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THE
ESSAYS
OF '
FRANCIS BACON,
BARON OF VERULAM, VISCOUNT St. ALBAN,
AND
LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND;
COT^ T AI NING
THE ADVANCEMENT OF LEARNING,
NATURAL AND HUMAN PHILOSOPHY,
MORAL KNOWLEDGE, THEOLOGY, &c.
TO WHICH IS ADDED
HIS CELEBRATED HISTORY OF
LIFE AND DEATH.
ANEW EDITION. IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. II.
L O N D O N:
^cinteti at tfie Holographic ^reC^,
XY J. WALTER, PRINTING-HOUSE-SQJJARE, BLACKFRIARSt AND SOLD BY J. ROE30N, NEW BOND STREET : T. LONG- MAN, AND R. BALDWIN, PATERNOSTER-ROW : AND W. ilCHARDSON, UNDER THE ROYAL EXCHANGE, V.BCC.LXXXVK.
"^^
T O
The king,
'TPHERE were under the law, excellent King, both daily facrifices, and free- will offerings : the one proceeding upon or- dinary obfervance, the other upon a devout cheerfulnefs : m like manner there belongeth to kings from their fervants, both tribute of duty, aiid prefents of affe£lion. In the former of theie I hope I fhall not live to be wanting, according to my mofl: humble duty, and the good pleafure of your Majefty's employ- ments: for the latter, I thought it more refpedive to make choice of fome oblation, which might rather refer to the propriety A and
fi. DEDICATION.
and excellency of your individual perfon, than to the bufinefs of your crown and ftate.
Wherefore reprefenting your Majefty many tunes unto my mind, and beholding you not with the inquifitive eye of perfump- tion, to difcover that which the fcripture tells me is infcrutable, but with the obfervant eye of duty and admiration : leaving afide the other parts of your virtue and fortune, I have been touched, and poflefled with an extreme wonder at thofe your virtues and faculties, which the philofophers call intel- ledual : the largenefs of your capacity, the faithfulnefs of your memory, the fwiftnefs of your apprehenfion, the penetration of your judgment, and the facility and order of your elocution: and I have often thought, that of all the perfons living that I have known, your Majefty were the beft inftance to make a man of F/<:?/(5's opinion, that all knowledge is but remembrance, and that the mind of man by nature knows all things, and has
but
DEDICATION. HI.
but her own native and original notions (whlcli by the ftrangenefs and darknefs of this tabernacle of tlie body are fequeflered) again revived and reftored : fuch a light of nature I have obferved in your majefty, and fuch a readinefs to take flame, and blaze from the leaft occafion prefcnted, or the leaft fpark of another's knowledge deliver- ed. And as the Scripture fays of the wlfeft king, that his heart was as- the fands of the fta ; which though it be one of thelargeft bodies, yet it confiileth of the fmalleft and finefl portions : fo hath God given your majefty a compofition of underftanding admirable, being able to compafs and com- prehend the greatefl matters, and never- thelefs to touch and apprehend the leafl ; whereas it fhould feem an impolfibility in nature, for the fame inftrument to make it- felf fit for great and fmall works. And for your gift of fpeech, I call to mind what Cornelius Tacitus faith of Auguflus Caefar ; ^ugujlo frqflums et qua principem deceret, elo- A 3 quentia
IV. DEDICATION.
quent'iafult : For, if we note it well, fpeech that is uttered with labour and difficiUty, or rpeech that favoureth of the affedation of art and precept?, or fpeech that is framed after the imitation of fome pattern of eloquence, though never fo excellent ; all this hath fomewhat fervile, and holding of the rubje<fl. But your majefty's manner of fpeech is in<^ deed prince-like, flowing as from a fountain, and yet ftreaming and branching itfelf into nature's order, full of facility and felicity, imitating none, and inimitable by any. And as in your civil eflate there appeareth to be an emulation and contention of your Majef- ty's virtue with your fortune ; a virtuous difpolition with a fortunate regiment ; a vir- tuous expe£tation, when time was, of your gi'eater fortune, with a profperous poffeffion thereof in the due time ; a virtuous obferv- ation of the laws of marriage, with moft blefled and happy fruit of marriage ; a vir- tuous and mofl: chriftian defire of peace, with a fortunate inclination in your neigh - I bour
DEDICATION. V«
bour princes thereunto : fo likewife In thefe intelleaual matters, there feemeth to be no lefs contention between the excellency of your Majefty's gifts of nature, andtheuni- verfality and perfedion of your learning. For I am well affured, that this which I Ihall {xy is no ampUfication at all, but a pofitive and meafured truth ; which is, that there hath not been fmce Chrift's time any king or temporal monarch, which hath been fo learned in all literature and erudition, di- vine and human. For let a man ferioufly and diligently revolve and perufe the fuccef- ibrs of the Emperors of Rome, of which Citfar the didator, who lived fome years liefore Chrifl, and Marcus Antoninus, were the beft learned ; and fo defcend to the Em- perors of Grsecia, or of the Weft ; and then to the lines of France, Spain, England, Scot- land, and the reft, and he ftiall find this judg- ment is truly made. For it feemeth much in a king, if, by the compendious extradions of other men's wits and labours, he can
take
Vl. DEDICATION.
take hold of any fuperficial ornaments and fhews of learning, or if he countenance and prefer learning and learned men : but to drink indeed of the true fountains of learn- ing, nay, to have fach a fountain of learn- ing in himfelf, in a king, and in a king born, is almoft a miracle. And the more, becaufe there is met in your majefty a rare conjun^lion, as well of divine and facred literature, as of profane and human ; fo as your Majefty flandeth inverted of that tri- plicity, which in great veneration was af- cribed to the ancient Hermes ; the power and fortune of a king, the knowledge and illumination of a prieft, and the learning and univerfaHty of a philofopher. This propriety, inherent and individual attribute in your Majefty, deferveth to be exprefled, not only in the fame and admiration of the prefent time, nor in the hiflory or tradition of the ages fucceeding; but alfo in fome folid work, fixed memorial, and immortal monumentj bearing a character or fignature,
both
DEDICATION. Vll.
both of the power of a king, and the dif- ference and perfedlion of fuch a king.
Therefore I did conclude with myfelf, that I could not make unto your Majefty a better oblation than, of fome treatife tend- ing to that end, whereof the fum will con- fifl of thefe two parts : the former, con- cerning the excellency of learning and knowledge, and the excellency of the me- rit and true glory in the augmentation and propagation thereof: the latter, what the particular ads and works are, which have ' been embraced and undertaken for the ad- vancement of learning; and again, what de- feds and undervalues I find in fuch parti- cular ads, to the end, that though I can- not pofitively or affirmatively advife your Majefty, or propound unto you framed par- ticulars ; yet I may excite your princely co- gitations to vifit the excellent treafure of your own mind, and thence to extrad par- ticulars for this purpofe, agreeable to your
magnanimity and wifdom.
THE
CONTENT S.
OX the Difcredits of Learning, Page i
Political Objeclions againft Learning, lO
Of the Poverty of the Learned, 24
From the Studies of the Learned, 40
Delicate Learning, 41
Contentious Learning, 46
Fantaftic Learning, ^i
Prejudices of the Learned, 57
On the Dignity of Learning, 69
Of Human Proofs and Arguments, 80
The Intiuence of Learning in ^Military Affairs 93
on Moral Virtue, 108
Of the Power and Sovereignty of Learning, 113
Of the Afts of Merit towards Learning 122
Defeats of Literary Eilablifhments, 125
On the Hiflory of Learning, 13^ On the Dignity and Difficulty of Civil Hiftory, 140
On the Partition of Civil Hiftory, 142
On Ecclefiallical Hiftory, i^g
On the Appendages of Hillory, 153
On Poetry, i^^
On the Triumphs of Man, 163
On Divine, Natural and Human Philofophy, 168
On Memory, 201
OnRhetorick, 206
On Critical and Pedantical Knowledge, 217
On Moral Knowledge, 227
On Civil Converfation, 285
On the Architeft of his Fortune, 290
On Infpired Divinity, 329
On the Matter of Divinity, /yj^ 4^ £,, 346
The Hillory of Life and Death, ' 353
Oa
ii. CONTENT S.
On the Durability of Nature, Page. 357
On the Longevity of Plants, 360
Of Drynefs, 363
On the Duration of Life in Animals 37 1
Of Nourifliment, 384
Of the Longevity of Man, 387
Medicines and Rules for Long Life 418
To continue and renew the vigour of the Spirits, 424
On the Exclufion of the Air, 446 The Operation on the Blood, and cooling its Heat, 453
Operation on the Moillure of the Body, 455
To promote Digeftion, 458 To prepare the Outward Parts for attratling
Nourifliment, 466
On Food and Diet, 468
The Operation on the laft Aft of Affimilation, 470
On making the Body Tender and Young 47
On Renewing the Moifture of the Body, 473
Caufes and Symptoms of Death, 474
ESS A Y S, &c.
O F
FRANCIS, LORD BACON,
VISCOUNT St. ALB AN.
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
De Jugmentls Scientlarum. Lib. Prim.
"^O clear the way, and command filence, in order to have the teftimonies con- cernhig the dignity of learning better heard, without the interruption of tacit objeaions, I have determined in the firft place, to deli- ver learning from the difgrace and difcredit, which ignorance has caft upon it ; igno- rance, under feveral forms, appearing and dif. covering itfelf fometimes in the zeal of di- vines, fometimes in the arrogance of poli- VoL. 11. B ticians,
2 ON TIIF DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
ticians, and fometimes in the errors of learn- ed men themfelves.
I hear the firfl: fay, *' That knowledge is *' of the number of thofe things, which are ** to be admitted witli liniiiation and cau- " tion.'* *' That an over-great appetite of *' knowledge was the firft fm, whereupon *' enfucd the fall of man ; and that even to *' this day it hath fomewhat of the lerpent " in it ; for when it enters, it makes a man *' fweU.'* Scientia infiat. " Tliat Solomon *' is of opinion there is no end in mak- *' ing books; and that much reading is ** wearinefs of the flefli." And in an- other place. *' That in much wifdom *' there is much grief!" Allb " He that ** encreafeth knowledge, encreafeth ar^x- " iety." That St. Paul puts in a caveat, *' That we be not fpoiled through vain •* philolbphy.*' Further, *' That ex- *' perience demonftrates, that the mod " learned men have been arch-heretics ; *' and the mofl learned times inclined to " Atheifm." Finally, *' That the con- " templatlon of fecond caufes derogates " from the authority of the firft.*'
To
ON THE nrsCRF.DIT OF LEAKKIKG. 3
To dlfcover then tlie fiilfity of this opinion and the weakncfs of its foundation, nnv man may Ice plainly they do not coniider, that the knowledge, which occafioned the fiill, was not that pure and primitive knowledge of nature, by the liglit of which man gave hamcs toother creatures in Paradife, as they were brought before him, according to their properties; but that ^mbitious knowledge of good and evil, by which he affe^^led to Ihake otf God, and give law to himfclf. Neither is it any quantity of knowledge, how great foever, that can fwell the mind, fince no- tl^.ingcan fill the foul, much lefs expand it, but God, and the contemplation of him. And therefore Solomon, fpeaking of the two principal lenfes of inquiiltlon, (feeing and hearing) iaith,** That the eye is never *' fatistied with feeing, nor the ear with •' hearing." Ecclef. i. 8. And if there be no fulncfs, it follows, that the objeds of ienfe are not adequate to their capacity.
In like manner, knowledge itfelf, and the
mind of man (to which the fenfes are emif-
faries) he defines in thefe words, which he
fubjoins to his calendar, or regifter of times,
B 2 » con-
4 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
concluding thus: *' God hath made all thingg *' beautiful, or decent, in the true return of *« their feafons." Ecclef. 3. ii. Alfo *' He *' hath placed the world in man's heart, ** yet cannot man find out the work which *' God worketh from the beginning to the *« end." By which wordsheplainly intimates, that God has framed the mind like a mirror, capable of the image of the univerfal world, and as delirous of receiving it, as the eye is of light; and delighted to behold not only the varieties and viciflitudes of times, but ambitious likewife to fearch, and explore the immoveable and inviolable laws and decrees of nature. And although he feems to infniuate, that the whole of that oeconomy of nature, which he calls the work which God works from the beginning to the end, is not pofTible to be found out by man ; this does not derogate from the capacity of men, but fhould be cafl upon the impediments of knowledge; fuch as the fhortnefs of life; reparation in mens fludies ; a depraved and unfaithful tradition of knowledge ; and a number of other inconveniencies, to which the Condition of man is fubjed ; for that no part of the univerfe is improper for the dif-
quifitioa
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 5
quifition of man, he fhews clearly enough in another place; where he lays," The fpirit " of man is as the lamp of God, where- *' with he fearcheth the moft hidden " lecrets.'*
If then fuch be the capacity of the mind of man, it is manifeft that there is no dan- ger from the quantity of knowledge, how large foever, left it (hould make it fwell ; but merely in the quality of knowledge, which though ever fo fmall, if it betaken without its proper antidote, hath a kind of malignity in it, full of flatulent fymptoms. This antidote, the mixture of which tempers knowledge, and renders it exceeding whole- fome, is charity ; which alfo the Apoftle fubjoins to the former claufe, faying, *' Knowledge puffeth up, but charity build- " eth up." Not unlike that which he delivers in another place," Though I fpake with the " tongues of men and of angels, and have *' not charity, I am become as a founding " brafs, or a tinkling cymbal," i Cor. 13. Not but it is an excellent thing to fpeak with the tongues of men and angels ; yet if it be fevered from charity, and not referred to the B 3 public
6 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
public good of mankind, it will rather ex- hibit an empty glory, than any folid fruit.
As for Sclomons cenfure, touching the excels of writing and reading books, and the anxiety of fpirit redounding from knowledge with that admonition of St. PW, " That *^ we be not feduced by vain philofophy," let thofc paflages be rightly explained, and they clearly point out the true bounds and limits within which human knowledge is confined and circumfcribed, yet fo as Ihe may be at liberty to comprehend and take in -he univerfal nature of things. The limits are three : firfl, that we do not fo place our felicity in knowledge, as to forget our mor- tality : iecond, that we do not fo ufe our knowledge, as to be the occafion of anxiety, not tranquillity of mind : the third, that we do not think, by the contemplation of nature, to be able to reach the divine myfteries.
The firft, Solomon excellently explains in another place of the fame book, Ecclef. 2, 13. ^c. " I faw well," faith he, " that *' wifdom recedeth as far from folly, as ^* light from darknefs. The wife man's
•' eyes
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 7
<' eyes keep watch i" his head, whereas the «' fool roveth about in darkuefs ; but withal " I learned that the fame mortality involves " them both."
For the fecond, certain it is, that no anxiety or perturbation of mind, refultsfrom knowledge, but merely by accident ; for all knowledge, and wonder, is in itfelf plea- fant ; but when conclufions are drawn from it, which being obliquely applied to our own particular views, beget either weak fears, or vafl defires ; then, and not till then, arifes that vexation and trouble of mind of v^^hich we are fpeaking: for then knowledge is no longer a dry light, as Her^ciitus, the obfcure, would have it : lumen fccum optima amtna ; " dry light is the heft foul ;* ' but becomes lumen madidum, atqiie himorihus affedium maceratum ; '' Light fteeped and infufed in *' the humours of the affedtions."
The third rule requires a more accurate difquifition, and is not to be lightly paffed over. For if any man thinks, by a view and enquiry into fenfible and material things, to attain fo much light, as will be fufficient B 4 ^^
8 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
to difcover the nature or will ofGod, that man indeed is fpoiled through vain philofophy : for the contemplation of the creatures, with regard to themfelves produces knowledge ; but with regard to God, wonder only, which is a kind of imperfedt knowledge. And therefore it was mod aptly fald by one of Plato's fchool; " That human fenfes *' refemble the fun, which reveals indeed *' the terreftrial globe, but feals up the *' celeftial, and the ftars." So the fenfe difcovers natural things, but darkens and fhuts up divine. And hence it is that fome of the learned have fallen into herefy, while they laboured to fly up to the fecrets of the Deity, upon the wings of the fenfes.
As to thofe who are of opinion that too much knowledge inclines the mind to atheifm, and that the ignorance of fecond caules gives birth to our piety towards the firft caufe, I would willingly ask thefe per- fons Job^ queftion. Job 13. 7. " Whether *« it be fit to lie for God, and for his fake to <« fpeak deceitfully, that we may gratify *' him ?" For it is plain, that God worketh nothing in the ordinary courfe, of nature,
but
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. p
but by fecond caufes; and if they would have it otherwife beheved, it would be mere impofture, in favour to God; aiid nothing elfe but to offer to the author of truth, the unclean facrifice of a lie.
But further, it is an affured truth, and warranted by experience, that a fmall, or fuperficial tafte of philofophy, may per- chance incline a man to atheifm, but that a deeper refearch brings him back agahi to religion. For, in the entrance to philofophy, when the fecond caufes, which are neareft to the fenfes, offer themfelves to the mind of man, and its attention is fixed upon them, an oblivion of the firft caufe may poffibly creep in; but if a man proceeds further, and views the dependance, continuation, and confederacy of caufes, and the works of providence, then, according to the allegory of the poets, he will eafily believe that the higheft link of Nature's chain, is faflened to the foot oi Jupiter" s throne.
To conclude, let no man in purfuit of ill-applied moderation, imagine that we can go too far, or be too well-fludied in the book of God's word, or in his works, in divi- nity,
lO ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
iilty, or philofophy; but rather let men awaken themfelves, and vigoroufly purfue an endlefs proficiency in both ; only let them beware, left they apply knowledge to feif- admiration, not to charity; to oftentation, not to ufe: And that they do not un(kilfully confound thofe diftin6l doctrines, of theology and philofophy, together.
POLITICAL OBJECTIONS
AGAINST
LEARNING.
"^TOW let us come to the difgrace where- with the politicians afperfe learning, which is of this nature: " That the Arts *' foften mens minds, and render them ** unapt for military glory. Then, in *' matter of politics, that they fpoil mens *' difpofitions, making them either too •' curious in refpedt to reading, too pe- *^ remptory by the ftridnefs of rules, or too I " in com-
OK THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. H
*' incompatible with the times, by reafon '' of the diffimilitude of examples ; but at *' leaft, that they divert and alienate mens *' minds from bufniefs and a6lion, inftilling ^' into them a love of leifure and privacy : " Next, that they bring into flates a relaxa. *' tion of difcipline, while every man is *' more ready to argue, than to obey.'' Up- on which Cato, firnamed the Cenfor^ one of the wift.il men that ever lived, when the young men of Rome^ flocked from all quarters about Carneades the philofopher, who was come Ambaffador from Rome, ta- ken with the fweetnefs and majefty of his eloquence, gave counfel in full fenate, *' That they fhould give him his difmif- ** (ion with all fpeed, left he fhould infe£t *' and enchant the mitids of the citizens, •' and infenfibly bring in an alteration of *' the manners and cufl:oms of the ftate." The fame reafon moved Virgil alfo, prefer- ring the honour of his country, before his own profefTion, to make a feparation between the arts of policy, and the arts of literature; claiming thofe to the Romans, ajid leaving
thefe
12 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
thefe to the Grecians^ in thofe celebrated Verfes, Mn. 6. v. 847. ^c,
Excudent alii. Sec.
** Let others better mould the running mafi
•' Of metal, and enforni the breathing brafs,
*' And foften into flefli a marble face :
" Plead better at the bar ; defcribe the (kies,
*' And when the ftars defccnd, and when they rife.
** But Rome, 'tis thine alone with awful fway,
*' To rule mankind, and make the world obey ;
** Difpofing peace and war thy own majeflic way."
D R Y D E N-.
We fee likewife that j^nytas, the accufer o^ Socrates, laid it as an article of accufation againfl: him, that he did by the power and variety of his dlfcourfes and difputationsde- bafein the minds of young men, the author- ity and reverence of the laws and cuftoms of their country ; and that he did profefs a dangerous art, with which, whoever was furniflied, might make the worfe caufe the better, and fupprefs truth itfelf by the addrefs and fplendour of eloquence.
But thefe imputations, carry rather an effe£led gravity, than any fnicerity of truth. For experience witneffes, that both
perfons
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. J^
perfons and times have flourlfhed at once, in the glory of arms and education : as for men, we have inftances in that noble pair of Emperors, Alexander the great, and JuUuS Cccfar the dictator; the one, Anjiotle's fcholar in philofoph v, the other, Cicero s rival in eloquence. Or if any man lliould rather call for learned men, who have proved great generals, than generals that were great fcholars, there is ready for him Epaminondas the 'Theban, or Xenophon the Athenian ; the former of which was the firft that paved the way to the overthrow of the Perjian mon- archy. x'\nd this union of arms and letters is yet more vifible in times, than in perfons, as an age is a greater objedl than a man. For the very fame times with the Egyptians, AJfyrians^ Perfans, Grecians, and Remans, that are mod renowned for military virtue, were like wife moil admired for learning too ; fo that the graveft authors and philofophers, and the moft celebrated captains and gover- nors, have lived in the fame age. Nor indeed can it be otherwife, for as in man the vigour of body and mind grow to maturity almoft together, except that the former is a little more early than theotJier'; fo in flates,
the
14 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
the glory of arms and learning, the one whereof correfponds to the body, the other" to the foul, are either coeval, or follow one another very clofe.
Now In matters of policy and government, that learning (hould rather be an impediment^ than a help to it, is a thing very improbable 5 we all confefs it an unadvikd a£l:, to commit a natural body, and the cure of health to empiric phylicians, who boaft of a few receipts, which feem to them univerfal remedies, in confidence of which they ven- ture to attempt any thing, when yet they neither know the caufes of difeafes, the conftitutioDS of patients, the dangerof fymp- toms, nor the true method of cures. We fee a like error in thofe, who for the dif- patch of their caufes and fuits, make ufe of little lawyers, verfed in pra<rtice, rather than in the law-books ; who are eafily im* pofed upon, if there fall out any thing new, or out of the common road of their experi- ence : fo it is a matter of great danger, whenever affairs is intrufted chiefly to em- piric flatefmen. On the countrary, there is fcarce one inftance brought of a difaftrous
govern-
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. I^
government, where learned men have been feated at the helm. For though it has been ordhiary with politicians to vilify learned men by the name of Pedants^ yet hiftory bears record in abundance of particulars, that the government of princes in minoritv, notwithfianding the great difadvantage of that kind of ftate, have neverthelefs excelled the government of princes of mature age, even for tlie realbn, which politicians tra- duce, of the adminiiiration of affairs being at that time in the hands of Peda?2ts, Who does not know, that during thofe five years of Ne7'o, fo much magnified, the burden of affairs lay upon Seneca ^ a Pedant? So again, Gordianus the younger, owed the ten years applauded government to Miftheus^ a Pe- dant. Nor did Alexander Sevcrus govern lefs happily in his miniftry, in which ipace women took care of all things, but, with the advice of Preceptors, > ol f[Tj: Let us look into the government of the bifhops of Rome-, that of Pius ^uintus, or Sextus ^mtus, in our times, who were efteemed at their entrance but as poor, ignorant, and unexperienced friars ; and we
fhall
l6 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
fhall find that the a«fl:s of fuch popes are ge- nerally more memorable, than of thofe who have afcended to the papacy from an educa- tion and breeding in affairs of ftate, and in the courts of princes. For although men that have fpent mofl of their life in letters, are lefs quick in apprehending occafit)ns, in points of convenience, and accommodating things for the prefent, which the Italians call ragwnl dl Jlato, *' Reafons of ftate.'* (the very name whereof Fius ^intus could not bear, being ufed to fay, that they were the mere devices of wicked men, to opprefs religion and the moral virtues) yet in this there is made ample recompenfe, that they are perfe<^ and ready in the fafe and plain way of religion, juftice, honefly, and the moral virtues ; and they that conflantly keep in this path, will no more need thofe other remedies, than a found body does phyfic. Moreover, the fpace of one man's life can- not furnifh precedents enough to dire£t the events of it, for as it fometimes happens, that the grandfon, or great grandfon, re- fembles the grand-father, or great grand- father more than the father, fo it frequently happens that the occurrences of prefent times
fuit
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING I 7
fuit better with antient examples, than with thofe of latter times. Lailly, the wit of one riian is as much inferior to the extent and latitude of learning, as the income of a private man to a public treafury.
And though it were granted, that thofe de- pravations, indifpofitions, and impediments, which are imputed to learning by politicians, are of validity, and have fome truth in them ; yet it muft be remembered that learning in each of thefe is more medicinal than it is hurtful. For allowing, that learning by a fecret influence renders the mind irrefolute and perplexed, yet certainly it plainly teaches how to unwind the thoughts, how far to deliberate, and when at laft to refolve ; nay, it (hews how thingc in the mean time may be protradled and fafpended without prejudice.
Let it be granted, that learning makes mens minds too pofitive and flitF; yet it teaches, what things are in their nature demonflrative, and what conje6lural; and has for its objeft, as well the ufe of dif- tindions and exceptions, as the liability of
Vol. IL C ruks
l8 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
rules and principles : again, that it mifleads and wrefts mens minds, either by the dii- proportion or diffimilitade of examples; that may be, but it unfolds, and lays open, as well the force of circumflances, as the errors of compnrifons, and teaches all the cautions of application ; fo that in the whole, it reiftifies mens minds more than it perverts them. And thefe remedies learning infmu- ates every where with great force and vari- ety of examples. Let a man weigh well the errors of Clement the Vllth, fo lively defcribed by Guicciard'me, that was a kind of domeftic to him ; or the waverings of Cicero^ painted to the life by his own pencil, in his epiftles to Atticus', and he will of all things fhun inconftancy, and frequent fhifting of refolutions. Let him look into the errors of Phoc'wn^ and he will dread obftinacy, and wilfulnefs. Let him rea<l the fable oflxion, and it will difpel exceilive hopes ; let him confider Cato the fecond, and he will never infift on that perfedlion in a ftate which human nature cannot attain.
Now for the opinion of thofe who think learning a friend to floth, and that it over-
fp reads
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. I9
fp reads the mind with a fv/eet flumber of repofe ; they will do a miracle if they can prove, that what accuftoms the mind to a perpetual motion, is the patronefs of floth : whereas, on the contrary, it may be truly affirmed, that no kind of men love bufinefs.for bulinefs-fake, but the learned. For other perfons love bufniefs, for the profit, as hirelings the work for the wages : others for honour; for while they are in adlion, they live in the eyes of men, and refrefh their reputation, which would othervvife decay : others for the f^ike of power, and the privileges of fortune, that they maybe able to reward their friends, and be revenged on their enemies : others, that they may exercife fome peculiar faculty they are fond of, and in that refpedl often congratulate and pleafe themfelves : others, laftly, to obtain different ends lb that as it is faid of bravados, their valour is in the eyes of the fpedators ; and fuch niens diligence and a6livity feem to aim at this, either that others may applaud them, or that they may be delighted inwardly with felfconceit and their own dellgns. Only learned men love employment, as a6lions C 2 agreeable
20 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
agreeable to nature, and no lefs healthful to the mind, than exercife is to the body, having an eye to the thing only, not the profit : fo that of all naen, they are the mofl: indefatigable, provided it is fiich bufniefs that can fill and entertain the n^ind according to its dignity.
And if any are found fometimes adive in reading, but idle in a6lion, they have not this from learning, but from fome weaknefs and foftnefs of body, or fpirit ; fuch as Seneca touches: " fome," fays he " are *' fo much for fhade and obfcurity, that " whatever is in the light, they take to be *' in a florm." It may happen, that men from a confcioufnefs of fuch a temper devote themfelves to learning ; but learning itfelf implants and breeds no fuch temper.
But if any man, notwithflanding, pe- remptorily maintains, that learning fw^al- lows up too much time, which might other- wife be better employed ; I anfwer, that no man is fo ftraitenedand oppreft with bufinefs, but he has his intermiffions and vacations till the returns and tides of bufmefs flow in
again.
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 21
again, unlefs he is either very dull, and of no difpatch ; or ambitious (little to his credit and reputation) in reaching after morp than he can accomplifh.
It remains then to be enquired, with what, and in what manner it may be con- venient to fill up thofe fpare hours ; whether with fludies or pleafures, with fenfuality, or contemplation ; as was anfwered by Demojihenes to JEfchines^ a man given to pleafure, who when he told him by way of reproach ; " That his orations fmelt " of the lamp;" *' In troth," fays he, *^ there is great difference between the things " that I and you do by lamp-light:" where^ fore there is no fear left learning fhould expel bufinefs ; nay, rather it refcues and defends the mind from idlenefs and pleafure, which otherwife by degrees are apt to fteal in, to the prejudice of both bufmefs as well a? Jearning.
As to the objedion that letters under- mine the reverence of laws and government, it is mere calumny, and has not the proba- ble appearance of an accufation. For to fay, C 3 that
22 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
that a blind obedience flioiild be a ftronger obligation than a rational duty, is the fame as to affirm, that a blind man with a guide treads lurer than he that has the ufe of light and eyes. Since without all controverfy, the arts foften the manners, make them tender, obfequious, pliable, and du£llle to the commands of power ; but ignorance makes them contumacious, refra6lory, and mutinous: and this appears clearly by hif{:ory,confideringthat the mofl unlearned, rude, and barbarous times, have been mofl fubjecl to tumults, feditions, and changes.
With refpeft to the judgment of Caio the Cenfor, I ihall only fay, that he was juflly punifhed for his blafphemy againft learning; for when he was pail threefcore years of age, he was taken with an extreme defire to go to fchool again, to learn the Greek Tongue, that he might underftand the Greek authors ; which demonftrates, that his form^er cenfure of the Grecian learning, was rather an aife6led gravity, than the in- ward fenfe of his own opinion.
Though VirgUm the above cited verfes took 51 fancy to infult the world,inafferting to the
Romans
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 73
Romani a fuperlority in the arts of empire ; refignlng to Greece thofe of genius and tafle, as popular and fervile ; yet it is manifeft, that the Rotnans never afcended to the pin- nacle of empire, till the time they had rifen to the height of arts. For in the time of the two firfl Ccefars, men of the greatefl perfe6lion in the art of government, there lived contemporaries ; the beil: poet, Firgilius Maro\ the befl: hiftorian, 'Thus Lhius; the befl antiquary, Marcus Varro ; and the beft, or fecond beft orator, Marcus Cicero y the greatefl men each in their faculties, in the memory of man.
Lastly, for the accufation oi Socrates^ I fhall only fay, the time muft be remem- bered, when it was profecuted ; namely, under the thirty tyrants, of all mortals the moft bloody, wicked, and unworthy of government : which revolution of ftate and times was no fooner over, but the fame Socrates^ whom they had made a crimi- nal, was now ranked among the Heroes ; his memory illuftrated and crowned with all honours divine and human; and thofe difcourfes of his, before adeemed the C 4. cor-
24 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
corrnption of morals, were celebrated by all pofterlty for moil: , fovereigii medicines ormiiid and manners, . Let this ferve for an'fwer to politicians who in their fuperclli- ous fe verity, or in their counterfeit gravity, huye perfumed to throw their reproaches and affronts upon learning.
OF THE POVERTY OF THE LEARNED, $cc.
TVrOW wc are come to the third fort of difcredit, that refults to learning from learned men themfelves, which adheres more clofely than the reft, and derives its origin either from their fortune, their manners, or the nature of their ftudies. The firft of which is out of their power; the fecond accidental, and not to the purpofe; fothat the third only feems properly to fall under inquiry. Yet becanfe the debate in hand is not fo much concerning the true weight of things,, as of popular opinion, it will not be
amifs
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 25
amlfs to iniinuate fomewhat alfoofthe two others.
The derogations therefore, and dlmuiu- tions which learning futfers fi"om the for- tune of learned men, are taken either from their poverty of living, their obfcure courfc of life, or from the meannefs of the employ-r ments wherein they are converfant.
As to poverty which happens to learned men, w^ho commonly begin wdth little, and do i;iot grow rich lb faft as other men, who mind nothing but intereft, it were advifable to leave the theme in praife of it, to the ' Mendicant Friars to adorn ; to whom Machi" /7t;^/ attributed much, when he faid ; " That " the kingdom of the priefts had long fince " been at an end, if reverence towards the *' poverty of friars and monks, had not " compenfated for the luxury and excefs of f ' prelates*'* So may a man fay, that the felicity and magnificence of princes and great perfons had poflibly long ago funk into barbarifm, if they had not been obliged to thofe poor learned men, for the civility and honour of life. But without any fuch hunt- ing after encomiums, it is worthy obfervation
what
26 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
what a facred and venerable thing poverty it- felf was efteemed, for fome ages, among the Romans, which neverthelefs was a ftate without paradoxes. For thus faith ^itus Livms in his introdu£lion ; " Either my *' affedion to the work I have undertaken *' deceives me, or never was there Common- ." wealth either more mighty than the *' Roma7i, more holy and devout, more rich- " ly furnifhed with good precedents, or '* which avarice and excefs fo late invaded ; ** and w^herein poverty and parfimony were *' fo greatly and folong honoured. In fhort, " the more their indigence, the lefs they *« defired."
After the Rowan flate had degenerated, we read, that when drfar the didator pro- feiTeda reftoration of the ruined ftate, one of his confidents told him, that the moft com- pendious way to his defign would be to take away the efleem of riches. " But," fiys he, " thefe, and all other evils will ceafe, " together with the reputation of money, if " neither offices, nor any other things that ''• commonly appear fo defirable, be expofed '' to fale."
To
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 27
To conclude, as it was truly laid, that blufli- ing was the colour of virtue, though fome times it comes from vice, fo you may truly fay, that poverty is the fortune of virtue, though fometimes it proceeds from luxury and mifmanagement. Surely this is Solomon s judgment ; " He that hafleth to be rich, " fliall not be innocent ;" and his precept, " Buy the truth, and fell it not; alfo *' knowledge and prudence :" judging it right and good, that riches fhould be em- ployed to get learning, not learning applied to hoard riches.
To what purpofe fhould we fpeak of the obfcurity of hfe, which is objeded to learned men ? It is a theme fo trite to extol leifure and retirement, not accompanied with (loth and luxury, before a civil and adllve life, for fecurity, liberty, fweetnefs, dignity, or at leaft freedom from indignities, that no man handles this fubjedt, but handles it well. Ifhallonly add, that learned men lying clofe in ftates, and not living in the eyes of men, are like the images of Qijius and Brutus^ of which, not being carried as many others were at the funeral of Julia,
Tacitus
25 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING,
I'acltus^ faith, Eo ipfo frafulgebant^ quod nan vifebantur ; they out-fhone the reft, for this very reafon, becaufe they did not appear.
With refped to the meannefs of em- ployment afcribed to learned men, the chief argument to prove it is, that the education of children and youth is allotted to them; thedifefleem of which age, becaufe it is that of leafl authority, is caft upon the mafte'rs themfelves. But how unjufl: this. difparagementis,if it be weighed, not accord- ing to popular opinion but found judgment ; we may form an idea from hence, that men are more careful what they put into a new veflel, than into a veflel feafoned; and are more curious what mould they lay about a young plant, than one in maturity ; from whence it is evident that the pri'ncipal care is about the firft formation of things. Obferve the following fentence of thePvabbies; " Your •' young men fhall fee vifions, and your ^' old men fhall dream dreams." From this text they gather, that youth is the worthier age, as revelation is more clear by viiions, than by dreams. And this is well v/orth remarking, that however pedagogues have
run
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 29
run the derifion of theatres, as the apes of tyranny, and that the modern times have been negligent and afleep in the choice of fchool-mafters and tutors; yet it has been an antient complaint, delivered down even fi-om the befl and wifefl: ages, that flates are too diligent as to their laws, and too neg- ligent in point of education. Which mofl noted part of antient difcipllne, has in ibme meafure been revived in the colleges of the J^///j, whofeinduftry and acutenefs, when I confider, as well in the culture of learning, as in the formation of manners, that of Agejilaus touching PharnabazuSy comes into my mind, 'talis cum fis, utinam nojier eps\ "• fmce thou art fo excellent, I *' wifh thou wert one of us." And thus much for the difcredit drawn from the for- •tunes, and condition of learned men.
As to the manners of learned men, that is a thing rather perfonal, than belonging to their ftudies ; and no doubt there arefouad amongfc them, as in all orders and pro fef- fions of life, bad as well as good ; but yet it is neverthelefs true what is afferted; Jbire Jlud'ia in }vhres^ that fludies have an influence
upon
30 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
upon the manners ; and that letters, unlefs they meet with very depraved difpofitions, reform nature mtirely, and change it for the better.
But upon an attentive, and impartial review, I can't find any difgrace that adheres to learning, from the manners of learned men, unlefs it be imputed to them as a fault, which Demojlhenes^ Cicero, Cato the fecond, Seneca, and many more are accufed of, that becaufe the times they read of are commonly better thanthofe they live in; and the duties taught better than the duties prac- tifed, they contend beyond what is expedient, to reduce the corruption of manners to moral reditude and the recelvedopinions of the fage ; orimpofe the laws of antient feverity upon diflblute times, the bad policy of which they have experienced in their own walks. For Solon when he was asked, whether he had given his citizens the beft laws; '* The beft," fays he, *' of fuch as they were difpofed to «' receive.** So Plato, finding that the man- ners of his country-men were too corrupt for him to bear, abftained from all public offices, faying; " That a man's country is
*' to
ON THE. DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. Ql
" to be dealt with as his parents ; that is, *' by perliiaiion, not violence; by humbly ** entreating, not contelHng." And Cafar's coiinfellor puts in the fame plea, faying, Non ad Vetera InJIituta revocans, qu^ jam pri- de in corrupt IS Mo rib us ludihrio Junt: " Not *' reducing things to the antient cuftoms, *' which have been long fmce laughed at from '* the degeneracy of our manners." Cicero to Atticus: " Cato;' fays he, " has mofl '' excellent notions, but he fometimes hurts " the ftate; for he fpeaks as in the com- " mon-weaJth of Flato, and not as in the " dregs of Romulusr The fame Cicero, by a loft interpretation, excufes the rigid fay- ings of the philofophers : '' Thofe very " preceptors and teachers, fays he, feem to " have ft retched out the line and limits of " duties beyond what nature required; that " when we had ft rained our foul to reach " the higheft point of perfedion, we might '* however reft and make a ftand, where it " is meet." And yet he himfelf might have faid, Monitisfum minor ipfe meis; '< I am not " able to follow my own advice:" for he ftumbled at the fame ftone, though not in fo extreme a degree.
Another
3^ ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
Another fault which is perhaps deferv- edly objeded to learned men, is this, that they have iacrificed their own fortunes, or fafeties to the honour and intereft of their country ; for fo fiiid Demojlhenes to his Athcniam\ " My counfels, fays he, if ye "note it well, are nof fuch whereby' I " may grow great amongft you, and your- '' felves become littlfe amongft the Grecians ; " but of that nature as are fometimes not "fafe for me to give, but always good for *' you to follow.'* So Seneca^ after he had confccrated that ^'mquenniiim Neronis (five years of A/Vo) to the eternal glory of learned preceptors, held on his courfe of free and bold counfelto his mafl:er, now grown extremely corrupt by all manner of vice, to his own great peril, and at laft ruin. Neither can it beotherwife, for learning feafons mens minds with a true fenfe of their own frailty, and inftability of fortune, the dignity of their foul, and of their own duty; which things when they think of, they can by no means perfuade themfelves, that any advancement of their own fortunes can be fet down as a true and worthy end of their being. Wherefore they live, as perfons ready to give up their ac- count toGod,andco their mafters underGod,
whether
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. ^3
whether kings or ftates, in this form of words, Ecce tibl lucrifec'r, " Behold I have '■* gained for thee; " and not in that, Ecce mihi lucrifeci, " Behold I have gained for myfelf." But the herd of politicians, that have not their thoughts trained up and eftablifhed in the dddlrine of duties, and the contemplation of univerfal good, refer all things to themfelves, carrying themfelves as if they were the center of the world, and that the concurrence of all interefls ought to center in them, and their fortunes ; never troubling: their heads what becomes of the fhip of the republick, though toft by tem- pefts, provided they can but retreat and fave themfelves and their own fortune.
On the contrary, men who feel the weight of duty, and underftand the limits of felf- love, make good their places and ftations, though with peril. And if they chance to fland m feditions and alterations of govern- ment, it is not to be attributed to any atts, or verfatile temporifing difpolitions in them, but to that reverence, which probity extorts even from enemies. But as to conftancy of faith, and tender fenfe and religious obferv- VoL. /I. D ation
34 ON THE DISCREDIT QF LEARNING.
ation of duty, which erudition does certain- ly plant in the minds of men, however for- tune may fometimes tax them, or politi- cians, from corrupt principles, condemn them, yet they will certainly carry a pub- lic commendation from all men ; fo that in this point, there needs no long defence.
Another fault is common with learned men, and which may fooner be excufed than denied, that they do not eafily apply and accommodate themfelves to perfons, with whom they negotiate, or live : which defeat arifes from two caufes : the firft is the greatnefs of their foul, upon the account of which they can hardly ftoop to the obferv- ance of any one man. It is a fpeech for a lover, not for a wife man, Satis magnum alter alterl *Theatrumfimus, '' We are a theatre of plea- " fure and entertainment, large enough, *< the one to the other. " Neverthelefs I fhall grant that he who cannot contrail the fight of the mind, like that of the eye, as well as dilate it, is deflitute of a notable faculty for the management of bufmefs. But the fecond caufe is the probity and fimplicity of their manners ; which argues choice and judg- ment,
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING 55
meiit, not defeat and inability in them. For the true and juft bounds of obiervance to- wards any perfon, extends no further, than fo to underftand his temper, as to be able to convQrfe with him without offence ; and to affifl: him, with counfel, and in the mean time to take care of ourfelves in all points : but to fpeculate into another man's affe6l- ions, to the end we may work him, wind him, and turn him about at pleafure; is not the part of an ingenuous nature, but of a crafty man ; which, as in friendfhip, is w^ant of integrity, fo towards princes or fuperiors, is want of duty. In the Leva?it, it is accounted a heinous offence to gaze and fix their eyes upon their princes; which in the outward ceremony indeed is barbarous, but in the moral, good : for it becomes not fubje6ls, by curious obfervation, to pierce and penetrate into the hearts of Kings, which the fcripture declares to be hifcrutable.
There is yet another fault (with which I will conclude this part) often imputed to learned men ; namely, that in fmall and out- ward matters, as countenance, gefture, gait, ordinary difcourfe, &c. they fail many times D 2 in
^6 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
in obferving decency ; from whence ignorant men make a judgment from thofe minute and trivial mifcarriages, that their errors mufl: be great in the management of more; important matters. But this confequence generaHy deceives them ; therefore let them know, that l^hemiftocles has given their an- fwer, who being asked to touch a lute, anfwered arrogantly, but very appofitely, to the purpofe in hand ; " That he could not *' fiddle indeed, but he knew well enough, ** by what means a fmall town might be- *' come a great ftate."
And there are, no doubt, many Angular- ly fkilful in the arts of policy, who not- withftanding are ftrangely at a lofs in com- mon life and ordinary matters of no weight. Such fcoffers alfo are to be referred to Plato's eulogy of his mafter Socrates,, whom he com- pared to the gally-pots of apothecaries on the out-fides of which were drawn apes, owls, and grotefque figures ; but contained within, precious liquors, and noble medi- cines ; acknowledging, that to vulgar capa- city, and popular report, he was not without fomefuperficial levities, and even deformities;
but
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 37
but was inwardly replenllhed with moft excellent faculties and virtues. So much for the manners of learned men.
In the mean time, I think it neceffary to notice, that I intend nothing lefs than to patronize certain abje£l and bafe pradioes of profeffors of learning, whereby they have dlfcredlted both themfelves and letters: fuch as were, in the latter age of the Roman flate, certain trencher-philofophers, in the families of wealthy perfons, whom you may not improperly C2\\ folemn Parafites: one of them Luc'ian makes a humourous defcription of; whom a noble matron would have to carry her lap-dog in the coach with her; which he doing officiouily, but aukwardly, the page fneeringly faid, "^ i " am afraid our philofopher, ofaftoic, will «' turn cynic."
But above all the reft, nothing has fo much prejudiced the dignity of letters, as the grofs and fcandalous flattery, to which many, and thofe not unlearned, have pro- flituted their wits and pens, transforming D ^ Hecuba
38 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
Hecuba into Helena, and Faufilnamto Lucretia, as Du -Bart as lays.
Neither, do I much commend that re- ceived cuftom of dedicating books to pat- rons ; for books (fuch as are worthy of that name) ought to have no patrons but truth and reafon. The c uflomofthe an tients was better, who were ufed to dedicate their writings to none but friends and equals; or to title their treatifes with the names of fuch friends: if they dedicated to kings, or great perfons, it was then only done when the argument of the book was fit for fuch a perfon. But thefe may dcferve rather reprehenfion than defence.
Nor do I fay this, as if I condemned learned men for applying themfelves fome- times to men of fortune and power : for to one that afked in mockery, " How it came *' to pafs that philofophers were the fol- *' lowers of rich men, and not rich men of *' philolophers ; " the anfwer that Diogenes made was right and iliarp; " That it was, *' becaufe philofophers knew well what <^ they had need of, but rich men did not."
Like
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. S9
Like this, is that of Arijlippus^ when having a petition to Dionyjtus, and no ear given to him, he threw himfelf at his feet in the man- ner of an adorer, upon which, at laft, he gave him the hearing, and granted his peti- tion : but a httle after, fome perfon, tender of the honour and credit of philofophy, reproved Arijiippus for offering the pre- feffion of philofophy fo great an indignity, as to fall at a tyrant's feet for fuch an inconfiderable matter : to whom he replied, *' That it was not his fault, but Dionyjius^s, " that had his ears in his feet." Neither was it accounted weaknefs, but difcretion in him, that fuffered himfelf to be worfled in a certain difputation with Adr'ianus Cafar % excufing the fa<ft ; " That it was but reafoii *' to yield to one that commanded thirty " legion?." Learned men, therefore, mufl not be condemned, when upon occafion, they abate fomewhat of their gravity, whe- ther in point of neceffity, or convenience; for though it may feem mean and fervile, at ,£rft fight; yet in a judgment truly made, they will be found to fubmit to the occafion, and not to the perfon.
D 4 FROM
4© ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
FROM THE STUDIES OF THE LEARNED.
T ET us now proceed to thofe errors and vanities, which intervene in the (Indies of the learned, and mix with them ; wherein my defign is not to juftify the errors, but by a cenfure and feparation of them, to fift out that which is found and folid, and to dehver them from calumny. For we fee it is the cuflom, efpecially of envious men, on account of what is corrupt and depraved, to traduce alfo that which is untainted, and has retained its flate ; as the heathens in the primitive church ufed to blemifli the chrif- tians with the faults and corruptions of the heretics. Neverthelefs, I purpofe not to make any exa6l animadverfion upon the er- rors and impediments arifing from learning, which are more fecret and remote from vulgar capacity ; but only to fpeak to fuch as fall under common and popular obferva- tion, or at leafl do not recede far from it.
I find there are chiefly three vanities in learning, which have principally given a
handle
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 4I
handle to the traducing of it ; for we efteem thofe things vain which are either falfe or frivolous, in which there is neither truth nor ufe : thofe perfons alio we efteem vain and light who are either credulous in things falfe, or curious in thofe of little ufe. And curiofity is either in matter or w^ords ; that is, when either labour is fpent in vain mat- ters, or too much pains taken about delicacy of words ; wherefore it feems agreeable as w^ell to right reafon, as to approved experi* ence, to fet down three diflempers of learn- ing: the firft is fantaftic learning; the fecond, contentious learning; the third, or- namental and delicate learning. Or thus • vain imaginations, vain altercations, vain afFedations; and with the laft I ihall begin.
DELICATE LEARNING.
The diftemper feated in fuperfiuity and profufenefs of fpeech, which in different periods of antiquity was held in fome efteem, about Luther s time prevailed wonderfully. The principal reafon was, the heat and effi- cacy
42 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING,
cacy of preaching, to footh and entice the people, which about that time flourifhed greatly; and this required a popular kind of expreffion. Another reafon was, the hatred and contempt which grew up in thofe very times towards the School-men, who ufcd a very different ftile and form of exjpreffion, taking an exceflive liberty to coin new and harfli terms, without regard to the ornament and elegancies of fpeech, to avoid circum- locution, and deliver their fenfe and con- ceptions with acutenefs ; after which greater care began to be taken of words than matter ; mofl affecting rather neatnefs of phrafe, Toundnefs of period, the mufical cadence of the claufes, and the fparkling of tropes and figures, than the weight of matter, the foundnefs of argument, the life of invention, or exadtnefs of judgment. Then firft flou- rifhed the luxuriant and watery vein of Oforius, the Portugal Bifhop. Then did Sturmius fpend fuch infinite and anxious pains upon Cicero the Orator, and Hermo- genes the Rhetorician. Thus did our Car and Afcham, in their le£tures and writings, €Xtol Cicero zn^DemoJlhenes even to the ikies, and invite young men to this polite and
flourilh-
ON THE DISCREDIT OF '"LEARNING. 43
flourishing kind of learning. So did Erafmus take occafion to bring in that fcoff- ingeccho, Decern Annas, cy.fumpfi in legendo Cicero?ie : *' I have fpent ten years in reading " Cicero:" to which the eccho anfwered, " One, afs." Then the learning of the School-men began to be utterly defpifed, as rough and barbarous. In fhort, the chief inclination and bent of thofe times was ra- ther to copioufnefs than weight.
Here then we fee the £rft corruption of learning, when men fludy words, \nd not matter; of which though I have brought late examples only, ytt fuch falfe tafle pre- vailed more or lefs in times pail, and will again hereafter. Now, it is not poffible, but this very circumflance fhould tend much to the difcredit of learning, even with the ignorant vulgar, when they fee learned mens writings, like the firfl: letter of a patent, which, though it be drawn out with various turns and flouriflies of the pen, yet is but a fingle letter. And to mc, indeed, Pig^ maHon's frenzy feems a very appofite repre- fentation and emblem of this vanity; for what elfe are words but the images of things :
fo
44 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
fo that unlefs they be animated with the fpirit of reafon, to fall in love with them, is like falling in love with a picture.
It is a thina: not haftilv to be condemned for a man to illuftrate and fmooth the ob- fcurities and roughnefs of philofophy, with the fplendor of words ; of which we have great examples in Xenophon^ Cicero, Seneca^ Plutarch, and even Flato himfelf; for the utility of it is great: and although this may be fome hindrance to a fevere inquifi- tion of truth, and a deep fludy of philofophy, becaufe it is too early fatisfadory to the mind, and quenches the thirft and ardor of further fearch ; yet, if a man applies his learning to civil ufes, as conference, coun- fel, perfuaiion, argument, and the like, he will find all that hedefires, prepared and fet out to his hand, in fuch authors. However the excefs of this is fo juflly contemptible, that as Hercules, when he faw in a temple the image of Adonh, Fenus's minion, faid in indignation, Nil facri es: " Thou art ** nothing facred :" fo all Herculean cham- pions in learning, that is, the more labo- rious
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 45
rious QPxd fleady enquii'ers into truth, will naturally defpife luch delicacies and fop- peries, as having nothing divine in them.
There is fomething more found in another kindof llile, though not altogether exempt from vanity, which near about the fame time fucceeded this copioufnefs and fuperfluity of fpeech. It confifts altogether in this: that the words be pointed, the fentences concife, the contexture of the fpeech, rather re- turning into itfelf, than fpread and di- lated; fo it comes to pafs by this artifice, that every paffage feems more ingenious than indeed it is. Such a flile as this w^e find more extenfively in Seneca, more mo- derately in Tacitus and PUmus Secimdus ; and not long lince it began to be pleafing to the ears of our own time. But this very ftile is wont to find acceptance with ordinary ca- pacities, fo as to be a kind of dignity and ornament to learning : neverthelefs, by the more exacl judgment it is defervedly de- fpifed, and may be fet down as a diftemper of learning, fince it is nothing elfe but a hunting after words, and the finery and
quaint-
46 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
quaintnefs of them. Thus much of the firfl diftemper of learning.
CONTENTIOUS LEARNING.
Now follows the diftemper m the matter itfelf, which we placed fecond, and defigned by the name of contentious fubtilty : and this is rather worfe than that juft treated of; for as fubflantial matter excels every ornament of words, fo, on the contrary, vanity of matter is more odious than vanity of words. Wherein that reprehenfion of St. Paul m^iy refer, as well to the following times as to his own age; and feems to re- fpe6l not only divinity, but fciences alfo : *' Avoid profane novelties of words, and '^ oppofition of fciences falfely fo called." Tim. i. V. 20. For in thefe words he al- ledges two marks and badges of fufpeded fcience ? the firft is the novelty and ftrange- nefs of terms ; the other, the rigour and ftri^lnefs of pofitions, which mufh needs occafion oppofition, and then altercations and queflions,
Cer-
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 47
Certainly many natural fubftances, which are folid and entire, lb long as they are in a flate of perfect ion, do frequently corrupt and pafs into worms; after the fame manner, found and folid knowledge often- times putrifies and diflblvcs into minute fubtilties, like worms which, feem to have a kind of motion and quicknefs in them, but are infipid and of no ufe.
This kind of unfound and felf-corrupt- Ing learning prevailed chiefly among the School-men, who having abundance of lel- fure, fharp and ftrong wits, but fmall vari- ety of reading (their underftandings being confined to the waitings of a few authors^ efpecially Anfiotle^ their diftator, as their perfonswere to the cells of monafteries) and for "the mofl part ignorant of the hiflory, as well of nature, as time, did, out of no great quantity of matter, but infinite agi- tation of wit and fpirit, fpin out unto us thofe moft laborious webs of learning which are extant in their books. For the mind of man, if it works upon matter, by contem- plating the nature of things, and the works of God, is limited in its operations by the
fubje£l ;
4? ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING*"
fubje6l; but if it turns inward, and works upon itfelf, like the fpider weaving his web, then is it endlefs, and brings forth indeed cobwebs of learning, admirable for finenefs of thread and work, but, astoufe, frivolous and of no fubflance.
This unprofitable fubtilty, or curi- ofity, is two-fold; and is feen either in the fubjedl itfelf, fuch as is a fruitlefs fpe- culation, or controverfy, of which kind there are no fmall number, both in divinity and philofophy, or in the manner and me- thod of treating it ; which among the School- men was generally this : upon every pofition or aflertion they formed objedions, then fol u lions of thofe objedtions; which, for the moft part, were only diftindions : whereas, indeed, the ftrength of all fciences, like the old man's faggot, coniifts not in every flick afunder, but in all together united in the band; for the harmony of a fcience, that is, when each part mutually fupports the other, is, and ought to be, the true concife way of confuting all the fmaller fort of ob- jections; but, on the other fide, if you take out every axiom, one by one feverally, you
may
OW THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 4^
may eafilj diiprove them, and bend and break rhem at pleafure. So that what was fald o( Seneca^ " He breaks the weight of *« matter bv the little niceties of words," may truly be faid of the School-men ; " They break the folidity of fclences by the ** little niceties of queftions." Would It not be better in a fpacious hall to fet up one great light, or to hang up a branch furnifhed with divers lights, whereby all may be feen at once, than to go up and down with a fmall watch candle into every corner? And fuch is their method, who do not fo much endea- vour to llluflrate truth by clear arguments, authorities, comparifons, and examples, as labour to take out every minute fcruple, to anfwer captious cavils, and to folve doubts ; by this means breeding queftion out of queftlon, even as in the comparlfon above of the light, when you carry it into one place, you forfake and darken all the reft : fo that the fable of Scylla expreffes to the life this kind of phllofophy, whofe face and breaft refembled a beautiful virgin, but below they fay fhe was,
Candida fuccindam latrant'ihus Ingu'na monjh'is.
Vol, IL E *' A beau-
50 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING,
" A beauteous maid above, but magic arts,
" With barking 4ogs deform'd her nether parts."
Dryden-.
So you will find certain general pofitions amongft the School-men, that are hand- fomely faid, and not invented amifs; but when you defcend to their diftin£lions and decifions, inftead of a fruitful womb, for the benefit of human life, they end in mon- ftrous and barking queflions.
Therefore it is no wonder if this kind of learning falls under even the contempt of the vulgar, who are generally ufed to de- fpife truth on account of controverfies raifed about it, and think they are all out of the way who never meet : and when they fee the altercations of learned men one with another, about matters of no moment, they eafily catch up that faying of Dionyjius of Syracufe^ Verba ifta funt fenum otloforum : •* This is nothing but the tattle of old men *' and women that have nothing elfe to *' do." Notwithflanding it is moll certain,
that
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. ff
that if the School-men, to their unquench^ able thirfl: of truth, and continual working of their wit, had joined variety and multi- plicity of reading with contemplation, they would have doubtlefs proved diflinguifhing lights, to the wonderful advancement of all arts and fciences. And fo much for the fecond difeafe of learning.
FANTASTIC LEARNING.
For the third difeafe, which relates to fahhood and untruth, this is, of all others, the mofl pernicious, as it deflroys the very natufe and foul of knowledge, which is no- thing elfe but the image of truth. For the truth of being, and that of knowing, are all one ; nor do they differ more from one another, than the dire6t beam, and the beam refle6led. This vice, therefore, branch-, es itfelf into two forts ; impofture, and cre- dulity : this is deceived, that deceives ; which although they appear to be of a dif- ferent nature, the one feeming to proceed from craft, the other from* fimplicity, yet, £ 2 for
52 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
for the moft part, they concur. For as the verfe has it,
Poreontatorem fitgltOy nam garrulus idem eft.
Intimatnig, that an inqulfitive perfon is a pratler alfo : fo, for the fame reafon, he that is apt to heheve, is apt to deceive. As we fee it alfo in fame and rumours, that he who eafily believes them, will as eafily aug- ment and add to them ; which Tacitus wifely hints in thefe words : " They invent, and ** believe at once :" fo great an affinity is there between a propenfity to deceive, and a facihty to believe.
