
coastal areas highly susceptible to shoreline erosion,
suggested the probable cause of erosion and predicted
its rate.

The Land and Sea Interaction Laboratory (LASIL) in
Norfolk, Va., pursued efforts to develop equations for
prediction of the response of beach and near-shore
sediments to oceanic and atmospheric forces. Results so
far indicate that the approach taken gives a good approxi-
mation to the observed behavior of the sediments under
typical conditions and should offer a means of predicting
beach erosion and deposition, and the velocity of longshore
currents.

Estuarine Studies. Although the ODESSA buoy system
referred to previously has application to Continental
Shelf and deep ocean studies, it was originally developed
for estuarine studies by the Joint Oceanographic Re-
search Group (JORG) conducted jointly by ESSA and the
University of Washington. In this application, ODESSA
buoys are used to obtain information on the general cir-
culation in estuaries and near-shore locales in terms of
temperature, salinity, and current speed and direction.
The digital data format leads to rapid analysis of results.

Tide Studies. Research on tides is an important facet
of the mission of both C&GS and 10. A computer program
for editing and reducing data from digital tide gages was
completed by the Institute and became operational during
the reporting period. This program, together with the
conversion of the tide station network to digital gages,
will simplify data reduction for C&GS, allowing for auto-
mation of a large part of tidal data processing.

ESSA also continued its cooperative effort with the
tide research program of the Institute of Geophysics
and Planetary Physics of the University of California

at San Diego (Scripps Institute of Oceanography), where
analysis was made of several long series of tidal data
taken by C&GS. As an extension of the studies carried
out at Scripps, ESSA researchers developed a new method
for predicting tides in shallow water, which, in early
tests, markedly improved predictions in two such varied
locations as Anchorage, Alaska, and Philadelphia, Pa.

Current Studies. During the reporting period, steps
were initiated to improve the tidal current program, in-
cluding improvements in field procedures, data reduc-
tion methods, and presentation of final results. Several
Richardson-type current meters were purchased to
replace older equipment for measuring the velocity and
direction of currents. The new meters do not require
monitoring by ships and can record up to 30-day current
records. Programs are also available, or are being de-
veloped, for computing the nonharmonic reductions
required for reversing and rotary currents. These new
techniques allow more timely study of tidal current
behavior, while at the same time producing more ac-
curate reduced data.

The adaptation of photogrammetric techniques to
tidal current surveys now provides for the application
of aerial photography to the synoptic measurement of
tidal currents at surface and subsurface levels over large
bodies of water. The observed photogrammetric data
can be reduced for use in the construction of tidal cur-
rent tables and charts. These surveys, in addition, provide
important data for studies on the problem of controlling
water pollution, fresh water conservation, sedimenta-
tion, shore erosion, and the exploitation of marine
resources.

Reasearch and Development — Hydrography
and Bathymetry

Activities in this area involve acquisition of new types
of data, creation of new types of maps for research pur-
poses, testing and calibration of new types of equipment,
and the investigation of photogrammetric techniques
for coastal mapping. In most cases, the results of pro-
grams are applicable to both hydrography and bathym-
etry, therefore, no attempt will be made here to sepa-
rate research and development in terms of relevance to
the two fields.

Ocean Surveys. A calibration loop of about 9.000 nau-
tical miles to determine the accuracy of a Navy satellite
navigation system was run from San Francisco to Kodiak.
Adak, Attu, Midway, Johnston Island, Oahu. and back
to San Francisco. Comparisons were made with all
standard forms of position determination for reliability,
repeatibility, and consistency of fix data.

During the reporting period 10 scientists completed
a set of six bathymetric maps of the Aleutian Island Arc.
extending from south of the Aleutian Trench to north
of Bowers Bank, and from the International Date Line
to 160° west longitude. These maps represent the first
of their kind in the area.

36

In addition to these research and development surveys,
C&GS performed thousands of miles of routine hydro-
graphic and other oceanographic surveys. For example,
the Whiting completed 1,175 nautical miles of opera-
tional cruises, geological profiling, and precision depth
recorder soundings.

10 achieved operating economies by collecting its
specialized data in conjunction with C&GS basic hydro-
graphic surveys wherever possible. During the recent
survey of the northeastern Gulf of Maine, the Institute
added special bottom profiling and magnetic profiling
instruments to the standard instruments already on
board, thus avoiding the necessity for a separate research
voyage, and obtaining maximum value from ship
operations.

Photo gravimetric Mapping. A new photogrammetric
activity is now in the development stage to map the
mean low-water line of the outer coast of the United
States and its possessions for the establishment of
coastal base lines for legal and engineering purposes.
The use of photogrammetric techniques will permit such
mapping to be completed more rapidly and at reduced
cost.

THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN AIR AND EARTH

The production of aeronautical charts is a complex,
ever-changing challenge. Any change in navigation
systems, numbers of aircraft, distribution, type of air-
craft, or scheduling produces a multiplicity of new con-
ditions which may affect large, seemingly unrelated
sectors of the aircraft traffic network. Since these
changes are occurring with increasing frequency, the
speedy production of aeronautical charts is a continuing,
growing responsibility of ESSA.

Aeronautical Charting

New concepts of chart production and graphic display
formats are being developed by C&GS to meet the re-
quirements for aeronautical charting imposed by the
phenomenal growth of air traffic and the development of
highly sophisticated aircraft navigational systems. The
problems of satisfying chart requirements not only con-
sist of meeting current needs but also must include chart
development to satisfy flight requirements in the future
navigational complex. The program is divided into three
categories: (1) development of new production techniques
and concepts, (2) development of new graphic displays,
and (3) studies of present operating methods and systems
used to produce nautical and aeronautical charts.

Operating Methods and Systems Studies

Studies to obtain storage of a body of knowledge on
navigational systems are continuing, particularly those
having possible application to navigation of supersonic
transports.

Automatic data processing was introduced into the
handling of aeronautical data for the production and
revision of aeronautical charts previously processed by
means of manual posting, filing, and dissemination.

Development of New Production Techniques and Concepts
An urgent requirement existed during the reporting
period to produce two prototype charts for evaluation by
the Inter-Agency Air Cartographic Committee (IACC)
and, subsequently, two production charts in conformance
with newly developed joint specifications. Consequently,
production methods and procedures were adapted to:
(1) test various screen angles and determine printing
specifications which satisfy both IACC and C&GS re-
quirements; (2) develop a method to produce 120-line
production copies from 133-line half-tone screens;
(3) devise methods to adapt existing relief originals to
conform to terrain display requirements for three proto-
type study charts. The concept of a new terrain portrayal
was further developed and two prototype charts were
printed, under controlled conditions, by the color process
printing method.

A photomechanical method of producing vignettes
has been further refined so that the operation now has
been reduced to a single half-tone exposure, entailing a
substantial reduction in time and man-hours from the
cost of the original vignette process.

New materials and techniques have been tested and
evaluated for possible application in the production of
charts, the most significant of which is the new Duplica-
tion Scribecote, which represents a significant break-
through in reproduction processing. With this process, it
will be possible to make a negative from a negative on a
stable material which permits corrections and, at the
same time, reproduction. Should all expectations for this
product be realized, the project to convert remaining glass
negatives to film will be accelerated.

Development of New Graphic Displays

Developmental work in graphic display has resulted in
the construction of three prototype charts with unique
format characteristics. Some primary objectives of these
efforts are the elimination of contours which cause an
excessive amount of clutter, the use of softer tones to
alleviate conflict of data, combining the best properties of
shaded relief and tint systems, and determination of the
relative merits of pictorial and geometric symbolization in
an effort to present the best data display to pilots. These
prototypes are documented and will be evaluated, along
with others now being planned.

THE BEHAVIOR OF THE OCEANS AND ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere and ocean are two elements in a
complex system. Interactions weave air and sea together,
driving ocean waves and major currents, distributing
solar energy, generating and sustaining marine and
atmospheric hazards, and determining long-term and
transient variations in climate.

Ocean and Atmosphere Structure and Dynamics

This topic involves the description of the dynamic
behavior of the ocean and atmosphere, and the inter-
actions between the two fluid media. Disciplines included
are physical oceanography, climatology, atmospheric
physics and chemistry, and the mathematical modeling
of the ocean and atmosphere. Research programs in

37

this area have a direct relation to ESSA's service missions,
supporting programs in weather forecasting and warning,
and river and flood prediction.

Facilities for Research and Development

In addition to the ESSA fleet of oceanographic ships,
there are several major shore-based facilities for research
in physical oceanography — in some cases, the same
facilities used in other portions of the overall ESSA
program in oceanography. The 10 facilities involved
include: The Physical Oceanography Laboratory and
the Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory at Miami, Fla., and
the Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory and the Joint
Oceanographic Research Group with the University of
Washington at Seattle, Wash. Ship and other facility
support is provided to the program by C&GS through
its Atlantic and Pacific Marine Centers at Norfolk, Va.,
and Seattle, Wash., respectively.

Portions of the program, particularly those involved
in the study of sea-air interaction, require instrumented
aircraft, which are furnished as needed to support pro-
grams by ESSA's Research Flight Facility (RFF), located
at Miami, Fla. Increasing use is being made of satellite
data in the study of oceanography, and facilities are
available for satellite data acquisition at the National
Environmental Satellite Center (NESC), at Suitland, Md.,
and its command and data acquisition stations at Gil-
more Creek, Alaska, and Wallops Island, Va.

The Institute for Atmospheric Sciences (IAS) plays
a major role in this area of research and provides facili-
ties for its Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Labora-
tory at Boulder, Colo., and the Geophysical Fluid Dy-
namics Laboratory in Washington, D.C. This latter
facility is equipped with high-speed computers for ex-
periments in modeling the oceans and atmosphere and
their interaction. The Environmental Data Service per-
forms research in climatology, in addition to its service
functions in this field, and maintains facilities for this
purpose in Silver Spring, Md., at the National Weather
Records Center at Asheville, N.C., and, in cooperation
with the University of Nevada, at Reno.

Instrument and Systems Development

Although individual laboratories contract for the devel-
opment of special purpose instrumentation from time to
time, most development of oceanographic equipment is
performed by the Engineering Division of C&GS at
Rockville, Md. Similarly, in the case of atmospheric
research instrumentation, most development is performed
by the Equipment Development Laboratory of the
Weather Bureau, with contributions from other elements
of ESSA, notably ITSA. Highlights of the instrument and
systems development program in this area follow:

Deep-Sea Tide Gage. A number of advances have taken
place in the technology of measuring tides in the deep
sea. Earlier deep-sea tide gages, which were able to
measure tides in water 840 feet deep, have been rede-
signed for operation in water up to 5,000 feet deep.
Preliminary tests of these gages have been completed and

field operations will commence in FY 68. A gage of the
same type has also been used on the underwater stable
platform, developed originally to take magnetic measure-
ments, to measure tides successfully in water at a depth
of 4,200 feet.

Measurement of Ocean Parameters. An electronic
salinity, temperature, and depth sensing system developed
by the Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory of IO has been
used successfully to produce data on the ocean
microstructure.

Measurement of Winds Aloft at Sea. It is difficult to
make observations of winds aloft at sea using conventional
rawinsonde techniques because of the rolling and pitching
of a surface vessel. Because the accuracy required is
high (.25° up to a distance of 50 miles horizontally and
20 miles vertically), efforts have been underway to
develop a means of compensation for ship motion. Sub-
stantial progress toward this objective was made during
the reporting period with the completion of a gyro-
stabilized azimuthal direction-finding antenna, using a
sensing system known as a Wullenweber array. This
array can track a radiosonde signal through 360° at a
rate of 12° per second; data on azimuth is presented both
as a direct readout and as a continuous analog recording
of the angle. The Wullenweber array was tested on a
shipboard simulator, developed by the Weather Bureau's
Test and Evaluation Laboratory, before undergoing actual
sea tests and then tested close to shore so that compari-
sons could be made with land-based observations.

Satellite Interrogated Balloons. In order to obtain
meteorological data aloft on a global basis, a system has
been proposed involving the use of a large number of
instrumented constant-level balloons to be interrogated
by satellite in the same manner as meteorological buoys.
This system, labeled the Global Horizontal Sounding
Technique (GHOST), underwent pilot test using data
acquisition by ground stations in a joint United States-
New Zealand program during FY 66 at Christchurch.
New Zealand. The program is managed by the National
Center for Atmospheric Research and is sponsored
jointly by ESSA and the National Science Foundation
(NSF) with the endorsement of the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO). Technical coordination for ESSA
is the responsibility of the National Environmental
Satellite Center.

Instruments on the balloons sense temperature and
pressure at a constant pressure altitude and transmit the
information to ground stations (or to satellites later).
Each balloon identifies itself so that a plot of its succeed-
ing position can give winds aloft at the balloon altitude.
Results of the test program have been generally successful
at altitudes of 40,000 feet and higher. At lower altitudes,
moisture and icing have caused problems which are
presently under study. The pilot project has involved a
total of 50 balloons to date. An operational GHOST
System would involve upwards of 10.000 balloons, and
would have to solve problems of potential interference

38

The GHOST System, a system of ground-
station-interrogated meteorological
balloons.

GHOST balloon with five-ounce
power-generating payload.

with air traffic, but the concept does appear to offer at
least one means of obtaining the type of global synoptic
data which will be needed for future environmental
prediction systems.

Research in Physical Oceanography

The oceans of the world are never static, but remain in
constant motion in response to the influences of wind,
tides, and the boundary with the solid earth. ESSA's
Open Ocean Tide Program is planned to comprise the
principle part of the U.S. contribution to the International
Deep Sea Tide Program of the International Association
of Physical Oceanography.

Deep Ocean Tide Studies. ESSA has embarked on a
program to observe tides systematically throughout the
earth's oceans. In the past, tidal measurements have been
restricted to coastlines and isolated islands because of
instrument and logistic difficulties involved in recording
open-sea measurements. However, because of advances
in instrumentation, platforms, and data processing
systems, such measurements have become feasible.

ESSA's observation of tidal propagation is centered
on the following objectives:

D Understanding tidal propagation mechanisms,
a Obtaining data for input to dynamic-numerical pre-
diction models,
d Determining the magnitude of tidal friction,

□ Corrections to gravitational and magnetic fields for
the effects of global tides,

□ Correcting soundings in the open ocean,

d Predicting open ocean tides,

□ Obtaining information for geodetic leveling, and

□ Supporting the tsunami warning system.

Current Studies. In addition to obtaining data on
nearshore and estuarine tidal currents, ESSA is vitally
concerned with offshore and open ocean current studies.

Part of a multi-ship, multi-organization endeavor to
study the Gulf Stream comprehensively was begun in
August 1965 by the Explorer and Peirce and completed
in April 1967. The ships surveyed along the 15-degree
isotherm (line of constant temperature) from Cape Hat-
teras to a point south of Nova Scotia. Data were taken
monthly over the course to ascertain if there was a cyclic
pattern to changes in the Gulf Stream meanders during
a 1-year period. The Peirce operated on a biweekly basis,
observing a standard cross-section of oceanographic
stations on a line perpendicular to the Gulf Stream axis.
This investigation obtained the longest sequence of
observations of Gulf Stream meanders ever made, and
a year-long series of fortnightly profiles across the stream
off South Carolina. In addition, a new field operation — an
investigation of the flow between the Western Atlantic
and the Caribbean through the Anegada Passage — was
successfully conducted.

ESSA also conducted a number of projects in Pacific
physical oceanography emphasizing large-scale phenom-
ena, including systems within the Pacific, seasonal and
annual changes in properties and currents, and long-
range meteorological-oceanographic energy exchange.
Studies in microstructure and short-term variability are

39

pursued primarily in the interest of establishing process
rates and mechanisms and relevancy of measurements.

In FY 67, the backlog of time series data acquired by
C&GS on the SEAMAP surveys were processed through
the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), and
studied for annual variability of currents- and mass
transport. Based on a field investigation off the California
coast in February 1966, a technical memorandum (POL
Tech. Memo. No. 3) was published. It reported on a
comparison of an in situ sensing, electronic instrument
system (STD) with a conventional Nansen cast technique.
The report concluded that the results of the electronic
system, when expressed as geostrophic currents, were at
least equal to the older method, and in addition revealed
significant microstructure otherwise undetected. The
time history of an anomalous water parcel detected by
STD was described over a period of a few hours.

A study of abyssal waters in the Central North Pacific
was concluded through its initial stage, utilizing a special
method for screening data, based on the SEAMAP sta-
tions of 1961 through 1966. It is evident that anomalous
"young" water reaches the vicinity of the Aleutian
Trench by some unknown route other than directly from
the south.

A new echo-sounding correction technique provides for
computerized correction of soundings with a precision
previously not available. The new basic data upon which
the procedure is based shows a higher speed of sound in
most cases than the Matthews Table, indicating ocean
depths will be found to be slightly deeper.

Ocean Studies by Remote Sensors. Studies are underway
to develop a capability for using remote oceanographic
sensors from aircraft and satellites. Although primary
attention is being given to infrared techniques for measur-
ing surface temperature, other methods, including color
photography, radar scatterometry, and microwave
radiometry, are being considered. For in situ studies, a
self-recording tide and wave gage system was placed on
top of the Cobb Seamount, 270 miles off the Washington
coast. The environmental information to be derived from
this system is essential to proposed efforts to establish a
service and research station on Cobb Seamount.

Satellite Studies of Sea Ice. Although large masses of
sea ice are identified by satellite sensors today and in-
formation on its location is made available to mariners
through the Coast Guard, individual icebergs, except
for large types, are beyond the resolution of present
operational satellite sensors. Studies are underway in
conjunction with other Federal agencies to evaluate the
feasibility of iceberg detection using improved sensors
aboard larger satellite vehicles which should become
available in the future.

Sea and Air Interaction Studies

While several different organizational elements of
ESSA are concerned with this interface in one way or
another, the Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory (SAIL) of
10 has the primary responsibility of maintaining cog-
nizance of all aspects of research in this area and devel-
oping a theoretical basis for improved marine environ-
mental predictions.

Storm Surge. Offshore storms may interact with the
sea in such a way as to produce abnormally high or low
tides which may present a hazard to coastal areas. This
phenomenon, known as storm surge is not at present
fully understood, and is therefore not yet subject to
accurate prediction.

ESSA's research effort to describe and understand
storm surge is theoretical as well as observational in
nature, and involves numerical analysis of shallow water
wave equations to determine the response of the sea to
the driving forces of atmospheric storms. The present
model is somewhat simplified. It describes storms with
a restricted number of physical parameters amenable
to observation, such as the pressure drop in a storm.
The coastline is simulated by a rectangular basin open
to the sea on three sides and having the width of the
Continental Shelf.

Results to date show that bottom stress (the force due
to exchange of momentum between the water and the
bottom surface) is only of minor concern for fast moving
storms crossing the coast at not too acute an angle.
However, for all other storm motions, bottom stress has
a commanding effect. A series of computations has been
completed, assuming a linear bottom stress in the equa-

Figure 3. Storm Surge observed at Atlantic City, N.J.,
during Hurricane Donna (1960). Mathematically pre-
dicted values of surge above and below mean sea
level with respect to time are compared to those
values actually observed.

28

30

32

34

HURRICANE DONNA
SEPTEMBER 1960

280-876 O-68— 4

40

tions of motion, that considers storms traveling in any
direction and speed relative to a straight-line coast,
including storms not making landfall. The results of
these computations have been incorporated in nomograms
and give a preliminary objective forecasting scheme for
storm surge under certain conditions. Application of
the nomograms to the storm surge produced at Atlantic
City by Hurricane DONNA gave the results shown in
Figure 3.

Basic research is continuing on the problems of in-
corporating curvilinear coastlines into a numerical
model. A detailed mathematical analysis of nonlinear
effects in shallow water waves on beaches has been com-
pleted and a report is being prepared. The behavior of the
numerical schemes developed to date is good with regard
to waves traveling normally to the shoreline, but requires
further development for waves traveling in the longshore
direction.

Experiments with curvilinear boundaries demonstrate
that considerable care must be given to finite-difference
conservation laws in order to avoid wild growth instabili-
ties in the computer solutions.

Wind-Generated Waves. The interaction between sea
and air through the formation of wind-generated waves is
an important facet of SAIL study. A program to study
wave formation under various meteorological conditions
on the Great Lakes has been initiated. This "wave
climatology" study, based on historical data as well as
current observation, in addition to providing basic input
to future air-sea interaction studies should aid materially
in the design of future Great Lakes ships and the maxi-
mum utilization of the present fleet.

Data obtained by the University of Michigan under
ESSA sponsorship show several systematic deviations
between the air flow observed over waves and that
predicted by theories widely held until recently. This
group and others are continuing the study of wave forma-
tion in an effort to produce improved theories.

ESSA members of the Joint Oceanographic Research
Group (JORG), in conjunction with the University of
Washington program in physical oceanography, initiated
two investigations of wind effects on tides, during the
reporting period. The first, in the Dabob Bay-Hood Canal
area, involved collecting field data from three tide gages
and associated wind records, during the period December
1965-February 1966. Reduction of the tide data has been
completed, and the analysis of wind records started. The
second study involves similar data from a tide gage
installed by JORG at Port Gamble, Wash. Data from this
tide gage will be used in conjunction with a program of
environmental measurements conducted from July
through October 1966 from the Hood Canal Bridge by the
University's Department of Oceanography.

Heat and Water Vapor Exchange. The exchange of
energy at the boundary between sea and air in the form
of heat and energy of vaporization is a major topic of
investigation since these processes are the source of
energy for hurricanes and other ocean storms. Primary

effort during the reporting period centered on sensor
development and the search for an adequate theoretical
model to interpret observational data.

An infrared radiometer capable of accurately measur-
ing sea surface temperature from an aircraft is essential,
since such a device in conjunction with expendable bathy-
thermographs will be the principal source of data for
computing oceanic heat budgets. Because existing equip-
ment was not sufficiently stable or suited for unattended
operation for any period of time, a new self-calibrating,
drift-free radiometer has been developed which operates
in a region of the spectrum relatively unaffected by water
vapor absorption.

In a further effort to determine the effects of water
vapor absorption on infrared radiation, and provide a
means for correcting observations to obtain more ac-
curate sea surface temperature readings, a program is
underway in conjunction with the University of Wis-
consin. A computer program will be developed to give
the error to be expected from water vapor absorption
when only the surface temperature of the sea is known.

In spite of the fact that existing equipment is unsatis-
factory from a number of points of view, some useful
data were obtained from aircraft infrared observations
during the reporting period. The effects of Hurricane
BETSY on the surface temperature pattern of the Gulf
of Mexico were successfully mapped and results agreed
well with observations made from surface vessels.

Boundary Layer Studies. Techniques are being de-
veloped to investigate the structure of the atmospheric
planetary boundary layer over the oceans. Radiosondes
operating on the 403 mc band have been modified and
flown over the ocean from tethered kytoons or parafoils.
Humidity fluctuations at various levels over the water
from 1 meter up to 125 meters have been recorded. Var-
ious instrumental improvements are underway and the
system will ultimately measure temperature, pressure,
humidity, and horizontal wind velocities in the boundary
layer.

Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry

Understanding atmospheric dynamic behavior requires
a knowledge of the physical and chemical processes
associated with weather phenomena. ESSA's effort in
atmospheric physics and chemistry has as its specific
objectives to increase understanding of the atmospheric
physical processes related to clouds and precipitation,
and to evaluate the chemical composition of the atmos-
phere, including such constituents as ozone, carbon
dioxide, and cloud and precipitation nucleating
substances.

Atmospheric Physics. The study of the particulate
matter suspended in the earth's envelope is of paramount
importance to cloud physics and air pollution. Atmos-
pheric particles are grouped according to the supersatura-
tion level at which they become nuclei for cloud droplets.
For example, Aitken nuclei are those particles activated by
supersaturations ranging from 100 to 3,000 percent in an
Aitken dust counter. They are of significance in measuring

41

atmospheric pollution and play an important role in atmos-
pheric electricity, but they do not in general contribute to
natural cloud formation. Cloud nuclei, on the other hand,
which are those particles of primary importance to
natural cloud formation, are active at low supersatura-
tions, seldom rising above 0.1 percent.

During the reporting period, research was undertaken
to determine the natural processes by which cloud nuclei
are generated and released into the air from the earth's
surface. The results suggest these nuclei are in part
released during the rupturing of water solution mem-
branes in the soil interstices when the soil dries out.
Other research showed that atmospheric stability is
important in determining the average Aitken nuclei
concentration at the earth's surface, and, therefore, in
determining the degree of atmospheric pollution.

In the field of atmospheric electricity, the Laboratory
completed the analysis of a 1-year record of atmospheric
electricity at the relatively pollution-free ESSA High
Altitude Observatory at Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Results
indicate that the level of the atmospheric electric field
is significantly affected by the occurrence of solar flares,
and lead to further speculation regarding the interaction
mechanism between solar events and weather.

Atmospheric Chemistry. ESSA's program in atmos-
pheric chemistry has continued to concentrate on the
study of ozone and other atmospheric constituents. There
are now 16 ozone observation stations including a new
station at Boulder, Colo., added to the network in 1967.
Except for limited observations conducted at Amundsen-
Scott and Byrd stations, Antarctica, the large ozone verti-
cal distribution measurements program operated during
the International Year of the Quiet Sun has been cur-
tailed pending completion of data analysis.

Other activities during the reporting period have
involved the development and testing of new instrumen-
tation for sensing ozone and other atmospheric consti-
tuents. An important area of interest is the monitoring
of carbon dioxide and oxygen content in the atmosphere,
since there is some indication that a potentially dangerous
change may be taking place in the balance between these
two constituents in the atmosphere. A carbon dioxide
monitoring facility will be established at Boulder, which
will also serve as a laboratory for the analysis of samples
taken at other locations. Changes will be observed both
as a function of time and as a function of location.

Modeling of the Ocean and Atmosphere

While it is necessary to study experimentally both the
large-scale behavior of the earth's fluid media and the
details of their physics and chemistry in order to gain
understanding of the processes involved, it is equally
important that mathematical tools be developed which
can model both large- and small-scale processes, in order
that the data obtained can be used effectively for pre-
diction, warning, and/or modification. The Geophysical
Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) of IAS has primary
responsibility for this phase of research in ESSA. These

investigations also support, to an extent, the National
Meteorological Center's program to develop computer
means of real-time ocean and atmosphere prediction.

Largely, but not exclusively, GFDL's studies involve
the formulation of theoretical models of the atmosphere
and oceans, the properties and behavior of which are
studied in detail through numerical integration of the
model equations on a digital computer. The program falls
into three main categories: theoretical studies, experi-
mental prediction, and observational studies.

Theoretical Studies. Calculations with a 6-level ocean
circulation model have been extended to a highly non-
linear range of basic parameters. Intensive effort has
been devoted to analyzing the basic physics revealed
by the solutions, and verifying the mathematical accuracy
obtained. This is an essential preliminary step to further
application of the numerical ocean model to ocean-
atmosphere interaction studies.

In the study, the temperature pattern given by the
model is compared to the observed temperature at a
depth of 200 meters. The calculated pattern indicates
the formation of an extensive warm pool of water near
the western boundary, as well as the effects of upwelling
along the eastern coast in low latitudes. The effects of
cold-water advection associated with the equivalent of
a Labrador current is also evident along the western
boundary at higher latitudes. There is a defect in the
solutions due to lack of a sharp thermal front along the
northern edge of the warm pool. It is believed that this
feature will appear in more detailed calculations with
lower turbulent viscosity and a finer numerical grid.

Study was made of vertical cross sections along an
east-west line. The calculated density field was compared
with data taken during the International Geophysical Year
by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. A graded
net has been used in the computation to resolve the very
fine thermal and velocity structure at the western bound-
ary. The gentle slope upward to the east of surfaces of
constant density is shown in the calculations to be directly
due to the wind stress pattern. It appears to be impossible
to explain this feature in terms of an ocean circulation
driven by thermal forces alone.

A comprehensive calculation of the wind stress at the
ocean surface based on actual data for all seasons has
been completed. This is part of the preparation for
general circulation calculations in which actual boundary
conditions of the world will be duplicated as closely as
possible.

The major objectives in studying the general circulation
of the atmosphere are to simulate numerically the clima-
tology and the general circulation of the atmosphere
involving the minimum number of parameters necessary
to provide good modeling, and to gain a coherent under-
standing of the mechanism which maintains the structure
of the atmosphere. In carrying out experiments in this
field, various checks are made, including experimental
forecasting to determine the dependability of the model.

42

and computer runs where different variables are omitted
to determine their importance to the model.

A detailed analysis of the general circulation of the
moist tropical model atmosphere has been completed.
Results are generally in accord with observation, showing,
for example, a belt of intense rainfall in the model tropics,
synoptic scale disturbances, maintenance of kinetic
energy in these tropical disturbances through the release
of latent heat of vaporization, and vertical temperature
distributions similar to those observed in the real
atmosphere.

Ocean-atmosphere coupling is one of the most important
factors in determining the long-range evolution of climate.
A scheme for incorporating these effects has been worked
out. Before combining the atmospheric model with the
ocean model, it is necessary to incorporate the effect of
surface hydrology into the atmospheric model. A simpli-
fied system of predicting snow cover, soil moisture, and
runoff has been formulated, and the computer program
for its execution has already been completed. As a pre-
liminary phase of this project, the numerical integration
of the atmospheric general circulation model with surface
hydrology is in progress.

The model techniques developed to simulate the
long-term behavior of atmospheric general circulation
have been extended to deal with the general circulation of
the oceans, and recently, have been applied to the total
fluid envelope of the earth, ocean, and atmosphere, as a
single physical system.

An improved version of the time integration of the
hydrodynamic equations on the new global grid system
has been formulated and tested at low grid resolution.
The resolution has been increased, and a new definitive
test of the scheme using a model without the hydrologic
cycle has been started. Following conversion of this pro-
gram to the Univac 1108, and the completion of studies,
such as those involving the addition of radiative heat
transfer to the model and those involving the effects of
the photochemistry of ozone, the other processes will be
added to the model one by one until a completely general
model of global weather will be available.

Other theoretical studies during the reporting period
included those dealing with penetrative convective
instabilities, barotropic stability theory and tropical
disturbances, and numerical convection experiments.

Experimental Prediction. The real data studies of
GFDL's program in experimental prediction are centered
on eight problems:

1. Determination of initial conditions,

2. Hemispheric forecasts which include the effects of
radiation and land-sea contrast,

3. Diagnostic studies of southern hemispheric and
tropical circulation,

4. Sudden warming in the stratosphere,

5. Precipitation,

6. Fine resolution grid forecasts (80 grid points between
the equator and the North Pole),

7. Tropical forecasts, and

8. Global forecasts.

Progress in these areas is briefly summarized in the
following paragraphs.

The conventional scheme for determining initial con-
ditions has been coded for the CDC 6600 and is in use.
A new technique studied during FY 66 was promising,
but had minor defects and required excessive computa-
tion time.

A 4-day hemispheric forecast was conducted using
past data, including the effects of radiation and land-sea
contrast, with mixed results. Although the prediction of
cyclones and tropical condensation rates was improved,
discrepancies in coastal temperatures developed which
should be reduced as the model is refined.

During FY 67, GFDL performed several experimental
2-week predictions. Experiment 1 had no radiative trans-
fer and no turbulent exchange of heat and moisture with
the lower boundary. Experiment 2 included the effects
excluded in Experiment 1 plus a land and sea contrast.
Experiment 3 contained all the features of Experiment 2
plus a thermal property difference between land and sea
ice surfaces and a condensation criterion set at a relative
humidity value of 80 percent in contrast to 100 percent
in Experiments 1 and 2.

The study has led to a number of important
conclusions:

a. Two-week forecasts, on the basis of this sample,
show considerable skill and the feeling exists that this
skill will be improved in the future.

b. The model succeeded in forecasting the formation
of second and third generation cyclones and their sub-
sequent behavior.

c. The generally accepted idea that forecasts are greatly
improved by considering sea surface temperatures was
reconfirmed.

d. It is necessary to take into consideration the thermal
difference between sea-ice and land-ice surfaces in order
to obtain a proper value for the temperature at lower
levels in high latitudes.

Observational Studies. The dissipation of kinetic en-
ergy is one of the fundamental processes in the atmos-
pheric energy cycle. Although critically important to
the development of general circulation theory, this
process has been comparatively unstudied because of
the complex nature of the mechanisms and the difficul-
ties in finding a practical approach. Therefore, the
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) is
engaged in a comprehensive study of the kinetic energy
balance in relation to generation and dissipation proc-
esses, using Northern Hemisphere daily aerological
(wind and geopotential surface) data. The use of aero-
logical data and a carefully designed scheme of analysis
relieves the study from some of the major constraints
from previous approaches, and the results thus far
obtained are promising.

43

In view of the initial success of the method, actions for
FY 67 included: Extension of the data area from North
America to other parts of the Northern Hemisphere,
including direct study over continental areas and indirect
study over ocean areas; use of a large data sample for an
extended period (5 years is proposed); and a study of
dissipation by different mechanisms, and its incorporation
into mathematical models of atmospheric circulation.

Climatology

One of the key inputs in developing mathematical
models of the atmosphere is climatological data gathered
over an extended period of time. Research in climatology
is conducted by the Environmental Data Service (EDS)
in the categories of climatic change, synoptic climatology,
severe storm climatology, bioclimatology, urban clima-
tology, and three-dimensional global climatology.

Climatic Change. Research in climatic changes
focuses largely on historical climatic change and its cause,
but is also concerned with the expansion of the Climatic
Reference Station Program, designed to provide climatic
reference points in areas relatively undisturbed by
human influence.

During the reporting period, a study was initiated to
determine more precisely how representative the en-
visaged Reference Climatological Network will be in
specifying climatic change throughout the conterminous
United States. New instruments were tested for installa-
tion at 17 reference stations.

In a parallel effort, an analysis of mean temperature
and total precipitation changes in the period 1931-65
was initiated to compare data averaged over a region
with data from individual stations as indices of change,
and to study in detail the pattern of climatic fluctuation
in the country during the past 35 years.

Meanwhile, the possibility that long-term changes of
solar activity are a contributory cause of climatic change
was examined from several points of view. An investiga-
tion of possible solar influence on climate was continued
by means of cross-spectral analysis between sunspot
series and historical temperature and tree-ring series.
Although results of this analysis have failed to reveal a
consistently significant relationship, they are highly
suggestive of a weak relationship with the 11-year sunspot
cycle, and of a somewhat stronger relationship with longer
period variations of solar activity, such as the 80-90 year
cycle.

The potential role of air-sea interactions in causing
climatic change was further examined by means of two
numerical models describing the time history of heat
exchanges in the ocean and atmosphere as a thermally
coupled system. One model is capable of describing
relatively rapid climatic fluctuations possessing many of
the statistical characteristics of inter-annual climatic
changes actually observed during the past century. The
other model leads to long-term fluctuations of climate
that are believed to have a bearing on the chronology of
the Pleistocene Ice Age.

Synoptic Climatology. Research in synoptic clima-
tology, during the reporting period, centered on the
Arctic region. The study of the climatology and meteo-
rology of Greenland was concluded with the investigation
of upper winds over Greenland and the surrounding area,
and with a mesoclimatic investigation of the Greenland
ice sheet western slope.

Investigation of climatic conditions in Alaska con-
tinued during the reporting period on the following
problems:

1. Basic weather patterns, day by day, for the period
of January 1, 1945, to March 31, 1963;

2. The analysis of extreme cold winters in Alaska:

3. The computations of mean monthly heights of the
500 millibar pressure level, and mean monthly thick-
nesses of the layer between 500 and 1,000 millibars, as
well as the variations of these elements from month to
month and from year to year;'

4. The computations of height, temperature, and
pressure at tropopause level according to three upper
air stations; and

5. The evaluation of surface inversion according to daily
records of three Alaskan upper air stations.

Severe Storm Climatology. A study of the contribution
of tropical cyclone rainfall to the distribution of precipi-
tation in the eastern and southern United States was
completed during the reporting period. Results showed
that although 10 percent or more of all precipitation dur-
ing the months of June through October (1931-60) was
associated with tropical cyclones, most cyclones occurred
during normally wet periods. As a result, very few periods
of established drought were ended through rainfall
associated with such tropical cyclones.

Tropical cyclone precipitation shown as
percentage of total precipitation, June-
October 1931-60.

44

PALMER DROUGHT INDEX

December 31, 1965

CHARACTER OF
RECENT WEATHER

PALMER
INDEX

Figure 4. Drought severity map, an index of the character of the moisture aspect of recent weather.

45

Bioclimatology. ESSA's program in bioclimatology is
primarily concerned with drought and its effects. Climate
governs the water income as precipitation; it controls
the losses from soil and open water surfaces. Crops
depend on adequate water supply, and modern communi-
ties and industries cannot function without it. Knowledge
of the climatological probabilities- and risks of water
deficiencies and excesses is necessary for effective
planning in water resources management.

A machine procedure has been developed for deter-
mining the extent and severity of periods of unusually
wet or dry weather for various areas. This procedure has
been applied to the historical record of weather and
climate since 1930, and drought severity expectancies
have been calculated for most areas of the United States.
For example, Figure 4 is a map prepared by the National
Weather Records Center, using this procedure, which
shows the recent extreme drought condition in the North-
east. Water shortage problems, caused almost entirely
by unusual and persistent drought, have afflicted this
highly developed region since the fall of 1961. Municipal
and industrial water shortages were most prominent and
most publicized; but agriculture, the dairy industry in
particular, did not escape economic losses due to this
drought. It should be helpful for water management
authorities in this area to know that, based on past
weather records, drought of this duration should only
be expected to occur once in about 150 years.

Urban Climatology. ESSA has embarked on a coopera-
tive project with a number of other Federal agencies in the
development of climatological observational networks and
the interpretation of existing and anticipated data from
the Nation's growing urban industrial centers. During
FY 67, for example, EDS scientists took illumination
measurements from urban areas in an attempt to derive
a relationship between pollutant concentration and sun-
light. EDS also related urban weather records to rural
weather records to separate the effects of preexisting
climate in a region from the climate produced by the urban
area itself. These data are related to long-term existing
records as possible inputs in city and urban planning.

Three-Dimensional Global Climatology. A variety of
studies were conducted in this field. For example, a
considerable effort has been made to assess the point-to-
point variability of meteorological parameters, in order to
provide a basis for determining the optimum spacing of
observation stations. For surface variables the optimum
distance between stations in hilly or mountainous terrain
is about 25 miles. For upper air temperatures an optimum
distance is 50 miles. For upper air winds an optimum
distance is 250 miles. Beyond these distances, signifi-
cantly different distributions are to be expected. These
distances may be increased if the user will accept a
greater deviation of weather from the norm over the region
of interest.

Determination of the transport of water vapor in global
circulation has been difficult because, in general, moisture
information is only obtained from precipitation data taken

at the surface at various places and times. However,
making use of the daily record of upper atmospheric
temperature, pressure, humidity, and wind data from
rawinsondes over the United States stored at the Na-
tional Weather Records Center in Asheville, N.C., EDS
scientists have prepared maps showing mean zonal trans-
port of water vapor on monthly basis.

Other studies during the reporting period covered such
topics as: Estimates of winds at intermediate heights
generated from winds recorded at constant pressure
surfaces, the uses of some statistics in meteorology and
climatology, the spectrum of angular momentum transfer
in the atmosphere, and a study of means to eliminate
erroneous data from homogeneous bivariate distributions.

THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE AND SPACE

Because of the importance of the ionosphere in radio
communications, very high levels of the atmosphere have
been the subject of extensive measurement and study.
Forecasts of ionospheric conditions in support of commu-
nications have been made for many years.

With the advent of space exploration, the regions
beyond the atmosphere have come under intensive investi-
gation. Research into the characteristics of both regions
has become an important aspect of ESSA's science and
engineering program.

Aeronomy

The study and description of the physical, chemical,
and electrical properties of the "upper" atmosphere
constitutes a relatively new scientific field called aeronomy
(the word aeronomy was invented in 1945). It is not
possible to specify exactly either the lower or the upper
limits of the region of the atmosphere constituting the
domain of aeronomy, but about 40 km. (just above the
ozone layer) may be taken as a convenient lower boundary,
and 70,000-80,000 km. (the approximate outer edge of
the earth's effective magnetic field) for the upper bound-
ary. This domain begins where the atmospheric density is
reduced to 0.0003 of that at sea level and ends where the
distinction between the upper atmosphere and inter-
planetary space is trivial. Studies in aeronomy include
direct measurements from rockets and satellites, indirect
measurements of the upper atmosphere from ground
stations, simulation of atmospheric conditions in labora-
tory experiments, and the synthesis of these observa-
tional and experimental data by theoretical evaluations.

The results of these studies are important, both from
the point of view of telecommunications and of astro-
nautics, in providing information on which future systems
designs and operational plans may be based. This por-
tion of ESSA's program to describe and understand the
environment is carried forward by the Aeronomy Labora-
tory of ITSA.

The Structure of the Lower Ionosphere

Paradoxically, the lowest region of interest to aeron-
omy is the most difficult to study. At altitudes above
about 175 km., satellites can remain in orbit long enough

46

to obtain meaningful quantities of direct observational
data, but below that altitude, it is presently not feasible
to fly satellites; and of course, the altitude is well above
the reach of balloons. Until better methods of acquir-
ing direct data can be devised, scientists are forced
to be satisfied with indirect measurements from the
ground, for the most part, with only infrequent sounding
rocket flights to provide brief direct observation. Al-
though six such rocket experiments were carried out by
ESSA personnel during the reporting period with useful
results, the largest amount of data was obtained from
radio soundings and observations of aurora and nocti-
lucent clouds.

The region from about 90 km. up to the point of maxi-
mum electron density in the atmosphere (ranging from
250-400 km.) is directly accessible to measurement by
ground-based radio sounding. Although the electrons
and their accompanying ions represent only a "trace
element" throughout this part of the neutral atmosphere,

Lii': i-^L-Jr.- ^'.■-■ii—

they are particularly important, through their strong
interaction with radio waves, for practical long-distance
communication and as a sensitive indicator of the physical
state of the upper atmosphere. Several high frequency
radio techniques are used to observe the structure, time
variation, and movement of the ionosphere.

In ground-based studies of the ionosphere, ITSA scien-
tists designed a new experimental program for radio
measurement of ionospheric motions throughout the
ionosphere, including vertical component drifts, during
FY 67. A six-frequency digital sounding system and new
least-squares method of data analysis were also devel-
oped and tested during experiments at Yuma, Ariz.

In the two sweep-frequency soundings of the iono-
sphere in Figure 5, the horizontal frequency scale may
be interpreted directly to determine the electron con-
centration at the altitude at which the echo pulses were
reflected. The apparent height of reflection (vertical axis)
is related in a complex manner to the real height, but such

4 OCTOBER 1965
0035 P.S.T.

.,*» . ■&-*-■- — m

y^PBp^pjiwujwyii

1.0
FREQUENCY, MHz

4 OCTOBER 1965
1440 P.S.T.

H-M-f

mt i mg* ^>"!

i r

WmSSmmmm^mm

0.25

0.5

1.0 2.0

FREQUENCY, MHz

4.0

8.0

Figure 5. Typical ionograms, model J. Ionosonde, Point Arguello, Calif.

47

ionograms do contain the necessary information from
which to compute the electron density profile. An example
of a height-density profile obtained in this manner is
shown in Figure 6. Ionospheric measurements of this

10!

2 4 8 10'

ELECTRONS/cm
2 4

8 10s

2

4

bUU

1 1

'

i i i i |

400

N(h) PROFILES

PT. ARGUELLO, CALIFORNIA

4 OCTOBER 1967

~-

\

■

300

0035^/

\

km

\m)

200

/
1
\

\

t
\

^MONOTONIC
CALCULATION

ion

__s^^

n

.

9.4

9.6

9.8

0 log ,N 0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 6. Height-density electron profile,
recorded at Point Arguello, Calif.

type are used to identify the chemical, photochemical,
electrodynamic, and meteorological processes of the
upper atmosphere.

Another technique, illustrated in Figure 7, provides
information on smaller scale irregularities and air move-
ment in the ionosphere. Here, the time variation of the
amplitude of a fixed frequency radio echo is observed
at four spaced receivers a few hundred meters apart.
The fading patterns are similar, but displaced in time,
suggesting movement of the echo amplitude pattern with
respect to the ground. The Aeronomy Laboratory also
compared "drifts" obtained by this technique with winds
in the reflecting region observed in rocket- and gun-
launched visible trail experiments.

New instrumentation was developed during the re-
porting period which combined these radio techniques
with other similar techniques in a computer-controlled
digital system with considerable flexibility. For example,
this system can produce time-varying electron density
profiles and ionospheric drift profiles (by performing the
experiment of Figure 7 on a number of radio frequencies
simultaneously) concurrently and in real time.

The Structure of the Upper Ionosphere and Exosphere.
Above the altitude of maximum electron density, a radio
signal that has not been reflected by a lower layer gen-

W

X

TIME, SECONDS

6

7

8

10

11

12

Figure 7. A four-channel spaced receiver drift recording made at
Barbados, West Indies, February 18, 1966. The letters SEWX repre-
sent the southern, eastern, western, and center receivers, respectively.

48

erally escapes into outer space, and there is a critical
frequency, which varies from time to time, above which
escape takes place. Because some radio waves can escape
the ionosphere into space, the study of the structure of
the upper ionosphere is made difficult. Fortunately a very
small percentage, even of the radio waves above the
critical frequency, is reflected from the higher layers and
can be observed on earth, providing a sufficiently large
and sensitive antenna is used. The Aeronomy Laboratory's
antenna at Jicamarca, near Lima, Peru, is one of the
world's largest and gathers the data of the sort displayed
in Figure 8, out to distances of 6,000 km.

Satellite Measurements

The availability of artificial satellites as platforms for
making ionospheric measurements now permits direct
data acquisition in the upper ionosphere. Studies with the
"topside" sounder on Explorer XX, similar to the type of

HEIGHT (Km!
10,000

8,000
6,000

4,000

2,000

1,000
800

600

400

200

100

I I I I T I I

1 — I I I I

JICAMARCA, PERU

1524, 1 FEB 1965

1544, 2 FEB 1965
1538, 3FEB 1965

ELECTRON DENSITY (cm')

■ ■ ^ ' ^ j t * I i i i 1 .... I

10"

10

10"

10

Figure 8. Height-density electron profile
recorded at Jicamarca, Peru.

A satellite telemetry antenna on Gunbarrel
Hill near Boulder, Colo. This antenna was
used to control the Topside Sounder Satel-
lite (insert), which examined the iono-
sphere from above.

radio studies made from the ground, have verified
ground-based measurements, and in addition, have re-
vealed the presence of duct-like irregularities along the
magnetic field lines above the ionosphere, which serve
to guide electromagnetic waves from one hemisphere to
another.

Geomagnetic Studies

Earlier in this chapter, investigations of the earth's
principal magnetic field were discussed and reference was
made to the type of rapid fluctuations in the field produced
by ionospheric phenomena. It is these short-term fluctua-
tions which are the phase of geomagnetism of principal
interest to aeronomy. Although the principal field arises
within the earth itself, it does, at least in part, control the
motions of upper atmospheric charged particles and
guides the propagation of electromagnetic and magneto-
hydrodynamic energy. Fluctuations in the field are, in

49

general, produced by changes in the solar environment.
A knowledge of the resulting changes in the earth's
magnetosphere and the currents generated within the
earth's ionosphere is necessary for the proper interpreta-
tion of many aeronomical phenomena. ESSA scientists
currently observe field variations at 11 stations throughout
the world.

During the reporting period, investigations of both a
theoretical and experimental nature included such topics
as the spectral distribution of fluctuations in the earth's
magnetic field with periods of 40 to 500 seconds, and the
dispersion and polarization relations of hydromagnetic
waves near one cycle per second. Using conjugately
located stations during the June solstice period when the
southern hemisphere site was in continued darkness, the
absorption effect of the daytime ionosphere upon natural
field-guided hydromagnetic signals was studied.

Aurora and Air glow

The dramatic phenomenon known as the aurora is a
manifestation of the excitation to luminescence of atoms

and molecules resident in the upper atmosphere by
energetic charged particles moving under the influence of
the earth's magnetic field, and therefore its study pro-
vides information concerning the composition and pro-
cesses of the upper atmosphere and its interaction with
the magnetic field. Auroral displays concentrate statisti-
cally in zones some 23° from the geomagnetic poles.
Research results indicate that a complex of auroral
phenomena exists which extends beyond this zone. For
example, extensive arcs, invisible to the human eye be-
cause of their color, have been shown to extend toward
the equator during times of geomagnetic disturbance.
There is some evidence that these arcs occur in con-
tinuous bands following magnetic latitude parallels around
the world.

Airglow also provides information on upper atmospheric
composition and processes. This is a general glow, not
easily seen from the earth's surface, but clearly visible
to astronauts, and has been studied with photometers for
a number of years. There are at least five airglow layers

*'*^

■'"%»>

*^r>

,-*!,.* *

'**■ ;<•:■' 'u^yrl-'Sji

*»

*<W

i'rHih\l-

i

<*£-

»: * ' •>

*i* f

$»**,

"/'/ :V- J&

j'-j

At the ESSA Fritz Peak Observatory, a few miles from
Boulder, Colo., a scientist adjusts a photometer used to
study airglow and aurora in the night sky.

50

observed, the result of different physical processes pro-
ducing different optical results — the most obvious being
the one at a height of about 100 km.

An airglow layer less conspicuous to the naked eye,
but a very interesting one scientifically, occurs in the
so-called F region of the ionosphere centered at about
250 km. It is caused by photochemical reactions that are
important not only in the production of airglow, but also
in maintaining a steady-state balance of electrons in the
ionosphere, and therefore its intensity gives an indication
of the height of the layer over the earth.

Atmospheric Collision Processes

A few years ago, students of the upper atmosphere were
seriously handicapped by a lack of quantitative informa-
tion on the reaction rates of pertinent chemical reactions.
Now, with the capability of simulating ionospheric condi-
tions in the laboratory, new knowledge is being obtained
to permit the analyst to develop accurate atmospheric
models.