This facility of believing, and admitting all things, though weakly authorized or warranted, is of two kinds, according to the nature of the fubje6l-matter; for we either believe ftory, or matter of fa61:, as the law- yers fpeak, or elfe matter of opinion and pofition. As to the former kind, we fee how much this error has difcredited, and derogated from fome ecclefiaftical hlftories ; which have been too eafy in regiflering and tranfcribing miracles wrought by martyrs, hermits, anchorites, and other holy men,
and
ON THE DISCREDIT OFLEARNING. ^^
and by their relics, fepulchres, chapels, and images.
So in natural hiflory we may fee many things rafhly and with little choice or judg- ment, received and regiftered, as appears by the writings of Pliny, Cardaftus, AlhertuSy and divers of the Arabians, which are every where fraught with forged and fabulous ftories ; and thofe not only uncertain and untried, but notorioufly falfe, and manifeflly. convided, to the great difcredit of natu- ral philofophy with grave and fober men. In which the wifdom and integrity of Arlf- totle fhines forth ; who having wrote a dili- gent and exquliite hiftory of living creatures, has not mingled it much with feigned or fabulous matter ; but rather than do that, he has caft all the prodigies which he thought worthy recording, into one commentary; excellently difcerning, that matter of mani- feft truth, which, like a folld experimental bafis, might ferve as a foundation for philo- fophy and fciences to be built upon, was not unadvifedly to be mingled with matter of doubtful credit; and yet, that things rare and ftrange, which to moil people feem in- E 3 credible.
'54 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
credible, are not wholly to be fuppreffed, or to be denied to the records of poflerity.
But that other credulity, which is yielded not to hiflory or reports, but to arts and opinions, is likewife of two forts : either when we give too much credit to the arts themfelves, or to the authors in any art.
The arts themfelves, which have had more intelligence and confederacy with ima- gination and belief, than with reafon and demonftration, arc chiefly three ; aftrology, natural magic, and alchymy ; the ends of which are noble : for aflrology profefles to difcover that correfpondence which is be- tween the fuperior and the inferior globe : natural magic pretends to reduce natural philofophy, from variety of fpeculations, to the magnitude of works : alchymy under- takes to feparate and extra£l the heterogene- ous parts of things, which are hid and in- corporate in natural bodies, and to refine bodies themfelves that are flained and foiled; to fet at liberty fuch as are bound and im- prifoned, and to bring to perfecftion fuCh as are uaripe. But the methods which are
prefume^
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING SS
prefumed to lead to thefe ends, both In the theory and pradice of thofe arts, are full of error and triflmg; yet, furcly, to alchymy this right is due, that it may truly be com- pared to the huibandman In JEfop, who, being about to depart this life, told his fons, *' That he had left them a great quantity *' of gold buried in his vineyard, but did *' not remember the particular place :" who when they had with fpades diligently turned up all the vineyard, gold indeed they found none; however, by ftirring and digging the mould about the roots of their vines, they had a very great vintage the year following : fo the flrenuous pains of chymifts, about making gold, have opened the way to a great number of noble inventions and experiments, fingularly adapted, as well to the difclofmg of nature, as to the ufes of human life.
Now, as for the credulity which has in- vefted certain authors of fciences with a kind of didatorial power to give law, not fenato- rial to give advice ; this has been of infinite hurt to fciences, as the principal caufe which has depreffed and kept them fo low, that they have been without any remarkable E 4 growth
56 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
growth or advancement. In mechanical arts, the firft projectors have been fhort in their inventions, and time has fuppHed and perfected the reft ; but in fciences, the firft authors have gone fartheft, and time has impaired and corrupted them. So we fee artillery, faiUng, printing, were in their be- ginnings imperfect, in a manner without form and badly managed; but, inprogrefsof time, accommodated and refined. But, on the contrary, the philofophy and fciences of Ariftotle, Plato ^ Democritus, Hippocrates, Euclid^ Arch'nnedeSy were of moft vigour tinder thofe very authors; and in procefs of time degenerated, and loft much of their laftre; for this reafon, that in arts mechani- cal, the wits of many have contributed and met in one, but, in liberal arts and fciences, the wits of many have yielded and fub- mitted to one, wliomyethis followers many times have rather depraved than illuftrated : for as water will not afcend higher than the fpring-head, from whence it flows, fo know- ledge derived from Anjiotle^ and exempted from liberty of examination, will never rife higher than the knowledge oi AriJiotle\ and, therefore, though I do not diflike the rule,
oportet
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNIN(j. 5^
oportet difcentem credere, " A learner ought " to believe," yet it mufl be coupled with this: oportet jam do^um judkiofuo utl: *' He *' that is well informed, ought to make ufe ** of his own judgment." For difciples owe their maflers only a temporary belief, and a fufpenlion of their judgment, till they have thoroughly learned the arts ; and not an abfolute reiignation of their liberty, and a perpetual bondage of their underftanding. Therefore, to conclude this point, I will fay no more than this: let great authors have fuch honour, as that we do not dero- gate from time, which is the author of au-* thors, and parent of truth.
PREJUDICES OF THE LEARNED.
TXTE have at length laid open three dif- tempers or difeafes of learning ; befides which there are fome other, rather peccant humours than confirmed difeafes; which, neverthelefs, are not fo fecret, but that they fall under a popular obfervation and cenfure; and, therefore, are by no means to be pafled over. The
5^ O^J rut DISCREDIT OF LEARNING,
The firfl of thefe is an afFedation of two extremes, antiquity and novelty : where- in the daughters of time take after the nature and malice of the father ; for as time devours his children, fo do thefe one another, while antiquity envies new improve- ments, and novelty cannot be content to add things recent, unlefs it utterly rejedls the old: furely the advice of the Prophet is the true direction in this cafe: *' Stand ye upon *' the old paths, and fee where is the good *' and the right way, and walk therein.*' Jerem. vi. 1 6. Antiquity deferves fo much reverence, that men fhould make a flop, and look about them on every fide, to difcover which is the befl way; but when the dif- covery is well taken, they fhould not reft there, but advance cheerfully ; for in truth, antiquity of time is the world's youth. Cer- tainly ours are the ancient times, the world being now grown old ; and not thofe which are computed, orpine retrogadoy reckoning backward from our own age.
Another error, fpringing from the form- er, is a fufpicion and diffidence, which thinks that it is not poffible to find out any thing
now
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. S9
now, which the world could have been fo long without ; as if the fame obje6lion might be made to time, with which Luclan attacks yupiter^ and the reft of the heathen Gods ; for he wonders they fhould beget fo many children in old time, and none in his ; and afks merrily, " Whether they were fuperan- " nuated, or retrained by the Papian law *' made againfl old mens marriages.'* So men feem to be apprehenfive, that time is become efete, and paft bearing children: whereas, on the other hand, we may here eafily dif- cover the levity and inconftancy of men, who, till a thing is done, think it impoffible ; but, at foon as it is done, wonder it had not been done long before. Thus Alexander s expedition into AJta was judged, at firfl, as a vafl and exceeding difficult enterprize; which, neverthelefs, after it fucceeded, Livy made fo flight of, as to fay of Alexander^ ^' He did but bravely venture to defpife idle " opinions :" and the fame happened to ColumbuSy in the weftern navigation : but, in intelledlual matters, this is much more com- mon, as may be feen in moft of the propoli- tions in Euclid, which, before they are de- paonflrated, feem flrange, and not eafily to
be
6a ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING
be afTentedto; but, after demon ftration, the inind embraces them by a kind of recogni- zance, as the lawyers terrti it, as if it had underflood and known them before.
Another error, of affinity with the form- er, is a fancy of thofe who think that of all fe6ls and ancient opinions, after they had been examined and fifted, the bed were eflab- liftied,and the reft fupprefled; therefore they conceive, if a man ihould begin his fearch and examination a-new, he mull of courfe light upon fome opinions which had been rejeded, and, after rejedion, lofl and obli- terated; as if the multitude, or even wife men, to gratify the multitude, did not of- tener approve that which is popular, than that which is more folid. For time is of the nature of a river, which carries down to us things light and buoyant, but fmks and drowns that which is folid and weighty*
Another error, different from the reft, is, an over-early and peremptory redu(5lion of knowledge into fyftems, which, when- ever it happens, fciences receive little or no augmentation : even as young men, when
they
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 6l
tliey are knit and perfectly fliaped, fcarce grow any more : fo knowledge, as long as it is difperfed into aphorifms and obferva- tions, may grow and fhoot up ; but, when once it is circumfcribed by fyftems, it may by chance be polifhed and illuflrated, or accommodated to human ufe ; but it will increafe no more in bulk and fubftance.
Another error is, that after the diftri- bution of particular arts and fciences into their feveral clalies, moil men bave aban- doned univerfality of knowledge, philofophia ■prima, which is a deadly enemy to the pro- greflion of fciences ; for profpe(£ls are made fi;om turrets, or very high places ; and it is impoffible for a man to explore the more remote and deeper parts of any fcience, if he fl:and but upon the flat and level of it, and afcend not the watch-tower of a fu- perior fcience.
Another error flows from too great a reverence and adoration of the mind and un- derftanding of man ; by w^hich means men have withdrawn themfelves from the con- templatipn of nature, and the obfervations
of
62 ON THE DISCREDIT. OF LEARNING#
of experience, bewildered in their own fpe- culations and fancies; but of thefe noble fpeculators, and, if I may fo fpeak, intellec- tualifts, who are, notwithflanding. common- ly taken for the moft fublime and divine philofophers, Heraclitus has fpoken thus : " Men," fays he, " feek truth in their *' own little worlds, but not in the great " world." For did they not difdain the alphabet of nature, and the primer of the divine works, they might, perhaps, by fteps and degrees, after the knowledge of fimple letters, and then fy llables, come at laft to read perfedlly the text and volume of the creatures itfelf. But they, on the con- trary, by continual meditation, and work- ing of their wit, urge and invocate their own fpirits to divine, and give out fanatical predi6lions, by which they are defervedly, though pleafmgly deluded.
Another error that has fome conne6lioii with the latter is, that men often feafon and infed their meditations and dodrines with certain opinions and fancies of their own, which they hold mofl in admiration ; or with fome fciences, to which they are mofl
addicted
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 63
addii^ed and devoted ; tinduring all other things with their favourite fludies, though a paint very illufive and deceiving. So Plato intermingled theology in his philofo- phy ; Arijlotk^ logic ; the fecond fchool of Plato^ Proclus and the refl, mathematics. The chymifls forged a new philofophy out of a few experiments, the fire, and furnace; and Gilhertiis, our countryman, has drawn a new philofophy out of the load-flone. So Cicero^ when reciting the feveral opinions concerning the natureof the foul, at lall: met with a mufician, w^ho held the foul to be harmony, and faid pleafantly, *' This mail " was not for going out of his own profef- " fion." But of thefe fort of errors, Aif- totle aptly and wifely fays, " They that con- *' fider but few things are apt to pronounce, *' and be dogmatical."
Another error is, an impatience of doubt- ing, and a blind hafle to aflent, without mature fufpenfion of judgment; for the two ways of contemplation are not unlike the two ways of a6lion often mentioned by the ancients : the one, plain and fmooth in the beginning, but in the end impaffable ;
the
64 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
the Other, rough and craggy in the entrance, but, when you have gone on a little, fair and even; fo, in contemplation, if a man be- gins with certainties, he fhall end in doubts ; but, if he begins with doubts, and has the patience to bear them, he fhall foon end in certainties.
A LIKE error difcovers itfelf in the manner of delivering knowledge, which, for the mofl part, is imperious and magifterial, not in- genuous and liberal; fo contrived as to command affent, rather than fubmit to ex- amination. I will not deny, but that in compendious treatifes, defigned for pradice, that form of writing is to be retained ; but, in juil: and complete treatifes of fcience, both extremes, in my judgment, are to be avoided, as well that of Felleius, the Epicurean, Nil tarn jnetuentis, quam ne duhitare de re aliqua videretur^ *' Who fears nothing fo much, as " left he fhould feem to doubt about any <' thing," as that of Socrates, and the Aca- demy, who leave all things in doubt and uncertainty. Men fhould rather afFe6l can- dour and fuicerity, and propound things with more or lefs affeveration, according as they
are
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 05
nre more weakly or fully proved, by the weight of argument and reafon.
Other errors there are in the fcope that men propound to themfelves, and to which they dire6t their endeavours and labours; for, as the more diligent leaders, and noted profefibrs of learning, ought chiefly to keep in view the making fome confiderable addition to the art they profefs; thefe men, on the other fide, content themfelves to be feconds only ; courting the name either of a fubtle interpreter, an able antagonifl, or of a methodical abrldtrer: from whence
o
the revenues and tributes of fciences come to be augmented, but not the patrimony and ground of knowledge itfelf.
But the greatefl error of all the reft con- lifts in deviating from the ultimate end of knowledge. For men defire and feek after knowledge, fome from a natural and reftlefs curiofity ; others for entertainment and de- light; others for reputation; others for the fake of contention and victory in difpute; mofl for lucre and livelihood; very few to employ the gift of reafon given by God for
Vol. II. F the
66 ON THE DISCREDIT 05 LEARNING.
the benefit and ufe of mankind : juft as if they fought in learning a couch, on which they might repofe a troubled and reftlefs fpirit; or a terrace for a wandering and va- riable mind to walk up and down upon at liberty, with a fair profpe6l ; or fome high and eminent tower, for a proud, ambitious mind to raife itfelf on ; a citadel and fort for contention and battle, or a fhlp for trade and merchandife, rather than a rich armory, and flore-houfe, for the glory of the Creator of all things, and the relief of human life. This is that which would indeed dignify and exalt learning and the arts, if contem- plation and a£lion were more nearly joined and united than they have hitherto been: which combination would be like the con- jun6lion of the two higheil: planets, when Saturn, the planet of quiet and contempla- tion, confpires with Jupiter, the planet of fociety and a<Stion. However, when I fpeak of practice and adion, I do not in the leaft mean profeflbrial and lucrative learning; for 1 am not ignorant how much that diverts and interrupts the progreffion and advance- ment of real knowledge ; like, indeed, the
Golden
ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING. 6^
Golden Apple thrown before Atalanfa, which, while fhe ftoops to take up, the race in the mean time is hindered.
Dt'Cilnas curfus aurumque, voUnhil toll'it.
Nor again is it my meaning, as was faid of Socrates, to call down philofophy from heaven to converfe upon earth only; that natural philofophy fhould belaid afide, to the end that moral and political philofophy only might be in vogue : but as heaven and earth confpire together for the fupport and delight of the life of man, fo indeed fhould this be the end of both philofophies, that vain fpe- culations, and whatever is empty and barren, being rejected, all that is folid and fruitful may be preferved ; and knowledge not con- fidered a courtezan for pkafure, or a hand- maid to profit, but as a fpoufe for generation and honed comfort.
And now, having explained, by a kind
of difledion, thofe peccant humours (the
principal of them at leaft) which have not
only been an impediment to the proficience
F 2 of
^8 ON THE DISCREDIT OF LEARNING.
of learning, but have alfo given occafion to the traducing of it; if I have done it to the quick, it muil: be remembered, '« Faithful *« are the wounds of a friend ; but the kifles " of an enemy are deceitful." Prov. xxvii. 6. However, this, at leaft, I feem to have gained, to deferve belief in the following encomium, fnice I have proceeded fo freely in the preceding cenfure : and yet I have no purpofe to write a panegyric on learning, or -iing a hymn to the Mufes, though per- haps it is long fuice their rites were duly celebrated; but my intent is, without var- nilh or amplification, to take the juft weight of knowledge, to balance it with other things, and to fearch out the true value thereof from teflimonies, both divine and human.
ON?
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. 69
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
PIRST let us feek the dignity of know- ledge in the archetype, that is, in the attributes and a6ls of God, as far as they are revealed to man, and may be fearched into with fobriety ; in which the name of learn* ing is improper, fnice all learning is know- ledge acquired ; and no knowledge in God is acquired, but original ; therefore we muft look out for fome other name, that of wifdom, as the holy fcriptures term it.
In the works of creation, we fee a double emanation of divine virtue ; the one referring to power, the other to wifdom : the former is chiefly feen in creating the mafs of mat- ter, the latter, in difpofing the beauty of the form. This being laid down, it is to be ob- ferved, that for any thing which appears in the hiflory of the creation to the contrary, the confufed mafs of heaven and earth was made in a moment ; yet, the difpofition and F 3 digeft-
70 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING,
dlgefting of the fame was the work of fix days : fo remarkable a difference did it pleafe God to put between the works of power, and the works of wifdom. As to the creation of matter, it is not recorded that God faid, " Let there be heaven and earth," as was faid of the works following ; but fimply and ac- tually, " God made heaven and earth :" fo that the matter feems to be as a manufac- ture, but the introdudlion of form carries the flyle of a law or decree.
Let us proceed from God to Angels, whofe nature, in order of dignity, is next to God. We fee in the order of Angels, fo-far as credit is to be given to that cekftial hie- rarchy, fet forth under the name o^DioftyJius the Areopagite, that the Seraphim, that is, the angels of love, have the firft place ; the fecond, the Cherubim, angels of illumina- tion ; and that the third and following places are given to thrones, principalities, and the reft of the angels of power and mimftry : fb that from this very order and diftribution it appears, that the angels of knowledge and illumination are placed before the angels of office and dominion.
To
ON THE DIGNITY OE LEARNING. ^l
To defcend from fpirits and intelle£lual natures, to fenfible and material forms, we read, that the firfl of created forms was light ; which, in natural and corporeal things, has a relation and correfpondence to things fpi- ritual and incorporeal.
So in the diflribution of days we fee the day wherein God refted, and contemplated his own works, was bleffed above all the days in which the fabric of the univerfe was created and difpofed.
After the creation was finifhed, we read that man was placed in Paradife, to work there : which work could be no other than what relates to contemplation ; that is, the end of it could not refer to necefTity, but to delight and exercife, without vexation or trouble; for there being then no poffible re- luctance of the creature, no " fweatofthe <' brow,'* man's employment mufl of con- fequence have been matter of pleafure and contemplation, not of labour or work. The firft ads which man performed in Paradife confifted of the two fummary parts of know- ledge, the view of creatures, and the impo- F 4 fition
*12 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
fition of names. As for the knowledge which introduced the fall, it was not the natural knowledge of creatures, but the moral know- ledge of good and evil, wherein the fuppo- ikion was, that God's commandments or prohibitions were not the origin of good and evil, but that they had other fources which man afpired to know, to make a total de- fe6tion from God, and to depend wholly upon himfelf.
Let us pafs to the things that happened immediately after the fall. We fee (as the facred fcriptures have infinite myfteries, without ever violating the hilTorical and li- teral truth) an image of the two eflates, the contemplative ^nd active, delineated in the perfons of Abel and Cain, and in their pro- fefTions and primitive ways of life. The one was a fhepherd, who, by reafoii of his lei- fure, his quiet, and free view of heaven, is a type of the contemplative life : the other, a hufbandman, that is, a man fatigued with labour, and his countenance fixed down ■Upon the earth : where we may fee that the favour and eledion of God went to the fhep- herd, and not to the tiller of the ground.
Sq
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. y^
So before the flood, the holy records, among the very few occurrences regiftered of that age, have delivered down to pofterity the mventors of mufic, and works in metal.
In the next age after the flood, the great judgment of God upon the pride of man was the confufion of tongues, whereby the free commerce of learning, and intercourfe of let^ ters, was chiefly cut off.
Let us defcend to Mofes, the law-giver, and God's firft notary, whom the fcriptures adorn with this eulogy, '' That he was feen *' in all the learning of the Egyptians;'* which nation was reckoned one of the mofl antient fchools of the world : for fo Piato brings in the Egyptian priefl faying to Solon ^ *' You Grecians are ever children, having ** no knowledge of antiquity, nor antiquity " of knowledge." Take a view of the ceremonial law of Mofes, and you fhall find, befides the prefiguration of Chrift, the dif- tinftion of the people of God from the Gen- tiles, the exercife and impreffion of obedi- ence, and other holy ufes of the fame law, that fome of the mofl learned Rabbles have
tra-
74 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
travalled,proiitably and profoundly to difcover a phy ileal and moral fenfe in many of the ceremonies and ordinances : as in the law of the leprofy, where it is faid, " If the white- *' nefshave overfpread the flefh, the patient *' may pafs abroad for clean ; but if there be *« any whole flefh remaining, he is to be " fhut up for unclean." From this law one of them collects a principle of nature, '* That piitrefadlion is more contagious be- *' fore maturity than after." Another notes apofition of moral philofophy, " That men •' abandoned to vice do not fo much corrupt *' manners, as thofe that are half good and " half evil :" fo in this, and in many other places in that law, there is to be found, be- lides the theological fenfe, a great mixture of philofophy.
So likewife If a man turn over with dili- gence that excellent book of Job, he will find it full of the mylleries of natural philofophy. As for example, cofmography, and the round- nefs of the. world : " He ftretcheth out the " north over the empty place, and hangeth <' the earth upon nothing." Job xxvi. 7. Wherein the penfilenefs of the earth, the
pole
ON THE DIGNITY OFLEARNING 1$
pole of the north, and the finitenefs or con- vexity of heaven, are manifefHy touched. So in matters of aflronomy: '* By his fpirit «' he hath garniihed the heavens; his hand " hath formed the crooked ferpent." Ibid. 13. And in another place, " Canft thou bind " the fweet influences of Pleiades? or loofe «' the bands of Orion r'* xxxviii. 31. Where the immoveable configuration of the fixed ftars, ever {landing at equal difbance one from the other, is with great elegancy de- fer ibed. So in another place, " Which " maketh Ardurus, Orion, and Pleiades, " and the fecrets of the fouth." ix. 9. Where he points at the depi'eliion of the Southern pole, calling it the fecrets of the fouth, becaufe the fouthern flars are not feen upon our hemiiphere. Likewife in matter of generation : " Haft thou not " poured me out like milk, and condenfed •' me like curds?" x. 10. In matters of minerals : " Surely there is a vein for filver, *' and a place wherein gold is fined; iron is ** digged up out of compacted duft, and " brafs extradled from ftone diffolved in the «' furnace." See chap, xxviii. i. &c.
In
^6 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
In like manner alfo, in the perfon of Kiiig Solomon^ we fee the gift of wifdom, both in his own petition, and in the divine grant, preferred before all earthly and temporal fe- licity ; by virtue of which grant, Solomon^ being fingularly furnifhed, wrote not only thofe excellent parables concerning divine and moral philofophy, but alfo compiled a natural hiftory of all vegetables, *' from *' the cedar upon the mountain, to the mofs *' upon the wall," (which is but the rudi- ment of a plant, between putrefaction and an herb ;) and of all things that breathe or move. Nay, the fame King Solomon^ though he excelled in wealth, in magnificence of buildings, in fliipping, in fervice and at- tendance, in fame and renown, and other things relating to glory; yet he reaps or aflumes to himfelf nothing at all, out of that train of glories, befides that of enquiring into, and finding out the truth : for fo he fays exprefsly : " It is the glory of God to " conceal a thing; but the honour of kings *' is to fearch out a matter." Prov. xxv. 2. As if, according to the innocent and fweet play of children, the divine Majefly took delight to hide his works, that he might
have
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. 77
hav^e them found out ; and as if kings could not obtain a greater honour than to be af- figned the province of difcovering them ; efpeciallj confidering the great command they have of wits and means, whereby no- thing needeth to be hidden from them.
Nor was the difpenfation of God other- wife, after our Saviour w^as come into the world : for he fhewed his power, in putting ignorance to flight, by his conference with the do£lors and priefls in the temple, before he fhewed it, in fubduing nature, by his great and numerous miracles : and the com- ing of the holy Spirit was chiefly figured and expreflTed in the fimilitude and gift of tongues, which are but the vehicles of know- ledge.
So in the choice of thofe inftruments which God made ufe of for the plantation of the faith, at firft he called forth perfons wholly unlearned and ignorant, otherwife than by mfpiration of the Holy Ghoft; to the end he might more evidently declare his own immediate working and divine power to be above human wifdom. Neverthelefs,
his
yS ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
his coimfel in this refpeft was no fooner ful- filled, but in the next fucceflion of time he fent his divine truth into the world. Ac- cordingly the pen of St. Paul, the only learned man of the apoftles, was chiefly em- ployed by God, in the fcriptures of the New Teflament.
We know that feveral of the ancient Bl- fhops and fathers were excellently read in all the learnuig of the heathens. Infomuch, that the edi6l of Julian, which forbad Chrif- tians to be admitted into fchools and acade- mies, was efteemed a more pernicious engine for the demolishing of the Chriftlan faith, than the fanguinary perfecutions of the pre- ceding emperors. Neither was the emula- tion and invidloufnefs of Gregory the firfl, Bifliop of Rome, (otherwife an excellent man) who zealoufly endeavoured to oblite- rate the memory of heathen authors and an- tiquities, taken in good part, even among pious men. Nay, it was rhe Chriftian church alone, which, among the inundations of the Scythians from the north, and of the Saracens from the eaft, preferved in her facred bofom the precious relics of heathen learning, which I was
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNINCJ. *]()
was now upon the point of being utterly extinguifhed.
There are two principal offices and fer- vices, befides ornament and illuftration, which philolophy and human learning per- form to faith and reUgion. The one, that thev are effectual incitements to the exalta- tion and celebration of the glory of God ; (for as the Pfalms, and other fcriptures, often invite us to contemplate and magnify the great and wonderful works of God ; fo, if we fhould reft only in the exterior part of them, as they firft offer themfelves to our fenfes, we fliould do the fame injury to the majefty of God, as if we fhould judge of the wealth and ftore of a moft noted jeweller, by what is expofed to view in the out-part of the fhop towards the ftreet:) the other, that they minifter a fmgular help and pre- fervative againft unbelief and error ; for our Saviour faith, " Ye err, not knowing the " fcriptures, nor the power of God.'* Where he lays before us two books toftudy, to pre- vent our falling into error: firft, the volume of the fcriptures, which reveal the will of God; then, the volume of the creatures
that
8o ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING*
that exprefs his power : the latter of which is a key to the former, opening not only our intelleds, to conceive the genuine fenfe of" the fcriptures, which is to be drawn out by the general rules of reafon, and laws of fpeech ; but, befides that, unfolding our faith alfo, to enter into a ferious meditation of the omnipotence of God, the chara£lers whereof are chiefly engraven upon his works* Thus much for divine teflimonies and judg- ments, concerning the true dignity and value of learning*
OF HUMAN PROOFS AND ARGUMENTS.
AS for human proofs and arguments, fa "^ large a field opens, that it is convenient to ufe choice rather than abundance.
First, therefore, the highefl degree of honour among the heathens was, to obtain divine veneration and worfhip ; which to Chriflians is blafphemy ; but we fpeak now
fepa-
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. 8r
feparately concerning human judgments : therefore among the heathens, that which the Greeks call apotheojis^ and the Latins^ re- iai'io inter DeDs, " canonizing,'* was the high- ell: honour that man could poffibly attribute to man; elpecially when it was given, not by any degree or acl of ftate, as to the Ro' jimn Emperors,, but freely and frankly from the judgment and inward belief of men : of which exalted honour there were two de- grees, honours heroic, and divine; in the diftribution of which, antiquity obferved this order.
Founders of flates, legiflators, fathers of their country, and other perfons of great merit in civil affairs, were diflinguifhed by the title of Heroes ; fuch as Thefeus, M'mos^ Romulus^ &c. On the other fide, the in- ventors and authors of new arts, and fuch as endowed human life with new conveni- ences and acceffions, were ever confecrated iamong the gfeater Gods themfelves ; fuch as Ceres, Bacchus, Mercury, Apollo, and others ; w^hich, doubtlefs, was done juflly, and upon found judgment. For the merits of the former are commonly confined within the
Vol. IL G circle
8Z ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
circle of one age, or nation ; and are not unlike feafonable and favourable fhowers, which, though they be profitable and de- firable, yet ferve only for that feafon wherein they fall, and for that latitude of ground which they water : but the benefits of the latter, like the bleflings of the fun, and of the heavenly bodies, are for time perpetual, for place, univerfal. Again : thofe are ufu- ally accompanied with ftrife and perturba- tion; but thefe have the true charadler of the divine prefence, and come, in a gentle gale, without tumult or noife. .
Nor indeed is the merit of learning in civil affairs, and in reprefling the inconve- niences which one man brings upon another, much inferior to that other, in relieving human neceffities, which aiife from nature herfelf; and this kind of merit was excel- lently fhadowed under that feigned relation, concerning Orpheus' s theatre, where all beafts and birds affembled, and, forgetful of their natural appetites of prey, of game, of flight ; flood fociably and lovingly together, taken with the melodious fweetnefs of his harp; the found whereof no fooner ceafed, or was
drowned
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. 83
drowned by feme louder nolfe, but every bead returned to his own nature. In which fhble the natures and manners of men are elegantly dcfcribed, who are toffed with fundry untamed defires of gain, of luft, of revenge ; yet as long as they give ear to the precepts and perfuafions of religion, of laws, of inftruclors, eloquently and fweetly warb- ling, in books, in fermons, and harangues; fo long is peace and fociety maintained : but if thole are filent, or feditions and tuTnults difturb them with their clamour, all things diflblvej and relapfe into anarchy and con- fufion.
But this appears more manifeflly, when kings themlelves, or perfons of great autho- rity under them, or other governors of flates, are endued w4th learning: for however par- tial to his own profefTion he may be thought who faid, " Then would flates be happy, ** when either philofophers were kings, or *' kings philofophers ;'* yet fo much is ve- rified by experience, that, under learned princes and governors of ftate, there have been ever the happiefl: times. For though kings may have their errors and imperfec- G 2 tions.
84 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING,
tions ; being liable to paffions, and depraved cufloms, like other men ; yet, if they have the illumination of learning, certain antici- pated notions of religion, policy, and mo- rality, hold them back, and reftrain them from all ruinous and incurable excefs and error; whifpering in their ear, even when counfellors and fervants are filent. Senators and counfellors, that are accompllihed with learning, proceed upon more folid principles than thofe that are only men of experience ; the former feeing dangers afar off, and ward- ing them in time ; whereas thefe are wife only near at hand, feeing nothing but what is imminent ; and then at laft truiling to the agility of their wit to difentangle and refcue thcmfelves, in the very inftant of danger.
The happieft times were under learned princes, which beft appear in that age, from the death of Domk/'an, the emperor, until the reign of Commodus, comprehending a fuc- ceffionoffix princes, who, learned themfelves, or at leaft were fmgular patrons of learning; and of all ages, if we regard temporal happi- nefs, the.mofl flourifliing that Rome, then the epitome of the world, ever faw ; a matter re- I vealed
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. S^
vealed and prefigured to Domltian in a dream, the night before he was ilain ; for he thought he faw a golden head grown out of the nape of his neck : which divination was in- deed fulfilled in thofe golden times that fucceeded : of which princes we will make fome commemoration ; wherein although the matter is vulgar, and may be thought fitter for a declamation, than agreeable to a treatife infolded as this ; yet, becaufe it is pertinent to the point in hand, neque fetnper arcum ten- dit Apollo, and to name them only were too naked and curfory, I will not omit it alto- gether.
The firft was Nerva; the excellent temper of whofe government, is by a glance of C<?r« nelius Tacitus, touched to the life," afterwards *' Nerva united two things before incompati-* " ble, empire and liberty;'* and in proof of his learning he was a difciple of j^polloniusy the f^imous Pythagorean: the lafl a£l of his fhort reign left to memory was, a miffive to his adopted {onTrajan, proceeding from fome inward difcontent at the ingratitude of the times, comprehended in averfe of Homer ^
*' Revenge my tears, O Phaebus, with thy (hafts.'*
G 3 'Jrajan
86 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
'Trajan^ who fucceeded, was not learned indeed in himfelf ; but if we hearken to the fpeech of our Saviour that faith, <* He that <* recelveth a prophet, in the name of a " prophet, {hall have a prophet's reward," he deferves to be placed amongft the moft learned princes; for he was an admirer of learning, a benefactor to learned men, a founder of libraries; and in whofe court, though a warlike prince, preceptors and pro- feffors are recorded to have been in the high- eft requeft. On the other fide, how much Tt/^Ws virtue and government w^as admired and renowned, furely no teftimony of grave and faithful hiftory doth more lively fet forth, than that legendary tale of Gregorius MagnuSy Bifliop of Kome^ who was noted for the extreme envy he bore towards all heathen excellency; and yet he is reported, out of the love and efteem of fr^jans moral vir- tues, to have made unto God paflionate and fervent prayers, for the delivery of his foul out of hell ; and to have obtained it with a caveat that he fliould make no more petitions. In this prince's time, alfo, the perfecutions againft the Chriftians received intermiflion, upon the certificate of Plinius Secundus^ a
man
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. 87
man of excellent learning, and advanced by
Trajan.
Adrian, his fucceffor, was the moft cu- rious man that lived, and themoft univerfal enquirer; infomuch, it was noted for an error in his mind, that he defired to compre- hend all things, and not to referve himfelf for things more worthy ; falling into the like humour that was long before noted in Fhilip of Macedon^ who, when he wifhed to over- rule and convince an excellent mufician in an argument touching mufic, was anfwered by him again, *' God forbid, fir," faith he, *' that your fortune fhould be fo bad as to *' know thofe things better than me." It pleafed God likewife to ufe the curiofity of .£his emperor, as an inducement to the peace of his church in thofe days ; for having Chrift in veneration, not as a God or Savi- our, but as a wonder or novelty ; and having his picture in his gallery, matched with AprAlonius^ with whom, in his vain imagina- tion, he thought he had fome conformity ; yet it ferved to allay the bitter hatred of thofe times againftthe Chriftian name; fo that the church had peace during his time. And for G4 his
8S ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
his civil government, although he did not attain to that of 'Trajan %^ in glory of arms, or perfection of juflice ; yet, in deferving the good will of the fubje6l, he did exceed him ; for Trujan creeled many famous monuments and buildings, infomuch that Conjiantke the Great, in emulation, was wont to call him Parietaria, "Wall-flower," becaufehis namQ was upon fo many walls : but his buildings and works were more of glory and triumph, than ufe and neceffity. But Adrian fpent his whole reign, which v^as peaceable, in a furvey of the Roman empire ; giving orders, wherever he went, for re-edifying of cities, towns, and decayed forts; for cutting of rivers and ftreams ; for making bridges and paffes; for improving the police of cities and commonalties with new ordinances and conftitutions, and granting new franchifes and incorporations : fo that his whole reign was a perfect reftoration of all the decays of former times.
Antoninus Pius, who fucceeded him, was a learned prince, and had the patient and fubtle wit of a fchool-man ; infomuch as in common fpeech, which leaves no virtue un-
tsixeda
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING, 89
taxed, he was cd.lhd CumimSe^or, " a diffecler *« of a cumin feed :" fuch patience he had, and fettled fpirit, to enter into the leaft and mofl preclfe differences of caufes ; a fruit, no doubt, of the exceeding tranquillity and fere- nityofhismind; which (being no ways charg- ed or incumbered either with fear, remorfe, or fcruple, but having been noted for a man of the pureft goodnefs, without all affecla- tion, that has reigned) made his underfland- ing continually prefent and colle6led: he like- wife approached a degree nearer unto Chrifli- anity, and became, as Jgrippa fald unto St. Paul, *' half a Chriftian;" holding their religion and law in good opinion ; and not only ceafmg perfecution, but giving way to the advancement of Chriflians.
There fucceeded him the firfl divifratres^ the two adoptive brethren, Lucius Commodus Verus, fon to 'ETius Verus^ who delighted much in the fofter kind of learning, and was wont to call the poet Martial his Virgil, and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who long furviv- ed and obfcured his colleague, was named the Phllofopher ; and as he excelled all the xefl in learning, fo he excelled them likewlfe
in
pO ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
in perfedion of all royal virtues ; fo that 'Julian the emperor, in his book intitled, *' Casfares,'* which was a kind of fatire, to deride all his predeceflbrs, feigned that they were all invited to a banquet of the Gods ; and S'lkniiSy the Jefter, fat at the lower end of the table, and beftowed a fcofF upon every one as they came in; but \Y\\^n Marcus Phi- hfophus came in, Silenus was troubled and out of countenance, having nothing to ob- ject, except his patience towards the hu- mours of his wife. And the virtue of this prince continuing with that of his predecef- for, made the name of Antoninus fo facred in the world, that though it was extremely diflionoured in Comjnodus, Caracalla and He- Uogabalus, who all bore that name, yet when Alexander Severus refufed the name, becaufe he was a ftranger to the family, the Senate with one acclamation faid, Sluotnodo Augujius Jic et Antoninus. In fuch renown and venera- tion was the name of thefe two princes in thofe days, that they would have had it as a perpetual addition hi all the emperor's titles. In this emperor's time, alfo, the church, for the mofl part, was in peace : fo that in this feries of fix princes, we fee the
blefTed
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. 9I
blefled efFe£ls of learning in fovereignty, painted forth in the great table of the world.
But for a tablet or pi dure of fmaller vo- lume, in my judgment the mofl: excellent is that of Queen Elizabeth ; a princefs that, hzdiPlutarch been alive to write lives by paral- lels, would have troubled him, I think, to find out for her a parallel among women. This lady was endued with learning fingular in her fex, and grace even among mafculine princes ; whether we fpeak of learned lan- guages, or of fclence, modern or ancient, divinity or humanity : and to the very laft year of her life fhe was accuflomed to ap- point fet hours for reading, as regularly as any young ftudent in a Univerfity. As for her government, I affirm, that this part of the ifland never had forty-five years of better times; and jtt not through the calmnefs of the feafon, but through the wifdom of her government; for if there is confidered on one fide, the truth of religion eftablifhed ; the conftant peace and fecurity ; the good admi- niflration of juflice ; the temperate ufe of the prerogative neither flackened, nor too much
flrained ;
9^ ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
flralned the flourifhing ftate of learning; fuiting with fo excellent a patronefs; the convenient eftate of wealth and means, both of crown and fubject ; the habit of obedi- ence, and the moderation of difcontents; and when it is conlidered on the other fide, the differences of religion ; the troubles of neighbouring flates ; the ambition of Spa'in^ and oppoiition of Rome ; and that fhe was without alliances ; thefe things, I fay, con- lidered, as I could not have chofen an in- flance fo recent and fo proper, fo, I fuppofe, I could not have chofen one more remark- able or eminent to the purpofe now in hand ; which is concerning the conjun£lion of learn- ing in the prince, with the felicity of the people.
THE
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
n
The INFLUENCE of LEARNING
I N
MILITARY AFFAIRS.
1" ^EARNING has not only an influence upon civil affairs, and the arts of peace^ but it exercifes its power and efficacy alfo in martial virtue; as appears manifeftly in the examples of Alexander the Great, and Cce/ar the Didator; whofe mihtary virtues and atchievements in war, it would be needlefs to note or recite, fuice they were the wonders of the world : but on their affecllon and zeal to learning, as alfo their peculiar perfedioii in the fame, it will not be impertinent to enlarge.
Alexander was bred and taught under Anftotle, who dedicated divers of his philo- fophical books to him. He was never with- out Cdlijlhenes, and feveral other great fcho- lars, who followed his camp, and were his perpetual aflbciates in all his marches and
expe*
94 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNINiS.
expeditions : and in what efteem he held learning, is plainly demonftrated by many particulars ; as the envy which he thought j^chille5*s fortune worthy of, in having fo good a recorder of his acls and praifes as Homer, His judgment touching the precious cabinet of Darius^ found amongft the refl of the fpoils ; of which, when a queflion was moved, " What thing was mofl worthy to " be kept in it?" One faid one thing ; and another, another ; he gave fentence for Ho* mers works. His chiding letter to Arijlotle^ after he had publiflied his books of nature, wherein he expoflulates with him for pub- lifliing the myfleries of philofophy; and fends him word : " That he had rather ex- *' eel all men in learning and knowledge, *' than in power and empire." There are other particulars alfo to this purpofe: but as to himfelf, how excellently he had improved his mind with learning appears, or rather Ihrnes, in all his fayings and anfwers, which are full of learning; wherein, though the remaiiis are few, you may find deeply im« preffed the footfteps of all fciences.
Though
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. 95
Though it may appear needlefs to recite things that every man knows, yet, fince the argument I handle leads me to it, I am glad that men will perceive I am as willing to flatter an Alexander^ a drfar, or an Antoninus^ that lived many hundred years fince, as any that are now living ; for it is dilplaying the glory of learning in fovereigns that I propofe, and not a humour of declaiming in any man's praife.
As to morals, let the apothegm of Alex- ander, touching Diogenes^ be obferved firfl: ; and fee if it tends not to the fettling of one of the greateft queftions in moral philofo- phy : " Whether he that enjoys outward " things, or defpifes them, is the happier *' man ?" For when he faw Diogenes con- tented with fo little, turning to thofe that flood about him, and mocked at his condi- tion, " Were I not," fays he, " Alexander ^ " I could wilh to be 'Diogenes.^'' But Se7teca, in thiscomparifon, preferred Diogenes, when he faid, *' There was more that Diogenes *' would have refufed, than Alexander could *' have given."
In
96 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
In natural knowledge, let that fpeecli be obferved which was ufual with him, *' That " he felt his mortality chiefly in two things, *' deep and lufl: :" which fpeech, in truth, is drawn from the depth of natural philo- fophy, and more likely to have come out of the mouth of an Arijlotle, or a Democntus, than an jdlexmder ; feeing as well the indi- gence, as redundance of nature, reprefented by thofe two a<fls, are indications of death.
As to poetry, let this fpeech be obferved, when upon the bleeding of his wounds, he called one of his flatterers, that was wont to afcribe to him divine honour; " Look/* fays he, " this is the blood of a man, not *' fuch liquor as Homer faid ran from Venuis *' hand, when It was wounded by Diomede :'*'' with this faying making merry both with the poets, his flatterers, and himfelf.
In logic, take his reprehenfion of dialectic fubtilties, as to the repelling and retorting of arguments, in the touch he gave Cajfander, who was confuting the informers againft his father Antipater : when Alexander happened to fay, " Do you think thefe men would
*' have
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING, ^J
*' have taken fo long a journey, if they had *' not juft can fe for complamt?" Cajfafider anfwered, " Nay, this was the very thing " that gave them encouragement, being iii *' hopes that their calumny at fuch a dif- *^ tance could not be difproved ;" *' See, fays the king, *' the quirks of Arijlotky " to turn a thing both pro and coru'' Neverthelefs, this very art, which he re- prehended in another, he knew well how to ufe himfelf, when occalion required, to ferve his own turn ; for it happened that CalUJlhe* nes^ whom Alexander inwardly hated, for being againft his new canonization, being a very eloquent man, was defired at a ban- quet, by the company at the table, to chufe fome fubjeft, for entertainment fake, to difcourfe upon extempore^ he confented ; and pitching upon the praifes of the Macedonian nation, harangued with great applaufe : whereupon Alexander, being difpleafed, faid, " Upon a good fubject it is eafy for any *' body to be eloquent : but turn," fays he, " your flyle, and let us hear what you can " fay againfl us." Call'ifthenes undertook it, and performed it with fuch virulence, that Alexander interrupted him, and faid, " Ma- VoL. IT. H ' " lice
98 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
" lice alfo, as well as a good caufe, infufes *' eloquence."
For rhetoric, to which tropes and orna- ments belong — behold a mofl elegant ufe of a metaphor, with which he galled Antipater^ an imperious, tyrannical governor; when one of Antlpaters friends was praifmg him to Alexander for his great moderation, in not degenerating, as other lieutenants did, into the P erf an luxury, the ufe of purple, and throwing off the ancient Macedonian habit: " True," fays Alexander^ " but An- " tipater is all over purple within." That other metaphor was alfo fine : when Par- inenio came to him in the plains of Arbela^ and fhewed him the vaft army of his ene- mies, which lying under their view by night, reprefented, by the infinite number of fires, another ftarry firmament, and thereupon ad- vlfed him to attack them by night ; " I will " not," fays Alexander^ " fteal a vi£lory."
In matters of policy, mark that mofl fig- hlficant and wife diftin^lion, which all pof- terlty has embraced, that he made between two of his fingular friends, Hephejiion and
Craterus,
%r^-
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. ^9
Craterus, when he fa'id, " That the one " loved Alexander^ and the other loved the " king ;" makmg an hnportant dlftuidion between even the moft faithful fervants of princes, *' That fome bear a true affection '* to the perfons of their mafters, others to " their crown ^nd government."
Let us confider, likewife, how notably he taxed an error, common with the counfellors of princes, who generally fuggeft counfel ac- cording to the model of their own mind and fortune, not that of their maflers ; for when 'Darius made great offers to Alexander ; '' I," fays Farmenlo^ '' would accept them, if I «' was Alexander-.'' to which Alexander re- plied, '-'- And fo would I, if I were Far* " memo'''
Lastly; examine that quick and acute reply to his friends, when they alked him, " What he referved for himfelf, upon his " giving fo many and fuch large gifts to *' others?" "Hope," fays he : as one who well knew, that, when all accounts are caft up right, hope is the true portion, and, as it were, inheritance of thofe that afpire to H 2 gi-eat
100 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING,
great things' This was yullus Co'fars por- tion, when upon going into Gaid he had exhaufted all his eftate by profufe largefles. This was likewife the portion oi Henry Duke of Guife, that moft noble prince, though too ambitious ; of whom it was ufually faid, *' That he was the greateft ufurer in all <^ France ; becaufe all his wealth was in *« notes, and he had turned his whole pa- ** trimony into obligation."
To conclude, therefore, as certain critics areufed to fay hyperbolically, *« That if all *« fciences were loft, they might be found *' in Virgil 'y'^ fo it may be truly faid, there are the prints and footfteps of learning in thofe few fpeeches which are reported of this prince : the admiration of whom, when 1 coniider him, not as Alexander the Great, but as Arijioile's fcholar, has perhaps carried me too far.
As iox Julius Cajar ^ the excellency of his learning need not be conjedured, either from his education, his acquaintance, or his anfwers; for this appears eminently in his writings and books, fome of which are ex- tant.
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. lOI
tant, others are unfortunately lofl. We have to this day that famous hiftory of his own wars, which he named and entitled " Com- *' mentaries" only; in which all fucceeding ages have admired the folid weight of matter and lively images, as well of adtions as per- fons, joined with the greateft purity of lan- guage, and perfpicuity of narration that ever was: that it was not the eftect of a natural gift, but of learning and precept, is well witnefled by his work, intitled " De Ana- *' logia :" being a grammatical philofophy, wherein he labours to make this fame vox ad placitum^ to become vox ad Uclium ; and to reduce cuflom of fpeech to corre£lnefs of judgment, and affigned to words their ge- nuine meaning.
By the book which he entitled *' Anti- " Cato," it eafily appears, that he afpired as much to vi£lory of genius, as vidory of war and arms ; undertaking therein a con- fli£l with the pen, againfl the greateft cham- pion of that age, Cicero the Orator.
As a monument of his learning, no lefs
ihan of his power, we have the computation
H3 of
102 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
of the year reformed by an edi6l of his : a plain evidence that he took it to be as great a glory to himfelf to underftand well the laws of theftars in heaven, as to give laws to men upon earth.
In his book of Apophthegms, which he colle6led, we fee he efteemed it more honour to make himfelf a kind of regifter-book, for enterhig the wife and remarkable fayings of others, than to have his own fayings re- vered as oracles, as fome vain princes, cor- rupted by flattery, delighted in doing: and yet, if I were to enumerate his fayings, as Alexander\^ they are truly fuch as Solomon notes: *' The words of the wife are as " flings, and like nails driven deep :" of which I will recite three only, not fo won- derful for their elegance, as for their force and efficacy.
First, then, he muft be confidered as a mafler of fpeech who could, with one word, appeafe a mutiny in his army. The occafioii was this : it was a cuflom with the Romans^ when their Generals fpoke to their army, to ufe the word Milites \ but when the Magis- trates
ON THE PIGNITY OF LEARNING. IO3
flrates fpoke to the people to ufe the word ^uirites. C^f^^rs foldlersmuthiied, and fe- ditloufly demanded a difmiffion : not that they really defired this, but by fuch demand to force Co'far to other conditions : unfhaken, when filence was made, he thus addreffed them, Ite^irites: by which word he inti- mated, " That they were already dlfmlffed." The foldiers ftruck, and utterly confounded at this, never left Interrupting him as he went on with his fpeech ; and, relinquifhmg their former demand of difmiffion, made it their earned fuit on the other fide, that the name of Milites might be again reftored them.
The fecond was thus : C^far extremely. afFeaed the name of King; fome therefore were hired, as he paffed by, in popular ac^ clamatlon to falute him King. He, findmg the cry weak and thin, put off the matter with a left, as if they had miflaken his fur- name : - I am,'' fays he, - not King, but •' C^farr a fpeech, certainly, ihould it be exaaiy fearched, the force and extent of its meaning can fcarcely be expreffed. Firft, it pretended a refufal of that name, but not H4 ^^'
J04 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
ferioufly. Next it fliewed an infinite confi- dence and magnanimity ; as if the appella- tion of Ctefar were a greater title than that of King; which came to pafs accordingly, and has obtained even to this day. But what made mofl for his purpofe, this fpeech, by an admirable artifice, purfued clofely its own end ; for this infinuated, that the fenate and people of Rome contended with him about a trifle, a name only, (for he had long fince the power of a King) and fuch a name as many, even of mean families bore; for Rex was a furname of the Romans, as King is with us.
The lafl fpeech I think fit to mention here was this : when Co'far, after the war began, had poffefled himfelf of Rome^ and broken open the inner treafury, to take money out for the fervice of the war, Metellus, as being then tribune, refifted him ; to whom Co'far replied, " If thou doft perfift, thou ** art a dead man.'* Then, checking him- felf a little, he added, " Young man, it is *' harder for me to fay this, than to do it.'* A fpeech compounded of fuch wonderful I terror
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING IO5
terror and clemency, that nothing pofTiblj could be more.
But to difmifs C^far ; it is evident, that he was fully fenfible of his own perfedion in learning ; as appears by this, that when fome were wondering at Syllas refolution in refigning the didatorfhip, he fcorn fully faid, " Sylla knew not letters, and could not diaate."
I fhould now put an end to this difcourfc concerning the near alliance of military vir- tue and learning, (for what in this kind can come after Alexander and C^far^ were I not charmed with an example of fmgular mag- nanimity in the propofal, and (kill in the ex- ecution, becaufe it io fuddenly pafled from fcorn to wonder. It is of Xenophon, the philofopher, who went from Socrates' s fchool into A/ta, with Cyrus the younger, in his expedition againfh King Artaxerxes. This ■Xenophoriy at that time was a youth, and never had feen army or camp ; nor had he then any command in the army, but went only as a volunteer, to enjoy the converfa-
tion
I06 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING^
tion of his friend Proxenus, He was by chance prefent, when Falinus came with an cmbaffy from the great king to the Grecians, after Cyrus was (lain in the field, and the Grecians, but an handful of men, having loft their general in the heart of the provinces of Perjia, cut off from their own coun- try, by the great diflance, and very great and deep rivers; the embaffy imported, that they fhould deliver up their arms, and fub- mit themfelves to the king's mercy ; to which embafly, before anfwer was publicly made, feveral of the army conferred fami- liarly with Falinus: and amongft the reft X^«o^y?ro« happened to fay, *' Why, Falinus, *' we have now but thefe two things left *' us, our arms, and our courage: and if " we yield up our arms, what ufe, pray, *' will our courage be to us ?" Here Fali- nus, fmiling, faid, " If I be not deceived, *' young gentleman, you are an Athenian, *' and ftudy philofophy ; and thefe are pret- ** ty things that you fay, but you are very *' much miftaken if you think your courage " a match for the king's forces." Here was the fcorn : the wonder follows. This fchool-
novice
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. I07
novice and philofopher, after all the cap- tains and commanders were murdered by treachery, conduded back ten thoufand foot, from Babylon into Greece, through the midtt of the king's provinces, m defpite of all his forces, to the aftonilhment of the world, and the no fmall encouragement of the Greclam, from that time, to an mvafioii and fubverfion of the Perfan monarchy: which, indeed, foon after, Jafon the Thefa- Uan defigned; Agefiausth^ Spartan M^m^t- ed- and at laft Alexander the Macedonian atchieved; all ftirred up by this brave lead- ing aa of that young fcholar.
THE
I08 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
THE INFLUENCE OF LEARNING
O N
MORAL VIRTUE.
T ET us proceed from imperial and mili- tary, to moral virtue, and that which is the virtue of private men. Firft, that of the poet Is a moft certain truth :
-' Scilicet Ingenuas didicijje fidcUtcr Aries, Emollit mores, }iec Jinit ejfc fcros.
For learning frees mens minds from hru- talitj and barbarifm ; but yet the emphafis had need be upon the word JiJeliter, " tho- *' roughly;" for a fuperficial knowledge turns rather to the contrary. Learning, I fay, takes away levity, rafhnefs, and in- folence, whilfl it fuggefts all dangers and doubts, together with the thing itfelf, ba- lances the weight of reafons and arguments on both fides : turns back the firfl offers and pleafing conceits of the mind as fufpeded,
and
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. lO^
and teaches us not to tread a Rep without fearching and examining our way.
The fame extirpates vain and excefTive admiration, which is the very root of all weaknefs. For we admire things, either becaufe they are new, or becaufe they are great. As to novelty, there is no man that is thoroughly learned and contemplative, but hath this imprinted upon his heart : Nil novl fiiper terrain : " There is nothing new under " the fun.'* Neither will any man much won- der at the play of puppets, who puts his head behind the curtain, and fees the inftruments and wires that caufe the motion. For great- nefs ; as Alexander the Great, after he had been ufed to mighty battles and conquefts in JJla, receiving fometimes letters out of Greece, of fome expeditions and fkirmiflies, w4iich were commonly for a bridge, or caflle, or for the taking fome town at the mofl, was wont to fay, *' It feemed to him that *' news was brought him of the battle of " the frogs and the mice that Homer talks *' of:" fo, certainly,to a man, that contem- plates the univerfal frame of nature, the globe of the earth, with the men upon it^
fetling
no ON THE DIGNITY OT LEARNING.
fetting afide the divinity of their fouls, will feem nothing greater than a hillock of ants, fome of which creep and run up and down with grains of corn, others with their eggs, fome empty, all here and there about a little heap of duft.
Again, learning takes away, or at leaft mitigates the fear of death, and of adverfc fortunes ; which is one of the greatefl impe- diments to virtue and manners : for if a man's mind be feafoned and deeply afFedled with the contemplation of mortality, and the corruptible nature of things, he will be of Ept^etus'^ fentiment; who going out one day, and feeing a woman weeping for her pitcher that was broke ; and going out the next day, and feeing another woman la- menting the death of her fon, faid, Heri, *vidi fragilem frangi ; Hodie, vidi mortalem mori: " Yefterday I faw a little thing broke ; « to-day I faw a mortal thing die." Where- fore Virgil did very wifely to couple the knowledge of caufes, and the conquefl of all fear together, as concomitants :
Felix
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. Ill
Felix qui potu'it rerum cognofcere caufas, ^xique metus omnes et inexorah'ilefatum Subjecit pcdibusy Jireptumque Acherontis avar'i.
** Happy the man, who, fludylng nature's laws, " Through knowxi efFeds can trace the fecret caufe : " His mind pofleffing in a quiet flate, '• Fearlefs of fortune, and refigned to fate."
Dryden.
It would be too tedious to run over the particular remedies which learning admi- niflers to all the difeafes of the mind; fome- times purging out the ill humours ; Ibme- times opening obftruftions ; fometimes help- ing digeftions : fometimes exciting appetite ; and often healing its wounds and ulcers : therefore I will conclude with what feems to be the fum of all, which is, that learn- ing difpofes and inclines the mind, never to acquiefce wholly, and to continue fix- ed and benumbed, as it were, in its own defers, but to be ftill roufing itfelf, and breathing after growth and advancement. The illiterate man knows not what it is to defcend into himfelf, or to call himfelf to account, or the pleafure of that life which is fenfible of its growing every day better. If he chance to have any virtue, he will be
boaft.
112 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
boafting of it to be fure, expofe it every where to full view, and perhaps ufe it to his own advantage, but negle6l to improve andincreafe it. Again, if he labours under any imperfection, he will ufe art and induflry to conceal and colour it, but very little to amend it ; like an ill mower that mows on flill, and never whets his fcythe. On the other fide, a learned man does not only em- ploy his mind, and exercife his virtues, but is continually reforming himfelf, and making progrefs in virtue. Nay, to fum up the whole, certain it is, that truth andgoodnefs differ but as the feal and the impreffion ; for goodnefs is truth's impreffion; and, on the contrary, the ftorms of vice and paffion break from the clouds of error and falfliood.
OF
tJN THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. II3
Of the power and SOVEREIGNTY b F LEARNING.
FROM virtue let us pafs to power and em- pire, and confider, whether there be any where found fo much power and fovereignty, as that wherewith learning invefts and crowns man's nature. We fee the dignity of commanding is according to that of the comm.anded. The authority over beads and cattle, as herdfmen and fhepherds have, is a thing contemptible: command over children, as fchool-m.iftershave, is a matter of fmall honour : authority over galley-flaVes is a difparagement rather than an honour: neither is the command of tyrants much better over a fervlle people, ftripped of all fplrit and generofity of mind : therefore it has ever been held, that honours in free mo- narchies, or common wealths, have more fweetnefs than under tyrants: becaufe a Vol. II. ' I com*
114 ON THE DIGNITY Ol? LEARNING.
command over the willing is more honourable, than over the forced and compelled. And therefore Virgil^ when he exerts himfelf to draw forth, from the depth of art, the very beft of human honours, he afligned that to Augujlm Cafar, in thefe very words :
V'i£iorque volentes Per popuks dat jurat viamque a^eHat Olympo.
Georg. IV.
•* Thus have I fung of fields, and flacks, and trees, •* And of the waxen work of lab'ring bees ; •' While mighty Ccefar^ thund'ring from afar, •* Seeks on Euphrates banks the fpoils of war : •* With conqu'ring arts aflerts his country's caufc, *' With arts of peace the willing people draws : •' On the glad earth the golden age renews, ** And his great father's path to heav'a purfues,"
Drydekt.