The chemical reactions which take place in the upper
atmosphere are generally unfamiliar to students of
classical chemistry. This is due to the fact that, under
conditions of low density, significant ionization, and no
restraining walls, rare atomic and molecular forms are
possible. These forms are now produced in the laboratory
and the rates of the positive ion-molecule reactions which
control the ion composition and electron density in the
quiet ionosphere above approximately 120 km. have now.
been measured directly.

Laboratory measurements of negative ion reactions of
ionospheric importance have also been carried out. For
example, it has been shown that a previously unsuspected
ion, CO3 , may be more important in the lower ionosphere
than any of the oxygen ions. Also, ion-molecule reactions
have been found leading to the production of negative ions
NO2 and NO3 which may be dominant atmospheric
negative ions.

Laboratory studies of atomic and molecular collision
processes controlling ionospheric composition and
electron loss have also been made, and a negative ion
chemistry scheme for the D region of the ionosphere has
been formulated for the measurement of negative ion-
neutral reactions.

Plasma Physics

The ionosphere has been simulated for the study of its
physical as well as its chemical characteristics. Al-
though some experimental work was performed during
the reporting period, most studies were theoretical,
pending the completion of a new plasma physics labora-
tory facility. Studies included a new treatment of electro-
magnetic wave scattering from a plasma and a new
technique for interpreting scattering from ionospheric
irregularities.

Considerable progress was made in the theory of
transport coefficients (diffusion, electrical conductivity,
etc.) and in their relationship to space and time correla-
tion of fluctuations in the ionosphere. Experiments based
on the theory verified the expected behavior of density
fluctuations and pointed to a new method of experimental
determination of diffusion coefficients without the neces-
sity for a precise knowledge or control of boundary
conditions.
Interaction With Lower Atmospheric Phenomena

The Meteorological Statistics Group of IAS has
continued a statistical analysis of atmospheric oscillations
and periodicities. Additional evidence has been found
that solar and lunar thermal and gravitational tides are not
only influencing the diurnal and semidiurnal variations
of pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, etc., but may also
be acting as an important forcing agent, producing the
biennial oscillation that has been observed in the tropics
and elsewhere. New statistical methods have been de-
veloped that are appropriate to the analysis and interpre-
tation of these geophysical events.

ENVIRONMENTAL
PREDICTION
AND WARNING

The service products of prediction and warning pro-
grams are generally short-lived in nature and reach the
user in the form of broadcasts, teletype messages,
newspaper items, or similar types of presentation. As
defined here, prediction and warning relate to more or
less real-time events of a nonperiodic nature. Although
description and understanding of environmental param-
eters are essential background factors, only programs
specifically related to prediction and warning are dis-
cussed in this chapter.

EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI PREDICTION

Strictly speaking, from the point of view of the spec-
trum of the environment, the prediction of earthquakes
and tsunamis (seismic sea waves) should be treated
separately, but will be discussed together because of the
close relationship of the disciplines involved and the
common use of data and equipment. These programs are
related to Natural Disaster Warning System (NADWARN)
and marine environmental activities, and are carried
out by the Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory of the
Institute for Earth Sciences (IES), the Joint Tsunami
Research Effort of the Institute for Oceanography (10)
and the University of Hawaii, and the Office of Seismology
and Geomagnetism of the Coast and Geodetic Survey
(C&GS).

Earthquake and Tsunami Research

At present, a service program in earthquake prediction
does not exist. In fact, it may prove impossible to make
useful predictions of these disasters in sufficient time
to be of practical value, but the possibility of being
able to do so is of sufficient national importance to direct
ESSA's attention to research in this area. These studies
are part of a broader investigation of earthquake mech-
anisms. They have broad application to the mitigation
of the effects of earthquakes, through proper location
of buildings and structural design as well as to prediction.

As pointed out earlier, ESSA operates a tsunami
warning center at Honolulu, Hawaii, to provide warnings
in the Pacific area. Research here is directed toward
improved means of prediction, particularly with regard
to runup.

Research and Development Facilities

While data for this program are obtained for the most
part from globally scattered seismograph stations, tide
gages, and portable field instrumentation, there are a
number of important fixed facilities. In the study of
earthquake mechanisms, much of the emphasis has
been on detailed study of small-scale earthquake proc-
esses in the vicinity of fault zones, and for this purpose
the Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory maintains
special research facilities at the Castle Rock Magnetic
Observatory, near San Jose, Calif., and its headquarters
in San Francisco.

In addition, a major research facility has been devel-
oped by the Laboratory at the Stone Canyon Geophysical
Field Station, 20 miles southeast of Hollister. Calif.
The installations at Stone Canyon consist of a unique
triangular array of high-frequency vertical component
seismometers in bore holes at depths of 115 to 150 meters,
with all three elements connected by cable to a central
control building. Other equipment includes: Telluric
current detecting elements consisting of two lead elec-
trodes in each of the three boreholes: a triangular array
of major strain meters, each 30 meters in length: a three-
component surface seismograph adjacent to the top of
the boreholes; a two-component Pellissier mercury-tube
tiltmeter; a single element geomagnetic field variometer:
and an automatic-recording weather station which pro-
vides hourly readings of rainfall, relative humidity, wind
speed and direction, temperature, and barometric pres-
sure. Data from these instruments are telemetered to the
Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory in San Francisco,
where time and other information are added before
recording on magnetic tape or hard copy.

51

52

A test of mercury tube tiltmeters to record tectonic
tilt was conducted during the reporting period in a
unique test facility at the Buena Vista Hills oil field
north of Taft, Calif. This site is an ideal facility for
tiltmeter tests since the surface over the field is known
to be subsiding at a rate of several centimeters per year,
and a close network of Coast and Geodetic Survey
vertical and horizontal geodetic control points exists
in the field. The tilting and subsidence presently tak-
ing place in the oil field is not tectonic in origin but
is due to oil withdrawal. The rate of tilting, however, is
well known from geodetic observations and quite closely
simulates tectonic tilt. The area has been intensively
studied geodetically and presents an excellent opportunity
for the calibration and evaluation of various types of
tiltmeters under controlled conditions.

Instrument and Systems Development

Portable Land Stations. Under ARPA sponsorship,
the Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory has developed
Portable Land Stations to connect with its automatic
data processing equipment in order to meet the special
needs of the ARPA program. In addition to the features

Adjustments being made to a Benioff
Moving Coil Vertical Seismometer installed
in Mammoth Cave, Ky.

of portability, quick and easy installation, low power
requirements, and versatility which characterize other
portable systems, the Portable Land Stations have certain
additional features needed for the mission of the Labora-
tory. For example, since extreme time accuracy is re-
quired, the time code generator has an accuracy of better
than 10 milliseconds over a 10-day recording period.
Provision is made in the control module at the time of
data recording to compensate for transmission delay
of the WWV or WWVH time signal so that all recordings
are made on Greenwich Mean Time and no timing
corrections need be made during data analysis. All data
channels are automatically calibrated every 24 hours
so that accuracy can be maintained over long periods of
unattended operation. Finally, the Stations are hardened
against adverse environmental factors and the rigors of
transportation.

DACAN System. The Portable Land Stations are a
component of the Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory
DACAN system (Data Acquisition and Analysis) and
work with it, either by means of magnetic tapes retrieved
from remote locations or by direct telemetering from
stations within range of the analysis center of the system
at San Francisco. The DACAN system is capable of
-performing functions relating to seismic data including
field recording on magnetic tape, tape search, and play-
back, dubbing, filtering, processing, and reduction to a
final analog or digital hard-copy record. The system
has several features which render it both versatile and
economical. For example, it can accept any standard
time input code and translate time into digital form for
display and recording, display seismic signals for editing
in both video and audio modes, search a selected time
interval automatically, and print out hard copy on
demand without stopping the tape.

Strong Motion Seismograph. A system embodying
many of the same features is in the early stages of
procurement by C&GS for use in the reduction of
field data from regional studies. The Model II Strong
Motion Seismograph was designed and developed by
the Albuquerque Seismological Center of C&GS to record
large accelerations and displacements arising from
seismic events. It is a self-starting and self-programming
instrument which is activated whenever an earth tremor
exceeds the starting threshold. Excitation of the seis-
mograph is accomplished by use of a pendulum starter
sensitive to horizontal motion. Duration of the recording
interval is adjusted and controlled by a time delay relay.
Three components of displacement, three time traces,
and three reference lines are recorded photographically,
making the instrument self-contained. Provisions have
been made for interconnection of two or more strong
motion instruments where ganged starting and timing
are desired.

LASA Noise Survey. In FY 67, the Earthquake Mecha-
nisms Laboratory also initiated the investigation of
noise levels at potential sites for Large Aperture Seismic

53

Arrays (LASA) which might be installed if the major
nuclear powers were to reach agreement on a ban of
underground nuclear detonations. The major portion
of this program will be accomplished in FY 68 but the
following preliminary work was achieved during FY 67:
Response tests on portable seismographs; construction
of two simple, lightweight reconnaissance seismographs,
one of which was used in a preliminary background
noise survey at a potential LASA site in the southwest
Pacific; modification of four portable seismographs to
permit continuous recording of wind velocity information
on one track of magnetic tapes; the development of
techniques for digitizing signals recorded on analog
magnetic tape for the purpose of cataloging, labeling,
storage, and retrieval of digital seismograms on library
digital tapes. Methods have also been developed for
applying standard and analytical techniques to these
digital data for obtaining Fourier spectra, and cross
correlation functions, etc.

Research in Earthquake Mechanisms

Seismicity. Several studies have recently been carried
out to investigate the spatial and temporal aspects of

seismic occurrence and energy release. During the
reporting period, special equipment and personnel were
sent by the Office of Seismology and Geomagnetism to
investigate a swarm of earthquakes in the Rat Islands;
Mexico; Puget Sound, Wash.; and Dulce, N. Mex.
Location and analysis of approximately 1,000 shocks
yielded important new knowledge about the seismic
structure of these areas.

An investigation of the relation of seismicity in the
Indian Ocean to other geophysical parameters was
carried out. The data obtained permitted a fit to be made
to a theoretical equation giving probable occurrence
of earthquakes as a function of magnitude. Results of
this study predicted a frequency of occurrence in the
Indian Ocean area ranging from one every 50 years for
magnitude 8 to one per year for magnitude 6 to 6V4.

Prince William Sound Earthquake. Perhaps the most
comprehensive study ever made of an earthquake and
its aftermath took place following the Prince William
Sound earthquake in Alaska on March 27, 1964. For
the past 3 years, C&GS has been engaged in preparing
a complete report, the first two volumes of which have

ALASKA

ANCHORAGE*

Short-period seismograph record
from Eskadalemuir, Scotland, ap-
proximately 6,725 km. from the
Prince William Sound, Alaska,
Earthquake epicenter. The first
wave arrived at 03:46:24 GCT,
March 28, 1964. (Below) The gen-
eral area of Alaska affected by
the Prince William Sound Earth-
quake.

WHITTIER

• SEV
HOMER
• SELDOVIA

• K0DIAK

•VALDEZ
• CORDOVA

54

been published. The physical changes which resulted
in the earth's crust at the time of this earthquake are
greater than those reported for any previous earthquake.
The geodetic and hydrographic surveys made after the
earthquake show vertical and horizontal changes of
more than 15 meters in each direction over a region of
several hundred square km. near the south end of Mon-
tague Island. This large section of the earth's crust
was lifted and moved southward. Tectonically, this
movement has a strong correlation with an unusually
large positive gravity anomaly centered over Prince
William Sound.

The entire area of the Sound was affected. Changes
in elevation varied from plus 15 meters to minus 2 to 3
meters along a broad arc extending along Cook Inlet
sweeping north toward Anchorage and the northern
side of the Chugach Mountains. The area of horizontal
movement also extended to this outer limit. There is a
strong tectonic correlation with a pronounced gravity
low in this region of subsidence. The geographical extent
of this disturbance was so great that it has not yet been
possible to allocate sufficient effort to resurvey in detail
all the areas which have shifted in position and elevation.
Long-range plans provide for additional resurveys and
extensive research in this region, in order to obtain more
complete information relating to the Prince William
Sound earthquake, and also to provide basic information
which can be used for the development of the earthquake
prediction program.

Fault Creep Studies. Monitoring continued at the
Almaden Winery near Hollister, and evidence of move-
ments, probably fault creep, which have occurred
along the Hayward Fault between San Pablo Bay and
Hollister was investigated.

In the Hollister area, the Earthquake Mechanisms
Laboratory, in collaboration with the California Division
of Mines and Geology, has made extensive surveys of
fault creep in and near the city of Hollister by observing
displaced curbs, pipelines, and buildings; similar fea-
tures on the San Andreas fault near San Juan Batista
have been mapped; and reconnaissance surveys for such
features along faults in other California locations have
been made. Progress is reported in the development of
fault creep recorders designed for continuous monitoring
of slow earth motions across zones broader than those
which can be accommodated by present creep meters.

Negotiations are now underway for the selection of a
specific site for a geophysical field station in Marin
County, Calif. This area is somewhat different from other
sites along the active faults in California since it is a rela-
tively quiet seismic area and is typical of areas suspected
as possible sites for the strongest earthquakes.

Microearthquakes. A theoretical study of microearth-
quakes was initiated during FY 66 by the Earthquake
Mechanisms Laboratory. It has been stated once or
twice in the literature by Japanese workers that perhaps
some significant interpretation of the frequency and

magnitude of very small earthquakes can be made just
before and after a larger event. The shape of the fre-
quency-magnitude curve for foreshocks of an earthquake
was noted to be significantly different from a frequency-
magnitude curve made after the event. Also, the shape
of the curve immediately after an event was, in general,
the same as that of ambient background during the long
period between major seismic events. In pursuing this
possible clue to earthquake prediction, the Laboratory
was able to obtain microearthquake information from
three dissimilar geologic areas in the same general region
during the same time period. Data from Castle Rock (on
a portion of the San Andreas fault where slippage is not
current); from Mt. Madona (on the Hayward fault where
there is evidence of current fault slippage); and from the
Harris ranch (approximately at the intersection of the
San Andreas and Hayward faults where the rock forma-
tions are considerably fractured) were obtained for a
period of several weeks during March 1966. Efforts are
now underway to reduce these data and determine the
location of the small earthquakes in each of the three
regions. Upon completion of this phase, a study of the
frequency versus magnitude characteristics of micro-
earthquakes will be made for each year.

In the area of microearthquakes, studies are divided
into two categories: (1) studies of ambient levels of
microearthquakes and secular changes in these levels,
normally carried out through continuous recording by
permanent and semipermanent stations; and (2) studies
of aftershock of larger earthquakes, conducted by
means of mobile seismic equipment to saturate the
epicentral region for some limited period of time follow-
ing the main shock.

Other microearthquake studies in the aftershock cate-
gory during the reporting period included an investiga-
tion of earthquake effects and aftershocks of a strong
earthquake near Truckee, Calif., conducted by a recon-
naissance team from the Earthquake Mechanisms Lab-
oratory, and the installation of five portable three-compo-
nent land stations in a cluster surrounding the epicenters
of two large earthquakes which occurred northwest of
Parkfield, Calif., on June 28, 1966. Critical data recorded
by these stations have been used in cooperative studies
by C&GS and the University of California.

At present, five microearthquake detection stations are
in continuous operation along the San Andreas fault,
spaced at intervals of approximately 40 km. from Point
Reyes in the north to Stone Canyon in the south. An
additional station is in continuous operation east of the
Hayward and Calaveras faults. This detecting array
consists of Bear Valley Observatory, San Andreas Lake
Observatory, Russel Varian-Castle Rock Magnetic Ob-
servatory, Holy Cross Observatory, Stone Canyon
Observatory, and Mt. Diablo Observatory.

Tsunami Research

Since the establishment of the Seismic Sea Wave
Warning System (now the tsunami warning system)
by C&GS in 1948, considerable effort has been applied

55

to improving tsunami prediction techniques. Not all
submarine earthquakes produce tsunamis, and when
these great waves are produced, the subsequent behavior
is critically influenced by underwater topography. Hence
prediction is by no means simple, even though earth-
quakes can be rapidly identified and located- ESSA's
Institute for Oceanography (10) has established the Joint
Tsunami Research Effort (JTRE) in Honolulu, in coopera-
tion with the University of Hawaii, to study underwater
seismic phenomena and to develop improved methods
of tsunami prediction. During the reporting period, a
scientist of 10, working at JTRE, prepared a computer
program to describe certain aspects of tsunami propa-
gation. The program can be applied to a tsunami originat-
ing at any position in the Pacific Ocean and describes
the convergence or divergence of energy at any other
point in the Pacific. This research has furnished one of
the factors essential to the prediction of tsunami runup
on the coasts around the Pacific.

PREDICTING THE OCEAN AND ATMOSPHERE

For many decades, man has attempted to forecast the
weather based upon the disciplines of meteorology. Sim-
ilarly, the periodic tides and currents of the oceans have
been described and predicted with varying degrees of
accuracy for many centuries. Only recently, however,
has science approached the study and prediction of the
interaction of the two environmental media as a single
system problem. ESSA's programs in meteorology and
marine environmental prediction reflect this interdis-
ciplinary approach.

Weather and the State of the Sea

The interaction between the waters of the earth and
the atmosphere provides the moisture and much of the
energy that creates weather. Study of the interaction
between these two fluid media surrounding the solid
earth is essential for understanding, predicting, and con-
trolling the complex processes of weather. Thus, ESSA
has a major interest both in forecasting the behavior of
the marine environment and determining the effect of
marine environmental processes upon weather. ESSA's
activities in this field include the development of improved
equipment and techniques for data acquisition, analysis,
prediction and dissemination; design of forecast and
dissemination systems; research in the fields of synoptic
and mesoscale meteorology; and satellite meteorology.

Organization and Facilities for Research
and Development
Research, development, and test of instrumentation
and forecasting methods and systems, is performed by
four elements of the Weather Bureau: the Equipment
Development Laboratory (EDL), the Techniques Devel-
opment Laboratory (TDL), and the Test and Evaluation
Laboratory (TEL) of the Systems Development Office
(SDO) at Silver Spring, Md., and the Development

280-876 0-68— 5

Division and Extended Forecast Division of the National
Meteorological Center (NMC) at Suitland, Md.

Research in the mesoscale meteorology of hurricanes,
tornadoes, and severe local storms is carried out by the
National Hurricane Research Laboratory (NHRL) at
Miami, Fla., and the National Severe Storms Laboratory
(NSSL) at Norman, Okla., of the Institute for Atmos-
pheric Sciences. These Laboratories make extensive use
of the instrumented aircraft of the Institute's Research
Flight Facility (RFF) at Miami, Fla.

Research and development in satellite meteorology
and instrumentation is carried out at the National En-
vironmental Satellite Center (NESC) at Suitland, Md.

Instrument and Systems Development

ESSA's program in instrument and systems develop-
ment covers meteorological instruments and facilities,
satellite sensors for atmospheric and marine environment
studies, and data handling and display systems.

Meteorological Instruments. EDL is responsible for
translating basic knowledge in meteorological equip-
ment technology into practical instrumentation.

A number of different types of humidity gages (hygrom-
eters) were examined during the reporting period for
varying applications. Included were a lithium bromide
dew cell for application to automatic meteorological
observation stations, infrared absorption hygrometers for
airborne instrumentation for RFF, and improved hygrom-
eters for radiosonde applications. Digitized pressure
instrumentation was also developed for application to
remote systems.

The primary instrument used by the Weather Bureau
for measuring cloud height is the rotating beam ceilometer
(RBC). During the reporting period, a program aimed at
providing major improvements to this instrument, e.g.,
improving the signal-to-noise ratio of the system and
digitizing output data, was continued with substantial
gains toward project objectives. Automatic phasing has
been incorporated and automatic gain control is being
developed to make future units adjustment-free for the
operator.

Test and evaluation of a prototype model commenced
in August 1966 is scheduled for completion in June 1968.
Results obtained from data covering a period during
which low cloudiness occurred indicated a number of
problems in using the rotating beam ceilometer as an
input to an automatic data processor. An investigation
is being conducted to establish the best method for
presenting cloud information to the user.

Work continued during the reporting period on digitiz-
ing the output of the rotating beam ceilometer. Basically,
the photographs of RBC displays were analyzed and
evaluated as basis for digitally establishing cloud height.
Results of this analysis are being translated into electronic
circuitry.

One of the most important tools of the meteorologist
is the weather balloon, whether it is used with a theodo-
lite, radar tracked, or used to carry a radiosonde aloft
to transmit meteorological data back to ground stations.

56

Launching a weather balloon-radiosonde combination.

One of the problems in the use of balloons is the limiting
angle with respect to the horizon, below which signals
can no longer be received from the balloon under obser-
vation. This problem, particularly severe during periods
of high winds, has been partially solved in the past by
the rather costly method of using radar transponders.
A contract was therefore granted to study and recommend
a balloon with optimum rate of ascent with a view toward
the solution of the limiting angle problem. The effects of
various balloon properties as they relate to ascent rate
were investigated through the use of a computer model.
The final report indicated that the Weather Bureau can
realize a substantial saving by using low-cost fast-rise
balloons in place of transponders. The study further rec-
ommended the establishment of a research and develop-
ment program to design a balloon with the aid of a
computer to meet these requirements.

Because of the high cost and relative scarcity of helium,
considerable interest has been focused on finding eco-
nomical means to generate hydrogen for inflating weather
balloons, while eliminating the hazards associated with
its use. A hydrogen balloon inflation system consisting
af an electrolytic generator, a specially designed struc-
ture for housing the generator, an automatic hydrogen
cutoff valve assembly, a contoured balloon table, and a
hydrogen sensing alarm system are planned for installa-
tion at SDO's Test and Evaluation Laboratory at Ster-
ling, Va.

A hydrogen generator has been purchased, delivered,
and installed at the Laboratory, and is operating sat-
isfactorily. Functional tests are being conducted to
determine if modifications are required, particularly,
to ascertain the comparative cost of in situ generated
hydrogen with that available through commercial sources,
and to evaluate the other elements of the system with
respect to their suitability for field application. Positive
test results would lead to significant dollar savings
through the reduction of gas costs.

The safety aspects of using hydrogen in the field were
investigated through a contract study. A report with
recommendations for safe operation of a hydrogen system
was submitted during FY 67 with evaluation of the rec-
ommendations scheduled for early FY 68.

There are many remote locations where it is difficult
and expensive to maintain weather observers, but from
which data are essential. Hence, there is a critical need
for satisfactory unmanned meteorological observation
stations to meet this requirement, as well as a need for
supplementary observations at locations such as busy
airports during periods of marginal weather.

A sample operational observational program for the
Automatic Meteorological Observing Station (AMOS V)
was initiated using a laboratory prototype, at Washington
National Airport. The aim of this system is to acquire,
process, and display observational data and provide
automatically an indication of significant changes in the
weather. On the basis of the experience gained, a com-
plete system test will be conducted by the Test and
Evaluation Laboratory, designed to determine the manner
in which AMOS V can best aid and supplement the
observer at high-density airport terminals.

The testing and evaluation of current and new obser-
vational methods and related instrumentation to meet the
needs of the National Meteorological Service has been
conducted by a Weather Bureau group at the Federal
Aviation Administration's National Aviation Facilities
Experimental Center (NAFEC), at Atlantic City. Here,
by interagency agreement, the Bureau established a
branch to operate an experimental weather "test bed"
environment. Components of the test bed included a
mesometeorological network (mesonet), an upper air
facility, a visual range facility, and an AMOS IV (auto-
matic observatory) facility.

The primary objective of NAFEC was to develop new
methods and improved procedures for observing and
measuring local meteorological phenomena. This included

57

studies with the Systems Research and Development
Service of the FAA and interagency projects for aviation
weather research and development. Selected stations
also reported three levels of soil temperature. Data
collections were punched on paper tape and later trans-
ferred to magnetic tape for computer processing.

Satellite Sensors. ESSA's National Environmental
Satellite Center is actively involved in the development
of new and improved satellite sensors for meteorology
and oceanography.

A major portion of the effort during the reporting pe-
riod has been related to the development of sensors to
detect and analyze radiation from the atmosphere and
surface as a means of increasing the amount of signifi-
cant environmental data which can be obtained from
satellite-borne instruments.

The Satellite Infrared Spectrometer (SIRS), which is
to be included in NASA's Nimbus B spacecraft, has
proceeded through the final calibration stages of the
prototype instrument under NASA sponsorship. This
model is presently in an advanced integration stage with
the spacecraft. The instrument is designed to measure
the radiation flux from the atmosphere and the earth's
surface in several discrete wave-length intervals in and
near the 15-micron carbon dioxide band, and at one
interval centered at 11.1 microns in the water vapor
"window." Measurements in the carbon dioxide band will
be used to calculate the vertical temperature structure
in the upper troposphere and in the stratosphere. Meas-
urements in the water vapor window will be used to
obtain the temperature of the earth's surface and of the
tops of clouds.

CALIBRATION FILTER

MOUNTING LUGS

DETECTOR

EXIT SLITS

RF SHIELD

PREAMPLIFIERS

DIFFRACTION GRATING-

CHOPPER DRIVE ASSEMBLY-

CHOPPER

PRIMARY MIRROR

Earth Beam

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
BEAM BLOCKER

ORDER FILTER-ENTRANCE SLIT

Space Beam

v EARTH MIRROR

TWO POSITION (BLACKBODY)

PHASE REFERENCE ASSEMBLY

The Satellite Infrared Speetrometer (SIRS), whieh is
designed to measure the vertical temperature profile
of the earth's atmosphere from satellite altitude.

58

An ESSA-developed hand-held spectrographic camera
was used by Gemini 5 astronauts to obtain spectra of
sunlight reflected from clouds in the vicinity of an im-
portant oxygen absorption band. The transmittance
measurements at selected wavelengths inside the band
offered a means of measuring the amount of oxygen in
the optical path, and therefore permitted an estimate of
the cloud top altitude. The Gemini results indicated that
the method was feasible, and a subsequent design study
has led to the development of a new automatic instru-
ment for use from an aircraft and eventually from an
unmanned satellite.

An infrared interferometer is in an advanced stage of
development for taking spectra of the atmosphere to
improve the signal-to-noise ratio and provide a greater
working aperture. A laboratory model has been tested and
is being miniaturized for preliminary balloon experiments.

Data Handling and Display Systems. Instruments and
sensors are acquiring meteorological data in ever-
increasing amounts which must be transmitted, digested,
and analyzed to prepare forecasts and warnings, and
disseminated to the user in a form suitable for his needs.
The System Plans and Design Division of the Weather
Bureau's System Development Office is conducting a
number of system design studies which will ultimately
culminate in the design of the National Meteorological
Service System to perform these functions in the most
economical and efficient manner. These studies cover the
requirements and associated benefits for the various serv-
ice programs and the systems and sub-systems needed
to meet the requirements in an optimum manner. Based
upon an analysis of user requirements, studies were
made of the feasibility of automating surface weather
observation stations as a function of the level of data
flow required. Completion of this study awaits a com-
parison of various alternatives.

The National Environmental Satellite Center (NESC)
has improved the rapid utilization of satellite cloud
photography by employing digital techniques. Digitized
video data with virtually worldwide coverage, calibrated
and mapped in the form of brightness values, are cur-
rently made available to users.

A radio telemetry system for remoting weather sensors
beyond reasonable cable lengths is under development
at the Equipment Development Laboratory. This system
is planned around a low-power VHF radio link and will
have a range of 5 miles or greater, where line-of-sight
transmission is possible. The remote electronics are
fully solid state, and are designed for battery operation.
An engineering model of this system for use at airports
was completed and successfully tested.

A method of improving the display of precipitation
data from weather radar by producing intensity contour
lines, previouly developed by NSSL, is now undergoing
further development by EDL for operational use with the
existing WSR-57 Weather Bureau radars.

The development of the Video Integrator Processor
(VIP) was completed during the reporting period. This

unit provides six levels (totaling 60 db) of precipitation
intensity contour on a standard Plan Position Indi-
cator (PPI) display. These contour levels are presented
simultaneously with each sweep of the radar antenna
or in any combination at the operator's discretion. The
equipment was tested at Washington National Airport
during the reporting period.

Test and evaluation of the Video Integrator and Proc-
essor (VIP) commenced at Washington National Airport
in February 1967 and continued through mid-June. At
that time, the unit was removed from the radar for fur-
ther bench testing at the Sterling Research and Devel-
opment Center. A final report was scheduled to be
released in FY 68. Preliminary findings indicate that the
basic design of the unit is sound and that it is extremely
useful for the radar meteorologist. In addition to pro-
viding a more useful visual display for the weather
observer, the device also permits digitization of pre-
cipitation data in such a form that it can readily be trans-
mitted for hydrologic purposes over conventional tele-
phone lines, or fed directly into a computer for analysis.

A weather radar remoting system (WB-RATTS/65)
developed under contract with the Equipment Develop-
ment Laboratory was tested by the Test and Evaluation
Laboratory in the Houston/Galveston area and Wash-
ington, D.C. Testing in the Kansas City area commenced
during FY 66. The purpose of this system is to provide
real-time weather radar data to stations not collocated
with a radar but having a geographic area of respon-
sibility within the effective range of one. It is anticipated
that the availability of radar data at nonradar stations
will significantly increase the basic effectiveness of the
station in performing its assigned public service functions.

In this system, the radar video bandwidth is com-
pressed to less than 3 kHz by scan conversion techniques,
making it suitable for transmission over standard quality
telephone lines. At the remote station, the display is
reconstructed on a storage tube which, in turn, is viewed
by a standard closed circuit TV camera. The system out-
put to the operating meteorologist is a standard 21-inch
TV display of live radar data. A single transmitter at
a radar site can provide data up to eight remote stations,
each of which can have up to five TV displays. The
system also provides the radar meteorologist with the
capability of adding interpretive annotations directly
onto the transmitter display and communicating with all
remote stations via direct voice telephone line.

An interim report covering the Houston/Galveston
tests was released in November 1966. This report con-
cluded that with the exception of the closed circuit TV
camera unit, the system was basically sound from an
engineering standpoint. It was also concluded that the
system product was of significant value at remote Weather
Bureau, FAA Flight Service, and Air Force and Navy
Weather Service stations. A new closed circuit TV cam-
era is currently under test in the Sterling Research and
Development Center receiver and, to all indications, it
is totally acceptable. A final report was scheduled for
release in the fall of 1967.

59

In Texas, the Galveston radar has been remoted to the
Weather Bureau Airport Station at Houston, and to
Ellington Air Force Base. Tests being performed in that
area are predominantly operational in nature with the
establishment of standard operating procedures being
the prime goal. Remote displays of the St. Louis, Wichita,
and Des Moines radars are being provided to meteorolo-
gists at the National Severe Storm Forecast Center
(NSSFC) at Kansas City to augment the information
provided by the local radar. The availability of live radar
data covering most of the Midwestern United States
should enable NSSFC personnel to perform their as-
signed duties in a more effective manner. Various tech-
niques for combining data from the four sources into a
single large area composite will also be tested. A final
test and evaluation report is scheduled for release in the
near future.

During the reporting period, a closed circuit TV studio
was designed, developed, and installed at the National
Hurricane Center by EDL personnel and is now under-
going tests by TEL. This system is designed to expedite
dissemination of information to the public on hurricanes
and other severe weather conditions, with minimum
interference to Weather Bureau personnel during a
period of critical activity. The televised information,
consisting of briefings by meteorologists, direct views of
the weather radar, and other information, is made
available, live, to the local TV stations and networks for
dissemination to the public.

The IBM 7040/1401 Data Processing System at NHRL
takes digital data recorded aboard RFF aircraft, cor-
rects it for errors, correlates it with time and positions,
and prints out all variables. Work continued during the
reporting period to improve all phases of the system.
Much hand editing was eliminated and programs were
combined to reduce the time and cost of analysis.

The technical feasibility of exploiting different features
of electrical signals produced by lightning in order to
locate and follow areas of lightning and assess its severity
was established by NSSL. This successful demonstration
led to a contract for the development of an operational
system to provide airline meteorologists and operators
with real-time displays and information about lightning
over a range of 100 miles from operation centers. This
system will provide a basis for safer utilization of airspace
during thunderstorms.

Forecast Research and Development

Research and development relating to the improve-
ment of operational weather forecasting is the respon-
sibility of the Weather Bureau. The Bureau's Techniques
Development Laboratory concerns itself primarily with
the aspects of forecasting that are of daily interest to
the forecaster, while the research program of NMC is
concerned with the development and improvement of
numerical prediction techniques on a global scale, and
for an extended period of time.

Forecast Techniques Development. TDL translates

advances in basic meteorological knowledge into im-
proved operating procedures. To achieve this goal, TDL
conducts and sponsors applied research and development
directed toward the improvement of analysis and fore-
cast methods for producing weather information pri-
marily intended to be issued directly to the public and
other user groups.

During the reporting period, the use of probability
statements in weather forecasting became much more
widespread. These statements provide the forecast user
with quantitative information concerning the degree of
uncertainty in weather events and enhance the economic
value of the forecast. This type of forecast is based to a
great extent upon a statistical analysis of experience.
Quality control of these forecast probabilities is essential
to their continuing value in decisionmaking, and a 2-
year study of this subject has been conducted for the
Weather Bureau. A set of guidelines has been devised
whereby the forecaster can check continuously to insure
that his forecasts are adhering to standards.

An objective numerical method of prediction of short-
term meteorological events called REEP (Regression
Estimation of Event Probabilities) was applied during
the reporting period to forecasting the probability of
precipitation occurrence during 12-hour periods. The
results obtained using this method, which involved no
subjective judgment, were compared with other fore-
cast methods for accuracy. A final report on the evalua-
tion of REEP as an aid in forecasting ceiling and visi-
bility parameters was issued in August 1966.

During FY 67, several experiments demonstrated that
improved forecasts could be obtained by incorporating
the effects of precipitation and moisture into the system.
Additional work along these lines will be carried out
during FY 68.

Climatological probabilities of precipitation using
data from 108 stations in the conterminous United States
have been computed for 6-, 12-, and 24-hour periods for
each month of the year. In addition, probabilities are
being computed relative to wind speed and direction and
time of day for nine stations in the Northeastern States
in 6-hour and 12-hour periods.

An investigation of the synoptic climatology of precipi-
tation at a network of 280 stations in the Plateau States
of the western intermountain region is being carried out
for the Bureau of Reclamation. The first phase of this
project has indicated that a surprisingly close relationship
exists between the positions and intensities of cyclonic
systems at the 700 mb. level and the probability and
amounts of winter precipitation in this region.

During FY 67, the second phase of the synoptic
climatological study of the West extending the investi-
gation to three additional atmospheric levels was com-
pleted. Substantially better results have been noted for
the lowest levels. Another investigation of precipitation
phenomena is a special study being carried out for the
Tennessee Valley Authority relating circulation features
to winter precipitation at nine drainage basins in the
Tennessee Valley.

60

Numerical prediction models have been programed
for a grid covering the Eastern United States with a 50-
mile spacing. Emphasis has been placed on predictions
of sea-level pressure and precipitation for projection up
to 16 hours. Input data are the latest available so that the
prognostic information could be sent to field stations in
time to influence early morning forecasts.

The TDL fine-scale numerical models described above
have been tested over a 3-month period and found to
produce better forecasts of precipitation and sea-level
pressure for the first 12 hours of the forecast period than
large-scale NMC models. The possibility of implementing
the TDL models on an operational basis during the next
fiscal year is now being investigated. Techniques are
also being developed for local station use, which will
use centrally produced guidance as well as local data.

Nationwide forecasts of maximum and minimum sur-
face temperatures are being produced automatically
twice daily at NMC by a program developed in TDL.
This program applies multiple regression techniques to
relate historical files of surface temperatures to con-
current pressure distribution aloft, and is used to fore-
cast the maximum and minimum for each of 119 stations
in the United States and Southern Canada. To main-
tain accuracy, a new set of equations is developed for
each 2-month period. In its operations, the program uses
as inputs numerical analysis and forecast of pressure
distribution aloft, as well as synoptic reports of actual
maximum and minimum temperatures. The equations
are applied repeatedly, first to observations and then
to forecasts, so as to produce a series of predictions up
to 2V2 days in advance; these are then printed out auto-
matically in map form.

During FY 67, the system was extended to an additional
25 stations, so that automated temperature forecasts
are now prepared for 143 cities, including 12 in Canada.
The system has been revised so that missing temperature
reports are filled in automatically from previous forecasts
with the barotropic mesh model used as input. These
revisions have made forecasts available about 4 hours
earlier than was previously possible.

Aviation Weather Forecasting. A commercial TV tower
in Philadelphia, Pa., has been instrumented with me-
teorological sensors at five levels by the Drexel Institute
of Technology, under contract with the Weather Bureau.
The tower supplies data which are used in developing
techniques for prediction of mesoscale weather phe-
nomena in the Philadelphia area. The effect of the
tower on wind measurements was investigated, and a
climatology of wind, temperature and moisture profiles
is being compiled. Remote readout equipment was in-
stalled at the Philadelphia Weather Bureau Airport
Station for the purpose of evaluating the usefulness of
this type of data in real-time operations.

Mesoscale weather phenomena were studied using
several avenues of approach. Pennsylvania State Uni-
versity completed a contract on condensation nuclei
and fog formation with the use of a 70-foot fog tube. The

air within the tube was saturated with water vapor and
resultant variation of light transmission measured.
Measurements of electrical potential were made simul-
taneously to determine the role of ambient electric field
on the fog formation process.

The Washington mesonetwork was used for document-
ing mesoscale fog and precipitation studies during the
reporting period. Recording raingages were installed at
each project-operated station. The mesoscale data were
used to relate fog to tower wind speeds, turbulence in
the wind-flow, temperature inversion structure, and
horizontal divergence in the wind field.

Several studies have been conducted as part of a
long-range program for improving the prediction of air-
port weather phenomena for short periods. Previous
work by a contractor on the general problem of statistical
prediction of rare events was completed in FY 67. A
method of consolidating predictor information in a number
of joint variables was developed and tested for predicting
low ceilings at Seattle 3 hours in advance.

Emphasis was placed on improving the forecasts of
change from high to low ceiling. The general approach
was to develop "inhibitor variables," to identify initial
conditions which would never be followed by a low ceil-
ing, and then to develop specialized predictors on the
remaining sample, which would consolidate the small
predictive contributions of many variables. The tech-
nique surpassed any previous objective forecasting tech-
nique in producing successful forecasts of change of
ceiling over a wide range of ceiling heights.

The REEP method of analysis mentioned previously
for predicting airport ceiling and visibility was tested
operationally over a period of 7 months, with predictions
being sent to six Aviation Forecast Centers on a regular
basis. During the same time period, forecasters were
asked to prepare special subjective forecasts for compari-
son with the numerical predictions. Evaluation of the
forecasts has indicated that the REEP probability fore-
casts were of value as guidance in the preparation of
subjective forecasts, particularly for long-range pro-
jections.

A program to develop automated techniques for pre-
dicting ceiling and visibility at aviation terminals was
planned. A series of tests of increasing complexity was
initiated to prove or verify these predictions. Experiments
are being carried out at 12 terminals for forecast periods
up to 12 hours. Statistical methods are combined with
products of synoptic- and subsynoptic-scale numerical
prediction. Preliminary prediction model equations
which had been tested previously out to 7 hours have
been extended to 12-hour prediction.

Studies of clear air-turbulence (CAT) continued dur-
ing the reporting period. It appears to be more useful to
concentrate on areas with unusually high probability
of moderate or greater turbulence than to attempt to
use all the occurrences, many of which are quite isolated.
Two forecast criteria have been suggested. Significant
turbulence should be forecast (1) in areas within 150

61

miles of a jet stream whose maximum wind speed is at
least 100 knots or (2) in areas within 150 miles of a well-
developed trough line with a sharp directional wind
shear across the trough line. The use of these criteria
with data used in the study indicates that 60 percent of
all the occurrences would be included in .a forecast
area comprising 34 percent of the total area.

New turbulence data have been collected for use in a
study of the relationship between large variations in
ascensional rates of rawinsonde balloons and CAT oc-
currences. Two 10-day collection periods, in December
1966 and February 1967, were limited to flights within
a 100-mile radius of selected rawinsonde stations and
within + 2 hours of observation time. These CAT occur-
rences are also being analyzed in relation to their asso-
ciated meteorological data.

During FY 67, analysis of two special 5-day turbulence
collection periods in December 1964 and March 1965
was completed for FAA. Special attention was given to
areas with at least 25-percent frequency of moderate or
greater turbulence. Vertical wind shear appears to be
an important parameter along with 12-hour changes in
wind speed.

Fire Weather Forecasting. Research by Weather Bu-
reau personnel on fire weather continued during the
reporting period at Riverside, Calif., funded by the
U.S. Forest Service, on the following topics:

1. Structure of the Santa Ana winds.

2. Penetration and modification of marine air.

3. Characteristics of flow across coastal ranges.

4. Valley wind convergence zones.

5. Mesoscale weather patterns in mountainous terrain.
Additional research is planned to define and describe

regional and mesoscale weather patterns in the Pacific
coastal region which affect the ignition and spread of
wildfire.

A study was begun by TDL to develop forecast tech-
niques for prediction of afternoon wind speed and direc-
tion during the summer months for a mountain location
in south-central Idaho. This study will be based on both
surface and upper air data. It is planned to extend this
work to other locations and other weather elements.

During FY 67, studies were initiated by TDL to develop
techniques for prediction of maximum temperature,
minimum relative humidity, and wind at 89 selected
stations throughout the United States. The basic weather
data were available on magnetic tape for a 10-year period
from an earlier study involving these stations. In addition,
data at some 30 local stations in the Los Angeles Fire-
Weather District were used to determine cross-correla-
tions between the stations and central key stations.
Analysis of some 200 Santa Ana situations in the Los
Angeles area was also begun.

Agricultural Weather Forecasting. Several studies were
underway during the reporting period to investigate
weather phenomena of particular importance to agricul-
ture, such as the occurrence of freezing temperatures

during the growing season and precipitation probability
during the drying season for crops. Recent studies in-
clude: winter precipitation probabilities in Virginia and
South Carolina, freezing conditions during the growing
season in north-central California, the effect of wind on
spring freezing of crops in the State of Washington, and
studies of tobacco drying conditions in South Carolina
and Kentucky.

Marine Environmental Forecasting. Special emphasis
has recently been placed on improving prediction of
the marine environment, and providing broader forecast
and warning services to marine interests. During the
reporting period, a plan was developed for a National
Marine Weather Service by SDO. The plan calls for
establishing six Marine Forecast Centers to furnish sup-
port to operations on the high seas, in Continental Shelf
areas, and in coastal and inland waterways. Under the
plan, the acquisition of marine observations and the
number of dissemination facilities will be expanded.
In addition, it is planned to develop improved marine
forecast capability and more user-oriented service
products.

Research in Numerical Prediction

The equations which describe the motions of the
atmosphere and its thermodynamic state have been well
known for many years. However, due to their great gen-
erality and a lack of detailed data on a global basis, it
has not been possible to solve them except under greatly
oversimplified conditions. The high-speed computer,
and the increasing availability of meteorological data in
nearly real-time from many parts of the world, have made
possible the solution of these equations — at first in a
relatively simple form, but later in an increasingly com-
plex and more complete form. This capability permits
the numerical prediction of the state of the atmosphere,
at least for short periods of time, with ever-increasing
confidence.

Primitive Equations. The complete basic equations of
motion and state, taken together, are known as the
primitive equations, and have been difficult to use. until
recently, because of certain mathematical difficulties.
Because the vertically averaged flow is fairly well rep-
resented by the flow at mid-atmosphere (500 mb., or about
18,000 feet above sea level), early models were two-
dimensional representations using real atmospheric
data from that level as initial data for forecast. Since these
models did not take account of energy sinks and sources,
they were known as barotropic models (i.e., models
constructed so that surfaces of constant density or tem-
perature are coincident with surfaces of constant pres-
sure). Later models were three-dimensional in nature,
and provided for transformations between kinetic, po-
tential, and internal energy. These so-called baroclinic
models were "filtered" in the sense that certain factors
leading to mathematical instabilities were suppressed.

62

More recently, following solution of some of the mathe-
matical problems involved, it has been possible to work
with the primitive equations themselves, and the number
of layers in the atmosphere for which data points are
plotted has grown.

A six-layer primitive equation model developed at
NMC has recently been introduced into the Weather
Bureau's operational forecast system. Verification results
have been quite encouraging, showing consistent improve-
ment over the previous operational model in the middle
troposphere and even more substantial improvement at
lower levels. There are notable improvements in the
500-mb. forecast of the trough over the Eastern United
States along with associated improvement in the fore-
cast surface frontal position. Research and development
work is continuing in order to bring about further im-
provements in the model. In the past, primary effort has
been directed toward the mathematical problems pre-
sented by the primitive equation approach. With the
attainment of satisfactory solutions to most of these
problems, there has been a shift in emphasis to the de-
velopment of a more comprehensive forecast system —
that is, a system that included energy exchange due to
radiative, latent, and sensible heat processes, as well as
frictional effects. During FY 67, the primitive equation
model was refined by including considerations of the
latent heat of condensation of precipitation and radia-
tion from snow surfaces.

In the only experiment of its kind attempted to the
present, the primitive equation model has demonstrated
a capability of producing operational forecasts of some
accuracy out to a period of a week. Since the model is
still ostensibly short range in character, having only a
limited number of energy sources and sinks, better re-
sults can be expected with a more comprehensive physi-
cal system. To this end, forecast runs past 2 days which
include radiational cooling over snow surfaces, modified
frictional effects, and latent heat effects are planned
for the near future to determine more accurately the
extended range capabilities of the model.

Tropical Numerical Prediction Models. With regard
to numerical prediction models for the tropics, recent
experiments have involved attempts to mesh a tropical
belt forecast with a primitive equation high-latitude
northern hemisphere forecast to allow high-latitude sys-
tems to infiltrate the tropical belt forecast. Although the
experiments have only been partially successful to date,
it is anticipated that better initial data may lead to usable
solutions.

In connection with the tropical analysis program, ex-
periments have been made using satellite cloud data to
estimate flow patterns. From these estimates, the "first-
guess" stream function for the analysis is modified
numerically to reflect high and low centers, jet streams,
etc., as deduced from cloud data.

Research on Extended Range Forecasting

Short-range detailed weather forecasting is normally
limited to periods of 48 hours in advance. Forecasting

for the period from 3 to 7 days in advance is usually
called extended-range, while predictions still further in
advance are called long-range. This portion of the report
will discuss progress in both extended-range and long-
range forecasting by objective numerical means.

Long-Range Forecasting Research. A special study was
made of the serious drought situation in the Northeastern
United States, linking the lack of rainfall to the weather
and circulation in different parts of the hemisphere —
especially to the large and persistent anomalies in sea-
surface temperature in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
A logical outgrowth of this work is the present effort to
specify and predict seasonal mean precipitation for
several regions within the United States.

Work has continued on the application of a recent
thermodynamic numerical model to long-range prediction
of mean values of meteorological parameters. Experi-
mental monthly predictions were carried out routinely,
using the model during part of the reporting period. The
input data to the model were the preceding month's
anomalies of ocean temperatures and mid-tropospheric
temperatures, as well as the anomalies of the snow
boundary. These anomalies are obtained from satellite
photographs, which can detect strong anomalies of
surface albedo (reflected solar radiation). The model
predicts the anomalies of temperature in mid-tropo-
sphere, at the earth's surface, and the anomalies of
precipitation over the Northern Hemisphere.

The model generates internally anomalies of heat of
condensation, evaporation at the underlying surface,
transport of sensible heat from the surface, and cloudi-
ness. It contains the factors of horizontal transport by
turbulent eddies as well as by mean wind.

An attempt to compute the monthly-mean water budget
of the atmosphere over the hemisphere from satellite
measurements of temperature and cloudiness shows
promise of success. Other experiments are directed
toward prediction of mean temperatures, winds, and
snow cover using satellite data.

Under ESSA contract, a statistical study is being made
to predict summer temperatures 1 year in advance. ESSA
is also sponsoring a study of the persistence of atmos-
pheric circulation patterns.

Extended Range Forecasting Research. In the area of
extended range forecasting, NMC has made a study of the
distribution of mean errors of the Weather Bureau's
operational numerical 500-mb. forecasts extended out
to 6 days. The study was designed to improve the dy-
namic models by revealing the probable source of error
and to provide interim corrections useful in extended
range predictions.

Error patterns over the Northern Hemisphere vary
with season and type of initial circulation pattern, and
are due to shortcomings in the assumptions underlying
numerical prediction models. There is strong evidence
that omission of heat sources and sinks in earlier models

63

is responsible for persistent geographically and sea-
sonally oriented errors — a problem which should be
materially improved by the use of the primitive equation
model. A similar study is being made of a special series
of experimental extended range forecasts made using the
new primitive equation model.

The catalog of 5-day mean 700-mb. height anomaly
centers completed during FY 65 has been published and
is being used for further extended range forecasting
studies. These data are used to determine the probability
of different types of mean temperature and precipitation
anomalies for various regions at different seasons of the
year. A method for selecting analogs corresponding to 5-
day mean 700 mb. height anomaly charts has been de-
veloped and is being used as an aid in operational fore-
casting. Such analogs are selected from an historical
file by high-speed computer and then examined for
their resemblance to a given situation with the aid of a
microfilm reader.

Statistical Forecasting. The derivation of objective
forecasting equations for 5-day precipitation amounts for
regions of the conterminous United States has been com-
pleted for all seasons and the system put into operation.
These equations were also adapted for use in specifying
monthly precipitation from mean monthly 700-mb. prog-
nostic charts.