But the empire of knowledge is far high- er than the empire over the will, though free and unfettered ; for that has a dominion over reafon, belief, and even the underfland* ing, which is the higheil part of the foul, and gives law to the will itfelf. Without queflion, there is no power on earth which fets up its throng in the fpirit and fouls of
men.
O^ THE tUGNiTY OF LEARNIN(5. II5
men, and in their thoughts and imaginations, their affentalfo and belief, equal to learning and knowledge ; and therefore we fee the deteftable and extreme pleafure that Arch- heretics, falfe prophets, and great impofliors are raviflied and tranfported with, when once they find that they have begun to reign in the faith and confclences of men : indeed, fo great, that he who has once tafted it, can hardly be brought by any perfecution or torment, to relinquifh his fovereignty. And as this is what is called in the Revelations, *' The depth or profoundnefs of Satan ;'* fo, on the contrary, a jufl: and lawful fovereignty over mens minds^ eftablifhed by the mere evidence and moft delightful recommenda* tions of truth, approaches certainly, as near as poffible, to the fimilitude of divine power*
As to fortunes and honours, the munifi- cence of learning is not fo confined to the enriching and adorning of whole kingdoms and commonwealths, as not like wife to ad- vance the fortunes and eflates of private perfons t for it is an ancient obfervation ; *' That Homer has given more men their *' living than Sylla, Ccefar^ or Augujlm\* I 2 not-
Il6 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
notwithftanding their numerous largefle&, donatives, and diftributions of lands. Cer- tainly, it is hard fo hy, whether arms or letters have advanced greater numbers ; and in the cafe of fovereignty we fee, that if arms or right of inheritance, have carried away the kingdom ; yet learning has gene- rally carried the priefthood, which has ever flood in competition with empire.
If we conflder the delight and pleafure of knowledge, affuredly it far furpafles all other pleafures. Shall the pleafures of the afFe6lions as far exceed the delights of the fenfes, as the happy obtaining of a defire, does a fong, or a fupper? And fhall not, by the fame gradation, the pleafures of the in- tellect tranfcend thofe of the affeClions ? All other pleafures bring fatiety ; and after they have been ufed, and are grown familiar, their verdure and beauty fades: whereby we are intruded, that they were not truly pure and fincere pleafures, but fhadows only ; and that it was the novelty which pleafed, rather than the quality : whence voluptuous men often turn monks ; and the declining age of ambitious princes is commonly fad,
and
ON THE'DIGNITY OF LEARNING. JtJ
and befieged with melancholy ; but in know- ledge there is no fatiety, but enjoyment and appetite are perpetually interchangeable : fo that this delight mufl: needs be good in itfelf (imply, without accident or fallacy.
Neither does that pleafure which Lu- cretius defcribes hold the loweft place in the mind of man :
Suave marl magno turhanubus ^quora ven- tis, &c.
*' It is a delightful view," fays he, '* to ** fland or walk upon the fhore, and to fee '* a (hip tofled upon the fea in a tempeft. A ** pleafure likewife to behold from a lofty ** turret two armies joining battle upon a •* plain : but nothing is pleafanter to a man *' than a mind planted by learning, in the *' citadel of truth, from whence it may de- ** fcry the errors and wanderings, the per- *' turbations and labours of other men."
Lastly: omitting thafe vulgar argu- ments, that by learning only man excels his own fpecies, and that by the help of learn- I3 ing
Il8 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
ing he afcends in his underftanding, even to the heavens, to which in body he cannot : let us conclude this differtation concerning the excellency of learning, with that good, whereunto man's nature mofl: afpires, which is immortality and eternity. For to this tends generation, the ennobling of families, buildings, foundations, monuments, fame, and, in fhort, the fum of human defires. But we fee how much more durable the mo- numents of genius and learning are, than thofe of works and manufa61:ures. Have not the verfes of Homer continued above twenty- five centuries, without the lofs of a fyllable or letter? During which time an infinite number of palaces, tem- ples, caftles and cities, have decayed and fallen, or been demolifhed. The true pidures or flatues oi Cyrus ^ Alexander^ Ccefar, nay, of khigs and princes of much later, years, cannot poflibly now be had ; for the originals, worn away long fince with age, are perifhed; and the copies daily lofe of thsir primitive refemblance; but the images of mens genius remain entire in books for ever, exempt from the injuries of time, be- caufe capable of perpetual renovation ; tho'
they
ON THE DIGNITY OP LEARNING. 1 1^
they cannot properly be called images nei- ther, becaufe they are perpetually generat- ing, as it were, and fcattering their feed in the minds of men, and railing and procreating infinite actions and opinions in fucceeding ages. Now, if the invention of the Ihip was thought fo noble and wonderful a thing, which tranfports riches and merchandife from place to place, and confociates the moil remote regions, by a participation of their produdions and commodities : how much more are letters to be magnified, which, as ihips furrowing the ocean of time, conne(!l the moft diftant ages, by a commerce and corefpondence in genius and invention ?
Nay, further, we fee fome of the philo-r fophers that were mofl funk in matter and fenfuality, and leafl divine, and who pe- remptorily denied the immortality of the foul, yet, driven to it by the force of truth, granted, that whatfoever motions and ac- tions the foul of man could perform without the organs of the body, theie might pro- bably remain after death : that is, fuch as were the motions in the underflanding, but 1 4 not
I20 ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING.
not of the afFe6lions. So immortal and in- corruptible a thing did knowledge feem to them. But we, upon whom divine revela- tion has fhone, defpifing thefe rudiments, thftfe cheats and delufions of the fenfes, know that not only the underflanding,- but alfo the affe6lions purified; not only the foul, but the body too fhall be advanced in due time to immortality; but it mufl: be remembered, that in the proofs of the dig- nity of knowledge, I did, from, the very beginning, feparate divine from human tef- timony, which method I have conflantly purfued, and fo handled them both apart.
But although this be true, neverthelefs, I by no means take upon me, nor do I think it poffible, by any plending of mine, in the caufe of learning, to reverfe the judgment, either of M,fop\ cock, who preferred the barley-corn b fore the gem ; or of Midas^ who being chofe judge between Apollo^ pre- fident of the Mufes, and Fan^ God of the flocks, judged for plenty; or of Pans, who judged for beauty and pleafure, defpifing wifdom and power ; or of Agrippinas choice :
Occidat
ON THE DIGNITY OF LEARNING. 121
OccUat matrem^ modo hnperet: *' Let him <* kill his mother, provided he rule:'* pre- ferring empire with conditions, be they ever fo deteflable : or ofUfyJfes ; ^i vettdamjuam pr^tuUt immortalitati ; " Who preferred his old woman to immortality: being indeed a type of thofe who prefer cuftom be fore all excel len- cy; and a number of the like popular judg- ments ; for thefe things will continue as they have been; but fo will that alfo continue upon which learning has ever relied, as upon a mofl firm foundation that can never be {haken: Jujiijicata eft Japientta a filh Juts: *^ Wifdom is juflified by her children." Matt. xi.
OF
122 ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS,
OF THE ACTS OF MERIT
TOWARDS
LEARNING,
'T^HE a£ls and works, pertaining to the advancement of learning, are conver- fant about three obje-^s : the feats of learn- ing; the books of learning; and about the perfons of learned nien. For as water, whe- ther falling from the dew of heaven, or rifing from the fprings of the earth, eafily fcatters and lofes itfclf in the ground, except it be colleded into fome receptacle, where it may by union, comfort and fuftain itfelf; for which purpofe the ingenuity of man has invented fpring-heads, conduits, cifterns, and pools; and beautified them alfo with divers ornaments, ferving for magnificence and flate, as well as for ufe and necefiity ; fo this moft precious liquor of knowledge, whether it diflils from divine infpiration, or fprings from human fenfe, would foon all perifh and
vanifli,
I
ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS. 123
vanifli, if it were not preferved in books, traditions and conferences ; efpecially in par- ticular places defigned to that end, as Uni- verfities, Colleges, and Schools ; where it may both have fixed flations, and power and ability to unite and colled itfelf into a body.
First, the works which concern the feats of the Mufes are four : foundations of Houfes; endowments of revenues ; grant of privileges ; inftitutions and ftatutes for go- vernment: all tending to privatenefs and quietnefs of life, and a difcharge from cares and troubles; much like FirgiPs requifites for the building of hives, in order to mak^ honey :
Prlnclplo fedes ap'ibus, Jlatioque petenda ^uo nequejic ventis aditusy ^c.
ViRG. Georg. IV.
** Firft ; for thy bees a quiet ftation find, <' And lodge them under covert of the wind."
Dryden,
But the^ works touching books are prin- cipally two: firfl, libraries, wherein, as in flately monuments, the relics of the ancient
faints.
124 ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS.
faints, full of true virtue, and that without delufion or impoflure, are preferved and re- pofed. Secondly, new editions of authors, furnifhed with naore correal impreffions, more faithful tranflations, more ufeful com- ments, more diligent annotations, and the like train.
Again, the works which regard the per- fons of learned men, befides the advancing and countenancing of them in general, are likewifetwo: the reward and defignation of readers in fciences already invented and known; and of writers and enquirers, con- cerning any parts of learning not hitherto fufficiently laboured and improved.
These are briefly the works and a6t:s, wherein the merits of renowned princes, and other illuftrious perfonages, towards the flate of learning, have Ihone.
As for any particular commemorations of perfons that h-ave deferved well of learning, when I think thereupon, I call to mind that of Cicero, which, after his return, put him upon giving general thanks : '' It is diificult
«' not
ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS. 125
*' not to pafs by fome one, and ungrateful *' to pafs by any one." Let us rather, ac- cording to the advice of the fcripture, " look "• unto that part of the race which is fet " before us, than look back unto thofe '' things which are behind us."
DEFECTS
O F
LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS.
pIRST, therefore, amongfl: fo many noble foundations of colleges throughout Eu- rope, I wonder they (hould be all deftined to particular profeifions, and none dedicated to the free and univerfal ftudies of arts and fciences : for if men judge that all learning fhould be referred to ufe and adion, they judge right ; but yet it is eafy this way to fall into the error cenfured in the ancient fable ; in which the other parts of the body
entered
126 ON LitERARY ESTABLISHMENTS*
entered an action againfl the ftomach, be« caufe it neither performed the office of mo- tion ; as the limbs do, nor of fenfe, as the head does ; though it was the flomach that conco£led) digefted, and diftributed nourifli- ment to the reft of the body: juft fo, the man that thinks philofophy and univerfal contemplation a vain and idle ftudy, does not confider that all profeffions and arts are fupplied with materials and ftrength from thence : and I am verily perfuaded, that this very thing has been a great caufe that hath retarded the progreffion of learning hitherto ; becaufe thefe fundamental fciences have been ftudied fuperficially, and deeper draughts have not been taken of them. For if^you will have a tree bear more fruit than ufual, it is in vain to think of applying to the boughs; you muft ftir the earth about the rooty and apply richer mould, or you do nothing. Nor again is it to be pafled over in filence, that this dedication of colleges and focieties, only to the ufe of profeffory learning, has not only been an enemy to the growth of fciences, but has contributed likewife to the prejudice of kingdoms and ftates. Hence it is that princes, when they I would
I
ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS. 127
would make choice of miniflers fit for the affairs of flate, find about them a marvellous folitude of fuch men; for this reafon, be- caufe there is no collegiate education defigned to this end, where fuch as are framed and fitted by nature for that office, may, befides other arts, fludy chiefly hiftory, modera languages, books, and treatifes of policy; that fo they may thence come m.ore able and better furnifhed to the offices offtate.
^ND becaufe founders of colleges do plant, but founders of le6lures water; it follows now in order to fpeak of the defeS: which is in public kaures. I difapprove then ex- ceedhigly of the fmallnefs and meannefs of falaries, efpecially with us, affigned to lec- turers, whether of arts or profeffions. For it is of mighty importance to advancement in fciences, that profefTors in every kind, be chofen out of the ableft and mofl fufficient men ; as thofe whofe labour is not for tran- fitory ufe, but to propagate and fupply ofF- fpring to fcience for future ages. This can- not be, unlefs the reward and conditions be appointed fuch, as may fully fatisfy the mofl eminent men in that art; fo as he may not
think
128 ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS*
think It a hardfhip to fpend his whole life In that fun£lion, and never defire to pra6lrfe* Wherefore that fclences may flourifh, Da^ r/Ws military lawfhould be obferved: "That " he who flaid with the carriage fliould have " an equal part with him that went down to *' the battle." I. Sam. xxx. Elfe will the carriages be ill attended. So profeffors in fciences are, as it were, the prefervers and guardians of the ftores and proviiions of learning, from whence men in adion may be furnifhed. Wherefore it is but reafon, that their falaries be equal to the gain of pra£litioners. Otherwife, if the allowances appointed to the fathers of fciences are not ample and handfome, it will come to pafs,
lit patrum invalid! refcrant Jejunia natit
ViRG. Georg. IIL
' *' If the fire be faint, or out of cafe,
*' He will be copied in his familh'd race."
Dryden".
I will note another defecfb, wherein I fball have need to call in fome alchymift to my aid ; fince this fe6l of men advife ftudents to fell their books, and build furnaces, quitting
and
ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS. I 29
and forfaking Minerva, and the Mufes, as barren virgins, and applying themfelves to Vulcan. Yet, certainly, it mufl be coiW feffed, that to the depths of contemplative, as well as the fruits of operative fludy, in. fome fciences, efpecially natural philofophy and phyfic, books are not the only inftru- mentals : the munificence of men has not been altogether wanting; for we fee fpheres, globes, maps, &c. have been provided as appurtenances to aftronomy and cofmogra- phy," as well as books. We fee, likewife, that fome places dedicated to theftudy of phyfic have gardens for the infpeclion and knowledge of fimples of all forts; and do likewife command the ufe of dead bodies for anatomical obfervations : but thefe refpe6t very few things. In general, be it fet down for a truth, that there can hardly be made any great proficiency in the difclofing and unlocking the fecrets of nature, unlefs there is a plentiful allowance for experiments, whether of Vulcan or D^^dahis : " Furnace " or engine :'* or any other kind whatfoever. And, therefore, as fecretaries and emiffarles of princes are allowed to bring in bills of charges, for their diligence in the enquiry Vol. II. K and
130 ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS.
and difcovery of new occurrences and ftate fecrets; fo the refearchers of nature mufl J)e paid their expences, or elfe we fhall never be advert ifed of many things moft worthy to be known. For if Alexander fupplied Arijioih with a vafl: fum of money to hire hunters, fowlers, fifliers, and others, that he might come the better appointed to com- pile a hiflory of Hying creatures ; greater certainly is their merit who wander not in the forefts of nature, but open themfelves a way in the labyrinths of the art5.
Another thing which I find fault with is this: it is aii ufual pradice, though in my opinion an abfurd one, for fcholars in the Univerfities to be entered too foon in logic and rhetoric ; arts furely fitter for gra- duates, than children and novices. For thefe two, if the matter be rightly taken, are in the number of the graveft fciences; being the art of arts, the one for judgment, the other for ornament. They contain likewife rules and diredions, either for difpofing or illuftrating of matter ; and therefore for raw and empty minds, which have not yet ga? thered that which Cicero calls ^/w ^\^fupelf
ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS. 13I
kxy " fluff and variety," to begin with thofe arts ; as if a man having a mind to weigh, meafure, or paint the wind^ doth but work this effe6l, that the virtue and ftrength of thefe arts, which are very great and extenfive, are almoil made contemptible, and have degenerated either into childifh fo- phiftry, and ridiculous affe£lation ; or at leaft have fuffered much in their reputation. And, further, the too early and untimely acceffion to thefe arts, has, of necelTity, drawn along with it a puerile delivery and handling of it, fuch as is fitted indeed to the capacity of children. Another inftance that I fhall bring of an error grown long fince in- veterate in the Univerfities, is this : that in the exercifes of the fchools there ufed to be a divorce, very prejudicial, between inven- tion and memory ; for there, moil: of their fpeeches are either altogether premeditated, fo that they are uttered iii the very precife form of words they were conceived in, and no- thing left to invention, or merely extern^ pore: fo that very little is left to memory : though in life and pradice there is rarely any ufe of either of thefe apart, but rather of their intermixture ; that is, of notes or K % jnemq-
I3'2 ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS.
memorials, and of extempore fpeech together. So that by this courfe the exercifes do not fit the practice, nor does the image anfvver the life. And it is a rule ever to be obferved in exercifes, that all, as near as may be, reprefent thofe things which in common courfe of life ufed to be pra6lifed ; otherwife they will pervert the motions and faculties of the mind, and not prepare them : the truth of which is not obfcurely feen, when Uni- veriity-men fet to the pradice of their pro- feffions, or other adlions of civil life; which when they do, this want, whereof we fpeak, is foon found out by themfelves, though fooner by others. But this part, touching the amendment of the inftitutions and or- ders of the Univerfities, I will conclude, with the claufe of C^far\ letter to Opptus and Balbus: Hoc quemadmoduin fieri poffit, non- nulla m'lhl in jneniem venlunt^ et multa reperlrl foJ[funt\ de lis rebus rogo vos, ut cogltaiionem fufcipiatis.
Another defect which I note afcends a little higher than the former : for as the pro- ficlence of learning confifts much in the wife government and inftitution of Univerfities
in
ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS. I53
in particular; fo it would be yet more ad- vanced, if the univerfities in general, difperfed throughout all Europe, were united in a nearer conjunction and correfpondence by mutual intelligence. For there are, we fee, many orders and commonalties, which, tho' they are divided under diflindt fovereignties and territories widely diftant, yet they con- trail and maintain a fociety and kind of bro- therhood one with the other : infomuch as they have their prefe6ls, fome provincial, others general, to whom they all yield obe- dience ; and furely, as nature creates a bro- therhood in families, and mechanical arts contract a brotherhood in companies, the anointment of God fuperinduces a brother- hood in kings and bifhops ; vows and rules unite a brotherhood in orders : fo in like manner, there cannot but intervene a noble and generous fraternity amongft men by learning and illumination, relating to that paternity which is attributed to God, who is called the " Father of illuminations," or " lights."
Lastly: this I complain of, which I
touched on before, that there has not been,
K3 or
154 ON LITERARY ESTABLISHMENTS.
or very rarely, any public defignation of able men who might either write, or make en- quiry concerning fuch parts of learning as have not hitherto been fufficiently explored. In which point it would be of great ufe, if there were eredled a kind of vifitation of learning ; and eftimate taken, what parts of learning are rich and well improved; what poor and deftitute. For the opinion of plenty is amongft the caufes of want; and great quantity of books makes a {hew rather of luxury than want: which, fuperfluity, ne- verthelefs, is not to be remedied by making no more books, but by making more good books ; which may be of fuch a kind, that, like Mofes's ferpent, they may devour the ferpents of the enchanters.
The removing of all thefe defeats now enumerated, except the laft, and of the ac- tive part of the laft two, which is the de- fignation of writers, are works truly BafiUcal; towards which the endeavours and induftry of a private man may be but as an image in a crofs way, that can point the way, but can- not go it. But the fpeculative part, which be- longs
ON THE HISTORY OF LEARNING. I^^
longs to the furvey and examination of learn- ing, namely, what is deficient in every par- ticular fcience, is open to the induftry even of a private man.
ON THE HISTORY OF LEARNlNa
CURELY the hiftory of the., world, without •^ this part, may be thought not unlike the {}i2itut of Polyphemus wkh his eye out; that part of the image being wanting, which mofl reprefents the nature and fpirit of the perfon* And though we fet down this as deficient, yet we are not ignorant, that in divers par- ticular fciences, as of the jurifconfults, the mathematicians, the rhetoricians, and the philofophers, there are fet down fome (light memorials, or certain dry relations, of the feds, fchools, books, authors, and fuccef- fions of fuch like fciences: that there are likewife fome thin, barren treatifes touching K4 the
136 ON THE HISTORY OF LEARNING.
the inventors of things and arts ; but for a juft and univerfal hiflory of learning, we aflert, that none hitherto has been publifhed : wherefore we will propound both the argu- ment, the manner of contriving, and the ufe thereof.
The argument is no other than a recital from all times of what fciences and arts have flourifhed in any ages and climates of the world. Let there be made a rehearfal of their antiquities, their advances, alfo of their progrefs through divers parts of the world ; for fciences fhift and remove no lefs than people. Again, of their declenfions, obli- vions, inftaurations. Let there likewife be obfervations made through every particular art, of the occafion and original of their in- vention; of their manner of delivery; of their feveral adminiflrations and manage- ment. Let there alfo be added, the feds and controverfies mofl famous, which have taken up and exercifed learned men; the fcandals and reproaches to which they lay open ; and the praifes and honours beftowed oathem. Let there be noted, the chief au- thors.
ON THE HISTORY OF LEARNING. I37
thors, the befl books, fchools, fucceffions, academies, focieties, colleges, orders; and, in iliort, whatfoever belongs to the ftate of learning: but, above all, we would have this obferved, which is the ornament and foul of civil hiftorj, that the caufes be com- bined with the events : which is, that the natures of countries and people be recorded; and the difpofitions apt and able, or unapt and unable for various difciplines ; the acci- dents of times adverfe or propitious to fci- ences; the Zealand mixtures of religion; the difcountenance and favour of laws ; and, kftly, the eminent virtues and influence of certain perfons for the promoting of learn- ing, and the like. But our advice is, that ♦11 thefe points may be fo handled, that time be not wafted in praife and cenfure, after the manner of the critics, but that the things be barely related in a manner perfedly hiftori- cal, and our own judgment fparingly inter- pofed.
As to the manner of compiling fuch a hiftory, we do efpecialfy advife, that the materials be drawn, not only from hiftories
and
138 ON THE HISTORY Of LEARinNG*
and critics; but, alfo, that through every century of years, or even lefler intervals, by a continued fequence of time, beginning from the highefl antiquity, the beft books written within thofe fpaces of time be con- fulted, to the end that not from a thorough perufal of them, which would be an endlefs work, but from tafte and obfcrvation of the argument, ftile, and method, the learned genius of that time, as by a kind of charm, may be called up from the dead.
As to the ufe of this work, it is not de- figned that the honour and pomp of learning may be celebrated by fo many Images every way lurrounding her; nor that for the ar- dent affedlion we bear to learning we defire^ even to curiofity, to enquire and know, and preferve whatfoever to the ftate of learning may any way belong; but chiefly for a more grave and ferious purpofe. It is in few words this: that by means of fuch a relation as we have defcribed, we conceive a very great a^ldition may be made, to the wifdom and fkilt of learned men, in the ufe and management of learning; and that the motions, pertur*
bationsj,
ON THE HISTORY OF LEARNING. 139
bations, vices, and virtues of intellectual matters, as w^ell as civil, may be noted, and the beft regimen from thence drawn and. praClifed ; for we do not fuppofe that St. Aujlhi^ or St. Amhrofe^ works will make fo wife a bifhop or a divine as ecclefiaftical hiftory thoroughly read and obferved ; which we make no queftion would be the cafe of learned men alfo from the hiflory of learn- ing ; for what is not fuftained and propt up with examples and records, is very apt to fall, and is expofed to rafhnefs. Thus much of the hiitory of learning.
ON
140 ON CIVIL HISTORY.
ON THE DIGNITY AND DIFFICULTY
O F
CIVIL HISTORY.
'TPHE dignity and authority of civil hiflory is eminent among human writings ; for upon the credit of this, the examples of our anceftors, the viciffitudes of affairs, the grounds of civil prudence, and laflly, the name and fame of men depend: but the dif- ficulty is as great as the dignity : for to draw back the mind in writing to things paft, and to make it as it were aged, to fearch out with diligence, to relate with fidelity and freedom; finally, to reprefent to the eye, with beauty and clearnefs of expreflion, the changes of times, the charaders of perfons, the waverings of counfels, the turns and windings of adbions, as of waters, the fub- tilties and depths of pretences, and the fe- crets of government, is a talk of great pains and judgment; efpecially fince ancient mat- ters
ON CIVIL HISTORY. 14I
ters are fiibjed to uncertainty ; modern, li- able to danger. Wherefore the errors alfo are many which attend civil hiftory : while the greatefl part write poor and vulgar nar- ratives, the very reproach of hiftory ; others patch up, in a rafh hafte, and unequal con- texture, particular relations, and brief me- morials ; others run over the heads only of actions done ; others, on the contrary, purfue every trivial circumftance, nothing belong- ing to the fum and ilTue of things : fome, out of too much indulgence to their own genius, have the confidence to feign man/ things : while others add and imprint upon affairs the image, not fo much of their own wit as of their affedions, mindful of their own fides and parties, but unfaithful depo- nents of fad; fome every where interfperfe fuch politic obfervations as they mofl fancy; and feeking occafion of digreffion for often- tation, too flightly break off the narrative : others are injudicioufly prolix in their fpeech- es and harrangues, or even of the very fads ; fothat it is fufficiently manifeff, that in the writings of men there is nothing found more rare than a juft hiftory, and in all parts com- plete and perfed.
ON
142 ON CIVIL HISTORY.
ON THE PARTITION
O F
CIVIL HISTORY.
/^IVIL hiftoiy is of three kinds, not un- like the three forts of pidures or images : for of pictures and images we fee fome im- perfect and unfmifhed, as wanting the lafl hand; others perfedl and finilhed; others again decayed and defaced with age. In like manner we will divide civil hiflory, which is a fort of image of actions and times, into three kinds, agreeable to thofe of pidtures; namely, memorials, perfedl hiftory, and an* tiquities. Memorials are hiftories unfinlfhed, or the firft and rude draughts of hiftory ; and antiquities are hiftory defaced, or fome rem- nants of hiftory which have cafuallyefcaped the fliipwreck of time.
Memorials, or preparatory hiftory, are of two forts : one of which I think good to term commentaries, the other regifters. Commentaries fet down a naked feries and connexion of adions and events, omitting I the
ON CIVIL HISTORY, 145
the caufes and pretexts of things, their be- ginning alfo and the occaiion, the counfels likewife and fpeeches, with other pailages of a£tion ; for this is the true nature of com- mentaries ; though Gr/tzr, in modelly mixed with greatnefs, was pleafed to give the name of commentary to the heft hiilory in the world. But regifters are of a two- fold na- ture; for they comprehend either the titles of matter and perfons, in a continuation of time, fuch as we call calendars and chrono- logies ; or the folemnities of acls, as the edids of princes, the decrees of councils, judicial proceedings, pubhc orations, letters of ftate, &c. without a contexture, or con* tinued thread of narration.
Antiquities, or remnants of hiftory, are, tanquam tabula fiaufragii: *•■ like the *' fcattered planks of a fliipwreck." When the memory of things failing, and being al- moft drowned, neverthelefs, induftrious and fagacious men, by an obftinate and fcru- pulous diligence and obfervation, out of genealogies, calendars, infcriptions, monu- ments, coins, proper names and ftiles, ety- paolpgies of words, proverbs, ti-aditions, ar- chives.
144 O^' CIVIL HISTORY.
chives and records, as well public as pri- vate, fragments of flories, fcattered pa£ages of books not hiftorical ; out of all thefe they refcue fomething from the deluge of time.
Just, or perfect hiilory is of three kinds, according to the nature of the obje;^ which it propofes to reprefent ; for it either repre- fents fome portion of time, fome memorable perfon,or fome more illuftrious adion. The iirfl we call chronicles, or annals ; the fe- cond, lives ; the third, relations. Of thefe; chronicles feem to excel in glory and name; lives in profit and ufe ; relations in fincerity and truth : for chronicles exhibit the magni- tude of adions, and the face and deportments of public perfons, and pafs over in filence the fmaller paffages and motions of men and matters. And it being the peculiar work- manfhipofGod to '* hang the greateft weight *' upon the fmalleft wires," it comes fre- quently to pafs, that this fort of hiftory, purfuing only the greater occurrences, rather fets forth the pomp and folemnities of af- fairs, than their true fprings, and more fub- tle contextures. Further, though it add and intermix the counfels themfelves, yet, de- lighting
ON CIVIL HISTORY. I4J
lighting in grandeur, it inverts mens a(^ionS with more gravity and prudence than indeed is in them : fo that a fatire may be a truer pi6lure of human life than fuchkind of hif- tories.
Lives, on the other hand, if they are written with dihgence and judgment, for I fpeak not of eulogies, and fuch like dry re* hearfais, propounding to themlelves a fingle perfon for their fubjedl:, in whom, afliohs both light and weighty, frnall and great, public and private, are neceffarily compounded and mixed together, do certainly exhibit more lively and faithful narratives of things, which a man may fafeiy and happily transfer into exarnple.
So again, fpecial relations of actions, as the war of Peloponnefus^ the expedition of Cyrus ^ the confpiracy of Cat aline, and the like, cannot but be more purely and exactly true, than the hiflories of times ; becaufe in them may be chofen an argument that is manageable and limited, and of fuch a quality, that exad: knowledge, certainty, and full in- formation may be had of it: whereas he
Vol, IL L who
146 ON CIVir. HISTORY.
who undertakes an hlftory of an extenfive period, mufl: meet with many blank fpaces, which he mufl be forced to fill up out of his own genius and conjedure ; yet, what we have faid touching the fincerity of relations, is to be underftood with fome referve ; for it mufl be confelTed, fnice all human things labour under imperfections, and conveniences are almofl always accompanied with incon- veniences, fuch kind of relations, efpecially if they are publifhed about the times of the a£lr> done, fmce they are many times written either with favour or hatred, of all other narrations are defervedly mofl fufpeded. But then again, to this inconvenience a re- medy alfo arifes : that thefe relations, as they are not fet out by one fide only, but through faction and partiality, are generally pub- lifhed on both fides, do by this means open and prepare away, as between extremes, to truth ; and, after the heat of paflion is over, to a good and wife hiftorian, they become none of the worfl materials of a more perfed hiflory.
As for lives, when I think on the fubjeCt I am feized with a kind of admiration, that
thefe
ON CIVIL KISTORY. I47
thefe our times fhould not know their own virtue, fince there is fo feldom any memoriai or record of the lives of thofe who have been eminent in our times ; for although kings, and fuch as have abfolute fovereignty, may be few; and princes in free common-wealths, fo many ftates being converted into monar- chies, are not many; yet, however, there have not been wanting excellent men, though living under kings, that deferve better than Jin uncertain and wandering fame of their memories, or dry eulogies. For to this point the invention of one of the modern poets, whereby he has enriched the ancient fidlion, is not inelegant. He feigns, that at the end of the thread of every man's life there hangs a medal or tablet, whereon the name of the deceafed is ftamped ; that time waits upon the fheers of the fatal fifter ; and, aS foon as the thread is cut, immediately takes up the medals, carries them away, and a little after throws them out of his bofom into the river Lethe : and that about the river there are a world of birds flying up and down that fnatch the medals; who, after they have carried them about in their beaks a little while, through negligence, fufFer L 2 them
14^ ON CIVIL HISTORY.
them to fall into the river. Among thefe birds there are a few fvvans found, which if they get a medal, are wont immediately to carry it to a certain temple confecrated to immortality ; now fuch fwans have almoil: failed in our age; and although moft men, abundantly more mortal in their purfuits and ftudies than in their bodies, defpife the me- mory of their name, as fmoke or air : Animl nil magna laudis egentes : " Degenerate fouls, *' not ambitious of fame and glory :" fuch whofe philofophy and feverity fprings from that root: Non prius laudes contempjimus^ quam laudanda facer e defivlmus : *' We did not be- *' gin to defpife praife till we had left off do- ling praife- worthy things :" yet that with us ihall not prejudice Solomon\ judgment: *' The memory of the juft is blefled, but the *' name of the wicked fhall rot." The one perpetually flourifhes; the other either in-* flantly paffes into oblivion, or putrifies into an ill odour; and, therefore, in that very ftyle or form of fpeech, which by received cuftom and with great reafon is attributed to the deceafed, " of happy memory ;*' " of *' pious memory;'* " of bleffed memory ;" we feem to acknowledge that which Cicero^
borrow-
ON ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY
149
borrowing it o^DemoJlhenes^ alledged : "That *' good fame is the proper pofle^Iion of the *' dead :" which poffeffion I caanot but ob- ferve in our age lies generally wafle and neglected.
ON ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
rpCCLESTASTICAL hiftory in general falls under the fame divifion in a man- ner with civil hiflory; for there are ecclefi- aftical chronicles, lives of fathers, relations of fynods, and of the like things belonging to the church. But in propriety of fpeech it is rightly divided into the hiflory of the church, keeping the general name; the hif- tory of prophecy ; and thehiHory of Provi- dence. The firfl delcribes the times, ?.nd different ftates of the church miHtant; whe- ther ihe be fluduant, as the ark in the deluge; or moveable as the ark in the wil- dernefs; or at reft as the ark in the temple : L3 that
150 ON ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
that is, the flate of the church ui perfecu- tion, in remove, and in peace. In this part I find no deficiency ; there is rather fuper- fluity here than want : only this I could wifh, that the virtue and fincerity of the narrations anfwered to the mafs and quan- tity.
The fecond part, which is the hiflory of prophecy, confifls of two relatives, the pro- phecy, and the accomplifhment ; and, there- fore, the nature of fuch a work fhould be, that every pi-ophecy of fcripture be forted with the event fulfilling it, and this through- out all the ages of the world, both for the better confirmation of faith, and for the cflablifliing a kind of art and fklU in the in- terpretation of thofe prophecies which are yet unfulfilled : allowing, neverthelefs, that la- titude which is proper and familiar unto divine prophecies, that their accomplifh- ments may be both perpetual and pundual ; for they are of the nature of their author, " with whom one day is as a thoufand years, *^ and a thoufand years but as one day :" and though the fulnefs and height of their com- pletiou may be afligned to fpme one age, or
evea
i
ON ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. I5I
even moment, yet they have in the mean time many degrees and feals of accomplifh- ment, throughout many ages of the world. This work I fet down as deficient; but it is of that nature as muft be handled with great wiidom, fobriety, and reverence, or not at all.
The third part, which is the hiftory of Providence, has fallen indeed under the pens of many pious men, but not without the difference of parties. It is employed ui ob- ferving that divine correfpondence which is between God's revealed and fecret will ; for although the counfels and judgments of God are fo obfcure that they are, for the mofl part, infcrutable to the natural man ; nay, many times withdraw themfelves from their eyes that look out of the tabernacle; yet, at fome times it pleafes the divine wifdom, for the confirmation of his own, and the confu- tation of thofe who are " as without God in *' the world," to write them in capital let- ters, and offer them to fight fo vifibly, that, as the Prophet faith, " he that runs may ♦^ read them :'* which is, that mere fenfual L 4 and
l^Z ON ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
and carnal men, who haften by God's judg-r ments, and never fix down their thoughts upon them ; yet, though they are upon the fpeed, anduitend nothing lefs, are urged to acknowledge them. Such are late and un- locked for vengeances ; fudden and unex- pected deliverances; the divine counfel paff- ing through crooked mazes and ftnpendous windings, and at length manifeftly difen- tangling and clearing themfelves: which ferve not only for the confolation of the minds of the faithful, but for the aftonifh- ment and conviclion of the confciences of the wicked*
ON
ON THE APPENDAGES OF HISTORY. I53
ON THE APPENDAGES of HISTORY.
npHERE ought to be records kept, not only of the deeds of mankind, but of their words alfo ; yet it is true, that fome-^ times words are inferted in the hiftory itfelf fo far as they conduce to a perfpicuous and grave delivery of deeds. But books of ora- tions, epiftles, and apothegms, are appro- priated to the cuftodyof the fayings of men; and, certainly, the orations of wife men touching bufinefs, and matters of grave and high importance, conduce much both to the knowledge of the things themfelves, and to eloquence.
But yet greater helps for the furnifhing civil prudence are from the letters of great perfonages, touching affairs of ftate ; for of all the words of men, there is nothing, in my judgment, more found and excellent than thefe letters; for they are more na- tural than orations, and more advifed than
extern"
154 ON THE APPENDAGES OF HISTORY.
extempore conference. The fame, when they are continued according to the feries of tim^e, as in thofe from ambaffadors, gover- nors of provinces, and other minifters of ftate, to kings or fenates, or from them to their minifters, are without queftion, of all others, the beft proviiion for hiftory ; and, to a diligent reader, the befl hiftories them^ felves.
Neither are even apothegms only far delight and ornament, but for bulinels, alfo, and civil ufe. For they are, according to Cicero, Secures, or Mucrones verborum ; which, by their fharp edge, cut and pene- trate the knots of affairs and bufinefs ; and for occafions they run round in a ring ; and what was formerly proper may be applicable and of ufe again, whether a man produce them as his own, or as ancient. It is a great pity Cue far s book of apothegms is lofl ; for as his hiftory, and thofe few letters of his which we have, and thofe apothegms which were his own, excel all others ; fo I fuppofe would his collection of apothegms have done. As for thofe which are coUeCled
hy
ON POETRY, 155
by other writers, either I have no tafte in fuch matters, or elfe their choice has not been happy.
And fo much for hiflory, or that part of learning which anfwers to one of the cells or domicils of the underftanding, which may be properly called memory.
ON POETRY.
pOETRY is a part of learning, in meafure of words for the moft part reftrained ; in matter, loofe and licenfed ; and truly refers to the imagination, which, not bring tied to the laws of matter, may at plea lure join what nature hath fevered, fever uhac which nature has joined, and fo make un= lawful matches and divorces of things : Pic- toribus atque poetis^ &c. It is taken in two fenfes, both in refped of words, or matter. In the firft fenfe it is but a charader of ftyle, and belongs to the arts of fpeech : in the latter it is a principal portion of learning, ^nd is nothing elfe but feigned hiflory.
The
15^ ON POETRY*
The trueft and mofl proper partition of poetry is narrarive, repreicntative, and al- lufive. The narrative is a mere imiiiation of hiftory, with the excefies before mentioned ; chufmg for fubje6l commonly war and love, rarely flate, andfometimes pleafure or mirth. Reprefentative is, as it were, a vifible hif- tory ; for it gives an image of actions as if they were prefent, as hiftory does of actions in nature as they are, which are pafl. Allu- five, parabolical, or typical hiftory, which brings down the intelledluals to fenfe.
As for narrative Poetry, or if you pleafe to call it heroical, fo you underftand it of the matter, not of the verfc, feems to be raifed from a noble foundation, which makes much for the dignity of man's nature*. For the fenfible world being inferior in dignity to the rational foul, this poetry feems to give to human nature, what hiftory denies it; and to fatisfy the mind with the ftiadows at leaft of things, where the fubftance can- not be had. For if the m.atter be thoroughly conddered, a ftrong argument maybe drawn from poetry, that a more illuftrious magni- tude of things, a more perfedl goodnefs, and
a more
ON POETRY. 157^
a more beautiful variety pleafes the foul of man, than what it can any way find in mere, nature fmce the Fall : wherefore feeing the a6ls and events which are the fubjeds af true hiftory, are not of that magnitude to content the foul of man, poetry is ready at hand to feign a(^s greater and more heroicah. Seeing true hiftory relates the fuccelTes of adlions, in no wife proportionable to the merit of vu'tue and vice, poetry corre£ls it, and exhibits ilTues and fortunes more agreeable to defert, and more according to the law of Providence. Seeing true hiftory, by repre- fenting actions and events more ordinary and lefs diverfified, fatiates the mind of man, poetry cheers and refreflies it ; chanting things rare and unexpected, and full of al- ternate variations. So that Poetry ferves and contributes not only to dehght, but alfo to magnanimity and morality: where- fore it may very reafonabiy feem to partake of a kind of divinity, becaufe it ere£ls and exalts the fpirit with high raptures, by pro- portioning the images of things to the defires of the mind, not by confining and bending the mind to the nature of things, as reafon and .hillory do. And by thefe allurements
and
fjS ON POETRY.
and congrukles wkereby it foothes the foul of man, joined alfo with concerts of muficj whereby it may more fweetly infinuate itfelf ; it hath made a way to efteem, even in very rude times, and with barbarous nations, where other learning has ftood wholly ex- cluded.
Dramatic Poetry, whofe theatre is the world, is of excellent ufe, if it were not abufed. For both the inftrudion and cor- ruption of the theatre may be great ; but the corruptions in this kind abound : the difci- pline is altogether negle£led in our times, although in modern common- wealths the adlion of the theatre be efleemed but as a matter wholly ludicrous, unlefs it draws too much from fatire; yet, the care of the an- cients was, that it fhould inftrudl the minds of men to virtue. Nay, wife men and great philofophers, have looked upon it as a kind of mufical quill of the mind ; and certainly it is proved from fome fecret fympathy of nature, that the minds of men are more open to afFe£lions and impreffions, congregate, than fohtary.
Bur
1
ON POETRY. 159
But parabolical Poetry excels the reft, raid leems to be a facred and venerable thing ; efpeciallj as religion itfelf makes ufe of its lervice, and by its miniflry holds a divine commerce with men. Yet even this alfo is found to have been adulterated by the levity and indulgence of mens minds about alle- gories ; and it is of ambiguous ufe, and ap- plied to contrary ends ; for it ferves to ob- fcure, and it ferves alfo to illuftrate : in this, there feems to be fought a way to teach : in that, an art to conceal. And this way of teaching which tends to illuflration, was very much in ufe in ancient times; for the inventions and conclufions of human reafon, even thofe which are now trite and common, were then flrange and unufual, and the underftandings of men were not capable of fuch fubtilty, unlefs thofe points were, by fuch refemblanoes and examples, brought down nearer to fenfe. Wherefore all things in thofe ages were full of fables, parables, asnigmas, and fimilitudes. Hence were the fy mbols of Pythagoras^ the senigmas of Sphinx, the fables oiMfcp, and the like. Fur- ther, the apothegms of the ancient fages exprefled a thing generally by fimilitudes.
Hence
l6o- O N P O E T R Y.
Hence Menenius Agr'ippa amongfl: the Romans i^ (a nation in that age by no means learned,) repreiTed a fedition by a fable. And as hiero- glyphics were before letters, fo parables were before arguments : and even now there isj as in times paft, much life and vigour in parable; becaufe arguments cannot be fo clear, nor even examples fo well applied.
But there remains yet another ufe of parabolical Poetry, oppofite in a manner to the former; tcndhig as we faid, to obfcure fuch thingS) namely, the dignity whereof deferves to be retired, and feparated^ as it were, by a curtain : that is, when the fecrets and myfteries of religion, policy, and philo° fophyj are involved in fables and parables.
But whether there be any myftical fenfe couched under the ancient fables of the poets^ may admit fome doubt: and indeed 1 con- fel^, for my part, that I incline to this opi- nion, that many of the fables of the ancient poets had a myflery infufed into them; Nor is it any argument with me, to pafs judg- ment upon them contemptuouily, becaufe they are left commonly to fchool-boys and I gram-^
b . N Poetry. 161
gfammnrians, and are therefore little noted ; but, on the contrary, fnice it is mantfeflly clear, that the writings which recite thefe fables, of ail the writings of men, next to facred writ, are the moft ancient* and that the fables themfelves are far more ancient than they ; being recited by thofe w^riters, as. credited and received before, not as in- Vented by them, they feem to be like a fine rarified air, which, from the traditions of more ancient nations, fell into the flutes of the G?'ecia?is: becaufe whatfoever has been hitherto attempted for the interpretation of thefe parables, by unfkilful men, gives us no fatisfaction.
SuHELY of thofe poets which are now ex-* tant, even Homer himfelf, notwithftandihg he was made a kind of fcripture by the lat- ter fchools of the Grecians^ yet I fliould with- out any difficulty pronounce, that his fables had no fuch inwardnefs in his own mean- ing ; but what they might have upon a more original tradition, is not eafy to affirm, for he was not the inventor of many of them.
' Vol. IL M In
^6Z ON ? O E T R Y.
In this third part of learning, which is poefy, I can report no deficiency. For being as a plant that comes of the luft of the earth, without a formal feed, it has fprung up, and fpread abroad more than any other kind : but to afcribe unto it that which is due, for the expreffion of affe6lioiis, paflions, corruptions, and cuftoms, we are beholden to poets more than to the philofophers works ; and for wit and eloquence, not much lefs than to orators harangues. But it is not good to flay too long in the theatre. Let us now pafs to the judicial place or palace of the mind, which we are to approach and view with more reverence and attention.
ON
ON THE TRIUMPHS OF MAN. l6^
ON THE TRIUMPHS OF MAN.
'T^HE knowledge concerning the nature o£ man comprehends two things efpeci- ally; namely, the contemplation of the mi- fei-'ies of mankind, and of his prerogatives or excellencies. But the bewailing of man's miferies hath been elegantly and copioufly fet forth by feveral in the writings, of philofophers, as well as divines; and it is both a pleafant and a wholefome contem- plation.
But that touching man's prerogatives has feemed to me a point that may well be fet down among the deficiencies of learning. Pindar, in extolling Hiero, fays moft ele- gantly, " That he cropt oft the tops or " fummits of all virtues." And truly, I ihould think it would much conduce to the magnanimity and honour of man, if a col- ledtion were made of the ultimates in the M 2 fcho-
J 64 ON THE TRIUMPHS OT MAN.
fcholaflic, or fummits in the pindaric phrafe, of human nature, principally out of the faith- ful reports of hiflory ; that is, " What is *' the laft and higheft pitch to which hu- ** man nature in itfelf ever afcended, in all *' the perfedlions both of body and mind ?" What a ftrange ability was that which is re- ported of Cafar, " That he could dicflate at *' once to five amanuenfes !" So alfo the exercitations of the ancient rhetoricians, Protagoras, GorgJas; likewife of philofo- phers, CalUJihenes, PoJJidonius, Carneades ; who were able to difcourfe extempore upon any fubje6l, pro or con, with fluency and elegance, do much ennoble the power of mans wit, and natural endowments. And that which Cicero reports of his mafter Archias is little for ufe, but admirable for ftrength of faculty : " That he was able to recite extern- ^^ pore a great number of verfes, pertinent *« to the difcourfe in hand whatever it was." That Cyrus ov Sclpio could call fo many thou- fands of men by their particular names, is a lingular commendation to that faculty of the mind, memory.
But
ON THE TRIUMPHS OF MAN. 165
But the trophies of moral vhtues are no lefs famous than thofe of intelkaual. What a mighty example of patience does that com- mon ftory of Anaxarchus prefent unto our thoughts, who, being put to the rack and torture, bit out his own tongue, the hoped inftrument of difcovery, and fpit it in the tyrant's face ! Nor is that inferior for to- lerance, though much in the dignity of the caufe, of a certain Burgundian^ who had com- mitted a murder upon the Prince o^ Orange: this fellow being fcourged with iron rods, and his flefti torn with burning pincers, gave not fo much as a groan ; and, when a broken piece of the fcaftold fell by chance upon the head of one that ftood by, the fniged flig- matized wretch, in the midft of his tor- tures, laughed ; who, but a little before, had wept at the cutting oft his curled head of hair.
In like manner a wonderful ferenlty and fecurity of mind has fhonein many at the very inftant of death, as was that of a cen- turion in Tacitus: he, being ordered by the foldier that had commands to execute him, M 3 to
t66 ON THE TRIUMPHS OF MAN".
to flretch forth his neck valiantly: ** I *' wlfh," fays he, " thou wouldft flrike as *' valiantly." But Jom Duke of Saxony, when the commiffion vv^as brought him, as he was playing at chefs, wherein his death was commanded the next day, called to one that flood by him, and fmiling, "Look,'* fays he, *' if I have not the better hand *' of the game. For he (pointing to him ** with whom he played) will boafl when I *' am dead, that himfelf was the better of « the fet,"
Chancellor More, of England, when a barber came to him the day before he was to die, fent, it feems, for this end, left the fight of his long hair might more than ordinary move compafllon in the people at his execution, and alked, if he would not pleafe to have his hair cut ? He refufed, and turning to the barber, *' The King," fays he, " is at fuit with me for my head; and *' till that controverfy be ended, I mean to *' beftow no cofl upon it.'* And the fame perfon, at the very point of death, after he had laid his head upon the fatal block,
railed
ON THE TRIUMPHS OF MAN. 167
Mifed himfelf up again a little, and having a fair large beard, gently removed it, fay- ing, " Yet, I hope, this hath not offended " thy King." But not to dwell too long upon this point, it is plain enough what we mean: namely, that the wonders of human nature, and its ultimate powers and virtues, as well of mind as body, Ihould be colle6led into, a volume ; which might ferve as a Ka- lendar of human triumphs. For this purpofe we approve the defign of Falerius Maximus, and C. Plinius ; but w^ifh they had ufed more diligence and judgment.
M4 On
j68 ON PHILOSOPHY,
On P I V I N E, NATURAL^
AND
HUMAN PHILOSOPHY.
'T^HE iinowledge of man is as the watera* feme defcen ding from above, and fome fprlnging from beneath ; the one informe4 by the light of nature, the other infpired by- divine revelation.
The light of nature confifls in the notions of the mind, and the reports of the fenfes ; as for knowledge which man receiveth by teaching, it is accumulated and not ori- ginal, as in a water, that, bcfides its own fpring-head, is fed with other fprings and flreams. So then, according to thefe two different illuminations or originals, know- ledge is firft of all divided into divinity and philofophy,
I In
ON PHILOSOPHY. 169
In philofophy, the contemplations of rtian do neither penetrate unto God, nor are cir- cumferred to nature, nor reflefted or re- verted upon hhnfelf. Out of which feveral inquiries there arife three fubjeds, di- vine philofophy, natural philofophv, and human philofophy, or humanity. For all things are marked and ftamped with this triple charader, of the power of God, the difference of nature, and the ufe of man. But becaufe the diftributions and partitions of knowledge are not like feveral lines that meet in one angle, and fo touch but in a point; but are like branches of a tree, that meet in a ftem, which has a dimenfion and quantity of intirenefs and continuance before it comes to difcontinue and break itfelf into arms and boughs; therefore it is good, be- fore we enter into the former diftribution, toeredl and conftitute one univerfal fcience, by the name oiPhllofofhia prirna^ " primitive ^' or fummary philofophy," as the main and common way, before we come where the ways part and divide themfelves; which fcience, whether I fhould report as deficient pr not, I ftaud doubtful.
For
I^O ON PHILOSOPHY.
For I find a certain rhapfody of natural theology, and of divers parts of logic ; of that part of natural philofophy which concerns the principles ; and of the other part of natural philofophy which concernes the foul or fpirit: all thefe ftrangely commixed and confufed : but being examined, it feems to me rather a depre- dation of other fciences, advanced and ex- alted unto fome height of terms, than any thing folidor fubftantial of itfelf.
Nevertheless, I cannot be ignorant of the diftindlion which is current, that the fame things are handled but in feveral re- fpe£ls. As for example, that logic confi- ders of many things as they are in notion ; and this philofophy, as they are in nature; the one in appearance, the other in exiilence : but I find this difference better made than purfued. For if they had confidered quan- tity, fimilitude, diverfity, and the reft of thofe external chara6lers of things, as philo- fophers, and in nature ; their enquiries mull of courfe have been of a very different kind than they are.
For
- J
1
ON DIVINE PHILOSOPHY. I7I
For does any of them, in handling quan- tity, fpeak of the force of union, how, and how fiir it multiplies virtue ? Does any give the reafon, why fome things in nature are lo common, and in fo great mafs, and others fo rare, and in lb frn all quantity ? Does any, in handling fimilitude and diver- fity, aflign the caufe why iron fliould not move to iron, which is more like, hut move to the load-flone, which is lefs fo ? Why, in all diverfities of things, there Ihouid be certain participles in nature, which are al- mofl ambiguous, to which kind they (hould be referred? But there is a mere and deep filence touching the nature and operation of thefe common adjuncls of things, as in na- ture; and only a refuming and repeating of the force and ufe of them in fpeecb or ar- gument.
DIVINE PHILOSOPHY.
Divine philofophy, or natural theology, is that knowledge or rudiment of knowledge concerning God, which may be obtained by
the
172 ON DIVINE PHILOSOPHY.
the contemplation of his creatures; which knowledge may be truly termed divine, in refped of the object ; and natural, in refpect of the light.
The bounds of this knowledge are, that it fuffices to convince atheifm, but_.not to inform rehgion: and therefore there was never miracle wrought by God to convert an a'theift, becaufe the light of nature might have led him to confefs a God : but miracles have been wrought to convert idolaters and the fuperflitious, becaufe no light of nature extends to declare the will and true worihip of God,
For as all works do fhew forth the power and Ikill of the workman, and not his image, fo it is of the works of God, Vv^hich fliew the omnipotence and wifdom of the maker, but not his image : and therefore therein the heathen opinion differs from thefacred truth ; for they fuppofed the world to be the image of God, and man to be an extract or com- pendious image of the world : but the fcrip- tures never vouchfafe to attribute to the w^orld that honour, as to be the image of
God,
ON DIVINE PHILOSOPHY. I 75
God, but only the work of his hands : nei- ther do they fpeak of any other image of God, but man: wherefore by the contem- plation of nature, to induce and enforce the acknowledgment of God, and to demonftrate his power, providence, and goodnefs, is an excellent argument, and has been well handled by many.
But, on the other fide, out of the con- templation of nature, or ground of human knowledge, to induce any verity or perfuafion concerning the points of faith, is in my judgment not fafe : Da fide i^ quae fidei fiint. For the heathens themfelves conclude as much, in that excellent and divine fable of the golden chain : " That men and gods *' were not able to draw Jupiter down to the •' earth; but, on the contrary, Jupiter \Y2i^ *' able to draw them up to heaven."
So as we ought not to attempt to draw down or fubmit the myfteries of God to our reafon ; but on the contrary, to raife and advance our reafon to the divine truth : fo as in this part of knowledge, touching divine philofophy, I am fo far from noting any
dcf{-
174 O^ DIVINE PHILOSOPHY*
deficiency, that I rather note an exceisj whereunto I have digrefled, becaiife of the ex- treme prejudice which both religion and phi- lofophy have received, and may receive, by being commixed together; as that which \indoubtedly will make an heretical religion, and an imaginary and fabulous philofophy.
Otherwise it is of the nature of angels and fpirits, which is an appendix of theo- logy, both divine and natural; and is nei- ther infcru table nor interdicled : for although the fcripture faith, " Let no man deceive " you in fublime difcourfe touching the *' worfliip of angels, preffing into that he *' knoweth not, &c.'* yet, notwithftanding if you obferve well that precept, it may ap- pear thereby, that there are two things only forbidden, adoration, and a fantaf- tical opinion of them, either to extol them farther than appertains to the degree of a creature, or to extol a man's knowledge of them farther than he hath ground. But the fober and grounded enquiry, which may arife out of the paffages of holy fcrlptures, or out of the gradations of nature, is not refiraiiied. So of degenerate and revolted
fpirits,
ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. I75
fpirlts, the converfing with them, or the employment of them is prohibited, much more any veneration towards them. But the contemplation or fcience of their nature, their power, their illufions, either by fcrip- tureor reafon, is a part of fpiritual wifdom : for fo the Apoftle faith; " We are not ig- *' norant of his ftratagems." And it is no more unlawful to enquire the nature of evil fpirits, than to enquire the force of poifons in nature, or the nature of fin and vice in morality. But this part, touching angels and fpirits, I cannot note as deficient, for many have occupied themfelves in it : I may rather challenge it, in many of the writers thereof, as fabulous and fantaflical.
Leaving therefore divine philofophy, or natural theology, not divinity, or infpired theology, which we referve for the laftofall, as the haven and flibbath of all man's con- templations, we will now proceed to
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
If it be true what Bemocntus faid, *' That " the truth of nature Jieth hid in certain
*' (Jeep
iy6 ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
*' deep mines and caves:" and if it be true likewife that the alchymifls do fo much in- culcate ; *' That Fulcan is a fecond nature, *' and imitates that dexteroufly and com- *' pendioully, which nature works bygrada- " tion and length of time;" it were good to divide natural philofophy into the mine and the furnace, and to make two profef^ iions or occupations of natural philofophers, fome to be pioneers j and fome fmiths ; fome to dig, and fome to refine and hammer: and furely I do beft allow of a divifion of that kind, though in more familiar and fcholaflic terms ; namely, that thefe be the two parts of natural philofophy, the inquifition of caufes, and the produdlion of effefts fpecu- lative and operative ; natural fcience, and natural prudence.
For as in civil matters there is a wifdom of difcourfe, and a wifdom of dire6lion ; fo is it in natural. . And here 1 will make a re- quefl, that for the latter, or at leafl for ^ part thereof, Imay revive and redintegrate the mifapplied and abufed name of nr.tural magic, which in the true fenfe is but na- tural wifdom, or natural prudence ; taken
accord-
ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. I'-j'J
according to the ancient acceptation, purged from vanity and luperftition.
Now although it be true, and 1 know it well, that there is an intercourfe between caufes and effects, fo as both thefe know- ledges, Tpeculative and operative, have a great connection between themielves ; yet, becaufe all true and fruitful natural philo- fophy has a double fcale or ladder, afcen- dent and defcendent ; afcending from expe- riments to the invention of caufes; and defcending from caufes to the invention of new experiments ; therefore I judge it mofl requifite, that thefe two parts be feverally conlidered.
Natural fcience, or theory, is divided into phyfic and metaphyfic ; wherein I de- fire it may be conceived, that I ufe the word metaphyfic in a different fenfe from that which is received ; and, in like manner, I doubt not but it will eafily appear to men of judgment, that in this and other particulars, wherefoever my conception and notion may differ from, the ancient, yet I am ftudious to keep the ancient terms.
Vol. II. N For
I'^t ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
For hoping to deliver myfelf from any miftake, by the order and perfpicuous ex- prefling of what I propound ; I am other- wife zealous and affedlionate to recede as little from antiquity, either in terms or opi- nions, as may ftand with truth, and the pro- ficiency of knowledge.
Physic, taking it according to the deri- vation, and not according to our idiom for medicine, is lituate in a middle term, or diftance, between natural hiftory and meta- phyfic : for natural hiftory defcribes the variety of things, phyfic the caufes, but va* riable or refpedive caufes ; and metaphyfic^ the fixed and conftant caufes.
L'lmus tit h'lc durefcit, et haec ut cera liquefcUj TJno eodemq^ue igne.
Fire is the caufe of Induration but refpecSlive to clay: fire is the caufe of colliquation but refpeftive to wax : but fire is no conftant caufe either of induration or colliquation; fo then the phyfical caufes are but the efficient and the matter.
'^ Physic
ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
^79
Physic hath three parts; whereof two re'fpe6l nature united or colle6led, the third contemplates nature diffufed or diftributcd.
Nature is collecftcd either into one entire total, or elfe into the fame principles or feeds. So as the firfl do6lrine is touchino; the con- texture or configuration of things ; as de mundo, de wiroerjitatc rerum.
The fecond is the doftrine concerning the principles or originals of things.
The third is the doctrine concerning all variety and particularity of things : whether it be of the different fubflances, or their dif- ferent qualities and natures : whereof there needs no enumeration, this part being but as a glofs or paraph rafe, that attends upon the text of natural hiftory.
Of thefe three I cannot report any as de- ficient. In what truth or perfection they are handled, I make not now any judgment: but they are parts of knowledge not deferted bv the labour of man.
N 2 For
l8o ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
For Metaphysic, we affign unto it the enquiry of formal and final caufes ; which affignation, as to the former of them, may feem to be nugatory and void, becaufe of the received and inveterate opinion, that the inquifition of man is not competent to find out eflential forms, or true differences: of which opinion we w^ill take this hold, that the invention of forms is, of all other parts of knowledge, the moft worthy to be fought, if it can pofTibly be found.
As for the pofTibility, they are bad difco- verers that think there is no land, when they can fee nothing but fea.
But it is manifeft, that Plato, in his opi- nion of ideas, as one that had a wit of eleva- tion fituate as upon a cliff, did defcry, " That *' forms were the true object of knowledge;" but loft the real fruit of his opinion, by confidering of forms as abfolutely abftra£led from matter, and not confined and deter- mined by matter ; and fo turning his opinion upon theology, wherewith all his natural philofophy is infeded.
But
ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. iSl
But if any man fhall keep a continual watchful and fevere eye upon adion, opera- tion, and the ufe of knowledge, he may advife and take notice what are the forms, the difclofures whereof are fruitful and im- portant to the ftate of man. For as to the forms of fubflances, man only excepted, of whom it is faid, Formav'it homlnem de limo terrae, et fpiravh In facie m ejus fpiraculum vi^ tae ; and not as of all other creatures ; Pro- ducant aquae ^ pro ducat terra ; the forms of fubftances, I fay, as they are now multi- plied, by compounding and tranfplanting, are fo perplexed, as not to be invefligated ; no more than it were either poffible, or to the purpofe, to feek in grofs the forms of thofe founds that make words, which, by com- pofition and tranfpofition of letters, are in- fmite.
But, on the other fide, to enquire the form of thofe founds or voices which make fimple letters, is eafily comprehended; and, being known, induces and manifefts the forms of all words, which confifl and are compounded of them. In the fame manner to enquire the form of a lion, of an oak, of N3 gold J
152 ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY^
gold; nay, of water, of air, is a vain pur- fuit : but to enquire the forms of fenfe, of voluntary motion, of vegetation, of colours, of gravity and levity, of denfity, of tenuity, of heat, of cold, and all other natures and qualities,, which, like an alphabet, are not many, and of which the effences, upheld by matter, of all creatures do cpnfiil:: to en- quire, I fay, the true form of thefe, is that part of metaphyfic which we now define.
Not but that phyfic doth make enquiry, and take confideration of the fame natures: but how ? Only as to the material and ef- ficient caufes of them, and not as to the forms. For example : if the caufeof white- nefs in fnow or froth be enquired, and it be rendered thus; that the fubtile Intermixture of air and water is the caufe, it is well ren- dered; but, neverthelefs, is this the form of whitenefs ? No ; but it is the efficient, "Vvhich is ever but vehkidum formae.
We come uow to that knowledge where- ijnto the ancient oracle dire£ls us, which is tlie knowledge of ourfelves; that deferves the more accurate handling, by how much.
it
1
ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 1 83
it touches us more nearly. This know- ledge, as it is the end and term of natural philofophy in the intention of man, fo, not- withftanding, it is but a portion of natural philofophy in the continent of nature; and generally let this be a rule, that all parti- tions of knowledge be accepted rather for lines and veins, than for fe6lions and fepa- rations; and that the continuance and en- tirenefs of knowledge be preferved. For the contrary hereof has made particular fciences to become barren, fhallow, and erroneous, while they have not been nouriihed and maintained from the common fountain. So we fee Cicero the Orator complained of So- crates and his fchool, that he was the firft that feparated philofophy and rhetoric, whereupon rhetoric became an empty and verbal art. So we may fee the opinion of Copernicus touching the rotation of the earth, which aftronomy itfclf cannot cor- real, bccaufe it is not repugnant to any of the phaenomena, yet natural philofophy may corre6b. We fee alfo that the fcience of medicine, if it be dellitute and forfaken by natural philofophy, is not much better than an empirica) pradice.
N 4 HUMAN
1S4 O^ HUMAN PHILOSOPHY.
HUMAN PHILOSOPHY.
Human phllofophy, or humanity, hath two parts : the one confiders man fegre- gate or diflributively : the other congregate, or in fociety. So that human philofophy is either fimple and particular, or conjugate and civiL Humanity particularly confifts of the fame parts of which man confifts : that is, of knowledge which refpe£ls the body, and of knowledge that refpe6ls the mind : but before we diflribute fo far, it is good to conftitute. For I take the confideration in general, and at large, of human nature, to be fit to be emancipated and made a know-. ledge by itfelf ; not fo much with regard to thofe delightful andelegantdifcourfcs which have been m.ade of the dignity of man, of his miferies, of his ftate and life, and the like adjuncts of his common and undivided nature; but chiefly in regard to the know- ledge concerning the fympathies and con- cordances between the mind and body, which being mixed, cannot be properly afligned to the fciences of either.
This
ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY. 185
This knowledge has tw - branches: for as all leagues and amities confifi: of mutual intelligence and mutual offices, fo this league of mind and body has thefe two parts, how the one difclofes tlie other, and how the one works ucou the other, difcovery and impreffiou.
The former of thefe has begotten two arts, both of predicl'on orprenotion ; whereof the one is honoured with the enquiry of Anjlotk^ and the other of Hippncrates, And although they have of later time been uf^d to be coupled with fuperftition and fantaftic arts, yet, being purged and reftored to their true flate, they have both of them a fohd ground in nature, and a profitable ufe in life. The firfl is phyfiognomy, which, difcovers the difpofition of the mind by the lineaments of the body : the fecond is the expofition of natural dreams, which difco- vers the ftate of the body by the Imagina- tions of the mind". In the former of thefe I note a deficience; for Jlrijiotk has very ingenioufly and diligently handled the fea- tures, but not the geftures of the body, which are no lefs ccmprehenfible by art,
and
J 86 ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY.
snd of greater ufe and advantage. For the lineaments of the body dlfclofe the difpO' fition and inclination of the mind in general : but the motion of the countenance and parts do not only fo, but do further difclofe tlic prefe^it humour and ftate of the mind and will. For, as your majcity faith moft aptly and elegantly, " As the tongue fpeaketh to '' the ear, fo the gefture fpeaketh to the *' eye." And therefore a number of fubtle perfons, whofe eyes dwell upon the faces and fafhions of men, do well know the ad- vantage of this obfervation, as being moft part of their abihty : neither can it be de- nied, but that it is a great difcovery of diffi- mulation, and a great dir^^lion in bufmefs.
The latter branch, touching impreflion, has not been collected into art, but has been handled difperfedly : and it has the fame rela- tion or analogy as the former. For the con- sideration is double : *' Either how, and how *^ far the humours and effeds of the body do f ' alter or work upon the m.ind ;" or, how, *' and how far the paflions or apprehenfionsof *♦ the mind do alter or work upon the body.'* The former of thefe has been enquired and confidered as a part and appendix of medi- cine.
ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY. 1 87
cine, but much more as a part of religion or fuperflition : for the phyfician prefcribeth cures of the mind in frenzies and melan- choly paffions, and pretends alfo to exhibit medicines to exhilarate the mind, to confirm the courage, to clarify the wits, to corrobo- rate the memory, and the like : but the fcru- ples and fuperflitions of diet, and other regimen of the body, in the fe£l of the Py- ihagcreans, in the herefy of the Manicheans, and in the law of Mahomet^ do exceed : fb likewife the ordinances in the ceremonial law, interdidling the eating of the blood and fat, diftinguifhing between beafts clean and unclean for meat, are many and ftriiO:. Nay, the faith itfelf, being clear and ferene from all clouds of ceremony, yet retains the ufe of failings, abftinences, and other ma- cerations and humiliations of the body, as things real and not figurative. The root and life of all which prefcripts are, beflde the ceremony, the confideration of that de- pendency, which the affedlions of the mind are fubmitted unto, upon the ftate and difpo- fition of the body. And if any man of weak judgment conceives, that this fufil^ing of the mind from the body does either queftion
the
l88 ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY.
the Immortality, or derogate from the fove- reignty of the foul, he may be taught, in eafy inftances, that the infant in the mother's womb is compatible with the mother, and yet feparable : and the mofl abfolute mo- narch is fometimes led by his fervants, and yet without fubje£lion. As for the recipro- cal knowledge, which is the operation of the conceits and paffions of the mind upon the body, we fee all wife phylicians, in the prefcriptions of their regimens to their patients, do ever conlider accidentia animi, as of great force to further or hinder remedies or recoveries ; and more efpecially it is an enquiry of great depth and worth concerning imagination, how, and how far it alters the body proper of the imaginant ; for although it has a manifefl power to hurt, it follows not it has the fame degree of power to help ; no more than a man can conclude, that be- caufe there be peflilent airs, able fuddenly to kill a man in health, therefore there fhould be fovereign airs, able fuddenly to cure a man in iicknefs. But the inquifition of this part is of great ufe, though it needs, as Soc?'ates {zid, *' a Delian diver ;" being dif- ficult and profound. But unto all this know- ledge.
ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY, 1S9
ledge, de communl vinculo ^ of the concordances between the mind and the body, that part of enquiry is mofl necefl'ary which confiders the feats and domiciles, which the feveral faculties of the mind take and occupy in the organs of the body : which knowledge has been attempted and is controverted, and deferves a much better enquiry. For the opinion oiPlato^ who placed the underiland- ing in the brain, animofity (which he did unfitly call anger, having a greater mixture with pride) in the heart, and concupifcence or fenfuality in the liv^er, deferves not to be defpifed, but much lels to be allowed.
The knowledge that concerns man's body is divided, as the good of man's body is di- vided, unto which it refers. The good of man's body is of four kinds; health, beauty, flrength and pleafure : fo the knowledge is, medicine, or art of cure; art of decora- tion, which is called cofmetic ; art of adi- vity, which is called athletic ; and art volup- tuary, which Tacitus truly calls eruditus luxus. This fubjedl of man's body is, of all other things in nature, mofl fufceptible of remedy ; but then that remedy is mofl fufceptible of error. For the flime fubtilty of the fubject
caufes
Ipb oK HITMAN PrtlLOSOPHt.
Caufes large poifibility and eafy falling ; arid therefore the enquiry ought to be the more exa<^.
To fpeak therefore of medicine, and to refume that we have faid, afcending a httle higher; the ancient opinion that man was jnicrocofmus^ an abftradl or model of the world, has been fantaftically flrained by Paracelfus, and the alchymifts, as if there were to be found in man's body certain correfpondences and parallels, which (hould have refpe6t to all varieties of things, as flarsj planets, mi- nerals, which are extant in the great world. But thus much is evidently true, that of all fubilances which nature has produced, man's body is the moft extremely compounded: for we fee herbs and plants are nourifhed by earth and water ; beafls, for the moft part, by herbs and fruits; man by the flefh of beafts, birds, fifties, herbs, grains, fruits, water, and the manifold alterations, dref- fings, and preparations of thefe feveral bo- dies, before they come to be his food and aliment. Add hereunto, that beafts have a more ftmple order of life, andlefs change of affedions to work upon their bodies ; where- as
I
on HUMAN PHILOSOPHY. ipl
as man In his manfion, fleep, exerclfe, and pafiions, has infinite variations : and it cannot be denied, but that the body of man, of all other things, is of the mofl compounded mafs. The foul, on the other fide, is the moft fimple of fubflances, as is well ex* prefled:
Purumque rcliquit,
Acthereum fenjiim, atque aural fimpUcis ignem.
So that it is no marvel though the foul fo placed enjoy no reft, if that principle be true, that Motusrerum ejlrapidus extra locum, flacldus in locQ, But to the purpofe : this variable compofition of naan's body has made It as an inllrument eafy to diftemper; and therefore the poets did well to conjoin mu- fic and medicine in Apollo, becaufe the office of medicine is but to tune this curious harp of man's body, and to reduce it to harmony. So then, the fubjecl being fo variable, has made the art, by confequence, more con> jedural; which has made fo much the more place to be left for impofture. For almoft all other arts and fciences are judged by acls or maftcr-pieces, u» they may be
ternic^d,
tQl ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY.
termed, and not by the faccefles and events* The lawyer is judged by the virtue of his pleading, and not by the ilTue of the caufe* The mafler of the fhip is judged by the dire£ling his courfe right, and not by the fortune of the voyage. But the phyfician, and perhaps the politician, have no particu- lar ads demonftrative of their ability, but are moftly judged by the event; which is ever but as it is taken : for w^ho can tell if a patient die or recover, or if a ftate be pre- ferved or ruined, whether it be art or acci- dent ? And therefore many times the im- poflor is prized, and the man of virtue taxed.
Medicine is a fcience which has been, as we have faid, more profefled than laboured, and yet more laboured than advanced : the labour having been, in my judgment, rather in circle than in progreffion. For I find much repetition, but fmall addition. It confiders the caufes of difeafes, with the occafions or impulfions ; the difeafes tliemfelves, with the accidents; and the cures, with the pre- fer vations.
In
ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY, 1^3
In the confiderationof the cures of difeafes I find a defiGience h\ the receipts of propriety,- refpedling the particular cures of difeafes : for the phyficians have frustrated the fruit of tradition and experience by their ma-^ giflerially, adding and taking out, and changing quid pro quo, in their receipts, at their. pleafure ; fo commanding over the me- dicine, as the medicine cannot command over the difeafe : for, except it be treacle and mithridatum, and of late diafcordium, ajid a few more, they tie themfelves to no receipts feverely and religioufly: for as to the con- fedions of lale wdiich are in the fhops, they are for readinefs, and not for propriety ; fof they are upon general intentions of purging, opening, comforting, altering, and not much appropriated to particular difeafes; and this is the caufe why empirics and old women are more happy many times in their cures^ than learned phyficians, becaufe they are more religious in holding their medicines* Therefore, here is the deficience which I find ; that phyficians have not, partly out of their own practice, partly out of their con- ftant probations reported in books, and partly out of the traditions of empirics, fet down Vol. IL O and
194- ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY.
and delivered over certain experimental me- dicines, for the cure of particular difeafes, belides their own conjectural and magifterial defcriptions. For as they were the men of the beft compofition in the ftate of Rome^ which either being confuls inclined to the people, or tribunes inclined to the fenate : fo in the matter we now handle, they are the beft phylicians who, being learned, in- cline to the traditions of experience ; or, being empirics, incline to the methods of learning.
In preparation of medicines I find it flrange, (efpecially confldering how mineral medi- cines have been extolled, and that they are fafer for the outward than inward parts) that no man hath fought to make an imitation by art of natural baths, and medicinal foun- tains; which, neverthelefs, are confeffed to receive their virtues fi*om minerals; and not only fo, but difcerned and diftiuguiihed from what particular mineral they receive tinc- ture, as fulphur, vitriol, fleel, or the like ; which nature, if it may be reduced to com- pofition of art, both the variety of them
will
ON Human philosophy. ig^
^all be increafed, and the temper of them will be more commanded.
For Cosmetic, it hath parts civil, and parts effeminate : for cleannefs of body was ever efteemed to proceed from a due reve- rence to God, to focietv, and to ourfeives* As for artificial decoration, it is well worthy of the deficiences which it has ; being nei- ther fine enough to deceive, nor handfome to ufe, nor wholefome to pleafe*
For Athletic, I take the fubje6l of k largely : that is to fay, for any point of ability, 'whereunto the body of man may be brought, whether it be of adivity, or of patience ; whereof activity has two parts, ftrength and fwiftnefs: and patience likewife has two parts, hardnefs againft wants and extre- mities, and endurance of pain or tormc;nt ; whereof we fee the practices in tumblers, in favages, and in thofe that fuffer punifh- ment: nay, if there be any other faculty which falls not VvUthin any of the former di- vifions, as in thofe that dive, who obtain a ftrange power of containing refpiration, and the like, I refer it to this part. Of thefe O 2f things
196 ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY-
things the prafllces are known, but the philofophy that concerns them is not much enquired ; the rather I think, becaufe they are fuppofed to be obtained, either by an aptnefs of nature which cannot be taught, or only by continual cuftom, which is foon prefcribed; which though it be too true, yet I forbear to note any deficiences ; for the Olympian games are down long fuice, and the mediocrity of thefe things is for ufe: as for the excellency of them, it ferves, for the moft part, but for mercenary oflentation.
For Arts of fenfual pleafure, the chief deficience in them is ©flaws toreprefsthem. For as it has been well obferved, that the arts which flourifh in times while virtue is in growth, are miHtary; and while virtue is in ftate, are liberal; but when in de- clination, are voluptuary : fo I doubt, that this age of the world is fomewhat upon the defcent of the wheel. With arts voluptuary I couple praaices joculary ; for the deceiving of the fenfes is one of the pleafures of the fenfes. As for games of recreation, I hold them to belong to civil life and education. And thus much of that particular human
philo-
ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY. 1 97
phllofophy which concerns the body, which is but the tabernacle of the mind.
For human knowledge, which concerns the mind, it has two parts; one that en- quires the fubftance or nature of the foul or mind, the other that enquires the faculties or functions thereof.
Unto the firft of thefe, the confiderations of the origin of the foul, whether it be native or adventive, and how far it is ex- empted from laws of matter, the immorta- lity thereof, and many other points which belong to it, and that have been not more laborioufly enquired, than varioufly reported ; fo as the traveller therein taken feems to have been rather in a maze than in a way. But although I am of opinion, that this knowledge may be more really and foundly enquired even in nature than it has been; yet I hold, that in the end it muft be bounded by religion, or elfe it will be fubje(5l to de- ceit and delufion : for as the fubftance of the foul in the creation was not extradled out of the mafs of heaven and earth, by the bene- di(!lion of a producat, but was immediately 0 I in.
I9S ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY,
infpired from God ; fo it is not poilible tha^ itfhould be, otherwlfe than by accident, fub- je£l to the laws of heaven and earth, which are the fubjetO: of philofophy ; and therefore the true knowledge of the nature and ftate of the foul mufl come by the fame inlpira- tion that gave the fubflance.
The knowledge which refpe^ls th^ facul« ties of the mind of man, is of two kinds ; the pne refpe6ling his underftanding and reafon, ^nd the other his will, appetite, and affec- tion; whereof the former produces pofition or decree, the latter a6lion or execution. It is true, that the imagination is an agent or puficius in both provinces, both the judicial, and the miniilerial. For fenfe fends over t'O imagination before reafon has judged, and reafon fends over to imagination before the decree can be acled : for imagination ever precedes voluntary motion, faving that this Janus of imagination has different faces; for the face tow^ards reafon has the print of truth, but the face towards a6lion has the print of good ; \yhich neverthelefs are faces ♦
^ales cleat ejfe fororum.
I Nei-
ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY. I99
Neither is the imagination fimply and only a meflenger, but is invefled with, or at leafl: ufurps no fmall authority in itfelf, befides the duty of the meffage. For it was well faid by Ariptle ; " That the mind hath *« over the body that commandment which " the lord hath over a bondman; but that *' reafon hath over the imagination that " commandment which a magiftrate hath " over a tree citizen ;" who may come alfo to rule in his turn. For we fee, that in matters of faith and religion we raife our imagination above our reafon, which is the cauie why religion ever fought accefs to the mind, by fnnilitudes, types, parables, vi- fions, and dreams. Again, in all perfualions that are wrought by eloquence, and other impreiTions of like nature, which paint and difgulfe the true appearance of thing'^, the chief recommendation to reafon is from the imagination.
The part of human philofophy which is rational, of all knowledge, to mofl wits, is the leafl dehghtful, and feems but a net of fubtilty and fpinofity : for as it was truly faid, that knowledge is pabulum ammi; fo in O 4 the
%Q0 ON HUMAN PHILOSOPHY.
the nature of mens appetite to this food, moft men are of the tafte and ftomach of the Ifrcielites in the defart, who would fain have returned ad ollas carnium, and were weary of manna : which, though it were ce- leftial, yet feemed lefs nutritiv^e and com- fortable : fo generally men tafte well know- ledge that is drenched in flefh and blood, civil hiftory, morality, policy, about which mens affedions, praifes, fortunes, do turn and are converfant ; but this fame lume7i fie- cum doth parch and offend mofl: mens watery and foft natures. But to fpeak truly of things as they are in worth, rational know- ledge is the key of all other arts ; for as Arijlotk fays aptly and elegantly, " That " the hand is the inftrument of inflruments, ''.and the mind is the form of forms:" fo thefe are truly faid to be the art of arts : neither do they only dire6l, but likewife con- firm and ftrengthen : even as the habit of fhooting does not only enable to fhoot a iiearer fhot, but alfo to draw a ftronger bow,
ON
ON MEMORY. 20|
ON MEMORY.
^TTE will divide the art of retaining, or of the cuftody of knowledge, into two do£lrines : that is, the dodlrine touching the helps of memory, and that which refpeds the memory itfelf. A help to memory is writing, no doubt ; and it mufl: by all means be noted, that memory, without this fup- port, w^ould be too weak for more prolix and accurate matters : therefore there can hardly be a thing more ufeful to memory, than a fubftantial and learned digefl: of common places. Yet I am not ignorant, that the transferring thofe things we read or learn to common places, is reckoned by fome as a prejudice to learning, retarding the courfeo^f it, and encouraging the memory in idlenefs. Neverthelefs, becaufe it is but a counterfeit bufinefs, to be pregnant and forward in learn- ing, unlefs you are withal folid, and every way furnifhed : I hold the diligence and pains in collecting common places, to be a inatter of very gre;it ufe and certainty in
Rudy]
202 ON MEMORY.
ftudy; as that which furnifhes plenty to invention, and contrails the eye of the j^idg- Hient to a point. It is true, however, that of the methods and fyftems of common- places, I have chanced to fee hitherto, there is none of any worth ; for in their titles they carrv the face of a fchool, rather than of the world; making vulgar and pedantic divifions, and not fuch as any way penetrate the marrow and pith of things.
As for memory itfelf, that feems hitherto to have been enquired into, without method or accuracy. An art indeed there is extant of it: but we are certain, that there may be had both better precepts, for the confirming and increafmg memory, than that art com- prehends; and a better practice of that very art may be contrived, than that what is received. Yet I make no doubt, but if a man has a mind to abufe this art to often- tation, fome wonderful and prodigious mat- ters may be performed by it: neverthelefs, for ufe, as it is managed, it is but barren. However, I do not tax it with deflroying and over-charging the natural memory, which is cpmmonly objeded; but that it is not
dex-
ON M E INI O R \% 203
dexteroufly applied to lend affidance to me* mory in buiiiiels and ferious afrairs. And we have learned, perhaps, from our civil courfe of life, not to value things that make oftentation of art, but are of no ufe. For to repeat inftantly a vaft number of names or words, upon once hearing, in the f^ime or- der they were delivered ; or to pour forth abundance of verfes upon any argument ex->- tempore-, or to touch every thing that occurs with fome fatyrical fimil : ; or to turn all things ferious into a jeft; or to elude any thing by contradiction or cavil, and the like ; whereof in the faculties of the mind there is a great ftore ; and which by wit and pra6lice may be carried even to a miracle: all thefe and fuch like thln2:s we make no more ac- count of, than of the agiUties and tricks of rope-dancers, tumblers, and jugglers: for they are, in a manner, the fame ihing; feeing thefe abufe the powers of the body, and thofe the powers of the mind; and perchance they may have fomewhat of wonder in them, but little or no utihty,
As for the art of memory, that is built f)Ut upon two intentions, prenotion and em- blem :
204 ON MEMORY.
blem : we call prenotion a certain limit of vague inveftigation ; for when a man endea* vours to recall any thing to memory, if he has no prenotion, or preconception of that he feeks, he feeks, indeed, and takes abundance of pains, and runs up and down this way and that way, as in a maze of infinity : but if he has any certain prenotion, immediately the infinity is cut off, and the memory beats nearer home; like the hunting of a fillow- deer within a park. Therefore it is evident, that method helps memory ; for there is a fecret prenotion, that the thing fought mufl have a congruity with method. So verfes are more eafily got by heart than profe. For if a man hefitates at a word, prenotion fug- gefts, that it mufl be fuch a word as will {land in the verfe : and this prenotion is the firfl part of artificial memory: for in me- mory artificial we have places digefled and provided before-hand. Images we make ex- tempore^ according to the prefent occafion : tut there is a fecret prenotion, that the image mufl be fuch as ha^ fome refemblance with the place; this being the thing that excites the memory, and in fome fort makes w:ay for it to the thing we are in fearch of,
EmblejvI
ON MEMORY. 205
Emblem reduces conceits intelledual, to images fenfible : thefe ftrike the memory more forcibly, and are more eafily imprinted there, than things intelle£lual. So we fee that even the memory of brutes is fhirred up by a fenfible objed, but not by an intellec- tual : therefore you will more eafily retain the image of a huntfman purfuing a hare ; or of an apothecary fetting in order his bottles; or of a pedant making a fpeech; or of a boy reciting verfes by heart ; or of a droll afting upon a ftage; than the bare notions of invention, difpofition, elocution, memory, or aftion. There are other things alfo pertaining to the help of memory ; but the art now in ufe confifts of the two things now premifed. And to purfue the particu- lar defects of arts would be to depart from our propofed method: w^herefore let thus much fuffice for the art of retaining, or of cuftody.
ON
^o6 oK RHETOR tC,
ON RHETORIC;.
T> HETORIC, or oratory, is a fcience botti excellent in itfelf, and by writers ex- quifitely improved. Yet eloquence, if a man confiders the thing truly is, without doubt, inferior to wifdora. For we fee how much this furpaffes that, in thofe words of God to Mofes^ when he refufed the charge affigned him for want of elocution : " There is *' Aaron ^ he fhall be to thee inflead of a ** mouth; and thou flialt be to him inftead ^' of God." Yet in profit and popularefteem^ wifdom gives place to eloquence. For {a fays Solomon: *' The wife in heart fhall be " called prudent: but the fweetnefs of the *' lips fhall find greater things." Prov. xvio 21. Signifying not obfcurely, that pro- foundnefs of wifdom will help a man to a name, or admiration ; but that it is eloquence w^hich prevails mofl in bufinefs, and in com- mon life. And as to the labouring of this art, the emulation of Ar'ijiotk^ with the rhe- toricians of his time; and the earnefl and
vehement
ON RHETORIC. 207
•vehement diligence of Cicero, endeavouring with all might to ennoble it, joined with long experience, hath made them in their books, on this fubjecSl:, exceed themfclves. Again, thofe mofl: excellent examples of elo- quence in the orations of Demojihenes and Cicero, added to the acutenefs of the precepts, have doubled the progreffion in this art ; and therefore the deficiences which we find in it will rather be in fome coUedions, which may as hand-maids attend, than in the rules or ule of the art itfelf.
Notwithstanding, to flir the earth a little about the roots of this fcience, as our fafhion is, furelj rhetoric is fubfervient to the imagination, as logic is to the underftand- ing. And the office and duty of rhetoric, if a man enters any thing deep into the m^atter, is no other, than to apply and commend the dictates of reafon to the imagination, for the better moving of the appetite and will. For we fee reafon is attacked and diilurbed in her adminiflration by three means; either by the fallacy of fophifms, which belongs to logic ; or by the enchantment of words, which pertains to rhetoric ; or by the vio- lence
2o8 ON RHETORIC.
lence of paflions, which pertains to morality,- For as in negociation with others a man ufes to be overcome and prevailed upon, either by cunning, by importunity, or by vehe- mence : fo alfo in that inward negociation, which we exercife with ourfelves, we are either undermined by the fallacies of argu- ments ; or folicited and difquieted by the afliduity and variety of impreffions ; or fhaken and tranfported by the aflault of paflions. Neither is the nature of man fo unfortunate, as that thofe powers and arts fhould have force to dethrone reafon, and not to flrength- en and eflablifh it ; nay, much more do they conduce to this effect, than to the contrary. For the end of logic is, to teach a form of arguments, to fecure reafon, and not to en- trap It. Likewife the end of morality is to compofe the afFe6lions in fuch manner, that they may f ght for reafon, and not invade it. Laltly, the end of rhetoric is to fill the ima- gination with objects and ideas, to fecond reafon, not to opprefs it : for the abufes of an art come in but obliquely, for cautiouy not for ufe.
It
ON RHETORIC. ^69
It was therefore great injuftice In PJato^ though fpringhig outof a juft hatred to the rhetoricians of his time, to place rhetoric amongfl the arts voluptuary : refembling it to cooker}-, wliich did fpoil wholefome meats, and render unwholefome pleafant, by variety of fauces. For we fee that fpeech is mucff more converfant in adorning that which is good, than in colouring that which is evil ; for there is no man but fpeaks more honeflly than he either thinks or a£ls : and it was excellently noted by I'hucydides in Cleon^ " That becaufe he ufed to hold on the bad *' fide in caufes of flate, therefore he was " ever inveighing againft eloquence and " good fpeech ;" as knowing full well, that no man can Ipeak fair of courfes fordid and bafe; but can of honeft ones with the greateft eafe. And therefore as Plato faid elegantly; " That virtue, if fhe could be feen, would *' move great love and affedlion :" fo, feeing file cannot be fhe wed to the fenfe, by cor- poreal fhape, the next degree is, to fhew her to imagination in lively reprefentation : for to (hew her to reafon, only in fubtilty of argument, was a thing ever derided in Chryjippus^ and many of the Stoics, who
Vol. II. P thought
210 ON RHETORIC,
thought to obtrude virtue upon men by fharp difputations and conclufions, which have no fympathy with the imagination and will of man.
Again, if the afFe6lions in themfelves were phant and obedient to reafon, it is true, there would be no great ufe of perfua- fion and infmuation to procure accefs to the mind ; for it would be fufficient if things were nakedly and fimplypropofed and proved : but on the contrary, the affedlions make fuch mutinies and feditions, according to that:
J^'idco meVioya probcqifCf Dctcriora fcquor :
That reafon would be entirely led away into fervitude and captivity, if the perfua- iions of eloquence did not win the imagina- tion from taking part with the affedions, and contract a confederacy between reafon and imagination againft the aftedlions ; for it mull: be noted, that the affections of them- felves are ever carried to good apparent, and in this refpedl have fomewhat in common with reafon; but herein they differ: That
the
ON RHETORIC. 211
the aitecllons behold chiefly good prefent; butreafon, lookmg forward, beholds alfo that which is future, and good on the whole. And therefore, as things prefent more for- cibly fill the imagination, reafon commonly yields, and is vanquifhed: but when once eloquence and perfuafion have made things future and remote appear as adually prefent, then, upon the revolt of the imagination to the fide of reafon, reafon prevails.
We conclude therefore, that rhetoric can be no more charged with the colouruig of the worfe part, than logic with fophiftry, or morality with vice. For who does not know, that the dodrine of contraries are the fame, though the ufe be oppofite ? Again, logic differs from rhetoric, not only in this, that the former, by a common fimile, is like the fift ; the latter like the palm ; that is, the one handles things clofely, the other at large : but much more in this, that lofflc confiders reafon in its natural truth; rhe- toric, as it is planted in popular opinions and manners : and therefore Arijlotle doth wifely place rhetoric between logic on the one fide, and moral or civil knowledge on the other, P^ as
MZ ON RHETORIC.
as participating of both : for the proofs and demonftrations of logic are toward all men indifferent and the fame ; but the proofs and perfuafions of rhetoric ought to vary accord- ing to the auditors ; that a man like a mufi- eian, accommodating himfelf to different ears, may become, '■
Orpheus in Silvisy inter Delphi nas j^rion.
Which kind of application and variance of fpeech, if a man defires the perfection and height of it, ought to be fo far extended, that if a man were to fpeak the fame thing to feveral perfons, he fhould fpeak to them all refpe(^ively, and feveral ways. Though this politic part of eloquence in private fpeech it is eafy for the greateft orators to want ; whilfl: by obferving their well graced forms of fpeech, they lofe that volubility of appli- cation, and chara6lers of difcourfe, which in difcretion they Ihould ufe towards parti- cular perfons. Certainly it would not be amifs to recommend this, of which we are fpeaking, to better enquiry, and to call it, ** The wifdom of private fpeech ;" and to refer it to deficients : a thing furely, which the more ferioufly a man fhail think on, the
more
ON RHETORIC. 213
more highly he fhall value. And whether this (hould be placed here, or in that part which concerns policy, is a matter of no great confequence.
And now let us defcend to the deficiencies of this art, which, as I faid, are of fuch a nature, that they maybe efteemed rather as appendages, than portions of the art itfelf ; and pertain all to the promptuary part, for the furniture of fpeech, and readinefs of in- vention.
Colores bom ct mali, Jz*nplices et comparaii.
First then, I do not find any one that has well purfued, or fupplied the wifdom and diligence too of Ariftotle. He began to make a colledion of the popular figns or colours of good and evil, both (imple and comparative, which are as the fophifms of rhetoic. They are of excellent ufe, efpecially as to bufinefs, and the wifdom of private fpeech : but the labour of Arijiotle^ concerning thefe colours, is three ways deficient: firft, that he recites but P 3 f«w
2l\ ON RHETORIC.
few of many; fecondly, that their refutations are not annexed; thirdly, that he feems to have conceived but a part of the ufe of them ; for their ufe is not more in probation, than in atTe6ting and moving. For many forms of fpeech, which are equal in Signifi- cation, are yet different in impreflion. For that which is fharp, pierces fir more effec- tually than that which is blunt, though the flrength of the percufhon be the fame : for there is no man but will be more raifed by hearing it faid, " Yourenemies will triumph *' flrangely at this :"
Hoc Ithacus vel'ity et magno mercentur Atr'ida :
Than by hearing it barely faid, *' This will *' prejudice your affairs." Wherefore thefe fharp-edged and quick-pointed fpeeches are by no means to be negle(^ed.
Secondly, I refume alfo that which I mentioned before, touching provifion or pre- paratory flore, for the furniture of fpeech, and readinefs of invention, which appears to be of two forts : the one in refemblance
to
ON RHETORIC. 215
to a ihop of pieces unmade up; the other to a fhop of things ready made up, both to be apphed to that which is frequent and moft in requeft : the former of thefe I will call anthheta, and the htterformulije,
Antithet A are thefes argued p?'o et contra, wherein men may be more large and labo- rious ; but, in fuch as are able to do it, to avoid prolixity of entry, 1 wifh the feeds of the feveral arguments to be cafl up intofome brief and acute fentences, not to be cited ; but to be as fcanes or bottoms of thread, to be unwinded at large when they come to be ufed ; fupplying authorities and examples by reference.
Pro Verbis Legis.
Kon eji interpretatio, fed drjinatio, quae recedit a litera. Cum recedit ur a liter a Judex tranjit in legijlatorem.
Pro Sententia Legis.
Ex omnibus verbis eJi cliciendus fcnfus^ qui interpretatur fngula.
Formulae are but decent and aptpaflages
or conveyances of fpcech, wliich may ferve
P4 in^
a|6 ON RHETORIC,
indifFerently for different fubjedls; as of preface, coiiclufion, digreffion, tranfition, excufation, &c. For as in buildings there is great pleafure and ufe in the well cafting of the ftair-cafes, entries, doors, windows, and the like : fo in fpeech, the conveyances and paffages are of fpecial ornament and effeft.
A Conclusion in a Deliberative.
So may ive redeem the faults pajjed^ and prevent the incon- veniences in future.
On
ON CRITICAL KNOWLEDGE, &C. 2l7
On critical
AND
PEDANTICAL KNOWLEDGE,
'T^HERE remains two general appendages touching the tradition of knowledge: the one critical ; the other pedantical. For as the principal part of tradition of know- ledge confifts in writing of books; fo the relative part thereof confifts in reading of books. Now reading is governed and di- re6led by mafters and teachers, or perfected by every man's particular induftry: and to this purpofe ferve the two forts of know- ledge mentioned, whereunto appertain inci- dently thofe confiderations.
To the critical part appertain, firft, an exa£t corre6tion, and true edition of approved au- thors ; whereby both the honour of authors themfelves is vindicated, and a light given
to
2l8 ON CRITICAL AND
to the ftudious : in which, however, the rafh dihgence of Ibme men has done great preju- dice to fludies. For it is the manner of many critics, when they meet with a paflage they do not underftand prefently, to prefume it a fault in the copy : as the prieft that, where he found it written of St. Paid, Demijfus ejl per fportam, mended his book, and made it, De- mijfus eft per portam^ becaufe fporia was an hard word, and out of his reading; and, iurely, their errors, though they are not fo palpable and ridiculous, yet are of the fame •kind : as in that paflage of T'acitus : when a certain colony claimed the privilege of the fandluary in the fen ate, Tacitus reports, that what they aliedged was not favourably re- ceived by the emperor and the fenate: upon which the ambalTadors, diftrufting their caufe, gave Titus Finius a round fum of money to maintain their fuit ; and by this means the thing was granted: " Then,'* fays Tacitus, " the dignity and antiquity of " the colony prevailed :" as if the arguments, that feemed light before, received then a new weight by the addition of a bribe. Here a certain critic, none of the meanefl:, ex- punges the word tum^ and inftead thereof
rellores
PEDANTICAL KNOWLEDGE. 219
reftores tantum. And by this perverfe cuflom of critics, it has come to pafs, as one wifely noted, " That the moft corrected copies are *' commonly leall: correal." And indeed, to fpeak truth, iinlefs the critics are well ikilled in the fubjeds handled in the books they put out, their diligence is not without danger.
Secondly, There belongs to the critical art, the interpretation and expofition of au- thors, commentaries, fcholias, notes, felec- tions, and the like. And in labours of this kind, that contagious difeafe of critics hath feized many, of paiFmg over moft of the ob- fcurer pafl'ages, and dwelling and expatiating even to naufeoufnefs upon things that are plain and perfpicuous. For the thing in- tended is not fo much to illuftrate the au- thor, as that the critic himfelf, upon every occalion, may fhew his manifold learning, and various reading. It were much to be wifhed, that the writer who handles obfcure and noble arguments, would annex his own explications ; that neither the text itfelf may be broken off by digreflions or explanations ; and that the notes may not depart from the
mind
220 ON CRITICAL AND
mind and intention in the writer. Some fuch thing we fufp.ecl of I'heon upon Euclid,
The third is concerning the times, which, in many cafes, give great light to true in- terpretations.
The fourth is concerning the fyntax and difpofitlon of ftudies, that men may know in what order or purfuit to read.
FiF-TKLY, it belongs to the critical art, from whence alfo it had its name, to inter- pofe fome brief cenfure and judgment of the authors they publifh ; and to compare them with other writers that handle the fame fub- je6ls; to the end that by fuch a cenfure fludents may be both advertifed of the choice of books, and come better provided to the perufal of them. And this laftpart is, as it were, the chair of the critics, which certainly has been ennobled by fome great men in our age; greater, furely, in my judgment, than for the model of critics.
For pedantical knowledge, it contains that difference of tradition which is proper
for
PEDANTICAL KNOWLEDGE, 22l
for youth ; in which point it were foon faid, " Confult the fchools of the Jefnits \'* for nothing that has come into ufe and practice can be better than they are. However we will, according to our fafhion, fuggefl a few things after the manner of gleaners. We do by all means approve a collegiate education of childhood and youth ; not in private hou- fes, nor under fchool-mafters only. In col- leges there is a greater emulation towards their equals ; befides, there is the counte- nance and afpedl of grave men, which very thing contributes to modefly, and fafhions tender minds even from the beginning to a pattern : in fine, there are advantages in abundance of a collegiate education.
For the order and manner of difcipline, this I would principally advife, that they beware of abridgements, and too great for- warding in learning, which renders wits bold and confident, and makes rather a fliew of great proficiency, than efFccls it.
Furthermore, fome indulgence fliould
be given to the liberty of wits ; fb that if
anyone performs the talks which the difci-
I pline
22.2 ON CRITICAL AND
pllne of the place requires, and yet flcal^ time for other things to which he is inchnedj he may not be retrained.
Again, it may be worth while carefully to confider, which perhaps hitherto has not been noted, that there are two ways, and thofe as it were diametrically oppofite, of training up, exercifmg, and preparing the genius. The one begins with the eafieft things, and by degrees leads to the more difficult : the other, at firft, commands and preffes the more difficult, that thefe being maftered he may go through the eafier with the more delight. For it is one method to learn to fwim with bladders, which hold up, and another to learn to dance with heavy fhoes, which prefs down. And it is not eafy to exprefs how much a prudent intermixture of thefe methods conduces to the advancing the faculties both of mind and body.
Another confideration is, the application of learning, according to the propriety of the genius ; for there is no defeat in the intellectual faculties, but feems to have a proper cure contained in fome fludies : as for
example.
PEDANTICAL KNOWLEDGE. 223
example, if a child be giddy, that is, hath not the faculty of attention, the mathema- tics give a remedy thereunto; for in them, if the mind be diverted for a moment, one is to begin a-new. And as fciences have a propriety tov/ards faculties for cure and help ; fo faculties or powers have a fympathy to- wards fciences for excellency or fpeedy pro* fiting ; and therefore it is an enquiry of great wifdom, what kind of wits and natures are moil: apt and proper for refpeclive fciences.
Furthermore, in the courfe of teac^iing, excrcifes have a mighty flroke to hurt or help : but there is a point here that has been noted by few ; whicli is, that there ought to be not only a wife ordering of exercifes, but a wife intermiffion of them alfo. For Cicero has an excellent obfervation : " That " in exercifes it often happens, that men " exercife their faults, as well as their fa- *' culties :" fo that an ill habit is fometimes got at the lame time, and iniinuates itfelf together with a good one. Wherefore it is a fafer way to intermit exercifes, and to re- peat them every foot, than incefiantly to continue and purfue them.
It
224 OJ^ CRITICAL AND
It were long to particukrife a number of other confiderations of this nature, thmgs but of mean appearance, though of fingular efficacy : for as m plants, the hurting or cherifhing of them while they are young is a matter of the greateft importance towards their thriving or mifcarrying; and as the immenfe greatnefs of the Roman empire is by fome defervedly attributed to the virtue and wiidom of thefe fix kings, who were as tutors or fofter- fathers to it in its infancy: fo furely, the culture and manuring of minds in youth, has fuch a forcible, though unfeen operation, as hardly any length of time, or contention of labour, can countervail after- wards. And it is not amifs to obferve alfo, that even fmall and mean faculties, if they fall into great men, or great matters, do work great and important efFe6ls. Of this we will fet down a memorable example; which we bring the rather, becaufe the Je- fuits themfelves fecm not to defpife this kind of difcipline ; and upon found judgment, in my opinion. And it is a matter which, if it be made a trade, is dlfreputable ; if a part of difcipline, excellent. We mean theatri- cal action; as that which ftrengthens the
memory,
I
i'EDANtlCAL KNdlVLEDGE. 225
memory, moderates the tone and emphafis of the voice and pronounciatlon, compofes the countenance and carriage to a decorum, gives a good affurance ; and, in fine, inures youth to the faces of men. The example fhall be from "Tmtus, of one Fibulenus, for- merly an aa:or, but at that time a foldier in the Pamtonian legions. This fellow, upon the death of Jugujlus, had raifed a mutiny, fo that Blcefus, the lieutenant, committed fome of the mutineers : but the foldiers by violence broke open the prifons and refcued them : whereupon Vihuknus got to be heard> and began his harangue to the foldiers in this manner: " To thefe poor innocent " wretches you have reftored indeed light *' and life : but who reftores life to my bro- *' ther; who, my brother to me ? That was " fent unto you in meffage from the German '' army, to treat of the common caufe, and *' he hath murdered him this laft night by *' fome of his fencers and ruffians, that he *' has about him, ready armed for his exe- " cutions upon foldiers. Anfwer Bla>fusy " where have you thrown his body ? The •' moil mortal enemies do not grudge burial. Vol. II. n ** ^Vh^^^
226 ON CRITICAL KNOWLEDGE, &C.
«* When I have glutted my grief with k'lf- *' ling, and weeping over the corpfe, com- ** mand me alfo to be murdered ; fo that *' thefe our fellow-foldiers have leave to ** bury us, {lain for no offence, but for our *' good meaning, and our true hearts to the *' legions." With which fpeech he put the army into an infinite fury and uproar ; to fuch a degree, that unlefs it had foon after appeared that there was no truth in this, and that he never had a brother, the foldiers would have gone near to have laid violent hands upon the lieutenant. But it was mere ading in him, as if he had played a part upon the ftage.
Di^
on moral knowledge, 227
On moral knowledge. THE DOCTRINE
O F T H E
IMAGE OF GOOD,
"TTTE are now come to moral knowledge, which confiders the will of man« Right reafon governs the will, good appa- rent feduces it. The fpurs of the will are the afFedions ; her minifters, the organs and voluntary motions. Of this faculty Solomon fays : " Above all keepings, keep thy heart ; *' for out of it iffue the adlions of life." Prov. iv. 23. In handling this fcience, they who have written of it, feem to me to have done, as if a man, who profefTed to teach writing, fhould only exhibit fair copies of al- phabets, and letters joined, without giving any precepts or diredlions for the carriage of 0^2 the
22S ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE,
the hand, and frammg of the letters: fo have they exhibited beautiful copies, and accurate draughts or portraitures of good, virtue, duty, felicity, as the true obje<^s and fcopes of man's will and defires; but how to take a juftlevel at thefe marks, placed by them in the fairefl: point of view; that is, by what methods and directions the mind may be fubdued and framed to become true and conformable to thefe purfuits ; this they pafs over altogether, or perform it (lightly and tinprofitably. For it is not the arguing that moral virtues are in the mind of man by habit, and not by nature ; or formally diftinguifhing, that generous fpirits are won by dodrines and perfuafions, and the vulgar by reward and punifliment ; or the ingenious precept, that to redlify the mind of man ^ it mufl, like a ftaff, be bent the contrary way to its inclination ; and the like fcattered glances and touches, that can excufe the ab- fence of this part.
The reafon of this omiflion I fuppofe to be no other, than that hidden rock, on which this, and many other barks of know- ledge, have been cail away ; which is, that ^ writers
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 22^
Avriters defplfe to be coiiverfant in ordinary and common matters, which are neither fubtile enough for difputation, nor rich enough for ornament. Verily, it cannot ea- sily be expreffed, what a calamity this very thing we fpeak of has brought upon fcience; that men, out of an inbred pride and vain- glory, have made choice of fuch fubje6ls, and of fuch a method and manner of handling them, as may fet ofFtheir wit, rather than conduce to the reader's profit. But here Seneca gives an excellent check : Nocet illis eloquentia, quibus non rcrum cupldltatem facity fed Jul: Dodrines ihould be fuch as fhould make men admire their juftnefs and utility, and not the author : being directed to the auditor's benefit, and not to the author's commendation. Therefore they take a right courfe who can vouch that of their counfels, which Demofthenes did, and conclude them with this claufe: " Which things if you ** put in execution, you will not only com- " mend your orator at prefent, but your- ** felves likewife not long after, by reafoii *' of a more profperous flate of your af- *' fairs."
0^3 To
2^0 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
To fpeak truth of myfelf, both in the works I now p\ibll(h, and in thofe I think of hereafter, I have often willingly thrown lip the glory of my own wit and name, if I am entitled to any, while I fludy to advance the good and profit of mankind : and I that have merited to be an architect perhaps in philofophy and the fciences, am made even a labourer and a drudge, and any thing in ihort; while I fuflain and execute myfelf many things, which muft of neceffity be done, but which others, from an mnate pride, fhift off from themfelves. But to return to the matter in hand, I was obferving, phi- lofophers in moral fcience hav-e chofen to themfelves a certain refplendent and illuftri- ous mafs of matter, to give glory either to the fubtilty of their wit, or to the vigour of their eloquence ; butfuch precepts as chiefly dired the pradice in life, which confifls not in novelties or fubtleties, they have for the mofl part omitted.
Neither ought men of fuch excellent
parts to have defpaired of a fortune like that
which th: poet Fi/gi: promifed himfelf, and
indeed obtained ; who got as much glory of
^ elo^uence^
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 23 1
eloquence, wit, and learning in exprefling his obfervations ofhufbandry, as in relating the heroical a<fls of Eneas:
Necfum anim'i dnblus z^erbls ea vhicere magnum ^amfit, et angujTis hunc adder e rebus honor em.
Georg. Ill, 289.
*' Nor can I doubt what oil I muft beflow *• To raife my fubjeft from a ground fo low : *' And the mean matter which my tlieme affords »' To embellifh with magnificence of words."
Dryden.
And fiirely, if authors meant in good earneft not to write at leifure, that which men may read at leifure, but really to in- ftrud and be affifting to aftive life ; thefe G^orgics, that is, this huibandryand tillage of the mind of man, ought to be in as much efteem with men, as thofe heroical defcrip- tions of virtue, good, and felicity, whereon fo much labour and cofl has been beflowed.
We will therefore divide moral philofo-
phy into two fundamental and principal doc-
trnies : the one concerning the exemplar or
image of good; the other - concerning the
0^4 re-
Z^Z ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
regimen or culture of the mind, which part we are w-ont to call the georgics of the mind : that defcribes the nature of good ; ^his pre- fcribes rules how to fubdue, apply, and ac- commodate the will of man to it.
' The do£lrine touching the exemplar, which refpedls and defcribes the nature of good, coniiders good, either funple or com- pared: that is, the kinds of good or the degrees of it. In the latter of thefe, the infinite difputations and fpeculations touch- ing the fupreme degree of good, which they termed felicity, beatitude, or the highefl good, the dodlrines which conftitute the heathen divinity, are by the Chriflian faith taken away and difcharged. For as j^rijlotle fays, " That young men may be happy, ** but no otherwife than by hope:" fomufh we all, being fo taught by the Chriftian faith, acknowledge ourfelves to be but chil- dren and minors, and think of no other fe- licity than that which is in hope of the future world.
I^REED, therefore, and delivered from that ^oftrineof the.philofopher's heaven, in which
doubt"
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 233
dcubtlefs they attributed to man's nature a higher elevation than it was capable of; for we fee in what a height of ftile Seneca writes : *' It is truly great to have the frailty of a *' man, and the fecurlty of a God:" we may certainly with more fobriety and truth receive the reft of their enquiries and labours, concerning the doarine of the exemplar or platform. For as concerning the nature of pofitive and fimpl.e good, they have drawn it admirably, in defcribing the forms of vir- tue and duty, with their fituations and pof- tures, in diftributing them into their kinds, parts, provinces, adions, and adminiftra- tions, and the like: nay further, they have commended them to man's nature and fpirit with great force of argument, and beauty ofperfuafion; yea, fortified and entrenched them, as much as difcourfe can do, againft corrupt and popular opinions. Again, for the degrees and comparative nature of good, they have excellently handled this alio in their triplicity of good ; in the comparifons between a contemplative and a£live life; in the diftindion between virtue in trial, and virtue fecured and confirmed ; in the con- tefts between honefty ^nd intereft ; in the
balancing
234 O^' MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
balancing of virtue with virtue, to fee which out-weighs the other; and the like. So that this part touching the platform I find excel- lently laboured, and that the ancients herein liave Ihewed themfelves admirable men: yet fo, that the philofophers have been far out- gone by the pious and painful diligence of divines, in weighing and determining duties, moral virtues, cafes of confcience, and. the bounds and limits of fm.
If philofophers, Iiowever, before they had come to the popular and received notions of virtue and vice, pleafure and pain, and fo forth, had ftaid a little longer upon the en- quiry concerning the roots of good and evil, and the fibres of thofe roots, they had given, in my opinion, a great light to ail that which might fall into enquiry afterwards : above all, if they had confulted as well the nature of things, as the axioms of morality, they had made their doclrines lefs prolix, and rnore profound ; which being by them in part omitted, and in part handled with much eonfufion, we will briefly re-examine, and endeavour to open and clear the very fprings of morality, before we come to the do^lrine
of
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 235
of the culture of the mind, which we fet down as deficient; for this, in my judg^ ment, will give the doflrine of the platform, a kind of new life and fpirit.
There is inbred and imprinted upon every thing an appetite to good of a double nature : the one, as a Vv'hole in itfelf ; the other, as a part or member of fome greater whole, x^nd this latter is worthier and more excellent than that other, becaufe it tends to the confervatlon of a more ample body. The firfl may be called individual or felf- good ; the latter the good of communion. The iron by particular fympathy moves to the load-ftone: but yet if it exceeds a cer- tain quantity, it forfakes the affedion to the load-ftone, and, like a good citizen and true patriot, moves to the earth, the region and country of its connaturals. To proceed a little further : water and mafly bodies move to the center of the earth, to the great con- gregation of clofe compa6led bodies; yet, rather than to fuffer a divulfion in the conti- nuance of nature, and that there fhould be, ^s they talk, a vacuum, thefe bodies will move upwards from the center of the earth,
for-
236 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE,
forfaking their duty to it, that they may perform the general duty they owe to the world : fo is it ever feen, that the con- fervation of the more general and public form, commands and governs the lefler and more particular appetites and inclinations. But this prerogative of the good of commu- nity is efpecially engraven upon man, if he degenerate not, according to that memorable fpeech of Pompey the Great ; who, being commiffioned for the importation of corn, when there was a famine at Rome, and being dilTuaded with great vehemence by his friends that he would not hazard himfelf to fea in extremity of weather, made this anfwer only : *' There is a necellity for my going, but no *' neceflity for my living.*' So that the defire of life, which in every individual is fo predominant, did not out-balance in him the love and allegiance to the republic. But why do we dwell upon this point ? There was never found, in any age of the world, cither philofophy, or fedt, or religion, or law, or difcipline, which did fo highly exalt the good of communion, and deprefs good, private and particular, as the holy Chriflian faith ; whence it clearly appears, that it was
one
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 237
©ne and the fame God that gave the Chrlflian law to men, who gave thole laws of nature to the creatures. Wherefore w^e read, that fome of the ele£l faints have wifhed them- felves anathematized and erafed out of the book of Hfe, rather than their brethren ihould not attain fah-ation, in an extacy of charity, and an infinite defire of the good of communion. Rom. ix.
This being laid down as an immoveable unfhaken pofition, puts an end to fome of the mofl weighty controverfies in moral philofophy: for firft, it determines that queflion concerning the preference of the contemplative to the aftive life; and that, againft the opinion 0I Arifiotk, For" all the reafons which he brings for the contempla- tive life, refpea private good, and the plea- lure and dignity of a man*s felf only ; in which refpeds, no doubt, the contempla- tive life has the pre-eminence: for the contemplative life is not much unhke that comparifon which Pythagoras made for the gracing and magnifying of philofophy and contemplation: who being alked by Hkro w^iathcwas; arfwered: '* That i:/V^r^ knew 2 <« vvell
13S ON Moral knowledge;.
*« weJ^j if he had ever been at the Olym-* *' fian games, the manner there is, that *' feme come to try their fortunes for the *' prizes; others, as merchants, to vend «* their commodities; and fome to meet their '* friends, to make good cheer, and be '' m.erry ; ethers came to look on : and *' that he was one of them that came for " that purpofe." But men fhould know, that -in this theatre of human Hfe, it is fit only for God and angels to be lookers on. Nei- ther could any doubt, touching this point, have arifen in the church from this paffage, *' Precious in the eyes of the Lord is the *' death of his faints,'* by which they exalt their civil death and regular profeffion, ex- cept upon this fuppofition, that the monadic life is not fimply contemplative, but alto- gether converfant in ecclefiaftical duties ; as inceffant prayer ; facrifices of vows offered to God ; writing alfo theological books, for the propagating the doctrine of the divine law, as Mofes did, when he abode fo many davs in his retirement upon the mount. And fo Enoch, the feventh from Adam, who feems to have been the firfl founder of the contem- plative life ; for he is faid to have " walked
<« with
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 239
*' with God;" yet endowed the church'with a book of prophecy, which is alfo cited by St. Jude. But for mere contemplation, ter- minated in itfelf, and which cafts no beams of heat or light upon human fociety, af- furedly divinity knows it not.
It decides alfo the queftion, controverted with fuch heat, between the fchools of Zejjo and Socrates, on the one fide; who placed felicity in virtue, either iimple or adorned, with other goods, which virtue has ahvays had a principal fhare in the duties of Hfe, and feveral other feds and fchools, on the other fide, as the fchools of the Cyrenaicks and Epicureans, who placed it in pleafure, and made virtue to be but as an hand- maid, without which, pleafure conld not be welt ferved and waited upon; as alfo the other reformed fchool of Epicums, which aflerted felicity to be nothing elfe but a tranquillity and ferenity of mind, free and void of all perturbations; as if they intended to de- throne Jupltery and rcftoi-e Saturn with the the golden age, when there was neither fummer, winter, fpring, nor autumn, but one fcrene air and feafon : laftly, the ex- ploded
240 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE*
ploded fchool of Pyrrho and Herillus, who placed felicity in an utter extinction and exemption of all fcruples and dlfputes of mind, making no fixed and conftant nature of good and evil, but efleeming a6lions good or evil, according as tjiey proceeded from the mind, with a clear and undifturbed mo- tion, or, on the contrary, with averfion and reluctance ; which opinion has been revived in the herely of the Anabaptifts, who mea- fured all things according to the motions and inflinCls of the fpirit, and the conftancy or wavering of belief. But it is manifeft, that all this, which we have recited, tends to pri- vate repofe, and complacency of mind, and no way to fociety and the good of the community.