TDL also performed applied research directed toward
making practical use of numerical prognostic charts
in forecasting storm surge produced by extratropical or
winter-type cyclones. An objective method has been
developed in which sea-level pressures at several NMC
grid points from 0 to 24 hours in advance are used as
predictors, and the forecast equations are derived by
the multiple regression screening procedure. The results
of this method at Atlantic City compare favorably with
those of earlier studies, and equations are now being
derived for other locations along the east coast of the
United States.

Wave and Seiche Forecasting. The ocean wave fore-
casting system used by the Navy's Fleet Numerical
Weather Facility is being adapted by TDL for Weather
Bureau use. Wave forecasts will be based on the 1,000-mb.
winds forecast numerically at NMC. It is expected that
the method will become operational about the middle of
FY 68. After that time, effort will be devoted to further
adapting the system to NMC meteorological inputs.

Network Density. Experiments in network density have
sought to determine the following:

a. The manner in which variations in density of ob-
servations of a regular array of perfect observations
affect the error field in hemispheric forecasting;

b. The manner in which errors in the observations
affect the above results;

c. The effects on the error field resulting from the
uneven distribution of observations;

d. The extent of diminution of the error fields result-
ing from various augmentations to the present network,
especially over oceanic and desert areas;

e. The extent to which very dense networks over con-
tinental areas like the United States are vitiated by
oceanic areas of comparative data void;

f. The possibility of exchanging frequency for density
of observations; and

g. The extent to which meteorological satellite sys-
tems, such as superpressure balloons monitored by
satellites, can be used to augment conventional networks,
and the manner in which these systems are best incorpo-
rated in a unified scheme suitable for hemispheric or
global numerical prediction.

During FY 67, the first phase of the series of experi-
ments to determine optimum networks for the World
Weather Watch was completed, using the barotropic
mesh model and assuming a regular lattice of perfect
observations. It indicates that, for the purpose of numeri-
cal prediction by the barotropic model on a hemispheric
scale, there is little point in having aerological observa-
tions closer than about 600 or 700 miles. The experi-
ments also indicate that the present nonhomogeneous
distribution of aerological stations is highly inefficient.
The above results will be included in the relevant WMO
Planning Report for the World Weather Watch.

In the second phase of this project, identical experi-
ments were performed with the barotropic model and
with the primitive equation model. In general, results
from this phase confirm previous findings but indicate
that the primitive equation model is somewhat less sensi-
tive to network deterioration than the barotropic model.
Further experiments will be conducted with the Geo-
physical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) model as a
reference atmosphere.

Experiments with random errors superimposed on
grid-point values of the experimental networks revealed
the possibility of exchanging station density for accuracy
of observations. For instance, it was found that a network
with stations 500 km. apart and root-mean-square random
errors of 12 m. is equivalent to a network of stations 850
km. apart but with root-mean-square random errors of
8 m. and to one with perfect observations 1.350 km. apart.

A contract was completed during the reporting period
on the effect of varying data density on objective analysis
of surface wind in the tropics. The study was extended
to include selected cases at 500 mb. and a report was
prepared during FY 67.

A preliminary plan for assessing network requirements
in the tropics was prepared. All possible sources for data
pertinent to this project are being tapped to enable
accurate computation of the requisite time and space
correlations. In conjunction with these various network
studies, a new contract has been negotiated to apply
information theory to the study of network requirements.

64

Satellite Meteorological Research

The primary objective of the National Operational
Meteorological Satellite Service (NOMS) is to establish
and operate satellite systems to meet the following three
requirements:

1. Regular and reliable viewing of the atmosphere
over the entire globe;

2. Continuous viewing of weather features; and

3. Regular worldwide sounding of the atmosphere.

TOS System. The coverage provided by the ESSA satel-
lites of the Tiros Operational Satellite System (TOS)
meets the first requirement to a limited extent. While
the daylight portion of the earth is regularly photo-
graphed, the nightside is not observed. Infrared sensors
will be adapted to TOS system satellites to provide this
coverage. In addition, an improved TOS (ITOS) satellite,
will be launched by NASA in 1969. This Improved TOS
will carry combined Automatic Picture Transmission
(APT) and tape storage cameras, an infrared radiometer
system, a proton counter, and other instruments.

The ATS Spin-Scan Cloud Camera.

Continuous observations of the earth and its atmos-
phere to meet the second objective can probably be
acquired most economically by a system of satellites in
earth synchronous orbit. Such a satellite system is being
studied and technically defined to meet this requirement,
as well as that of the data collection and relay. The spin-
scan camera, which may be used in this system, has been
successfully tested on NASA's Advanced Technology
Satellite (ATS-1).

Satellite Infrared Sensors. The means of achieving the
third objective — obtaining global measurements of the
vertical distribution of temperature, humidity, ozone, or
other atmospheric parameters — is currently under study.
During the reporting period, instruments were in the proc-
ess of development to obtain some of the needed measure-
ments, while other instruments to obtain additional
measurements were being investigated. SIRS, which
was successfully balloon tested, is nearing flight readiness
for test on NIMBUS B. It will measure the vertical tem-
perature structure of the atmosphere and the horizontal
distribution of water vapor in the atmosphere. An alter-
nate instrument, the Infrared Interferometer Spectrom-
eter (IRIS), is also being developed by NASA to acquire
these measurements. Measurements of the height of
cloud tops will be acquired with the SIRS or IRIS sys-
tem or with the oxygen "A" band spectrograph.

In a parallel effort, an instrument is being developed
to measure the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone
by measurement of the scattering of solar ultraviolet.
Also under consideration are instruments to measure
sea and land surface temperatures in the microwave
region of the spectrum.

During FY 67, emphasis was placed on the study of
the water vapor rotation bands. Water vapor spectral
intervals to be examined with SIRS-B have been chosen,
and transmission functions have been developed. Calcu-
lations of rotational water vapor band absorption show
agreement with laboratory absorption curves. Other
studies measuring radiation were made in the 7600 A
and 6 and 10 micron bands. The study in the oxygen band
at 7600 A was completed and the results have been in-
corporated into atmospheric transmittance calculations.
A new model, SIRS-IV, is under design and has been
accepted by NASA for the NIMBUS D satellite. SIRS-IV
will measure the vertical distribution of atmospheric
water vapor over a wider geographical region.

Data Relay. Current and planned system spacecraft are
being considered for use as collectors and retransmitters
of raw and processed environmental data. Systems for
interrogating, recording, and retransmitting data from
ground-based or airborne observation platforms are under
development. The IRLS (Interrogation, Recording and
Location System) would permit the satellite to contact
remote platforms such as constant level balloons, buoys,
or automatic weather stations; command a readout of
their data; fix each station location; and then retransmit
the collected data to processing centers remote from
the observation platform.

Cloud Studies. Several synoptic investigations are in
progress at the NESC Meteorological Satellite Labora-
tory (MSL) to increase skill in interpretation and under-
standing of meteorological satellite data covering jet
streams, cyclones, clear air turbulence, secondary cloud
spirals, etc. Satellite cloud pictures have been used to
estimate the location of mid-troposphere trough and ridge
lines. The resultant data is prepared for input to NMC
where it is used as an aid in the analysis of Southern

65

Hemisphere patterns. Satellite pictures of cirrus orienta-
tion, cloud length and continuity are being used to
determine wind stream speed and direction in the tropics.
These data are being used as inputs to the.numerical
analysis being prepared by NMC. They are also trans-
mitted to other offices requiring upper level tropical data.

Much attention has been focused on the jet stream.
One study shows that jet streams can be reliably located
whenever clearly defined cirrus layers, terminating
abruptly on the poleward edge, appear in the pictures.
This inhouse study and another performed jointly with
Colorado State University suggest that these cloud
characteristics may sometimes define the jet stream
position more accurately than conventional data, even in
regions considered relatively rich in data.

In the study of cyclones, Project STORM CLOUD has
produced an unusually detailed case study of an East
Coast storm by combining data from many and varied
sources such as: Regular and special rawinsonde reports,
surface reports, radar, instrumented weather aircraft,
commercial aircraft, time lapse film photographs, and
satellite pictures. The project report demonstrates the
complementary value of one data source to another in
obtaining a detailed description of the atmosphere.

Many secondary cloud spirals appear in satellite pic-
tures, particularly over oceans. Some appear to be
terrain-induced, others are thought to be related to wave
development on fronts, and still others appear to have
developed into major cyclones quite independent of
frontal systems. An MSL project is in progress to deter-
mine the true nature of these spirals.

During FY 67, it was found that sensible heat from
ocean surfaces appeared to have little or no effect on
secondary cloud spirals. This was surprising in view of the
preference of these systems for oceanic areas and because
of the presence of many cellular cumulus clouds indicating
heating from below.

The availability of satellite data also makes possible
new studies of various atmospheric mechanisms, a num-
ber of which are progressing at universities and other
research institutions under ESSA sponsorship. For ex-
ample, in FY 67, the Environmental Data Service began
publishing daily computer-generated photographic cloud
mosaics of both the Northern and Southern Hemisphere
in its Catalog of Meteorological Satellite Data. The
Catalog produces an index of television cloud photog-
raphy by the various ESSA satellites. Beginning with the
current issue (ESSA 3, Part 2) each number will cover
a 3-month period. The mosaics replace the hand-drawn
nephanalyses of previous issues and are generated
operationally at NESC.

Radiation Studies. During the reporting period, con-
struction of monthly mean charts of outgoing long-wave
infrared radiation from the earth for the months of July
1963-May 1964 using TIROS VII data have provided the
longest series of such data on this scale ever available.
The charts for the months of February-May 1964 were
compared with those for the same months in 1962,

previously constructed from TIROS IV data. Although
there are many similarities between the same months for
the 2 years, the differences between them average about
5 percent, with maximum differences ranging up to 30
percent of the mean values of radiation. Further observa-
tions of these planetary scale variations in radiation from
one year to another may lead to new knowledge about
the control that changes in heat sources and circulation
in one hemisphere may exert on the heat sources and
circulation in the other hemisphere.

Combined use of long-wave radiation data and cloud
cover information from satellite pictures over 15-day
periods has allowed for comparison of variations in the
location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITC) over
3 years in the months of February and March. This Zone,
which represents the meeting place of winds from the
two hemispheres, is of considerable importance in the
understanding of tropical meteorology. Since the behavior
of the ITC is most typical over the ocean areas where
surface data are not available, satellite information is
particularly important. It has been found that the ITC
shows the greatest persistency of location in these months
from one year to the next over the Atlantic and eastern
Pacific and the most pronounced variations south of the
Equator over the Indian and western Pacific Oceans.
During the reporting period, research was conducted to
relate these variations to the strength and location of the
convergence of the wind field in the tropical regions, as
well as to deduce the role of circulation and heat balance
of the temperate zones of both hemispheres on ITC.

While circulation essentially controls cloud distribu-
tion and therefore radiative heat sources, the heat sources
in turn may have some influence on the circulation. In
particular, the north-south variation in radiative heating
affects the generation of zonal available potential energy
since it partially determines the thermal gradient be-
tween high and low latitudes. Calculations of the con-
tributions of the net radiation to energy generation during
the February-June 1962 period indicated that generation
of zonal available energy does indeed vary with the state
of the circulation itself. There is a higher generation of
energy when the westerlies are strong and weaker energy
generation when the westerlies are weak. In the latter
case, the flow is broken down into a predominantly cel-
lular pattern, and the available potential energy is low.
Earlier tests using the first general circulation computer
model developed by CFDL indicated that such heating
variations could have substantial effects in amplifying and
prolonging energy cycles in the atmosphere. The more
comprehensive data coverage that may become available
from the NIMBUS II satellite and future polar orbiting
satellites should provide for more detailed studies of this
mechanism and its effect on the world's weather.

Operational Applications. Pictorial data received from
operational ESSA satellites show the distribution of cloud
amount, the patterns and formations which clouds take,
and how these evolve from day to day. Operational
meteorological analysis today deals primarily with the

66

fields of wind, pressure, humidity, and temperature. Thus,
to apply satellite data to operational analysis, it is nec-
essary to be able to make reliable inferences from the
clouds concerning the fields that have produced them.
In particular, if satellite data are to be of maximum value
to the meteorologist, it must be possible to make such
inferences in data-sparse areas where no direct measure-
ment of these parameters is available. Thus, a major
objective of NESC, through its Applications Group, is to
continue to develop models which relate certain recog-
nizable patterns of cloud organization to familiar synoptic
scale flow-patterns and processes, in the same manner
as has already been done with hurricanes.

Studies based upon satellite pictures received from
TIROS I through VIII identified the cloud formations
produced by large-scale cyclonic storms, fronts, the jet
stream, and upper tropospheric pressure troughs. They
also showed that it is possible to identify reliably, in the
satellite photographs, cloud forms such as cumulonimbus,
cumulus congestus, strato-cumulus, stratified middle
cloud, and several forms of cirrus. Further, it has been
shown that it is possible in some instances to estimate
shear, and the low-level wind speed and direction from
the appearance of the medium scale (mesoscale) cellular
and banded patterns of the clouds.

The global coverage provided by TIROS IX early in
1965 made it possible for the first time to observe daily
the development and evolution of the cloud formations
associated with synoptic scale circulation systems. By
combining these new data with the results of previous
studies, it has been possible to formulate synoptic scale
cloud models that show the relationship between cloud
patterns and the wind field in both the lower and upper
troposphere. The models also depict the comma-shaped
cloud formation which is produced by the circulation
around the concentrated low-pressure zone associated
with a cyclone, and the relationship of these vortices to
a developing frontal wave. Over the oceans, where con-
ventional data are sparse, it is often difficult to identify
and locate such cyclones, but the distinctive cloud for-
mations which they produce now make their identifi-
cation straightforward from satellite pictures. Applying
this type of cloud model, some aspects of surface and
upper air circulation may thus be directly interpreted
from cloud form and distribution. Additional models are
being developed using ESSA I data that relate to other
specific synoptic situations, with special emphasis on
tropical cloud models.

Hurricanes and Severe Storms

Because hurricanes are a phenomenon of the marine
environment, and tornadoes and severe local storms are
of primary concern over the land areas, research in this
area in ESSA is divided between hurricane studies and
those 'solving other types of severe storms. NHRL at
Miami, Fla., and NSSL at Norman, Okla., both elements
of the Institute for Atmospheric Sciences, have primary
responsibility for those two areas. Other elements of the

Institute, such as GFDL at Washington, D.C., APCL at
Boulder, Colo., and RFF at Miami, also participate in this
research. Major contributions are also made by 10,
NESC, and elements of the Weather Bureau, particularly
the National Meteorological Center and TDL.

Hurricane Research. The hurricane as a phenomenon
of the air-sea interface cannot be studied in isolation,
that is, apart from the base state of the tropical atmos-
phere and the other types of perturbation which may
take place within it. Consequently, NHRL is engaged in
studies of other tropical cyclones, easterly waves, upper-
level cold vortices, etc., with the following major
objectives:

(1) Improvement in the prediction of formation,
motion, and change in intensity of hurricanes and
other tropical cyclones.

(2) Improvement in the prediction of the coastal water
levels to be expected when a hurricane strikes a coastal
area.

(3) Increased understanding of the physical processes
that govern the life cycle of hurricanes and the ultimate
development of a theoretical model which will simulate
the hurricane in all of its phases.

Six tropical cyclones, with four reaching hurricane
intensity, developed over the tropical Atlantic during
the FY 66 hurricane season (June-November 1965).
Except for five during the 1962 season, this was the
smallest number since 1946. During the past 30 years,
the average has been approximately 10 per year. The
major factors contributing to the below-normal hurricane
activity seemed to be the cool temperatures in the
tropics and the unfavorable general circulation which
developed in September 1965.

Of these four hurricanes, only BETSY made landfall,
or came within reach of an RFF aircraft, first striking
the Bahamas and southern Florida and later the north-
central Gulf of Mexico coastal area. The enormous
amount of damage produced in the latter area made
BETSY the most destructive hurricane on record. While
damage in Florida was not as great as that attributed
to DONNA (1960) and DORA (1964), damage from
BETSY in Louisiana alone far exceeded that of any
other hurricane. Even adjusting for the increased property
valuation over the years, the damage by BETSY probably
equals or exceeds that attributed to any other major
disaster of all time.

A number of penetrations were made and extensive
reconnaissance was carried out on BETSY during her
slow course from the Lesser Antilles to the Florida
Peninsula. DEBBIE promised some hope that it would
be possible to document the transition from tropical
storm to hurricane. However, the storm never did
acquire hurricane intensity so that the immediate value
of the data gathered was considerably eroded by the
lack of further data depicting a deeper phase. During
FY 67, no hurricanes were in an area considered suitable
for experimentation.

67

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IfrflTED STATES WEATHER BUREAU

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A Research Flight Facility DC-6 in flight (foreground),
with a W-57 aircraft in the background. The DC-6
aircraft are heavily instrumented for the measure-
ment of atmospheric conditions associated with storm
systems, as are the W-57's, which have a greater ceil-
ing (up to 40,000 feet) than do the DC-6's. (Left)
The heavily instrumented interior of a typical RFF
DC-6.

Because of the small amount of hurricane flying which
the seasons afforded, RFF, along with various other
agencies studying hurricanes, devoted considerable effort
to other projects in tropical meteorology of a more
general nature. The largest of these was Project ECCRO
(Eastern Caribbean Cooperative Reconnaissance Oper-
ation) which studied winds and other meteorological
parameters at a number of altitudes over a broad area for
several days.

The Meteorological Satellite Laboratory of NESC
has been examining the use of satellite data as a tool
for tropical weather analysis. Many distinctive cloud
formations appear in the tropics, the most significant
of which show hurricanes and typhoons. Studies relating
wind speeds and stage of development of hurricanes
to cloud pattern in the satellite pictures continue and
have been expanded to include patterns in the infrared
radiation data. Finally, case studies of hurricanes BECKY
(1965) and ALMA (1966) are in progress to verify a theory
of hurricane formation based on the conservation of
angular momentum.

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DEVELOPMENT OF ALMA
JUNE 1966 ESSA 1

The development of Hurricane Alma, June 1966, as
photographed by the ESSA I satellite. The development
of the hurricane is compared to a plot of the barometric
pressures as measured at the central surface.

Based upon data obtained from aircraft, satellites,
and surface and upper air observations, an extensive
program of theoretical study under ESSA sponsorship
seeks to identify the causes and origins of tropical
storms and hurricanes; improve predictions of their
formation, motion, and effects; and provide data for
use by scientists studying the possibility of moderating
the violence of such storms.

For example, one NHRL study revealed that con-
trary to the behavior of the atmosphere observed in tem-
perate zones, the relationship between pressure patterns
and wind fields is not straightforward for tropical zones,
and, in fact, is too complicated to be represented pic-
torially. It has been found that quite different flow pat-
terns can be associated with very nearly the same pres-
sure pattern. This fact has important ramifications to
operational weather analysis in the equatorial zone. One
such implication is that the construction of a pressure
chart (even one of perfect accuracy) gives very little
information concerning the field of motion if it is only
subjected to visual inspection. Furthermore, if subjective,
hand techniques of analysis are to be relied on, it appears
that the field of motion in equatorial analysis can be
established only by direct analysis of the wind reports.
Therefore, to employ pressure reports as an aid in this

analysis, most likely machine techniques will be required
because of the complexity of the wind-pressure rela-
tionship.

Studies are also being conducted to determine inter-
actions between the tropical cyclone and its environment
in efforts to determine the factors involved in hurricane
formation, intensification, dissipation, and movement.
Tropical cyclogenesis and maintenance are being studied
by the development of dynamical-numerical models
of tropical circulations.

At the same time, work continued on the further
development and refinement of a new, statistical-clima-
tological model for forecasting hurricane motion. Verifica-
tion statistics from past cases of forecasts by the revised
equations revealed forecasts by the model to be superior
to the forecasts by subjective hurricane forecasters.
Theoretical studies have defined many details of the
wind-pressure relationship at low latitudes and have
greatly increased the understanding of the development
and maintenance of perturbations in equatorial zones.

Tornadoes and Severe Local Storm Research. Tornadoes
and severe thunderstorms pose a major threat to many
sections of the United States. To study and to improve
its capability to predict their formation and behavior,

69

NSSL conducts a specialized research program using a
unique and highly instrumented ground network at
Norman, Okla., in conjunction with aircraft flights by
the RFF, the Air Force, and other agencies.

Improved bases for analysis and prediction of severe
storms have been developed at NSSL. Radar .shows that
storms with different structures occurring near each
other at the same time may move in markedly different
directions. It is, therefore, practically impossible for
an operator to stay abreast of the rapid developments
characteristic of the most severe and important situations.
However, new techniques of radar data processing
demonstrate the feasibility of defining the separate
motions accurately and speedily for application in the
operational radar system.

A study of the properties and extent of in-flow of moist
air to a severe storm has shown that about 60 percent
of the moisture condensed and descended as rain. The
convergence of moisture over state-wide areas can be
deduced from surface network measurements and upper
air soundings some hours in advance of severe storm
developments. Advanced radar data processing tech-

niques now provide more accurate measures of precipita-
tion associated with a storm.

NSSL has evaluated the most recent severe storm
model concepts by small-scale laboratory experiments
in fluid dynamics and by measurements and study of
radar scope patterns of attendant precipitation. The
theory of tornadoes is exceedingly complex, and it is
apparent that useful development of the theory needs
the inspiration of direct measurements of real tornadoes
and the output from a realistic model. The model studies
conducted by the Laboratory during the reporting period
have indicated that at least one likely pattern of local
wind not heretofore considered can be extremely im-
portant in the development of the tornado.

In TDL, the Weather Bureau work is continuing on
the development of an operational model for prediction
of selected parameters related to severe storm occur-
rence. A computer program has been completed to
generate three-dimensional trajectories utilizing output
from the NMC primitive equation model. It is anticipated
that this task will provide improved prognostic soundings
and measures of atmospheric stability. During FY 67.

The hookline configuration of a radar echo indicates a heavy
thunderstorm with which a tornado is usuallv associated.

^

70

TDL also granted a research contract to develop improved
techniques for forecasting severe convective storms
and their associated hazards. The objectives include
study and evaluation of present forecasting techniques,
development of improved diagnostic procedures, and
development of more accurate forecasting techniques.
All analysis and forecasting techniques will be prepared
in a form which can be programed for computer use in
actual forecast operations.

Aircraft Storm Hazards. NSSL during FY 67 launched
a study of the relationship of storm hazards to aircraft
safety. The objective of this project is to develop more
accurate descriptions of thunderstorm hazards to aviation
and to devise techniques for the improved use of storm
forecasts and detection equipment.

The heights of cloud tops above 40,000 feet recorded
during 1962 and 1963 by photography from a U-2 air-
craft, were measured and related to other meteorological
features. Additional flights by RB-57F aircraft in the
spring of 1967 observed higher tops than those found in
1962 and 1963.

A program involving the cooperation of several agencies
of the U.S. and British Governments, with overall manage-
ment provided by NSSL, has yielded new knowledge of
the structure of turbulence in and near thunderstorms.
A quantitative description of statistical properties of
in-storm turbulence in relation to radar echo signatures
has been given and several cases of severe clear air
turbulence near thunderstorms have been documented.

Turbulence and temperature variations in clear air
near the tops of large thunderstorms were studied with
the assistance of aircraft and staff of the British Royal
Aircraft Establishment. Turbulence over thunderstorms
above 50,000 feet was recorded in 1967 during flights
by RB-57F and U-2 aircraft of the USAF.

Lightning hazards to aircraft have become evident
from investigation of several recent incidents in which
severe effects of lightning strikes on aircraft have been
found. A satisfactory assessment of the characteristics
and distribution of lightning in the vicinity of severe
storms is therefore desirable for improving the safety
of flight operations. A technique for lightning location
based on measurements of electrostatic field changes
at different locations was analyzed. The report concluded
that an effective lightning location system based on such
measurements can be realized with a minimum of four
stations.

New measurements at NSSL indicate that the range
of nighttime lightning can be determined from arrival
times at a single station, of direct radiation and successive
orders (up to six) of E-layer ionospheric reflection.
Analysis of these times of arrival and the simultaneous
signals from directional loop antennas may determine
areas of lightning activity suitable for incorporation in
the correlation studies. NSSL, in another phase of this
project, is looking into the feasibility of obtaining correla-
tions which would yield statistically reliable assessments
of relationships between storm dynamics and electricity.

The technical feasibility of exploiting different features
of electrical signals produced by lightning in order to
locate and follow areas of lightning and assess its severity
has been explored by NSSL. This has led to a contract
for the development of an operational system to provide
airline meteorologists and operators with instantaneous
knowledge and displays of lightning over a range of
100 miles from centers of operation.

A radar attachment has been developed which greatly
increases the speed and accuracy with which radar
data can be displayed. Simultaneously, it facilitates
automatic processing of weather radar data for rapid
automatic transmission of interpretative information
via standard land fines. This prototype device is now
in routine use at NSSL and engineering work is underway
to provide a version suited to general field operations.

During the reporting period, digitized radar data was
transmitted from NSSL to the Weather Bureau's River
Forecast Center at Fort Worth. This was a highly en-
couraging first experiment to evaluate techniques for
combining high-speed digital computers and compre-
hensive radar data in an operational program of flood
warning and water resources management.

Finally, significant advances have been made in
developing Doppler radar as a meteorological observing
tool. The feasibility of observing details of wind structure
within 5,000 feet of the ground on many clear days has
been demonstrated. One study treats the structure of a
low -level jet stream associated with large, height -
dependent wind variations which pose an operational
problem for aircraft during takeoff and descent. Improve-
ments in radar design suggest that a number of Doppler
radars could be provided at relatively small cost to give
more comprehensive definition of wind fields accompany-
ing storms and to monitor the wind profile at air terminals.

PREDICTING THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE
ATMOSPHERE AND THE SOLID EARTH

Completing the hydrologic cycle which starts at the
sea-air interface is the interaction between the atmos-
phere and the solid earth — the partial return of moisture
which originated in the sea to its origin through pre-
cipitation and runoff. Predicting this interaction and
its results in the form of drought or flood is a key ESSA
program.

River and Flood Prediction and Warning

River forecasting consists of four major steps: (1) The
determination of the amount of rainfall or snow melt
over the area draining into the river; (2) the estimation
of the amount of water which runs off the drainage area
into the river; (3) the determination of the rate at which
water reaches the river; and (4) the prediction of the
changing shape and speed of the flood wave as it moves
downstream. (After the water has run off into the river,
it assumes the shape of a wave, with the water level
rising and then falling at every point along the river
as it is passed by the wave.)

71

The most severe problems in river forecasting include:
Achieving a maximum forecast accuracy while giving
adequate warning time, sampling the precipitation in
sufficient detail over a large enough area, and accounting
for the effects of storage and delays of water in flowing
over and through the soil to the river. High-speed com-
puters assist in attacking these problems by speeding up
the data reduction and analysis process and accommo-
dating much more complex calculations than were
possible before computers became available. Research
is continuing on the development of a water accounting
model making use of the Modified Stanford watershed
model. Research is also being continued on the modifica-
tion of the Antecedent Precipitation Index forecasting
model currently used operationally by field offices, with
the major effort during FY 67 being devoted to a method
for generating a continuous hydrograph of total runoff.

An important influence on the role of the soil in the
rainfall runoff process is the effect, between rains, of
evaporation from the soil, and transpiration of moisture
from plants growing in the soil. Studies of evaporation
are necessary for evaluating transpiration, and also are
important for estimating water loss from lakes and
reservoirs. Comparisons are being made of evaporation
utilizing special steel tanks at a variety of locations
including Virginia, California, Arizona, and Nevada.
New experimental insulated pans are being tested in
these areas as well as. in Washington, D.C.

In planning and designing dams and other water
management structures, an essential step in determining
design capacities is the anticipation of the magnitude
of storm runoff to be accommodated. For small structures,
such as urban storm sewers and culverts, it is customary
to design for a storm or flood which would be equaled
or exceeded, for example, once in 10 years. For spillways
of larger dams, the failure of which would endanger
human life or cause substantial property damage, the
design is usually based on the maximum rainfall that
can reasonably be expected.

Organization and Facilities

ESSA's service and research programs in hydrology
are performed by the Weather Bureau's Office of Hydrol-
ogy, located in Washington, D.C. Research data are
obtained from the networks of hydrological and mete-
orological stations which exist for the service program.
Research is also performed at a number of field locations
by both ESSA and contractor personnel, and modern
computer facilities are available for data analysis and
theoretical computations. Development and test of
instruments and equipment for hydrology are performed
for the Office of Hydrology by the Equipment Develop-
ment Laboratory (EDL) at Silver Spring, Md., and the
Test and Evaluation Laboratory at Sterling, Va., both
elements of the Weather Bureau's Systems Development
Office.

Instrument and Systems Development

A number of new instruments and systems were ready

280-876 0-68— 6

for field testing during the reporting period including
the following:

Digitized Radar Precipitation Data. The system for
transmitting digitized radar precipitation data directly
to River Forecast Centers developed jointly by the
Office of Hydrology and the National Severe Storms
Laboratory is continuing to be evaluated by NSSL and
the Weather Bureau's Fort Worth River Forecast Center.
Broader field evaluation will follow this phase.

Telemetering Storage Precipitation Gage. Seasonal
precipitation storage gages are an important means of
assessing the runoff potential of snow fields, particularly
in the western regions of the United States. Many of these
installations have in the past been accessible only with
great difficulty during the winter months. To make data
from the gages readily available to hydrologists. Equip-
ment Development Laboratory developed an electrical
readout with an accuracy of one-tenth percent for meas-
urements up to 5 inches and 2-percent accuracy for
measurements above 5 inches. It is equipped with radio
telemetry components so that gage readings can be
obtained instantly by radio interrogation. Currently
available sensing and telemetry components were
adapted to the system where possible. This system was
field tested during FY 67.

Flash-Flood Alarm. Many communities in headwater
areas are susceptible to damage and loss of fife from flash
floods which occur when heavy local rains suddenly
cause streams to rise and inundate inhabited areas
before normal data collecting and flood forecasting
facilities can detect the situation and issue warnings.
Equipment Development Laboratory has developed a
device to sense these sudden, dangerous rises in streams
and to sound a warning to local residents. It consists
of a level detector for location upstream of the community
to be protected which is connected by radio or telephone
fine to a visual and audible warning device located in a
firehouse, police station, or residential area. The device
is now under operational test by the Test and Evaluation
Laboratory.

Solar Radiation Measurement. The measurement of
incoming solar radiation is of primary interest in evapora-
tion, snow melt, and general hydrologic cycle studies.
At present, the small number of observation stations
severely limits the use that can be made of daily solar
radiation information. Equipment Development Labora-
tory has developed an instrument that will allow large-
scale extension of the present network at modest cost.
The device, a portable, self-contained solar radiation
integrator, is essentially an inexpensive water calorimeter
that stores heat energy throughout the day. It is designed
to maintain its calibration for long periods with day-to-day
accuracy of 10 percent or better.

Research in Hydrology-
Research at the Office of Hydrology falls into two broad

72

categories: Studies of the hydrologic cycle with particular
attention to improved river forecasting, and precipitation
climatology studies directed toward developing informa-
tion of value to engineers and water-management
authorities.

River Forecasting Studies. Research is continuing on
the development of a mathematical model of the hydro-
logic cycle to permit increased automation of river fore-
casting and increased prediction accuracy. The current
phase involves adding to the model details of the soil
phase of the cycle: Snow pack, impervious contributing
areas, evapotranspiration, several layers of soil and
ground water storage, and flow. A number of experimental
and theoretical studies are being conducted in support
of this model development.

For example, the effects of physiographic environment
on evaporation have been observed at Farmington, Utah,
and analysis of data is underway. An improved technique
has been developed for computing lake evaporation from
air temperature, dew point, wind, and solar and long-
wave radiations. Using the new knowledge and data
collected over a 10-year period, evaporation maps for
the United States are now being updated.

A snow research project is being carried out with
the Agricultural Research Service at the Sleeper's
River Watershed near Danville, Vt. A meteorological
station has been established to measure the meteorologi-
cal factors involved in the energy budget of snow melt.
A member of the Office of Hydrology staff has been
assigned on a full-time basis to make observations and
maintain equipment. The Sacramento River Forecast
Center, in cooperation with the California Department
of Water Resources, is conducting research on the use
of snow pillows at Twin Lakes in the American River
Basin. These devices are rubberized canvas or plastic
bags filled with low-freezing-point liquid which open
into a manometer tube for measuring the pressure of
the snow over-burden, thereby determining the water
equivalent of the snow pack.

There has been much interest recently in the use of
satellite photographs to determine snow cover for hydro-
logic purposes. While some use can be made of ESSA
satellite data, improved resolution and dynamic range
will be required in future systems before widespread
analytic use can be made of this new technique for
hydrology. For accurate estimation of potential runoffs,
some means of determining water content of the snow
by relay of in situ data will also be required. An initial
contract to continue the work has been let. Studies of
possible future techniques are underway.

Precipitation Climatology. Studies of precipitation
climatology cover both the extreme and average values
to be expected. Typical studies of extremes included:
Estimates prepared for the Corps of Engineers of probable
maximum precipitation and snow melt conditions over
several Midwest river basins, including the South Platte
in Colorado and the Minnesota River; estimates of
probable maximum precipitation and rainfall intensity-

frequency prepared for proposed canal routes through
Panama and Northwestern Colombia; studies of probable
maxima over the Rio Grande Valley for the Soil Conserva-
tion Service and the detailed study of the severe rainfall
patterns associated with Hurricane Betsy in the Mis-
sissippi Delta area. The Soil Conservation Service is
sponsoring the preparation of detailed physiographically
adjusted rainfall frequency maps for the western United
States for 6- to 24-hour amounts for return periods of
2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years. Maps for Arizona and
New Mexico have been completed.

The Corps of Engineers has been sponsoring river
basin studies since 1937. These studies include estimates
of probable maximum precipitation and, where appro-
priate, optimum snow melt conditions. Reports of such
studies published during the reporting period include
such diverse areas as the Susquehanna River; the Yukon
River; Takatz Creek, Alaska; St. Johns River, Maine;
Minnesota River; South Platte River, Colo.; and the
Delaware River. Similar studies were also conducted
for the Tennessee Valley Authority for the Tennessee
River Basin above Chattanooga, Tenn.

With respect to typical or average rainfall patterns,
studies have encompassed the following: Continuing
study for the Geological Survey of the precipitation
regime of Long Island, including frequency, seasonal,
and other relationships in support of a water resources
survey; detailed seasonal and annual precipitation maps
for the 15-year period 1951-65, including frequency
distributions; a study for the Soil Conservation Service
of the average number of days of per month with precipi-
tation of .5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 inches or greater; the preparation
of daily maps of selected major storms and physio-
graphically adjusted rainfall intensity-frequency maps
for the Western United States; daily maps of rainfall
depths in the Wabash River Basin; and studies of storm
rainfall in the upper Colorado River Basin in support of a
weather modification investigation by the Bureau of
Reclamation. The latter studies included typing with
respect to season, atmospheric circulation, and
physiography.

PREDICTING THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS ENVIRONMENT

Although telecommunications primarily utilizes the
atmosphere and the ionosphere, all elements of the
environment are used, at least to a degree. Variations in
environmental parameters cause variations in propaga-
tion conditions and hence telecommunications prediction
is to a large extent concerned with the forecasting of
environmental change. Programs in this area support
ESSA's telecommunications services and, in addition,
bear indirectly on most other program areas in view of
the importance of telecommunications in data acquisition
and dissemination.

Research in Telecommunications Prediction

While ESSA's interest in telecommunications extends
across the usable electromagnetic spectrum from 1 cycle
per second to 1015 cycles per second (Hz), the day-to-day

73

service program in real-time telecommunications predic-
tion is presently limited to those frequencies affected
by the presence and position of the ionosphere, i.e.,
from Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) to about 3 X 107
Hz. Frequencies higher than these are affected primarily
by atmospheric factors and will tend to become pre-
dictable in their behavior in the same measure that
weather becomes truly predictable, particularly with
regard to humidity and atmospheric noise. Consequently,
real-time prediction activities may be expected to grow
in the future.

To an extent, research in support of present and
future service programs in telecommunications predic-
tion also supports programs in telecommunications
engineering; however, where the primary emphasis is
on the effects of changing environmental factors, it will
be reported in this chapter. Fields to be discussed include:
Ionospheric propagation, tropospheric physics, and
radio meteorology.

Organization and Facilities for Research

Research, development, and engineering as well as
services in telecommunications in ESSA are the respon-
sibility of the Institute for Telecommunication Sciences
and Aeronomy (ITSA). Activities are divided between
the Ionospheric Telecommunications Laboratory (ITL),
which is primarily concerned with propagation at fre-
quencies from 1 Hz to 3 X 107 Hz, and the Tropospheric
Telecommunications Laboratory (TTL), which is con-
cerned with Very High Frequency (VHF) and higher
frequencies up to the optical range.

ITSA's Laboratories at Boulder, Colo., are unusually
well-equipped for the study .of all aspects of telecom-
munication prediction, with data available from a world-
wide ionosonde network and other global sources.
Ionospheric predictions are prepared by ITSA for
military and civilian radio services, satellite, missile
and space programs, as well as for other scientific and
engineering applications. At the same time, research
and development is conducted on improvement of
methods of ionospheric predictions, and on the applica-
tion of predictions to the requirements of specific prob-
lems of national importance. Field experiments are also
conducted by ITSA personnel at a variety of locations.

Instrument and Systems Development

As in any type of research, considerable equipment
and apparatus are developed as an integral part of
experimental research programs. In addition, tele-
communications engineering programs develop antennas,
transmitters, and receivers which are useful in propaga-
tion studies.

In ITL, a new model ionospheric sounder is under
development, incorporating features affording increased
flexibility and accuracy. The output data are adaptable
to automatic data processing. This sounder will become
a tool for the telecommunications prediction service
program when its development is complete.

Ionospheric Propagation Studies in the ELF-MF Range

This program covers research in radio propagation
from the ELF to the Medium Frequency (MF) range. The
frequencies covered are from 1 Hz to 3x 106 Hz, almost
seven decades. In this range, propagation is affected by
both the earth and the ionosphere. Together the two form
a type of waveguide at certain frequencies which conducts
signals for great distances, making the lower frequencies
in this area of considerable importance for long-range
telecommunications, particularly during ionospheric
storms, which may temporarily obliterate other usable
portions of the spectrum.

This region of the spectrum is used for communication
with submerged submarines, the detection of high-
altitude nuclear explosions and solar proton events,
long-range navigation systems, transmission of frequency
and time standards, and, at its upper end, the over-
crowded standard AM broadcast band.

Radio waves in this region of the spectrum reflect
from the various layers of the ionosphere. Knowledge
of the behavior of the layers, both periodic and in re-
sponse to solar and nuclear events, is essential to predic-
tion, as well as to increased knowledge of the process
of wave reflection. Substantial progress has been made
in several areas. Efficient methods for calculating
the field of ELF, Very Low Frequency (VLF), or Low
Frequency (LF) signals in the earth-ionosphere wave-
guide have been developed, which enable the complicated
reflection processes in the ionosphere to be included
in the calculations without any loss of accuracy. Cal-
culations have also been made of the propagation of
longwave signals during an ionospheric disturbance
caused by a nuclear explosion or a solar proton pre-
cipitation event. Other analyses have been made which
predict the change in shape of an electromagnetic pulse,
such as that emitted during a nuclear explosion, as it
propagates over great distances. These calculations
are in close accord with observations of such signals.

Studies of the characteristic fading of VLF signals
observed on long paths have confirmed that this phe-
nomenon results mainly from varying degrees of inter-
ference of several propagation modes in the nighttime
portion of the earth-ionosphere waveguide. In addition,
it has been possible to determine the difference between
the phase velocities and the attenuation rates of the
first two nighttime waveguide modes. This work is
particularly significant in arriving at improved models
of the earth-ionosphere waveguide.

The use of realistic electron-density profiles for the
lower ionosphere has led to some advanced analyses of
waveguide modes which have proven useful in predicting
the performance of VLF communication and navigation
systems. Attention has also been given to calculating
the transient characteristics of the waveguide — of
importance to the problem of detecting nuclear ex-
plosions through the electromagnetic radiation which
they emit.

74

Ionospheric Propagation Studies in the HF-VHF Range
The propagation of High Frequency (HF) and VHF
radio waves is affected by the ionosphere sometimes
favorably, at other times unfavorably. Included among
the systems which use HF are the very extensive so-called
"shortwave" telecommunications and broadcasting ac-
tivities. On the other hand, although VHF systems can
take advantage of the ionosphere in systems like iono-
spheric scatter communications, the ionosphere is mainly
an occasional nuisance to FM and TV broadcasts at
these frequencies.

The interaction of the HF radio wave with the irregular
ionospheric medium is being given emphasis in present
studies. Whereas the behavior of the long-term averages
of the various ionospheric characteristics and propaga-
tion factors is fairly well known, the short-term behavior
is quite variable and results in propagation effects which
are difficult to predict. An understanding of the nature
of the irregular ionosphere and its effects on high-
frequency radio wave propagation will permit greater
facility in predicting and compensating for these effects.

Experimental work has centered about the study of
high-frequency ground backscatter, i.e., high-frequency
radar echoes from the ground, propagated by way of the
ionosphere. The technique is very sensitive to irregu-
larities in the ionosphere, which focus and defocus
incident energy. The use of this backscatter method
shows considerable promise of making possible the
measurement of ionospheric parameters at remote
locations with a geographical resolution of a few tens of
kilometers — through the use of a high resolution antenna
system developed specifically for this purpose by ITSA.

Considerable effort has been expended during the
reporting period on instrumentation for future experi-
ments. Electronic circuitry has been constructed to
provide two beams for the high resolution azimuth array
and two for the elevation array at the Table Mountain
field site, near Boulder. Electronically programed
frequency synthesizers have been incorporated at both
the transmitter and receiver sites and will permit multi-
frequency observations on a short-time scale.

Experimental studies during the reporting period
included the determination of the magnitudes of iono-
spheric focusing effects in both backscattered and
forward propagated signals. Figures for effective ground
scatter coefficients were also derived from the data
obtained, which resulted in values higher than those
previously reported.

In the area of theoretical studies, rays have been
traced through model irregular ionsopheres to obtain
insight into the mechanisms of ray interaction with these
irregularities. Results indicate that modest changes in
ionization density will provide focusing effects similar
to those observed experimentally. These studies use a
three-dimensional ray tracing computer program devel-
oped at ITSA, which has been documented and distrib-
uted to interested scientists as an aid in many aspects

of the study of propagation. Another theoretical study
has been concerned with the effects of irregular terrain
in the vicinity of HF antennas on the propagation of radio
waves, especially at low takeoff angles.

Analysis of the horizontal wave lengths of atmospheric
disturbances in the stratosphere suggest that they may
be the cause of some large traveling disturbances in the
ionosphere. An understanding of the origin and nature
of these disturbances is necessary to predict their
occurrence and effect on telecommunications.

Research in Tropospheric Physics

The refractive index of the atmosphere is varied by
turbulence as well as other factors, thus affecting radio
propagation, particularly at frequencies greater than
108 Hz. Of particular interest is the effect on the transit
time of signals over line-of-sight paths. Many types of
telecommunications systems transmit their intelligence
by varying the phase of the transmitted signal. Still
other systems, used in radio navigation for missiles,
rockets, satellites, and space probes, depend for their
operation on the measurement of the time delays of sig-
nals transmitted from the target to two or more ground
stations. In either case, random variations in propagation
time will result from any heterogeneity in the refractive
index of the troposphere. In many cases, the resulting
phase variation limits the accuracy of the overall system.
For this reason, it is important to first study the statistical
properties of this "noise" and then to devise methods
of circumventing or minimizing its effect. The ITSA
program includes studies of the statistics of transit
time variation under various atmospheric conditions at
different geographical locations and in various parts of
the spectrum from the microwave through the optical
range.

In the field of optical propagation, a prototype two-color
distance-measuring instrument has been developed.
Laboratory tests have already demonstrated a potential
precision significantly surpassing that of present com-
mercial instruments. This new equipment will contribute
to both the geodetic and the earthquake research missions
of ESSA.

In a related project, a servo-controlled laser mount
has been used for continuous observation of a laser beam
traveling several kilometers through the atmosphere.
The mount removes the problem of beam wander which
previously precluded systematic observations. These
laser observations, together with high-speed measure-
ments of temperature fluctuations, provide useful
engineering data and permit checks of optical propaga-
tion theory.

Research in Radio Meteorology.

Radio meteorology is the study of the effects of the
atmosphere on radio wave propagation, and the use of
these effects as a means of measuring atmospheric
variables. Study has been in two general areas: radio
climatology, and meteorological physics.

75

Radio Climatology. Radio climatology has as its objec-
tive the description of the radio refractive index structure
of the atmosphere on a worldwide basis and its application
to the expected performance of radio systems. Efforts
are being made to predict radio propagation conditions
from synoptic weather forecasts. These investigations
include analysis of the effects of such phenomena as
inversion layers, fronts, and subsidence, and the devel-
opment of appropriate atmospheric models. Methods
are being developed to apply climatological and synoptic
data to the solution of particular problems — for example,
position errors in radio tracking systems.

Meteorological Physics. Meteorological physics in-
volves a detailed examination of the propagation medium.
This research is both theoretical and experimental and
investigates the behavior of those parameters which
affect the refraction, reflection, absorption, and scattering
of radio signals. Full use is being made of research results
in other areas of study of the lower atmosphere. The
objective of this research is the isolation and study of
atmospheric properties that produce particular effects
on radio propagation, with the aim of eventual develop-
ment of non-empirical means for prediction. Atmospheric
studies include: Spectral characteristics of the radio
refractive index and its relationship to atmospheric

stability, the nature of water vapor fluctuations, the
effects of air mass movements, convective activity,
hydrometeors, jet stream and tropopause phenomena,
wind shear, subsidence, and the origin and characteristics
of thin upper air layers. An experimental program of
field measurements is in progress concerned with
refractive index turbulence, water vapor evaporation
studies by electromagnetic means, radar returns from
the clear atmosphere, airborne and ground-based refrac-
tometry and humidity measurements, correlation studies
of within-line-of-sight fading of radio signals along with
atmospheric fluctuations, and simultaneous air-to-air,
air-to-ground, and ground-to-ground radio meteorological
studies.

Evaporation from lakes and rivers is of increasing
importance to water conservationists and in studies of
the hydrologic cycle. Of particular interest was a joint
study conducted at Lake Hefner, Near Oklahoma City
with the Bureau of Reclamation in connection with the
Bureau's investigation of the utility of thin films to retard
evaporation. It was desirable to find a means of measur-
ing, not merely the average evaporation over a period
of weeks, but the minute-to-minute evaporation rate as
a function of environmental variables. Using its knowl-
edge of relationship between water vapor content and
atmospheric refractive index, TTL was able to make

At Lake Hefner, Okla., water evaporation rates are studied by
correlating the effect of humidity on the variation of a radio sig-
nal being received by the radio refractometer.

76

the desired measurements, using a radio refractometer
and a sonic anemometer developed especially for the
purpose. This anemometer also shows promise for
turbulence studies. Results of this program will also
be useful in studies of sea-air interaction.

Studies of the atmospheric structure and properties
as related to transmission and emission of radiant
energy at infrared frequencies have been made. These
provide theoretical foundation and experimental data
to aid in the design and development of remote sensing
methods and telecommunication techniques.

PREDICTING THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT

The sun plays a primary role in influencing the dynam-
ics of the total environment, and hence the study of real-
time solar-terrestrial relationships is critical to the search
for improved means of prediction and warning. At the
same time, ESSA has a direct and immediate interest
in solar behavior because the sun is the source of highly
energetic particles and other space disturbances which
have a profound effect on both communications and safety
in the earth's near-space environment.

Space Disturbance Forecasting

ITSA's Space Disturbance Laboratory plays a leading
national role in the study of such solar-induced space
disturbances in support of its responsibilities in the field
of space environment forecasting. Research and develop-
ment programs are concerned with improvement of
techniques, methods of predicting solar events, the study
of solar interactions with the earth's magnetic field,
measuring the response of the ionosphere to solar events,
and the application of the knowledge gained, both to
forecasting and to detection of high-altitude nuclear
events. The Space Disturbances Laboratory conducts
basic research into the nature of disturbances in the
space environment of the earth, particularly those
associated with solar activity. Studies are undertaken
in the following fields: Solar activity, solar-terrestrial
relations, the interaction of the solar wind and the mag-
netosphere, magnetic storm theory, the interaction of
solar protons and the upper atmosphere, trapped parti-
cle phenomena and auroral disturbances, ionospheric
storms, and infrasonic phenomena.

Instruments, Systems, and Techniques Development

As in the case of telecommunications, instrument and
systems development in this area is largely carried out as
an integral part of research programs. One major activity
which has broad applications is the development of
numerical means of preparing short-term forecasts of
solar activity, based upon the methods developed for
weather forecasting by NMC. The techniques under
development use sophisticated statistical procedures
to select optimum predictors and to test their statistical
significance. New programs have been prepared for
verification of forecast results against an independent

data sample, as have new statistical procedures for pre-
paring forcasts when significant percentages of the input
data are missing.

Prediction of Solar Events

The origin of the most significant disturbances in local
space is, of course, the sun. Thus, major emphasis is
placed on study of the emission and propagation of solar
radiation, its effects on the earth and its environment,
and its relation to various forms of solar activity, with
the aim of improving the accuracy of disturbance predic-
tions. It was found that solar flares which produce large
fluxes of energetic protons, and hence are potentially
dangerous, show a pronounced tendency to recur along
certain solar meridians. It is believed that this apparent
tendency to cluster may prove to be a useful predictor of
solar proton events.

With the aim of securing more uniform and more
significant input data, work has continued on the grouping
and standardizing of flare reports and solar radioburst
data. Frequent observation of sunspots and other solar
surface features are now made at Boulder so that fore-
casters have the benefit of rapid information and of the
"feel" of a developing active region. A new morphological
classification of sunspot groups has been proposed for
forecasting.