Again, it cenfures alfo the phllofophy of Epi&etus, who prefuppofes this : that fe- licity muft be placed in thofe things which are in our own power ; left otherwife, we fhould be liable to fortune and accidents : as if it did produce more happinefs to fall of fuccefs, and to be fruftrated, in worthy and generous intentions and ends for public good, than always to have our wifh in all things
relating
i
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 24I
relating to our own private fortune only. As Confaho^ fhewing his foldiers Naples, bravely protefted, " That he had much ra- *' ther run himfelf upon certain ruin, by *' fetting one foot forward, than prolong " his life for many years by retreating one " foot backward :'* to which the wifdom of that heavenly philofopher alfo has fub- fcribed who pronounced, *' That a good *' confcience is a continual feaft:" plainly fignifyijig, that the confcioufnefs of good intentions, however unfuccefsful, affords more folid and fincere joy, and to nature more agreeable, than all that provifion where- with man can be furniflied, either for the fruition of his defirps, or the reft and repofe of his mind.
It cenfures likewlfe that abufe of philo- fophy which grew general about the time of Epi£ietus', which was, that philofophy was converted into a profeffory kind of life, and as it were into an art: as if the purpofe of philofophy was, not to reprefs and extin- guifli perturbations, but to ihun, and keep at a diftance, the caufes and occafions of them ; and therefore a particular kind and
Vol. II. R courfe
Z^Z ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
courfe of life were to be {haped to that end : introducing indeed fuch a health of mind, as was that of body in Herodicus, wdiom jlriflotk fpeaks of: *« That he did nothing ^' all his life long, but ftudy his health ;" and therefore abftaincd from an infinite num- ber of things ; being, in the mean time, immerfed, as it were, in the ufe of his body : but were the duties of fociety the delight of a man's foul, that health of body, when all is done, is principally to be deftred, which is mofl able to bear and overcome all altera- tions and fhocks whatever: likewife, that mind only is to be reckoned truly and pro- perly found and flrong, which can break through the moil: and greatefl temptations and perturbations. So that Diogenes feems to have fpoken judicioufly, who commended fuch ftrength and powers of mind, as were able, not warily to abftain, but bravely to fuftain; w^hich can reftrain and check the fallies of the foul, even in the greatefl pre- cipices ; and can do wdiat is commended in well-rnanagcd horfes, that is, flop and turn in the mofl: narrow compafs.
Lastly^
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 243
Lastly, it cenfures a certain delicacy and want of application, noted in fome of the moft ancient and reverend philofophers, who withdrew too eafily from civil bulinefs, for avoiding indignities and perturbations, and that they might live more unftained, and as it were facred in their perfons : whereas the refolution of a man truly moral ought to be fuch, as the fame Confaho required in a military man, viz. That his honour fhould be tela crajfiore^ of a ftronger texture, and not fo fine, as tliat every thing (hou'ld catch in it, and tear it.
PRIVATE GOOD,
'AND THE
GOOD OF SOCIETY.
T E T us now refume and profecute firfl:, private and particular good. This we will divide into good active, and good palhve. For this difference of good, fimilar to thofe appellations among the R 2 Romans
^44 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
Romans in their oeconomics of Promus and Condus^ is found deeply engraven upon the univerfal nature of things, and is bed dif- clofed in the two feveral appetites in crea- tures ; the one to preferve and fortify them- felves, the other to multiply and dilate themfelves : whereof the latter, which is active, feems to be the ftronger and wor- thier ; and the former, which is paffive, may well be judged the inferior. For in nature, the heavens, which are the more worthy, are the agent; and the earth, which is the Icfs worthy, is the patient. In the pleafures of living creatures, that of generation is greater than that of food. In divine doc- trine, " it is more bleffed to give than to *' receive." A6ls xx, ^^. In common life too, there is no man's fpirit fo fbft and ef- feminate, but he efleems the effeding of fomethino; that he has fixed in his delire, more than any fenfuality or pleafure. And this priority of adive good is highly exalted from thp Gonfi deration of our eftate being mortal, and expofed to the flroke of fortune. For if we might have a perpetuity and cer- tainty in our pleafures, the price of them Woul^ be advanced, on the account of their
fecuritv
I
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 24^
fecuritycind continuance. But when we fee it is but Magni ajiimamus, ^c. " We fet a *' great value upon dying a little later :" and, " Boaft not of to -morrow ; thou know- " eft not what a day may bring forth :" it makes us defire to have fomething fecured and exempted from time; which can be oiily our deeds, as it is faid, " Their w^orks *' follow them." Revel, xiv.
The pre-eminence likewife of this aclive good is proved, by the aftcclion which is natural in man tow^ards variety and pro- greffion; wdiich affection, in the pleafures of the fenfe, which is the pruicipal part of pafiive good, can have no great latitude. " Do but think," fliys Seneca, '* how^ often " you have enjoyed the fame things; meat, *' fleep, diverfion ; we run round in this " circle: fo not only a brave, a miferable, " or a wife man, but a nice faftidious perfon ** would wifh to die." But in the enter- prizes, purfuits, and purpofes of life, there is much variety, which affords great plea- fure in their inceptions, progreffions, recoils in order to renew their forces, approaches, attainments of their ends, and the like: io R3 it
246 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
it was well and truly find :" *' A life that " propofes no end to piirfue, is vague and " infipid.'* Neither has this a£live good ^ny identity with the good of fociety, though in fome cafes it is coincident with it; for although it does many times hring forth a6ls of beneficence, yet it is private with refpe6l to a man*sown power, glory, amplifi- cation, and continuance ; as appears plainly, when it lights upon a fubjed which is con- trary to the good of fociety. For that gi- gantic flate of mind, which pofleffes the difturbers of the world, fuch as was Lucius Svl/a, and infinite others in fmaller model, who would have all men happy or unhappy, as they are their friends or enemies, and would give form to the world according to their own humour, w^hich is "the true the' miachy^ pretends and afpires to aclive good, though it recedes farthefl from the good of fociety, which we have determined to be the greater.
To refume paflive good, we will fubdivide it into good confervatlve, and good perfec- tiv^e. For there is impreffed upon every thing a triple defireor appetite, in refpe^l of
private
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 247
private or particular good : the firfl, of pre- ferving or continuing itfelf ; the fecond, of advancing and perfe(5ling itfelf; the third, of multiplyLiig or extending itfelf. But this laft appetite refers to active good, which we have already handled. There remain there- fore only the two other goods mentioned; whereof the perfe£live excels : fince to pre- ferve a thing in its natural flate, is lefs than to advance the fame in a higher nature. For there are found through all eflences fome nobler natures, to the dignity and excellency of which inferior natures do afpire, as to their origin and fource. So in man :
Tgncus cji oU'is vigor et coelcfm or'igo.
^N.VI 73-.
" Th' ethereal vigour Is in all the fame, ** And ev'ry foul is fiU'd with equal flame."
DRYDE^^
His approach to divine or angelical nature is the perfeftion of his form ; a depraved and prepoflerous imitation of which perfective good, is that which is the tempeft of human life, while man upon the impulfe of an R 4 advance-
S48 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
advancement formal andeffentlal, is carried to feek an advancement only local : like thole who are fick and find no remedy, rove up and dov^^n in change of place, as if by a remove local, they could obtain a remove internal, and flilft off their difeafe. So is it in ambition; that men, being poflefled and led away with a falfe refemblance of exalting their nature, purchafe nothing elfe but an eminence and elevation of place. So then paffive good is, as was faid, either con- fervative or perfe6llve.
To re fume the good of confervation or comfort, which confifts in the fruition of that which is agreeable to our natures, it feems to be the moft pure and natural good, yet it is the fofteft and loweft. And this alfo receives a difference, which has nei- ther been accurately examined nor decided : for the good of fruition or delight is placed either in the fincerity of the fruition, or in the quicknefs and vigour of it : the one fu- perinduced by the equahty; the other by variety and viciffitude. The one having lefs mixture of evil ; the other, a more ffrong and lively impreffion of good: which of
thel^7
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
249
thefels the greater good, is a queftion con- troverted; but whether man's nature may not be capable of both, is a queftion not difcufled.
The former queftion being debated be- tween Socrates and a Sophift; Socrates placed felicity in a conftant peace and tranquillity of mind; but the Sophlft in defiring and en- joying much ; they fell from arguments to ill words ; the Sophifl faying, " That " Socrates'^ happln.-fs was that of a block *' or a flone:" Socrates, on the other fide, " That the Sophift's happinefs was that of *' one that had the itch, who did nothing " but fcratch." And both thefe opinions do not want their advocates. For to Socrates even the fchool of Epicurus itfelf aflents, not denying but virtue contributes moft to hap- pinefs: and if fo, moft certain it is, that there is more ufe of virtue in compofing perturbations, than in accomplifl-iing defires. The Sophift's opinion is favoured fomething by this afiertion ; " That the comparing of *' thmgs defired, feems by degrees to perfect *' nature:" v.hich, though it (hould not in
reality
250 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
reality do, yet motion, though in a circle, has fomevvhat of a fhew of progrellion.
But the fecond queftion: that is, Whe- ther the nature of man may not at once retain both a tranquillity of mind, and the vigour of fruition, decided the true way, makes the former ftiperfluous. For do we not often fee, that fome men are fo framed and made by nature, as to be extremely affedled with pleafures while they are pre- fent, and yet are not greatly troubled at the lofs of them ? So that this precept, *' Not *' to ufe, that you may not defire: Not to ***defire, that you may not fear;'' feems to be the refult of a poor diffident fpirit. And certainly mofi: of the do6lrines of the philo- fophers are more fearful and cautionary, than the nature of things requires. Thus have they increafed the fear of death. In of- fering to cure it: for when they would have a man's whole life to be but a difclpline or preparation for death, they mufl make men think that it is a terrible enemy, againft which there is no end of preparing. Better fays the Poet :
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 25 1
S^iii fpatlumvitcs extremum Inter munera ponut naturae.
*' A fonl that can lecurely death defr, *' And count it nature's privilege to die.'*
Dryden:
So have the philofophers fought to make mens minds too uniform and harmonious, by not breaking and inuring them to con- trary motions and extremes. The renfou of which I fuppofe to be, becaufe they them- felves were men dedicated to a private, free and inaclive courfe of Hfe. For as we fee upon the lute, or hke inflrument, a ground, though it be fweet, and have ihew of many changes, yet breaks not the hand to fuch Urange and hard flops and paflliges, as a fet fong or voluntary: much after the fime manner was the diverfity between a philofo- phicalanda civil life; and therefore men are to Imitate the wlfdom of jewellers, who, if there be a cloud or fpeck which may be' ground out, without taking too much of the ftone, they help it; but if it fhould leffen and abate the flone too much, they will not meddle with it: fo ought men fo to procure lerenity, as not to dcflroy magnanimity.
- Having
252 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
Having therefore fpoken of private or individual good, let us refume the good of communion, which refpe6ls fociety. This commonly goes by the name of duty ; be- caufe the term duty is more proper to a mind well framed and compofed towards others; as the term virtue is applied to a mind well formed and compofed within itfelf ; though virtue cannot be underftood, without fomc relation to fociety, nor duty, without an inward difpofition. This part may feem at firft fight to belong to fclence civil and poli- tical ; but not if it be well obferved. For it concerns the regimen and government of every man over himfelf, and not over others. And as in architedlure, it is one thing to frame the pofts, beams, and other parts of an edifice, and to prepare them for the ufe of building; and another thing to fit and join the fame parts together : and in me- chanics, the dire6lion how to frame an in- flrument or engine, is not the fame with the manner of ere6ling, moving, and fetting it to work, yet in expreffing of the one, we incidently exprefs the aptnefs towards the other : fo the doftrine of the conjugation of men in fociety differs from that which makes
them
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 252
them conformable, and well afFeded to the welfare of fuch a focietj.
Duties are fubdividcd into two parts: the common duty of every man, as a mem- ber of a ftate ; the other, the refpedive or fpecial duty of every man in his profeffion, vocation, and place. The firft of thefe is extant and well laboured, as has been faid : the fecond likewife we hnd handled in de- tached parts, not digefted into an entire body of a fcience: which manner of dif- perfed writing, in this kind of argument, I acknowledge to be beft: for who can take upon him to write of the proper duty, vir- tue, challenge, and right of every feveral vo- cation, profeffion, and place? For although fometimes a looker on may fee more than a gamefler; and there is a proverb more ar- rogant than found, touching the cenfure of the vulgar, as to the adions of princes, *' That the vale befl difcovers the hill ;" yet there is httle doubt but that men can write bef}, and mofl really and materially io,^ in their own profefiion : and that the vyritings of fpeculative men concerning ac- tive matters, feem to men of experience little
better
54 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
better thai* Phormws difcourfes of the wars feemed to Han?iibal, who efteemed them dreams and dotage. Only there is one vice which accompanies thofe who write in their own profeflion, that they magnify them to excefs. But generally it were to be wifhed, which would make learning indeed folid and fruitful, that active men w^ould or could be- come writers.
There belongs to this part touching the duties of profeilions and vocations, the op- pofite one, concerning the frauds, provifi- onary cautions, impoftures, and vices of every profeflion ; which have likewife been treated of in many writings. But how? Rather by way of fatire and cynical, in the manner of Ludarj, than ferioufly and wifely. For men have rather fought by wit to deride and traduce much of that which is good in profeffions, than with judgment to difcover and fever that which is corrupt. For as Solomon fays, He that cometh to feek after knowledge, with a mind to fcorn and cen- fure, fhall be fure to find matter for his humour, but none for his inflruclion. ^a^- renti derifori^ &c. " A fcorner feeketh wif-
" dom.
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 255
" dom, and fiiideth it not: but knowledge " is eafy to him that underflandeth." Prov. xiv. 6. But the managing of this argument with integrity and truth, which I note as deficient, feems to me to be one of the beil fortifications for honefly and virtue that can be planted. For as the fable goes of the BafiUfk^ that if he fee you firft, you die for it; but if you fee him firft, he dies : fo it is wdth deceits and evil arts ; which, if they are firfl efpied, lofe their life : that is, their power of doing hurt : but if they attack you by furprife, they endanger. So that we are much beholden to Machiavel and others, who write what men do, and not what they ought to do ; for it is not poffible to join the " wifdom of theferpent with the innocence " of the dove;" excep t men knew exactly all the conditions of the ferpent : his bafe- nefs, and going upon his belly; his volubi- Hty and lubricity ; his envy and fting, and the reft ; that is, all forms and natures of evil. For without this fkill, virtue lies open and unfenced: nay, a fincere and honeft man can do no good in reclaiming thofe that are wicked, without the knowledge of evil. For men of corrupt minds and depraved
judgments
256 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
judgments prefuppore,that honefty grows out of ignorance, fimpliclty of manners, the be- lief of preachers, fchool-mafters, and mens exterior language : fo unlefs you can con- vince them that you know the utmofl reaches of their own corrupt opinions, they defpife all morality, according to that admirable dodlrine of Solomon: " A fool will not re- " ceive the words of the wife, unlefs thou *' fpeakeil the very things that are in his " heart.'* Prov. xvii. 2. [(i. e.) unlefs thou know all the coverts and depths of wickednefs.
To this part, touching refpe£live duty are afligned the mutual duties between hufband and wife, parent and child, mafter and fer- vant; folikewife, the laws offriendfhip and gratitude : as alfo the civil bonds of frater- nities, colleges, politic bodies, of neighbour- hood, and all other proportionate duties : not as they are parts of government and fociety, for that refers to politics, but as to the framing the mind of particular perfons, for the maintaining of fuch bonds of fociety.
But
ON MORAL Ki^OVVLEDGE. '257
But the dodrine concerning the good of communion, or of Ibcietj, and good indivi- dual, not only confiders limply, but cpmpa- ratively alfo ; to which belongs the weigh- ing of duties between perfon and perfon; between cafe and cafe ; between private and public; between time prefent, and fa-- tare : as we may fee in the fevere and cruel proceeding of L. Emtiis againfl: his own fons, which was fo much extolled by the genera- lity of people.
Again, we fee when ilf. ^r«//^^ and C^ fius invited to fupper thofe whofe opinioas .they meant to found, whether they were fit to be made their aflbciates ; and propofing the queftion touching the lawfulnefs of killing a tyrant, as an ufurper, they were divided in opinion; fome holding, that fervitude was the extreme of evils ; and others, that •tyranny was better than a civil war. A number of the like cafes there are of com- parative duty ; the moft celebrated of which, where the queftion is, of a great deal of good to enfue from a lefler injury : which Jafon of -TT^f/T^/y determined againfl the truth : Allqua funt injufie facicnda, ^c, «« Some Vol, IL S " things
258 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
*' things may be done unjuftly, that many things may be done juftly. But the repl}' is good : Author em prcefenth jujlhla habes ; fpon- forem future non habes: " Men miifl: purfue *' things which are juft in time prefent, and *' leave the future to divine providence." And fo we pafs on from this general part touching the exemplar and defcription of good.
Having treated of this fruit of life, it remains to fpeak of the hufbandry requifite to produce it: without which part, the former feems to be no better than a fair image or ftatue, which is beautiful to contemplate, but without life and motion ; to which opi- nion Ar'ijlotle himfelf fubfcribes in exprefs words: " It is neceffary to fpeak of virtue, *' both what it is, and how to procure it ; " for it would be to little purpofe to know *' virtue, and to be ignorant of the manner *« and means how to compafs it. For en- *' quiry mufl: be made not only of her form, *' but alfo how fhe is to be attained : for we *' fhould have both the knowledge and the <* fruition of it. Now this cannot fucceed «' to our defire, unlefs we know both of
*' what
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 25
•* what materials it is compounded, ^nd *' how to procure it." In fuch ftrong and repeated terms does he inculcate this part, which notwithflanding he himfelf does not profecute. This is what Cicero attributed to Cato the younger, as a great commendation, that he had applied himfelf to philofophy, " not for difputation fake, but to live ac- " cording to its rules." Though, through the neglect of our times, wherein few men hold any conlultation touching the reforma- of their life, as 6'^;z£'c^ excellently fays, " Of *' the parts of life every one deliberates; *' of the fum of Hfe nobody;" this -part may feem fuperfluous, yet this moves us not to leave it untouched, but rather we con- clude with that aphorifm of Hippocrates: ^t gravi morbo correpti dolores nonfetitiunt^ us mens ^gra eft: " They who are fick of a " dangerous difeafe, and feel no pain, are '' diflempered in their underflanding." Such men need a medicine, not only to afluage the difeafe, but to awaken the fenfe : and if it be laid, that the cure of mens minds be- longs to facred divinity, it is moft truly faid; but yet what hinders, but moral phi- lofophy may be accepted into the train of S 2 the-
i'66 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
theology, as a wife fervant and humble hand-maid, ready at all commands to do her lervice? For as it is in the Pfalms, " That ^' the eyes of the hand-maid look perpetually ** towards the miftrefs :" and yet no doubt many things are left to the difcretion and care of the hand-maid, to difcern of the miftrefs's will : fo ought moral philofophy to give all due obfervance to divinity, and to be obfequlous to her precepts ; yet fo as it may yield of itfelf, within due limits, many found and profitable diredions.
This part therefore, when I ferioufly con- fider its excellency, I cannot but find ex- ceeding ftrange that it is not yet reduced hito a body of knowledge ; efpecially as it confifls of much matter, wherein both fpeech and a6lion is often converfant, and fuch wherein the common talk of men, though Tarely, yet fometimes is wifer than their books: it is reafonable therefore that we propofe it the more particularly, both for the worchinefs, and that we may acquit our- felves for reporting it deficient, which feems almofl incredible, and prefuppofed complete by the writers on morality. We will there- fore
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 261
fore enumerate feme heads or points thereof, that it may appear the better what it is, and whether it be extant.
The GEORGICS of the MIND,
OR THE
CULTURE OF OUR MANNERS.
First therefore in this, as in all things which are praftical, we ought to calculate what is in our power, and what not ; for the one may be dealt with by alteration, but the other by way of application only. The hufbandman cannot command, neither the nature of the earth, nor the feafons of the year ; no more can the phyfician the confti- tution of the patient, nor the variety of ac- cidents : fo in the culture and cure of the mind of man, two things are without oqr command; points of nature, and points of fortune: for to the bafis of the one, and the conditions of the other, our work is limited S 3 and
262 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
and tied. In thefe things therefore it is left vinto us to proceed by application :
Super anda omnh fortuna fcrcndo.
YiRG.^n. VII.
*' By fufF'ring well, our fortune we iubdue." And fo likewife, *' By fufF'ring well, our Nature we fubdue."
But when we fpeak of fufFering, we do not mean a dull and negledled, but a wife and induflrious fufFering, which draws and continues ufe and advantage, out of that which feemsadverfe and contrary; which is thatproperty which we call accommodating, or applying. Now, the wifdom of applica- tion lies principally in the exa^i: and diftiuifc knowledge of the precedent ftate or difpofi- tion, unto which we do apply: for we cannot fit a garment, except we firfl take meafure of the body.
So then the firft article, touching the cul- ture of the mind, is to fet down found and
true
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 265
true diftnbiitions and defcriptions of the fe- veral charafters of mens natures and difpofi- tions, having efpecial regard to thofe diffe- rences which are moil radical, in being the fountains and caufesofthe reft, or mofl fre- quent in concurrence or commixture ; where- in it is not the handhng of a few of them fuperficially, the better to defcribe the me- diocrities of virtues, that can fatisfy this intention: for if it deferves to be confidered that there are minds w^hich are proportioned to great matters, and others to fmall, which Jr'ijiotle handles, or ought to have handled, by the name of magnanimity ; does it not deferve as well to be confidered, that there are minds proportioned to comprehend many matters, and others few ? So that fome can divide themfelves,others can perchance do ex- aaiy w^ell, but it mufl be only in few things at once ; and fo there comes to be a narrow- nefsofmind, as well as pufiUanimity, And again, that fome minds are proportioned to that which may be difpatched at once, or within a Ihort return of time ; others to that which begins afar off, and is to be won with length of purfuit,
S4 Hoc
^64 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE,
■ Hoc regnum dea genfibus ejjc,
SI ^ua fatajinantj jam turn tcnditquefovctque,
ViRG. Mv\. I. 21.
Here, if heav'n were kind,
«< The feat of awful empire fhedefign'd."
Dryden.
So that there may be fitly faid to be a loh- ganimity, which is commonly alio alcrfbed to God, as a magnanimity. Further de- ferved it to be confidered hy Jrijiotle, that there is a difpofition in converfation, even in things which have no connexion with a man's felf, to footh and pleafe ; and a con- trary difpolition to contradict and crofs : and deferves it not much better to be confidered, that there is a difpofition, not in converfation or talk, but in matters of more ferious na- ture, and without any intereft in them, to take pleafure in the good of another ; and a difpofition, on the contrary, to take diflafle at the good of another ? Which is ^that property which we call good nature, or ill nature, benignity, or malignity: and there- fore I cannot fufficiently marvel, that this part of knowledge touching the feveral cha- jrafters of natures and difpofitions, Ihould be
omitted,
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE, 265
omitted, both in morality and policy, con* (idering it would caft fuch relplendent beams of light upon both thole fciences.
A MAN (hall find in the traditions of aftro- logy, fome curious and apt divifionsof mens natures, according to the predominances of the planets; lovers of quiet, lovers ofadion, lovers of vidory, lovers of honour, lovers of pleafure, lovers of arts, lovers of change, &c. So among the poets, heroical, fatyrical, tragical, comical, a man fhall find every- where the images of peculiar manners, though commonly with excefs, and be von d the proportion of truth : but the beft provi- iion, and nobleft matter of fuch a treatife, may be fetched from the wlfer fort of hifto- rians, but yet not from the eulogies only, which they are wont to fubjoin upon men- tioning the death of any illuflrious perfon ; but much more from the entire body of the hiftory, as often as fuch a perfon is exhi- bited. For this interwoven image feems to be a better delcription than any judgment pafled upon a man in an eulogy : as that in iT. Lhius, of Jfricanus, and of Quo the El- der ; in Tacitus, of T^iberius, Claudius and
N^ro ;
266 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
Nero ; in Herod'mn^ of Septim'ius Severus ; in Philip de Comines^ of Lewis the Eleventh of Frances in Francis Guiciardine^ of Ferdinand o{ Spain, Maximilian the empcYor, 2.nd of Leo and Clement, Bifhops of Rome. For thefe writers, having the images of thofe perfons whom they meant to decypher, ahiioft con- ftantly in their eye, hardly ever make men- tion of their a6ls and atchievements, without interfperfing at the fame time fomething touching their natures. So we fliall find in the wifefl fort of thofe relations, which the Italians make touching conclaves, the na- tures of the feveral Cardinals handfomely and lively painted : as the letters of amhafl'adors fet forth the natures and manners of coun- fellors to princes. A man fhall meet with, in every day's conference, the denomuiation of fenfitive, dry, formal, real, humorous, certain, Huomo di prima imprejfwne, Huomo di ultima impre^fjio7ie, and the like ; yet thefe ob- fervations are vague in expreflion, and not accurately defined by enquiry : many dif- tin6lions are found, but we conclude no precepts from them, becaufe both hiftory, poeiy, and daily experience, are as goodly fields where thefe obfervations grow; of
which,
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 267
which, like flowers, we make a few poefies to hold ill our hands, but no man brings them to a chymical analylis, that receipts may be made of them for the ufe of life. Wherefore let there be made out of this matter, which certainly is fruitful and co- pious, a diligent and full treatife. But my meaning is not that thefe chara6lers fhould in ethics, as in hiftories, poems, and common converfation, be draw^n as perfedl, entire ci- vil images, but rather as thefimpleand con- ftituent ftrokes of the images themfelves ; which being compounded and mixed toge- ther form and conftitute all effigies what- ever ; how many, and of what fort they are ; how connecled together, and fubordi- nate one to another : to the end there may be made a kind of artificial and accurate dif- fe£lion of tempers and natures ; and that a difcovery may be made of the fecrets of dif- pofitions in particular perfons, and from the knowledge thereof, precepts and rules more truly drawn for the cures of the mind.
, And not only the charaders of difpoli-*
I tions, impreffed by nature, ought to be taken
into this treatife; but thole alfo which are
im-»
268 ON MORAL KNOWLEDaE.
impofed upon the mind, by the fex, age^ country, health and ficknefs, beauty and de- formity, and the like, which are inherent, and not external : again thofe which are caufed by fortune ; as fovereignty, nobility, obfcure birth, riches, want, ma'giftracy, privacy, profperity, adverfity, conflant fortune, variable fortune, rifing fuddenly or gradually, &c. and therefore we fee that Plautus m.akes it a wonder to fee an old man beneficent : Benignitas Jmjus tit adolefcen- iuTieJl: *' He is as generous as a young fel- *' low/' St. Paul concludes, that feverity of difcipllne was to be ufed to the Cretans^ " Rebuke them (harply," upon the difpo- fition of their country ; " The Cretans are *' always liars, evil beafts, flow bellies.'* •Tit. i. Salluft notes, that it is ufual with kings to defire contradictories : Sed plerumque regi^voluntates, ut vehementesfunt, Jtc moh'iles^ fo'peque ipfce Jibi adverfa'. Tacitus obferves, how rarely raifing of the fortune mends the difpofition: Solus vefpafanus mutatus in melius. Pindar makes an obfervation, that great and iudden fortune loofens and enervates mens iininds: " There are fome that are not able « to digefl great felicity." So the pfalm
Ihews
OK MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 269
Ihews it more eafy to keep a meafure in the enjoying of fortune, than in the increafe of it: " If riches increafe, fet not jour heart " upon them.'* I deny not but thefe and the like obfervations are touched a little by Arljiotle incidentally in his rhetoric, and are handled in Ibme fcattered difcourfes, but they were never incorporate into moral phi- lofophy, to which they do effentialiy belong; as the knowledge of the diverfity of grounds does to agriculture, and the knowledge of the diverfity of complexions and conftitu- tions does to the phyfician ; except we mean to follow the indifcretion of empirics, who adminifter the fame medicines to all patients of w^hat conftltution foever.
Anotfier article of this knowledge is, the enquiry touching the afFedions: for as in applying medicines to the body, the flrft thing in order is, to know the different com- plexions and conftitutions; fecondly, the difeafes; and laftly, the cures : fo in admi- niftering remedies to the mind, after know- ledge of the divers charaders of mens natures, it follows in order to know the difeafes and infirmities of tiie mind, which are no other
. than
270 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE^
than the perturbations and diftempers of the affeclions. For as the ancient poHticians in popular ftates were wont to compare the people to the lea, and the orators to the winds ; becaufe as the fea would of itfelf be calm and quiet, if the winds did not move and trouble it ; fo the people would be peace- able and tradable, if the feditious orators did not fet them in working and agitation : fo it may be fitly faid, that the mind of man in its nature would be temperate and ftayed, if the affedions, as winds, did not put it into tumult and perturbation. And here again I find it ftrange, as before, th^t j^ri/iotie fhould have written divers volumes of ethics, and never handled the afiedions, which is the principal fubjed of it; and yet in his rhe- toric, where they are confidered but colla- terally, and in a fecond degree; that is, {o far as they may be raifed and moved by fpeech, he bas handled them well for the quantity ; but omitted them in their proper place. For it is not his difputations about plcafure and pain that can fitisfy this en-- quiry, no more than he that fhould generally examine the nature of light can be faid to treat of colours ; for pleafure and pain are
to
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
271
to the particular affe£lions, as light is to particular colours. Greater pains, I fuppofe, had the Stoicks taken in this argument, as far as I can gather by that which we have at fecond-hand; but probably it was after their manner, rather in fubtilty of definitions, which, in a fubjeffl: of this nature, are but curiofities, than in active and am.ple defcrip- tions andobfervations. I find likewife fome particular writings, of an elegant nature, touching fome of the affedlions ; as of anger, of comfort upon adverfe accidents, of tender- nefs of countenance, and fome few others. But to fpeak truth, the befl teachers of this knowledge are the poets and writers of hif- tories, where we may find painted with great life, how affeclions are kindled and incited ; how pacified and reftrained ; and how again contained from aft, and further degree; how they difclofe and betray them- felves, though checked and hidden ; how they work ; how they vary ; how they gather and fortify ; how they are complicated ; what conflicts they have one with another; and fimilar particularities: among which, this laft is of fpecial ufe in moral ajid civil mat- ters : how, I fay, to fct affedion againfl af-
fe(^ion,
2rJ% ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
fecStion, and to mafterone by another ^ evert as we ufe to hunt bead with bead, and fly bird with bird, which otherwife perchance we could not fo eafily recover: upon which foundation is ereded that excellent ufe of reward and punifhment, whereby civil flates confift; employing the predominant affec- tions of fear and hope for the fuppreffing and bridling the reft : for as in the govern- ment of ftates, it is neceflary to bridle one fadion with another, fb it is in the govern- ment within.
We now come to thofe points which are within our own command, and have force and operation upon the mind to aife6l the <wUl and appetite, and to alter the manners : iwiierein the philofophers ought to have made a diligent and painful enquiry con- cerning the force and energy of cuftom, ex- •ercife, habit, education, imitation, emula- tion, company, friendfhip, praife, reproof, exhortation, fune, laws, books, ftudies, ;&c. For thefe are the points which have dominion in morality : from thefe agents the mind fuffers, and is altered: of thefe, as ingredients, receipts are compound- 1 ed,
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
^Vo
ed, which conduce to the prefervation and recovery of the health and good eftate of the mhid, as far as relates to human medicine. Of which number we will fele£t fome one or two to infifl upon as an example of the reft, becaufe it were too long to profecute all ; and therefore we refume the confidera- tion of cuftom and habit.
That opinion of ^r//?c/Z:? feems to me to favour much of negligence, and a -narrow contemplation, where he afferts, that over thofe a6lions which are natural, cuftom has no power; ufmg for example, that if a ftone be thrown ten thoufand times up, it will not learn to afcend of itfelf ; and that by often fee- ing or hearing we do not learn to fee or hear the better. For though this principle be true in things wherein nature is peremptory, yet it is otherwifein things wherein nature, according to a latitude, admits of intenfion and remif- fion : for he might fee that a ftrait glove will come more eafily on with ufe, and that a wand will by ufe bend otherwife than it grew; that by ufe of the voice we fpeak louder and ftronger ; and that by ufe of en- during heat and cold we endure it the better : which two latter examples have a nearer re-
VoL. II. T femblance
2^4 ON MOkAL KNOWLEDGE.
femblance to the fubje^l: he is handling, than thofe Inftances which he alledges. But al- lowing his conclufion, that virtues and vices confift ill habit, he ought Co much the more to have taught the manner of fuperinducing that habit; for a great many precepts may be given concerning the wife ordering of the mind, no lefs than thofe of the body. We will recite a few of them.
The firft, to beware, at the very begin ^ ning, of harder or ealier tafks than the cafe requires; for if too great a burden be laid on a diffident nature, you will blunt the cheer- fulnefs of good hopes: in a nature full of alTurance you will raife an opinion, whereby a man will promife himfelf more than he is able to preform, which occafions floth : and in both tempers, the experiment will not fatisfy the expe6lation, which ever difcou- rages and confounds the mind : but if th*- tafks are too eafy, as to the progrefs, on the whole there is great lofs.
The fecond, that for the exercifmg of any faculty, whereby a habit may be acquired^ two feafons are chiefly to be obferved : the
one,
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 275
one, when the mhid is mofl, the other when it is leafl: difpofed for the thing . that by the former we may rid ground apace, and by the latter we may, by a ftrenuous contention, work out the knots and ftops of tlie mind; whereby the middle times will pafs ealily and fmoothly.
The third precept, that which Anjiotk mentions tranfiently ; that we bear w^ith all our might, provided it be a thing not vici- ous, towards the contrary of that to which we are by nature mofl inclined : like as when we row againft the ftream, or bend a crooked wand, to make it ftrait the contrary way.
The fourth precept depends upon a prin- ciple that is mofl true; viz. that the mind is more happily and fweetly brought to any thing, if that, at which we aim, be not prin- cipal in the intention of the doer, but be attained, as it were, allud agendo ; " by *' doing fomething elfe ;" becaufe fuch is the inftind of nature, that fhe in a manner hates necefhty and fevere commands. Many other rules there are which may profitably be pre- fcribsd touching the diredion of cuftom : T a for
276 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
for ciiftom, if it be wifely and fkilfully in- duced, really proves a fecond nature; but if it be conducted unfkilfully and at random, it will be only nature's ape ; which imitates nothing to the life, but in an auk ward and ungraceful manner.
In like manner, if we would fpeak of books and ftudies, and of their power and influence upon manners ; are there not di- vers precepts, and ufeful directions apper- taining thereunto ? Has not one of the fa- thers, in great indignation, called poetry, the wine of devils, becaufe it really excites a world of temptations, defires, and vain opi- nions ? Is it not a very wife opinion of Arijlotle^^ and worthy to be well weighed ; *' That young men are not fit auditors of '' moral philofophy, becaufe the ferment of *' their paffions is not yet fettled, nor laid *' afleep by time and experience?'* And to fpeak truth, is not this the reafon, that thofe moft excellent books and difcourfes of anci- ent writers (whereby men are mofl power- fully invited to virtue, as well by repre- fenting her auguft Majefty to the eyes of all, as by expofnig to fcorn popular opinions,
attired.
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 277
attired, as it were, to the difgrace of virtue, ill the habit of parafites) are of fo little effed: towards honefty of life, and the reformation of corrupt manners ; becaufe they ufe not to be read by men mature in years and judg- ment, but are left only to boys and begin- ners ? Is not this alfo true, that young mea are much lefs fit auditors of policy than morality, till they are thoroughly feafoned with religion, and the do6lrine of manners and duties; left their judgments being de- praved and corrupted, they fhould come to think, that there are no true and folid moral differences, but that all is to be meailired by utility or fuccefs ? As the poet fays ;
Profperum etfcUx fcelus virtus vccatur.
But the poets, you will fay, fpeak this fatlrically, and by way of indignation; yes; but fome books of politics fuppofe the fame thing ferioufly and pofitively. For fo it pleafes Af^ctow/ to fay: *' That \i Ccefar " had happened to have been overthrown, *' he would have been more odious than " even Cataline'^ As if truly there was no difference, but in fortune only, between a T 3 fury
27^ ON MO^AL KNOWLEDGE.
fury, compofed of luft and blood, and an ex- alted fpirit, of all mortals, ambition apart, the niofl to be admired. We fee from this in- ftance how neceflary it is for men to drink deep of pious and" moral doctrines, before they tafle of politics ; lince they who are bred up in the courts of princes^ and in af- fairs of flate, from their tender years, hardly ever attain a fincere and inward probity of manners ; how much lefs if there be added, the difcipline of corrupt books alfo ? Again, even in moral inftrudlions themfelves, or at leaft fome of them, is not caution llkewife to be ufed, left men become thereby fliff, ar- rogant, and unfociable, according to that of Cicero, touching M. Cato f Hac bona, qu^e vldemus divina et egregia, ipjius fcitote ejje fro- fria: nucs nonnunqtiam requirimus, ea fiint om- nia lion a 7iai:ura, Jed a magiftro : *' Thefe «' divine and excellent qualities which wc " fee, are, affure yourfelyes, his own proper " endowments : but the things we fome- " times think him deficient in, they are all *' derived not from nature, but from his in- *' ftru6lor Zeno^ Many other axioms and advices there are touching thofe properties and effedls which fludies do infufe and infllll
into
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 279
into manners. For that is a true faying, Abetmt Jiudla in mores ; which may equally be affirmed ofthofe other points, of company, fame, laws, and the reft, which we recited in the beginning of the dodrine of morality.
But there is a culture of the mind that feems yet more accurate and elaborate than the reft, and is built upon this ground, that the minds of all men are at fome times in a ftate more perfect, and at other times in a ftate more depraved. The purpofe there r fore and intention of this culture is, to fix and cherifti thofe good feafons, and to ftrike out of the calendar and expunge the evil. The fixing of the good times is procured by tw^o means : vows, or at leaft moft fteady refoiutions ; and by obfervances and exer- ciies ; w^liich are not to be regarded fo much in themfelves, as becaufe they keep the mind in continual obedience. The obli- teration of the evil may, in like manner, be brought about two ways : by fome kind ot redemption, or expiation of that which is paft ; and by a prudent conduct for the time to come. But this part feems w^holly ^o belong to divinity, andjuftly; fmce thQ T 4 true
28o ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
true and genuine moral philofophy is but an. hand-maid to religion.
Wherefore we will conclude this part concerning the culture of the mind with that remedy, which, of all others, is the mofl compendious and fummary ; and again, the moft noble and efle6lual to the forming of the mind to virtue, and placing it in a ftate next to pcrfeclion : and it is this ; the eleding and propofmg unto a man's felf good and virtuous ends of his life and adions, which yet mufl be fuch as may be within his compafs to attain. For if thefe two things be fuppofed, that a man fet before him honeft and good ends ; and again, that he be refolute, conftant, and true to them, it will follow, that he iliall mould himfelf into all virtue at once. And this is indeed Jike the work of nature; whereas the other courfe is like the work of the hand: for as when a carver cuts and carves an image, he fhapes only that part of the figure which he is working upon, and none of the refl ; for if he be upon the face, the reft of the body remains a rude and formlefs ftone, till fuch time as he comes to it : but, on the con- trary.
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE. 281
trary, when nature makes a flower, or living creature, fhe forms the rudiments of all the parts at one time : after the fame manner, in obtaining virtue by habit, while a man prac- tifes temperance, he does not profit much as to fortitude, nor the other virtues: but when we dedicate and devote ourfelves wholly to good and honefh ends, we fliall find our- felves inverted with a precedent difpofitlon to conform ourfelves to any virtue propofed. And this may be that flate of mind which is excellently defcribed by Anjlotle. and which he fays ought not to be called virtuous, but divine. His words are thefe: <' It may be " reafonable to oppofe to immanity, that " ability which is above humanity;" name- ly, heroical or divine virtue. And a little after : " For as a bead is not capable of vice *' or virtue, fo neither is the Deity." And therefore we may fee what height of honour Plinius Secundiis attributes to 'Trajan, in the exaggerated ftyle of the heathens, when he fiid, *' That men needed to make no other " prayers to the Gods, than that they would *' continue to be as good and propitious *' lords to them, as Tf^W/ had been :" as if he had not only been an imitation of divine
nature.
282 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
nature, but a pattern of it. But tliefe are heathen and profane boaftings, havhig but a ihadow of that divine ftate of mind, which rehgion and the holy faith do condud men to, by imprinting upon their fouls charity, which is excellently called, <' the bond of ^' perfe6lion," becaufe it comprehends and faflens all virtues together. And it is ele- e;antly faid hy Mmander of fenfual love, which is but a falfe Imitation of divine love: Amor, vieUorfophiJla Icevo,ad hiimanam vitam : " That ^' love teaches a man to carry himfelf better ^' than the fophifl or preceptor;" whom he calls left-handed, becaufe, with all his rules and precepts, he cannot form a man fo dex- teroufly, nor with that facility to value and govern himfelf, as love can do: certainly, if a man's mind be truly inflamed with cha- rity, it works him, more fuddenly into pcr- feclion, than all the dodlrine of morality can do, which is but a fophifl: in comparifon of the other. Nay, further, as Xenophon ob- ferved truly, that all other afFeclions, though they raife the mind, yet they do it by diftor- tlon and violent agitation of extacies or ex- cefs ; but only love exalts the mind, and at the f.ane inflant fettles and compoks it: fo
ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE, 183
aU Other human excellencies which we ad- mire, though they advance nature, yet are llibjedl to excefs, which charity only does not admit. For w^e ,fee the angels in afpi- ring to be like God in power, tranfgrefled and fell: " I will afcend, and be like the " Highefl.' ' By afpiring to be like God in knowledge, man tranfgrefled and fell : " Ye " (hall be as Gods, knowing good and evil :" but by afpiring to a funilitude of God, in goodnefs or love, neither man nor angel ever did or can tranfgrefs. Nay, unto this imi^ tation we are even called : '' Love your ene- *' mies : do good to them that hate you, and *« pray for them that defpitefully ufe you, t' and perfecute you ; that you may be the '' children of your Father which is in hear '« ven, who maketh his fun to rife on the *' evil, and on the good, and fendeth rain " upon the juft, and upon the unjufl:." So in the firfh platform of the divine nature, the heathen religion fpeaks thus : *' Beft, greatr *' eft ;" and the facred fcriptures thus : " Hia >' mercy is above all his works.-'
Thus having concluded that general part of human philofophy, which contemplates
man.
284 ON MORAL KNOWLEDGE.
man, as he confifts of body and fpirit, we may add that obfervation about moral know- ledge, which is, that there is a kind of re- lation and conformity between the good of the mind, and the good of the body : for as the good of the body confifts of health, beauty, ftrength, and pleafure ; fo the good of the mind, if we confider it according to the axioms of moral knowledge, tend to this point : to make the mind found, and free from perturbation ; beautiful, and graced with the ornament of true decency; flrong and agile to all the duties of life : laflly, not flupid, but retaining a quick and lively fenfe of pleafure, and honefl recreation. But thefe four, as in the body, fo in the mind, feldom meet all together : for it is eafy to obferve, that many have ftrength of wit and courage, but have neither health from per- turbations, nor any beauty or decency in their a<£lions : fome again have an elegancy and finenefs of carriage, who have neither foundnefs of honefty, nor vigour for the ac- tive duties : and fome again have honefl and reformed minds, who are neither an orna- ment to themfelves, nor ufeful to the public : others, who perhaps are mailers of three of
them.
1
ON CIVIL CONVERSATION, 185
them, but yet being poffefTed with a certain ftoical fadiiefs and ftupidity, pra^tife indeed the anions of virtue, but have none of the pleafures of it. Thus of thefe four, two or three may meet, yet a concurrence of all four very rarely happens.
CIVIL CONVERSATION.
CONVERSATION certainly ought not to be affeded, but much lefs negledled ; fmce a prudent government of it both carries in itfelf a certain graceful nefs of manners, and is of great fervice towards a clever ma- nagement of bufinefs, as well public as pri- vate. For as action in an orator is fo much regarded, though an outward quality, that it is preferred even before thofe other parts which feem more grave and intrinfic; in the fame manner almofl, in a man of a civil 2, pradlicai
286 ON CIVIL CONVERSATION^
praclical life, converfation, and the regu- lation of itj though converfant about exte- riors, finds, though not the chief, yet certainly an eminent place. For of how great importance is the countenance and the compofure of it : the poet fays well :
Nee viiltu dcjirue verba tuo.
For a man may undermine, and utterly betray the force of his words with his coun- tenance. Nay, our aflions, as well as words, may likewife be deflroyed by the counte- nance, if we n^tay believe Cicero ; who,- re- commending to his brother affability towards the Provincials, faid, it did not principally eohfifl in this, the giving eaiV accefs to hi? perfon, unlefs likewife he received them Courteoufly with his very countenance : A7/ inter eft habere oft turn apertum, vultum claujum : *' It avails nothing to have your door open, " while your countenance is fhut." We fee likewife j^tticus, upon the firfl interview between Cicero and C^far, the war as yet at the height, did diligently and ferioufly ad- vife Cicero by a letter, touching the com- pofing of his countenance and geflure, to
dignity
ON CIVIL CONVERSATION. 2S7
dignity and gravity. Now, if the mannge- ment of the face and countenance alone, be of fuch eite6l, how much more, famihar fpeech, and other carriage, belong to con- verfation ? And indeed the fum and abridg- ment of the grace and elegance of behaviour, is comprifed moftly in this; the meafuring in a juft balance, as it V\'ere, and maintaining both our own dignity, and that of others : which is well expreffed by T! Lh'ius m his preface: '' Left I iliould feem either arro- *' gant, or fervile: the one is the humour *' of a man who is forgetful of anothers <' liberty; the other of a man that forgets *' his own."
But, on the other fide, if we ftudy urbanity, andoutward elegance of behaviour too rnuch^ theypafs into a deformed, adulterate attecta- tion: ^id emm deformun^ quam fcenam hi v'ltam iransfem? *' What can be a more deformed '* fpe6lacle, than to transfer the fcene Into *' our common courfe of life r" Further, though they Ihould not flrll into that vicious extreme, yet too much time is confumed in thofe fmall matters, and the mind is de-
2^ re fled
288 ON CIVIL CONVERSATION.
preffed by the immoderate ftudy of them ; therefore, as m the Univerfities young ftu" dents, too much addided to keep company, are admoniflied by their tutors ; Amicos ejfe fures temporh: " That friends are the " thieves of time :" fo certainly this fame continual intenfity of mind, upon the grace of converfation, is a great pilferer of more ferious meditations. Again, fuch as are fo exadlly accomplifhed, and feem formed by nature for urbanity, make it their fole ftudy, and fcarcely ever afpire after more foHd and higher virtues: whereas, on the contrary, thofe that are confcious to them- felvesofadefe£lin this, feek comelinefs from a good reputation ; for where a good reputa- tion is, ahnoft all things are becoming ; but where that fails, a fupply muft be fetched from exadnefs of behaviour, and urbani- ty. Again, there is fcarcely a greater or more frequent impediment of a6lion, than an over- curious obfervance of outward de- corum: and that other attendant of it, a fcrupulous eledion of time and opportunity: for -Sbte??^ fays excellently : ^irefpicit^ ad^ i§c, " He that regards the wind fhall not
«' fow:
ON CIVIL CONVERSATION. 28^
*' few: and hethat regards the clouds fhall '' not reap." For we muft make opportu- nity, oftiierthaii wait for it. To conclude, this graceful compolltion of behaviour is-, as it were, the drefs of the mind; and therefore ought to refemble the good conditions of drefs: for firft, it ought to be fafhionable ; next, not too curious or coftlj; then, to be fo contrived, as to fet forth any good fhape of the mind moft to view, and to fupply and hide any deformity : la%, above" all, it ought not to be too flrait, nor fo to retrain the fpirit, as to check and hinder the motions thereof in bullnefs.
VOL. IL tj
O K
,290 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE*
ON THE
ARCHITECT of his FORTUNE.
'TPHERE is a certain wifdom of giving counfel to others ; and there is another alfo in planning a man's own fortune ; and thefe fometimes meet, but are oftener fe- vered. For many are exceeding wife in or- dering their own, who are very weak in the adminiilration of civil affairs, or givnig coun- fel : like the ant, which is a wife creature •for itfelf, but very hurtful in a garden. This virtue of being wife for one's felf, was not unknown to the Romans themfelves, though excellent patriots : whence the comic poet : *' Certainly the mould of a wife man's for- *' tune is in his own hands." Nay, it grew into an adage with them, " Every man is *' the architect of his own fortune.".
This part of knowledge may be rec- l?oned among the deficients : not but that k is too frequent in pradice, but becaufe
books
THE ARCHITECT OV HIS FORTUNE. 29!
books concerning this argument are filent. Wherefore we will recite fome heads of it, and call it, the architect of fortune ; or, ai dodlrine concerning the courfe of life for advancement.
And at the firfl: view I fhall feem to handle a new and unufual argument, in teaching men how they may be contrivers of their own fortune: a do^ftrine, no doubt, to which every man will willingly yield him- felf up a difciple, till he thoroughly fees the difficulty of it. For the requilites to the purchafe of a fortune, are neither lighter nor lefs difficult, than to the purchafe of virtue : and it is as hard and fevere a thing to be a true politician, as to be truly moral. But the handling of this doclrine concerns greatly the honour of learning, that men of bufinefs may know, learning is not like fome fmali bird, as the lark, to mount and fing, and pleafe herfelf only ; but that fhe is a kind of hawk, both to foar aloft, and opportunely floop, and feize her prey. Perfection of learning is likewife concerned, becaufe it is the true rule of a perfe^Sl enquiry after truth, that nothing be found in the material, that U 2 has
zps THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
has not a parallel in the intellecSlual world : that is, that there is nothing in being and a£lion, which fliould not be drawn and col- leifted into contemplation and dodlrine* And yet learning does not efleem this architec- ture of fortune, otherwife than as a work of an inferior kind: for no man's particular fortune can be an end worthy of his being. Nay, it often happens, that men of excel- lent virtues abandon their fortune of their own accord, that they may have leifure for more fublime objedls^
Nevertheless fortune, as ihe is an in- flrument of virtue and merit, deferves to be confidered in her place, and to have fome inflrudions given about her.
The firfl general precept therefore is, that to know others we procure to ourfelves, in a pofTible degree, that window which Momus once required ; who feeing in the frame of man's heart fo many angles andreceffes, found fault that there was not a window, through which a man might look into thofe obfcur® and crooked windings. This we (hall obtain, if with all diligence we purchafe and procure
% to
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 29^
to ourfelves information touching the parti- cular perfons with whom we ncgociate; as alfo of their natures, defires, and ends ; their cuftoms and fafhions ; their helps and advan- tages, whereby they are chiefly fupported, and are ftrong and powerful : likewife of their defe6ls and weaknefles, and in what part they lie moft open and obnoxious ; of their friends, fadlions, patrons, dependen- cies : and again, of their enemies, enviers, competitors; as alfo their times, and feafons of accefs :
Sola vlrl moUes ad'itus et tempora noras.
VlRG.^N. IV.
" You only know what time is beft,
** To move the haughty foe with my requeft."
Lauderdale.
Lastly, the principles and rules which they have fet down to themfeives. Further, information is to be taken, not only of per- fons, but of particular actions alfo, which from time to time are on foot, and as it were upon the anvil ; how they are conducted and fucceed; by whofe endeavours they are fur- thered ; by whom they are oppofed ; of what U 3 weight
294 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
weight and moment they are; and what may be their confequence, and the like. For the knowledge of prefent anions is both very material in itfelf, and carries in it this alfo, that without it the knowledge of perfons too, is like to be very deceitful and erroneous: for men change with their actions ; and are one thing, while they are engaged and en- vironed with bufinefs; and another, when they return to their nature.
And that fuch knowledge may be com- pared, Solomon is our furety, who fays: " Counfel in the heart of man is like a deep *' water ; but a wife man will draw it out :" And although the knowledge itfelf fall not under precept, becaufe it is of individuals, yet general inftruclions may be given with fuccefs.
The knowledge of men may be deduced from their faces and countenances, words, -actions, tempers, and ends: laftly, from the relations of others.
As for the countenance, let not the an^ pieiit adage move us; Fronti nulla fides:
** There's
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 295
*' There's no trufl to be given to the couii- *' tenance:'* for although this faying may bejuft, touching the outward and general compofure of the countenance and gefture; yet there are certain fecret and more fubtle motions and labours of the eyes, face, looks, and behaviour, by which, as ^. Cicero ele- gantly faith, " the gate of the mind" is, in a manner, unlocked and opened.
As for mens words, they are flattering and fcillacious; yet they exprefs their true fenti- mentwhen uttered, either by furprife, or in a paflion : fo Tiberius, being fuddenly moved and carried aw^ay a little, by a flinging fpeech oi Agrlpplna, came a ftep out of his innate fimulation : " Thefe words," faid Tacitus^ " being heard by him, drew from his dark " breafl; fuch words as he ufed feldom to let " fall : and taking her up Iharply, he told " her her own in a verfe; that fhe was " therefore hurt, becaufe fhc did not reign." Wherefore the poet does not improperly call fuch pailions tortures, becaufe they urge men to confefs their fecrets :
U 4. Vm9
^96 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE,
Vino tortus et Ira :
*' Rack'd by wine and anger.'*
Indeed experience itfelf fhews, that there are very few men fo true to themlelves, and fo fettled in their refolutions, but that fome- times from heat of pallion, oflentation, en- tire good-will to a friend, weaknefs of mind, that can no loncrerhold out under the weiirht of thought ; laitlj, from fome other affec- tion and pafiion, they will reveal and com- municate their inmoll: thoughts. But above all, it founds the mind to the bottom, and fearches all its folds, when fimulation is at- tacked by a counter fimulation ; according to the fpanilli proverb, " Tell a lie, and «« iind a truth."
Neither are deeds themfelves, though
they are the furefl pledges of mens minds,
altogether to be trufled, without a diligent
and judicious confideration, both of their fize
and nature. For the faying is moft true:
*' Fraud erecls itfelf credit in fmaller mat-
*' ters, that it may cheat with better ad-^
*' vantage afterwards/*
But
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
297
But the furefl: key to unlock the mhids of men, turns in fearching and gettmg tho- roughly acquainted, either with their difpo- fitions and natures, or their ends and inten- tions : and certainly the weaker and more funple fort of men are befl interpreted by their natures; but the wifer and more re- ferved are beft expounded by their ends. Certainly it is a frequent errror, and very familiar with wife men, to meafure other men by the model of their own abihties, and fo often times to over-fhoot the mark, by fuppofmg men to projecl and defign to them- felves deeper ends, and to praclife more iubtlearts, than ever came into their heads: which the Italian proverb elegantly notes, faying : '' That there is commonly lefs mo- " ney, lefs wifdom, lefs honefly, than men *' reckon upon." Wherefore, if we are to deal with men of a mean and {hallow capa- city, the conjeclure mull be taken from the propenfities of their nature, rather than from the ends they may aim at. Further, princes alio, from a different reafon, are befl: judged of by their natures; and private perfons by their ends. For princes, being at the top of human defires, have commonly no parti- cular
2c}S [the architect of his fortune.
ticular ends whereto they afpire, efpecially with vehemence and perfeverance; by the iite and diftance of which, a direction and fcale of the reft of their actions may be taken and made; which is one of the chief caufes that their hearts, as the fcripture pronounces, are inferutable. But private perfons are hke travellers, who have in view fome end of their journey, where they may flay and reft ; from whence a man may make a good con- jecture, what they will, or will not do. For it is probable, they will do nothing but what conduces to their ends : neither is the infor- mation touching the diverfity of mens ends and natures to be taken only fimply, but comparatively alfo; as what has the predo^ minancy and command over the reft; fowe fee l^igellinus, when he faw himfelf out- ftripped by Petron'ms 'TurpUianus in admi- niftering and fuggefting pleafures to Nero^ *' fearched into NerSs fears," as Tacitus fays, and by this means broke the neck of his rival.
As for the knowing of mens minds, by the relations of others, it ftiail fuffice to ob- ferve, that defeats and faults are beft learned
from
1
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 299
from enemies ; virtues and abilities from friends; cuftoms and tim,es from fervants; notions and ftudies from intimate confidants, with whom they moil: commonly difcourfe : popular fame is light, and the judgments of fuperiors uncertain: " the truefl: reports *' come from domeflics." But the mofl compendious way to this whole enquiry is, firft, to have a general acquaintance and in- timacy with fuch men as hav^e looked mofl into the world, and have a general know- ledge of things and perfons ; but efpecially to endeavour to have privacy and converfa- tion with foiTie particular friends, who, ac- cording to the diveriity of bufinefs and per- fons, are able to give us fohd information, and good intelligence in every feveral kind. Secondly, to keep a good mediocrity, both in liberty of fpeech, and taciturnity : in mofl things liberty; taciturnity, where there is occafion. For liberty of fpeech, by inviting and provoking liberty to be ufed again, brings much to a man's knowledge ; and fe- crecy, on the other fide, induces trufl and intimacy, and makes men love to lay up their fecrets with us, as in a clofet. Laflly, the reducing of a man's felf to fuch a watch- ful
300 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE,"
fill and ferene habit, as in all conferences and a6lions both to carry on the matter in hand, and at the fame time to obferve other tilings that fidl in by the bye : for as Epic- tetus would have a philofopher, in every par- ticular aftion, fay to himfelf, " I will do '' this, and yet go on in my courfe:'* fo a politician, in every particular bufniefs, fhould fay to himfelf, " I both intend to do this, *Sand to learn fomewhat elfe which may be *« of ufe for the future.'* And therefore thofe men that over-do the thing in hand, and are entirely taken up with the prefent bufmefs, without fo much as thinking of matters that intervene, (a weaknefs that Montaigne confefTes in himfelf) are indeed the befl minifters of princes, but fail in point of their own fortune. I have dwelt the longer upon this precept of obtaining good information, becaufe it is a main part of it- felf, and anfwers to all the reft. But above all things, caution muft be taken, that men have a good government of themfelves, and that this knowing much, do not draw on an impertinent officioufnefs : for nothing is; more unfortunate than light and rafh inter- meddling in many matters: fo that this
various
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 30I
various knowledge of things and perfons, which we advife to be procured, tends in conclulion but to this : to make a more ju- dicious choice both of thofe adlions we under- take, and of thofe perfons whofe affiflance we ufe; that fo we may know how to con- dud all things with more dexterity, and lefs error.