Some practical contributions to solar disturbance
forecasting have also been made. Various optical and
radio observations of the sun and ionosphere that give
early warning or detection of solar protons have been
surveyed and evaluated as predictors. With the help of
a time-shared computer, daily and weekly estimates of
the future level of geomagnetic activity, based on current
and past indices of activity, have been made. Also, a
computer program for editing flare reports has been
developed that will be useful in real-time forecasting as
well as in early dissemination of flare data.

Solar flare events are often followed, after an interval
of some tens of seconds, by radio bursts at meter wave-
lengths. Thus, flare-induced disturbances far out in the
solar corona can be conveniently studied by radio
methods, and the subsequent evaluation of these radio
bursts may offer clues to the direction of travel of poten-
tially dangerous solar particle streams in the inter-
planetary medium.

In cooperation with the University of Colorado's
Department of Astro-Geophysics, a sweep frequency
radio interferometer covering the range 7—40 MHz is
being used to obtain information on meter wavelength
solar bursts. Data are telemetered to the Space Dis-
turbance Forecast Center in real-time. Studies are cur-
rently in progress on the problem of improving both
the frequency coverage and the spatial resolution. Under
design is a wide-band interferometer system for defining
the position of solar bursts to within a few minutes of
arc. This will aid in identifying those bursts which are
most likely to cause disturbances in the vicinity of the
earth.

77

** w u n j ,ui

uanccncr

• • ■ B Boa

■ ■ ■

cxnnpr

xnr?''kJ*]r

V

c*

5 f"v>T BOO!

Every 6 hours, scientists of the Space
Disturbances Forecast Center of the Space
Disturbances Laboratory at Boulder,
Colo., issue forecasts of solar weather
to government agencies, universities, and
private industries. These forecasts are
helpful in maintaining the efficiency of
telecommunications and satellite and other
electronics operations which solar emis-
sions can disrupt. (Right) Electromagnetic
radiation produced by lightning flashes
in South America propagate in the Earth-
ionosphere waveguide past the observing
sites at Miami and Boulder. The differ-
ences in the shapes of the spectra observed
at these two sites is used to deduce the
electron deviation in the magnetosphere.

FREQUENCY

HECmOMACSiriC SlCHALS
RADIATED MOM LICHTNIHC

f
$

$ ■ 3* ""-

-MIHUS^

EQUALS

TRANSMISSION LOSS COMPUTED FOR FREQUENCIES

'WEEN 04 AND 40 kc/s IS USED WITH WAVE-GUIDE THEORY

10 DETERMINE LOWER IONOSPHERE PARAMETERS OF

ELECTRON DENSITY AND COLLISION FREQUENCY AS

FUNCTIONS OF TIME OF DAY, SOLAR ACTIVITY AND

GEOMAGNETIC CONDITIONS

FREQUENCY

Solar Interactions With the Earth's Magnetic Field

The earth's magnetic field forms a "shell" around
the earth which can be penetrated by very energetic
particles from outside or distorted by lower energy
particles — in either case, potentially resulting in signifi-
cant disturbance to the space inside the field called the
magnetosphere. The program in this area of research
deals with the interaction of the low-energy solar wind,
or flux of plasma ejected from the sun into space, with
the planetary magnetic fields. Both quiet and active
solar conditions, together with anomalous events, such
as flare-ejected plasma clouds and their associated
blast waves, are considered. Thus, the normal or quiet
state of the earth's magnetospheric "bumper," together
with streaming of low-energy protons and electrons
through the standing shock wave, is examined first,
followed by analyses of transient shock associated with
the blast wave interaction with the earth's shock. The
impulsive dynamic pressure pulse caused by shock

impingement on the magnetospheric boundary may be
responsible for the sudden geomagnetic storms observed
at middle and low latitudes.

Much of this analysis is based upon data obtained
from earlier spacecraft penetrations of the magne-
tosphere of the earth and other planets, but another
approach to the study of the magnetosphere and its
interactions is through the phenomena known as whistlers
and VLF emissions. These are natural phenomena,
whistlers being generated by lightning flashes, and VLF
emissions by the interaction of incoming energetic
particles with electromagnetic radiation in the mag-
netosphere. Since both these phenomena develop at
VLF frequencies, they are subject to the wave-guide
type of propagation along the earth's magnetic field
lines which was described in the previous section.
Theoretical analyses of these events are used to estimate
the electron density in the magnetosphere. including
the variations associated with space disturbances.

78

Ionospheric Interactions

Having interacted with the earth's magnetosphere,
solar disturbances eventually produce corresponding
disturbances in the ionosphere, which are detected and
measured by a variety of techniques. The response of
the ionosphere to various kinds of disturbing influences
can only be understood if there is sufficient knowledge
about the basic physical processes which are pertinent
to the D, E, and F regions of the ionosphere. A theoretical
program based on experimental results seeks to interpret
these results in the light of processes which are now
thought to occur. A systematic search for new processes
hitherto overlooked is being conducted with special
emphasis on those involving excited states of the at-
mospheric atoms and molecules. An experimental
program is being developed to study optical emissions
from such excited atoms and molecules and will encom-
pass both ground-based and rocket-borne observations.
Instrumentation for the program now beginning will
include a scanning Fabry-Perot interferometer, a rocket-
borne infrared radiometer, and a two-meter Ebert
spectrometer.

ITSA scientists are using an advanced radio technique
for the detection and study of transient changes in the
ionosphere associated with solar or atmospheric dis-
turbances. Time variations of the ionosphere are con-
tinuously monitored by recording the deviations in the

General view of the observatory at the Space Disturbances
Monitoring Station near Anchorage, Alaska. (Below)
Strip charts are used to record changes in the space
environment of the earth as detected by ground-based
instruments.

79

received frequency of HF radio waves which are trans-
mitted from frequency-stable ground stations and are
reflected from the ionosphere. This technique provides
a sensitive means for detecting the ionospheric effects
of solar flares and indirectly improving knowledge of
solar flare radiations and their ionizing effects in the
E and Fi regions of the ionosphere. It also provides
observations of transient geophysical phenomena
originating in or near the earth's atmosphere, such as
acoustic-gravity waves, effects of earthquakes, and
effects of magnetic storms.

Solar flare ionospheric effects provides one type of
data used by ESSA's Space Disturbance Forecast Center.
Data from this program are also important in providing
background information to ITSA's High Altitude Nuclear
Detection (HANDS) program to help differentiate between
the ionospheric effects of solar flares and those due to
high altitude nuclear explosions.

The observations of transient geophysical phenomena
provide important data on the coupling of energy between
the lower and upper atmosphere of the earth, which is
essential in understanding the behavior of the total
environment as a coupled geophysical system. A study
is underway of the association between acoustic dis-
turbances at ground level and certain distinctive oscilla-
tions of the F2 region of the ionosphere overhead.

Theoretical studies and experimental measurements
on the generation and propagation of infrasonic waves
through the atmosphere are conducted and interactions
between sound waves and other geophysical phenomena
are being studied for use as a basis in deducing certain
fundamental physical properties of the atmosphere, of
the earth, and of the seas. Two new infrasonics stations
at Huancayo, Peru, and near La Paz, Bolivia were
completed during FY 67. Each station is able to record
the waveforms of sound waves in the range of oscillation
periods 1 second— 1,000 seconds, and to determine from
these the strength, azimuth of propagation, and horizontal
trace velocity.

Hazard Studies

The primary environmental hazard in near-space both
for man and telecommunications is the occasional burst
of high energy particles from the sun. Thus, there is
considerable emphasis in ESSA on research into the
energetic particle environment of the earth, the mecha-
nisms that govern this environment and its influence on
man, and the associated deterioration of radio propagation
conditions at high latitudes. A second type of event of
importance is the more frequent precipitation of high
energy electrons into the ionosphere near the earth's
magnetic poles. Called polar cap absorption (PCA)

View of the field site of the High Altitude Nuclear Detection
Studies program located on Table Mountain north of Boul-
der, Colo. The radome contains a 3-cm. solar radiometer.

80

events, the precipitations can have a major disruptive
effect on radio communications.

The principal observational tool presently being used
is the riometer (a galactic noise radio receiver), which
provides direct ground-based measurements of particle
precipitation into the upper atmosphere by monitoring
the strength of the galactic noise signal transmitted
through the ionosphere, which is a function of the iono-
spheric electron density. Virtually all measurements
are carried out at high geomagnetic latitudes (greater
than about 60°), since most energetic particle effects
are confined to these regions. The present program has
grown out of an earlier study of the similarity of effects
occuring at conjugate points, i.e., at points in the two
hemispheres linked by lines of force of the geomagnetic
field.

The conjugate aspects of electron precipitation in the
auroral zones are currently being studied in detail, using
multiple antenna systems at Byrd, Antarctica, and Great
Whale River, Quebec — two conjugate sites located near
the heart of the auroral zones, where energetic electron
bombardment of the atmosphere is most frequent. Each
of these systems, which were installed in December 1965
and January 1966, consists of five separate antennas,
beamed respectively vertically and at 45° to the vertical
in the geomagnetic north, south, east, and west directions,
each antenna being connected to a separate riometer.
The objective is to study the spatial variability of electron
precipitation at both ends of a field line and to look for
evidence of deformation of the geomagnetic field lines
as revealed by changes in conjugacy during precipitation
events. To aid in analysis of the data, both analog and

digital paper tape outputs are employed at both locations.
Satellite work performed during the reporting period
has included the analysis of data received from a radio
beacon experiment on board the Orbiting Geophysical
Observatories, OGO-1, OGO-3, and preliminary planning
for a solar proton monitoring subsystem to be placed on
board forthcoming operational weather satellites in the
improved TOS series which will become available in
1969. This project is being carried out in cooperation
with NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, the Applied
Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University, and
NESC.

High- Altitude Nuclear Detection Studies

A program for continuously monitoring the ionosphere
has been established to identify and record ionospheric
disturbances and to distinguish between those of natural
origin and those caused by high-altitude nuclear ex-
plosions. Site of the operation is the ITSA Table Moun-
tain Observatory near Boulder, Colo. Data from some 50
sensor channels involving measurements of radio fre-
quency, magnetism, optical parameters, and 3 cm.
incoming radiation are processed by computer in real-
time and used to automatically generate an alarm which
is telemetered to the Space Disturbance Forecast Center.

The System has also proved to be effective in detecting
solar flares and a flare alarm system was established
during the present reporting period. In addition, a system
for automatically calibrating the radio frequency sensors
was developed and placed in operation. The latter will
be important in ensuring reliable operation of equipment
at unattended sites.

ENGINEERING
ACTIVITIES AND
SERVICES

ESSA performs a third service which is neither
description nor prediction and yet embodies elements
of both these activities to produce direct action in sup-
port of its missions or in support of the programs of
other agencies. Although there is a high order of scien-
tific content in many of these activities, they are referred
to here as engineering activities because they are directly
relevant to practical problems. Fields included are:
Engineering services in geomagnetism, seismology, the
ocean environment, climatology, hydrology, and telecom-
munications; those programs dealing with the engi-
neering properties of the atmosphere; and modification
and control of the environment.

GEOMAGNETISM

One of ESSA's most important missions is to measure
and chart the geomagnetic field for navigational and
other purposes. The earth's magnetic field was one of
the earliest environmental factors used by man. It is
generally agreed that the magnetic compass came into
use by European navigators in about the 12th century
A.D., although it may have been used even earlier else-
where. Today's navigators require far more accurate
knowledge of the precise value and direction of the earth's
magnetic field than did their 12th century predecessors.

Direct engineering activities in geomagnetism include
the maintenance and provision of calibration standards,
and the international calibration of magnetometers by
simulation of the field intensity and direction at any
point on the globe. These activities are performed by the
Office of Seismology and Geomagnetism of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) and its Fredericksburg
Geomagnetic Center at Corbin, Va.

ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

Information available presently or in the near future
will permit designers to anticipate earthquake forces in
planning structures for potential earthquake areas. ESSA,
together with the National Bureau of Standards (NBS),

conducts a program in this area. This program involves
continuing studies in strong motion effects, soil me-
chanics, seismicity, structural and utility design tech-
niques, and economic cost and benefit analyses.

Research and Development Organization
and Facilities

ESSA's program of research and development in sup-
port of services in engineering seismology is performed
by the Office of Seismology and Geomagnetism of C&GS
at a number of field locations and at its headquarters
in Rockville, Md. The Office is supported by the instru-
ment development and test facilities of its Albuquerque
Seismological Center.

Instruments and Systems

Many of the same instruments and systems developed
and acquired for other programs find application in the
engineering seismology effort. The primary tool here
is the strong-motion seismograph, which is designed to
record the large motions in the vicinity of earthquakes,
rather than the seismic waves from distant events. The
Portable Seismograph System was specifically designed
for engineering studies and can be installed by one
individual, who can easily operate and service four such
systems located over a wide area due to the length of
time possible between record changes. Such instruments
would be taken to the site of a recent earthquake to record
aftershocks.

C&GS also operates a network of fixed strong-motion
stations in the western United States, Alaska, and South
America. These seismographs remain inoperative until
triggered by an earthquake, which causes them to run
for only a few seconds unless the recycling device is
again activated by earthquake motions. These instru-
ments are essential for studying the nature and magni-
tude of destructive earthquake movement. Data collected
by them provide the basis for design criteria in earth-
quake-prone areas.

81

82

The strong-motion program of C&GS includes the
operation and maintenance of several hundred strong-
motion seismographs and seismoscopes in North and
South America. These instruments are installed in earth-
quake-prone areas having different soil conditions and
in manmade structures of varying design and number of
floors. Preliminary analysis of amplitude and period and
copies of the original seismograms are made available
to educational and research institutions and State and
Federal agencies for theoretical studies and for develop-
ment of safety codes and regulations.

Specifications have been completed and procurement
of major items has been instituted for a data processing
system which will provide magnetic tape handling facili-
ties necessary to make hard copies of seismic events,
determine and catalog event times and time corrections,
compile and store master analog tapes of seismic events,
rehabilitate field tapes, and transform analog data to
digital form for computer entry.

Aftershock Studies and Field Investigations of
Destructive Earthquakes

Seismicity and aftershock studies offer the direct ap-
proach to the problem of earthquake prediction. Seven
damaging earthquakes, the Prince William Sound,
Alaska, earthquake of March 28, 1964; the Rat Island
earthquake of February 4, 1967; the Puget Sound, Wash.,
earthquake of April 29, 1965; the Mexico earthquake of

August 23, 1965; the Dulce, N. Mex., earthquake of
January 23, 1966; the Parkfield, Calif., earthquake of
June 28, 1966; and the Chilean earthquake of December
28, 1966, have been investigated. The area of each of
these events was instrumented with temporary seismo-
graphs to record aftershocks. Field studies of structural
damage and an assessment of the intensity distribution
in the macro-seismic area were conducted. The studies
of the Puget Sound, Rat Island, and Parkfield earth-
quakes have been completed and reported. Reports on
the remaining four earthquakes are now in preparation.

The most extensive of these studies are those of the
Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake, presented
in two volumes. Volume I, which contains the earthquake
history of Alaska as well as details of the instrumentation
of the aftershock area has been published. Volume II
contains extensive basic investigations into the seismo-
logical effects of the main shock and its aftershock
sequence. It appears in two sections corresponding to
natural divisions of the studies presented. Volume II,
Part A, Engineering Seismology, contains research on
those aspects of applied seismology concerned with
the effects of the earthquake on various types of engineer-
ing materials and construction, and the application of
the knowledge thus gained to the design of earthquake-
resistant buildings; included also are the relationships
of soil mechanics as a factor in foundation support or
failure — and hence, also, the influence of the geological
substructure upon earthquake damage.

Recorder

Longitudinal Displacement Meter

Time Solenoid Standard

Control Unit

Vertical Accelerometer Longitudinal Accelerometer Transverse Displacement Meter

The Strong Motion Seismograph. Seismic
events exceeding a predetermined thresh-
old are recorded automatically by this
device.

83

Part A is prepared essentially for the use of design
and structural engineers or others studying the effects of
the earthquake and its accompanying landslides upon
various types of building construction found in the
Alaska area — including wood frame, steel frame, ma-
sonry, and prestressed and reinforced concrete. The
practical aspects of engineering seismology discussed
involve detailed appraisals of earthquake damage suf-
fered by various types of structures subjected to seismic
waves of differing frequencies; the objective analysis
of the relative influence of the earthquake and aftershocks
upon similar types of building design and construction
situated upon different geological substrata; and the
evaluation of free-period vibratory motions in building
structures. A consideration of the possible use of micro-
seisms as an indicator of resonance phenomena affecting
earthquake structural damage is also included.

This cooperative publication between C&GS and other
organizations concerned with the design and fabrication
of earthquake-resistant structures is a major contribu-
tion to the technical literature of this field. The applica-
tion of such structural design knowledge and practice
to seismic building codes is of especially vital signifi-
cance both to the protection of lives and to the economic
welfare of earthquake-prone areas.

Volume II, Part B, Seismology, covering what might
be termed "pure" seismology in connection with the
Prince William Sound earthquake, was prepared by
seismologists of C&GS Geophysics Research Group,
the Seismology Division, and the Seismological Field
Survey Office of C&GS in San Francisco, Calif. These
studies involve extensive statistical evaluations of the
observational data obtained during and after the prin-
cipal earthquake, as well as analytical and theoretical
interpretations of these data. A discussion of the seismic
sea wave or tsunami generated by this earthquake, and
of the function of the tsunami warning system, is also
contained in Part B. Such studies of seismic sea waves
may be subdivided into (a) the nature of the source;
(b) the propagation characteristics of the seismic wave
through the ocean; and (c) the effects of runup as
seismic sea waves encounter shoaling water, beaches,
and landmasses. In addition, cooperative arrangements
were made with seismologists of the Tokyo Institute of
Geophysics and the Lamont Geological Observatory of
Columbia University to include in Part B of this report
special research papers describing the microseisms
produced by the Prince William Sound earthquake and
its aftershocks.

Volume II, Part C, Marine Geology, is included under
the same cover with Part B because of the causal action
of differential movements along faults in the ocean floor
in triggering earthquake aftershocks, and contains
studies of fault scarps created on the sea bottom and
modification of the submarine terrain as a result of the
earthquake. Part A of Volume II has been published,
and Parts B and C are in process.

Soil Mechanics

In the field of soil mechanics, C&GS has, in the past,
assigned ground amplification factors to various soil
formations so that the strong-motion seismographs
would not go off scale when recording strong earthquakes.
Because these values are not sufficiently precise for the
design of earthquake-resistant structures, the Survey
has recently developed the "engineering type" seismo-
graphs referred to earlier in this report to obtain addi-
tional data on ground amplification. These special
seismographs are accurately calibrated and have been
operated in earthquake areas of the West Coast.

In addition, a project is now underway to investigate
the effects of local geology and soil conditions on seismic
waves. High-gain seismographs of the type normally
used for teleseismic recording are being employed to
obtain the necessary data. During one phase of the ex-
periment, these instruments will be placed at the sites
of six strong-motion stations in the El Centro and San
Francisco, Calif., areas where good strong-motion record-
ings were obtained from the 1940 and 1957 earthquakes.
The results will allow comparisons to be made for the
first time between the ground motion due to small and
relatively large earthquakes. The results of this study
should assist in resolving the important question of the
degree to which it is possible to extrapolate from small
to large ground motions. Additional information will be
gained on such effects as nonlinearities and increased
energy dissipation, which may be greatly altered with
size of the ground motion.

The effects of geology and soil conditions are being
studied in a similar manner in the Bakersfield, Calif.,
area under a cooperative agreement with the California
Department of Water Resources.

SEISMICITY

The compilation of seismic zoning maps is the starting
point for antiseismic design of structures and for the
formulation of building codes which provide a reasonable
balance between economics and safety. The basic ques-
tions in this study center on the prediction of earthquake
occurrences, the frequency of occurrence, and their
macroseismic consequences. ESSA is seeking answers
to these questions through statistical studies of earth-
quake occurrence, consideration of recent tectonics,
studies of the relationship between earthquake occur-
rence and large through-going faults, and studies of the
amplification of seismic waves by various geologic media.
To facilitate this, a complete compilation of historical
accounts of earthquake occurrence in the United States
has been listed on a punched-card format for computer
analysis of statistical patterns. The relative recurrence
rate and its variation over the United States is being
determined. These results are presented in terms of
equivalent numbers of earthquakes per unit area for a
standard energy level.

In addition, continuation cards for each event contain
information over the entire macroseismic area of an event

84

where damage occurred, making it possible to investigate
not only local, but regional influences on the macroseismic
pattern of damaging earthquakes. Maximum intensity
and strain release maps are now in preparation.

Design Techniques

ESSA conducts a program to furnish data for develop-
ment of building codes for earthquake-resistant designs.
C&GS reports of earthquake damage and engineering
surveys of damaged buildings are analyzed as a basis for
recommendations. Acceptance of such codes by State
and local governments in areas of high earthquake proba-
bility would be voluntary. Such acceptance would provide
affected areas with a comprehensive, effective, rational
code.

Economic Cost and Benefit Analysis

With the assistance of the National Bureau of Stand-
ards, ESSA has carried out a study of the benefits
expected to result from the expansion of programs in
engineering seismology. The study seeks to determine
whether greater use of data from such programs would
have a significant effect on reducing casualties and
damage to structures. While information is available
cbncerning the recording of seismic events and their
interpretation, there is little known of the utility of such
information to architects, engineers, and the public.
Within funding and time limitations, it was possible
to obtain data from school buildings in several California
areas and in King County (Seattle), Wash. Comparisons
were made between structures built without earthquake-
resistant design and those constructed with design ap-
proval based on C&GS seismological data (which has
been supplied continuously for 30 years). Under roughly
similar earthquake conditions, the nonresistant buildings
showed average damage of 67 percent while the resistant
ones showed average damage of less than 1 percent.

Engineering Applications

Another current program is a feasibility study to
determine whether an interoceanic canal can be dug
with nuclear explosives in Central America. Earth
motions produced by large-scale explosions are limiting
factors for seismic safety, requiring prediction capabilities
to minimize damages by controlling the charge sizes.

The use of charges placed in a row for excavating
trenches is in the experimental stage with specific ap-
plication to digging the interoceanic canal. A recent test
project, in which C&GS participated, was the Dugout
Test, which consisted of the explosion of five 20-ton
charges of conventional explosives placed in five holes
separated by 13.17 meters at depths of 17-28 meters.

For over 40 years, seismology has been the best tech-
nique for locating mineral deposits on land. This tech-
nique is currently being applied to the ocean bottom by
C&GS ships. This is of particular utility to the location
of offshore petroleum deposits.

GEODETIC ENGINEERING SERVICES

Geodetic engineering services have been provided for

Sampling beach sand in the swash zone at
Virginia Beach, Va. Such studies, con-
ducted by the Land and Sea Interaction
Laboratory, are used in the development
of equations by which beach response to
oceanic forces can be predicted.

over a century by C&GS, in the form of special surveys
to determine property lines, boundaries between States,
precise elevations of structures, etc. In addition, special
maps and charts are made available to surveyors to pro-
vide control for their work. Perhaps the most commonly
known engineering tools furnished by the Survey are
the bench marks — metal markers placed permanently in
the ground at thousands of locations in the United States
and its possessions — to provide precise geographical
coordinates for use by surveyors and engineers.

OCEAN ENGINEERING

As in the fields of geomagnetism and geodesy, ESSA's
contributions to the practical use of the ocean envi-
ronment are primarily in the form of description and
prediction.

However, during this reporting period, the Land and
Sea Interaction Laboratory of the Institute for Oceanog-
raphy sucessfully completed a project to determine the
bearing strength of estuarine sediments in the lower
Chesapeake Bay. Results of the project indicated that
the actual bearing strength for plate loads was substan-
tially greater than would have been estimated on the
basis of conventional triaxial tests. This suggested that
new standard testing procedures be developed, calibrated
against in situ measurements with the type of equipment
developed for this project. This type of information is
vital to designers of bridges and other structures in
estuarine waters, and these results should be of general
value in other locations.

85

The Sea Air Interaction Laboratory of the same
Institute has initiated a long-term study of typical wave
formation under various meteorological conditions on
the Great Lakes. This program should result in informa-
tion which will be useful in the development of designs
for future Great Lakes ships, and should also be of value
in utilizing the present fleet.

CLIMATOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL ENGINEERING
SERVICES

Agriculture, defense, industry, construction, transporta-
tion, conservation, recreation, health, and safety pro-
grams all depend in varying degrees on the products of
ESSA's climatology program. The Environmental Data
Service (EDS) performs analysis and consultation on
specific problems where required. For example, engi-
neers require a simple method for forecasting air-
conditioning loads, so that they can estimate the energy
consumption to be expected from air-conditioning systems
under normal and unusual operating conditions. The
results of a special EDS study indicated that data from
dry-bulb temperature degree days above 65° F were as
suitable for this purpose as were data including the
humidity factor, thus simplifying the measurements
which must be made. These results, together with an
extension of methods for obtaining degree days above
any base, facilitates the use of the dry-bulb method. It is
now used for 30-day forecasts of air-conditioning system

The Komhyr carbon-iodine ozonesonde,
a balloon-borne device which measures the
concentration of ozone in the atmosphere.

energy requirements. Other programs include studies of
snow load on structures and the conversion of ground
snow depths to roof loads, analysis of prevailing winds
at proposed airport locations, and analysis of average and
probable maximum wind loads on structures.

Similarly, the Weather Bureau's Office of Hydrology
performs special analyses of average and probable maxi-
mum precipitation and runoff for the designers of dams
and other water management structures.

ATMOSPHERIC ENGINEERING RESEARCH

In addition to providing climatological services, ESSA
has a major interest in developing new knowledge of the
engineering properties of the atmosphere.

Clear Air Turbulence

An important program in this area is the study of
atmospheric turbulence as it affects aircraft flight,
particularly the type encountered without warning in
clear air far from any storm. This phenomenon, labeled
CAT (Clear Air Turbulence) by pilots, is becoming a
major hazard to flight with increasing aircraft speeds
and altitudes. The Department of Defense estimated a
loss of $30,000,000 from 1963 to 1965 due to CAT, with
an additional estimated loss in civil aviation of $18,000,000
during the same time period, not to mention the injuries
and loss of life sustained. It is anticipated that CAT will
become an even greater problem with the advent of
supersonic transport aircraft.

ESSA is concerned with predicting the occurrence of
CAT and issuing warnings to pilots flying in areas of
probable CAT. In support of this service mission, the
Institute for Atmospheric Sciences (IAS) has conducted
a study of variation in rawinsonde ascension rates as
related to the occurrence of CAT. Preliminary results
suggest that a statistically significant relationship may
exist between the two phenomena.

To provide data for aircraft designers, and as an aid
in the establishment of flight procedures in Clear Air
Turbulence, ESSA is studying the turbulent structure
of the atmosphere at the altitudes where supejsonic
transports will fly. Determination of the aerodynamic
response of an aircraft in all phases of its flight, the con-
sequent structural response of the airframe, the comfort
and safety of passengers, and the performance of engines
must all be related to a detailed analysis of the charac-
teristics of the types of CAT which may be encountered.
Detailed analyses of temperature and wind fields asso-
ciated with turbulent zones form the basis of the program.

Atmospheric Pollution

The large increases in population, industrialization, and
the use of the internal combustion engine are intensifying
the pollutants in the atmosphere. Contaminants intro-
duced into the atmosphere may inadvertently produce
adverse changes in weather and climate. Thus. ESSA
has a two-fold interest in the relationship between
meteorological vectors and pollution. Activities in this

86

Altitude profiles as a function of time for two balloon flights over
New York City. Altitude variations indicate vertical air currents.
Insert: A tetroon, a tetrahedral balloon which remains at a constant
altitude unless displaced by vertical air currents.

500

300

100 —

7=0.55°C/100m

EMPIRE STATE
BUILDING i

FLIGHT 41
JUNE 19, 1965

PALISADES

MARSHES

HUDSON
RIVER

MANHATTAN

>
_i

(V

in

5

£ 800

c/>

0820

0830

0840

0850

EST

0900

0910

0920

- 7=0.98°C/100m

600

400

200 -

TEMPERATURE SOUNDING

EMPIRE STATE
BUILDING 1

FLIGHT 42
JUNE 19, 1965

PALISADES

MARSHES

1150

HUDSON
RIVER

r

MANHATTAN

EAST
RIVER

QUEENS

1200

1210

1220

EST

1230

1240

1250

87

area include theoretical studies of the mechanisms in-
volved, experimental studies of atmospheric trajectories
and the dispersal of radioactive contaminants, and the
study of other meteorological factors relating to pollution.
In most of these programs, ESSA performs a service
function in support of other Federal agencies having
primary responsibility for operations which fund research,
development, and engineering programs directly.

Inadvertent Weather Modification

Research in the area of inadvertent weather modifica-
tion has been concerned with the effect on the radiation
budget of various parameters including gases (CO2 and
03), particulate matter (cirrus clouds), and surface reflec-
tion (albedo). Comparison flights between the ESSA-devel-
oped Komhyr carbon-iodine ozone-sonde, the Regener
luminescent sonde, and the recast electrochemical sonde
have established the reliability of the Komhyr sonde.

Theoretical Turbulence and Diffusion Studies

Problems under investigation include such areas as:
Diffusion in the surface layer, height of rise of smoke
under various conditions, the boundary layer over a city,
and the relationship of boundary layer conditions to
phenomena such as the sonic boom.

Trajectories and the Dispersal of Contaminants

The Air Resources Laboratory of the Institute for
Atmospheric Sciences continued its study of the trans-
port, dilution, and removal of atmospheric radioactivity
during this reporting period. Comparisons of gaseous
(carbon-14) and particulate (strontium-90) radioactive
products were made to determine if small particulates
act as true tracers in the stratosphere. Evidence is ac-
cumulating to confirm this hypothesis.

Although only a very few nuclear tests injected radio-
activity into the atmosphere in 1965 and 1966, there
remains a need for meteorological description of the
disposition of such injections from both past and future
events. The Laboratory provides assistance to the Federal
Radiation Council in its predictions of strontium-90 and
cesium-137 fallout from the nuclear debris still in the
stratosphere from previous nuclear detonations. The
Atomic Energy Commission requires knowledge of the
consequences of radioactivity in the upper atmosphere
resulting from the use of nuclear energy in space. The
main effort of research conducted in the field of atmos-
pheric radioactivity was directed at a better understand-
ing of the stratosphere since it is in this region that the
more massive test inputs have occurred and may occur,
and where burnups of space vehicles are likely to place
their radioactivity. Developments in this area include:
D A simple two-dimensional model of particle distribution.

□ Identification by balloon-borne devices of persistent
sub-synoptic planetary boundary layer structures and
the determination of shearing stresses at or near 500
meters above the surface.

□ A mountain-valley diffusion model.

□ Preliminary demonstration of a "megalopolis" diffusion
model.

280-876 O-68— 7

The Laboratory has also completed a draft of the
second version of Meteorology and Atomic Energy. This
revision incorporates the latest information and tech-
niques on atmospheric diffusion. The original version,
published by the Weather Bureau in 1955, is now out of
print after having sold more than 10,000 copies and having
been translated into several foreign languages, including
Russian. The information in this compendium is used
extensively in making safety analyses of various types of
nuclear facilities and experiments in which there is a
possibility of both routine and accidental emission of
radioactive material.

Accurate measurements of three-dimensional air
motion have been obtained in detail over distances of
50 miles or more by a new technique developed by ESSA
personnel. The instrumentation involves radar tracking
of a miniaturized radar beacon carried by a small constant
volume ballon, which tends to stay at a constant altitude
unless it encounters vertical currents. The technique is
especially useful in measuring motions over inaccessible
locations such as large open water areas and rugged
mountain regions. One of the major efforts during the
year was the analysis of "tetroon" trajectories flown over
the New York City metropolitan area to determine pos-
sible causes of local weather phenomena. Definite effects
of the city's structure upon air motion were observed.

The Meteorology of Air Pollution

The Air Resources Field Research Office at the Robert
A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center of the U.S. Public
Health Service in Cincinnati, Ohio, has the responsibility
for conducting research in the meteorological aspects of
urban air pollution. During the past year, the National
Meteorological Center (NMC) at Suitland, Md., has pro-
vided the Cincinnati group with daily information on the
depth of the atmospheric mixing layer and the mean wind
speed in that layer at all upper air stations in the con-
terminous United States. These parameters, in turn, form
the basis for an objective forecast model of atmospheric
pollution potential. On July 1, 1966, NMC commenced
preparation of air pollution potential forecasts by machine
methods on a regular basis. After a year's trial period,
the NMC forecasts showed sufficient development to
supplant subjective estimates and are now issued as the
official national forecast in the preparation of advisories.

The Idaho Research Office of the Air Resources
Laboratory is studying the effect of long-period trends in
atmospheric motions upon the diffusion capacity of the
atmosphere. Initial indications are that concentrations at a
given distance from the source are inversely proportional
to about the fifth root of the sampling time. The Idaho
group has also made significant progress in its studies of
the surface deposition of airborne material. The studies
relate both to atmospheric pollution in the normal sense
of the word and to the behavior of radioactive contami-
nants. Work in this area is also establishing a base for
expanded research in inadvertent weather modification
by the increase of atmospheric pollutants.

50,000

40,000
35,000'

29,000

12,000
10,000'

6,000

1,000

PROJECT STORMFURY's eyewall experi-
ment involves a number of aircraft over
an area of several thousand square miles,
at altitudes between 1,000 and 50,000
feet. One or more aircraft are in the vi-
cinity of the hurricane from 4 hours before
seeding (T, or "Tango," for zero time)
to 12 hours after seeding (Tango plus 12).
This diagram shows the approximate se-
quence and traffic pattern in and near
the storm.

The Navy WC-121 low-level inflow monitor
(1) takes position 75-100 miles from the
hurricane's center and 1,000 feet high at
Tango minus 4. At Tango minus 3, ESSA's
WB-57 (2) makes high-level outflow meas-
urements near 40,000 feet, staying 75-
100 miles from the storm center. At the
same time, an ESSA DC-6 (3) begins its
first penetration of the storm at 12,000
feet, gathering weather information at
this intermediate level. About 75 miles
from the center, the Command Control
WC-121 (4) takes up an elongated flight
path at 6,000 feet. Another WC-121 (5)
circles in and out of the hurricane at
10,000 feet; this radar and dropsonde
aircraft measures characteristics of the
storm upstream of the area to be seeded.
The seeding aircraft, a Navy A-6A Intruder
(6), moves into a pattern 50 miles from the
center at 35,000 feet. At Tango, the
Intruder breaks its circular holding pat-
tern and rams through the hurricane-
force winds, dropping 80 Alecto canisters
(7) along the path on the far side of the
eye. Seeding is repeated at 2-hour inter-
vals—at Tango plus 2, 4, 6, and 8 hours.

As the experiment progresses, an Air Force
WB-47 (8) arrives to monitor high-level outflow
near 40,000 feet and a C-130 cloud physics
monitor (9) moves into a circular pattern at
29,000 feet, 75-100 miles from the storm cen-
ter. The ESSA DC-6 which made the first pene-
tration leaves the area, while another (10)
begins its penetration. The low-level monitor
heads for home as an ESSA DC-4 (11) moves
into position. A WC-121 will replace it after
this 4-hour patrol. At Tango plus 9, all but three
aircraft return to base. Another WC-121 re-
places the DC-4 as low-level inflow monitor,
while an ESSA DC-6 flies the penetration pattern
at 12,000 feet, and ESSA's WB-57 returns to
monitor outflow at high altitudes.

MODIFICATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

While the possibility of inadvertent weather modifica-
tion is a cause for concern, there is today increasing
interest in the possibility of deliberately and advanta-
geously modifying weather processes. ESSA has estab-
lished a major objective area in this field and conducts
an active program to explore these possibilities, carried
out through the Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry
Laboratory (APCL) of the Institute for Atmospheric
Sciences. Research during the reporting period fell into
four main areas:

□ Rain and snow modification particularly relating to
Great Lakes winter storms,

□ Hail modification and suppression,

D Modification of hurricanes and tropical cumulus, and

□ Modification and suppression of lightning.

Rain and Snow Modification

A program to modify the rain and snowfall charac-
teristics of winter storms over the Great Lakes is carried
out through contract with several university labora-
tories. It is designed particularly to study storms in the
early winter when the Lakes are still unfrozen and the
first outbreaks of polar-continental air sweep across the
warm water surface. As a result of the formation of con-
vective clouds by surface heating from the water, large
amounts of snow are precipitated along the leeward shore-
lines of Lakes Erie and Ontario. The shallow nature of
these storms, usually topped by an inversion below 10,000
feet, makes them suitable for modification of precipita-
tion patterns by artificial seeding. Since the same type
of storm occurs in such widely scattered locations as
northern Japan, the Adriatic Sea, and the Gulf Stream,
results of this study will be applicable in other areas.

Research so far has been directed toward a study of the
physical mechanisms of these storms. They are most
intense when the air flow extends across the entire length
of the lake, where they form cloud "streets" which may
be 20 miles long and are usually oriented in the direction
of the wind. It has been found that these cloud streets
are lines of strong convergence for air originating both
in Canada and in the Ohio-Illinois region. Future plans
call for an expansion of both the theoretical studies of
the dynamics of these storms and of the experimental
seeding program. The latter will investigate the possibility
of precipitation modification in order to:

□ Intensify precipitation over the lake in order to release
the water before the clouds reach the shoreline.

□ Overseed the clouds in order to reduce precipitation
over both land and water so as to redistribute the pre-
cipitation over a larger area downwind.

The direct observation of the precipitation particles
which are discharged by lake winter storms relates much
of the history of these storms. The existence of heavily
rimed crystals indicates the correctness of the seeding
hypothesis for these storms — namely, that seeding will
eliminate riming which will decrease the fall velocity of
the crystals and consequently redistribute their down-
wind fallout.

Plans are also being made to study modification of pre-
cipitation patterns over the New England States. Clima-
tological data are being studied to provide a reference
base for the coming experimental program.

Hail Modification

Early attempts to modify hail from thunderstorms have
suggested that seeding may actually tend to increase hail
formation, rather than decrease it, and hence any experi-
mental seeding program must be preceded by intensive
research into the mechanism of hailstorms and the for-
mation of hailstones. From the sporadic nature of hail-
storms in the United States, it follows that high mobility
of equipment is required to analyze storms, and extensive
use must be made of aircraft. The DC-6 airborne labora-
tory of ESSA's Research Flight Facility has been modified
to serve as an airborne mesometeorological observatory
system for this purpose, and mobility in hailstone sample
collection has been achieved using a trailer-mounted
cold chamber together with two radio-equipped trucks.

Two conceptual models of hail suppression are pres-
ently under study: Model I is based on a modification of
the precipitation regime of the hail cloud by massive
seeding, which is primarily intended to modify the
development of the hail embryos. Model II is based on
the depletion of the water content by generating more
hailstones during the critical hail-forming period of the
cloud.

While Model I would apply to any type of hailstorm,
Model II applies for hailstorms which generate conical
or conical-type stones. Model I will require a seeding
effort which is roughly a hundred-fold that required for
Model II.

Modification of Hurricanes and Tropical Cumulus

Under the aegis of Project STORMFURY, a joint
ESSA-Navy program involving large-scale hurricane
and cumulus cloud modification experiments, a number
of randomly chosen tropical cumulus clouds were seeded
with silver iodide in the Eastern Caribbean Sea area
during July and August 1965 to test theoretical models
and hypotheses. Their subsequent behavior was observed
and recorded. The data collected during the experiments
were assessed by research meteorologists of ESSA and
the Naval Weather Research Facility. In a statistically
significant experiment, virtually all the clouds seeded
successfully were observed to grow rapidly to heights
much greater than nonseeded control clouds selected
from the same environments. The behavior of the seeded
clouds could be divided into three categories: (1) no
response, (2) cloud tops floated off, and (3) cloud develop-
ment in height as well as width. Without question, the
latter case is the most interesting one as it indicates
that a profound modification-amplification had taken
place in the cloud process. The analysis of the behavior
of seeded tropical cumulus clouds, i.e., the basic building
blocks of disturbances, may shed much fight on the
dynamics of hurricanes and tropical storms to the

90

extent that, in the future, modification may result in
retaining the beneficial effects of the precipitation with-
out the destructive effects of high winds.

Efforts in cumulus dynamics were devoted essentially
to four major topics: (1) the development of computer
models for convective clouds which incorporate precipita-
tion, (2) the continued evaluation of the 1965 cumulus
seeding experiments, (3) the development of pyrotechnic
seeding agents for release from aricraft, and (4) the design
of a field research program jointly with the National
Hurricane Research Laboratory for a study of the natural
ice crystal development in maritime cumulus clouds.

The work in all four areas furnishes the basis for the
design of additional cumulus seeding experiments in
Florida during spring 1968. These experiments will be
designed to study the development of cumulus clouds
after release of heat of fusion due to seeding as well as
the development of the release precipitation. Special
attention will be given to such cloud developments which
not only cause the cloud to grow in depth but also in
width. Attempts will be made to predict the cloud and
precipitation development with the numerical model
with the input of radiosonde and additional flight data.

Lightning Modification

The lightning suppression program of the Atmospheric
Physics and Chemistry Laboratory is carried out jointly
with the Army. The concept is to initiate corona discharge
in a storm by seeding with radar "chaff" filaments about
10 cm. long in an effort to reduce the electric field strength
and thus prevent lightning. After laboratory experiments
had shown that it should be possible to produce a dis-
charge of significant magnitude using such chaff, a series
of field experiments was carried out with single-cell
thunderstorms in the vicinity of Flagstaff, Ariz., during
the short yearly "monsoonal" thunderstorm period from
mid-July to mid-August. Even using a C-47 aircraft,
which was not suitable for storm penetration, significant
results were obtained. The experiments demonstrated
that corona discharge is generated if chaff needles of
10 cm. length are dispersed in thunderstorm electric
fields of strengths exceeding 30 kilovolts per meter, and
it seems highly probable that the decay of strong electric
fields is caused or accelerated by corona current pro-
duced by the chaff needles.

A Research Flight Facility DC-6 has been equipped
with carefully adjusted and calibrated "field mills"
designed to give the three components of the electrostatic
field vector. This instrumentation will also be flown in
hurricanes in order to measure the unknown electrical
activities in these storms.

Telecommunication Sciences and Aeronomy (ITSA).
Because of the different techniques involved, the work
of the Institute in this area is divided into two major
categories: ionospheric telecommunications and tropo-
spheric telecommunications engineering.

Ionospheric Telecommunications Engineering

The growing need for telecommunications in a limited
frequency spectrum has demanded the development of
information for the improvement of telecommunications
and utilization of the radio frequency spectrum. The
program of the ITSA Ionospheric Telecommunications
Laboratory in communications technology includes basic
and applied research in the fields of antennas, information
transmission, and frequency utilization.

Antennas

In the area of antennas, equipment used for the meas-
urement of patterns and gains of operational antennas has
been updated and improved. Data are currently being
recorded on magnetic tape which can be computer-
processed, saving a great deal of analysis time. Several.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING

For many years, the Central Radio Propagation
Laboratory of NBS was the central national facility for
research, development, and engineering knowledge,
related to the propagation of radio waves and associated
electronics systems. With the formation of ESSA, this
function continues to he performed by the Institute for

A probe is cleaned by electron bombard-
ment preparatory to its use to evaluate
such properties as electron density and
temperature of the plasma in which it
is immersed. Radio frequency resonances
detected with such probes are closely
related to the resonances found in the
ionosphere by rockets and topside sounder
satellites.

91

operational antennas have been measured using this
updated equipment.

Antennas were designed for use with the ITSA high-
power radar transmitter at Plattsville, and for the new
WWV frequency standard transmitter of NBS at Fort
Collins, Colo. Precise gain measurements were made on
a two-element dipole antenna array which is to be used
as a standard calibration antenna by the Electronic In-
dustries Association in connection with antennas for
mobile communications. A technique for the measure-
ment of the gain of vertically polarized high-frequency
antennas operating over an imperfect earth was devel-
oped. The method was tested on an antenna range using
scale models. A method of making antenna gain meas-
urements using swept-frequency techniques was also
developed and has been reported in the literature.

In order to gain insight into the behavior of antenna
radiation from a space vehicle during reentry, studies
were made which dealt with the influence of a finite
ground plane, such as a space vehicle, on the performance
of an antenna. More recently, attention has been devoted
to other factors, such as the influence of a plasma sheath
surrounding the antenna. Currently, an effort is being
made to solve these problems, utilizing meaningful
boundary conditions at the boundary between the plasma
and the antenna surface. One result of interest, which
seems to merit further study, is that transmission through
the sheath can be improved by the superposition of a
strong d-c magnetic field.

Information Transmission

Experimental studies were conducted to demonstrate
the relation between error rate and propagation conditions
on high-frequency (HF) radio circuits using frequency
shift keying modulation. An understanding of these
relationships will facilitate the prediction of error rates
from known propagation conditions. A study was also
made of signal fading due to several components of a
signal arriving at the receiver over different propagation
paths.

Work is progressing on a channel simulator designed
to reproduce artifically the propagation constants of a
HF radio path in the laboratory. Such a simulator would
greatly reduce the cost and time required to optimize
HF telecommunications systems design.

General

Values of RF protection ratios required for amplitude
modulation broadcasting in the HF bands for signals
separated by zero and 5 kHz were determined for the
International Frequency Registration Board. Operating
concepts and operational procedures were studied and
recommendations were made to various agencies for the
improvement of their telecommunications. Standards of
performance and engineering for communications sys-
tems were developed and published. In a special project
to determine the effects of a post-nuclear war environ-
ment on the Nation's communications, existing com-
munications systems were studied and models developed

which characterize typical systems for use in the project.

Tropospheric Telecommunications Engineering

Research and development programs relating to engi-
neering in the ITSA Tropospheric Telecommunications
Laboratory covered the areas of spectrum utilization,
the electromagnetic interference environment; and ex-
tension of useful telecommunications into the millimeter
wave and optical regions of the spectrum.

Spectrum Utilization

Theoretical and experimental methods for improving
various specific uses of that portion of the radio spectrum
influenced primarily by the troposphere and terrain have
been developed and applied in the design of various
telecommunication systems. Activities include studies
resulting from requirements by military and other
Federal agencies in tropospheric propagation and tropo-
spheric system analysis, and are also directly related
to several ITSA mission requirements, such as studies
of the propagation medium and its boundary region,
studies of propagation mechanisms, and development of
techniques leading toward efficient use of the spectrum.
Consultative services are provided to other Federal
agencies and to industry with the specific aim of guiding
them toward a more proper and more efficient use of the
radio-frequency spectrum, which constitutes a limited
natural resource.

Of primary importance in this program area is an
extensive theoretical and experimental program dealing
with radio wave propagation over irregular or arbitrary
terrain with low antennas at frequencies between 20 and
10,000 MHz. This study provides propagation information
for compatibility problems encountered in surveillance
and communications within the deployment area of a
field army and has resulted so far in new data on propaga-
tion over irregular terrain. The information being gathered
is also directly applicable to the more general problem
of mobile communications. Within the last few years,
demands on the frequency spectrum by public safety
groups, industry, and other users of mobile communica-
tions systems have grown to an unforeseen extent.
Results of the study of radio wave propagation charac-
teristics over irregular terrain will aid materially in deter-
mining spectrum space requirements for various mobile
services. In this way, improved allocation plans can be
devised, more users can be accommodated, and the
available spectrum space can be utilized more efficiently.

Results of this propagation study and of related work
in point-to-point tropospheric propagation also serve as
a basis for the engineering of communication links for
use by the U.S. Armed Forces. While it is now possible
to predict with a high degree of confidence the level of
tropospheric signals transmitted over a given propagation
path, much work remains to be done to predict and
evaluate the limitations imposed by the propagation
medium on the performance of communication systems.
Appropriate studies are in progress: at this time, various

92

theoretical considerations are being reexamined with the
aim of devising an experimental program which may
include simulation studies as well as actual full-scale
field tests.

Electromagnetic Interference Environment

One of the chief limitations of the utility of any com-
munication system is the presence of other signals inter-
fering with the desired signal. Such interference may be
natural, e.g., the familiar "static" from nearby or distant
thunderstorm areas, or it may be man-made. The man-
made variety can be either radio or other electromagnetic
noise emitted as a nuisance byproduct by electrical
machinery, power lines and the like, or another com-
munication system which intentionally or otherwise emits
signals on the frequency of the desired signal. Thus, a
knowledge of the interference environment is one of the
basic input requirements in the economical design of a
successful telecommunications network. Both natural
and man-made types of interference are being studied.
A project for the study of natural atmospheric radio noise
has been underway for some time. The latest results are
being reported in detail in ITSA publications and in
summary in an extensive report to the International Radio
Consultative Committee.

A greater emphasis has been directed toward the study
of the second type of interference — man-made inter-
ference. Extremely limited information is available for
predicting expected interference from this source.
Therefore, the first step in the study was to develop means
of obtaining more generally useful information about these
phenomena. A newly equipped mobile laboratory pos-
sesses instrumentation for simultaneous recording of
eight discrete but tunable frequencies covering the
spectrum from 200 kHz through 50 MHz. Four parameters
of the interference are recorded at each frequency to
give not only levels but also other characteristics of the
environment. The basic parameter is average power. The
average voltage, the logarithm of the voltage, and the
quasi-peak voltage of the envelope are recorded as devia-
tions from the power moment. The antenna system con-
sists of a short vertical antenna mounted in the center
of the metallic roof of a specially designed semitrailer
van. The roof acts as a ground plane for the recording
antenna and for a stub calibrating antenna. The arrange-
ment used allows either "fixed" location recording for the
study of temporal variations of the interference environ-
ment at selected sites, or for mobile recordings for spatial
studies. Because it is anticipated that rather large
amounts of data will be collected with this recording sys-
tem, considerable care was given to the design from the
standpoint of data analysis. Because data processing tech-
niques were essential, magnetic tape was chosen as the
primary data recording method.

A number of measurements of man-made noise were
made in the Washington, D.C., area. Selected locations
were chosen to give an indication of expected values for
urban, suburban, and normal telecommunications receiv-
ing locations. The data obtained are the beginning of a

fund of basic information for the formulation of a predic-
tion scheme for the man-made interference environment.

Millimeter Wave Propagation

Interest in this frequency range has been increasing
and this program area was established to conduct theoreti-
cal and experimental research on the propagation in
the troposphere of waves in the GHz frequency range
(thousand million cycles per second, or about 300 mm.
wave length). The objective is to study the practical
usefulness of this portion of the electromagnetic spec-
trum, its potential for telecommunications and as a tool
for probing the atmosphere.

In principle, the vertical temperature structure of the
lower atmosphere can be obtained from measurements of
oxygen emission spectra at millimeter wavelengths. A
theoretical statistical method has been developed to
evaluate information from the radiation measurements
against the past history of the temperature profile. The
theory of "best functions" for use in solving the radiative
transfer equation has been substantially extended. The
influence of cloud radiation on the temperature probe
and on other systems in the 10- to 100-GHz frequency
range was considered.

A theoretical program to acquire knowledge of the
pressure broadening of oxygen absorption lines is in
progress. A radiometer in the 50- to 60-GHz region was
constructed as a preliminary step in the evaluation of a
remote probe for measuring atmospheric temperatures.
A radiometer operating at 10.7 GHz was constructed and
installed in a 60-foot antenna for observations of noise
emission from convective clouds. Models for computation
of radio wave absorption in different types of rainfall
were developed to aid in determining the effect on various
communication systems.

Optical Propagation

Lasers permit the use of narrower and more intense
beams of light at optical frequencies and of wider modula-
tion bandwidths. The practical exploitation of these
advantages for telecommunications is limited by the
atmosphere, which broadens, bends, and distorts a laser
beam as it traverses varying conditions. Thus, it is neces-
sary to examine these effects, and to relate them to the
observed detailed temperature structure of the air.

One immediate practical application of optical tele-
communications is the precise measurement of distances
of several km., which is needed for geodetic survey work.
Although the time of flight of a pulse of light over such a
distance may be measured precisely, the actual distance
is rendered uncertain since the average density of air
along the path is unknown. The possibility of reducing
this uncertainty is being investigated by measuring the
dispersion, i.e., by observing the difference in time of
flight of pulses from two different portions of the visible
spectrum. This difference is theoretically proportional to
the total retardation produced by the air. A laboratory
model of a two-wavelength distance-measuring device has
been constructed and is presently undergoing field tests.

SUPPORTING FACILITIES,
SERVICES, AND DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITIES

Environmental science and services require a wide
variety of general and special purpose equipment, facili-
ties, and supporting services. These include development
and test facilities, stations and platforms for observing
the environment, sensors, communication systems, data
processing facilities, and archiving. Two of ESSA's
major line components, the National Environmental
Satellite Center (NESC) and the Environmental Data
Service (EDS) have as their chief missions to develop and
provide facilities and services to the other components of
ESSA and to outside organizations; but, additionally,
all components of ESSA develop and provide some
common facilities as part of their assigned missions.

The purpose of this chapter is to highlight these
services and facilities, both as they are used by ESSA
components, and as they may assist other agencies and
organizations by providing a unique capability.

DEVELOPMENT AND TEST FACILITIES

ESSA's development and test facilities provide direct
support to individual component missions as well as
missions cutting across component and agency lines.

Coast and Geodetic Survey

Development and test facilities operated by the Coast
and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) support the fields of seis-
mology, geomagnetism, geodesy, and marine environ-
mental activities.

The Albuquerque Seismological Center in New Mexico
is well equipped for the development of new and improved
seismological instrumentation for both field and observa-
tory application, as well as for the test and calibration
of standard equipment. The specially developed low-
frequency dynamic calibration unit consists of precision
vertical and horizontal systems which will test all types
of seismometers and vibration meters within the frequency
range of .001 to 100 cycles per second to determine their
dynamic response and to disclose resonant peaks or
spurious signals which might distort output signal at
various frequencies.

The Fredericksburg Geomagnetic Center in Corbin,
Va., is maintained as a facility for the development of
instruments and systems, the testing of new geomagnetic
devices, the standardization and calibration of all geo-
magnetic instruments, and the study of special problems
related to the interpretation of geomagnetic data. The
Center possesses an array of Helmholz coils 20 feet in
diameter. They permit the simulation of the vector
magnetic field at any point on earth, or the creation of
a nearly zero magnetic field for simulation of the magnetic
environment in space. This facility has been used ex-
tensively by NASA for testing under simulated space
conditions.

In the field of geodesy, facilities for test and calibra-
tion of new and standard instruments are maintained at
a number of especially accurate control points in various
parts of the United States, where location, elevation, and
the strength and direction of the gravitational field are
known with great precision. Underwater gravity ranges
are maintained on both coasts for the calibration of ship-
borne equipment. A photogrammetric test and calibration
range is maintained near McClure, Ohio, where both
cameras and systems may be evaluated.

The Office of Geodesy and Photogrammetry of C&GS
operates a laboratory at Rockville, Md., for the develop-
ment of new instruments, and the Satellite Triangulation
Division has established a special facility at Beltsville,
Md., for development, testing, and training.

Although individual laboratories contract for the
development of special purpose instruments from time
to time, most development and test of oceanographic
equipment is performed by the Engineering Division of
C&GS, which also performs similar functions in other
fields.

Weather Bureau

The Systems Development Office of the Weather
Bureau in Silver Spring, Md., is responsible for all
development and test of both equipment and techniques
for Weather Bureau use. Two of its laboratories, the

93

94

Helmholtz Coil Facility at the Fredericks-
burg Geomagnetic Center— Corbin, Va.

Equipment Development Laboratory and the Techniques
Development Laboratory, are located with the Bureau
headquarters at Silver Spring, and a third, the Test and
Evaluation Laboratory, is located at Sterling, Va.

A unique facility, used in collaboration with the Fed-
eral Aviation Administration, is FAA's National Aviation
Facilities Experimental Center (NAFEC), at Atlantic
City, N.J. Here, by interagency agreement, the Weather
Bureau has established a branch to operate an experi-
mental weather test-bed environment. Components of
the test bed include a mesometeorological network
(mesonet), an upper air facility, a visual range facility,
and an AMOS IV (Automatic Meteorological Observing
Station) facility.

Other Elements of ESSA

Similarly, NESC maintains facilities for the develop-
ment of new devices, systems, and techniques in collabo-
ration with NASA, while the EDS seeks to improve
devices and methods for the storage and retrieval of
environmental data. New equipment is developed for
research by all four Institutes of the Institutes for En-
vironmental Research (IER).

An AMOS IV
(Automatic Meteorological Observing Station).

STATIONS AND PLATFORMS

ESSA observes the elements of the physical environ-
ment from a variety of stations and platforms located
throughout the world. Their vantage points range from
beneath the earth's surface to near space.

Land-Based Stations and Platforms

ESSA uses a large number of land-based facilities for
the acquisition of environmental data, including many
which are operated cooperatively with other agencies and
other nations.

The 15 C&GS magnetic observatories, distributed
from Alaska to the South Pole, together with more than
100 cooperating foreign observatories around the world
constitute an important source of data for magnetic
research and services. Usually seismological observa-
tories are co-located with magnetic observatories, and
ESSA received data from some 114 globally scattered
Standard Seismograph Stations. For studying earthquake
mechanisms and associated geomagnetic phenomena in
detail, the Stone Canyon Geophysical Field Station, 20
miles southeast of Hollister, Calif., is now in operation.
Instrumentation at this 5-acre site in the San Andreas
fault zone will include: Thermally compensated earth
strain meters, tiltmeters, a tripartite shallow hole seis-
mometer array, and a magnetometer. Data will be tele-
metered to the Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory of
the Institute for Earth Sciences (IES) in San Francisco,
where special facilities for data reduction and analysis
exist.

For the purpose of detecting and measuring the largely
unpredictable "wobble" of the earth about its axis of
rotation for the correction of celestial navigation tables,
five specially matched telescopes at different locations
around the world are used to observe the stars on every

95

U.S. Magnetic Observatories.

clear night. Two of these stations are operated by C&GS,
one at Ukiah, Calif., the other at Gaithersburg, Md.

ESSA maintains a High Altitude Observatory at Mauna
Loa, Hawaii, taking advantage of unusually clear air
conditions to permit observations requiring this degree
of atmospheric clarity. One important use is the estab-
lishment of a reference base for studies of atmospheric
pollution and the monitoring of the carbon dioxide con-
tent of the air far from sources of local contamination.

The National Severe Storms Laboratory of the Institute
for Atmospheric Sciences, located at Norman, Okla.,
operates a high-density mesometeorological network for
studying tornadoes and other severe local storms. A
detailed network of surface meteorological instrumenta-
tion covers some 10,000 square miles in the heart of the
U.S. severe storm belt, complemented by quantitative
weather radar. In addition, there is a special area of
1,100 square miles instrumented with rain gages every
2 or 3 miles; a TV tower instrumented for continuous
recording of meteorological variables, including the vector
wind, at six different levels; and nine radiosonde stations,
included within the area. During the storm season, the
ground-based network is supplemented by approximately
10 aircraft from ESSA and other agencies, for storm ob-
servation and penetration. Research is conducted on
improved methods of detecting storm parameters such
as rain intensity, hail, lightning, turbulence, and wind.

Special emphasis has been placed on integrated radar
presentations for the gathering of quantitative precipita-
tion data, and on the Doppler radar to measure turbulence
and winds aloft in storms.

ITSA operates the Jicamarca Radar Observatory,
located on the geomagnetic equator near Lima, Peru.
The radar antenna covers 22 acres, operating at about
50 MHz, and is used to study the upper ionosphere.

U6K0

° BETA STATION

(surface recording)

• Surface and Rawinsonde

♦ Surface Observatories
— Boundary of ARS Raingage

Network 1 173 Recorders)
NSSL WHY TV Towet

NSSL's mesometeorological network cen-
tering around Norman, Okla.

%

The Jicamarca Radar Observatory, an installation for ground-based observa-
tions of the upper atmosphere and outer space, is located about 17 miles east
of Lima, Peru. A Peru-United States joint endeavor, the antenna is an array
of dipoles some 22 acres in area. It is used in studies of the D-region of the
ionosphere, and for investigations involving radio and radar astronomy.

A 15-element diffraction grating 1.5 km. in length is
available for spectral analyses in this frequency region.
The Observatory is used to study electron density profiles
to heights of 10,000 km., electron and ion temperatures,
and ionic composition to heights up to 3,000 km., and
magnetic dip angles to heights of 1,000 km.

Ocean-Based Facilities

The Underwater Stable Platform, originally developed
by IES personnel as a platform from which to obtain
geomagnetic measurements in the ocean depths, has
proved to be suitable for a variety of other measurements,
including vector gravity and deep ocean tides. In the lat-
ter connection, it is of potential value in detecting the

passage of tsunamis (seismic sea waves) and relaying
data to the National Tsunami Warning Center.

Several buoy systems for the acquisition of oceano-
graphic and meteorological data are in the process of
development or test. The ESSA Ocean Data Acquisition
System (ODESSA) is a deep-water buoy system using a
line of sensors at different depths to measure oceano-
graphic data either to be recorded on board the buoy or
telemetered directly to shore receiving stations. The
ODESSA System has also been adapted for use by the
Navy and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
A modification of this system designed specifically to
measure tidal currents (TICUS) will be evaluated opera-
tionally during the coming fiscal year. Under study is the

97

RESEARCH SHIP RECEIVES
AND RECORDS DATA

INSTRUMENTATION
FOR COLLECTING
ATMOSPHERIC DATA

UNDERSEA
INSTRUMENTATION

ESSA'S "ODESSA"
SYSTEM

"Odessa" electronic buoy transmits air
temperature, barometric pressure, wind
speed and direction, water temperature,
salt content, depth, current velocity, and
direction. (See right.)

feasibility of using small, lightweight, and low-cost
satellite interrogated buoys to obtain ocean data on an
economical, global basis.

ESSA's ocean data gathering capability is concen-
trated in a fleet of 15 oceanographic and hydrographic
vessels operated by C&GS. A summary of the capabilities
of the ships of the fleet is shown in Table 2. ESSA con-
siders these vessels to represent an important national
data acquisition resource, and encourages scientists of
other agencies and institutions to make use of these
facilities whenever experiments are compatible with the
basic mission of a voyage. With an increasingly modern-
ized fleet, a variety of general and special purpose instru-
mentation is available to measure environmental variables.
Newer ships, such as the Oceanographer, possess
automatic data logging equipment and on-board computer
capability.

Five new survey ships have been delivered to C&GS
during the reporting period, namely, the oceanographic
survey ship, Discoverer (OSS-02); two hydrographic
survey ships, M cArthur (CSS-30) and Davidson (CSS-31);
and two wire-drag ships, Rude (ASV-90) and Heck
(ASV-91).

At the close of the fiscal year, five survey ships auth-
orized under the Bureau's vessel replacement and new

construction program were in the process of construction
or contract negotiation:

Ship
MT. MITCHELL
FAIRWEATHER
RAINIER
RESEARCHER
FERRELL

Class and service
Class II hydrographic survey
Class II hydrographic survey
Class II hydrographic survey
Class IA ocean survey
Class IV circulatory vessel

Scheduled
delivery
1967
1967
1968
1969
(Bid)

98

The ESSA fleet of 15 C&GS ships possesses major
oceanographic survey and research capabilities. Al-
though these ships are operated and scheduled to fulfill
ESSA's missions, it is recognized that the national oceano-
graphic effort may be enhanced by including certain
projects of other organizations in the ships' schedules
when these projects are compatible with ESSA's sched-
uled use of its fleet. Thus in January 1967, ESSA formed
an Advisory Board on Allocation of Oceanographic Ship

Facilities to insure maximum utilization of its oceano-
graphic fleet and to cope with the intensity of demands
and diversity of requirements for these facilities. The
purpose of the Board is to review requests or proposals
for ship time and to make recommendations to the Di-
rector of ESSA's Coast and Geodetic Survey concerning
their use. Academic and non-profit institutions, Federal
agencies, individuals, and organizations submit proposals
to the Director, who then requests the advice of the Board.

C&GS SHIPS

AND THEIR CAPABILITIES

(F indicates full capability; L indicates limited capability; *
on order)

CLASS I • OCEAN SURVEY SHIP (all oceans, all climates

USC&GSS OCEANOGRAPHER- Based at Seattle, Washington

GENERAL
DESCRIPTION

cates systei

303

USC&GSS DISCOVERER- Based on the East Coast

303

USC&GSS SURVEYOR- Based at Seattle, Washington

CLASS II - MEDIUM SURVEY SHIP (reduced deep ocean missions

USC&GSS PATHFINDER- Based at Seattle, Washington

' ' .';- _:*>• "•

292

USC&GSS EXPLORER- Based at Norfolk, Virginia

USC&GSS MT. MITCHELL— Based on the East Coast

USC&GSS FAIRWEATHER- Based at Seattle, Washington

USC&GSS RAINIER- Based at Seattle, Washington

CLASS III -COASTAL SURVEY SHIP (primarily coastal waters)

USC&GSS McARTHUR- Based at Honolulu, Hawaii

USC&GSS DAVIDSON- Based at Seattle, Washington

USC&GSS WHITING- Based at Norfolk, Virginia

USC&GSS PEIRCE- Based at Jacksonville, Florida

CLASS IV - AUXILIARY SURVEY VESSEL (limited to short periods at sea)

USC&GSS MARMER- Based at Norfolk, Virginia

USC&GSS RUDE and USC&GSS HECK— Based at Norfolk, Virginia

229

219

231

231

231

175

175

162

162

100

90
90

52

52

46

39

38

42

42

42

38

38

33

33

22

22
22

Table 2. The annual deployment of ESSA's fleet of 15
ships affects vessels ranging from the new heavily auto-
mated Oceanographer, to the small wire-drag vessels
Rude and Heck. At one end of this scale, Class I ocean
survey vessels, with great endurance and virtually un-
limited range and capability, support the research and
survey efforts of ESSA. At the other end, Class IV ships,
with limited range and capability, ply the [Nation's
coastal waters. No broader oceanographic activity or
fleet exists in any other civilian agency.
An important emphasis in oceanographic research and
survey programs is the interdisciplinary approach to

environmental studies. The tone of activities aboard
the ships of ESSA's scientific fleet was set by the global
expedition of the USC&GS ship Oceanographer, Amer-
ica's largest and most completely automated ocean-
ographic research ship. During the trip, the Oceanog-
rapher conducted a wide range of scientific research
projects and investigations drawn up primarily by
scientists of ESSA's Institute for Oceanography with
the cooperation of other ESSA components, includ-
ing the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Weather Bureau,
and the Institute for Telecommunication Sciences and
Aeronomy.

99

The Board, which meets several times each year, is
composed of four representatives from ESSA, one from
the U.S. Geological Survey, one from the Smithsonian
Institution, and two representing the academic community
selected by the National Academy of Sciences.

Atmospheric Stations and Platforms

ESSA uses three in situ stations and platforms for
studying the atmosphere — aircraft, balloons, and rockets.

ESSA's Research Flight Facility (RFF) of IER is
located at the Miami, Fla., International Airport. Al-
though originally established for the support of the
National Hurricane Research Laboratory in its storm
penetration research effort, the RFF also supports a
growing number of other ESSA activities, including the
National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL), the Atmos-
pheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory, and the
Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory. During the reporting

NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

LABORATORIES

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS

MEASUREMENTS

GEOLOGICAL/GEOPHYSICAL

c a
oo;—

ES5
go •fl-

at o

si

E =

ss.

oE
CD re

CO

SPECIAL FEATURES

re M
E o

— uj

The fleet works during a field season normally extending
from March until November. During a season, each ship
is used to full capacity; however, it has been Coast
Survey policy for many years to accommodate visiting
scientists from other organizations in the conduct of
scientific studies aboard Coast Survey vessels. Such
studies are conducted if they do not significantly inter-
fere with the assigned operations of a given ship. This
sharing improves ESSA's utilization of its research and
survey fleet; more important, it opens up opportunities
for field investigations not previously available to the
scientific community.

Proposals for a given field season should be submitted
by June 1 of the preceding year for evaluation. The
proposal should describe the purpose and nature of
the project, geographic area of interest, estimated ship
time and equipment required, and other pertinent
information — for example, whether project will be
carried out by ship personnel or by personnel put
aboard by the organization making the proposal. Tech-
nical papers and reports in support of the project will
be useful in the Board's evaluation.

100

period, the RFF flew 468 missions and logged 2,391 hours
of flight time using DC-6B, DC-4, and WB-57 aircraft.
The aircraft possess both photographic and digital mag-
netic tape data logging capability.

RFF aircraft were deployed on May 4, 1967, to Tinker
Air Force Base, Okla., to participate in Project ROUGH
RIDER. Flights were made in support of the National
Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) in Norman, Okla., in
its program to study severe local storms over the Mid-
west. The basic objective of the NSSL program is to
describe the kinematic and dynamic properties of severe
storms by detailed measurement of meteorological
parameters. This will permit the energy and water budgets
of a few thunderstorm situations and the shapes of
associated air circulation to be defined by analysis of the
data. The mission of the RFF was to conduct airborne
research operations necessary for the collection of infor-
mation concerned with the moisture content and kine-
matic properties of air near severe thunderstorms.

During the "winter-storm" season of 1966—67, one
Research Flight Facility DC-6 aircraft was used in sup-
port of a joint New York University ESSA program of
study directed toward a better understanding of East
Coast type storm development and snow prediction tech-
niques. RFF aircraft collected data during two research
missions which- were conducted in February and March
of 1967, and data collected from a dense observational
network including special surface and upper air observa-
tions, radar, and satellite photographs, will be used as
part of this integrated study.

RFF observations of the flight-level distribution of
temperature, pressure, wind speed and direction, hu-
midity, and the vertical distribution of temperature,
pressure, and humidity (dropsonde) are of special im-
portance since they complete the documentation of
meteorological parameters over the otherwise data-
sparse oceanic areas in the western Atlantic.

During the first part of the reporting period, some
2,274,000 observations were recorded for the Hurricane
Laboratory, with an additional 1,090,650 data recordings
in tropical storms being made for the Project STORM-
FURY conducted jointly by ESSA and the Department
of Defense. Trajectory and dispersion studies of severe
storms for NSSL produced another 520,000 observations;
these efforts continued in FY 67. Other RFF efforts in-
cluded a comparability study of atmospheric and oceano-
graphic parameters with the Sea-Air Interaction
Laboratory of the Institute for Oceanography, a hail-
storm study with the Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry
Laboratory, and a cloud photography study for the NESC.

Traditionally, the meteorologist has studied the
atmosphere using balloons — either sounding balloons or
constant level type. The usual sounding balloons used to
carry instruments aloft range from 300 to 1,200 gm. in
weight, and carry payloads up to 1,700 gm. to altitudes
up to 31.5 km. The instrument packages carried by these
balloons (usually radiosonde or rawinsonde) are used both
for observations and data collection.

Through the National Center for Atmospheric Re-
search, a non-profit institution supported by the National
Science Foundation, large plastic constant level balloons
are available for carrying heavy sensor packages to high
altitudes. In addition, for various types of trajectory
studies related to air pollution, ESSA has been suc-
cessful in the use of another type of smaller constant
level balloon, the super-pressured, tetrahedral-shaped
"tetroon." Approximately 1,000 tetroons were flown
during the fiscal year at altitudes from 500 feet to 12,000
feet above the surface in support of Atomic Energy Com-
mission projects and metropolitan air pollution studies.

Another type of airborne platform employed by ESSA
is the so-called Jalbert Wing. This type of parafoil has
proved extremely useful in low-altitude wind and other
boundary layer studies at sea because of its excellent
flight characteristics and minimal support requirements.

Rockets are used by ESSA as platforms for both con-
ventional (rocketsonde) and research telemetering sensor
packages. Both endburning (Areas) and internal burning
(Asp) type rockets have been used. The Areas can reach
an altitude of about 64 km., and this height can be
increased with boosters. Nike-Apache and Nike-Cajun
rockets have also been launched for ESSA by NASA,
carrying experimental meteorological payloads.

Space Platforms

ESSA depends on NASA for the design, development,
and launching of all space platforms used in environ-
mental research and operational systems. NESC serves
as ESSA's primary point of contact with NASA for
establishing data requirements, collaborating with
NASA's research and development program in the field
of environmental satellites, and for the definition of the
design, orbit, and performance specifications for opera-
tional systems. In addition, the Center exercises day-to-
day control over the ESSA operational satellites, operates
the Command and Data Acquisition Stations which re-
ceive environmental satellite data, a control center to
monitor and control the satellite system, and the Data
Processing and Analysis Facility which processes the
data and distributes it both in real time and in archival
form.

In this reporting period, NASA launched five or six
operational satellites for ESSA. Some of these satellites
store pictures for transmission to the Command and Data
Acquisition Stations at Gilmore Creek, Alaska, and
Wallops Island, Va., where they are transmitted over a
radio link to NESC at Suitland, Md. Others transmit
local area coverage continuously to Automatic Picture
Transmission (APT) stations around the globe. In addi-
tion, the Satellite Center receives data from NASA Tiros
and Nimbus research satellites which complement the
data received from the operational systems. Satellites of
an advanced nature are planned for future years.

101

ENVIRONMENTAL SENSORS

ESSA uses a full complement of sensors, ranging from
seismographs for detecting and measuring the vibrations
of the solid earth to satellite-borne ionosondes for re-
cording the ionosphere and its variations. Sensor and
instrument development is an integral part of every
research program in the environmental sciences, since
in almost every area there is a need for greater sensitivity,
accuracy, dependability, or scope in the making of
observations. There are, however, two areas of special
emphasis.

Tropospheric Remote Sensing

Meteorology has traditionally relied on in-situ instru-
mentation for data acquisition, either from surface
stations, or from aircraft, balloons, and rockets. In recent
years, advances in remote sensing techniques have led
to new possibilities for determining meteorological
variables over large geographical areas from sensors
located at a distance from the area being observed, using
various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most
of these sensors operate on the principle that the at-
mospheric refractive index (or various regions of the
radio spectrum is a function of the meteorological param-
eters to be measured (including temperature, density,
humidity, and turbulence) and absorption, scattering,
and Doppler effects.

Research in tropospheric remote-sensing techniques
has a double value to ESSA. Changes in the electrical
properties of the atmosphere may be used to measure
meteorological variables; and at the same time, knowledge
of how the atmosphere reflects, refracts, and absorbs
electromagnetic radiation is of direct interest in develop-
ing methods to predict propagation conditions for telecom-
munications systems, or other systems relying on electro-
magnetic propagation. For example, at the Institutes
for Environmental Research, work is proceeding on an
experimental device to eliminate or reduce the effect
of variations in the velocity of light due to atmospheric
fluctuations, which affects the accuracy of optical dis-
tance-measuring instruments for geodesy. Similarly, when
the relationship between meteorological variables and
propagation is more adequately understood, it will be
possible to predict propagation conditions and at the
same time improve the accuracy of weather prediction
through better and more widespread data acquisition.

Under the radio meteorology program, ITSA is studying
the relationship between tropospheric radio wave propa-
gation and atmospheric turbulence, water vapor content,
temperature, density, and other variables. Application
of the techniques developed has been made to measure-
ments of evaporation rates inland at Lake Hefner in
Oklahoma, and later application will be made to sea-air
interaction studies. Other applications include the de-
tailed study of atmospheric turbulence both in clouds and
in clear air.

At the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Institute
for Atmospheric Sciences, Doppler radar has been used

for studies of motions in thunderstorms, for measure-
ments of low-altitude wind velocities, and for the detec-
tion of clear-air turbulence. NSSL also uses electromag-
netic propagation for the automatic detection and location
of lightning discharges.

The Weather Bureau uses infrared waves in a number
of advanced remote sensors. For example, an infrared
cloud cover detector is used to determine cloud cover
both automatically and continuously. Research is under-
way on the use of infrared absorption techniques to
measure water vapor content in the atmosphere. This
technique has several advantages over other methods:
It is passive, continuous, and immediate, and the meas-
urement directly yields the absolute humidity.

Satellite Sensors

The use of artificial satellites as instrument platforms
for environmental studies has already had a major impact
on meteorology and aeronomy and should eventually
have similar impact on other related investigations.
ESSA is concerned with the development and improve-
ment of satellite sensors for a variety of applications.
Existing operational satellite sensors are already pro-
viding a significant data input for both research and
operational forecasts.

ESSA's first operational weather satellite system, the
TOS System, was launched by NASA for ESSA during
the reporting period. TOS satellites of the ESSA I type
carry the Advanced Vidicon Camera System (AVCS).
AVCS stores pictures from an entire orbit for transmis-
sion to Command and Data Acquisition Ground Stations
in Virginia and Alaska. One-half inch AVCS cameras
were used early in the reporting period, but 1-inch
cameras have been used more recently. Television
pictures are transmitted from the spacecraft as signals
which are recorded on magnetic tape. These signals may
be projected on special kinescopes and photographed
by 35-mm. cameras. To locate the pictures geograph-
ically, latitude and longitude grids prepared by computer
are electronically combined with the picture signals. In
addition, the picture signals are fed directly into com-
puters which automatically prepare picture mosaics
rectified to a standard map scale suitable for direct
facsimile transmission to users.

ESSA II type satellites contain two identical 1-inch
APT cameras which take cloud photographs and trans-
mit them immediately to ground receiving stations.
Each of the two cameras has a wide-angle (90-degree)
lens. The two cameras are mounted 180 degrees apart
on the side of the spacecraft and perpendicular to the
spin axis, so they point directly downward once every
revolution (every 5.5 seconds). An onboard camera-
triggering system programs the cameras to take pictures
only when facing the earth.

The APT system automatically takes and transmits a
picture every 352 seconds while the satellite is in day-
light. The picture is retained on a photosensitive layer

102

of the vidicon tube's face during the 200-second trans-
mission period. Images recorded by the camera are
scanned line by line and sent to earth by a transistorized
FM transmitter.

Each APT picture has 800 scan lines and covers an
area on the earth about 2,000 statute (1,736 nautical)
miles on a side when taken from an 865 statute-mile
altitude. Picture resolution is about 2 statute (1.5 nauti-
cal) miles per scan line directly below the camera and
about 5.2 statute (4.5 nautical) miles at the picture edge.

The satellite has two APT systems either of which,
operating independently, can provide the required global
coverage. This dual system will ensure a longer opera-
tional lifetime for the spacecraft. More recently launched
satellites make use of both systems.

NESC is improving satellite sensing techniques, both
for the atmosphere and for other elements of the environ-
ment. Examples include development, under NASA
sponsorship, of a satellite infrared spectrometer, high
resolution infrared imaging, and a remote sensor for
measuring atmospheric ozone distribution. Plans call
for the inclusion in a forthcoming TOS satellite of a solar
proton and electron detector.

COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS AND SYSTEMS

Data must be made available at central points for
analysis, forecast preparation, archiving, and dissemina-
tion. As a result, ESSA necessarily maintains extensive
communications networks. While it is true that not all
environmental data are needed in real time, many are,
and frequently on a global basis, so that ESSA not only
operates a number of high-speed communications net-
works, but also collaborates with other agencies and
nations in the transmission of data and predictions.

Fixed Communications Networks

The largest communications facilities in ESSA are
those operated by the Weather Bureau. At the Bureau's
National Meteorological Center (NMC) at Suitland, Md.,
where weather forecasts are prepared for the entire
nation every 6 hours, over 50 teletype circuits are used
to obtain information from weather stations around the
world. Facsimile circuits now number over 15, and
facsimile delivery has quadrupled in speed. As of July 1,
1966, the Numerical Weather Prediction Section of NMC,
responsible for operating the highly automated national
forecasting system, was preparing 254 separate teletype
bulletins and 186 facsimile transmissions per day for
transmission over Weather Bureau, Navy, Air Force, and
foreign teletype circuits, including the Washington-
Moscow data link.

Networks operated directly or on a cooperative basis
by the C&GS included the Worldwide Standard Seismo-
graph Network, a worldwide geomagnetic data network,
and the tsunami warning system. The Institutes for
Environmental Research, through ITSA, operate the

High Altitude Nuclear Detection System and its network
of communications, and a worldwide ionosonde network.

A global Solar Flare Patrol has been established under
the direction of ITSA's Space Disturbance Forecast
Center. The Center, in common with other elements of
ESSA, makes use of the communications facilities of
other agencies, in this case the U.S. Air Force and NASA.

All of these network facilities, augmented where neces-
sary, are used for NADWARN (the nationwide Natural
Disaster Warning System) to provide rapid warnings of
impending natural disasters, such as hurricanes, tor-
nadoes, floods, tsunamis, and solar disturbances.

Satellite Communications Facilities

Communications form an essential part of the NESC
System for retrieving satellite data. In addition, considera-
tion is being given to systems of data retrieval where a
satellite is used, not to acquire data directly, but as a
link in a communications system to retrieve data from
remote surface stations, buoys and ships at sea, balloons
in the atmosphere, and perhaps aircraft in flight. Plans
exist for experimental programs to determine the feasi-
bility of obtaining global data in this manner concerning
meteorological and oceanographic parameters, river
stages, earthquakes, and other phenomena.

COMPUTATION AND DATA FACILITIES

By June 30, 1966, ESSA had owned or leased some 26
computers for substantially full-time use, and also made
use of time-sharing computers. In view of the massive
quantities of data to be processed and analyzed, and the
need for the modeling of complex environmental systems,
this number is not surprising, and in fact, will undoubtedly
grow. To insure optimum utilization of these facilities,
and to provide a focus for the coordinated planning of
future computer requirements, ESSA has established a
Computer Division in its headquarters staff.

Coast and Geodetic Survey

The collection, analysis, compilation, and publication
of geomagnetic data is a basic function of C&GS, and
certain aspects of this function have now been automated.
Data are collected from various observatories, digitized,
and placed in a permanent data file, where they are
available for many types of analysis and the preparation
of geomagnetic charts.

Computers are now used in the Survey's seismology
program to process seismic readings from over 600
seismograph stations to determine earthquake locations
(epicenters). ESSA's work in the field of seismology pro-
vides the basic input for the tsunami warning system,
and the rapid location of epicenters is essential to pro-
vide timely warning. Through the use of computers, epi-
centers' can now be located with 70 times the former
speed.

The bulk of scientific data processing for C&GS is
in the fields of geodesy and photogrammetry. Geodetic
computations include the adjustments of field surveys,

103

triangulation networks, traverses, geodimeter reduc-
tions, azimuth computations, and level networks. Com-
putations for photogrammetry consist essentially of
adjusting strips of photographs to obtain accurate
geometry and data reduction for the satellite triangulation
project.

During FY 66, the Atlantic Marine Center at Norfolk,
Va., began use of an IBM 1130 computer to determine
the basic parameters for airport obstruction charts from
geodetic and photogrammetric data. Automation of this
aspect of chart making has provided the public with more
current and comprehensive charts. During the same time
period, C&GS upgraded the use of an IBM 1620 computer-
plotter system at the Pacific Marine Center at Seattle,
Wash., to process raw hydrographic data directly into a
smooth sheet, which constitutes the permanent record
of a survey from which charts are made. This automation
has reduced from years to months the time required to
go from data acquisition to finished chart. Other ocean-
related activities using computer support are tide and
current predictions, harmonic anaylsis of tidal data, and
studies in physical oceanography and marine geophysics.

Weather Bureau

The primary function of the National Meteorological
Center of the Weather Bureau is to process worldwide
meteorological observations in order to describe and
forecast the state of the atmosphere. Input even today is
approximately 1 million teletype words per observation
cycle (12 hours) and output is approximately 100 fac-
simile maps, and 100,000 teletyped words of processed
products enabling the smallest weather station on the
facsimile and teletype networks to have rapid access
to worldwide weather data.

Improvements to the system during the reporting period
permitted its connection to the Air Force Automated
Weather System. A modification was installed which
enabled the NMC's IBM 360/30 computer to communicate
in real time with an Air Force computer at Tinker Air
Force Base, Okla. This connection significantly acceler-
ated data receipt at Suitland and enabled NMC to advance
its processing times by 45 minutes for upper-air data and
75 minutes for surface data.

During FY 66, NMC began use of the CDC 6600,
operated by ESSA's Computer Division, to augment its
new forecast model. This model provides the first com-
puter forecast of the tropopause and jet stream levels
and is the first so-called primitive equation model to be
run under operational time schedules. This model has
produced considerably improved forecasts of winds at
upper levels.

The Weather Bureau's Office of Hydrology uses com-
puters to permit more timely and complete river fore-
casting. Manual methods of forecasting require the
full-time work of an entire River Forecast Center staff
to handle a major flood. With computer support, time
requirements are cut to a fraction, creating greater

efficiency in the use of personnel and better forecasts,
particularly under continuing flood conditions.

National Environmental Satellite Center

NESC uses three computers, including the CDC 6600,
to further its mission, primarily for digitizing, calibrating,
earth locating, and other processing of the incoming
sensor data. A secondary activity involving computers
is performance of "housekeeping" functions in the
management and control of environmental satellites. In
addition to producing rectified global mosaics super-
imposed on standard map projections, computers are
used to extract quantitative abstract data for use in
weather analysis and forecasting.

Environmental Data Service

The computers at the National Weather Records
Center are used to further the climatological program of
EDS and to perform specialized analysis of other geo-
physical data for clients in government and industry.
The size of the EDS data bank and the need for automa-
tion can be realized by considering that about 26,000,000
data points alone are collected each year from rain gages
in the United States. These data specify only one environ-
mental parameter— basic precipitation — and it is itself
an incomplete specification, since basic precipitation may
require more than rain gage measurements for complete
specification.

Institutes for Environmental Research

In addition to its normal use of computers, IER has
specialized requirements in certain areas.

The Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL)
of the Institute for Atmospheric Sciences has been
engaged in a comprehensive research program for pro-
ducing more realistic and useful theoretical simulation
models of the atmosphere and oceans. GFDL's program
has resulted in several successful models as reported
in Chapter 4 of this report, and a variety of models is
now available. The advanced models simulate more
properties and phenomena of the real atmosphere and
oceans with greater detail and fidelity than any pre-
viously produced. Both the development of the models
and their application to practical problems require the
use of the most powerful and intricate electronic com-
puters available.

In other applications of computers in IER, the High
Altitude Nuclear Detection System (HANDS) program,
uses a computer to analyze normal background variation
in electromagnetic propagation to provide control infor-
mation for the detection of high-altitude nuclear detona-
tions. The results of these computations are also used to
provide background data to the Space Disturbance Fore-
cast Center to aid in detection of solar proton events,
ionospheric disturbances from solar flares, and similar
space disturbances. On-line computers are also used
by both HANDS and the Forecast Center for the detec-
tion and identification of the events themselves. A com-

280-876 0-68— 8

104

puter is used to prepare forecasts of the ionosphere for
telecommunications purposes.

ARCHIVING

Archiving is an essential element of ESSA research
and services since it provides the base for the design of
statistical prediction systems and yields information
regarding cyclical and long-term changes in the environ-
ment. The basic responsibility for archiving most forms
of environmental data within ESSA rests with EDS.
Unlike experiments of other branches of science, en-
vironmental experiments cannot be repeated if the data
are lost. Accordingly, great emphasis is placed on the
development of reliable information storage and retrieval
systems.

The National Weather Records Center of EDS, located
in Asheville, N.C., is the national depository for world-
wide cjimatological data while analogous functions are
performed for EDS by the Space and Aeronomy Data
Center at Boulder, Colo., operated by ITS A personnel.

Oceanographic data are archived by the National
Oceanographic Data Center, an interagency group under
the direction of the Interagency Committee on Ocean-
ography, to which ESSA contributes through EDS. The
World Data Center for Geomagnetism is operated for
EDS by the Coast and Geodetic Survey at Rockville, Md.

Environmental data have the unusual characteristic
that they must be retained indefinitely, rather than be
disposed of after the completion of an experiment. Data
collected decades ago may gain new relevance in the
light of recent developments. Accumulated environmental
data generally tend to rise in value with time as long as
they remain accessible; and hence through research and
development on archiving methodology and devices,
EDS attempts to assure the continued accessibility of
data for the foreseeable future.

EDS has been supporting a program to develop new
methods to represent or store data. The goal of this pro-
gram is to develop more effective ways of processing the
large amounts of raw data which are acquired, in less
time, with greater user retrievability.

The storage and retrieval of data is a much more com-
plex process than computation per se, since the former is
concerned with meaning and value as well as with the
processing of numbers. Information storage and retrieval
systems require not only random access to data but access
through multiple semantic channels. Particularly in inter-
disciplinary systems, different descriptors must be able
to locate the same piece of data. As a result, such sys-
tems are more nearly analogous to card sorting systems
than to the general purpose digital computer, and exten-
sive use is, in fact, still made of punched cards.

Because of the storage and handling problems with
punched cards, EDS is in the process of converting to a
new system using FOSDIC (Film Optical Sensing De-
vice for Input to Computers). The FOSDIC sensing device,
together with a 16-mm. microfilm camera, constitutes a

system which has greatly improved speed and efficiency.
The camera is fitted to a punched card feed assembly
which permits microfilming of cards at the rate of about
40,000 per hour, creating a reduction in file space of
180 to 1, and producing a film image which can be used
as a direct input medium to the FOSDIC. This machine
can recreate the punched cards at the rate of 100 per
minute, or can selectively scan up to 10 card columns and
punch only cards meeting certain specifications. The
film is directly readable when magnified and can be
permanently stored. A modified version of this device
which will read the film electronically for direct input
into a computer or storage on magnetic tape for later
computer use is under development.

The FOSDIC data processing system com-
bines the utility and convenience of
punched card data retrieval systems with
the compactness of a tape system. Punched
cards are photographed on microfilm and
retrieved by optical scanning.

No mention of ESSA's archiving facilities would be
complete without a discussion of libraries. The Libraries
Branch of ESSA's Scientific Information and Documen-
tation Division operates an Atmospheric Sciences Library
at Silver Spring, Md., and a Geophysical Sciences Li-
brary at Rockville. Both of these libraries offer the usual
library services in their respective fields: Acquisition
and preservation of books, periodicals, and other library
materials; organization of materials by cataloging, index-
ing and shelving; and provision of library research,
reference, loan, circulation, bibliographic, abstracting,
and translating services. In addition, both libraries
receive, store, and distribute selected ESSA publications,
and coordinate the international exchange of publications
within their fields. Similar functions in the field of tele-
communications, aeronomy, and other aspects of geo-
physics are performed at Boulder by the Library Branch
of IER's Scientific Documentation Division.

PUBLICATIONS
AND PAPERS

[Abbreviations identified at end of list.]

1965-1967

ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES

Adem, J., "Preliminary Model for Computing Mid-Tropospheric and

Surface Temperatures from Satellite Data," Journal of Geophysical

Research, vol. 70, No. 12, June 15, 1965, pp. 2763-2767.
, "Experiments Aiming at Monthly and Seasonal Numerical

Weather Prediction," Monthly Weather Review, vol. 93, No. 8,

Aug. 1965, pp. 495-503.
, "A Study of the Water Budget of the Lower Atmosphere,"

Abstract in Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,

vol. 48, No. 1, Jan. 1967, p. 24.
, "Parameterization of Atmospheric Humidity Using Cloudiness

and Temperature," Monthly Weather Review, vol. 95, No. 2, Feb.

1967, pp. 83-88.
, "On the Relations Between Outgoing Long-Wave Radiation,

Albedo and Cloudiness," Monthly Weather Review, vol. 95, No.

5, May 1967, pp. 257-260.
Air Resources Laboratory, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences, "A

Catalog of Radar-Positioned Constant-Volume Balloon (Tetroon)

Flights," Technical Paper No. 58, ESSA, Weather Bureau, 1966,

293 pp.
, "Carbon-14 Measurements in the Atmosphere," ESSA, Institute

for Atmospheric Sciences report for the Atomic Energy Commis-
sion, No. HASL-174, Jan. 1967.
, "Global Atmospheric Radioactivity," ESSA, Institute for At-
mospheric Sciences report for the Atomic Energy Commission,

No. HASL-174, Jan. 1967.
Alaka, M. A., "A Survey of Studies of Aerological Network," ESSA

Technical Memorandum WBTM TDL-9, ESSA, Weather Bureau,

June 1967, 20 pp.
Alaka, M. A., and Lewis, F., "Numerical Experiments Leading to

the Design of Optimum Global Meteorological Networks," ESSA

Technical Memorandum WBTM TDL-7, ESSA, Weather Bureau,

Feb. 1967, 14 pp.
Alaka, M. A., and Rubsam, D. T., "Evolution of the Kinematic and

Thermal Fields During the Development of Hurricane Ella (1962),"

Monthly Weather Review, vol. 93, No. 11, Nov. 1965, pp. 673-686.
Alaka, M. A., Rubsam, D. T., and Fisher, G. E., "An Experiment in

the Use of the Balance Equation in the Tropics," ESSA Technical

Memorandum WBTM TDL-8, ESSA, Weather Bureau, Mar. 1967,

20 pp.
Allen, R. A., "Evaluation of REEP as an Aid in Forecasting Ceiling and

Visibility Parameters," Final Report under FAA/WB Interagency

Agreement No. FA-65-WAI-90, Aug. 1966.
Allied Research Laboratories, Inc., "Theoretical Determination of

Cloud Seeding Potentialities in Cyclonic Storms," Final Report

under Contract No. E-14-67 (N), Feb. 1967.
Anderson, C. E., Finger, F. G., and Woolf, H. M., "Synoptic Analysis

of Rocketsonde Data at the 5-, 2-, and 0.4-mb. Surfaces for the

North American Region." Paper presented at the Conference on
Dynamic Structure of the Free Atmosphere, American Meteoro-
logical Society, El Paso, Texas, Nov. 8-10, 1966.

Anderson, E. A., and Baker, D. R., "Estimating Incident Terrestrial
Radiation Under All Atmospheric Conditions." Water Resources
Research, vol. 3, No. 4, 1967.

Anderson, R. K., Ferguson, E. W., and Oliver, J. V., "The Use of
Satellite Pictures in Weather Analysis and Forecasting," Technical
Note No. 75, World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Mar.
1966.

Andrews, J. F., "The Weather and Circulation of April 1966 — A Month
with Contrasting Temperature Regimes," Monthly Weather
Review, vol. 94, No. 7, July 1966, pp. 481-485.

, "The Weather and Circulation of August 1966 — Cool and Wet

from the Rockies to the Appalachians," Monthly Weather Review,
vol. 94, No. 11, Nov. 1966, pp. 669-673.

, "The Weather and Circulation of March 1967 — A Mild Month

Associated With Confluent Flow Over Mid-North America,"
Monthly Weather Review, vol. 95, No. 6, June 1967, pp. 383-388.

Angell. J. K., "Some Evidence for Inertial Oscillations along Trans-
osonde Trajectories," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteoro-
logical Society, vol. 93, No. 395, Jan. 1967, pp. 105-108.

Angell, J. K., et al., "Tetroon Trajectories in an Urban Atmosphere,"
Journal of Applied Meteorology, vol. 5, No. 5, Oct. 1966, pp. 565-
572.

Angell, J. K., and Hass, W. A., "Effect of Clustering Upon a 500-mb.
Horizontal Sounding System," Monthly Weather Review, vol. 94.
No. 3, Mar. 1966, pp. 151-165.

Angell, J. K., and Pack, D. H., "A Study of the Sea Breeze at Atlantic
City, New Jersey, Using Tetroons as Lagrangian Tracers," Monthly
Weather Review, vol. 93, No. 8, Aug. 1965, pp. 475-493.

Armijo, L., "The Determination of Wind Velocities Utilizing Precipita-
tion Velocity Data Collected by Two Doppler Radars," TRW
Systems Report under Contract ES 022-3024-67, TRW Systems,
Inc., Houston, Tex., 1967.

, "The Determination of Wind Velocities and Precipitation Par-
ticle Terminal Fall Speeds Utilizing Precipitation Velocity Data
Collected by Three Doppler Radars," TRW Systems Report under
Contract ES-022-3454-67, TRW Systems, Inc., Houston, Tex.,
1967.

Arnold, J. E., "A Simplified Grid Technique for Determining Scan
Lines Generated by the TIROS Scanning Radiometer." Research
Paper No. 32, Mesometeorology Project under Grant WBG-6,
University of Chicago, 1965.

, "Easterly Wave Activity over Africa and in the Atlantic with a

Note on the Intertropical Convergence Zone During Early July
1961," Research Paper No. 65, Mesometeorology Project under
WBG-34, University of Chicago, Dec. 1966.

. "The Time Change of Cloud Features in Hurricane Anna. 1961.

105

106

from the Easterly Wave Stage to Hurricane Dissipation," Research
Paper No. 64, Mesometeorology Project under Grant WBC-34,
University of Chicago, Jan. 1967.

Aspliden, C. I., Dean, G. A., and Landers, H., "Satellite Study, Tropical
North Atlantic, 1963, Part I. Surface Wind Analyses, July 26-
August 31," Final Report under Grant WBG-32, Florida State
University, Sept. 1965.

, , , "Satellite Study, Tropical North Atlantic, 1963,

Part I. Surface Wind Analyses, September 1-September 30,"
Research Report No. 66-2, prepared under Grant WBG-58,
Florida State University, Mar. 1966.

, , , "Satellite Study, Tropical North Atlantic, 1963,

Part II: Satellite and Conventional Data, A Daily Comparison,
August 1—31," Dept. of Meteorology, Florida State University
Research Report No. 66-4, prepared under Grant No. WBG-58,
July 1966.

, , , "Satellite Study, Tropical North Atlantic, 1963,

Part I: Surface Wind Analyses, October 1-November 10," Dept.
of Meteorology, Florida State University Research Report No.
66-5, prepared under Grant No. WBG-58, Oct. 1966.
Barnes, C. J., and Bowley, C. J., "Snow Cover Distribution as Mapped
from Satellite Photography," Final Report under Contract CWB-
11269, ARACON, May 1966.

Barsis, A. P., and Hause, L. G., "Mountain Obstacle Diffraction Meas-
urement Results on 751 Mc/s and 9.2 Gc/s," Radio Science, vol. 1
(New Series), No. 1, Jan. 1966, pp. 61-78.

Barsis, A. P., and Miles, M. J., "Height Gain, Location Gain, and
Correlation in Irregular Terrain at 20, 50, and 100 MHz," ESSA
Technical Report IER 35-ITSA 35, Institutes for Environmental
Research, Apr. 1967, 67 pp.