After the knowledge of others follows the knowledge of ourfelves. For no lefs di- ligence, but rather more is to be ufed in taking a true and exacl information of our- felves, than of others : for that oracle, " Know '' yourfelf,'' is not only a rule of univerfal prudence, but has alfo a fpecial place in po- litics. For St. James excellently puts us in mind, " That he that hath viewed his face " in a glafs, yet inflantly forgets what " manner of man he was:" fo that there Is great need of a frequent in fpecllon : and the fame holds alfo in politics ; but the o-laffes indeed are different : for the divine one, in which we ought to behold ourfelves, is the word of God ; but the politic glafs is nothing elfe but the flate of things and times wherein we live.
There-
302 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
Therefore a man ought to take an im- partial view, unprejudiced by felf-love, of his own abilities, virtues, and fupports ; as likewife of hjs defedls, inabilities, and impe- diments ; eftimating the latter at the moft, the former at the leafl. And from fuch a view and difquifition, the following points may come into confideration.
The firfl confideration fhould be, how a man's conftitution and temper fuits with the times ; which if they be found agreeable and fit, then in all things he may give him- felf more fcope and liberty, and indulge his own temper; but if there are any antipathy and diffonancy, then, in the whole courfe of his life, he muft carry himfelf more cauti- oufly and refervedly, and appear lefs in pub- lic. So did Tiberius, who being confcious to himfelf that his temper did not agree very well with the times, was never feen at public plays : nay, for the lafl twelve years fuccef- fively, he came not into the fenate : but, on the other fide, Augujlm lived in mens eyes; which 'Tacitus alfo obferves : Alia Tiherio mo- rum via: " But Tiberius was of another hu-
<' mour."
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 303
" mour." The fame method he took alio to fecure himfelf from dangers.
Let the fecond confideration be, how a man's nature fuits the profeffions and courfes of life which are in ufe and efteem, and out of which he is to make his choice; that fo, if he be not refolved upon any w^ay of life, he may chufe that which is moll: £t and agreeable to his natural difpofition ; but if he be already engaged in a condition of life, to which he is not fo well fitted by nature, let him witlidraw on the firH: occafion, and take another profcfTion, as w^e fee was done by Duke Falentme, who was bred by his fa- ther to a facerdotal profeffion, which after- wards, in compliance with the bent of his nature, he renounced, and applied himfelf to a military life; though equally unworthy the dignity both of prince and priefl, fince the peftilent man was a dilgrace to both.
Let the third confideration be, how a man ftands in comparifon with his equals and rivals, who. are like to be the competi- tors of his fortune ; and let him run that courfe of life, wherein there is the greateft
foli-
304 THE ARCHITECT OF UlS FORTUNE.
folitude, and in which he himfelf is like to be moil eminent : as Julius Ccefar did, who at firfl was an orator and pleader, and was chiefly converfant in the arts of peace ; but when he faw Cicero, Horte?iJius, and Catulus excel in the glory of eloquence, and no man very famous for military affairs but Pompey^he for- fook the courfe he began, and bidding a fare- well to civil and popular greatnefs, went over to the military and imperatorial arts, by which he afccnded to the top of fovereignty.
The fourth confideration is, that in the choice of friends and dependants a man con- fult his own nature and difpofition ; for different kinds of friends fuits different per- fons : the folemn and fecret kind fome ; the bold and boafting others. Certainly it is worth obferving, what kind of friends Julius Ca'far\ were ; Anthony, Hirtius, Panfa, Oppius, Balbus, Dolobelia, Pollio, and the reft. Thefe men had this form of fwearing : *' So '' may I die while C^far lives:" fhewing an infinite affection to d^far ; towards others arrogant and contemptuous; and they were men, ftrenuous in bufmefs, but in fame and reputation nothing extraordinary.
Thk
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 305
The fifth confideration is, that a man take heed how he guides himfelf by exam- ple; and that he do not fondly alTe(fl the imitation of others ; as if that which others can go through muft needs be as open to him, never confidering with himfelf what difference, perhaps, there is, between his and their natures, whom he has chofen for his pattern. This was manifeftly Pompey^s er- ror, who, as Cicero records, was wont to fay, " Sylla could do this, and cannot I r" Where- in he deceived himfelf greatly, the natures and proceedings of Sylla and himfelf, being the mofi: unlike in the world : the one being fierce, violent, and ever prefTmg the fact; the other, folemn, regardful of the laws, directing all to majefly and fame ; and there- fore the lefs efFe6lual and powerful to go through with his defigns. There are more precepts of this nature ; but thefe fhall ixi^- fice for example to the reft.
Nor is the knowing of a man's felf fuf- ficient, but he muft alfo confult with him- felf, how he may cleverly and prudently {itt forth and reveal himfelf; and in fine, turn, wind, and fafhion himfelf to all occa-;
Vol. II. X fions.
306 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
fions. As for the fetting himfelf forth, we fee nothing more ufual, than for the lefs able man to make the greater fhew: therefore it is no fmall gift of prudence for a man to be able to fet himfelf forth with a kind of art and gracefulnefs, by aptly difplaying his virtues, merits, and fortune alfo, as far as may be done without arrogance or fa- tiety ; and again, in the artificial covering of his weakneffes, defedls, misfortunes, and difgraces ; dwelling upon the latter, and pre- fenting them in the ftrongeft light : excufing the former, or cancelling them by fome art- ful conftruclion. Therefore Tacitus fays of Mucianus^ who was the greateft politician of his time, and the mofl indefatigable in bufi- nefs; Omnium qua diceret atque ageret, arte quadam ojlentator\ " He was one that had *' the art to make the mofl fhew of what- ** ever he fpoke or did. This affair requires indeed fome art, that it may not occafioa difgufh and contempt. Some kind of oftentation, however vain, feems rather a vice in morals, than in politics: for as it is. vfually faid of (lander, " Slander boldly, <' fomewhat ever flicks;" fo may it be faid Qf oflentation, iinlefs it be in a ridiculous
degree
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 307
degree of deformity, boaft ftoutly, fome im- preffion will be left : it will certainly, with the people, though the wifer fraile at it: therefore reputation won with the majo- rity, will eafily countervail the difdain of a few. Now if this oftentation of a man's felf is managed with decency and difcre- tion ; for example, if it carries the appear- ance of a native candor and ingenuity ; or if it be ufed at times either of danger, as by military perfons in time of war, or when others are much envied ; or if the words which refpe£l a man's own praife feem to fall from him as a thing not principally in- tended, and without either infixing ferioufly, or dwelling too long upon them ; or if a man at the fame time blend cenfure and raillery with the praife of himfelf; or finally, if he do it not of himfelf, but compelled by the infolence and contumelies of others ; it cer- tainly makes a great addition to a man's reputation : and furely there are not a few, who, being more folid by nature, and con- fequently wanting this art of hoifting fails to their honour, fufFer for their modefly by ibme lofs of reputation.
X2 Bur
308 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE^
But though fome of weaker judgment, and perhaps too moral, may dilallow this oftentation of virtue; no man will deny, but we fhou'ld endeavour at leaft, that virtue may not through negled lofe its value ; which will arlfe from three caufes : firft, when a man offers and obtrudes himfelf and fervicc in matters of bufuiefs unfolicited ; for fuch offices are thought rewarded, if accepted. Secondly, when a man in the beginning of a bufinefs exerts himfelf immoderately, and by doing too much, will not give that which is well done leave to fettle ; which wins an early commendation, but in the end produces fatiety. Thirdly, when a man is too quickly and lightly fenfible of the fruit of his virtue, being too much elated with the praife, applaufe, honour, and favour yielded him; for which there is a good piece of ad- vice : " Beware left you fee m unacquainted «' with great matters, that are thus pleafed ^^ with afmall matter, as if it were great."
But in truth, a diligent covering of de-^
fe£ls is of no lefs importance, than a difcreet
and dexterous oftentatlon of virtues; which
i^ effedled by caution, colour, and confi-
I dence.
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 309
dencci Caution is, when we prudently keep ofF from thofe things to which we are not e- qual : whereas bold and unquiet fpirlts'will be thruiling themfelves, without judgment, into matters that they are not ufed to, and fo publifh and proclaim their own defe6lSo Colour is, when we fagaciouily and wifely prepare and make way to have a favourable and commodious conftrutlion made of our faults and defedls, as proceeding from ano- ther caufe, or tending to fome other purpofe than is generally conceived. For as to the covers of faults the poet fays well : " Many *' times a vice lies hid by its nearnefs to a " virtue." Wherefore if we perceive a de- feat in ourfelves, our endeavour muft be to borrow the perfon and colour of the next bordering virtue, under whofe fhadow it may be concealed : for inftance ; he that is dull, mufl pretend gravity ; he that is a coward, rnildnefs; and fo for thereft. This alfo is of ufe, to pretend fome plaufible caufe, that mduced us to forbear doing our beft, and exerting our ntmoft ftrength ; that fo, what is not in our power may feem not to be in our will to do. As for confidence, it is in- deed an impudent, but yet the fureft and X 3 mod
JiO THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE*
mofl efFe(£lual remedy : namely, for a man to profefs to defpife, and to fet at nought, what in truth he is not able to attain ; ac- cording to the principle of wife merchants, with whom it is familiar to raife the price of their own commodities, and to beat down that of others. But there is yet another kind of confidence, even more impudent than this; which is, to face out a man's own defeds, to boaft of and obtrude them upon opinion, as if he conceived that he was befl in thofe things wherein he moft fails; and in order to put this cheat upon others the more eafily, to pretend a diffidence of him- felf in thofe things, wherein, in truth, he is beft, as we fee in the poets ; for a poet re- citing his verfes, if you except any particu- lar verfe, he will prefently fay; '* And yet '' this line coft me more labour than any of " the reft.'* And then he will bring you fome other line, as though he fufpedled that himfelf, and afk your judgment of it, which yet he knows well enough to be the beft in the number, and liable to no exception at all. But above all, as to the prefent bufinefs of fetting the faireft glofs upon himfelf be- fore others, and maintaining his right in all
points.
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 3H
points, nothing, in my judgment, avails more, than for a man not to difarm and ex- pofe himfelf to injuries and contumehes, by an exceffive goodnefs and fweetnefs of na- ture ; but rather in all things to fhoot out now and then fome fparks of a fpirit free and generous, and carrying with it as much fling as honey : which kind of fortified car- riage, together with a prompt and prepared refolution to vindicate himfelf from affronts, is impreffed upon fome men by accident, and a kind of inevitable neceflity, by reafoii offomewhat inherent in their perfon or for- tune ; as it happens in deformed perfons and baftards, and in perfons any way difgraced ; upon which account fuch men, if they do not want virtue, are commonly fuccefsful.
As for the declaring of a man's felf, that is a far different thing from the often- tation of it ; for it refers not to mens vir- tues or defedts, but to the particular ac- tions of life ; in which point nothing is more politic than to obferve a wife and difcreet mean in difclofing or concealing our thoughts touching particular adions : for although profound fecrecy, and concealing of coun- X 4 fels,
312 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
fels, and that manner of managing bufinefs, which works all in the dark, be a thing fome- times moflprofperouSjand to be admired ; yet it often happens, that diflimulation begets er- rors, and enfnares the difl'embler himfelf. For we fee the greateft politicians that ever were, have made no fcruple of profeffing freer ly, and without diffimulation, the ends they aimed at. Thus L. Sylla openly declared, *' That he wifhed all men happy or unhap- " py, as they were his friends or enemies." So Ccefar^ when he firfl went into Gaul^ bold- ly profefled, " That he had rather be iirft *' in an obfcure village, than fecond at ** RomeT The fame Cafar^ when the war was now begun, did not play the dilTembler, if we hearken to what Cicero reports of him : " The other (meaning Cajar) refufes not ; *' nay in a manner requires to be called, " what he is, a tyrant." In like manner we fee in a letter of Cicero to Atticus^ how far from a diffembler Augujius Cdsjar was ; who, in his very entrance upon affairs, when he was the darling of the fenate, neverthe- lefs was wont in his harangues to the people to fwear in this form : " So may I attain the
*' honours
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. -^12
«' honours of my father:" and this was no kfs than tyranny itfelf. It is true, to abate the envy of it a little, he ufed at the fame time to flretch forth his hand to a flatue of Julius Co'fars, which was ereaed in the Roftra: and men laughing and wondering faid, " Is it poffible? Or did you ever hear " the like?" and yet thought he meant no hurt, he did it fo handfomely and ingenu- ouily. And thefe were profperous in all their doings. Pompey, on the other fide, who tended to the fame ends by ways more fhaded and obfcure, as Tacitus fays of him : '' More '' fecret, but nothing better:" and Salluft concurs in the fame charge; " Of a modefl: '' countenance, but an immodell: mind;'* made it liis entire bufniefs by infinite ftratL gems, deeply hiding his defires and ambi- tion, to reduce the republic in the mean time to anarchy and confufion ; to the end ihe might, of neceffity, caftherfelf into his arms, and fo the fovereign power be devolved, upon him againft his will, in appearance, and en- deavours to the contrary. And when' he thought he had gained his point, by beino- made Conful alone, of which there was no precedent, he was not the nearer; fortius
realbn,
314 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE,
reafon, becnufe thofe that, without a doubt, would have co-operated with him, under- ftood him not : fo that he was forced in the end to go the beaten and common track of getting arms and an army into his hands, under colour of oppofing defar. So flow, cafual, hazardous, and commonly unfortu- nate are thofe counfels which are covered with profound diffimulation ! And 'Tacitus feems to have been of the fame fentiment in this matter, when he determines the artifice of Emulation to be a wifdom of an inferior form, in compaiifon of political arts, at- tributing thofe to Tiberius y thefe to Augujlus C(^Jar : for fpeaking of Livia^ he faith thus : *' That fhd was a good compofition of the *' arts of her hulband, and the fimulation *' of her fon." For furely the continual habit of diffimulation is but a weak and fluggifh cunning, and not greatly politic.
As to the bending and fafhioning of the mind, we mufl indeed endeavour with all our might, that the mind be made pliant and obedient to occafions and opportunities, and that it be not any way ftifF or refractory towards them. For nothing is a greater
hin-
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
SIS
hindrance to bufinefs, or to the eftablifhing of mens fortune, than this: IJem manebatj neque idem decebat: that is, when men con- tinue the fame, and follow their own bent, though occalions are changed : therefore hlvy^ when he brings in Cato-Major as the mofl expert architect of his fortune, does well to annex this, that he had a verfatile wit, which he could command and turn any way : and hence it is, that grave and folem.n wits, and fuch as cannot change, have ge- nerally more dignity than felicity. But this weaknefs is implanted in fome men by nature, being of themfelves difpofed to be vifcous and knotty, and unapt to turn : in others it has obtained by cuftom, which is a fecond nature, and from a conceit, which eahly fteals into mens minds, that they ought by no means to change a courfe of a£ling, which they have found good and profperous by former experience. For Ma- chiavel notes wifely in Fabius Maxinms^ that he was for keeping tooth and nail to his old inveterate cuftom of delaying and protradling the war, when the nature of the war was altered, and required brilkermeafures. Again, in others the lame weaknefs proceeds from
want
^l6 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
want of judgment; when men do not dlA cern in time the periods of things and ac- tions, but turn too late, when the opportu- nity is flipped. Some liich thing as this Dc- mojihenes reprehends in his Athenians^ faying, •* That they are like country fellows playing ** in a fencing- fchool, who after they have *' received a blow, turn their fliield to the *' guard of that part where they were flruckj *' and not before*" In others again this comes to pals, becaufe they are loth to lofe the labour taken in that way they iiave onc6 entered into, nor do they know how to found a retreat ; but rather trufl to get the better of occafions by their perfeverance : and yet in the end, when they fee no other remedy^ then they come to it with difadvantage.
There are fome particular precepts con- ducive to this end: thefirfl, that this archi- te6l of ills fortune Ihould accuflom his mind^ to eftimate and rate the price and value of things, in proportion as they conduce, more or lefs, to his particular fortune and ends; and that he do this fubflantially, and not fuperficially. For wc fliail find the logical part of fome mens minds good, but the ma^
thema-
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 317
thematlcal part erroneous : that is, they can well judge of confequences, but not of pro- portions and comparifon ; preferring things of fhew and fenfe before things of fubftance and effe^l. So fome fall in love with accefs to princes, others with popular fame and applaufe, fuppoling they are things of great purchafe, when in many cafes they are but matters of envy, peril, and impediment. So fome meafure things according to the labour and difficulty, or afiiduity, which are fpent about them ; and think if they are ever moving, that they muft needs advance and proceed: as Ccefar faid contemptuoufly of Cato UticenfiSj defcribing how laborious and indefatigable he was to no great purpofe : Hac omnia magno Jludlo agebat: " All thefe ^^ things he profecuted with laborious ef- " fort." Hence it is that men many time^ abufe themfelves, in thinking if they have the favour and patronage of fome great and honourable perfon, all things muft fuc- ceed to their defire ; whereas the truth is, that not the greateft, but the fitteft inftru- ments, fooncft and moft happily accomplifh a work.
And
3l8 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
And for the true direction of the mathe- matical part of the mind ; that is, for the due marfhaUing of mens purfuits towards their fortune, as they are more orlefs mate- rial ; I hold the order to be this : firft, the amendment of their own minds. For the remove of the impediments of the mind will fooner clear the paffages of fortune, than the obtaining fortune will remove the impedi- ments of the mind. In the fecond place I fet down wealth and means ; which per- chance moft men would have placed firft, becaufe of the general ufe they bear towards all variety of occafions. But that opinion I may condemn for the like reafon that Ma- chlavel does in the other, that money is the iinews of war; " Whereas," fays he, "the *' true fmews of war are no other than the *' iinews of mens arms." In like manner it may be truly affirmed, that it is not money that is the Iinews of fortune, but it is the Iinews and fleel of mens minds, wit, courage, l}oldnefs, refolution, temper, induflry, and the like. In the third place I fet down re- putation, becaufe of the peremptory tides and currents it has; which, if they be not taken in their due time, are feldom recovered, 2 it
It being extremely hard to plaj an after-game of reputation. And in the lafl place I fet down honour, which is more eafily won by any of the other three, much more by all iu conjunction, than any of them can be pur- chafed by honour. To conclude this pre- cept, as there is order and priority in matter, fo is there in time ; the prepoflerous placing whereof is one of the moil common errors ; while men fly to their ends when they ihould ftudy their beginnings; and do not take things in order of time as they come on, but arrange, them according to great- nefs, and not according to inftance; not ob- ferving the good precept :
^iod nunc bi/Iaif agarmis,
ViRG.Paft. IX.66,
Let
us mma our wa
*' Another fong requires another day."
Dryden:
The fecond precept is, that we beware how, upon a fort of greatnefs and prefump- tion of mind, we engage in matters too dif- ficult ; for touchins: mens fortune the coua- I'el is excellent :
Falls accede Dcifjue.
Let
^30 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
Let ns look about us on every fide, and obferve where things are open, where fluit and obflrucled, where eafy, where difficult ; and let us not mifemploy onr (Irength, where the way is not paffable. By doing thus we Ihall both preferve ourfelves from being- foiled, and win the opinion of moderation ; offend the fewer, and finally acquire an opi- nion of felicity, while thofe things which naturally would, of their own accord, have come to pais, fhall be attributed to our in- duftry.
The third precept is, that we do not al- ways expert occafions, but fometimes pro- voke them, and lead them the way: which is alfo what Demojihenes intimates in high terms, that able men give the lead to, and are not led by affairs. For if we carefully attend it, we ihall obferve two different kinds of fufficiency in managing affairs, and liandhng bufmefs. For fome know how to make a dexterous ufe of occafions, but plot and invent nothing of themfelves : others are all for plots, but cannot lay hold of occafions that fall i\\ opportunely. Either of thefe
abi-
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 32I
abilities is very lame and imperfed without the other.
A fourth precept is, to undertake nothing that muft neceflarily employ a great deal of time; but to have that verfe ever founding in our ears :
Sedfugh mterea, fug'it irreparah'ile tempus. *' But time is lofl, which never will renew.'*
Dryden.
And the reafon why thofe who have ad- dided themfelves to laborious profeflions, as lawyers, orators, learned divines, writers of books, and the like, are lefs politic iii building and promoting their own fortunes, is no other than this ; that they want time, which is otherwife employed, to inform themfelves of particulars ; to wait upon oc- cafions, and to devife and projecl defigns which tend to the making of their fortune. Furthermore, in the courts of princes and flates you will find thofe moft expert in ad- vancing their own fortune, and invading
Vol. II. y that
322 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
that of Others, who are m no public office; but are perpetually taken up in this advance- ment of life that we are fpeaking of.
A fifth precept of this knowledge is, to imitate nature, which does nothing in vain. For a man ought, in every particular action, fo to carry the motions of his mind, and to have one thing under another, as if he can- not have what he feeks in the befh degree, yet to have it in a fecond, or even in a third : and if he can get no footing at all in the thing- he purpofes, then to turn the pains he has taken upon fome other end, than that he firft defigned : and if he cannot make any thing of it for the prefent, yet to make it as a feed of fofnewhat in time to come : and if he can derive no folid effed or fubftance from it, neither for the prefent nor for the future, yet to win fome good opinion and reputation by it. So that he Ihould exad an account from himfelf of every particular ac- tion, to reap fomewhat from it, and not to ftand amazed and confounded, if he fail in the principal fcope of his intentions ; for nothing is more impolitic than to be wholly and folely taken up with one thing : for he that
is
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 323
IS fo, lofes infinite occafions which inter- vene, and are many times more proper and propitious for fome thing he fliall need after- wards, than for that which he urges for the preient ; and therefore men muft be perfect in that rule : H(^c oportet facere^ et ilia non omittere.
A lixth precept of this knowledge is, for a man not to engage himfelf peremptorily in any thing, though it may feem at firil fight not very liable to accident, but ever to fecure a retreat.
A feventh precept of this knowledge is, that ancient precept of B/as, not conftrued to any point of perfidy, but only to caution and moderation: "Both love, as though >' you were to hate, and hate, as though *' you were to love." For it utterly betrays all utility for men to embark themfelves too far into unfortunate friendfhips, troublefome fpleens, and humorous envies or emula- tions.
Though I have continued this beyond the
meafure of an example, yet they are only
Y 2, Iketches
324 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
iketches of what are deficient for others to enlarge on. But as Cicero^ when he fets down an idea of a perfect orator, does not mean that every pleader fhould be fuch ; and fo likewlfe when a prince or a courtier has been defcribed bj fuch as have handled thofe fubje(5ls, the mould has ufed to be made according to the perfection of the art, and not according to common practice : fo I underftand it, that it ought to be done in the defcription of a politic man : I mean politic for his own fortune,
The precepts which we have laid down, may be called good arts : for as to evil arts, if a man becomes a difciple to Machiavel^ he will be taught: " that the reputation of •* virtue is conducive, but virtue itfclf in- *' jurious to fortune:" and " that men are *' befl: retained in fubfervience to our will by *' fear; therefore they ought always to be *' involved in difficulty and danger :" fo this politician feems to be what the Italians call, II feminatore delle fpine: *' a thorn fo we r." Similar is that cited by Cicero: *' Let our " friends fall, provided our enemies perifh :" and that of Cataline: " If a fire be raifed in
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 325^
*« my fortunes, Twill extinguifh it not with *« water, but ruin;" or the maxim of Ly- Jander : " That children are to be deceived " with comfits, and men with oaths ;" and the like corrupt and pernicious pofitions; of which there are more in number than of the good and found : if any man be delighted with fuch polluted wifdom, I deny not but fuch an one, difpenfmg with all the laws of charity and virtue, and being wholly enflaved to the prefhng his fortune, may, with more compendioufnefs and fpeed, advance it: but it is in life, as it is in ways, the (hortefl way is commonly the fouleft; nor indeed is the fairefl way the mofl tedious.
But men fhould be fo far from applying themfelves to fuch corrupt and crooked arts, that they ought rather to fet before their eyes, not only that general map of the world, *' That all things are vanity and vexation of *' fpirit;" but many other more particular direClions, vh. " That being itfelf, without <« well-being, is a curfe; and the greater *' the being, the greater the curfe:" and, *' That the highefl reward of virtue, is «< virtue herfelf; as alfo the feverefl puniih- y 3 " ment
326 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
*' ment of vice, is vice itfelf :" according to what the poet fays excellently :
^ae vob'is, qu<s d'lgna vlr'i, pro tallbus aiijis Pram'ia pojfc rear folv'i ? Pulcherrima primum Dii morcf/^ue dahunt vejlri.
ViRG. ^n. IX. 217, &c,
*' Ye brave young men, what equal gifts can we, *' In recompence of fuch defert, decree ? *' The grcateft, fure, and bed you can receive, *' The Gods, and your own confcious worth will give."
Dryden.
Further, while men are turning their thoughts every way, how they may heft confult their advancement in the world, they ought to look up to the divine judgments, and eternal providence, which very often fubverts and brings to nought the machina- tions and evil counfels, though never fo pro- found, of the v/icked ; according to that of fcripture : " He hath conceived iniquity, and *' (hall bring forth a vain thing." Though men ihould refrain from injury, and evil arts, yet this reftlefs, inceffant afpiring to the height of fortune, pays not the tribute of our time due unto God : who, as we may fee, demands and fets apart for himfelf a I tenth
THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE. 327
tenth of our fubftance, and a feventh of our time. For to what purpofe were it to have an ere6l face towards heaven, and a fpirit groveling upon earth, and eating duft Ukc the ferpent ? An obfervation which even the heathen could make :
Atq^ue affl'ig'n humo divine particulam aura^
Should any man flatter himfelf, that he refolves to employ his fortune well, though he fhould obtain it ill ; as was faid oi Auguflus Co'far^ Tundi Septimius Sevenis : " That either *' the}' fhould never have been born, or never " have died ;" they did fo much mifchief in the purfuit of their fortune, and fo much good when they were at the fummit; let him take this with him, that fuch compen- fation of evil by good may be allowed after , the facl, but is defervedly condemned in the purpofe. Laftly, it would not be amifs for us, in this ardent purfuit of fortune, to cool ourfelves a little, with that elegant conceit of the emperorC/M;-/^Jthe Fifth, in his inftrudi- ons to his fon : " That fortune has fomething " of the nature of women, who for the moll: *' part fcom fully turn off humble fervants Y4 " that
328 THE ARCHITECT OF HIS FORTUNE.
*' that are too eager in their courtfhip." But this laft remedy is for thofe whofe tafte, from fome diflemper of mind, is corrupted. Let men rather build upon that foundation which is the corner-ftone of divinity and philofophy : " Firft feek ye the kingdom *' of God, and all thefe things ihall be added *' unto you :" and the precept of philofo- phy: *' Seek firfl the goods of the mind, *' and the reft fhall be fupplied, or their ab- *' fence fhall not be prejudicial." And altho' the human foundation is fomewhat fandy, as jBr^//z/J exclaimed : " I reverenced thee, O *' virtue, as a thing facred, but thou art an *' empty name :" yet the divine foundation is fettled upon a rock. And here we conclude the do6lrine of the courfe of life for advance- ment in the world.
o N
ON INSPIRED DIVINITY. ^2^
O N
INSPIRED DIVINITY,
nPHE prerogative of God comprehends the whole man ; and extends as well to the reafon, as to the will of man; to the end, that man may renounce himfelf wholly, and draw near unto God. Wherefore, as we are to obey the divme law, though we find a relu6lance in our will ; fo are we to believe the word of God, though we find a reluc- tance in our reafon. But '' that faith which " was accounted to Abraham for righteouf- " nefs," wasof fuch a point as that at which Sarah laughed ; who therein was an image of natural reafon. For if we confider the thing aright, it is more worthy to believe than to know ; as we now know; fince in knowledge man's mind fuffers from fenfe ; but in belief it fuffers from fpirit, and fuch an one as it holds far more authorifed than itfelf, and fo fuffers from the worthier agent. The cafe is otherwife in the flate of glory ;
for
§30 ON INSPIRED DIVINITY.
for then *^ faith fliall ceafe, and we fhal| *' know, as we are known.'*
Wherefore we may conclude, that fa- cred theology muft be drawn from the word of God, not from the Ught of nature, or the didates of reafon. For it is written, '' The " heavens declare the glory of God :" but we find it no where written, the heavens declare the will of God. Of this it is pro- nounced : Ad legem et teji'imtmia ; Ji non fece- rmt fecundum verbum illiid, &c. Nor does this hold only in thofe great myfleries of the Deity, of the creation, of the redemption, but appertains alfo to the moral law, truly interpreted. For it mufh be confeffed, that a great part of the moral law is of that per- fedion whereunto the light of nature cannot afpire. Though men have, even from tlie light andlaw^ of nature, fome notions of vir- tue, vice, juftice, wrong, good, and evil, the light of nature is to be underftood in two fenfes : firft, as it fprings from fenfe, induc- tion, reafon, argument, according to the laws of heaven and earth : fecondly, as it is imprinted and fhines upon the fpirit of man, by an inward inftincl, according to the law
of
ON INSPIRED DIVINITY. ^^T
of confclence, which Is a kind of fpark and relic of his former and primitive purity: in which latter fenfe chiefly the foul partici- pates of fome light to behold and difcern the perfection of the moral law; which light however is not altogether clear, but of fuch fort as rather to check the vice, than fully to inform the duty: fo then the do£lrine of re- ligion, as well moral as myftical, depends upon divine revelation.
The ufenotwlthftanding of human reafon hi fpiritual things, and the latitude of it, is very great and general : hence the Apoftle calls religion, " our reafonable fervice of " God." Nay, the very ceremonies and figures of the old law were full of reafon and fignifi cation, much more than the cere- monies of idolatry and magic, which were mute, not teaching, or even infinuatingany thing : but the Chriftian faith as in all things, fo particularly in this, deferves to be highly magnified, becaufe it holds and preferves the golden mediocrity, as to the ufe of reafon and difputation, which is the offspring of reafon, between the law of the Heathen, and the law of Mahomet, which have embraced
the
33* ^^ INSPIRED DIVINITY.
the two extremes : for the religion of the Heathen had no conftant beUef or confef- fion, but left all to the liberty of argument : and the religion of Mahomet, on the other fide, interdicts argument altogether; the one having the very face of error ; the other of impofture: whereas the Chriflian faith both admits and rejeds difputation, but ac- cording to due bounds.
The ufe of human reafon, in matters per- taining to religion, is of two forts : the one, in the conception and apprehenfion of the mylleries of God revealed to us ; the other, in the inferring and deriving of doclrine and direction from them. As to the conception of the myfleries, we fee God vouchfafes to defcend to the weaknefs of our capacity, fo exprelling and unfolding his myfleries, as they may bed be comprehended by us; and grafting, in a manner, his revelations, and holy do6lrine, upon the conceptions and notions of our reafon ; and fo applying his infpirations to open our underlfanding, as the form of the key is fitted to the ward of the lock. In which refpecl notwithflanding we ought not to be wanting to ourfelves ;
for
ON INSPIRED DIVINITY. 333
for fince God hlmfelf makes ufe of the means ofourreafon in his illuminations, we ought alio to exercife and turn the fame everyway, by which we may become more capable to receive and imbibe the holy myfteries ; with this caution, that the mind be dilated, ac- cording to its model, to the amplitude of the myfleries ; and not the myfteries ftraitened and contraded to the narrownefs of the mind.
As for inferences, we ought to know, that there is allowed us a ufe of reafon and argu- mentation in myfteries fecondary and refpec- tive, though not original and abfolute. For after the articles and principles of religion are once placed, and wholly exempted from the examination of reafon, it is then per- mitted unto us to make deductions and in- ferences from them, and according to the analogy of them, for our better dire£lion. In things natural indeed this holds not ; for both the principles themfelves are examinable by indudion, though not by fyllogifm : and beiides, thofe principles, or firft pofitions, have no repugnancy with that reafon which draws down and deduces the inferior pofi.
tions.
334 ON INSPIRED Divinity.
tions. The cafe is otherwife in religion, where hoth the firft politions are their own fupporters, and fubfifl by themfelves ; and again, they are not regulated by that reafon which deduces the confequent propofi tions. Nor does this hold in religon alone, but in other fciences alfo, both of greater and^fmaller nature ; namely, wherein there are not only pofitions, but a6ls of authority ; for in fuch alfo there can be no ufe of abfolute reafon : fo in human laws, there are many grounds and maxims, which are, placita juris, politive upon authority, and not upon reafon; and therefore not to be difputed : but what is rnofl: juft, not abfolutely but relatively, and according to the analogy of thofe maxims which affords a large field of difputation. Such therefore is that fecondary reafon that has place in divinity, which is grounded upon the placits of God.
And as there is a double ufe ofhu man reafon in divine matters, fo in the fame ufe alfo there is a double excefs : the one, when too curious an enquiry is made into the manner of the myftery ; the other, when as great authority is attributed to inferences as to principles.
We
ON INSPIRED DIVINITY. -^^^
We have an hipLance of the firft in Nicodemus, who obftinately enquires, " How can a man " be born when he is old ?" Of the fecond, in thofe who arrogantly vouch their opinions by anathemas : it would therefore be a whole- fome and very ufeful courfe, if a fober and diligent treatife was compiled, which might give direaions concerning the true limits and ufe of reafon in fpiritual things; and w^ould be a kind of opiate medicine, not only to quiet and lay afleep the vanity of curious fpeculations with which the fchools labour, but hkewife to calm and mitigate the fury of controverfies, wherewith the church labours. For it cannot but open mens eyes to fee that many controverfies do merely'relate to that which is either not revealed or pofitive ; and that many others do grow upon weak and obfcure inferences or deduftions. So it is a thing of great moment and ufe well to define what, and of what latitude thofe points are, which difcorporate men from the body of the church, and exclude them from the commu- nion and fellowship of the faithful. Now, if any one thinks this has been done long- ago, let him well confider with what fince- rity and moderation. In the mean time it is
likely,
336 ON INSPIRED DIVINITY.
likely, that he who makes mention of peace, will receive Jehus anfwer to the meflenger, " Is it peace Jehu?'' " What haft thou to *' do with peace? Turn, and follow me." Peace is not the thing that moft people love, but party.
Seeing the parts of holy fcripture, as to the information of theology, are lo great, we ought efpecially to confider their interpreta- tion. Nor do we here fpeak of the authority of interpreting them, which is eftahlifhed in the confent of the church, but of the manner of interpreting them. This is of two forts; methodical and folute, or at large; for thefe divine waters, which infinitely excel thofe of Jacobs well, are drawn forth much in the fame manner, as natural waters ufed to be out of wells, which are either forced up into a ciftern, and fo conveyed and derived by pipes for pubhc and private ufe ; or elfe are drawn in veffels where they fpring, for occaiional ufe. The former fort of which, though it feems to be the more ready, yet in my judgment, is more fubje6t to corruption. This is that method which has exhibited inito us the fcholaftic divinity, whereby
divinity
ON INSPIRED DiVlNITr, 337
divinity has been reduced into an art, as into a ciftern ; and the ftreams of axioms and pofitions derived and diftributed from thence unto all parts.
In this men have fought three things ; a fummary brevity, a compared ftrength, and a complete perfedion : the two firfl of which they fail to find, and the laft they ought not to feek. As to brevity, we fee in all fummary methods, while men propofe to abridge, they give caufe to dilate ; for the fum or abridgment by contradion becomes obfcure, the obfcurity requires expofition, and the expofition is deduced into large com- mentaries, or into common places and titles, which grow larger than the original writings, whence the fummary was extraded. So we fee the volumes of the School-men are tnuch greater than the firft writings of the fathers, whence the mafler of the fentences made his fum or colledion : fo in like man- ner the volumes of the modern dodors of the civil law, exceed thofe of the ancient ju- rlfconfults, of which Tribonian compiled the digeft. So that this courfe of fum and com- mentaries is that which does infallibly make Vol. II. z the
'338 ON INSFIRBD DIVINITY.
tlie body of fclences more immenfe in q"ua« lity, and more bafe in fubftance.
And for ftrength, it is true, that know- ledge reduced into exa6l methods have a fhew of ftrength, in that each part feems to fupport and fuftain the other : but this is more fatisfaftory than fubftantial, like unto buildings which ftand by architecture and compa6lion, which are more fubjeft to ruin than thofe that are built ftronger in their feveral parts, though lefs compared. But it is plain, that the more you recede from your grounds, the weaker you conclude; and as in nature the more you remove your- felf from particulars, the greater peril of error you incur : fo much more in divi- nity, the more you recede from the fcriptures by inferences and confequences, the more weak and dilute are your pofitions.
As for perfection or completenefs in di- vinity, it is not to be fought, which makes this courfe of artificial divinity the more fuf- peCled ; For he that will reduce a knowledge into an art, will make it round and uniform : but in divinity many things muft be left
abrupt,
ON INSPIRED DIVINITY. ^39
abrupt, and concluded with this: '' O the " depth of the vvitdom and knowledge of *' God, how unfathomable are his judg- *' ments, and his ways untraceable !" So again the Apoftle fays, "We know in part ;". and to has^e the form of a whole, where there is but matter for a part, cannot be without fupplies by fuppofition and pre- fum prion ; and therefore I conclude, that the true ufe of thefe fummary methods has place in inftitutions or introductions pre- paratory to knowledge: but in them, or by dedu cement from them, to handle the main body and fubftance of knowledge, is in all Iciences prejudicial, and in divinity dangerous.
As to the interpretation of the fcriptures folute and at large, there hav^e been various kinds devifed, fome of them rather curious and unfafe, than fober and warranted. How- ever it mufl be confefled, that the fcrip- tures being given by infpirationp and not by human reafon, differ from all other books in the author; which confequently draws on fome difference to be ufed by the expofitor: for the inditer of them did know Z 2 four
340 ON INSPIRED DIVINITY.
four things which no man attains to know! thefe are, the myfteries of the kingdom of glory; the perfeftion of the laws of nature; the fecrets of the heart of man ; and the fu- ture fucceffion of all ages. As to the firft, it is faid, " He that prelTeth into the light, " fhall be oppreffed of the glory." And again; " No man fhall fee my face and " live." Tothefecond; " When he pre- *' pared the heavens I was prefent, when •' by law and compafs he enclofed the deep/* To the third ; " Neither was it needful " that any fhould bear witnefs to him of *' man, for he knew well what was in man." And to the laft ; '* From the beginning are *' known to the Lord, all his works."
From the former two of thefe have been drawn certain fenfes and expofitions of fciip- ture, which had need be contained within the bounds of fobriety ; the one fpiritual, and the other philofophical. As to the for- mer, man is not to anticipate the time *' when we (hall fee face to face, now we *' fee through a glafs darkly :" neverthelefs, there feems to be a liberty granted to the polifhing of this glafs, or fome moderate
expli-
i
ON INSPIRED DIVINITY. 34I
explication of this obfcurity. But to prefs too far into it cannot but caufe a diflblution and overthrow of the fpirit of man ; for in the body there are three degrees of what we receive into it; aUment, medicine, and poi- Ibn : aliment is that which the nature of man can perfectly alter and digeft ; medicine that which is partly converted by nature, and partly converts nature; and poifon is what works wholly upon nature, but on which nature can have no efTe<£l: : fo in the mind, whatever knowledge reafon cannot at all work upon and convert, is a mere lntox-» ication, and endangers a diflblution of the mind and underftanding. Bat the latter docStrine has been lately inftituted by the fchool of Paracelfus and others, who have pretended to find the truth of all natural philofophy in the fcriptures ; fcandalizing and traducing all other philofophy as hea- thenifh and profane. But there is no fuch enmity between God's word and his works; neither do they give honour to the fcriptures, as they fuppofe, but debafe them. For to feek heaven and earth in the word of God, whereof it is faid, " heaven and earth fhall *♦ pafs, but my word fhall not pafs," is to Z 3 feek
34^ ON INSPIRED DIVINITY.
feek temporal things among eternal: and as to feek divinity in philofophy is ^' to leek •*' the living amongft the dead :" fo to feek philofophy in divinity is to feek the dead among the living. Neither are the pots or layers, whofe place was in the outward part of the temple, to be fought in the holiefl: place of all, where the ark of the teftimony was feated : neither is the fcope or purpofe of God to exprefs matters of nature in the fcriptures, otherwife than in paflage, and for application to man's capacity, and to matters moral or divine. And it is a true rule : Authons allud agentis parva authorltas. For it were a ftrange conclullon, if a man fliould ufe a fimilitude for ornament or il- luftration's fake, borrowed from nature or hiftory, according to vulgar conceit, as that of a balililk, an unicorn, centaur, briareus, or an hydra, that therefore he mufl be thought to affirm the matter thereof politively to be true. To conclude therefore thefe two in- terpretations, the one by redudion or senig- matical, the other philofophical or phyfical, which have been received and purfiied in imitation of the Rabbins and Cabalijls^ are to be confined with a Noll altumfapere, fed time :
'* Do
ON INSPIRED DIVINITY.
343
«' Do not carry your enquiries too high, but *' be cautious."
But the two latter points known to God and unknown to man, touching the fecrets of the heart, and the fucceifions of time, make a jufl: and found difference between the manner of the expofition of the fcrip- tures, and all other books ; for it is an ex- cellent obfervatjon, which has been made upon the anfwers of our Saviour Chrift, to many of thequeflions which were propound- ed to him, that they are Impertinent to the ftate of the queftion demanded ; the reafoa is, becaufe not being like man, who knows man's thoughts by his words, but knowing their thoughts immediately, he never aii- fwered their words, but their thoughts. Much in the like manner it is with the fcrip- tures, which being written to the thoughts of men, and to the fucceffioii of all ages, with a forefight of all herefies, contradidlons, differing flates of the church, and par- ticularly of the ele6l, are not to be inter- preted only according to the latitude of the proper fenfe of the place, and refpe^llvely Z 4 towards
^44 ON INSPIRED DIVINITY,
towards that prefent occafion whereupon the words were uttered; or in precife congruity and contexture with thewords before or after, or in contemplation of the principal fcope of the place, but have in themfelves not only totally or colleclively^ but diftributively in claufes and words, infinite fprings and flreams of do6lrine to water the church iu every part: and therefore as the literal fenfe is like the main ftream or river : fo the moral fenfe chiefly, and fometimes the alle- gorical or typical are thefe, of which the church has mofl ufe : not that I wifh men to be bold in allegories, indulgent, or light in allulions ; but that I do much condemn that interpretation of the fcripture, which is only after the manner of men, in the in- terpretation of a profane book.
But that, form of writing in divinity, which in my judgment is, of all others, the moft rich and precious, is pofitive divi- nity colleded upon particular texts of fcrip- ture in brief obfervations, not dilated into common places involved in controverfies, ^pr reduced into method of art ; that abounds
in
ON INSPIRED DIVINITY, 345
In fermons which will vanifti, but defe6live in books which will remain, and wherein this age excels ; foi" I am perfuaded, and I may fpeak it with an Jbjit invidia verbo^ and no ways derogatory to antiquity, but as in a good emulation between the vine and the olive ; that if the choice and befl: of thofe obfervations upon texts of fcripture, which have been made difperfedly in fermons for the fpace of thefe forty years and more, (leaving out the largenefs of exhortations and applications of them) had been fet down in a continuance, it had been the befl work of divinity which had been written fince the time of the Apoflles. And certainly as wines which at the firfl treading run gently, are pleafanter than thofe forced by the wine- prefs, for thefe tafte of the flone and fkin of the grape ; fo thofe dodrines are exceeding wholefome and fweet, which flow from fcriptures gently prefled, and are not wrefted to controverfies or common-places. Such a treatife we will term the emanation of fcrip- ture into pofitive dodrines.
On
34^ ON THE MATTER OF DIVINITY.
On the matter of DIVINITY.
nPHE matter informed or revealed by divi- nity is of two kinds ; matter of belief, and truth of opinion, matter of fervice and ado- ration, which is alfo judged and directed by the former; the one being as the internal foul of religion, and the other as the exter- nal body thereof; therefore the heathen re- ligion was not only a worfhip of idols, but the whole religion was an idol in itfelf ; for it had no foul ; that is, no certainty of belief orconfeffion, as a man may well think, con- fidering the chief do6lors of the church were the poets ; and the reafon was, becaufe the heathen Gods were not jealous Gods, but were glad to be admitted into part, as they had reafon : neither did they refpe^l purity of heart, fo they might have external ho- nour and rites.
But out of theft two do refult and ifTue four main branches of divinity ; faith, mo- rals, liturgy, and government. Faith con- tains
ON THE MATTER OF DIVINITY. 34.7
tains the doclrlne of the nature of God, the attributes of God, and of the works of God. The nature of God confifts of three perfons in Unity of Godhead. The attri- butes of God are common to the Deity, or refpetftive to the Perfons. The works of God fummary are two, that of the creation, and that of the redemption : and both thefe works, as in total they appertain to the unity of the Godhead; fo in their parts they refer to tl:ie three perfons : that of the creation in the mafs of the matter, to the Father ; in the difpofitioa of the form, to the Son ; and in the continuance and confervation of the being, to the Holy Spirit: fo that of the redemption, in the election and counfel, to the Father; in the whole a£t and confum- mation, to the Son; and in the application, to the Holy Spirit ; for by the Holy Ghofl was Chrlft conceived in flefh, and by his operation are the eledl regenerated in fpi- rit. This work like wife we confider either effeaually in the ele6l, or privately in the reprobate, or according to the appearance in the vifible church.
For
34^ ON THE MATTER OF DIVINITY.
For morals, the dodrine thereof is con* tained in the law, which difclofes fin. The law itfelf is divided, according to the edition thereof, into the law of nature, the law moral, and the law pofitive ; and according to the ftyle, into negative and affirmative, prohibitions and commandments. Sin in the matter and fubje6l thereof, is divided ac- cording to the commandments : in the form, it refers to the three perfons in Deity ; fins of infirmity againfl the Father, whofe more fpecial attribute is power; fins of ignorance againfl: the Son, whofe attribute is wifdom ; and fins of malice againfl the Holy Ghofl, whofe attribute is grace or love. In the motions of it, either to blind devotion, or to profane and libertine t ran fg refill on, either in impofingreftraint, where God grants liberty, or in taking liberty, where God impofes re- ilraint. In the degrees and progrefs of it, it divides itfelf into thought, word, or a6l : and in this part I commend much the de- ducing of the law of God to cafes of confcl- ence , for that I take indeed to be a breaking, and not exhibiting whole, the bread oi life. But that which quickens both thefe ; doc»
I
ON THE MATTER OF DIVINITY* 349
do6lrInes of faith and manners is, the eleva-* tion and confent of the heart, to which appertain books of exhortation, holy medi« tation, chriftian refolution, and the Hke.
For the liturgy or fervice, it confifls of the reciprocal a£ls between God and man ; on the part of God, are the preaching of the word, and facraments, which are feals to the covenant, or as the vifible word: and on the part of man, invocation of the name of God, and under the law, facrifices, which were as vifible prayers or confeflions ; but now the adoration being in fpirit and truth, there remain only the offerings of the lips, although the ufe of holy vows, thankful- nefs and retribution may be accounted alfo as fealed petitions.
And for the government of the church, it confifts of the patrimony, franchifes, offices, jurifdidlions, and the laws of it, direding the whole : all which have two conlidera- tions ; the one in themfelves, the other, how they ftand compatible and agreeable to the civil ftate. This matter of divinity is handled either in form of inflru^lion of truth, or of
con-
350 ON THE MATTER OF DIVINITYi
confutation of falfehood. The declinatlong from religion, befides the primitive, which is atheifm^ and the branches thereof, are three ; herefies, idolatry, and witch-craft : herefies, when we ferve the true God with a falfe worfhip : idolatry, when we worfhip falfe Gods, fnppofing them to be true; and witch-craft, when we adore falfe Gods, knowing them to be wicked and falfe; for witch-craft is the height of idolatry. And yet we fee though thefe are true degrees, Samuel teaches us that they are all of a na- ture, when once there is a receding from the word of God; for he faith, ^laji peccatum ariolandi eft repugnare^ et quaji fcelus idolatrl^ nolle acquiefcere»
These things I have paffed over fo briefly, becaufe I can report no deficiency concern- ing them ; for I find no fpace of ground that lies vacant and unfown in the matter of divinity; fo diligent have men been, ei- ther in fowing good feed, or in fowing tares.
Thus have I made it as it were a fmall globe of the intelledlual world as faithfully
as
ON THE MATTER OF DIVINITY. 3^1
cis I could, together with a defigtiation and defcription of thofe parts which 1 find either not conftantly occupied, or not fufficiently improved, by the induftry and labour of man : in which work, if I have, in any point, receded from the opinion of the an- cients, I would have it interpreted as done with a defign of proceeding in melius^ not in al'md^ with purppfe of amendment and profi- ciency, and not of change and innovation. For 1 could not be true to myfelf, nor to the argument I handle, if I were not willing to go beyond others, but yet not more willing than to have others go beyond me again ; which may the better appear by this, that I have propounded my opinions naked and un- armed, not feeking to pre-occupy the liberty of mens judgments by difputatious confuta- tions. For in any thing that is well fet down 1 am in good hopes, that if the firfl reading moves an objedion, the fecond reading will make an anfwer : and in thofe things wherein I have chanced to err, I am fure I have of- fered no violence to truth by litigious argu- ments, which certainly have this contrary efFecl and operation, that they add authority
to
35^ ON THE MATTER OF DIVINITY*
to error, and deftroy the authority of that which is well invented; for controverfy is an honour to falfehood, as on the other fide it is a repulfe to truth. But the errors I claim and challenge to myfelf are my own. The good, if any be, is due, tanquam adeps facri- ficll^ to be incenfed to the honour firft of the Divine Majefty, and next of your Majeftyj to whom on earth I am moft bounden.
Deo GLo^i.^r ^ ..
Ui-^A:r
The
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 353 T II E
HISTORY
O F
LIFE AND DEATH.
A NTIENT is the faying and complaint, that life is Ihort, and art long. There- fore our labours intending to perfed arts, we fhould, by the affiftance of the author of truth and lite, confider by what means the life of man may be prolonged. For long life being an increaiing heap of fins and forrows lightly efleemed of Chriftians af- piring to Heaven, fliould not be defpifed, becaufe it affords longer opportunity of do- ing good works. Moreover Amatus furvived the other difciples, and many fathers; efpe- cially many holy Monks and Hermits, liv- ed very long, whereby it feems that this bleffing of long life (fo often repeated in the law) was after our Saviour's time lefs dimlnifhed than other earthly benedictions. But the happinefs of long life is naturally
Vol. II. A a dehred,
354 HISTOUY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
defired, although the means to attahi it, through fah'e ophiions and vain reports, be hard to find ; the general opinion of phy- ficians concerning radical moifture, and natu- ral heat being decciveable, and the immode- rate praife of chymical medicine poffefiing others with hop'^s which prove fallacious.
That which admits reparation, remain- ing whole and found in effence, may be eternally preferved, as the veftal fire, where- upon phylicians and philofophers perceiv- ing that the bodies of living creatures, be- ing nourifhed, repaired, and refrefhed, grew old afterwards, and fpeedily perifhed; they fought death in an irreparable fubje£l, fup- pofing radical moifture incapable of folid reparation, from infancy there being no jufl reparation, but an unlike addition, fenfibly decayed by age, and at lafl: corrupted and diffolved. This conceit of theirs was igno- rant and vain, for young living creatures be- ing all over and wholly repaired, do by their increafing in quantity, and growing better in quality, fhew that if the meafure and manner of repairing decayed not, the matter of it might be eternal. But the decay in repairing proceeds from its 4 inequality
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH, 355
inequality of fome parts fufficiently, others hardly and badly in age, the bodies of men beginning thereby to undergo Me- %eitius^s torment, living in the embraces ot the dead until their total extindion, though eafily reparable, yet through fome par- ticular difficulty in the nutrition, decay. For fpirits, blood, fiefh, and fatnefs, are in the declining eflate of age eafily replen- ished, but there is much difficulty and danger in repairing the dry and porous parts, asm.em- branes, tunicles, nerves, arteries, veins, griftles, moil of the bowels, and all the organical and inflrumental parts. For when thofe parts that flioujd perform their office, to other adually reparable parts, being decayed in ftrength cannot execute their office, a general ruin follows, and parts naturally reflorable, through ^t^t€t^ tive organs of reparation, decreafe and de- cay. For the fpirit, like a light flame, continually feeds on bodies, and the ex-? ternal air confpiring therewith, fucks and dries the fabric and inflruments of the body, which are thereby decayed, and made unfit to perform the office of re^ paiang. And thefe are the true ways A a a wher^
356 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
whereby natural death approaches, de-. ferving due confideration: For how can natures courfe, if unknown, be helped or prevented : therefore the means where- by the confumption, or decay of man*s body may be prevented, and the repair- ing thereof furthered, are moft precious^ and worth knowing. The fpirits and air without are the chief caufes of confump- tion, and the general progrefs of nourilli- ment is the caufc of reftoration. For the fpirit within and the air without, works on dead bodies, flriving alfo to produce in living bodies the fame effeds, though weakened and retrained by the vital fpi- rits, and partly increafed by them. For bodies without life do a long while fubfift and endure without reparation : but the life of creatures, without due nourifhment and reparation fuddenly ' decays, and is extinguiihed like fire. Therefore a two- fold fearch is required, confidering man's body as lifelefs and unnourifhed ; and as living, and nourifhed.
OK
I
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 357
On the durability of NATURE.
A/TETALS are very durable, and conti- nue beyond all obfervation, age and ruft, not perfpiration niakiog them decay, gold excepted.
Quick-filver being a moifl and foft fub- ftance, is eafily rarined by the fire, but without fire neither decays by age or ga- thers rufl.
The harder fort of flones, and many Mine- rals, though expofed to the open air, are very durable, though much more fo lying in the earth.
Stones gather a kind of folder infiead of rafl ; but pearls and cryftal, though their clearnefs decays through age, are more dura- ble than Metals.
Stones on the north fide of pyramids, churches, and other buildings, decay fooner than on the fouth-fide, and confume; but iron, as appears by iron bars of windows, on the fouth-fide begin fooner than the north- fide to rull:. For in all putrefadion (as rufl; moifiiure haftens diffolution, and drynefs withering,
Aa 3 1'he
35^ HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
The flocks and bodies of hard trees being felled, and hewn into timber, or framed into works, lafl: many ages, yet their bo- dies differ ; fome being hollow, as the el- der-tree, outwardly hard, but having a foft pith in the middle. But of folid trees, fuch as the oak, the inward part (called the heart of the oak) is hardefl:.
The leaves and ftalks of plants and flow- ers continue not long, but either dif- folve into dufl, or rot : roots are more du- rable.
Bones of living creatures laft long, as appears by dead bones lying in charnel- houfes. Horns alfo are very durable, and teeth, as ivory, and fea-horfe teeth.
Hides alfo and ikins endure long, as it is evident by ancient parchment-books: paper alfo will lafl many ages, though not fo long as parchment.
Glass and burned bricks, alfo roafled flefli and fruits lafl longer than raw, becaufe the roafling prevents putrefaction; and by eva- cuating and venting the watery humour, preferves longer the oily humour.
Water is foonefl; devoured and dried by the air; oil on the contrary, evaporates
flowlv.
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. ^^g^
flowly, which in liquors and mixtures may- be difcerned. For paper wetted with water is at firft tranfparent, but afterward waxes white and clear again, lofnig that former tranfparency, the vapour of the water be- ing exhaled: but paper dipped in oil, is a long while tranfparent, the oil not being exhaled : fo that writings, by laying on them an oiled paper, and carefully draw- ing the letters difcerned through the pa- per, may be counterfeited.
All Gums are very durable, as alfowax and honey.
Other accidents alfo, as well as their own nature, make bodies endure or decay. For wood and flones, lying continually in the water, or air, endure longer than if they were fometimes wet and over-flowed; and flones placed in buildings north or fouth, as they lye in the mines, are more dura- ble; and plants live longer being remo- v^d and tranfplanted.
OBSERVATIONS.
IT is a certain pofition, that all bodies
which may be touched, have a fpirit with
A a 4 tau-
60 HISTORY OF T.TFE AND DEATif,
tangible parts, covered andinclofed, being the original caufe of dillolution and confump-* tion, prevented by detaining of the fpirit.
The fpirit is detained, either violently when condenfed and confined, or volun- tarily ; the fpirits being flack, and inactive in motion, and the air does not urge it to vent and Iflue forth: for hardnefs and oilynefs being durable qualities, do bind, fupple, and feed the fpirit, and keep it from the corruption of the air, which is in iiibflance like water, as flame to oil.
OF THE LONGEVITY OF PLANTS.
/^OLD Herbs with their roots and ftalks do every year fpring, and die ; as lettuce, purflane, wheat, and all kind of corn : yet the colder fort of herbs endure three or four years, as the violet, ftrawberry, primrofe, burnet, and forrell: but borage and buglofs are fhort lived ; borage living a year, buglofs Ibmewhat longer.
Hot herbs bear their age and years better, as hyfop, thyme, favory, marjoram, balm, mint, worm- wood, germander, fage, &c.
Fennels
HtSTORY OF LIFE AND DEATIL 361
Fennel, after the flalk is dead, buds forth again from the root : but pulfe and fweet marjoram can better endure age than win- ter, and will live and fiourifli being fet in Ji warm place, and defended from cold. For a knot of hyfTop, an ufual ornament of gardens, being twice clipped yearly, hai continued forty years,
Buflies and ihrubs llye threefcore years, and fome double as much. A vine of fix- ty years old is fruitful in age: rofemary well fet and planted, lives fixty years : bat bears-foot and ivy endure above an hun- dred years. The age of the refpafs is not difcerned, becaufe the head bendinp- to the earth, gets new roots hard to be perceived from the old.
The oldeft great trees are, tlie Oak, the Holm, wild-Afh, Elm, Beech, Chef- nut, Plane-ti^e, Fig-tree, Lot-tree, wild- Olive, Palm, and IMulberry; fome where- of live 800 years, and others 100.
The wood of fweet rozen trees is more durable than themfelves are in age; alfo the Cyprufs, Maple, Pine, Box, and Ju- mper, live not fo long as the former trees, bnt tbe tall Cedar is as long-lived.
.^ The
362 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
The Afh forward in bearing fruit, reach* eth to 100 years or more, and alfo the Cane, Maple, and Service-tree. But the Poplar, Willow, Sycamore, and Walnut-tree, live not fo long.
The Apple, Pear, Plumb-tree, Pomegra- nate, Orange, Citron, Medlar, Dog-tree, and Cherry-tree, being cleared from mofs, may live fifty or fixty years.
Great trees are generally long lived, and of a hard fubftance ; Mafl-trees, and Nut-trees live longer than fruit, and Berry- trees : and thofe whofe leaves, pufh out flow- ly, and fall off, continue longer than trees more forward in producing fruit and leaves; alfo wild foreft-trees live longer than or- chard, trees, and fharp friiit-trees than fweet fruit-trees.
OBSERVATIONS.
Aristotle well obferved the difference between plants and living creatures, in ref- pe6t of nourilhment and repairing ; namely, that the body of living creatures is con- f ned within certain bounds, and coming to a due proportion, is continued and pre-
ferved
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH*. ^6^
ferved by nourifhment : nothing that Is new growhig forth, except hair and nails, ac- counted excrements, whereby the vigour and ftrength of living creatures mufh ne- cefiarlly fooner decay and wax old : but trees putting forth new boyghs, branches, and leaves, thofe renewed parts being young, green, and flourifhing, more ftrongly and cheerfully attract nourifhment than dry branches, whereby the body, through which fuch nouriflmient pafles to the boughs, is moiflened with more plentiful nourifhment. This (though not obferved by Ariftotle, nor clearly difcufled ) is evident, becaufe woods and trees, by lopping their boughs and branches, flourifh more, and live longer.
OF DRYNESS.
T) Y fire and vehement heat fomc fub- -*-^ fiances are dried, others melted.
It dries the earth, flones, wood, cloth, and (kins, and melts metals, wax, gum, fuet, and the like.
It
5^4 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEAT{I*
But fire being vehement, at lafl dries up that which it has melted: for a hot fire makes metals (except gold) by evaporation lighter in weiglit, and more brittle. And ojily oily fubilances are by a hot fire fried a,nd roafted, becoming m.ore dry and hard.
The open air dries, but never melts ; as highways, and the face of the earth wet with fhowers, are hereby dried; and alfo liiien-cloaths hanged out in the air, and herbs, leaves, and -flowers growing in the ihade : and the r^ir warmed with the Sun- beams, (not difpofing it to putrefaction ) or moved w^ith winds^ dries much more on an open plain*
Age is a great but flow drier; for all natural bodies not rotting or putrefying, are dried by age, being the meafure of time, and the efi:e6l of the in-bred fpirit of bodies, fucking out the bodies moifture, thereby de- caying, and of outward air, multiplying above the inward fpirlts and moiflure of the body, and fo deftroying them.
Cold mofl: properly dries, for drynefs pro- ceeds from Ihrinking and gathering together, being the proper efi-ect of cold : but by the powerful warmth of fire, abating the weak- er
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 365
cr cold of winter, froft, and fnow, the dry- nefs of cold is not on men fo powerful, but iboner diffipated : yet froft, and jNIarch winds being dry and cold, lick up moiflure, and dry the earth more than the fun.
Chimncy-fmoak is a drier; for bacon and neats tongues are hung and dry'd in chim- nies, and perfumes of fweet-wood and Oly^ banum drying the brain, flops diftiliations and Catarrhs.
Salt dries (lowly both without and within, making fait fifli, through long faking, hard within.
By the application of fome hot gums and binding waters the fkin is dried,' and tilled with wrinkles.
The fpirit of flrong wine drying like fire, will make the yolk of an egg put into it, become white, and bake bread.
Powders dry, and fuck up moiflures like fpunges, or as find-dufl: thrown on a writ- ing, dries the ink: alfo the fmoothncfs and uniformity of a body (not admitting moifture to enter by 'the pores) accidentally caufes drynefs, by expofing the body to the air ; 48 jewels, looking-glaflies, and fword-blades, being breathed on, fcem at Urll to be cover-
366 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
ed with a vapour, which vanifhes after- wards like a cloud. •
In the eaft part of Germany, granaries are ufualij made in cellars under ground, whereiu wheat and other grains are kept in flraw, which being laid to a good thicknefs, expels and drinks up the moifture of the vault. Corn is kept thus twenty or thirty years from putrefadion, and both green and ferviceable to make bread. The like gra- naries have been ufed in divers countries,, as in Cappadocia, Thrace y and alfu in Spain.
Fruits, as Pomegranates, Citrons, Me- lons, Pears, and the like, and alfo flowers, as Rofes and Lillies, will keep long in earth- en veffels well flopped, although the air, their outward enemy, lets in through the velTel unequal heat and cold. Therefore lay the veilels clofely flopped, in the earth, or in {haded waters, as in the wells or Cif- terns of houfes ; but let fruits laid thus in water, be put in glafs-veflels rather than earth ea.
Generally, wdiatfoever is laid under tlie earth, and in cellars under ground, or deep in waters, retains natural vigour long- -er, than if kept above the earth.
Bunches
HISTORY OF LIFE AND EEATH. 367
Bunches of grapes in the country, kept in meal, will tafte fomewhat unpleafant, but are thereby preferved molft and green, alfo all hard fruits will keep long in meal, or faw-duft, or in a heap of found corn.
Fruits in liquors of their kind, refem- bling their flowers, will keep frefh, as Grapes in Wine, Olives in Oil, &c.
Pomegranates and Quinces keep long, being lightly dipped into the fea-w^ater, or fait water, and then dried in the open air
Fruits laid in Wine, Oil, and Pickle, are thereby long kept. Honey, and fpirits of wine, preferve them longer, but efpeci- ally Quick-filver.
Flies, Spiders, and Ants, being acci- dentally drowned, and buried in amber, and the gums of trees, their foft and tender bo- dies never rot or corrupt.
The nature alfo and quality of the nou- rifhment, as of the flame, makes candles burn long ; wax being more durable than fuet ; and wet, than dry fuet ; and' hard, than foft wax,
Trees, the earth about their roots being not every year, but every five or ten years
opened,
g68 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
Opened, and the fuperfluous boughs and branches cut away and pruned, will lafl the longer. xMio dunging and fpreading of Marie about trees, or much watering makes them fruitful, but not durable.
Willow-twigs, ferving nfually to bind trees, fteeped in water, become more flexi- ble: rods are fet in pitchers of watea* to keep them from drying, and bowls cleft with drynefs, being laid in the water clofe again.
Old trees having flood long without removing, if the earth be opened about their roots, will begin to put forth, an4 ilourifh.
Old fpent oxen taken from the plough, being put into frefh paflures, recover new tender flefh, and as fweet as if it were of sj ftcer.
OBSERVATIONS.
!MEN, like owls, wondrous fharp-fightevl in the darknefs of their own opinions, i\re blinded with the day-light of experience, .
The quality of drynefs, in confuming and deflroying the textuKC of bodies, has beea
History of life and death. 369
generally obferved ; but its gradual procefs m producing that efFe£l has not been noticed. The natural fpirits contained in bodies are the original caufes of it ; firft, in the refining moiflure into fpirit; fecondly, by their evar poration; thirdly, by the folid particles ap- proaching to one another from that evacua- tion. The fpirits enclofed in every tangible body are perpetually employed in altering ^nd converting to themfelves the particles capable of digeftion ; and therefore encreafe their quantity: this is evident from fub- ftances lofing their weight by drynefs; be- coming hollow and full of pores, and yield- ing an inward found: for by refining and converting to themfelves the grofs moiflure of bodies, they become lighter. The eva- poration of the fpirits is evident from fteams and vapours, or by the fmell of decaying odours ; but in age, by a gradual and infenfible perfpiration. Moreover, In clofe compad bo- dies, finding no pores to efcape through, they €xpel the particles that refifl: their motion to the furface ; which produces rufl in metals, and mouldinefs in undluous fubftances.
The contradlion of bodies, from the IpiritS flying off, though more obfcure in the opera-
VoL. II. Bb tioii,
^JO HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH*
tion, is no lefs certain ; for the fol id particles contra(^ and approach nearer to one another, in order to fill the vacant fpaces the fpirits formerly occupied. This is evident from wooden fubftances flirlnking, and fome- times opening into clefts. It is further evi- dent by withered bodies growing ihrivelled. For by contraction fome parts are feparated, and others drawn clofe into wrinkles; fuch as paper, parchment, and others, when ex- pofed to fire ihrivelup; for heat produces fuddenly, what is llowly and infenfibly per- formed by age. When the fpirits and moif- ture in bodies are entirely exhaufted, the parts no longer uniting are refolved into a mafs of duft, which diffipate by the touch i fuch as burnt paper, embalmed carcaffes &c. Fire produces drynefs only accidentally ; for by refining the fpirits they fly ofi", and the folid particles unite to fill the vacuities, Drynefs and putrefadion, though arlfing from the fame caufe, are different ; ^ for in the latter fome parts are^detained, which, by an infenfible operation on the particles that have not changed their place by contradion, pro- duce an uniformity in the whole mafs.
OP
History of life and death, 371
OF THE
DURATION OF LIFE in ANIMALS.
(CONCERNING the length and fhortnefs of life in living creatures, obfervations are light and fabulous : the unkindly life of tame creatures being - corrupted, and the life of wild beafts by enduring hard and hot .weather, fhortened. Neither do the great- nefs of their bodies, time of bearing, num- her of young ones, or time of growth, fome- times concurring together, fometimes dif- joined, afford any certain obferyatioiis.
Of all living creatures, except fome £t\v, it is reported, that man lives longefl, in whom all concomitant accidents meet in due proportion: ftature great and large; bear- ing in the womb nine months, one off-fpring commonly; growth till twenty.
The Elephant lives longer than any man does ordinarily : his bearing in the womb ten years is a fabulous report, or above a year. His bulk or body is exceeding great, growing twenty years; and his teeth are very flrong. The Elephant is obferved to ^ ^ ^ hzv9
jyZ HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
have the coldefl blood of all other living creatures, and an hundred years, to which fometimes he attains, is his age.
Lions are accounted long lived, many having been found toothlefs, caufed perhaps by their violent breathing, and therefore Is no certain fign of age.
The bear is a great fleeper, a flow and fluggifh beafl:, born by the dam not above forty days, being a iign of ihort life.
The fox is well Ikin'd, feeds on flefli, and lives in caves, but not long lived, be- ing a kind of dog, which is a Hiort lived beafl* ' The Camel being a flender ftrong beafl^ lives ordinarily fifty years, fometimes an hundred.
The Horfe feldom attains to forty years of age, his ordinary age being twenty years, but grows until he is fix years old ; and ^ mare goes eleven months, and hath feldom two foals.
The Afs live& as long as the horfe, but rhe Mule is longer lived than both.
The Hart is famous for his long life; for about the neck of a hart a chain hid, and covered over with fat Was found, which had been put on many years before^ But ""^ecaufe at five years the hart comes to per-
fedion.
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH, ^^i
fe£tion, and his horns having at firfl: but a few branches, do then fprout forth, and ^ifterwards fall off, and grow again every year ; therefore his age is not fo currently believed.
. The fliort lived dog lives but twenty years, being his utmofl age; his ordinary age fourteen years. His difpofition is hot and fickle, always violently ftirring about, or deeping. The bitch brings forth many whelps at one litter, and goeth nine weeks.f
The Ox being a flow beaft, full of flefh, foon fatted, and fed with grafs, is fhort-llv- ed in refpect of his fize and ftrength, fix- teen years being his age; which is longer than the cow lives, bringing forth but one calf, and going with her burthen fix months*
The Sheep, a beafl of a midling fizcL, having little gall, and well cloathed with a warm fleece, more curled than other beafts hair, feldom comes to the age often years.
Rams at three years old begin to engen- der, and untlU eighteen years of age do be- get lambs. A fiieep being fubje6t to many difeafes feldom lives out his utmofl age.
The Goat, fomewhat refembling the fheep,
{ives no longer, but is nimbler, and firmer
B b 3 flclhed
HISTORY OP LIFE AND DEATH*
flefhed, and fhould be therefore longer \\v-* ed, but lafcivloufnefs fhortens his life.
The fow lives fifteen years, fometimes twenty, being moifter flefhed than other beafts, but not long-lived. The age of the wild boar and fow, is not certainly known.
The cats age is fix or ten years, being a nimble, fierce, ravenous beaft, not chew- ing his food, but devouring and fwallowing it whole, and his feed ( as j^Hanus faith) burns the female, conceiving with much pain, but kittening eafily. ' Hares and conies hardly live {tv^n years, being breeding creatures, knitting and conceiving again immediately after their bringing forth young. The coney lives under ground, the hare fitteth in open air, and has darker flefh.
Birds are lelTer bodied than beafls, an ox or horfe being far bigger than an eagle or fwan, and an elephant than an oflridge*
Birds are well cloathed with feathers, lying clofe down to their bodies, and being warmer than beafts wool or hair.
Birds though great breeders, carry not their young in their belly, but lay their
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. ^'J $
i?ggs feverally, producing yoimg birds by hatching.
Birds chew not their food, being often found whole in their crop; but they will pick out nut-kernels, and the feeds of herb* and flowers, and they are of a flrong hot di- geftion.
Birds fly with a mixed motion, being born up by the air, and their wings, whofe motion exercifes their bodies*
Aristotle obferves, that when birds engender by treading, the cock begets not the eggs fubflance, but makes it fit to hatch ; fo that fruitful eggs are hardly known from unhatchable eggs.
Birds bodies are in one year's growth at their full bignefs; but their feathers and bills grow feven years afterward.
The eagle cafling her bill, and fo becom- ing young, is the emblem of long life, her age being a proverb : Aqiiil^efenediusi " The *' age of an eagle:" yet the eagles growing young changes not her beak, but her beak changing makes the eagle young ; for the eagle feeds very painfully and with difficulty when her bill is grown extremely crooked.
The vulture lives an hundred years.
Crows alfo, and all ravenous birds feeding on
Bb4 flefh;
^y6 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
flefh, are long lived; but the hawk living not according to his own kind, but being kept in bondage for private delight and re- creation, his term of life is therefore not certainly known ; though fome fay hawks have lived thirty years.
The long-lived raven lives an hundred years : he feeds on carrion, and flies not .often, but fits much, and has very black flefh. The crow refembling the raven ^ though not fo big, nor like in voice, lives almofl as long, being accounted a long lived bird.
The fair feathered fwan feeds on fifh, fwims continually on running flreams and -rivers, and an hundred years is his age.
The goofe, though his food is grafs, is long-lived, efpecially the wild-goofe ; fo that in Germany this proverb is common : ■}/Iag'i5 fenex quam anfer nivalis: " Older than *• a white goofe,'*
Storks are long-lived; becaufe they ne- ver came to Thebes, a city often facked, it was therefore obferved, that they did either circumfpe6lly inftrud their young ones iu the Theban hiflory, or remembered the paf-
fages
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH, 377
fages of former ages wherein they lived ; and fo this fable pointed at their long life.
Concerning the phoenix, truth is loft in fables. It is chiefly obfervable, that other birds, when this bird flew abroad, wondered not at her, as they do by inflindt of nature at an owl flying by day-light, or a parrot efcaping out of a cage.
The parrot brought into England has lived threefcore years, being a bird that eats any kind of meat, chews his food, changes his bill, is of a churlifh angry difpofition, and has black fiefh.
The peacock has a flow pace, and white flefh, living twenty years; and when three years old his tail, hke Argus\ eves, is fpec- kled and adorned.
The cock is lecherous, a courageous lighter, and fhort-lived, having white flefh.
The turky, or Indian coek, fomewhat longer lived than the cock, is a tefty, angry bird, and has very white flefh.
The ring-dove being an airy bird, loving to build and fit high, is long-lived, fifty years being her age. But pigeons and tur- tles are fhort-liyed, their ^ge being eight years,
Phea-
j;? HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.'
Pheasants and partridges live fixteen years, being great breeders, but blacker flefhed than chickens or pullets.
The lafcivlous loud-whiftling black-bird is, of all fmall birds, longeft lived.
The fparrow is fbort-lived, the cock-fpar-» row ihortening his life by wanton lafclviouf- nefs. The linnet and finch, though no big- ger than the fparrow, live twenty years.
The oftrich's age is uncertain, and life not long, as by tame oflriches it is obferved.
The age of fiilies lefs obferved, becaufc living under water is more uncertain than the age of beafts. Some of them breathe not, their vital fpirits being kept clofe, and cooled by their gills, but not fo conflantly as by breathing.
The air dries not, nor decays their bodies, becaufe the water wherein they live, enconv paffing them, pierces into their pores ; having greater power than encompaffing air to flior^ ten their lives.
They are ravenous devourers of their own kind, having cold blood, and foft flefh, not fo firm as beafts flefh, but fatter, an infinite quantity of oil being made of the fat of whales.
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. ^19^
'■ Dolphins live thirty years ; for fome whofe tails were cut off, thirty years after- wards being taken, were known : they grow ten years.
It is ojbfervable, and very ftrange, that fiflies bodies grow flender with age, their tail and head retaining their former bignefs.
In fifh-ponds belonging to the Roman emperor, lampreys living threefcore years, by long keeping were made tame; one of their deaths being therefore lamented by Craf-^ Jus the Orator.
The pike, of all frefh-water fifh, is lon- geft lived, forty years being his age : he is a ravenous devourer, and his flefh in eating is dry and firm.
The carp, bream, tench, and eel, live not above ten years.
Salmon are of a fudden growth, but fhort- lived, and alfo trout : but the perch grows flowly, and lives longer.
The age of the whale, fea-calf, fea-hog, and other fifhes is unknown.
The long-lived crocodile always growing,
is a devouring, cruel creature, that lays
eggs; and the water pierces not his fkin,
J being
^So HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
being fcaly and hard. The age of othe^ flieil-£fli is unknown-.
OBSERVATIONS,
Concerning the length and fliortnefs of the life of living creatures, hitherto negli-- gently obferved, and proceeding from divers caufes, inftead of certain rules hard to find, theie notes follov/ing may be added.
Birds are longer- lived than beafts, as'the eagle vulture, pelican, kite, raven, crow, fwan^ goofe, flork, crane, parrot, ring-dove, &c. though they are leffer, and in one year at their full growth. For birds are long- lived, becaufe they are well clothed with warm feathers to keep out cold, and live in the free open air, as mountaineers do; or becaufe when they fly they are carried by the air and their wings, this mixed motion makes them healthy; or becaufe birds are not pined for want of nourifhment, or compreffed in the egg, the old bird laying them by turns ; but efpecially becaufe birds partaking more of the hen's fubflance than
of
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. jSl
of the cock's, have not fuch fharp and hot fpirits.
It is a pofition, that living creatures be- gotten by a greater quantity of the dam*s feed, as birds are, than of the fire's, and ly- ing longer in their dam's belly, partaking more of the dam's feed than the fire's, are therefore longer lived : and it is obfervable, that men being in vifage and countenance more like their mother than their father, live longefl; as thofe children do which found and healthful men beget on young wives.
Living creatures may receive much hurt or good in their firft breeding ; for fuch as lie not too clofe together in the belly of the dam, but have fuificient nourifhment, are long-lived ; as the eggs of birds laid by turns, and the youjig of beafts, bringing but one at a yeaning, have room enough and nourifh- ment.
Long bearing in the mother's womb, anJ the dam's belly, is for thiee refpe^ls a caufe cf long life. Firfl, the offspring has more of the mother's, or dam's fubflance : fecondly. it becomes a ftronger birth : thirdly, it better endures the power of the air : laflly, it de.. notes, that nature intended fuch a birth for
tiic
j8a HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
the center of a large circumference of many years. The fhort life of oxen and fheep, calves and lambs, lying fix months in their dam's belly, before they are calved andyeaned, proceeds from other caufes.
Grazing cattle are fliort-lived, but beafls feeding on their flefh live longer, and birds "which eat feeds and fruits. For half the long-lived hart's food grows, as they fay, above his head ; and the goofe feeding not only on grafs finds fome food in the water.
Another caufe of long life is warm clo- thing, and keeping out immoderate heat and cold, whereby the body is ,much weakened and decayed, as birds clothed with warm feathers are therefore longer lived ; but flieep having thick fleeces are not long-lived, being ,fubje6l to many difeafes, and feeding only on grafs.
The head is the principal feat of all the fpirlts, being great wafters and confumers of rlie body, from their great abundance, or Iharp inflammation.
Therefore birds having little heads in refpedl of their bodies live longer, and men iiaving very great heads to a fhorter period.
The
UISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 383
The beft kind of motion for prolonging of life, is to be born and carried, as the fvvaii and other fwimming water- fowl are, and all birds flying more painfully with their wings, and fifh whofe age and long life is unknown.
Slow coming to perfection, both for growth and ripenefs, fignifies long life in all creatures; for teeth, private hairs, and a beard, are degrees of maturity or ripenefs preceding manhood.
Mild meek creatures, as fheep and doves, are not long-lived; the gall being like a whet-flone whereon naure's faculties arc fliarpened, and fitted to perform their of- fices.
Creatures having white flefh live not fo long as thofe whofe blacker flefli fhews that their body's moifture is firmer and more compadl:.
Asa great fire is lafting, and not foon ex- tlnguifhed, and little water foon evaporates ; fo quantity and bignefs preferve corruptible bodies; a twig withering fooner than the body of a tree, and all great beafts living longer than the lefler.
Or
5^4 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
O? NOURISHMENT-
TVrOURISHMENT ihould be of an inferior nature, and more fimple in fubftance than the body nourifhed. Plants are nou- rlfhed by the earth and water; living crea* tures by plants, and men by living creatures feeding partly on flefh, as man does on plants ; but neither can fubfifl by plants or fallads only; but fruits and parched corn will fuftain life.
ISTouRisHMENT too, like the nourished fubflance, is not good. For grazing cattle touch not any flefh, and beads feeding on flefh prey, not upon their own kind. j4n* thropophagi, or Ca?inibah^ feed not on mens flefh ordinarily, but by eating their enemies flefh as a great dainty, do at once fatisfy their hunger and revenge. Alfo feed corn in the fame field where it grew fhould not be fown, nor a graft be fet into the flock whence it was taken.
Nourishment well prepared, and fome- what like the nourifhed fubflance, makes
plants
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 985
plants fruitful, and living creatures fat. For the nourifhment of the fliock is better and more agreeable to the nature of the graft, than the earth's nourifhment to a young tree or plant : and the feed of an onion or plant fowii or fet in the earth, produces not fuch a great onion, or fair plant, as when put Into an onion, or into a plant's root, and fo fet in the ground.
The boughs of elm^ oak, afh, and fuch forefl-trees, grafted on ftocks, have broader leaves than thofe that are planted. Alfo men feed not fo well on raw fieili as on roafted.
Living creatures receive nourlfliment at their mouth, plants at the root, young crea- tures in the womb at the navel. Birds are nouriflied awhile by the white of the egg^ part thereof being found in their throats after hatching.
Observe, that though all nourifhment proceeds and rlfes from the centre to the cir- cumference, yet trees receive not from their .inward parts and pith fo much nourifhment as from their bark, w^hich being ftripped oif", they prefently wither and die. Alfo of liv-
VoL. II. C c ing
^S6 HISTORY OF LIFE AI^D DEATIJ*
ing creatures, the flefli beneath and above the veins is nourifhed by the blood.
By the inward funftion of extruding, and the outward operation of attra6ling nourifh- ment, the nourifhing faculty works.
Vegetables or plants limply digeft their nourilhment, without voiding fuperfluous excrements, gums of trees being rather fu- perfluities of nourifhment than excrements, and knobs and knots, fores ; but living crea- tures difcerning w4iat nourifhment is like their fubftance, digeft the beft, and reject the reft in excrement.
The greateft and faireft fruits hanging on the tree, receive all their nourifhment through their ftalks.
The feed of animals in the moment of the emifTion is only produftive, but feeds of plants after long keeping will grow ; but young grafts and fhoots muft be planted while they are frefh and green, elfethey will not grow, and their roots being not covered with earth will die.
Living creatures have different kinds of nourifhment agreeable to their age, for in their mother's or dam's belly moillure is their
food ;
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 387
food; afterbirth, milk; then meat and drink; when old, they love folid, favory food.
But whether nourishment may not only by the mouth, but alfo outwardly be receiv- ed, is chiefly to be confidered. For if baths of milk in hot fevers and confumptions were ufed, and fome phyficians hold that nutri- tive glifters might be purpofely made, then fuch nourishment received not by the flo- mach, but outwardly, may fupply digeflioa in the weaknefs of age.
Of THE LONGEVITY OF MAN.
gEFORE the flood, as the facred fcrip- tures declare, men Hved an hundred years : yet of all the fathers none attained to a complete thoufand years ; neither did the generation of the holy line of grace live only thus long ; for by the patriarchs eleven generations from Adam to the Flood, and Cains eight, his generation feems longer C c 2 lived.
388 HrsTORY OF LI]P'E AND DEATH.
lived. But man's life immediately after the flood was reduced to a moiety, though Noah born before the flood lived to his anceflors age, and Shem attained to fix hundred years^ But three generations after the flood man's life was contracted and fhortened to an hundred years, being the fourth part of their former age.
Abraham lived an hundred and feventy- five years, in great profperity and happinefs. Ifaac attained to an hundred and eighty years ; a chafte and quiet man. Jacobs having m^any troubles, and many children, lived an hundred and forty- feven years: he was a patient, mild, wife man. IJhmael was a martialifl:, and an hundred and thirty- fe« yen years was his age.
But Sarah (no other woman's age being recorded in the holy fcript\n-e) died an hun- dred and feventy years old ; being a comely courageous woman, an excellent mother and^ wife, and famous for difcreet carriage, and obedience to her hufl^and. Alfo Jofcph^ a wife and politic man, though in his younger years much affli6led, lived afterwards in great felicity and happinefs, and attained to an hundred and ten years of age. But his
elder
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 389
eider brother L^j/, impatient ofdifgrace, and leaking revenge, lived an hundred and thir- ty-leven years. The fon of Levi, and his nephew, the father oi Aaron d^ndMofes, lived as long.
Moses lived an hundred years, being itout-hearted, but of a mild carriage, and ilow fpeech : yet Mofes iiiid in the pfalm, that threefcore and ten years was the ordi^ nary age of man, and of the ftrongeft but fourfcore years, being ftill the term of man's life.
But Aaron^ three years older than Mofes^ died the fame year as his brother : a man of ready fpeech, and gentle carriage, but fome- what inconflant:. Phlneas, Aaron s nephew, by divine grace and favour, lived three hun- dred years : for all the Ifraelites going out to war againft the tribe of Benjamin ; Phineas, being a very zealous man, was then, as the hiftory relates, a chief captain and coun^- iellor.
Joshua, an excellent and fortunate cap- tain, lived to an hundred and ten years. Caleb lived in his time, and to his age: but Ehud the Judge lived only an hundred years.. The holy land, after his conquell of C c 3 the
^93 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
the Moabites, being eighty years under his government : he was a vahant ftout man, and devoted his anions to the good of the common -wealth.
Job, reftored to his former happinefs, lived one hundred and forty years, having had, before his troubles, fons that were grown men. He was a politic, eloquent, and good man, and the example of patience.
Eli the prieft lived ninety eight years: was a fat man, and of a pleafant, loving dif- pofition. But Eli/lja the prophet, being at the time of the affumption of El/as, with re- gard to his age, mocked by children, and called old bald pate, lived fixty years after- wards, and was above an hundred years old when he died. He was a fevere man, living aufterely, andcontemningriches. Ifaias the prophet was an hundred years old, and fpent feventy of thofe years in prophefying; but when he began toprophefy, and at what age he died, is unknown. He was a very eloquent and evangelical prophet, infpired with the promifes of the coming of Chrift, fulfilled in the New Teftament.
Tobias the elder lived one hundred and flfty-e:ght years, and the younger Tobias an
hun-
HISTORY OF LITE AND DEATH. 39I
hundred and twenty-fcven years, being mer- ciful and charitable men. Many Jews that returned from the captivity of Babylon lived long, and could remember the building of both the temples, the latter being built fe- venty years after the other. Many ages after, when our Saviour was born, Smeon was an old religious, faithful man : and Anna the prophetefs lived to an hundred years, fhe having been married feven years, a widow eighty years, and afterwards a pro- phetefs of our Saviour's incarnation : Ihe was a holy woman, that fpent her life in prayer and fafting.
The long lives of men mentioned in hea- then authors are fabulous, and deceitful cal- culations of ages. Thofe Egyptian kings that reigned longeft lived not above fifty, or fifty-five years; a common modern age. But it is fiibuloufly fuppofed, that the kings of Arcadia lived to a great age, becaufe their country was mountainous; and both they and their people being for the mofl part fliepherds, led a temperate life ; but as Fan was their God, fo all thefe relations are but yain fables.
C c 4 NVMA,
392 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
NuMA, king of the Roma?2s, lived to eighty years of age, being a peaceable, fludipus^ and religious man. Marcus Valerius Corvinus was conful forty fix years after his firft con- fulfhip, andjived an hundred years, being both in war and private attairs very power- ful, of a popular difpofition, and always for- tunate.
Solon, the Athenian law-maker, and one of the wife fages, lived above fourfcore years ; a valiant and popular man, a lover of his country, learned, and fomewhat voluptuous, jLpimenides of Crete lived one hundred and . fifty-feven years, and fifty feven of thofe years in a cave. Half an age afterwards, 'Kenophon Colophonius^ having at twenty years of age left his country; after feventy-feven years travel returned agam, and lived in all one hundred and two years, or longer. This man, being a traveller, had alfo a wandering mind: and for holding many opinions wa^ called Xenoman, or the wanderer, inftead of Xenophon'. yet certainly his conceit and fancy \vas large and infinite.
Anacreon, the wanton, voluptuous poet, Reached to fourfcore years of age, and up- "^vards ; and Pindar of 1'hehes^ a poet of aa
high
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 302
high fancy, witty hi a new way of writhig, and a reUgious adorer of the Gods, hved four- fcore years. Sophocles the Aihetuan attained to the fanae age ; an eloquent tragical poet, and a great writer, but carelefs of his family.
ArtaxerxeSj king oiPerf.a, lived ninety four years, being a man of a dull wit, not laborious or painful, but affecling eafe more than glory.
Agesilaus w^as a moderate king, and a philofopher; a great foldier, and politician, but ambitious of honour : he lived eighty- four years.
GoRGiAs Leontinus lived an hundred and eighty years. This man was a rheto- rician, a pubhcfchool-mafter, and a travel- ler ; and before his death he faid, that Prc- iagoras tht Jbderite, being a rhetorician, a politician, and as great a traveller as Gcr- gias, Uved ninety years. Socrates the J//je- nian, multiplying his life, reached to ninety- nine years of age : he was a modeft rhetoiV cian, that would never plead in open court, l^ut kept a private fchool.
Democritus oi Abdera drew out his time of life to an hundred years; w^as a oreat fiatural philofopher, and a learned phyfician,
and
394 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
and praditioner in experiments ; fo that Arif- iotle obje6led againft him, becaufe his obfer- vations were grounded more on comparifoii than reafon, being not proved by logic, but hj fimilitude, the weakefl kind of argument. Diogenes Synopeus^ allowing others liberty, but ftricl in private government, delighting in poor diet and patience, lived ninety years. Zeno Citteus^ lacking but two of an hundred years, was high-minded, a contemner of opinions, and had an excellent wit, not of- fenfivc, but rather alluring than compelling affedion. Seneca afterwards had the like wit. Plaio of Athens lived eighty one years : a man affedling quietnefs, and high contem- plation ; of a civil, handfome behaviour, not light, but pleafmg and majeflic. ?"to- fhvajius EtefMs^ uhng a fweet kind of elo- quence, mingled with plentiful variety, ga- thering only the fweet rofes of philofophy, not the bitter worm- wood, attained to four- jcore and five years. Carneades of Cjrene, many years after, lived until he was four^ fcore and five years old; a fluent, eloquent man, delighting in variety of knowledge, "Vvhich made his converfation pleafing and jicceptable. But in Cicero's time, Orbilius-^
no
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. ^^J
no philofopher or rhetorician, but a gram-^ marlaii, lived almoft an hundred years ; be- ing firft a foldier, then a fchool-mafler ; of a proud difpolition, and a whipping, railing writer, even againft his own fcholars.
Q^Fabius Maximus, having been fixty three years augur, and more refpecfled for his nobility than age, was above fourfcore years old when he died. He was a wife man, that ripened adlions by delaying their execu- tion, being all his life-time moderate, coui> teous, and grave. Majinljfa, king of Numi- dia^ lived above ninety years, and had a fon when he was upwards of eighty- five years old. This man was valiant, and cour fidentin fortune, whofe changes his younger years having experienced, he afterwards Jived in conftant happinefs. Marcus F orchis Cato lived above ninety years : a man of an iron body and mind, of a fharp fpeech, and contentious; addid:ed alfo tohufbandry; and a phyfician to himfelf and family.
Terentia, C/aro's wife, livinp- an hun- dred and three years, fuiFered many troubles and afflidions by her hufband's banilhment, death, and alfo by the gout. L//c/^, playing fhe part of a young maid, afterwards of an
old
39^ HISTORY OF LfFE AND DEATH.
old wife upon the ftage, lived an hundred years. KXio Galena Copiola^ being at firfl an a6^rels, was ninety nine years afterwards, at the dedication of Pompey^s theatre, brought forth as a miracle of age, and afterwards was a fpe6lacle in plays made hi honour of Augujliis Co'far.
LiviA Julia Augusta, wife to Augujlus Ca'fa?', and mother to I'iberius, lived but nine^ ty years, but was a more famous a£lrefs than the former: for Lh/a, being a courteous, flately, and pragmatical matron, complying with her hufband by diffembling obedience, and with her Ion by majeftic courage, was certainly an excellent a61refs in the comedy of Augujlus' s life ; who himfelf fpoke a com- manding epilogue, charging his friends to ap- plaud it after his death. lunia, wife to C, CaJfiuSy and fifler to M. Brutus, being ninety years old, and living fixty-four of them before the battle of Philippi, was rich ; and though unfortunate in her hufband and kindred, yet a noble widow.
In Vefpajian''s reign, anno 76, in the part of
Jtaly lying between the Appenine and the
river Po, men of an hundred years old, and
upwards, were aireiTed, and put into the
5 fubfidyv
History of life and death.
;97
fuDfidy-book : namely, one hundred and twenty- four of lOO years of age; fifty-four, 120; fifty-feven, 125; four, 130; four, 135; and three that were 149 years old. There were alfo at Parma, three men 120, and two 130 years old. At Bruxelles there was an old man 125, znother ^t Placeraia 12 t, and an old v/oman aged 132 years was living at: Flueniici ; and in the ancient town Velleia- chm, feated on the hills near Placent'm, were fix men aged no, and four 12a. Laftly, at Rlm'moj one M Aponlus was an hundred and fifty years okt
Of the Roman, Grecian, and German em- perors, being almoll two hundred, fome only attained to fourfcore years of age. The' tm^QmrsAuguJius and T'iberms living feventy- eight, and feventy-fix years, might have reached fourfcore years, had they not beeit poifoned by Lh'ia and Caius.
Augustus lived feventy-fix years ; was a moderate prince, fomewhat hafty in action, but o-f a fair and pleafing carriage ; temperate in diet, lafcivious, and very fortunate ; and when about thirty years old, foiling into a dangerous licknels, was reflored to health by Antonlus Mtifa, and cured by cold medi- cines.
59^ HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATI-T^
clnes, inflead of hot applications wfed hf other phyficians, as agreeable to his difeafe. Tiberius was, by two yearsj longer lived than Augujlus. His words, as Augujlu^ faid, ftuck in his throat : he was a prince of flow fpeech, but ftern and bloody ; a drunkard, and lux- urious in diet, yet very careful of his health, and ufed to {^ly, that every one after thirty years of age was a fool or a phyfician. Gor- duin the elder lived fixty years ; then being made emperor, he fell into a violent ficknefs, and died: he was a brave, famous man, learn- ed, and a poet ; conftant in the whole courfe of his life, and a little before his death, for- tunate.
The emperor Valerian lived feventy-fix years before he was taken priioner by Sapor^ king of tlie Ferjiam ; feven years afterwards he fuddenly fell fick, and died. He was of an ordinary temper, and not very valiant ; and though weak in defert, was by general opinion conceived worthy to be made empe- ror. Anajfajiusy fir named DIcorus, was four- fcore years old; of a quiet, mild, fuperfli- tious, timorous temper. Amicius luji'mianm lived eighty- four years ; affecting glory ; fa- mous by his captains fuccefs, not his own
valour :
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 39^
valour; uxorious, and governed bv others.- Helena of Brltam, the mother of Conjlanting the Great, lived fourfcore years; was no ftatefwoman, but wholly devoted to religion, yet of an high fpirit, and always happy- Theodora the emprefs, fifler to Zoes, the wife of Monomachus^ who reigned after her de- ceafe, lived above fourfcore years ; a bufy, ftately, fortunate, and credulous woman.
After fhefe examples of long-lived hea- then men, the ages of principal ecclefiaftica fhall be related. St. 'John^ our Saviour* 3 beloved apoftle and difciple, lived ninetv-* three years, whofe divine infpirations and burning charity were fhadowed forth by the emblem of an eagle drawn near his piclure. Luke the ' Evangelifl was eighty-four years of age; an eloquent man, and a travel- ler; St. PauFs conflant companion, and a phyficlan. Simeon Cleopbas, called ChrilVs brother, was bifhop of Jerufalem, and lived an hundred and twenty years before he was miartyrM : a courageous, conftant, charitable man. Polycarp, the apoflle's difciple, and bifhop of Smyrna, attained to an hundred years, and was then martyr'd : a high-minded man, of heroic patience, and laborious- Dl-
cnyfius
40O HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATPfo
bmfitis AreofagUa^ in the apoflle PauW tim^j living ninety years, was called, " the bird of ^' heaven :" an excellent divine, and famous for life and dodrine. Aquilla and Prifcilla; the aportle Paul's hofls, and afterwards fel- low-helpers, lived to an hundred years ; be- ing in pope 'Kljlus's time an ancient married couple,- wholly given to good works: the diurches firft founders were fortunate in mar- riage. St. Paul the Hermit lived in a cave an hundred and thirty years, with intoler- able poor, hard diet: he was a learned man^ and fpent his life in meditation. St. An- thony^ the firfh founder or reftorer of the or- der of monks, attained to an hundred and five years ; a devout, contemplative man, of an auftere and fevere life, governed his monks in fuch a glorious folitude, that he was vi- fited by chriflians and philofophers, and adored as a living image of fandlity and holi- hefs. Aihanafius, a man of invincible con- flancy, commanding fame, and yielding not to fortune, bold with great perfonages, po- pular, and a flout champion in controverfies, died above eighty years old. St. 'Jerome lived above ninety years : he was an eloquent writer, learned in languages andfciences; a
tra-
lilSTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 4OI
traveller; and towards his old age of an fie re life, his high mind fhone in a private life like aftarin obfcurity.
But of two hundred and forty-one popes, five only attained to fourfcore years. The age of many of the firfl: popes being fhortened by martyrdom. Pope John the 23d. lived ninety years: a man of an unquiet difpofi- tion, and an innovator; bringing in many alterations and changes, feme for the better, but a great hoarder of w^ealth and treafure, Gregory the twelfth, by a factious ele(£lion, created pope, died at ninety years; hia fhort papacy afforded nothing worthy of ob- fervation. Paul the third lived eighty one years ; of a quiet difpofition, and profound judgment; a learned aflrologer, careful of his health, and, like the old priefl £//, a father of his family.
Paul the fourth, who lived eighty tliree yearsjwasof a fevere difpofition, high-mind- ed, and imperious ; of a working fancv, and an eloquent ready fpeech. Gregory the thir- teenth lived alfo fourfcore and three years ; was a good man, politic, temperate, and cha- ritable.
Vol. II. D d ru^
402" HrSTOllY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
The following examples are promifcuoufly fet down together — Arganthonlus^ king of Cadh in Sfam^ lived one hundred and thirty or forty years, reigning eighty: his manners, kind of life, and the time wherein he lived, are unknown, Cynlras, king of Cyprus, accounted then a happy, pleafant ifland, lived one hundred and fifty or fixty years, Tw^o kings of the Latins eight hun- dred and fix hundred years. Some kings of Arcadia three hundred ; but the inhabitants long life in this healthful country is but an invented fable. It is reported, that in Illyri* cum one Dardanus lived five hundred years without any infirmity of age. The Epiatis^ a people ofjEtoIia, were generally all long- lived ; two hundred years being a common age ; and among the refl the giant Litorius was three hundred years old. On the top of th^ mountain I'molus^ anciently called ^empfusy many men attained to an hundred and fifty years. The {t€t of tlie EJfeans, in Judea, lived above an hundred years, bn a Very poor Pythagorean diet. Apollomus T'ya^ neusy when above an hundred years old, had afrefh, fair complexion, and was accounted by tbe' heathens a verv divine man, but by
tl-i<?.
HISTORY OF LIFE? AND DEATH. 403
the chriftians efleemed a magician ; a Pytha- gorean in diet, a great traveller, famous, and renowned ; but in his age he was difgraced, and fufFered many contumelies and reproaches- which redounded afterwards to his honour. Apphis C^cus^ when very old, governed a great family, and the common-wealth ; and in his extreme old age, being brought on % bed into the Senate-houfe, difluaded them from making peace ^Nith. Pyrrhus: in the be- ginning of his oration fhewing a memorable and invincible courage and flrength of mind, faying, " My blindnefs, reverend fathers, " I have very patiently endured ; but now *' hearing your difhonourable counfels and '* purpofe to conclude a peace with Pyrrhus^ ** I could wifh myfelf deaf.'* M. Perpenna lived ninety eight years, furviving all the fenators of his confulfhip, and all elecled in his cenforfhip, except feven. HierOy king q£ Skil}', who reigned at the time of the fecond Pimic war, lived almoft an hundred years ; was a moderate prince, both in government and manners; religious, faithful in friend- fhlp, bountiful, and continually fortunate. Statilia, of a noble family, lived ninety-nine years, in the reign of Claudius, Claudia, the D d 2 daughter
404 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH^
daughter of OtUius, one hundred and fifteen years. Xenoph'dus, an ancient philofopher of the Pythagorean fe6l, one hundred and fix years ; was healthful and lufty in his old age, and very popular for his learning.
Islanders were formerly accounted very long-lived, now equal to others in age. Hippo- crates of Cous^ a famous phyfician, who lived one hundred and four years, approving his art by lengthening his life, was a wife and learned man, of great experience and obfervation, and without affedling method, found out the nerves and finews of fcience.
Demonax, a philofopher by profeffion and manners, w^ho lived an hundred years in Adrian'^ reign, was difliinguiflied for an exalted mind, and an abfolute command of himfelf ; and without affedation a contemner of the world, yet civil and courteous : when he died, being alked touching his burial, he anfwered, " Take no care for my burial, '' for my offenfive fmell will bury me." He that alked him, faid again, " Would you *' have your body left for dogs and ravens to *' feed upon ?" D^/72o;z^a: anfwered, *' What *' great hurt is it, if having fought while I
« hved
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 405
*' lived to do good to men, my body do fome *' good to beafts when I am dead ?"
The Indians called Pandora ^ are very long lived, reaching two hundred years. . The iSVr^j, another fort of Indians, with plantain drink, live to an hundred years. 'Euphranor the Grammarian, when above an hundred years old, kept a fchool. Ovid^ the poet's father, lived ninety years; who differing from his fon in difpofition, and averfe to the. Mufes, dilTuaded him from ftudying poetry^ AJinhis Pollio, favourite to Augujius^ and fa- voured alfo by the Gods, with a life of an hundred years, was luxurious, eloquent, learned, hafty, proud, cruel, and made pri- vate benefits the only centre of his a6lions. Seneca^ managing flate matters, banifhed for adultery in Claudius's reign, was near an hun- dred years old when he was Nero's fchool- mafter. John ofl^imes, a Frenchman, and a foldier of Charles the Great, was accounted in thofe latter times the longeft liver, benig three hundred years old,
Gartius Aretine, grandfather to Are^
tine, was healthy to the laft, feeling no fick-.
nefs ; but when ftrength of nature decayed, ,
died with age. Many Venetians lived ex-.
D d 3 ceeding
406 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
ceeding long, as Captain Francis Donaitis^ Thomas Contarenus^ Pro6lor of St. Mark's^ Francis MoUn, Proclor alfo of St. Mark\, and others.^ But Cornarus Fenetus, having a fickly, crazy body, for the recovery of health, took all his meat and drink, by weight, keeping afterwards according to that proportion a conftant diet, and thereby lived about an hundred years in perfect health. JViUiam Pofiell, a Frenchman, at the age of an hun- dred and twenty, had on his upper Hp black hair ; was a man of an active brain and light fancy, a great traveller, and an experienced mathematician, rather inclining unto herefy. In England there is in every populous vil- lage a man or woman of threefcore years : and at a wake in HerefordJJjire^ a dance was performed by eight men, whofs ages added together amounted to eight hundred years; fome being as much above an hundred years, as others were under that age.
Many mad folks in Bethlem Hofpital, in the fuburbs of London, live very long.
The ages of nymphs, fawns, and {lityrs, formerly fuperftitioujQy adored, are but dreams and fables, contrary to philofophy and reli- gion. So much for the hiflory of the long
life
t
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. A^l
life of particular perfons, now follow general obfervations.
In fucceeding ages and generations, length of life is not fliortened, fourfcore years hav- ing been, from the time of Mofes, the con- ftant age of man. But in particular coun- tries mens lives were longer, when plain homely diet, and bodily labour were much ufed, and Shorter, when more civilized times delighted in idlenefs and wanton luxury : but as fucceflion of ages ftiorten not the length of hfe, they mufl be dlftinguilhed from the corruptions thereof. The age alfo of beafts, as oxen, horfes, fheep, goats, and and fuch like creatures, not being Ihortened in this age; therefore the deluge, or general flood, and perhaps particular accidental floods, long droughts, earthquakes, and the like, Ihorten life, and not th© fucceffion of ages and generations, Neither do the bigneis and ftature of bodies now decreafe and grow kls, though Firgil, following common opinion, prophefied of a leffer ftature of men in fuc- ceeding ages, of the ploughing the Emathian and Emonenfian fields.
Though in Sicily and other places, three
thoufand years fince, Giants lived in caves,
Pd4 }'e;
408 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
yet the general ftature of men fmce that time is not decreafed, which confutes the com- mon opinion that men are not fo long lived, big, nor ilrong, as formerly. - In cold Northern countries, men com- monly live longer than in hotter, their Ikin being more compa(5t and clofe, whereby their moiflure is not fo eafily diffufed, fcattered abroad, and confumed by the fharpnefs of their reparable fpirits, nor exhaufled and de- voured by the intemperate heat of their air, But under the Equinodlial line, the fun paf-^ {ing twice over it, makes two winters and fummers, and equal days and nights, the inhabitants live very long, as in Peru and Tciprobana,
The Mediterranean IJlanders are commonly long-lived ; for the Ruffians live not fo long as the Orcades, nor the Africatis, as the inhabi- tants of the Canaries and Terceras, though under the fame parallel ; and the Japonians, though earneftly defiring and affecting long life, are not fo long lived as the Cbineje, the feaair yielding a cherifhing warmth in cold countries, and a refrelhing, cooling breeze ia hot countries.
HiGIJ
I
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 40^;
High grounds, except the tops of moun- tains, produce people of a greater age than low, flat levels, and in high countries, as in Arcadia and Greece, and part oi MtoUa, the inhabitants live to a great age, as the inhabi- tants of mountains would do, if their pure clear air were not accidentally corrupted with vapours, which rifing from the vallies, fettle and reft on the hills : therefore on fnowy mountains, on the Alps, the Pyrennean, and the ^/^^;/;z^ mountains, the inhabitants live not fo long, as thofe dwelling on middling hills or vallies: but on the ridges of moun- tains towards Ethiop, and the Abyjfyncs, co- vered with fnow, with no hovering vapours, the people live to an hundred and £fty years of age.
The air of marfhes and fens, lying flat and low, agrees with the natives, but to Grangers is unhealthy, and Shortens their lives: and marfhes, or other fenny places, that are overflowed with fait tides, are more un- wholefome than thofe overflowed with frcih land- water.
The particular countries wherein the peo- ple live to a great age, are thefe : Arcadia, diolia^ India on this fide the Ganges, Brajtl,
"Tapro^
410 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
laprohana, Britain, Ireland, and the iflands of Orcades and Hebrides, but ilot Ethiopia, as fome of the ancients fnppofed.
The air being perfedly wholefome is a fecret quality, rather found out by experi- ence, than reafon : for if a piece of wood laid fome certain days in the open air, grows not heavier in weight, it proves that the air is good; alfo, if a piece of flefh laid in the fame manner remain unputrified, or if a per- ipe^ive glafs prefents the objed in near dif- tance, the air is thereby proved wholefome.
A wholefome air mufl be good, pure, and equal. Hills and vallies, with a kind of changeable variety, make a pleafant profpedl, but are not fo healthy as the moderately dry plain, not barren or fandy, but planted with fhady trees.
It is bad dwelling in a changeable air, though change of air in travels, by ufe and cuflom, becomes healthy, making travellers iong-llyet}. Cottagers dwelling continually In one place Ijye to a great age, the fpirits being confumed lefs by an accuflomed air, but nouriihed and repaired more hy change
pf air.
The;
HISTOKY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 41 I
The life of man is not lengthened or Shortened by fucceffion of ages, but the im- mediate condition of the parents, both the father and mother, is to be regarded. As whether the father was an old, young, or middle-aged; healthy and found, or fickly and difeafed ; a glutton, or a drunkard ; or whether children were begotten after deep in the morning, after long forbearance of venery, in the heat of love, as baflards, or in cold blood, as in continuance of marriap-e. The fame circumflances are alfo on m^ mo- ther's fide to be confidered, and alfo the con- ditions of the mother during pregnancy: as whether fhe were healthy, and what diet /he kept. Certain rules for judging of chil- drens life by the manner of their generation and birth are hard to be given, matters fiill- ing out contrary to expe^ation ; for children begotten with a lively courage prov(^ ftrong, but, through the fharp inflammation of the fpirits, are not long-lived : alfo children re- ceiving a greater or equal quantity of the mother's fluid, and begotten in lawful wed- lock, not in fornication, and in the morning, without exceflive lewdncfs in the parents, Jive long: for it is obfcrvablc, that flout,
flrong
412 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
ftrong parents, efpeclalJy mothers, have not ftrong children. Plato ignorantly imagined, that becaufe women ufed not exercife as men did, therefore children were not ftrong ; whereas unequal flrength is moft powerful in the a£l of generation ; a ftrong man and a weak woman havdng ftrongeft children : fo young women are the moft prolific, and young nurfes are the heft. For the Spartan women, not marrying until two or five and twenty years old, called therefore mafculine women, had no luftier, longer-lived chil- dren, than the Roman, Athenian, or ^heban women, who accounted themfelvcs marriage- able at twelve or fourteen years old : there- fore fpare diet made the Spartan women ex- cellent breeders, not late marriage. But ex- perience ftiews, that fome families are long- lived; long life and difeafes being hereditary to all of the fame ftock and parentage. -
Black or red hair, and a complexion with freckles, are figns of longer life, than white hair and complexion : and a frelh red colour in young folks is better than a pale ; a hard, not a fpongy (kin, but clofe grained, is a better llgn of long life thaa a fmooth
ikin ;
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 413
{kill : and great wrinkles in the forehead are better ligns than a fmooth forehead.
Hair hard like briftles is a better fign of long life than dainty foft locks ; and hard, thick, curled hair, is better than foft and fliining.
Baldness coming fooner or later is an indifferent iign, many being foon bald, yet long-lived ; and grey hairs, accounted figns of old age, coming betimes without bald- nefs, are figns of long life; with baldnefs, a token of the contrary.
The hairynefs of the lower parts, as the thighs and legs, is a fign of long life, but not of the breafl", or upper parts.
Men of a tall flature, flrong, and a£live, are long-lived; but alow flature, and flow difpofition, are contrary (igns.
In regard of proportion, fhort waiils and long legs betoken longer life than long waifts and fhort legs : and a big proportion down- w^ards, and flender upwards, is a fign of longer life, than broad Ihoulders, and a flender make downwards.
Lean folks, of a quiet, peaceable difpo- fition ; and fat folks, of a choleric nature, I are
4-14 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
are commonly long-lived. Fatnefs in youth is a fign of (hort life, but not in age.
Long growth, either to a great or leffer ftature, is a fign of long life ; but fudden growth, either to a low or high ftature, is a bad fign.
Firm flefh, full of mufcles and finews, and high fwelling veins, fignify long life ; the contrary are figns of Ihort life.
A SMALL head in proportion to the body ; a middle-fized neck, not long, flender, thick, or fhort, Shrinking within the fhoulders; large noflrils; a wide mouth; griflly ears, not flefhy; and ftrong, clofe, even teeth, fignify long life, and efpecially breeding of new teeth.
A BROAD breafl: bending inwards, crooked fhoulders, a fiat belly, a broad hand with few lines in the palm, a fhort round foot, thighs not very flefhy, and high calves of the legs, are figns of long life.
Great eyes with a green circle bordering on the vvliite of the eye ; fenfes not too (harp ; flow pulfes in youth, in age quicker, holding the breath eafily ; cofiivenefs in youth, loofe- nefi In age, fignify long life.
Astro-
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 415
Astrological obfervatlons, drawn from nativity, are not allowable. Children com- ing at eight months are commonly fllll-born; but children born in winter are long-lived.
A STRICT Pythagorlcal or Cornarus*s diet, of equal proportion, is good to make fludi- ous men liv^e long. But by free eating and drinking, and a plentiful diet, common people live longeft. A temperate diet, though healthy, is no caufe of long life : for the ftri^l diet breeds few fpirits, confuming lefs moifture, and the fall diet yields mere re- pairing nourifhment ; but the moderate diet affords neither fewer fpirits, nor more nou- rifhment. With a ftri^l diet, watclnng muft be ufed to keep fleep from opprellino- the fpirits, being few; and alfo moderate ex- ercife, and abftinence from venery: but a plentiful diet requires much fleep, frequent exercife, and feafonable venery. The learned and wife pliyfician Celfus held, that variety and change of good plentiful diet was befl ; alfo watching, but oftener long fleep ; fafl- ing, but more frequently feafling; and bu-» ■finefs fometimes, but oftener pleafure and recreation, were good and healthy. In keep- ing a good diet, which is the greatefl leng-
thener
4l6 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
thenerof life, there are different obfervations. I remember that an old man above an hun- dred years of age, produced for a witnefs in a plea of prefcription, having given in evi- dence, and being alked by the Judges by what means he had Uved fo long, anfwered, *' By eating before I was hungry, and drink- *' ing before I was thirfty."
A RELIGIOUS holy life may caufe a long life; for retirement, reft, divine contempla- tion, fpiritual joy, noble hope, wholefome fear, a pleafmg melancholy, newnefs of life, ftrid obfervations, repentance, and fatisfac- tion, lengthen the natural life of a morti- fied chriftian; and their auftere diet hardens the body, and humbles the fpirit : fo that Paul the Hermit, and Simeon the x^nchoritCj and many other monks, lived thus in the wildernefs until they were old.
Next to this is the learned life of phi-* lofophers, rhetoricians, and grammarians, living in eafe, and thoughts not relating to bufinefs, without grief, delighting in variety, and in the pleafant converfation of young men. But philofophy had various effects on long life, according to its fubjecl ; for fuper- llitious, high, contemplative philofophy,
as
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 417
as the Pythagorlcal, Platonic, and natural philofophy, metaphjfics and moral philo- fophy of heroic virtues, were good flu dies to prolong life : fuch was the philofophy of Bemocrhus, Philolaus, Xemphon, aflrolog^rs, arid ftoics; alfo philofOphy, not profound and fpeculative, but agreeable to common opinion, as profefled by Carneades and th6 Academics, Rhetoricians, and Grammarians, was conducive to life: but difficult, fubtle philofophy, weighing matters in the fcale of principles, and full of thorny queftions, was a bad fludy, to which the peripatetics and fcho- laftics were devoted.
The country life, bufied in employments abroad, a^live, and keeping a frefh homely diet, without care and tnyj, prolong life. • The military life is good in youth, many excellent warriors having lived to a great age, as Corvinus, CamUlus, Xemphon, Agefi- laus, and others both ancient and modern. Alfo the improvement of virtue, byincreafmg daily in goodnefs, and labouring in youth, prolong life, the remembrance thereof being fweet in age. Befides, military affedions, i-aifed with the defire and hope of vldory, in- fufe into the fpirits heat agreeable tolongiife. Vol. 11. Ee ME,
4lS HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH^
MEDICINES FOR LONG LIFE,
nPHERE are many medicines for preferv- ing health, and curmg difeafes, but few •to prolong life : therefore the mofl notable ones, called Cordials, (hall be here propofcd ; for cordials taken to fortify and ftrengthen the heart and fpirits againfl polfon and dif- eafes, ufed with judgment, may be powerful to prolong life. Thefe which are felected, and fet down, are bed.
Gold is exhibited and ufed three ways ; as potable, quenched in wine, or fubflantial, as leaf and powder gold. Potable gold was ^Iven firfl: in dangerous, defperate difeafes ; as an excellent powerful cordial, receiving the virtual effedl from the fpirit of fait wherein it is diffolved ; for gold would be more fove- reign could It be dillblved without corrolive waters, or by them when cleared of their venomous quality.
Pearls are taken in powder, or diflblved in the juice of green lemons, or in fplccd comfits and liquors. The pearl and the
ihell
I
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 4T9
fhell whercunto it cleaves are of one nature, and in quality like the fhells of river-crabs.
Two chriftaline precious ftones are chief cordials, the emerald and jacinth, given in the lame manner as pearls, but not ufually diffolved; yet thefe green fiones are of a fharp operation.
The benefit and help received from thefe medicinal fpecies, Ihall be hereafter declared.