Baxter, T. L., "An Empirical Determination of the WSR-57 Radar
Range Attenuation Function for Oklahoma Thunderstorms,"
pp. 67-70 in Proceedings of the Twelfth Conference on Radar
Meteorology, Norman, Okla., Oct. 1966, American Meteorological
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Davies, K., and Baker, D. M., "On Frequency Variations of Ionospheri-
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Gierhart, G. D., and Johnson, M. E., "Interference Predictions for VHF/
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Gilmer, R. O., McGavin, R. E., and Bean, B. R., "Response of NBS
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Glen, D. V., "An On-Line Distribution Analyzer and Fade Counter for
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Goldan, P. D., Schmeltekopf, A. L., Fehsenfeld, F. C, Schiff, H. I.,
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Harding, W. B., Woodward, M. W., and Carroll, J. C, "A 100 kw.
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Hartmann, R. F., "Graphical Attenuation Calculations for Irregular
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Hartmann, W. J., "Communication to Satellite and to Aircraft by
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, "Electromagnetic Pulse Propagation in the Disturbed Terrestrial

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Beran, D. W., "Large Amplitude Lee Waves and Chinook Winds,"
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Beran, D. W., and Rogers, C. W., "Detection and Tracking of Sub-
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Boon, J. D., Ill, and Harrison, W., "Trend Surface Analysis of Sand
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Chew, F., "On the Cross-Stream Variation of the k-Factor for Geo-
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Coast and Geodetic Survey, International Indian Ocean Expedition,
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Darling, R. C, "Cable Length Determinations for Deep-Sea Oceano-
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Dietz, R. S., "Geological Oceanography," in Oceanography: Under-
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Gassaway, J. D., "New Method for Boron Determination in Sea Water
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Harbison, R. N., "The Geology of De Soto Canyon," abstract in Trans-
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Harris, M. F., Finger, F. G., and Teweles, S., "Frictional and Thermal
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Harrison, W., "Partial Correlation Model for Waters off the Southern
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Harrison, W., Malloy, R. G., Rusnak, G. A., and Terasmae, J., "Pos-
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Harrison, W., and Wass, M. L., "Frequencies of Infaunal Invertebrates
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Jelesnianski, C. P., "Numerical Computations of Storm Surges without
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Johnson, K. W., "Vertical Structure of Ultra-Long Traveling Waves,"
Master of Science Thesis, Dept. of Meteorology and Oceanography,
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Jones, R. B., "Oceanographic Investigation of Port Nellie Juan Fiord,
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Karo, H. Arnold, "Geographical Exploration in the Twentieth Century,"
Chapter 14 in The Pacific Basin— A History of Its Geographical
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Keller, G. H., and Richards, A. F., "Sediments of the Malacca Strait,
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Kofoed, J. W., and Gorsline, D. S., "Sediments of the Choptank River,
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Kofoed, J. W., and Malloy, R. J., "Bathymetry of Miami Terrace,"
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Larsen, J., and Cox, C, "Lunar and Solar Daily Variation in the Mag-
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Loomis, H. G., "Some Numerical Hydrodynamics for Hilo Harbor,"
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Malloy, R. J., and Harbison, R. N., "Marine Geology of the Northeastern
Gulf of Maine," Technical Bulletin No. 28, ESSA, Coast and Geo-
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Malloy, R. J., and Hurley, R. J., "Scarp and Ridge Lineaments as Evi-
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McFadden, J. D., and Wilderson, J. W., "Compatibility of Aircraft
and Shipborne Instruments used in Air-Sea Interaction Research,"
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Miller, G. R., "The Flux of Tidal Energy out of the Deep Oceans,"
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Namias, J., "Large-Scale Air-Sea Interactions as Primary Causes of
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Nelson, R. M., "Sensing Ocean Currents from Space," Ocean Industry,
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Nichols, H., and Perry, R. B., "Bathymetry of the Aleutian Arc, Alaska,"

6 maps, 1:400,000, U.S. Department of Commerce, ESSA, Coast

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Ostapoff, F., Antarctic Oceanography, Biogeography and Ecology in

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Peter, G., "Andaman Sea," in Geophysics of the Encyclopedia of

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Peter, G., and DeWald, O., "The Mendocino Escarpment at Longitude

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Pore, N. A., "Chesapeake Bay Extratropical Storm Surges," Chesa-
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, "Extratropical Storm Surge Prediction," paper presented at the

Conference on Marine (Oceanic) Meteorology, Sept. 7—9, 1966,
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Reed, R. K., "An Observation of Inertial Flow in the Pacific Ocean,"
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Reed, R. K., and Laird, N. P., "On the Reliability of Geostrophic
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paper presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional AGU Meeting,
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, , "An Oceanographic Section off the California Coast,

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Reed, R. K., and Ryan, T. V., "Spurious Oxygen Data Caused by
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Reed, R. K., and Taylor, N. E., "Some Measurements of the Alaska
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Reed, R. K., and Staff, "Temperature Sections with Surface Salinity
and Sigma- T Values for the Northeast Pacific Ocean, 1961 through
1965," Manuscript Series-Report No. 1, ESSA, Institutes for En-
vironmental Research, Jan. 1966, 38 pp.

Rubin, M. J., Ostapoff, F., and Weyant, W. S., "Surface Winds and
Currents of The Southern Ocean," paper presented at the Ant-
arctic Oceanography Symposium, Santiago, Chile, Sept. 20-23.
1966 (in press).

Ryan, T. V., "The Significance of Positioning for Oceanographic
Surveys," paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Portland. Ore.. 1965.

Shinners, W., "Instrumentation and Data Acquisition for Sea-Air
Interaction Studies," paper presented at the Conference on
Marine (Oceanic) Meteorology, Sept. 7-9, 1966. Virginia Beach,
Va. Abstract in Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,
vol. 47, No. 6, June 1966, p. 479.

Staff, Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory, "Eight Cores from the Cen-
tral North Pacific," ESSA Technical Memorandum IERTM POL-2,
Institutes for Environmental Research, Aug. 1966, 14 pp.

Starke, P. P., "South African Expedition to Bouvet Island. 1966."
Antarctic Journal of the United States, vol. 1, No. 5, Sept. -Oct.
1966.

Stewart, H. B., Jr., "1966 — A Year to Reap Benefits of Research,"

Undersea Technology, vol. 7, No. 1. Jan. 1966. pp. 26-30.
. "Diving to a Mountaintop," Current Science, vol. 52. No. 7, Oct.

1966, pp. 7-8.

, "The Future of Coastal Shelf Research." Oceanology Interna-
tional, Oct. 1966, pp. 45^19.

128

, Deep Challenge, D. van Nostrand Co., Princeton, N.J., Nov.

1966, 202 pp.

Taylor, A. D., "Water Waves at the Shoreline," Technical Report
No. 1202(27)/3, under Contract NONR 1202(27), NR-0830167,
Dept. of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin, 1966.

Tison, J. C, Jr., "Oceanography and Engineering," paper presented
at the Annual Joint Meeting of Virginia Engineering and Tech-
nical Societies, Old Point Comfort, Va., June 16, 1967.

Willett, H. C, and Clark, N. E., "Interaction of Atmosphere and
Ocean during Climatic Fluctuation," Final Report under NSF
Grant 24832, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, May 1966.

Zetler, B. D., Review of Tides by D. H. Macmillan, American Elsevier
Publishing Co., N.Y., 1966, 240 pp., in American Scientist, June
1967.

, "Tides and Other Long Period Waves," Transactions, American

Geophysical Union, vol. 48, No. 2, June 1967, pp. 591-595.

, Review of Tidal Computations in Rivers and Coastal Waters

by J. J. Dronkers, North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam,
1964, 518 pp., in Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol.
46, No. 4, Dec. 1965, pp. 666-667.

Zetler, B. D., and Lennon, G. W., "Evaluation Tests of Tidal Analytical
Processes," Report, UNESCO and IAPO Symposium of Tide Gage
Instrumentation, Paris, 1965 (in press 1967).

. , "Some Comparative Tests of Tidal Analytical Processes,"

International Hydrographic Review, vol. 44, Jan. 1967, pp. 139-147.

GEODESY AND PHOTOGRAMMETRY

Bailey, L. F., "Tables of Folded-Sin x/x Interpolation Coefficients,"
Research Paper, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,
D.C., 1966, 161 pp.

Ball, G. M., "Photogrammetrie Deep-Sea Camera System," paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Photo-
grammetry, March 5-10, 1967, Washington, D.C.

Bossier, J. D., "The SAO Star Catalog: Its Qualitative and Quantitative
Values to the C&GS Satellite Triangulation Program," Technical
Memorandum, ESSA Geodetic Research Laboratory, Coast and
Geodetic Survey, Aug. 1966. (Paper available from author.)

Chovitz, B. H., "An Extension of the Geodetic Satellite Tracking
Network," abstract in Transactions, American Geophysical Union,
vol. 47, No. 3, Sept. 1966, p. 458.

, "On the Use of Iterative Procedures in Geodetic Applications,"

abstract in Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 48,
No. 1, Mar. 1967, p. 53.

Dietz, R. S., and Sproll, W. P., "Equal Areas of Gondwana Laurasia
(Ancient Supercontinents)," Nature, vol. 212, No. 5067, 1966,
pp. 1196-1198.

Dracup, J. F., "Remarks to the North Carolina Society of Surveyors,"
paper presented at North Carolina Society of Surveyors, Raleigh,
N.C., Feb. 1967.

Dracup, J. F., and Kelley, C. F., "Precise Surveys in Suffolk, Nassau,
Westchester and Rockland Counties, New York," paper presented
at American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Washington,
D.C, Mar. 1967.

Dracup, J. F., and Swift, P. H., "Traverse Survey, from Alcan Highway
via Mount Kennedy to Yakutat Bay," paper presented at the
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Washington, D.C,
Mar. 1966.

Earnshaw, K. B., and Owens, J. C, "A Dual Wavelength Optical
Distance Measuring Instrument Which Also Measures Air Density,"
abstract in Conference Digest, Laser Engineering Applications,
Washington, D.C, June 6-9, 1967.

Griffin, W. L., Jones, B. G., and McAlinden, J. M., "Establishing
Tidal Datum Lines for Sea Boundaries," paper presented at the
Joint American Society of Photogrammetry, American Congress
on Surveying and Mapping Convention, Mar. 5-10, 1967, Wash-
ington, D.C.

Hand, S. P., "Programming of Geodetic Field Operations," paper
presented at the Proceedings of Geodetic Control Users Sym-

posium, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Wash-
ington, D.C, Mar. 1966.

Jones, W. B., Obitts, D. L., Gallet, R. M., and de Vancouleurs, C,
"Astronomical Surface Photometry by Numerical Mapping Tech-
niques." Abstract in Astronomical Journal, vol. 72, No. 3, 1967,
p. 305.

, , , , "Application of Numerical Methods of Map-
ping to Astronomical Surface Photometry," ESSA Technical
Report IER 25-ITSA 25, Institutes for Environmental Research,
Feb. 1967, 210 pp.

Keller, M., "A Practical Three-Photo Orientation Solution to the
Analytic Aerotriangulation Problem," paper presented at the 1966
Annual Convention, American Congress of Surveying and Map-
ping—American Society of Photogrammetry, Mar. 6-11, 1966,
Washington, D.C.

, "Block Adjustment in Operation at the Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey," paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Society of Photogrammetry and the American Congress on Sur-
veying and Mapping, Mar. 5-10, 1967, Washington, D.C.

Keller, M., and Tewinkel, G. C, "Three-Photo Aerotriangulation,"
Technical Bulletin No. 29, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Feb. 1966, 54 pp.

, , "Space Resection in Photogrammetry," ESSA Technical

Report C&GS 32, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Sept. 1966,
10 pp:

Lampton, B. F., and Umbach, M. J., "The Effectiveness of Film Dis-
tortion Compensation in Analytic Photogrammetry," paper pre-
sented at the 1966 Annual Convention, American Congress of
Surveying and Mapping — American Society of Photogrammetry,
Mar. 6-11, 1966, Washington, D.C.

Lesley, G. B., "LASER Geodimeter," paper presented at American
Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Washington, D.C, Mar. 1967.

Lesley, G. B., Smathers, S. E., Tomlinson, R., and Boyne, H. S., "Pre-
liminary Measurements with a LASER Geodimeter," ESSA Tech-
nical Memorandum C&GSTM-l, Coast & Geodetic Survey,
Nov. 1966.

Lippold, H. R., "Measurements with an Experimental LASER Geodim-
eter," paper presented at the International Association of Geodesy
Conference, Vienna, Austria, Mar. 1967.

Meade, B. K., "High-Precision Transcontinental Traverse Surveys,"
paper presented at the Geodetic Control Users Symposium, Ameri-
can Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Washington, D.C,
Mar. 1966.

, "Horizontal Network," paper presented at the Geodetic Control

Users Symposium, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping,
Washington, D.C, Mar. 1966.

, "Geodetic Surveys for Horizontal Crustal Movement Studies,"

Second U.S.— Japan Conference on Research Related to Earth-
quake Prediction, Lamont Geological Observatory, Columbia
University, June 1966.

, "Accuracy Standards of Horizontal Control Surveys," paper

presented at Fourth Symposium on Measurement Sponsored by
ACSM and ASP, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo., Oct.
1966.

, "The State Plane Coordinate System: An Existing and Expanding

National Grid," paper presented at Tri-State Conference on a
Comprehensive-Unified-Land Data-System, University of Cincin-
nati, Cincinnati, Ohio, Dec. 1966.

, "Progress and Results of High-Precision Traverse Surveys,"

paper presented at Fifth United Nations Regional Cartographic
Conference for Asia and the Far East, Canberra, Australia, Mar.
1967.

, "Progress and Results of High-Precision Traverse Surveys,"

paper presented at American Congress on Surveying and Mapping,
Washington, D.C, Mar. 1967.

Meyer-Arendt, J. R., "A Note on the Evaluation of Interference Photo-
graphs," Acta Histochemica, vol. 22, 1965, pp. 56-61.

Moran, F. D., "Aerial Photography Operations in the Coast and Geo-
detic Survey," paper presented at the Society of Automotive
Engineers Business Aircraft Conference, Wichita, Kans., Apr.
1967.

129

Morrison, F., "Validity of the Expansion for the Potential Near the
Surface of the Earth," abstract Transactions, American Geophysi-
cal Union, vol. 47, No. 3, Sept. 1966, p. 457.

, "Validity of the Expansion for the Potential Near the Surface of

the Earth (11)," abstract, Transactions, American Geophysical
Union, vol. 48, No. 1, Mar. 1967, p. 56.
Oleson, M. R., "The Kansas Test Area: A Comparison of Triangulation
and Traverse," paper presented at American Congress on Sur-
veying and Mapping, Washington, D.C., Mar. 1967.
Orlin, H., "Marine Gravity Surveying Instruments and Practice,"
Proceedings of First Marine Geodesy Symposium, Columbus, Ohio,
1966, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1966.
, "Gravity Sensing Instruments," Transactions, American Geo-
physical Union, vol. 48, No. 2, June 1967, pp. 351-355.

, "Marine Gravity Surveying Instruments and Practice," Ocean-

ology and Limnology, No. 3, July 1967, pp. 205-221.
Orlin, H., ed., Gravity Anomalies: Unsurveyed Areas, Geophysical
Monograph Series No. 9, National Research Council, Publication
No. 1357, American Geophysical Union, 1966, 142 pp.
Orlin, H., Bassinger, B. G., and Gray, C. H., "Gravity Equipment Evalu-
ation Range — Cape Charles- Wallops Island, Virginia," Joint
Report C&GS and NAVOCEANO, July 1965.

, , , "Cape Charles-Wallops Island, Virginia, Off-Shore

Gravity Range," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 70, No. 24,
Dec. 1965, pp. 6265-6267.
Orlin, H., and Sibila, D. V., General Instructions, Gravity Observa-
tions at Sea, Part II: Askania Stable Platform Mounted Seagra-
vimeter, U.S. Department of Commerce, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic
Survey, Oct. 1966.
Orlin, H., and Wells, C. A., General Instructions, Gravity Observa-
tions at Sea, Part I: LaCoste and Romberg Gimbal Mounted Air-
Sea Gravity Meters, U.S. Department of Commerce, ESSA, Coast
and Geodetic Survey, July 1966.
Phillips, J. O., "Objectives of the Geodesy Program," paper presented
at the Geodetic Control Users Symposium, American Congress
on Surveying and Mapping, Washington, D.C., Mar. 1966.

, "Electronic Traverse Versus Triangulation," paper presented

at American Society of Civil Engineers, Houston, Tex., Feb. 1967.
Poling, A. A., Jr., "Astronomical Azimuths for Local Control." Paper
presented at the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping,
Washington, D.C., Mar. 1967.
Richards, J. K., "Bilby Steel Tower for Triangulation," Publication
62-3, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C., 1965.
99 pp.

Ryan, T. V., "Status of Coast and Geodetic Survey's North Pacific
Ocean Survey," paper presented at the 12th Annual Pacific North-
west AGU Meeting, Portland, Ore., Oct. 27-28, 1965; abstract
published in Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 44,
No. 1, Mar. 1966, p. 258.

Schmid, H., "A Comparison of Satellite and Geodetic Triangulation
Method," paper presented at the Joint American Society of Photo-
grammetry-American Congress on Survey Mapping Convention,
Washington, D.C., Mar. 1967.

, "A Concept for an Up-Dated-Three-Dimensional Worldwide

Geodetic Reference System," paper presented at the Fifth United
Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far
East, Canberra, Australia, Mar. 1967.

Simmons, L. G., "Survey of the Boundary Between Arizona and Cali-
fornia," Technical Bulletin No. 27, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic
Survey, Aug. 1965.

, "Satellite Triangulation," paper presented at the Second United

Nations Cartographic Conference for Africa, Tunis, Tunisia,
Sept. 12-14, 1966.

Small, J. B., "Alaskan Surveys to Determine Crustal Movement, Part
I — Vertical Bench Mark Displacement," paper presented at the
Geodetic Control Users Symposium, American Congress on Sur-
veying and Mapping, Washington, D.C., Mar. 1966.

, "Precise Leveling," paper presented at the Geodetic Control

Users Symposium, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping,
Washington, D.C., Mar. 1966.

Swanson, L. W., "Satellite Triangulation," The Military Engineer, vol.
57, No. 379, Sept.-Oct. 1965, p. 324.

, "Satellite Geodesy and the Worldwide Geodetic Network,"

paper presented at the Meeting of Central New York Region,
American Society of Photogrammetry, Syracuse, N.Y., Jan. 20,
1967.

, "Application of Scale to the Worldwide Geodetic Network."

paper presented at the Section of Geodesy of Swedish Association
of Geophysics, Stockholm, Sweden, May 23, 1967.

Thompson, M. C, Jr., "A Summary of Progress in Problems Related
to Terrestrial Electronic Distance Measuring in the United States,"
Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 48, No. 2, June
1967, pp. 348-351.

Tison, J. C, Jr., "Geodesy and Photogrammetry in the 1960's," paper
presented at the American Society of Civil Engineers' Transpor-
tation and Engineering Conference, Philadelphia. Pa., Oct. 17-21,
1966.

, "Satellite Geodesy and the Worldwide 'Geodetic Network."

The Military Engineer, vol. 59, No. 387, Jan.-Feb. 1967, pp. 16-19.

, "Photogrammetric Research Work on the Gulf Stream," paper

presented at the Fifth United Nations Regional Cartographic-
Conference for Asia and the Far East, Canberra, Australia, Mar.
1967.

Tomlinson, R., Smathers, S. E., Poling, A. C, and Boyne, H. S., "Ex-
periments with Lasers in the Measurement of Precise Distances,"
IAG Symposium in Electromagnetic Distance Measurement.
Oxford, England. Sept. 1965.

Umbach, M. J., "Color and Metric Photogrammetry," paper presented
at the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Photogrammetry
and the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Mar.
5-10, 1967, Washington, D.C.

Weeks, L. A., Harbison, R. N., and Peter, G., "The Island Arc System
in the Andaman Sea," International Indian Ocean Expedition,
USC&GS Ship PIONEER- 1964, Vol. 1, ESSA, Coast & Geodetic
Survey, Washington, D.C, 1965, pp. 109-118.

Westwater, E. R., "An Analysis of the Correction of Range Errors
Due to Atmospheric Refraction by Microwave Radiometric Tech-
niques," ESSA Technical Report IER 30-ITSA 30, Institutes for
Environmental Research, Mar. 1967, 69 pp.

Whitten, C. A., "Geodetic Networks Versus Time," paper presented
at Second International Symposium on Geodetic Calculations,
Brussels, Belgium, June 6-11, 1966.

, "Geodetic Measurements for the Study of Crystal Movements."

in Festschrift-Walter Grossmann, Aus der Geodatischen Lehre
und Forschung, Konrad Wittwer, Stuttgart, 1967.

, "Geodetic Networks Versus Time," Bulletin Ge'odesique, vol.

84, June 1967.

Wood, L. E., and Thompson, M. C, Jr., "Technique for Measurement
of the Transit Time of an Optical Signal," Nature, vol. 211. 1966.
pp. 173-174.

, , "The Use of Atmospheric Dispersion for Refraction Cor-
rection of Optical Distance Measurements," in Electromagnetic
Distance Measurements, a Symposium held in Oxford, Sept. 6-11,
1965, IAG, Hilger and Watts Ltd., 1967, pp. 165-172.

CARTOGRAPHY

Beatty, D. P., "A Case Study of the Application of Automation to
Aeronautical Charting," paper presented at the Fifth United Na-
tions Regional Cartographic Conference for Asia and the Far
East, Canberra, Mar. 1967.

Gigas, E. F. O., "A Study for the Automated Production of Aeronautical
Charts," paper presented at the Third International Cartographic
Conference, Amsterdam, Apr. 17-22. 1967.

Harris. W. D., "Aerial Photography for Regional Surveying and Map-
ping," paper presented at the Second United Nations Cartographic
Conference for Africa. Tunis. Tunisia. Sept. 12-14. 1966.

Holmes, A. C, "Track, Position and Course on Charting." paper pre-
sented at the Institute of Navigation Annual Meeting. Washington,
D.C. June 29-July 1. 1967.

130

Lefkowitz, M., and Schlatter, E. E., "An Analysis of Runway Visual
Range," Final Report under Contract No. FA 65-WAI-96, Project
No. 450-402-01E, FAA SRDS Report No. RD 66-100, ESSA,
Weather Bureau, Atlantic City, N.J., Dec. 1966, 42 pp., 80 figs.

McClung, F. E., "Simultaneous Compilation of Multiple Aeronautical
Chart Series," International Yearbook of Cartography, 1965.

Tison, J. C, Jr., "Sea Boundaries and Nautical Charts," paper pre-
sented at the Second Alaska Surveying and Mapping Convention,
Anchorage, Alaska, February 15-17, 1967.

SEISMOLOGY

Algermissen, S. T., "Energy and Depth of Foci of the Aftershocks of the
Prince William Sound Earthquake of March 28, 1964," abstract in
Proceedings of the 15th Alaskan Science Conference, Alaska Div.,
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1965.

, "Mechanism of the Prince William Sound Earthquake," ESSA

Symposium on Earthquake Prediction, Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9,
1966, pp. 20-25.

, "The Alaska Earthquake of 1964," paper presented before the

Utah Geological Society, Salt Lake City, Utah, Feb. 1, 1966.

, "The Alaska Earthquake of 1964," paper presented at the Uni-
versity of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn., Feb. 28, 1966.

, "The Programs in Engineering Seismology of the Coast and

Geodetic Survey," paper presented at the Pacific Science Congress

in Tokyo. Japan, August 21 through September 12, 1966.
, "A Seismic Risk Map for the United States: A Progress Report,"

Third Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, University of

Roorkee, Roorkee, India, Dec. 1966.
, "Seismic Studies in Alaska," ESSA Symposium on Earthquake

Prediction, Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9, 1966, pp. 48-52.

, "The Taltal, Chile Earthquake of December 28, 1966," paper

presented at the Meeting of the Interagency Geophysics Discussion
Group on Mar. 21, 1967.

, "Seismicity and Earthquake Risk," paper presented at the

Meeting of the American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., in
San Francisco on Apr. 20, 1967.

Algermissen, S. T., and Harding, S. T., "A Note on the Focal Mechanism
of the Parkfield, California, Earthquake," Bulletin of the Seismo-
logical Society of America (in press).

, , "The Direction of Faulting in Some of the Prince William

Sound Earthquakes of March and April, 1964," abstract in Pro-
ceedings of the 15th Alaskan Science Conference, Alaska Div.,
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1965.

, , "The Puget Sound, Washington, Earthquake of April 29,

1965," Preliminary Seismological Report, ESSA, Coast and
Geodetic Survey, 1965, pp. 1-26.

Alsop, L. E., and Brune, J. N., "Observation of Free Oscillations Ex-
cited by a Deep Earthquake," Journal of Geophysical Research,
vol. 70, No. 4, Dec. 1965, pp. 6165-6174.

Bailey, L. F., "The Use of Historical Tsunami Wave Height Data in
Forecasting Runup," ESSA Symposium on Earthquake Prediction,
Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9, 1966, pp. 110-111.

Blume, J. A., "A Structural-Dynamic Analysis of an Earthquake Dam-
aged 14-Story Building," The Prince William Sound, Alaska,
Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks, vol. II, Part A, Engineering
Seismology, ESSA, 1967, pp. 357-382.

Brazee, R. J., "Hawaiian Quadripartite Seismograph Network," Geo-
Marine Technology, vol. 1, No. 10, 1965.

, "A Study of T Phases in the Aleutian Earthquake Series of

March and April 1957," Earthquake Notes, Vol. XXXVI, No. 1-2,
1965, pp. 9-14.

Carder, D. S. ed., "Earthquake Investigations in the Western United
States, 1931-1964," Coast and Geodetic Survey Publication 41-2,
ESSA, 1965, 264 pp.

Carder, D. S., Gordon, D. W., and Jordan, J. N., "Analysis of Surface-
Foci Travel-Times," Bulletin of the Seismological Society of
America, vol. 56, No. 5, Aug. 1966, pp. 815-840.

Cloud, W. K., "Strong-Motion and Building-Period Measurements,"

The Prince William Sound, Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and
Aftershocks, vol. II, Part A, Engineering Seismology, ESSA, 1967,
pp. 319-331.

, "Forced Vibration of the Mt. McKinely Building (Field Measure-
ments)," The Prince William Sound, Alaska, Earthquake of 1964
and Aftershocks, vol. II, Part A, Engineering Seismology, ESSA,
1967, pp. 333-355.

Dietz, R. S., "Astroblemes, Lunar Craters and Maria," Geological
Problems in Lunar Research, Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, vol. 123, Art. 2, July 15, 1965, pp. 895-896.

, Reply to discussion concerning his paper by K. J. Hsu, same

issue "Collapsing Continental Rises: An Actualistic Concept of
Geosynclines and Mountain-Building," Journal of Geology, vol. 73,
No. 6, Nov. 1965, pp. 901-906.

, "Earth's Crust, 'Eppur Si Muove,' " Medical Opinion and Review,

vol. 1, No. 3, Dec. 1965, pp. 82-90.

, "Continental Drift and Earthquakes," in ESSA Symposium on

Earthquake Prediction, Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9, 1966, pp. 44-47.

, "Earth's Original Crust: Lost Quest," Tectonophysics, vol. 2,

No. 6, 1966, pp. 515-520.

, "Shatter Cones and Astroblemes," Proceedings of the Oregon

Lunar Geology Field Conference, Bend, Oregon, Aug. 22-29, 1965,
State of Oregon, Dept. of Geology and Mineral Industries, 1966,
pp. 25-31.

, "Shatter Cones at the Middlesboro Structure, Kentucky," Mete-

oritics, vol. 3, No. 1, May 1966, pp. 27-29.

, "Astrobleme," McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science and Tech-
nology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967, pp. 109-111.

, "Terrestrial Meteorite Craters and Astroblemes," paper pre-
sented University of Michigan Symposium on Astrogeology, Bi-
centennial Celebration, Mar. 22-24, 1967.

Dietz, R. S., and Holden, J. C, "Earth and Moon: Tectonically Con-
trasting Realms," Geological Problems in Lunar Research, Annals
of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 123, Art. 2, July 15, 1965,
pp. 631-640.

, , "Miogeoclines (Miogeosynclines) in Space and Time,"

Journal of Geology, vol. 74, No. 5, 1966, pp. 566-583.

Engdahl, E. R., and Gunst, R. H., "Use of a High Speed Computer for
the Preliminary Determination of Earthquake Hypocenters,"
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, vol. 56, Apr.
1966, pp. 325-336.

Eppley, R. A., "Earthquake History of the United States, Part I: Stronger
Earthquakes of the United States (Exclusive of California and
Western Nevada)," Publication 41-1, (revised), ESSA, Coast
and Geodetic Survey, 1965.

, "Earthquake History of the United States, Part II: Stronger

Earthquakes of California and Western Nevada," Publication
41-1, (revised), ESSA, Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1966, 48 pp.

Espinosa, A. F., "Amplification Properties of Soils; a Preliminary
Report," paper presented at the Department of Commerce Meeting
held on Seismology and Engineering Seismology, Jan. 30-31, 1967.

, "An Epicenter Study of the Underground Nuclear Explosion

Long Shot," paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Seis-
mological Society of America at Santa Barbara, Calif., Mar. 23,
1967.

, "P-waves in the Shadow Zone of the Earth's Core," paper pre-
sented at the Annual Meeting of the Seismological Society of
America in Reno, Nev., Apr. 6-9, 1966.

Flinn, E. A., and Engdahl, E. R., "A Proposed Basis for Geographical
and Seismic Regionalization," Reviews of Geophysics, vol. 3, 1965,
pp. 123-149.

Harding, S. T., "Fault Plane Solution of the Skopje Earthquake of
July 26, 1963," Earthquake Notes, vol. XXXV, Mar. 1966, pp.
16-25.

, "P-wave and S-wave Focal Mechanism Studies of the Parkfield,

California, Earthquake of June 28, 1966," presented at the Eastern
Section, Seismological Society of America, Oct. 1966.

Harding, S. T., and Rinehart, W. A., "The Parkfield, California, Earth-
quake of June 27, 1966," Preliminary Seismological Report, Coast
and Geodetic Survey, ESSA, U.S. Government Printing Office,
1966.

131

Harris, D. L., "A Critical Survey of the Storm Surge Protection Prob-
lems," Proceedings of the Symposium on Tsunami and Storm Surges,
Eleventh Pacific Science Congress, Tokyo, Aug. 23-Sept. 10, 1966,
Vol. 2, Tokyo, 1966.

Herrin, E., and Taggart, J., "Epicenter Determination for the Salmon
Event," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 71, No. 14, July
1966, p. 3503.

Hoffman, J. P., and Werner, F., "The Dulce, New Mexico, Earthquake,"
Preliminary Seismological Report, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic
Survey, June 1966.

Jordan, J. N., "A Visit to the Seismological Centers in Central and
South America," Earthquake Notes, Vol. XXXVI, No. 1-2, 1965.

Jordan, J. N., Black, R. A., and Bates, C. C, "Patterns of Maximum
Amplitudes of Pn and P Waves over Regional and Continental
Areas," Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, vol. 55,
No. 4, 1965, pp. 693-720.

Jordan, J. N., Lander, J. F., and Black, R. A., "Aftershocks of the
4 February 1966 Rat Island Earthquake," Science, vol. 148, No.
3675, June 1965, pp. 1323-1325.

Jordan, J. N., Mickey, W. V., Helterbran, W., and Clark, D. M., "Travel
Times and Amplitudes from the SALMON Explosion," Journal of
Geophysical Research, vol. 71, No. 14, July 1966, pp. 3469-3482.

Lander, J. F., "Notes on Observatory Seismology in Africa," Earthquake
Notes, vol. XXXVI, No. 1-2, 1965.

, "The National Earthquake Information Center," Earthquake

Notes, vol. 37, No. 4, 1966.

, "Visit to Seismic Stations in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and

Algeria," Earthquake Notes, vol. 37, No. 4, 1966.

, "Seismological Notes," Bulletin Seismological Society of America,

vol. 56, Nos. 4, 5, 6, 1966; vol. 57, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 1967.

Lowrie, L. M., "Project PYRO, Seismic Measurements, SATURN
S-IV Test," Preliminary Report, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Oct. 1965.

, "Revision of Fourier Analysis and Synthesis Program," U.S. De-
partment of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Oct. 1965.

, "Vibration Levels in 'L' and 'C Area, Kennedy Space Center,

Florida," Preliminary Report, U.S. Department of Commerce,
ESSA, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Feb. 1966.

Lowrie, L. M., and Mickey, W. V., "Background Vibration Measure-
ments, Kennedy Space Center, Florida," U.S. Department of
Commerce, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic Survey, May 1966.

Malloy, R. J., and Merrill, G. F., "Vertical Crustal Movement Associated
with 1964 Alaskan Earthquake," abstract in Transactions, American
Geophysical Union, vol. 47, No. 1, Mar. 1966, pp. 176-177.

, , "Vertical Crustal Movement Associated with the 1964

Alaskan Earthquake," abstract in Geological Society of America,
Abstract Volume, 1966 Annual Meetings, Nov. 14-16, 1966, pp.
130-131.

Meade, B. K., "Report of the Sub-Commission on Recent Crustal
Movements in North America," Proceedings of the 2d International
Symposium on Recent Crustal Movements, Aulanko, Finland,
Aug. 3-7, 1965, Geol.-Geograph. 90, 1966, pp. 247-266.

Meehan, J. F., "The Response of Several Public School Buildings in
Anchorage, Alaska, to the March 27, 1964,v Earthquake," The
Prince William Sound, Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and After-
shocks, vol. II, Part A, Engineering Seismology, ESSA, 1967,
pp. 219-243.

Mickey, W. V., "Seismic Clusters," ESSA Symposium on Earthquake
Prediction, Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9, 1966, pp. 63-68.

, "Seismic Effects of SATURN AS-201 Launch," Preliminary

Report, U.S. Department of Commerce, ESSA, Coast and Geo-
detic Survey, Mar. 1966.

, "Seismic Measurements," in Safety Involving Detonation of

Nuclear Devices, USAEC NVO-28, May 1966.
, "Strong-Motion Ground Surface Measurements, Project 1.4

Operation DISCUS THROWER," Defense Atomic Support

Agency, May 1966 (Classified).
Mickey, W. V., and Lowrie, L. M., "Project HANDCAR, Strong-Motion

and Surface Accelerations," U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,

PNE-800F, Nov. 1965 (issued Dec. 9, 1966).

Murdock, J. N., "Configuration of the Crust-Mantle System in the
Central Aleutians, an Hypothesis," ESSA Technical Memorandum
IERTM EML-3, Institutes for Environmental Research, June 1967,
13 pp., 2 tables, 17 figs.

Nason, R. D., "Earthquake Energy and Strain Release," abstract in
Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 48, No. 1, Mar.
1967, p. 206.

Nason, R. D., and Blackford, M. E., "Field Investigation of the Boca,
California, Earthquake of 12 September 1966," IES Technical
Memorandum No. 10, Institute for Earth Sciences, ESSA, 1967.

Nicholls, H. R., "Rock Stress Surveys," ESSA Symposium on Earth-
quake Prediction, Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9, 1966. pp. 131-134.

Nicholls, H. R., and Rinehart, J. S., "A Geophysical Study of Geyser
Action in Yellowstone National Park," abstract in Transactions,
American Geophysical Union, vol. 47, No. 1, Mar. 1966, p. 205.
Paper presented at the 47th Annual Meeting of American Geo-
physical Union, Washington, D.C., Apr. 1966.

, , "Geophysical Study of Geyser Action in Yellowstone

National Park," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 72, No. 18,
Sept. 15, 1967, pp. 4651-4663.

Owens, J. C, and Earnshaw, K. B., "Long-Distance Optical Strain-
meters for Fault Zone Instrumentation," ESSA Symposium on
Earthquake Prediction, Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9, 1966, pp. 85-92.

Parkin, E. J., "Alaskan Surveys to Determine Crustal Movement,
Part II: Horizontal Displacements," ESSA, Coast and Geodetic
Survey, 1966, 15 pp.; paper presented at the Geodetic Control
Users Symposium, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping,
Washington, D.C., Mar. 1966.

Pope, A. J., Stearn, J. L., and Whitten, C. A., "Surveys of Crustal
Movement Along the Hay ward Fault," Bullet in of the Seismological
Society of America, vol. 56, No. 2, Apr. 1966, pp. 317-323.

Rinehart, J. S., "Earth Tremors Generated by Old Faithful Geyser,"
Science, vol. 150, No. 3695, Oct. 22, 1965, pp. 494-496.

Rinne, J. E., "Oil Storage Tanks," The Prince William Sound, Alaska,
Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks, vol. II, Part A, Engineering
Seismology, ESSA, 1967, pp. 245-297.

Small, J. B., "Alaskan Surveys to Determine Crustal Movement. Part
I — Vertical Bench Mark Displacement," U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
ESSA, 1966, 24 pp.

Small, J. B., and Parkin, E. J., "Horizontal and Vertical Crustal Move-
ment in the Prince William Sound, Alaska, Earthquake of 1964,"
paper presented at Fifth United Nations Regional Cartographic
Conference for Asia and the Far East, Canberra, Australia, Mar.
1967.

Sokolowski, T. J., and Miller, G. R., "Automatic Epicenter Locations
from a Quadripartite Array," Hawaii Institute of Geophysics,
University of Hawaii, Contract Report, ESSA Series No. 1, July 1966.

Spaeth, M. G., "Seismology and Tsunami Portion," ,4 Proposed Nation-
wide Natural Disaster Warning System (NADWARN), U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce, ESSA, Oct. 1965, 113 pp.

Spaeth, M. G., Arens, C. E., and Zetler, B. D., "Wave Reporting Pro-
cedures for Tide Observers in the Seismic Sea Wave Warning
System," C&GS Publication 30—3, ESSA, Coast and Geodetic
Survey, 1966, 41 pp.

Spaeth, M. G., and Berkman, S. C, "The Tsunami of March 28, 1964.
as Recorded at Tide Stations," ESSA Technical Report C&GS 33,
Coast and Geodetic Survey, July 1967, 86 pp.

Steinbrugge, K. V., "Introduction to the Earthquake Engineering of the
Prince William Sound, Alaska, Earthquake," The Prince William
Sound, Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks, vol. II. Part A.
Engineering Seismology, ESSA, 1967, pp. 1—6.

Steinbrugge, K. V., Manning, J. H., and Degenkolb. H. J., et al.. "Build-
ing Damage in Anchorage," The Prince William Sound, Alaska,
Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks, vol. II. Part A. Engineering
Seismology, ESSA, 1967, pp. 7-217.

Stepp, J. C, "Seismic Probability Maps," in ESSA Symposium on Earth-
quake Prediction, Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9, 1966, pp. 106-109.

, "Seismicity of the United States: a Preliminary Report." Paper

presented at the Department of Commerce Meeting on Seismology
and Engineering Seismology, Washington, D.C., Jan. 30-31. 1967.

Stepp, J..C, Rinehart, W. A., and Algermissen, S. T.. "Earthquakes in

132

in the United States 1963-1964 and an Evaluation of the Detection
Capability of the United States Seismograph Stations," ESSA,
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Nov. 1965.

, , , "Earthquakes in the United States 1963—64 and an

Evaluation of the Detection Capability of the United States Seismo-
graph Stations," report prepared for AFOSR, Sept. 1966.

, , , "Earthquake Detection Capability of the United

States Seismograph Stations," paper presented at the Sixth
Western National Meeting of the American Geophysical Union,
Los Angeles, Calif., Sept. 6-9, 1966.

Sykes, L. R., "Seismological Evidence for Sea- Floor Spreading and
Transform Faults," abstract in Transactions, American Geophysical
Union, vol. 48, No. 1, Mar. 1967, p. 216.

, "Mechanism of Earthquakes and Nature of Faulting on the Mid-
Oceanic Ridges," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 72, No. 8,
Apr. 1967, pp. 2131-2153.

, "Seismicity," Transactions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 48,

No. 2, June 1967, pp. 389-395.

Sykes, L., Isacks, B. L., and Oliver, J., "Spatial Distribution of Deep
and Shallow Earthquakes of Small Magnitude in the Fiji-Tonga
Region," Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, vol. 57,
1967 (in press).

von Hake, C. A., and Cloud, W. K., "United States Earthquakes, 1963,"
ESSA, Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1965, 69 pp.

, , "United States Earthquakes, 1964," ESSA, Coast and

Geodetic Survey, 1966, 91 pp.

Wilson, S. D., "Landslides in the City of Anchorage," The Prince Wil-
liam Sound, Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks, vol. II,
Part A, Engineering Seismology, ESSA, 1967, pp. 253-297.

Zetler, B. D., "The Seismic Sea Wave Warning System, An Aid to
Mariners," Mariners Weather Log, vol. 9, No. 5, Sept. 1965, pp.
149-152.

, "The Contribution of Earth Tides to Earthquakes," in ESSA

Symposium on Earthquake Prediction, Rockville, Md., Feb. 7-9,
1966, pp. 35-37.

GEOMAGNETISM

Alldredge, L. R., "Review of Electro-magnetism and the Earth's In-
terior by T. Rikitake, vol. 2 of Developments in Solid Earth Geo-
physics," Elsevier Publishing Co., New York, 1966, in Transactions,
American Geophysical Union, vol. 47, No. 3, Sept. 1966, pp. 505-
506.

Alldredge, L. R., and Kobiashvili, Z., "Magnetic Charts in Antarctica
and Neighboring Areas," in Proceedings of the Symposium on
Pacific-Antarctic Sciences, Eleventh Pacific Science Congress,
Tokyo, Japan, Aug. 23-27, 1966, JARE Scientific Reports, Special
Issue No. 1, National Science Museum, Ueno Park, Tokyo, Feb.
1967, pp. 1-12.

Bassinger, B. G., "A Marine Magnetic Survey in the Chukchi Sea,"
abstract in Transaction, American Geophysical Union, vol. 48,
No. 1, Mar. 1967, p. 128.

Brown, E. H., "On The Complex Structure of the Universe I. Electro-
magnetic and Gravitational Fields," Journal of Mathematical
Physics, vol. 7, No. 3, 1966, pp. 417-425.

Campbell, W. H., "Conjugate Point Investigations," Antarctic Journal
of the United States, vol. I, No. 5, 1966, p. 196.

, "A Review of the Equatorial Studies of Rapid Fluctuations in

the Earth's Magnetic Field," Annates de Geophysique, vol. 22,
No. 3, July/Sept. 1966, pp. 492-501.

Campbell, W. H., and Matsushita, S., Preface to "Ultra Low Frequency
Electro-Magnetic Fields," Radio Science, Journal of Research,
National Bureau of Standards, NBS 69D, No. 8, Aug. 1965.

Campbell, W. H., and Stiltner. E. C, "Some Characteristics of Geo-
magnetic Pulsations at Frequencies Near 1 c/s," Radio Science,
Journal of Research, National Bureau of Standards, NBS 69D,
No. 8, Aug. 1965, pp. 1117-1132.

Dryer, M., Discussion of paper by G. K. Walters, "On the Existence
of Second Standing Shock Waves Attached to the Magnetosphere,"

Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 72, No. 11, June 1967, pp.
2977-2978.
Green, R. G., "An Analysis of the Magnetic Effect from Shower Me-
teors," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 72, No. 9, May 1967,
pp. 2309-2313.
Hargreaves, J. K., "On the Variation of Auroral Radio Absorption with
Geomagnetic Activity," Planetary and Space Science, vol. 14, No.
10, Oct. 1966, pp. 991-1006.
Harris, D. L., "The Slope of the Mean Sea Surface near the Coast,"
paper presented at the Symposium on Mean Sea Level, Apr.
13-15, 1967, Washington, D.C.
Hastings, J. V., and Elvers, D. J., "Geomagnetism: Plateau Station,"
Antarctic Journal of the United States, vol. 1, No. 5, Sept.-Oct.
1966, p. 189.
Haurwitz, M. W., Yoshida, S., and Akasofu, S. I., "Interplanetary
Magnetic Field Asymmetries and Their Effects on Polar Cap Events
and Forbush Decreases," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.
70, No. 13, July 1965, pp. 2977-2988.
Hurwitz, L., et al., "Mathematical Model of the Geomagnetic Field for
1965," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 71, No. 9, May 1966,
pp. 2373-2383.
Hurwitz, L., and Watson, D. E., "A New Spherical Harmonic Analysis
of Vertical Intensity for Epoch 1965.0," abstract in Transactions,
American Geophysical Union, vol. 47, No. 1, Mar. 1966, p. 56.
McDonald, K. L., "Perturbation Techniques in Molten Planetary Cores,"
Bulletin of the American Physical Society, vol. 2, No. 7, 1966,
p. 913.
, "Topology of Confluent Vector Singularities," abstract in Trans-
actions, American Geophysical Union, vol. 47, No. 3, Sept. 1966,
p. 465.
, "Trends in Geomagnetic Field," abstract in Transactions, Ameri-
can Geophysical Union, vol. 48, No. 1, Mar. 1967, p. 58.

, "Root-Mean-Square Representations of Geomagnetic Field and

Its Secular Variation," abstract in Transactions, American Geo-
physical Union, vol. 48, No. 1, Mar. 1967, p. 59.
McDonald, K. L., and Gunst, R. H., "Analysis of the Earth's Magnetic
Field from 1835 to 1965," ESSA Technical Report IER 46-IES 1,
Institutes for Environmental Research, July 1967, 87 pp.
Matheson, R. J., "Square-Law Detector has 40-db Dynamic Range,"
Electronic Circuit Designers Casebook 39, No. 18, 1966, pp. 95-97.
Matsushita, S., "Low Latitude Current System Including the Electro-
jet and Magnetic Variations, Review on Magnetic Variations,"
abstract in Report on Equatorial Aeronomy, F. de Mendonca, ed.,
C.N.PQ., CNAE-LAFE 32, Sao Jose dos Campos, Sao Paulo,
Brasil, 1965, pp. 373-376.
Ochs, G. R., "Synchrotron Radiation Measurements Near the Mag-
netic Equator," in Radiation Trapped in the Earth's Magnetic
Field, B. M. McCormac, ed., D. Riedel Publishing Co., Dordrecht,
Holland, 1966, pp. 703-713.
Peter, G., "Magnetic Anomalies and Fracture Pattern in the North-
west Pacific Ocean," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 71,
No. 22, Nov. 1966, pp. 5365-5374.
Rice, D. A., "The Development of Geoidal Sections in the United
States," in Festschrift-Walter Grossmann, Aus der Geodatischen
Lehre und Forschung, Konrad Wittwer, Stuttgart, 1967.
Saito, T., "A Review of the Research on Geomagnetic Pulsations in
Japan," ESSA Technical Report IER 15-ITSA 15, Institutes for
Environmental Research, Dec. 1966, 61 pp.

, "Some Characteristics of the Dynamic Spectrum of Long-Period

Geomagnetic Pulsations," Journal of Geophysical Research, vol.
72, No. 15, Aug. 1, 1967, pp. 3895-3904.

Saito, T., and Matsushita, S., "Geomagnetic Pulsations Associated
with Sudden Commencements and Sudden Impulses," Planetary
and Space Science, vol. 15, No. 3, Mar. 1967, pp. 573-587.

Sauer, H. H., "Comments on 'The Cosmic-Ray Cut-Off Rigidities and
the Earth's Magnetic Field' by Tadao Makino," Report of Iono-
sphere and Space Research in Japan, vol. 19, No. 54, 1965.

Wait, J. R., "Some Factors in Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in
the Earth's Crust," Proceedings on the IEEE, vol. 54, No. 8, Aug.
1966, pp. 1020-1025.

, "Electromagnetic Fields of a Dipole over an Anisotropic Half-

133

Space," Canadian Journal of Physics, vol. 44, No. 10, Oct. 1966,
pp. 2387-2401.

Watson, D., "An Intercomparison of Models of the Main Geomagnetic
Field," abstract in Transactions, American Geophysical Union,
vol. 48, No. 1, Mar. 1967, p. 59.

Watson, D. E., Hurwitz, L., Svendsen, K. L., and Walker, G. B., "Com-
pilation of Magnetic Charts by Analytic Procedure Utilizing
Computer Techniques," paper presented at the 26th Annual
Meeting, American Congress of Surveying and Mapping, Wash-
ington, D.C., Mar. 1966.

Watterson, C. C, "A Method of Measuring the Multipath Components
of a Field," ESSA Technical Report IER 6-1TSA 6, Institutes for
Environmental Research, Aug. 1966, 41 pp.

INFORMATION SCIENCES

Rigby, M., "Browsability in Modern Information Retrieval Systems: The
Quest for Information," in Proceedings of the Symposium on
Education for Information Science, Warrenton, Va., Sept. 7-10,
1965, American Documentation Institute, Spartan Books, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1965, pp. 47-52.

, "A Mechanized, Multi-Access Documentation System for the

Atmospheric Sciences and Water Resources," in Proceedings of
the Second Annual American Water Resources Conference, The
University of Chicago, Nov. 20-22, 1966, American Water Re-
sources Association, 1966, pp. 415-431.

MISCELLANEOUS

Albert, E. G., "Stabilization Requirements for Operational Meteoro-
logical Satellites," in Symposium on Passive Gravity — Gradient
Stabilization, NASA SP-107, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, 1966.

Alishouse, J. C, "Temperature Variation of the Absorption Coefficient
of Germanium," Journal of the Optical Society of America, vol. 56,
No. 4, Apr. 1966, pp. 525-526.

Alldredge, L. R., and Saldukas, I., "The Automatic Standard Magnetic
Observatory," Technical Bulletin No. 31, ESSA, Coast and Geo-
detic Survey, June 1966, 35 pp.

Allen, J. H., "Long Term Absolute Stability of Self-Oscillating Vapor
Magnetometers," abstract in Transactions, American Geophysical
Union, vol. 48, No. 1, Mar. 1967, p. 60.

Burnett, F. W., "Role of the Computer in Meteorology," Weatherwise,
vol. 18, No. 5, Oct. 1965, pp. 196-205.

Gadsden, M., and Williams, H. M., "Some Harmonic Properties of an
Oscillating Fabry-Perot Interferometer," Engineering and Instru-
mentation, Journal of Research, NBS 70C, No. 3, July-Sept. 1966,
pp. 159-163.

Gierhart, G. D., and Johnson, M. E., "Interference Predictions for the
Instrument Landing System," NBS Technical Note No. 324,
National Bureau of Standards, Sept. 1965, 42 pp.

Griffin, W. L., "The Law of the Sea and the Continental Shelf," paper
presented at the International Academy of Trial Lawyers, Feb. 17,
1967, Mexico City, Mexico.

Gulton Industries, Inc., "Integrated and Expanded Satellite Infrared
Spectrometer Electronics System Study Program," Final Report
under Contract E17-67 (N), Jan. 1967.

Hargreaves, J. K., "The Coverage of Satellite Passes from a Ground
Station: Some Results for Use in Planning Combined Satellite and
Ground-Based Studies," Planetary and Space Science, vol. 14,
No. 7, July 1966, pp. 617-622.

Harrison, L. P., "Final Report of the Chairman of the CIMO Working
Group on Psychrometry to the Commission for Instruments and
Methods of Observation," report presented to the Fourth Session
of the Commission held in Tokyo, Japan, Oct. 1965.

Hubbard, R. W., "Dynamic Analog Correlation System (Invention
Disclosure)," NBS Technical Note No. 295, National Bureau of
Standards, 1966.

Kotler, S. R., "A Critical Analysis of the Vertical Reference System of

the LaCoste and Romberg Gimbal-Suspended Sea Gravity Meter,"
M.S. Thesis, University of Miami, June 1967.
Kuhn, P. M., "Use of Radiometers on Balloons for Moisture Determina-
tion," Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, vol. 3. 1966. pp. 754-756.
Leighton, H. I., and Lincoln, J. V., "Abbreviated Calendar Record.
October 1965-February 1966," 1QSY Notes No. 17, 1965, pp.
25-51, "Abbreviated Calendar Record, May 1966-June 1966,"
IQSY Notes No. 20, 1966, pp. 25-37.
Mickey, W. V., et al., "Vibration Studies in the Space Environment
Simulator Chamber," Preliminary Report, Goddard Space Flight
Center, NASA, U.S. Department of Commerce, ESSA, Coast and
Geodetic Survey, May 1966.

Neilon, J. R., "Automated Telecommunications at the Washington
World Weather Center," paper presented at the 268th National
Meeting of the American Meteorological Society, April 17-20,
1967, Washington, D.C.

Newstein, H., "An Automated Meteorological Instrumentation and
Observing System on a 1000-Ft. Television Tower," Final Report
under Contract CWB-10608, Drexel Institute of Technology,
Philadelphia, Sept. 30, 1966, 128 pp.

Philips Laboratories, "Design Study for an Improved Satellite Infrared
Spectrometer," Final Report under Contract CWB-11371, 1966.

Pore, N. A., and Cummings, R. A., "A Fortran Program for the Calcu-
lation of Hourly Values of Astronomical Tide and Time and Height
of High and Low Water," ESSA Technical Memorandum WBTM
TDL-6, ESSA, Weather Bureau, Jan. 1967, 17 pp.

Pyle, R. L., and Singer, S. F., "Dependence of Ground Station Acquisi-
tion Effectiveness on Geographic Location and Satellite Orbit."
Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, vol. 2, No. 3, May-June 1965,
pp. 410-415.

Ruff, I., Koffler, R., Fritz, S., Winston, J. S.. and Rao, P. K.. "Angular
Distribution of Solar Radiation Reflected from Clouds as Deter-
mined from TIROS IV Radiometer," ESSA Technical Report
NESC-38, National Environmental Satellite Center. ESSA, Mar.
1967, 64 pp.

Ruzecki, "Needs for Environmental Satellites, National Environmen-
tal Satellite Center," Manuscript Report, ESSA, June 1966.

Senn, H. V., "A Note on Standardization of Performance of WSR-57
Radars," Journal of Applied Meteorology, vol. 5, No. 4, Aug. 1966.
pp. 550-552.

Spuhler, W. S., "The U.S. Weather Bureau in South Dakota," South
Dakota Farm and Home Research, vol. XVIII, No. 1, Winter 1967.
Agricultural Experiment Station, South Dakota State University,
Brookings, pp. 9-12.

Staff, National Environmental Satellite Center, Apt Users Guide, ESSA,
U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 1965. 100 pp.

Stewart, H. B., Jr., "ESSA Assumes Greater Share of Instrumentation
Workload," Data Magazine, vol. 11, No. 11, Nov. 1966. pp. 31-37.

Texas Instruments, Inc., "Study of Techniques for Development of a
Low-Cost Balloon Package Compatible with the NASA OMEGA
Position-Locating Equipment Experiment," Final Report under
Contract CWB-11411, Mar. 1967.

Vaeth. J. G., "Manned Space Stations," Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society, vol. 46, No. 9, Sept. 1965. pp. 546-547.

Vetter, J. M., "Linear Tuning of a Microwave Cavity," IEEE Transaction
on Microwave Theory Technology, vol. MTT-13. No. 6. 1965. p. 880.

Wells, P. I., and Glen, D. V.. "An Automatic System for the Analysis of
Time Variant Data." ESSA Technical Report IER 9-ITSA 9.
Institutes for Environmental Research. Sept. 1966. 79 pp.

ABBREVIATIONS

ACSM — American Congress on Surveying and Mapping
AEC — Atomic Energy Commission
AFOSR — Air Force Office of Scientific Research
AGU — American Geophysical Union
AMS — American Meteorological Society

APCL — Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory. Institute for
Atmospheric Sciences. ESSA

134

ARACON Geophysics Company — A Division of Allied Research

Associates, Inc.
ARFRO — Air Resources Field Research Office
ASP — American Society of Photogrammetry
ATDL — Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Laboratory, Institute

for Atmospheric Sciences, ESSA
AWS — Air Weather Service, U.S. Air Force
CAT— Clear Air Turbulence
C&GS — Coast and Geodetic Survey, ESSA
C&GSTM — Coast and Geodetic Survey
COSPAR — Committee on Space Research
CWB — Contract Weather Bureau
EDL — Equipment Development Laboratory

Technical Memorandum

Weather Bureau,
Laboratory, Institute for

ESSA
Earth

EML — Earthquake Mechanisms
Sciences, ESSA

EOAR— European Office of Aerospace Research, U.S. Air Force

ESSA — Environmental Science Services Administration, U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce, Rockville, Md.

FAA — Federal Aviation Administration

FDM-FM — Frequency Division Multiplex-Frequency Modulation
System

GCA Corp. — Geophysical Corporation of America, Bedford, Mass.

HAO — High Altitude Observatory

HASL — Health and Safety Laboratory, Atomic Energy Commission

HF — High Frequency

HYDRO -Office of Hydrology, Weather Bureau, ESSA

I AG — International Association of Geodesy

I AMAP — International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric
Physics

I APO — International Association of Physical Oceanography

IAS — Institute for Atmospheric Sciences, ESSA

I ASH — International Association of Scientific Hydrology

IDO — Interdepartment Order (Part of an Atomic Energy Commission
order)

IEEE — Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

IER — Institutes for Environmental Research, ESSA, Boulder, Colo.

IERTM — Institutes for Environmental Research Technical Memo-
randum

IGY — International Geophysical Year

INQUA — International Quaternary

IQSY — International Years of the Quiet Sun

ITS A — Institute for Telecommunication Sciences and Aeronomy, ESSA

ITU — International Telecommunications Union
IUGG — International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics
IUWDS — International Ursigram and World Days Service
I VO — Invoice (Part of Department of Army purchasing order)
J ARE — Japanese Antarctic Research Expeditions

LF/VLF— Low Frequency/ Very Low Frequency

NASA — National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NATO — North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NAVAER — Office of Naval Aerospace Research

NAVOCEANO-U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office

NBA -Radio Station NBA, Balboa, Panama, Canal Zone

NBS — National Bureau of Standards

NCAPC — National Center for Air Pollution Control

NCAR — National Center for Atmospheric Research, University Cor-
poration for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colo.

NESC — National Environmental Satellite Center, ESSA

NHRL — National Hurricane Research Laboratory, Institute for At-
mospheric Sciences, ESSA

NMC — National Meteorological Center, Weather Bureau, ESSA

NONR-Navy Office of Naval Research

NSF— National Science Foundation

NSG — National Science Foundation Grant

NSSL — National Severe Storms Laboratory, Institute for Atmospheric
Sciences, ESSA

OAR — Office of Aerospace Research, U.S. Air Force

POL — Physical Oceanography Laboratory, Institute for Oceanography,
ESSA

PSW — Pacific Southwest Forest Range Experiment Station, U.S.
Forest Service

REEP — Regression Estimation of Event Probabilities

SAO — Smithsonian Institute Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge,
Mass.

SDO — Systems Development Office, Weather Bureau, ESSA

SHF— Superhigh Frequency

SP — Special Publication

SRDS — Systems Research and Development Service

SRI — Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, Calif.

T&EL — Test and Evaluation Laboratory, Weather Bureau, ESSA

TDL — Techniques Development Laboratory, Weather Bureau, ESSA

TELECOM -TELECOM, Inc., Arlington, Va.

TM — Technical Memorandum

TN — Technical Note

TRW — Thompson, Ramo, Woolridge [Systems]

UHF — Ultrahigh Frequency

UNESCO — United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization

URSI — International Scientific Radio Union

USAEC — U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

USWB-U.S. Weather Bureau, ESSA

WBG— Weather Bureau Grant

WBTM — Weather Bureau Technical Memorandum

WMO — World Meteorological Organization

WSR — Weather Surveillance Radar

INDEX

AAAS See American Association for the

Advancement of Science
AMOS See Automatic Meteorological Ob-

servating Station
APCL See Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry

Laboratory
APP See Air Pollution Potential
APT See Automatic Picture Transmission

(Satellites)
ARPA See Advanced Research Projects Agency
ASMOR See Automatic Standard Magnetic

Observatory — Remote
ATS-1 See Advanced Technology Satellite

(Satellites)
AVCS See Advanced Vidicon Camera Sys-
tems (Satellites)

Advanced Research Projects Agency:
with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 24
with Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory, 52
Advanced Technology Satellite, 19, 64
Advanced Vidicon Camera System, 18, 101
Advisory Board on Allocation of Oceanographic

Ship Facilities, 98
Aerial photography. See Photogrammetry

Aeronautical charts:

air navigation safety, 9

Federal Aviation Administration, 9

graphic displays, 9, 36

Inter-Agency Air Cartographic Committee, 36

operating methods, 36

prediction techniques, 9, 36
Aeronomy:

Aeronomy Laboratory, see

exosphere, 47, 48

geomagnetism, see

Institute for Telecommunication Sciences
and Aeronomy, see

ionosphere, see

plasma physics, see

radar, see

research, 10, 45

satellite measurements, See Satellite

solar disturbances, see Solar

Space and Aeronomy Data Center, 104

space disturbances, see Space

telecommunications, see

Aeronomy Laboratory:

atomic collision processes, 20, 50

environment of the ionosphere, 20

exosphere, structure of, 47

Jicamarca Radar Observatory, 6, 48, 95, 96

molecular collision processes, 20, 50

radio echo and visible trail experiments, 47

upper atmosphere and space, 45

upper ionosphere, structure of, 47
Agriculture Research Service, Dept. of Agricul-
ture, 72
Agricultural Weather Service, WB, 11
Air Conservation (AAAS Report), 3
Aircraft:

British Royal Aircraft Establishment, 70

C-47 aircraft, 90

infrared observations, 40

pilot reports, 12

RB-57F of the U.S. Air Force, 70

Research Flight Facility, see

sea surface temperature, 40

sensors, remote oceanographic, 39

storm hazards, 70

supersonic transport, 10

U-2 aircraft of the U.S. Air Force, 70

weather instrumented, 65
Air pollution:

Air Conservation (AAAS Report), 3

air pollution potential advisories, 13

Air Pollution Potential advisory program, 19

Air Resources Laboratory, see

air turbulence, 13

Aitken dust counter, 40

Aitken nuclei, 40

atmospheric electricity, 41

atmospheric physics, 40

Atomic Energy Commission, 100

carbon dioxide monitoring facility, 41

contaminants, 87

environmental pollution, see

Komhyr carbon-iodine ozone-sonde, 87

meteorological vectors, 85

meteorology of, 87

National Center for Atmospheric Research,
100

National Science Foundation, 100

New York City, 86, 87

President's Science Advisory Committee
(PSAC), 3

Air pollution — Continued

reference base, 95

Restoring the Quality of Our Environment
(PSAC Report), 3

Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.
87

studies, 100

surface deposition of airborne material. 87

U.S. Public Health Service, 87

Waste Management and Control (NAS/NRC
Report), 3

weather modification, see
Air Resources Field Office, ARL. 87
Air Resources Laboratory:

Air Resources Field Research Office. 87

atmospheric diffusion capacity. 87

atmospheric radioactivity, 87

Idaho Research Office, 87

inadvertent weather modification. 87

Meteorology and Atomic Energy (ARL Re-
port), 87

models, 87

surface deposition of airborne material. 87

with Atomic Energy Commission, 87

with Federal Radiation Council. 87

with U.S. Public Health Service. 87
Alaska:

area forecast center. Anchorage. 12

fixed strong motion stations. 81

history of earthquakes. 82

National Environmental Satellite Center.
Command and Data Acquisition Station.
Gilmore Creek. 37. 100

Space Disturbance Monitoring Facility.
Anchorage. 17

upper air stations. 43
Albuquerque Seismological Center:

Model II Strong Motion Seismograph. 52

seismological instrumentation. 25. 81. 93

seismic waves, 19
American Association for the Advancement of

Science. 3
Apollo Application Program. 32

Archiving:

Atmospheric Sciences Library, 104
data centers, 14

Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to
Computers (FOSDIC). 104

280 876 0-68— 10

135

136

Archiving— Continued

Geophysical Sciences Library, 104

Institute for Telecommunication Sciences

and Aeronomy, 14
National Oceanographic Data Center, 14,

39, 104
National Weather Records Center, 10, 37,

43, 45, 103, 104
Space and Aeronomy Data Center, 104
World Data Center for Geomagnetism, 104
Scientific Documentation Division, IER, 104
Scientific Information and Documentation

Division, ESSA, 104

Atlantic Marine Center, C&GS, 33, 37, 103

Atmosphere:

airglow, 49, 50

atmosphere-ocean, See Sea-Air

atmospheric chemistry, 9, 40, 41, 43

atmospheric physics, 9, 40

Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Lab-
oratory, see

Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Lab-
oratory, 85

Atmospheric Sciences Library, 104

atoms, 78

aurora, 46, 49

auroral zones, 80

biennial oscillation, 50

chemical reactions, 50

circulation models, 41, 42, 43

circulation patterns, 62

circulation theory, 42

cloud nuclei study, 41

cloud physics, 40

collision processes, 50

diffusion, 87

diffusion coefficients, 50

dispersion, 29

disturbances, 78

diurnal variations, 50

dynamic behavior, 40

electricity, 40

electromagnetic radiation, 77

electromagnetic wave scattering, 50

energy cycle, 42

engineering research, 85

environment studies, 55

exosphere, structure of, 47

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, 42

infrared interferometer, 58

Institute for Atmospheric Sciences, see

International Year of the Quiet Sun, 41

ionosphere, see

jet streams, 64, 65, 70

Komhyr carbon-iodine ozone-sonde, 85, 87

land-sea, see

lower atmospheric phenomena, 50

meteorology, see

mixing layer, 87

models, see

molecules, 78

National Center for Atmospheric Research,
37, 100

oscillations, 50

ozone observation stations, 41

ozone vertical distribution, 64

particles, 40

periodicities, 50

planetary boundary layer over oceans, 40

plasma physics, 50

Atmosphere — Continued

plasma physics laboratory facility, 50

pollution — See Air pollution

predictions, 41, 55

radiation flux, 57

radio refractive index structure, 75

radioactivity, 87

Severe storms, 70

semidiurnal variations, 50

solar, see

stratosphere, see

speed from cloud photographs, 66

structure, 36, 76

tides, 21

transport coefficients, theory, 50

troposphere, see

upper atmosphere, 10, 21, 45

velocity of light, 101

vertical temperature structure, 64

water budget, 62

water vapor, 64

water vapor evaporation, 75

water vapor fluctuations, 75

wind fields-turbulent zones, 85

wind-pressure relationship, 68

Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory:
Caribbean Sea, 20
Great Lakes winter storms, 89
hail modification and suppression, 89
hailstorm study, 100
hurricanes, 66
hurricane modification, 89
ice crystal development, 20
lightning modification and suppression, 89
maritime cumulus clouds, 20
Mauna Loa Observatory, 41, 95
modification of the environment, 89
pyrotechnic seeding agents, 20
rain modification, 89
sea-air interaction, 37
seeding clouds, 20
severe local storms, 66
snow modification, 89
thunderstorm period, Arizona, 90
tornadoes, 66

tropical cumulus clouds, 20
tropical cumulus modification, 89
with Department of the Army, 90
with National Hurricane Research Labora-
tory, 20
with Research Flight Facility, 99, 100

Atmospheric Sciences Library, 104

Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Lab-
oratory, 85

Atomic Energy Commission:

with Air Resources Laboratory, 87
with National Center for Atmospheric Re-
search, 100

Automatic Meteorological Observing Station,
9, 56, 94

Automatic Picture Transmission, 18, 64, 100

Automatic Standard Magnetic Observatory —
Remote, 22

Aviation:
aircraft, see
Aviation Safety and Quality Control Service,

12
Aviation Weather Service, 12
International Civil Aviation Organization, 12

B

Balloons:

constant level, 64

experiments, 58

Global Horizontal Sounding Techniques
(GHOST), 37

hydrogen inflation system, 56

infrared interferometer, 58

instrumentation, 100

instrumented constant level, 37

instrumented research, 14

low-cost fast-rise, 56

meteorological data aloft, global basis, 37

properties model, 56

radar tracking, 55, 87

range, 100

radiosonde, 55, 56

rawinsonde, 61

Satellite Infrared Spectrometer, 64

satellite interrogated, 37

superpressure, 63

trajectories, New York City, 87

United States-New Zealand GHOST system,
37

weather, 55, 56
Basic Weather Service Program, WB, 12
Bathymetry:

Aleutian Island Arc maps, 35

bathymetric maps, 13, 33, 35

bathythermographs, 40

Bowers Bank, 35

Continental Shelf, 8, 9
Bear Valley Observatory, Calif., 54
British Government:

Royal Aircraft Establishment, 70

thunderstorm studies, 70

with National Severe Storms Laboratory, 70
Bureau of Reclamation, 59, 72, 75

CRPL See Central Radio Propagation Lab-
oratory
C&GS See Coast and Geodetic Survey
CAT See Clear air turbulence
California:

Bear Valley Observatory, 54

Buena Vista Hills oil fields, tiltmeter test

facilities, 52
C&GS Field Office, San Francisco, 83
Castle Rock Magnetic Observatory, San Jose,

22, 51, 54
Department of Water Resources, 72, 83
Division of Mines and Geology, 54
Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory, San

Francisco,
Holy Cross Observatory, 54
Los Angeles Fire-Weather District, 61
Mt. Diabolo Observatory, 54
Sacramento River Forecast Center, 72
San Andreas Lake Observatory, 54
Stanford University, 24

Seismology Field Survey Office, San Fran-
cisco, C&GS, 83
Stone Canyon Geophysical Field Station,

Stone Canyon, 19, 51, 94
Stone Canyon Observatory, Stone Canyon, 54
University of California, 54

137

California — Continued

University of California at San Diego (Scripps
Institute of Oceanography), 35

University of Southern California, 35
Camera:

Advanced Vidicon Camera System, 18, 101

Automatic Picture Transmission, 18, 64, 100

BC-4 satellite tracking, 31

calibration, 31

high precision, 30

single-camera simulation model, 30

spectrographic, 58

spin-scan, 19, 64

systems, 31

tape storage, 64
Cartography:

aeronautical charts, see

automated cartography, 34

Duplication Scribecote, 36

graphic displays, 9, 36

Inter-Agency Cartographic Committee, 36

methods, 9, 34

nautical charting, 34

nautical charts, 9, 33

recreational boating, 9

research in techniques, 9

safety of navigation, 9

Castle Rock Magnetic Observatory, San Jose,

Calif., 22, 51, 54
Catalog of Meteorological Satellite Data,

EDS, 65
Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, 1, 15,

90
Clear air turbulence:

atmospheric engineering research, 85

aviation weather forecasting, 60

data collection, 61

meteorological satellite data, 64

rawinsonde ascension rate studies, 85

rawinsonde balloons, 61

studies, 60

thunderstorms, 70

turbulent zones, 85
Climatic Reference Station Program, 43
Climatology:

bioclimatology, 43, 45, 70

Bureau of Reclamation, 59, 72, 75

climatic change, 43

Climatic Reference Station Program, 43

Corps of Engineers, 72

data for models, 43

drought and its effects, 45

drought and tropicai cyclones, 43

drought, East Coast, 44

drought severity map, 44

engineering services, 85

facilities, 37

forecasts, See Forecasting, Predictions

global, 43, 45

mesoclimatic investigation, 43

mesoclimatology of Greenland, 43

observational networks, 45

Palmer Drought Index, 44

Pleistocene Ice Age, 43

precipitation climatology, 72

precipitation probabilities, 59

Reference Climatological Network, 43

radio climatology, 74, 75

radio refractive index, 75

rainfall frequency maps, 72

Rio Grande valley, 72

Climatology — Continued

services, 9

severe storm, 43

Soil Conservation Service, 72

sunspot, see

surface inversion, Alaskan upper air sta-
tions, 43

synoptic, 43, 80

Tennessee Valley Authority, 59

tree-ring series, 43

tropical cyclone rainfall, 43

U.S. Geological Survey, 72

urban, 43, 45

users of data, 10

water resources management, 45

water vapor mean zonal transport, 45

Weather in Climate Modification (NSF
Report), 3

Weather in Climate Modification Problems
and Prospects (NAS/NRC Report), 3
Coast and Geodetic Survey:

aerial photogrammetric triangulation, 32

aerial photography, color, 31

aeronautical chart requirements, 36

aeronautical charting, 9, 36

Advisory Board on Allocation of Oceano-
raphic Ship Facilities, 98

air pollution, 19

airport obstruction charts, 103

Albuquerque Seismologieal Center, see

analytic aerotriangulation, 32

Atlantic Marine Center, 33, 37, 103

automated cartography, 34, 103

communication networks, 102

computer-plotter, 34, 103

conventional triangulation, 32

digital tide gages, 35

Disaster Warning System, 21

Dugout Test, 84

Earthquake Early Reporting System, 17

Earthquake Information Bulletin, 17

earthquake prediction, 51-55

earthquake-resistant structures, 10

Engineering Division, 24, 33, 37, 93

engineering seismology, 13

epicenters, 25

ESSA, 1, 3

ESSA Ocean Data Acquisition System, 33, 35

estuarine studies, 13, 35

fixed strong motion stations, 81

Fredericksburg Geomagnetic Center, 21, 22,
81,93

geodetic engineering, 84

geodesy, 8, 28

Geodimeter, laser, 19, 29

geomagnetic data, 102

geomagnetism program, 7

Geophysics Research Group, 83

Helmholz coils, 93, 94

hydrographic data, 103

hydrographic surveys, 36

hypocenter location, 25, 27

Interocean Canal Project, 84

land-sea interactions, 33

laser Geodimeter, 19

Lunar Exploration Program, 32

magnetic observatories, 42, 94

magnetic research, 94

magnetic services. 94

marine geodesy, 30

marine geodetic observations, 30

marine geology, 33

Coast and Geodetic Survey — Continued
moon, geodetic-topographic mission, 32
National Earthquake Information Center, 2,

15, 25
Natural Disaster Warning System, 2, 14, 51
nautical charting, 34
ocean bottom mineral deposits, 84
ocean current velocity data, 32
oceanographic data acquisition systems, 33
oceanographic surveys, 36
oceanography, 33
Office of Geodesy and Photogrammetry,

27, 29, 93
Office of Seismology and Geomagnetism,

51,53,81
Pacific Marine Center, 33, 34, 37, 103
photogrammetric test and calibration range.

29
photogrammetry, 32
Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake

study, C&CS Publication 10-3, 1966.

82,83
range-range control system, 34
Research Division, 15
responsibilities, 5
rock mechanics, 13
San Francisco, Field Office, 83
satellite triangulation, 28, 32
Satellite Triangulation Division, 29, 93
scanner-digitizer, 22
scientific data processing, 102
SEAMAP surveys, 39
seismic waves travel time, 26, 27
seismic strong-motion stations. 83
Seismograph, Strong Motion. Model II. 52
seismology. 25, 27, 102
Seismology Division, 83
Seismologieal Field Survey Office. San

Francisco, Calif., 83
seismologieal instrumentation, 93
ships, 19, 33-38, 97, 98, 99
soil mechanics, 13, 83
strong motion program. 13. 82
structure design, 13. 19
support. 93

survey of damaged buildings. 84
telescopes, 94, 95
tide research program, 35
tide studies, 35
tiltmeter test facility. 52
tiltmeters, 52
tsunami prediction. 51. 55
tsunami research, 15
Tsunami Warning Center. Honolulu. Hawaii.

10.15.51.96
Tsunami Warning Network. 102
tsunami warning system. 2, 15, 51, 54, 55,

83, 96, 102
underwater gravity ranges. 29
Underwater Stable Platform. 24. 96
USCGS ship Davidson, 97
USCGS ship Discoverer, 19. 33. 97
USCGS ship Explorer. 38
USCGS ship Fainveather, 97
USCGS ship Ferrell, 97
USCGS ship Heck. 97
USCGS ship Marmer. 33
USCGS ship McArthur. 97
USCGS ship Mt. Mitchell. 97
USCGS ship Oceanographer. 19. 33. 97
USCGS ship Peirce. 32. 38
USCGS ship Pioneer. 34

138

Coast and Geodetic Survey — Continued
USCGS ship Rainier, 97
USCGS ship Researcher, 33, 97
USCGS ship Rude, 97
USCGS ship Whiting, 33, 36
with Advanced Research Projects Agency, 24
with California Department of Water Re-
sources, 83
with Department of Defense, 31
with Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory,

21, 51
with Federal Council for Science and Tech-
nology, 19
with Geomagnetism Laboratory, IES, 24, 96
with Institute for Earth Sciences, 10, 15, 96
with Institute for Oceanography, 15, 33, 35,

36, 51
with Interagency Committee on Oceanog

raphy, 19
with Lamont Geological Observatory, Co-
lumbia University, 83
with Land and Sea Interaction Laboratory, 33
with National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration, 31
with National Bureau of Standards, 13
with Pacific Oceanography Laboratory, 33, 37
with Physical Oceanography Laboratory, 37
with Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 35
with Tokyo Institute of Geophysics, 83
with University of California, 54
with University of Washington, 35
World Data Center for Geomagnetism, 104
worldwide geomagnetic data network, 102
Worldwide Standard Seismograph Network,
6, 8, 24, 102
Colorado:

Aeronomy Laboratory, Boulder
Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Labora-
tory, Boulder
Central Radio Propagation Laboratory,

Boulder
State University, 65
Fort Collins, 91

Fritz Peak Observatory, Boulder, 49
Geomagnetism Laboratory, Boulder
Institute for Atmospheric Sciences, Boulder
Institute tor Earth Sciences, Boulder
Institute for Telecommunication Sciences

and Aeronomy, Boulder
Institutes for Environmental Research,

Boulder
Ionospheric Telecommunications Laboratory,

Boulder
South Platte River, 72

Space and Aeronomy Data Center, Boulder
Space Disturbance Laboratory, Boulder
Table Mountain field site, 74
Table Mountain Observatory, 80
Tropospheric Telecommunications Labora-
tory, Boulder
Tropospheric Wave Propagation Laboratory,

Boulder
University of Colorado, 76
Command and Data Acquisition Stations,

NESC, 18, 37, 100, 101
Communication networks:

Air Force teletype circuits, 102
National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration, 102
Nationwide Natural Disaster Warning Sys-
tem, 2, 14, 102
Navy teletype circuits, 102

Communications networks — Continued

Tsunami Warning Network, 102

Washington-Moscow data link, 102

Weather Bureau, 14, 102

worldwide ionosonde network, 102

Worldwide Standard Seismograph Network,
6, 8, 24, 102
Continental Shelf:

bathymetry, 8, 9

Cape Cod — Maine Coast, 30

economic development of, 30

ESSA survey fleet, 9

Grand Manan Island, 30

Jacksonville — Cape Kennedy, Fla., 30

marine environmental forecasting, 61

Marine Forecast Centers, 61

marine geomagnetism, 9, 24

marine gravity, 9

ocean currents, 9

ODESSA System, 19

sediment characteristics of, 35

storm surge, 39

Upper Mantle Project, 34
Corps of Engineers, 72
Currents, See Tides and currents
Cyclones:

cloud formations, 66

cloud spirals, 65

comma-shaped clouds, 66

drought and tropical cyclones, 43

extratropical, 63

forecasting, 42

intensity, tropical, 66

precipitation, 43

prediction, 42, 66

Project STORM CLOUD, 65

rainfall, tropical, 43

satellite data, 64, 65

systems, 59

time lapse photographs, 65

tropical, 43, 66, 68

winter-type, 63

D

DACAN See Data Acquisition and Analysis
Data Acquisition and Analysis system, 52,
Department of Agriculture:

Agriculture Research Service, 72
Soil Conservation Service, 72
Department of Commerce:

Program, Category IV, The Physical En-
vironment, 3
A — Weather Forecasts and Warning

Services, 5
B — Description, Mapping and Charting

of the Earth, 5
C— Oceanographic and Hydrographic

Services, 5
D — River and Flood Prediction and Warn-
ing Services, 5
E — Telecommunications and Space Serv-
ices, 5
F — Satellite Services, 5
G — Environmental Data Services, 5
H — Research, 3, 5
Technical Advisory Board, 3
Telecommunications Panel, 3
with Department of Defense, 31
with National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration, 31

Department of Defense:

clear air turbulence study, 85

Department of the Air Force, see

Department of the Army, see

Department of the Navy, see

ESSA telecommunication data, use of, 7

Project STORMFURY, 100

with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 31

with Department of Commerce, 31
Department of the Air Force:

ESSA weather radar rerhoting system, use
of, 58, 59

with National Meteorological Center, 102, 103

with National Severe Storms Laboratory,
69, 70
Department of the Army, 90
Department of the Navy:

ESSA Ocean Data Acquisition System
(ODESSA), 96

ESSA weather radar remoting system, use
of, 58

Fleet Numerical Weather Facility, 63

Navy Weather Research Facility, 89

Project STORMFURY, 89

satellite navigation system, 35

with National Meteorological Center, 102

with Techniques Development Laboratory, 63

E

ECCRO See Eastern Caribbean Cooperative
Reconnaissance Operation (Hurricanes)
EDL See Equipment Development Laboratory
EDS See Environmental Data Service
ESSA (Environmental Survey Satellite), 5,

see also TOS
Earthquakes:

aftershocks, 54, 82

areas, West Coast, 83

Chilean earthquake of 1966, 82

Dulce, N. Mex., earthquake of 1966, 53, 82

Earthquake Early Reporting System, 17

Earthquake Information Bulletin, 17, 25

Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory, see

epicenter, C&GS, 25

fault creep, Almaden Winery, Calif., 54

fault creep, Hayward Fault, Calif., 54

fault creep, San Andreas fault, 24, 54

fault zones, 51, 94

field investigations, 82

focal depths, 27

foreshocks, 54

Fourier spectra, 53

geomagnetism, see

ground motion studies, 83

hazards, 26

history, Alaska, 82

history, United States, 83

hypocenter depths, 27

hypocenter locations, 25, 27

Institute for Earth Sciences, see

intensity distribution in macroseismic area,
82

magnitude values, 25

maximum intensity maps, 84

mechanisms, 24, 51, 53

Mexico earthquake of 1965, 53, 82

microearthquake detection stations, 54

microseisms, 83

National Earthquake Information Center,
2, 15, 25

139

Earthquakes — Continued

Parkfield, Calif., earthquakes of 1966, 54, 82

Portable Land Stations, 52

postearthquake structural damage, 82

prediction, 24, 27, 51, 54, 82

Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake
aftershock sequence, 27

Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake,
March 1964, 10, 24, 26, 27, 34, 53, 82, 83

Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake
study, C&GS Publication 10-3, 1966,
54, 82, 83

Puget Sound, Wash., earthquake of 1965,
53, 82

Puget Sound, Wash., earthquakes, 53

Rat Island, Alaska, earthquake, 1967, 82

Rat Islands, Alaska, earthquakes, 53

research, 10, 51, 74

Richter Scale, 17

Seismology, see

school buildings, 19, 84

seismic building codes, 83, 84

Stone Canyon Geophysical Field Station,
Stone Canyon, Calif., 19, 51, 94

strain meter, 51, 94

strain release maps, 84

structural design criteria, 13, 81

structural design engineers, 83

structures, earthquake-resistant, 10, 19,
24, 84

submarine earthquake, 55

teleseismology, 8, 26

tiltmeter, 51, 52, 94

tiltmeter test facility, 52

Truckee, Calif., earthquake, 54
Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory:

Data Acquisition and Analysis system
(DACAN), 52

earthquake and tsunami research, 51

earthquake mechanisms studies, 10, 24

earthquake resistant structures, 10

fault creep, 54

land-based stations and platforms, 94

Large Aperture Seismic Arrays (LASA),
52, 53

microearthquakes, 54

Natural Disaster Warning System, see

P-wave tables, 27

Portable Land Stations, 52

weather station, automatic-recording, 51

with Advanced Research Projects Agency, 52

with California Division of Mines and Geol-
ogy, 54

with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 21, 51

with Institute for Oceanography, 21, 51

with University of Hawaii, 51
Eastern Caribbean Cooperative Reconnais-
sance Operation, 67
Effective Use of the Sea (PSAC Report), 3
Electronic Industries Association, 91
Environmental Data Service:

Aeronomy and Space Data Center, 104

air conditioning system energy requirements,
85

archiving, 14

Catalog of Meteorological Satellite Data, 65

climatology, 37, 43

climatological engineering services, 85

ESSA, 1

Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to
Computers (FOSDIC), 104

hydrological engineering services, 85

Environmental Data Service — Continued
Interagency Committee on Oceanography,

104
National Weather Records Center, 37, 45,

103, 104
National Weather Record Center publica-

- tions, 10
rain gage data, 103
responsibilities, 5
services provided, 93
storage and retrieval of data, 94
urban climatology, 45
World Data Center for Geomagnetism, 104

Environmental pollution:
Air Conservation (AAAS Report), 3
air pollution, see
Air Resources Laboratory, see
American Association for the Advancement

of Science, 3
atmospheric radioactivity, 87
Atomic Energy Commission, 87
carbon-14, 87
cesium-137, 87

estuarine flushing predictions, 13
Federal Radiation Council, 87
flood predictions, necessity, 13
pollution chemistry, 13
President's Science Advisory Committee

(PSAC), 3
radioactive fallout, 13
Restoring the Quality of Our Environment

(PSAC Report), 3
river flow forecasts, 13
strontium-90, 87
Waste Management and Control (NAS/NRC

Report), 3

Equipment Development Laboratory:
development and test facilities, 94
flash flood alarm, 71
humidity gages, 55
hurricanes, 59
hydrology, 71

infrared absorption hygrometers, 55
lithium bromide dew cell, 55
meteorological equipment, 55
National Hurricane Center, see
precipitation data display, 58
remote weather sensors, 58
research instrumentation, 37
responsibilities, 55
severe local conditions, 59
solar radiation, 71
storage precipitation gage, 71
television, 59
weather forecasting, 55
weather radar, 58
weather radar remoting system, 58
with Institute for Telecommunication Sci-
ences and Aeronomy, 37
with National Hurricane Center, 59
with Research Flight Facility, 55
with Test and Evaluation Laboratory, 59

ESSA:

Commerce Department Order 2A, 1

development program, 21

engineering programs, 7, 21

ESSA Ocean Data Acquisition System, 10,

19, 33, 35, 96, 97
facilities and resources, 5
funds, distribution of, 6
management, 15

ESSA — Continued

marine environmental activities, 3

mission, 1

objectives, 1

organization, 3, 4, 15

products, 3, 7

professional achievements, 20

Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1965, 1

research and development, 19, 21

resources, 1

science programs, 7

services, 3, 7, 15, 81, 93

staff offices, 5

supporting facilities, 14, 93

world weather programs, 2

FAA See Federal Aviation Administration

FOSDIC See Film Optical Sensing Device
for Input to Computers
Federal Aviation Administration:

aeronautical charting, 9

ESSA weather radar remoting system, use
of, 58

Federal Airways System, 9

National Aviation Facilities Experimental
Center, 56, 94

Systems Research and Development Serv-
ice, 57

with Weather Bureau, 94
Federal Bureau of Investigation:

with Tropospheric Telecommunications
Laboratory, 17
Federal Council for Science and Technology:

with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 19
Federal Radiation Council:

with Air Resources Laboratory, 87
Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Com-
puters (FOSDIC), 104
Fire Weather Service, WB, 2. 12
Fleet Numerical Weather Facility, U.S. Navy,

63
Florida:

National Hurricane Research Laboratory.
Miami

Physical Oceanography Laboratory. Miami

Research Flight Facility. Miami
Forecast Centers:

area, 12

Aviation, 60

Fort Worth River. 71

Marine, 61

National Severe Storm, Kansas City, Mo..
12,59

River, 70, 71, 72

Severe Local Storms, 12

Sacramento River, 72

Space Disturbance, see

Weather Bureau. Cincinnati, Ohio. 19
Forecasting, see also Predictions. Warnings:

agriculture weather, 61

air conditioning loads, 85

air turbulence, 60

Analysis and Forecasts Division. NMC. 12

Antecedent Precipitation Index. 71

Aviation Weather Service. WB. 12

centralized preparation of data analysis. 12

convective storms, 70

cyclones. 42

Eastern United States, 60. 62

140

Forecasting— Continued

estuary flushing, 13

Extended Forecast Division, NMC, 55

extended range, 62

fine resolution grid, 42

fire weather, 61

Fire Weather Service, 12

floods, 2

fog, 60

global, 42

guidance forecast charts, 19

hemispheric, 42, 62, 63

high to low ceiling, 60

hurricanes, 2

local forecast offices, 12

long-range, 62

marine environmental, 2, 61

Marine Weather Service, WB, 12

National Meteorological Center, see

nationwide, 102

ocean wave forecasting, 63

operational, 59, 63

operational numerical, 62

precipitation, 63

precipitation anomalies, 63

precipitation probabilities, 59

probability forecasting, 18

radiation, 42

Regression Estimates of Event Probabilities,

59,60

river, 2, 5, 13, 70, 71, 72, 103

river, automation, 72, 103

sea surface temperature, use of, 42

seiche, 63

severe convective storms, 70

severe local storms, 2

solar activity, 76

solar disturbance, 76

solar weather, 77

statewide forecasts, 12

statistical, 63
storm surge, 40, 63

surface temperatures, 60

techniques development, 59

Techniques Development Laboratory, 59

tornadoes, 2

tropical, 42, 62

tropical circulation studies, 42

tropical condensation rates, 42

wave, 63

zone forecast offices, 12
Fredericksburg Geomagnetic Center, Corbin,

Va., 21, 22, 81, 93, 94
Fritz Peak Observatory, Boulder, Colo., 49

GFDL See Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Labora-
tory
GHOST See Global Horizontal Sounding Tech-
nique (Satellites)
Geodesy:

astronomical observations required, 8, 27

bubble gages, 28

datum, 28

deflection of the vertical, 28

development and test facilities, 93

earth crust movement, 32

ellipsoid, 28

ellipsoid, optimum, 30

Geodesy — Continued

geodetic control, earthquake studies, 52

geodetic engineering services, C&GS, 84

Geodetic Laboratory, 32

geodetic-photogrammetric measuring sys-
tems, 32

geodetic survey, 27

Geodimeter, 29

Geodimeter, laser, 19, 29

geoid, 28, 30

geoid, undulation of, 28

geomagnetic data required, 8

gravimeters, 29

gravity measurements, 8

gravity meter, absolute, 29

gravity meter, pendulum type, 29

gravity meter, relative, 29

marine geodesy, See Marine gravity and
geodesy

national mapping program, 8

Office of Geodesy and Photogrammetry,
C&GS, 27, 29, 93

photogrammetric techniques, 31, 32

plumb bobs, 28

research facilities, 28

research program, 9

satellite triangulation, See

studies after the Prince William Sound,

Alaska, earthquake of 1964, 54
underwater gravity ranges, 93
velocity of light due to atmospheric fluc-
tuations, 101

World Datum, 28, 30
Geodetic Laboratory, IES, 32
Geomagnetism Laboratory, IES, 21, 24, 96
Geomagnetism:

Antarctica, instrumentation for, 22

Antarctica Plateau Station, 22

Automatic Standard Magnetic Observation-
Remote (ASMOR), 22

Castle Rock Magnetic Observatory, 22

charts, geomagnetic field, 81

C&GS Office of Seismology and Geomagnet-
ism, 51, 81

earthquakes, see

earth's magnetic field model, 24

electromagnetic energy, 48

engineering activities, 81

ESSA program, 7, 8

.Fredericksburg Geomagnetic Center, 21, 22,
81,93

geomagnetic disturbances, 49

geomagnetic field lines, 80

geomagnetic storms, 77

geomagnetic studies, 24, 48

Geomagnetism Laboratory, 21, 24, 96

hydromagnetic signals, 49

hydromagnetic waves, 49

June solstice period, 49

magnetic environment in space, 93

magnetic field, simulated, 93

magnetic storms, 21, 79

magnetogram, 23, 24, 25

magnetograph, 22

magnetohydrodynamic energy, 48

magnetometer, 21, 22

magnetometer, rubidium vapor, 22

marine geomagnetism, 24

Newport Geophysical Observatory, Newport,
Wash., 22

repeat survey instrumentation, 22

research facilities, 21

Geomagnetism — Continued

scanner-digitizer, 22

South Pole Magnetic Observatory, 21

space conditions, simulated, 93

Underwater Stable Platform, see

U.S. magnetic observatories, 95

variometer, geomagnetic field, 51

World Data Center for Geomagnetism, 104

worldwide geomagnetic data network, 102
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory:

aerological data, Northern Hemisphere, 42

atmosphere and ocean models, 37,41, 103

atmospheric energy cycle study, 42

barotropic model, 63

circulation model, 65

experimental prediction, 41, 42

hurricanes, 66

kinetic energy balance study, 42

observational studies, 41, 42

ocean and atmosphere models, 37, 41, 103

sea-air interaction, 37

severe local storms, 66

theoretical studies, 41

tornadoes, 66

2-week predictions, 42

4-day hemispheric forecasts, 42

with Institute for Oceanography, 66
Geophysical Sciences Library, 104
Geophysics:

atmosphere, see

geodesy, see

geomagnetism, see

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, see

Geophysics Research Group, C&GS, 83

Geophysical Sciences Library, 104

hydrology, see

magnetism, see

marine geology, see

marine geophysics, See Marine geology and
geophysics

meteorology, see

Newport Geophysical Observatory, Newport,
Wash., 22

oceanography, see

proposed field station, Marin County,
Calif., 54

seismology, see

Stone Canyon Geophysical Field Station,
Stone Canyon, Calif., 19, 51, 64

transient geophysical phenomena, 79

Upper Mantle Project, 34
Geophysics Research Group, C&GS, 83
Global Horizontal Sounding Technique

(GHOST), 37, 38
Global Solar Flare Patrol, 102

H

HANDS See High Altitude Nuclear Detection
System (Space Disturbance Laboratory)

Hawaii:

area forecast center, Honolulu

Joint Tsunami Research Effort, Honolulu

Mauna Loa Observatory, Hilo

National Tsunami Warning Center, Honolulu

Tsunami Warning Center, Honolulu

University of Hawaii, 15, 51, 55

High Altitude Nuclear Detection Studies
(HANDS), 79, 102, 103

Holy Cross Observatory, Calif., 54

141

Hurricanes:

Alma (1966), 67, 68
Bahama Islands, 66
Becky (1966), 67
Betsy (1965), 40, 66, 72
Caribbean Sea, 89
causes and origins, 68
cloud patterns, 67
coastal water level prediction, 66
community model plan, 2
Debbie (1965), 66
Donna (1960), 39, 40, 66
Dora (1964), 66
easterly wave studies, 66
Eastern Caribbean Cooperative Reconnais-
sance Operation, 67
ESSA agencies, 66

heat and water vapor exchange model, 40
Florida, 66
flying, 67

forecasting model, 68
Gulf of Mexico, 40, 66
Hurricane Laboratory, 100
intensity, 66
Lesser Antilles, 66
Louisiana, 66

mesoscale meteorology, 55
Mississippi River Delta, 72
model, 66
modification, 89
National Hurricane Center, see
National Hurricane Research Laboratory, see
National Hurricane Warning Service, 12
prediction, 66, 68

Project STORM FURY, 88, 89, 100
Research Flight Facility, 59, 66, 67, 90, 99
theoretical model, 66
tropical cyclones, 66
upper-level cold vortices studies, 66
warning dissemination, 59

Hydrography:
bathymetry, see
Coast Pilot information, 9
coastal waters, 8
computer-plotter system, 33, 34
Continental Shelf, 9
data, automation, 103
deep ocean basins, 9
descriptive oceanography, 33
estuaries, 8
nautical charts, 9
programs, 9

range-range control system, 34
recreational boating, 9
research and development in, 35
safety of marine navigation, 9
smooth .sheet, 34
studies, 8, 34
studies after the Prince William Sound,

Alaska, earthquake of 1964, 54
survey ships, 33, 97
surveys, 9

Hydrology:

Agriculture Research Service, 72

Bureau of Reclamation, 75

California Department of Water Resources,

72
Corps of Engineers, 72
dams, 71
drought, 45, 70
drought and its effects, 45

Hydrology — Continued

drought and tropical cyclones, 43

drought, East Coast, 44

drought severity map, 44

evaporation, lake, 72

evaporation rate, 75

evaporation, soil, 71

evaporation studies, inland, 75, 101

evaporation, water vapor, 75

geology conditions, 83

hydrologic cycle, 42

hydrologic cycle model, 72

hydrological engineering services, 85

hurricane rainfall, 72

lake evaporation computation, 72

land-air, see

models, see

Office of Hydrology, WB, 13, 71, 72, 85, 103

Palmer Drought Index, 44

precipitation climatology, 72

precipitation gage, 71

precipitation, storm, 69

radio refractometer, 75

rain gage data, automation, 103

rainfall frequency maps, 72

rainfall runoff, 71

research, 71

river forecasting, See Forecasting,

Predictions
sea-air, see

snow cover, satellite photographs, 72
snow melt energy budget, 72
snow pillows, 72
snow, potential runoff, 72
Soil Conservation Service, 72
storage precipitation gage, 71
storm precipitation, 69
storm rainfall, 72
surface hydrology, 42
tropical cyclone rainfall, 43
Twin Lakes, American River Basin, 72
U.S. Geological Survey, 72
water conservationists, 75
water management structures, 71
water resources management, 70
winter precipitation, 59

IACC See Inter-Agency Air Cartographic
Committee

IAS See Institute for Atmospheric Sciences

ICAO See International Civil Aviation Orga-
nization

IER See Institutes for Environmental Research

IES See Institute for Earth Sciences

IGY See International Geophysical Year

IO See Institute for Oceanography

IQSY See International Year of the 0u'et Sun

IRIS See Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer
(Satellite)

IRLS See Interrogation, Recording and Loca-
tion system (Satellite)

ITL See Ionospheric Telecommunications
Laboratory

ITOS See Improved TOS satellite

ITSA See Institute for Telecommunication Sci-
ences and Aeronomy

Idaho:

Idaho Research Office, Air Resources Lab-
oratory, 87

Institute for Atmospheric Sciences:
Air Resources Laboratory, see
Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Lab-
oratory, see
Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Lab-
oratory, 85
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, see
Meteorological Statistics Group, 50
National Hurricane Research Laboratory, see
National Severe Storms Laboratory, see
New Vork University-ESSA program, 100
Office of Meteorological Research, 15
Research Flight Facility, see
research responsibilities, 5
Institute for Earth Sciences:

Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory, see
Geodetic Laboratory. 32
Geomagnetic Laboratory, 21, 24
research responsibilities, 5
with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 10. 15. 96
Institute for Oceanography:

Joint Oceanography Research Group, see
Joint Tsunami Research Effort, see
Land and Sea Interaction Laboratory, see
Marine Geology and Geophysics Laboratory,

see
Natural Disaster Warning System, see
Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory, see
Physical Oceanographic Laboratory, see
research responsibilities. 5
Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory, see
with Coast and Geodetic Survey. 15, 33, 35,

36, 51
with Earthquake Mechanisms Laboratory,

21, 51
with Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Labora-
tory, 66
with National Hurricane Research Labora-
tory. 66
with National Severe Storms Laboratory. 66
with Research Flight Facility. 66. 100
with University of Hawaii. 51
Institute for Telecommunication Sciences and
Aeronomy:
Aeronomy Laboratory, see
Central Radio Propagation Laboratory. 1.