Bezoar flone is of approved virtue, re- creating the fpirits, and provoking gentle fweat. Unicorn's-horn is of like efteem with the hart's-horn, and the bone of its heart, ivory, and the like.
Ambergris is very good to comfort and refrefh the fpirits.
Prescriptions for diet being here only delivered, hot waters and chymical oils, having a defhrudlive, violent operation, and alfo hot fpices are to be rejected ; and waters muft be made more temperate, lively, and fragrant than phlegmatic diflillations, or hot extracts of the fpirit of wine.
Often letting blood, proved good by ex- perience, is good to prolong life; the old moifture of the body being thereby evacu- ated, and new fupplied.
E e 2 Con-
I
420 HISTORY OF LIFE Al^D DEATH.
CoNSUMPTiOMs alfoand ficknefles procur- ing leannefs, being well cured, lengthen life, the body being thereby fup plied with new moifture after the confumption of the old ; therefore it is faid, that to grow healthy after fuch a ficknefs is to grow youthful. The pro- curing of ficknefs by artificial diets fliall be hereafter declared.
INTENTIONS.
ENQUIRY having been made concern- ing inanimate bodies, vegetables, living crea- tures, and man, a new fearch by true and proper intentions, refembling the paths of mortal life fhall be made, and more elFedlual than all former contemplations of comfort- ing natural heat, and radical moiflure, or of meats breeding good blood, neither hot nor phlegmatic, and of refrefhing and re- creating the fpirits ; or of medicines abfurdly imagined to produce the fame properties as the fubftances from which they are taken ; fuch as gold to operate incorruption ; gems and pearls, vivacity of fpirit ; deer, fcrpents,
ajid
i
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 42I
and eagles, from renovating fome of their parts to renew age : the influence of planets, and other fuch abfurdities, by which reafon being befieged, has miferablj yielded up the fort of belief. But to thefe material inten- tions, though not largely handled, much cannot be added ; fome few admonitions only concerning them are to be delivered.
First, the offices and duties of life being better than life, are not hindered by our pre- fcriptions; fuch being rejefted, or lightly mentioned, and not infiflied on: fornoferious difcourfe of living in a den or hole of a rock, like Epimenides's cave never befriended with any cheerful fun-beam, or day-light; or of continual baths of prepared liquors; nor of enclofmg the body in fear-clothes, nor plaif- tering it with paint, as ufed by Savages ; or of accurate diets to prolong life, formerly kept by Herodicus, and in our age more mo- derately by Cornarus Fenetus, nor the like unprofitable, idle projeds, are here men- tioned. But our remedies and precepts may be ufed without interrupting and hindering common duties and bufinefs.
Secondly, It is a vain conceit to imagine that any potion or medicine can ftay or re-
422 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
new the courfe of nature; which great works muft be brought about and effe£led by appli^ cation of divers remedies ; and, being a new projed, muil: be wrought by unufual means' Thirdly, fome following proportions are not grounded on approved experiments, but on reafon ; and our former principles and fuppo- litions are all cut and digged out of the rock and mine of nature. And becaufe man's body is in fcripture faid to be the foul's upper gar- ment; therefore no dangerous, but whole- fome and profitable remedies are here pro- pounded. Belides, it is obfervable, that the fame drugs are not good to preferve health, and lengthen life ; for fome being good to cheer the fpirits, and make them vigoroufly and ftrongly perform their duties, do fliorten life ; others being powerful to prolong life, imlcfs prevention be ufed, endanger health , therefore fome cautions and advertifements Hiall be inferted, leaving the choice of fe- veral remedies belonging to the feveral inten- tions to the reader's difcretion. For their agreeablenefs to different conftitutions of bodies, to divers kinds of life, and feveral ages, and the order obfervable in their appli- cation.
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH, 423
cation, would be too tedious to declare, and unfit to be publiflied.
The third intention propofed in the topics, of ftaying confumption, perfecting repara- tion and renewing age, are enlarged into thefe ten operations.
THEfirfl of which is of reviving and re- newing the fpirits.
The fecond operation is of excluding or keeping out the air.
The third, of blood, and heat breeding blood.
The fourth, of the juice and moiflure of the body.
The fifth, of the bowels, and digeftion of nourifliment.
The fixth is of the outward parts attra£l- ing nourifliment.
The feventh is of making diet more nou- rifliing.
The eighth is the lafl a£l: of affimilation, or converting into the fubftance of the body. The ninth is of making the parts of the body tender, after they begin to wither and wax dry.
The tenth is of purging out old moiflure^ and filling the body with newmoifture.
E e 4 Of
424 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
Of thefe operations, the firfl: four belong to the firfl intention ; the fecond four to the fecond intention ; and the two laft to the third intention.
And becaufe thefe intentions maybe daily pradifed, therefore under the name of an hiftory; experiments, obfervations, counfels, remedies, explications of caufes and reafons, are blended and mingled togethero
To CONTINUEand renew
THE
VIGOUR OF THE SPIRITS.
nPHAT the fpirits work all effeas in the Body, is moft clear and evident by di- vers experiments.
Youthful fpirits conveyed into an old body, would, like a great wheel turning about the lelTer, make nature move back- ward, and old folks become young.
In
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 425
In all confumptlons by fire or age, the more moifture that the fplrit or heat de- vours, the lefs durable is the fubd-ancc.
The fpirits working temperately, (hould not drink or devour, but fip the mciflure of the body.
Flames are of two kinds, fudden and weak, confuming thin fubftances, as the blazing flame of flraw, and fliavings of wood : the other ftrong and conftant, invading hard flubborn fubftances, as the flame of great wood.
Flames fuddenly blazing and weak, dry, confume, and parch the body; but ftrong flames difl[blve and melt the body, making it moift and foft.
Some purgatives carry oft watery thin humours, others watery, ftubborn, flimy matter.
Such fpirits as are more powerful to abate and fubdue hard flubborn humours, than to evacuate thin and prepared humours, will keep the body lufty and flirono-.
The fpirits fliould be thick in fubftance, hot, and lively, not fharp and burning; of fufficient quantity, not abounding; and quiet
in
426 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
in motion, not bounding in an unruly man- ner.
Vapours work powerfully on the fpirits, as thole do ariling from fleep, drunkennefs, melancholy, and merry paflions, and from odours and fweet fmell recreating the faint- ing fpirits.
The fpirits are thickened by four forts of means; by flight, cooling, delight, and re- firaint: and hrfl of their thickening by flight.
Bodies, from their being put to flight, are forced into their centre, and fo thickened.
The juice of black poppy, and all medi- cines procuring fleep, thicken the fpirits by
Three grains of poppy-juice will make the fpirits curdle together, and quite extin- guifli their working.
The fpirits are not put to flight by the coldnefs of poppy-juice, and the like drugs being hot ; but the flight of the fpirits makes them hot by condeniing.
The flight of the fpirits from poppy -juice is beft difcerned by the outward apphcation, making them withdraw and retire, and keep within, until the mortified part turns to a gangrene.
In
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 427
In painful inciiions, cutting for the ftone, or cutting off limbs, juice of hemlock is ufed to mitigate the pain, by putting the fpirits to flight, and cafling the patient into a fwoon.
The thickening of the fpirits by flight, and driving inwards, is a good effect of pop- py-juice, proceedin.g from a bad caule ; that is, the flight of the fpirits.
Poppy was efteemed by the Grecians to be a great preferver of health, and prolonger of life : the principal ingredient ufed by the Jlrabians, called God's hands, was poppy- juice, the bad qualities thereof being allayed with other mixtures, as treacle, mithridate, and the like.
All medicines thickening the fpirits, as poppy efpecially, and flaying and retraining their unruly working and raging in peflilen- tial difeales, are good to prolong life.
A GOOD quantity of poppy-juice, being found by experience to be comfortable, is taken by the ^urks to make them valiant ; but tons, unlefs taken in a fmall quantity, ind well allayed, it is deadly poifon.
Poppy-juice alfo flrengthens the fpirits, and excites to venery.
The
428 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
The dlftilled water of wild poppy is good for furfeits, fevers, and divers difeafes ; the fpirits being thereby thickened and ftrength- ened to refiil: any difeafes.
The T'urks dnnk the powder of an herb in warm water, to increafe their valour, and fharpnefs of wit; but a greater quantity thereof is of a ftupifying power Hke poppy.
The Eqfi-Ind'ums refrefh themfelves before and after labour, by chewang a famous root called betel ; which enables alfo their a6ls of generation, and is of a ftuplfying power, becaufe it blacks the teeth.
Tobacco, in this age grown fo common, and yielding fuch a fecret delight and con- tent, that being once taken, it can hardly be forfaken, it lightens the body, and takes off wearinefs ; opening the pores, and voiding humours, but thickening the fpirits; being a kind of henbane, and like poppy, troubles the brain.
SoiME hun^sours of the body, as thofe pro- ceeding from melancholy, are like poppy- juice, and caufe long life.
Opium, or poppy-juice, the leaves and feeds of both kinds of poppy ; alfo henbane, mandrake, hemlock, tobacco, nlght-fhade,
or
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 429
or banewort, have all a drowfy, flupifying power.
Treacle, mithridate, trifer, Paracelfus's gum, fyrup of poppy, pills of hound's tongue, are compound drugs of the fame nature.
These prefcriptlons prolong life, in thick- ening the fpirits by cooling.
In youth, keep every year a cool diet about May, the fpirits in fummer being loofe and thin : and take a julip of poppy, and other hot ingredients, but not too ftrong, every morning between fleep; then keep a fpare diet for fourteen days afterwards, for- bearing wine, and hot fpices.
Smokes and fteams being not too purga- tive to draw forth humours, but having a light operation on the fpirits of the brain, cool the fpirits as well as coolers ; therefore a fufFumigation made of tobacco, wood of aloes, dry rofemary-leaves, and a little myrrh, being in the morning received into the noftrils, is very whole fome.
But the water of compound opiate drugs, the vapour rifmg in dirtilling, and the heat fettling downv^ards, is better to be taken in youth, than the drugs; for the virtue of
dif.
430 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
dlftilled waters is in their vapour, being iii other refpe6ls weak.
Some drugs being like poppy, but not fo flrong, yield a drowfy, cooling vapour, and more wholefome than poppy, by colle6ling not repelling the fpirits.
The drugs like unto poppy, are fafFron, and fafFron-flowers, the Indian leaf, amber- gris, coriander-feed prepared; amomum, pfeudamomum, rhodian wood, water of o- range bloffoms, and an infufion of the flowers fteeped in oil of olives, and a nutmeg dif- folved in rofe- water.
Use poppy fparingly at fet times; but thefe other drugs taken in daily diet are very ibvereigu to prolong life.
PHARMACOPiEUsinGz/^a-^/, by ufnig am- ber, lived to an hundred and fixty years of age; and the nobilky of Barbaty, by ufing the fame drug, are longer-lived than the common people : and our long-lived ancef- tors ufed faffron very much in their cakes and broths. So much of thickening the fpi- rits by poppy, and other drugs.
The fecond way and means to thicken the fpirits, is by cold; for cold does properly thicken, and, by a fafer operation and workr
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 431
ing than the malignant qualities of poppy though not fo powerfully; yetbecaufe cooK ers may be familiarly ufed in daily diet, thev are better to prolong life than drowfy potions ordru^s.
The fpirits are cooled by breathing, hv vapours, or by diet; the firft wav is beft, but difficult; the fecond good and eafv; thl third, weak and tedious
The pure dear air, which mav be taken on the dry tops of mountains, alid in onen ftady fields, is good to thicken the fpirits.
Also vapours cool and thicken; and mtre has in this kind a fpecial operation, grounded on thefe reafons.
NiTBEisakindof fpice; being fo cold that It bites the tongue as hot fpices do. _ The fpirits of all drugs naturally, not ac- cidentally cold, are few and weak : Vpirituous drugs are, on the contrary hot ; nitre only having abundance of fpirits, is of a vegetable nature and cold. For camphire is fpirituou.. and cold m operation by accident; audits qua ity thm ..i^hout Iharpnefs, lengthens the breath in inflammations.
Also nitre mingled with fnow and ice and put about veflels, congeals and freezes
' the
43^ HISTOHY OF LIFE AKD DEATHS
the liquor within; and common bay-falt makes fnow colder, and more apt to freeze. But in hot countries, where no fnow falls, nitre is only uled.
Seamen and foldlers, to make them va- liant, drink gunpowder before they fight or join battle, as the ^urks do poppy.
Nitre allays the deflroying heat of burn- ing agues, and peflilential fevers.
The nitre in gunpowder, fhunning the flame when a piece is fired, makes the crack and report.
Nitre is the fplrit of the earth; for any pure earth covered or fhaded from the fun- beams, fo that nothing fprings or grows thence, will gather ftore of nitre ; the fpirit of nitre being inferior to the fpirit of living creatures, of vegetables, and plants.
Cattle drinking water wherein there is nitre, grow fat, which is a fign that the nitre is cold.
Lands and grounds are made rank and mellow by the fattening quality of the fpirit of nitre which is in dung.
Therefore the fpirit of nitre will cool, thicken, refrefh the fpirit s, and abate their heat. For as ftrong wines and fpices
do
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 433
fenfiame the fpirits, and fliorten life, fo nitre, compofing and reftraining the fpirits^ prolongs life.
Nitre may be ufed with meat, and eaten with lalt to the proportion of a tenth part, and put in morning broths from three grains to ten, or in drink : and being ufed in any manner moderately, it prolongs life*
As other drugs befides poppy, being weakei; and fafer to be taken in greater quantity, and oftener, condenfate and thicken the fpirits by flight ; fo drugs of an inferior na- ture and operation to nitre, cool and thicken the fpirits.
All drugs inferior to nitre fmell earthly^ like good pure earth newly turned up and digged : the chief whereof are burrage, bug- lofs, burnet, flrawberry-leaves, and ftraw- berries, cucumbers, and fragrant apples, vine-leaves and buds, and violets.
Next to thefe are drugs of a hot fmell^ but cooling; as balm, citrons, and lemons, green oranges, rofe-Water, roafted pears, da-^ mafk and red rofes, and mulk rofes.
These fruits, inferior to nitre for thicken- ing the fpirits, fhould be ufed raw, not roaft- ed, their cooling fpirits being difperfed by
Vol. IL Ff £rej
434 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
iire ; therefore to infufe or fqueeze them into drmk, or to eat or fmell to them raw, is beft.
The fpirits are thickened alfo by the odour and fmell of other drugs inferior to poppy and nitre : for the fmell of pure frefh earth, coming from following a plough, di<rging or weeding, and the fmell of leaves fallen from trees in woods or hedge-rows, at the beginning of Autumn, is good to cool the fpirits, and efpecially withered ftraw- berry-leaves ; alfo the fmell of violets, the flowers of pellitory of the wall, blackberries, and madre-felve, is cooling.
A Nobleman of my acquaintance, who lived to be very old, ufually after deep fmelled to a clod of frefh earth.
Also endive, fuccory, liverwort, purflain, &c. by coohng the blood, cool alfo the fpirits, though not fo foon as vapours and fmells. So much of thickening the fpirits by flight. The third kind of thickening is by delight: the fourth, by the reftraint of their cheerfulnefs, joyfulnefs, and too vio- lent motions.
The fpirits are mitigated and thickened by fuch pleafmg objedls as do not draw them forth, but afford them inward delight ; where- by
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 435
by being collecled Into their center, they enjoy themlelv^es, and £nd a fweet con-
tent.
The former pofitions of drugs inferior to opium and nitre being here remembered, fur- ther enquiry of thickening the fpirits, by cooling, will be needlefs.
The reftraint of the violent afFe(ftions and motions of the fpirits (hall be hereafter de- clared: now the thickening of the fpirits having been fliewn, the qualification and temper of their heat follows.
The fpirits fhould not be hot and fharp, but flrong and luily, to conquer and fubdue refifting matter ; not to attenuate and expel thin humours.
Spices, wine, and ftrong drink mufl: be temperately ufed, and after abflinence has refrefhed the appetite : and alfo favory, mar- gerum-, penny-royal, and all heaters that bite on the tongue, muft be feldom ufed; the heat infufed by them into the fpirits being not operative, but a dev^ouring heat.
These herbs ftrengthen the heat of the
fpirits ; endive, garlick, bleffed-thilBe, young
crelTes, germander, angelica, worm-feed,
vervain, fet-well, myrrh, pepper-wort, el-
F f 2 der
43^ HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
der-buds, and parfley; and ufed in fauces and medicines, are hot in operation.
Also of cooling drugs, compounded with euphorbium, baftard-pellitorj, ftavefacres, dragon-wort, anacardium, oil of beaver's- ftone, hart-wort, opoponax, gum of Agafil- lis and Galbanum, and the like, to allay the drowfy, {lupifying power of poppy, a very good medicine to ftrengthen the fpirits, and make them hot and lufly, may be made like treacle and mithridate, being not fharp, nor biting on the tongue, but bitter, and of a ftrong fcent, yet hot in the flomach, or in their operations.
The defire of venery often flirred up and excited, but feldom fatisfied in a6l, does ftrengthen the heat of the fpirits, and fo do fome of the aifedlions. So much of the heat of the fpirits being a caufe of long li'fe.
The fpirits fliould not abound, but be few and moderate ; for a fmall flame devours not fo much as a greater.
A SPARING Pythagorical diet, fuch as Monks and Hermits, under the order of St. Neceffity, and St. Poverty^ ufed, is good ta prolong life«r
Also
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 437
Also drinking of water, hard lodging, cold fpare diet of fallads, fruits, powder- ed flefh, and fait fifh, without any frefh warm naeat; a hair fhirt, fading, watching, abflinence from fenfual pleafures, abate and diminifh the fpirits, which being reduced to a quantity fufficient to maintain life, do make lefler wafte on the body.
But a higher diet, kept in an equal, con- flant manner, has the fame ^ operation : for a great, conftant, quiet flame confumes not fo much as a leffer which blazes but -une- qually : and Cornarus Venetus^ keeping fuch a conftant diet, and drinking and eating fo many years by juil: proportion and weight, lived in perfect health until he was an hun- dred years of age.
Also to avoid inflammation of the fpirits, a full fed body, not mortified by ftridl diets, mufl ufe feafonable venery, left the fpirits fwelling too much, foften and deftroy the body.
The reftraint of the fpirits motion is next to be conhdered ; for motion makes the fpirits hot. There are three reftrainers of the fpi- rits, flcep, avoiding violent labour; exercife and wearinefs; and the governing and mo- ^ i '^ derating
43^ HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH, .
derating of troublefome affeclions. And firft of deep.
Epimenides flept many years in a cave without any food, becaufe the fpirits in fleep devour not much radical moifture.
Also dormice and bats fleep in holes all the winter, thereby reflraining the confuming power of their vital fpirits : fo bees wanting honey, and butter-flies and flelh-flies live hy deep.
Sleep after dinner, the firft vapours of ineat like a dew afcending then into the head, is good for the fpirit, but unwholefome for the body : and deep is as nourifhing as meat for old folks, who fhould often take light refe£lions, andfhort naps; and being grown extreme old, fhould live in continual eafe and refl, efpecially in winter.
Thus moderate deep, being found and quiet, prolongs life.
To make one deep foundly and quietly, violets are good ; fodden-lettuce, fyrup of rofes, faffron, balm, apples eaten before go- ing to bed ; a fop dipped in malmfey, where- in a muflc-rofe has been deeped, a pill or potion made of thefe ingredients. Alfo all binding drugs, as coriander-^feed prepared,
and
1
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 439
and roafted quinces and pears, caufe found and quiet deep : but a good draught of clear cold water, is beftto make young folks, who have ftrong ftomachs fleep foundly.
Voluntary extafies, and fixed profound meditations, joined with a quiet mind, do thicken the fpirits more than fleep, making them reft from outward operations, as fleep docs.
Violent, wearlfome exerclfes and moti- ons, as running, tennis, fencing, are not good • nor ftraining of ftrength to the utnioft, as leaping and wreftling : for the fpirits, by fuch violent nimble motions and mufcular exertions driven Into a narrow room, be- come more (harp and praedatory, or devour- ing; but dancing, fhooting, riding, bowHng, and fuch moderate exerclfes, are very heal- thy.
Some of the affe6lions and paflions of the mind Ihorten the life of man, and fome caufc long life.
By exceeding great joy the fpirits are made thin, loofe, and weak; but by familiar com-? mon recreation they are not diffipated, but ilrengthened.
F f 4 Joy
•440 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
Joy arlfing from fenfual pleafure is bad, but the remembrance of former joy, or the apprehenfion of joy to come, conceived only in the imagination, is good.
An inward conceived joy, fparingly vent- ed, comforts the heart more than a vulgar, immoderate expreffion of joy.
Sorrow and grief without fear, and not too heavy and grievous, prolong life by con- trading the fpirits, which is a kind of con- denfation or thickening.
Great fears fhorten life; for though both forrow and fear contra6t the fpirits, yet forrow does only contrad; but fear, mingled with care and hope, heats and vexes the fpirits.
Anger, being clofe and fuppreffed is a kind of vexation, making the fpirits de- vour the moiilure of the body, but vented, flrengthens the heat of the fpirits.
By envy, the worftofpaffions, the fpirits, and by them the body, are hurt and weak- ened, being always in adion ; for envy is faid to keep no holy-days.
Pity and compaflion of another's mifery, ^hereinto we cannot poffibly fall, is good;
but
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 441
but pity refle6ling back, and exciting fear of being in as bad a cafe, is hurtful.
Shame, lightly at the firfl drawing in the fpirits, and afterwards fending them forth again, makes blufhing folks commonly long-lived : but fliame arifmg from reproach, and continuing long, contradls and choaks the fpirits.
Love not unfortunate, nor wounding too (deep, being a kind of joy, isgoverned by the rules prefcribed for joy.
Hope, being the befl of all the affedions and pafiions, is very powerful to prolong life, if, like a nodding nurfe, it does not fall afleep and languifh, but continually feeds the fmcy with beholding good obje6ls; and therefore fuch as propofe certain ends to be compaflTed, thriving and profpering thereia according to their defire, are commonly long- lived : but having attained to their higheft hopes, all their expedlations and defires being fatisfied, live not long afterwards.
Admiration and light contemplation are very good to prolong life, keeping the fpi- rits bufied in delightful matters, and in a peaceable, quiet, gentle temper: fo that all philofophers and obfervers of the wonders
of
44-2 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
of nature, as Democrkus, Plato, Parmenides^ Jjpollonius, were long-lived. Alfo rhetorici- ans, tafting only matters, and following the light of fpeech, not obfcure dark philofophy, were alfo long-lived, as Gorgias, Prothagoras, IfocraUs, Seneca : and as old men are talkative, fo talkative men often live to be old men ; for talkativenefs is a iign of alight apprehen- fion, not binding or vexing the fpirits : but fubtle, acute ftudies, wearying and weak- ening the fpirits, fhorten life. So much of the motion of the fpirits by the paflions of the mind : fbme general obfervations, not in-* eluded in the former divifion, now follow. The fpirits muft not be often diffufed, nor made thin; for the fpirits being once extenuated and diffipated, are not eafily col- lected and thickened. The fpirits are wafted by exceffive labour, exceeding violent paf- lions of the mind, much fweating, much evacuation, warm bnths, and intemperate or unfeafonable venery : ^Ifo care, grief, doubtful expectation, iicknefs, forrow, and pain, diffolve the fpirits, and fliould. there -» fore be avoided and fhunned.
The fpirits delight in cuflom and novel- ties : for cuftonas not ufed until they grow
weari-*
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 443
wearifome, and novelties much defired, and then enjoyed, wonderfully preferve the vigour of the fpirits : therefore judgment and care Ihould be fl^iewn m leaving oft cuftoms before they become loathfome and contemp- tible ; in m.aking the defire of novelties ftronger by refiraint, and in altering and changing the courfe of our life, left the fpi- rits, employed in one fettled kind of life, fliould grow heavy and dull: for though Seneca fays well, " A fool doth always begin " to live ;" yet this folly, and many others, lengthen life.
It is obfervablc, contrary to common cuf_ tom, that the fpirits being in a good, quiet, found temper, difcerned by the quietnefsand inward joy of the mind, fhouid be cherilhed, not changed.
FiciNus fays, that old men fhouid comfort their fpirits with the actions of their child- hood and youth, being a recreation proper to age : therefore the remembrance of former education together is pleafant in converfa- tion, and the place of education is beheld with delight: fo that the emperor Vcfpajian would not alter his father's houfe, though a
mean
444 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
mean building, becaufe the old houfe put Jiim in remembrance of his childhood : and befides, on feftival days he would drink in a filver-tipt wooden cup, which was his grand- mother's.
Also an alteration of life for the better, is acceptable and delightful to the fpirits ; there- fore youth and manhood having been fpent in pleafures proper and peculiar to thofe ages, old age fhould enjoy new delights, efpecially moderate eafe. Therefore noble- men in their age fhould live a retired kind of life, as Cajfiodorus^ having been in great fa- vour with the Gothifh Kings of Italy^ and accounted the foul and life of their affairs, when fourfcore years old retired to a monaf- tery, where he died at the age of one hun- dred and ten. But fuch retirernent fliould be before the body is decayed and difeafed, for then all changes, though for the befl:, haften death : and a retired life being under- taken, their minds and thoughts fhould not be addi6led to idlcnefs, but employed in plea- fant, delightful ftudies, or in building and planting.
Lastly,
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 445
Lastly, the fpirits are recreated by la- bour willingly undertaken, but confumed by adion or labour performed with unvviliing- nefs : therefore a free kind of life, contrived by art to be at our own difpofing, and an obe- dient mind, not refifting, but yielding to the power of fortune, prolong life. ^ And for the better governing of the affec- tions, the body mull not be foluble or loofe ; for on all the affedions, except thofe arifmg from melancholy, fuch laxity and loofenefs has more power, than on the heart or brain. This operation of making the fpirits con- tinue youthful and lufty, not mentioned by phyficians, has been more diligently handled, bccaufe the readied and mofl compendious way to prolong life is, by renewing the fpi- rits, working fuddenly on the body, as va- pours andpaffions work on the fpirits, in a dired manner.
OK
446 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
ON THE
EXCLUSION OF THE AIR.
' I ^ H E excliifion of the air in two re-
fpefls lengthens life : firit, becaufe the outward air animating the Ipirits, and being healthful, docs, next to the inward fpirits, devour the moifture of the body, growing thereby dry and withered.
Secondly, by the exclufion of air, the body being fliut and clofcd, and not breath- mg forth at the pores, the detained fpirits by their working, foften the hardnefs of it.
The rcafon is grounded on the infallible axiom of drynefs, by the emiffion and ifliiing forth of the fpirits; bat by their detaining, melted and foftened. Befides, it is a pofition that all kinds of heat properly makes thin and m.oiftens, and only accidentally con- trails and dries.
Dwelling in caves and dens, the air there receiving no fun-beams, lengthens life; for the air not being excited by heat,
cannot
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 447
cannot wafte and confume the body. And by divers ancient tombs and monuments in. iSic/'/v, and other places, it is clearly evident, that the ftature of man was greater in former ages than now. Epimenides^s cave is an an- cient fable : and as living in caves was then ufual, fo the Anchorites lived in pillars im- penetrable by the fun-beams, and the air therefore unchangeable. The Anchorites Simeon^ St'dita, Daniel, and Saba, living in pillars, were very long-lived: alfo modern Anchorites have lived in walls and pillars to a great age.
Dwelling on mountains is next to livlno; in caves ; for the fun-beams do not penetrate into caves; and on the tops of mountains have no reflexion, and little ftrength: but to dwell on mountains having a clear pure air, and dry vallies, whence no clouds or vapours afcend, like thofe mountains which encompafs Barbary, whereon people live to an hundred years of age, is wholefome.
Such an air, either in caves or in moun- tains, is not naturally pra^datory, but ouf common air being oi a heating qualitv, through the heat of the fun, mull: be kept out of the body.
The
448 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
The air is excluded by fiiuttiiig or filling the pores.
Coldness of the air, nakednefsof thelkin^ wafhing in cold water, binders applied to it, as maftick, myrrh, and myrtle, clofe the pores of the body.
Baths alfo, made of aftringent mineral waters, extracted from fteel and glafs, ftrongly contra6t and clofe the Ikin, but mufl be feldom ufed, efpecially in fummer.
Concerning filling; painting, ointments^ oils, and pomanders, preferve the fubftance of the body, as oil-colours and varnifh pre- ferve wood/
The Ancient Britons painted their bodies with woodj and were very long-lived; and fo were the Pi5f-s^ receiving their name frorn painting their bodies.
The Virginums and BraJiUans paint them- felves, and are very long-lived; for the French Friars lately found there fome Indians who could remember an hundred and twenty years hncethe building of F<^r«^wi^/^r^.
John of 'Times living to three hundred years of age, being alked what prefervatives had made him hve fo long, anfwered, '* Oil *' without, honey within."
I The
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 44^
The Wild IriJId alfo liv^e very long, being tifed to anoint themfelves naked before the fire with old falt-petre : and the Countefs of Defmond bred teeth thrice, and lived to an hundred and forty years of age.
The Iri/fj wear faffroned-lhien fhirts, which continue long clean, and lengthen life; for faffron being a great binder, oily, and hot without Iharpnefs, is very comfortable to the (kin. 1 remember that an EngliJJjman going to fea, and having put a bag of fatfroii within his doublet, next his breafl, to avoid paying ofcuflom, was in that voyage very healthy, having been formerly always fea- fick.
Pure fine linen, according to the advice t)f Hippocrates, fliould be worn in winter next the ikin : in fummer coarfer linen and biled; for the fpirits being then very much exhaled, the pores of the ikin fhould be clofed and filled.
Anointing the fkin at the firfl: rifing but of bed with oil of olives, or of almonds, mingled with bay- fait and faffron, is good to lengthen life. But this mufl: be done lightly tvith wool, or a foft fponge, not poured on
Vol. II. G g th^
45'^ HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH*
the body ; or inflead thereof oiled fhirts may be worn.
But the Grecians and Romans^ except the fencers, formerly iifing this anointing with oil, now left off in Italy ^ only after bathing, to clofe the pores, too open by the heat of the baths, lived only to the ufual period ; therefore bathing without anointing is un- healthy, but anointing without bathing is very good. Befides, precious ointments were then ufed for delicacy and deUght, not for health, or to lengthen life.
Anointing is good to keep out cold in winter, and the fpirits in the fummer from fcattering, and to defend them from the pras- datory power of the air. ■ In anointing with oil, fourcautions, arifing from four difcom^modities, are to be obferved.
The firft difcommodity is, that fuppreiling fweat may breed difeafes out of thole excre- mentltious humours, if not prevented by purgations and glifters : for fweating, though healthy, weakens nature, and fhortens life; but moderate purgatives work on the hu- mours, not the fpirits, as fweat does.
The fecond difcommodity is, that by 4ieating and enflaming the body, the enclofed
fpirits
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 451
fpirlts venting not forth by breathing, may become hot. This inconvenience is prevented by a cool diet, and by often taking fuch coolers, as in the operation of blood fhall be mentioned.
Thirdly, anointing may make the head heavy, by ftriking back the obflrilded va* pours towards it: but purgatives, ghfters^ and clofmg the mouth of the ventricle with reflriclive binders, and combing and rubbiuo- the head with lye to caufe the exhah.tions:^ and ufing exercifes to vent humours by the pores of the ikin, all prevent this inconve^ nience.
The fourth difcommodity, being of a more fubtle nature, is that bv detainino- the old and continual generation of neXv fpirlts, they would feed on, and wafte the body ; but this aflertion is erroneous ; for the fpirits from being confined are dull, and flow in motion : befides, this inconvenience may be remedied by coolers, fleeped in oil of rofes and myrtle ; but calfia and heaters muft be Ihunned.
The linings of apparel for exhaufting and
drawing the body, fhould not be of a watery,
G g 2 but
4:52 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH*
but oily fubftance; and therefore baize and woollen linings are better than linen : and fweet powders fooner lofe their fcent among linen, than among woollens ; linen being foft and clean, but not fo healthy as woollen. The wild Ir'ijh beginning to grow lick, take out the fheets of their beds, and after- wards wrap themfelves in the woollen blan- kets.
Carded wool worn next the fkin, iii breeches and doublets, is very good.
Accustomed air waftes not the body {o much as when changed. But in other re- fpe6ls change of air is good to enliven and refrefh the fpirits. So much for keeping out and avoiding the praedatory power of the air.
Th^
History of life and death, 45^
The operation on the BL00D>
AND
COOLING ITS HEAT.
'T^HE two operations following have the fame relation to the former, as a£lives to paffives, which endeavour to keep the fpirits and air from w^afting the body; as thefe {hew- how to make the blood, moifture, and body lefs fubjeft to depredation and wafting. Three powerful rules, concerning the opera- tion on the blood, fhall be firft propounded.
First, blood, being cold, is lefs diffipable. There are two coolers more agreeable to the following Intentions, than julips or potions.
In youth, gliflers, not purgative or clean- fnig, but only cooling and opening, made of the juice of lettuce, purflain, liver-wort, fevergreen or houfe-leck, flea-wort {eed, with a temperate opening deco»5^ion, mingled with a little camphire : but in age, inftead of houfe-leek raid purflain, the juice of bo- rage and endive may be ufcd ; and thefe glif" ters mufl be an hour or more retained.
Gg^ Se.
454 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATl-f.
Secondly, in fummer a bath may be ipade of fweet lukewarm water, and new whey and rofes, hiftead of mallows, mercury, milk, and fuch like mollifiers and fofteners.
The third rule only qualifies the fub- ftance of the blood, making it firmer and lefs fubje<St to diffipation, or to the working heat of the fpirits.
To efFeCl this, drugs of wood may be fafely and eflfeclually ufed in infufions and deco£tions, being good to make the blood fine, and not dangerous for breeding of ob- ftrudlions ; and their infufions taken in diet or drink, having no dregs, eafily pierce into the veins.
Drugs of wood are, fanders, the oak, and vine; but hot woods, having in them any rofin or gum, are not good : but dry rofe- mary flalks, being a fhrub as long-lived as many trees, and fuch a quantity of ivy-flalks as will not make the potion unfavory, may be ufed.
Drugs of wood may he alfo boiled in broths, infufed into ale or wine before they are fettled or refined : but guiacum, and fuch drugs, mufl be put in before the broths are boiled, that thf fubflance of the firmer parts
of
I^ISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 455
pf the wood, being diflblved, may remain in the broth : but whether afh is good in pon. tions is uncertain. So much of the opera- tion on the blood.
OPERATION ON MOISTURE of the BODY.
' I "WO kinds of bodies, formerly menti- oned, are not eafily confumed : hard bodies, as metals and ftones ; fat, as oil and. wax.
Therefore the moifture of the body rnuft be hardened, and made fat or dewy.
Moisture is hardened by firm food; by cold, thickening the ftin and flefh ; and by exercife, comparing the juice, that it may not be lb ft and frothy, x^nimal and farina- ceous fubflances are good for compading the folids
Pure water, mingled with wine or drink, hardens the moifture of the body; and be-? caufe the fpirit of the water is dull and piercing, nitre may be mingled with it.
G g 4 Man„
45^ HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
Many thick clothes on the bed, or back,, vyeaken and foften the body.
Washing the body m cold baths leng- thens life ; but hot baths are very bad. Bath si of bhidmg rnineral waters were formerly mentioned.
By an eafy idle life, without exercife, the flefh is made difRpable and foft ; but by fl:out exercifes, ufed without excefliye fweatingand wearinefs, it is compared and hardened. Swimming is alfo a good exercife, and gene- ally all exercifes abroad are better than within the houfe. Frictions fupply the want p£ exercife, and diftribute nourifhment.
To make hard moiflure, oily and dewy is a more perfect work than hardening, being attended with no inconvenience; whereas hardeners of moifture, by fliaying the con- fumption, further, and by hindering the reparation, and renewing of nourifhment, prevent long life : but oil and juicy nourifli- ment, by bedewing the body, is lefs diffi- pable, and more reparable. ' To breed this ollinefs in the body, roafted or baked meat is better than boiled or ftewed, or drefled in any kind with water; more oil being diftilled and extraded out of dry fubr
Itancea
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 457
{lances than moid. And generally all fweet things moillen the body with this oilinefs, as fugar, honey, fweet-almonds, pine-apples, piftachio-nuts, dates, raifins, and figs: but all four, fait, fharp meats, breed no dewy oilinefs.
Also feeds, nuts, and roots, the Maniches ufing no other diet, are good with meat and in fauces; for all kinds of bread, being the confirmer of meats, is made of feeds or roots. But drink, as the vehicle carrying down meat, efpecially moiflens and foftens the body : therefore drinks not fliarp or four, but ripe and clear, are beft, as wine being, as the old woman faid in Plautus, " toothlefs with " age:" alfo ftale beer and ale, not fharp, but ripe and pleafant.
Metheglin, flrong and old, is a good drink ; but incorporated with fugar inftead of honey, which is iharp, would be better, efpecially after a year, or fix months age ; the rawnels of the water being then gone, and tlie fugar grown fubtle and fpirituous. But old wine and ftale drink, being fubtle, and full of oilinefs, are alfo fpirituous and iharp, and not fo good; therefore pork or yenifon w^ell boiled, being laid in veflels of
wine.
45^ HISTORY OP LIFE AND DEATH,
wine, ale, or beer, the fpirits of thefe liquors feeding thereon, will lofe their fharpnefs.
Also beer or ale, with bread of wheat, barley, and peafe; potatoes, bur and other fweet roots, to the quantity of a third part, is better to prolong life, than drink made only of grain.
Flowers alfo, being not fliarp or biting, are good fauces and fallads for meat, as ivy- flowers with vinegar, marigold-leaves, and betony- flowers in broths.
To PROMOTE DIGESTION.
TTOW the ftomach, liver, heart, an4 brain, the principal parts and fountauis of concoclion, may be comforted, and made to perform their offices, by imparting nou? riihment and fpirits to the feveral parts, and renewing the body, phyflcal rules and pre^ fcriptions declare.
The fpleen, gall, reins, midriff, fmall cuts, and lights, as members ferving the prin-r
cipal
HISTOPvY OF LIFE AND DEATPr. 4^()
clpal parts, are here to be conlidered, becaufe their dileafes may be deriv^ed to the principal parts ; but bv good digeflion, and the fouhd- nefs and llrength of the principal parts, life is prolonged, and the body nourifhed and kept from decaying in old age.
But medicines and diets agreeable to the ftate of bodies, and comfortable to the four principal parts, are prefcribed in phytic : for medicines cue neceffary to recover and pre- ferve health; but life is chiefly lengthened by a good phyfical diet, prefcribed in thefe choice receipts following.
The ilomach, refembling the good man of the houfe, and being the caufc of all con- codion and digeftion, muft be fortified and jlirengthened, by being kept temperately warm, retentive, and clean, without oppref- five humours ; not empty or failing, being nourifhed by itfelf more than by the veins ; and laftly, in appetite, whereby digeftion is iharpened.
Warm drinks are alfo very eood: for a famous phyfician would ufually at dinner and fupper, eat a mefs of hot broth very gree- dily, and afterwards wifJi that he could cafl
it
460 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
it Up again, faying, that he needed not broth, but the warmth of it.
At fupper, the firfn cup of wine, beer, ale, or any other kind of drink, muft be always warmed.
Sops of bread dipped in wine wherein rofemary and citron bark have been infufed with fugar, are better in the middle of meals than wine.
Quinces are good to ftrengthen the fto- mach ; but fyrup of quinces taken alone after meals, and with vinesiar before meals, are better than quinces, which are too heavy for the ftomach.
Rosemary, elecampane, madich, worm- wood, fage, and mint, are exceeding good for the ftomach. Pills of aloes, maftich, and faffron, taken in winter before dinner, are alfo very good ; the aloes being firft wafh^ ed in rofe- water, the infufion of dragant in vinegar, and then diflblved in fweet frefh oil of almonds.
An infufion of wormwood, with a little elecampane and fanders, may be fometimes 'ufed in winter.
In fummer, a draught of white wine of the infufion of powder of pearl, and powder
of
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 4.6 t
of river crawfifli fhells, and a little chalk, Very much refrefhes and ftrengthens the ftomach.
But all cold morning draughts commonly ufed, as fyrups, decoctions, whey, beer, or ale, are un^vholefome, coolers being not good for an empty ftomach ; but iive hours after dinner, and an hour after a light breakfaft they may be ufed.
Fasting often is bad for long life; and fo is ahb all kinds of thirft : for the ilo- mach muft be kept clean, but always moift.
The anointing of the back-bone, over againil the mouth of the flomach, with good frefli oil of olives, in a folution of mithri- date, is very comfortable for the ftomach.
A bag of w*ool fteeped in fliarp wine, after the infufion of myrtle, citron bark, and a little fatFron, is good to be worn always next the lliomach.
The liver mufl: be kept from inflamma- tion, being fubjedt to drynefs, and obilruc- tions in age.
To the rules laid down, delivered in the operation of blood, thefe choice prefcrip- lions may be added.
POiME-
462 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH*
Pomegranate-wine, or pomegjranafe* juice newly fqueezed into a glafs, may be taken in the morning with fome fugar, and •a little citron bark, and three or four whole cloves, from February to the end of April.
Aloes wafned, and ally^/'x], is hurtful to the liver; therefore not c- )m nonly to be taken. Rhubarb diffolved in fweet oil of almonds, and vo;e -water, are good for the liver, being taken before meat, becaufe a dryer, and at fevcral times, either alone with tartar, or a little bay-falt, left by purg- ing away the thin matter, the humours fhould become tous;her and harder.
Take the dcco6lion of fleel twice or thrice a year to loofei: obftru^tions and flop- pages in the liver; two or three fpoonfuls of oil being firfl: taken, and the body, efpe- cially the arms and fore part of the ftomach, afterwards ftirred by exercife.
Sweet drinks keep the liver from grow- ing drv, efpecially incorporated and madf5 of fweet fruits and roots, as raifins, jujubs, dry figs, dates, parfnips, potatoes, and li- quorice. Alfo drink made of Indian maize, and other fweet compounds is very good-. It is an obfervation, that the keeping of the
liver
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH* 463
liver fat and foft lengthens life, and the opening of the liver procures health, in obftruclions joined with inflammations : fo much of llrengthening the liver.
A good air is better known by experience than figns. The befl: air is on a level, open plain, , the foil being dry, not barren and fandy, but naturally bearing wild betony, featherfew, and wild mints, (haded with fome trees, and black-berry-buihes, and watered with no great river, but with clear gravelly brooks. The morning air is more healthy than the evening air, which is accounted more plealant.
An air fomewhat rough, and ftirred with a gentle wind, is better than a calm clear air ; and in the morning the wefl wind is befi:, but the north wind in the afternoon. . Sweet odours and fmells are very com- fortable to the heart, yet a good air hath not always a good fmell ; for as peftilential airs have no very bad fmell, fo oftentimes wholefome airs are not very fwcet and frag- rant, but the odour and fcent of a good air fhould be interchangeably taken, for one continual excellent odour or fcent oppreiTes the fpirits. Nofegays are good in the open
air
4^4 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATlt.
air, but growing flowers yeild the beft odours and fcents : alfo walking and fitting in fuch fweet air is very good.
Cooling fmells are better for the heart than hot fcents ; therefore in the morning, and at noon, the fteam of perfumes made of vinegar, rofe-water, and wine put into a brafs-pan, being received into the brain, is Very good. Wine poured on the earth •when digged, yeilds a good fcent and fmelL Alfo orange-flour water mingled with rofe- water and brifk wine, being fmelled to, or infufed into the noftrils, is very good.
Small pills made of amber, mufk. Lignum Aloes, Lignum Rhodium, flower de luce roots, rofes, rofe-w^ater, and Indian balfam being chewed, and held in the mouth, are com- fortable for the heart and fpirits.
Vapours arifing from medicines taken in- wardly to ilrengthen and cherllh the heart, mufl be wiiolelome, clear, and cooling, hot vapours being bad, for wine yeilding hot vapours, is like poppy in quality.
The chlc;feft cordials ufed in diet are am- bergris, faffron, kermes, being hot and dry; and for coolers buglofs and borage- roots, lemons and apples.
j Observe
HISTORY OF LIFE AND. DEATH. 465
Observe alfo that great, conilaiit and lieroical defires, ftreiigthen and enlarge the heart.
Opium, nitre, and other inferior drugs procurhig fleep, are good for the brain, be- ing the feat and refidence of the animal fpirits, and protefted or annoyed by the ftomach : therefore ftomach cordials arc comfortable alfo to the brain.
Bathe the feet every week in a bath made of lye, bay-falt, fage, chamomile, fennel, fweet marjoram, and angelica leaves.
SuFFUMiGATioNS alfo, or perfumes of dry rofemary, dry bay-leaves, and lignum aloes, (for fweet gums opprefs the head,) are good every morning.
No hot drugs or fpices, except nutmegs, may be outwardly apphed, to the head, but to the foles of the feet, anointing the head Hghtly with oil, rofe-water, myrtle- water, fait, and faffron mingled together, is very good.
A morning potion of three or four grains of oil, ofBezoars ftone, with a little angelica feed and cinnamon, once in fourteen days, being taken in the morning jflrengthens
Vol. II. H h the
466 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
the brain, and thickens and quickens the fpirits.
All thefe cordials taken in diet com- fort the brain ; variety of medicines being the daughter of ignorance ; many difhes breeding many difeafes, and many medicines effe6ling few cures. And fo much of the operation on the principal parts for extru- fion and driving out of nouriihment.
To PREPARE THE OUTWARD PARTS
FOR
ATTRACTING NOURISHMENTS.
/^^ GOD digeftion of the inward parts, be- ing the chief caufe of good nouriihment, the outward parts muft alfo perform their offices and duties, by attrading the nourifli- inent from digeflion.
The outward parts by bodily exercife comfort edand warmed, chearfuUy attrad
nourifhment.
HISTORY OF LIFE AND TEATH. 467
nourlfhment. The exercifes attra6tlng new moiflure to the limbs, being violent, loofea them, and confume the old moifture.
Exercise, by chafing the limbs, is alfo very good when moderate, for the body muft not refpire, nor fweat too much by rubbing or exercife. Therefore it is better abroad than in the houfe, and in winter than in fummer.
Exercise on a fafting ftomach by fweat- ing, wafte the fpirits and moifture of the body, and being unhealthful on a full flomach, is beft after a light breakfaft, not of phyfical morning potions, or raiiins or figs, but plain meat and drink moderately taken.
Exercise muft flir all the body, not the knees or arms only, but generally all the limbs of the body, and the pofture fhould be every hour changed, except in fleeping.
H h 2 FOOD
46S HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
FOOD AND DIET.
PHILOSOPHERS might better than phy- ficians follow common opinion, in con- demning many fcrvices and mefles of meat, as not lengthening life, but preferving health; for a heterogeneous mixture of meats, more readily nourifhes the veins, breeding better moifture than one kind of meat : moreover, variety excites the appe- tite, and the appetite fliarpens digeftion. So that a various kind of diet according to the feafons of the year, is approved.
Good fauces are wholefome preparatives to meat, preferving health, and prolonging life.
Course fare requires flrong drink and piercing fauces that may fink into the meat ; but with fine fare, fmall drink is beft, and fat fauces.
Boiled meat dreffed with moift cooling fauces, does not moiften the body, though good in hot fickneifes, but affording no oily
nourifhment ;
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH, 469
nourifhment ; boiled meats being not fo good as roafted or baked with a quick fire.
Solid meats fo corned with fait, that lit- tle or no fait need be eaten therewith at the table, is good, fait meat being better for di- geftion, than fait eaten with meat.
Bread well leavened, but lightly falted in a very hot oven, is beft.
Meat and drink diffolved and mingled together, is eafy of digeftion. Therefore chickens, partridges, or phealants, firft par- boiled with water and fait, then wiped, dried and boiled to a jelly, in wine or ale with fome fugar, makes a flrong comfortable broth.
To exceed fometimes in the quantity of meat and drink, and to water the body by great feafls and liberal drinking, is fometimes good.
H h 3 The
47^ HISTORY OF LIFE AMD DEATH.
The operation on the ' LAST ACT OF ASSIMILATION.
'T^HE nature of the lafl: a£l of affimilation or converting into the like fubftancc, being the intended efFe<5t of the three former operations, may be opened and declared without rules.
All bodie.s defire to affimilate and convert fubflances into their own kind. Flame, fpirit, and air, being thin and fpiri- tuous, do courageoufly perform this work, but thick and grofs fubftances very weakly; this delire of aiiimilating being reftrained by a ftronger defire of reft and eafe.
For this defire of aflimilating, reftrained in the body, is ineffedual until it be by heat and fpirit freed, excited and actuated ; and therefore lifelefs bodies do not affimilate, and living creatures ailimllate, digeft, and convert into their own fubftance.
More heat is required to make hard bodies affimilate and digeft, therefore the parts of the body grown hard with age, muft be
foftened
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 47 1
foftenecl; and heat, then weak encreafed, for helpmg digeftlon.
For increafnig heat take this rule or axiom.
The a£t of affimilatlon incited and pro* voked by heat, a very accurate fubtile mo- tion, and moil: powerful, when bodily mo- tion, the difturber thereof, ceafes. For a fubflance of one kind will not feparate into parts of divers kinds, being moved ; as curd will not rife, nor the whey {ink down, the milk being gently ftired. Alfo running water, nor any water or liquor will not putrefy, being continually moved and fhak- ed. Therefore by this reafon this conclu- sion is inferred.
Assimilation is performed and perfected chiefly in fleep and reft, efpecially towards morning, after good digeftion.
On making the BODY TENDER and YOUNG.
BATHS and oils foften lifelefs bodies, attracting and fucking In liquors, but not living bodies. Therefore common H h 4. molli-
472 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
mollifying, foftening baths, rather draw than foften, and Iqofen rather than harden the body.
Baths may be made of nourifhing fubflan- ces, like man's body, as the fat of beef, hogs and deer, oyfters, milk, butter, whites of eggs, wheat-flour, fweet-wine, fugar and metheglin.
With thefe ingredients, bay fait and old wine may be mingled, to make them pene- trate and pierce into the body.
Binding ingredients being oily and com- fortable, faffron, maftick, myrrh, and myrtle-berries make an excellent bath.
For the powerful working of this bath, four rules are obfervable.
First before bathing, rub and anoint the body with oil and falves, that the baths moiflening heat and virtue, may penetrate in- to the body, and not the watery part ; then fit two hours in the bath ; after bathing wrap the body in a fear cloth made of maftick, myrrh, pomander, and faffron, for ftaying the perfpiration or breathing of the pores, until the foftening of the body hav- ing lain thus in fear-cloth twenty-four hours, be grown folid and hard. Laftly,
with
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 473
with anointment of oil, fait and fafFron, the fear- cloth being taken t.lt, anoint the body.
In bathing, a good diet muft be kept, and warmth and warm drinks ufed.
On RENE WING THE MOISTURE OF THE BOD Y.
Tj^OR thispurpofe diets of guiacum, farfa- parella, china-root, and faffafras, being long fl:ri6tly kept, do firft attenuate or make thin, then confume or devour all the moif- tureofthe body; for the French pox be- ing grown to gumminefs, and being got into the marrow and moifture of the body, has been thereby cured. Some alfo by fuch diets being made lean and pale, have afterwards grown fat and frefh-coloured. Therefore in the declining of age, fuch diets are good to be kept once in two years, thereby to grow young again, as the fnake does by cafling his fkin.
It is my opinion, though I am no hereti- cal puritan, that purgations often and fami- liarly
474 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH,
liarly ufed, lengthen life more than exer- cife or fweating. For as anointing the body, flopping the pores, keeping out the air, and keeping in the fpirits, lengthens life ; fo by fweatings and outward brea- things, the good fpirits and moifture be- ing not eafily repaired, are exhaled and con- fumed with the excrementitious humours and vapours. But gentle purgatives not griping the belly, being taken before meat to prevent their drying quahty, woik chiefly on the humours.
CAUSES a::d symptoms of DEATH.
'T^HE living ipirit fubfiits by due motion, temperate, cooling and fit nourishment. A flame needs only motion and nourifhment, being a fimple fubftance ; the fpirit, a com- pounded fubftance, deftroyed by approach- ing nearer to the nature of flame.
Blood or phlegm getting into the ventri- cles of the brain, caufes fudden death, the fpirit hciving no place of refidence or motion.
Also
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 475
Also violent fra(flures and beating of the head caufe fudden death, by ftraitening the Ipirits in the ventricles of the brain.
Opium and other ftrong drugs, procuring infenfibiiit, do by thickening the fpirits, deprive them of motion.
Venomous vapours being hateful to the fpirits are deadly poifons, by whofe malig- nant quality the fpirits are opprelTed, depriv- ed of their motion, and made unable to re- fift fo flrong an enemy.
Extreme drunkennefs and gluttony have caufed fudden death, the fpirits being op- prefTed, not w^ith malignant vapours, but by redundance of vapours.
With the fudden apprehenfion of grief and fear, conceived at the relation of unex- peded bad tidings, fome have died fuddenly.
The exceffive compreffion, and enlarging of the fpirits, are both deadly.
Great and fudden joys have deprived many of their life.
Also great evacuations of water, by inci- fions for the dropfy ; or violent and fudden fluxes of blood, are deadly.
Stopping the breath, is, through defed of cooling, deadly, by choaking and ftrangling,
the
4/6 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
the motions of the fpirlts being not hindered, but cooling defeaive; for exceirive hot air drawn in for breath, choaks as foon as flopping of the breath. As by burning charcoal, or by the fmcll of new whited walls in a clofe chamber, Jupman and others have been choaked. Fnufa the wife of C^;?- JlaJit'me the great, was rtranghd by the ftcam of an exceeding hot bath.
For breath is drawn in by the lungs, and breathed forth again every third part of a minute.
The beating of the pulfe, and of tlic heart, both by the fyftole, or backward mo- tion, or diaflole or forward motion, is thrice as fwift as breathing; for the beating of the heart, being ftaid would caufe death fooner than ftranghng.
Delian divers, and pearl fifhcrs, through continual ufc will hold their brcatli ten tin^ea longer than another.
l.iviNG creatures having lungs, hold their breath a (horter or longer time, as they need more or lefs cooling.
Fishes need Ids cooling than other crea- tures, cooling and breathing themfelves at their gills. And as other creatures cannot
endure
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 477
endure a hot clofe air; fo fifli in water quite frozen over, and long covered with ice, are choaked and ftrangled.
The natural heat of the fpirits is oppreff- ed by another more violent heat, being ini- able to endure them both without cooling, as mav be ken in burning fevers, natural heat being extinguiflied anddiffipated by hot putrificd humours.
Want of lleep is a want of cooling. For motion rarifies, makes thin, Sharpens and encreafes the heat of the fpirits. But by fleep their motion is allayed, and their wan- dering redrained. For fleep ftrengthens and excites the working of the inward parts and fpirits, and all outward motion, but makes the living fpirit reft from motion; every 24 hours nature requires 5 or 6 hours fleep. Though fome have miraculoufly re- frained from fleep, for Meaemis flept not a great while before he died.
Dead bodies kept from putrefa6lion, will not decay for a long time ; but living bodies cannot fubfift above three days, this fpeedy confumption, being the work of the living fpirit, repairing itfelf, or making the parts need repairing ; and therefore living crea-' I tures
47iJ HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
tures by fleq)ing endure longer without food, flccp being the reception and colledion of the living fpirit.
The ordinary ncccflltics of nature are thcfc, continual motion of the fpirits in the ventricles of the brain, beating of the heart every third part of a moment, breathing every moment, flcep and food within three days, the decay after fourfcore years of age of the faculties of digc ftion ; thcfc dcfe<fts being not feafonably fupplied, death will enfue. So that death has three d(X)rs, the fpirits failing in motion, cooling, and nourifhing.
The living fpirit is not like a flame, con- tinually lighted and extinguifhcd, without certain duration and continuance. Thcrc- ft)re the living fpirit is of a middle nature be- tween flame, being a momentary fubftancc, and air being a fixed fubl>ance.
THEdcflruclionof the organs of the fpirits either by dlfeafes or violence, is anotlier door of death ; and fo much of the form ot death.
Convulsions of the head and face, with deep deadly fighing, being a kindof convul- fion, and the extreme quick beating of the
pulfc,
HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH. 4;'9
pulfe, the luart trembling with the pangs ot death ; and Ibmetimes agaui beating weakly and llowly as the heat begins to fail and taint, are two chief figns of death.
The immediate figns of death are great unquietnc fs, tumbling and ftriving, raking with the hands, as if gathering locks of wool, driving to take hold, and holding fafl^, hard (hutting of the teeth, rattling in the throatjtrembling of the under-lip, pale coun- tenance, confufed mcniory, fpeechleflncfs, cold fweats, ftretchingout the body, lifting up the white of the eyes, and an alteration of the whole face, (the nofe becoming Iharp, the eyes hollow, and the checks falling) with the contracllon and convullion of the tongue, coldnefs of the lower parts, and fometimes iirulng of blood, or feed, loud fhrlcking, (hort breathing, the falling of tlie lower jaws, and the like.
To raife and recover to life fuch as fiiint and fall into a fwoon (in which fits many without help would expire) iifc hot waters, bend the body forwards, ftop the mouth and noftrils hard, bend and wring the fingers, pluck off hair from the beard or head, rub and chafe the body, efpecially the face and
outward
480 HISTORY OF LIFE AND DEATH.
outward pints, cafl cold water fuddenly in the face, fhriek out aloud, hold rofe-water and vinegar to the noftrils : hurning feathers and woollen cloth for the hyfterlcs, alfo the fmoak of a hot frying pan is good in fwooning, and keeping the hody clofe and warm.
That many laid forth, coffined and hiiri- cd, were only in a Iwoon, has been dilco- vered by digging them up again, and finding their heads beaten and bruifed with flrlving in the coffin. Of fuch a livuig funeral, John Scoius, that fubtile fcholar was a me- morable example, who by his fervant (abfeiit at his burial, but acquainted with thofe fits wherein he falling, was fuppofcd to be dead, and fo buried,) being digged up again, was found in that manner, with his head and other limbs beaten and bruifed.
FINIS.
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