15, 90
Ionospheric Telecommunications Laboratory.

see
research instrumentation, 37

research responsibilities. 3. 5. 10. 13
Space and Aeronomy Data Center. 104
Space Disturbance Laboratory, see
Space Disturbances Monitoring Facility. 17
Table Mountain Observatory. 80
Tropospheric Telecommunications Labora-
tory, see
with Equipment Development Laboratory. 37
with National Bureau of Standards. 15. 91
worldwide ionosonde network. 73. 102

Institutes for Environmental Research:
ESSA, 1. 3

establishment of, 1. 15
Institute for Atmospheric Sciences, see
Institute for Earth Sciences, see
Institute for Oceanography, see
Institute for Telecommunication Sciences and

Aeronomy, see
research responsibilities. 5

Inter-Agency:

Air Cartographic Committee. 36
Committee on Oceanography. 19. 104
Disaster Warning Survey Group. 15

142

International:

Association of Physical Oceanography, 38

Civil Aviation Organization, 12

Deep Sea Tide Program, 38

Frequency Registration Board, 91

Geophysical Year, 25, 41

Radio Consultative Committee, 92

Upper Mantle Project, 26, 34

Year of the Quiet Sun, 41
Interocean Canal Project:

Dugout Test, C&GS, 84

feasibility study, 84

Weather Bureau studies, 12
Interrogation, Recording, and Location Sys-
tem, 64
Ionosphere:

acoustic disturbances, 79

acoustic-gravity waves, 79

airglow, 49, 50

atomic collision processes, 20, 50

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, 1, 15,
90

changes, 78

conditions, simulated, 50

currents, 49

disturbances, 73, 74, 78, 80

drift profiles, 47

D region, 50, 78, 96

E-layer reflection, 70

E region, 78, 79

earth-ionosphere waveguide, 73

Ebert spectrometer, 78

electron density, 80

electron-density profiles, 47, 48, 73, 96

electron precipitation, 80

equatorial electrojet, 24

F region, 50, 78

Fi region, 79

Fz region, 72, 79

Fabry-Perot interferometer, 78

galactic noise signal, 80

ground wave, 14

ground-based radio soundings, 46

gun-launched visible trail experiments, 47

infrasonic waves, 79

infrasonics stations, 79

interactions, 78

interferometer, 78

interferometer, infrared, 58

ionograms, 46, 47

Ionospheric Telecommunications Laboratory,
see

irregular medium, 74

Jicamarca Radar Observatory, Peru, 6, 48, 95

lower ionosphere, structure, 45

mapping, 20

model irregular ionospheres, 74

modification, 14

molecular collision processes, 20, 50

motions, 46

navigation systems, 73

negative ion reactions, 50

noctilucent cloud study, 46

nuclear explosions, 73, 79, 80

polar cap absorption, 79

precipitation of high energy electrons, 79

predictions, 73

propagation, 73

propagation studies, 73, 74

radio echo technique, 47

radio frequency resonances, 90

radio propagation, 14

Ionosphere — Continued

radio ray tracing, 74

radiometer, 40, 78

radio waves, 8, 14, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 91

radio measurements of motion, 46

refractometer, space radio, 76

research, 10

riometer, 80

scatter communications, 74

solar flare effects, 79

sounder, 73

sounding rockets, See Rockets

spectrometer, Ebert, 78

sweep-frequency soundings, 46

telecommunications, see

topside sounder, 48

transient geophysical phenomena, 79

upper ionosphere, 95

upper ionosphere, structure, 47

waveguide mode, nighttime, 73

worldwide ionosonde network, 73
Ionospheric Telecommunications Laboratory:

antennas, 90

communications technology, 90

high-frequency ground backscatter, 74

high-frequency radar echoes, 74

high-power radar transmitter, 91

information transmission, 90, 91

mapping the ionosphere, 20

model irregular ionospheres, 74

solar disturbances detection, 78

telecommunications, 20, 73

radio frequency spectrum, 90

JORG See Joint Oceanographic Research Group
JTRE See Joint Tsunami Research Effort
Jicamarca Radar Observatory, Peru, 6, 48, 95,

96
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics

Laboratory, 80
Johnson, Lyndon B., See President Johnson
Joint Tsunami Research Effort, 15, 51, 55
Joint Oceanographic Research Group, 35, 37, 40

LASIL See Land and Sea Interaction Labora-
tory
Lamont Geological Observatory, 83
Land and Sea Interaction Laboratory:

bathymetric maps, 35

beach deposition, predicting, 35

beach erosion, predicting, 35

beach-ocean response, 84

beach sediments, 35

descriptive oceanography, 33

estuarine sediments, 84

land-sea interactions, 33, 35

near-shore sediments, 35

shore facilities, 33

with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 33

with University of California, 35
Lunar Exploratory Program, 32

M

Mesonet See Mesometeorological network
(Meteorology)

MGGL See Marine Geology and Geophysics

Laboratory
MMO See Main Meteorological Offices, NMC
MSL See Meteorological Satellite Laboratory
Main Meteorological Offices, NMC, 12
Marine Environmental Activities:

Effective Use of the Sea (PS AC Report), 3

major objective areas, 3, 21

Marine Resources and Engineering Develop-
ment Act of June 17, 1966, 3

Marine Resources and Engineering Devel-
opment Council, 3
Marine Geology and Geophysics Laboratory:

fracture zone, Pacific Ocean, 34

geology, 33

geomagnetic research facilities, 21

magnetic profiling, 34

Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake, 34

salt dome, De Soto Canyon Area, 34

shore research facilities, 33
Marine geology and geophysics:

Andaman Sea, 34

basement ridge, 34

bathymetric studies, 34, 35

bottom photography, 35

Continental Shelf, 34, 35

descriptive oceanography, 33

ESSA programs, 8, 9

fracture zone, Pacific Ocean, 34

Gulf of Mexico, 34

Hawaiian-Aleutian Islands, 34

heat flow investigation, 34

heat flow surveys, 34

International Upper Mantle Project, 34

magnetic anomaly bands, 34

magnetic profiling, 34

Marine Geology and Geophysics Laboratory,
see

"Miami Terrace," 34

Mid-Atlantic ridge system, 34

Montague Island, Alaska, 34

ocean basins, origin of, 34

ocean bottom heating, 34

oil industry, 34

Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory, 34

Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake
study, C&GS Publication 10-3, 1966, 82,
83

rift valley, 34

salt dome, De Soto Canyon area, 34

sea floor heat flow, 34

sea floor upthrusting, Montague Island,
Alaska, 34

sediment studies, 34, 35

seismic profiler records, 34

submarine flanks of active volcanos, 35

submarine mountain peaks, 34

transcontinental geophysical survey, 34

undersea valley, 34

underwater volcanos, 35

USCGS ship Pioneer, 34

U.S. Geological Survey, 35

Upper Mantle Project, 30, 34
Marine gravity and geodesy:

bottom gravity meter, 30

bottom gravity stations, 30

Continental Shelf, 9, 30

electronic positioning system, 30

geodetic control, 30

geodetic observations, 29, 30

geodetic surveys, 30

International Upper Mantle Project, 34

143

Marine gravity and geodesy — Continued
Marine Environmental Activities, 21
shipborne gravity meters, 30
surface gravity values, 30
underwater gravity ranges, 29
Underwater Stable Platform, 30
Upper Mantle Project, 30
Maryland:

Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Rockville
Environmental Data Service, Silver Spring
Equipment Development Laboratory, Silver

Spring
Geodetic Laboratory, Rockville
Hydrological Research and Development

Laboratory, Silver Spring
Institute for Oceanography, Silver Spring
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics

Laboratory, Silver Spring
Laboratory for Environmental Data Research,

Silver Spring
Marine Geology and Geophysics Laboratory,

Silver Spring
Meteorological Satellite Laboratory, Suitland
Meteorological Statistics Group, Silver Spring
National Earthquake Information Center,

Rockville
National Environmental Satellite Center,

Suitland
National Meteorological Center, Suitland
Physical Oceanography Laboratory, Silver

Spring
Satellite Equipment Laboratory, Suitland
Satellite Triangulation Division Development,

Testing, and Training Facility, Beltsville
Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory, Silver Spring
Weather Bureau, Silver Spring
Weather Bureau Systems Development Of-
fice, Silver Spring
Weather Bureau Techniques Development

Laboratory, Silver Spring
Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, 41, 95
Meteorological Satellite Laboratory:
hurricanes, 67

meteorological satellite data, 64
satellites, 67

secondary cloud spirals, 65
tropical weather analysis, 67
typhoons, 67
Meteorologists:
airline, 59, 70
consulting, 11
industrial, 11
operating, 58
radar, 58
Meteorology:

Automatic Meteorological Observing Station,

9, 56, 94
automatic observatory, 56
balloons, see
Catalog of Meteorological Satellite Data,

(EDS), 65
clear air turbulence, see
data aloft, global basis, 37
data handling, 58
data, satellite collection of, 18
display systems, 58
Doppler radar, 70, 95
facilities, 55

forecasts, See Forecasting, Predictions
Global Horizontal Sounding Technique,

(GHOST), 37

Meteorology — Continued

gravitational tide, 50

humidity gages, 55

hurricane mesoscale meteorology, 55

hygrometers, 55

hygrometers, infrared absorption, 55

interferometers, infrared, 58

Interferometer Spectrometer, Infrared, 64

instruments, 55, 58

Intertropic Convergence Zone, 65

Jalbert Wing, 100

jet streams, 64, 65, 70

Komhyr carbon-iodine ozone-sonde, 87

lunar thermal tides, 50

lithium bromide dew cell, 55

mesometeorological network, 56, 94, 95

mesoscale, 55

meteorological physics, 74, 75, 76

Meteorological Satellite Laboratory, see

Meteorological Statistics Group, 50

meteorologists, see

Meteorology and Atomic Energy (ARL Re-
port), 87

models, see

National Meteorological Center, see

National Meteorological Service System, 58

observation stations, 55, 56

processing observations, 103

oxygen band, 58, 64

ozone, global measurements of, 64

ozone, vertical displacement of, 64

Plan Position Indicator, 58

pressure instrumentation, digitized, 55

Project ECCRO, 67

radar transponders, 56

radio, 73, 74

radio climatology, 74, 75

radio meteorology, 73, 74, 101

radio refractive index, 75

radio refractive index turbulence, 75

radio refractometer, 75, 76

radiometer, infrared, 40, 64, 78

radiosonde stations, 95

recast electrochemical sonde, 87

regener luminescent sonde, 87

Regression Estimation of Event Probabili-
ties (RREP), 59, 60

research byproducts, 12

rockets, 100

rotating beam ceilometer, 55

satellite, see

sensors, 58, 60, 64

snow melt energy budget, 72

sonic anemometer, 76

spectrograph, oxygen "A" band, 64

spectrographic camera, 58

spectrometer, infrared, 64

Spectrometer, Infrared Interferometer, 64

spectrum, microwave region, 64

synoptic, 55

tropical, 67

tropical meteorology, 65, 67

typhoons, cloud formations, 67

unmanned meteorological observations sta-
tions, 56

visual range facility, 56

upper air facility, 56

Video Integrator and Processor, 58

wave climatology, 40

World Meteorological Organization, 2, 37, 63
Meteorology and Atomic Energy (ARL Re-
port), 87

Michigan:

University of Michigan, 40
Missouri:

National Severe Storm Forecast Center,
Kansas City
Models:

air-sea, 20, 37, 41, 42, 43, 103

Antecedent Precipitation Index, 71

atmospheric circulation, 19, 41, 42, 43, 65

atmosphere-ocean, 20, 37, 41, 42, 43, 103

aviation terminals, ceiling and visibility, 60

balloon properties, 56

baroclinic, 61

barotropic, 61

barotropic hemispheric, 63

barotropic mesh, 60, 63

climatological-statistieal, 68

cloud, 62, 66, 90

cloud circulation, 65

cloud, synoptic scale. 66

coastline, 40

earth's magnetic field, 24

global weather, 42

hail suppression, 89

heat and water vapor exchange. 40

hurricane, 66. 68

hydrologic cycle, 72

hydrodynamic equations, 42

initial conditions, 42

land-sea contrast, 42

"megalopolis" diffusion. 87

mountain-valley diffusion, 87

ocean-atmospheric, 20, 37, 41, 42, 43, 103

ocean circulation. 41, 42

primitive equations, 61, 62

precipitation forecasting, 71

precipitation, 60

radiation effects. 42

river forecasting, 72

sea-air, 20, 37, 41, 42. 43, 103

sea-level pressure, 60

severe storms, 69

single-camera simulation. 30

Stanford watershed, modified, 71

statistical-climatological, 68

storm surge, 39

thermodynamic numerical. 62

tornado. 69

tropical atmosphere, 42

tropical circulation, 42, 62. 68

tropical cloud, 62. 66

tropical prediction, 62

water accounting, 71
Mount Diabolo Observatory. Calif.. 54

N

NADWARN See Natural Disaster Warning

System
NAFEC See National Aviation Facilities Ex-
perimental Center
NAS/NRC See National Academy of Sciences-
National Research Council
NASA See National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration
NBS See National Bureau of Standards
NEDC See National Environmental Data Center
NESC See National Environmental Satellite

Center
NHC See National Hurricane Center
NHRL See National Hurricane Research Lab-
oratory

144

NMC See National Meteorological Center
NODC See National Oceanographic Data Center
NOMS See National Operational Meteorological

Satellite Service
NSF See National Science Foundation
NSSFC See National Severe Storms Forecast-
ing Center
NSSL See National Severe Storms Laboratory
National Academy of Engineering Advisory

Committee, 20
National Academy of Sciences, 99
National Academy of Sciences-National Re-
search Council, 2, 3, 20
National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion:

Apollo Application Program, 32

ATS-1 synchronous satellite, 19

communication facilities, 102

environmental satellites, 100

ESSA satellites, 100

Goddard Space Flight Center, 80

Lunar Exploration Program, 32

Nimbus, 100

Nimbus B, 57

Nimbus D, 64

Pageos, 31

simulated space conditions, 93

space disturbances forecasts, 17

space platforms, 100

spin-scan camera, 19

TIROS, 100

TOS System, 18

weather satellite instrumentation, 19

with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 31

with Department of Commerce, 31

with National Environmental Satellite Center,
19, 80, 94
National Aviation Facilities Experimental Cen-
ter, 56, 94
National Bureau of Standards:

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, 15, 90

Engineering Seismology, 13, 81, 84

Geoacoustics Group, 15

WWV frequency standard transmitter, 91

with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 13

with Institute for Telecommunication Sci-
ences and Aeronomy, 15, 91
National Center for Atmospheric Research, 37,

100
National Crime Information Center, 17
National Earthquake Information Center, 2, 15,

25
National Environmental Data Center, 14
National Environmental Satellite Center:

Advanced Vidicon Camera Systems, 18

ATS-1 synchronous satellite, 19

Basic Weather Service Program, 12

cloud model, 66

cloud mosaics, 65

cloud photography study, 100

Command and Data Acquisition Stations, 18,
37, 100, 101

Data Processing and Analysis Facility, 100

data systems, 58

development and test facilities, 94

environmental satellites, 100

ESSA formation, 1

ESSA organization, 3

hurricanes, 66

Meteorological Satellite Laboratory, see

satellite data, 102

satellite interrogated balloons, 37

National Environmental Satellite Center-
Continued

satellite meteorology, 55, 57

satellite sensing techniques, 102

satellite services, 5

sea-air interaction, 37

sensor data, 103

services provided, 93

severe local storms, 66

solar proton monitoring system, 80

space platforms, 100

spin-scan camera, 19, 64

tornadoes, 66

weather satellite instrumentation, 19

with Johns Hopkins University Applied Phys-
ics Laboratory, 80

with National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration, 19, 80, 94

with Research Flight Facility, 100
National Hurricane Center:

Basic Weather Service Program, 12

hurricanes, 59

severe weather conditions, 59

television, 59

with Equipment Development Laboratory, 59

with Test and Evaluation Laboratory, 59
National Hurricane Research Laboratory:

coastal water level predictions, 66

cyclones, tropical, 66

easterly waves, 66

hurricane model, 66

hurricane prediction, 66

hurricanes, 55, 66

ice crystal development, 20, 90

maritime cumulus clouds, 20, 90

mesoscale meteorology, 55

Project ROUGH RIDER, 100

pyrotechnic seeding agents, 20

severe local storms, 55, 66

storm penetration, 99

tornadoes, 55, 66

tropical cyclone prediction, 66

tropical cyclones, 66

upper-level cold vortices, 66

wind-pressure relationship, 68

with Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry
Laboratory, 20

with Institute for Oceanography, 66

with Research Flight Facility, 55, 59, 99
National Hurricane Warning Service, 12
National Marine Weather Service, WB, 12
National Meteorological Center:

air pollution, 19, 87

Analysis and Forecast Division, 12

atmospheric models, 19

Basic Weather Service Program, 12

cloud studies, 64

Development Division, 55

Extended Forecast Division, 55

extended range forecasting, 62

guidance forecast charts, 19

hurricanes, 66

jet stream forecast, 103

Main Meteorological Offices, 12

meteorological observations, 103

National Aviation Facilities Experimental
Center, 56

national forecasting system, 102

numerical prediction models, 60

numerical prediction techniques, 59

Numerical Weather Predictions Section, 102

ocean and atmosphere prediction, 41

National Meteorological Center— Continued

operational forecast system, 62

primitive equation model, 62

seismology, 25

severe local storms, 66

severe storms model, 69

solar activity forecasts, 76

surface temperatures, 60

Systems Development Office, WB, 58

tornadoes, 66

TOS System, 18

tropopause forecast, 103

wave forecasts, 63

weather forecasting, 55

with Department of the Air Force, 102, 103

with Department of the Navy, 102

with International Civil Aviation Organiza-
tion, 12

with Techniques Development Laboratory,
59, 60, 63
National Meteorological Service System, 58
National Oceanographic Data Center:

archiving, 14, 39, 104

SEAMAP, 39
National Operational Meteorological Satellite

Service, 64
National Science Foundation, 3, 37, 100
National Severe Storms Forecast Center:

center, 12

radar, 59, 70

National Severe Storms Laboratory:
aircraft storm hazards, 70
atmospheric stations and platforms, 99
clear air turbulence, 70
data display, 70
Doppler radar, 95, 101
E-layer ionospheric reflection, 70
height of cloud tops, 70
hurricanes, 55, 66
lightning, 59, 70

mesometeorological network, 95
mesoscale meteorology, 55
precipitation, 71
precipitation- data display, 58
prediction of severe storms, 69
Project ROUGH RIDER, 100
quantitative weather radar, 95
radiosonde stations, 95
RB-57F aircraft, 70
severe local storms, 55, 66, 69, 95
severe storm dynamics, 100
severe storms model, 69
storm dynamics and electricity, 70
storm parameter studies, 95 •
storm precipitation, 69
thunderstorms, 69, 70
tornadoes, 55, 66, 69, 95
U-2 aircraft, 70
U.S. severe storm belt, 95
weather radar, 58, 95

with British Royal Aircraft Establishment, 70
with Department of the Air Force, 69, 70
with Institute for Oceanography, 66
with Research Flight Facility, 55, 69, 99, 100
with Weather Bureau, 70

National Tsunami Warning Center, 2, 10

National Weather Records Center, 10, 37, 43,

45, 103, 104
Nationwide Natural Disaster Warning System,

2, 14, 102

145

Natural Disaster Warning System:

communication networks, 102

earthquake and tsunami warning, 51

ESSA agencies, 51

establishment, 2

Interagency Disaster Warning Survey Group,
15

Network, 2

Palm Sunday tornado, 15

Report of October 1965, 2

seismology, 21

Tsunami Warning System, 15

warning communication, 14
Nevada:

University of Nevada, 37
New Mexico:

Albuquerque Seismological Center, Albu-
querque
Newport Geophysical Observatory, Newport,

Wash., 22
New York:

Columbia University, 83

Lamont Geological Observatory, 83

New York University-ESSA program, 100
North Carolina:

National Weather Records Center, Asheville
Numerical prediction models, See Models

o

ODESSA See ESSA Ocean Data Acquisition

System
OGO See Orbiting Geophysical Observatories
Oceanography:

Advisory Board on Allocation of Oceano-
graphic Ship Facilities, 98

air-earth boundary, 36, 40

Atlantic Ocean, 38, 62, 65, 66

bathymetry, see

bottom sampling, 13

boundary layer studies, 40

buoy systems, 19, 33, 35, 96

Chesapeake Bay, 84

Cobb Seamount, 39

Continental Shelf, see

crust characteristics, 27, 34

currents, See Tides and currents

Dabob Bay-Hood Canal, 40

data acquisition systems, 33

deep ocean areas, 8

Deep Ocean Tide Studies, 38

echo-sounding correction technique, 39

electronic instrument system, 39

engineering techniques, 13

equipment, 37, 93

ESSA Ocean Data Acquisition System, 19,
33, 35, 96

ESSA program, 33

estuarine studies, 35

estuary sediments, 84

Great Lakes ships, 40, 85

Gulf of Maine, 36

hydrography, see

Indian Ocean, 53, 65

infrared technqiues, 39

Interagency Committee on Oceanography,
19, 104

International Association of Physical Ocean-
ography, 38

International Deep Sea Tide Program, 38

Oceanography — Continued

Joint Oceanographic Research Group, 35,
37, 40

Long Island Sound, 33

mantle characteristics, 27, 34

marine geology, see

marine geophysics, See marine geology and
geophysics

Mathews Table, 39

microwave radiometry, 39

models, See Models

Nansen cast, 39

National Oceanographic Data Center, 39, 104

ocean boundaries, 8

Ocean Data Acquisition System (ODESSA),
96

ocean engineering, 13, 84

ocean geodetic control, 30

ocean heat, 40

ocean microstructure, 37

ocean parameters, 37

ocean surface temperature, 39

ocean surveys, 9, 35

offshore current studies, 38

open ocean current studies. 38

Open Ocean Tide Program, 38

oceanographic data, 19

Pacific Ocean, 15, 19, 34, 38, 39, 55, 62, 65

Pacific Oceanography Laboratory, see

physical oceanography, 9, 13, 37, 38, 40

Physical Oceanographic Laboratory, see

radiometer, 40

range-range control system, 34

rawinsonde techniques, 37

remote sensors, 39

satellite data, 37

scatterometry, 39

Scripps Institute of Oceanography, 35

SEAMAP stations, 39

SEAMAP surveys, 39

sediment studies, 34, 35

ship-based facilities, 33

ship development, 13

survey ships, See C&GS ships

tides, see

Underwater Stable Platform, 96

University of Washington (JORG), 35, 37, 40

wave formation study, 85

wave gages, 39

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 41, 96

Wullenweber array, 37
Office of Civil Defense, NADWARN, 2, 14, 51
Ohio:

Photogrammetric Test and Calibration Range,
McClure,29,93

Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, 87

Weather Bureau Forecast Center, Cincin-
nati, 19
Oklahoma:

National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman
Orbiting Geophysical Observatories. 80

PSAC See President's Science Advisory

Committee
PPI See Plan Position Indicator (Meteorology)
Pacific Marine Center, C&GS, 33, 34, 37, 103
Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory:

descriptive oceanography, 33

ocean microstructure, 37

Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory — Continued

ocean parameters, 37

physical oceanography, 37

sea floor heat flow, 34

shore facilities, 33

with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 33, 37
Pennsylvania:

Drexel Institute of Technology, 60

Pennsylvania State University, 60

Philadelphia Weather Bureau Airport Sta-
tion, 60
Photogrammetry:

aerial film distortion, 31

aerotriangulation, 31, 32

aircraft, 31

Apollo Application Program, 32

camera calibration, 31

camera systems, 31

coastal mapping, 35

color aerial photography, 31

Continental Shelf studies, 31

crustal movement studies. Anchorage.
Alaska, 32

geodetic networks, 31

geodetic measuring systems, 32

geodetic-topographic mission on the moon. 32

Gulf Stream currents, 32

instruments, 31

Lunar Exploratory Program, 32

mapping, 36

ocean current velocity data, 32

ocean studies, 39

photogrammetric sensors, 31

Photogrammetric Test and Calibration Range.
29,93

polyparametrie camera orientation and cali-
bration computer program, 32

research, 32

satellite triangulation, see

sea-air interaction, 31

surface currents, 31

systems, 31

test and calibration range. 29, 93

tidal current studies. 35

underwater volcanoes, 35
Physical Oceanographic Laboratory:

shore facilities, 33, 37

underwater seismic phenomena, 55

tsunami prediction, 51. 55
Platforms and Stations:

aircraft, see

balloons, see

buoy systems, 19. 33, 35, 96

Jalbert Wing, 100

kytoons, 40

parafoils, 40

rockets, see

satellites, see

ships. See C&GS ships

tetroon, 87. 100

underwater platforms, see
Predictions, see also Forecasting. Warnings:

airport ceiling. 60

airport visibility. 60

airport weather. 60

atmosphere. 41. 55

beach deposition. 35

beach erosion. 35

cyclones. 42. 66

drought. 70

drought severity expectancies. 45

earthquakes. 51

146

Predictions — Continued

East coast type snow storm, 100

environment, 10, 51

estuary flushing, 13

experimental prediction program, 42

flood, 13, 70

global numerical, 63

hemispheric numerical, 63

humidity, 61

hurricane, coastal water level, 66

hurricanes, 66, 68

ionospheric, 73

longshore currents, 35

marine environment, 55

meteorological events, 59

meteorological parameters, 62

mid-troposphere model, 62

mid-troposphere temperature anomalies, 62

models, see

numerical research, 61

numerical techniques, 59

Numerical Weather Predictions Section, 102

ocean, 41, 55

Office of Hydrology, Weather Bureau, 13, 72

precipitation, 62

precipitation, Panama-Colombia canal route,
72

programs, 51

radio propagation, 75

radio propagation conditions, 75

river, 13

seasonal mean precipitation, 62

seismic phenomena, Executive Office of the
President study, 26

severe storms, 69, 70

snow storm, 100

solar events, 76

space disturbances, 13

space environment, 76

subsynoptic numerical, 60

summer temperatures, 62

surface temperatures, 62

synoptic numerical, 60

telecommunications, 13, 72, 73

temperature, 61

tides in shallow water, 35

tropical, 62

tropical cyclones, 66

tropical storms, 68

tsunami, 10, 51, 55

wind, 61

wind speed, afternoon, 61

winter precipitation probabilities, 61

World Weather Watch, 2, 55, 63
President Johnson, 1, 2, 3, 27
President's Science Advisory Committee
(PSAC), 3

R

REEP See Regression Estimation of Event Prob-
abilities (Forecasts)
RFF See Research Flight Facility
Reference Climatological Network, 43
Research Flight Facility:

airborne instrumentation, 55

airborne mesometeorological observation sys-
tem, 89

atmospheric and oceanographic study, 100

cloud photography study, 100

DC-6 airborne laboratory, 67, 89, 90

Research Flight Facility — Continued

hail modification, 89

hailstorm study, 100

hail suppression, 89

hurricane Betsy (1965), 66

hurricane Debbie (1965), 67

hurricane flying, 67

hurricane study, 90

hurricanes, 66

infrared absorption hygrometers, 55

instrumented aircraft, 14, 55

New York University-ESSA program, 100

oceanographic and atmospheric study, 100

Project ROUGH RIDER, 100

sea-air interaction, 37

severe local storms, 66, 69, 100

storm penetration, 99

thunderstorms, 69

tornadoes, 66, 69

with Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry
Laboratory, 99, 100

with Deaprtment of the Air Force, 69

with Equipment Development Laboratory, 55

with Institute for Oceanography, 66, 100

with National Environmental Satellite Cen-
ter, 100

with National Hurricane Research Labora-
tory, 55, 59, 99

with National Severe Storms Laboratory, 55,
69, 99, 100

with Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory, 99, 100
Restoring the Quality of Our Environment

(PSAC Report), 3
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, 87
Rockets:

Areas, 100

Asp, 100

Nike-Apache, 100

Nike-Cajun, 100

research telemetering sensor, 100

rocket-launched visible trail experiments, 47

rocketsonde, 100

sounding, 46

SAIL See Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory
SDO See Systems Development Office, WB
SIRS See Satellite Infrared Spectrometer

(Satellite)
San Andreas Lake Observatory, Calif., 54
Satellites:

Advanced Vidicon Camera System, 18, 101

Artificial, 28

ATS-1, Advanced Technology Satellite, 19,
64

Automatic Picture Transmission, 18, 64, 100

automatic weather stations, 64

balloons, constant level, 64

balloons, interrogated, 37

balloons, superpressure, 63

BC-4 satellite tracking camera, 31

buoys, 64

camera, 18, 31, 58, 64, 101

Catalogue of Meteorological Satellite Data, 65

clear air turbulence, 64

cloud cover, 65

cloud data, 62

cloud distribution, 65

cloud formations, 66

cloud heights, 64

Satellites — Continued

cloud mosaics, 65

cloud photographs, 12, 18, 58, 62, 64, 65, 66,
100

cyclones, 64

data relay, 64

Echo I, 30, 31

Echo II, 30, 31

environmental, 100

ESSA satellites, See TOS

Explorer XX, 48

Global Horizontal Sounding Technique
(GHOST), 37, 38

high-orbit, 30

hurricane cloud patterns, 67

icebergs, individual, 39

Improved TOS (ITOS), 64

Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer, 64

infrared sensors, 57, 64

infrared radiometer system, 64

instrument platforms, 101

instruments, 57

Interrogation, Recording, and Location Sys-
tem, 64

ionospheric predictions, 73

ionospheric measurements, 48

jet streams, 64

Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory, 80

long-wave radiation, 65

low altitude, 30

meteorological research, 65

Meteorological Satellite Laboratory, 64,
65, 67

meteorology, 18, 55, 57, 63, 64

National Environmental Satellite Center, see

National Operational Meteorological Satel-
lite Service, 64

Navy navigation system, 35

Nimbus, 57, 64, 65, 100

Nimbus B, 57, 64

Nimbus D, 64

Nimbus II, 65

oceanographic sensors, 39

oceanographic studies, 37

OGO-1, 80

OGO-3, 80

Operational weather, 18

Orbiting Geophysical Observatories, 80

orbits, 27

Pageos, 30, 31

photographs, 12, 18, 58, 62, 64, 65, 72, 100

radio beacon experiments, 80

radiation studies, 65

Satellite Communications Facilities, 102

Satellite Infrared Spectrometer, 57, 64

Satellite Infrared Spectrometer Model B, 64

Satellite Infrared Sensor Model IV, 64

Satellite Services, Environmental Data Serv-
ices, 3

sea-ice studies, 39

secondary cloud spirals, 64, 65

sensors, 39, 55, 57, 101

sensor data, automation, 103

snow cover, 72

solar proton monitoring systems, 80

space qualified sensors, 14

spectrographic camera, 58

spin-scan camera, 19, 64

telemetry antenna, 48

television pictures, 101

TIROS, See TOS

Topside Sounder Satellite, 48

TOS, see

147

Satellites — Continued

triangulation, See Satellite triangulation

tropical weather analysis, 67

United States-New Zealand GHOST sys-
tem, 37

upper ionosphere, 48

unmanned, 58

water vapor rotation bands, 64

weather, 80

weather measurements, 62

weather prediction, 62

weather instrumentation, 19
Satellite triangulation:

events, 31

geodetic survey data, 30

geodesy, 8, 28

ground stations, 31

Satellite Triangulation Division, 29

scale, 30

single-camera, 31

single-camera simulation model, 30

technique, 30

worldwide geometric program, 31
Scientific Documentation Division, IER, 104
Scientific Information and Documentation Divi-
sion, ESSA, 104
Scripps Institute of Oceanography, 35
Sea-Air:

aeronautical charts, see

aircraft infrared observations, 40

atmospheric and oceanographic study, 100

barotropic stability theory, 42

boundary, 40

convection experiments, numerical, 42

coupling, 42

Dabob Bay-Hood Canal, 40

dynamics, 36

hurricanes, see

interaction, 20, 31, 37, 40, 43, 55, 66, 70, 76

interaction studies, 9, 39, 41

models, see

penetrative convective instabilities, 42

photochemistry of ozone, 42

prediction and warning, 11

radiation, sea surface temperatures, 40

radiation — water vapor absorption, 40

radioactive heat transfer, 42

radiometer, infrared, 40

rawinsonde techniques, 37, 40

research, necessity for, 10

Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory, see

sea-ice surfaces, 42

shallow water wave equations, 39

storm surge, 20, 39

structure, 36

sea surface temperature pattern, 40

tides and currents, see

tropical disturbances, 42

University of Wisconsin, 40

water vapor — infrared radiation study, 40

wave climatology, 13, 40

wave formation study, 40

winds aloft at sea, 37

wind effects on tides, 40

wind generated waves, 40

wind stress at ocean surface, 41

wind stress pattern, 41

Wullenweber array, 37
Sea-Air Interaction Laboratory:

air-sea model, 20

atmospheric and oceanographic study, 100

boundary layer studies, 40

heat and water vapor exchange, 40

Sea- Air Interaction Laboratory — Continued

oceanographic and atmospheric study, 100

oceanography, physical, 37

physical oceanography, 37

storm surge, 20, 39

typical wave formation, 85

wave formation study, 40

wind generated waves, 40

with Coast and Geodetic Survey, 37

with Research Flight Facility, 99, 100
Seismographs:

development, 25

"engineering type", 83

high-gain, 83

mobile seismograph observatory, 25

portable, 53

Portable Land Stations, 52

reconnaissance, lightweight, 53

short-period, 53

Standard Seismograph Stations, 94

strong motion, 52, 81, 82

Strong Motion, Model II, 52

surface, three-component, 51
Seismic sea waves, see Tsunamis
Seismic waves:

amplitudes, 26

arrival times, 26, 27

compression-rarefractional waves, 27

crust characteristics, 27, 34

effects of local geology, 83

effects of soil conditions, 83

fault plane solution catalog, 27

longitudinal wave arrival time, 26

mantle characteristics, 27, 34

nuclear explosion, 26

P-waves, 27

Project LONGSHOT, 26

propagation velocities, 26

recording systems, 19

tectonic forces, 27

teleseismology, 8, 26

travel time, 26

Seismology:

Albuquerque Seismological Center, see

benefit analysis, 84

Bullen, Prof. Keith, 26

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of
America, 27

C&GS Field Survey Office, San Francisco,
Calif., 83

C&GS Office of Seismology and Geomagne-
tism, 51, 81

data center, 8

Dugout Test, 84

earthquakes, see

engineering, 13, 81, 84

fixed strong motion stations, 81

geomagnetism, see

Indian Ocean, 53

instrument development, 25, 52

instruments, testing of, 93

Interocean Canal Project, 84

Jeffreys-Bullen curves, 26, 27

Jeffreys, Sir Harold, 26

Lamont Geological Observatory, 83

Large Aperture Seismic Arrays (LASA),
52, 53

low frequency dynamic calibration unit, 93

magnetometer, 94

marine geology, see

marine geophysics, See Marine geology and
geophysics

Seismology — Continued
mineral deposits, locating, 84
mobile (seismic) equipment, 54
nuclear explosions, 26
Portable Seismograph System, 81
Prince William Sound, Alaska, earthquake

study, C&GS Publication 10-3, 1966,

82, 83
research, 8, 24, 26, 34, 82
research facilities, 24
research program, 7, 8
seismic waves, see
seismogram, 25, 26
seismographs, see
seismometer, 25, 51, 52, 94
strain release maps, 84
strong motion stations, fixed, 81
strong motion studies, 13, 81, 82, 83
teleseismology, 8, 26
Tokyo Institute of Geophysics, 83
underwater seismic phenomena, 55
World Data Center for Seismology, 24
Worldwide Standard Seismograph Network,

6, 8, 24, 102

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.. 99
Solar:

activity, 43

activity, forecasts, 76

bursts, 76

disturbance, forecasts, 76

disturbances, 10, 78

disturbances detection technique, 78

effect on climate, 43

environment, 49

events, 41

events, prediction, 76

flares, 17, 41, 76, 79, 80

flare alarm system, 80

flare-ejected plasma clouds, 77

flare radiations, 79

forecasts, 77

Global Solar Flare Patrol, 102

high energy particles, 79

magnetic field interactions, 13, 77

planetary magnetic fields, 77

plasma clouds, 77

plasma flux, 77

prediction of solar events, 76

proton events, 73, 76

radiation, 76

radiation integrator, 71

radiation measurement, 71

radiation, reflected, 62

radioburst, 76

sunspot cycle, 43

sunspot series, 43

sunspots, classification of groups, 76

surface albedo, 62

terrestrial relationships, 76

tide, 50

ultraviolet measurement, 64

VLF emissions, 77

whistlers, 77

wind, 21, 77
South Pole Magnetic Observatory. 12

Space:

capsule, 58
disturbances, 13. 77
environment, 76
Gemini 5, 58
magnetic environment. 93

148

Space — Continued

need for research, 10

radiation hazards, 8

research, 45

sensors, space-qualified, 14

simulated conditions, 93

solar, see

Space and Aeronomy Data Center, 104

Space Disturbance Forecast Center, see

Space Disturbance Laboratory, see

Space Disturbance Monitoring Facility, 17, 78

vehicle reentry, 91

vehicles, 10
Space and Aeronomy Data Center, 104
Space Disturbance Forecast Center:

Global Solar Flare Patrol, 102

ionosphere, 79

nuclear explosions, 80

predictions, 13

radio interferometer, 76

solar bursts, 76

solar flare ionospheric effects, 79

Solar Flare Patrol, 102

solar flares, 17, 79

solar weather forecasts, 77

use of computers, 103

with University of Colorado, 76
Space Disturbance Laboratory:

High Altitude Nuclear Detection System, 79,
102, 103

research responsibilities, 76

Space Disturbance Forecast Center, see

Space Disturbance Monitoring Facility, 17
Space Disturbance Monitoring Facility, An-
chorage, Alaska, 17, 78
Stations and Platforms:

aircraft, see

balloons, see

buoy systems, 19, 33, 35, 96

Jalbert Wing, 100

kytoons, 40

parafoils, 40

rockets, see

satellites, see

ships, See C&GS ships

tetroon, 87, 100

underwater platforms, see

Stone Canyon Geophysical Field Station, Stone

Canyon, Calif., 19, 51, 64
Stone Canyon Observatory, Stone Canyon,

Calif., 54
Stratosphere:

carbon-dioxide band, 57
disturbances, 74
oxygen absorption band, 58
sudden warming, 42
vertical temperature structure, 57
Systems Development Office, WB, 55, 56, 58, 61,
71,93

TAC See Tropical Analysis Center
TDL See Techniques Development Laboratory
TEL See Test and Evaluation Laboratory
TICUS See Tidal Current System
TOS See TIROS Operational Satellite System
TTL See Tropospheric Telecommunications
Laboratory

Techniques Development Laboratory:

afternoon wind speed, predictions, 61

closed circuit TV studio, 59

daily forecasting, 59

forecasting severe convective storms, 70

forecasting techniques, 59

humidity predictions, 61

hurricanes, 66

National Meteorological Center, 60

numerical prediction models, 60

operating procedures, 59

responsibilities, 55, 94

severe local storms, 66

severe storm model, 69

statistical forecasting, 63

storm surge forecasts, 63

surface temperatures, 60

temperature prediction, 61

tornadoes, 66

U.S. Navy Fleet Numerical Weather Facility,
63

wave forecasting, 63

weather forecasting, 55

wind predictions, 61

with Department of the Navy, 63

with National Hurricane Center, 59

with National Meteorological Center, 59, 60,
63
Telecommunications:

aeronomy, 45

antenna, ITSA high-power radar transmit-
ter, 91

antenna radiation, space vehicle, 91

antenna, WWV frequency standard transmit-
ter, 91

antennas, 90

auroral zone, electron precipitation, 80

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, 1,
15, 90

electromagnetic spectrum utilization, 3, 13, 72

Electronic Industries Association, 91

engineering, 13, 73, 90

geomagnetism, 21

hazard studies, 79

high-frequency radio circuits, 91

information transmission, 91

Institute for Telecommunication Sciences

and Aeronomy, see
International Frequency Registration Board,

91
International Radio Consultative Commit-
tee, 92
ionosphere, see

ionospheric telecommunications, 14
Ionospheric Telecommunications Labora-
tory, see
laser, 74, 92

mapping the ionosphere, 20
millimeter wave propagation, 91, 92
optical propagation, 14, 92
prediction, 13, 72
radio frequency spectrum, 2, 90
"shortwave", 74
spectrum utilization, 3, 91
Telecommunications Panel, Department of

Commerce, 3
Tropospheric Telecommunications Labora-
tory, see
tropospheric remote sensing, 101
upper atmosphere, 21
velocity of light, 29
U.S. Armed Forces, 91

Tennessee:

Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Lab-
oratory, Oak Ridge,

Tennessee Valley Authority, 59, 72
Test and Evaluation Laboratory:

AMOS observational program, 56

closed circuit television studio, 59

flash flood alarm, 71

hurricanes, 59

hydrogen balloon inflation system, 56

hydrology, 71

responsibilities, 55, 94

severe local conditions, 59

weather radar remoting system, 58

with Equipment Development Laboratory, 59

with National Hurricane Center, 59

Wullenweber array, 37
Texas:

Forth Worth River Forecast Center, 70

Houston/Galveston closed circuit TV, 58

Houston Weather Bureau Airport Station, 59
Thunderstorms, 69, 70
Tides and currents:

abyssal waters study, 39

aerial photography, 35

Anegada Passage, 38

anomalous water, 39

buoy systems, 19, 33, 35, 96, 97

Cape Hatteras-Nova Scotia, 38

Caribbean Sea, 38

characteristics, 8

coastal engineering, 9

Cobb Seamount, 39

circulatory surveys, TICUS, 33

current studies, 35

Dabob Bay-Hood Canal, 40

data, application of, 8

echo-sounding correction technique, 39

ESSA Ocean Data Acquisition System
(ODESSA), 19, 33, 35, 96, 97

estuarine dynamics, 8

gages, deep sea tide, 37

gages, digital tide, 35

gages, tide, 8, 40

gages, wave, 39

Gulf Stream, 32, 38

Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Phys-
ics, U. of Calif., 35

International Deep Sea Tide Program, 38

longshore currents, 35

Mathews Table, 39

meters, 33, 35

meters, Richardson-type, 35

observations, 8

ocean current, plotting, 9

ocean current velocity data, 32

offshore current studies, 38

open ocean current studies, 38

Open Ocean Tide Program, 38

photogrammetric techniques, 32, 35

predictions, 8

program, 8

research, 9, 35

Scripps Institute of Oceanography, 35

sea-level change, 8

shallow water, 35

South Carolina, 38

storm surge, 20, 39

surface currents, 31

tidal current program, 35

Tidal Current System, (TICUS), 33, 96

tidal propagation, 38

149

Tides and currents — Continued

tide studies, 35

Underwater Stable Platform, 37

University of California, 35

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 96
TIROS, See TOS
Tokyo Institute of Geophysics, 83
Tornadoes, 55, 66, 69, 95
TOS (TIROS Operational Satellite System):

Advanced Vidicon Camera System, 18, 101

Automatic Picture Transmission, 64

Command and Data Acquisition Stations,
18, 101

ESSA satellites, 18

ESSA I, 12, 18, 66

ESSA I type satellites, 101

ESSA II, 12, 18

ESSA II type satellites, 101

ESSA III, 12, 18

ESSA IV, 12, 18

ESSA V, 12, 18

Improved TOS satellite, (ITOS), 64

National Environmental Satellite Center,
5, 100

radiometer, infrared, 64

sensors, infrared, 64

solar proton and electron detector, 80, 102

System, 64, 80

TIROS I through VIII, 66

TIROS IX, 66

TIROS VII, 65

TIROS Wheel Satellite, 18

weather system, 5, 18
Troposphere:

carbon-dioxide band, 57

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, 1, 15,
90

communications engineering, 14

lasers, 74, 92

mid-troposphere predictions, 62

mid-troposphere ridge lines, 64

mid-troposphere trough, 64

optical propagation, 74

oxygen absorption band, 58

propagation studies, 91

radio wave propagation — atmospheric tur-
bulence, 101

remote sensing techniques, 101

telecommunications, 14

telecommunications engineering, 90, 91

tropospheric physics, 73, 74

Tropospheric Telecommunications Labora-
tory, see

U.S. Armed Forces communication links, 91

upper troposphere, 57

vertical temperature structure, 57

with FBI National Crime Information Cen-
ter, 17
Tropospheric Telecommunications Laboratory:

electromagnetic interference environment, 91,
92

meteorological physics, 75

millimeter wave propagation, 91

spectrum utilization, 91

telecommunications, 73

telecommunications engineering, 17, 90

tropospheric physics, 74

with Federal Bureau of Investigation, 17
Tsunamis:

community model plan, 3

generating mechanism, 27

Joint Tsunami Research Effort, 15, 51, 55

Tsunamis — Continued

National Tsunami Warning Center, Honolulu,

2, 10, 15, 51. 96
prediction, 10, 51, 55
propagation, 55
research, 10, 15, 51, 54
runup, 55

Tsunami Warning Network, 102
tsunami (seismic sea wave) warning system,

2, 15, 16, 51, 54, 55, 83, 96, 102
Underwater Stable Platform, 96

u

Underwater Stable Platform:

Coast and Geodetic Survey, 24, 96

deep-sea tide gage, 37

ESSA facilities, 14

geomagnetism, 24

marine geodesy, 30

oceanography, 96

tsunamis, 96
University:

California, 54

California at San Diego (Scripps Institute of
Oceanography), 35

Colorado, 76

Colorado State, 65

Columbia, N.Y., 83

Drexel Institute of Technology, 60

Hawaii, 15, 51, 55

Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics
Laboratory, 80

Michigan, 40

Nevada, 37

New York, 83

Pennsylvania State, 60

Southern California, 35

Stanford, 24

Washington, 35, 37, 40

Wisconsin, 40
Upper Mantle Project:

California coast, 34

Cape Charles-Wallops Island, Va., 30

Cape Hatteras-Cape May, 30

East Coast, 30

Hawaiian-Aleutian Islands, 34

magnetic anomaly bands, 34

Norfolk, Va.,-Cape Blanc, Africa, 30

sea floor heat flow, 34
U.S. Armed Forces, 91
U.S. Coast Guard, 39
U.S. Forest Service:

with Weather Bureau, 61
U.S. Geological Survey:

Advisory Board on Allocation of Oceano-
graphic Ships, 99

marine geology and geophysics, 35

rainfall patterns, 72
U.S. Public Health Service:

Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, 87

with Air Resources Field Research Office, 87

VIP See Video Integrator and Processor

(Meteorology)
Virginia:

C&GS Atlantic Marine Center, Norfolk,
33,37,103

Virginia — Continued

Fredericksburg Geomagnetic Center, Corbin,
21,22,81,93

Land and Sea Interaction Laboratory,
Norfolk

National Environmental Satellite Center,
Command and Data Acquisition Station,
Wallops Island, 37, 100

Weather Bureau Test and Evaluation Labora-
tory, Sterling

w

WB See Weather Bureau

WMO See World Meteorological Organization

Warnings:

environment, 10, 51

flash flood alarm, 71

flood, 13, 70

hurricane warning dissemination, 59

National Hurricane Warning Service, 12

National Tsunami Warning Center, Honolulu,
10, 15, 51, 96

Natural Disaster Warning System, see

space disturbance, 13

tsunami warning system, 2, 15, 51, 54, 55,
83, 96, 102

weather warning services, 5
Washington, D.C.:

Office of Hydrology, Weather Bureau

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
Washington (State):

C&GS Pacific Marine Center, Seattle, 33,
34, 37, 103

Joint Oceanographic Research Group. Seattle

Newport Geophysical Observatory, Newport,
22

Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory, Seattle

University of Washington, 35, 37, 40
Waste Management and Control (NAS/NRC

Report), 3
Weather Bureau:

Agricultural Weather Service, 1 1

agriculture weather forecasting. 61

air pollution, see

Aviation Safety and Quality Control Service,
12

Aviation Weather Service, 12

Basic Weather Service Program, 12

cloud height, 55

communications, 14

communication facilities, 102

developing techniques, 93

earthquakes, 25

environmental pollution, see

Equipment Development Laboratory, see

ESSA, 1

fire weather forecasting, 61

Fire Weather Service, 2, 12

flood and prediction warning, 5, 70

fog studies, 60

forecast center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 19

Fort Worth River Forecast Center, 71

Houston Airport Station, 59

hurricane warning dissemination, 59

hydrology, 71

infrared wave sensors, 101

Interocean Canal Project, 12

Long Island, N.Y., precipitation study. 72

mesoscale weather patterns. Pacific coastal
region, 61

mesoscale weather phenomena. 60

150

Weather Bureau — Continued
Meteorology and Atomic Energy, 87
National Aviation Facilities Experimental

Center, 56, 94
National Earthquake Information Center, 25
National Hurricane Center, 59
National Hurricane Warning Service, 12
National Marine Weather Service, 12, 61
National Meteorological Center, see
National Meteorological Service, 56
Natural Disaster Warning System, 2, 14, 51
Numerical Weather Prediction Section, 102
Office of Hydrology, 13, 71, 72, 85, 103
Office of Meteorological Research, 15
operational weather forecasting, 59
organization, 3
Panama-Columbia canal route, precipitation

study, 72
Philadelphia Airport Station, 60
precipitation studies, 60
prediction and warning, 11
probability forecasting, 18
Puerto Rico office, 11
remote stations, 58
River Forecast Center, 70, 71, 72, 103
river predictions and warnings, 5, 70
rotating beam ceilometer, 55
Sacramento River Forecast Center, 72
Severe Local Storms Forecast Center, 12
stations, 11
Sterling Research and Development Center,

58
Systems Development Office, 55, 56, 58,

61, 71, 93

Weather Bureau — Continued
System Plans and Design Division, 58
Techniques Development Laboratory, see
Test and Evaluation Laboratory, see
testing equipment, 93
transponders, 56
Washington mesonetwork, 60
water resources management, 70
WB-RATTS/65, weather radar remoting

system, 58
weather balloons, 56

weather forecasts and warning services, 5
weather test-bed environment, 94
with Agriculture Research Service, 72
with Air Force Automated Weather System,

103
with California Department of Water Re-
sources, 83
with Drexel Institute of Technology, 60
with Federal Aviation Administration, 94
with National Severe Storms Laboratory, 69
with Office of Civil Defense, 2, 14, 51
with Pennsylvania State University, 60
with Soil Conservation Service, 72
with U.S. Forest Service, 61
with Washington National Airport, 58
WSR-57 radars, 58

Weather in Climate Modification (NSF Report),
3

Weather in Climate Modification Problems and
Prospects (NAS/NRC Report), 3

Weather modification:
cloud seeding, 20, 89, 90

Weather modification — Continued

cloud seeding, 1965 cumulus experiment, 90

cumulus clouds, tropical, 89

ESSA-Navy program, 89

Great Lakes study, 89

hail modification, 89

hail suppression, 89

hail suppression models, 89

hurricane modification, 89

inadvertent, 87, 89

lightning modification, 90

lightning suppression, 89

Naval Weather Research Facility, 89

precipitation modification, 89

Project STORM FURY, 89

pyrotechnic seeding agents, 20, 90

rain modification, 89

snow modification, 89

studies, 14

Weather in Climate Modification (NSF

Report), 3
Weather in Climate Modification. Problems
and Prospects (NAS/NRC Report), 3

Wisconsin:

University of Wisconsin, 40

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 41, 96

World

Data Center for Geomagnetism, 104
Meteorological Organization, 2, 37, 63
Weather Watch, 2, 55, 63

Worldwide Standard Seismograph Network,
6, 8, 24, 102

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